Komputasi

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'''Komputasi'''at, 2007 September 07
Penyéarah Tiga Fasa Terkendali

Berdasarkan semikonduktor yang digunakan dan variasi tegangan keluarannya, penyéarah tiga-fasa dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi :
• Penyerah tak terkendali.
• Penyéarah terkendali.
Umumnya senikonduktor penyéarah terkendali menggunakan bahan semikonduktor berupa thyristor, atau menggunakan thyristor dan dioda secara bersamaan.

Berdasarkan bahan semikonduktar yang digunakan dan sistem kendalinnya penyéarah tiga-fasa terkendali umumnya dapat dibédakan menjadi :
• Half wave Rectifiers
• Full wave Rectifiers-Full Controller
• Full wave Rectifiers-Semi Controller
Hal-hal yang menjadi masalah dalam téhnik penyerahan antara lain adalah trafo penyéarahan, gangguan-gangguan tegangan lebih atau arus lebih yang membahayakan dioda / thyristor, keperluan daya buta untuk beban penyéarahan, harmonisa yang timbul akibat gelombang non sinus sarta sirkit elektronik pengatur penyalaan.
Skema penyéarah terkendali tiga-fasa, masing-masing ditunjukkan pada gambar dibawah ini.

Gb. 1 Penyéarah terkendali.; (a) Half wave rectifiers, (b) Full wave rectifiers-semi controller, (c) Full wave rectifiers-Full controller

Gb. 2 Gelombang tegangan dan arus penyéarah tiga-fasa jenis Full wave Rectifier-semi controller
Dalam aplikasinya, sirkit-sirkit penyéarahan biasanya dilengkapi dengan sirkit. pengatur tambahan seperti pengatur tegangan pembatas arus dan-lain-lain sesuai dengan jenis pemakaiannya. Bidang gerak téhnik penyéarahan meliputi sistem¬-sistem pengatur putaran mesin DC pada mesin cetak kertas, tekstil, mesin las DC, pengisi baterai,sampai pada pengatur tegangan konstan generator sinkron (AVR).
Pada praktikum dipelajari lebih lanjut mengenai karakteristik system penyéarahan khususnya penyéarah tiga fasa gelombang penuh setengah terkendali.
Tegangan keluaran penyéarah 1.(b) ditunjukkan pada Gb:2 dan secara matematik dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut :
Pada grup komutasi T1-2-3, karena yang digunakan thyristor, keluarannya tergantung pada sudut penyalaan , sehingga keluarannya :
..... (1)
Sedangkan pada grup kornutasi D1-2-3. , karena menggunakan dioda, maka keluarannya menjadi :

..... (2)
Tegangan keluaran total pada beban adalah dengan mensubstitusikan (1) dan (2) diperoleh :

''The '''theory''' of [[computation]]'' began éarly in the twentieth century, before modérn [[electronic computers]] had been invented.

At that time, [[mathematician]]s were trying to find which math problems can be solved by simple methods and which cannot.  The first step was to define what they méant by a &quot;simple method&quot; for solving a problem.  In other words, they needed a formal modél of computation.

Several different computational modéls were devised by these éarly reséarchers.  One modél, the [[Turing machine]], stores characters on an infinitely long tape, with one square at any given time being scanned by a réad/write héad.  Another modél, [[recursive function]]s, uses functions and function composition to operate on numbers. The [[lambda calculus]] uses a similar approach. Still others, including [[Markov algorithm]]s and [[Post system]]s, use grammar-like rules to operate on strings.  All of these formalisms were shown to be equivalent in computational power—that is, any computation that can be performed with one can be performed with any of the others.  They are also equivalent in power to the familiar electronic
computer, if one pretends that electronic computers have infinite memory. Indeed, it is widely believed that all &quot;proper&quot; formalizations of the concept of algorithm will be equivalent in power to Turing machines; this is known as the [[Church-Turing thesis]]. In general, questions of what can be computed by various machines are investigated in [[computability theory]].

The théory of computation studies these modéls of general computation, along with the limits of computing: Which problems are (provably) unsolvable by a computer?  (See the [[Halting Problem|halting problem]] and the [[Post correspondence problem]].) Which problems are solvable by a computer, but require such an enormously long time to compute that the solution is impractical? (See [[Presburger arithmetic]].) Can it be harder to solve a problem than to check a given solution? (See [[complexity classes P and NP]]). In general, questions concerning the time or space requirements of given problems are investigated in [[Computational complexity theory|complexity theory]].

In addition to the general computational modéls, some simpler computational modéls are useful for special, restricted applications.  [[Regular expressions]], for example, are used to specify string patterns in [[UNIX]] and in some programming languages such as [[Perl]]. Another formalism mathematically equivalent to regular expressions, [[finite state machines|Finite automata]] are used in circuit design and in some kinds of problem-solving. [[Context-free grammar]]s are used to specify programming language syntax.  Non-deterministic [[pushdown automaton|pushdown automata]] are another formalism equivalent to context-free grammars. [[Primitive recursive function]]s are a defined subclass of the recursive functions.

Different modéls of computation have the ability to do different tasks. One way to méasure the power of a computational modél is to study the class of
[[formal language]]s that the modél can generate; this léads to the [[Chomsky hierarchy]] of languages.

The following table shows some of the classes of problems (or languages, or 
grammars) that are considered in computability théory (blue) and complexity théory (green).  If class '''X''' is a strict subset of '''Y''', then '''X''' is shown below '''Y''', with a dark line connecting them.  If '''X''' is a subset, but it is unknown whether they are equal sets, then the line is lighter and is dotted.

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&lt;td&gt;[[image:dottedLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;[[image:dottedLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;[[image:dottedLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;[[image:solidLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[image:dottedLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;/tr&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;[[image:solidLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[image:solidLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;[[image:solidLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightGreen&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; height=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[BQP]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;td colspan=3&gt;[[image:solidLine.png]]&lt;/td&gt;
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==For further reading==

*Garey, Michael R., and David S. Johnson: ''Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness.'' New York: W. H. Freeman &amp; Co., 1979.  The standard reference on NP-Complete problems - an important category of problems whose solutions appéar to require an impractically long time to compute.
*Hein, James L:  ''Theory of Computation.''  Sudbury, MA: Jones &amp; Bartlett, 1996.  A gentle introduction to the field, appropriate for second-yéar undergraduate computer science students.
*Hopcroft, John E., and Jeffrey D. Ullman: ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation.''  réading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979.  One of the standard references in the field.
*Taylor, R. Gregory: ''Models of Computation.''  New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.  An unusually réadable textbook, appropriate for upper-level undergraduates or beginning graduate students.
*[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~aaronson/zoo.html The Complexity Zoo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040811084655/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~aaronson/zoo.html |date=2004-08-11 }}: A huger list of complexity classes, as reference for experts.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110411024825/http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~giorgi/cl.html Computability Logic]: A théory of interactive computation. The main web source on this new subject.

==Tempo oge==
*[[Computability logic]]
*[[Interactive computation]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#Computability|Important publications in computability]]
*[[Calculation]]

----
This article contains some content from an [http://www.nupedia.com/article/567/ article by Nancy Tinkham] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030622045358/http://www.nupedia.com/article/567/ |date=2003-06-22 }}, originally posted on [[Nupedia]]. This article is [[open content]].

[[Kategori:Istilah komputer]]
[[Kategori:Élmu komputasi]]</text>
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      <text bytes="42636" sha1="j8kk1soml37zweaw62ipve952xds83e" xml:space="preserve">'''Basa program''' nyaéta [[basa jieunan]] nu bisa dipaké keur [[Control#Science and Technology|ngadalikeun]] paripolah hiji mesin, utamana [[komputer]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=33636 ISO 5127]—Information and documentation—Vocabulary, clause 01.05.10, defines a programming language as: an artificial language for expressing programs&lt;/ref&gt; Basa program, saperti [[basa alami]], dihartikeun ku aturan ''[[sintaks]]is'' jeung ''[[semantik]]'' keur ngajelaskeun struktur jeung hartina. Loba basa program nu mibanda sababaraha wanda dina nuliskeun ''sintaks'' jeung ''semantik''; sababaraha basa program ngan dihartikeun ku sawanda dina cara maké sacara resmi.

Basa program dipaké keur mantuan ''komunikasi'' dina raraga ngokolakeun pangaweruh tur némbongkeun ''[[algoritma]]'' kalawan présisi. Sababaraha pangarang méré watesan nu leuwih heureut yén &quot;basa program&quot; nyaéta basa nu bisa dipaké keur ngagambarkeun ''sakabéh'' ''algoritma'' nu mungkin;&lt;ref&gt;In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is [[Turing-complete]] {{cite book | last=MacLennan | first=Bruce J. | title=Principles of Programming Languages | page=1 | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0-19-511306-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt; kadangkala watesan &quot;[[computer language|basa komputer]]&quot; dipaké keur basa jieunan nu leuwih heureut.

[[Alphabetical list of programming languages|Rébuan basa program nu béda-beda]]&lt;ref&gt;[[as of 2006|As of May 2006]] [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ |date=2011-02-20 }} by [[Murdoch University]], [[Australia]] lists 8512 computer languages.&lt;/ref&gt; geus dijieun, tur méh unggal taun ngahasilkeun basa program nu anyar.

== Harti ==
Sifat penting keur nangtukeun pilihan basa program nyaéta:

* ''Fungsi:''  Basa program nyaéta basa nu paké keur nulis [[computer program|program komputer]], kaasup pintonan ''[[komputer]]'' dina sababaraha [[computation|komputasi]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN|title=Bylaws of the Special Interest Group on Programming Languages of the Association for Computing Machinery|url=http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigplan/sigplan_bylaws.htm|accessdate=2006-06-19|year=2003}}, ''The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation.''&lt;/ref&gt; atawa [[algoritma]] sarta bisa ogé salaku alat kadali luar saperti [[Computer printer|printer]], robot&lt;ref name=&quot;robots&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.brown.edu/people/tld/courses/cs148/02/programming.html |title=Programming Robots |accessdate=2006-09-23 |last=Dean |first=Tom |date= |year=2002 |work=Building Intelligent Robots |publisher=Brown University Department of Computer Science}}&lt;/ref&gt;, jeung nu séjénna.
* ''Target:''  Basa program béda jeung [[natural language|basa alami]] yén dina basa alami ngan dipaké keur antar manusa, ari dina basa program ngawenangkeun jalma keur nyieun parentah kana mesin. Sababaraha basa program dipaké keur alat ngadalikeun nu séjénna.  Contona program [[PostScript]] remen dijieun ku basa program séjénna keur ngadalikeun [[computer printer|printer]] atawa tampila.
* ''Konsep:'' Basa program mibanda sababaraha kompnen keur ngartikeun tur ngokolakeun [[data structure|struktur data]] atawa ngadalikeun [[control flow|kaputusan aliran]].
* ''Kakuatan éksprési:''  [[theory of computation|Téori komputasi]] misahkeun basa ku itungan nu bisa ditembongkeun (tempo [[Chomsky hierarchy|hirarki Chomsky]]). Sakabéh basa [[Turing complete|''Turing'' lengkep]] bisa dipaké kana runtuyan [[algoritma]] nu sarua. [[SQL|ANSI/ISO SQL]] jeung [[Charity programming language|Charity]] conto basa Turing teu lengkep nu ilahar disebut basa program.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author=Digital Equipment Corporation | title=Information Technology - Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075) | url=http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt | work=ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=The Charity Development Group|title=The CHARITY Home Page|url=http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html|month=December|year=1996|accessdate=2006-06-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718010551/http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html|archivedate=2006-07-18}}, ''Charity is a categorical programming language...'', ''All Charity computations terminate.''&lt;/ref&gt;

Basa non-komputasi, saperti [[markup language|basa markup]] siga [[HTML]] atawa [[formal grammar]] siga [[Backus–Naur form|BNF]], ilaharna teu disebut basa program. Ilaharna basa program ditambahkeun kana basa non-itungan ieu.

== Kaperluan ==
Kaperluan utama basa program nyaéta keur méré paréntah kana komputer. Saperti, basa program béda jeung éksprési jalma nu mana merlukeun présisi nu luhur tur lengkep. Waktu ngagunakan hiji basa alam keur ngobrol jeung jalma séjén, pangarang jeung nu ngobrol bisa bingung tur nyieun saeutik kasalahan, sarta duana masih bisa ngarti. béda jeung komputer nu sarua jeung naon anu diparéntahkeun ka manéhna, teu bisa ngarti kana kode nu nyieun program &quot;nu dimaksud&quot; keur nulis. Kombinasi harti basa, [[computer program|program]], jeung asupan program kudu sacara husus ngartikeun paripolah luar nu bakal kajadian lamun éta program dijalankeun.

Loba basa geus dirancang ti anggalna, dirobah pikeun minuhan kabutuhan anyar, digabungkeun jeung basa séjén, sarta pamustunganana ditinggalkeun. Sanaos aya usaha pikeun ngararancang hiji basa komputer &quot;universal&quot; anu bisa dipaké pikeun sakabéh tujuan, aranjeunna sadayana gagal ditampi dina peran ieu.&lt;ref&gt;IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual ''The universal programming language PL/I'' (IBM Library; 1966).  The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: ''PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications.'' ({{cite web | url=http://eom.springer.de/P/p072885.htm | title= Encyclopaedia of Mathematics » P  » PL/I | work=SpringerLink | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}).  [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[UNCOL]] had similar early goals.&lt;/ref&gt;  Kabutuhan pikeun rupa-rupa basa komputer bijil tina rupa-rupa basa kontéks anu digunakeunana :

* Program dibasajankeun ''skrip'' leutik anu ditulis ku individu anu mikaresep nepi ka sistem ageung anu ditulis ku ratusan programer.
* Kaahlian ''programmer'' bénten-bénten ti kawit anu ngabaladah kéneh anu ngutamikeun kasederhanaan tina sagalarupina, nepi ka saurang  ''pakar'' anu ngaraos ''nyaman'' ku ''kompleksitas'' anu kawilang luhur.
* Program kedah nyaimbangkeun kacepetan, ukuran, jeung kasederhanaan dina ieu sistem ti kawit ''[[mikrokontroler]]'' nepi ka  ''[[superkomputer]]''.  
* Program bisa diserat sakali jeung henteu dirobih salami sababaraha generasi, atawa bisa ngrandapan ''modifikasi'' anu ampir ''konstan''.
* Panungtung, programmer panginten ngan benten dina pangaresepna: aranjeuna bisa waé tos lumrah ngabahas masalah jeung  ngalaksanakeunna dina basa anu tos ditangtoskeun.

{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}
One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]].  The éarliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer.  As new programming languages have developed, féatures have been added that let programmers express idéas that are more removed from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions.  Because programmers are less tied to the needs of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer.  This lets them write more programs in the same amount of time.&lt;ref&gt;Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.:  ''The Mythical Man-Month,'' Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Natural language and computation|Natural language processors]] have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. [[Edsger Dijkstra]] took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of méaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as &quot;foolish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Dijkstra, Edsger W. [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html On the foolishness of &quot;natural language programming.&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120201526/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html |date=2008-01-20 }} EWD667.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Alan Perlis]] was similarly dismissive of the idéa.&lt;ref&gt;Perlis, Alan, [http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html Epigrams on Programming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117034445/http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html |date=1999-01-17 }}. SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-13&lt;/ref&gt;

== Elements ==
=== Syntax ===
[[Gambar:Python_add5_parse.png|thumb|right|396px|[[Parse tree]] of Python code with inset tokenization]]
[[Gambar:Python_add5_syntax.svg|thumb|right|292px|[[Syntax highlighting]] is often used to aid programmers in the recognition of elements of source code. The language you see here is [[Python (programming language)|Python]]]]

A programming language's surface form is known as its [[syntax]].  Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages.  On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more [[visual programming language|graphical]] in nature, using spatial relationships between symbols to specify a program.

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program.  The méaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics.  Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of [[regular expression]]s (for [[lexical analysis|lexical]] structure) and [[Backus-Naur Form]] (for [[context-free grammar|grammatical]] structure).  Below is a simple grammar, based on [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]:

&lt;code&gt;
expression ::= atom   | list&lt;br /&gt;
atom       ::= number | symbol&lt;br /&gt;    
number     ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+&lt;br /&gt;
symbol     ::= ['A'-'Z'&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;a'-'z'].*&lt;br /&gt;
list       ::= '(' expression* ')'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/code&gt;

This grammar specifies the following:
* an ''expression'' is either an ''atom'' or a ''list'';
* an ''atom'' is either a ''number'' or a ''symbol'';
* a ''number'' is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;
* a ''symbol'' is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and
* a ''list'' is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more ''expressions'' inside it.

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '&lt;code&gt;12345&lt;/code&gt;', '&lt;code&gt;()&lt;/code&gt;', '&lt;code&gt;(a b c232 (1))&lt;/code&gt;'

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct.  Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution.  In some cases, such programs may exhibit [[undefined behavior]].  Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a méaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using [[natural language]] as an example, it may not be possible to assign a méaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:
* &quot;[[Colorless green ideas sleep furiously]].&quot; is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted méaning.
* &quot;John is a married bachelor.&quot; is grammatically well-formed but expresses a méaning that cannot be true.

The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because &lt;tt&gt;p&lt;/tt&gt; is a [[null pointer]], the operations &lt;tt&gt;p-&gt;réal&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;p-&gt;im&lt;/tt&gt; have no méaning):

 complex *p = NULL;
 complex abs_p = sqrt (p-&gt;réal * p-&gt;réal + p-&gt;im * p-&gt;im);

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].  The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are [[context-free grammar]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0534956513 | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Type system ===
{{details|Type system}}
{{details|Type safety}}

A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into ''types'', how it can manipulate those types and how they interact.  This generally includes a description of the [[data structure]]s that can be constructed in the language.  The design and study of type systems using formal mathematics is known as ''[[type theory]]''.

Internally, all [[data]] in modérn digital computers are stored simply as zeros or ones ([[Binary numeral system|binary]]).

==== Typed versus untyped languages ====
A language is ''typed'' if operations defined for one data type cannot be performed on values of another data type.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html | author=Andrew Cooke | title=An Introduction to Programming Languages | accessdate=June 30 | accessyear=2006 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521224046/http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html#sec-types | archivedate=2008-05-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, &quot;&lt;code&gt;this text between the quotes&lt;/code&gt;&quot; is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no méaning. Most modérn programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation.  In some languages, the méaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled (&quot;static&quot; type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run (&quot;dynamic&quot; type checking), resulting in a runtime [[Exception handling|exception]].

A special case of typed languages are the ''single-type'' languages.  These are often scripting or markup languages, such as [[Rexx]] or [[SGML]], and have only one data type — most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.

In contrast, an ''untyped language'', such as most [[assembly language]]s, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;  High-level languages which are untyped include [[BCPL]] and some varieties of [[Forth (programming language)|Forth]].

In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of [[type theory]] (verifying or rejecting ''all'' operations), most modérn languages offer a degree of typing.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;  Many production languages provide méans to bypass or subvert the type system.

==== Static versus dynamic typing ====
In ''[[static typing]]'' all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time).  For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;

Statically-typed languages can be ''manifestly typed'' or ''[[type inference|type-inferred]]''.  In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable [[declaration (computer science)|declarations]]).  In the second case, the compiler ''infers'' the types of expressions and declarations based on context.  Most mainstréam statically-typed languages, such as [[C Plus Plus|C++]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]], are manifestly typed.  Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstréam languages, such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] and [[ML programming language|ML]].  However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[C Sharp|C#]] both infer types in certain limited cases.&lt;ref&gt;Specifically, instantiations of [[generic programming|generic]] types are inferred for certain expression forms.  Type inference in Generic Java—the research language that provided the basis for Java 1.5's bounded [[parametric polymorphism]] extensions—is discussed in two informal manuscripts from the [[Types mailing list]]: [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00849.html Generic Java type inference is unsound] ([[Alan Jeffrey]], 17 Dec 2001) and [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00921.html Sound Generic Java type inference] ([[Martin Odersky]], 15 Jan 2002).  C#'s type system is similar to Java's, and uses a similar partial type inference scheme.&lt;/ref&gt;
''Dynamic typing'', also called ''latent typing'', determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with ''runtime values'' rather than ''textual expressions''.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;  As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions.  Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution.  However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[JavaScript]],  and [[Python (programming language)|Python]] are dynamically typed.

==== Weak and strong typing ====
''Weak typing'' allows a value of one type to be tréated as another, for example tréating a string as a number.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;  This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at [[compile time]].

''Strong typing'' prevents the above.  Attempting to mix types raises an error.&lt;ref name=&quot;typing&quot;/&gt;  Strongly-typed languages are often termed ''type-safe'' or ''[[type safety|safe]]''.  Type safety can prevent particular kinds of program faults occurring (because constructs containing them are flagged at compile time).

An alternative definition for &quot;weakly typed&quot; refers to languages, such as [[Perl]], [[JavaScript]], and [[C++]] which permit a large number of implicit type conversions; Perl in particular can be characterized as a dynamically typed programming language in which type checking can take place at runtime. See [[type system]].  This capability is often useful, but occasionally dangerous; as it would permit operations whose objects can change type on demand.

''Strong'' and ''static'' are generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs.  Some use the term ''strongly typed'' to méan ''strongly, statically typed'', or, even more confusingly, to méan simply ''statically typed''.  Thus [[C (programming language)|C]] has been called both strongly typed and wéakly, statically typed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-4.html | title=Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme (February 20, 1998) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cardelli85understanding.html | title=On Understanding Types, Data Abstraction, and Polymorphism | author=[[Luca Cardelli]] and [[Peter Wegner]] | work=Manuscript (1985) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Execution semantics ===
Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data.  The ''execution semantics'' of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior.

For example, the semantics may define the [[evaluation strategy|strategy]] by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which [[control structure]]s conditionally execute statements.

=== Core library ===
{{details|Standard library}}

Most programming languages have an associated [[library (computer science)|core library]] (sometimes known as the 'Standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.

A language's core library is often tréated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have tréated it as a separate entity.  Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required.  The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language.  Indeed, some languages are designed so that the méanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library.  For example, in [[Java (programming language)|Java]], a string literal is defined as an instance of the &lt;tt&gt;java.lang.String&lt;/tt&gt; class; similarly, in [[Smalltalk]], an [[anonymous function]] expression (a &quot;block&quot;) constructs an instance of the library's &lt;tt&gt;BlockContext&lt;/tt&gt; class.  Conversely, [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.

== Practice ==
A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming.  The most important of these artifacts are the language ''specification'' and ''implementation''.

=== Specification ===
{{details|Programming language specification}}
The '''specification''' of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that language [[programmer|users]] and [[programming language implementation|implementors]] can use to determine the behavior of a [[computer program|program]], given its [[source code]].

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

* An explicit definition of the syntax and semantics of the language.  While  syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in [[natural language]] (e.g., the [[C language]]), or a [[formal semantics of programming languages|formal semantics]] (e.g., the [[Standard ML]] &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
   | last = Milner
   | first = R.
   | authorlink = Robin Milner
   | coauthors = [[Mads Tofte|M. Tofte]], [[Robert Harper (computer scientist)|R. Harper]] and D. MacQueen.
   | title = The Definition of Standard ML (Revised)
   | publisher = MIT Press
   | year = 1997
   | id = ISBN 0-262-63181-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|first=Richard |last=Kelsey|coauthors=William Clinger and Jonathan Rees|title=Section 7.2  Formal semantics|work=Revised&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme|url = http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-10.html#%_sec_7.2| year=1998|month=February|accessdate=2006-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; specifications).
* A description of the behavior of a [[compiler|translator]] for the language (e.g., the [[C++]] and [[Fortran]] specifications).  The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language.
* A ''reference'' or ''model'' implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., [[Prolog]] or [[Rexx|ANSI REXX]]&lt;ref&gt;[[ANSI]] — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996&lt;/ref&gt;).  The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.

=== Implementation ===
{{details|Programming language implementation}}
An '''implementation''' of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software.  There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: ''[[compiler|compilation]]'' and ''[[interpreter (computing)|interpretation]]''.  It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

The output of a [[compiler]] may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter.  In some implementations that maké use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting.  For instance, some implementations of the [[BASIC programming language]] compile and then execute the source a line at a time.

Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.

One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is [[just-in-time compilation]].  Here the [[virtual machine]] monitors which sequences of [[bytecode]] are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware.

== History ==
[[Gambar:Programming language textbooks.jpg|thumb|230px|right|A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure.  These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.]]

{{details|History of programming languages}}

=== Early developments ===
The first programming languages predate the modérn computer. The 19th century had &quot;programmable&quot; [[loom]]s and [[player piano]] scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of [[domain-specific programming language]]s.  By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing.  In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]] and [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machine]]s provided mathematical abstractions for expressing [[algorithm]]s; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.&lt;ref&gt;Benjamin C. Pierce writes:
:&quot;. . . the lambda calculus has seen widespread use in the specification of programming language features, in language design and implementation, and in the study of type systems.&quot;
{{cite book
 | last=Pierce
 | first=Benjamin C.
 | authorlink=Benjamin C. Pierce
 | title=Types and Programming Languages
 | publisher=[[MIT Press]]
 | year=2002
 | id=ISBN 0-262-16209-1
 | pages=52
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were créated. The computers of the éarly 1950s, notably the [[UNIVAC I]] and the [[IBM 701]] used [[Machine code|machine language programs]]. [[First-generation programming language|First generation]] machine language programming was quickly superseded by a [[Second-generation programming language|second generation]] of programming languages known as [[Assembly language]]s.  Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of [[macro instruction]]s, was followed by the development of three higher-level programming languages: [[FORTRAN]], [[Lisp programming language|LISP]], and [[COBOL]]. Updated versions of all of these are still in general use, and importantly, éach has strongly influenced the development of later languages.&lt;ref name=&quot;influences&quot;&gt;{{cite web 
 | url=http://www.oreilly.com/news/graphics/prog_lang_poster.pdf
 | type=pdf
 | title=History of programming languages
 | author=[[O'Reilly Media]]
 | accessdate=October 5
 | accessyear=2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as [[Algol 60]] was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol.&lt;ref name=&quot;influences&quot;/&gt; The format and use of the éarly programming languages was héavily influenced by the [[Computer programming in the punch card era|constraints of the interface]].
&lt;ref&gt;Frank da Cruz. [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/cards.html IBM Punch Cards] [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/index.html Columbia University Computing History].&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Refinement ===

The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of idéas in the very first [[Third-generation programming language]]s:
* [[APL (programming language)|APL]] introduced ''[[array programming]]'' and influenced [[functional programming]].&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Wexelblat: ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[PL/I]] (NPL) was designed in the éarly 1960s to incorporate the best idéas from FORTRAN and COBOL.
* In the 1960s, [[Simula programming language|Simula]] was the first language designed to support ''[[object-oriented programming]]''; in the mid-1970s, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]] followed with the first &quot;purely&quot; object-oriented language.
* [[C (programming language)|C]] was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a ''[[systems programming]]'' language, and remains popular.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~flab/languages.html | author=François Labelle | title=Programming Language Usage Graph | work=[[Sourceforge]] | accessdate=June 21 | accessyear=2006 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617055109/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/%7Eflab/languages.html | archivedate=2006-06-17 }}.  This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository.  During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Prolog programming language|Prolog]], designed in 1972, was the first ''[[logic programming]]'' language.
* In 1978, [[ML programming language|ML]] built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering ''[[static typing|statically typed]] [[functional programming]]'' languages.
éach of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modérn languages count at léast one of them in their ancestry.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of ''[[structured programming]]'', and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | title=The Semicolon Wars | journal=American Scientist | first1=Brian | last1=Hayes | volume=94 | issue=4 | year=2006 | pages=pp. 299-303}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Edsger W. Dijkstra|Edsger Dijkstra]], in a famous 1968 letter published in the [[Communications of the ACM]], argued that [[GOTO]] statements should be eliminated from all &quot;higher level&quot; programming languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Dijkstra|first=Edsger W.|authorlink=Edsger Dijkstra|title=Go To Statement Considered Harmful|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=11|issue=3|month=March|year=1968|pages=147–148|url=http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/|accessdate=2006-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050443/http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/|archive-date=2007-07-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The [[Computer programming in the punch card era|card deck]] for an éarly [[Fourth-generation programming language|4GL]] was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a [[Third-generation programming language|3GL deck]].

=== Consolidation and growth ===

The 1980s were yéars of relative consolidation. [[C Plus Plus|C++]] combined object-oriented and systems programming.  The United States government standardized [[Ada programming language|Ada]], a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called [[Fifth generation computer|&quot;fifth generation&quot; languages]] that incorporated logic programming constructs&lt;ref&gt;Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama
Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). &quot;KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1&quot; ''Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT'' Tokyo, December 1994. [http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language ][[KL1]]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925132105/http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html |date=2006-09-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp.  Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the idéas invented in the previous decade.

One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an incréased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of ''modules'', or large-scale organizational units of code.  [[Modula-2]], Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as [[PL/I]], alréady had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to [[generic programming]] constructs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Jim Bender|url=http://readscheme.org/modules/|title=Mini-Bibliography on Modules for Functional Programming Languages|work=ReadScheme.org|accessdate=2006-09-27|date=March 15th, 2004|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924085057/http://readscheme.org/modules/|archivedate=2006-09-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rapid growth of the [[Internet]] in the mid-1990's créated opportunities for new languages.  [[Perl]], originally a Unix scripting tool first reléased in 1987, became common in dynamic [[Web site]]s.  [[Java (programming language)|Java]] came to be used for server-side programming.  These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages.

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and reséarch.  Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity ([[mixin]]s, [[Delegation (programming)|delegates]], [[aspect-oriented programming|aspects]]), and database integration. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The [[4GL]]s are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as [[SQL]], which manipulates and returns [[set]]s of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. [[Perl]], for example, with its '[[here document]]' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming&lt;ref&gt;Wall, ''Programming Perl'' ISBN 0-596-00027-8  p.66&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Measuring language usage ===
It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage méans varies by context.  One language may occupy the gréater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time.  Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications.  For example, [[COBOL]] is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large [[Mainframe computer|mainframes]]; [[Fortran (programming language)|FORTRAN]] in engineering applications; [[C (programming language)|C]] in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of méasuring language popularity, éach subject to a different bias over what is méasured, have been proposed:

* counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language]&lt;/ref&gt;
* the number of books sold that téach or describe the language&lt;ref&gt;[http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html Counting programming languages by book sales]&lt;/ref&gt;
* estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public séarches&lt;ref&gt;Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001&lt;/ref&gt;
* counts of language references found using a web séarch engine.

== Taxonomies ==
{{details|Categorical list of programming languages}}
There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages.  A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language.  Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new idéas in circulation at the time.  Idéas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then léap suddenly across familial gaps to appéar in an entirely different family.

The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes.  For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple [[Thread (computer science)|threads]] in parallel).  [[Python (programming language)|Python]] is an object-oriented [[scripting language]].

In broad strokes, programming languages divide into ''[[programming paradigm]]s'' and a classification by ''intended domain of use''.  Paradigms include [[procedural programming]], [[object-oriented programming]], [[functional programming]], and [[logic programming]]; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic.  An [[assembly language]] is not so much a paradigm as a direct modél of an underlying machine architecture.  By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html|title=TUNES: Programming Languages|accessdate=2007-11-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203251/http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html|archivedate=2007-10-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wirth|first=Niklaus|authorlink=Niklaus Wirth|title=Recollections about the development of Pascal|journal=Proc. 2nd [[ACM SIGPLAN]] conference on history of programming languages|pages=333–342|year=1993|url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=155378|accessdate=2006-06-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use [[English language]] keywords, while a [[Categorical list of programming languages#Non-English-based languages|minority do not]]. Other languages may be classified as being [[Esoteric programming language|esoteric]] or not.

== See also ==
{{portal|Computer science}}
{{wikibooks|Computer programming}}
{{wiktionarypar|programming language}}
* [[List of programming languages]]
* [[Comparison of programming languages]]
* [[Literate programming]]
* [[Invariant based programming]]
* [[Programming language dialect]]
* [[Programming language theory]]
* [[Computer science]] and [[List of basic computer science topics]]
* [[Software engineering]] and [[List of software engineering topics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: ''Essentials of Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2001.
* David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: ''Programming Linguistics'', The MIT Press 1990.
* Shriram Krishnamurthi: ''Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation'', [http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/ online publication].
* Bruce J. MacLennan: ''Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation'', Oxford University Press 1999.
* John C. Mitchell: ''Concepts in Programming Languages'', Cambridge University Press 2002.
* Benjamin C. Pierce: ''Types and Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2002.
* Ravi Sethi: ''Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs'', 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996.
* Michael L. Scott: ''Programming Language Pragmatics'', Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005.
* Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press 1981.

== Tumbu luar ==
* [http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 Bottles of Beer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209194347/http://99-bottles-of-beer.net/ |date=2010-02-09 }} A collection of implementations in many languages.
* [http://www.levenez.com/lang/history.html Computer Languages History graphical chart]
* [http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl Dictionary of Programming Languages]
* [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ History of Programming Languages (HOPL)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ |date=2011-02-20 }}
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/ Open Directory - Computer Programming Languages]
* [http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ Syntax Patterns for Various Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510185903/http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ |date=2008-05-10 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513071849/http://www.ulb.ac.be/di/rwuyts/INFO020_2003/grogono-evolution.pdf The Evolution of Programming Languages] by Peter Grogono

{{Programming language}}
{{Computer language}}

[[Kategori:Jejer basa pamrograman| ]]
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    <title>Mitokondria</title>
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      <text bytes="8657" sha1="5yu1ac1a4wf7ox6wp5xodu7iswr7hlz" xml:space="preserve">Dina [[biologi sél]], '''mitokondria''' nyaéta hiji [[organél]] nu aya na [[sél (biologi)|sél]] lolobana [[eukariot]]. Mitokondria kadang didadarkeun salaku &quot;[[pembangkit listrik]] sélular&quot; sabab tujuan utamana pikeun nga[[rancang wangun]] [[adénosin trifosfat]] (ATP), nu dipikabutuh salaku sumber [[énergi]].

Jumlah mitokondria béda dina unggal tipe sél. [[Protozoa]] [[Trypanosome]] mibanda hiji mitokondria tunggal nu badag; sél [[ati]] [[manusa]] hijina ilaharna mibanda antara sarébu nepi ka dua rébu. Mitokondria bisa ngeusian nepi ka 25% [[sitosol]] sél.

== Struktur ==

[[Gambar:mitokondria.png|bing|'''Keureutan nyilang mitokondria, némbongkeun:''' (1) mémbran jero, (2), mémbran luar, (3) krista, (4) matrix]]

Mitokondria mibanda dua sistim mémbran: mémbran luar, nu ngabungkus organélna; sarta mémbran jero, nu karejut tulap-tilep ka lebah jero. tilepan nu ka jero disebut [[krista]]. Jumlah jeung bentuk kristae dina mitokondria béda-béda, gumantung jaringan jeung organismena. Krista ieu nyadiakeun raray mémbran nu leuwih lega.

* Mémbran luar mungkus sakabéh [[organél]] sarta ngandung kanal nu dijieun tina kompléx [[protéin]] nu disebut [[porin]] tempat [[molekul]] jeung [[ion]] bisa asup jeung kaluar mitokondria. Mémbran luar diwangun ku 50%-an lipid jeung 50%-an protéin. Molekul badag teu bisa nembus mémbran ieu.
* Mémbran jero, narilep jadi krista, mungkus ''[[matrix (biologi)|matrix]]'' (cairan jero mitokondria). Mémbran jero ngandung sababaraha kopléx protéin, kandunganana 20%-an lipid jeung 80%-an protéin. Aya ''stalked particles'' nu kapanggih na krista, nu taya lian ti molekul énzim [[ATP sintase]] nu ngahasilkeun ATP téa.
* ''Rohangan antarmémbran'' antara dua mémbran ngandung énzim-énzim nu ngagunakeun ATP pikeun [[fosforilasi|mosforilasi]] [[nukléotida]] séjén nu ngatalisan réaksi séjén.

&quot;Mitokondria&quot; sacara harfiah ngandung harti 'thréad granule', sakumaha katémbongna dina [[mikroskop]] cahya: struktur ''tiny rod-like'' na [[sitoplasma]] sadaya sél. Matrixna ngandung énzim [[bisa leyur]] nu [[catalisis|ngatalisan]] oxidasi [[asam piruvat|piruvat]] jeung molekul organik leutik séjénna. Sapalih ti [[daur asam sitrat|daur Krebs]] lumangsung jero mitokondria. Matrixna ogé ngandung sababaraha salinan [[DNA mitokondria]] (biasana 5-10 molekul DNA sirkular per mitokondria), [[ribosom]] husus mitokondria, [[tRNA]], sarta protéin-protéin nu dipikabutuh pikeun [[réplikasi DNA]].

Nalika sél meulah manéh, mitokondria ngayakeun réplikasi ku cara [[Binary fission|fisi]]. Réplikasi ogé lumangsung nalika pangabutuh énergi sél ningkat. Pikeun conto, sél panyimpen [[lemak]], nu mikabutuh énergi saeutik, mitokondriana ngan saeutik. Bandingkeun jeung sél [[otot]] nu mikabutuh énergi, mitokondriana loba pisan.

Protéin mitokondria ayana di mémbran luar, mémbran jero, sarta na rohangan anrarmémbran. Runtuyan stop-transfer anchor proteins to the outer membrane. Matrix-targeting sequences [[protein targeting|target]] the protein for the mitochondrial matrix.

== Konversi énergi ==
Mitokondria ngarobah énergi poténtial molekul dahareun jadi ATP. Produksi ATP kahontal ku daur Krebs (tempo [[daur asam sitrat]]), [[ranté alih éléktron|alih éléktron]], jeung [[fosforilasi oxidatif]]. Mun euweuh [[oxigén]], prosés ieu moal bisa lumangsung.

Énergi tina molekul [[dahareun]] (nyaéta [[glukosa]]) dipaké pikeun ngahasilkeun molekul NADH jeung FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ngaliwatan [[glikolisis]] jeung daur Krebs. Énergi ieu dialihkeun ka oxigén (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) dina sababaraha hambalan nu ngawengku ranté alih éléktron. Kompléx protéin na mémbran jero ([[NADH déhidrogénase]],  [[Koénzim Q - sitokrom c réduktase|sitokrom c réduktase]], [[sitokrom c oxidase]]) nu ngalaksanakeun alihanana ngagunakeun énergi nu dileupaskeun pikeun ngompa [[proton]] (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) ngalawan [[gradién]] (konsentrasi proton na rohangan antarmémbran leuwih luhur batan na matrix). Sistim [[alih aktif]] (merlukeun énergi) ngompa proton ngalawan téndénsi fisikna (dina arah nu &quot;salah&quot;) ti matrix ka rohangan antarmémbran.

Nalika kosentrasi proton ngaronjat na rohangan antarmémbran, a strong ''diffusion gradient'' is built up. Jalan kaluar pikeun proton ieu nya ngaliwatan kompléx ''[[ATP sintase]]''. Ku cara ngalihkeun proton ti rohangan antarmémbran balik deui ka matrix, kompléx ATP sintase bisa nyieun [[Adénosin trifosfat|ATP]] tina ADP jeung fosfat anorganik (P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;). Prosés ieu disebut [[kémiosmosis]] nu mangrupa hiji conto ''[[facilitated diffusion]]''. [[Peter Mitchell]] dipaparin [[Hadiah Nobel]] Kimia taun 1978 pikeun karyana ngeunaan kémiosmosis. Salajengna, Hadiah Nobel Kimia taun 1997 dipaparinkeun ka [[Paul D. Boyer]] jeung [[John E. Walker]] pikeun klarifikasi mékanisme peta ATP sintase.

== Fungsi séjén ==

Mitokondria mibanda sababaraha fungsi penting séjén di sagigireun produksi ATP. Rupa-rupa fungsi ieu patali jeung rupa-rupa [[kasakit mitokondria]].

Sababaraha fungsi mitokondria ngan lumangsung dina tipe sél nu tangtu. Pikeun conto, mitokondria na sél ati ngandung énzim-énzim nu bisa ngadétoksifikasi amonia, pamiceunan métabolisme protéin. Énzim-énzim ieu teu dijieun na mitokondria sél ''cardiac''.

Mitokondria ogé maénkeun péran dina
* [[apoptosis]]
* proliférasi sélular
* sintésis [[hémé]]
* sintésis [[stéroid]]
* produksi panas (sangkan organisme bisa tetep haneut)

== Larapan dina ngulik genetika populasi ==

Ku sabab [[Ovum|endog]] ngancurkeun mitokondria [[spérma]] anu [[Fertilisasi|ngabuahanana]], [[DNA mitokondria]] (mtDNA) hiji jalma diturunkeun sagemblengna ti indungna. ku sabab turunna anu matrilinéal, para élmuwan [[genetika populasi]] jeung [[biologi evolusi]] loba anu ngagunakeun data sékuén mtDNA pikeun neuleuman évolusi jeung silsilah (baca [[Hawa mitokondria]]).

== Téori éndosimbiotik ==

Mitokondria mahiwal sorangan ti antara organél-organél séjén sabab ngandung [[ribosom]] sarta bahan génétikna sorangan. [[DNA]] mitokondria bentukna sirkular sarta mibanda [[sandi genetik]] béda ti eukariotik baku.

== Tempo ogé ==
* [[Tiori éndosimbiotik]]
* [[Hipotésis kémiosmotik]]
* [[Kloroplas]]
* [[Partikel submitokondria]]
* [[Kasakit mitokondria]]
* [[DNA mitokondria]]
* [[Poténsi éléktrokimia]]
* [[Glikolisis]]

{{organél}}
{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

== Tutumbu kaluar ==
{{Commons|Mitochondrion}}
* [http://www.Mitodb.com Mitodb.com] – The mitochondrial diséase database.
* [http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/workshop/EM/EMMitoE.html Mitochondria Atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629101035/http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/workshop/EM/EMMitoE.html |date=2012-06-29 }} at [[University of Mainz]]
* [http://www.mitochondrial.net Mitochondria Research Portal] at mitochondrial.net
* [http://www.cytochemistry.net/Cell-biology/mitoch1.htm Mitochondria: Architecture dictates function] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125062948/http://www.cytochemistry.net/Cell-biology/mitoch1.htm |date=2010-01-25 }} at cytochemistry.net
* [http://bama.ua.edu/~hsmithso/class/bsc_495/mito-plastids/mito_web.html Mitochondria links] at [[University of Alabama]]
* [http://www.mitophysiology.org/ MIP] Mitochondrial Physiology Society
* [http://opm.phar.umich.edu/localization.php?localization=Mitochondrial%20inner%20membrane 3D structures of proteins from inner mitochondrial membrane] at [[University of Michigan]]
* [http://opm.phar.umich.edu/localization.php?localization=Mitochondrial%20outer%20membrane 3D structures of proteins associated with outer mitochondrial membrane] at [[University of Michigan]]
* [http://www.mitoproteins.org Mitochondrial Protein Partnership] at [[University of Wisconsin]]
* [http://mitominer.mrc-mbu.cam.ac.uk MitoMiner – A mitochondrial proteomics database]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at [[MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111007111911/http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&amp;keyword=mitochondrion&amp;Submit=Go&amp;event=display&amp;start=1 Mitochondrion – Cell Centered Database]
* [http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/TFrey/MitoMovie.htm Mitochondrion Reconstructed by Electron Tomography] at [[San Diego State University]]
* [http://www.wadsworth.org/databank/electron/cryomito_dis2.html Video Clip of Rat-liver Mitochondrion from Cryo-electron Tomography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211051649/http://www.wadsworth.org/databank/electron/cryomito_dis2.html |date=2003-12-11 }}

[[Kategori:Réspirasi sélular]]
[[Kategori:Organél]]</text>
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** [[Riodinidae]]
{{Taxobox_end}}
'''Kukupu''' nyaéta [[insékta]] hiber tina ordo [[Lepidoptera]] nu asup kana salah sahiji [[superfamili]] [[Hesperioidea]] jeung [[Papilionoidea]] (sakur kukupu lianna). Aya ogé ahli nu ngasupkeun kukupu kana superfamili [[Hedyloidea]], ngengat Amérika. Loba pisan kukupu nu mibanda kelir nu ahéng sarta matak hélok. Nalik kacabak ku manusa, urang bakal ngarasakeun ayana tipung nu muruluk tina jangjang kukupu. Mun loba teuing nu murudulna, kamampuh hiberna bakal kaganggud. Masarakat nu ngoléksi atawa nalungtik kukupu (atawa [[ngenget|ngenget/geget]]) disebutna [[lépidoptéris]].

==Opat hambalan daur hirup kukupu== 
&lt;!--Unlike many insects, butterflies do not experience a [[nymph (biology)|nymph]] period, but instead go through a pupal stage which lies between the larva and the adult stage (the ''[[imago]]'').
* [[Egg (biology)|Egg]]
* [[Larva]], known as a [[caterpillar]]
* [[Pupa]] (''[[chrysalis]]'')
* Adult butterfly (''[[imago]]'')
--&gt;
===Endog===
[[Endog]] kukupu diwangun ku cangkang teuas nu disebut ''korion'', lajeng handapeunana korion aya lapisan lilin ipis pikeun ngajaga kalembaban di jero endog. Tiap endog ngandung sababaraha liang nu ngamuara ka hiji lawang, disebutna ''mikropil''; liang ieu dimaksudkeun sangkan [[spérma]] asup &amp; ngabuahan endogna. Endog kukupu jeung ngengat ukuranana rupa-rupa gumantung spésiésna, tapi bentukna mah sarua lonyod.

===Larva===
&lt;!--Larva, bilatung, atawa [[hileud]] téh mangrupa mesin dahar. Hileud ngahakan [[daun]] tatangkalan ampir sapanjang waktuna. Sawawana hileud ngaliwatan sababaraha hambalan nu disebut instar. Dina tungtung unggal instar, larvana ngalaman nu disebut [[apolisis]], nyaéta prosés leupasna [[kutikel]], campuran [[kitin]] jeung [[protéin]], tina [[épidermis]] sarta diganti ku kutikel anyar. Dina tungtung unggal instar, the larva molts the old [[cuticle]], and the new [[cuticle]] rapidly hardens and pigments.  Development of butterfly wing patterns begins by the last larval instar.  Butterflies belong to the specialized and prolific lineage of [[holometabolism|holometabolous]] insects, which means that wings or wing pads are not visible on the outside of the larva, but when larvae are dissected tiny developing &quot;wing disks&quot; can be found on the second and third thoracic segments, in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments.  Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing, and are surrounded by a thin &quot;peripodial membrane&quot;, which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct.  [[Image:Fifthinstarwingdisk.png|thumb|100px|left|Last instar wing disk, Junonia coenia]] Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar, when they increase dramatically in size, are invaded by branching [[tracheae]] from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins, and begin to express molecular markers in patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing.  Near pupation the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the [[hemolymph]], and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile, by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa (in obtect pupae).  Within hours the wings form a cuticle so hard and well-joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings.

{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
|[[Image:Pupation_-_Inachis_io.jpg|thumb|Pupation of Inachis io]]
|[[Image:Chrysalis5504.JPG|thumb|100px|right|Chrysalis of [[Gulf Fritillary]]]]
|-
|}
--&gt;

===Pupa===
&lt;!--When the larva exceeds a minimum weight at a particular time of day it will stop feeding and begin &quot;wandering&quot; in search of a suitable pupation site, usually the underside of a leaf.  The larva transforms into a pupa ([[chrysalis]]), which then transforms into a butterfly by [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]].  To transform from the miniature wings visible on the outside of the pupa into large structures usable for flight, the pupal wings undergo rapid mitosis and absorb a great deal of nutrients.  If one wing is surgically removed early on, the other three will grow to a larger size.  In the pupa the wing forms a structure that becomes compressed from top to bottom and pleated from proximal to distal ends as it grows, so that it can rapidly be unfolded to its full adult size.  Several boundaries seen in the adult color pattern are marked by changes in the expression of particular transcription factors in the early pupa.
--&gt;
===Kukupu===
[[Image:Apodemia_mormo_langei-02.JPG|thumb|right|[[Riodinidae|Kukupu Metalmark]] Lange]]
[[Image:ButterflyScales.jpg|thumb|right|Kukupu jeung skalana]]

Insékta nu geus aya dina hambalan sawawa sacara séksual disebut [[imago]]. Sakumaha Lepidoptera, kukupu mibanda opat [[jangjang]] nu dibungkus ku skala lalembut (tempo foto), tapi teu siga ngengat, jangjang hareup jeung tukangna teu sajangkar, antukna kamampuh hiberna leuwih hadé. Kukupu boga genep suku; larvana ogé boga genep suku (ngan katambahan ku sababarapa pasang suku semu). Sanggeus kaluar tina hambalan pupalna, kukupu can waka bisa hiber alatan jangjangna can mébér, narilep kénéh. Sangkan mébér, jangjangna téh kudu kaaliran heula getih sarta diangin-ainginkeun sangkan garing. Tah, dina mangsa ieu pisan kukupu téh gampang pisan jadi sasaran nu ngamangsa.

&lt;!--Many species of butterfly are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]]. Some butterflies, such as the [[Monarch butterfly]], are migratory.

Butterflies are often confused with moths, but there are a few simple differences between them, including colour, habits, and pupating appearance. See the [[difference between a butterfly and a moth]].

Butterflies live primarily on [[nectar]] from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from [[pollen]], tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are also [[pollinator]]s.
--&gt;

==Klasifikasi==
&lt;!--[[Image:Blue morpho butterfly.jpg|thumb|right|[[Blue Morpho]]]]
[[Image:Meadow Argus02.jpg|thumb|right|[[Meadow Argus]], a common species of Australia]]
[[Image:Geitoneura klugii2.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Geitoneura klugii]]'']]
Najan kukupu digolongkeun kana dua superfamili, [[Hesperioidea]] jeung [[Papilionoidea]], ieu mah mangrupa [[takson sawargi|taksa sawargi]], sahingga kukupu sacara koléktif dianggap salaku hiji kelompok. Some modern taxonomists place them all in superfamily Papilionoidea, distinguishing the skippers from the other butterflies at the series level only.  There is only one family in the Hesperioidea (or series Hesperiiformes), the skipper family [[Hesperiidae]].  The families usually recognised
in the [[Papilionoidea]] (or Papilioniformes) are:
*[[Swallowtail]]s and [[Birdwing]]s, Papilionidae
*[[Pieridae|White]]s or Yellow-Whites, Pieridae
*[[Lycaenidae|Blues and Coppers]] or Gossamer-Winged Butterflies, Lycaenidae
*[[Metalmark butterfly|Metalmark butterflies]], Riodinidae
*[[Brush-footed butterfly|Brush-footed butterflies]], Nymphalidae

A major new study (Wahlberg et al., 2005) combining morphological and molecular data concluded that Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Riodinidae could all be strongly supported as [[monophyletic]] clades, but the status of [[Nymphalidae]] is equivocal.  Lycaenidae and Riodinidae were confirmed as sister taxa, and Papilionidae as the outgroup to the rest of the true butterflies, but the location of Pieridae within the pattern of descent was unclear, with different lines of evidence suggesting different conclusions.  The data suggested that the Hedyloidea are indeed more closely related to the butterflies than to other moths.

Some older taxonomies recognize additional families, for example Danaidae, Heliconiidae, [[Snout butterfly|Libytheidae]] and Satyridae, but modern classifications treat these as subfamilies within the Nymphalidae.

There are between 15,000 and 20,000 [[species]] of butterflies worldwide. Some well known species include:
* [[Small Tortoiseshell]], ''Nymphalis urticae''
* [[Small White]], ''Artogeia rapae''
* [[Green-veined White]], ''Artogeia napi''
* [[Monarch butterfly]], ''Danaus plexippus''
* [[Red Admiral]], ''Vanessa atalanta''
* [[Painted Lady]] or Cosmopolite, ''Vanessa cardui''
* [[Peacock (butterfly)|Peacock]], ''Inachis io''
* [[Xerces Blue]], ''Glaucopsyche xerces''
* [[Gulf Fritillary]], ''Agraulis vanillae''
* [[Black Swallowtail]], ''Papilio polyxenes''
* [[Spicebush Swallowtail]], ''Papilio troilus''
* [[Karner Blue]], ''Lycaeides melissa samuelis'' (endangered)
* [[Morpho (butterfly)|''Morpho'']] genus
* [[Birdwing|''Troides'']] genus (birdwings; the largest butterflies)
* [[Speckled Wood]], ''Pararge aegeria''
--&gt;

==Panduan ngeunaan kukupu==
[[Image:Lepidoptera 001.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lepidoptera]]
* ''Butterflies of North America'', Jim P. Brock and Kenn Kaufman ([[2003]])
* ''Butterflies through Binoculars: The East'', Jeffrey Glassberg ([[1999]])
* ''Butterflies through Binoculars: The West'', Jeffrey Glassberg ([[2001]])
* ''A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies'', Paul Opler ([[1994]])
* ''A Field Guide to Western Butterflies'', Paul Opler ([[1999]])
* ''Peterson First Guide to Butterflies and Moths'', Paul Opler ([[1994]])
* ''The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland'' ku Jim Asher (Editor), et al.  
* ''Pocket Guide to the Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland'' ku Richard Lewington 
* ''Butterflies of Britain and Europe'' (Collins Wildlife Trust Guides) ku Michael Chinery
* ''A Guide to Common Butterflies of Singapore'' ku Steven Néo Say Hian (Singapore Science Centre)
* ''Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore'' ku W.A.Fleming. (Longman Malaysia)
* ''Las Mariposas de Machu Picchu'' ku Gerardo Lamas ([[2003]])

==Rujukan==
*''[[:en:butterfly|Butterfly]]'', ti Wikipédia basa Inggris per 17 Séptémber 2005
*Pyle, R. M. (1992) ''Handbook for Butterfly Watchers''. Houghton Mifflin.  Originally published, 1984.  ISBN 0-395-61629-8
*Heppner, J. B., 1998. Classification of Lepidoptera.  ''Holarctic Lepidoptera'', Suppl. 1.
*Wahlberg, N., et al. (2005).  Synergistic effects of combining morphological and molecular data in resolving the phylogeny of butterflies and skippers. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B (Biological Sciences), 272'', 1577-1586.

==Fotograf tambahan==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Tagpfauenauge.jpg
Image:Issoria lathonia.jpg
Image:Buberel butterfly.jpg
Image:Rapsweissling_Pieris_napi.jpg
Image:Iphiclides podalirius.jpg
Image:C-Falter Polygonia C-album.jpg
Image:Meadow argus07.jpg
Image:Black and blue butterfly KL.jpg
Image:Black and yellow butterfly KL.jpg
Image:Black Butterfly with red.jpg
Image:Brown speckled butterfly KL.jpg
Image:Butterfly Morpho rhetenor helena (M) KL.jpg
Image:Parnassius phoebus.jpg|''Parnassius phoebus''
Image: Lycaena dispar02.jpg|''Lycaena dispar''
Image:Schwalbenschwanz papilio machaon.jpg |''Papilio machaon''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Tumbu kaluar==
{{commons|Butterfly}}
*[http://www.goliathus.cz Online insect museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206205249/http://www.goliathus.cz/ |date=2006-12-06 }} - Visit online insect muséum. Nice gallery of butterflies, including rare Agrias, Morpho, Prepona. Also unique bilateral gynandomorph, etc!
*[http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/lepid/bflyusa/bflyusa.htm Butterflies of North America]
*[http://www.butterfly-conservation.org/ Butterfly Conservation]
*[http://www.ukmoths.co.uk/ UK Moths]{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070622044831/http://www.leps.nl/ Butterflies and Moths in the Netherlands]
*[http://www.leps.it/ Moths and butterflies of Europe en North Africa]
*[http://butterflywebsite.com/ Butterfly Website]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Lepidoptera Tree Of Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214025442/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Lepidoptera |date=2005-12-14 }}
*[http://www.nss.org.sg/butterflysingapore/index.html Butterflies of Singapore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112025131/http://www.nss.org.sg/butterflysingapore/index.html |date=2006-01-12 }}
*[http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,9865,1453103,00.html &quot;Butterflies equipped with tracker devices&quot;] by Tim Radford, ''The Guardian'', April 6, 2005
*[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Butterfly Wiktionary's butterfly page, with loads of funny-sounding translations]
*[http://www.macro-photo.org/species-checklist-arthropods-insects-birds-avians/butterflies-moths-lepidoptera-macro-photo-images-gallery.htm Macro Photography - Images of Butterflies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051123064602/http://www.macro-photo.org/species-checklist-arthropods-insects-birds-avians/butterflies-moths-lepidoptera-macro-photo-images-gallery.htm |date=2005-11-23 }}
*[www.fotoplatforma.pl/index.php?lg=en&amp;str=200&amp;pokaz=51 butterflies pictures]
*[www.fotoplatforma.pl/en/butterflies/ Européan butterflies photo gallery ]
*[http://www.imagenesdeasturias.com/web/panoramicas_graonet/mariposas_de_asturias/index_mariposas.htm Spanish butterflies]

{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}

[[Kategori:Lepidoptera]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gajah</title>
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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gajah
| image = Elephant_Kruger_2003.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = Gajah Sabana Aprika, [[Aprika Kidul]].
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrata]]
| classis = [[Mamalia]]
| ordo = [[Proboscidea]]
| familia = '''Elephantidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] jeung [[Spésiés]]
| subdivision = 
* ''[[Loxodonta]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta cyclotis]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta africana]]''
* ''[[Elephas]]''
** ''[[Elephas maximus]]''
** ''[[Elephas recki]]'' [[extinction|†]]
* ''[[Stegodon]]'' †
* ''[[Mammuthus]]'' †
}}
'''Elephantidae''' (bangsa '''gajah''') téh [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] [[pachyderm]], hiji-hijina sésa kulawarga dina [[ordo]] [[Proboscidea]]. '''Elephantidae''' ngawengku tilu [[spésiés]] nu hirup kénéh: [[Gajah Sabana Aprika]] (''African Bush Elephant'') jeung [[Gajah Leuweung Aprika]] (''African Forest Elephant'') (nu duanana katelah Gajah Aprika) sarta [[Gajah Asia]] (tadina katelah Gajah India). Spésiés lianna geus tumpur/[[spésiés lastari|lastari]] dina panungtung [[yuga és]], nu anggeus kira 10.000 taun ka tukang.&lt;ref name=”Rig”&gt;{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Gajah téh [[mamalia]], sarta mangrupa sato darat [[sato raksasa|pangbadagna]] nu aya kénéh. Mangsa [[reuneuh]] gajah lilana 22 bulan, panglilana ti antara sato darat. Ménél (anak gajah) nu kakara borojol beuratna rata-rata 120 kg, bisa hirup nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah pangbadagna nu kungsi kacatet/karékam kungsi kapanggih di [[Angola]] taun 1974, gajah jalu nu beuratna [[1 E4 kg|12 ton]]. Nu pangleutikna, kira saukuran anak sapi atawa babi badag, kapanggih salaku [[fosil]] ti pulo [[Crete]], nu hirup kira 5000-3000 MM.

Papanggihan di [[Cina]] nunjukkeun yén gajah téh ogé jadi mangsa [[manusa]] purba.

==Élmu sasatoan ''(Zoology)''==
[[Image:Comparative_view_of_the_human_and_elephant_frame,_Benjamin_Waterhouse_Hawkins,_1860.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Katempo  barbandingan rorongkong manusia jeung gajah, kurang leuwih taun 1860.]]
&lt;!--
===African Elephant===
{{main articles|[[African Bush Elephant]] and [[African Forest Elephant]]}}
The mammals of the genus ''Loxodonta'', often known collectively as African elephants, are found in several regions throughout the continent, after which they are named. In recent years, ''Loxodonta'' has received the attention of the world because of its dwindling numbers. Today there are approximately 600,000 African elephants in the world. Some believe this represents a stable population and that measures to protect them are unnecessary. Others argue that while elephants are locally overabundant in certain areas, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the overall population has dropped by a staggering amount. As recently as [[1979]] there were an estimated 1.3 million African elephants. One decade later, only around 600,000 remain. This decline is attributed primarily to [[poaching]], or illegal hunting, and habitat loss.

African elephants are distinguished from Asians in several ways. The most noticeable difference is the [[ear]]s. Africans' ears are much larger and are shaped like the continent of their origin. The African elephant is typically larger than the Asian and has a concave back. Both males and females have external tusks and are usually less hairy than their Asian cousins.

Until the late 20th century, scientists recognized one species of African elephants, ''Loxodonta africana'', and two subspecies, or races, within the species. Recent [[DNA analysis]] has led scientists to reclassify the two races as distinct species.

Today, ''Loxodonta africana'' refers specifically to the Savanna Elephant, the largest of all the elephants. In fact, it is the largest land animal in the world, standing up to 13 feet (4 meters) at the shoulder and weighing approximately 15,400 pounds (7,000 kilograms). The average male stands about 3m high at the shoulder and weighs about 5500kg - 6000 kg, female being much smaller. Most often, Savanna Elephants are found in open [[grassland]]s, [[marsh]]es, and lakeshores. They range over most of Africa [[Sub-Saharan Africa|south of the Sahara]] Desert.

The other, less numerous species is the Forest Elephant, recently reclassified as ''Loxodonta cyclotis''. Compared with the Savanna Elephant, its ears are usually smaller and rounder, and its tusks are also thinner and straighter. The Forest Elephant can weigh up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) and stand about 10 feet (3 m) tall. Much less is known about these animals than their savanna cousins because environmental and political obstacles make them very difficult to study. Normally they inhabit the dense African rainforests of central and western Africa, though occasionally they do inhabit the edges of forests and overlap [[Territory (animal)|territories]] with bush elephants.

===Asian Elephant===
{{main|Asian elephant}}
Today scientists estimate the world population of Asian elephants, or ''Elephas maximus'', to be approximately 40,000, less than one-tenth the number of African elephants. Perhaps the Asian elephants' decline has been less noticeable because it has been more gradual. The causes of this decline are much the same as that of the African.

[[Image:Re-exposure of elephant - lahugala park1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Right|Elephant In Sri Lanka]]
As with the ''Loxodonta'', there are distinct subspecies of ''Elephas maximus''. In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the African. It has smaller ears, shaped like the subcontinent of India, and typically only the males have large external tusks. An Asian elephant can also be distinguished by the large bulges of depigmentation on the skin.

The first subspecies is the [[Sri Lankan elephant|Sri Lankan Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus maximus''). Found only on the island of Sri Lanka, a small country off the southeast coast of India, it is the largest of the Asians. There are an estimated total of only 3,000-4,500 members of this subspecies left today in the wild, although no accurate census has been carried out in the recent past. Large males can weigh upward to 12,000 pounds and stand over 11 feet tall. Sri Lankan males have very large cranial bulges, and both sexes have more areas of depigmentation than are found in the other Asians. Typically their ears, face, trunk, and belly have large concentrations of pink-speckled skin. There is an [[Orphanage]] for elephants in [[Pinnawala]] [[Sri Lanka]], which gives shelter to disabled, injured elephants. This program plays a large role in protecting the Sri Lankan Elephant from [[extinction]]. 

Another subspecies, the [[Indian elephant|mainland Asian elephant]]  (''Elephas maximus indicus'') makes up the bulk of the Asian elephant population. Numbering approximately 36,000, these elephants are lighter gray in colour, with depigmentation only on the ears and trunk. Large males will ordinarily weigh only about 11,000 pounds but are as tall as the Sri Lankan. The mainland Asian can be found in 11 Asian countries, from India to Indonesia. It prefers forested areas and transitional zones, between forests and grasslands, where greater food variety is available.

The smallest of all the elephants is the [[Sumatran elephant|Sumatran Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus sumatranus''). Population estimates for this group range from 33,000 to 53,000 individuals. It is very light gray and has less depigmentation than the other Asians, with pink spots only on the ears. Mature Sumatrans will usually only measure about 10 feet at the shoulder and weigh less than 9,000 pounds. An enormous animal nonetheless, it is considerably smaller than its other Asian (and African) cousins and exists only on the island of Sumatra, usually in forested regions and partially wooded habitats.

===Body characteristics===
====Elephant Calves====

Elephant social life, in many ways, revolves around breeding and raising of the calves. A female will usually be ready to breed around the age of thirteen, at which time she will seek out the most ''fit'' male to mate with. (The word ''fitness'', in an evolutionary sense, means the animal best suited to survive in its environment and pass on its genes.) Females want to breed with the bigger, stronger, and, most importantly, older males. In this way, they are assuring that their offspring will have the best possible chance of survival. 
After a twenty-two-month pregnancy, the mother will give birth to a calf that will weigh about 250 lb and stand over 2½ feet tall. Elephants have a very long childhood. They are born with fewer survival instincts than many other animals. Instead, they must rely on their elders to teach them the things they need to know. The ability to pass on information and knowledge to their young has always been a major asset in the elephant's struggle to survive. Today, however, the pressures humans have put on the wild elephant populations, from poaching to habitat destruction, mean that the elderly often die at a younger age, leaving fewer teachers for the young.
All members of the tightly knit female group participate in the care and protection of the young. Since everyone in the herd is related, there is never a shortage of baby-sitters. In fact, a new calf is usually the center of attention for all herd members. All the adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. The baby is born nearly blind and at first relies, almost completely, on its trunk to discover the world around it.

====Allomothers====
After the initial excitement dies down, the mother will usually select several full-time baby-sitters, or &quot;allomothers&quot;, from her group. According to Cynthia Moss, a well-known researcher, these allomothers will help in all aspects of raising the calf. They walk with the young as the herd travels, helping the calves along if they fall or get stuck in the mud. The more allomothers a baby has, the more free time its mother has to feed herself. Providing a calf with nutritious milk means the mother has to eat more nutritious food herself. So, the more allomothers, the better the calf's chances of survival.

====Trunk====
[[Image:Lightmatter elephanttrunk.jpg|thumb|250px|An elephant can use its trunk for a variety of purposes. This one is wiping its eye.]]

The proboscis, or trunk, is perhaps the elephant's most distinctive feature. It is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, elongated and specialized to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. The trunk is basically used to manipulate objects. To facilitate this, African elephants are equipped with two fingerlike projections at the tip of their trunk, while Asians have only one. According to biologists, the elephant's trunk is said to have over forty thousand individual muscles in it, making it sensitive enough to pick up a single blade of grass, yet strong enough to rip the branches off a tree.
Most herbivores (plant eaters, like the elephant) are adapted with teeth for cutting and tearing off plant materials. However, except for the very young or infirm, elephants always use their trunks to tear up their food and then place it in their mouth. They will graze on grass or reach up into trees to grasp leaves, fruit, or entire branches. If the desired food item is too high up, the elephant will wrap its trunk around the tree or branch and shake its food loose or sometimes simply knock the tree down altogether.
The trunk is also used for drinking. Elephants suck water up into the trunk (up to fifteen quarts [14.2 liters] at a time) and then blow it into their mouth. Elephants also inhale water to spray on their body during bathing. On top of this watery coating, the animal will then spray dirt and mud, which act as a protective sunscreen.
This appendage also plays a key role in many social interactions. Familiar elephants will greet each other by entwining their trunks, much like a handshake. They also use them while play-wrestling, caressing during courtship, and for dominance displays - a raised trunk can be a warning or threat, while a lowered trunk can be a sign of submission. Elephants can defend themselves very well by flailing their trunk at unwanted intruders or by grasping and flinging them.
An elephant also relies on its trunk for its highly developed sense of smell. Raising the trunk up in the air and swiveling it from side to side, like a periscope, it can determine the location of friends, enemies, and food sources.

====Tusks====
The [[tusk]]s of an elephant are upper [[incisor]]s that are continuously growing. An adult male's tusks will grow about seven inches a year. Tusks are indispensable to an elephant. They are used primarily to dig for water, salt, and roots; to debark trees, in order to get at the tasty pulp inside; and to move downed trees and branches when clearing a path. In addition, they are used for marking trees to establish territory and occasionally as weapons. Like humans who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally shorter and more rounded at the tip from wear. Both male and female African elephants have large, impressive tusks that can reach over ten feet in length and weigh over two hundred pounds. In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have tusks which are very small or absent altogether. Asian males can have tusks as long as the much larger Africans, but they are usually much slimmer and lighter (the heaviest recorded is only 86 pounds). The tusk of both species is mostly made of [[calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. As a piece of living tissue, it is relatively soft (compared with other minerals such as rock), and the tusk, also known as [[ivory]], is strongly favoured by artisans for its carvability. The desire for elephant ivory has been one of the major factors in the dramatic decline of the world's elephant population.

====Teeth====
Elephants' [[Tooth|teeth]] are very different from those of most other mammals. Over their lives they usually have 28 teeth. These are:-
*The two upper second incisors: these are the [[tusk]]s.
*The [[Deciduous teeth|milk precursors]] of the tusks.
*12 [[premolar]]s, 3 in each side of each jaw.
*12 [[Molar (tooth)|molar]]s, 3 in each side of each jaw.
Unlike most mammals, which [[Tooth development|grow]] baby teeth and then replace them with a permanent set of adult teeth, elephants have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their entire life. After one year the tusks are permanent, but the other teeth are replaced five times in an elephant's life. The teeth do not emerge from the jaws vertically like with human teeth. Instead, they have a horizontal progression, like a conveyor belt. New teeth grow in at the back of the mouth, pushing older teeth toward the front, where they wear down with use and the remains fall out. When an elephant becomes very old, the last set of teeth is worn to stumps, and it must rely on softer foods to chew. Very elderly elephants often spend their last years exclusively in marshy areas where they can feed on soft wet grasses. Eventually, when the last teeth fall out, the elephant will be unable to eat and will die of starvation. However, as more habitat is destroyed, the elephants' living space becomes smaller and smaller; the elderly no longer have the opportunity to roam in search of more appropriate food and will, consequently, die of starvation at an earlier age.

Tusks in the lower jaw are also second incisors. These grew out large in [[Dinotherium]] and some [[mastodon]]s, but in modern elephants they disappear early without [[teeth|erupting]].

====Skin====
[[Image:Elephant mugshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]
Another name for an elephant is pachyderm, which means &quot;thick skin&quot;. An elephant's skin is extremely tough around most parts of its body and measures about 2.5 cm (1 in) thick. However, the skin around the mouth and inside of the ear is paper thin. Normally, the skin of an Asian is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. This is most noticeable in the young. Asian calves are usually covered with a thick coat of brownish red fuzz. As they get older, this hair darkens and becomes more sparse, but it will always remain on their heads and tails.

The species of elephants are typically grayish in colour, but the Africans very often appear brown or reddish from wallowing in mud holes of coloured soil. Wallowing is actually a very important behaviour in elephant society. Not only is it important for socialization, but the mud acts as a sunscreen, protecting their skin from harsh ultraviolet radiation. Though tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, as well as from insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin would suffer serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dirt on its body to help dry and bake on its new protective coat. As elephants are limited to smaller and smaller areas, there is less water available, and local herds will often come too close over the right to use these limited resources.

Wallowing also aids the skin in regulating body temperatures. Elephants spend every day fighting an uphill battle to stay cool. They have a very difficult time releasing heat through the skin because, in proportion to their body size, they have very little of it. The ratio of an elephant's mass to the surface area of its skin is many times that of a human. Elephants have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose the soles of their feet, presumably in an effort to expose more skin to the air. Since wild elephants live in very hot climates, they must have other means of getting rid of excess heat.

====Ears====
[[Image:Anakotta1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|An [[Elephant Sanctuary]] at [[Punnathur kotta]], [[Kerala]], [[south India]].]]
The large flapping ears of an elephant are also very important for temperature regulation. Elephant ears are made of a very thin layer of skin stretched over cartilage and a rich network of blood vessels. On hot days, elephants will flap their ears constantly, creating a slight breeze. This breeze cools the surface blood vessels, and then the cooler blood gets circulated to the rest of the animal's body. The hot blood entering the ears can be cooled as much as ten degrees Fahrenheit before returning to the body. Differences in the ear sizes of African and Asian elephants can be explained, in part, by their geographical distribution. Africans originated and stayed near the equator, where it is warmer. Therefore, they have bigger ears. Asians live farther north, in slightly cooler climates, and thus have smaller ears.

The ears are also used in certain displays of aggression and during the males' mating period. If an elephant wants to intimidate a predator or rival, it will spread its ears out wide to make itself look more massive and imposing. During the breeding season, males give off an odor from a gland located behind their eyes. Joyce Poole, a well-known elephant researcher, has theorized that the males will fan their ears in an effort to help propel this &quot;elephant cologne&quot; great distances.

Walking at a normal pace an elephant covers about 2 to 4 miles an hour (3 to 6 km/h) but they can reach 24 miles an hour (40 km/h) at full speed.


===Evolution===
Although the fossil evidence is uncertain, some scientists believe there is genetic evidence that the elephant family shares distant ancestry with the [[Sirenia]]ns (sea cows) and the [[hyrax]]es. In the distant past, members of the hyrax family grew to large sizes, and it seems likely that the common ancestor of all three modern families was some kind of amphibious hyracoid. One theory suggests that these animals spent most of their time under water, using their trunks like [[snorkel]]s for breathing. Modern elephants have retained this ability and are known to swim in that manner for up to 6 hours and 50 km.

In the past, there was a much wider variety of elephant genera, including the [[mammoth]]s, [[stegodon]]s and [[deinotherium|deinotheria]].

===Varieties===
[[Image:Baby_elephants3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Female [[African]] Elephant with calf, in [[Kenya]].]]
It has long been known that the [[Savannah Elephant|African]] and [[Asian Elephant|Asian]] elephants are separate species. African elephants tend to be larger than the Asian species (up to 4 m high and 7500 kg) and have bigger ears. Male and female African elephants have long tusks, while male and female Asian Elephants have shorter tusks, with tusks in females being almost non-existent. African elephants have a dipped back, smooth forehead and two &quot;fingers&quot; at the tip of their trunks, as compared with the Asian species which have an arched back, two humps on the forehead and have only one &quot;finger&quot; at the tip of their trunks.

There are two populations of African elephants, [[Savannah Elephant|Savannah]] and [[Forest Elephant|Forest]], and recent genetic studies have led to a reclassification of these as separate species, the forest population
now being called ''Loxodonta cyclotis'', and the Savannah (or Bush) population termed ''Loxodonta africana''. This reclassification has important implications for conservation, because it means where there were thought to be two small populations of a single endangered species, there may in fact be two separate species, each of which is even more severely endangered. There's also a potential danger in that if the forest elephant isn't explicitly listed as an endangered species, poachers and smugglers might thus be able to evade the law forbidding trade in endangered animals and their body parts.

The Forest elephant and the Savannah elephant can hybridise successfully, though their preference for different terrains reduces the opportunities to hybridise. Many captive African elephants are probably generic African elephants as the recognition of separate species has occurred relatively recently.

Although hybrids between different animal genera are usually impossible, in 1978 at [[Chester Zoo]], an Asian elephant cow gave birth to a hybrid calf sired by an African elephant bull (the old terms are used here as this pre-dates current classifications). The pair had mated several times, but pregnancy was believed to be impossible. &quot;Motty&quot;, the resulting hybrid male calf, had an African elephant's cheek, ears (large with pointed lobes) and legs (longer and slimmer), but the toenail numbers, (5 front, 4 hind) and the single trunk finger of an Asian elephant. The wrinkled trunk was like an African elephant. The forehead was sloping with one dome and two smaller domes behind it. The body was African in type, but had an Asian-type centre hump and an African-type rear hump. Sadly the calf died of infection 12 days later. It is preserved as a mounted specimen at the British Natural History Museum, London. There are unconfirmed rumours of three other hybrid elephants born in zoos or circuses, all are said to have been deformed and did not survive.

===Diet===
[[Image:Elephanteating.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Female Asian Elephant eating.]]
Elephants are [[herbivore]]s, spending 16 hours a day collecting plant food. Their diet is at least 50% grasses, supplemented with leaves, twigs, bark, roots, and small amounts of fruits, seeds and flowers. Because elephants only digest 40% of what they eat, they have to make up for their digestive system's lack of efficiency in volume. An adult elephant can consume 300 to 600 pounds (140 to 270 kg) of food a day. 60% of that food leaves the elephant's body undigested.

===Social behavior===
Elephants live in a very structured social order. The social lives of male and female elephants are very different. The females spend their entire lives in tightly knit family groups made up of mothers, daughters, sisters, and aunts. These groups are led by the eldest female, or matriarch. Adult males, on the other hand, live mostly solitary lives.

The social circle of the female elephant does not end with the small family unit. In addition to encountering the local males that live on the fringes of one or more groups, the female's life also involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. Most immediate family groups range from five to fifteen adults, as well as a number of immature males and females. When a group gets too big, a few of the elder daughters will break off and form their own small group. They remain very aware of which local herds are relatives and which are not.

The life of the adult male is very different. As he gets older, he begins to spend more time at the edge of the herd, gradually going off on his own for hours or days at a time. Eventually, days become weeks, and somewhere around the age of fourteen, the mature male, or bull, sets out from his natal group for good. While males do live primarily solitary lives, they will occasionally form loose associations with other males. These groups are called bachelor herds. The males spend much more time than the females fighting for dominance with each other. Only the most dominant males will be permitted to breed with cycling females. The less dominant ones must wait their turn. It is usually the older bulls, forty to fifty years old, that do most of the breeding. The dominance battles between males can look very fierce, but typically they inflict very little injury. Most of the bouts are in the form of aggressive displays and bluffs. Ordinarily, the smaller, younger, and less confident animal will back off before any real damage can be done. However, during the breeding season, the battles can get extremely aggressive, and the occasional elephant is injured. During this season, known as [[musth]], a bull will fight with almost any other male it encounters, and it will spend most of its time hovering around the female herds, trying to find a receptive mate.

===Reproduction===
*Females (cows) reach sexual maturity at around 9-12 years of age and become pregnant for the first time, on average, around age 13. They can reproduce until ages 55-60.
*Females give birth at intervals of about every 5 years.
*An elephant's [[gestation]](pregnancy) period lasts about 22 months (630-660 days), the longest gestation period of any mammal, after which one calf typically is born. Twins are rare.
*Labor ranges in length from 5 minutes to 60 hours. The average length of labor is 11 hours.
*At birth, calves weigh around 90-115 kilograms (200-250 pounds), and they gain 1 kilogram (2-2.5 pounds) a day.
*In the wild, the mother is accompanied by other adult females (aunts) that protect the young.
*In the wild, baby elephants are raised and nurtured by the whole family group, practically from the moment they are born.

===Motherhood and calf rearing===
*The first sound a newborn calf usually makes is a sneezing or snorting sound to clear its [[nasal passages]] of [[fluids]]. (In the first few minutes after a captive birth, the keepers must monitor the calf closely for the first sound or movement. Whichever happens first, the mother typically responds to her new baby with surprise and excitement.)
*With the help of its mother, a newborn calf usually struggles to its feet within 30 minutes of birth. For support, it will often lean on its mother's legs.
*A newborn calf usually stands within one hour and is strong enough to follow its mother in a slow-moving herd within a few days.
*Unlike most mammals, female elephants have a single pair of [[mammary glands]] located just behind the front legs. When born, a calf is about 3 feet (90 cm) high, just tall enough to reach its mother's nipples.
*A calf suckles with its mouth, not its trunk, which has no [[muscle tone]]. To clear the way to its mouth so it can suckle, the calf will flop its trunk onto its forehead.
*A newborn calf suckles for only a few minutes at a time but will suckle many times per day, consuming up to 11 litres (3 gallons) of milk in a single day.
*A calf may nurse for up to 2 years of age or older. Complete [[weaning]] depends on the disposition of the mother, the amount of available milk, and the arrival of another calf.
*Newborn calves learn primarily by observing adults, not from natural [[instinct]]. For example, a calf learns how to use its trunk by watching older elephants using their trunks.
*It takes several months for a calf to control the use of its trunk. This can be observed as the calf trips over its trunk or as the trunk wiggles like a rubbery object when the calf shakes its head.

==Usefulness to the environment==
Elephants' foraging activities help to maintain the areas in which they live:-
*By pulling down trees to eat leaves, breaking branches, and pulling out roots they create clearings in which new young trees and other vegetation grow to provide future nutrition for elephants and other organisms.
*Elephants make pathways through the environment that are used by other animals to access areas normally out of reach. The pathways have been used by several generations of elephants, and today people are converting many of them to paved roads.
*During the dry season elephants use their tusks to dig into [[dry river beds]] to reach underground sources of water. These newly dug water holes may become the only source of [[water]] in the area.
*Elephants are a species which many other organisms depend on.  For example, [[termites]] eat elephant feces and often begin building termite mounds under piles of elephant feces.

==Threat of extinction==
The threat to the African elephant presented by the ivory trade is unique to the species. Another threat to elephant's survival in general is the ongoing cultivation of their habitats with increasing risk of conflicts of interest with human cohabitants. Lacking the massive tusks of its African cousins, the Asian elephant's demise can be attributed mostly to loss of its habitat.

As larger patches of forest disappear, the ecosystem is affected in profound ways. The trees are responsible for anchoring soil and absorbing water runoff. Floods and massive erosion are common results of deforestation. Elephants need massive tracts of land because, much like the slash-and-burn farmers, they are used to crashing through the forest, tearing down trees and shrubs for food and then cycling back later on, when the area has regrown. As forests are reduced to small pockets, elephants become part of the problem, quickly destroying all the vegetation in an area, eliminating all their resources. 

Larger, long-lived, slow-breeding animals, like the elephant, are more susceptible to overhunting than other animals. They cannot hide, and it takes many years for an elephant to grow and reproduce. An elephant needs an average of three hundred pounds of vegetation a day to survive. As large predators are hunted, the local small grazer populations (the elephant's food competitors) find themselves on the rise. The increased number of herbivores ravage the local trees, shrubs, and grasses. 

===National Parks===
[[Image:Tanzanian_Elephant.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An elephant in the [[Ngorongoro|Ngorongoro creator]], [[Tanzania]]]] Africa's first official reserve eventually became one of the world's most famous and successful national parks. [[Kruger National Park]] in South Africa first became a reserve against great opposition in 1898 (then Sabi Reserve). It was deproclaimed and reproclaimed several times before it was renamed and granted national park status in 1926. It was to be the first of many.

Of course, there were many problems in establishing these reserves. For example, elephants range through a wide tract of land with little regard for national borders. however, when most parks were created, the boundaries were drawn at the human-made borders of individual countries. Once a fence was erected, many animals found themselves cut off from their winter feeding grounds or spring breeding areas. Some animals died as a result, while some, like the elephants, just trampled through the fences. This did little to belie their image as a crop-raiding pest. The more often an elephant wandered off its reserve, the more trouble it got into, and the more chance it had of being shot by an angry farmer. When confined to small territories, elephants can inflict an enormous amount of damage to the local landscapes. Today there are still many problems associated with these parks and reserves, but there is now little question as to whether or not they are necessary. As scientists learn more about nature and the environment, it becomes very clear that these parks may be the elephant's last hope against the rapidly changing world around them.

==Humanity and Elephants==
===Harvest from the Wild===
[[Image:Wild elephant feces on a road.jpg|thumb|250px|Elephant dung on a road adjoining Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, [[Sri Lanka]].]]

The harvest of elephants, both legal and illegal, has had some unexpected consequences on elephant anatomy as well. African ivory hunters, by killing only tusked elephants, have given a much larger chance of mating to elephants with small tusks or no tusks at all. The propagation of the absent-tusk gene has resulted in the birth of large numbers of tuskless elephants, now approaching 30% in some populations (compare with a rate of about 1% in 1930). Tusklessness, once a very rare genetic abnormality, has become a widespread hereditary trait. [http://www.gaiabooks.co.uk/environment/elephants_tuskless.html]
It is possible, if unlikely, that continued selection pressure could bring about a complete absence of tusks in African elephants, a development normally requiring thousands of years of evolution. The effect of tuskless elephants on the environment, and on the elephants themselves, could be dramatic. Elephants use their tusks to root around in the ground for necessary minerals, tear apart vegetation, and spar with one another for mating rights. Without tusks, elephant behavior could change dramatically. [http://www.mail-archive.com/fact@tlk-lists.com/msg00030.html]

===Domestication and use===
[[Image:Elephant.pair.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Left to right - [[African]] Savannah Elephant ''Loxodonta africana'', born 1969, and [[Asian]] Elephant ''Elephas maximus'', born 1970, at an [[England|English]] [[zoo]].]]

Elephants have been [[working animals]] used in various capacities by humans. Seals found in the Indus Valley suggest that the elephant was first domesticated in ancient India. However, elephants have never been truly domesticated: the male elephant in his periodic condition of ''[[musth]]'' is dangerous and difficult to control. Therefore elephants used by humans have typically been female, war elephants being an exception, however: as female elephants in battle will run from a male, only males could be used in war. It is generally more economical to capture wild young elephants and tame them than breeding them in captivity (see also [[Elephant &quot;Crushing&quot;|elephant &quot;crushing&quot;]]).

[[War elephant]]s were used by armies in the Indian sub-continent, and later by the [[Persian empire]]. This use was adopted by [[Hellenistic]] armies after Alexander the Great experienced their worth against king [[Poros]], notably in the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid]] diadoch empires. The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] general [[Hannibal]] took elephants across the [[Alps]] when he was fighting the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], but brought too few elephants to be of much military use, although his horse cavalry was quite successful; he probably used a now-extinct third African (sub)species, the North African (Forest) elephant, smaller than its two southern cousins, and presumably easier to domesticate. A large elephant in full charge could cause tremendous damage to infantry, and cavalry horses would be afraid of them (see [[Battle of Hydaspes]]).

Throughout [[Siam]], [[India]], and most of South Asia elephants were used in the military for heavy labor, especially for uprooting trees and moving logs, and were also commonly used as executioners to [[crushing by elephant|crush the condemned underfoot]].

[[Image:Elephant-tracks.jpg|thumb|right|top|250px|Elephant footprints (tire tracks for scale)]]
Elephants have also been used as mounts for safari-type [[hunting]], especially Indian ''shikar'' (mainly on tigers), and as ceremonial mounts for royal and religious occasions, whilst Asian elephants have been used for [[transport]] and [[entertainment]], and are common to [[Circus (performing art)|circuses]] around the world.

African elephants have long been reputed to not be domesticable, but some entrepreneurs have succeeded by bringing Asian [[mahout]]s from [[Sri Lanka]] to Africa. In Botswana, [[Uttum Corea]] has been working with African elephants and has several young tame elephants near [[Gaborone]]. African elephants are more temperamental than Asian elephants, but are easier to train. Because of their more sensitive temperaments, they require different training methods than Asian elephants and must be trained from infancy hence Corea worked with orphaned elephants. African elephants are now being used for (photo) safaris. Corea's elephants are also used to entertain tourists and haul logs.

It should be noted that elephants cannot jump.

===The Elephant Trap===
Another more effective method is practiced in the Indian Subcontinent which is far less physical and brutal, and more psychological. It is called the &quot;elephant trap&quot;. The following is taken from a newsletter. &quot;From when an elephant is a baby they tie him for certain periods with a rope to a tree. The young elephant tries his hardest to escape, he pulls and wriggles and jumps and crawls yet the rope just tightens and to the tree it remains tied. Learning that, the elephant doesn’t try to escape and accepts his confinement. A couple of years pass and the elephant is now an adult weighing several tons. Yet the trainer continues to tie the elephant to the tree with the same rope he’s always used, for the simple reason that the elephant has the concept in his mind that the rope is stronger than him. Abiding to this conditioning the elephant is trapped for life. To break free all the elephant has to do is erase that limiting thought for in fact he is free to go.&quot;

===Elephants in Culture===
====Pop culture====
[[Image:KandyPerahara.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Esala Perahera]] in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]]]]

* [[Jumbo]], a [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] elephant, has entered the English language as a synonym for &quot;large&quot;;
* [[Dumbo]], the flying elephant in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie;
*The French children's storybook character [[Babar the Elephant]] (an elephant king) created by [[Jean de Brunhoff]] and also an animated TV series;
* ''[[The Elephant's Child]]'' is one of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'';
* The [[Thai Elephant Orchestra]], a musical instrument playing group of Elephants from the [[National Elephant Institute|Thai Elephant Conservation Center]] in [[Lampang]];
*[[Joseph Merrick]], a British man in [[Victorian England]], who suffered from substantial deformities, and was nicknamed &quot;[[The Elephant Man]]&quot; due to the nature and extent of his condition;
*The fictional planet in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]''  novels consists of a [[Discworld (world)|flat disc-shaped world]] carried on the backs of four elephants who ride through space on a space turtle, [[Great A'Tuin]].
*In one episode of [[The Simpsons]], [[Bart Simpson]] wins a bad-tempered elephant in a [[radio]] [[competition]], which he names Stampy.  The family eventually give up the elephant after it proves too expensive to feed.

A common [[adage]] is that &quot;Elephants never forget&quot;, and later scientific evidence seems to support they have good memories.

American band [[the White Stripes]]' fourth album was entitled ''Elephant'', possibly because of lead singer Jack White's fondness of the animals' extreme sensitivity toward each other.  The album was number 390 in Rolling Stone Magazine's &quot;500 Best Albums of All Time&quot;.

====Religion====
* A [[White elephant (pachyderm)|white elephant]] is considered holy in [[Thailand]].
* [[Ganesh]], the [[Hindu]] god of wisdom, has an elephant's head.
* [[Elephants used for festival, south India| Elephants used in a religious festival in South India.]]

====Politics and secular Symbolism====
*After Alexander's victory over the Indian king Poros, the captured war elephants became a symbol of imperial power, used as an emblem of the [[Seleucid]] diadoch empire, e.g. on coins.
*The elephant, and the white elephant (also a religious symbol of Buddha) in particular, has often been used a symbol of royal power and prestige in Asia; occurring on the flag of the kingdom Laos (three visible, supporting an umbrella, another symbol of royal power) till it became a republic in 1975, and other Indochinese and Thai realms had also displayed one or more white elephants.
*The elephant is also the symbol for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] of the United States, originating in an [[1874]] cartoon by [[Thomas Nast]] of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' (Nast also originated the [[donkey]] as the symbol of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]);
* See also the Danish royal [[Order of the Elephant]].

===Elephant rage===
====Musth====
Adult male elephants naturally enter the periodic state called &quot;musth&quot; (Hindi for madness), sometimes spelt &quot;must&quot; in English. It is characterised by very excited and/or aggressive behavior and a thick, tar-like liquid secretion that discharges through the temporal ducts from the temporal glands on the sides of the head. &quot;Musth&quot; is linked to sexual arousal or establishing dominance but this relationship is far from clear. A &quot;Musth&quot; elephant, wild or domesticated, is extremely dangerous to humans. Domesticated elephants in India are traditionally tied to a tree and denied food and water for several days. After that the musth passes. In [[zoos]] musth is often the cause of fatal accidents to elephant keepers. Zoos keeping adult male elephants need extremely strong and secure enclosures, which greatly complicates the attempts to breed elephants in zoos.

Musth is accompanied by a significant rise in reproductive hormones - [[testosterone]] levels in an elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times greater than in the same elephant at other times. However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor is unknown: scientific investigation of musth is greatly hindered by the fact that even the most otherwise placid of elephants may actively try to kill any and all humans. Similarly, the tar-like secretion remains largely uncharacterised, due to the extreme difficulties of collecting a sample for analysis.

Although it has often been speculated that musth is linked to [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], this is unlikely, because the female elephant's [[estrus]] cycle is not seasonally-linked. Furthermore, bulls in musth have often been known to attack female elephants, regardless of whether or not the females are in heat.

[[Mahout]]s are often able to greatly shorten the duration of their elephants' musth: this is accomplished by tying the bull to two extremely strong trees, and keeping him on a starvation diet until the musth ends, typically after 5 to 7 days. It should be noted that, as mahouts work with Asian elephants, this technique has not been tried on African elephants.

The word &quot;musth&quot; is from the [[Urdu]] ''mast'', which is from a [[Persian language|Persian]] root meaning 'intoxicated'.

The [[Five (TV)|Channel 5]] [[British]] [[television]] program &quot;The Dark Side of Elephants&quot; (8pm 20 March 2006) stated that during musth:-
*The swelling of the temporal glands presses on the elephant's [[eye]]s and causes the elephant severe pain like severe [[root abscess]] [[toothache]]. One elephant behaviour that tries to counteract this is digging the tusks in the ground.
*The musth secretion, which naturally runs down into the elephant's mouth, is full of [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s and (to a person at least) tastes unbelievably foul.
*As a result, musth behaviour is at least partly due to the elephant being driven mad by pain and distress.

'''External links''':-
*[http://www.upali.ch/musth_en.html A musth FAQ]
*[[:de:Musth]]: the German wikipedia article on musth.

====Other causes====
At least a few elephants have been suspected to be drunk during their attacks. In December 1998, a herd of elephants overran a village in India. Although locals reported that nearby elephants had recently been observed drinking beer which rendered them &quot;unpredictable&quot;, officials considered it the least likely explanation for the attack [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/241781.stm]. An attack on another Indian village occurred in October 1999, and again locals believed the reason was drunkenness, but the theory was not widely accepted [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/482001.stm]. Purportedly drunk elephants raided yet another Indian village again on December 2002 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2583891.stm].

==Rogue elephant==
'''Rogue elephant''' is a term for a lone, violently aggressive wild [[elephant]], separated from the rest of the herd. It is a direct translation of the [[Sinhala]] term ''hora aliya''. Its introduction to [[English language|English]] has been attributed by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] to Sir [[James Emerson Tennant]], but this usage may have been pre-dated by [[William Sirr]].

The term has since also been applied to human beings or institutions behaving in the same manner as such an elephant. The Republican Party symbol of an elephant has been played upon to label it a rogue elephant; the same label has been applied, for the same reasons, to [[George W Bush]] and [[Dick Cheney]]. [http://www.counterpunch.org/boyle0722.html e.g.: Francis Boyle, 'The Rogue Elephant', ''Counterpunch'', 22 July 2002]

The term 'rogue' has been used in the same sense as in 'rogue elephant' in other contexts, ever since [[Geoffrey Household]]'s novel ''[[Rogue Male]]'' was published in [[1939]]; especially since it was made into a film starring [[Peter O'Toole]], [[John Standing]], [[Alastair Sim]] and [[Harold Pinter]] in [[1976]]. For example, '[[Rogue state]]'.

==See also==
* [[Crushing by elephant]]
* [[Dumbo]]
* [[Dwarf elephant]]
* [[Elephant's graveyard]]
* [[Elephant (movie)]]
* [[Elephant ear]]
* [[Elephantiasis]]
* [[Elephant in the corner]]
* [[Elephant Sanctuary]]
* [[Elephants of Kerala]]
* [[History of elephants in Europe]]
* [[List of fictional elephants]]
* [[List of historical elephants]]
* [[Mammal]]
* [[Rogue elephant]]
* [[Temple elephants]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[White elephant]]
* [[Year of the Elephant]]--&gt;

== Rujukan ==
* ''[[:en:Elephant|Elephant]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (11 Méi 2006).
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/The_Blindmen_and_the_Elephant The Blindmen and the Elephant] karya [[John Godfrey Saxe]]
&lt;!--
==Footnotes==
*{{Ref 1}} [http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/channel/blog/2005/05/elephant_rage.html External link to national geographics elephant rage episode of Explorer]--&gt;

== Tumbu kaluar ==
{{commons|Elephant}}
* [http://www.awf.org/wildlives/71 Elephant: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]
* [http://www.eleaid.com EleAid - Asian elephant charity - facts, information and pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013134845/http://eleaid.com/ |date=2007-10-13 }}
* [http://www.elephant.se Absolute elephant - general information]
* [http://www.elephantvoices.org How elephants communicate]
* [http://www.elephant-news.com Elephant News - latest headlines about elephants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207030957/http://www.elephant-news.com/ |date=2016-12-07 }}
* [http://fohn.net/elephant-pictures-facts/ Elephant Pictures &amp; Information]
* Srilal Miththapala[https://web.archive.org/web/20010404041338/http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/8298 Sri Lankan Elephants]
* Tim Radford, [http://www.education.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4244642-103690,00.html &quot;The elephant time forgot&quot;]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''The Guardian'' 2001-08-24, 1. Describes the discovery of the third species of elephant.
* C. Johnson, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s24742.htm &quot;Elephant trunks were once snorkels&quot;], ''News in Science'' 1999-05-11,
* [http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html Photo of Pinnewella Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011185639/http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html |date=2007-10-11 }}
* [http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php Seek My Bowl on elephants as symbols] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011132152/http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php |date=2007-10-11 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060428044607/http://www.pepere.org/flash-game_1_x/the-elephant-game_7.html The elephant game].
* [http://www.elephantreintroduction.org Elephant Reintroduction Foundation],The foundation is dedicated to a management system for rehabilitation of captive elephants and habitat preparation to ensure successful long-term sustainability after their return to the wild.
* [http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec Animal info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028103343/http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec |date=2007-10-28 }}
* Srilal Miththapala, [http:/www.geocities.com/RainForest/8298], Sri Lankan Elephants
* [http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities/view_activity.cgi?activity_id=3819 List of easy-to-read articles about elephants]
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/mammals/elephant.shtml Elephant photos and information]
* [http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ African Elephant Database - for current info on African elephant distribution and numbers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030032132/http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ |date=2008-10-30 }}
* [http://goplett.co.za/wiki/index.php/ Elephant Sanctuary Plettenberg Bay South Africa ]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.elephants.com/ Elephant Sanctuary, Howenwald, Tenn.]
* [http://www.elephantkingdom.com/ Elephant Nature Park,Northern Thailand]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}[http://www.elephantvolunteer.org Park's Volunteer Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613010500/http://www.elephantvolunteer.org/ |date=2006-06-13 }}
* [http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/africanelephant.php African Elephant facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613010251/http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/africanelephant.php |date=2006-06-13 }} - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia--&gt;


{{pondok}}

[[Kategori:Elephantidae]]
[[Kategori:Alam liar Aprika]]
[[Kategori:Alam liar Asia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Méksiko</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="9215" sha1="dkpnn5lfytzuh73dcngsihqd09ghppt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
|native_name = ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''
|conventional_long_name = Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji
|common_name = Méksiko
|image_flag = Flag_of_Mexico.svg
|image_coat = 
|symbol_type = 
|image_map = LocationMexico.svg
|national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional Mexicano]]''
|national_motto =
|official_languages = [[Basa Méksiko|Teu aya dina hambalan federal]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Basa Spanyol|Spanyol]] (''[[de fakto]]'')&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|capital = [[Mexico City]]
|latd=19 |latm=03 |latNS=N |longd=99 |longm=22 |longEW=W
|government_type = [[Républik Féderal]] [[Sistim présidénsial|Présidénsial]] 
|leader_title1 = [[Présidén Méksiko|Présidén]]
|leader_name1 = [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]
|largest_city = Ibu kota
|area = 1,972,550
|areami² = 758,249 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|area_rank = ka-14
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|percent_water = 2.5
|population_estimate = 123,675,325
|population_estimate_year = 2017
|population_estimate_rank = ka-11
|population_census = 103,263,388
|population_census_year = 2005
|population_density = 55
|population_densitymi² = 142 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank = ka-142
|GDP_PPP_year = 2006
|GDP_PPP = $1.134 [[1000000000000 (nomer)|triliun]]
|GDP_PPP_rank = ka-13
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,249
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-63
|GDP_nominal = $840.012 [[1000000000 (nomer)|miliar]]
|GDP_nominal_rank = ka-13
|GDP_nominal_year = 2005
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $8,066
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-55
|HDI_year = 2004
|HDI = {{increase}}0.821
|HDI_rank = ka-53
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;luhur&lt;/font&gt;
|Gini                     = 49.5
|Gini_year                = 2002
|Gini_category            = &lt;font color=&quot;#e0584e&quot;&gt;luhur&lt;/font&gt;
|sovereignty_type = [[Perang Kamerdikaan Méksiko|Merdika]]
|sovereignty_note = ti [[Spanyol]]
|established_event1 = Didéklarasikeun
|established_event2 = Diaku
|established_date1 = [[16 Séptémber]] [[1810]]
|established_date2 = [[27 Séptémber]] [[1821]]
|currency = [[Péso Méksiko|Péso]]
|currency_code = MXN
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -8 nepi ka -6
|time_zone_DST = béda-béda
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.mx]]
|calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Amérika#Méksiko|52]]
|footnotes =&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Teu aya basa resmi dina undang-undang. Tapi sok sanajan kitu, ''General Law of Linguistic Rights for the Indigenous Peoples'' ngaku basa minoritas Amerindian dipake di ditu, sarua jeung Basa Spanyol, minangka &quot;basa nasional&quot; jeung basa nu &quot;sah sadarajat&quot; di wewengkon nu make basa eta.
}}
'''Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji'''  ({{Audio-es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos|Es-mx-Estados Unidos Mexicanos.ogg}}), atawa basajanna mah '''Méksiko''' ([[IPA]]: /[[Grafik IPA keur Basa Inggris|mɛks.ɪ.koʊ]]/) ({{Audio-es|México|Es-mx-México.ogg}}), nyaeeta hiji nagara nu perenahna di [[Amérika Kalér]], wawatesan di  béh kaler jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]]; di kidul jeung kulon jeung [[Samudra Pasifik|Samudra Pasifik Kalér]]; di wetan kidul jeung [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], sarta [[Sagara Karibia]]; jeung di  béh wetanna ku [[Teluk Méksiko]].&lt;ref&gt;''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary'', 3rd ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.; p. 733&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.bartleby.com/65/me/Mexico.html Mexico]&quot;. ''[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ The Columbia Encyclopedia]'', 6th ed. 2001–6. New York: Columbia University Press.&lt;/ref&gt; Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji ngawengku [[Babagian pulitis Méksiko|féderasi tilu puluh hiji nagara bagean]] républik konstitusional sarta hiji distrik féderal, [[Mexico City]], salah sahiji kota pangpadetna di dunya.

Ku kaayaannana nu ngawengku ampir 2 yuta [[kilométer pasagi]],&lt;ref name=&quot;CIA&quot;&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html The CIA World Fact Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417062301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html |date=2009-04-17 }} &quot;Area: total: 1,972,550 km²&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Meksiko mangrupa nagara panglegana kalima di [[Amérika]] dumasar kana aréa totalna sarta [[Daptar nagara sarta wewengkon singkur dumasar lega total|ka-14 panglegana di dunya]]. Kalayan populasi ampir 109 yuta,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html The CIA World Fact Book - Mexican Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129161335/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html |date=2018-01-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Meksiko ogé mangrupa [[Daptar nagara dumasar populasi|nagara pangpadetna ka-11]] sarta nagara nu pamake [[Basa Spanyol]]na pangpadetna di dunya.

== Bibliografi ==
{{Commons|México}}
* {{cite book
|first = Enrique
|last = Krauze
|title = Mexico: Biography of Power: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–1996
|url = https://archive.org/details/mexico00enri
|pages = 896 p
|publisher = Perennial
|year = 1998
|id = ISBN 0-06-092917-0
}}&lt;br /&gt;Standard work by a renowned Mexican author.
* {{cite book
|first = Michael C.
|last = Meyer
|coauthors = William H. Beezley, editors
|title = The Oxford History of Mexico
|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283
|pages = 736 p
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2000
|id = ISBN 0-19-511228-8
}}&lt;br /&gt;Twenty essays on Mexican history, including cultural history.
* {{cite book
|author = [[Henry Bamford Parkes|Parkes, Henry Bamford]]
|title = A History of Mexico
|id = ISBN 0-395-08410-5
|publisher = Houghton Mifflin
|location = Boston
|year = 1972
|edition = 3rd edition
}}

== Tempo ogé ==
=== Daptar ===
* [[Daptar kota di Méksiko]]
* [[Daptar jejer perdagangan internasional]]
* [[Daptar urang Méksiko]]
* [[Daptar artis Méksiko]]
* [[Daptar universitas di Méksiko]]

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Tumbu luar ==
; Jalan-jalan
{{wikivoyage|Mexico}}

; Pamaréntah
* [http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/ Presidencia]: présidéncy of the Republic
* {{es icon}} [http://www.gob.mx Gob.mx]: Governmental portal
* {{es icon}} [http://www.directorio.gob.mx Directorio.gob.mx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321025155/http://www.directorio.gob.mx/ |date=2007-03-21 }}: Official web directory of the Mexican présidéncy
* {{es icon}} [http://www.diputados.gob.mx Cámara de Diputados]: Chamber of Deputies
* {{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gob.mx Cámara de Senadores]: Senate

; Informasi umum
* {{es icon}} [http://www.inegi.gob.mx INEGI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019165533/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/ |date=2010-10-19 }}: National Institute of Statistics, Géography and Information
* {{es icon}} [http://www.consejomexicano.org.mx/ Mexican Council for Economic and Social Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201092200/http://www.consejomexicano.org.mx/ |date=2005-12-01 }}
* {{es icon}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060225120326/http://www.cenam.mx/husos-horarios.htm Time zones in Mexico]
* {{es icon}} [http://www.portaldeldesarrollo.org/ Mexico Development Gateway] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027104710/http://www.portaldeldesarrollo.org/ |date=2005-10-27 }}
* [http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/index_kids.html Mexico for kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815211946/http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/index_kids.html |date=2007-08-15 }}
* [http://www.pbase.com/perrona/faces_of_central_america Photos of Mexico]

; Lingkungan
* [http://www.vivanatura.org/index.html Biodiversity of Mexico] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819174537/http://www.vivanatura.org/index.html |date=2007-08-19 }}

&lt;!--Is this necessary for an encyclpedic article? Isn't this publicity? 
; Koran jeung agen warta
* Basa Spanyol
*{{es}} [http://www.am.com.mx ''AM Bajío''] 
*{{es}} [http://www.biznews.com.mx ''Biznews'']
*{{es}} [http://www.diariomonitor.com.mx ''Diario Monitor'']
*{{es}} [http://www.debate.com.mx ''El Debate'']
*{{es}} [http://www.eleconomista.com.mx ''El Economista'']
*{{es}} [http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx ''El Financiero'']
*{{es}} [http://www.informador.com.mx ''El Informador'']
*{{es}} [http://www.elimparcial.com ''El Imparcial'']
*{{es}} [http://www.elnorte.com ''El Norte'']
*{{es}} [http://www.eluniversal.com.mx ''El Universal'']
*{{es}} [http://www.frontera.info ''Frontera'']
*{{es}} [http://www.imagen.com.mx ''Imagen Informativa'']
*{{es}} [http://mexico.indymedia.org/ ''IMC Mexico'']
*{{es}} [http://www.cronica.com.mx ''La Crónica'']
*{{es}} [http://www.jornada.unam.mx ''La Jornada'']
*{{es}} [http://www.enmexico.com/noticias.htm''Mexican Newspapers'']
*{{es}} [http://www.milenio.com ''Milenio'']
*{{es}} [http://www.mural.com ''Mural'']
*{{es}} [http://www.notimex.com.mx ''Notimex'']
*{{es}} [http://www.proceso.com.mx/ ''Proceso'']
*{{es}} [http://www.reforma.com ''Reforma'']
* Basa Inggris
*{{en}} [http://www.mexiconews.com.mx/ ''Herald'']
--&gt;

{{Template group
|title = Geografi lokal
|list  =
{{States of Mexico}}
{{Countries of North America}}

}}
{{Template group
|title = Kaanggotaan internasional
|list  =
{{OECD}}
{{OAS}}
{{G8+5}}
{{Latinunion}}
{{G15}}
}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Kategori:Méksiko| ]]
[[Kategori:Nagara G15]]
[[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]]
[[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Spanyol]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Analisis Fourier</title>
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      <text bytes="24312" sha1="eawhg0cnu62vcqbnn8zsbrod3qvbr3g" xml:space="preserve">'''Analisis Fourier''', anu ngaranna nyokot tina ngaran [[Joseph Fourier]] anu ngawanohkeun Deret Fourier, nyaéta dékomposisi (pamisahan unsur-unsur) hiji sinyal kana sababaraha unsur panyusunna anu boga wangun fungsi-fungsi [[fungsi trigonométris|sinusoida]] (anu disebut [[fungsi dasar]]) nu masing-masing boga frékuénsi séwang-séwangan. Dina kalimah lain, unggal sinyal bisa ditulis salaku hasil pajumlahan teu kawates tina sinyal-sinyal fungsi sinus jeung kosinus nu miboga rupa-rupa frékuénsi.

[[Image:Synthesis_square.gif|thumb|350px|right|Animasi prosés panjumlahan dina sintésis fungsi kotak]]
Sabalikna, sinyal-sinyal sinusoida kasebut bisa digabungkeun atawa dijumlahkeun nepikeun ka ngahasilkeun sinyal asal. Prosés ngagabungkeun sinyal-sinyal dasar ieu disebutna '''sintésis Fourier'''. Dina gambar [[animasi]] di gigir bisa dititénan yén pajumlahan 25 sinyal sinusoida geus cukup pikeun ngaharib (ngahasilkeun [[aproksimasi]]) sinyal atawa gelombang kotak.

Balik deui kana analisis Fourier, hasil tina dékomposisi, nyaéta satiap amplitudo katut [[fase]] sinyal-sinyal sinusoida bisa digambarkeun dina doméin frékuénsi di mana ukuran amplitudona dinyatakeun dina sumbu y sarta frékuénsina dina sumbu x. Panggambaran ieu ngahasilkeun hiji Spéktrum Frékuénsi. Analogi pikeun leuwih ngajelaskeun hal ieu nyaéta sinyal cahaya bodas bisa dipisah-pisah kana sakumpulan spéktrum gelombang cahaya. Analogi lainna nyaéta sinyal sora harmoni (wirahma) musik anu dususun ku sakumpulan not balok musik (komponén-komponén frékuénsi) anu nyusunna.

==Panerapan==

Loba pisan panerapan ilmiah tina Analisis Fourier, utamana dina widang &amp;mdash; dina [[fisika]], [[téori bilangan]], [[kombinatorika]], [[pamrosésan sinyal]], [[téori probabilitas]], [[statistika]], [[option pricing]], [[kriptograpi]], [[akustik]], [[oséanograpi]], [[optika]] sarta [[difraksi]], [[geométri]], katut widang-widang lianna.

Lobana panerapan ieu nyumber tina mangfaat sifat éta transformasi''':'''

*Sinyal mangrupa fungsi tina waktu. Dina itung-itungan, sinyal dina fungsi waktu kasebut bisa dimanipulasi jeung dinyatakeun (disajikeun) dina fungsi frékuénsi. Itung-itungan anu rumit dina doméin waktu bisa dilakukeun kalawan leuwih gampang dina doméin frékuénsi.
**Hiji sistem mibanda kamampuhan pikeun ngarobah sinyal anu ngaliwat kana éta sistem. Dina kalimah lain, sistem miboga fungsi transfer. Lamun hiji sinyal asup kana hiji sistem mangka sinyal anu kaluar tina sistem kasebut bisa diitung atawa ditingali karakteristikna ku cara operasi aljabar saderhana antara sinyal asup (input) dina doméin frékuénsi jeung fungsi transfer dina doméin frékuénsi. Hasilna disebut réspon frékuénsi (frequency response). Saterusna, karakteristik sinyal anu dinyatakeun dina réspon frékuénsi bisa dikonvérsi balik kana fungsi waktu.
**Transformasi ieu mangrupa [[operator linier]] sarta, ku cara maké normalisasi anu bener, mangrupa [[operator unitér|unitér]] ogé (hiji sifat anu dipikawanoh salaku [[teoréma Parseval]] atawa, leuwih umum, salaku [[teoréma Plancherel]], jeung paling umum ngaliwatan [[dualitas Pontryagin]]).
**Transformasi ieu bisa dibalik, jeung dina kanyataannya transformasi balikan éta miboga wangunan ampir sarua siga transformasi majuna.
**Fungsi-fungsi basis eksponensial mangrupa [[fungsi eigen]] tina [[dérivatif|diférénsiasi]], nu hartina nyaéta pidangan ieu ngarobah [[rumus diférénsial]] liniér kalayan [[koéfisién konstanta]] kana fungsi aljabar biasa. (Contona, dina sistim fisika waktu tetep anu liniér, [[frékuénsi]] mangrupa hiji kuantitas langgeng, ku kituna kalakuan unggal frékuénsi bisa diitung sacara indépénden.)
**Ngaliwatan [[téoréma konvolusi]], transformasi Fourier ngarobah operasi [[konvolusi]] anu ruwet kana pakalian basajan, anu hartina transformasi Fourier nyadiakeun hiji cara nu éfisién pikeun ngitung operasi dumasar konvolusi saperti pakalian [[polinomial]] sarta [[algorima multiplikasi|pakalian bilangan gedé]].
** Vérsi [[transformasi Fourier diskrit|diskrit]] tina transformasi Fourier (tempo di handap) bisa diitung sacara gancang dina komputer ku cara ngagunakeun algoritma [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT).

==Ragem tina analisis Fourier==

Analisis Fourier boga rupa-rupa wangun, malahan sabagiannana boga ngaran anu béda.

=== Dérét Fourier ===

Analisis Fourier didasarkeun kana konsép yén sinyal dina dunya nyata bisa diharib (diaproksimasi) ku pajumlahan sinusoida-sinusoida dina rupa-rupa frékuénsi. Leuwih loba sinusoida anu dijumlahkeun, mangka leuwih hadé aproksimasina.

Contona, pikeun ngaharib gelombang kotak anu ngulang dina périodeu 1 detik atawa frékuénsi 1&amp;nbsp;Hz, tingali hiji sinyal sinusoida '''&lt;math&gt;y(t) = 1 * sin(2\pi t/T)&lt;/math&gt;'''

[[Image:Freq4A2.gif|center|Gambar sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji.]]

Ayeuna, urang bakal nambah hiji suku sinusoida kadua kana suku sinus kahiji. Sinus anu ditambahkeun frékuénsina tilu kali frekeunsi suku sinusoida kahiji sarta gedéna ngan sapertilu éta sinyal. antukna sinyalna bisa dinyatakeun dina '''&lt;math&gt;y(t) = 1 * sin(2\pi t/T) + (1/3) * sin(6\pi t/T)&lt;/math&gt;'''

[[Image:Freq4A5.gif|center|Gambar hasil pajumlahan sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji jeung kadua.]]

Wangun sinyal anu dihasilkeun kaciri masih béda jeung gelombang kotak. Ku cara neruskeun nambahkeun sinyal suku sinusoida katilu, anu frékuénsina lima kali sarta ukuranna saperlima kali suku kahiji, mangka dihasilkeun gelombang anu dinyatakeun ku rumus '''&lt;math&gt;y(t) = 1 * sin(2\pi t/T) + (1/3) * sin(6\pi t/T) + (1/5) * sin (10\pi t/T)&lt;/math&gt;'''

[[Image:Freq4A6.gif|center|Gambar hasil pajumlahan sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji, kadua jeung katilu.]] 
 
Hasil pajumlahan suku-suku sinusoida ieu buki narik ati. Urang ngan nambahkeun suku-suku anu frékuénsina kalipetan ganjil tina frékeuénsi suku sinusoida kahiji. Lamun pajumlahan diteruskeun tepi ka suku kagenep anu frékuénsina sabelas kali suku kahiji, hasilna saperti kieu:

[[Image:Freq4A7.gif|center|Gambar hasil pajumlahan sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji tepi kagenep.]] 
 
Hasil pajumlahan suku-suku sinusoida ieu katémbong geus ngahasilkeun sinyal anu ngaharib kana gelombang kotak ngan wangunanna rada goréng.

Lamun pajumlahan sinyal dilakukeun ti suku kahiji tepi ka suku ka-25 anu frékuénsina kalipetan 49, mangka sinyal anu dihasilkeun geus ngaharib kana gelombang kotak tapi masih kurang nyeplés.

[[Image:Freq4A8.gif|center|Gambar hasil pajumlahan sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji tepi ka-25.]] 
 
Di dieu katingali yén prosés ieu ngahasilkeun sinyal anu beuki deukeut kana sinyal gelombang kotak. Sanajan kitu, ieu katingalina saperti gelombang kotak anu kurang alus. Hayu urang tambahan deui suku-suku anu leuwih loba sarta tingali naon anu baris kajadian.

Ieu sinyal anu dihasilkeun tina pajumlahan suku-suku tepi ka suku anu boga kalipetan 79. Ayeuna urang beuki meunang indikasi anu jelas ngeunaan gelombang kotak kalawan amplitude sauetik di handap 0,8.

[[Image:Freq4A9.gif|center|Gambar hasil pajumlahan sinyal suku sinusoida kahiji tepi ka-40.]] 
 
Tina prosés ieu, kanyahoan yén gelombang kotak boga rumus anu mangrupa pajumlahan dérét suku-suku sinusoida saperti kieu:

:&lt;math&gt; y(t) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}[b_n \sin(2\omega_n t)]&lt;/math&gt;
di mana, pikeun satiap bilangan ganjil non-negatif, ''n''''':'''

:*&lt;math&gt; \omega_n = n\frac{2\pi}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

Pikeun ngabeunangkeun hasil panyajian anu akurat pisan, anggap n tanpa hingga atawa tanpa kawates.

Pajumlahan suku-suku sinusoida saperti di luhur disebut Dérét Fourier Trigonométrik. Frékuénsi unggal sinusoida dina ieu dérét mangrupa bilangan buleud kalipetan tina frékuénsi sinyal anu keur diaproksimasi. Frékuénsi-frékuénsi éta disebut harmonik tina gelombang kotak. Dina conto di luhur, frekeunsi dasarna nyaéta 1&amp;nbsp;Hz (frékuénsi gelombang kotak), sedengkeun harmonikna nyaéta 3&amp;nbsp;Hz, 5&amp;nbsp;Hz, 7&amp;nbsp;Hz, 9&amp;nbsp;Hz, 11&amp;nbsp;Hz, jst. Katiténan yén dina gelombang kotak ieu kabéh harmonik genep mibanda amplitudo enol; hal ieu henteu lumaku umum, aya gelombang anu mibanda harmoni dina bilangan buleud, aya ogé anu ngan mibanda harmonik dina bilangan ganjil hungkul.

'''Spektrum frékuénsi'''

Masing-masing frékuénsi harmonik didefinisikeun ku ukuran (amplitudo) sarta fasena. Ngagambar amplitudo-amplitudo harmonik dina sumbu y sarta frékuénsi dina sumbu x ngahasilkeun hiji Spéktrum Frékuénsi. Spéktrumna mangrupa sakumpulan garis atawa balok vertikal lantaran ngan boga frékuénsi dina kalipetan frékuénsi sinyal asal. Dina téori, spéktrum ngawengku frékuénsi-frékuénsi anu tanpa wates, tapi dina praktékna mplitudo harmonik-harmonik anu frékuénsina luhur pisan biasana euweuh hartina.

[[Image:Freq2.gif|thumb|350px|right|Gelombang Kotak dalam doméin Frékuénsi: Gambar Spéktrum Frékuénsi Gelombang Kotak]]

Tempo [[Dérét Fourier]] pikeun neuleuman leuwih jero, kaasup''':'''
* transformasi kabalikan
* sifat transformasi
* kamekaran nurutkeun sajarah
* kasus husus ngeunaan s(t) nu boga harga-nyata

{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}

=== (Continuous) Fourier transform ===

Most often, the unqualified term '''Fourier transform''' refers to the transform of functions of a continuous [[real number|real]] argument, such as time (&lt;math&gt;t\,&lt;/math&gt;).&amp;nbsp;  The amplitude and phase of a sinusoidal component of function '''s(t)''' depends on the component's frequency.  In terms of ordinary frequency (&lt;math&gt;f\,&lt;/math&gt;), it is the complex number''':'''

:&lt;math&gt;S(f) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} s(t) \cdot e^{-i 2\pi f t} dt&lt;/math&gt;

Evaluating this quantity for all values of &lt;math&gt;f\,&lt;/math&gt; produces the frequency-domain function.

Also see [[#How it works (a basic explanation)|How it works]], below.  And see [[Continuous Fourier transform]] for even more information, including''':'''
* the inverse transform
* conventions for amplitude normalization and frequency scaling/units
* transform properties
* tabulated transforms of specific functions
* an extension/generalization for functions of multiple dimensions, such as '''images'''

=== Discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) ===

For use on computers, a useful &quot;discrete-time&quot; function can be obtained by [[Sampling (signal processing)|sampling]] a &quot;continuous-time&quot; function, '''s(t)''', which produces a sequence, '''s(nT)''', for integer values of '''n'''.  The '''DTFT''' is equivalent to the Fourier transform of a &quot;continuous&quot; function that is constructed by using the sequence &amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;s[n] \ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\  T\cdot s(nT)&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp; to modulate a [[Dirac comb]]. &amp;nbsp;In that case, the integral formula above simplifies to a summation''':'''

:&lt;math&gt;S_T(f) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n] \cdot e^{-i 2\pi f n T}  = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n] \cdot e^{-i 2\pi \frac{f}{f_s} n},&lt;/math&gt;

which is a '''periodic''' function, with period &lt;math&gt;f_s = 1/T.\,&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp;An alternative viewpoint is that the DTFT is a transform to a frequency domain that is bounded (or ''finite''), with span &lt;math&gt;f_s.\,&lt;/math&gt;

The DTFT can be applied to any discrete sequence.  But in the particular case where '''s[n]''' are samples of '''s(t)''', &amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;S_T(f)\,&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp; and &lt;math&gt;S(f)\,&lt;/math&gt; are closely related.  See [[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] for more information on this and other topics, including''':'''
* the inverse transform
* normalized frequency units
* windowing (finite-length sequences)
* transform properties
* tabulated transforms of specific functions

=== Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) ===

Since the DTFT is also a continuous Fourier transform (of a comb function), the Fourier series also applies to it.  Thus, when &lt;math&gt;s[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; is periodic, with period '''N''', &amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;S_T(f)\,&lt;/math&gt; is another [[Dirac comb]] function, modulated by a '''Fourier series'''.  &amp;nbsp;And the integral formula for the series simplifies to''':'''

:&lt;math&gt;S[k] = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} s[n] \cdot e^{-i 2 \pi \frac{k}{N} n}&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; for all integer values of '''k'''.

Since the DTFT is periodic, so is &lt;math&gt;S[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;.  And it has the same period ('''N''') as the input function.  This transform is also called '''DFT''', particularly when only one period of the output sequence is computed from one period of the input sequence.

When &lt;math&gt;s[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; is not periodic, but its non-zero portion has finite duration ('''N'''), &amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;S_T(f)\,&lt;/math&gt; is continuous and finite-valued.  But a discrete subset of its values is sufficient to reconstruct/represent the (finite) portion of &lt;math&gt;s[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; that was analyzed.  The same discrete set is obtained by tréating '''N''' as if it is the period of a periodic function and computing the '''Fourier series / DFT'''.
* The inverse transform of &lt;math&gt;S[k]\,&lt;/math&gt; does not produce the finite-length sequence, &lt;math&gt;s[n], -\infty &lt; n &lt; \infty.\,&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp;(It takes the inverse of &lt;math&gt;S_T(f)\,&lt;/math&gt;, to do that.)  The inverse DFT can only reproduce the entire time-domain if the input happens to be periodic (forever). Therefore it is often said that the DFT is a transform for Fourier analysis of finite-domain, discrete-time functions.  &amp;nbsp;An alternative viewpoint is that the periodicity is the time-domain consequence of approximating the continuous-domain function, &lt;math&gt;S_T(f)\,&lt;/math&gt;, with the discrete subset, &lt;math&gt;S[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;.  &amp;nbsp;'''N''' can be larger than the actual non-zero portion of &lt;math&gt;s[n]\,&lt;/math&gt;.  &amp;nbsp;The larger it is, the better the approximation (also known as '''zero-padding''').

The DFT can be computed using a [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm, which makes it a practical and important transformation on computers.

See [[Discrete Fourier transform]] for much more information, including''':'''
* the inverse transform
* transform properties
* applications
* tabulated transforms of specific functions

The following table recaps the four basic forms discussed above, highlighting the '''duality''' of the properties of ''discreteness'' and ''periodicity''.  I.e., if the signal representation in one domain has either (or both) of those properties, then its transform representation to the other domain has the other property (or both).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name 
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Time domain 
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Frequency domain 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Domain property 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Function property 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Domain property 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Function property
|-
|(Continuous) [[Fourier transform]] 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Continuous 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Aperiodic 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Continuous 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Aperiodic 
|-
|[[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Discrete 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Aperiodic   
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Continuous 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Periodic (&lt;math&gt;f_s&lt;/math&gt;) 
|-
|[[Fourier series]] 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Continuous 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Periodic (&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt;)  
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Discrete 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Aperiodic 
|-
|[[Discrete Fourier transform]] 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Discrete 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Periodic (N)&lt;ref&gt;
Or N is simply the length of a finite sequence. &amp;nbsp;In either case, the &lt;u&gt;inverse&lt;/u&gt; DFT formula produces a periodic function, &amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;s[n].\,&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/ref&gt; 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Discrete 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Periodic (N) 
|}

===Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact abelian topological groups===

The Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary [[locally compact]] [[abelian]] [[topological group]]s, which are studied in [[harmonic analysis]]; there, the Fourier transform takes functions on a group to functions on the [[dual group]]. This tréatment also allows a general formulation of the [[convolution theorem]], which relates Fourier transforms and [[convolution]]s.  See also the [[Pontryagin duality]] for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform.

===Time-frequency transforms===
[[Time-frequency transform]]s such as the [[short-time Fourier transform]], [[wavelet transform]]s, [[chirplet transform]]s, and the [[fractional Fourier transform]] try to obtain frequency information from a signal as a function of time (or whatever the independent variable is), although the ability to simultanéously resolve frequency and time is limited by an (mathematical) [[uncertainty principle]].

==Interpretation in terms of time and frequency==

In terms of [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] processing, the transform takes a [[time series]]  representation of a signal function and maps it into a [[frequency spectrum]], where &amp;omega; is [[angular frequency]].  That is, it takes a function in the [[time]] domain into the [[frequency]] domain; it is a [[orthogonal system|decomposition]] of a function into [[harmonic]]s of different frequencies.

When the function ''f'' is a function of time and represents a physical [[Signal (information theory)|signal]], the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal. The [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of the resulting complex-valued function ''F''  at frequency &amp;omega; represents the [[amplitude]] of a frequency component whose [[phase (waves)|initial phase]] is given by:  ''arctan (imaginary part/real part)''.

However, it is important to réalize that Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies.  They can equally be applied to analyze ''spatial'' frequencies, and indeed for néarly any function domain.

==Applications in signal processing==

When processing signals, such as [[Sound|audio]], [[radio wave]]s, light waves, seismic waves, and even images, Fourier analysis can isolate individual components of a compound waveform, concentrating them for éasier detection and/or removal.  A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal, manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation.

Some examples include''':'''

* Telephone dialing;  the [[touch tone|touch-tone]] signals for éach telephone key, when pressed, are éach a sum of two separate tones (frequencies).  Fourier analysis can be used to separate (or ''analyze'') the telephone signal, to revéal the two component tones and therefore which button was pressed.
* Removal of unwanted frequencies from an audio recording (used to eliminate [[hum]] from léakage of [[AC power]] into the signal, to eliminate the [[stereo subcarrier]] from [[FM radio]] recordings, or to créate [[karaoke]] tracks with the vocals removed);
* [[Noise gating]] of audio recordings to remove quiet background noise by eliminating Fourier components that do not exceed a preset amplitude;
* [[Equalization]] of audio recordings with a series of [[bandpass filter]]s;
* Digital radio reception with no [[superheterodyne]] circuit, as in a modérn [[cell phone]] or [[radio scanner]];
* [[Image processing]] to remove periodic or [[anisotropic]] artifacts such as [[jaggies]] from interlaced vidéo, stripe artifacts from [[strip aerial photography]], or wave patterns from [[radio frequency interference]] in a digital camera;
* [[Cross correlation]] of similar images for [[co-alignment]];
* [[X-ray crystallography]] to reconstruct a protein's structure from its diffraction pattern;
* [[Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance]] mass spectrometry to determine the mass of ions from the frequency of cyclotron motion in a magnetic field.

Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal.  For example, [[JPEG]] compression uses Fourier transformation of small square pieces of a digital image.  The Fourier components of éach square are rounded to lower [[precision (arithmetic)|arithmetic precision]], and wéak components are eliminated entirely, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly.  In image reconstruction, éach Fourier-transformed image square is réassembled from the preserved approximate components, and then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image.

== How it works (a basic explanation) ==

To méasure the amplitude and phase of a particular frequency component, the transform process multiplies the original function (the one being analyzed) by a sinusoid with the same frequency (called a ''basis function'').  If the original function contains a ''component'' with the same shape (i.e. same frequency), its shape (but not its amplitude) is effectively squared.
*''Squaring'' implies that at every point on the product waveform, the contribution of the matching component to that product is a positive contribution, even though the product might be negative.
*''Squaring'' describes the case where the [[Phase (waves)|phases]] happen to match.  What happens more generally is that a constant phase difference produces ''vectors'' at every point that are all aimed in the same direction, which is determined by the difference between the two phases.  To maké that happen actually requires two sinusoidal basis functions, cosine and sine, which are combined into a basis function that is complex-valued (see [[Complex exponential]]).  The ''vector'' analogy refers to the [[Polar coordinates|polar]] coordinate representation.
The complex numbers produced by the product of the original function and the basis function are subsequently summed into a single result.
*Note that if the functions are continuous, rather than sets of discrete points, this step requires [[integral calculus]] or [[numerical integration]].  But the basic concept is just addition.  
The contributions from the component that matches the basis function all have the same sign (or vector direction).  The other components contribute values that alternate in sign (or vectors that rotate in direction) and tend to cancel out of the summation. The final value is therefore dominated by the component that matches the basis function.  The stronger it is, the larger is the méasurement.  Repéating this méasurement for all the basis functions produces the frequency-domain representation.

==Tempo oge==
* [[Bispectrum]]
* [[Characteristic function (probability theory)]]
* [[Fractional Fourier transform]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Least-squares spectral analysis ]]
* [[Mellin transform]]
* [[Number-theoretic transform]]
* [[Orthogonal functions]]
* [[Pontryagin duality]]
* [[Schwartz space]]
* [[Spectral density]]
* [[Spectral density estimation]]
* [[Two-sided Laplace transform]]
* [[Wavelet]]

==Catetan==
{{reflist}}

==Rujukan==
* Edward W. Kamen, Bonnie S. Heck, &quot;Fundamentals of Signals and Systems Using the Web and Matlab&quot;, ISBN 0-13-017293-6 
* E. M. Stein, G. Weiss, &quot;Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces&quot;, Princeton University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-691-08078-X 
* A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, ''Handbook of Integral Equations'', CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4
* {{cite book
 | last = Smith | first = Steven W.
 | url = http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm
 | title = The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing
 | edition = Second Edition
 | location = San Diego, Calif.
 | publisher = California Technical Publishing
 | year=1999
 | id=ISBN 0-9660176-3-3
}}

==Tumbu luar==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070630081426/http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/auxiliary/aux-inttrans.htm Tables of Integral Transforms] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
*[http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/fourier/fourier.html An Intuitive Explanation of Fourier Theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210112754/http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/fourier/fourier.html |date=2006-02-10 }} by Steven Lehar.
*[http://www.archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lecture 6 is on the 1- and 2-D Fourier Transform.  Lectures 7-15 make use of it.], by Alan Peters

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|conventional_long_name = &lt;span style=&quot;line-
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|national_motto = الله أكبر {{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;([[Basa Arab]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''&quot;[[Takbir|Allahu Akbar]]&quot;''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;([[transliterasi]])&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Gusti nu Maha Agung&quot;&lt;/small&gt;
|national_anthem = ''[[Mawtini]]''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;(new)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''[[Ardh Alforatain]]''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;(previous){{smallsup|1}}&lt;/small&gt;
|capital = [[Baghdad]]{{smallsup|2}}
|official_languages = [[Basa Arab|Arab]], [[Basa Kurdi|Kurdi]]{{smallsup|3}}, [[Basa Aramaik|Aramaik]]
|demonym = Irak
|religion = [[Islam]](94%), [[Kristen]](4–5%), [[Mandean]] &amp; [[Yazidi]] (&lt;1%)
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|largest_city = ibu kota
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|leader_title1 = [[Presiden Irak|Presiden]]
|leader_title2 = [[Perfana Mentri Irak|Perdana Mentri]]
|leader_name1 = [[Barham Salih]]
|leader_name2 = [[Mustafa Al-Kadhimi]] 
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|established_event2 = ti {{nowrap|[[United Kingdom]]}}
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|footnote1 = Urang Kurdi make ''[[Ey Reqîb]]''.
|footnote2 = Ibu kota [[Kurdistan Irak]] nyaéta [[Arbil]].
|footnote3 = Basa Arab jeung Kurdi mangrupa basa resmi dina pamarentahan Irak. Dumasar kana Artikel 4, Bagéan 4 [[Undang-undang Dasar Irak]], [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian (Syriac)]] (a dialect of [[Aramaic]]) and Iraqi Turkmen (a dialect of [[Azerbaijani language|Southern Azerbaijani]]) languages are official in areas where the respective populations they constitute density of population.
|footnote4 = [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html CIA World Factbook]
}}
'''Républik Irak''', biasana katelah '''Irak''' ([[Basa Arab]]: {{Audio|Ar-al Gumhuriyah al Iraqiya.ogg|العراق}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|ʕiˈrɑːq}}), nyaéta hiji [[nagara]] di [[Wétan Tengah]] nu ngampar lolobananana di tungtung kulon kaler [[Pagunungan Zagros-]], bagéan wetan [[Gurun Siria]] sarta bagéan kaler [[Gurun Arabia]]. Irak diwatesan ku [[Kuwait]] jeung [[Saudi Arabia]] di  béh kidul, [[Jordania]] di kulon, [[Suriah]] di kulon kaler, [[Turki]] di  béh kaler sarta [[Iran]] di wetaneunnana. Irak boga bagéan basisir nu heureut di [[Umm Qasr]] di [[Teluk Pérsia]]. Aya dua walungan nu ngalir: [[Tigris]] jeung [[Éfrat]]. Dua walungan ieu nyababkeun lemah Irak bisa dipaké tatanen, patukang tonggong jeung lanskap gurun nu nutupan lolobana wewengkon di [[Wétan Tengah]].

Irak mangrupikeun [[démokrasi parleménter]] ngembang anu diwangun ku 18 [[kagubernuran di Irak|kagubernuran]] (katelah ''muhafadhat''). Ibu kotana, [[Baghdad]], aya di tengah-wétan. [[Sajarah Irak|Sajarah euyeub]] Irak balik deui ti jaman [[Mesopotamia]] kuno. Wewengkon antara walungan Tigris jeung Éfrat dikenal salaku [[Bulan Sabit Subur]], tempat lahirna paradaban jeung [[tulisan]]. Dina sajarahna anu panjang, Irak parantos janten puseur kakaisaran [[Akkadia]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] sareng [[Abbasiyah]], sarta bagian ti kawasaan kakaisaran [[Akhemenia]], [[Makedonia]], [[Parthia]], [[Bani Umayyah|Umayyah]], [[Sassania]], [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah|Utsmaniyah]] sareng [[Britania Raya]].

Since an [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion in 2003]], a [[Multinational Force Iraq|multinational coalition of forces]], mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-réaching consequences: [[Iraq war|increased civil violence]], political bréakdown, the removal and [[Execution of Saddam Hussein|execution]] of former présidént [[Saddam Hussein]], and national problems in the development of [[politics of Iraq|political balance]], [[economy of Iraq|economy]], infrastructure, and use of the country's huge [[Oil reserves#Iraq|reserves of oil]]. According to the 2007 [[Failed States Index]], produced by the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's]] [[Foreign Policy]] magazine and the [[Fund for Peace]], Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3865&amp;page=8|title=Foreign Policy Magazine: The Failed States Index 2007|accessdate=2007-11-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126074132/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3865&amp;page=8|archivedate=2009-01-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; after [[Sudan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home|title=Reuters: Iraq world's No. 2 failed state|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619041950/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home|archivedate=2008-06-19|accessdate=2007-11-25}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041443/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home/ |date=2007-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tempo ogé ==
{{utama|Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Irak}}

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Bacaan salajengna ==
* Interview with Refugees International's Séan Garcia on the plight of hundreds of thousands of Iraqi refugees [http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2262] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313185923/http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2262 |date=2007-03-13 }}
* Shadid, Anthony 2005. ''Night Draws Near''. Henry Holt and Co., [[New York|NY]], [[United States|USA]]. ISBN 0-8050-7602-6
* Hanna Batatu, &quot;The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq&quot;, Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 1978
* Iraq was one of the major settings for the John J. Rust science fiction novel &quot;Epsilon&quot;
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050525231213/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/ A Dweller in Mesopotamia], being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906055955/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf |date=2005-09-06 }} format)''
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ By Desert Ways to Baghdad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050402090804/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ |date=2005-04-02 }}, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed). ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/1f/desert_ways_to_baghdad.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906060015/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/1f/desert_ways_to_baghdad.pdf |date=2005-09-06 }} format)''

== Tumbu luar ==
{{sisterlinks|Iraq}}
{{wikivoyage|Iraq}}

'''Pamaréntah'''
* [http://www.iraqigovernment.org/ Iraqi Government] official government site
* [http://dev.epic-usa.org/files/EPIC/IRAQ_Government.pdf New Iraqi government structure (PDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060815210023/http://dev.epic-usa.org/files/EPIC/IRAQ_Government.pdf |date=2006-08-15 }} (As of July 17, 2006)
* [http://www.krg.org/ Kurdistan Regional Government] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506173827/http://www.krg.org/ |date=2016-05-06 }}
* [http://www.industry.gov.iq/ Ministry of Industry and Minerals]

''Sawangan'''
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567303/Iraq.html ''Encarta Encyclopedia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028042959/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567303/Iraq.html |date=2009-10-28 }}
* [http://www.HilalPlaza.com/baghdad-Iraq-civilization.html Baghdad's Golden Period]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160610185602/http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/iraq.htm al-Bab - ''Iraq'']
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Iraq Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Iraq'' Country Page]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791014.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Iraq'']
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html CIA World Factbook - ''Iraq''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224065934/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html |date=2018-12-24 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020216031159/http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3212.htm US State Department - ''Iraq''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=Iraq&amp;search_crit=subject&amp;search=Search&amp;date1=Anytime&amp;date2=Anytime&amp;type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502204638/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=iraq&amp;search_crit=subject&amp;search=Search&amp;date1=Anytime&amp;date2=Anytime&amp;type=form |date=2008-05-02 }}
* [http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/countryprofiles/216595.htm Iraq Country Profile] {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} from [[Reuters|Reuters AlertNet]]
* [http://www.economist.com/countries/Iraq/ Country Briefing: Iraq] from [[The Economist]]

'''Warta'''
* [http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=middleeast Focus on Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071126093609/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=middleeast |date=2007-11-26 }} Daily News on Iraq
* [http://electroniciraq.net Iraq News and Iraqi views] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204038/http://electroniciraq.net/ |date=2018-02-18 }} from Electronic Iraq
* [http://news.ft.com/indepth/Iraq News in Depth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614084320/http://news.ft.com/indepth/iraq |date=2006-06-14 }} from the Financial Times
* [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Iraq Diplomacy Monitor-Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415113230/http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Iraq |date=2013-04-15 }}
* [http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/Iraq/index.asp IPS Inter Press Service] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610182557/http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/iraq/index.asp |date=2008-06-10 }} Independent news about Iraq
* [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/11/05/dujail.saddam/index.html Iraqis react with joy, anger to Hussein death sentence] CNN story on Hussein's [[death sentence]]
* [http://www.hometownbaghdad.com Hometown Baghdad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123071948/http://hometownbaghdad.com/ |date=2007-11-23 }} Documentary series shot by an all-Iraqi crew. Tells the stories of three young péople trying to survive in Baghdad.

'''Lianna'''
* [http://www.operationiraqichildren.org/ Operation Iraqi Children]
* [http://www.iraqimage.com Iraq Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609165949/http://www.iraqimage.com/ |date=2007-06-09 }}, a cultural resource on Iraq cities and locations
* [http://www.juancole.com Juan Cole], a léading scholar and public intellectual
* [http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2218 The Ground Truth Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926182404/http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2218 |date=2006-09-26 }}—A series of exclusive interviews and other resources capturing the voices of Iraqis, [[Humanitarian aid|aid workers]], [[Soldier|military personnel]] and others who have spent significant time on-the-ground in Iraq.
* [http://wiqipedia.org/wiki/Iraq Alternate wiki article about Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211012919/http://wiqipedia.org/wiki/Iraq |date=2007-12-11 }}
* [http://www.epic-usa.org/ Education for Peace in Iraq Center (EPIC)]—A Washington DC-based [[Non-profit organization|nonprofit organization]] promoting a free and secure Iraq
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060103215437/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engMDE140082001?OpenDocument&amp;amp;of=COUNTRIESIRAQ Amnesty International Report on Iraq]
* [http://www.internal-displacement.org/countries/iraq Internal Displacement in Iraq] - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
* [http://www.cpa-Iraq.org/ Coalition Provisional Authority] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712083422/http://www.cpa-iraq.org/ |date=2010-07-12 }} Now-defunct occupation authority; site is archived
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131214111518/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/iraq.htm Iraq Law] from the University of Pittsburgh’s Jurist project
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/Iraq-1900-2000/ 1900–2000 a history of Iraq]
* [http://baghdad.usembassy.gov/ US Embassy in Baghdad, Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820055028/http://baghdad.usembassy.gov/ |date=2008-08-20 }}
* [http://fieldsupport.lingnet.org/Iraqi/fam_ir_slide/Iraq.pdf Iraqi Familiarization Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201010110/http://fieldsupport.lingnet.org/Iraqi/fam_ir_slide/Iraq.pdf |date=2007-12-01 }} - ''(546 kilobyte PDF file)''
* [http://www.lonesentry.com/iraq/iraq.html Short Guide to Iraq] (WWII U.S. Military Guide)
* [http://www.uwt.org/Countries/Iraq_Charity.asp Charity Helping the People of Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511223655/http://www.uwt.org/Countries/Iraq_Charity.asp |date=2008-05-11 }}

{{Template group
| title = Geografi lokal
| list =
{{Countries of Southwest Asia}}
{{Countries and territories of the Middle East}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries bordering the Persian Gulf}}
{{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}}
}}
{{Template group
| title = Kaanggotaan internasional
| list =
{{Arab League}}
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}}
{{OPEC}}
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}}
}}

{{Refimprove|date=June 2007}}

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[[Kategori:Irak|*]]
[[Kategori:Mésopotamia]]
[[Kategori:Arab]]
[[Kategori:Républik konstitusional]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Arab]]
[[Kategori:Nagara anggota Liga Arab]]
[[Kategori:Liga Arab]]
[[Kategori:Nagara di Wétan Deukeut]]
[[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dikawasa ku militér]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>2008</title>
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      <text bytes="82287" sha1="cp2cxd10o5ebbayq9j9cwcdut2cvy5y" xml:space="preserve">{{year nav|2008}}
{{C21YearInTopic}}
'''2008''' ('''[[Angka Romawi|MMVIII]]''') nyaéta taun ieu, [[taun kabisat]] nu [[Taun kabisat nu dimimitian ku poe Salasa|dimimitian ku poe Salasa]] dina [[Anno Domini]] (atawa [[common era]]), dumasar kana [[kalender Gregorian]].
{{Calendar}}
2008 kasebut minangka:
* [[Taun Basa Internasional]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10592.doc.htm U.N. General Assembly, Department of Public Information, &quot;General Assembly Proclaims 2008 International Year of Languages, in Effort to Promote Unity in Diversity, Global Understanding&quot; GA/10592]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Taun Planet Bumi Internasional]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://yearofplanetearth.org/index.html International Year of Planet Earth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013555/http://yearofplanetearth.org/index.html |date=2020-11-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Taun Kentang Internasional]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.potato2008.org/ International Year of the Potato 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921111051/http://www.potato2008.org/ |date=2007-09-21 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Taun Sanitasi Internasional]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://esa.un.org/iys/ International Year of Sanitation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019013414/http://esa.un.org/iys/ |date=2007-10-19 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Taun Dialog Antarbudaya Eropa]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.interculturaldialogue2008.eu/ European Year of Intercultural Dialogue website]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Australia]]n Yéar of the [[Scouting|Scout]];&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.scouts.com.au/main.asp?iStoryID=12600854 Australian Year of the Scout] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221062234/http://www.scouts.com.au/main.asp?iStoryID=12600854 |date=2007-12-21 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Taun Maca Nasional 2008|Taun Maca Nasional]] in England;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.yearofreading.org.uk 2008 National Year of Reading] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516030658/http://www.yearofreading.org.uk/ |date=2008-05-16 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Yéar of the [[Frog]], as declared by the international conservation initiative [[Amphibian Ark]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.amphibianark.org/yearofthefrog.htm Year of the Frog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430073926/http://www.amphibianark.org/yearofthefrog.htm |date=2008-04-30 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;;

Dina [[Astrologi Cina]], lolobana 2008, nu dimimitian ti [[Indonésia]] kaasup ''Taun [[Beurit (zodiak)|Beurit]]'' (tanggal samemeh mangrupa adalah ''Taun [[Babi (zodiak)|Babi]]''). Taun beurit sanggeusna bakal tumiba dina taun [[29 Pébruari]].

== Kajadian ==
&lt;!-- DO NOT ADD VIDEO GAME RELEASES TO ANY MONTH IN THIS SECTION --&gt;
=== Januari ===
{{MonthR_31_Sal|Januari}}
* [[1 Januari]] - Ngaroko dicarék di sakabéh patempatan publik (kaasup bar jeung réstoran) di [[Portugal]] kawas di nagara bagéan Illinois di Amérika Sarikat.
* [[1 Januari]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Malta]], and [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]] adopted the [[euro]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.euractiv.com/en/euro/cyprus-malta-set-join-eurozone-2008/article-163836 Cyprus and Malta set to join eurozone in 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130041939/http://www.euractiv.com/en/euro/cyprus-malta-set-join-eurozone-2008/article-163836 |date=2009-01-30 }}, EurActiv&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1198764121.53/ Akrotiri and Dhekelia adopt the euro] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706103838/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1198764121.53/ |date=2009-07-06 }}, EUbusiness&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[1 Januari]] - [[Slovenia]] takes over the présidéncy of [[European Union]] as the first of new member states.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070516193607/http://www.svlr.gov.si/en/eu_presidency/ Slovenian EU presidency]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[1 Januari]] - The [[Venezuelan bolívar]], as a result of a government decree issued on [[March 7]], [[2007]], is revalued at a ratio of 1 to 1000 and renamed the [[Bolívar fuerte]] ([[ISO 4217]] code: VEF).
* [[2 Januari]] - The [[price of petroleum]] hits [[US$]]100 per barrel. 
* [[2 Januari]] - [[Malaysia]]n Héalth Minister [[Chua Soi Lek]] resigns after admitting to being filmed by [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] cameras in a hotel room having sex with a female friend.
* [[2 Januari]] - [[The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust|The Royal Marsden Hospital]] in [[London]] caught fire, just before 13:30.
* [[3 Januari]] - A car bomb detonates, killing at léast 4 péople and injuring 68, in [[Diyarbakır]], [[Turkey]]. Police blame [[Kurdistan Workers Party|Kurdish rebels]]. 
* [[3 Januari]] - [[Joe Biden]] drops out of the 2008 U.S. présidéntial election
* [[3 Januari]] - [[Barack Obama]] jeung [[Mike Huckabee]] win their respective [[Iowa caucus|caucuses in Iowa]], the first caucus held for the [[United States presidential election, 2008|2008 U.S. presidential election]].
* [[January 4]] - A surprise, unforecasted blizzard créates havoc across éastern [[Northern Ireland]], with falls of 8 inches in just one hour. 
* [[January 4]] - Though uncommon, light [[snow]] falls in the [[Mexico|Mexican]] states of [[Oaxaca]] and [[Querétaro]] following the previous fall in [[Veracruz]] néar [[Xalapa]], where the lowest temperatures since the [[1950s]] have been méasured (34&amp;nbsp;°F).
* [[January 4]] - 30th Dakar Rally cancelled due to international political tension and the murder of four French tourists last 24th of December 2007. 
* [[January 5]] - [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] is re-elected following éarly [[Georgian presidential election, 2008|presidential elections]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].
* [[January 5]] - A levee bursts in [[Fernley, Nevada]], flooding a large portion of the town and forcing the evacuations of 3,500 residents. 
* [[January 7]] - [[NBC]] announced The 2008 [[Golden Globe Awards]] Ceremony would be cancelled due to the [[Writers Guild of America]] Strike. The network says it would announce the winners in a 1 hour news conference.
* [[January 7]] - [[January 2008 Tornado Outbreak Sequence|A storm]] passes through éastern North America. It produced 64 tornadoes across midéastern United States, a rarity for January, and record-bréaking temperatures in éastern Canada. 
* [[January 8]] - An attempted assassination of [[Maldives|Maldivian]] présidént [[Maumoon Abdul Gayoom]] is thwarted because a [[Boy Scout]] grabbed the attacker's knife. The Boy Scout was injured, but after a scuffle ensued police arrested the attacker.
* [[January 8]] - [[Hillary Clinton]] and [[John McCain]] win their respective [[New Hampshire primary|New Hampshire Presidential primaries]].
* [[January 9]] - U.S. présidént [[George W. Bush]] begins a tour of the [[Middle East]] with a stop in [[Israel]]. Other destinations include [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Palestine]], and [[Egypt]].
* [[January 10]] - [[Bill Richardson]] drops out of the U.S. présidéntial election due to shortage of money.
* [[January 10]] - [[Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.]], known by its brand name &quot;[[Panasonic]]&quot;, announced to change the company name to &quot;Panasonic Corporation&quot; from [[October 1]], 2008.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.stockhouse.ca/news/news.asp?tick=MC&amp;newsid=6289887 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171140/http://www.stockhouse.ca/news/news.asp?tick=MC&amp;newsid=6289887 |date=2008-02-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 10]] - [[Tata Motors Limited]] announces production of the [[Tata Nano]], the world's chéapest car, which is to sell for one lakh (100,000 Rupees or US $2500).
* [[January 12]] - The [[Kuomintang]]-led [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] wins the [[Republic of China legislative election, 2008|legislative elections]] in [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] with over 70% of the votes.
* [[January 12]] - A [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian]] Army [[Mil Mi-17]] helicopter [[2008 Macedonian Armed Forces Mil Mi-17 crash|crashes]] in thick fog southéast of [[Skopje]], killing all 11 military personnel on board.&lt;ref&gt;http://canadianpress.google.com/article/ALeqM5hEKv9MBw55ELwc9LGYFjDD_itvfw{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 12]] - [[Greenpeace]] vessel [[Esperanza]] disrupted the Japanese whale hunt off Antarctica by chasing the fleet's whale processing factory ship out of the whaling zone.&lt;ref&gt;http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5ibg-iiecl794l9FUlAuU3Cq41iIAD8U59R9G0 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118064211/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5ibg-iiecl794l9FUlAuU3Cq41iIAD8U59R9G0 |date=2008-01-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 13]] - Two [[Australia]]ns arrived in [[New Plymouth]], [[New Zealand]] by [[kayak]] and became the first péople in history to paddle from Australia to New Zéaland.
* [[January 13]] - [[Katsuaki Watanabe]], présidént and Céo of [[Toyota]], announced that they will deliver a significant fleet of plug-in [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs), powered by lithium-ion batteries, by [[2010]].
* [[January 14]] - At 19:04:39 [[UTC]], the [[MESSENGER]] [[space probe]] was at its closest approach during its first [[Planetary flyby|flyby]] of the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/mer_flyby1.html |title=Mercury Flyby 1 |accessdate=2008-01-12 |work=The MESSENGER website |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 15]] - [[Federal Court of Australia]] has ordered a Japanese whaling company to stop reséarch whaling within their [[Exclusive Economic Zone]], which Australian government claims as their EEZ because they claim they possesses some part of [[Antarctica]] as their land, in [[Southern Ocean]].
* [[January 15]] – Republican [[Mitt Romney]] wins the [[Michigan]] primary. The Michigan primary did not include a member from the Democratic party due to a party dispute over scheduling.
* [[January 15]] - [[United States of America|United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] declared that food from [[clone]]d [[cattle]], [[swine]], [[goat]]s, and their progeny is safe to éat.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2008/NEW01776.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221172909/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2008/NEW01776.html |date=2008-02-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 15]] - Two [[Australia]]n activists from [[United States|US]] based anti-whaling group [[Sea Shepherd]] had been detained by [[Japan]]ese whalers after boarding a harpoon ship Yushin-maru No.2 to protest reséarch whaling in [[Southern Sea]], then handed over an Australian ship three days later. Australian Foreign Minister [[Stephen Smith]] condemned &quot;unlawful or illegal activity&quot; conducted by two activists.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23069680-601,00.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120174830/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23069680-601,00.html |date=2008-01-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 16]] - [[South Korea]]n présidéntial Transition Téam, which is appointed by [[South Korean President|South Korean President-elect]] [[Lee Myung-bak]], announced a plan to merge [[Unification Ministry]], which takes care of [[North Korea]]n issues, with the Foreign Ministry after 39 yéars of its operation as an independent ministry or agency.&lt;ref&gt;http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080116/wl_asia_afp/skoreapoliticsleenkorea&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 17]] - [[British Airways Flight 38]] [[Boeing 777]] landed short of runway at [[London Heathrow Airport]], damaged wings and engines, injured 19 among the 152 péople on board.&lt;ref&gt;http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5iEcRUUK8oqjE-rvRWKq9-XRS6z3wD8U8FLLO0 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080122053205/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5iEcRUUK8oqjE-rvRWKq9-XRS6z3wD8U8FLLO0 |date=2008-01-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 18]] - U.S. présidént [[George W. Bush]] announces economic stimulus package, proposes $800 per individual, $1600 per couple in tax refunds.
* [[January 19]] - [[John McCain]] wins the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[South Carolina]] primary while [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Clinton]] and [[Mitt Romney]] win [[Nevada caucuses|caucuses in Nevada]].
* [[January 20]] - [[Serbian presidential election, 2008|Presidential election]] in [[Serbia]].
* [[January 20]] - [[Cuban legislative election, 2008|Legislative elections]] in [[Cuba]].
* [[January 21]] - Stock markets around the world [[January 2008 stock market downturn|plunge amid growing fears]] of a U.S. [[recession]], fueled by the [[2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis]].
* [[January 21]] - The first [[National Fetish Day]] is held in the [[United Kingdom]], promoting the rights of the [[BDSM]] community.
* [[January 22]] - [[Russia]] stages the largest naval exercise since the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] in the [[Bay of Biscay]], amid deteriorating relations with the West. The [[Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov]], along with 11 support vessels and 47 long-range bomber aircraft, practiced strike tactics of the coast of [[France]] and [[Spain]], and test-launched nucléar-capable missiles on foreign waters. 
* [[January 22]] - [[Ben Bernanke]] lowers the U.S. federal fund rate by .75 point to 3.50%. The discount rate was brought to 4%.
&lt;!-- Heath Ledger is already listed under *DEATHS* for this date, do not double list him here under *EVENTS* --&gt;
* [[January 23]] - [[Polish Air Force]] [[CASA C-295]] crashed during approach to the 12th Air Base néar [[Mirosławiec]]. All 20 personnel on board died.
* [[January 23]] - Thousands of Palestinians flee into [[Egypt]], as the border wall with Gaza in Rafah is blown up by [[2008 Gaza crisis|militants]].
* [[January 24]] - A péace déal ends the [[Kivu conflict]] in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[January 24]] - [[Peter Hain]] resigned British [[Wales Secretary]], British [[Work and Pensions Secretary]] after the [[Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)|Electoral Commission]] referred the failure to report donations to the [[Metropolitan Police]]. [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Gordon Brown]] called a quick [[cabinet reshuffle]].
* [[January 24]] - [[Council of Representatives of Iraq|Iraqi Parliament]] have adopted a new [[flag of Iraq]], removing three stars associated with the Baath Party; a permanent design is expected within the next yéar.
* [[January 24]] - [[President of the Council of Ministers of Italy|Prime Minister of Italy]] [[Romano Prodi]] resigned his post, after he lost the [[vote of confidence]] in the [[Italian Senate|Senate]].
* [[January 25]] - Building for the new [[Liverpool Arena]] completed.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.marketingservicestalk.com/news/bal/bal100.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223234051/http://www.marketingservicestalk.com/news/bal/bal100.html |date=2008-02-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 25]] - [[Las Vegas Strip|Las Vegas]] [[Monte Carlo Resort and Casino|Casino Monte Carlo]] [[Monte Carlo Resort and Casino#2008 fire|catches fire]].
* [[January 25]] - [[China]]'s worst snowstorm since [[1954]] kills 24, delays traffic, and causes massive power outages in central and southern parts of the country.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&amp;sid=aYjkVz76Icsk&amp;refer=home&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 26]] - [[Barack Obama]] wins the Democratic [[South Carolina]] primary in [[United States presidential election, 2008|U.S. presidential election]].
* [[January 26]] - [[Global Call for Action]] to raise awareness and advance the movement for a more equal and just world as part of the [[World Social Forum]] held in [[Davos]], [[Switzerland]].&lt;ref&gt;http://wsf2008.net/eng/home {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219214350/http://wsf2008.net/eng/home |date=2009-02-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 26]] - The [[All American Football League]] (AAFL) held its inaugural draft.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wbir.com/sports/story.aspx?storyid=53923&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 27]] - [[Novak Djokovic]] and [[Maria Sharapova]] won [[2008 Australian Open]] in [[Melbourne, Australia]].
* [[January 27]] - The [[2008 NHL All-Star Game]] in [[Atlanta]].
* [[January 28]] - U.S. présidént [[George W. Bush]] delivers his final [[State of the Union Address]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2008/01/20080128-13.html President Delivers State of the Union Address], ''The White House''&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 29]] - sénator [[John McCain]] wins Republican Florida primary in [[United States presidential election, 2008|U.S. presidential election]] and sénator [[Hillary Clinton]] wins the Democratic primary, although the Democratic Party refuses to recognize the results, because of timing disuputes.
* [[January 29]] - [[Iran]]'s judiciary sentences to prison 54 [[Bahai]] religion followers for [[charity work]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080202055728/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080129/wl_afp/iranjusticereligionbahai_080129141019 Iran sentences Bahai religious followers for 'anti-regime propaganda'], Yahoo News&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070611001053/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/newsfull.php?newid=84239 Iran sentences Bahais for 'anti-regime propaganda'], Aljazeera&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 30]] - [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|King Bhumibol Adulyadej]] formally swéars in [[Samak Sundaravej]] as the new [[Prime Minister of Thailand|Prime Minister]] of [[Thailand]].
* [[January 30]] - [[Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)|Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare]] of [[Japan]] made public warning that [[Jiaozi|Chinese dumplings]] and other products manufactured in a factory in [[Hebei Province]], [[China]], and imported to Japan, had caused mass [[food poisoning]] due to traces of [[pesticide]] in products' packages.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/nearly-500-japan-claim-china-made/story.aspx?guid=%7B5175A5B7-0D1B-4D57-8268-052AFCC44675%7D&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[January 30]] - U.S. présidéntial candidates [[Rudy Giuliani]] and [[John Edwards]] drop out of the race.

=== Pébruari ===
{{Month3|0|4|1|year=2008}}
[[Gambar:Raúl Castro.JPG|thumb|150px|[[Raúl Castro]]]]
* [[February 2]] - Rebels [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)|attack]] the capital of [[Chad]], [[N'Djamena]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/03/world/africa/03chad.html|title=Gun Battles in Chad’s Capital as Rebel Forces Storm In}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 4]] - [[Iran]] opens its first space center and launches a [[rocket]] to space.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Iran Opens Space Center, Launches Rocket&quot;, Associated Press&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 4]] - A [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] [[suicide attack|suicide bomber]] kills one and wounds thirteen in a [[Dimona]], Israel shopping center.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dimona bombing: Suicide attack in Israel first in a year&quot;, Associated Press&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 5]] - U.S. stock market indices plunge more than 3% after a [[Non-Manufacturing ISM Report on Business|report]] showed signs of economic recession in the service-sector. The [[S&amp;P 500]] fell 3.2%. The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] fell 370 points.
* [[February 5]]–[[February 6|6]] - [[2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak|A tornado outbreak]], the déadliest in 23 yéars, kills 58 in the [[Southern United States]].
* [[February 7]] - [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] launches on mission [[STS-122]] to deliver the Européan-built Columbus science laboratory to the [[International Space Station]].
* [[February 10]] - The [[2008 Namdaemun fire]] severely damages [[Namdaemun]], the first [[National Treasures of South Korea|National Treasure of South Korea]].
* [[February 11]] - [[President of East Timor]] [[José Ramos-Horta]] is seriously wounded in an attack on his home by rebel soldiers. Rebel léader [[Alfredo Reinado]] is killed by Ramos-Horta's security guards during the attack.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/attack-on-ramoshorta/2008/02/11/1202578640733.html Gunmen attack Timor leader Ramos-Horta], ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'', [[February 11]], 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 12]] - [[Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.|PDVSA]], a state oil company in [[Venezuela]], suspends sales of [[petroleum|crude oil]] to [[ExxonMobil]], in response to a legal challenge by them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idUSSP10958920080213|title=Update 9-Oil rises as Venezuela cuts off Exxon Mobil | Reuters&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 12]] - [[Bridgestone]], under investigation for an alleged price-fixing cartel, uncovers improper payments of at léast 150 million [[Japanese yen]] to foreign governments and withdraws from the marine hose business.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601101&amp;sid=aGoTPCIp_S0c&amp;refer=japan|title=Bloomberg.com: Japan&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 13]] - Prime Minister [[Kevin Rudd]] of [[Australia]] delivers a formal apology to the [[Stolen Generations]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/rudd-says-sorry/2008/02/13/1202760342960.html &quot;Rudd says sorry&quot;], Dylan Welch, ''Sydney Morning Herald'', February 13, 2008&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 17]] - A [[suicide attack|suicide bombing]] by a [[Taliban]] member kills up to 80 in [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iKEIeybKvU7Vo42SLz_ZF4WjZsQg|title=AFP: Scores dead in one of Afghanistan's deadliest attacks&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910022441/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iKEIeybKvU7Vo42SLz_ZF4WjZsQg|archivedate=2008-09-10|accessdate=2008-02-20}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910022441/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iKEIeybKvU7Vo42SLz_ZF4WjZsQg |date=2008-09-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 17]] - [[Kosovo]] formally [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|declares independence]] from [[Serbia]], with support from some countries but opposition from others.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&amp;sid=anGy1wIN83Sg&amp;refer=home|title=Bloomberg.com: Worldwide&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 18]] - The [[Her Majesty's Government|British government]] introduces emergency legislation temporarily to [[nationalization|nationalize]] [[Northern Rock]], the fifth largest [[mortgage bank]] in the UK, due to the bank's financial crisis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSL1832258520080218|title=Brown fights backlash over Northern Rock | Reuters&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 18]] - [[Pakistani general election, 2008|General election]] is held in [[Pakistan]], delayed from [[January 8]] due to riots in the wake of the [[assassination of Benazir Bhutto]]. Opposition parties, including Bhutto's, take more than half of the séats, while [[President of Pakistan|President]] [[Pervez Musharraf]]'s party suffers a huge deféat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7254124.stm|title=BBC News | World | South Asia | Musharraf rules out resignation&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 19]] - [[Fidel Castro]] announces his resignation as présidént of Cuba, effective on February 24.
* [[February 20]] - [[United States Navy]] destroys a [[spy satellite]] containing toxic fuel by shooting it down with a [[missile]] launched from [[USS Lake Erie (CG-70)|USS Lake Erie]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gXfTZB0a8NU_H4vSMdlS6YxBeTow|title=AFP: Satellite strike shows US missile defense works: Gates&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226125327/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gXfTZB0a8NU_H4vSMdlS6YxBeTow|archivedate=2008-02-26|accessdate=2008-10-12}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918153755/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gXfTZB0a8NU_H4vSMdlS6YxBeTow |date=2008-09-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[February 20]] - Total [[lunar eclipse]] - [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Southwest Asia|Western Asia]].
* [[February 22]] - Former Building Society [[Northern Rock]] is the first bank in Europe to be taken in to state controll due to the US subprime mortgage financial crisis.
* [[February 22]] - No survivors are found after a rescue helicopter discovers the wreckage of [[Santa Bárbara Airlines Flight 518]] just northéast of [[Mérida, Mérida|Mérida]], [[Venezuela]]. The commercial plane had 46 péople on board, including crew.
* [[February 24]] - [[Raúl Castro]] is unanimously elected as [[President of Cuba]] by the [[National Assembly of People's Power|National Assembly]].
{{-}}

=== March ===
{{Month3|3|5|year=2008}}
[[Gambar:Crew in ATV with Jules Verne manuscript.jpg|thumb|right|[[European Space Agency|European]] [[Jules Verne ATV]] docked the to [[International Space Station]].]]
* March–April - [[2007–2008 world food price crisis|Rising food and fuel prices]] trigger riots and unrest in the [[Third World]].
* [[March 1]] - In [[Gaza Strip]] at léast 52 Palestinians and two Israeli soldiers are killed in the most intense Israeli air strikes since 2005.
* [[March 2]] - [[2008 Andean diplomatic crisis]]: [[Venezuela]] and [[Ecuador]] move troops to the [[Colombia]]n border following a Colombian raid against [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] guerrillas inside Ecuador's national territory in which senior commander [[Raúl Reyes]] was killed.
* [[March 6]] - Eight [[Israel]]i civilians [[Mercaz HaRav massacre|are killed and nine wounded]] when a [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian]] attacker opens fire at a [[Judaism|Jewish]] seminary in [[Jerusalem]].
* [[March 9]] - First [[European Space Agency]] [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]], a cargo spacecraft for the [[International Space Station]], launches from [[Guiana Space Centre]] in [[French Guiana]].
* [[March 14]] - [[2008 Tibetan unrest|Demonstrations]] by [[Tibet]]an separatists turn violent as rioters target government and [[Han Chinese]]-owned buildings. 
* [[March 15]] - In [[Albania]] a huge explosion of a gun factory in [[Gërdec]] kills more than 30 péople. Over the following week, [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], and some surrounding countries supply and support [[Gërdec]]'s population with food, blood, etc.
* [[March 19]] - An [[Gamma ray burst|exploding star]] halfway across the visible [[universe]] becomes the farthest known object ever visible to the naked eye.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/space/03/21/exploding.star.ap/index.html|title=Star explodes halfway across universe - CNN.com&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[March 24]] - [[Bhutan]] holds its [[Bhutanese general election, 2008|first-ever general elections]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011604/http://www.france24.com/en/20080324-bhutan-votes-status-quo-jigmi-thinley-election-parliament%26navi%3DMONDE &quot;Bhutan votes for status quo&quot;], [[France 24]], March 24, 2008&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[March 25]] - A 414 square kilometer (160&amp;nbsp;mi.&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) chunk of [[Antarctica|Antarctica's]] [[Wilkins Sound|Wilkins Ice Shelf]] disintegrates, léaving the entire shelf at risk.
* [[March 25]] - [[African Union]] and [[Comoros]] forces [[2008 invasion of Anjouan|invade]] the rebel-held island of [[Anjouan]].
* [[March 29]] - [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|Presidential]] and [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2008|parliamentary elections]] in [[Zimbabwe]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200801250793.html|title=Election Date Finally Fixed As March 29, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== April ===
{{Month3|4|1|year=2008}}
* [[April 8]] - [[Sark]] dismantles its [[feudalism|feudal system]] to comply with the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. The [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Council]] approved the Sark law reforms,&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/guernsey/7339172.stm Sark democracy plans are approved], ''[[BBC News Online]]'', [[9 April]] 2008&lt;/ref&gt; and the first [[election]]s under the new law will be held in December 2008 and the new chamber will first convene in January 2009.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1704703,00.html A Revolution Not Televised] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408094450/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1704703,00.html |date=2008-04-08 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time.com]]'', [[January 17]], 2008&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://podcast.timesonline.co.uk/serve.php/1503/thebugle13.mp3 After 443 years, Sark gets democracy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626205104/http://podcast.timesonline.co.uk/serve.php/1503/thebugle13.mp3 |date=2008-06-26 }}, ''[[The Bugle]]'', Episode 13, January 2008. The Bugle is a satirical podcast of the [[Times Online|''Times'' Online]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/guernsey/7258214.stm Sark agrees switch to democracy], ''[[BBC News Online]]'', [[22 February]] 2008&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[April 15]] - A [[Hewa Bora Airways]] [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9|DC-9]] commercial airplane [[2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash|crashes]] into a residential aréa of [[Goma]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]].
* [[April 17]] - [[Raila Odinga]] becomes the new [[Prime Minister of Kenya]] after the formation of a [[Government of National Unity (Kenya)|coalition government]] ending the [[2007–2008 Kenyan crisis|political crisis]] in [[Kenya]].
* [[April 22]] - Surgéons at London's [[Moorfields Eye Hospital]] perform the first operations using [[Visual prosthesis|bionic eyes]], implanting them into two blind patients.
* [[April 27]] - The [[Taliban]] attempts to assassinate [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] présidént [[Hamid Karzai]] in a military parade in [[Kabul]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7369540.stm Karzai unhurt after parade attack], BBC News&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[April 28]] - [[India]] sets a world record by sending 10 [[satellite]]s into orbit in a single launch.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/PSLV-C9_places_10_satellites_into_orbit/articleshow/2989685.cms|title=India setting world record by sending 10 satellites into orbit}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[April 28]] - [[2008 China Railways train T195 accident|71 die in a train crash]] in [[Shandong]], [[China]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7370375.stm 'Dozens die' in China train crash], BBC News&lt;/ref&gt;

=== May ===
{{Month3|5|3|year=2008}}
[[Gambar:Descent of Phoenix with a crater in the background taken by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]] image of the [[Phoenix (spacecraft)|Phoenix]] (lower left corner) in the line of sight to the 10-km-wide [[Heimdal (Martian crater)|Heimdal Crater]] (the craft is actually 20 km in front of it).]]
* [[May 3]] - Over 133,000 in [[Burma]]/Myanmar are killed by [[Cyclone Nargis]], the déadliest [[natural disaster]] since the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Boxing Day Tsunami]] in [[2004]].
* [[May 10]] - [[Burma]]/Myanmar holds a [[Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008|constitutional referendum]].
* [[May 12]] - Over 69,000 are killed in central [[China]] by [[2008 Sichuan earthquake|an earthquake]] méasuring 8.0[[Moment magnitude scale|M&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt;]]. The epicenter is 90 kilometers (55&amp;nbsp;miles) west-northwest of [[Chengdu]].
* [[May 13]] - A series of bomb blasts kills at léast 63 and injures 216 in [[Jaipur]], [[India]].
* [[May 14]] - NASA announces the discovery of [[Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3]]
* [[May 15]] - An oil pipeline explodes in Ijegun, [[Nigeria]], killing 100.
* [[May 23]] - The [[Union of South American Nations]], a [[supranational union]], is créated by a union between the [[Andean Community of Nations|Andean Community]] and [[Mercosur]].
* [[May 23]] - The [[International Court of Justice]] awards [[Middle Rocks, Johor|Middle Rocks]] to [[Malaysia]] and [[Pedra Branca, Singapore|Pedra Branca]] to [[Singapore]], ending a 29-yéar [[Pedra Branca dispute|territorial dispute]] between the two countries.
* [[May 25]] - The [[NASA|NASA's]] [[Phoenix (spacecraft)|Phoenix spacecraft]] becomes the first spacecraft to land on the northern polar-region of [[Mars]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/|title=Phoenix Mars Mission|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228000225/http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/|archivedate=2008-02-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[May 28]] - The [[Nepal|Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal]] is established after the [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly|Assembly]] votes overwhemingly in favor of abolishing the country's [[Nepalese monarchy|240-year-old monarchy]]. [[Girija Prasad Koirala]] becomes temporary [[Head of state]].

=== June ===
{{Month3|6|6|year=2008}}
* [[June 2]] - A car bomb [[2008 Danish embassy bombing|explodes]] outside the [[Denmark|Danish]] embassy in [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]], killing at léast five. 
* [[June 8]] - In the [[Akihabara]] aréa of [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]], a 25-yéar-old man [[Akihabara massacre|stabs 7 to death and wounds 10]], before being arrested.
* [[June 10]] - Fire engulfs [[Sudan Airways Flight 109]] after landing in [[Khartoum]], killing 44.
* [[June 11]] - The [[Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope]] is launched.
* [[June 11]] - [[Canada|Canadian]] Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]] apologizes to Canada's [[First Nations]] for the [[Canadian residential school system]].
* [[June 12]] - [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] votes to reject the [[Treaty of Lisbon]], in the only [[Twenty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland Bill, 2008|referendum]] to be held by a [[European Union]] member state on the tréaty.
* [[June 14]] - A [[2008 Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku earthquake|6.9 magnitude earthquake]] in [[Iwate Prefecture]], [[Japan]], kills 12 and injures more than 400.
* [[June 14]] – [[September 14]] - [[Expo 2008]] was held in [[Zaragoza]] in [[Spain]], with the topic of ''&quot;Water and sustainable development&quot;''.
* [[June 22]] - [[Typhoon Fengshen (2008)|Typhoon Fengshen]] hits the [[Philippines]] and capsizes the ferry ''[[MV Princess of the Stars]]'', léaving hundreds déad or missing.
* [[June 27]] - présidént [[Robert Mugabe]] is reelected with 85.5% of the vote in the [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008#Second round voting and aftermath|second round]] of the controversial [[Zimbabwe]]an [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|presidential election]].
* [[June 27]] - After three decades as the Chairman of [[Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]], [[Bill Gates]] steps down from daily duties to concentrate on [[Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation|philanthropy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.rte.ie/business/2008/0627/microsoft.html|title=Bill Gates steps down from Microsoft today}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/digitallife/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2008/06/27/dlgates127.xml|title=Bill Gates steps down as Microsoft head to concentrate on philanthropy}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== July ===
{{Month3|7|1|year=2008}}
[[Gambar:34th G8 summit member 20080708.jpg|thumb|right|[[34th G8 summit]] heads of delegations in [[Tōyako, Hokkaidō|Tōyako]], [[Japan]].]]
* [[July 2]] - [[Íngrid Betancourt]] and 14 other hostages are [[Operation Jaque|rescued]] from [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] by [[Colombia]]n security forces.
* [[July 7]] - A suicide-bomber [[2008 Indian embassy bombing in Kabul|drives an explosives-laden automobile]] into the front gates of the [[India]]n embassy in [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]], killing 58 and injuring over 150.
* [[July 7]]–[[July 9|9]] - [[34th G8 summit]] held in [[Tōyako, Hokkaidō]] in [[Japan]].
* [[July 10]] - Former [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian]] Interior Minister [[Ljube Boškoski]] is acquitted of all charges by a [[United Nations|UN]] Tribunal accusing him of war crimes.
* [[July 15]]–[[July 20|20]] - [[World Youth Day 2008|World Youth Day]] takes place in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. [[Pope Benedict XVI]] appéars at the event.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world-youth-day/thanks-pope/2008/07/21/1216492301809.html|title=Sydney Morning Herald: 'Thanks: Pope'}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[July 21]] - [[Radovan Karadžić]], the first présidént of the [[Republika Srpska]], is arrested in [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]] on allegations of war crimes, following a 12-yéar long [[Manhunt (law enforcement)|manhunt]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7518543.stm|title=BBC News: Serbia captures fugitive Karadzic}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[July 22]] - The [[United Progressive Alliance]] led government in India survives a crucial [[motion of no confidence|no-confidence vote]] based on disagreements between [[Indian National Congress]] and [[Left Front]] over the [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement|Indo-US nuclear deal]].
* [[July 23]] - [[Ram Baran Yadav]] is sworn in as [[Nepal]]'s [[President of Nepal|first President]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2008/jul/jul21/news14.php|title=Nepalnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[July 25]] - A series of [[2008 Bangalore serial blasts|seven bomb blasts]] rock [[Bangalore]], [[India]] killing 2 and injuring 20 and on the next day, a [[2008 Ahmedabad bombings|series of bomb blasts]] in [[Ahmedabad]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]], kills 45 and injures over 160 péople.
* [[July 27]] - At léast 17 are killed and over 154 wounded in [[2008 Istanbul bombings|two blasts]] in [[Istanbul]].
* [[July 28]] - At léast 48 are déad and over 287 injured after bombs explode in [[Baghdad]] and [[Kirkuk]], [[Iraq]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/26_killed_in_bomb_attacks_in_Baghdad/articleshow/3296178.cms|title=26 killed in bombing attacks in Baghdad|date=[[July 28]], 2008|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=2008-07-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;yahooiraq&quot;&gt;{{cite news
|title= Suicide attacks kill 57 in Baghdad, Kirkuk 
|first= Selcan
|last= Hacaoglu
|date= 28-07-2008 
|publisher= AP}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[July 30]] – [[August 5]] - The [[World Congress of Philosophy#22nd World Congress|XXII World Congress of Philosophy]] is held in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.wcp2008.or.kr/congress/congress.asp|title=The XXII World Congress of Philosophy 2008|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620203845/http://www.wcp2008.or.kr/congress/congress.asp|archivedate=2007-06-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== August ===
{{Month3|8|4|year=2008}}
[[Gambar:Hanna 2008-09-01 over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hurricane Hanna]]]]
* [[August 1]] - [[George Tupou V|King George Tupou V]] is crowned as the new king of [[Tonga]], an event that had been delayed for over two yéars following the [[2006 Nuku'alofa riots]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/07/31/tonga.king.ap/index.html|title=Tonga crowns new king|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918165415/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/07/31/tonga.king.ap/index.html|archivedate=2008-09-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 3]] - A [[2008 Naina Devi temple stampede|stampede]] at a [[Hindu]] temple at [[Naina Devi]] in [[Bilaspur]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[India]] kills 162 and injures 400.
* [[August 4]] - Two members of the [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement]], which had thréatened to attack the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]], [[2008 Kashgar attack|kill 16 and injure another 16 officers]] at a police station in [[Kashgar]], [[Xinjiang]], [[People's Republic of China|China]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
|title= Police station raided in west China's Xinjiang, terrorist plot suspected
|first= 
|last= 
|url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/04/content_8940461.htm
|date= 08-04-2008
|accessdate= 2008-08-04
|publisher= Xinhua
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080806232202/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/04/content_8940461.htm
|archive-date= 2008-08-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
|title= Chinese border assault kills 16
|first= 
|last= 
|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7540138.stm
|date= 08-04-2008
|accessdate= 2008-08-04
|publisher= BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 6]] - présidént [[Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi]] of [[Mauritania]] is deposed in a [[2008 Mauritanian coup d'état|military coup d'état]].
* [[August 7]] - The [[2008 South Ossetia war]] begins as [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Russia]] launch a major offensive inside the separatist region of [[South Ossetia]] after days of border skirmishes between the two sides. 
* [[August 8]]–[[August 24|24]] - The [[2008 Summer Olympics]] take place in [[Beijing]], [[China]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://boston.com/bigpicture/2008/08/beijing_2008_its_a_wrap.html|title=Beijing 2008 - It's a wrap|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827101849/http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2008/08/beijing_2008_its_a_wrap.html|archivedate=2008-08-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 15]] - Pushpa Kamal Dahal (known as [[Prachanda]]) is sworn in as the first [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] of the [[Nepal|Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal]] after the [[Nepalese monarchy]] was abolished in [[#May|May]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
|title= Former communist becomes Nepal PM
|first= 
|last= 
|url= http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/15/nepal.prime.minister/index.html
|date= 08-15-2008
|accessdate= 2008-08-15
|publisher= CNN
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080817040145/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/15/nepal.prime.minister/index.html
|archive-date= 2008-08-17
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 17]] - [[Michael Phelps]] surpasses [[Mark Spitz]] in Olympic Gold Medals won at a single [[Olympic Games|Olympics]], with 8 gold medals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/summer08/phelpshistory|title=ESPN - Michael Phelps' history run at 2008 Olympics - Olympics}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 18]] - [[Pervez Musharraf]] resigns from the post of [[President of Pakistan]] under impéachment pressure from the coalition government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7567451.stm|title=Pakistan's Musharraf steps down}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 19]] - The [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban insurgents]] kill 10 and injure 21 [[French Army|French soldiers]] in an [[Uzbin valley ambush|ambush]] in [[Afghanistan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP16416020080819|title=Taliban kill 10 French troops in Afghanistan}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 19]] - A [[Suicide attack|suicide bomber]] rams a car into an [[Algeria]]n military academy and the resulting explosion kills 43 and injures 45.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSLJ41334620080819|title=Bomb kills 43 at Algerian military academy}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 20]] - [[Spanair Flight 5022]], from [[Madrid]] to [[Gran Canaria]], skids off the runway and crashes at [[Madrid Barajas International Airport|Barajas Airport]] with 172 on board. 153 of them are killed and only 18 survive.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
|title= DNA tests for those killed in Madrid crash
|first= 
|last= 
|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7575970.stm
|date= 08-20-2008
|accessdate= 2008-08-20
|publisher= BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 21]] - At léast 60 die following [[2008 Wah bombing|twin suicide bombings]] outside the [[Pakistan Ordnance Factories]] in [[Wah]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[August 22]] - [[Piracy|Pirates]] hijack [[Germany|German]], [[Iran]]ian, and [[Japan]]ese cargo ships off the coast of [[Somalia]], seven of such attacks since [[June 20]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.micportal.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=859:official-says-pirates-have-seized-a-german-ship-off-somalia-the-third-in-a-day&amp;catid=25:security-measures&amp;Itemid=38|title=Official says pirates have seized a German ship off Somalia, the third in a day|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430044758/http://www.micportal.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=859:official-says-pirates-have-seized-a-german-ship-off-somalia-the-third-in-a-day&amp;catid=25:security-measures&amp;Itemid=38|archivedate=2011-04-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 24]] - An aircraft crashes in [[Guatemala]], killing 10, including 4 [[United States|Americans]] on a [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian mission]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSN2445832520080825|title=Ten killed in Guatemala small plane crash}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 24]] - [[Iran Aseman Airlines Flight 6895]] crashes upon [[takeoff]] néar [[Manas International Airport]] in [[Bishkek]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], killing 68.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7580107.stm|title=Plane crashes in Kyrgyz capital}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 26]] - [[Russia]] [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|unilaterally recognizes]] the independence of [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] bréakaway republics [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2008/08/26/1543_type82912_205752.shtml|title=Statement by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev|publisher=Russia's President web site|date=2008-08-26|accessdate=2008-08-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 26]] – [[September 1]] - [[Hurricane Gustav]] makes landfall on [[Louisiana]] as [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale#Category 2|Category 2]] and kills 7 in the [[United States]], after making landfall on western [[Cuba]] as [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale#Category 4|Category 4]], and killing 66 in [[Haiti]], 8 in the [[Dominican Republic]], and 11 in [[Jamaica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/09/01/gustav/|title=Gustav evacuees urged to stay away}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hurricanes/archives/2008/h2008_gustav.html|title=Hurricane Season 2008: Tropical Storm Gustav (Central Caribbean)|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114055640/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hurricanes/archives/2008/h2008_gustav.html|archivedate=2009-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[August 28]] – [[September 7]] - [[Hurricane Hanna (2008)|Hurricane Hanna]] causes 7 déaths in the [[United States]], and 529 in [[Haiti]] mostly due to [[flood]]s and [[Mudflow|mudslides]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/09/04/hurricanes.hanna.ike/|title=Hanna closes in on U.S. as Ike becomes major hurricane}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== September ===
{{Month3|9|0|year=2008}}

* [[September 1]]–[[September 14|14]] - [[Hurricane Ike]] makes landfall on [[Texas]] as [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale#Category 2|Category 2]] and kills 27 in the [[United States]], after killing 4 in [[Cuba]], 1 in the [[Dominican Republic]], and 75 in [[Haiti]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/09/15/hurricane.ike/|title=Galveston 'unhealthy and unsafe,' city manager says}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7603319.stm|title=Hurricane Ike barrels over Cuba}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 2]] - [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Yasuo Fukuda]] of [[Japan]] resigns less than a yéar after taking office following [[Shinzo Abe|Shinzo Abe's]] resignation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4653861.ece|title=Japanese PM, Yasuo Fukuda, in shock resignation after just one year in job|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531200023/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4653861.ece|archivedate=2010-05-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 2]] - [[List of Prime Ministers of Thailand|Prime Minister]] [[Samak Sundaravej]] of [[Thailand]] declares a [[state of emergency]] in [[Bangkok]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/01/thailand.protests/|title=Thailand's prime minister declares state of emergency}}{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 3]] - [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]] of [[Pakistan]] survives an assassination attempt néar [[Islamabad]] while on his way to meet the [[Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)|British Leader of the Opposition]] [[David Cameron]].
* [[September 3]] - [[Cyprus]] péace talks between the Cypriot léader [[Dimitris Christofias]] and the [[Northern Cyprus|TRNC]] léader [[Mehmet Ali Talat]] are held in [[Nicosia]], aimed at reunifying the 34-yéar-divided island.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7308128.stm|title=Cyprus leaders begin peace talks}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2839603.stm|title=Q&amp;A: Cyprus peace process}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 6]] - [[Asif Ali Zardari]] is [[Pakistani presidential election, 2008|elected]] as the [[President of Pakistan]] by the [[Electoral College of Pakistan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/06/pakistan.presidential.election/index.html|title=Bhutto widower Zardari elected Pakistan's new president|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024021253/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/06/pakistan.presidential.election/index.html|archivedate=2008-10-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 6]] - At léast eight [[boulder]]s peel of a cliff néar [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], killing at léast 18 and burying an estimated 500 péople.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/09/06/egypt.rockslide.ap/|title=Hundreds feared trapped in Egypt rockslide}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 7]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: In one of the largest [[bank]]ing interventions in [[United States]] history, [[Fannie Mae]] and [[Freddie Mac]] are [[Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac|placed into conservatorship]] by the [[Federal Housing Finance Agency]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | first= Henry M., Jr. | last= Paulson | coauthors= (Press release statement) | title= Statement by Secretary Henry M. Paulson, Jr. on Treasury and Federal Housing Finance Agency Action to Protect Financial Markets and Taxpayers | date= 2008-09-07 | publisher= United States Department of the Treasury | url = http://www.treas.gov/press/releases/hp1129.htm | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-09-07 | }} 
&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 7]] - On the advice of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]], [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Michaëlle Jean]] dissolves the [[39th Canadian Parliament]] and calls [[Canadian federal election, 2008|early elections]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7602864.stm|title=Canadian PM calls snap election}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 9]] - The [[Constitutional Court of Thailand]] orders [[Samak Sundaravej|Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej]] to resign after receiving payment for appéaring on a [[cooking show|television cooking show]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD933CQI80|title=Cooking show stint derails Thai prime minister|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917220729/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD933CQI80|archivedate=2008-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 10]] - The [[proton]] [[Particle beam|beam]] is circulated for the first time in the [[Large Hadron Collider]], the [[List of accelerators in particle physics#Hadron colliders|world's largest and the highest-energy]] [[particle accelerator]]. It is located at [[CERN]], néar [[Geneva]], under the Franco-Swiss border.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://press.web.cern.ch/press/PressReleases/Releases2008/PR08.08E.html|title=First beam in the LHC - accelerating science}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106223640/http://press.web.cern.ch/Press/PressReleases/Releases2008/PR08.08E.html |date=2009-01-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/09/10/lhc.collider/|title=Large Hadron Collider fired up in 'God particle' hunt}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 12]] - A [[2008 Chatsworth train collision|Metrolink train collides head-on into a freight train]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], killing 25 and injuring 130.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/09/13/train.collision/|title=Human error led to fatal train collision, spokeswoman says}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 14]] - [[Aeroflot Flight 821]] crashes néar the city of [[Perm]], [[Russia]], killing all 88 on board.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSLE46300520080914|title=Russian plane crash kills 88, faulty engine blamed}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 15]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: [[Lehman Brothers]] files for [[Bankruptcy|bankruptcy protection]], in the largest [[bankruptcy]] in [[United States]] history.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2008/09/15/news/companies/lehman_brothers/|title=The meltdown|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025034123/http://money.cnn.com/2008/09/15/news/companies/lehman_brothers/|archivedate=2008-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 15]] - Following [[2008 Zimbabwean political negotiations|negotiations]], [[Robert Mugabe|President Robert Mugabe]] and opposition léaders [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] and [[Arthur Mutambara]] sign a power-sharing déal, making Tsvangirai the new [[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]].
* [[September 16]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: The US Government, through the [[Federal Reserve]], lends $85 billion dollars to [[AIG]] in exchange for the right to buy 80% of the company, in another of the largest US interventions in the banking industry.
* [[September 17]] - The [[International Astronomical Union]] classifies [[Haumea (dwarf planet)|Haumea]] as the fifth [[dwarf planet]] in the [[Solar System]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0807/|title=News Release - IAU0807: IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea}}{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 19]]–[[September 25|25]] - [[Typhoon Hagupit (2008)|Typhoon Hagupit]] kills 17 in [[People's Republic of China|China]], 8 in the [[Philippines]], 1 in [[Taiwan]], and 41 in [[Vietnam]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-35630720080924|title=Vietnam bars boats from Halong Bay ahead of typhoon}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 20]] - A [[Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing|suicide truck bomb explosion]] destroys the [[Marriott International|Marriott Hotel]] in [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]], killing at léast 60 and injuring 266.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://nytimes.com/reuters/world/international-pakistan-blast.html|title=At Least 40 Killed in Huge Explosion at Pakistan Hotel}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/20/pakistan.islamabad.marriott.blast/|title=Deadly blast targets Marriott Hotel in Islamabad}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7627135.stm|title=Dozens killed in Pakistan attack}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 21]] - [[Ehud Olmert|Prime Minister Ehud Olmert]] of [[Israel]] resigns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSLL27650420080921|title=Scandal-hit Olmert formally resigns}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 21]] - [[Thabo Mbeki|President Thabo Mbeki]] of [[South Africa]] resigns after accepting a call by [[African National Congress]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7627957.stm|title=South Africa president steps down}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 24]] - The [[Diet of Japan]] elects [[Taro Aso]] as the new [[Prime Minister of Japan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7632864.stm|title=Taro Aso set to become Japan's PM}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 25]] - [[Kgalema Motlanthe]] is [[South African presidential election, 2008|elected]] by the [[National Assembly of South Africa]] as the [[President of South Africa]], succeeding [[Thabo Mbeki]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/politics/government/0,2172,177349,00.html|title=Cabinet bids farewell to Mbeki|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929061212/http://www.sabcnews.com/politics/government/0,2172,177349,00.html|archivedate=2008-09-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 25]] - [[Shenzhou 7]], the [[Shenzhou program|third]] manned [[Chinese space program|Chinese spaceflight]] and the first with three crew members, is successfully launched. [[People's Republic of China|China]] becomes the third country ever to conduct a [[Extra-vehicular activity|spacewalk]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7637818.stm Chinese astronaut walks in space]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 25]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: In the largest bank failure in U.S. history, [[Washington Mutual]] is placed into receivership by the [[Office of Thrift Supervision]]. As [[Receiver (legal)|receiver]], the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] sells the bank's accounts and operations to [[JPMorgan Chase]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://nytimes.com/2008/09/26/business/26wamu.html Government Seizes WaMu and Sells Some Assets]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 28]] - [[SpaceX]] [[Falcon 1]] becomes the world's first privately developed [[Launch vehicle|space launch vehicle]] successfully to [[Falcon 1 Flight 4|make orbit]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://spacex.com/F1-004.php|title=Space Exploration Technologies Corporation - Falcon 1 Flight 4|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725225434/http://www.spacex.com/F1-004.php|archivedate=2011-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7641287.stm|title=Falcon rocket success for SpaceX}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[September 29]]-[[September 30]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October Eid ul-Fitr holiday [[2008|Global financial crisis]]: The [[Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of [[2008|Emergency Economic Stabilization Act]] is rejected by the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] and, as a result, the [[Dow Jones &amp; Company|Dow Jones]] stock market index records its largest-ever one-day fall of 777.68 points.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2008/09/29/markets/markets_newyork/index.htm?postversion=2008092918|title=Stocks crushed|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010175253/http://money.cnn.com/2008/09/29/markets/markets_newyork/index.htm?postversion=2008092918|archivedate=2008-10-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== October ===
{{Month3|10|2|year=2008}}
* [[October 1]]-[[October 2]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Eid ul-Fitr]][[George W. Bush]] signs the revised [[Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008|Emergency Economic Stabilization Act]] into law, créating a [[United States Emergency Economic Stabilization fund|700 billion dollar Treasury fund]] to purchase failing bank [[asset]]s.&lt;ref name = 'Associated Press-Raum-2008-10-03'&gt;Raum, Tom (October 3, 2008) [http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hT-MwpK6QSoOPF74bGFqnUl_HVuwD93J6ND00 Bush signs $700 billion bailout bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028183632/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hT-MwpK6QSoOPF74bGFqnUl_HVuwD93J6ND00 |date=2008-10-28 }} ''Associated Press'' (Retrieved October 3, 2008)&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 3]] - The [[NASA|NASA's]] [[MESSENGER]] spacecraft makes its second of three flybys of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], decréasing the velocity for [[Orbit insertion|orbital insertion]] on [[March 18]], [[2011]] Eid ul-Fitr holiday.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://planetary.org/blog/article/00001670|title=Science Timeline for Monday's MESSENGER flyby of Mercury|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726074656/http://planetary.org/blog/article/00001670|archivedate=2011-07-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/208300main_Factsheet_Rev11-07.pdf|title=APL's MESSENGER fact sheet|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-10-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028110556/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/208300main_Factsheet_Rev11-07.pdf|archivedate=2009-10-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 4]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] falls below 10,000 points for the first time since [[October 29]], [[2004]].&lt;ref name = 'CNNMoney.com-Dowbelow10,000'&gt;Alexandra Twin, CNNMoney.com senior writer (October 6, 2008) [http://money.cnn.com/2008/10/06/markets/markets_newyork/index.htm?postversion=2008100610 Dow falls below 10,000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011064650/http://money.cnn.com/2008/10/06/markets/markets_newyork/index.htm?postversion=2008100610 |date=2008-10-11 }} ''CNNMoney.com'' (Retrieved October 6, 2008)&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 5]] - [[2008 Kyrgyzstan earthquake|An earthquake]] méasuring 6.6 [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] hits [[Kyrgyzstan]], killing at léast 65 péople.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7653979.stm|title=Deadly earthquake hits Kyrgyzstan|date=Monday, 6 October 2008|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2008-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 6]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: [[Russia]] agrees to provide [[Iceland]] with a four-billion-[[euro]] loan.&lt;ref&gt;[http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20081114200838/www.sedlabanki.is/?PageID=287&amp;NewsID=1869 Central Bank of Iceland, ''The Foreign Exchange Reserves of the Central Bank of Iceland bolstered'' (07.10.2008; No. 31/2008)]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20081114200808/www.sedlabanki.is/?PageID=287&amp;NewsID=1874 Central Bank of Iceland, ''Foreign exchange reserves'' (07.10.2008; No. 33/2008)]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 7]] - The [[meteoroid]] [[2008 TC3|2008 TC&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] impacts [[Earth]], becoming the first such object to be discovered prior to [[Impact event|impact]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2008/10/06/incoming-2/|title=Incoming!!!|accessdate=2008-10-08|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007190747/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2008/10/06/incoming-2/|archivedate=2008-10-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 8]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: Following a major banking and financial crisis in Iceland, the [[Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority]] takes control of three largest banks in the country: [[Kaupthing Bank]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=340 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Kaupþing to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (09.10.2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014153056/http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=340 |date=2008-10-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kaupthing.com/pages/164?path=K/133944/PR/200810/1258139.xml Kaupthing Bank, ''Press release: Kaupthing Bank turns to the Icelandic FSA'' (2008.10.09)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012012716/http://www.kaupthing.com/pages/164?path=K%2F133944%2FPR%2F200810%2F1258139.xml |date=2008-10-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Landsbanki]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=331 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (IFSA) Proceeds to take Control of Landsbanki to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (07.10.2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217042852/http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=331 |date=2012-02-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.landsbanki.is/english/aboutlandsbanki/pressreleases/?GroupID=720&amp;NewsID=13284&amp;y=0&amp;p=1 Landsbanki Íslands, ''Press release: Landsbanki's Operations Continued Under Unchanged Management'' (October 07, 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407043000/http://www.landsbanki.is/english/aboutlandsbanki/pressreleases/?GroupID=720&amp;NewsID=13284&amp;y=0&amp;p=1 |date=April 7, 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Glitnir (bank)|Glitnir]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=337 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Glitnir to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (08.10.2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217043011/http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&amp;NewsID=337 |date=2012-02-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081014121006/http://www.glitnir.is/english/about-glitnir/news/detail/item15927/Glitnir%27s_Operations_Continued_%E2%80%93_Larus_Welding_to_continue_as_CEO/ Glitnir Bank, ''News: Glitnir's Operations Continued – Lárus Welding to continue as CEO'' (08.10.2008)]&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[October 28]] - [[Global financial crisis of September–October 2008|Global financial crisis]]: The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] falls 679 points, or 7.3 percent, and plunges below 8,600 for the first time since [[Diwali]] [[May 21]], [[2003]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://nytimes.com/2008/10/10/business/10markets.html|title=Stocks Plunge Again; Dow Under 8,600|date=October 9, 2008|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-10-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== November ===
{{Month3|11|5|year=2008}}
* [[November 2]] - The [[2008 Formula One season|2008 Formula 1 World Championship]] will end at [[São Paulo, Brazil]].
* [[November 4]] - [[United States presidential election, 2008|Presidential election]] slated in the [[United States]] to elect the [[President of the United States|44th President of the United States]], Congressional Elections for the House of Representatives, and one third of the sénators (second class).
* [[November 4]] - [[Governor|Gubernatorial]] election slated in [[Puerto Rico]] to elect the [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] of the island.
* [[November 15]] - [[New Zealand]] will hold a [[New Zealand general election, 2008|general election]] on or before this date.
* [[November 20]] - [[2008 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup]] to be held in [[Chile]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.fifa.com/u20womenworldcup/index.html |title=FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup Chile 2008 |publisher=FIFA |accessdate=2007-11-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203172349/http://www.fifa.com./u20womenworldcup/index.html |archivedate=2008-12-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203172349/http://www.fifa.com./u20womenworldcup/index.html |date=2008-12-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[November 22]] - [[APEC Peru 2008]] Summit in [[Lima]].
* [[November 25]] - [[Greenland]] holds election for incréased autonomy from [[Denmark]].
* [[November 28]] - [[Romanian legislative election, 2008|Legislative election]] in [[Romania]].
&lt;!-- DO NOT ADD &quot;HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE&quot; -- FILM RELEASES GO IN [[2008 in film]]. --&gt;

== Prediksi ==
=== December ===
{{Month3|12|0|year=2008}}
* [[December 15]] - The [[Netherlands Antilles]] will be formally abolished.&lt;ref name=&quot;endofNA&quot;&gt;{{cite news 
 |first = 
 |last = 
 |author = Staff reporter
 |coauthors =
 |title = Agreement on division of Netherlands Antilles
 |url = http://www.government.nl/actueel/nieuwsarchief/2007/02February/13/0-42-1_42-92711.jsp
 |format = HTML
 |work = 
 |publisher = Government.nl
 |pages = 
 |page = 
 |date = [[2007-02-13]]
 |accessdate = 2007-02-24
 |language = english
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[December 24]] - The New [[I-35W Mississippi River bridge]] in [[Minneapolis]] is expected to be completed after the bridge collapsed in August of 2007.
* [[December 30]] - The [[Burj Dubai]] expected to be completed. It will be the [[List of tallest buildings and structures in the world|world's tallest building]].

=== Unknown dates ===
* The [[United Nations]] is to review drug policies around the world.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.un.org/ga/president/57/pages/speeches/statement030408-Vienna-Narcotics.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.drug-policy.org/modules/countdown_2008 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031231022/http://www.drug-policy.org/modules/countdown_2008 |date=2006-10-31 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The [[United Kingdom]] will complete a 5-yéar process to céase [[analog television]] broadcasts region-by-region, starting with [[Border Television|Border]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.digitaluk.co.uk/en/when.html&lt;/ref&gt; This process has alréady begun.
* New [[China Central Television]] héadquarters buildings open.
* The &quot;Simón Bolívar&quot; [[Satellite]], a result of an agreement between [[Venezuela]] and [[China]], will be launched this yéar.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7BB227BE8C-156B-468D-9143-EA0A86EAE9AF%7D)&amp;language=EN The Year of the Chinese Satellite in Venezuela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304072012/http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7BB227BE8C-156B-468D-9143-EA0A86EAE9AF%7D)&amp;language=EN |date=2008-03-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The [[US Navy]] will shoot down a déad [[spy satellite]] before it reenters éarth's atmosphere in late February or éarly March.&lt;ref&gt;http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/01/080130-AP-satellite.html Dead Spy satellite to enter earth's atmosphere&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://uk.reuters.com/article/wtMostRead/idUKN1447206620080215 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218153926/http://uk.reuters.com/article/wtMostRead/idUKN1447206620080215 |date=2008-02-18 }} Navy to shoot down dead satellite&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ongoing events ===
* [[Iraq War]]
* [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]
* [[Conflict in Darfur]]
* [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
* [[State reform in Belgium|6th Round of the Belgian State Reform]]
&lt;center&gt;'''[[List of centuries|Abad]]:''' [[Abad ka-20]] • '''[[Abad ka-21]]''' • [[Abad ka-22]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''[[List of decades|Dekade]]:''' [[1990-an]] • '''[[2000-an]]''' • [[2010-an]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''Taun:''' [[2005|◄]] • [[2006]] • [[2007]] • [[2008]] • [[2009]] • [[2010]] • [[2011|►]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''Dumasar nagara:''' [[2008 dina India|India]] • [[2008 dina Jepang|Jepang]]&lt;/center&gt;

== Deaths ==
{{utama|Deaths in 2008}}
=== January ===
* [[January 1]] - [[Salvatore Bonanno]], American mobster (b. [[1932]])
* [[January 1]] - [[Peter Caffrey]], Irish actor (b. [[1949]])
* [[January 1]] - [[Erich Kästner (World War I veteran)|Erich Kästner]], German veteran of World War I (b. [[1900]])
* [[January 1]] - [[T. Maheswaran|Thiyagarajah Maheswaran]], Sri Lankan Tamil politician (b. [[1960]])
* [[January 2]] - [[Galyani Vadhana]], Thai princess (b. [[1923]])
* [[January 3]] - [[Aleksandr Abdulov]], Russian actor (b. [[1953]])
* [[January 3]] - [[Yo-Sam Choi]], Koréan boxer (b. [[1972]])
* [[January 3]] - [[Werner Dollinger]], German politician (b. [[1918]])
* [[January 5]] - [[Raymond Forni]], French politician (b. [[1941]])
* [[January 5]] - [[Clinton Grybas]], Australian sports commentator (b. [[1975]])
* [[January 6]] - [[Fr. John O'Brien]], Irish priest and musician (b. [[1931]])
* [[January 7]] - [[Edward &quot;Buddy&quot; LeRoux]], American businessman (b. [[1930]])
* [[January 7]] - [[Philip Agee]], American spy (b. [[1935]])
* [[January 8]] - [[Moshe Levi]], Israeli military commander (b. [[1936]])
* [[January 9]] - [[John Harvey-Jones]], English businessman (b. [[1924]])
* [[January 10]] - [[Christopher Bowman]], American figure skater (b. [[1967]])
* [[January 10]] - [[Andrés Henestrosa]], Mexican writer and politician (b. [[1906]])
* [[January 10]] - [[Maila Nurmi]], Finnish-American actress and television personality (b. [[1921]])
* [[January 11]] - [[Edmund Hillary]], New Zéaland mountaineer, explorer, and philanthropist (b. [[1919]])
* [[January 11]] - [[Carl Karcher]], American businessman (b. [[1917]])
* [[January 12]] - [[Adriano González León]], Venezuelan poet and writer (b. [[1931]])
* [[January 13]] - [[Johnny Podres]], American baseball player (b. [[1932]])
* [[January 15]] - [[Brad Renfro]], American actor (b. [[1982]])
* [[January 15]] - [[Jason MacIntyre]], Scottish racing cyclist (b. [[1973]])
* [[January 16]] - [[Nikola Kljusev]], Macedonian prime minister (b. [[1927]])
* [[January 17]] - [[Bobby Fischer]], American-Icelandic chess grandmaster (b. [[1943]])
* [[January 17]] - [[Ernie Holmes]], American football player (b. [[1948]])
* [[January 17]] - [[Allan Melvin]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
* [[January 18]] - [[Georgia Frontiere]], American businesswoman (b. [[1927]])
* [[January 18]] - [[Lois Nettleton]], American actor (b. [[1927]]) 
* [[January 19]] - [[Don Wittman]], Canadian sportscaster (b. [[1936]])
* [[January 19]] - [[Suzanne Pleshette]], American actress (b. [[1937]])
* [[January 19]] - [[Frances Lewine]], American journalist (b. [[1921]])
* [[January 19]] - [[Morris Maddocks]], English Anglican priest (b.[[1928]]) 
* [[January 20]] - [[Louis de Cazenave]], French veteran of World War I (b. [[1897]])
* [[January 22]] - [[Heath Ledger]], Australian actor (b. [[1979]])
* [[January 23]] - [[Andrzej Andrzejewski]], Polish brigadier general (b. [[1961]])
* [[January 24]] - [[Randy Salerno]], American news anchor (b. [[1963]])
* [[January 27]] - [[Anna Loginova]], Russian bodyguard and modél (b. [[1979]])
* [[January 27]] - [[Gordon B. Hinckley]], American Mormon léader (b. [[1910]])
* [[January 27]] - [[Suharto]], 2nd présidént of Indonesia (b. [[1921]])
* [[January 28]] - [[Christodoulos]], Archbishop of Athens (b. [[1939]])
* [[January 29]] - [[Margaret Truman]], American writer (b. [[1924]])
* [[January 30]] - [[Jeremy Beadle]], English television presenter (b. [[1948]])

=== February ===
* [[February 1]] - [[Beto Carrero]], Brazilian businessman (b. [[1937]])
* [[February 1]] - [[Shell Kepler]], American actress (b. [[1958]])
* [[February 2]] - [[Earl Butz]], American government official (b. [[1909]])
* [[February 2]] - [[Barry Morse]], Canadian actor (b. [[1918]])
* [[February 3]] - [[Sheldon Brown (bicycle mechanic)|Sheldon Brown]], American bicycle mechanic (b. [[1944]])
* [[February 4]] - [[Harry Richard Landis]], American World War I veteran (b. [[1899]])
* [[February 5]] - [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]], Indian spiritual léader (b. [[1917]])
* [[February 6]] - [[John McWethy]], American print and television journalist (b. [[1947]])
* [[February 7]] - [[Tamara Desni]], German-born British actress (b. [[1913]])
* [[February 7]] - [[Hoang Minh Chinh]], Vietnamese politician and dissident (b. [[1922]])
* [[February 7]] - [[Guy Severin]], Russian academician and engineer (b. [[1926]])
* [[February 8]] - [[Chua Ek Kay]], Singaporéan painter (b. [[1947]])
* [[February 8]] - [[Phyllis Whitney]], American mystery writer (b. [[1903]])
* [[February 9]] - [[Jazeh Tabatabai]], Iranian artist and writer (b. [[1931]])
* [[February 9]] - [[Mindrolling Trichen|Trichen Jurme Kunzang Wangyal]], Tibetan spiritual léader (b. [[1930]])
* [[February 10]] - [[Ron Leavitt]], American television producer (b. [[1947]])
* [[February 10]] - [[Roy Scheider]], American actor (b. [[1932]])
* [[February 11]] - [[Alfredo Reinado]], éast Timorese rebel (b. [[1967]])
* [[February 11]] - [[Tom Lantos]], American politician (b. [[1928]])
* [[February 12]] - [[Imad Mugniyah]], Lebanese militant (b. [[1962]])
* [[February 12]] - [[Badri Patarkatsishvili]], Géorgian businessman and politician (b. [[1955]])
* [[February 13]] - [[Kon Ichikawa]], Japanese film director (b. [[1915]])
* [[February 13]] - [[Henri Salvador]], French singer (b. [[1917]])
* [[February 15]] - [[Steve Fossett]], American adventurer (b. [[1944]])
* [[February 18]] - [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]], French writer (b. [[1922]])
* [[February 19]] - [[Natalia Bessmertnova]], Russian ballerina (b. [[1941]])
* [[February 19]] - [[Lydia Shum]], Hong Kong comedian and actress (b. [[1945]])

== Major religious holidays ==
* [[January 7]] - [[Christmas]] in éastern [[Christianity]]
* [[January 10]] - [[New Year]] by [[Lunar]] calendar, celebrated by Muslims
* [[February 5]] - [[Carnival]] ([[Shrove Tuesday]])
* [[February 6]] - [[Ash Wednesday]], observance of [[Lent]] begins
* [[February 7]] - [[Chinese New Year]] (also Lunar New Yéar / Spring féstival)
* [[March 1]] - [[Saint David's Day]], National holiday of [[Wales]]
* [[March 15]] - [[St. Patrick's Day]], celebrated in [[Ireland]], the [[United States]], and most of the English spéaking world. (held on March 15 instéad of the usual 17th to avoid the second day in Holy Week.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=St Patrick's 'day' moved to 15th|url=http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/breaking/2007/0718/breaking85.html|format=|work=[[ireland.com]] Online|publisher=[[Irish Times Trust]]|date=2007-07-18|accessdate=2007-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929121836/http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/breaking/2007/0718/breaking85.html|archive-date=2007-09-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;)
* [[March 20]] - March [[Equinox]], also known as [[Ostara]]
* [[March 20]] - [[Purim]] 
* [[March 23]] - [[Easter]] Sunday, the éarliest éaster has fallen since [[1913]]
* [[March 25]] - [[Holi]]
* [[April 20]] - [[Passover]]
* [[April 23]] - [[St. George's Day]]
* [[April 27]] - [[Pascha]] in éastern [[Christianity]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Ascension of Jesus]] in Western [[Christianity]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Beltane]], a [[Cross-quarter day]]
* [[May 20]] - [[Vesak]] in [[Buddhism]]
* [[June 9]] - [[Shavuot]]
* [[June 20]] - June [[Solstice]], also known as [[Midsummer]] or [[Midsummer|Litha]]
* [[August 1]] - [[Lammas]], a [[Cross-quarter day]]
* [[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
* [[September 22]] - September [[Equinox]], also known as [[Mabon]]
* [[September 30]] - [[Rosh Hashana]]
* [[October 2]] - [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
* [[October 9]] - [[Yom Kippur]]
* [[October 28]] - [[Diwali]]
* [[November 1]] - [[Samhain]], a [[Cross-quarter day]] and [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] new yéar
* [[November 30]] - [[St. Andrew's Day]], Scottish national day
* [[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
* [[December 8]] - [[Eid ul-Adha]]
* [[December 21]] - [[Hanukkah]] begins at sundown
* [[December 21]] - December [[Solstice]], also known as [[Yule]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]]
&lt;!-- ==Births== --&gt;

== 2008 in fiction ==
=== Books ===
* [[Isaac Asimov]]'s 1955 short story [[Franchise (short story)|Franchise]] takes place in 2008, the premise being that the U.S. présidént will be selected by a computer program looking for the &quot;most representative citizen&quot;.
* [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]], ''Mother of Storms'' (1995) begins with a 2008 UN resolution barring any nation from acquiring nucléar wéapons after June 1, 2008, subject to penalty of preemptive strike.
* [[Gregory Benford]]'s books ''The Jupiter War'' and ''The Threads of Time'' are set in 2008.
* The [[Galactic Milieu Series]] by [[Julian May]] féatures éarth's first contact with an alien race on June 20, 2008.
* In Francis Anderson's 1992 book &quot;Future Undetermined&quot; the UN bans civilians from owning [[handguns]] on March 29.
* [[Ian McDonald (author)|Ian McDonald]]'s &quot;Chaga Saga&quot; (''Evolution's Shore'' and ''Kirinya'') begins with the March 13, 2008 impact arrival of the plant form Chaga from outer space.
* [[Alan E. Nourse]]'s 1957 book ''Rocket to Limbo'' begins with the March 3, 2008 launch of the starship Argonaut on a centuries-long trip to Alpha Centauri.
* ''[[The Mote in God's Eye]]'' (1974) by [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]] postulates that faster-than-light travel is perfected in 2008.
* ''The Next War'', a controversial 1996 novel about the post-Soviet era, co-authored by former U.S. Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]], looks at a possible 2008 nucléar confrontation between the United States and Russia.

=== Computer and video games ===
Set in 2008:
* ''[[Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon|Ghost Recon]]'' (2001): Russia attempts to reunite the Soviet Union and invades several éastern Européan countries. The UN intervenes with péacekeeping forces.
* ''[[Splinter Cell]]'' series: [[Sam Fisher]] goes undercover.
* ''[[Twisted Metal 3]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Shattered Union]]'' (2005): U.S. présidént David Jefferson Adams is elected in a sham election, and becomes the most unpopular présidént in U.S. history. 
* ''[[Resident Evil 5]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Mega Man (NES)|Mega Man]]''
* ''[[Devil May Cry 4]]''

=== Film ===
&lt;!-- This is for films that are set in 2008, not films that will be released in 2008. --&gt;
* ''[[Jason X]]'' ([[Friday the 13th (film series)|''Friday the 13th'' series]], 2002): Mass murderer [[Jason Voorhees]] is captured for the 2nd time and sentenced to déath. Though the US government is unsure how to execute him, an [[electric chair]], a [[gas chamber]], a [[firing squad]], and [[hanging]] are all tried - none of which work. 
* ''[[The Lake House (film)|The Lake House]]'' (2006): The ending takes place on [[Valentine's Day]], 2008.
* ''[[Byousoku 5cm|5 Centimetres Per Second]]'' (2007): The final act takes place in [[Tokyo]] during 2008.
* Set in 2008:
** ''[[Silent Running]]'' (1971)
** ''[[Southland Tales]]'' (2007)
** ''[[The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)|The Manchurian Candidate]]'' (2004)
&lt;!-- This is for films that are already set set in 2008, not films that will be released in 2008. --&gt;

=== Television ===
* ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' (2003 series finale): The characters meet once again. Dawson is créator of a television series, ''The Creek'', based on his life.
* ''[[Futurama]]'' (1999 first episode &quot;[[Space Pilot 3000]]&quot;): Stop N' Drop [[Suicide booth]]s are invented.
* The [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 3 (2007)|2007 series]] of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' Present time (such as [[Smith and Jones (Doctor Who)|Smith and Jones]]) is primarily set in 2008.
* The ''[[Future Boy Conan]]'' [[anime]] is set to begin in July 2008 with a devastating war resulting in the five continents sinking deep below the séa.
* ''[[Doraemon]]'': According to the original [[manga]] story, a [[time machine]] will be invented in 2008.
* ''[[Heroes (TV Series)|Heroes]]'': According to the episode [[Out of Time (Heroes)|Out of Time]], the Shanti virus wipes out about 93% of the world's population, from a bréak out in March of 2008. Peter Petrelli accidentally teleports himself and Caitlin to sometime around June 14, 2008, when any survivors in New York City are forcibly evacuated.
{{Events by month}}

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Tumbu luar ==
* [http://www.accuracyproject.org/2008calendar.html 2008 Calendar] {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at Internet Accuracy Project
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[[Kategori:2008| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Daniel Craig</title>
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      <text bytes="1484" sha1="59rdecxok2slvnowslb3pom6pthvya3" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Daniel Craig 2017 (cropped).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Daniel Craig.]]
'''Daniel Wroughton Craig''' (leuwih dipikawanoh ku ngaran '''Daniel Craig''') ({{lahirmati|Chester, Inggris|2|3|1968}}) nyaéta salah saurang béntang pilem TV jeung bioskop anu asalna ti [[Inggris]]. {{fact}}

=== Profil ===
Craig mangrupa kagenep anu merankeuné agen rahasia [[James Bond]] 007 salian [[Sean Connery]], [[George Lazenby]], [[Roger Moore]], [[Timothy Dalton]], jeung [[Pierce Brosnan]].{{fact}} Film munggaran Craig salaku James Bond nyaéta Casino Royale anu diputer ahir [[2006]] ti heula.{{fact}} Salian ti James Bond, Craig ogé ngabintangi film-film saperti Lara Croft: Tomb Raider jeung The Golden Compass.{{fact}}

Craig kungsi nikah taun [[1992]] jeung Fiona Loudon, tapi malah cerai di taun [[1994]]. {{fact}}

Daniel Craig ogé salah saurang bobotoh ti tim maenball [[Liverpool FC]].{{fact}} Dirina leuwih milih matuh di [[London]] dibanding di [[Los Angeles]].{{fact}} Tanggal [[3 April]], Craig dinobatkeun salaku selebritis Inggris anu  acuk paling rapih sapanjang taun [[2007]].{{fact}}

=== Kaca Kaluar ===
{{commons|Daniel Craig}}
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0185819/ Daniel Craig] di [http://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database IMDB]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080121004709/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/1150232/ Biografi kumplit Daniel Craig]

[[Kategori:Aktor Inggris]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Carita pondok</title>
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'''Carita pondok''' atawa mindeng disingget minangka '''carpon''' nyaéta hiji wangun [[prosa]] [[naratif]] [[fiktif]]. Carpon téh mangrupa tarjamahan tina [[Basa Inggris]] nyaéta {{Lang|en|short story}} atawa nu [[basa Indonésia]]na {{Lang|id|cerita pendek}}. Wangun carita pondok nu aya dina sastra mah datangna ti Éropa. Nepi ka ayeuna acan aya watesan naon ari carita pondok téh, nu puguh mah carita pondok téh nyaéta kajadian atawa sabagian tina kajadian anu dicaritakeun ku pangarangna kalayan daria, puguh anu ditepikeunna, karasa ayana hiji masalah, puguh tokoh atawa nu ngalakonana bari ninggalkeun kesan keur nu maca.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pustaka Buana&quot;&gt;S, Adang. 1987. Diajar Ngarang Carita Pondok. Bandung:Pustaka Buana Hal. 2&lt;/ref&gt; 

Carita pondok condong munel sarta langsung dina tujuanna dibandingkeun karya-karya fiksi anu leuwih panjang, kawas [[novella]] (dina pengertian modérn) sarta [[novel]]. Alatan singgetna, carita-carita pondok hasil ngandelkeun téknik-téknik sastra kawas [[inohong]], [[galur]], [[téma]], [[basa]] sarta [[insight]] sacara leuwih lega dibandingkeun jeung fiksi anu leuwih panjang. Caritana bisa mangrupa sagala rupa jenis.

== Sajarah ==
=== Asal-usul ===
Carita pondok asalna tina [[anekdot]], hiji kaayaan anu digambarkan singget anu kalawan gancang anjog kana tujuanana, paralel jeung talari carita [[lisan]] anu ngahasilkeun carita-carita kawentar kayaning ''[[Iliad]]'' sarta ''[[Odyssey]]'' karya [[Homer]]. Carita-carita éta ditepikeun dina wangun puisi anu mibanda wirahma, kalayan wirahma anu mibanda fungsi minangka pakakas pikeun nulungan jalma pikeun nginget caritana. Bagian-bagian singget tina ieu carita teh, dipuseurkeun kana naratif-naratif individu anu bisa ditepikeun dina hiji kasempetan pondok. Sakabéh caritana kakara katémbong saupama sakabéh bagéan caritana geus ditepikeun. &lt;br/&gt;
Kalawan mecenghulna novel anu [[realisme (seni)|realistis]], carita pondok mekar minangka hiji miniatur, contona dina carita-carita mukhtar menjelajah hutan karya [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]] sarta [[Anton Chekhov]].

[[Fabel]], anu umumna mangrupa [[carita rahayat]] kalawan talatah-talatah moral di jerona, cenah dianggap ku sajarahwan Yunani [[Herodotus]] minangka hasil timuan saurang budak Yunani anu ngaranna [[Aesop]] dina [[abad ka-6 SM]] (sanajan aya carita-carita séjén anu asalna ti bangsa-bangsa séjén anu dianggap asalna ti Aesop). Fabel-fabel kuna ieu kiwari dipikawanoh minangka [[Fabel Aesop]]. Tapi aya ogé anu mikeun definisi séjén patali jeung istilah fabel. Fabel, dina hasanah Sastra [[Indonésia]] remen ogé, dihartikeun minangka carita ngeunaan sato. Carita fabel anu populer contona Carita Si Peucang, jeung sajabana.

Saterusna, jenis carita mekar ngawengku sage, mite, sarta legenda. Sage mangrupa carita kapahlawanan. Contona Joko Dolog. Mite leuwih menyaran dina carita anu patali jeung kapercayaan balaréa satempat ngeunaan hiji hal. Contona Nyi Roro Kidul. Sedengkeun legenda ngandung harti minangka hiji carita ngeunaan asal usul lumangsungna hiji tempat. Contona Banyuwangi.

Wangun kuna séjénna tina carita pondok, nyaéta anekdot, populer dina mangsa [[Kakaisaran Romawi]]. Anekdot boga fungsi kawas [[paumpamaan]], hiji carita réalistis anu singget, anu ngawengku hiji talatah atawa tujuan. Réa tina anekdot Romawi anu aya kénéh kiwari dikumpulkeun dina [[Gesta Romanorum]] dina [[abad ke-13]] atawa [[abad ke-14|14]]. Anekdot tetep populer di Éropa nepi ka [[abad ke-18]], sedengkeun surat-surat anekdot eusina fiksi karya Sir Roger de Coverley dipedar.

Di Éropa, talari nyaritakeun lisan mimiti ngembang jadi carita-carita nu ditulis dina munggaran abad ka-14, utamana pisan mah kalawan medalna karya [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'' sarta karya [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] ''[[Decameron]]''. Kadua buku ieu disusun tina carita-carita pondok anu misah (ti anekdot lucu tepi ka fiksi sastra anu dikarang kalawan hadé), anu ditempatkeun di jero carita naratif anu leuwih badag (hiji [[carita carangka]]), sanajan pakakas carita carangka henteu diadopsi ku kabéh nu nulis. Dina ahir [[abad ka-16]], sawaréh tina carita-carita pondok anu pangpopulerna di Éropa nyaéta &quot;novella&quot; poek anu tragis karya [[Matteo Bandello]] (hususna dina tarjamahan Perancisna). Dina mangsa Renaisan, istilah novella dipaké pikeun ngarujuk dina carita-carita pondok.

Dina panengah [[abad ka-17]] di [[Perancis]] lumangsung kamekaran novel pondok anu diperhalus, &quot;nouvelle&quot;, ku pangarang-pangarang kawas [[Madame de Lafayette]]. Dina 1690-an, [[dongeng|dongeng-dongeng]] tradisional mimiti dipedar (salah sahiji ti kumpulan anu pangkawentarna nyaéta karya [[Charles Perrault]]). Mecenghulna tarjamahan modérn kahiji ''[[Sarébu Hiji Peuting]]'' karya [[Antoine Galland]] (ti 1704; tarjamahan séjénna mecenghul dina 1710–12) ngabalukarkeun pangaruh anu hébat kana carita-carita pondok [[Éropa]] karya [[Voltaire]], [[Diderot]] sarta lian-liana dina [[abad ka-18]].

== Carita-carita pondok modérn ==
Carita-carita pondok modérn mecenghul minangka [[genre]]na sorangan dina mimiti [[abad ks-19]]. Conto-conto munggaran tina kumpulan carita pondok kaasup ''Dongeng-dongeng'' [[Grimm Duduluran]] (1824–1826), ''[[Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka]]'' (1831-1832) karya [[Nikolai Gogol]], ''Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque'' (1836), karya [[Edgar Allan Poe]] sarta ''Twice Told Tales'' (1842) karya [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]. Dina ahir abad ka-19, kamekaran majalah sarta jurnal ngababarkeun paménta pasar anu kuat kana fiksi pondok anu panjangna antara 3.000 nepi ka 15.000 kecap. Di antara carita-carita pondok kawentar anu mecenghul dina période ieu téh &quot;Kamar No. 6&quot; karya [[Anton Chekhov]].

Dina panengah kahiji [[abad ka-20]], sajumlah majalah kasohor, kawas ''The [[Atlantic Monthly]]'', ''[[Scribner's]]'', sarta ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'', kabéhanana medar carita pondok dina saban terbitanana. Paménta kana carita-carita pondok anu mutuan kacida gedéna, sarta bayaran pikeun carita-carita éta kacida luhurna, ku kituna [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] deudeuieun nulis carita pondok pikeun ngalunasan sagala rupa hutangna.

Paménta kana carita-carita pondok ku majalah ngahontal penclutna dina panengah abad ka-20, nalika dina majalah 1952 ''[[Life (majalah)|Life]]'' medar carita pondok panjang Ernest Hemingway anu panjang (atawa novella) ''[[Lalaki Kolot sarta Laut]]''. Terbitan anu ngamuat carita ieu payu 5.300.000 eksemplar ngan dina dua poé.

Saprak éta, jumlah majalah komérsial anu medar carita-carita pondok geus ngurangan, sanajan sawatara majalah kawentar kawas ''[[The New Yorker]]'' terus ngamuatna. [[Majalah sastra]] ogé méré  tempat keur carita-carita pondok. Sajaba ti éta, carita-carita pondok ka dieunakeun geus manggihan ambekan anyar ngaliwatan penerbitan online. Carita pondok bisa kapanggih dina majalah online, dina kumpulan-kumpulan anu diorganisir nurutkeun pangarangnya atawa témana, sarta dina [[blog]].

== Ciri-ciri ==
# Jumlah kecapna tara leuwih ti 10000 kecap,
# Upama diukur ku waktu macana, antara 10 nepi ka 20 menit,
# Kajadian anu dicaritakeun biasana ngan ukur hiji kajadian,
# Palaku nu aya dina carita pondok teu loba, ukur hiji atawa dua urang.
# Caritana kurang kompleks upama dibandingkeun jeung novel
# Miboga hiji galur, setting tunggal, tur ngawengku jangka waktu anu singget.

== Unsur-unsur carita pondok ==
Dina wangun-wangun fiksi anu leuwih panjang, caritana condong ngamuat unsur-unsur inti nu tangtu tina [[struktur dramatis]]: eksposisi (panganteur setting, kaayaan sarta inohong utamana), komplikasi (kajadian di jero carita anu ngawanohkeun konflik sarta inohong utama); komplikasi (kajadian di jero carita anu ngawanohkeun konflik); aksi anu ningkat, krisis (waktu anu nangtukeun pikeun si inohong utama sarta komitmen maranéhanana kana hiji léngkah); klimaks (titik minat pangluhurna dina harti konflik sarta titik carita anu ngandung aksi pangréana atawa pangpentingna); pungkasan (bagian carita di mana konflik direngsekeun); sarta moralna.

Alatan pondok, carita-carita pondok bisa ngamuat pola ieu atawa bisa ogé henteu. Contona, carita-carita pondok modérn ngan sakali-kali ngandung eksposisi. Anu leuwih umum nyaéta mimiti anu dumadakan, jeung carita anu dimimitian di tengah aksi. Kawas dina carita-carita anu leuwih panjang, galur dina carita pondok ogé ngandung klimaks, atawa titik balik. Tapi sok sanajan kitu, ahir tina karéréaan carita pondok biasana dumadakan sarta kabuka sarta bisa ngandung (atawa bisa ogé henteu) talatah moral atawa palajaran praktis.

Kawas réa wangun [[seni]] naon waé oge, ciri has tina hiji carita pondok beda-beda nurutkeun [[pangarang]]na.

=== Unsur intrinsik ===
unsur intrinsik nyaéta unsur nu ngabangun karya éta sorangan. unsur-unsur intrinsik carpon nyaéta:
* Jejer nyaéta ide pokok hiji carita, nu diyakini jeung dijadikeun sumber carita.
* Latar nyaéta tempat, waktu, suasana nu aya dina carita.Hiji carita kudu jelas di mana tempatna, iraha kajadianna jeung suasana keur carita.
* Galur nyaéta susunan kajadian nu ngabentuk hiji carita. Galur dibagi jadi 3 nyaéta:
# Galur maju nyaéta rangkaian kajadian nu urutanana sesuai jeung urutan waktu kajadian atawa nu gerakna kahareup terus.
# Galur mundur nyaéta rangkaian kajadian nu susunanana teu sesuai jeung urutan waktu kejadian atawa carita nu gerakna mundur ({{Lang|en|flashback}}).
# Galur Campuran nyaéta campuran antara galur maju jeung mundur.

Galur boga sababaraha tahap:
# Panganteur: bagian carita mangrupa lukisan, waktu, tempat atawa kajadian nu mangrupa mimitina carita.
# Pidangan masalah: bagian nu nyaritakeun masalah nu keur dihadapan ku palaku carita.
# Puncak kategangan/klimaks: masalah dina carita nu geus gawat pisan, konflikna keur memuncak.
# Kategangan nurun/antiklimaks: malasah tos bisa diatasi jeung kekhawatiran mulai leungit.
# Resolusi: masalah geus bisa di atasi atawa di béréskeun.

* Perwatakan ngagambarkeun watak atawa karakter tokoh nu bisa ditingali dina 3 segi nyaéta:
# Dialog tokoh
# Penjelasan tokoh
# Penggambaran fisik tokoh
* Inohong nyaéta jalma-jalma nu dicaritakeun dina carita jeung loba nyandak peran dina carita. tokoh dibagi jadi 3 nyaéta:
# Protagonis:tokoh utama
# Antagonis: tokoh penentang atawa lawanna tokoh utama
# Tritagonis:Penengah dina tokoh utama jeung tokoh lawan
* Amanat nyaéta pesan atawa nasehat nu rek disampaikeun pangarang lewat carita.

=== Unsur ékstrinsik ===
Unsur ékstrinsik nyaéta unsur-unsur nu aya di luar karya sastra, tapi sacara teu langsung mangaruhan kana wangun atawa sistem organisme karya sastra. unsur-unsurna nyaéta:
* Ajén-inajén dina carita (agama,budaya,politik,ekonomi)
* Kasang tukang kahirupan pangarang
* Situasi sosial keur carita diciptakeun

== Ukuran ==
Netepkeun naon anu misahkeun carita pondok ti format fiksi séjénna anu leuwih panjang nyaéta hiji hal anu problematis. Hiji definisi klasik tina carita pondok nyaéta yén manéhna kudu bisa dibaca dina waktu sakali diuk (hal ieu utamana pisan diajukeun dina esai Edgar Allan poé &quot;[[The Philosophy of Composition]]&quot; dina 1846). Definisi-definisi séjénna nyebutkeun wates panjang fiksi tina jumlah kecap-kecapna, nyaéta 7.500 kecap. Dina pamakéan kontemporer, istilah carita pondok umumna ngarujuk kana karya fiksi anu panjangna henteu leuwih ti 20.000 kecap sarta henteu kurang ti 1.000 kecap.

Carita anu pondokna kurang ti 1.000 kecap kagolong kana génré [[fiksi kilat]] (''[[flash fiction]]''). Fiksi anu ngaleuwihan wates maksimum paraméter carita pondok digolongkeun kana [[novelette]], novella, atawa novel.

== Génré ==
Carita pondok umumna nyaéta hiji wangun karangan fiksi, sarta anu pangréana dipedar nyaéta [[fiksi]] kawas [[fiksi ilmiah]], [[fiksi horor]], [[fiksi detektif]], jrrd. Carita pondok kiwari ogé ngawengku wangun [[nonfiksi]] kawas [[catetan lalampahan]], [[prosa liris]] sarta varian-varian [[sastra pasca-modern|pasca modern]] sarta non-fiksi kawas fikto-kritis atawa [[jurnalisme anyar]].

== Carita pondok kawéntar ==
* &quot;[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]&quot; ku [[Ambrose Bierce]] ([http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext95/owlcr11.txt teks online])
* &quot;Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper&quot; ku [[Robert Bloch]]
* &quot;[[A Sound of Thunder]]&quot; ku [[Ray Bradbury]]
* &quot;Cathedral&quot; ku [[Raymond Carver]]
* &quot;[[The Most Dangerous Game]]&quot; ku [[Richard Connell]]
* &quot;[[The Story of an Hour]]&quot; ku [[Kate Chopin]] ([http://www.pbs.org/katechopin/library/storyofanhour.html teks online])
* &quot;[[A Rose for Emily]]&quot; ku [[William Faulkner]] ([http://xroads.virginia.edu/~drbr/wf_rose.html teks online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326051444/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~drbr/wf_rose.html |date=2013-03-26 }})
* &quot;[[The Overcoat]]&quot; ku [[Nikolai Gogol]] ([http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gogol/nikolai/g61cl/ teks online] — tarjamahan ti basa Rusia)
* &quot;[[Young Goodman Brown]]&quot; ku [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] ([http://www.amlit.com/twentyss/chap1.html teks online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070331160154/http://www.amlit.com/twentyss/chap1.html |date=2007-03-31 }})
* &quot;[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]&quot; ku [[Ernest Hemingway]] ([http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/heming.html teks online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402073342/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~drbr/heming.html |date=2016-04-02 }})
* &quot;[[The Gift of the Magi]]&quot; ku [[O. Henry]] ([http://www.auburn.edu/~vestmon/Gift_of_the_Magi.html teks online])
* &quot;[[The Lottery]]&quot; ku [[Shirley Jackson]] ([http://jackson.classicauthors.net/lottery/ teks online])
* &quot;[[The Monkey's Paw]]&quot; ku [[W.W. Jacobs]]
* &quot;[[The Dead (carita pondok)|The Dead]]&quot; ku [[James Joyce]] ([http://mockingbird.creighton.edu/english/micsun/IrishResources/dead.htm teks online]
* &quot;[[In der Strafkolonie]]&quot; ku [[Franz Kafka]] ([http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/kafka/inthepenalcolony.htm teks online] terj. Inggris ti basa Jerman)
* &quot;[[The Call of Cthulhu]]&quot; ku [[H.P. Lovecraft]]
* &quot;[[Bartleby, the Scrivener]]&quot; ku [[Herman Melville]] ([http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11231/11231.txt teks online])
* &quot;A Good Man Is Hard to Find&quot; ku [[Flannery O'Connor]] ([http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/goodman.html teks online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701070545/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~drbr/goodman.html |date=2018-07-01 }})
* &quot;[[The Tell-tale Heart]]&quot; ku [[Edgar Allan Poe]] ([http://www.literature.org/authors/poe-edgar-allan/tell-tale-heart.html teks online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406051709/http://www.literature.org/authors/poe-edgar-allan/tell-tale-heart.html |date=2008-04-06 }})
* &quot;[[Brokeback Mountain (cerpen)|Brokeback Mountain]]&quot; ku [[Annie Proulx]]
* &quot;[[The Red Room (Wells)|The Red Room]]&quot; ku [[H.G. Wells]]
*&quot;[[The Last Question]]&quot; ku [[Isaac Asimov]]

== Réferénsi ==
{{Reflist}}

== Tempo ogé ==
* [[Daptar pengarang carita pondok dunya]]
* [[Daptar pengarang carita pondok Indonésia]]
* [[Sastra]]
* [[Karya fiksi]]
* [[Daptar carita pondok anu mecenghul di The New Yorker]]
* [[Daptar carita pondok dina Basa Sunda]], nu kungsi medal dina wanda buku, majalah, atawa koran

== Tumbu luar ==
* [http://www.kemudian.com Loka Komunitas Nu nulis Amatir Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430114717/http://kemudian.com/ |date=2008-04-30 }}, Loka komunitas nu nulis amatir pangbadagna di Indonésia, carita pondok, puisi, prosa
* [http://www.freestoriescenter.com Free Stories Center], loka pikeun carita pondok sarta usaha medarna
* [http://www.storysouth.com/millionwriters.html Million Writers Award], pikeun carita pondok pangalusna online taunieu
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080208094347/http://titan.iwu.edu/~jplath/sschron.html Kronologi carita pondok Amérika]
* [https://www.short-stories.co Perpustakaan badag online pikeun carita pondok kontemporer sarta klasik]
* [http://www.the-short-story.com/en/index.html Perpustakaan online pikeun carita pondok kontemporer sarta klasik- Loka Jerman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221043709/http://www.the-short-story.com/en/index.html |date=2005-12-21 }}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?title=short+stories Carita pondok etexts] sarta [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?subject=short+stories Leuwih réa Carita pondok etexts] di [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=109851 Carita Hasidik Yahudi]
* [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/creative/shortstory/index.html Carita pondok: 10 petunjuk pikeun nu nulis kreatif anyar]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061103000949/http://fansites.hollywood.com/~inedit/ InÉdit: pikeun nu nulis ngora] kalawan kumpulan puisi sarta carita pondok online ku jelema ngora
* [http://www.shortstoryradio.com Short Story Radio], stasiun radio internet husus pikeun siaran professional ti cerpen-cerpen anu teu kungsi dipedar saméméhna

[[Kategori:Sastra Sunda tinulis]]
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      <text bytes="3451" sha1="ha81diqq3z5gnov1mk1t6r8ocsezr81" xml:space="preserve">{{Orphan|date=April 2017}}

'''Tés DNA''' atawa '''idéntifikasi DNA''' nyaéta téhnik dina [[élmu forensik]] pikeun mikawanoh atawa nganyahokeun hiji jalma dumasar kana profil [[DNA]]na. '''Profil DNA''' dipidangkeun dina bentuk angka-angka anu bisa ogé dipaké salaku idéntitas hiji jalma. Ilaharna, tés DNA dipaké pikeun kaperluan panalungtikan kajadian kriminal atawa pikeun nangtukeun pancakaki (hubungan kolot-budak, dulur sabapa, jsb.

Najan 99,9% tina runtuyan DNA manusa sarua, sabagian leutikna anu béda bisa dipaké pikeun ngabédakeun hiji jalma ti jalma séjén, iwal dina kajadian jalma nu kembar siam (monozigot)&lt;ref name=&quot;Lander&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/Use_of_DNA_Identification.php |title=Use of DNA in Identification |publisher=Accessexcellence.org |date= |accessdate=2010-04-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Profil DNA ngagunakeun runtuyan nu diulang nu gedé karagamanana&lt;ref name=&quot;Lander&quot;/&gt; nu disebut ''variable number tandem repeats'' ([[VNTR]]), utamana ''short tandem repeats'' ([[STR]]). Najan [[Alél|alél-alél]] [[Lokus (genetika)|lokus]] VNTR antara jalma-jalma nu deukeut duduluranana mirip, tapi ampir teu mungkin sarua.

Téhnik nguji profil DNA munggaran dilaporkeun taun 1984&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 83.&lt;/ref&gt; ku Sir [[Alec Jeffreys]] ti [[Universitas Leicester]] di Inggris&lt;ref&gt;Jeffreys A.J., Wilson V., Thein S.W. (1984). [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html &quot;Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA&quot;]. Nature 314: 67–73. {{doi|10.1038/314067a0}}&lt;/ref&gt; anu kiwari dijadikeun dasar pikeun sababaraha [[databés DNA nasional]]. Téhnik Dr. Jeffreys mimiti dijual taun 1987 ku [[Imperial Chemical Industries]] (ICI), anu ngadegkeun puseur uji getih di Inggris&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 202.&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Rujukan==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bacaan salajengna==
*{{cite book|author=Anne Hart|title=The Beginner's Guide to Interpreting Ethnic DNA Origins for Family History: How Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Mizrahi &amp; Europeans Are Related to Everyone Else|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DHBuRpLQaKQC&amp;pg=PP1|date=July 2003|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595283064}}

==Tumbu kaluar==
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/may/24/dna-fingerprinting-alec-jeffreys DNA Fingerprinting] Eureka Moment
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppard/analyze.html Create a DNA Fingerprint] PBS.org
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20200817122546/http://insilico.ehu.es/ In silico simulation of Molecular Biology Techniques] - A place to léarn typing techniques by simulating them
*[https://www.kuleuven.be/cbmer/page.php?LAN=E&amp;ID=399&amp;FILE=subject&amp;PAGE=1 National DNA Databases in the EU]
*[http://www.crimtrac.gov.au/systems_projects/KeyDatesintheHistoryofDNAProfiling.html Key Dates in the History of DNA Profiling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822174341/http://www.crimtrac.gov.au/systems_projects/KeyDatesintheHistoryofDNAProfiling.html |date=2011-08-22 }}
*[http://www.fingerprinting.com/dna-fingerprinting.php Fingerprinting.com] DNA Fingerprinting Identification and Methods
*[http://dnaforensics.com/ DNAForensics.com ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814195103/http://dnaforensics.com/ |date=2011-08-14 }} DNA Database and Profiling News and Trends

{{pondok}}

[[Kategori:DNA]]
[[Kategori:Biologi molekul]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Migrasi prosés</title>
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      <text bytes="1323" sha1="oqiiwwc5rn0d9xmqopb76wf9rbw7pka" xml:space="preserve">{{Underlinked|date=April 2017}}
{{Orphan|date=April 2017}}

'''Migrasi prosés''' nyaéta kamampuan prosés pamindahan antar grup ti komputer ka komputer nu séjén. Prosés migrasi bisa diimpleméntasikeun di antara liwat [[OpenMosix]].

Prosés migrasi alternatif nyaéta définisi nu asalna ti désain IC jeungr rékayasa. Prosés migrasi atawa migrasi Layout nyaéta pikeun ngarobah aliran désain jeung bagan nu aya dina layout IC anyar pikeun prosés node téknologi. Palaksanaan prosés migrasi bisa dilakukeun ku cara manual kalawan fitur ''redrawing'' layout atawa otomatis EDA / alat CAD. Alat-alat utama di pasar pikeun mungkinkeun hiji aliran nyaéta: VLM cadence ti sistem désain, Siclone ti Sagantec&lt;ref&gt;http://www.sagantec.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518050953/http://www.sagantec.com/ |date=2013-05-18 }} Sagantec&lt;/ref&gt;, jeung alat TKE ti Takumi Technology.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.takumi-tech.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128133451/http://www.takumi-tech.com/ |date=2020-01-28 }} Takumi Technology&lt;/ref&gt;

== Réferénsi ==
{{reflist}}

== Tumbu kaluar ==
* Nikitas J. Dimopoulos, Kin F. Li, '' High Performance Computing Systems and Applications'', Springer (2001), ISBN 0-7923-7617-X ISBN 978-0-7923-7617-0

[[Kategori:Téknologi informasi]]


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  <page>
    <title>Djibouti</title>
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      <text bytes="13233" sha1="19q4gqicas7pzrx5jhk223dfyz8sdbz" xml:space="preserve">:''Artikel ieu ngeunaan nagarana. Pikeun ibu kota Djibouti, tempo [[Djibouti (kota)]]. Pikeun lagu kabangsaanna, tempo [[Djibouti (song)]]''
{{Infobox country
|native_name = &lt;big&gt; جمهورية جيبوتي &lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''{{transl|ar|Jumhūriyyat Jībūtī}}''&lt;br /&gt;République de Djibouti&lt;br /&gt;Gabuutih Ummuuno&lt;br /&gt;Jamhuuriyadda Jabuuti
|conventional_long_name = Républik Djibouti
|common_name = Djibouti
|image_flag = Flag of Djibouti.svg
|image_coat = Emblem of Djibouti.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Djiboutimap2011.png
|national_motto = &quot;Unité, Égalité, Paix&quot;&lt;small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Kahijian, Kasaruaan, Karapihan&quot;&lt;/small&gt;
|national_anthem = [[Lagu kabangsaan Djibouti|''Djibouti'']]
|official_languages = [[Basa Perancis]], [[Basa Arab]]&lt;ref name=2007factbook&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dj.html|title=Djibouti|accessdate=2007-09-18|date=2007-09-06|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702024855/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dj.html|archivedate=2014-07-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|demonym = Djiboutian
|capital = [[Djibouti (kota)|Djibouti]]
|latd=11 |latm=36 |latNS=N |longd=43 |longm=10 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Djibouti (kota)|Djibouti]]
|government_type = [[Républik]] [[Sistem semi-présidénsial|semi-présidénsial]]
|leader_title1 = [[Présidén Djibouti|Présidén]]
|leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Djibouti|Perdana Mentri]]
|leader_name1 = [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]]
|leader_name2 = [[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]]
|area_rank = ka-149
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area = 23.200
|areami² = 8.958 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|percent_water = 0,09 (20&amp;nbsp;km²&amp;nbsp;/ 7,7&amp;nbsp;mil²)
|population_estimate = 864.000&lt;ref name=unpop&gt;{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318041906/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | archive-date=2009-03-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = ka-160th
|population_estimate_year = 2009
|population_census = 818.159
|population_census_year = 2009
|population_density = 37,2
|population_densitymi² = 96,4 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank = 168th
|GDP_PPP = $2,105 milyar&lt;ref name=imf2&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=92&amp;pr.y=15&amp;sy=2008&amp;ey=2011&amp;scsm=1&amp;ssd=1&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1&amp;c=611&amp;s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&amp;grp=0&amp;a=|title=Djibouti|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811170947/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=92&amp;pr.y=15&amp;sy=2008&amp;ey=2011&amp;scsm=1&amp;ssd=1&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1&amp;c=611&amp;s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&amp;grp=0&amp;a=|archivedate=2020-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year = 2010
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2.554&lt;ref name=imf2/&gt;
|GDP_nominal = $1,140 milyar&lt;ref name=imf2/&gt;
|GDP_nominal_year = 2010
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.383&lt;ref name=imf2/&gt;
|sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]]
|established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]]
|established_date1 = 27 Juni 1977
|HDI                = {{increase}} 0,402&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf Human Development Report 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf |date=2009-11-22 }}. The United Nations. Retrieved 5 October 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;
|HDI_rank = ka-147
|HDI_year = 2010
|HDI_category = &lt;span&gt;handap&lt;/span&gt;
|currency = [[Franc Djibouti|Franc]]
|currency_code = DJF
|country_code =
|time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Wétan|EAT]]
|utc_offset = +3
|time_zone_DST = teu kaobsérvasi
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|drives_on = katuhu
|cctld = [[.dj]]
|calling_code = 253
|Gini            = 40,0
|Gini_year       = 2009
}}
'''Djibouti''' ({{lang-ar|جيبوتي}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Jībūtī}}'', {{lang-fr|Djibouti}}, {{lang-so|''Jabuuti''}}, {{lang-aa|Gabuuti}}), resmina '''Républik Djibouti''' ({{lang-ar|جمهورية جيبوتي}} ''{{transl|ar|Jumhūriyyat Jībūtī}}'', {{lang-fr|République de Djibouti}}, {{lang-aa|Gabuutih Ummuuno}}, {{lang-so|''Jamhuuriyadda Jabuuti''}}), mangrupa hiji nagara di [[Tanduk Afrika]]. Tepung wates jeung [[Eritrea]] di kalér, [[Ethiopia]] di kulon jeung kidul, sarta [[Somalia]] di tenggara. Sisa watesna tepung jeung [[Laut Beureum]] sarta [[Teluk Aden]]. Djibouti, nu miboga populasi 818.159 jiwa dina sénsus 2009,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title = ''Communication Officielle des Resultats du Recensement Général de la Population'' | publisher = Ministére de l'Economie, des Finances et de la Planification, Djibouti | year = 2010 | url = http://www.ministere-finances.dj/RECENSEMENTDE%20LA%20POPULATION.html | accessdate = 18 February 2011 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110111085508/http://www.ministere-finances.dj/RECENSEMENTDE%20LA%20POPULATION.html | archivedate = 11 January 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; mangrupa salah sahiji nagara nu kirang didumukan di Afrika.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/djibouti |title=World Bank country data Djibouti (2009) (number rounded) |publisher=Data.worldbank.org |date= |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506172031/http://data.worldbank.org/country/djibouti |archivedate=2011-05-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ageman utama di Djibouti nyaéta [[Islam]], kalawan 94% ti populasi, 6% sésana ngagem Kristen. Nagri ieu kawanoh salaku '''Obock''' jeung '''Somaliland Perancis''' (''Côte française des Somalis'') dina abad ka-19; dina 1967, ngaranna digentos kana '''[[Téritori Perancis Afar jeung Issa|Afar jeung Issa]]''' saparantos pajangjian jeung Perancis. Téritori ieu didéklarasikeun salaku hiji nagara merdika dina 1977 jeung ngarobih ngaranna kana &quot;Républik Djibouti&quot;, dumasar kana ibu kotana. Djibouti ngagabung ka Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa dina 20 Séptémber 1977.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.historyorb.com/countries/djibouti |title=Today in Djibouti History |publisher=Historyorb.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516125612/http://www.historyorb.com/countries/djibouti |archivedate=2011-05-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |title=United Nations member states |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412154940/http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml#d |archivedate=2014-04-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Djibouti mangrupa nagara daulat merdika, tapi tetep miboga hubungan jero jeung Perancis, sarta liwat rupa-rupa pasatujuan militér jeung ékonomi jeung Perancis, nagara ieu narima panyartaan kaamanan jeung ékonomi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/djibouti/government/ |title=Djibouti Government |publisher=Globaledge.msu.edu |date=2005-04-08 |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510100835/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/djibouti/government/ |archivedate=2011-05-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Sajarah==
{{utama|Sajarah Djibouti}}
Langkung kontak nu deukeut jeung karaketan sareng [[Samenanjung Arab]] pikeun leuwih ti 1.000 taun, grup étnis [[Urang Somali|Somali]] jeung [[Urang Afar|Afar]] dina wewengkon ieu aya dina populasi-populasi kahiji dina buana Afrika nu ngagem Islam.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014) |title=A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |date= |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109114150/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+so0014%29 |archivedate=2009-01-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ti 1862 nepi ka 1894, daratan kaléreun [[Teluk Tadjoura]] kawanoh salaku ''Obock'' jeung diparéntah ku [[Sultan]]-Sultan Somali jeung Afar, otoritas lokal nu mana nandatanganan rupa-rupa pajangjian jeung Perancis antara 1883 jeung 1887 pikeun miboga kakawasaan dina wewengkon ieu.&lt;ref name=&quot;Uwechue&quot;&gt;Raph Uwechue, ''Africa year book and who's who'', (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Chisholm&quot;&gt;Hugh Chisholm (ed.), ''The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information'', Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Apcoatf&quot;&gt;''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor &amp; Francis), p.132.&lt;/ref&gt; Dina 1894, [[Léonce Lagarde]] ngadegkeun hiji administrasi Perancis permanén di [[Djibouti (kota)|kota Djibouti]] jeung méré ngaran wewengkon ieu [[Somaliland Perancis]], nu aya ti 1896 nepi ka 1967, basa ngaranna dirobih kana [[Téritori Perancis Afar jeung Issa]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=ben cahoon |url=http://worldstatesmen.org/Djibouti.html |title=Djibouti |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |date= |accessdate=2011-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406110609/http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Djibouti.html |archivedate=2011-04-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Djibouto.jpg|thumb|left|Istana Gubernur di [[Kota Djibouti]].]]
Dina 1958, dina wengi kamerdikaan nagara tatangga, Somalia, di 1960, hiji réferéndum dilaksanakeun di Djibouti pikeun mutuskeun bakal ngagabung ka Républik Somali atanapi tetep jeung Perancis. Réferéndum boga hasil nyaéta ngalanjutkeun asosiasi jeung Perancis, sabagian ku lantaran sora &quot;nya&quot; ti gtup étnis Afar jeung urang Éropa.&lt;ref name=Barrington2006&gt;Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115&lt;/ref&gt; Aya ogé [[kalicikan sora]], nu mana urang Perancis ngusir rébuan urang Somali saméméh réferéndum nepi ka panyandakan sora.&lt;ref&gt;Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p.360.&lt;/ref&gt; Kalobaanana nu milih &quot;teu&quot; mangrupa urang Somali nu dina dukungan kana Uni Somalia sakumaha geus diajukeun ku [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Wakil Présidén Déwan Pamaréntah. Harbi ditelas dina hiji kacilakaan pesawat dua taun saparantosna. Djibouti ahirna miboga kamerdikaanna ti Perancis dina 1977 sarta [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], nu ngampanyekeun pilihan “nya” dina réferéndum 1958, jadi présidén kahiji nagara ieu (1977–1991).&lt;ref name=Barrington2006/&gt;

Djibouti ogé mangrupa anggota ti [[Liga Arab]], [[Uni Afrika]], sarta [[Otoritas Antarpamaréntah dina Kamekaran]] (''Intergovernmental Authority on Development''; [IGAD]).

==Région jeung distrik==
:''Artikel utama: [[Région di Djibouti]], [[Distrik di Djibouti]]''
[[File:Djiboutimap.png|200px|thumb|right|Peta région-région Djibouti]]
Djibouti dibagi kana lima [[Région Djibouti|région]] jeung hiji [[kota]]. Teras salajengna dibagi deui kana sawelas [[Distrik Djibouti|distrik]].

Région-région jeung kotana nyaéta:
* [[Région Ali Sabieh]] (''Région d'Ali Sabieh'')
* [[Région Arta]] (''Région d'Arta'')
* [[Région Dikhil]] (''Région de Dikhil'')
* [[Djibouti (kota)|Kota Djibouti]] (''Ville de Djibouti'')
* [[Région Obock]] (''Région d'Obock'')
* [[Région Tadjourah]] (''Région de Tadjourah''))

==Tempo ogé==
* [[Deprési Afar]]
* ''[[Association des Scouts de Djibouti]]''
* [[Hubungan luar nagri Djibouti]]
* [[Militér Djibouti]]
*[[Gagasan Lintas Sahel]]
* [[Télékomunikasi di Djibouti]]
* [[Transportasi di Djibouti]]
** [[Jalur Karéta Api Ethio-Djibouti]]

==Réferénsi==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{CIA World Factbook}}

==Bacaan salajengna==
* ''Djibouti's Unusual Resource Curse'' Jennifer N. Brass
* ''Djibouti: Pawn of the Horn of Africa'' Robert Saint-Veran
* ''Historical Dictionary of Djibouti'' Daoud A. Alwan
* ''Naval Strategy East of Suez: The Role of Djibouti'' Charles W

==Tumbu kaluar==
{{SisterLinks}}
* {{Fr icon}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110205080506/http://www.presidence.dj/ Djibouti] ''loka pamaréntah resmi''
* {{CIA_World_Factbook link|dj|Djibouti}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Djibouti|Djibouti}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Djibouti}}
* {{wikivoyage|Djibouti}}

{{Template group
|title = Géografi lokal
|list =
{{Countries of Africa}}
{{Countries bordering the Red Sea}}
{{Wétan Tengah}}
{{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = Kaanggotaan internasional
|list =
{{OSI|state=collapsed}}
{{Uni Afrika}}
{{Liga Arab}}
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}}
{{Community of Sahel-Saharan States}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = Basa
|list = 
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}}
}}

[[Kategori:Djibouti| ]]
[[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]]
[[Kategori:Anggota Liga Arab]]
[[Kategori:Anggota OSI]]
[[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]]
[[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Laut Beureum]]
[[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1977]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]]
[[Kategori:Républik]]
[[Kategori:Tanduk Afrika]]
[[Kategori:Teluk Aden]]
[[Kategori:Urut koloni Perancis]]
[[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Arab]]
[[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]


{{nagara-geo-stub|Djibouti}}</text>
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    <title>Guinéa Khatulistiwa</title>
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      <text bytes="11146" sha1="0uzaw8fwvpnjrj7iojmt83r3ik8hnbw" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
|native_name              = ''República de Guinea Ecuatorial''&lt;br /&gt;''République de Guinée équatoriale''&lt;br /&gt;''República da Guiné Equatorial''
|conventional_long_name   = Républik Guinéa Khatulistiwa
|common_name              = Guinéa Khatulistiwa
|image_flag               = Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg
|image_coat               = Coat_of_arms_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg
|symbol_type              = Coat of arms
|image_map                = Location_Equatorial_Guinea_AU_Africa.svg
|image_map2               = Equatorial Guinea-CIA WFB Map.png
|national_motto           = Unidad, Paz, Justicia{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;{{es icon}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Unité, Paix, Justice{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;{{fr icon}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Unidade, Paz, Justiça{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;{{pt icon}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Kahijian, Rapih, Kaadilan
|national_anthem          = [[Caminemos pisando las sendas de nuestra inmensa felicidad]]
|official_languages       = [[Basa Spanyol]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Basa Perancis]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Basa Portugis]]
|ethnic_groups            = 85.7% [[Urang Fang|Fang]], 6.5% [[Urang Bubi|Bubi]], 3.6% Mdowe, 1.6% [[Annobon]], 1.1% Bujeba, 1.4% nu lian ([[Spanyol Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Spanyol]])&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ek.html Cia World Factbook; Equatorial Guinea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831000148/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ek.html |date=2020-08-31 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|demonym                  = Equatoguinean, Equatorial Guinean
|capital                  = [[Malabo]]
|latd  = 3 |latm  = 45 |lats  = 13.73 |latNS  = N
|longd = 8 |longm = 47 |longs =  5.13 |longEW = E
|largest_city             = [[Bata, Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Bata]]
|government_type          = [[Républik]] [[Nagara kahijian|kahijian]] [[sistem présidénsial|présidensial]]
|leader_title1            = [[Daptar Présidén Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Présidén]]
|leader_title2            = [[Daptar Perdana Mentri Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Perdana Mentri]]
|leader_name1             = [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]]
|leader_name2             = [[Francisco Pascual Obama Asue]]
|area_rank                = ka-144
|area_magnitude           = 1 E10
|area                 = 28.050
|areami²               = 10.830 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|percent_water            = tiasa teu dipadulikeun
|population_estimate      = 676.000&lt;ref name=unpop&gt;{{cite journal
 |url          = http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf
 |title        = World Population Prospects, Table A.1
 |version      = 2008 revision
 |format       = PDF
 |publisher    = United Nations
 |author       = Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division
 |year         = 2009
 |accessdate   = 2009-03-12
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172319/https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf
 |archive-date = 2016-01-15
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = ka-166
|population_estimate_year = 2009
|population_census        =
|population_census_year   =
|population_density   = 24,1
|population_densitymi² = 62,4 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank  = ka-187
|GDP_PPP_year             = 2010
|GDP_PPP                  = $24,146 milyar&lt;ref name=&quot;wb2010&quot;&gt;[http://data.worldbank.org/country/equatorial-guinea World Development Indicators database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204173257/http://data.worldbank.org//country//equatorial-guinea |date=2011-12-04 }}, [[World Bank]], accessed on August 23, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--Do not edit!--&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita       = $34.824&lt;ref name=&quot;wb2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;!--Do not edit!--&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank       = 22nd&lt;!--Do not edit!--&gt;
|GDP_nominal              = $14,006 milyar&lt;ref name=&quot;wb2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;!--Do not edit!--&gt;
|GDP_nominal_year         = 2010
|GDP_nominal_per_capita   = $20.200&lt;ref name=&quot;wb2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;!--Do not edit!--&gt;
|sovereignty_type         = [[Kamerdikaan]] 
|sovereignty_note         = ti [[Spanyol]]
|established_event1       = [[Gunéa Spanyol]]
|established_date1        = 11 Agustus 1926
|established_event2       = Didéklarasikeun
|established_date2        = 11 Agustus 1968
|established_event3       = Diakuan
|established_date3        = 12 Oktober 1968
|HDI                      = {{increase}} 0,538&lt;ref name=&quot;UN&quot;&gt;{{cite web
 |url         = http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf
 |format      = PDF
 |title       = Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G
 |publisher   = The United Nations
 |accessdate  = 2009-10-10
 |archiveurl  = https://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf
 |archivedate = 2009-11-22
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|HDI_rank                 = ka-117
|HDI_year                 = 2010
|HDI_category             = &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fc0;&quot;&gt;sedeng&lt;/span&gt;
|currency                 = [[Franc CFA Afrika Tengah]]
|currency_code            = XAF
|country_code             =
|time_zone                = [[Wanci Afrika Kulon|WAT]]
|utc_offset               = +1
|time_zone_DST            = teu kaobsérvasi
|utc_offset_DST           = +1
|drives_on                = katuhu
|cctld                    = [[.gq]]
|calling_code             = 240
}}
'''Guinéa Khatulistiwa''' atawa '''Guinéa Ékuator''', resmina '''Républik Guinéa Khatulistiwa''' ({{lang-es|República de Guinea Ecuatorial}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe ɣiˈne.a ekwatoˈɾjal|pron}}; {{lang-fr|République de Guinée équatoriale}}, {{IPA-fr|ʁepyblik də ɡine ekwatoʁjal|pron}}, ({{lang-pt|República da Guiné Equatorial}}, {{IPA-pt|ʁeˈpublikɐ dɐ ɡiˈnɛ ekwatoˈɾjaɫ|pron}}); mangrupa hiji nagara nu aya di [[Afrika]] Tengah. Nagara ieu ngawengku dua bagian: hiji Wewengkon Buana ([[Río Muni]]), kaasup sababaraha pulo leutik saperti [[Corisco]], [[Elobey Grande]], jeung [[Elobey Chico]]; sarta hiji [[Pulo di Guinéa Khatulistiwa|wewengkon insulér]] nu boga eusi pulo [[Propinsi Annobón|Annobón]] jeung pulo [[Bioko]] (baheulana ''Fernando Po'') di mana ayana ibu kota [[Malabo]].

Annobón mangrupa pulo nu pangkidulna di Guinéa Khatulistiwa jeung aya di kiduleun [[khatulistiwa]]. Pulo Bioko mangrpakeun lokasi pangkalérna di Guinéa Khatulistiwa. Antara dua pulo éta jeung ka kalérna aya wewengkon daratan utama, nu tepung wates jeung [[Kamerun]] ka kalér, [[Gabon]] di kidul jeung wétan, sarta [[Telul Guinéa]] di kulon, di mana nagara [[São Tomé jeung Príncipe]] aya antara Bioko jeung Annobón.

Pamanggihan [[minyak bumi]] di sababaraha taun ieu ngalihkeun status ékonomi jeung pulitik nagara. [[GDP]] per kapitana aya dina réngking ka-28 sadunya.&lt;ref&gt;'''[[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]''': [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html GDP - per capita (PPP)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424075526/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html |date=2013-04-24 }}, [[The World Factbook]], [[Central Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;

== Babagian administratif ==
:''Artikel utama: [[Propinsi di Guinéa Khatulistiwa]]''
Guinéa Khatulistiwa dibagi kana 7 [[propinsi]] (ibu kotana aya di jero kurung):

# [[Propinsi Annobón]] ([[San Antonio de Palé]])
# [[Propinsi Bioko Norte]] ([[Malabo]])
# [[Propinsi Bioko Sur]] ([[Luba, Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Luba]])
# [[Propinsi Centro Sur]] ([[Evinayong]])
# [[Propinsi Kié-Ntem]] ([[Ebebiyín]])
# [[Propinsi Litoral (Guinéa Khatulistiwa)|Litoral]] ([[Bata, Guinéa Khatulistiwa|Bata]])
# [[Propinsi Wele-Nzas]] ([[Mongomo]])

Propinsi-propinsina saterasna dibagi kana distrik-distrik.

== Tempo ogé ==
{{col|2}}
* [[Teluk Bonny]] ogé kawanoh salaku [[Teluk Biafra]]
* [[Teluk Guinéa]]
* [[Telekomunikasi di Guinéa Khatulistiwa]]
* [[Hubungan luar nagri Guinéa Khatulistiwa]]
* [[Militér Guinéa Khatulistiwa]]
* [[Usaha kudéta Guinéa Khatulistiwa 2004]]
* [[Daptar kota di Guinéa Khatulistiwa]]
&lt;/div&gt;

== Catetan jeung réferénsi ==
{{CIA World Factbook}}
{{Reflist|2}}

== Buku ==
*[[Max Liniger-Goumaz]], ''Small is not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea'' (French 1986, translated 1989) ISBN 0-389-20861-2
*[[Ibrahim K. Sundiata]], ''Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability'' (1990, Boulder: Westview Press) ISBN 0-8133-0429-6
* [[Robert Klitgaard]]. 1990. ''Tropical Gangsters''. New York: Basic Books. (World Bank economist tries to assist pre-oil Equatorial Guinéa) ISBN 0-465-08760-4
* [[D.L. Claret]]. ''Cien años de evangelización en Guinea Ecuatorial (1883–1983)/ One Hundred Years of Evangelism in Equatorial Guinea'' (1983, Barcelona: Claretian Missionaries)
* [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]], ''The Wonga Coup: Guns, Thugs and a Ruthless Determination to Create Mayhem in an Oil-Rich Corner of Africa'' (2006, PublicAffairs) ISBN 1-58648-371-4

== Tumbu kaluar ==
{{Sisterlinks|Equatorial Guinea}}
; Pamaréntah
* [http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/ Loka Pamaréntah Resmi Guinéa Khatulistiwa]

; Informasi umum
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023151.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]]
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ek|Equatorial Guinea}}
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/equatorialguinea.htm Equatorial Guinea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084803/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/equatorialguinea.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Equatorial_Guinea|Guinéa Khatulistiwa}}
*{{wikiatlas|Equatorial Guinea}}
*[http://www.iradier.org/colaboracion5.htm Peta topograpis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911170006/http://www.iradier.org/colaboracion5.htm |date=2007-09-11 }} {{es}}
*{{wikivoyage|Equatorial Guinea}}

; Média warta
* [http://allafrica.com/equatorialguinea/ Guinéa Khatulistiwa] ti [[AllAfrica.com]]
* [http://www.guinea-ecuatorial.net/ms/main.asp Guinea-Ecuatorial.net]

; Basa
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511204730/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/39/TH_39_123_190_0.pdf Las lenguas de Guinea Ecuatorial: Materiales bibliográficos para su estudio]

{{Template group
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{{Countries of Africa}}

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{{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}}
{{La Francophonie}}
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|list = 
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{{Coord|1|30|N|10|00|E|type:country|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Guinea Khatulistiwa}}
[[Kategori:Guinéa Khatulistiwa| ]]
[[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]]
[[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]]
[[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]]
[[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]]
[[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]]
[[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1968]]
[[Kategori:Républik]]
[[Kategori:Urut koloni Portugis]]
[[Kategori:Urut koloni Spanyol]]
[[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]


{{nagara-geo-stub|Guinéa Khatulistiwa}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Mer Hayrenik</title>
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      <text bytes="8745" sha1="tub1hcgy7fqh9nhhq8o8r1t94vg5ea1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Anthem
|title         = Մեր Հայրենիք
|transcription = Mer Hayrenik
|english_title = Lemah Pun Bapa
|prefix        = Nasional
|country       = {{ARM}}
|author        = [[Mikael Nalbandian]] (1829-1866)
|lyrics_date   = 1859&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{hy icon}} [http://hy.wikisource.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%BB%D5%AF%D5%A1_%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A8 Իտալացի աղջկա երգը] Lagu budak awéwé Italia dina [http://hy.wikisource.org/ Wikisource Basa Arménia]&lt;/ref&gt;
|composer      = [[Barsegh Kanachyan]] (1885-1967)
|music_date    =
|adopted       = 1991
|until         =
|sound         = Mer Hayrenik instrumental.ogg
|sound_title   = Mer Hayrenik (Instruméntal)
}}
'''Mer Hayrenik''' ({{lang-hy|Մեր Հայրենիք}}; ditarjamahkeun salaku '''''Lemah Pun Bapa''''') nyaéta [[lagu kabangsaan]] nasionalna [[Républic Arménia]]. Diadopsi dina 1 Juli 1991, lagu ieu ogé mangrupa lagu kabangsaan nasionalna [[Républik Démokratik Arménia]] (1918–1920), nagara Arménia modérn kahiji.

Rumpaka lagu ieu diadaptasi ti vérsi ''Lagu budak awéwé Italia'' ({{lang-hy|Իտալացի աղջկա երգը}}, ditulis dina 1859) ku [[Mikael Nalbandian]] (1829–1866).&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;/&gt; Saterasna dikomposisikeun musikna ku [[Barsegh Kanachyan]] (1885–1967).

== Rumpaka ==
{| cellpadding=6
! Basa Arménia&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceB&quot;&gt;Dumasar kana [http://www.gov.am/armversion/armenia/song.htm vérsi Basa Arméniana] ti [http://www.gov.am/ loka wéb] Pamaréntah Républik Arménia&lt;/ref&gt;
! Transkripsi Latin
! Tarjamahan Sunda&lt;ref&gt;Dumasar kana [http://www.gov.am/enversion/armenia/song.htm vérsi Basa Inggrisna] ti [http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html loka wéb] Pamaréntah Républik Arménia&lt;/ref&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap;&quot;
|
Մեր Հայրենիք, ազատ անկախ,&lt;br /&gt;
Որ ապրել է դարէ դար&lt;br /&gt;
Յուր որդիքը արդ կանչում է&lt;br /&gt;
Ազատ, անկախ Հայաստան։  &lt;br /&gt;
:Յուր որդիքը արդ կանչում է
:Ազատ, անկախ Հայաստան։

Ահա եղբայր քեզ մի դրոշ,&lt;br /&gt;
Զոր իմ ձեռքով գործեցի&lt;br /&gt;
Գիշերները ես քուն չեղա, &lt;br /&gt;
Արտասուքով լվացի։&lt;br /&gt;
:Գիշերները ես քուն չեղա,
:Արտասուքով լվացի։

Նայիր նրան երեք գույնով,&lt;br /&gt;
Նվիրական մեկ նշան &lt;br /&gt;
Թող փողփողի թշնամու դեմ&lt;br /&gt;
Թող միշտ պանծա Հայաստան։  &lt;br /&gt;
:Թող փողփողի թշնամու դեմ
:Թող միշտ պանծա Հայաստան։

Ամենայն տեղ մահը մի է&lt;br /&gt;
Մարդ մի անգամ պիտ' մեռնի,&lt;br /&gt;
Բայց երանի՝ որ յուր ազգի &lt;br /&gt;
Ազատության կզոհվի։&lt;br /&gt;
:Բայց երանի՝ որ յուր ազգի
:Ազատության կզոհվի։
|
Mer Hayrenik’, azat ankakh,&lt;br /&gt;
Vor aprel e dare dar&lt;br /&gt;
Yur vordik’ё ard kanch’um e&lt;br /&gt;
Azat, ankakh Hayastan.&lt;br /&gt;
:Yur vordik’ë ard kanch’um e
:Azat, ankakh Hayastan.

Aha yeghbayr k’ez mi drosh,&lt;br /&gt;
Zor im dzer’k’ov gortsets’i&lt;br /&gt;
Gishernerë yes k’un ch’egha,&lt;br /&gt;
Artasuk’ov lvats’i.&lt;br /&gt;
:Gishernerë yes k’un ch’egha,
:Artasuk’ov lvats’i.

Nayir nran yerek’ guynov,&lt;br /&gt;
Nvirakan mek’ nshan&lt;br /&gt;
T’ogh p’oghp’oghi t’shnamu dem&lt;br /&gt;
T’ogh misht pantsa Hayastan.&lt;br /&gt;
:T’ogh p’oghp’oghi t’shnamu dem
:T’ogh misht pantsa Hayastan.

Amenayn tegh mahë mi e&lt;br /&gt;
Mard mi angam pit mer’ni,&lt;br /&gt;
Bayts’ yerani, vor yur azgi&lt;br /&gt;
Azatut’yan kzohvi.&lt;br /&gt;
:Bayts’ yerani, vor yur azgi
:Azatut’yan kzohvi
|
Lemah pun bapa, bébas, merdika,&lt;br /&gt;
Nu geus lawas aya,&lt;br /&gt;
Ayeuna nyauran putra-putrana&lt;br /&gt;
Ka Arménia bébas, merdika.
:Ayeuna nyauran putra-putrana
:Ka Arménia bébas, merdika.

Yeuh bandéra keur manéh, dulur kuring,&lt;br /&gt;
Nu geus kuring tinun&lt;br /&gt;
Dina peuting tanpa saré,&lt;br /&gt;
Jeung dikocoran ku cimata kuring.
:Dina peuting tanpa saré,
:Jeung dikocoran ku cimata kuring.

Geura tempo, triwarna,&lt;br /&gt;
Perlambang alus ti urang.&lt;br /&gt;
Geura nyinaran kana musuh,&lt;br /&gt;
Geura manéh, Arménia, jaya salawasna.
:Geura nyinaran kana musuh,
:Geura manéh, Arménia, jaya salawasna.

Paéh sarua di mana wéh,&lt;br /&gt;
Saurang pupus ngan sakali,&lt;br /&gt;
Diberkatan éta nu pupus&lt;br /&gt;
Pikeun kamerdikaan bangsana.
:Diberkatan éta nu pupus
:Pikeun kamerdikaan bangsana.
|}

=== Bandingan jeung téks aslina ===
''Mer Hayrenik'' téh dumasarna kana stanza ka-1, 3, 4, jeung ka-6 ti puisi aslina ''Lagu budak awéwé Italia''.

{| cellpadding=6
! Téks lagu dina basa Arménia&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceB&quot;/&gt;
! Tarjamahan Sunda&lt;ref&gt;Dumasar kana [http://www.gov.am/enversion/armenia/song.htm vérsi Basa Inggrisna] ti [http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html loka wéb] Pamarénah Républik Arménia&lt;/ref&gt;
! Téks puisi dina basa Arménia &lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(stanza ka-1, 3, 4, jeung ka-6)&lt;/small&gt;
! Tarjamahan Sunda
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;
|
Մեր Հայրենիք, {{underline|''ազատ անկախ,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Որ ապրել է դարէ դար''}}&lt;br /&gt;
Յուր որդիքը արդ կանչում է&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Ազատ, անկախ Հայաստան։''}}

Ահա եղբայր քեզ մի դրոշ,&lt;br /&gt;
Զոր իմ ձեռքով գործեցի&lt;br /&gt;
Գիշերները ես քուն չեղա, &lt;br /&gt;
Արտասուքով լվացի։

Նայիր նրան երեք գույնով,&lt;br /&gt;
Նվիրական մեկ նշան &lt;br /&gt;
Թող փողփողի թշնամու դեմ&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Թող միշտ պանծա Հայաստան։''}}

Ամենայն տեղ մահը մի է&lt;br /&gt;
Մարդ մի անգամ պիտ' մեռնի,&lt;br /&gt;
Բայց երանի՝ որ յուր ազգի &lt;br /&gt;
Ազատության կզոհվի։
|
Lemah pun bapa, {{underline|''bébas, merdika,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Nu geus lawas aya,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
Ayeuna nyauran putra-putrana&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Ka Arménia bébas, merdika.}}

Yeuh bandéra keur manéh, dulur kuring,&lt;br /&gt;
Nu geus kuring tinun&lt;br /&gt;
Dina peuting tanpa saré,&lt;br /&gt;
Jeung dikocoran ku cimata kuring.

Geura tempo, triwarna,&lt;br /&gt;
Perlambang alus ti urang.&lt;br /&gt;
Geura nyinaran kana musuh,&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Geura manéh, Arménia, jaya salawasna.''}}

Paéh sarua di mana wéh,&lt;br /&gt;
Saurang pupus ngan sakali,&lt;br /&gt;
Diberkatan éta nu pupus&lt;br /&gt;
Pikeun kamerdikaan bangsana.
|
Մեր հայրենիք, {{underline|''թշուառ, անտէր,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Մեր թշնամուց ոտնակոխ,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
Իւր որդիքը արդ գանչում է &lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Հանել իւր վրէժ, քէն ու ոխ:''}}

Ահա՛, եղբայր, քեզ մի դրoշ, &lt;br /&gt;
Որ իմ ձեռքով գործեցի, &lt;br /&gt;
Գիշերները ես քուն չեղայ, &lt;br /&gt;
Արտասուքով լուացի։

Նայի՛ր նորան, երեք գունով, &lt;br /&gt;
Նուիրական մեր նշան, &lt;br /&gt;
Թո՛ղ փողփողի թշնամու դէմ, &lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Թո՛ղ կործանուի Աւստրիան:''}}

Ամենայն տեղ մահը մի է, &lt;br /&gt;
Մարդ մի անգամ պիտ մեռնէ. &lt;br /&gt;
Բայց երանի՜, որ իւր ազգի &lt;br /&gt;
Ազատութեան կը զոհուի: 
|
Lemah pun bapa, {{underline|''nalangsa, kaasingkeun,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Nu geus diteken ku musuh-musuhna,''}}&lt;br /&gt;
Ayeuna nyauran putra-putrana&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|''Sangkan ngabales, sirik jeung cua.''}}

Yeuh bandéra keur manéh, dulur kuring,&lt;br /&gt;
Nu geus kuring tinun&lt;br /&gt;
Dina peuting tanpa saré,&lt;br /&gt;
Jeung dikocoran ku cimata kuring.

Geura tempo, triwarna,&lt;br /&gt;
Perlambang alus ti urang.&lt;br /&gt;
Geura nyinaran kana musuh,&lt;br /&gt;
{{underline|Geura hancur Austria.}}&lt;big&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Paéh sarua di mana wéh,&lt;br /&gt;
Saurang pupus ngan sakali,&lt;br /&gt;
Diberkatan éta nu pupus&lt;br /&gt;
Pikeun kamerdikaan bangsana.
|}

;Catetan
&lt;big&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/big&gt; Ngarujuk kana [[Perang Kamerdikaan Italia II]] ngalawan [[Kakaisaran Austria]].

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

==Sumber==
* [http://wikisource.org Wikisource]
* [http://www.gov.am/armversion/armenia/song.htm Téksna]

==Tumbu kaluar==
* [http://www.president.am/library/symbols/ Vérsi instruméntal &quot;Mer Hayrenik&quot; dina format MP3]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225934/http://users.atw.hu/szbszig/armenia.mp3 Vérsi vokal &quot;Mer Hayrenik&quot; dina format MP3]
* [http://www.nationalanthems.info/am.htm nationalanthems.info]

{{Armenia topics}}
{{Nationalanthemsofeurope}}
{{Nationalanthemsofasia}}

[[Kategori:Musik Arménia]]
[[Kategori:Simbul nasional Arménia]]</text>
      <sha1>tub1hcgy7fqh9nhhq8o8r1t94vg5ea1</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antartika Argéntina</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>36796</id>
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      <id>731327</id>
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      <comment>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6)</comment>
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      <text bytes="5046" sha1="67pjhknb8gec5py7dg98mai4r2i732f" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --&gt;
| name                    = Antartika Argéntina
| native_name             = Antártida Argentina
| native_name_lang        = &lt;!-- ISO 639-2 code e.g. &quot;fr&quot; for French. If more than one, use {{lang}} instead --&gt;
| settlement_type         = 
| image_skyline           = Argentine Antarctica.svg
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = Peta Antartika Argéntina saprak 1950, basis Orcadas nyaéta ti 1904.
| image_flag              = Flag of Tierra del Fuego province in Argentina.svg
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = Escudo COA Tierra del Fuego Province Argentina.svg
| shield_alt              = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = Antarctica, Argentina territorial claim.svg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = Lokasina di Antartika
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| latd  =  |latm  =  |lats  =  |latNS  = 
| longd =  |longm =  |longs =  |longEW = 
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_type        = 
| coordinates_display     = inline,title
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = Nagara
| subdivision_name        = [[Argéntina]]
| subdivision_type1       = Propinsi
| subdivision_name1       = [[Propinsi Tierra del Fuego, Argéntina|Propinsi Tierra del Fuego]]
| subdivision_type2       = 
| subdivision_name2       = 
| subdivision_type3       = 
| subdivision_name3       = 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = [[José María Sobral]]
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = 
| government_footnotes    = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| unit_pref               = Metric&lt;!-- or US or UK --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_total_km2          = 965.597
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_note               = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_footnotes    = 
| population_total        = 300
| population_as_of        = 
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_demonym      = 
| population_note         = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
}}
'''Antartika Argéntina''' ({{lang-es|Antártida Argentina}}) nyaéta hiji bagian di [[Antartika]] nu diklaim ku [[Argéntina]] salaku bagian ti [[wewengkon nasional]]na. Wewengkon Antartika Argéntina ngawengku [[Samenanjung Antartika]] jeung hiji bagian sagitilu nepi ka [[Kutub Kidul]]. Wewengkon ieu diwatesan ku [[25° imbit kulon|25°]] jeung [[74° imbit kulon]], sareng [[60° lintang kidul]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last = Beck| first = Peter J. | title = The international politics of Antarctica | publisher = Routledge| year = 1986 | page = 119 | url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=-4g9AAAAIAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP15&amp;dq=Argentina+Antarctica&amp;ots=N6GIahpMCV&amp;sig=oJRWi_sB41tY7bK54xgpjYEmRTg#v=onepage&amp;q=Argentina%20Antarctica&amp;f=false | isbn =0709932391}}&lt;/ref&gt; Administratifna, Antartika Argéntina mangrupa hiji [[Departemén di Argéntina|departemén]] ti [[Propinsi di Argéntina|propinsi]] [[Propinsi Tierra del Fuego (Argéntina)|Tierra del Fuego, Antartika, jeung Kapuloan Atlantik Kidul]]. Otoritas propinsi kadudukanna aya di [[Ushuaia]]. Gubernur sacara taunan nunjuk délégasina pikeun région Antartika.

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Markas Marambio]]
* [[Markas Esperanza]]
* [[Markas San Martin]]
* [[Belgrano II]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliograpi==
* {{cite book 
|title= Geografía Argentina y Universal
|last= Menutti
|first= Adela
|coauthors= Menutti, María
|year= 1980
|publisher= Edil
|location= Buenos Aires
|language=Spanish}}

==Tumbu kaluar==
{{Commonscat|Antártida Argentina}}
*[http://www.marambio.aq/ Markas Marambio]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110927040809/http://www.dna.gov.ar/DIVULGAC/BASES2.HTM Dirección Nacional del Antártico: Bases]
*[http://www.cpel.uba.ar/filargenta/correo/anta0047.htm Sajarah Antartika Argéntina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117220618/http://www.cpel.uba.ar/filargenta/correo/anta0047.htm |date=2008-01-17 }} {{es icon}}

{{coord|75|00|S|49|30|W|scale:40000000|display=title}}

{{Antarctic territorial claims}}
{{Territorial disputes involving Argentina}}
{{Antarctica navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Antartika Argentina}}
[[Category:Antartika Argéntina| ]]
[[Category:Propinsi Tierra del Fuego (Argéntina)]]
[[Category:Departemén di Argéntina]]
[[Category:Klaim téritorial Antartika]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Nomer telepon di Bahrain</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>38863</id>
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      <text bytes="3992" sha1="qcmhkxj3488rq0r9bssa3hs6t7hk82o" xml:space="preserve">{{Orphan|date=April 2017}}

{{Infobox country telephone plan
| country              = Bahrain
| country_link         = Bahrain
| continent            = Asia
| map_image            = 
| map_caption          = 
| map_size             = 
| map_alt              = 
| country_calling_code = +973
| international_prefix = 00
| trunk_prefix         = {{dash}}
| regulator            = [[Badan Pangatur Telekomunikasi Bahrain]]
| plan_membership      = 
| nsn_length           = 8 (biasana)
| dial_plan_type       = [[Rancangan panggilan katutup|Katutup]]
| number_format        = 
| codes_list           = 
}}
'''Nomer telepon di [[Bahrain]]''' ilaharna miboga 8 angka iwal dina kode pondok nu leuwih singket. Nomer [[pesawat tetep|pesawat darat tetep]] kalobaananana dimimitian ku 1. Nomer [[telepon sélulér]] jeung [[pager (telekomunikasi)|pager]] dimimitian ku 3* atawa 663* atawa 669* ditangtukeun ku panyadia layananna.

euweuh [[kode wewengkon]] di Bahrain, tapi 2 angka sanggeus awalan pesawat darat ngawakilkeun wewengkon atawa kotana.

[[Batelco]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Batelco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.batelco.com/portal |title=Batelco Website |publisher=Batelco.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221030045/http://www.batelco.com/portal/ |date=2012-02-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; nyaéta pausahaan panyadia layanan utama pikeun pesawat darat. Panyadia layanan telepon sélulér contona Batelco, [[Zain]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Zain&quot;&gt;http://www.bh.zain.com/portal/page/portal/home {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921082317/http://www.bh.zain.com/portal/page/portal/home |date=2011-09-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;, jeung Viva&lt;ref name=&quot;Viva&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.com.bh/static/CorporatePortal/English/Home/index.htm |title=Viva Website |publisher=Viva.com.bh |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Jangkauan !! Rupa !! Panyadia&lt;ref name=&quot;NatNumBlocks&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.tra.org.bh/en/marketNumbering.asp |title=National Numbering Blocks |publisher=Tra.org.bh |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 133 || Pesawat darat || Etisalcom&lt;ref name=&quot;Etisal&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.etisal-int.com |title=Etisalcom Website |publisher=Etisal-int.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1344 || Pesawat darat || Rawabi
|-
| 1350 || Pesawat darat || Elephant Talk
|-
| 136 || Pesawat darat || Zain&lt;ref name=&quot;Zain&quot;/&gt;
|-
| 1600-1603, 1606-1607 || Pesawat darat || Neutel
|-
| 1610, 1616, 1619 || Pesawat darat || Kalam&lt;ref name=&quot;Kalaam&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.kalaam-telecom.com |title=Kalam Website |publisher=Kalaam-telecom.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211140212/http://kalaam-telecom.com/ |archivedate=2011-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 165 || Pesawat darat || 2Connect&lt;ref name=&quot;2Connect&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.2connectbahrain.com/ |title=2Connect Website |publisher=2connectbahrain.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126184431/http://www.2connectbahrain.com/ |date=2012-01-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 166 || Pesawat darat || Lightspeed&lt;ref name=&quot;Lightspeed&quot;&gt;http://www.lightspeed.com.bh/site/index.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924052444/http://www.lightspeed.com.bh/site/index.php |date=2011-09-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 17 || Pesawat darat || Batelco&lt;ref name=&quot;Batelco&quot;/&gt;
|-
| 31|| Sélulér || Royal Court
|-
| 322, 383, 384, 388, 39|| Sélulér || Batelco
|-
| 33, 340, 341, 343-345 || Sélulér || Viva&lt;ref name=&quot;Viva&quot;/&gt;
|-
| 36, 377 || Sélulér || Zain
|-
| 6111 || Universal || Kulacom
|-
| 6160 || Universal || Kalam
|-
| 6600, 6688|| Universal || Rawabi
|-
| 663, 666, 669|| Universal || Zain
|-
| 6966-6969, 6996, 6999|| Universal || Rapid
|-
| 7178|| Universal || Viva
|-
| 77|| Universal || Menatelecom
|}

==Rujukan==
{{reflist}}

{{Telephone numbers in Asia}}

[[Kategori:Nomer telepon dumasar nagara|Bahrain]]
[[Kategori:Daptar ngeunaan komunikasi di Bahrain]]


{{Bahrain-stub}}
{{Telephonenumber-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Nomer telepon di Bangladés</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>39302</id>
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      <id>731435</id>
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== Kode wewengkon ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; celspacing=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''Kode:'''&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;15%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Jaringan telepon kabel:
| width=&quot;15%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Jaringan telepon kabel:
| width=&quot;15%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Jaringan telepon kabel:
| width=&quot;15%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Nirkabel/keupeul :
| width=&quot;15%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Telepon IP]] / IPTSP :
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |Wewengkon/Distrik : Kode
| align=&quot;center&quot; |Wewengkon/Distrik : Kode
| align=&quot;center&quot; |Wewengkon/Distrik : Kode
| align=&quot;center&quot; |Operator : Kode
| align=&quot;center&quot; |Operator / IPTSP : Kode
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;!-- Start Of SubCodes_Distrct Table's 1st Column ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** --&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[[Upazila Bagatipara]] : 07722'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Bagerhat|Bagerhat]] : 0468'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Barisal|Barisal]] : 0431'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Bandarban|Bandarban]] : 0361'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Barguna|Barguna]] : 0446'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Upazila Bhairab|Bhairab Bazaar]] : 0832'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Bhola|Bhola]] : 0491'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Bogra|Bogra]] : 051'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Brahmanbaria|Brahmanbaria]] : 0851'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Chuadanga|Chuadanga]] : 0851'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Chandpur|Chandpur]] : 0841'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Nawabganj|Chapai Nawabganj]] : 0781'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''Chaumuhani : 0761'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Chittagong]] : 031'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Comilla|Comilla]] : 081'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Cox's Bazar|Cox's Bazaar]] : 0341'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Dhaka]] : 02'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Dinajpur (Bangladés)|Dinajpur]] : 0531'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Faridpur|Faridpur]] : 0631'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Feni|Feni]] : 0331'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Gaibandha|Gaibandha]] : 0541'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Gazipur|Gazipur]] : 0681'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Gopalganj (Bangladés)|Gopalganj]] : 0423'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Habiganj|Habiganj]] : 0831'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Upazila Ishwardi|Ishwardi]] : 0732'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[Distrik Jamalpur|Jamalpur]] : 0931'''&lt;br/&gt; 
&lt;/tt&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;!-- Start Of SubCodes_Distrct Table's 2nd Column ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** --&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[[Distrik Jessore|Jessore]] : 0421'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Jhalakati|Jhalakati]] : 0496'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Jhenaidah|Jhenaidah]] : 0452'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Jaipurhat|Joypurhat]] : 0571'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Upazila Kalapara|Kalapara]] : 04425'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Upazila Kaptai|Kaptai]] : 0352'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Khagrachari|Khagrachhari]] : 0371'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Khulna|Khulna]] : 041'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Kishoreganj|Kishorganj]] : 0941'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Kurigram|Kurigram]] : 0581'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Kushtia|Kushtia]] : 071'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Lakshmipur|Lakshmipur]] : 0352'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Lalmonirhat|Lalmonirhat]] : 0591'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Madaripur|Madripur]] : 0661'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Magura|Magura]] : 0611'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Maijdi : 0321'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Manikganj|Manikganj]] : 0651'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Meherpur|Meherpur]] : 0762'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Mirzapur|Mirzapur]] : 0922'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Upazila Mithapukur]] : 05225 '''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Upazila Mongla|Mongla]] : 0402'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Maulvibazar|Maulavi Bazar]] : 0861'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Mymensingh|Mymensingh]] : 091'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Narail|Narail]] : 0422'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Natore|Natore]] : 0771'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Naogaon|Naogaon]] : 0741'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Narayanganj|Narayanganj]] : 0671'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;!-- Start Of SubCodes_Distrct Table's 3rd Column ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** --&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[[Distrik Narsingdi|Narsingdi]] : 0621'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Nawabganj|Nawabganj]] : 0781'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Netrokona|Netrokona]] : 0951'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Nilphamari|Nilphamari]] : 0551'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Noakhali|Noakhali]] : 0321'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Pabna|Pabna]] : 0731'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Panchagarh|Panchagarh]] : 0562'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Patuakhali|Patuakhali]] : 0441'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Pirojpur|Pirojpur]] : 0461'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Rajshahi|Rajshahi]] : 0721'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Upazila Ramganj|Ramganj]] : 0381'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Rangamati|Rangamati]] : 0351'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Rangpur|Rangpur]] : 0521'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Santahar : 0741'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Satkhira|Satkhira]] : 0471'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Savar]] : 0931'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Shariatpur|Shariatpur]] : 0662'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Sherpur|Sherpur]] : 0552'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Sirajganj|Sirajganj]] : 0751'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Srimongal : 0862'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Sunamganj|Sunamganj]] : 0871'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Sylhet|Sylhet]] : 0821'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Tangail|Tangail]] : 0921'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Distrik Thakurgaon|Thakurgaon]] : 0561'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Tongi : 0681''' 
&lt;/tt&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;!-- Start Of SubCodes_Distrct Table's 4th Column ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** --&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''Jaringan telepon kabel'''
----
'''[http://www.banglaphone.net.bd/ Bangla Phone] : 0359'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''Nirkabel/keupeul'''
----
'''[[Airtel Bangla|Airtel]] : 016'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Banglalink]] : 019'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Citycell]] : 011'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Grameenphone]] : 017'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Robi]] : 018'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[TeleTalk]] : 015'''

'''Telepon nirkabel'''
----
'''[[DhakaPhone]] : 066'''&lt;br/&gt; 
'''[[NationalPhone]] : 037'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Onetel Communication|Onetel]] : 0644'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[PeoplesTel]] : 038'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[RanksTel]] : 044'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''[[Telebarta]] : 036'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;!-- Start Of SubCodes_Distrct Table's 4th Column ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** --&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.metrobd.net/ MetroNet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329042212/http://www.metrobd.net/ |date=2013-03-29 }} : 09612'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.adnsl.net/ ADN Telecom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302073656/http://www.adnsl.net/ |date=2013-03-02 }} : 09610'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.dhakacom.com/ipphone.html DhakaCom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514102706/http://www.dhakacom.com/ipphone.html |date=2012-05-14 }} : 09611'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.bdcom.com/ BDCom] : 09666'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.connectbd.com/ ConnectTel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426052228/http://www.connectbd.com/ |date=2012-04-26 }} : 09669'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.nextfone.com.bd/ NextFone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425051915/http://www.nextfone.com.bd/ |date=2012-04-25 }} : 09614'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.fusionbd.net/ FUSION NET] : 09604'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
'''[http://www.hrctech.net/ GETCO Online ] : 09613'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
'''[https://web.archive.org/web/20130302102328/http://www.bol-online.com/ BEXIMCO ] : 09609'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;tt&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;/tt&gt;
|}

=== Cutatan ===
* Lamun nelepon ti luar [[Bangladés]], angka &quot;0&quot; di hareupeun kode wewengkon teu dipaké.

{{Telephone numbers in Asia}}

[[Kategori:Nomer telepon dumaar nagara|Banglades]]
[[Kategori:Telekomunikasi di Bangladés]]
[[Kategori:Daptar ngeunaan Bangladés]]</text>
      <sha1>ib1xgvst0b8x9c21zs057nxtmn48frk</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Sawala (ajuan)</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>45565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731331</id>
      <parentid>730908</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-01T23:47:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rafka Aditia</username>
        <id>29183</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usulan perobihan rohang ngaran */ Kaputusan</comment>
      <origin>731331</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7020" sha1="0i4cptr22sewrv7bee310le2smgekmi" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{hider kaca sawala|Ajuan|alpha=yes|start=100|
Ide anyar sarta ajuan mah disawalakeunna didieu ''saméméh prung'' téh:
* Ajuan parobahan '''pakakas lemes''' mah kudu di [[phabricator:|Pabrikator]] (parobahan pangaturan kudu di [[meta:Requesting wiki configuration changes|pamundut meta]]).
* Ajuan parobahan '''kawijakan''' mah kudu di [[Wikipedia:Sawala (kawijakan)]].
* Ajuan '''wiki anyar''' mah kudu [[meta:Proposals for new projects|ajuan proyék anyar meta]].
* Ajuan '''artikel anyar''' mah kudu di [[Wikipedia:Artikel pamundut]].
|WP:SA|WP:SAJU}}__NEWSECTIONLINK__&lt;!--

--&gt;[[&lt;!-- OK --&gt;Category:Sawala Wikipedia]]
__TOC__
&lt;span id=&quot;below_toc&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
{{clear}}
&lt;!-- TULISNA HANDAPEUN KALIMAH IEU --&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;

== Usulan kaca Tepas anyar ==

Sampurasun baraya sadaya!&lt;br&gt;
Aya usulah ti simkuring pikeun ngarobah kaca Tepas Wikipédia Sunda. Kaca anyarna saheulaanan aya dina kotrétan kaca pamaké kuring &lt;big&gt;[[Pamaké:Uchup19/Kotrétan|'''nu ieu''']]&lt;/big&gt;, mangga baraya sadaya ngedalkeun pamendakna perkawis ieu usulan.--[[Pamaké:Uchup19|'''&lt;font color=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Uchup19 (SAB17)&lt;/font&gt;''']]&amp;nbsp;[[Obrolan_pamaké:Uchup19|&lt;font color=&quot;#&quot;&gt;✉&lt;/font&gt;]] 29 Méi 2019 00.36 (UTC)&lt;br&gt;
:Tembusan birokrat abah {{gero|Kumincir}}, para-''sysop'': {{gero|Ilham.nurwansah}}, {{gero|A.R Dipusparaga}}, {{gero|RXerself}}, {{gero|Mssetiadi}}.
:hatur nuhun ka sadaya nu parantos nga-''vote'', margi tos kaétang samingon ti awal ajuan, mangka ieu usulan dianggap satuju sadaya. Cag!--[[Pamaké:Uchup19|'''&lt;font color=&quot;#&quot;&gt;yusup_ramdani&lt;/font&gt;''']]&amp;nbsp;[[Obrolan_pamaké:Uchup19|&lt;font color=&quot;#&quot;&gt;✉&lt;/font&gt;]] 4 Juni 2019 08.44 (UTC)
=== Satuju ===
&lt;!--{{done|pamendakna}}--~~~~--&gt;
*{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:A2613|A2613]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:A2613|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 00.45 (UTC)
*{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:Kumincir|kumincir]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Kumincir|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 01.06 (UTC)
*{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:Ilham.nurwansah|ilhamkang]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Ilham.nurwansah|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 03.57 (UTC)

=== Teu satuju ===
&lt;!--{{not done|pamendakna}}--~~~~--&gt;
=== Kumabaé ===
*

== Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 ==

[[File:Spanduk Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020.png|right|500px]]
Tahun 2020 telah berlalu, tidak terhitung betapa banyaknya jasa sukarelawan Wikimedia dalam upaya membebaskan pengetahuan bagi khalayak Indonesia khususnya, dan khalayak dunia pada umumnya.

Wikimedia Indonesia berterima kasih kepada para sukarelawan Wikimedia yang telah turut serta berurun daya,  waktu, ilmu, dan sebagainya. Karena itu, terlintas di benak kami perlunya penganugerahan penghargaan kepada sukarelawan terbaik. Untuk itu, diadakanlah Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 ini.

Sisihkan waktu Anda sejenak untuk memberikan kepada kami rekomendasi siapakah yang menurut Anda layak mendapatkan Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 melalui tautan berikut ini: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXR1vVhfeCNq0791g4K0ompjQZgbjWV6cmnMOEUnd9jtXbpg/viewform bit.ly/wmid-penghargaansukarelawan2020]


Salam, [[Pamaké:Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)|Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)|sawala]]) 20 Januari 2021 08.52 (UTC)

== IMPORTANT: Admin activity review ==

Hello. A policy regarding the removal of &quot;advanced rights&quot; (administrator, bureaucrat, interface administrator, etc.) was adopted by [[:m:Requests for comment/Activity levels of advanced administrative rights holders|global community consensus]] in 2013. According to this policy, the [[:m:stewards|stewards]] are reviewing administrators' activity on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis with no inactivity policy. To the best of our knowledge, your wiki does not have a formal process for removing &quot;advanced rights&quot; from inactive accounts. This means that the stewards will take care of this according to the [[:m:Admin activity review|admin activity review]].

We have determined that the following users meet the inactivity criteria (no edits and no logged actions for more than 2 years):
#A.R Dipusparaga (administrator)

These users will receive a notification soon, asking them to start a community discussion if they want to retain some or all of their rights. If the users do not respond, then their advanced rights will be removed by the stewards.

However, if you as a community would like to create your own activity review process superseding the global one, want to make another decision about these inactive rights holders, or already have a policy that we missed, then please notify the [[:m:Stewards' noticeboard|stewards on Meta-Wiki]] so that we know not to proceed with the rights review on your wiki. Thanks, [[Pamaké:علاء|علاء]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:علاء|sawala]]) 7 Pébruari 2021 18.56 (UTC)

== Usulan perobihan rohang ngaran ==
{{Kalacak|T443174|open}}

Simkuring hoyong ngusulkeun perobihan sababaraha rohang ngaran dina proyék ieu. Di handap ieu nyaéta sababaraha rohang ngaran anu hoyong dirobih:
* '''Gambar''' → '''Berkas''' (File/Berkas)
* '''Obrolan gambar''' → '''Obrolan berkas''' (File talk/Pembicaraan Berkas)
* '''Wikipedia''' → '''Wikipédia''' (Wikipedia)
* '''Obrolan Wikipedia''' → '''Obrolan Wikipédia''' (Wikipedia talk/Pembicaraan Wikipedia)
* '''Pembicaraan Modul''' → '''Obrolan modul''' (Module talk/Pembicaraan Modul)
* '''Pembicaraan Acara''' → '''Obrolan acara''' (Event talk/Pembicaraan Acara)
Mangga baraya sadaya pikeun ngedalkeun pamendakna perkawis ieu usulan.

Simkuring ogé ngulem ka {{Ping|A2613|Badak Jawa|Deepturquoise|Hayati Mayang Arum|Ilham.nurwansah|Kumincir|Mirani Pramitasari|Mssetiadi|Oceanmuse|Pijri Paijar|Zulf}} pikeun ngedalkeun pamendakna sareng sorana dina ieu usulan. Hatur nuhun [[Pamaké:Rafka Aditia|Rafka Aditia]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Rafka Aditia|sawala]]) 26 Oktober 2026 22.11 (UTC)

=== Satuju ===
&lt;!-- {{Satuju}} pamendakna ~~~~ --&gt;
* {{Satuju}} salaku pangusul [[Pamaké:Rafka Aditia|Rafka Aditia]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Rafka Aditia|sawala]]) 26 Oktober 2026 22.12 (UTC)
* {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Mirani Pramitasari|Mirani Pramitasari]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Mirani Pramitasari|sawala]]) 28 Oktober 2026 06.50 (UTC)
* {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Oceanmuse|Oceanmuse]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Oceanmuse|sawala]]) 28 Oktober 2026 12.17 (UTC)
* {{Satuju}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Candara&quot;&gt;[[User:Henri_Aja|🅷🅴🅽🆁🅸]][[User_Talk:Henri_Aja|&lt;span style=&quot;text-shadow: 2px 5px 2px #7A7A7A;&quot;&gt; &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''nyarios?'''&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt; &amp;#9993;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 29 Oktober 2026 06.33 (UTC)
* {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|sawala]]) 30 Oktober 2026 10.59 (UTC)

=== Teu satuju ===
&lt;!-- {{Teu satuju}} pamendakna ~~~~ --&gt;
*

=== Kumabaé ===
*

=== Kaputusan ===
Kusabab usulan ieu parantos dugi ka saminggu sareng sadaya nu ngedalkeun pamendakna satuju, maka usulan ieu parantos diusulkeun dina Phabricator kalayan nomer [[phab:T443174|T443174]]. Hatur nuhun ka sadayana. [[Pamaké:Rafka Aditia|Rafka Aditia]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Rafka Aditia|sawala]]) 1 Nopémber 2026 23.47 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>45685</id>
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      <id>731317</id>
      <parentid>455596</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-01T14:43:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-55037-88</username>
        <id>37566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>731317</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="89" sha1="jueeqnxni0o1jorurfw20kwplzu196r" xml:space="preserve">[[kategori: Sélér bangsa dumasar nagara|Indonésia]]
[[Kategori:Démografi Indonésia]]</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Badan Penasihatan Pembinaan dan Pelestarian Perkawinan</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>50359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731329</id>
      <parentid>653002</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-01T22:57:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>25926</id>
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      <comment>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6)</comment>
      <origin>731329</origin>
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      <text bytes="12999" sha1="hdwmifq7nem12a72al96p76refja75k" xml:space="preserve">'''Badan Penaséhatan Pembinaan dan Pelestarian Perkawinan''' (ayeuna) disingget BP4 mangrupa Organisasi parkumpulan anu sifatna sosial kaagamaan  mitra Kamenterian Agama jeung instansi laina dina raraga ningkatkeun kwalitas perkawinan umat [[Islam]] di [[Indonésia]] pikeun ngabimbing, ngabina jeung ngarumat kulawarga muslimin di  Indonésia. BP4 ngadeg resmi dina tanggal [[3 Januari]] [[1961]] di [[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] dumasar  SK Menteri Agama RI No.85 taun 1961 anu netepkeun pangurus  BP4. Kiwari BP4 Pusat dipingpin ku Katua Umum  BP4 Pusat périodeu 2019 - 2024 Prof.Dr. H. [[Nasarudin Umar]], M.A, jeung Sekretaris Umum Drs. H. Anwar Saadi, M.A.,&lt;ref&gt;Ngaganti Drs. H. Wahyu Widiana, M.A., jeung H. Muh. Adib Machrus, S.Ag.&lt;/ref&gt; nu dikukuhkeun ku Menteri Agama Fakhrurazi dina tanggal 18 Februari 2020 di Kementerian Agama Républik Indonésia Lapangan Banténg Jakarta Pusat.

Mimiti taun 1978 BP4 Pusat  kantorna di Masjid Nagara Istiqlal Ruang 66 nétélakeun yén BP4 ka amanatan ngamalkeun Surat 66 at-Tahrim ayat 6 jeung salah sahiji ti 6 hak antara sesama muslim, nyaéta lamun aya nu ménta naséhat béré naséhat. BP4 Pusat hususna tepi ka kiwari ngalayanan Konsultasi Perkawinan jeung Panaséhatan Hukum.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.bp4pusat.or.id/index.php/14-icetheme/homepage/122-daftar-konsultan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429225500/http://bp4pusat.or.id/index.php/14-icetheme/homepage/122-daftar-konsultan |date=2017-04-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Sajarah ==
BP-4 di mimitian di [[Jawa Barat|Jawa Kulon]]. BP4 ngadeg minangka ku lantaran prihatin kana kwalitas perkawinan umat [[Islam]] di [[Indonésia]]. Istilah BP4 mimiti ti [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] provinsi [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa Barat]] poé Ahad, tanggal [[3 Oktober]] [[1954]] ku inisiatif Arhata (Abdur Rauf Hamidy), almarhum Kapala Jawatan Urusan Agama Provinsi [[Jawa Barat|Jawa Kulon]] mangsa harita. Poé jeung tanggal kasebut diayakeun musyawaroh atawa pagempungan kira-kira 100 urang wawakil ti instansi pamaréntah, tokoh masyarakat, 'ulama, para pimpinan organisasi sosial [[Islam]] jeung nasional. Tempat di rohangan Sidang DPRD kota [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] ti tabuh 09:00 - 13:00 WIB. Arhata minangka pingpinan sidang medalkeun konsép ngadegkeun organisasi BP-4 (Badan Penaséhat Perkawinan jeung Pamustungan Pipirakan) alasan-alasana, 60 - 80% pipirakan di banding nikah jeung rujuk, ogé loba kawin di handap umur.

Satuluyna sapuk ngadegkeun organisasi BP-4, Pak Arhata minangka Katua ngarangkep formatur susunan pangurus miwah panyampurna Anggaran Dasar jeung Anggaran Rumah Tangga (AD/ ART). Tanggal 17 Séptémbér 1956, Menteri Agama K.H. [[Muhammad Ilyas]] (pikeun ngabédakeun jeung tokoh séjén, nyaéta K.H. [[Mohammad Ilyas Ruhiat|Ilyas Ruhiat]], Rois 'Aam PBNU périodeu 1992 - 1999) narima jeung nyambut Délégasi BP-4 [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa Barat]] nyaéta: Arhata, Ny. Dunah Pardjaman, jeung Ny. Theresiah Kamarga neupikeun hasil Konpérénsi BP-4 Jabar ka I nu dilaksanakeun 28 - 31 Agustus 1956 di [[Bandung]], Gupernur Jawa Barat, Raden Mohamad [[Sanusi Hardjadinata]] ngungkulan jeung ogé  H. S. M. Nasaruddin Latif ngawakilan Menteri Agama.

P-5 di Jakarta. Tanggal [[7 Maret]] [[1956]] di [[Jakarta]] kacatet ngadeg P-5 (Panitia Penasihat Perkawinan dan Penyelesaian Perceraian). P-5 di diadegkeun SPP (Seksi Penasihat Perkawinan) tanggal 4 April 1954 gagasan H.S.M. Nasaruddin Latif (almarhum) Kapala Kantor Urusan Agama di Jakarta Raya kalayan réstu  Sekjen Kementerian Agama R.M. Kafrawi. Ketua P-5 mimiti, Ny.S.R. Poedjotomo.

BKRT di Yogyakarta. Tanggal 7 Maret 1958 di [[Yogyakarta]] dirintis ngadeg BKRT (Badan Kesejahteraan Rumah Tangga) ku tokohna Ibu AR. Baswedan, K.H. Ahmad Badawi (harita Kapala Bagéan Ibadah Sosial KUA Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta), K.H. Farid Ma'ruf (Kapala KUA Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta) satuluyna jadi Katua Umum mimiti BKRT.

BP4 sifatna nasional. Bulan Januari 1960 patimuan Pangurus BP4 Tingkat I sa-Jawa mufakat yén organisasi-organisasi BP4 nu sifatna lokal jadi BP4 nu sifatna nasional. Hasil Konpérénsi Dinas Departémén Agama ka VII tanggal 25 - 30 Januari 1961 di Cipayung [[Jakarta]] diembarakeun BP4 Pusat (nu sifatna nasional). Dina Anggaran Dasar ditetepkeun organisasi ieu pusatna di Jakarta, tujuana: (1) Ngangkat nilai perkawinan. (2) Nyegah pipirakan nu sawenang-wenang. (3) Ngawujudkeun rumah tangga nu bagja saluyu tuntunan [[Islam]]. Dina 17 Oktober 1961 usul susunan Pangurus BP4 Pusat No.1/BP4/61, kaluar Surat Keputusan Menteri Agama No.85 taun 1961 netepkeun BP4 minangka hiji-hijinaa badan nu usaha widang panaséhatan perkawinan jeung ngurangan pipirakan patula patali jeung nikah, talak jeung rujuk. Tanggal 8 Juli 1961, yusul SK Menteri Agama, hasil musyawaroh antara Kapala Jawatan Urusan Agama Pangurus BP4 Jawa Barat jeung P-5 Jakarta Raya ditetepkeun susunan Pangurus BP4 Pusat nu kahiji, Ketuana nu kahiji, H. Siswosoedarmo dilantik ku Menteri Agama K.H.Wahib Wahab tanggal 20 Oktober 1961.

== Dinamika Fungsi &amp; Peran BP4 ==
BP4 ngalaman dinamika dina sajarah tapi tetep konsistén ngawal kulawarga [[Indonésia]] babarengan organisasi kaagamaan séjén merjuangkeun lahirna dugi ka medalna UU No.1 taun 1974 Patali jeung Perkawinan (UUP) nu diarep-arep bisa ningkatkeun kualitas laki rabi bangsa Indonésia khususna kaum muslim nu jadi mayoritas di ieu nagri.

Ti mimiti ngadeg BP4 meunang dukungan ti birokrasi khususna Kamentrian (harita ngarana Departemén) Agama.  Jabatan Katua Umum, Sekretaris jeung bendahara nurutkeun AD (Anggaran Dasar)/ ART BP4 dijabat sacara ex officio kunu ngajabat  struktural di widang Urusan Agama Islam Departemén Agama di sakabéh struktur, ti Pusat ku Diréktur Urais, di provinsi ku Kabid Urais, di Kabupatén ku Kasi Urais jeung di kacamatan ku kapala KUA.

== Konsékwénsi UU Perkawinan Pikeun BP4 ==
Saméméh UUP, Pangadilan Agama (PA) jeung BP4 nyaéta supaya salaki jeung pamajikan nu arék pipirakan di Pangadilan Agama kudu konsultasi heula ka BP4 pikeun didameykeun. Mun BP4 teu hasil nganaséhatan kakara dibéré rekomendasi ka Pangadilan Agama. Tapi ku ayana UUP Pasal 39 ayat (1) nu unina: “Pipirakan ngan hungkul bisa diayakeun di hareupeun sidang pangadilan nu boga wewenang sanggeus pangadilan usaha jeung teu hasil ngadaméykeun dua beulah pihak.”

ku kituna lantaran wewenang pipirakan ngan hungkul wewenang Pangadilan Agama, ngaran BP4 dirobah akronimna saluyu SK Menag No.30 taun 1970 jadi : “Badan Penaséhat Perkawinan, Perselisihan dan Percéréyan. Dina UU Peradilan Agama No.7 taun 1989 parobahan kana UU No.14 taun 1970 kalayan Asas Paradilan nu gampang, murah jeung gancang. Jadi Salaki jeung pamajikan nu rék pipirakan ka Pangadilan Agama teu kudu konsultasi heula ka BP4.

UU No.20/ 1997/ PNBP (Pendapatan Negara Bukan Pajak) can kungsi kalaksanakeun di zaman Réformasi ngaluarkeun palaturan Pamaréntah  No.73/1999 Cara ngagunakeun PNBP nu eusina dana nu aya di PNBP hungkul digunakeun kunu narima, nyaéta Departemén Agama liwat dana NTR. Nu akibatna fatal, BP4 ti pusat nepi ka daérah teu langsung narima bantuan ti Departemén Agama jeung teu bisa ngajalankeun programna. Kondisi ieu cukup lila ti taun 1998 – 2008.

Dina Munas BP4 ka XIV taun 2009 di [[Jakarta]], paradigma anyar minangka solusi BP4 nu disebut semi resmi di Depag. Lembaga pamaréntah lain, swadaya masyarakat ogé lain. Sumber dana ti pamaréntah kahalang UU PNBP No.20/1997 (Panarimaan Nagara Bukan Pajak). Néangan dana ka masyarakat hésé lantaran BP4 dianggap bagéan Departemén/ Kementerian Agama. Dina Munas XIV ieu BP4 dijadikeun mandiri ku ngarobah AD/ ART.

== Sifat jeung jinis organisasi ==
Sifat organisasi BP4 dirumuskeun : “BP4 nyaéta organisasi mandiri, profésional nu sifatna sosial kaagamaan minangka mitra Kamenterian Agama dina ngawujudkeun kulawarga sakinah mawaddah warahmah (Pasal 3 AD/ ART BP4).”&lt;ref&gt;https://bimasjabar.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/ad-art-hasil-munas-bp4-xv-2014.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

Jinis organisasi BP4 nyaéta kumpulan (Pasal 1, Pasal 2 jeung Pasal 5 Statblad 1870 No.64 nu terahir dirobah ku Staatsblad 1904 No. 271 Kumpulan boga Badan Hukum, pasal 1653 dugi Pasal 1665 Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Perdata, jeung palaturan perundang-undangan anu ngatur kumpulan) jeung Akteu Ngadegna Parkumpulan BP4 No.08 tanggal 22 Maret 2010 ku Notaris Saifuddin Arief, S.H.,M.H (sanggeus Munas XIV BP4 taun 2009) sarta Pasal 11 (ayat 1) UU No.17 Taun 2013 Perkara Ormas  .&lt;ref&gt;http://www.bp4pusat.or.id/index.php/2013-05-14-08-49-44/132-akta-notaris-dan-sk-kemenkumham {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016173723/http://bp4pusat.or.id/index.php/2013-05-14-08-49-44/132-akta-notaris-dan-sk-kemenkumham |date=2016-10-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dprd-diy.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UU_NO_17_2013.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312111524/http://www.dprd-diy.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UU_NO_17_2013.pdf |date=2016-03-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Visi jeung Misi ==
* Visi BP4 nyaéta kawujudna kulawarga sakinah mawaddah warahmah.
* Misi BP4 nyaéta: 
*# Ningkatkeun kwalitas konsultasi perkawinan, médiasi jeung advokasi;
*# Ningkatkeun palayanan pikeun kulawarga nu boga masalah konséling, médiasi jeung advokasi.
*# Nguatkeun kapasitas kalembagaan jeung SDM dina raraga ngoptimalkeun program dina ngahontal tujuan.

== Daftar Katua BP4 ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Nama 
! Périodeu 
! Jabatan
|-
| H. Siswosoedarmo 
| Katua 
| (1961–1970)
|-
| K.H. Moch. Ali Masjhar 
| Katua Umum 
| (1970–1973)
|-
| K.H. Djazuli Wangsasaputra 
| Katua 
| (1973–1976)
|-
| R.H.M. Djazuli Wangsasaputra 
| Katua 
| (1976–1979)
|-
| Diréktur Urais, Muchtar Natsir 
| Ex Officio Kétua Umum 
| (1979–1986)
|-
| Drs. H. Munir SA 
| Katua 
| (1986–1989)
|-
| Diréktur Urais, H. Mochtar Zarkasy, S.H. 
| Ex Officio Katua Umum 
| (1989–1995)
|-
| Prof.Dr. H. Ahmad Sutarmadi 
| Katua Umum 
| (1995–2001)
|-
| Drs. H. Imam Masykoer Alie 
| Katua Umum 
| 2001–2004
|-
| Diréktur Urais. Drs. H. Mudzakir, M.M. 
| Katua Umum 
| 2004–2009
|-
| Drs. H.Taufiq, S.H., M.H 
| Ketua Umum 
| 2009–2014
|-
| Drs. H. Mubarok, M.Si. 
| Pelaksana tugas 
| 2013–2014
|-
| Drs.H.Wahyu Widiana, M.A 
| Katua Umum 
| 2014–2019
|}

== Susunan Pangurus BP4 Pusat ==

=== Périodeu 2014 - 2019 ===

==== Pambina ====
* Katua Mahkamah Agung RI
* Menteri Agama RI
* Menteri Dalam Negeri RI
* Menteri Pemberdayaan Perempuan, dan Perlindungan Anak RI

==== Déwan Pertimbangan ====
* Katua Kamar Peradilan Agama Mahkamah Agung RI
* Sekretaris Jénderal Kementerian Agama RI
* Dirjén Bimas Islam Kementerian Agama RI
* Dirjén Badan Peradilan Agama Mahkamah Agung RI
* Kepala Badan Kependudukan dan Keluarga béréncana Nasional
* Direktur Urusan Urusan Agama Islam dan Pembinaan Syariah
* Katua Umum Majelis Ulama Indonésia
* Katua Umum Pengurus Besar Nahdlatul Ulama
* Katua Umum Pimpinan Pusat Muhammadiyah
* Katua Umum Pimpinan Pusat Muslimat NU
* Katua Umum Pimpinan Pusat Aisyiyah
* Prof.Dr.H. Achmad Mubarok, M.A.
* Prof.Dr.H. Ahmad Sutarmadi
* Prof.Dr.Hj. Nabila Lubis
* Drs. H. Taufiq, SH., MH.

==== Tim Ahli ====
* Drs. H. Mubarok, M.Si.
* Dra. Hj. Zubaidah Muchtar
* H. Bahrul Hayat, Ph. D
* Dr. Wahiduddin Adam
* Prof. Dr. Hj. Réni Akbar Hawadi
* Prof. Dr. Hj. Aliyah Hamka, M.M.
* Prof. Dr. Hj. Zaitunah Subhan, MA.
* Dr. Zaim Uchrowi
* Drs. H. M. Goodwill Zubir

==== Pengurus Harian ====
* Drs. H. Wahyu Widiana, M.A. (Katua Umum)
* Drs. H. Tulus Sastrowijoyo (Wakil Katua Umum)
* Prof. Dr. Hj. Nurhayati Djamas, M.A (Ketua)
* Dr. H. Aceng Rachmat, M.Pd.(Ketua)
* Dr. H. A.M. Romly, M.Hum. (Ketua)
* Dra. Hj. Fadilah Ahmad, MM.(Ketua)
* Drs. H. Najib Anwar, M.H. (Sekretaris Umum)
* Dra. Hj. Nilmayétty, M.M. (Wakil Sekretaris)
* Akmal Salim Ruhana, S.Ag. (Wakil Sekretaris)
* Dra. Hj. D. Cholidah Hanum,M.Pd.I. (Bendahara Umum)
* Dra. Hj. Kiki Tazkiyah (Wakil Bendahara)
* Hj. Atiek Ratnawati  (Wakil Bendahara)

==== Katua Bidang ====
* Katua Bidang Konsling, Mediasi, Advokasi dan Penasihatan Perkawinan dan Keluarga: Dr. H. Soefyanto, S.H, M.H.,M.M.
* Katua Bidang Pendidikan, Pelatihan dan Kursus: H. Muhammad Adib Machrus, S.Ag.
* Katua Bidang Kemitraan, Kerjasama dan Wirausaha: K.H. Nuril Huda
* Katua Bidang Humas, Publikasi dan Dokuméntasi Muhammad Fuad Nasar, M.Sc

==== Sekretariat ====
* Drs. Rahmat Supéna
* Solihin Muh. Yusuf, S. Ag&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://bimasislam.kemenag.go.id/post/berita/menag-pendidikan-pra-nikah-perlu-dijadikan-gerakan-nasional- |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2016-05-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428092439/https://bimasislam.kemenag.go.id/post/berita/menag-pendidikan-pra-nikah-perlu-dijadikan-gerakan-nasional- |archivedate=2023-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==
{{Reflist}}

== Pranala luar ==
* (Indonésia) [http://www.bp4pusat.or.id/ Situs resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331061839/http://www.bp4pusat.or.id/ |date=2016-03-31 }}
* (Indonésia) [https://ihinbp4.wordpress.com/ Blog]</text>
      <sha1>hdwmifq7nem12a72al96p76refja75k</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Honda RC213V</title>
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      <text bytes="41538" sha1="flatgmm1pdmq8utdcrawktw7icfau8q" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Motorcycle
| name = Honda RC213V
| image = [[File:Marc Marquez 2013.jpg|250px]]
| caption = [[Marc Márquez]], numpak Honda RC213V, di [[2013 British motorcycle Grand Prix| Grand Prix Inggris 2013 ]].
| aka = 
| manufacturer = [[Honda Racing Corporation]]
| production = 2011
| predecessor = [[Honda RC212V]]
| parent_company = 
| class = 
| platform = 
| engine = {{convert|1000|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}} [[four-stroke engine|4-Tak]] [[V4 engine|V4]]
| transmission =
| rake =
| trail =
| wheelbase =
| length = 
| width = 
| seat_height =
| dry_weight =
| wet_weight = 
| fuel_economy =
| fuel_capacity =
}}
'''Honda RC213V''' nyaéta motor balap nu dimekarkeun pikeun balapan di [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] pikeun usum  [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2012 |2012]] jeung saterusna.&lt;ref name = &quot;Robah2012&quot;/&gt; Tetekon pikeun taun 2012 ngidinan kapasitas mesin nepikeun ka ''{{convert|1000|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}}'', kalayan lobana  kelép diwates 4 siki sarta maksimal liang sehér  81mm.&lt;ref name = &quot;Robah2012&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=MotoGP changes for 2012 |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2009-12-11 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/FIM+announcement+for+2012+MotoGP |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607080855/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/FIM+announcement+for+2012+MotoGP |archive-date=2013-06-07 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ngaran modél dumasar kana:&lt;ref name=&quot;MCride&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.motorcyclistonline.com/features/honda_rc211v_gp/ |title=We Ride Honda's RC211V GP bike! |accessdate=2007-02-01 |publisher=[[Motorcyclist]] }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''RC'''= Awalan balap tradisional Honda pikeun motor 4-Tak &lt;ref name=&quot;MCride&quot;/&gt;
* '''213'''= Motor karya mimiti dina abad ka-21. &lt;ref name=&quot;MCride&quot;/&gt;
* '''V'''= [[Mesin V]] &lt;ref name=&quot;MCride&quot;/&gt;

==Sajarah==
Dina taun [[Balap motor grand Prix usum 2012|2012]], [[Repsol Honda|Honda]] nurunkeun dua rupa RC213V pabrikan, dipaké ku tim [[Repsol Honda]]  [[Casey Stoner]] jeung [[Dani Pedrosa]]; nu katilu jeung nu kaopat dipaké ku [[Álvaro Bautista]] ti tim [[Gresini Racing]] sarta [[Stefan Bradl]] ti tim [[Team LCR|LCR]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Gresini confirms Bautista signature for 2012 |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=09 Séptémber 2011 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/Rizla+Suzuki+and+Bautista+part+ways |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729123934/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/Rizla+Suzuki+and+Bautista+part+ways |archive-date=2014-07-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=LCR Honda sign Bradl on two-year deal |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=17 Séptémber 2011 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/LCR+Honda+Bradl+twoyear+MotoGP+deal |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006083000/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/LCR+Honda+Bradl+twoyear+MotoGP+deal |archive-date=2014-10-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Jonathan Rea]], ogé milu balap di dua [[Balap motor Grand Prix|Grand Prix]] ngaganti purah balap [[Casey Stoner]] lantaran kacilakaan di Indianapolis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Jonathan Rea to replace injured Casey Stoner for MotoGP rounds |publisher=bbc.com |date=26 Agustus 2012 |url=http://www.bbc.com/sport/northern-ireland/19386277|accessdate=21 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina mangsa tés saacan usum mimiti [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] mangrupa pangpunjulna maké Honda RC213V anyar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Repsol Honda Team leads the way on the first day of Valencia Test with the new RC213V |publisher=Honda |date=08 Séptémber 2011 |url=http://world.honda.com/HRC/repsolhondateam/news2011/20111108/ |accessdate=21 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Valencia Test draws to a close with Pedrosa quickest |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=09 Séptémber 2011 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/Valencia+MotoGP+Test+Wednesday+final |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kalayan gabungan usaha maranéhna, purah balap [[Repsol Honda]] meunang 12 kali balapan tina 18, sarta ngahontal juara purah balap ka 2 jeung ka 3, Honda RC213V mimiti ngahontal juara kahiji konstruktor, dina taun mimiti tetekon mesin 1000cc.
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2012 |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=11 Nopémber 2012 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/2012/VAL/MotoGP/World+Standing |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519213356/http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/2012/VAL/MotoGP/World+Standing |archive-date=2017-05-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2012 |publisher=resources.motogp.com |date=11 Nopémber 2012 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2012/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_209d7b03 |accessdate=21 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina taun [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]], juara dunya [[Moto2]] [[Marc Márquez]] ngaganti  [[Casey Stoner]] di tim [[Repsol Honda]], sarta ngahontal juara dunya maké motor Honda RC213V.&lt;ref name = &quot;Juara2013&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;Juara2013&amp;Konstr&quot;/&gt; [[Dani Pedrosa]] juara katilu, sarta Honda RC213V ngahontal juara konstruktor kadua kalina dina taun kadua.&lt;ref name = &quot;Juara2013&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2013 |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=10 Nopémber 2013 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/2013/VAL/MotoGP/World+Standing |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721035901/http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/2013/VAL/MotoGP/World+Standing |archive-date=2017-07-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;Juara2013&amp;Konstr&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2013 |publisher=resources.motogp.com |date=10 Nopémber 2013 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v13_62c4bc5c |accessdate=21 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina taun [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2014|2014]], mangsa tés mimiti saacan usum balap di [[Sepang International Circuit|Sepang]] Honda RC213V jadi pinunjul waktu panngancangna, kalayan para purah balapna aya di posisi ka 1, ka 3, ka 5 sarta ka 6 dina poé mimiti tés di Sepang sarta posisi ka 1, ka 2, ka 3 sarta ka 9 dina poé kadua.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | title=MotoGP Sepang Test&amp;nbsp;– Day 2 Summary: Fuel And Tires Favor Honda, Ducati Improves, &amp; Hayden Suffers | publisher=Asphalt &amp; Rubber | date=05 Pébruari 2014 | accessdate=21 Juni 2017 | url=http://www.asphaltandrubber.com/motogp/motogp-sepang-test-day-2-summary/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260217204425/https://www.asphaltandrubber.com/motogp/motogp-sepang-test-day-2-summary/ | archive-date=2026-02-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Produk balap==

===RCV1000R===
Tanggal 7 Nopémber 2013 [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] ngawanohkeun [[Honda RCV1000R|RCV1000R]] nu baris dipaké mimiti taun 2014 di kelas &quot;kabuka&quot; [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]].&lt;ref name = &quot;RCV1000R&quot;/&gt; Opat purah balap baris balap maké [[Honda RCV1000R|RCV1000R]] taun 2014, [[Nicky Hayden]] sarta masih kudu dikonfirmasi purah balap kadua di [[Tim Aspar]], [[Scott Redding]] ([[Tim Gresini Honda]]) sarta [[Karel Abraham]] ([[Tim Cardion AB]]).&lt;ref name = &quot;RCV1000R&quot;/&gt; [[Casey Stoner]] purah balap [[Repsol Honda|HRC]] nu dua kali Juara Dunya geus mecakan [[Honda RCV1000R|RCV1000R]] sarta ngedalkeun hal nu positif ka insinyur [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]].&lt;ref name = &quot;RCV1000R&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2013/Honda+Racing+Corporation+unveils+RCV1000R+for+2014|title=HRC unveils RCV1000R for 2014|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=[[Dorna Sports]]|date=7 Nopémber 2013|accessdate=21 Juni 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205162443/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2013/Honda+Racing+Corporation+unveils+RCV1000R+for+2014|archive-date=2015-02-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sasis [[Honda RCV1000R|RCV1000R]] dumasar kana Honda RC213V, sarta mesin 90º V4 nu ngahasilkeun tanaga leuwih ti 235hp dina 16.000 rpm, kalayan migunakeun kelép pér sarta ''gear box'' tradisional.&lt;ref name = &quot;RCV1000R&quot;/&gt;

===RC213V-RS===
{{Infobox Motorcycle
| name = Honda RC213V-RS
| image =&lt;!-- Deleted image removed:  [[File:Honda RC213V-RS.jpg|250px]] --&gt;
| caption = [[Jack Miller (motorcycle racer)|Jack Miller]] rode a Honda RC213V-RS at [[Circuito de Jerez|Jerez]].
| aka =
| manufacturer = [[Honda Racing Corporation]]
| production = 2014
| predecessor = [[Honda RCV1000R]]
| parent_company = 
| class = 
| platform = 
| engine = {{convert|1000|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}} [[four-stroke engine|4-tak]] [[V4 engine|V4]]
| transmission =
| rake =
| trail =
| wheelbase =
| length = 
| width = 
| seat_height =
| dry_weight =
| wet_weight = 
| fuel_economy =
| fuel_capacity =
| related = Honda RC213V
}}
Pikeun usum balap taun {{MGP|2015}} [[Honda RCV1000R]] diganti ku [[Honda RC213V-RS]], migunakeun kelép ''pneumatik'' tapi henteu  migunakeun ''seamless shift gearbox.''&lt;ref name = &quot;RC213V-RS&quot;/&gt; Honda RC213V-RS dasarna mah nyaéta mesin pabrikan taun ieu nu dipaké ku juara dunya  [[Marc Márquez|Marc Marquez]] tanpa migunakeun ''seamless shift gearbox'' sarta kudu maké [[Electronic Control Unit|ECU]] standar nu disadiakeun ku [[Dorna Sports|Dorna]].&lt;ref name = &quot;RC213V-RS&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.motorcyclenews.com/sport/motogp/2014/october/honda-confirms-new-rc213v-rs-wont-be-ready-until-february/|title=Honda confirms new RC213V-RS won't be ready until February|work=motorcyclenews.com|publisher=motorcyclenews.com|date=15 Oktober 2014|accessdate=21 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Spésifikasi==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: 90%;&quot;
|-
|
! 2012&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/2012/index.html |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP&amp;nbsp;– Spec |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}&lt;/ref&gt;
!width=&quot;100px&quot;| 2013&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com/rc213v-2013/ |title=Machine: RC213V 2013 |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |publisher=motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
!width=&quot;100px&quot;| 2014&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com/rc213v-2014/ |title=Machine: RC213V 2014 |accessdate=21 Juni 2017 |publisher=motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Panjang
| colspan=3 | {{convert|2052|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Rubak
| colspan=3 | {{convert|645|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Jangkung
| colspan=3 | {{convert|1110|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Jarak Gilinding
| colspan=3 | {{convert|1435|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Jarak Jalan
| colspan=3 | {{convert|115|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Beurat
| Luewih ti {{convert|157|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}
dumasar tetekon  [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] 
| colspan=2 | Leuwih ti {{convert|160|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}
dumassar tetekon [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] 
|-
| Tipeu Mesin
| colspan=3 | [[Water cooling|Paniis-cai]], [[Four-stroke cycle|4-Tak]], [[Overhead camshaft|DOHC]] [[Multi-valve|4 Klép]], [[V4 engine|V-4]]
|-
| Kapasitas
| colspan=3 | {{convert|1000|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}}
|-
| Tanaga Maksimal
| colspan=3 | Leuwih ti 176&amp;nbsp;kW (over 230&amp;nbsp;hp)
|-
| Pangtarikna
| colspan=3 | Leuwih ti 350&amp;nbsp;km/hour
|-
| Kapasitas Bahan Beuleum
|  {{convert|21|L|abbr=on}}
| colspan=2 | {{convert|20|L|abbr=on}}
|-
| Tipeu Sasis
| colspan=3 | Aluminum Twin Spar
|-
| Suspénsi
| colspan=3 | Hareup : Garpuh Telescopik (Öhlins)
 Tukang : Pro-Link (Öhlins)
|-
| Rém
| colspan=3 | Hareup : Keramik Karbon  (Brembo)
 Tukang : Plat Waja (Yutaka)
|}

==Hasil  MotoGP lengkep ==

===Ringkesan motor===
*Gelar Juara Dunya:
:Konstruktor: 4 ({{MGP|2012}},&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2012&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2012/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_209d7b03|title=MotoGP World Standing 2012|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=11 Nopémber 2012|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{MGP|2013}},&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2013&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v13_62c4bc5c|title=MotoGP World Standing 2013|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=10 Nopémber 2013|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{MGP|2014}},&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2014&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v13_62c4bc5c|title=MotoGP World Standing 2014|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=09 Nopémber 2014|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{MGP|2016}}&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2016&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v13_62c4bc5c|title=MotoGP World Standing 2016|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=13 Nopémber 2016|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;)
:Purah balap: 3 ([[Marc Márquez]] [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]],&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2013&quot;/&gt; [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2014|2014]],&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2014&quot;/&gt; [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2016|2016]] &lt;ref name = &quot;GP2016&quot;/&gt;)
:Tim: 3 ([[Repsol Honda]] [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2012|2012]],&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2012&quot;/&gt; [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]]&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2013&quot;/&gt;, [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2014|2014]]&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2014&quot;/&gt;)

*Meunang balap: 47
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2016|2016]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 5, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 1, [[Crutchlow]] 1, [[Jack Miller|Miller]] 1 (total 8)&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2016&quot;/&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2015|2015]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 5, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 2 (total 7)&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2015&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v13_62c4bc5c|title=MotoGP World Standing 2015|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=08 Nopémber 2015|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2014|2014]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 13, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 1 (total 14)&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2014&quot;/&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 6, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 3 (total 9)&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2013&quot;/&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2012|2012]]: [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 7, [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] 5 (total 12)&lt;ref name = &quot;GP2012&quot;/&gt;

*Posisi ''Pole'': 51
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2016|2016]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 6, [[Crutchlow]] 1 (total 7)&lt;ref name = &quot;Pole2016&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2016/VAL/PolePositions.pdf?v1_01ec2429|title=Pole Positions|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=12 Nopémber 2016|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2015|2015]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 8, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 1 (total 9)&lt;ref name = &quot;Pole2015&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2015/VAL/PolePositions.pdf?v1_bb493206|title=Pole Positions|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=07 Nopémber 2015|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2014|2014]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 13, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 1 (total 14)&lt;ref name = &quot;Pole2014&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2014/VAL/PolePositions.pdf?v3_7f10b23e|title=Pole Positions|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=08 Nopémber 2014|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]]: [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] 9, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 2, [[Stevan Bradl|Bradl]] 1 (total 12)&lt;ref name = &quot;Pole2013&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2013/VAL/PolePositions.pdf?v3_158ce31a|title=Pole Positions|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=09 Nopémber 2013|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2012|2012]]: [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] 5, [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] 5, [[Alvaro Bautista|Bautista]] 1 (total 11)&lt;ref name = &quot;Pole2012&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2012/VAL/PolePositions.pdf?v5_f3d1b07b|title=Pole Positions|work=MotoGP.com|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=10 Nopémber 2012|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hasil akurat ieu nepi ka  [[Grand Prix Jepang 2016|GP Jepang 2016]]. 

===Hasil RC213V ===
([[Citakan:Motorsport driver results legend|katerangan]]) (hasil nu ditulis  '''kandel''' nandakeun posisi ''pole''; hasil nu ditulis in ''déngdék'' nandakeun ''lap'' panggancangna)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:95%&quot;
|-
! Taun
! Gilinding
! Tim
! No.
! Purah balap
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
! 11
! 12
! 13
! 14
! 15
! 16
! 17
! 18
! Peunteun
! {{Tooltip|Juara|Riders' championship position}}
|-
! rowspan=&quot;6&quot;| {{MGP|2012}}
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2012 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2012 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2012 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]]
|| [[2012 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2012 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2012 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2012 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2012 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2012 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2012 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]]
|| [[2012 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2012 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2012 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2012 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2012 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2012 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2012 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2012 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot;| Repsol Honda Team
|| 1
|| [[Casey Stoner]]
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|''3''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|1
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|'''4'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|'''Ret'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|1
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
||
||
||
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|'''254'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|'''Ka 3'''
|-
|| 26
|| [[Dani Pedrosa]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|'''4'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|''2''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|''1''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''''2'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|''3''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|1
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|''1''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|''1''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|''1''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''332'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''Ka 2'''
|-
|| 56
|| [[Jonathan Rea]]
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
||
||
||
||
! 17
! Ka 21
|-
|| LCR Honda MotoGP
|| 6
|| [[Stefan Bradl]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|9
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
! 135
! Ka 8
|-
|| San Carlo Honda Gresini
|| 19
|| [[Álvaro Bautista]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|'''4'''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
! 178
! Ka 5
|-
! rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| {{MGP|2013}}
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2013 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2013 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
|| [[2013 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2013 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2013 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2013 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2013 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2013 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2013 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]]
|| [[2013 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2013 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2013 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2013 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2013 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2013 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2013 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2013 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2013 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
|| LCR Honda MotoGP
|| 6
|| [[Stefan Bradl]]
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''2'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot;| DNS
|style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot;| DNS
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
! 156
! Ka 7
|-
|| GO &amp; FUN Honda Gresini
|| 19
|| [[Álvaro Bautista]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
! 171
! Ka 6
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Repsol Honda Team
|| 26
|| [[Dani Pedrosa]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;|1
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| ''1''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''2'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''2'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot;|DNS
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;|5
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|''3''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|''Ret''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| 1
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|3
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| '''300'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| '''Ka 3'''
|-
|| 93
|| [[Marc Márquez]]
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|''3''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| '''''3'''''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|''Ret''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;|''3''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|2
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|''2''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''''2'''''
|style=&quot;background:black; color:white;&quot;| ''DSQ''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;|'''''2'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| '''''3'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''334'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''Ka 1'''
|-
! rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| {{MGP|2014}}
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2014 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2014 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
|| [[2014 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]]
|| [[2014 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2014 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2014 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2014 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2014 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2014 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2014 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2014 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2014 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2014 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2014 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2014 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2014 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2014 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2014 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
|| LCR Honda MotoGP
|| 6
|| [[Stefan Bradl]]
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;|Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 10
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;|4
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 8
! 117
! Ka 9
|-
|| GO &amp; FUN Honda Gresini
|| 19
|| [[Álvaro Bautista]]
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| ''Ret''
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 6
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 8
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 9
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 10
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 8
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 6
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
! 89
! Ka 11
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Repsol Honda Team
|| 26
|| [[Dani Pedrosa]]
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| ''2''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| '''3'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| ''1''
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 14
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
! 246
! Ka 4
|-
|| 93
|| [[Marc Márquez]]
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| ''1''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| ''1''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| '''4'''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| ''15''
|style=&quot;background:#DFFFDF;&quot;| '''13'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#EFCFFF;&quot;| '''Ret'''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#FFFFBF;&quot;| ''1''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''362'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;|'''Ka 1'''
|-
! rowspan=&quot;7&quot;| {{MGP|2015}}
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2015 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2015 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
|| [[2015 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]]
|| [[2015 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2015 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2015 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2015 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2015 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2015 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2015 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2015 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2015 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2015 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2015 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2015 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2015 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2015 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot;| Repsol Honda Team
|| 7
|| [[Hiroshi Aoyama]]
|
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 1
! Ka 25
|-
|| 26
|| [[Dani Pedrosa]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 6
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 8
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 9
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| 1
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| '''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
! 206
! Ka 4
|-
|| 93
|| [[Marc Márquez]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| '''1'''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| '''Ret'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| '''4'''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| ''Ret''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| ''Ret''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| ''2''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| ''2''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| '''Ret'''
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| 1
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| '''Ret'''
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot;| '''''1'''''
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot;| 2
!style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 242
!style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| Ka 3
|-
|| CWM LCR Honda{{refn|Nepikeun ka [[Balap motor Grand Prix Inggris usum 2015|Grand Prix Inggris]], tim kompetisi sabagé [[Team LCR|CWM LCR Honda]], kalayan ngran sponsor ti [[CWM FX]]. Saterusna, tim nu kompetisi sabagé [[Team LCR|LCR Honda]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=MotoGP Silverstone: New GIVI livery for Cal Crutchlow|url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/222353/1/new-givi-livery-for-cal-crutchlow.html|accessdate=22 Juni 2017|date=28 Agustus 2015|work=Crash.net|publisher=Crash Media Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;|name=LCR|group=&quot;N&quot;}}&lt;br&gt;LCR Honda{{refn|name=LCR|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
|| 35
|| [[Cal Crutchlow]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 4
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 8
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 6
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 5
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 9
! 125
! Ka 8
|-
|| EG 0,0 Marc VDS
|| 45
|| [[Scott Redding]]
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 9
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 7
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 6
|style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot;| 3
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 10
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
! 84
! Ka 13
|-
| Team HRC with Nissin
|| 72
| [[Takumi Takahashi]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|
|
|
! 4
! Ka 26
|-
! rowspan=&quot;9&quot; | {{MGP|2016}}
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; | {{Michelin}}
|
|
| 
| [[2016 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
| [[2016 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]]
| [[2016 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
| [[2016 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
| [[2016 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
| [[2016 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
| [[2016 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
| [[2016 Dutch TT|NED]]
| [[2016 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
| [[2016 Austrian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUT]]
| [[2016 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
| [[2016 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
| [[2016 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
| [[2016 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
| [[2016 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
| [[2016 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
| [[2016 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
| [[2016 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
|
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |Repsol Honda Team
!73
![[Hiroshi Aoyama]]
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!15
!
!
!
!
!
|-
!69
![[Nicky Hayden]]
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!17
!
!
!
!
|-
| 26
| [[Dani Pedrosa]]
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 12
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 12
|5
|''1''
|6
|
|
|
|
! 155
! Ka 6
|-
| 93
| [[Marc Márquez]]
| style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | '''''1'''''
| style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | '''''1'''''
| style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 13
| style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot; | '''2'''
| style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | '''1'''
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;background:#ffdf9f;&quot; | '''3'''
|4
|4
|'''''1'''''
|''1''
|Ret
|
|
! style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | 298
! style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | Ka 1
|-
| LCR Honda
| 35
| [[Cal Crutchlow]]
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot; | 16
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot; | ''2''
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 15
| style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | ''1''
|'''2'''
|8
|5
|5
|''1''
|
|
! 141
! Ka 7
|-
! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |Estrella Galicia 0,0 Marc VDS
!69
![[Nicky Hayden]]
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!15
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| 43
| [[Jack Miller (motorcycle racer)|Jack Miller]]
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 14
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | DNS
| style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot; | 17
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 10
| style=&quot;background:#ffffbf;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | DNS
|
|16
|
|
|Ret
|10
|
|
! 57
! Ka 18
|-
| 53
| [[Esteve Rabat]]
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 15
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 13
| style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot; | 18
| style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot; | Ret
| style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | DNS
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 14
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot; | 16
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 14
| style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot; | 10
|15
|17
|Ret
|14
|16
|
|
! 29
! Ka 21
|}

===Hasil RC213V-RS ===
([[Citakan:Motorsport driver results legend|katerangan]])
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:95%&quot;
|-
! Taun
! Gilinding
! Tim
! No.
! Purah balap
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
! 11
! 12
! 13
! 14
! 15
! 16
! 17
! 18
! Peunteun
! {{Tooltip|Juara|Riders' championship position}}
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{MGP|2014}}
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2014 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2014 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
|| [[2014 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]]
|| [[2014 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2014 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2014 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2014 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2014 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2014 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2014 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2014 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2014 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2014 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2014 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2014 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2014 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2014 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2014 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
| Drive M7 Aspar
|| 7
|| [[Hiroshi Aoyama]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
! 1 (68){{refn|Angka nu teu dikurungan nujul kana jumlah akumulasi kalayan motor, kalayan jumlah dina kurung ngarujuk kana total akumulasi usum.|name=Total|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
! Ka 14
|-
! rowspan=&quot;9&quot;| {{MGP|2015}}
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot;| {{Bridgestone}}
||
||
|| 
|| [[2015 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]]
|| [[2015 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]]
|| [[2015 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]]
|| [[2015 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]]
|| [[2015 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]]
|| [[2015 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]]
|| [[2015 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]]
|| [[2015 Dutch TT|NED]]
|| [[2015 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]]
|| [[2015 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]]
|| [[2015 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]]
|| [[2015 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]]
|| [[2015 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]]
|| [[2015 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]]
|| [[2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]]
|| [[2015 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]]
|| [[2015 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]]
|| [[2015 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]]
||
|-
|rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| AB Motoracing
|| 7
|| [[Hiroshi Aoyama]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 0 (5){{refn|name=Total|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
! Ka 25
|-
|| 13
|| [[Anthony West (motorcycle racer)|Anthony West]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 23
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 20
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 22
! 0
! NC
|-
|| 17
|| [[Karel Abraham]]
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 21
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot;| DNS
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 21
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 21
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|
|
|
|
! 0
! NC
|-
|| 24
|| [[Toni Elías]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 22
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 0 (2){{refn|name=Total|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
! Ka 27
|-
|| 64
|| [[Kousuke Akiyoshi]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|
|
|
! 0
! NC
|-
|| CWM LCR Honda{{refn|name=LCR|group=&quot;N&quot;}}&lt;br&gt;LCR Honda{{refn|name=LCR|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
|| 43
|| [[Jack Miller (motorcycle racer)|Jack Miller]]
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 14
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 20
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 21
! 17
! Ka 19
|-
| rowspan=2| Aspar MotoGP Team
|| 50
|| [[Eugene Laverty]]
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 18
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 18
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 14
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 14
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 19
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
! 9
! Ka 22
|-
|| 69
|| [[Nicky Hayden]]
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 11
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 12
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 15
|style=&quot;background:#dfffdf;&quot;| 13
|style=&quot;background:#efcfff;&quot;| Ret
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 16
|style=&quot;background:#cfcfff;&quot;| 17
! 16
! Ka 20
|}

==Catetan==
{{Reflist|group=&quot;N&quot;}}
{{notelist}}

==Dicutat tina==
{{reflist}}

==Tumbu kaluar==
* [http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/ Honda MotoGP] Ramatloka resmi MotoGP Honda 

[[kategori:Motor Honda|RC213V]]
[[Category:Motor balap Grand Prix]]</text>
      <sha1>flatgmm1pdmq8utdcrawktw7icfau8q</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mata angin</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>71759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731427</id>
      <parentid>703961</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T10:34:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>25926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6)</comment>
      <origin>731427</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3855" sha1="qh7ro1adzr2i5ium231rm9e4r8op9fz" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Mata angin.jpg|jmpl|''Arah Mata Angin'']]
'''Mata angin''' atawa '''puhu angin''' nyaéta pituduh dipaké pikeun nangtukeun tur menentukkan arah.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://siswonesia.com/arah-mata-angin/ |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2017-10-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007070207/http://siswonesia.com/arah-mata-angin |archivedate=2017-10-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; Biasana bisa ningali dina [[Peta géologis|peta]], navigasi, sarta parabot pikeun nangtukeun arah nu [[kompas]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Mata angin mantuan kami di mana urang kudu balik pikeun ngahontal tujuan dimaksudkeun.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Pasti bakal mantuan dina urutan teu kasasab di hiji tempat.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Pikeun jalma anu sering roam semesta geus pasti sering ngarasa kauntungan tina arah angin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Diajar sagala ngeunaan arah angin geus pasti penting pikeun sareréa, hususna keur jalma anu resep petualangan di alam liar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Diajar arah angin di antarana gambar akrab tina angin, titik kompas tina [[kompas]] éta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

ku sabab sakola urang geus nyaho nami angin, utamana pikeun maranéhanana anu aktip dina dinten sakola pramuka, bakal geus ngarasa kauntungan uninga arah angin. Kitu ogé jeung [[Muslim]] di dunya, kudu geus ngarasa ogé kauntungan: gampang manggihan arah Qiblat.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Ku alatan éta, ngalenyepan angin pasti aya hal anu bakal mangpaat, sajaba ngaronjatkeun pangaweruh urang, urang ogé bisa ngagunakeun nalika urang butuh eta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Angin gaduh opat arah poko, angin tina standar dasar ieu dipaké di pabrik parabot arah. Kayaning peta, kompas jeung parabot lianna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Opat ngaran poko tina arah angin téh:
# [[Kalér]]
# [[Wétan]]
# [[Kidul]]
# [[Kulon]]
Kabéh opat arah angin tina [[kompas]] éta mangrupa subjék nu geus ditetepkeun tur dipaké di sadaya [[nagara]] di dunya. Salian angin poko, aya ogé angin jeung angin Ditengah tambahan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Angin tina pusat nyaéta arah angin di antara sakabéh opat arah angin poko. Contona, dina arah angin ka kalér jeung wétan aya arah angin, disebut Tenggara. Jelas nami anu teu wawuh ka Ceuli urang.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Sanajan kitu, loba teu nyaho nu arah nami tonggoh. Ieu penting ogé uninga sarta nyurtian titik sentral di [[kompas]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Ieu dhandap mangrupa ngaran 4 angin tengah.
# [[Kalér]] (antara kalér jeung wétan).
# Tenggara (antara kalér jeung kidul).
# Kulon Kidul (kidul jeung kulon).
# Kulon kalér (antara kulon jeung kalér).
Kabéh opat ngaran nu ngaran tina angin tina tengahna. Ku kituna lamun nambahan nepi ka titik di kompas arah poko tina angin aya-8. Sanajan kitu, aya kénéh 8 titik tina kompas deui, ''mata angin'' tambahan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Sabaraha arah sabenerna angin? sababaraha nyebutkeun opat, sababaraha nyebutkeun 8 komo batur nyebutkeun 16. Leuwih jelas, arah angin sabenerna dibagi jadi tilu, nyaéta:&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;http://www.pramukaindonesia.com/2014/11/arah-mata-angin-pembagian-dan.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028094435/http://www.pramukaindonesia.com/2014/11/arah-mata-angin-pembagian-dan.html |date=2017-10-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
#     Primér, arah angin atawa angin arah utama diwangun ku opat arah Cardinal Biasana lamun disingkat saukur diwangun ku hiji aksara, saperti: kalér (U), wétan (T), kulon (B), jeung kidul (S).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#     Sekundér, arah angin nu ngandung nambahkeun opat arah Cardinal lianna. Biasana angin sekundér disingget ku 2 hurup kayaning ''Tenggara'' ''(Tg), Timur laut (TL), Barat Laut (BL), jeung Barat Daya (BD).''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#     Tersiér, arah angin diwangun sanggeus ditambah 16 arah angin séjén. Arah ti tersiér angin biasana disingget kalayan 3 hurup kawas ''Barat Barat Daya (BBD).''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==Rujukan==

{{stub}}

[[Id:Mata angin]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Azai Nagamasa</title>
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      <text bytes="4980" sha1="iwtbza1sem3wpkubn5r8y2zxwiup9gs" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Azai Nagamasa3.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Asai Nagamasa]]
'''Azai Nagamasa''' (浅井 長政, [[1545]]-[[1573]]) nyaéta [[daimyo]] salila perang sipil [[Jepang]] jaman [[Sengoku]]. Manéhna téh adi beuteung ti nu ngahijikeun Jepang, [[Oda Nobunaga]] anu antukna jadi musuh alatan panghianatan pasakutuan maranéhanana.

== Awal kahirupan ==
Nagamasa babar di [[Kastil Odani]] milik klan Azai. Bapana, [[Azai Hisamasa]], nyaéta pamingpin nu lemah nu ahirna bisa diéléhkeun ku klan [[Rokkaku]] dina kapamingpinan [[Rokkaku]] [[Yoshikata]]. Dina awal taun [[1559]], manéhna kawin jeung awéwé ti klan Rokkaku pikeun nguatkeun pasakutuan antara dua marga atawa klan. Tapi teu lila manéhna ngabolaykeun kawinan ieu.

Di tengah taun [[1560]], tentara Rokkaku nyerang [[Omi]], wilayah Azai nepi ka ngabalukarkeun perang. Dina perang ieu, Nagamasa némbongkeun pangabisana salaku pamingpin nu kuat, sanajan umur-na dina waktu harita masih ngora pisan. Taun satuluyna manéhna junun nepi ka bisa ngawasa [[Kastil Futo]] nu saméméhna dikawasaan ku Rokkaku. Jeung bapana, manéhna ngéléhkeun klan Rokkaku dina [[Perang Norada]]. Sanggeus meunang dina peperanngan ieu, nu ngilu ka klan Azai nungtut supaya [[Hisamasa]] mundur jeung masrahkeun jabatan ka putrana, Nagamasa, anu dianggap leuwih sanggup. Hisamasa ahirna nurut, manéhna masrahkeun jabatanna ka Nagamasa sarta pangsiun, méakkeun sesa hirupna di kastil Odani. Ku kituna Nagamasa ayeuna geus jadi [[daimyo]] klan Azai nu katilu.

== Jadi pangawasa Omi ==
Sanggeus jadi pamingpin, lengkah kahiji pikeun nyerang Mino nu dikawasa [[klan Saito]]. Klan Rokkaku nyokot kasempetan di satengahing Nagamasa ngalawan Saito ku cara ngepung [[Kastil Sawayama]] di Omi. Tapi, Nagamasa bisa nyalametkeun kastil éta ku ngirim bantuan nu dipingpin ku [[Isono Kazumasa]]. Dina waktu éta, [[Oda Nobunaga]], panguasa [[Owari]] ogé keur ngalakukeun ekspansi ka Mino. Pikeun nganggeuskeun peperangan nu katutuluyan, klan Oda jeung Azai sapuk pikeun ngadegkeun pasakutuan, Nobunaga ngawinkeun adina, [[Oichi]] ka Nagamasa taun [[1564]]. Maranéhanana miboga tilu budak [[lalaki]] sarta tilu budak [[awéwé]].

Taun [[1570]], Nobunaga nu kakawasaanna beuki kuat satru jeung [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] ti [[Mikawa]] pikeun nyerang klan Asakura ti [[Echizen]]. Hal ieu nyieun dilema pikeun Nagamasa, sanajan Nobunaga nyaéta adi beuteungna, tapi [[Asakura]] ogé satru heubeul sarta sobat deukeut jeung klan Azai. Sanggeus badami jeung anggotana, manéhna nangtukeun pilihan pikeun mantuan Asakura jeung nyerang Oda. Nagamasa nyerang garis tukang tentara Oda di [[Perang Anegawa]]. Perang nu kacida gedéna antara Azai-Asakura jeung Oda-Tokugawa. Pasukan gabungan Azai-Asakura ahirna éléh sarta kaleungitan jenderal-jendral pangalusna kayaning [[Endo Naotsune]] jeung [[Makara Naotaka]]. Tapi sawatara bulan saterusna maranéhanana junun ngabales dengdem elehna dina perang di Otsu nu nyokot nyawa Oda Nobuharu, adina Nobunaga. Saprak harita Nobunaga kacida geuleuhna ka Nagamasa jeung ngucap sumpah pikeun balas dengdem ku sabab panghianatan-na.

Nagamasa saterusna ngagabung dina pasakutuan nu anti-Oda nu diwangun tina klan-klan nu kaancam ku Nobunaga salaku Asakura, Rokkaku, biksu-biksu gerilyawan ti [[Gunung Hiei]], jeung [[Shogun Ashikaga]] [[Yoshiaki]]. ku sabab pasakutuan ieu, dua kali serangan Nobunaga ka kastill Odani, nyaéta di taun [[1571]] jeung [[1572]] bisa digagalkeun. Pertahanan kastil dilengkepan pakarang seuneu jeung panangtayungan ti Asakura, Nobunaga teu wani gagabah, leuwih ti éta, manéhna ogé kudu nyanghareupan anceman lawan nu séjénna.

== Éléh sacara tragis ==
Di taun [[1573]], [[Shingen Takeda]], salah sahiji musuh nu kuat Nobunaga geus tilar dunya ku kituna perhatian Nobunaga ayeuna fokus ka dendam nu baheula ka Nagamasa. Dina taun éta Nobunaga mimiti nyerang ka Omi ku cara ngepung kastil Sawayama nu dijaga ku [[Isono Kazumasa]]. Sanggeus dalapan bulan pamungkas, Isono ahirna nyerah. Nagamasa kacida murkana sarta ngahukum pati indung Isono anu cicing di kastil Odani salaku sandera. Oda terus maju nyerang Odani sanggeus saméméhna nyergap jeung ngancurkeun kakuatan Asakura saméméh maranéhanana nepi ka Odani. Kastil Odani ayeuna dikepung, bapana, Hisamasa, ngalakukeun ''[[seppuku]]'' pikeun nempo karuksakan nu aya. Sadar yén geus euweuh harepan, Nagamasa maréntahkeun pamajikanana, Oichi, sarta tilu anak awéwéna pikeun mulang ka klan Oda, sadengkeun manéhna sorangan jeung budak lalakina, Manjumaru ngalakukeun ''seppuku'' di kastil. Numutkeun salah sahiji versi carita, pikeun nyumponan dendamna, Nobunaga maréntahkeun tangkorak Nagamasa jeung Asakura Yoshikage dijadikeun gayung nu dipaké diacara [[Kyoto]].

== Tutumbu kaluar ==
[https://web.archive.org/web/20201125084019/http://samurai-archives.com/ Samurai Archives]
{{pondok}}

[[Kategori:Daimyo]]
[[Kategori:Sajarah Jepang]]
[[Kategori:Sajarah Asia]]
[[Kategori:Sajarah Asia Wétan]]
[[Kategori:Biografi]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gelas kertas</title>
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      <text bytes="25511" sha1="3gfspsw8n6hea8qdkhiabe0gf3jh4z2" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Paper cup DS.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas polos]]
[[File:Insulated paper cup cutaway.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas nu dilapisan pikeun ngawadahan cipanas, nu gelasna geus disoéhkeun]]
'''Gelas kertas''' nyaéta [[gelas sakali paké]] nu dijieun tina bahan [[kertas]], ari biasana mah sok dilapisan ogé ku palastik pikeun ngajaga si cairanna téh henteu miis atawa nyerep kana kertasna.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://innsupplies.com/disposable/paper-cups |title=Takeaway Cups For Hot Drinks |publisher=innsupplies.com|accessdate=2015-02-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kennedy, Garry: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html Dixie Cup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207050741/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html |date=2016-12-07 }} entry, Apollo Glossary, NASA. Retrieved 2012-02-06.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.toiletpaperworld.com/tpw/product.asp?strSku=SCC+P510J&amp;bShowSkuGroup=true|title=Paper Products &amp; Dispensers  |publisher=Toiletpaperworld.com|accessdate=2007-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu gelas kertas téh meureun baé aya nu dijieunna tina [[kertas daur ulang]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Wind Makes Food Retailers Greener|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060211/food.asp|publisher=Science News|date=2006-02-11|last=Raloff|first=Janet}}&lt;/ref&gt; jeung deuih ieu gelas geus lumbrah dipaké di sakuliah dunya.

==Sajarah==
Gelas kertas geus kacatet ti keur mangsa [[kakaisaran Cina]], nu mana kertas kapanggih dina abad ka-2 SM.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tsien&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |authorlink=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |series=Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume= 5 part 1|title=Paper and Printing|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|page=38}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gelas kertas dipikawanoh minangka ''chih pei'' jeung dipakéna téh pikeun nyicikeun ci [[entéh]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Paper and Printing&quot;/&gt; Ieu gelas téh dijieun dina rupa-rupa ukurang jeung warna-warni, sarta dihias ku desain dékoratif. Bukti tékstual gelas kertas bijil dina déskripsi ngeunaan harta milik kulawarga Yu, ti kota [[Hangzhou]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Paper and Printing&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Paper and Printing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC&amp;pg=PA122|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08690-5|author=Joseph Needham|page=122|quote=At this time téa was served from baskets made of rushes which held... a set of several tens of paper cups (chih pei) in different sizes and colors with delicate designs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Gelas kertas modérn dikembangkeun dina [[abad ka-20]]. Awal abad ka-20 geus guyub pikeun silih babagi cai tina sumber cai [[keran]] di sekolah atawa di tong cai dina [[karéta api]]. Pamakéan babarengan kieu téh nyumebabkeun masalah kaséhatan masarakat. Salah sahiji hal nu disidik-sidik téh nu pentingna mah nyaéta hasil studi ku Alvin Davison, profesor biologi di Lafayette College, nu dipedal kalawan judul &quot;''Death in School Drinking Cups''&quot; di Majalah Technical World dina bulan [[Agustus]] [[1908]], dumasar panalungtikan nu dipilampahna di éaston, di sakola umum Pennsylvania. Éta artikel dicitak deui jeung didistribusikeun ku Massachusetts State Board of Héalth dina bulan [[Nopémber]] [[1909]].&lt;ref name=Dixie&gt;{{cite web|url=http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|title=Dixie Cup Company History|publisher=Lafayette College Libraries|date=August 1995|accessdate=2018-03-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112065042/http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|archivedate=2011-11-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Based on these concerns, and as paper goods (especially after the 1908 invention of the Dixie Cup) became chéaply and cléanly available, local bans were passed on the shared-use cup. One of the first railway companies to use disposable paper cups was the [[Lackawanna Railroad]], which began using them in 1909. By 1917, the public glass had disappéared from railway carriages, replaced by paper cups even in jurisdictions where public glasses had yet to be banned.&lt;ref&gt;{{White-Passenger-1985|volume=2|page=432}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Paper cups are also employed in hospitals for héalth réasons. In 1942 the Massachusetts State College found in one study that the cost of using washable glasses, re-used after being sanitized, was 1.6 times the cost of using single-service paper cups.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=http://journals.lww.com/ajnonline/Citation/1942/02000/Uses_for_Paper_Cups_and_Containers.11.aspx|title=Uses for Paper Cups and Containers|author=Beulah France|journal=The American Journal of Nursing|volume=42|issue=2|date=February 1942|pages=154–156|doi=10.2307/3416163|jstor=3416163}}&lt;/ref&gt; These studies, as well as the reduction in the risk of cross-infection, encouraged the use of paper cups in hospitals.

===Dixie cups===
{{redirect|Dixie cup|the type of naval headgear|Sailor cap|the band|The Dixie Cups}}
Dixie Cup is the [[brand name]] for a line of disposable paper cups that were first developed in the United States in 1907 by Lawrence Luellen, a lawyer in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], who was concerned about germs being spréad by péople sharing glasses or dippers at public supplies of drinking water. Luellen developed an ice-cooled water-[[vending machine]] with disposable cups,&lt;ref name=Dixie /&gt; and with another Bostonian, [[Hugh Moore (businessman)|Hugh Moore]], embarked on an [[advertising campaign]] to educate the public and to market his machine, principally to railroad companies. Professor Davison's study was instrumental in abolishing the public glass and opening the door for the paper cup. Soon, the devices, which would dispense cool water for one cent, became standard equipment on trains.

[[File:Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pa (66342).jpg|thumb|Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pennsylvania]]

The Dixie Cup was first called &quot;Health Kup&quot;, but from 1919 it was named after a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindler's Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to call itself the Dixie Cup Corporation and move to a factory in [[Wilson, Pennsylvania]]. Atop the factory was a large water tank in the shape of a cup.&lt;ref&gt;[http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg Former Dixie Cup Factory, Wilson, Pa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204642/http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg |date=2016-03-03 }} (photograph)&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1957, Dixie merged with the [[American Can Company]]. The [[James River Corporation]] purchased American Can's paper business in 1982. The assets of James River are now part of [[Georgia-Pacific]], a subsidiary of [[Koch Industries]], the second largest privately owned company in the United States. In 1983, production moved to a modérn factory in Forks, Pennsylvania. The original factory in Wilson has sat vacant ever since. The closing of the factory also prompted [[Conrail]] to abandon the éaston &amp; Northern railroad branch, of which Dixie Cups was the last major customer.

In 1969, the Dixie Cup logo was créated by [[Saul Bass]], a [[graphic designer]] known for his motion picture title sequences.

The [[coupon collector's problem]] is sometimes called the Dixie cup problem.

==Pabrik==
[[File:Dixie Cup 20090904.jpg|thumb|right|200px| The world's largest &quot;paper&quot; cup in front of what was once the Lily-Tulip manufacturing company, later [[Sweetheart (company)|Sweetheart Cup Company]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm Lily-Tulip Cup Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609165420/http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm |date=2010-06-09 }}, Springfield-Greene County Library, Springfield, Missouri&lt;/ref&gt; Made of poured concrete, the cup stands about {{convert|68.1|ft}} tall.]]The base paper for paper cups is called &quot;cup board&quot;, and is made on special multi-ply [[paper machine]]s. It has a barrier coating for waterproofing. The paper needs high stiffness and strong [[wet strength|wet sizing]]. The cup board grade has a special design for the cup manufacturing processes. The mouth roll forming process requires good elongation properties of the board and the plastic coating. A well formed mouth roll provides stiffness and handling properties in the cup. The basis weights of the cup boards are 170–350 g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;PST&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Savolainen|first1=Antti|authorlink1= |last2= |first2= |editor1-first= |editor1-last= |editor1-link= |others= |title=Paper and Paperboard Converting|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Papermaking Science and Technology |volume=12 |date= |month= |year= 1998|publisher= Fapet OY|location=Finland |isbn=952-5216-12-8 |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= 170–172|chapter=6 |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

To meet hygiene requirements, paper cups are generally manufactured from virgin (non-recycled) materials.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} The one exception to this is when the paper cup féatures an extra insulating layer for héat retention, which never comes into contact with the beverage, such as a corrugated layer wrapped around a single-wall cup.

===Tahan cai===
Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard.

Cups for cold drinks could not be tréated in the same way, as condensation forms on the outside, then soaks into the board, making the cup unstable. To remedy this, cup manufacturers developed the technique of spraying both the inside and outside of the cup with wax. Clay- and wax-coated cups disappéared with the invention of [[polyethylene]] (PE)-coated cups; this process covers the surface of the board with a very thin layer of PE, waterproofing the board and welding the séams together.

In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.&lt;ref name=&quot;yle.fi&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Suomalainen yritys teki sen – kahvin, rasvan ja oluen kestävät muovittomat ihmepahvit lähtevät maailmalle: &quot;Kiinnostus on valtavaa&quot;|trans-title=A Finnish company made it - plastic-free miracle board that can withstand coffee, fat and beer:  &quot;We have received huge interest&quot;|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9717592|accessdate=1 September 2017|agency=YLE}}&lt;/ref&gt;

in 2017, the Newport Béach CA company [http://www.smartplanettech.com/ Smart Planet Technologies], launched &quot;[https://www.recup.earth/ reCUP]&quot; for the UK market, a recyclable paper cup using a polyethylene and mineral-blended coating, that is engineered to be recycled through traditional paper recycling systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/markets/coffee-and-paper-cups/smart-planet-technologies-commercially-launches-recup-uk-05-12-2017|title=Smart Planet Technologies commercially launches reCUP in UK|date=2017-12-05|work=Packaging News|access-date=2018-01-06|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Printing on paper cups===
Originally paper cups were printed using rubber blocks mounted on cylinders, with a different cylinder for éach colour. Registration across different colours was very difficult, but later [[flexographic|flexography]] plates became available and with the use of mounting systems it became éasier to register across the colours, allowing for more complex designs. Printing flexographic has become idéal for long runs and manufacturers generally use this method when producing over a million cups. Machines such as [[Comexi Group|Comexi]] are used for this, which have been adapted to take the extra large reels that are required by paper cup manufacturers. Ink technology has also changed and where [[solvent]]-based inks were being used, water-based inks are instéad being utilised. One of the side effects of solvent-based inks is that hot drink cups in particular can smell of solvent, wheréas water-based inks have eliminated this problem.
Other methods of printing have been used for short runs such as [[offset printing]], which can vary from anything from 10,000 to 100,000 cups. Offset printing inks have also been developed and although in the past these were solvent based, the latest [[Soy ink|soya-based inks]] have reduced the danger of cups smelling. The latest development is '''Direct-printing''', which allows printing on very small quantities, typically from 1,000 cups, and is used by companies including [[Brendos ltd]] offering small quantities in short léad times. [[Rotogravure]] can also be used, but this is extremely expensive and is normally only utilised for items requiring extremely high quality printing like ice créam containers.

==Balukar lingkungan==

===Daur ulang===
Most paper cups are designed for a single use and then disposal. Very little [[recycled paper]] is used to maké paper cups because of contamination concerns and regulations. Since most paper cups are [[plastic coating|coated with plastic]] (polyethylene), then both composting and recycling of paper cups is uncommon because of the difficulty in separating the polyethylene in the recycling process of said cups. As of 2016, there are only two facilities in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] able to properly recycle PE-coated cups; in the absence of such facilities, the cups are taken to landfill or incinerated.

A UK-based business group [[James Cropper (company)|James Cropper]] have developed the world’s first facility for the effective recycling of the estimated 2.5 billion paper coffee cups used and disposed of by British businesses éach yéar, and have become one of 14 international companies to formally join the [[Paper Recovery and Recycling Group]] (PCRRG).

James Cropper's Reclaimed Fibre Facility was opened by HM The Queen in July 2013, and recovers both the plastic and paper from the cups; ensuring nothing is wasted from the recycling process.&lt;ref name=&quot;pcuc&quot;/&gt; Although paper cups are made from renewable resources (wood chips 95% by weight), paper products in a landfill might not decompose, or can reléase [[methane]], if decomposed [[anaerobic digestion|anaerobically]].

A [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach, CA]] company, Smart Planet Technologies has developed a process for modifying the polyethylene coating on paper cups and folding cartons so they are engineered for recyclability.  [[Orange Coast College]] in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa, CA]] has begun a program to use cups made with this technology to capture and sell the fibers to fund scholarships for their students.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/tn-dpt-me-occ-cups-20160809-story.html&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.&lt;ref name=&quot;yle.fi&quot;/&gt;

The manufacture of paper usually requires [[inorganic chemical]]s and créates water [[effluent]]s. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of [[polystyrene foam]] (whose only significant effluent is [[pentane]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Management Accounting: The Cornerstone of Business Decisions|url=https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1|author1=Don R. Hansen  |author2=Maryanne M. Mowen |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005|publisher=Thomson South-Western|isbn=0-324-23484-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1/page/503 503]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input-output Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend|author1=Chris T. Hendrickson |author2=Lester B. Lave |author3=H. Scott Matthews  |last-author-amp=yes |year=2006|publisher=Resources for the Future|isbn=1-933115-23-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend/page/5 5]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Kertas vs palastik===
A [[life cycle inventory]] of a comparison of paper vs plastic cups shows environmental effects of both with no cléar winner.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hocking |first=M. B. |title=Paper Versus Polystyrene: A Complex Choice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-02-01_251_4993/page/504 |journal=Science |volume=251 |issue=4993n |pages=504–5 |date=1 February 1991 |doi=10.1126/science.251.4993.504 |pmid=17840849}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Polyethylene]] (PE) is a petroleum-based coating on paper cups that can slow down the process of [[biodegradation|biodegrading]] of the paper it coats.

[[Polylactic acid]] (PLA) is a [[Biodegradable plastic|biodegradable bio-plastic]] coating used on some paper cups. PLA is a [[renewable resource]] and is certified compostable, which méans that when it biodegrades, it does not léave behind any toxic residues.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting| title=Composting| accessdate=2013-10-15| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205305/http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting| archivedate=2013-10-29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although PLA-lined cups are the only paper cups which can be composted fully, they can contaminate the waste stréam, reportedly making other recycled plastics unsaléable.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/apr/26/waste.pollution |title=Sustainable bio-plastic can damage the environment |accessdate=2017-06-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All paper cups can only be recycled at a specialised tréatment facility regardless of the lining.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.save-a-cup.co.uk/paper_cups.php |title=Paper Cup Recycling |accessdate=2012-02-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610074827/http://www.save-a-cup.co.uk/paper_cups.php |archivedate=2012-06-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of cities – including [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]] — have banned [[Polystyrene#Extruded polystyrene foam|XPS foam]] cups in take-out and fast food restaurants.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.portlandmercury.com/portland/Content?oid=29552&amp;category=34029 |title=The Coming Cup-tastrophe |last=Helfrich |first=M. William |last2=Sanders |first2=Justin Wescoat |date=2003-08-13 |publisher=The Portland Mercury}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Émisi===
A study of one paper coffee cup with sleeve (16 ounce) shows that the [[carbon dioxide emissions|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions]] is about {{convert|0.11|kilogram}} per cup with sleeve – including paper from trees, materials, production and shipping.&lt;ref name=&quot;aei&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Report of the Alliance for Environmental Innovation
|url=http://www.edf.org/documents/523_starbucks.pdf
|publisher=edf.com
|accessdate=Feb 6, 2008
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920012738/https://business.edf.org//files/2014/03/starbucks-report-april2000.pdf |date=September 20, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Ngurangan habitat tatangkalan===
The [[habitat loss]] from one 16 ounce paper coffee cup with a sleeve is estimated to be 0.09 square meters (0.93 square feet).{{dubious|date=June 2016}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ecological effects of a paper cup |url=http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |publisher=ecofx.org |accessdate=February 6, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809164818/http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |archivedate=August 9, 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rs|date=June 2016}}  Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to maké 16 billion paper coffee cups used by U.S. in 2006, using {{convert|4|e9USgal|m3}} of water and resulting in {{convert|253|e6lb|kg}} of waste. Overall, US Americans use 58% of all paper cups worldwide, amounting to 130 billion cups.&lt;ref name=&quot;pcuc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Paper Cups = Unsustainable Consumption |url=http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |publisher=aboutmyplanet.com |accessdate=February 6, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606213828/http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |archivedate=June 6, 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rs|date=June 2016}}&lt;ref name=Spitzer2009&gt;{{cite web |last=Spitzer |first=Nina |title=The impact of disposable coffee cups on the environment |url=http://www.sheknows.com/living/articles/810025/the-impact-of-disposable-coffee-cups-on-the-environment |accessdate=21 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rs|date=June 2016}}

==Tutup==
[[File:Hot Stopper in the lid of a paper coffee cup with a cardboard sleeve.jpeg |thumb|upright|A paper coffee cup with a plastic lid and &quot;splash stick&quot;]]
Paper cups may have various types of lids. The paper cups that are used as containers for yogurt, for example, generally have two types of lids: a plastic press-on, reséalable, lid used for large &quot;family size&quot; containers, {{convert|250-1000|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, where not all of the yogurt may be consumed at any one time and thus the ability to re-close the container is required and héat-séal [[tin foil|foil]] lids used for small &quot;single serving&quot; containers, {{convert|150-200|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Yoghurt: science and technology|url=https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami|author1=Adman Y. Tamime  |author2=Richard K. Robinson |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1999|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|isbn=1-85573-399-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami/page/97 97]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hot drinks sold in paper cups may come with a plastic lid, to keep the drink hot and prevent spillage. These lids have a hole through which the drink can be sipped.  The plastic lids can have many féatures including peel back tabs, raised walls to protect the foam of gourmet hot drinks and embossed text.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/the-rise-of-the-plastic-disposable-coffee-cup-lid/238573/ | title=The Rise of the Plastic, Disposable Coffee Cup Lid | publisher=The Atlantic | date=9 May 2011 | accessdate=3 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In 2008, [[Starbucks]] introduced shaped plastic &quot;splash sticks&quot; to block the hole, in some of their stores, after customer complaints about hot coffee splashing through it.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/advertising/adtrack/2008-04-13-ad-track_N.htm | title=Starbucks splash stick says no to sploshing | publisher=USA Today | date=14 March 2008 | accessdate=21 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/ct-starbucks-little-green-sticks-mystery-solved-20160311-column.html | title=Solving the mystery of Starbucks little green sticks | publisher=Chicago Tribune | date=11 March 2016 | accessdate=21 April 2016 | author=Johnson, Steve}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Tempo ogé==
*[[Complong]]
*[[Gelas palastik]]

==Rujukan==

=== Cutatan ===
{{Reflist|2}}

=== Bibliografi ===
{{commons category|Paper cups}}
* {{cite book|title=Chinese Paper Folding for Beginners|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon|author=Maying Soong|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon/page/6 6]–7|year=2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-41806-5}} – how to maké a paper cup out of a square of paper using [[origami]]
* [http://www.mathematische-basteleien.de/cup.htm A mathematically annotated folding instruction for paper cups]
* {{cite journal|title=Relative merits of polystyrene foam and paper in hot drink cups: Implications for packaging|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=15|issue=6|date=November 1991|doi=10.1007/BF02394812|pages=731–747|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/b55256333584v60n/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal|title=Reusable and disposable cups: An energy-based evaluation|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=18|issue=6|date=November 1994|doi=10.1007/BF02393618|pages=889–899|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/c275588280002wp8/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book|title=Why Didn't I Think of That? : Bizarre Origins of Ingenious Inventions We Couldn't Live Without|url=https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free|author1=Allyn Freeman  |author2=Bob Golden |lastauthoramp=yes |chapter=Little Dipper|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free/page/183 183]–184|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=0-471-16511-5}} – the Dixie Cup

[[Kategori:Wadah cairan]]
[[Kategori:Gelas]]
[[Kategori:Produk kertas]]
[[Kategori:Kertas]]
[[Kategori:Produk sakali paké]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Isyana Sarasvati</title>
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      <text bytes="11921" sha1="gha9kd3d6jjc77hm5dhbh5n01vot41s" xml:space="preserve">'''Isyana Sarasvati''' ({{lahirmati|[[Bandung]]|2|05|1979}}) nyaéta hiji panyanyi ogé panulis lagu, kabangsaan [[Indonésia]]. Isyana nyaéta lulusan ti Nanyang Akademi Fine Arts, [[Singapura]] jeung Royal College of Music, [[Britania|Britania Raya]].&lt;ref name=&quot;jawapos.com&quot;&gt;[http://www.jawapos.com/baca/artikel/10275/Isyana-Sarasvati-Bersinar-karena-Bakat-Musik Isyana Sarasvati, Bersinar karena Bakat Musik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803040253/http://www.jawapos.com/baca/artikel/10275/Isyana-Sarasvati-Bersinar-karena-Bakat-Musik |date=2015-08-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.galamedianews.com/artis/5952/isyana-sarasvati-totally-untuk-musik.html Isyana Sarasvati, Totally untuk Musik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131853/http://www.galamedianews.com/artis/5952/isyana-sarasvati-totally-untuk-musik.html |date=2015-04-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Isyana nulis sadaya laguna&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tabloidbintang.com/articles/film-tv-musik/kabar/14713-pendatang-baru-isyana-sarasvati-menulis-semua-lagu-di-album-perdananya Pendatang Baru Isyana Sarasvati Menulis Semua Lagu di Album Perdananya]{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; maneha ogé kungsi janten panyanyi opera di [[Singapura]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.singaporeopera.com.sg/profiles/isyana-sarasvati.html Isyana Sarasvati - Singapore Lyric Opera] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318021034/http://www.singaporeopera.com.sg/profiles/isyana-sarasvati.html |date=2015-03-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://showbiz.liputan6.com/read/2146770/isyana-sarasvati-mariah-carey-dari-indonesia Isyana Sarasvati, 'Mariah Carey' dari Indonesia]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Gambar:Isyana Sarasvati, Pakuwon Mall, West Surabaya.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Isyana Sarasvati]]
Wanci Isyana tos yuswaan 3 warsih, manéhna sarta kulawargana cicing di Bélgia sabab di ditu bapana keur nyakola strata tilu pikeun gelar doktor sarta indungna meunang béasiswa atikan. Di Bélgia, Isyana sarta kulawargi nyicingan di ditu salila 5 warsih. Nincak yuswaan 7 warsih bakat musik Isyana geus mimiti katémbong. Manéhna bisa nyiptakeun tembang sorangan sarta indungna anu saurang guru musik ngabingbing Isyana kanggo ngasah bakat musikna. Jabi ngabogaan soanten anu halimpu, saprak leutik Isyana geus bisa meulinkeun sagala rupa pakakas musik sepertos piano, flute sarta sexofone. Ku sabab saprak leutik manéhna cicing di Eropa, wanci balik ka Indonésia Isyana hésé ngomong ku Basa Indonesia sarta ceuk manéhna langkung gampil nalika Belanda. Saprak leutik kahayang Isyana barobah kaayaan pikeun jadi saurang komposer sarta konduktor orkéstra. Dina wanci tos yuswaan 10 warsih, Isyana geus nembang ciptaan sorangan di hareupeun babaturana wanci mepeling dinten Indung.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kepogaul.com/seleb/biodata-isyana-sarasvati/|title=Profil &amp; Biodata Isyana Sarasvati|website=KepoGaul|language=id|accessdate=2023-05-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529085214/https://www.kepogaul.com/seleb/biodata-isyana-sarasvati/|archivedate=2023-05-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bakat bermusik Isyana beuki kaasah basa manehna diuk di bangku SMP, manéhna kungsi kajabi minangka jawara kahiji elektone se-Indonésia. Sajaba ti éta kalawan umur anu kalintang kénéh anom manéhna geus maju di féstival musik Java Jazz. Henteu ngan boga jiwa seni anu luhur, Isyana ogé boga jiwa kapamingpinan. Isyana gaus robah kaayaan pupuhu OSIS wanci SMP sarta SMA. Wanci SMA, Isyana biasa miluan sagala rupa lomba musik sepertos kejuaraan musik sa-Asia Pasifik di Jepang sarta junun robah kaayaan jawara sarta asup 3 ageung tingkat dunya, sajaba ti éta dina pasanggiri piano sa-Jawa Barat Isyana barobah kaayaan langganan jawara 1 saloba 4 kali. Wanci SMA, Isyana kungsi ngabogaan abot awak ngan 39 kg margi beunang ku panyakit anoréksia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobiografi.com/biografi-dan-profil-lengkap-isyana-sarasvati/|title=Biografi Dan Profil Lengkap Isyana Sarasvati - Penyanyi Muda Berbakat Indonesia|last=Calista|first=Fariza|website=Info Biografi|language=en-US|accessdate=2023-05-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529085814/https://www.infobiografi.com/biografi-dan-profil-lengkap-isyana-sarasvati/|archivedate=2023-05-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Margi pangabisa bermusik anu dipikaboga ku Isyana, Sony Music Asia Pasific méré kontrak rékaman kalawan persiapan perilisan album di jero sarta jabi nagari. Pikeun migawé album solo manéhna, Isyana indit ka Swédia. Basa taun 2014 Isyana mimiti dipikawanoh wanci tembang Keep Being You piboga manéhna suksés di belantika musik Indonésia, sataun saterusna benerna warsih 2015 Isyana nyieun single duanana dijudulan Tetap Dalam Jiwa sarta sukses deui. Dina warsih 2015, manéhna ogé sempet ulin dina pilem dijudulan Ranah 3 Warna. Kalawan boga rupa geulis sarta soanten anu halimpu Isyana ngabogaan loba penggemar, sarta populer nu matak loba mérek dagang musik ngadeukeutan manéhna nanging manéhna angger aya dina merek dagang Sony Music Asia Pasific.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Discography ==

=== Album ===

* ''Explore! '' (2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/explore/id1050614999?l=id|title=Album Explore! oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Paradox'' (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/paradox/id1272134549?l=id|title=Album Paradox oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tunggal ===

* &quot;Tetep Keur Anjeun&quot; (2014)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/keep-being-you/id931972310?i=931972316&amp;l=id|title=Album Keep Being You - Single oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Tetep Dina Jiwa&quot; (2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/tetap-dalam-jiwa/id974669078?i=974669079&amp;l=id|title=Album Tetap Dalam Jiwa - Single oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Anjeun&quot; (karya. Rayi Putra) (2015)
* &quot;Ngimpi&quot; (2016)
* &quot;Tanah Airku (OST. &quot;My Trip My Adventure: The Lost Paradise&quot;) (2016)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/tanah-airku-from-my-trip-my-adventure-the-lost-paradise/id1139214676?i=1139215129|title=Tanah Airku (From &quot;My Trip My Adventure: The Lost Paradise&quot;) - Single by Isyana Sarasvati on Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-us|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Partéi&quot; (2017)
* &quot;The Way I Love You&quot; (2017)
* &quot;Anganku Anganmu&quot; (karya. Raisa) (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/anganku-anganmu/id1216742080?i=1216742158&amp;l=id|title=Album Anganku Anganmu - Single oleh Raisa di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Sakali Deui&quot; (OST. Kritis Sabelas) (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/sekali-lagi-from-critical-eleven/id1227437159?i=1227437169&amp;l=id|title=Album Sekali Lagi (from &quot;Critical Eleven&quot;) - Single oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Fascinated&quot; (karya. Gamaliél) (2017)
* &quot;Masih Ngaharepkeun&quot; (OST. Ayat-Ayat Cinta 2) (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/id/album/masih-berharap-from-ayat-ayat-cinta-2-single/id1300517647?l=id|title=Album Masih Berharap (From &quot;Ayat Ayat Cinta 2&quot;) - Single oleh Isyana Sarasvati di Apple Music|website=itunes.apple.com|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-11-04}} CS1 maint: Unrecognized language ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language|link]])
&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Daun Buku&quot; (2018)
* &quot;Sawarga&quot; (karya. [[Afgan]] &amp; Rendy V / C Ratio) (2018)

== Atikan ==
Dina yuswa 16, Isyana narima béasiswa ti pamaréntah Singapura pikeun diajar Musik Kinerja di Nanyang Akademi Fine Arts (NAFA), Singapura. Dina 2013, manéhna nyandak Diploma dina widang Musik Kinerja (2013). Isyana meunang béasiswa pinuh pikeun diajar di NAFA di gawe babarengan jeung Royal College of Music (RCM) di London, dina Bachelor of Music jeung Honours Dibiayaan Gelar Program. Dina taun ka tukang studina, manéhna narima Béasiswa RCM Excellence Award.

Dina pangawasan jeung bimbingan guru professional guru, diantawisna nyaéta : Dr. Hiji-Chen Hsing Jessica (2013-2014), Lim Yau (2013-2014), Lim Shieh Yih (2012), Joyce Khoo (2010-2012), Avip Priatna ( 2009-2010), Luana Marpanda (ngajarkeun Electone) jeung Paul H. Yoedianto (1998-2008),

== Panghargaan ==

* National Finalis Dina Yamaha Kompetisi Piano (2007, 2010)
* Jawara Grand Prix Asia Pasific Electone féstival (2008, 2009, 2011)
* Dipilih minangka salah sahiji 15 Komposer Electone Dunya nu mucunghul di Yamaha Electone Concours [YEC] di Tokyo, Jepang (2012)
* Hakim Tapi Yamaha Electone Concours, Jepang (2012)
* Juara 1, 6 Tan Ngiang Kaw/Tan Ngiang Ann Peringatan Vocal Kompetisi, Singapura (2012)
* Kapilih dina hiji bursa mahasiswa ka Tainan National University of Arts Tainan, Taiwan (2012)
* 1st Tempat, Kategori Panarjamah, Vocal Kompetisi, Lagu Nasional, Puitis Ananda Sukarlan, Indonesia (2013)
* Sertipikat emas, nu ka-5 Bangkok Opera Yayasan Nyanyi Kompetisi Bangkok, [[Thailand]] (2013)
* NET. Indonésia Pilihan Awards (2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://hut.netmedia.co.id/nominees|title=Nominasi Indonesian Choice Awards 2015|accessdate=2 Mei 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509102822/http://hut.netmedia.co.id/nominees|archivedate=2015-05-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Penyanyi awéwé Taun &amp; Album Taun, NET. Indonésia Pilihan Awards (2016)&lt;ref name=&quot;jpnn.com_IniDiaDaftarPem&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Ini Dia Daftar Pemenang Indonesian Choice Award - JPNN.com|trans-title=|author=JPNN|work=www.jpnn.com|date=|accessdate={{date|2016-05-30}}|url=http://www.jpnn.com/read/2016/05/30/420873/Ini-Dia-Daftar-Pemenang-Indonesian-Choice-Award-|language=|quote=Solois Isyana Sarasvati berjaya di Indonesian Choice Award 2016. Dia meraih dua penghargaan yakni Female Singer of The Year dan Album of The Year.|archivedate=|archiveurl=|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmography ==

* {{judulfilm|Ranah 3 Warna||2015}}

== Tabloid, jeung Majalah ==

* Impian Nu Unattainable Isyana Sarasvati (Tabloid Wanita Indonesia Édisi Husus 27 Taun, Ti 21 Nepi Ka 27 Januari 2016)

== Kontrovérsi ==
Dina tanggal [[19 Méi]], [[2016]], di hiji wawancara jeung salah sahiji media citak, Tetep nyebutkeun yén manéhna teu wani pikeun balanja online. Pernyataan-na diondang hubbub antara netizens. Sabab Kabéh nu teu dipikanyaho mangrupa salah sahiji brand duta salah sahiji loka balanja online kawentar, Tokopedia. Tetep ieu hastily ngijinkeun pernyataan nya ngaliwatan akun [[twitter]] - na pribadi ku tulisan tweets, &quot;Warta ngeunaan kuring mah balanja online ieu téh bener, lamun teu di India&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;:)&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.arah.com/article/3682/keceplosan-isyana-sarasvati-di-bully-netizen.html 'Keceplosan' Isyana Sarasvati Dibully Netizen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222233949/http://www.arah.com/article/3682/keceplosan-isyana-sarasvati-di-bully-netizen.html |date=2018-02-22 }} Arah.com, tanggal 20 Mei 2016. Diakses tanggal 20 Mei 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

[[Kategori:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language]]
[[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1993]]
[[Kategori:Musisi Indonésia]]</text>
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    <title>Matthew McConaughey</title>
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      <text bytes="37212" sha1="rz8p7ow6pr3og6pagctn6eg844vktcx" xml:space="preserve">{{Kotak info Jalma|name=Matthew McConaughey|image=Matthew McConaughey - Goldene Kamera 2014 - Berlin.jpg|caption=Matthew McConaughey in February 2014|birth_name=Matthew David McConaughey|birth_date={{birth date and age|1969|11|04}}|birth_place=[[Uvalde, Texas]], U.S.|residence=[[Austin, Texas]], U.S.|occupation=Actor, producer, Minister of Culture at The University of Texas at Austin|spouse={{marriage|[[Camila Alves]]|2012}}|children=3}}
'''Mateus Daud McConaughey''' ( / m ə k ɒ n ə h eɪ / ; dilahirkeun Nopémber 4, 1969) mangrupa aktor Amérika sarta produser.  Anjeunna mimiti massana bewara pikeun peran breakout na di datang-of-umur komedi ''Dazed na Bingung'' (1993), sateuacan jalan mun muncul dina pilem ''Texas Chainsaw Uchiha: The Next Generation'' (1994), ''A Time maehan'' (1996), film komedi ''leuwih badag ti Kahirupan'' (1996), [[Steven Spielberg]] drama sajarah 's ''Amistad'' (1997), jeung drama fiksi ''Kontak'' (1997), jeung komedi ''EDtv'' (1999), jeung pilem perang ''U-571'' (2000).

Dina 2000, McConaughey janten pangalusna dipikawanoh pikeun dibintanginya di komedi layeut ,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jun/28/matthew-mcconaughey-killer-joe|title=Matthew McConaughey: from himbo to highbrow|website=The Guardian|accessdate=26 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; kaasup ''The Kawinan Nu Ngarencana'' (2001), ''leungit kumaha Guy di 10 Days'' (2003), ''paranti peluncuran'' (2006), ''fool urang Emas'' (2008), jeung ''hantu of girlfriends Kapungkur'' (2009).  Kusabab 2011, anjeunna geus pikaresep kalungguhan dramatis, kaasup ''The Lincoln Pengacara'' (2011), ''Bernie'' (2011) ''Killer Joe'' (2011), ''The Paperboy'' (2012), ''leutak'' (2012), ''Magic Mike'' (2012), ''The Wolf of Wall Street'' (2013), ''Interstellar'' (2014), ''The Sea of tatangkalan'' (2016), ''Free Nagara Jones'' (2016).

McConaughey kahontal kasuksésan kritis dina 2013 sarta 2014.  Dina 2013, McConaughey portrayed Ron Woodroof , a Cowboy didiagnosis kalawan [[AIDS]] di pilem biographical ''Dallas pembeli Club'' , anu earned anjeunna téh Academy Award , Kritik 'pilihan Movie Award , Golden Globe Award , jeung Aktor Screen kanu Award , sadaya pikeun Actor Best, diantara panghargaan sejen tur nominasi.  Dina 2014, anjeunna dibéntangan sakumaha Tai hiang Cohle di musim mimitina tina HBO 's drama kajahatan antologi runtuyan ''Leres Detektif ,'' nu manéhna meunang Kritik' pilihan Award Televisi jeung TCA Award , sarta ieu bieu keur Primetime Emmy Award , Golden Globe Award , na layar Aktor kanu Award.

== Kahirupan mimiti ==
Mateus Daud McConaughey lahir on Nopémber 4, 1969, dina Uvalde, Texas .&lt;ref name=&quot;IC&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/proud-irish-american-matthew-mcconaughey-hope-to-send-his-kids-to-the-gaeltacht-video|title=Matthew McConaughey hopes to send his kids to the Gaeltacht|publisher=IrishCentral}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Indungna, Mary Kathleen &quot;Kay&quot; / &quot;KMac&quot; ( ''née'' McCabe), nyaéta urut guruna TK jeung panulis diterbitkeun anu diajarkeun McConaughey.&lt;ref name=&quot;Don't Call Matthew McConaughey 'Matt'&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UliCFpBZdjU|title=Don't Call Matthew McConaughey 'Matt'|language=English|accessdate=21 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Biasana ieu asalna ti Trenton, New Jersey .&lt;ref name=&quot;texasmonthly1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/his-time-kill?fullpage=1|title=His Time to Kill|last=Cohen|first=Jason|publisher=Texas Monthly|accessdate=October 28, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Bapana, James Donald &quot;Jim&quot; McConaughey,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.geni.com/people/James-McConaughey/6000000009461337410|title=James Donald McConaughey|publisher=geni.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; lahir di Mississippi dina 1922 sarta digedékeun di Lousiana ,&lt;ref name=&quot;rollingstone&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/features/matthew-mcconaughey-19960822|title=Hot Actor: Matthew McConaughey|publisher=Rolling Stone|accessdate=June 16, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; di mana manéhna lumpat hiji bisnis pipe suplai minyak; anjeunna dicoo pikeun Wildcats Kentucky sarta Houston Cougars kuliah bal tim.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.kentucky.com/2014/02/24/3107024_mark-story-matthew-mcconaugheys.html?rh=1|title=Mark Story: Matthew McConaughey's dad played college football for ... Kentucky?|last=Story|first=Mark|publisher=kentucky.com|accessdate=October 28, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina 1953, Jim ieu drafted di babak 27 ku NFL 's Héjo Bay Packers .  Anjeunna dirilis sateuacan musim mimiti na pernah diputer hiji kaulinan liga resmi di NFL.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm=GNB&amp;yr=1953&amp;lg=nfl|title=1953 Green Bay Packers|publisher=databasefootball.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408062212/http://databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm=GNB&amp;yr=1953&amp;lg=nfl|archivedate=April 8, 2013|dead-url=yes|accessdate=May 24, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408062212/http://databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm=GNB&amp;yr=1953&amp;lg=nfl |date=April 8, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey urang indung na telat bapana nikah silih tilu kali, sanggeus cerai silih dua kali.&lt;ref name=&quot;marriage&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=entertainment&amp;id=3949579|title=Barbara Walters' Oscar Special|publisher=ABC7news.com|accessdate=April 15, 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204064645/http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=entertainment&amp;id=3949579 |date=December 4, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna boga dua baraya heubeul, Michael sarta Patrick (anu diadopsi).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bodyheightweight.com/matthew-mcconaughey-family/|title=Meet Oscar Winning Actor Matthew McConaughey and his sweet family|website=bodyheightweight.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Michael, nicknamed &quot;hayam jalu&quot;, nyaéta millionaire timer dijieun anu Béntang dina CNBC docu-seri ''West Texas Investor Club'' .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.inc.com/graham-winfrey/west-texas-investor-s-club-invades-shark-tank-nation.html|title=Meet the Self-Made Millionaires of 'West Texas Investors Club'|last=Winfrey|first=Graham|publisher=Inc.com|accessdate=August 13, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; sarta salaku sahiji 2018 béntang di A &amp;amp;amp; E kanyataanana acara ''hayam jalu &amp;amp;amp; Butch'' kalawan Wayne (Butch) Gilliam.  Katurunan McConaughey urang kaasup Inggris , Jerman , Irlandia , Skotlandia , jeung Swédia , jeung akar Irlandia na mahluk ti Cavan / Monaghan wewengkon.&lt;ref name=&quot;IC&quot;/&gt;  Anjeunna mangrupa relatif Confederate brigadir umum Dandridge McRae .&lt;ref name=&quot;Scottish&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id=11644&amp;in_page_id=11|title=60 Second interview: Matthew McConaughey|website=Metro|accessdate=May 7, 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513072916/http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id=11644&amp;in_page_id=11 |date=May 13, 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna kungsi Methodist upbringing.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/movies/news/article.cfm?c_id=200&amp;objectid=188381|title=No use putting out the welcome Matt|website=The New Zealand Herald|accessdate=August 5, 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609014753/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/movies/news/article.cfm?c_id=200&amp;objectid=188381 |date=June 9, 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey dipindahkeun ka Longview, Texas , dina 1980,&lt;ref name=&quot;texasmonthly1996&quot;/&gt; di mana anjeunna dihadiran Longview Sakola Luhur .  Anjeunna mukim di Australia pikeun sataun hiji, dina Warnervale, New South Wales , salaku usaha Rotary murid bursa dina 1988.&lt;ref name=&quot;exchange&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/425826/696966|title=ONE news|website=McConaughey credits Australian town|accessdate=December 22, 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205042252/http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/425826/696966 |date=February 5, 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna ngahadiran Universitas Texas Austin (UT-Austin), di mana manéhna ngagabung Delta tau Delta fraternity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.studenthousingplanet.com/2009/03/the-castilian-dorm-serving-the-university-of-texas-receives-upgrades-prcom.html|title=The Castilian Dorm Serving the University of Texas Receives Upgrades (PR.com)|publisher=Student Housing Planet|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912071435/http://www.studenthousingplanet.com/2009/03/the-castilian-dorm-serving-the-university-of-texas-receives-upgrades-prcom.html|archivedate=September 12, 2009|dead-url=yes|accessdate=October 16, 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912071435/http://www.studenthousingplanet.com/2009/03/the-castilian-dorm-serving-the-university-of-texas-receives-upgrades-prcom.html |date=September 12, 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Manéhna mimitian di tumiba 1989 sarta lulus di cinyusu taun 1993 ku Bachelor of Élmu di Radio-Télévisi-Film.&lt;ref&gt;[https://utdirect.utexas.edu/apps/degree/degrees/nlogon/?s_last_name_read=&amp;s_last_isn_read=&amp;s_first_name_read=&amp;s_first_isn_read=&amp;s_first_time_sw=X&amp;s_start_name=McConaughey%2C+Matthew&amp;s_start_page=Submit Derajat sarta Kaping of kahadiran: McConaughey, Mateus D.] . Universitas Texas Austin&lt;/ref&gt;  Rencana aslina na sempet robah jadi manéhna hayang hadir Southern Methodist Universitas dugi salah sahiji baraya na ngawartoskeun anjeunna yén SPP sakola swasta bakal geus beungbeurat dina finances kulawarga urang.  Anjeunna ogé pernah rencanana hadir sakola hukum sanggeus kalulusan tina kuliah,&lt;ref&gt;wawancara NPR&lt;/ref&gt;     Tapi anjeunna sadar anjeunna teu resep jadi hiji [[Pengacara|pangacara]] .&lt;ref name=&quot;texasmonthly1996&quot; /&gt;

== Karir ==
McConaughey mimiti digawé di commercials televisi, kaasup salah sahiji keur Austin, koran poéan Texas, anu ''Austin Amérika-negarawan'' , anu geus credited sakumaha peran diomongkeun kahijina.  Garis, &quot;Kumaha sejenna am I gonna tetep nepi ka kuring 'tanduk?&quot; - a rujukan pikeun tercinta na Texas Longhorns tim olahraga - masihan masarakat satempat katingal di aktor ngora saméméh anjeunna tuang di Richard Linklater pilem 's ''Dazed na Bingung'' .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/dazed_and_confused/|title=Dazed and Confused Movie Reviews, Pictures|publisher=Rotten Tomatoes|accessdate=August 5, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina 1992, anjeunna tuang salaku &quot;Joe&quot; dina Trisha Yearwood 's video musik &quot;Walkaway Joe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20794232,00.html|title=Matthew McConaughey's First Break? A 1992 Trisha Yearwood Video|date=March 6, 2014|publisher=people.com|access-date=October 2, 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031201958/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20794232,00.html |date=October 31, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Saatos sababaraha kalungguhan leutik di ''Malaikat di pamaén outfielder'' , ''Texas Chainsaw Uchiha: The Next Generation'' , ''Boys on Sisi nu'' , sarta serial télévisi ''kaungkab Mysteries'' , break badag McConaughey urang sumping salaku pangacara Jake Brigance dina film ''A Time maehan'' (1996), dumasar kana éta John Grisham novél sahiji ngaran anu sarua .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2014/03/03/matthew-mcconaughey-a-time-to-kill|title=Watch the moment Matthew McConaughey proved he was Oscar-worthy|date=March 3, 2014|publisher=Entertainment Weekly|access-date=October 2, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina taun 1990-an ahir, McConaughey ieu tuang di kalungguhan ngarah di beuki pilem, kaasup ''Kontak'' , ''Amistad'' , ''The Newton Boys'' , ''EDtv'' sarta ''U-571'' .&lt;ref name=&quot;bio&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/people/matthew-mcconaughey-16599996|title=Matthew McConaughey|publisher=[[Biography.com]]|accessdate=August 19, 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031183007/http://www.biography.com/people/matthew-mcconaughey-16599996 |date=October 31, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2001-2011 ===
[[Gambar:Matthew_McConaughey.jpg|jmpl|231x231px| McConaughey taun 2008, milu di Nautica Malibu Triathlon]]
Ku 2000 awal, anjeunna remen tuang di komedi layeut , kaasup ''The Kawinan Nu Ngarencana'' na ''leungit kumaha a Guy dina 10 Days'' , duanana nu éta suksés dina kotak kantor.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10602734/Matthew-McConaughey-exclusive-interview.html|title=Matthew McConaughey: exclusive interview|publisher=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=August 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Salila periode ieu, anjeunna muncul salaku firefighter dina pilem-anggaran low ''Tiptoes'' , kalawan Kate Beckinsale , dina ''Dua pikeun Duit éta'' salaku protégé ka Al Pacino 's judi mogul, sarta di ''Frailty'' kalawan Bill Paxton , anu ogé diarahkeun.&lt;ref name=&quot;bio&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://onthesetofnewyork.com/twoforthemoney.html|title=Two for the Money Film Locations - On the set of New York.com|website=onthesetofnewyork.com|accessdate=2015-08-13}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208060948/http://onthesetofnewyork.com/twoforthemoney.html |date=2015-12-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey dibéntangan dina 2005 pilem fitur ''Sahara'' marengan Steve Zahn na Penelope Cruz .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/08/movies/08saha.html?_r=0|title=On a Desert Gallop, Planting Assorted Red Flags|date=April 8, 2005|publisher=The New York Times|access-date=August 27, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Saacanna sékrési pilem, manéhna diwanohkeun deui ku sailing turun Walungan Amazon na trekking mun [[Mali]] .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/Movies/04/11/mcconaughey.sahara/|title=McConaughey's elusive quest|date=April 14, 2005|publisher=cnn.com|access-date=August 27, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Nu taun anu sarua, McConaughey ieu ngaranna &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i id=&quot;mwuw&quot;&gt;Jalma&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; Majalah urang &quot; Sexiest Man Alive &quot; kanggo 2005.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.people.com/people/package/custom/0,,1113899,00.html &quot;2005 Sexiest Man of the Year&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120213301/http://www.people.com/people/package/custom/0,,1113899,00.html|date=2012-11-20}}. ''People''. Retrieved May 19, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina taun 2006, anjeunna ko-dibéntangan ku Sarah Jessica Parker dina komedi romantis ''paranti peluncuran'' tur salaku Marshall palatih sirah bal Jack Lengyel di ''Urang Dupi Marshall'' .  McConaughey ogé disadiakeun karya sora dina kampanye iklan keur Korps Peace di telat 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AxQvw3cD0EoC&amp;pg=PA40&amp;lpg=PA40&amp;dq=voice+work+matthew+mcconaughey+peace+corps&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=0ipRUuY6Ev&amp;sig=1KsFksTBAGGvhSmV7Y6mVOjGDuY&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=ZvufUdvULYrZ0wHTsYDABg&amp;ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&amp;q=voice%20work%20matthew%20mcconaughey%20peace%20corps&amp;f=false|title=Peace Corps in the 21st Century: A Rhetorical Analysis|last=Maugh|first=Casey Malone|page=41}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna diganti Owen Wilson dina Ben Stiller 's ''Tropic Guntur'' sanggeus Wilson urang usaha bunuh diri.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20057720,00.html|title=Matthew McConaughey to Replace Owen Wilson in Film|website=PEOPLE.com}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428175310/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20057720,00.html |date=2014-04-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  On Januari 21, 2008, McConaughey jadi juru carios anyar keur kampanye radio nasional, &quot;Sapi: Ieu Naon for malam&quot; , ngaganti Sam Elliott .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite press release|title=&quot;Beef. It's What's For Dinner&quot; Advertising Campaign Invites Consumers to Discover the Power of Protein|publisher=National Cattlemen's Beef Association|date=January 7, 2008|url=http://www.beefitswhatsfordinner.com/askexpert/pressrelease.asp|accessdate=July 2, 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080727011043/http://www.beefitswhatsfordinner.com/askexpert/pressrelease.asp|archivedate=July 27, 2008|df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://putlockermix.info|title=Matthew McConaughey Movies List|last=Shinn|first=Peter|publisher=Learfield Communications, Inc.|accessdate=December 25, 2018}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225175436/https://putlockermix.info/ |date=December 25, 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2012-kiwari ===
[[Gambar:Dallas_Buyers_Club_08_(9765736361).jpg|kiri|jmpl| McConaughey di premiere of ''Dallas pembeli Club'' di Toronto Festival Film Internasional 2013]]
McConaughey dipikawanoh yen na &quot;gaya hirup, hirup di pantai, ngajalankeun kalawan kaos abdi off, lakukeun komedi romantis&quot; sempet ngabalukarkeun anjeunna bisa typecast pikeun kalungguhan nu tangtu, sarta anjeunna ditéang karya dramatis kalawan téma lianna.&lt;ref name=&quot;fleming20140604&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.deadline.com/2014/06/emmys-matthew-mcconaughey-qa-on-following-oscar-with-the-game-changing-hbo-series-true-detective/|title=EMMYS Q&amp;A: Matthew McConaughey on Following Oscar with the Game-Changing HBO Series ' Detective'|last=Fleming, Mike Jr.|publisher=Deadline Hollywood|accessdate=4 June 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Cenah: 
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| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;&quot; | Kuring meunang ka perasaan kawas, pikeun sababaraha taun, abdi ngalakonan hal anu kuring resep ngalakonan jeung layeut jeung aksi komedi.  Tapi kuring yakin, kuring noticed aya hal séjén anu teu datang di.  Tur upami maranéhanana datang dina, ieu dina formulir bebas sareng paycheck leuwih leutik, tur taya sahijieun bener wanting pikeun meunang balik aranjeunna.  .  .  Tapi terang kuring bisa nyebutkeun euweuh ka hal Abdi geus ngalakonan.  Dina paribasa henteu ka éta hal, abdi terang karya ieu bade ka tegalan nepi keur awhile.  .  .  Taun sarta satengah, masih nganggur.  Dina dua taun, sakabéh ngadadak, dina pamanggih kuring, kuring jadi gagasan anyar alus keur sababaraha direksi alus.&lt;ref name=&quot;fleming20140604&quot;/&gt; 
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Dina 2012, McConaughey dibéntangan barengan Channing Tatum di ''Magic Mike'' , dumasar hirup mimiti Tatum, nu ieu diarahkeun ku Steven Soderbergh .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/29/movies/magic-mike-by-steven-soderbergh-with-channing-tatum.html?_r=0|title=The Body Politic: Review: ‘Magic Mike,’ by Steven Soderbergh, With Channing Tatum|date=June 28, 2012|publisher=The New York Times|access-date=August 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Manéhna balik ka akar East Texas-Na, dipake deui ku sutradara Richard Linklater on ''Bernie ,'' maén Pangacara Kabupaten Danny Buck Davidson.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2014/05/07/bernie-tiede-released-from-prison-will-live-with-bernie-director-richard-linklater/|title=Bernie Tiede released from prison, will live with 'Bernie' director Richard Linklater|date=May 7, 2014|publisher=The Washington Post|access-date=August 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina Juni 2012, McConaughey ieu diondang pikeun gabung ka Akademi Motion Picture Seni sarta Élmu Pengetahuan .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/entertainment/post/2012/06/mcconaughey-chastain-invited-to-join-academy-/1#.UemMNtJM-So|title=McConaughey, Spencer invited to join Academy|last=Thompson|first=Arienne|website=[[USA Today]]|accessdate=July 19, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina 2013, anjeunna portrayed Ron Woodroof di ''Dallas pembeli Club .''  Peran mangrupa rider rodeo anu discovers anjeunna boga [[AIDS]] sarta struggles mun meunang perlakuan diperlukeun anjeunna leungit ampir 50 &amp;nbsp; sedengkeun (22 &amp;nbsp; kg).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.hitfix.com/awards-campaign/oscar-contender-matthew-mcconaughey-reveals-how-he-lost--and-ponders-a-magic-mike-sequel|title=Matthew McConaughey reveals how he lost and ponders a 'Magic Mike' sequel|last=Ellwood|first=Gregory|website=[[HitFix]]|accessdate=April 16, 2013}}{{Dead link|date=June 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Film earned McConaughey panghargaan loba akting, kaasup nu layar Aktor kanu Award pikeun Performance Pinunjul ku Actor pameget dina Peran Anjog , anu Golden Globe Award pikeun Best Actor - Drama , jeung Academy Award pikeun Actor Best .&lt;ref name=&quot;Dallas Buyers Club 2013&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/dallas_buyers_club_2013/|title=Dallas Buyers Club (2013)|website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|publisher=[[Flixster]]|accessdate=January 7, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dallas Buyers Club Reviews&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.metacritic.com/movie/dallas-buyers-club|title=Dallas Buyers Club Reviews|website=[[Metacritic]]|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]|accessdate=November 16, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Ko-béntang na Jared Leto meunang Academy Award pikeun Best ngarojong Actor , sahingga ''Dallas pembeli Club'' film munggaran saprak ''Mystic Walungan'' (2003) meunang duanana panghargaan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.buyersclubdallas.com/|title=Buying Time: World traveler Ron Woodroof smuggles drugs—and hope—for people with AIDS|last=Minutaglio|first=Bill|date=August 9, 1992|work=[[The Dallas Morning News|Dallas Life Magazine]]|pages=8–12, 21, 25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222221448/http://www.buyersclubdallas.com/|archive-date=February 22, 2014|access-date=February 16, 2019}} (original article)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;slate110113&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/browbeat/2013/11/01/dallas_buyers_club_true_story_fact_and_fiction_in_the_matthew_mcconaughey.html|title=How Accurate Is Dallas Buyers Club?|last=Harris|first=Aisha|date=November 1, 2013|work=Slate.com|access-date=December 18, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna ogé diulas di Martin Scorsese 's ''The Wolf of Wall Street'' sakumaha Tandaan Hanna, hiji boss awal Yordania Belfort .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://deadline.com/2012/08/matthew-mcconaughey-joins-the-wolf-of-wall-street-312293/|title=Matthew McConaughey Joins 'The Wolf Of Wall Street'|last=Jr|first=Mike Fleming|publisher=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119085551/https://deadline.com/2012/08/matthew-mcconaughey-joins-the-wolf-of-wall-street-312293/ |date=2018-11-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
[[Gambar:Matthew_McConaughey_Cannes_2015.jpg|jmpl|McConaughey di Festival Film Cannes 2015]]
Antukna, McConaughey ngarékam pengumuman layanan publik di Austin, Texas keur Perpustakaan Présidén LBJ .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.lbjlibrary.org/press/how-has-lbj-s-legacy-affected-you|title=Matthew McConaughey Has A Presidents' Day Gift For You|last=Salamon|first=Jeff|website=Texas Monthly|accessdate=18 February 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305215719/http://www.lbjlibrary.org/press/how-has-lbj-s-legacy-affected-you |date=5 March 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina bulan April 2014, ''sareng'' majalah kaasup McConaughey di taunan na Time 100 salaku salah sahiji &quot;Jalma paling boga pangaruh dina Dunya&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://time.com/70802/matthew-mcconaughey-2014-time-100/|title=Matthew McConaughey: The most surprising actor in Hollywood|last=Linklater|first=Richard|date=April 23, 2014|publisher=Time magazine|access-date=May 7, 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424143129/http://time.com/70802/matthew-mcconaughey-2014-time-100/ |date=April 24, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Dina bulan Agustus 2014, di Lincoln Motor Company nandatanganan kolaborasi multi-taun kalayan McConaughey pikeun kampanye iklan.  The commercials, diarahkeun ku Nicolas pungkal Refn ( ''Girang'' ), diulas McConaughey salaku juru dongéng hiji nyetir sabudeureun dina Lincoln urang MKC kawin silang.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://media.lincoln.com/content/lincolnmedia/lna/us/en/news/2014/08/21/lincoln-mcconaughey-begin-new-creative-journey.html|title=Lincoln Motor Company and Matthew McConaughey Begin New Creative Journey}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Teu lila sanggeus éta commercials debut di September 2014, maranéhanana parodied ku Ellen DeGeneres , Conan O'Brien , Jim Carrey , ''Selatan Park ,'' sarta ''Sabtu Malam Live'' .  Jualan sakabéh pikeun Lincoln ngaronjat ku 25 persén sabulan sanggeus Iklan debut.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/new-matthew-mcconaughey-ads-lincoln-760569|title=New Matthew McConaughey Ads for Lincoln to Debut New Year's Day (Video)|last=Walker|first=Michael}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Runtuyan commercials dibintanginya McConaughey terus pikeun sababaraha taun leuwih; mangsa ieu anjeunna ogé dirojong di MKZ sedan jeung MKX kawin silang.

Dina 2014, anjeunna dibagikeun tagihan béntang sareng Woody Harrelson di HBO 's drama kajahatan antologi runtuyan ''Leres Detektif .'' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.deadline.com/2012/04/hbo-picks-up-matthew-mcconaughey-woody-harrelson-series-true-detective/|title=HBO Picks Up Matthew-Woody Series 'True Detective' With Eight-Episode Order|last=Andreeva|first=Nellie|publisher=Deadline Hollywood|accessdate=June 26, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Pikeun peran minangka Tai hiang Cohle , anjeunna meunang Kritik 'pilihan Award Televisi keur Actor Best dina Drama Series .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8LMxdNO6hU|title=Matthew McConaughey Wins Critics Choice Awards 2014 Best Actor|publisher=Youtube|accessdate=March 4, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Anjeunna ogé bieu keur Primetime Emmy Award pikeun Actor Diterangkeun Pinunjul dina Drama Series , anu anjeunna leungit mun Bryan Cranston sarta Golden Globe Award pikeun Actor Best - Miniseries atawa Televisi Film .&lt;ref name=&quot;TrueDetectiveShutOut&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/tv-zone-1.811968/emmys-why-did-true-detective-matthew-mcconaughey-get-shut-out-1.9152024|title=Emmys: Why did 'True Detective,' Matthew McConaughey get shut out?|last=Verne Gay|publisher=newsday.com|accessdate=August 27, 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829034700/http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/tv-zone-1.811968/emmys-why-did-true-detective-matthew-mcconaughey-get-shut-out-1.9152024 |date=August 29, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TrueDetectiveShutOut&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://tvline.com/2014/12/11/golden-globe-nominations-2015-globes-awards-nominees/|title=Golden Globes: ''Fargo'', ''True Detective'' Lead Nominations; ''Jane the Virgin'', ''Transparent'' Score Multiple Nods|last=Mitovich|first=Matt Webb|publisher=TVLine|accessdate=December 11, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Kalawan na Oscar win munggaran jeung acclaim kritis narima pikeun ''Leres Detektif'' &quot;McConaughey sigana jadi ngetok kana hal penting, sésana dirina bari manjang, lalaki heubeul bari tinggal di umur sarua&quot;.  Kritikus Rachel Syme dubbed pangakuan sarta pagelaran na bari nyandak on leuwih kompleks, kalungguhan dramatis salaku &quot;The McConaissance&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/culture/2014/01/the-mcconaissance.html|title=The McConaissance|last=Rachel|first=Syme|publisher=The New Yorker|accessdate=2014-02-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On Nopémber 17, 2014, McConaughey narima hiji béntang dina Hollywood Walk Inohong , ayana dina 6931 Pegangsaan &lt;ref&gt;http://www.walkoffame.com/matthew-mcconaughey&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey ogé maénkeun Cooper, bapa randa na Astronot, barengan Anne Hathaway , Jessica Chastain , Michael Caine , Mackenzie Foy , sarta Casey Affleck di Christopher Nolan 's fiksi pilem ''Interstellar'' (2014).&lt;ref name=&quot;COLLIDER.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://collider.com/matthew-mcconaughey-christopher-nolan-interstellar/|title=Matthew McConaughey Confirmed to Lead Christopher Nolan's INTERSTELLAR|last=Goldberg|first=Matt|publisher=collider.com|accessdate=April 3, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Saatos pagawean Gus Van Sant 's 2015 pilem ''The Sea of Tatangkalan'' jeung Ken Watanabe ,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/matthew-mcconaughey-star-gus-van-677201|title=Matthew McConaughey to Star in Gus Van Sant's 'Sea of Trees'|last=Kit|first=Boris|website=The Hollywood Reporter|publisher=TheHollywoodReporter.com|accessdate=March 18, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; dina 2016, McConaughey dibéntangan dina dua film, ''Free Nagara Santang'' jeung ''Emas'' , jeung bersuara karakter ngarah dina dua film animasi, ''Kubo jeung Dua Senar'' sarta ''Sing'' .

Dina 2016, McConaughey ieu hired salaku diréktur kreatif sarta juru carios selebritis keur liar Turki urang kampanye panganyarna, dibawa dina leuwih awéwé jeung konsumén leuwih internasional.&lt;ref name=&quot;NBCWildTurkey&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/business/consumer/nod-female-bourbon-fans-wild-turkey-hires-matthew-mcconaughey-n623736|title=In Nod to Female Bourbon Fans, Wild Turkey Hires Matthew McConaughey|last=McMahan|first=Dana|access-date=9 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WildTurkeyShortFilm&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmZZNbUsyt8|title=Wild Turkey Bourbon: Matthew McConaughey Short Film|website=YouTube|publisher=WildTurkey|accessdate=9 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey dibéntangan di Stephen King adaptasi ''The Dark Tower'' (2017), salaku Walter Padick , éta narima réaksi négatip tina kritik.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://screenrant.com/dark-tower-franchise-future-tv-movies/|title=The Dark Tower: Where Can The Franchise Go From Here?|last=Fuller|first=Becky|website=[[Screen Rant]]|accessdate=August 15, 2017}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/dark-tower-idris-elba-is-good-movie-1026991|title=Idris Elba Is Too Good for 'The Dark Tower'|last=Spiegel|first=Josh|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|accessdate=August 27, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2017/08/04/why-idris-elba-makes-the-dark-tower-a-must-see-in-theaters/|title=Why Idris Elba Makes 'The Dark Tower' A Must-See In Theaters|last=Mendelson|first=Scott|website=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=August 27, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://deadline.com/2017/08/the-dark-tower-review-stephen-king-idris-elba-matthew-mcconaughey-video-1202142694/|title=‘The Dark Tower’ Review: Stephen King Fans Can Be Thankful Idris Elba Is Here To Save The World – And The Movie|last=Hammond|first=Pete|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|accessdate=August 27, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The leres drama kahirupan gangster ''Bodas Boy Rick'' ,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2016/film/news/matthew-mcconaughey-white-boy-rick-drama-1201922232/|title=Matthew McConaughey in Talks to Star in ‘White Boy Rick’|last=McNary|first=Dave|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|accessdate=March 12, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; massana ulasan campur jeung éta hiji flop kotak kantor, sedengkeun erotis Thriller ''Serenity ,'' éta ogé dibéntangan Diane Lane jeung Anne Hathaway , ieu panned ku boh kritik sarta panongton sanggeus release na on 25th Januari 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;THRroundup&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/serenity-review-roundup-what-critics-are-saying-1178912|title='Serenity': What the Critics Are Saying|last=Perez|first=Lexy|date=January 24, 2019|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|access-date=January 25, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Peran na hareup aya dina harmoni Korine 's ''The Beach eun ,'' hiji komedi Amérika ogé dibintanginya Zac Efron na Yunus Hill.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2017/film/global/berlinale-matthew-mcconaughey-harmony-korines-the-beach-bum-1201980016/|title=Matthew McConaughey to Star in Harmony Korine’s ‘The Beach Bum’|last=Barraclough|first=Leo|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|accessdate=March 12, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Pilem tos disetel pikeun dileupaskeun di bioskop on 5 April, 2019 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribute.ca/movies/the-beach-bum/134610/|title=The Beach Bum synopsis and movie info|website=Tribute.ca|language=en|accessdate=2019-02-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

== kahirupan pribadi ==
[[Gambar:McConaugheyAlves2010-Crop.jpg|ka|jmpl|226x226px| McConaughey jeung pamajikanana taun 2010]]
Sateuacan McConaughey patepung Camila Alves taun 2006, anjeunna kungsi hubungan jeung Penelope Cruz lajeng Sandra Bullock.  Anjeunna jeung Alves jadi kalibet dina tanggal 25 Désémber 2011, ku kituna nikah dina swasta Katolik Upacara &lt;ref name=&quot;methodism&quot;&gt;[http://www.christianpost.com/news/the-faith-of-matthew-mcconaughey-115649/ Christian Post: &quot;The Iman tina Mateus McConaughey&quot; Ku Jim Darajat] Maret 5, 2014&lt;/ref&gt; dina 9 Juni 2012, in Austin, Texas , di mana maranéhna reside.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20602475,00.html|title=Matthew McConaughey, Camila Alves Wedding|website=[[People (magazine)|People]]|accessdate=June 10, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830004036/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20602475,00.html |date=August 30, 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.eonline.com/news/Matthew_McConaughey_and_Camila_Alves_Getting_Married_in_Top-Secret_Texas_WeddingmdashThis_Weekend/322058|title=Matthew McConaughey and Camila Alves Getting Married in Top-Secret Texas Wedding—This Weekend!|last=Bromley|first=Melanie|last2=Malkin|first2=Marc|publisher=[[E!]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Kalawan babarengan, biologi gaduh tilu barudak: putra Lewi Alves McConaughey (dilahirkeun Juli 7 2008) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://celebritybabies.people.com/2008/07/08/matthew-mcconau-4/|title=Matthew McConaughey and Camila Alves welcome son Levi|website=People|accessdate=April 14, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120211151/http://celebritybabies.people.com/2008/07/08/matthew-mcconau-4/ |date=November 20, 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; jeung Livingston Alves McConaughey (dilahirkeun tanggal 28 Désémber 2012),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://celebritybabies.people.com/2012/12/28/matthew-mcconaughey-welcomes-son-livingston/|title=Matthew and Camila McConaughey Welcome Son Livingston|website=People|accessdate=December 30, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810152550/http://celebritybabies.people.com/2012/12/28/matthew-mcconaughey-welcomes-son-livingston/ |date=August 10, 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; sarta putri Vida Alves McConaughey (dilahirkeun January 3, 2010).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20333981,00.html|title=Matthew McConaughey, Camila Alves Welcome daughter, Vida|website=People|accessdate=30 January 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027122009/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20333981,00.html |date=27 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey dimimitian dina ''ngan tetep livin'' yayasan, nu &quot;dedicated mun nulungan kids rumaja mingpin kahirupan aktip tur nyieun pilihan cageur jadi lalaki hébat sarta awéwé&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.matthewmcconaughey.com/|title=j.k. livin|publisher=Matthew McConaughey|accessdate=August 5, 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110216230033/http://www.matthewmcconaughey.com/ |date=February 16, 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  On Pébruari 25, 2016, McConaughey nampi pangajén Nurani Kreatif ti unite4: manusa karyana kalawan yayasan-Na.&lt;ref name=&quot;unite4humanity-variety-matthew-mcconaughey-morgan-freeman-olivia-wilde&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2016/scene/news/unite4humanity-variety-matthew-mcconaughey-morgan-freeman-olivia-wilde-1201715937/|title=Matthew McConaughey, Morgan Freeman, Others Honored at Variety's Unite4:Humanity Benefit|last=Saval|first=Malina|website=Variety|publisher=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety Media, LLC]]|accessdate=2016-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey rescued rupa pets terdampar sanggeus banjir tina New Orleans ti Hurricane Katrina .&lt;ref&gt;Toronto Fashion Monitor: [http://toronto.fashion-monitor.com/news.php/toronto_celebrities/2005091203Matthew_McConaughey &quot;Matthew McConaughey Saves the Pets.&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112010044/http://toronto.fashion-monitor.com/news.php/toronto_celebrities/2005091203Matthew_McConaughey|date=2005-11-12}}. Retrieved March 25, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

McConaughey geus ngajarkeun kelas di mater Alma-Na, UT-Austin, sidang mimiti nu éta ngeunaan syuting tina 2016 pilem ''Free Nagara Santang'' .&lt;ref name=&quot;ReturntoAlmaMater&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/matthew-mcconaughey-to-teach-film-at-university-of-texas-w211852|title=Matthew McConaughey will return to his alma mater to teach behind the scenes course|last=French|first=Megan|website=[[Us Weekly]]|accessdate=1 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Keur sési kadua, anjeunna bakal tim kalawan ''The lapar Kaulinan'' diréktur Gary Ross sarta dosén universitas témbal Rice.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReturntoAlmaMater&quot; /&gt;  Kursus kuliah, bagian tina Moody College of Communications, bakal kabuka pikeun juniors sarta manula.  Aya henteu prerequisites atawa waragad nyandak kursus mingguan.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReturntoAlmaMater&quot; /&gt;

McConaughey mangrupa lifelong Redskins kipas, sanggeus dimimitian handap tim kusabab Chris Hanburger sarta rojongan na tina India di Cowboy na Pilem Western India.  Anjeunna malah ngaklaim geus ngahadiran Redskin Game panungtungan di Stadion RFK na buruan hareup di Stadion Jack Kent Cooke sarta salah mimitina di diganti FedEx Lapang &lt;ref&gt;[https://www.redskins.com/video/q-a-with-redskins-fan-matthew-mcconaughey-15999615 https://www.redskins.com/video/qa-with-redskins-fan-matthew-mcconaughey-15999615]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmography jeung panghargaan ==

== rujukan ==
&lt;references group=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/references&gt;

[[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1969]]
[[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]]</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Modul:Automated taxobox</title>
    <ns>828</ns>
    <id>88206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731392</id>
      <parentid>703936</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T04:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+</comment>
      <origin>731392</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="22775" sha1="lfjm728ksq5c87l0ay462czvhkf2xzd" xml:space="preserve">require('strict')
local TaxonItalics = require('Module:TaxonItalics')
local Autotaxobox = require('Module:Autotaxobox')
local ItalicTitle = require('Module:Italic title')
local p = {} -- functions made public
local l = {} -- nonpublic internal functions and variables global to the module
l.system = '' -- '' for normal scientific classification (default)
              -- 'ichnos' for trace fossil classification
              -- 'veterovata' for egg fossil classification

-- =============================================================================
-- ichnobox implements Template:Ichnobox; see the documentation of that
-- template for details.
-- The only difference from Template:Automatic taxobox is in the taxobox colour
-- and classification link and the parameters for type species and genera.
-- =============================================================================

function p.ichnobox(frame)
	l.system = 'ichnos'
	return p.automaticTaxobox(frame)
end

-- =============================================================================
-- oobox implements Template:Oobox; see the documentation of that
-- template for details.
-- The only difference from Template:Automatic taxobox is in the taxobox colour
-- and classification link and the parameters for type species and genera.
-- =============================================================================

function p.oobox(frame)
	l.system = 'veterovata'
	return p.automaticTaxobox(frame)
end

-- =============================================================================
-- automaticTaxobox implements Template:Automatic taxobox; see the documentation
-- of that template for details.
-- It also implements Template:Ichnobox and Template:Oobox. The small
-- differences are signalled by the module-wide variable l.system.
-- The following parameters present in the old template code version of
-- Template:Automatic taxobox were not used and have not been implemented:
--   image_caption_align
--   image2_caption_align
--   binomial2
--   binomial2_authority
--   binomial3
--   binomial3_authority
--   binomial4
--   binomial4_authority
-- =============================================================================

function p.automaticTaxobox(frame)
	local args
	if frame.args['direct'] == 'yes' then args = frame.args
	else args = frame:getParent().args end
	local res = ''
	-- ---------------------------------------------------------------------
	-- pick up taxobox parameters from the caller that need to be processed;
	-- most will be passed on unchanged
	-- ---------------------------------------------------------------------
	local pagename = args['pagename'] or '' -- for testing and debugging only
	local italicTitle = args['italic_title'] or args['italic title'] or ''
	local ichnos = ''
	if l.system == 'ichnos' then ichnos = 'true' end
	local veterovata = ''
	if l.system == 'veterovata' then veterovata = 'true' end
	local fossilRange = args['fossil_range'] or args['fossil range'] or args['temporal_range'] or args['temporal range'] or ''
    local oldestFossil = args['oldest_fossil'] or args['oldest fossil'] or ''
    local youngestFossil =  args['youngest_fossil'] or args['youngest fossil'] or ''
	local name = args['name'] or ''
	local colourAs = args['color_as'] or args['color as'] or args['colour_as']  or args['colour as'] or ''
	local taxon = args['taxon'] or ''
	local authority = args['authority'] or ''
    local parentAuthority = args['parent_authority'] or args['parent authority'] or ''
	local manualFlag = 'text' -- marks manually specified ranks
	local binomial = args['binomial'] or args['binomial_'..manualFlag] or args['binomial '..manualFlag] or ''
	local binomialAuthority = args['binomial_authority'] or args['binomial authority'] or ''
	local genusManual = args['genus_'..manualFlag] or args['genus '..manualFlag] or''
	local speciesManual = args['species_'..manualFlag] or args['species '..manualFlag] or''
	-- ------------------------------------------------------
	-- set the taxobox parameters determined by this function
	-- ------------------------------------------------------
    fossilRange = l.setfossilRange(frame, fossilRange, oldestFossil, youngestFossil)
	-- use the base page name as the taxon if the taxon parameter is missing
	local currentPagename = mw.title.getCurrentTitle()
	if pagename == '' then pagename = currentPagename.text end -- pagename para only used in testing and 
	local basePagename = pagename
	if italicTitle ~= 'taxon' then basePagename = mw.ustring.gsub(basePagename, '%s+%b()$', '', 1) end
	local taxonParaMissingError = false
	if taxon == '' then
		taxonParaMissingError = true
		taxon = basePagename
	end
	-- decide if the page name and taxobox name need to be italicized;
	-- if italic_title is not set, then if the names are the taxon, use its rank to decide
	local ok, taxonRank = Autotaxobox.getTaxonInfoItem(frame, taxon, 'rank') -- taxonRank needed later if not here
	if italicTitle == '' then
		if not (ok and taxonRank ~= '' and
			    frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Is italic taxon', args = {taxonRank} } == 'yes') then
			italicTitle = 'no'
		end
	end
	--   remove any &quot; (DISAMBIG)&quot; or &quot;/MODIFIER&quot; from the taxon's name;
	--   if the base page name is the same as the base taxon name, then italicization can be applied
	local baseTaxon = taxon
	if italicTitle ~= 'taxon' then baseTaxon = mw.ustring.gsub(baseTaxon, '%s+%b()$', '', 1) end
	baseTaxon = mw.ustring.gsub(baseTaxon, '/.*$', '', 1)
	if italicTitle == '' and basePagename == baseTaxon then
		italicTitle = 'yes'
	end
	-- italicize the page name (page title) if required
	if currentPagename.namespace == 0 and (italicTitle == 'yes' or italicTitle == 'taxon') then
		if italicTitle == 'taxon' or TaxonItalics.hasConnectingTerm(baseTaxon) then
			res =  res .. frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Italic taxon title', args = {} }
			italicTitle = 'yes'
		else ItalicTitle._main({})
		end
	end
	-- set the taxobox name if not supplied, italicizing it if appropriate.
	if name == '' then
		name = basePagename
		if italicTitle == 'yes' then
			name = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(name, false, false)
		end
		-- name = name ..  '/' .. baseTaxon .. '/' .. nameRank
	end
	-- determine taxobox colour
	local colour = ''
	if colourAs ~= '' then
		colour = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Taxobox colour', args = {colourAs} }
	elseif l.system == 'ichnos' then
		colour = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Taxobox colour', args = {'Ichnos'} }
	elseif l.system == 'veterovata' then
		colour = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Taxobox colour', args = {'Veterovata'} }
	else
		colour = Autotaxobox.getTaxoboxColour(frame, taxon)
	end
	-- set binomial parameters if the target taxon is (unusually) a species
	local genusAuthority = ''
	if binomial == '' then
		if ok and taxonRank == 'species' then
			binomial = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(taxon, false, false)
			binomialAuthority = authority
		end
	end
	-- handle any manually set ranks
	local boldFirst = ''
	local offset = 0
	if speciesManual ~= '' then
		offset = offset + 1
		binomialAuthority = authority
		if binomial == '' then binomial = '&lt;span class=&quot;error&quot;&gt;Error: binomial parameter value is missing&lt;/span&gt;' end
	end
	if genusManual ~= '' then
		boldFirst = 'link'
		offset = offset + 1
		if offset == 1 then
			genusAuthority = authority
		else
			genusAuthority = parentAuthority
		end
	end
	-- process type genus and type species if present; italicize if they seem not to have an authority attached
	local typeGenus = ''
	local typeGenusRef = ''
	local typeGenusAuthority = ''
	local typeSpecies = ''
	local typeSpeciesRef = ''
	local typeSpeciesAuthority = ''
	local typeIchnogenus = ''
	local typeIchnogenusRef = ''
	local typeIchnogenusAuthority = ''
	local typeIchnospecies = ''
	local typeIchnospeciesRef = ''
	local typeIchnospeciesAuthority = ''
	local typeOogenus = ''
	local typeOogenusRef = ''
	local typeOogenusAuthority = ''
	local typeOospecies = ''
	local typeOospeciesRef = ''
	local typeOospeciesAuthority = ''
	if l.system == '' then
		typeGenus = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_genus'] or args['type genus'] or '')
		typeGenusRef = args['type_genus_ref'] or args['type genus ref'] or ''
		typeGenusAuthority = args['type_genus_authority'] or args['type genus authority'] or ''
		typeSpecies = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_species'] or args['type species'] or '')
		typeSpeciesRef = args['type_species_ref'] or args['type species ref'] or ''
		typeSpeciesAuthority = args['type_species_authority'] or args['type species authority'] or ''
	elseif l.system == 'ichnos' then
		typeIchnogenus = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_ichnogenus'] or args['type ichnogenus'] or '')
		typeIchnogenusRef = args['type_ichnogenus_ref'] or args['type ichnogenus ref'] or ''
		typeIchnogenusAuthority = args['type_ichnogenus_authority'] or args['type ichnogenus authority'] or ''
		typeIchnospecies = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_ichnospecies'] or args['type ichnospecies'] or '')
		typeIchnospeciesRef = args['type_ichnospecies_ref'] or args['type ichnospecies ref'] or ''
		typeIchnospeciesAuthority = args['type_ichnospecies_authority'] or args['type ichnospecies authority'] or ''
	elseif l.system == 'veterovata' then
		typeOogenus = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_oogenus'] or args['type oogenus'] or '')
		typeOogenusRef = args['type_oogenus_ref'] or args['type oogenus ref'] or ''
		typeOogenusAuthority = args['type_oogenus_authority'] or args['type oogenus authority'] or ''
		typeOospecies = l.italicizeTypeName(args['type_oospecies'] or args['type oospecies'] or '')
		typeOospeciesRef = args['type_oospecies_ref'] or args['type oospecies ref'] or ''
		typeOospeciesAuthority = args['type_oospecies_authority'] or args['type oospecies authority'] or ''
	end
	-- fill in a missing subdivision_ranks parameter
	local subdivision = args['subdivision'] or ''
	local subdivisionRef = args['subdivision_ref'] or args['subdivision ref'] or ''
	local subdivisionRanks = args['subdivision_ranks'] or args['subdivision ranks'] or ''
	if subdivision ~= '' and subdivisionRanks == '' and ok and taxonRank ~= '' then
		subdivisionRanks =  frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Children rank', args = {taxonRank} }
	end
	-- ------------------------------------------------
	-- now call Taxobox/core with all of its parameters
	-- ------------------------------------------------
	res = res .. frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Taxobox/core', args =
		{ ichnos = ichnos,
		  veterovata = veterovata,
		  ['edit link'] = 'e',
		  temporal_range = fossilRange,
		  display_taxa = args['display_parents'] or args['display parents'] or '1',
		  parent = taxon,
		  authority = authority,
          parent_authority = parentAuthority,
		  grandparent_authority = args['grandparent_authority'] or args['grandparent authority'] or '',
		  greatgrandparent_authority = args['greatgrandparent_authority'] or args['greatgrandparent authority'] or '',
		  greatgreatgrandparent_authority = args['greatgreatgrandparent_authority'] or args['greatgreatgrandparent authority'] or '',
		  name = name,
		  colour = colour,
		  status = args['status'] or '',
		  status_system = args['status_system'] or args['status system'] or '',
		  status_ref = args['status_ref'] or args['status ref'] or '',
		  status2 = args['status2'] or '',
		  status2_system = args['status2_system'] or args['status2 system'] or '',
		  status2_ref = args['status2_ref'] or args['status2 ref'] or '',
		  trend = args['trend'] or '',
		  extinct = args['extinct'] or '',
		  image = args['image'] or '',
		  upright = args['image_upright'] or args['image upright'] or '',
		  image_alt = args['image_alt'] or args['image alt'] or '',
		  image_caption = args['image_caption'] or args['image caption'] or '',
		  image2 = args['image2'] or '',
		  upright2 = args['image2_upright'] or args['image2 upright'] or '',
		  image2_alt = args['image2_alt'] or args['image2 alt'] or '',
		  image2_caption = args['image2_caption'] or args['image2 caption'] or '',
		  audio = args['audio'] or '',
		  audio_alt = args['audio_alt'] or args['audio alt'] or '',
		  audio_caption = args['audio_caption'] or args['audio caption'] or '',
		  classification_status = args['classification_status'] or args['classification status'] or '',
		  diversity = args['diversity'] or '',
		  diversity_ref = args['diversity_ref'] or args['diversity ref'] or '',
		  diversity_link = args['diversity_link'] or args['diversity link'] or '',
		  bold_first = boldFirst,
		  offset = offset,
		  genus = genusManual,
		  genus_authority = genusAuthority,
		  species = speciesManual,
		  binomial = binomial,
		  binomial_authority = binomialAuthority,
		  trinomial = args['trinomial'] or '',
		  trinomial_authority = args['trinomial_authority'] or args['trinomial authority'] or '',
		  type_genus = typeGenus,
		  type_genus_ref = typeGenusRef,
		  type_genus_authority = typeGenusAuthority,
		  type_species = typeSpecies,
		  type_species_ref = typeSpeciesRef,
		  type_species_authority = typeSpeciesAuthority,
		  type_ichnogenus = typeIchnogenus,
		  type_ichnogenus_ref = typeIchnogenusRef,
		  type_ichnogenus_authority = typeIchnogenusAuthority,
		  type_ichnospecies = typeIchnospecies,
		  type_ichnospecies_ref = typeIchnospeciesRef,
		  type_ichnospecies_authority = typeIchnospeciesAuthority,
		  type_oogenus = typeOogenus,
		  type_oogenus_ref = typeOogenusRef,
		  type_oogenus_authority = typeOogenusAuthority,
		  type_oospecies = typeOospecies,
		  type_oospecies_ref = typeOospeciesRef,
		  type_oospecies_authority = typeOospeciesAuthority,
		  subdivision = subdivision,
		  subdivision_ref = subdivisionRef,
		  subdivision_ranks = subdivisionRanks,		  
		  type_strain = args['type_strain'] or args['type strain'] or '',
		  type_strain_ref = args['type_strain_ref'] or args['type strain ref'] or '',
		  range_map = args['range_map'] or args['range map'] or '',
		  range_map_upright = args['range_map_upright'] or args['range map upright'] or '',
		  range_map_alt = args['range_map_alt'] or args['range map alt'] or '',
		  range_map_caption = args['range_map_caption'] or args['range map caption'] or '',
		  range_map2 = args['range_map2'] or args['range map2'] or '',
		  range_map2_upright = args['range_map2_upright'] or args['range map2 upright'] or '',
		  range_map2_alt = args['range_map2_alt'] or args['range map2 alt'] or '',
		  range_map2_caption = args['range_map2_caption'] or args['range map2 caption'] or '',
		  range_map3 = args['range_map3'] or args['range map3'] or '',
		  range_map3_upright = args['range_map3_upright'] or args['range map3 upright'] or '',
		  range_map3_alt = args['range_map3_alt'] or args['range map3 alt'] or '',
		  range_map3_caption = args['range_map3_caption'] or args['range map3 caption'] or '',
		  range_map4 = args['range_map4'] or args['range map4'] or '',
		  range_map4_upright = args['range_map4_upright'] or args['range map4 upright'] or '',
		  range_map4_alt = args['range_map4_alt'] or args['range map4 alt'] or '',
		  range_map4_caption = args['range_map4_caption'] or args['range map4 caption'] or '',
		  synonyms_ref = args['synonyms_ref'] or args['synonyms ref'] or '',
		  synonyms = args['synonyms'] or ''
		} }
	-- put page in error-tracking categories if required
	local errCat1 = ''
	if genusManual ~= '' or speciesManual ~= '' or binomial ~= '' then errCat1 = '[[Category:Automatic taxoboxes using manual parameters]]' end
	local errCat2 = ''
	if taxonParaMissingError then errCat2 = '[[Category:Automatic taxoboxes relying on page title]]' end
	res = res .. frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Main other', args = {errCat1..errCat2} }
	return res
end

-- =============================================================================
-- l.setfossilRange(frame, fossilRange, oldestFossil, youngestFossil) checks
-- the parameters that determine the fossil range, returning an appropriate
-- range.
-- =============================================================================
-- temporary public function for debugging
function p.chkFossilRange(frame)
	local args = frame.args
	local fossilRange = args['temporal_range'] or args['temporal range'] or args['fossil_range'] or args['fossil range'] or ''
    local oldestFossil = args['oldest_fossil'] or args['oldest fossil'] or ''
    local youngestFossil =  args['youngest_fossil'] or args['youngest fossil'] or ''
    local fossilRange = l.setfossilRange(frame, fossilRange, oldestFossil, youngestFossil)
	return fossilRange
end

function l.setfossilRange(frame, fossilRange, oldestFossil, youngestFossil)
	local res = ''
	if fossilRange ~= '' then
		if mw.ustring.find(frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Period start', args = { fossilRange } }, '[Ee]rror') then
			res = fossilRange
		else 
			res = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Geological range', args = { fossilRange } }
		end
	elseif oldestFossil ~= '' then
		if youngestFossil == '' then youngestFossil = 'Recent' end
		if mw.ustring.find(frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Period start', args = { oldestFossil } }, '[Ee]rror') or
		   mw.ustring.find(frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Period start', args = { youngestFossil } }, '[Ee]rror') then
			res = oldestFossil..'–'..youngestFossil
		else
		res = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'Geological range', args = { oldestFossil, youngestFossil } }
		end
	end
	return res
end

-- =============================================================================
-- l.italicizeTypeName(typeName) checks whether the name of a type genus or
-- species should be italicized, because it appears to be a bare name.
-- =============================================================================

function l.italicizeTypeName(typeName)
	if typeName and not (string.find(typeName, &quot;&lt;&quot;, 1, true) or string.find(typeName, &quot;&gt;&quot;, 1, true)) then
		typeName = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(typeName, false, false)
	end
	return typeName
end

-- **************************** Speciesbox support *****************************

-- =============================================================================
-- l.genusOf(str) extracts the genus from a string. Normally this will be the
-- first word of the string (e.g. given 'Bellis perennis' it returns 'Bellis').
-- It also handles a string containing a nothogenus with a spaced × (e.g. given
-- '× Heucherella tiarelloides' it returns '× Heucherella').
-- =============================================================================

function l.genusOf(str)
	local res = mw.ustring.match(str, '^[^%s]*', 1)
	if res == mw.ustring.char(215) then
		res = res .. ' ' .. mw.ustring.match(str, '^[^%s]*', 3)
	end
	return res
end

-- =============================================================================
-- l.doSpeciesboxName(name, taxon, genus, species, basePageTitle, italicTitle)
-- returns a name for a taxobox created by Template:Speciesbox. The name will be
-- italicized if appropriate. It also generates code to italicize the page title
-- if appropropriate. In both cases the test for italicization is that the base
-- taxon name (stripped of any disambiguation or qualifier) is the same as the
-- base page title.
-- =============================================================================

function p.speciesboxName(frame)
	local name = frame.args[1] or ''
	local taxon = frame.args[2] or ''
	local genus = frame.args[3] or ''
	local species = frame.args[4] or ''
	local basePageTitle = frame.args[5] or ''
	local italicTitle = frame.args[6] or ''
	return l.doSpeciesboxName(name, taxon, genus, species, basePageTitle, italicTitle)
end
	
function l.doSpeciesboxName(name, taxon, genus, species, basePageTitle, italicTitle)
	if taxon ~= '' then
		genus = mw.ustring.gsub(l.genusOf(taxon), '/.*$', '', 1) -- strip any qualifier
	else
		genus = mw.ustring.gsub(mw.ustring.gsub(genus, '%s+%b()$', '', 1), '/.*$', '', 1) -- strip any disambig and qualifier
		if species == '' then taxon = genus
		else taxon = genus .. ' ' .. species
		end
	end
	local italicizeP = italicTitle ~= 'no' and (basePageTitle == taxon or basePageTitle == genus) -- use basePageTitle to match taxon/genus
	-- deal with taxobox name (i.e. its caption)
	if name == '' then
		name = basePageTitle
		if italicizeP then name = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(name, false, false) end
	end
	-- deal with page title
	if italicizeP then
		local pageTitle = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().text -- formatting the page title with DISPLAYTITLE needs the full page title
		if italicTitle ~= 'test' then 
			pageTitle  = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(pageTitle, false, false, true) -- format pageTitle, not italicizing any parenthesized term
			local nsText = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().nsText -- for drafts and other pages not in mainspace
			if nsText ~= '' then
				pageTitle = nsText:gsub('_', ' ') .. ':' .. pageTitle -- [[phab:T369784]]
			end
			mw.getCurrentFrame():callParserFunction('DISPLAYTITLE', pageTitle)
		else
			name = name .. ' \\Italic title\\ ' .. pageTitle -- for testing and debugging
		end
	end
	return name
end

-- =============================================================================
-- =============================================================================
function p.infraspeciesboxName(frame)
	local name = frame.args[1] or ''
	local genus = frame.args[2] or ''
	local species = frame.args[3] or ''
	local ct = frame.args[4] or ''
    local infraspecies = frame.args[5] or ''
	local basePageTitle = frame.args[6] or ''
	local italicTitle = frame.args[7] or ''
	return l.doinfraspeciesboxName(name, genus, species, ct, infraspecies, basePageTitle, italicTitle)
end
	
function l.doinfraspeciesboxName(name, genus, species, ct, infraspecies, basePageTitle, italicTitle)
	genus = mw.ustring.gsub(mw.ustring.gsub(genus, '%s+%b()$', '', 1), '/.*$', '', 1) -- strip any disambig and qualifier
	local taxon = genus .. ' ' .. species
	if ct == '' then taxon = taxon .. ' ' .. infraspecies
	else taxon = taxon .. ' ' .. ct .. ' ' .. infraspecies
	end
	local italicizeP = italicTitle ~= 'no' and (basePageTitle == taxon) -- use basePageTitle to match taxon
	-- deal with taxobox name (i.e. its caption)
	if name == '' then
		name = basePageTitle
		if italicizeP then name = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(name, false, false) end
	end
	-- deal with page title
	if italicizeP then
		local pageTitle = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().text -- formatting the page title with DISPLAYTITLE needs the full page title
		pageTitle  = TaxonItalics.italicizeTaxonName(pageTitle, false, false, true) -- format pageTitle, not italicizing any parenthesized term
		if italicTitle ~= 'test' then 
			mw.getCurrentFrame():callParserFunction('DISPLAYTITLE', pageTitle)
		else
			name = name .. ' \\Italic title\\ ' .. pageTitle -- for testing and debugging
		end
	end
	return name
end

return p</text>
      <sha1>lfjm728ksq5c87l0ay462czvhkf2xzd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fatemeh Rahbar</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>99222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731337</id>
      <parentid>728712</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T02:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>25926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6)</comment>
      <origin>731337</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3469" sha1="pdo9358dvkcy7shv8uk2td0rd0tpda4" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Fatemeh Rahbar.jpg
| name = Fatemeh Rahbar
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{circa}} {{birth year and age|1964}}&lt;ref name=&quot;majlis&quot;/&gt;
| birth_place = [[Tehran, Iran]]&lt;ref name=&quot;majlis&quot;/&gt;
| nationality = Iran
| order = [[Déwan Iran|parlemen Iran]]
| constituency = [[Teheran, Rey, Semiranat sareng Eslamshahr]]
| term_start1  = 
| term_end1   =
| majority = 787,485 (42.75%)
| succeeding   = ''Mangkat méméh angkat sumpah taun 2020''
| term_start1 = 28 Mei 2004
| term_end1 = 28 Mei 2016
| constituency1 = [[TTeheran, Rey, Semiranat sareng Eslamshahr]]
| majority1 = 443,518 (25.47%)&lt;ref name=&quot;majlis&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Parliament members|url=http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/parliament_member/show/701842|publisher=Iranian Majlis|accessdate=28 Oktober 2014|language=fa|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101055726/https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/parliament_member/show/701842|archivedate=2019-11-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| alma_mater = 
| party = {{plainlist|
*[[Barisan Parti Islam]]
*[[Masyarakat Zeynab]]}}
| otherparty = {{plainlist|
*[[Gabungan Agung Berprinsip]] {{small|(2016)}}
*[[Barisan Bersatu Prinsip]] {{small|(2008, 2012)}}
*[[Perikatan Pembina Islam Iran]] {{small|(2004)}}}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2020|3|7|1964|1|1|df=y}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://ifpnews.com/newly-elected-female-politician-dies-of-coronavirus-in-iran Newly-Elected Female Politician Dies of Coronavirus in Iran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320132321/https://ifpnews.com/newly-elected-female-politician-dies-of-coronavirus-in-iran |date=2020-03-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| death_place = [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]
| death_cause = Komplik tina [[COVID-19]]
}}

'''Fatemeh Rahbar''' ([[Basa Pérsia]]: '''فاطمه رهبر'''&amp;lrm;; {{circa}} 1964–2020) nyaéta hiji [[Ahli politikus|politikus]] konservatif [[Iran|Iranians]] anu ngajabat salaku anggota [[Déwan Iran|parlemen Iran]] urang anu ngagambarkeun [[Teheran, Rey, Semiranat sareng Eslamshahr]].  

Kapilih anyar dina pamilihan, Rahbar murag [[Coma (médis)|koma]] dina 6 Maret 2020 balukar tina [[COVID-19]] nalika wabah di Iran.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/adviser-to-irans-foreign-minister-dies-of-coronavirus/|title=Iran: 124 dead from virus including FM’s adviser, could use force to stop travel|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina tanggal 6 Maret 2020, anjeunna dinyatakeun maot ku komplikasi tina kasakit.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.astroawani.com/berita-dunia/seorang-lagi-ahli-parlimen-iran-maut-akibat-covid-19-232852|title=Seorang lagi Ahli Parlimen Iran maut akibat COVID-19|website=Astro Awani|accessdate=8 Mac 2020}}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Rujukan ==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
*[http://www.shoma-weekly.ir/fa/news/1071/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87-%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1 Biografi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322054642/http://www.shoma-weekly.ir/fa/news/1071/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87-%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1 |date=2020-03-22 }} 
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20200328215525/https://edition.cnn.com/world/live-news/coronavirus-outbreak-03-06-20-intl-hnk/h_18a90a0a005a96b3d07c4b73bab8cadd/] 

[[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1964]]
[[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 2020]]
[[Kategori:Pandémi koronavirus 2019]]
[[Kategori:Politikus ti Iran]]

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    <title>Urang Malayu</title>
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      <text bytes="47415" sha1="ttwvc80yrjbd7pjlqzfpqj7vj5o1lsg" xml:space="preserve">{{Artikel petingan}}
[[File:Malay couple.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Salaki pamajikan saatos ngalaksanakeun upacara akad nikah (prosesi kawinan). Panganten lalaki nganggo baju Malayu anu dipasangkan sareng songkok sareng songket, sedengkeun panganten awéwé nganggo baju kurung sareng jilbab.]]

'''Urang Malayu''' ({{langx|ms|'''Orang Melayu'''}}; [[Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو}}) wirua grup étnis [[Austronesia]] utami nu nyicingan Semenanjung Melayu, kidul [[Thailand]], pantai kidul [[Burma]], pulo [[Singapura]], [[Bornéo]] gisik basisir kaasup [[Brunéi]], [[Kalimantan Kulon]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]], Sarawak jeung basisir [[Sabah]], [[Filipina]] kulon teur kidul, jeung palulo alit nu aya di antara lokasi-tempat ieu — sacara pas dikenal salaku &quot;Dunia Melayu&quot;. Lokasi ieu ayeuna wirua bagian naragara modern [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Brunéi]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Filipina]].

[[File:Malay tricolour.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bandéra Triwarna Melayu anu némbongkeun idéntitas urang Malayu]]

Aya karagaman basa, budaya, artistik, sareng sosial anu lumayan ageung di antara seueur subgrup Melayu, utamina kusabab ratusan taun imigrasi sareng asimilasi rupa-rupa étnis sareng suku régional di Asia Tenggara Maritim. Sacara historis, populasi Melayu utamina turunan ti suku Austronesia sareng Austroasia anu nganggo basa Melayu sateuacanna anu ngadegkeun sababaraha nagara sareng karajaan dagang maritim kuno, khususna [[Brunéi]], [[Kedah]], Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, [[Karajaan Malayu|Melayu]], sareng [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 &amp; 60}}

Kamekaran sareng ngadegna Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 nyababkeun révolusi ageung dina sajarah urang Melayu. Ieu kajadian kusabab kasultanan mawa parobahan anu signifikan pisan kana sistem budaya sareng kasultanan ngahontal kamulyaan dina periode éta.

Numutkeun catetan sajarah, urang Malayu geus dipikawanoh salaku komunitas dagang lintas cai anu mibanda ciri budaya anu dinamis.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 &amp; 43}} Aranjeunna tiasa nyerep, ngabagi, sareng nyebarkeun seueur budaya unik ti kelompok étnis sanés, sapertos budaya Minang sareng Acéh.

Kadatangan Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 micu révolusi utama dina sajarah Melayu, anu pentingna aya dina warisan pulitik sareng budayana anu lega. Tanda-tanda umum anu pasti ngeunaan ka-Melayuan — agama Islam, basa sareng tradisi Malayu — dianggap parantos diproklamasikeun dina jaman ieu, anu ngarah kana étnogenesis urang Malayu salaku kelompok étnoreligius utama di daérah éta. Dina sastra, arsitéktur, tradisi kuliner, pakean tradisional, seni pertunjukan, seni bela diri sareng tradisi karaton, Malaka netepkeun standar anu ditiru ku kasultanan Melayu salajengna. Mangsa kajayaan kasultanan Melayu di Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatra Wétan, sareng basisir Kalimantan ningali seueur pendudukna, khususna ti sababaraha komunitas suku sapertos [[Batak]], Dayak, Urang Asli, sareng Urang Laut, tunduk kana Islamisasi sareng Invasi Melayu. Sapanjang sajarah, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; parantos diperpanjang ka kelompok étnis sanés dina &quot;[[Dunya Malayu]]&quot;; panggunaan ieu ayeuna seuseueurna diwatesan di Malaysia sareng Singapura, dimana turunan sanés tina kelompok étnis ieu disebut Anak Dagang (&quot;padagang&quot;) sareng seuseueurna asalna ti Indonésia sapertos urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]].

== Étimologi ==
[[Gambar:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|Kompleks Candi Muaro Jambi di [[Jambi]], sajarahna dihubungkeun sareng [[Karajaan Malayu]] pra-Islam. Urang Melayu-Sriwijaya katelah ngawangun sistem wangunan anu rumit di ibukotana, kota-kota utama, sareng pusat-pusat kota anu penting.]]
[[Gambar:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|Bukit Seguntang di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]. Numutkeun ''Sejarah Melayu'', éta pasir nyatet datangna Sang Sapurba, karuhun legendaris pikeun rupa-rupa kulawarga karajaan Malayu di Sumatra, Semenanjung Malaya, sareng Kalimantan.]]

Literatur epik ''Malay Annals'' ngahubungkeun asal usul étimologis &quot;Melayu&quot; ka walungan leutik anu dingaranan ''Sungai Melayu'' ('walungan Melayu') di [[Sumatra]], [[Indonésia]]. Epik éta salah nyebutkeun yén walungan éta ngalir ka Walungan Musi di Palembang, padahal kanyataanna ngalir ka Walungan Batang Hari di [[Jambi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=Oktober 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|298}} Istilah ieu dipercaya asalna tina kecap Melayu ''melaju'', kombinasi tina awalan verbal 'me' sareng akar kecap 'laju', anu hartosna &quot;ngagancangkeun&quot;, dianggo pikeun ngagambarkeun arus walungan anu gancang.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== Salaku ngaran tempat (toponim) ===
Sateuacan abad ka-15, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; sareng varian anu sami sigana dianggo salaku [[toponimi]] lami pikeun daérah Selat Malaka sacara umum.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}}
* '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', &quot;Malaya Dvipa&quot;, digambarkeun dina bab 48, Vayu Purana salaku salah sahiji propinsi di laut wétan anu pinuh ku emas sareng pérak. Sababaraha sarjana nyaruakeun istilah ieu sareng [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} tapi sababaraha sarjana India yakin istilah ieu kedah nujul ka Semenanjung Malaya anu pagunungan, sedengkeun Sumatra langkung pas dihubungkeun sareng Suvarnadvipa.{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}}
* '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – hiji lokasi di Golden Chersonese, tina karya Ptolemy, Geographia.{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}}
* '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – disebutkeun ku Yijing, saurang biarawan Buddha Cina ti Dinasti Tang anu nganjang ka Asia Tenggara dina taun 688–695. Nurutkeun Yijing, karajaan ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' ayana dina jarak 15 poé balayar ti Bogha (Palembang), ibukota Sribhoga ([[karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]]). Butuh waktu 15 poé balayar pikeun nepi ka Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) ti Mo-lo-yu; ku kituna, bisa disebutkeun yén Mo-Lo-Yu bakal aya di tengah-tengah antara dua tempat éta.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} Hiji téori populér ngahubungkeun ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' sareng Jambi di Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} nanging lokasi geografis Jambi bertentangan sareng katerangan Yi Jing ngeunaan &quot;satengah jalan pelayaran antara ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) sareng ''Bogha'' (Palembang)&quot;. Dina jaman Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368) sareng [[Dinasti Ming]] (1368–1644), kecap ''Ma-La-Yu'' sering disebutkeun dina téks sajarah Cina – kalayan parobahan éjahan kusabab rentang waktu antara dinasti-dinasti éta – pikeun nujul ka hiji bangsa di deukeut laut kidul. Diantara istilah anu digunakeun nyaéta &quot;Bôk-lá-yù&quot;, &quot;Mók-là-yū&quot; (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — disusud tina sumber tinulis biarawan Xuanzang) sareng Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
* '''''Malaiyur''''' – disebutkeun dina prasasti Tanjore. Karajaan ieu digambarkeun salaku karajaan anu gaduh &quot;gunung anu kuat pikeun bentengna&quot; anu murag ka penjajah Chola nalika kampanye Rajendra Chola I dina abad ka-11. Bisa jadi ayana di Sumatra, antara Pannai jeung Sriwijaya ([[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|77–78, 170}} meureun di situs arkéologis Muaro Jambi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|405}}
* '''''Malai''''' – disebutkeun ku ahli géografi Arab abad ka-12 [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] dina Tabula Rogeriana, éta ngagambarkeun semenanjung Malaya salaku pulo anu panjang sareng nyebatna Malai, wawatesan sareng Qmer (Khmer) sareng 12 dinten balayar ti Sanf (Champa).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508045322/https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ |date=2025-05-08 }}. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gerini, G. E., &amp; Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&amp;vq=malai&amp;pg=PA535#v=onepage&amp;q=malai&amp;f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;Tanah Malayu&quot;), transkripsi tina Prasasti Padang Roco tanggal 1286 CE ku Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} Istilah ieu aya patalina jeung karajaan [[Dharmasraya]].
* '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – disebutkeun dina babad Dinasti Yuan, nujul kana hiji bangsa di Semenanjung Malaya anu nyanghareupan ékspansi Karajaan Sukhothai ka kidul, nalika pamaréntahan Ram Khamhaeng.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=24 Maret 2026 |archive-date=27 Agustus 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kronik éta nyatakeun: &quot;''..Permusuhan lumangsung antara Siam sareng Ma-li-yu-er sareng duanana silih paéhan ...''&quot;. Pikeun ngaréspon tindakan Sukhothai, saurang utusan Cina angkat ka karaton Ram Khamhaeng dina taun 1295 mawa paréntah kaisar: &quot;Tepati jangji anjeun sareng ulah ngalakukeun kajahatan ka Ma-li-yu-er&quot;.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}}
* '''''Malauir''''' – disebutkeun dina catetan [[Marco Polo]] salaku karajaan anu aya di Semenanjung Malaya,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} kamungkinan sami sareng anu disebutkeun dina babad Yuan.
* '''''Malayapura''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;kota Malaya&quot; atanapi &quot;bénténg Malaya&quot;), anu diukir dina prasasti Amoghapasa anu tanggalna taun 1347 Masehi. Istilah éta dianggo ku Adityawarman pikeun nyebut [[Dharmasraya]].

Saran séjénna kaasup kecap [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] ''mlayu'' (salaku kecap pagawéan: lumpat, partisip: buronan), atawa istilah Melayu ''melaju'' (ngagancangkeun sacara ajeg), nuduhkeun mobilitas anu luhur jeung sipat migrasi masarakatna. De Barros (1552) nyebutkeun yén Iskandar Shah méré ngaran ''Malaios'' (urang Malayu) kitu lantaran bapana diusir ti nagarana. Albuquerque nerangkeun yén Parameswara ngungsi (''malayo'') ti karajaan Palembang ka Malaka.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== Salaku ngaran étnis (etnonim) ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420
| image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg
| alt1 = Urang Malayu Malaka
| caption1 = Cat cai Portugis urang Malaya di Malaka, kira-kira taun 1540, dipidangkeun dina Códice Casanatense.
| image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg
| alt2 = Pasangan Malayu
| caption2 = Ilustrasi pasangan Malayu, ti ''Reise nach Batavia'', antara taun 1669 jeung 1682
| image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg
| alt3 = Tari Joget
| caption3 = Tari Joget ti Kasultanan Malaka; seueur aspék budaya Malayu anu asalna ti karaton Malaka
}}

Kecap &quot;Melayu&quot; salaku étnonim, pikeun nuduhkeun gugusan étnologis anu béda pisan, dianggap geus jadi populer sapanjang integrasi Kasultanan Malaka salaku kakuatan régional dina abad ka-15. Ieu diterapkeun pikeun ngalaporkeun keberpihakan sosial urang Malaka dibandingkeun sareng urang asing di daérah anu sami, khususna [[urang Jawa]] sareng Thai.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} Ieu dibuktikeun tina daptar kecap Malayu awal abad ka-16 ku Antonio Pigafetta (anu milu dina pelayaran Magellan), anu ngarujuk kana panggunaan frasa ''chiara Malaiu'' ('cara Malayu') di maritim Asia Tenggara pikeun nuduhkeun ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[basa Italia]] pikeun &quot;nyarioskeun Malaka&quot;).{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Numutkeun sejarawan Anthony Milner, sastra Malayu klasik sering ngagambarkeun urang Malayu dina harti anu langkung heureut tibatan interpretasi modéren; ngarujuk kana téks-téks ieu salaku bukti pandangan ieu:&lt;ref name=&quot;Milner2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony  |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=2008 |isbn=9781444305098  |doi=10.1002/9781444305098}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|91–92}}

* ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', anu utamina ditulis dina abad ka-17, ngan ukur ngaidéntifikasi urang Malayu salaku subjék Kasultanan Malaka.&lt;ref&gt;See also {{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hikayat Patani'', anu dikarang ti taun 1690–1730, ngagunakeun istilah ieu sacara éksklusif pikeun Johor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Francis R. |date=Juni 2009 |title=Moral order in a time of damnation: The ''Hikayat Patani'' in historical context |doi=10.1017/S0022463409000150 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=40 |issue=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porath |first=Nathan |date= |title=The ''Hikayat Patani'': The Kingdom of Patani in the Malay and Thai Political World |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=84 |issue=2 (301) |page=54 |doi=10.1353/ras.2011.0016}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (katelah ogé Sejarah Kedah), anu ditulis dina ahir abad ka-18 atanapi awal abad ka-19, henteu nganggo kecap &quot;Malayu&quot; pikeun ngaranan urang [[Kedah]].
* ''Hikayat Aceh'', anu diperkirakeun ditulis antara taun 1636 sareng 1700, sacara éksplisit ngaitkeun étnis Malayu sareng Johor, tapi henteu ngalakukeun hal anu sami nalika nujul ka [[Acéh]] atanapi Deli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iskandar1958&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Iskandar |first=Teuku |title=De Hikajat Atjeh |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location='s-Gravenhage |date=1958 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260803204800/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-date=2026-08-03 |doi=10.26530/OAPEN_613413 |accessdate=2026-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|2–4}}&lt;ref&gt;See also {{cite journal |last=Braginsky |first=Vladimir |date=2008 |title=Structure, date and sources of Hikayat Aceh revisited: The problem of Mughal-Malay literary ties |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=441–467 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003662}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nanging, Milner nyatet, karya-karya ieu parantos ngalaman seueur éditan salami waktos ku rupa-rupa penyalin, anu panginten kalebet bubuka atanapi paningkatan konsép idéntitas &quot;Malayu&quot;; hiji salinan Sejarah Malayu, contona, nampilkeun pupuhu di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]] anu nujul kana &quot;turunan kuring&quot;, sedengkeun salinan anu langkung énggal maca &quot;rakyat Malayu&quot;.{{sfn|Milner2008|p=90–91}}

== Budaya ==
=== Basa ===
[[Gambar:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] ditulis dalam [[aksara Pallawa]]. Ti saprak taun 683, ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji artefak tulisan Malayu pangkolotna anu masih aya.]]
{{Main|Basa Malayu}}
{{See also|Abjad Jawi}}

[[Basa Malayu]] mangrupa salah sahiji basa anu pangpunjulna di dunya, utamana ti kulawarga basa Austronesia. Varian sareng dialek basa Melayu dianggo salaku basa resmi di [[Brunéi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Singapura]]. Basa ieu ogé dianggo di [[Thailand]] kidul, [[Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling)|Kapuloan Cocos]], [[Pulo Natal]], [[Sri Langka]]. Basa ieu diucapkeun sacara asli ku sakitar 33 juta jalma di sakuliah Kapuloan Malayu sareng dianggo salaku basa kadua ku sakitar 220 juta.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

Wangun basa Malayu pangkolotna asalna tina basa Proto-Malayu-Polinésia anu diucapkeun ku padumuk Austronésia pangkolotna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Wangun ieu engkéna mekar jadi basa Melayu Kuna nalika budaya jeung agama India mimiti nembus wewengkon éta. Basa Malayu Kuna ngandung sababaraha istilah anu masih aya nepi ka ayeuna, tapi tetep teu kaharti ku panyatur modéren, sedengkeun basa modéren ieu geus loba dipikawanoh dina basa Malayu Klasik tinulis, anu wangun pangkolotna asalna ti taun 1303 Masehi.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Basa Malayu mekar jadi basa Malayu Klasik ngaliwatan asupna rupa-rupa kosakecap [[basa Arab|Arab]] jeung [[basa Pérsi|Pérsi]] sacara laun-laun nalika Islam asup ka wilayah éta, sarta dina prosésna robah sacara signifikan. Mimitina, basa Malayu Klasik mangrupa sakumpulan dialek anu rupa-rupa, anu ngagambarkeun asal-usul karajaan Malayu di Asia Tenggara anu rupa-rupa. Salah sahiji dialek ieu, anu dimekarkeun dina tradisi sastra Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15, antukna janten dominan.

Jaman Malaka ditandaan ku robahna basa Melayu jadi basa Islam, sarupa jeung basa Arab, Persia, Urdu, jeung [[basa Swahili|Swahili]]. [[Aksara Arab]] anu diadaptasi anu disebut [[abjad Jawi|Jawi]] dianggo pikeun ngagantikeun aksara Kawi, terminologi agama sareng budaya Islam diasimilasi sacara lega, miceun seueur kecap Hindu-Buda, sareng basa Malayu janten basa pangajaran sareng panyebaran Islam di sakumna wilayah Asia Tenggara. Dina puncak kakawasaan Malaka dina abad ka-15, basa Melayu Klasik nyebar ka saluareun dunya&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}&lt;/ref&gt; panyatur basa Malayu tradisional sareng ngahasilkeun ''lingua franca'' anu disebut ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' (&quot;Bazaar Malayu&quot;) atanapi ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' (&quot;Malayu Handap&quot;), sabalikna tina ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' (&quot;Malayu Luhur&quot;) Malaka.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} Sacara umum dipercaya yén basa Malayu Bazaar mangrupikeun basa pidgin sareng kamekaran anu paling penting nyaéta basa pidgin dikréolisasi, nyiptakeun sababaraha basa énggal sapertos basa Malayu Ambon, Malayu Manado sareng [[basa Batawi]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

Pangarang [[Éropa]] dina abad ka-17 sareng ka-18, sapertos Tavernier, Thomassin sareng Werndly ngagambarkeun basa Melayu salaku &quot;''basa anu dipimilik ku jalma-jalma terpelajar di sakumna Hindia, sapertos [[basa Latén]] di Éropa''&quot;.{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} Ieu ogé anu paling seueur dianggo nalika jaman kolonial Inggris sareng Walanda di Kapuloan Malayu.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} Anu sabalikna katingali di Hindia Wétan Spanyol, dimana latinisasi massal di kapuloan ieu salami mangsa kolonial nyababkeun kudeta sajarah basa Malayu di Filipina.

Dialek Kasultanan Johor, panerus langsung Malaka, janten basa standar di kalangan urang Malayu di [[Singapura]] sareng [[Malaysia]], sareng éta ngawangun dasar asli pikeun [[basa Indonésia]] anu distandardisasi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Salian ti basa Malayu standar, anu dimekarkeun di lingkungan Malaka-Johor, aya ogé rupa-rupa dialek Malayu lokal. Contona, urang Bangka, urang Brunéi, urang Jambi, urang Kelantan, urang Kedah, urang Negeri Sembilan, urang Palémbang, urang Pattani, urang Sarawak, urang Terengganu, jeung réa-réa deui.

Basa Malayu sacara historis ditulis nganggo [[aksara Pallawa]], [[aksara Kawi|Kawi]] sareng Rencong. Saatos datangna Islam, [[abjad Jawi|aksara Jawi]] anu dumasar kana [[basa Arab]] diadopsi sareng masih dianggo dugi ka ayeuna salaku salah sahiji tina dua aksara resmi di Brunéi sareng salaku aksara alternatif di Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-date=29 Oktober 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dimimitian ti abad ka-17, salaku hasil tina penjajahan Inggris sareng Walanda, Jawi laun-laun diganti ku aksara Rumi&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=26 Juni 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; anu dumasar kana Latin anu antukna janten aksara resmi modéren pikeun basa Malayu di [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Indonésia]], sareng aksara resmi di [[Brunéi]].

=== Arsitéktur ===
{{See also|Imah Malayu}}
[[Gambar:Rumah kedah.gif|thumb|350px|Imah tradisional Malayu di [[Kedah]], dihias ku panel ukiran khas Semenanjung Malaya kalér.]]

[[Imah Malayu]] nujul kana tempat tinggal vernakular urang Malayu, hiji kelompok étno-linguistik anu cicing di [[Sumatra]], basisir [[Kalimantan]], sareng Semenanjung Malaya.

Wangun arsitéktur tradisional, sapertos hateup anu cocog sareng tropis sareng proporsi anu harmonis kalayan unsur hiasan dianggap masih gaduh nilai budaya anu ageung ku seueur jalmi di daérah éta. Nanging, wangunan-wangunan ieu meryogikeun pangropéa anu signifikan dibandingkeun sareng konstruksi modéren; sapertos tantangan dina ngalestarikeun bahan utama na, kai, tina pangaruh buruk cuaca tropis ogé serangan rayap. Kamampuh ngawangun vernakular ieu laun-laun leungit di [[Malaysia]] sabab kai alami beuki langka alatan deforestasi sajaba ti industrialisasi,&lt;ref name=H&gt;{{cite news |date=16 Méi 2026 |page=B7|newspaper=The Straits Times|department=Letter From... |title=Guest houses, film sets: Traditional Malay houses in demand with new lease of life|author=Hadi Azmi }}&lt;/ref&gt; sedengkeun di [[Indonésia]] tempat tinggal tradisional sapertos kitu masih kénéh aya di daérah padésaan. Sanaos transformasi urban di [[Singapura]] parantos ngaleungitkeun ampir sadaya lingkungan urban Malayu, sababaraha bumi anu nampilkeun arsitéktur vernakular ieu masih salamet, utamina dipusatkeun di pulo lepas pantai Pulau Ubin.{{Citation needed|date=Désémber 2022}}

Usaha pikeun ngalestarikeun gaya arsitéktur asli kapuloan Indonésia parantos dilaksanakeun ngalangkungan dokumentasi sareng réplika kreasi di paviliun [[daptar propinsi di Indonésia|propinsi]] di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]. Nu boga imah tradisional Malaysia anu masih kénéh aya ogé nyéwakeun imah-imah éta ka studio produksi salaku lokasi syuting pilem sareng iklan, sareng homestay, salaku sumber panghasilan tambahan.&lt;ref name=H/&gt;

=== Agama ===
[[Gambar:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|Masjid Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien di [[Brunéi]] dina wengi Ramadhan. Karajaan anu beunghar ieu nganut Melayu Islam Beraja (''Monarki Islam Malayu'') salaku filsafat nasional saprak kamerdékaanana dina taun 1984.]]

Masarakat Malayu mimiti seuseueurna [[animisme|animis]], percaya kana ayana ''semangat'' (roh) dina sagala hal.&lt;ref name=&quot;zaki1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kira-kira dina awal jaman umum, agama [[Hindu]] sareng [[agama Buddha|Budha]] diwanohkeun ku para padagang Asia Kidul ka Kapuloan Melayu, dimana aranjeunna mekar dugi ka abad ka-13, sateuacan datangna Islam anu dibawa ku para padagang Muslim [[urang Arab|Arab]], Asia Kidul, sareng Cina.

Dina abad ka-15, Islam ti aliran [[Sunni]] ortodoks mekar di [[dunya Malayu]] dina kakawasaan Kasultanan Malaka. Beda sareng agama Hindu, anu sacara dangkal ngarobih masarakat Malayu awal, Islam tiasa disebatkeun parantos terintegrasi sapinuhna kana kahirupan sapopoe pendudukna.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ti saprak jaman ieu, urang Malayu dianggap salaku kelompok étnoreligius sareng sacara tradisional ngagaduhan idéntifikasi anu caket sareng [[Islam]]{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} sareng aranjeunna henteu ngarobih agama ti saprak harita.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot; /&gt; Identitas ieu kacida kuatna nepi ka disebut-sebut yén pikeun jadi Muslim nyaéta pikeun ''masuk Melayu'' (asup ka Malayu).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Sanajan kitu, kapercayaan-kapercayaan samemehna anu miboga akar anu leuwih jero, aranjeunna tetep ngalawan kutukan Islam – sareng memang mistisisme [[tasawuf]] parantos ngahiji di antara urang Malayu, sareng roh-roh dunya animisme samemehna sareng sababaraha unsur Hindu.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Saatos taun 1970-an, kebangkitan Islam (disebut ogé re-Islamisasi{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) di sakumna dunya Muslim, seueur tradisi anu dianggap bertentangan sareng ajaran Islam sareng ngandung unsur syirik ditinggalkeun ku [[urang Malayu Malaysia|urang Malayu di Malaysia]], sedengkeun di kalangan [[urang Malayu Indonésia|urang Malayu di Indonésia]], tradisi ieu henteu dianggap takhayul sareng ngandung unsur syirik. Di antara tradisi-tradisi ieu nyaéta festival ''mandi [[Safar]]'', festival mandi pikeun ngahontal kasucian spiritual, anu tiasa dititénan ciri-cirina anu sami sareng sababaraha tradisi dina Durga Puja di [[India]].{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

Seuseueurna étnis Malayu modéren anu ngagem Islam [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 Oktober 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; sareng festival Malayu anu paling penting nyaéta anu asalna Islam - ''[[Idulfitri|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Iduladha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Muharom|Awal Muharram]]'', sareng ''[[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]]''. Urang Malayu anu kaluar tina Islam di Malaysia sareng Brunéi dianggap murtad. Nanging, aya sajumlah étnis Malayu anu cicing di luar nagara-nagara ieu ogé parantos nganut agama sanés sacara sah dumasar kana hukum.

=== Festival sareng perayaan ===
[[Gambar:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Deretan Pelita (lampu minyak) anu hurung nalika ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (peuting ka-27 [[Ramadhan]]), lampu minyak ieu sacara tradisional dianggo pikeun nyaangan bumi sareng jalan-jalan nalika Ramadhan. Katingali didieu di Muar, Johor, [[Malaysia]].]]

Kamekaran [[Islam]] hasil ngarobah harti idéntitas Malayu dina abad ka-15. Ku kituna, kalolobaan festival sareng perayaan Malayu lumangsung sajajar sareng [[kalénder Islam]], sanaos parantos ngakar jero ku karakter Malayu anu kuat. Peringatan Hari Raya (hartina &quot;Poé Agung&quot;) dua kali sataun pikeun [[Aidilfitri]] sareng [[Aidiladha]] dipuji salaku perayaan agung sacara universal di sakumna masarakat Malayu. Dua poé libur ieu penting pisan pikeun méré komentar kana dua kajadian utama sarta filsafat dina ajaran jeung kapercayaan Islam. Anu kahiji nandakeun kameunangan salaku Muslim saatos sabulan [[puasa]]/[[saum]] sareng kasabaran dina bulan [[Ramadan]], sedengkeun anu kadua nyaéta pikeun ngalaksanakeun kurban anu dilakukeun ku [[Nabi Ibrahim|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) kalayan nyebat asma [[Allah]].

Liburan ''Raya'' biasana dimimitian nalika acara mudik anu dikenal salaku Balik Kampung atanapi ''Balik Raya'' anu lumangsung sababaraha dinten sateuacan festival. Salila Hari Raya, urang Malayu bakal ngarayakeun ku ngalaksanakeun solat Hari Raya, ngayakeun pésta ageung sareng nganjang ka réréncangan, baraya sareng tatangga. Ngajugjug ka makam jalmi-jalmi anu dipikacinta anu parantos pupus ogé penting, salaku tanda hormat, kanyaah, sareng kahormatan.

[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|Upacara penobatan antara Tengku Otteman, salaku ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Putera Mahkota) Kasultanan Deli, [[Hindia-Walanda]]; jeung pamajikanana, Raja Amnah, anggota Royalti Perak salaku ''Tengku Puan Indera'' dina 1925]]

Upacara liturgi sareng agama utama anu sanésna anu dirayakeun ku urang Malayu kalebet Ramadhan, bulan suci salami sabulan anu dikhususkeun pikeun puasa siang sareng rupa-rupa kagiatan agama; [[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]], prosesi ageung khusus pikeun ngahargaan kalahiran [[Muhammad]]; [[Asyura]], pangéling-ngéling [[Muharram]] dimana urang Malayu bakal nyiapkeun hidangan khusus, anu katelah ''Bubur Asyura''; [[Nisfu Saaban|Nisfu Syaaban]], perayaan [[Sya'ban|Nisfu Sya'ban]], dinten khusus [[puasa]] pikeun ngahampura; Nuzul Quran, wahyu anu munggaran tina [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]; [[Isra Mi'raj|Israk dan Mikraj]], naékna [[Muhammad]] ka langit sareng Awal Muharram, Taun Anyar Islam; tilu perayaan anu terakhir biasana dilaksanakeun ku ngayakeun solat ''sunat'' khusus, ceramah agama sareng diskusi Islam di [[masigit]].

Aya ogé seueur festival budaya régional domestik sareng acara sosial dina rupa-rupa lingkungan Malayu. Daérah basisir sacara historis katelah ngayakeun upacara ''Mandi Safar'' atanapi ''Puja Pantai'', nyaéta mandi suci salami bulan [[Safar]] [[kalénder Islam|Islam]], anu mimitina ditiru tina ritual beberesih suci Malayu kuno pra-Islam, mirip sareng tradisi Belimau sateuacan Ramadhan; sareng ''Pesta Menuai'', festival panén anu dirayakeun ku komunitas Malayu pedalaman sareng agraris ku kaulinan tradisional, téater, Joget sareng repertoar tari-tarian sanésna. Nanging, duanana prakték éta laun-laun punah kusabab rupa-rupa révolusi sosial sareng ékonomi anu direkayasa dina komunitas Malayu dina abad ka-20. Salian ti éta, seueur urang Malayu ogé katelah ilubiung dina perayaan kaisar pikeun ngahargaan ka karaton karajaan masing-masing.

Fitur-fitur Islam ogé ngahias perayaan Malayu sacara kuat dina tingkat individu, hiji panyandingan anu kabeungkeut kana ritual spiritual salaku Muslim. Urang Malayu biasana ngayakeun ''kenduri'', nyaéta pésta upacara agama pikeun ngarayakeun atawa ménta berkah pikeun hiji acara. Aya sababaraha variasi filosofis tina kenduri, sapertos ''Doa Selamat'' (nyuhunkeun sih kurnia sareng panyalindungan ilahi), ''Kesyukuran'' (pikeun ucapan syukur sareng rasa syukur), ''Melenggang Perut'' (pijet upacara pikeun ibu anu nuju hamil anak kahijina), ''Aqiqah'' sareng ''Cukur Jambul'' (upacara orok anu nembe lahir, pikeun ngarayakeun kahirupan anyar), ''Bertindik'' (upacara tindik munggaran pikeun murangkalih awéwé), ''Khatam'' (upacara wisuda, saatos maca [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] anu munggaran pikeun murangkalih), ''Khatan'' (sunat), ''Kahwin'' ([[upacara adat nikahkeun|pernikahan]]), ''Arwah'' atanapi ''Tahlil'' (doa pikeun jalmi anu tos maot), sareng sababaraha di antarana. Acara ieu biasana diayakeun ku kulawarga sareng sacara tradisional dibantuan ku masarakat dina hiji acara sosial anu katelah ''Rewang'' atanapi ''Gotong-royong''. Salila upacara ieu, sakumna kulawarga bakal dibantuan ku tatangga sareng barayana, masrahkeun rupa-rupa tugas ti mimiti nyiapkeun tuangeun, manajemen tempat, perakitan logistik sareng kontrol téknis anu sanésna. Sanajan kitu, nuturkeun munculna urbanisme dina komunitas Malayu kontemporer, prakték ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' laun-laun digantikeun ku jasa katering anu disewa ku kulawarga.

=== Musik ===
{{See also|Musik Malayu}}
[[Musik Malayu]] nyaéta hiji genre musik tradisional anu asalna sarta dimekarkeun di basisir wétan [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta Semenanjung Malaya.&lt;ref&gt;Sahputra, T. W. H., Martarosa, &amp; Warhat, Z. (2019). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/408383-musik-jazz-melayu-dalam-kajian-kreativit-7b989836.pdf Musik jazz Melayu dalam kajian kreativitas]''. ''Melayu Arts and Performance Journal'', 2(2), 191–200. &lt;/ref&gt; Musik ieu biasana dinyanyikeun ku jalma-jalma ti kelompok étnis Malayu sareng sering dipirig ku tarian has lokal Melayu, contona nawiskeun tarian dina acara atanapi pésta tradisional, ngabagéakeun tamu kahormatan, sareng dina kagiatan agama.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Purba|first=Junaidi|last2=Putri|first2=Sabrina Maulidia|last3=Nelson|first3=Ricky|last4=Silaban|first4=Cahyani Yesika br|last5=Ridho|first5=Muhammad Habibur|last6=Andika|first6=Riki|last7=Sitorus|first7=Christina Harianti|last8=Sa|first8=Maulidha|last9=Dardanila|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/TRANSFORMATION_OF_TRADITIONAL_ARTS_RESPO/mtaeEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL ARTS: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE TIMES|publisher=Mawadra Lestari Enterprise|isbn=978-629-95611-1-8|pages=62|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Asbullah|first=Habib|last2=Rizkia|first2=Ayu|last3=Batrisya|last4=Julianto|first4=Deldi|last5=Pangestu|first5=Dimas|last6=Rania|first6=Dinda Safira|last7=Miranti|first7=Dwi|last8=Afrillia|first8=Ega|last9=Irianto|first9=Ega Deni|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengabadikan_Riau_Buku_I/WXsgEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=Mengabadikan Riau: Buku I: Antologi Esai Kebudayaan|publisher=Penerbit Pustaka Rumah C1nta|isbn=978-623-7961-67-3|pages=95|language=id|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anu pikaresepeun tina genre musik ieu nyaéta dina komposisina anu diwangun ku lirik lagu anu ngandung puisi anu disaluyukeun sareng kahirupan sapopoe, cinta (sapertos Dondang Sayang) sareng pinuh ku ajaran (pesen moral), dieusi ku sora atanapi vokal cengkok has Malayu, sareng aransemen musik anu disusun rapih.

Bareng jeung kamekaran jaman, musik Malayu geus ngalaman parobahan dina gaya musikna, contona, geus ngalaman fusi jeung [[musik pop]], [[musik rock]], jeung [[dangdut]]. Aliran ieu tiasa dipendakan di nagara-nagara anu aya patalina sareng Malayu, sapertos [[Indonésia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Brunéi]].

Dina awal kamekaranana, alat musik anu dianggo didominasi ku aksi [[rebana]] anu disebut Kompang ti [[Kabupatén Ponorogo|Ponorogo]], petik gambus, gesek [[biola]], jepit akordeon, paripolah [[goong]], sareng niup sarunai. Ieu dipangaruhan ku budaya tanah [[urang Arab|Arab]] sareng [[Éropa]] tradisional. Bareng jeung kamekaran téknologi, kabéh ieu geus diganti ku alat musik éléktronik dina wangun kibor. Nanging, dina kagiatan-kagiatan tertentu alat musik tradisional masih dianggo pikeun ngalestarikeun warisan budaya.

Dina kamajuanana, gerakan ieu populér dina taun 80-an sareng bahkan lebet kana era &quot;puncak kajayaan&quot; dina taun 90-an. Ieu ditandaan ku ningkatna jumlah penyanyi sareng [[grup musik|band]] Malayu, sareng pendatang anyar anu muncul kalayan lagu-lagu khasna nyalira.

=== Pakéan tradisional ===
[[Gambar:Busana Melayu.jpg|thumb|Lalaki Malayu dina ''busana Melayu'', gaya tradisional pakéan Malayu]]

Pakéan jeung tékstil tradisional Malayu geus terus robah ti jaman baheula. Sacara historis, urang Malayu kuno dicatet ngagunakeun rupa-rupa bahan alami salaku sumber penting pikeun lawon, pakean, sareng acuk. Nanging, dina jaman umumna, nalika nyaksian datangna para padagang mimiti ti wétan sareng kulon ka palabuhan-palabuhan di Kapuloan Malayu, aranjeunna babarengan mésér barang-barang méwah anyar, kalebet katun sareng sutra anu saé. Pakéan-pakéan éta salajengna janten sumber mode Malayu anu luhur sareng ngagaduhan peran budaya salaku idéntitas anu ngiket di Nusantara, khususna di semenanjung, Sumatra sareng daérah basisir Kalimantan.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Dina budaya Malayu, pakean sareng tékstil dihormat salaku simbol kaéndahan, kakawasaan sareng status. Seueur catetan dina hikayat Malayu anu nekenkeun tempat khusus anu ditempatan ku tékstil.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} Industri tenun tangan Malayu bisa dilacak asal-usulna ti abad ka-13 nalika jalur perdagangan wétan mekar dina jaman Dinasti Song. Sebutan ngeunaan tékstil buatan lokal ogé dominasi tenun di Semenanjung Malaya dilakukeun dina sababaraha carita Cina sareng [[urang Arab|Arab]].{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Di antara tékstil Malayu anu kasohor nyaéta [[Songkét]], [[Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' jeung ''Tekad''.

Pakéan Malayu klasik rupa-rupa di unggal daérah, tapi pakéan tradisional anu paling jero dina jaman kiwari nyaéta Baju Kurung (pikeun awéwé) sareng Baju Melayu (pikeun lalaki), anu duanana diaku salaku pakéan nasional pikeun [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Brunéi]], sareng ogé dianggo ku komunitas Malayu di [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Myanmar]] sareng [[Thailand]].

[[Gambar:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|left|Barudak Malayu maké baju adat nalika [[Idulfitri|Idul Fitri]]]]

Kecap ''Baju Kurung'', sacara literatur dihartikeun salaku &quot;ngabungkus awak&quot; anu nganggona disaluyukeun dumasar kana prinsip-prinsip Islam ngeunaan karendahan haté, kasopanan, sareng karendahan haté. Prakték ieu sajajar jeung doktrin agama Yahudi-Kristen, sabab memamerkeun [[orat|bagian awak anu intim]] dianggap dilarang dina Islam. Tafsiran éta teras diserep kana cara berpakaian sareng sudut pandang budaya Malayu, ieu tiasa disaksian pisan dina pamaréntahan Mansur Shah ti Malaka dina abad ka-15, sultan ngalarang rahayat Muslim awéwéna di tempat umum ngan ukur nganggo [[sarung]] ti dada ka handap. Sapanjang jaman, Baju Kurung Malayu ngalaman sababaraha kali reinkarnasi sateuacan ngaku bentukna ayeuna. Alatan legana rupa-rupa karajaan Malayu di Nusantara, wangun lokal jeung béda tina pola desain Baju Kurung ogé bisa disaksian di wewengkon, kaasup [[Bengkulu]], Kedah, [[Jambi]], Johor-Riau, Pahang jeung [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]].{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Mode baju kurung anu cocog pikeun lalaki katelah &quot;Baju Melayu&quot;. Bagian luhur pakean ieu didamel kalayan desain géométri anu ampir sami sareng Baju Kurung sareng umumna dipasangkan sareng lawon tenun anu dikenal salaku sarung. Pola sarung bisa ngawengku simbol status perkawinan jalma éta atawa pangkatna dina masarakat tradisional Malayu.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Pakéan Malayu klasik umum lianna pikeun lalaki nyaéta ''baju'' (kaméja) atanapi ''tekua'' (sajenis baju lengan panjang), ''baju rompi'' (rompi), ''kancing'' (kancing), ''celana'' suku leutik (calana panjang), [[sarung]] anu dianggo di sabudeureun cangkéng, ''capal'' (sandal), sareng ''tanjak'' atanapi ''tengkolok'' (tutup sirah); pikeun bangsawan, ''baju sikap'' atanapi ''baju layang'' (sajenis jas) sareng ''pending'' (gesper sabuk hias) ogé sinonim pikeun dianggo salaku pakéan resmi. Ogé umum pikeun ''Pendekar'' (pahlawan Malayu) ngagaduhan keris anu diselapkeun kana lipatan hareup sarung.

Beda sareng Baju Melayu anu ngan ukur dianggo salaku pakean upacara, Baju Kurung dianggo unggal dinten sapanjang taun ku mayoritas awéwé Malayu. Katingali pagawé sipil awéwé, pagawé profésional, sareng mahasiswa nganggo Baju Kurung mangrupikeun hal anu umum di Malaysia sareng Brunéi.

=== Seni bela diri ===
[[Gambar:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|Saurang praktisi silat awéwé ti [[Singapura]]]]

Silat sareng varianna tiasa dipendakan di sakumna [[dunya Malayu]]: Semenanjung Malaya (kalebet [[Singapura]]), [[Kapuloan Riau]], [[Sumatra]] sareng daérah basisir [[Kalimantan]]. Bukti arkéologis ngungkabkeun yén, dina abad ka-6, seni tarung formal geus dipraktékkeun di Semenanjung Malaya sareng Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} Wangun Silat pangheubeulna dipercaya geus dimekarkeun sarta dipaké dina angkatan bersenjata karajaan Melayu kuno Langkasuka (abad ka-2){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] (abad ka-7).

Pangaruh kasultanan Malayu Malaka, Johor, Pattani sareng [[Brunéi]] parantos nyumbang kana panyebaran seni bela diri ieu di Kepulauan Melayu. Ngaliwatan labirin saluran laut sareng kapiler walungan anu rumit anu ngagampangkeun pertukaran sareng perdagangan di sakumna daérah, Silat ngaléngkah ka leuweung hujan anu padet teras naék ka pagunungan. Laksamana Hang Tuah ti Malaka anu legendaris nyaéta salah sahiji ''pesilat'' (praktisi Silat) anu paling kasohor dina sajarah{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} sareng bahkan dianggap ku sababaraha urang salaku bapak silat Malayu.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Ti saprak jaman klasik, Silat Melayu ngalaman diversifikasi anu ageung sareng ngawangun naon anu ayeuna sacara tradisional diakui salaku sumber [[Penca Silat|Pencak Silat]] Indonésia sareng bentuk Silat sanésna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]].{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Salian ti Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] ogé diamalkeun ku urang Malayu, utamina di daérah kalér Semenanjung Malaya. Ieu mangrupikeun varian tina bentuk kickboxing [[Indochina|Indo-Cina]] anu dipercaya parantos sumebar di [[daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] ti saprak jaman Kakaisaran Funan (68 Masehi).

=== Seni pintonan ===
[[Gambar:Joget Gamelan 1937.jpg|thumb|Pagelaran Joget Gamelan, 1937]]

Urang Malayu miboga rupa-rupa musik jeung tari anu mangrupa gabungan tina rupa-rupa pangaruh budaya. Genre hasna mimitian ti tarian rahayat tradisional Malayu sapertos Mak Yong dugi ka tarian Zapin anu dipangaruhan ku [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Gerakan koreografi ogé rupa-rupa, ti léngkah sareng lagu anu saderhana dina Dikir barat dugi ka gerakan anu rumit dina Joget Gamelan.

Musik tradisional Malayu dasarna nyaéta musik perkusi. Rupa-rupa [[goong|gong]] nyadiakeun ketukan pikeun seueur tarian. Aya ogé kendang kalayan rupa-rupa ukuran, mimitian ti ''rebana ubi'' ageung anu dianggo pikeun nandakeun kajadian penting dugi ka ''rebana leutik anu digesek'' ([[drum|drum pigura]]) anu dianggo salaku iringan pikeun bacaan vokal dina upacara agama.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Gambar:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert &amp; Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|left|Sakelompok penari Malayu Siam anu mintonkeun Mak Yong (kira-kira abad ka-19). Dina taun 2005, éta nampi pangakuan salaku salah sahiji karya agung warisan lisan sareng teu kasat mata umat manusa ku UNESCO.]]

Musik nobat janten bagian tina Royal Regalia di karaton Malayu saprak datangna Islam dina abad ka-12 sareng ngan ukur dipintonkeun dina upacara-upacara penting karaton. Orkestrana ngawengku instrumen suci sareng dihormat pisan sapertos ''nehara'' ([[kendang]]), ''gendang'' (kendang dua sirah), ''nafiri'' (trompet), ''serunai'' (oboe), sareng sakapeung [[goong]] kenop sareng sapasang simbal.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Pangaruh India kuat dina drama kalangkang tradisional anu katelah Wayang Kulit dimana carita-carita tina epik Hindu; [[Ramayana]] &amp; [[Mahabarata|Mahabharata]] ngawangun repertoar utama. Aya opat tipe has tina teater wayang kulit nu bisa kapanggih di Semenanjung Malaya; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' jeung ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Sanajan kitu, seni sareng carita ''Wayang Purwa'' sareng ''Wayang Siam'' nunjukkeun pangaruh régional anu ngahiji sareng [[urang Jawa]] sareng Siam, sedengkeun ''Wayang Melayu'' sareng ''Wayang Gedek'' nyaritakeun bentuk sareng busana Malayu anu langkung asli.

Seni pintonan Malayu anu kakoncara séjénna nyaéta; Teater ''Bangsawan'', ''Dondang Sayang'' balad jeung tarian ''Mak Inang'' ti Kasultanan Malaka, Teater ''Jikey'' jeung ''Mek Mulung'' ti [[Kedah]], Tari ''Asyik'' jeung Drama Tari ''Menora'' ti Patani jeung Kelantan, Tari ''Ulek mayang'' jeung ''Rodat'' ti Terengganu, Teater ''Boria'' ti Penang, Tari ''Canggung'' ti Perlis, Lagu naratif ''Mukun'' ti [[Brunéi]] jeung Sarawak,{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gending Sriwijaya]] ti [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' ti Serdang,&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;/&gt; Zapin Api tari seuneu ti [[Riau]] jeung Dikir barat Singapura ti [[Singapura]].

=== Seni visual ===
[[Gambar:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|Burung Petala Indra, manuk mitos raksasa anu dijieun pikeun parade sunat agung pangeran Kelantan.]]

Seni ukir kai mangrupa bagian tina [[seni rupa|seni visual]] Malayu klasik. Urang Malayu sacara tradisional ngahias monumen, parahu, pakarang, makam, alat musik, sareng parabotna ku motif flora, kaligrafi, géométri sareng fitur kosmik. Seni ieu dilakukeun ku cara miceun sabagian kai nganggo alat seukeut sareng nuturkeun pola, komposisi, sareng urutan anu khusus. Bentuk seni ieu, katelah ''ukir'', dipuji salaku tindakan bakti para pengrajin ka nu nyiptakeun sareng hadiah ka sasama manusa.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

Bentuk seni ieu utamina disababkeun ku lobana kai di Kapuloan Malayu sareng ogé ku kaparigelan para tukang ukir kai anu ngamungkinkeun urang Malayu pikeun latihan ukir kai salaku karajinan. Latar tropis alami dimana flora sareng fauna seueur pisan parantos ngainspirasi motif pikeun digambarkeun dina bentuk abstrak atanapi bergaya kana papan kai. Kalayan datangna Islam, bentuk géométri sareng kaligrafi Islam diwanohkeun dina ukiran kai. Kai anu dianggo biasana tina spésiés kai keras tropis anu dipikanyaho awét sareng tiasa tahan serangan jamur, kumbang boot listrik, sareng rayap.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

Imah tradisional Malayu atanapi [[masjid]] biasana dihias ku langkung ti 20 komponén ukiran. Ukiran dina témbok sareng panel ngamungkinkeun angin ngahiliwir sacara efektif ka jero sareng ka luar gedong sareng tiasa ngantepkeun sinar panonpoé nyaangan bagian jero struktur. Dina waktos anu sami, kalangkang anu ditimbulkeun ku panel-panel éta ogé bakal nyiptakeun kalangkang dumasar kana motif-motif anu nambahan kaéndahan dina lanté. Ku kituna, komponén anu diukir ngalaksanakeun tujuan fungsional sareng estetika.

==Kelompok sub-étnis==
{{Tingali ogé|Urang Malayu Indonésia|Urang Malayu Malaysia}}

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Dunya Malayu]]
* [[Imah Malayu]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
* {{ms}} [http://iyco0.tripod.com/usmanawang.html Puisi Usman Awang mengenai Melayu.] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{en}} [http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=29765 Melayu]
* {{id}} [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:lYcg2r-ziWYJ:ccm.um.edu.my/umweb/fsss/images/persidangan/Kertas%2520Kerja/Pak%2520Witrianto.doc+Rumpun+Banjar&amp;hl=id&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=139&amp;gl=id&amp;client=firefox-a Modal Sosial dan Pembangunan Manusia Melayu oleh Witrianto, S.S., M.Hum., M.Si dari Universitas Andalas] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{id}} [http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm Bhinneka Tunggal Ika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126030352/http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm |date=26 Januari 2010 }}
* {{id}} [http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aW1QL3FMZVZBUkU4Ng%3D%3D= Gerakan Bangsa Melayu Besar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408223826/http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aw1ql3fmzvzbuku4ng=== |date=8 April 2016 }}

[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia|Melayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia|Melayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura|Melayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia|Melayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia|Melayu]]

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[[File:Malay couple.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Salaki pamajikan saatos ngalaksanakeun upacara akad nikah (prosesi kawinan). Panganten lalaki nganggo baju Malayu anu dipasangkan sareng songkok sareng songket, sedengkeun panganten awéwé nganggo baju kurung sareng jilbab.]]

'''Urang Malayu''' ({{langx|ms|'''Orang Melayu'''}}; [[Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو}}) wirua grup étnis [[Austronesia]] utami nu nyicingan Semenanjung Melayu, kidul [[Thailand]], pantai kidul [[Burma]], pulo [[Singapura]], [[Bornéo]] gisik basisir kaasup [[Brunéi]], [[Kalimantan Kulon]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]], Sarawak jeung basisir [[Sabah]], [[Filipina]] kulon teur kidul, jeung palulo alit nu aya di antara lokasi-tempat ieu — sacara pas dikenal salaku &quot;Dunia Melayu&quot;. Lokasi ieu ayeuna wirua bagian naragara modern [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Brunéi]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Filipina]].

[[File:Malay tricolour.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bandéra Triwarna Melayu anu némbongkeun idéntitas urang Malayu]]

Aya karagaman basa, budaya, artistik, sareng sosial anu lumayan ageung di antara seueur subgrup Melayu, utamina kusabab ratusan taun imigrasi sareng asimilasi rupa-rupa étnis sareng suku régional di Asia Tenggara Maritim. Sacara historis, populasi Melayu utamina turunan ti suku Austronesia sareng Austroasia anu nganggo basa Melayu sateuacanna anu ngadegkeun sababaraha nagara sareng karajaan dagang maritim kuno, khususna [[Brunéi]], [[Kedah]], Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, [[Karajaan Malayu|Melayu]], sareng [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 &amp; 60}}

Kamekaran sareng ngadegna Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 nyababkeun révolusi ageung dina sajarah urang Melayu. Ieu kajadian kusabab kasultanan mawa parobahan anu signifikan pisan kana sistem budaya sareng kasultanan ngahontal kamulyaan dina periode éta.

Numutkeun catetan sajarah, urang Malayu geus dipikawanoh salaku komunitas dagang lintas cai anu mibanda ciri budaya anu dinamis.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 &amp; 43}} Aranjeunna tiasa nyerep, ngabagi, sareng nyebarkeun seueur budaya unik ti kelompok étnis sanés, sapertos budaya Minang sareng Acéh.

Kadatangan Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 micu révolusi utama dina sajarah Melayu, anu pentingna aya dina warisan pulitik sareng budayana anu lega. Tanda-tanda umum anu pasti ngeunaan ka-Melayuan — agama Islam, basa sareng tradisi Malayu — dianggap parantos diproklamasikeun dina jaman ieu, anu ngarah kana étnogenesis urang Malayu salaku kelompok étnoreligius utama di daérah éta. Dina sastra, arsitéktur, tradisi kuliner, pakean tradisional, seni pertunjukan, seni bela diri sareng tradisi karaton, Malaka netepkeun standar anu ditiru ku kasultanan Melayu salajengna. Mangsa kajayaan kasultanan Melayu di Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatra Wétan, sareng basisir Kalimantan ningali seueur pendudukna, khususna ti sababaraha komunitas suku sapertos [[Batak]], Dayak, Urang Asli, sareng Urang Laut, tunduk kana Islamisasi sareng Invasi Melayu. Sapanjang sajarah, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; parantos diperpanjang ka kelompok étnis sanés dina &quot;[[Dunya Malayu]]&quot;; panggunaan ieu ayeuna seuseueurna diwatesan di Malaysia sareng Singapura, dimana turunan sanés tina kelompok étnis ieu disebut Anak Dagang (&quot;padagang&quot;) sareng seuseueurna asalna ti Indonésia sapertos urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]].

== Étimologi ==
[[Gambar:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|Kompleks Candi Muaro Jambi di [[Jambi]], sajarahna dihubungkeun sareng [[Karajaan Malayu]] pra-Islam. Urang Melayu-Sriwijaya katelah ngawangun sistem wangunan anu rumit di ibukotana, kota-kota utama, sareng pusat-pusat kota anu penting.]]
[[Gambar:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|Bukit Seguntang di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]. Numutkeun ''Sejarah Melayu'', éta pasir nyatet datangna Sang Sapurba, karuhun legendaris pikeun rupa-rupa kulawarga karajaan Malayu di Sumatra, Semenanjung Malaya, sareng Kalimantan.]]

Literatur epik ''Malay Annals'' ngahubungkeun asal usul étimologis &quot;Melayu&quot; ka walungan leutik anu dingaranan ''Sungai Melayu'' ('walungan Melayu') di [[Sumatra]], [[Indonésia]]. Epik éta salah nyebutkeun yén walungan éta ngalir ka Walungan Musi di Palembang, padahal kanyataanna ngalir ka Walungan Batang Hari di [[Jambi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=Oktober 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|298}} Istilah ieu dipercaya asalna tina kecap Melayu ''melaju'', kombinasi tina awalan verbal 'me' sareng akar kecap 'laju', anu hartosna &quot;ngagancangkeun&quot;, dianggo pikeun ngagambarkeun arus walungan anu gancang.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== Salaku ngaran tempat (toponim) ===
Sateuacan abad ka-15, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; sareng varian anu sami sigana dianggo salaku [[toponimi]] lami pikeun daérah Selat Malaka sacara umum.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}}
* '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', &quot;Malaya Dvipa&quot;, digambarkeun dina bab 48, Vayu Purana salaku salah sahiji propinsi di laut wétan anu pinuh ku emas sareng pérak. Sababaraha sarjana nyaruakeun istilah ieu sareng [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} tapi sababaraha sarjana India yakin istilah ieu kedah nujul ka Semenanjung Malaya anu pagunungan, sedengkeun Sumatra langkung pas dihubungkeun sareng Suvarnadvipa.{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}}
* '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – hiji lokasi di Golden Chersonese, tina karya Ptolemy, Geographia.{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}}
* '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – disebutkeun ku Yijing, saurang biarawan Buddha Cina ti Dinasti Tang anu nganjang ka Asia Tenggara dina taun 688–695. Nurutkeun Yijing, karajaan ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' ayana dina jarak 15 poé balayar ti Bogha (Palembang), ibukota Sribhoga ([[karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]]). Butuh waktu 15 poé balayar pikeun nepi ka Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) ti Mo-lo-yu; ku kituna, bisa disebutkeun yén Mo-Lo-Yu bakal aya di tengah-tengah antara dua tempat éta.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} Hiji téori populér ngahubungkeun ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' sareng Jambi di Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} nanging lokasi geografis Jambi bertentangan sareng katerangan Yi Jing ngeunaan &quot;satengah jalan pelayaran antara ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) sareng ''Bogha'' (Palembang)&quot;. Dina jaman Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368) sareng [[Dinasti Ming]] (1368–1644), kecap ''Ma-La-Yu'' sering disebutkeun dina téks sajarah Cina – kalayan parobahan éjahan kusabab rentang waktu antara dinasti-dinasti éta – pikeun nujul ka hiji bangsa di deukeut laut kidul. Diantara istilah anu digunakeun nyaéta &quot;Bôk-lá-yù&quot;, &quot;Mók-là-yū&quot; (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — disusud tina sumber tinulis biarawan Xuanzang) sareng Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
* '''''Malaiyur''''' – disebutkeun dina prasasti Tanjore. Karajaan ieu digambarkeun salaku karajaan anu gaduh &quot;gunung anu kuat pikeun bentengna&quot; anu murag ka penjajah Chola nalika kampanye Rajendra Chola I dina abad ka-11. Bisa jadi ayana di Sumatra, antara Pannai jeung Sriwijaya ([[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|77–78, 170}} meureun di situs arkéologis Muaro Jambi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|405}}
* '''''Malai''''' – disebutkeun ku ahli géografi Arab abad ka-12 [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] dina Tabula Rogeriana, éta ngagambarkeun semenanjung Malaya salaku pulo anu panjang sareng nyebatna Malai, wawatesan sareng Qmer (Khmer) sareng 12 dinten balayar ti Sanf (Champa).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508045322/https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ |date=2025-05-08 }}. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gerini, G. E., &amp; Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&amp;vq=malai&amp;pg=PA535#v=onepage&amp;q=malai&amp;f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;Tanah Malayu&quot;), transkripsi tina Prasasti Padang Roco tanggal 1286 CE ku Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} Istilah ieu aya patalina jeung karajaan [[Dharmasraya]].
* '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – disebutkeun dina babad Dinasti Yuan, nujul kana hiji bangsa di Semenanjung Malaya anu nyanghareupan ékspansi Karajaan Sukhothai ka kidul, nalika pamaréntahan Ram Khamhaeng.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=24 Maret 2026 |archive-date=27 Agustus 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kronik éta nyatakeun: &quot;''..Permusuhan lumangsung antara Siam sareng Ma-li-yu-er sareng duanana silih paéhan ...''&quot;. Pikeun ngaréspon tindakan Sukhothai, saurang utusan Cina angkat ka karaton Ram Khamhaeng dina taun 1295 mawa paréntah kaisar: &quot;Tepati jangji anjeun sareng ulah ngalakukeun kajahatan ka Ma-li-yu-er&quot;.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}}
* '''''Malauir''''' – disebutkeun dina catetan [[Marco Polo]] salaku karajaan anu aya di Semenanjung Malaya,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} kamungkinan sami sareng anu disebutkeun dina babad Yuan.
* '''''Malayapura''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;kota Malaya&quot; atanapi &quot;bénténg Malaya&quot;), anu diukir dina prasasti Amoghapasa anu tanggalna taun 1347 Masehi. Istilah éta dianggo ku Adityawarman pikeun nyebut [[Dharmasraya]].

Saran séjénna kaasup kecap [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] ''mlayu'' (salaku kecap pagawéan: lumpat, partisip: buronan), atawa istilah Melayu ''melaju'' (ngagancangkeun sacara ajeg), nuduhkeun mobilitas anu luhur jeung sipat migrasi masarakatna. De Barros (1552) nyebutkeun yén Iskandar Shah méré ngaran ''Malaios'' (urang Malayu) kitu lantaran bapana diusir ti nagarana. Albuquerque nerangkeun yén Parameswara ngungsi (''malayo'') ti karajaan Palembang ka Malaka.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== Salaku ngaran étnis (etnonim) ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420
| image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg
| alt1 = Urang Malayu Malaka
| caption1 = Cat cai Portugis urang Malaya di Malaka, kira-kira taun 1540, dipidangkeun dina Códice Casanatense.
| image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg
| alt2 = Pasangan Malayu
| caption2 = Ilustrasi pasangan Malayu, ti ''Reise nach Batavia'', antara taun 1669 jeung 1682
| image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg
| alt3 = Tari Joget
| caption3 = Tari Joget ti Kasultanan Malaka; seueur aspék budaya Malayu anu asalna ti karaton Malaka
}}

Kecap &quot;Melayu&quot; salaku étnonim, pikeun nuduhkeun gugusan étnologis anu béda pisan, dianggap geus jadi populer sapanjang integrasi Kasultanan Malaka salaku kakuatan régional dina abad ka-15. Ieu diterapkeun pikeun ngalaporkeun keberpihakan sosial urang Malaka dibandingkeun sareng urang asing di daérah anu sami, khususna [[urang Jawa]] sareng Thai.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} Ieu dibuktikeun tina daptar kecap Malayu awal abad ka-16 ku Antonio Pigafetta (anu milu dina pelayaran Magellan), anu ngarujuk kana panggunaan frasa ''chiara Malaiu'' ('cara Malayu') di maritim Asia Tenggara pikeun nuduhkeun ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[basa Italia]] pikeun &quot;nyarioskeun Malaka&quot;).{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Numutkeun sejarawan Anthony Milner, sastra Malayu klasik sering ngagambarkeun urang Malayu dina harti anu langkung heureut tibatan interpretasi modéren; ngarujuk kana téks-téks ieu salaku bukti pandangan ieu:&lt;ref name=&quot;Milner2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony  |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=2008 |isbn=9781444305098  |doi=10.1002/9781444305098}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|91–92}}

* ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', anu utamina ditulis dina abad ka-17, ngan ukur ngaidéntifikasi urang Malayu salaku subjék Kasultanan Malaka.&lt;ref&gt;See also {{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hikayat Patani'', anu dikarang ti taun 1690–1730, ngagunakeun istilah ieu sacara éksklusif pikeun Johor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Francis R. |date=Juni 2009 |title=Moral order in a time of damnation: The ''Hikayat Patani'' in historical context |doi=10.1017/S0022463409000150 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=40 |issue=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porath |first=Nathan |date= |title=The ''Hikayat Patani'': The Kingdom of Patani in the Malay and Thai Political World |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=84 |issue=2 (301) |page=54 |doi=10.1353/ras.2011.0016}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (katelah ogé Sejarah Kedah), anu ditulis dina ahir abad ka-18 atanapi awal abad ka-19, henteu nganggo kecap &quot;Malayu&quot; pikeun ngaranan urang [[Kedah]].
* ''Hikayat Aceh'', anu diperkirakeun ditulis antara taun 1636 sareng 1700, sacara éksplisit ngaitkeun étnis Malayu sareng Johor, tapi henteu ngalakukeun hal anu sami nalika nujul ka [[Acéh]] atanapi Deli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iskandar1958&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Iskandar |first=Teuku |title=De Hikajat Atjeh |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location='s-Gravenhage |date=1958 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260803204800/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-date=2026-08-03 |doi=10.26530/OAPEN_613413 |accessdate=2026-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|2–4}}&lt;ref&gt;See also {{cite journal |last=Braginsky |first=Vladimir |date=2008 |title=Structure, date and sources of Hikayat Aceh revisited: The problem of Mughal-Malay literary ties |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=441–467 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003662}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nanging, Milner nyatet, karya-karya ieu parantos ngalaman seueur éditan salami waktos ku rupa-rupa penyalin, anu panginten kalebet bubuka atanapi paningkatan konsép idéntitas &quot;Malayu&quot;; hiji salinan Sejarah Malayu, contona, nampilkeun pupuhu di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]] anu nujul kana &quot;turunan kuring&quot;, sedengkeun salinan anu langkung énggal maca &quot;rakyat Malayu&quot;.{{sfn|Milner2008|p=90–91}}

== Budaya ==
=== Basa ===
[[Gambar:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] ditulis dalam [[aksara Pallawa]]. Ti saprak taun 683, ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji artefak tulisan Malayu pangkolotna anu masih aya.]]
{{Main|Basa Malayu}}
{{See also|Abjad Jawi}}

[[Basa Malayu]] mangrupa salah sahiji basa anu pangpunjulna di dunya, utamana ti kulawarga basa Austronesia. Varian sareng dialek basa Melayu dianggo salaku basa resmi di [[Brunéi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Singapura]]. Basa ieu ogé dianggo di [[Thailand]] kidul, [[Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling)|Kapuloan Cocos]], [[Pulo Natal]], [[Sri Langka]]. Basa ieu diucapkeun sacara asli ku sakitar 33 juta jalma di sakuliah Kapuloan Malayu sareng dianggo salaku basa kadua ku sakitar 220 juta.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

Wangun basa Malayu pangkolotna asalna tina basa Proto-Malayu-Polinésia anu diucapkeun ku padumuk Austronésia pangkolotna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Wangun ieu engkéna mekar jadi basa Melayu Kuna nalika budaya jeung agama India mimiti nembus wewengkon éta. Basa Malayu Kuna ngandung sababaraha istilah anu masih aya nepi ka ayeuna, tapi tetep teu kaharti ku panyatur modéren, sedengkeun basa modéren ieu geus loba dipikawanoh dina basa Malayu Klasik tinulis, anu wangun pangkolotna asalna ti taun 1303 Masehi.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Basa Malayu mekar jadi basa Malayu Klasik ngaliwatan asupna rupa-rupa kosakecap [[basa Arab|Arab]] jeung [[basa Pérsi|Pérsi]] sacara laun-laun nalika Islam asup ka wilayah éta, sarta dina prosésna robah sacara signifikan. Mimitina, basa Malayu Klasik mangrupa sakumpulan dialek anu rupa-rupa, anu ngagambarkeun asal-usul karajaan Malayu di Asia Tenggara anu rupa-rupa. Salah sahiji dialek ieu, anu dimekarkeun dina tradisi sastra Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15, antukna janten dominan.

Jaman Malaka ditandaan ku robahna basa Melayu jadi basa Islam, sarupa jeung basa Arab, Persia, Urdu, jeung [[basa Swahili|Swahili]]. [[Aksara Arab]] anu diadaptasi anu disebut [[abjad Jawi|Jawi]] dianggo pikeun ngagantikeun aksara Kawi, terminologi agama sareng budaya Islam diasimilasi sacara lega, miceun seueur kecap Hindu-Buda, sareng basa Malayu janten basa pangajaran sareng panyebaran Islam di sakumna wilayah Asia Tenggara. Dina puncak kakawasaan Malaka dina abad ka-15, basa Melayu Klasik nyebar ka saluareun dunya&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}&lt;/ref&gt; panyatur basa Malayu tradisional sareng ngahasilkeun ''lingua franca'' anu disebut ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' (&quot;Bazaar Malayu&quot;) atanapi ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' (&quot;Malayu Handap&quot;), sabalikna tina ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' (&quot;Malayu Luhur&quot;) Malaka.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} Sacara umum dipercaya yén basa Malayu Bazaar mangrupikeun basa pidgin sareng kamekaran anu paling penting nyaéta basa pidgin dikréolisasi, nyiptakeun sababaraha basa énggal sapertos basa Malayu Ambon, Malayu Manado sareng [[basa Batawi]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

Pangarang [[Éropa]] dina abad ka-17 sareng ka-18, sapertos Tavernier, Thomassin sareng Werndly ngagambarkeun basa Melayu salaku &quot;''basa anu dipimilik ku jalma-jalma terpelajar di sakumna Hindia, sapertos [[basa Latén]] di Éropa''&quot;.{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} Ieu ogé anu paling seueur dianggo nalika jaman kolonial Inggris sareng Walanda di Kapuloan Malayu.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} Anu sabalikna katingali di Hindia Wétan Spanyol, dimana latinisasi massal di kapuloan ieu salami mangsa kolonial nyababkeun kudeta sajarah basa Malayu di Filipina.

Dialek Kasultanan Johor, panerus langsung Malaka, janten basa standar di kalangan urang Malayu di [[Singapura]] sareng [[Malaysia]], sareng éta ngawangun dasar asli pikeun [[basa Indonésia]] anu distandardisasi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Salian ti basa Malayu standar, anu dimekarkeun di lingkungan Malaka-Johor, aya ogé rupa-rupa dialek Malayu lokal. Contona, urang Bangka, urang Brunéi, urang Jambi, urang Kelantan, urang Kedah, urang Negeri Sembilan, urang Palémbang, urang Pattani, urang Sarawak, urang Terengganu, jeung réa-réa deui.

Basa Malayu sacara historis ditulis nganggo [[aksara Pallawa]], [[aksara Kawi|Kawi]] sareng Rencong. Saatos datangna Islam, [[abjad Jawi|aksara Jawi]] anu dumasar kana [[basa Arab]] diadopsi sareng masih dianggo dugi ka ayeuna salaku salah sahiji tina dua aksara resmi di Brunéi sareng salaku aksara alternatif di Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-date=29 Oktober 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dimimitian ti abad ka-17, salaku hasil tina penjajahan Inggris sareng Walanda, Jawi laun-laun diganti ku aksara Rumi&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=26 Juni 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; anu dumasar kana Latin anu antukna janten aksara resmi modéren pikeun basa Malayu di [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Indonésia]], sareng aksara resmi di [[Brunéi]].

=== Arsitéktur ===
{{See also|Imah Malayu}}
[[Gambar:Rumah kedah.gif|thumb|350px|Imah tradisional Malayu di [[Kedah]], dihias ku panel ukiran khas Semenanjung Malaya kalér.]]

[[Imah Malayu]] nujul kana tempat tinggal vernakular urang Malayu, hiji kelompok étno-linguistik anu cicing di [[Sumatra]], basisir [[Kalimantan]], sareng Semenanjung Malaya.

Wangun arsitéktur tradisional, sapertos hateup anu cocog sareng tropis sareng proporsi anu harmonis kalayan unsur hiasan dianggap masih gaduh nilai budaya anu ageung ku seueur jalmi di daérah éta. Nanging, wangunan-wangunan ieu meryogikeun pangropéa anu signifikan dibandingkeun sareng konstruksi modéren; sapertos tantangan dina ngalestarikeun bahan utama na, kai, tina pangaruh buruk cuaca tropis ogé serangan rayap. Kamampuh ngawangun vernakular ieu laun-laun leungit di [[Malaysia]] sabab kai alami beuki langka alatan deforestasi sajaba ti industrialisasi,&lt;ref name=H&gt;{{cite news |date=16 Méi 2026 |page=B7|newspaper=The Straits Times|department=Letter From... |title=Guest houses, film sets: Traditional Malay houses in demand with new lease of life|author=Hadi Azmi }}&lt;/ref&gt; sedengkeun di [[Indonésia]] tempat tinggal tradisional sapertos kitu masih kénéh aya di daérah padésaan. Sanaos transformasi urban di [[Singapura]] parantos ngaleungitkeun ampir sadaya lingkungan urban Malayu, sababaraha bumi anu nampilkeun arsitéktur vernakular ieu masih salamet, utamina dipusatkeun di pulo lepas pantai Pulau Ubin.{{Citation needed|date=Désémber 2022}}

Usaha pikeun ngalestarikeun gaya arsitéktur asli kapuloan Indonésia parantos dilaksanakeun ngalangkungan dokumentasi sareng réplika kreasi di paviliun [[daptar propinsi di Indonésia|propinsi]] di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]. Nu boga imah tradisional Malaysia anu masih kénéh aya ogé nyéwakeun imah-imah éta ka studio produksi salaku lokasi syuting pilem sareng iklan, sareng homestay, salaku sumber panghasilan tambahan.&lt;ref name=H/&gt;

=== Agama ===
[[Gambar:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|Masjid Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien di [[Brunéi]] dina wengi Ramadhan. Karajaan anu beunghar ieu nganut Melayu Islam Beraja (''Monarki Islam Malayu'') salaku filsafat nasional saprak kamerdékaanana dina taun 1984.]]

Masarakat Malayu mimiti seuseueurna [[animisme|animis]], percaya kana ayana ''semangat'' (roh) dina sagala hal.&lt;ref name=&quot;zaki1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kira-kira dina awal jaman umum, agama [[Hindu]] sareng [[agama Buddha|Budha]] diwanohkeun ku para padagang Asia Kidul ka Kapuloan Melayu, dimana aranjeunna mekar dugi ka abad ka-13, sateuacan datangna Islam anu dibawa ku para padagang Muslim [[urang Arab|Arab]], Asia Kidul, sareng Cina.

Dina abad ka-15, Islam ti aliran [[Sunni]] ortodoks mekar di [[dunya Malayu]] dina kakawasaan Kasultanan Malaka. Beda sareng agama Hindu, anu sacara dangkal ngarobih masarakat Malayu awal, Islam tiasa disebatkeun parantos terintegrasi sapinuhna kana kahirupan sapopoe pendudukna.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ti saprak jaman ieu, urang Malayu dianggap salaku kelompok étnoreligius sareng sacara tradisional ngagaduhan idéntifikasi anu caket sareng [[Islam]]{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} sareng aranjeunna henteu ngarobih agama ti saprak harita.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot; /&gt; Identitas ieu kacida kuatna nepi ka disebut-sebut yén pikeun jadi Muslim nyaéta pikeun ''masuk Melayu'' (asup ka Malayu).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Sanajan kitu, kapercayaan-kapercayaan samemehna anu miboga akar anu leuwih jero, aranjeunna tetep ngalawan kutukan Islam – sareng memang mistisisme [[tasawuf]] parantos ngahiji di antara urang Malayu, sareng roh-roh dunya animisme samemehna sareng sababaraha unsur Hindu.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Saatos taun 1970-an, kebangkitan Islam (disebut ogé re-Islamisasi{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) di sakumna dunya Muslim, seueur tradisi anu dianggap bertentangan sareng ajaran Islam sareng ngandung unsur syirik ditinggalkeun ku [[urang Malayu Malaysia|urang Malayu di Malaysia]], sedengkeun di kalangan [[urang Malayu Indonésia|urang Malayu di Indonésia]], tradisi ieu henteu dianggap takhayul sareng ngandung unsur syirik. Di antara tradisi-tradisi ieu nyaéta festival ''mandi [[Safar]]'', festival mandi pikeun ngahontal kasucian spiritual, anu tiasa dititénan ciri-cirina anu sami sareng sababaraha tradisi dina Durga Puja di [[India]].{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

Seuseueurna étnis Malayu modéren anu ngagem Islam [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 Oktober 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; sareng festival Malayu anu paling penting nyaéta anu asalna Islam - ''[[Idulfitri|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Iduladha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Muharom|Awal Muharram]]'', sareng ''[[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]]''. Urang Malayu anu kaluar tina Islam di Malaysia sareng Brunéi dianggap murtad. Nanging, aya sajumlah étnis Malayu anu cicing di luar nagara-nagara ieu ogé parantos nganut agama sanés sacara sah dumasar kana hukum.

=== Festival sareng perayaan ===
[[Gambar:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Deretan Pelita (lampu minyak) anu hurung nalika ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (peuting ka-27 [[Ramadhan]]), lampu minyak ieu sacara tradisional dianggo pikeun nyaangan bumi sareng jalan-jalan nalika Ramadhan. Katingali didieu di Muar, Johor, [[Malaysia]].]]

Kamekaran [[Islam]] hasil ngarobah harti idéntitas Malayu dina abad ka-15. Ku kituna, kalolobaan festival sareng perayaan Malayu lumangsung sajajar sareng [[kalénder Islam]], sanaos parantos ngakar jero ku karakter Malayu anu kuat. Peringatan Hari Raya (hartina &quot;Poé Agung&quot;) dua kali sataun pikeun [[Aidilfitri]] sareng [[Aidiladha]] dipuji salaku perayaan agung sacara universal di sakumna masarakat Malayu. Dua poé libur ieu penting pisan pikeun méré komentar kana dua kajadian utama sarta filsafat dina ajaran jeung kapercayaan Islam. Anu kahiji nandakeun kameunangan salaku Muslim saatos sabulan [[puasa]]/[[saum]] sareng kasabaran dina bulan [[Ramadan]], sedengkeun anu kadua nyaéta pikeun ngalaksanakeun kurban anu dilakukeun ku [[Nabi Ibrahim|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) kalayan nyebat asma [[Allah]].

Liburan ''Raya'' biasana dimimitian nalika acara mudik anu dikenal salaku Balik Kampung atanapi ''Balik Raya'' anu lumangsung sababaraha dinten sateuacan festival. Salila Hari Raya, urang Malayu bakal ngarayakeun ku ngalaksanakeun solat Hari Raya, ngayakeun pésta ageung sareng nganjang ka réréncangan, baraya sareng tatangga. Ngajugjug ka makam jalmi-jalmi anu dipikacinta anu parantos pupus ogé penting, salaku tanda hormat, kanyaah, sareng kahormatan.

[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|Upacara penobatan antara Tengku Otteman, salaku ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Putera Mahkota) Kasultanan Deli, [[Hindia-Walanda]]; jeung pamajikanana, Raja Amnah, anggota Royalti Perak salaku ''Tengku Puan Indera'' dina 1925]]

Upacara liturgi sareng agama utama anu sanésna anu dirayakeun ku urang Malayu kalebet Ramadhan, bulan suci salami sabulan anu dikhususkeun pikeun puasa siang sareng rupa-rupa kagiatan agama; [[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]], prosesi ageung khusus pikeun ngahargaan kalahiran [[Muhammad]]; [[Asyura]], pangéling-ngéling [[Muharram]] dimana urang Malayu bakal nyiapkeun hidangan khusus, anu katelah ''Bubur Asyura''; [[Nisfu Saaban|Nisfu Syaaban]], perayaan [[Sya'ban|Nisfu Sya'ban]], dinten khusus [[puasa]] pikeun ngahampura; Nuzul Quran, wahyu anu munggaran tina [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]; [[Isra Mi'raj|Israk dan Mikraj]], naékna [[Muhammad]] ka langit sareng Awal Muharram, Taun Anyar Islam; tilu perayaan anu terakhir biasana dilaksanakeun ku ngayakeun solat ''sunat'' khusus, ceramah agama sareng diskusi Islam di [[masigit]].

Aya ogé seueur festival budaya régional domestik sareng acara sosial dina rupa-rupa lingkungan Malayu. Daérah basisir sacara historis katelah ngayakeun upacara ''Mandi Safar'' atanapi ''Puja Pantai'', nyaéta mandi suci salami bulan [[Safar]] [[kalénder Islam|Islam]], anu mimitina ditiru tina ritual beberesih suci Malayu kuno pra-Islam, mirip sareng tradisi Belimau sateuacan Ramadhan; sareng ''Pesta Menuai'', festival panén anu dirayakeun ku komunitas Malayu pedalaman sareng agraris ku kaulinan tradisional, téater, Joget sareng repertoar tari-tarian sanésna. Nanging, duanana prakték éta laun-laun punah kusabab rupa-rupa révolusi sosial sareng ékonomi anu direkayasa dina komunitas Malayu dina abad ka-20. Salian ti éta, seueur urang Malayu ogé katelah ilubiung dina perayaan kaisar pikeun ngahargaan ka karaton karajaan masing-masing.

Fitur-fitur Islam ogé ngahias perayaan Malayu sacara kuat dina tingkat individu, hiji panyandingan anu kabeungkeut kana ritual spiritual salaku Muslim. Urang Malayu biasana ngayakeun ''kenduri'', nyaéta pésta upacara agama pikeun ngarayakeun atawa ménta berkah pikeun hiji acara. Aya sababaraha variasi filosofis tina kenduri, sapertos ''Doa Selamat'' (nyuhunkeun sih kurnia sareng panyalindungan ilahi), ''Kesyukuran'' (pikeun ucapan syukur sareng rasa syukur), ''Melenggang Perut'' (pijet upacara pikeun ibu anu nuju hamil anak kahijina), ''Aqiqah'' sareng ''Cukur Jambul'' (upacara orok anu nembe lahir, pikeun ngarayakeun kahirupan anyar), ''Bertindik'' (upacara tindik munggaran pikeun murangkalih awéwé), ''Khatam'' (upacara wisuda, saatos maca [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] anu munggaran pikeun murangkalih), ''Khatan'' (sunat), ''Kahwin'' ([[upacara adat nikahkeun|pernikahan]]), ''Arwah'' atanapi ''Tahlil'' (doa pikeun jalmi anu tos maot), sareng sababaraha di antarana. Acara ieu biasana diayakeun ku kulawarga sareng sacara tradisional dibantuan ku masarakat dina hiji acara sosial anu katelah ''Rewang'' atanapi ''Gotong-royong''. Salila upacara ieu, sakumna kulawarga bakal dibantuan ku tatangga sareng barayana, masrahkeun rupa-rupa tugas ti mimiti nyiapkeun tuangeun, manajemen tempat, perakitan logistik sareng kontrol téknis anu sanésna. Sanajan kitu, nuturkeun munculna urbanisme dina komunitas Malayu kontemporer, prakték ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' laun-laun digantikeun ku jasa katering anu disewa ku kulawarga.

=== Musik ===
{{See also|Musik Malayu}}
[[Musik Malayu]] nyaéta hiji genre musik tradisional anu asalna sarta dimekarkeun di basisir wétan [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta Semenanjung Malaya.&lt;ref&gt;Sahputra, T. W. H., Martarosa, &amp; Warhat, Z. (2019). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/408383-musik-jazz-melayu-dalam-kajian-kreativit-7b989836.pdf Musik jazz Melayu dalam kajian kreativitas]''. ''Melayu Arts and Performance Journal'', 2(2), 191–200. &lt;/ref&gt; Musik ieu biasana dinyanyikeun ku jalma-jalma ti kelompok étnis Malayu sareng sering dipirig ku tarian has lokal Melayu, contona nawiskeun tarian dina acara atanapi pésta tradisional, ngabagéakeun tamu kahormatan, sareng dina kagiatan agama.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Purba|first=Junaidi|last2=Putri|first2=Sabrina Maulidia|last3=Nelson|first3=Ricky|last4=Silaban|first4=Cahyani Yesika br|last5=Ridho|first5=Muhammad Habibur|last6=Andika|first6=Riki|last7=Sitorus|first7=Christina Harianti|last8=Sa|first8=Maulidha|last9=Dardanila|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/TRANSFORMATION_OF_TRADITIONAL_ARTS_RESPO/mtaeEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL ARTS: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE TIMES|publisher=Mawadra Lestari Enterprise|isbn=978-629-95611-1-8|pages=62|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Asbullah|first=Habib|last2=Rizkia|first2=Ayu|last3=Batrisya|last4=Julianto|first4=Deldi|last5=Pangestu|first5=Dimas|last6=Rania|first6=Dinda Safira|last7=Miranti|first7=Dwi|last8=Afrillia|first8=Ega|last9=Irianto|first9=Ega Deni|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengabadikan_Riau_Buku_I/WXsgEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=Mengabadikan Riau: Buku I: Antologi Esai Kebudayaan|publisher=Penerbit Pustaka Rumah C1nta|isbn=978-623-7961-67-3|pages=95|language=id|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anu pikaresepeun tina genre musik ieu nyaéta dina komposisina anu diwangun ku lirik lagu anu ngandung puisi anu disaluyukeun sareng kahirupan sapopoe, cinta (sapertos Dondang Sayang) sareng pinuh ku ajaran (pesen moral), dieusi ku sora atanapi vokal cengkok has Malayu, sareng aransemen musik anu disusun rapih.

Bareng jeung kamekaran jaman, musik Malayu geus ngalaman parobahan dina gaya musikna, contona, geus ngalaman fusi jeung [[musik pop]], [[musik rock]], jeung [[dangdut]]. Aliran ieu tiasa dipendakan di nagara-nagara anu aya patalina sareng Malayu, sapertos [[Indonésia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Brunéi]].

Dina awal kamekaranana, alat musik anu dianggo didominasi ku aksi [[rebana]] anu disebut Kompang ti [[Kabupatén Ponorogo|Ponorogo]], petik gambus, gesek [[biola]], jepit akordeon, paripolah [[goong]], sareng niup sarunai. Ieu dipangaruhan ku budaya tanah [[urang Arab|Arab]] sareng [[Éropa]] tradisional. Bareng jeung kamekaran téknologi, kabéh ieu geus diganti ku alat musik éléktronik dina wangun kibor. Nanging, dina kagiatan-kagiatan tertentu alat musik tradisional masih dianggo pikeun ngalestarikeun warisan budaya.

Dina kamajuanana, gerakan ieu populér dina taun 80-an sareng bahkan lebet kana era &quot;puncak kajayaan&quot; dina taun 90-an. Ieu ditandaan ku ningkatna jumlah penyanyi sareng [[grup musik|band]] Malayu, sareng pendatang anyar anu muncul kalayan lagu-lagu khasna nyalira.

=== Pakéan tradisional ===
[[Gambar:Busana Melayu.jpg|thumb|Lalaki Malayu dina ''busana Melayu'', gaya tradisional pakéan Malayu]]

Pakéan jeung tékstil tradisional Malayu geus terus robah ti jaman baheula. Sacara historis, urang Malayu kuno dicatet ngagunakeun rupa-rupa bahan alami salaku sumber penting pikeun lawon, pakean, sareng acuk. Nanging, dina jaman umumna, nalika nyaksian datangna para padagang mimiti ti wétan sareng kulon ka palabuhan-palabuhan di Kapuloan Malayu, aranjeunna babarengan mésér barang-barang méwah anyar, kalebet katun sareng sutra anu saé. Pakéan-pakéan éta salajengna janten sumber mode Malayu anu luhur sareng ngagaduhan peran budaya salaku idéntitas anu ngiket di Nusantara, khususna di semenanjung, Sumatra sareng daérah basisir Kalimantan.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Dina budaya Malayu, pakean sareng tékstil dihormat salaku simbol kaéndahan, kakawasaan sareng status. Seueur catetan dina hikayat Malayu anu nekenkeun tempat khusus anu ditempatan ku tékstil.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} Industri tenun tangan Malayu bisa dilacak asal-usulna ti abad ka-13 nalika jalur perdagangan wétan mekar dina jaman Dinasti Song. Sebutan ngeunaan tékstil buatan lokal ogé dominasi tenun di Semenanjung Malaya dilakukeun dina sababaraha carita Cina sareng [[urang Arab|Arab]].{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Di antara tékstil Malayu anu kasohor nyaéta [[Songkét]], [[Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' jeung ''Tekad''.

Pakéan Malayu klasik rupa-rupa di unggal daérah, tapi pakéan tradisional anu paling jero dina jaman kiwari nyaéta Baju Kurung (pikeun awéwé) sareng Baju Melayu (pikeun lalaki), anu duanana diaku salaku pakéan nasional pikeun [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Brunéi]], sareng ogé dianggo ku komunitas Malayu di [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Myanmar]] sareng [[Thailand]].

[[Gambar:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|left|Barudak Malayu maké baju adat nalika [[Idulfitri|Idul Fitri]]]]

Kecap ''Baju Kurung'', sacara literatur dihartikeun salaku &quot;ngabungkus awak&quot; anu nganggona disaluyukeun dumasar kana prinsip-prinsip Islam ngeunaan karendahan haté, kasopanan, sareng karendahan haté. Prakték ieu sajajar jeung doktrin agama Yahudi-Kristen, sabab memamerkeun [[orat|bagian awak anu intim]] dianggap dilarang dina Islam. Tafsiran éta teras diserep kana cara berpakaian sareng sudut pandang budaya Malayu, ieu tiasa disaksian pisan dina pamaréntahan Mansur Shah ti Malaka dina abad ka-15, sultan ngalarang rahayat Muslim awéwéna di tempat umum ngan ukur nganggo [[sarung]] ti dada ka handap. Sapanjang jaman, Baju Kurung Malayu ngalaman sababaraha kali reinkarnasi sateuacan ngaku bentukna ayeuna. Alatan legana rupa-rupa karajaan Malayu di Nusantara, wangun lokal jeung béda tina pola desain Baju Kurung ogé bisa disaksian di wewengkon, kaasup [[Bengkulu]], Kedah, [[Jambi]], Johor-Riau, Pahang jeung [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]].{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Mode baju kurung anu cocog pikeun lalaki katelah &quot;Baju Melayu&quot;. Bagian luhur pakean ieu didamel kalayan desain géométri anu ampir sami sareng Baju Kurung sareng umumna dipasangkan sareng lawon tenun anu dikenal salaku sarung. Pola sarung bisa ngawengku simbol status perkawinan jalma éta atawa pangkatna dina masarakat tradisional Malayu.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Pakéan Malayu klasik umum lianna pikeun lalaki nyaéta ''baju'' (kaméja) atanapi ''tekua'' (sajenis baju lengan panjang), ''baju rompi'' (rompi), ''kancing'' (kancing), ''celana'' suku leutik (calana panjang), [[sarung]] anu dianggo di sabudeureun cangkéng, ''capal'' (sandal), sareng ''tanjak'' atanapi ''tengkolok'' (tutup sirah); pikeun bangsawan, ''baju sikap'' atanapi ''baju layang'' (sajenis jas) sareng ''pending'' (gesper sabuk hias) ogé sinonim pikeun dianggo salaku pakéan resmi. Ogé umum pikeun ''Pendekar'' (pahlawan Malayu) ngagaduhan keris anu diselapkeun kana lipatan hareup sarung.

Beda sareng Baju Melayu anu ngan ukur dianggo salaku pakean upacara, Baju Kurung dianggo unggal dinten sapanjang taun ku mayoritas awéwé Malayu. Katingali pagawé sipil awéwé, pagawé profésional, sareng mahasiswa nganggo Baju Kurung mangrupikeun hal anu umum di Malaysia sareng Brunéi.

=== Seni bela diri ===
[[Gambar:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|Saurang praktisi silat awéwé ti [[Singapura]]]]

Silat sareng varianna tiasa dipendakan di sakumna [[dunya Malayu]]: Semenanjung Malaya (kalebet [[Singapura]]), [[Kapuloan Riau]], [[Sumatra]] sareng daérah basisir [[Kalimantan]]. Bukti arkéologis ngungkabkeun yén, dina abad ka-6, seni tarung formal geus dipraktékkeun di Semenanjung Malaya sareng Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} Wangun Silat pangheubeulna dipercaya geus dimekarkeun sarta dipaké dina angkatan bersenjata karajaan Melayu kuno Langkasuka (abad ka-2){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] (abad ka-7).

Pangaruh kasultanan Malayu Malaka, Johor, Pattani sareng [[Brunéi]] parantos nyumbang kana panyebaran seni bela diri ieu di Kepulauan Melayu. Ngaliwatan labirin saluran laut sareng kapiler walungan anu rumit anu ngagampangkeun pertukaran sareng perdagangan di sakumna daérah, Silat ngaléngkah ka leuweung hujan anu padet teras naék ka pagunungan. Laksamana Hang Tuah ti Malaka anu legendaris nyaéta salah sahiji ''pesilat'' (praktisi Silat) anu paling kasohor dina sajarah{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} sareng bahkan dianggap ku sababaraha urang salaku bapak silat Malayu.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Ti saprak jaman klasik, Silat Melayu ngalaman diversifikasi anu ageung sareng ngawangun naon anu ayeuna sacara tradisional diakui salaku sumber [[Penca Silat|Pencak Silat]] Indonésia sareng bentuk Silat sanésna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]].{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Salian ti Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] ogé diamalkeun ku urang Malayu, utamina di daérah kalér Semenanjung Malaya. Ieu mangrupikeun varian tina bentuk kickboxing [[Indochina|Indo-Cina]] anu dipercaya parantos sumebar di [[daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] ti saprak jaman Kakaisaran Funan (68 Masehi).

=== Seni pintonan ===
[[Gambar:Joget Gamelan 1937.jpg|thumb|Pagelaran Joget Gamelan, 1937]]

Urang Malayu miboga rupa-rupa musik jeung tari anu mangrupa gabungan tina rupa-rupa pangaruh budaya. Genre hasna mimitian ti tarian rahayat tradisional Malayu sapertos Mak Yong dugi ka tarian Zapin anu dipangaruhan ku [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Gerakan koreografi ogé rupa-rupa, ti léngkah sareng lagu anu saderhana dina Dikir barat dugi ka gerakan anu rumit dina Joget Gamelan.

Musik tradisional Malayu dasarna nyaéta musik perkusi. Rupa-rupa [[goong|gong]] nyadiakeun ketukan pikeun seueur tarian. Aya ogé kendang kalayan rupa-rupa ukuran, mimitian ti ''rebana ubi'' ageung anu dianggo pikeun nandakeun kajadian penting dugi ka ''rebana leutik anu digesek'' ([[drum|drum pigura]]) anu dianggo salaku iringan pikeun bacaan vokal dina upacara agama.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Gambar:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert &amp; Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|left|Sakelompok penari Malayu Siam anu mintonkeun Mak Yong (kira-kira abad ka-19). Dina taun 2005, éta nampi pangakuan salaku salah sahiji karya agung warisan lisan sareng teu kasat mata umat manusa ku UNESCO.]]

Musik nobat janten bagian tina Royal Regalia di karaton Malayu saprak datangna Islam dina abad ka-12 sareng ngan ukur dipintonkeun dina upacara-upacara penting karaton. Orkestrana ngawengku instrumen suci sareng dihormat pisan sapertos ''nehara'' ([[kendang]]), ''gendang'' (kendang dua sirah), ''nafiri'' (trompet), ''serunai'' (oboe), sareng sakapeung [[goong]] kenop sareng sapasang simbal.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Pangaruh India kuat dina drama kalangkang tradisional anu katelah Wayang Kulit dimana carita-carita tina epik Hindu; [[Ramayana]] &amp; [[Mahabarata|Mahabharata]] ngawangun repertoar utama. Aya opat tipe has tina teater wayang kulit nu bisa kapanggih di Semenanjung Malaya; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' jeung ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Sanajan kitu, seni sareng carita ''Wayang Purwa'' sareng ''Wayang Siam'' nunjukkeun pangaruh régional anu ngahiji sareng [[urang Jawa]] sareng Siam, sedengkeun ''Wayang Melayu'' sareng ''Wayang Gedek'' nyaritakeun bentuk sareng busana Malayu anu langkung asli.

Seni pintonan Malayu anu kakoncara séjénna nyaéta; Teater ''Bangsawan'', ''Dondang Sayang'' balad jeung tarian ''Mak Inang'' ti Kasultanan Malaka, Teater ''Jikey'' jeung ''Mek Mulung'' ti [[Kedah]], Tari ''Asyik'' jeung Drama Tari ''Menora'' ti Patani jeung Kelantan, Tari ''Ulek mayang'' jeung ''Rodat'' ti Terengganu, Teater ''Boria'' ti Penang, Tari ''Canggung'' ti Perlis, Lagu naratif ''Mukun'' ti [[Brunéi]] jeung Sarawak,{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gending Sriwijaya]] ti [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' ti Serdang,&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;/&gt; Zapin Api tari seuneu ti [[Riau]] jeung Dikir barat Singapura ti [[Singapura]].

=== Seni visual ===
[[Gambar:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|Burung Petala Indra, manuk mitos raksasa anu dijieun pikeun parade sunat agung pangeran Kelantan.]]

Seni ukir kai mangrupa bagian tina [[seni rupa|seni visual]] Malayu klasik. Urang Malayu sacara tradisional ngahias monumen, parahu, pakarang, makam, alat musik, sareng parabotna ku motif flora, kaligrafi, géométri sareng fitur kosmik. Seni ieu dilakukeun ku cara miceun sabagian kai nganggo alat seukeut sareng nuturkeun pola, komposisi, sareng urutan anu khusus. Bentuk seni ieu, katelah ''ukir'', dipuji salaku tindakan bakti para pengrajin ka nu nyiptakeun sareng hadiah ka sasama manusa.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

Bentuk seni ieu utamina disababkeun ku lobana kai di Kapuloan Malayu sareng ogé ku kaparigelan para tukang ukir kai anu ngamungkinkeun urang Malayu pikeun latihan ukir kai salaku karajinan. Latar tropis alami dimana flora sareng fauna seueur pisan parantos ngainspirasi motif pikeun digambarkeun dina bentuk abstrak atanapi bergaya kana papan kai. Kalayan datangna Islam, bentuk géométri sareng kaligrafi Islam diwanohkeun dina ukiran kai. Kai anu dianggo biasana tina spésiés kai keras tropis anu dipikanyaho awét sareng tiasa tahan serangan jamur, kumbang boot listrik, sareng rayap.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

Imah tradisional Malayu atanapi [[masjid]] biasana dihias ku langkung ti 20 komponén ukiran. Ukiran dina témbok sareng panel ngamungkinkeun angin ngahiliwir sacara efektif ka jero sareng ka luar gedong sareng tiasa ngantepkeun sinar panonpoé nyaangan bagian jero struktur. Dina waktos anu sami, kalangkang anu ditimbulkeun ku panel-panel éta ogé bakal nyiptakeun kalangkang dumasar kana motif-motif anu nambahan kaéndahan dina lanté. Ku kituna, komponén anu diukir ngalaksanakeun tujuan fungsional sareng estetika.

==Kelompok sub-étnis==
{{Tingali ogé|Urang Malayu Indonésia|Urang Malayu Malaysia}}

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Dunya Malayu]]
* [[Imah Malayu]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
* {{ms}} [http://iyco0.tripod.com/usmanawang.html Puisi Usman Awang mengenai Melayu.] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{en}} [http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=29765 Melayu]
* {{id}} [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:lYcg2r-ziWYJ:ccm.um.edu.my/umweb/fsss/images/persidangan/Kertas%2520Kerja/Pak%2520Witrianto.doc+Rumpun+Banjar&amp;hl=id&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=139&amp;gl=id&amp;client=firefox-a Modal Sosial dan Pembangunan Manusia Melayu oleh Witrianto, S.S., M.Hum., M.Si dari Universitas Andalas] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{id}} [http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm Bhinneka Tunggal Ika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126030352/http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm |date=26 Januari 2010 }}
* {{id}} [http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aW1QL3FMZVZBUkU4Ng%3D%3D= Gerakan Bangsa Melayu Besar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408223826/http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aw1ql3fmzvzbuku4ng=== |date=8 April 2016 }}

[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia|Malayu]]

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[[File:Malay couple.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Salaki pamajikan saatos ngalaksanakeun upacara akad nikah (prosesi kawinan). Panganten lalaki nganggo baju Malayu anu dipasangkan sareng songkok sareng songket, sedengkeun panganten awéwé nganggo baju kurung sareng jilbab.]]

'''Urang Malayu''' ({{langx|ms|'''Orang Melayu'''}}; [[Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو}}) wirua grup étnis [[Austronesia]] utami nu nyicingan Semenanjung Melayu, kidul [[Thailand]], pantai kidul [[Burma]], pulo [[Singapura]], [[Bornéo]] gisik basisir kaasup [[Brunéi]], [[Kalimantan Kulon]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]], Sarawak jeung basisir [[Sabah]], [[Filipina]] kulon teur kidul, jeung palulo alit nu aya di antara lokasi-tempat ieu — sacara pas dikenal salaku &quot;Dunia Melayu&quot;. Lokasi ieu ayeuna wirua bagian naragara modern [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Brunéi]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Filipina]].

[[File:Malay tricolour.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bandéra Triwarna Melayu anu némbongkeun idéntitas urang Malayu]]

Aya karagaman basa, budaya, artistik, sareng sosial anu lumayan ageung di antara seueur subgrup Melayu, utamina kusabab ratusan taun imigrasi sareng asimilasi rupa-rupa étnis sareng suku régional di Asia Tenggara Maritim. Sacara historis, populasi Melayu utamina turunan ti suku Austronesia sareng Austroasia anu nganggo basa Melayu sateuacanna anu ngadegkeun sababaraha nagara sareng karajaan dagang maritim kuno, khususna [[Brunéi]], [[Kedah]], Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, [[Karajaan Malayu|Melayu]], sareng [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 &amp; 60}}

Kamekaran sareng ngadegna Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 nyababkeun révolusi ageung dina sajarah urang Melayu. Ieu kajadian kusabab kasultanan mawa parobahan anu signifikan pisan kana sistem budaya sareng kasultanan ngahontal kamulyaan dina periode éta.

Numutkeun catetan sajarah, urang Malayu geus dipikawanoh salaku komunitas dagang lintas cai anu mibanda ciri budaya anu dinamis.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 &amp; 43}} Aranjeunna tiasa nyerep, ngabagi, sareng nyebarkeun seueur budaya unik ti kelompok étnis sanés, sapertos budaya Minang sareng Acéh.

Kadatangan Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 micu révolusi utama dina sajarah Melayu, anu pentingna aya dina warisan pulitik sareng budayana anu lega. Tanda-tanda umum anu pasti ngeunaan ka-Melayuan — agama Islam, basa sareng tradisi Malayu — dianggap parantos diproklamasikeun dina jaman ieu, anu ngarah kana étnogenesis urang Malayu salaku kelompok étnoreligius utama di daérah éta. Dina sastra, arsitéktur, tradisi kuliner, pakean tradisional, seni pertunjukan, seni bela diri sareng tradisi karaton, Malaka netepkeun standar anu ditiru ku kasultanan Melayu salajengna. Mangsa kajayaan kasultanan Melayu di Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatra Wétan, sareng basisir Kalimantan ningali seueur pendudukna, khususna ti sababaraha komunitas suku sapertos [[Batak]], Dayak, Urang Asli, sareng Urang Laut, tunduk kana Islamisasi sareng Invasi Melayu. Sapanjang sajarah, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; parantos diperpanjang ka kelompok étnis sanés dina &quot;[[Dunya Malayu]]&quot;; panggunaan ieu ayeuna seuseueurna diwatesan di Malaysia sareng Singapura, dimana turunan sanés tina kelompok étnis ieu disebut Anak Dagang (&quot;padagang&quot;) sareng seuseueurna asalna ti Indonésia sapertos urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]].

== Étimologi ==
[[Gambar:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|Kompleks Candi Muaro Jambi di [[Jambi]], sajarahna dihubungkeun sareng [[Karajaan Malayu]] pra-Islam. Urang Melayu-Sriwijaya katelah ngawangun sistem wangunan anu rumit di ibukotana, kota-kota utama, sareng pusat-pusat kota anu penting.]]
[[Gambar:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|Bukit Seguntang di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]. Numutkeun ''Sejarah Melayu'', éta pasir nyatet datangna Sang Sapurba, karuhun legendaris pikeun rupa-rupa kulawarga karajaan Malayu di Sumatra, Semenanjung Malaya, sareng Kalimantan.]]

Literatur epik ''Malay Annals'' ngahubungkeun asal usul étimologis &quot;Melayu&quot; ka walungan leutik anu dingaranan ''Sungai Melayu'' ('walungan Melayu') di [[Sumatra]], [[Indonésia]]. Epik éta salah nyebutkeun yén walungan éta ngalir ka Walungan Musi di Palembang, padahal kanyataanna ngalir ka Walungan Batang Hari di [[Jambi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=Oktober 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|298}} Istilah ieu dipercaya asalna tina kecap Melayu ''melaju'', kombinasi tina awalan verbal 'me' sareng akar kecap 'laju', anu hartosna &quot;ngagancangkeun&quot;, dianggo pikeun ngagambarkeun arus walungan anu gancang.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== Salaku ngaran tempat (toponim) ===
Sateuacan abad ka-15, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; sareng varian anu sami sigana dianggo salaku [[toponimi]] lami pikeun daérah Selat Malaka sacara umum.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}}
* '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', &quot;Malaya Dvipa&quot;, digambarkeun dina bab 48, Vayu Purana salaku salah sahiji propinsi di laut wétan anu pinuh ku emas sareng pérak. Sababaraha sarjana nyaruakeun istilah ieu sareng [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} tapi sababaraha sarjana India yakin istilah ieu kedah nujul ka Semenanjung Malaya anu pagunungan, sedengkeun Sumatra langkung pas dihubungkeun sareng Suvarnadvipa.{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}}
* '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – hiji lokasi di Golden Chersonese, tina karya Ptolemy, Geographia.{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}}
* '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – disebutkeun ku Yijing, saurang biarawan Buddha Cina ti Dinasti Tang anu nganjang ka Asia Tenggara dina taun 688–695. Nurutkeun Yijing, karajaan ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' ayana dina jarak 15 poé balayar ti Bogha (Palembang), ibukota Sribhoga ([[karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]]). Butuh waktu 15 poé balayar pikeun nepi ka Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) ti Mo-lo-yu; ku kituna, bisa disebutkeun yén Mo-Lo-Yu bakal aya di tengah-tengah antara dua tempat éta.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} Hiji téori populér ngahubungkeun ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' sareng Jambi di Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} nanging lokasi geografis Jambi bertentangan sareng katerangan Yi Jing ngeunaan &quot;satengah jalan pelayaran antara ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) sareng ''Bogha'' (Palembang)&quot;. Dina jaman Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368) sareng [[Dinasti Ming]] (1368–1644), kecap ''Ma-La-Yu'' sering disebutkeun dina téks sajarah Cina – kalayan parobahan éjahan kusabab rentang waktu antara dinasti-dinasti éta – pikeun nujul ka hiji bangsa di deukeut laut kidul. Diantara istilah anu digunakeun nyaéta &quot;Bôk-lá-yù&quot;, &quot;Mók-là-yū&quot; (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — disusud tina sumber tinulis biarawan Xuanzang) sareng Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
* '''''Malaiyur''''' – disebutkeun dina prasasti Tanjore. Karajaan ieu digambarkeun salaku karajaan anu gaduh &quot;gunung anu kuat pikeun bentengna&quot; anu murag ka penjajah Chola nalika kampanye Rajendra Chola I dina abad ka-11. Bisa jadi ayana di Sumatra, antara Pannai jeung Sriwijaya ([[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|77–78, 170}} meureun di situs arkéologis Muaro Jambi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|405}}
* '''''Malai''''' – disebutkeun ku ahli géografi Arab abad ka-12 [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] dina Tabula Rogeriana, éta ngagambarkeun semenanjung Malaya salaku pulo anu panjang sareng nyebatna Malai, wawatesan sareng Qmer (Khmer) sareng 12 dinten balayar ti Sanf (Champa).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508045322/https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ |date=2025-05-08 }}. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gerini, G. E., &amp; Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&amp;vq=malai&amp;pg=PA535#v=onepage&amp;q=malai&amp;f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;Tanah Malayu&quot;), transkripsi tina Prasasti Padang Roco tanggal 1286 CE ku Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} Istilah ieu aya patalina jeung karajaan [[Dharmasraya]].
* '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – disebutkeun dina babad Dinasti Yuan, nujul kana hiji bangsa di Semenanjung Malaya anu nyanghareupan ékspansi Karajaan Sukhothai ka kidul, nalika pamaréntahan Ram Khamhaeng.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=24 Maret 2026 |archive-date=27 Agustus 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kronik éta nyatakeun: &quot;''..Permusuhan lumangsung antara Siam sareng Ma-li-yu-er sareng duanana silih paéhan ...''&quot;. Pikeun ngaréspon tindakan Sukhothai, saurang utusan Cina angkat ka karaton Ram Khamhaeng dina taun 1295 mawa paréntah kaisar: &quot;Tepati jangji anjeun sareng ulah ngalakukeun kajahatan ka Ma-li-yu-er&quot;.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}}
* '''''Malauir''''' – disebutkeun dina catetan [[Marco Polo]] salaku karajaan anu aya di Semenanjung Malaya,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} kamungkinan sami sareng anu disebutkeun dina babad Yuan.
* '''''Malayapura''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;kota Malaya&quot; atanapi &quot;bénténg Malaya&quot;), anu diukir dina prasasti Amoghapasa anu tanggalna taun 1347 Masehi. Istilah éta dianggo ku Adityawarman pikeun nyebut [[Dharmasraya]].

Saran séjénna kaasup kecap [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] ''mlayu'' (salaku kecap pagawéan: lumpat, partisip: buronan), atawa istilah Melayu ''melaju'' (ngagancangkeun sacara ajeg), nuduhkeun mobilitas anu luhur jeung sipat migrasi masarakatna. De Barros (1552) nyebutkeun yén Iskandar Shah méré ngaran ''Malaios'' (urang Malayu) kitu lantaran bapana diusir ti nagarana. Albuquerque nerangkeun yén Parameswara ngungsi (''malayo'') ti karajaan Palembang ka Malaka.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== Salaku ngaran étnis (etnonim) ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420
| image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg
| alt1 = Urang Malayu Malaka
| caption1 = Cat cai Portugis urang Malaya di Malaka, kira-kira taun 1540, dipidangkeun dina Códice Casanatense.
| image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg
| alt2 = Pasangan Malayu
| caption2 = Ilustrasi pasangan Malayu, ti ''Reise nach Batavia'', antara taun 1669 jeung 1682
| image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg
| alt3 = Tari Joget
| caption3 = Tari Joget ti Kasultanan Malaka; seueur aspék budaya Malayu anu asalna ti karaton Malaka
}}

Kecap &quot;Melayu&quot; salaku étnonim, pikeun nuduhkeun gugusan étnologis anu béda pisan, dianggap geus jadi populer sapanjang integrasi Kasultanan Malaka salaku kakuatan régional dina abad ka-15. Ieu diterapkeun pikeun ngalaporkeun keberpihakan sosial urang Malaka dibandingkeun sareng urang asing di daérah anu sami, khususna [[urang Jawa]] sareng Thai.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} Ieu dibuktikeun tina daptar kecap Malayu awal abad ka-16 ku Antonio Pigafetta (anu milu dina pelayaran Magellan), anu ngarujuk kana panggunaan frasa ''chiara Malaiu'' ('cara Malayu') di maritim Asia Tenggara pikeun nuduhkeun ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[basa Italia]] pikeun &quot;nyarioskeun Malaka&quot;).{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Numutkeun sejarawan Anthony Milner, sastra Malayu klasik sering ngagambarkeun urang Malayu dina harti anu langkung heureut tibatan interpretasi modéren; ngarujuk kana téks-téks ieu salaku bukti pandangan ieu:&lt;ref name=&quot;Milner2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony  |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=2008 |isbn=9781444305098  |doi=10.1002/9781444305098}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|91–92}}

* ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', anu utamina ditulis dina abad ka-17, ngan ukur ngaidéntifikasi urang Malayu salaku subjék Kasultanan Malaka.&lt;ref&gt;See also {{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hikayat Patani'', anu dikarang ti taun 1690–1730, ngagunakeun istilah ieu sacara éksklusif pikeun Johor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Francis R. |date=Juni 2009 |title=Moral order in a time of damnation: The ''Hikayat Patani'' in historical context |doi=10.1017/S0022463409000150 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=40 |issue=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porath |first=Nathan |date= |title=The ''Hikayat Patani'': The Kingdom of Patani in the Malay and Thai Political World |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=84 |issue=2 (301) |page=54 |doi=10.1353/ras.2011.0016}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (katelah ogé Sejarah Kedah), anu ditulis dina ahir abad ka-18 atanapi awal abad ka-19, henteu nganggo kecap &quot;Malayu&quot; pikeun ngaranan urang [[Kedah]].
* ''Hikayat Aceh'', anu diperkirakeun ditulis antara taun 1636 sareng 1700, sacara éksplisit ngaitkeun étnis Malayu sareng Johor, tapi henteu ngalakukeun hal anu sami nalika nujul ka [[Acéh]] atanapi Deli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iskandar1958&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Iskandar |first=Teuku |title=De Hikajat Atjeh |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location='s-Gravenhage |date=1958 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260803204800/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-date=2026-08-03 |doi=10.26530/OAPEN_613413 |accessdate=2026-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|2–4}}&lt;ref&gt;See also {{cite journal |last=Braginsky |first=Vladimir |date=2008 |title=Structure, date and sources of Hikayat Aceh revisited: The problem of Mughal-Malay literary ties |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=441–467 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003662}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nanging, Milner nyatet, karya-karya ieu parantos ngalaman seueur éditan salami waktos ku rupa-rupa penyalin, anu panginten kalebet bubuka atanapi paningkatan konsép idéntitas &quot;Malayu&quot;; hiji salinan Sejarah Malayu, contona, nampilkeun pupuhu di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]] anu nujul kana &quot;turunan kuring&quot;, sedengkeun salinan anu langkung énggal maca &quot;rakyat Malayu&quot;.{{sfn|Milner2008|p=90–91}}

== Budaya ==
=== Basa ===
[[Gambar:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] ditulis dalam [[aksara Pallawa]]. Ti saprak taun 683, ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji artefak tulisan Malayu pangkolotna anu masih aya.]]
{{Main|Basa Malayu}}
{{See also|Abjad Jawi}}

[[Basa Malayu]] mangrupa salah sahiji basa anu pangpunjulna di dunya, utamana ti kulawarga basa Austronesia. Varian sareng dialek basa Melayu dianggo salaku basa resmi di [[Brunéi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Singapura]]. Basa ieu ogé dianggo di [[Thailand]] kidul, [[Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling)|Kapuloan Cocos]], [[Pulo Natal]], [[Sri Langka]]. Basa ieu diucapkeun sacara asli ku sakitar 33 juta jalma di sakuliah Kapuloan Malayu sareng dianggo salaku basa kadua ku sakitar 220 juta.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

Wangun basa Malayu pangkolotna asalna tina basa Proto-Malayu-Polinésia anu diucapkeun ku padumuk Austronésia pangkolotna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Wangun ieu engkéna mekar jadi basa Melayu Kuna nalika budaya jeung agama India mimiti nembus wewengkon éta. Basa Malayu Kuna ngandung sababaraha istilah anu masih aya nepi ka ayeuna, tapi tetep teu kaharti ku panyatur modéren, sedengkeun basa modéren ieu geus loba dipikawanoh dina basa Malayu Klasik tinulis, anu wangun pangkolotna asalna ti taun 1303 Masehi.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Basa Malayu mekar jadi basa Malayu Klasik ngaliwatan asupna rupa-rupa kosakecap [[basa Arab|Arab]] jeung [[basa Pérsi|Pérsi]] sacara laun-laun nalika Islam asup ka wilayah éta, sarta dina prosésna robah sacara signifikan. Mimitina, basa Malayu Klasik mangrupa sakumpulan dialek anu rupa-rupa, anu ngagambarkeun asal-usul karajaan Malayu di Asia Tenggara anu rupa-rupa. Salah sahiji dialek ieu, anu dimekarkeun dina tradisi sastra Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15, antukna janten dominan.

Jaman Malaka ditandaan ku robahna basa Melayu jadi basa Islam, sarupa jeung basa Arab, Persia, Urdu, jeung [[basa Swahili|Swahili]]. [[Aksara Arab]] anu diadaptasi anu disebut [[abjad Jawi|Jawi]] dianggo pikeun ngagantikeun aksara Kawi, terminologi agama sareng budaya Islam diasimilasi sacara lega, miceun seueur kecap Hindu-Buda, sareng basa Malayu janten basa pangajaran sareng panyebaran Islam di sakumna wilayah Asia Tenggara. Dina puncak kakawasaan Malaka dina abad ka-15, basa Melayu Klasik nyebar ka saluareun dunya&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}&lt;/ref&gt; panyatur basa Malayu tradisional sareng ngahasilkeun ''lingua franca'' anu disebut ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' (&quot;Bazaar Malayu&quot;) atanapi ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' (&quot;Malayu Handap&quot;), sabalikna tina ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' (&quot;Malayu Luhur&quot;) Malaka.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} Sacara umum dipercaya yén basa Malayu Bazaar mangrupikeun basa pidgin sareng kamekaran anu paling penting nyaéta basa pidgin dikréolisasi, nyiptakeun sababaraha basa énggal sapertos basa Malayu Ambon, Malayu Manado sareng [[basa Batawi]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

Pangarang [[Éropa]] dina abad ka-17 sareng ka-18, sapertos Tavernier, Thomassin sareng Werndly ngagambarkeun basa Melayu salaku &quot;''basa anu dipimilik ku jalma-jalma terpelajar di sakumna Hindia, sapertos [[basa Latén]] di Éropa''&quot;.{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} Ieu ogé anu paling seueur dianggo nalika jaman kolonial Inggris sareng Walanda di Kapuloan Malayu.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} Anu sabalikna katingali di Hindia Wétan Spanyol, dimana latinisasi massal di kapuloan ieu salami mangsa kolonial nyababkeun kudeta sajarah basa Malayu di Filipina.

Dialek Kasultanan Johor, panerus langsung Malaka, janten basa standar di kalangan urang Malayu di [[Singapura]] sareng [[Malaysia]], sareng éta ngawangun dasar asli pikeun [[basa Indonésia]] anu distandardisasi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Salian ti basa Malayu standar, anu dimekarkeun di lingkungan Malaka-Johor, aya ogé rupa-rupa dialek Malayu lokal. Contona, urang Bangka, urang Brunéi, urang Jambi, urang Kelantan, urang Kedah, urang Negeri Sembilan, urang Palémbang, urang Pattani, urang Sarawak, urang Terengganu, jeung réa-réa deui.

Basa Malayu sacara historis ditulis nganggo [[aksara Pallawa]], [[aksara Kawi|Kawi]] sareng Rencong. Saatos datangna Islam, [[abjad Jawi|aksara Jawi]] anu dumasar kana [[basa Arab]] diadopsi sareng masih dianggo dugi ka ayeuna salaku salah sahiji tina dua aksara resmi di Brunéi sareng salaku aksara alternatif di Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-date=29 Oktober 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dimimitian ti abad ka-17, salaku hasil tina penjajahan Inggris sareng Walanda, Jawi laun-laun diganti ku aksara Rumi&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=26 Juni 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; anu dumasar kana Latin anu antukna janten aksara resmi modéren pikeun basa Malayu di [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Indonésia]], sareng aksara resmi di [[Brunéi]].

=== Arsitéktur ===
{{See also|Imah Malayu}}
[[Gambar:Rumah kedah.gif|thumb|350px|Imah tradisional Malayu di [[Kedah]], dihias ku panel ukiran khas Semenanjung Malaya kalér.]]

[[Imah Malayu]] nujul kana tempat tinggal vernakular urang Malayu, hiji kelompok étno-linguistik anu cicing di [[Sumatra]], basisir [[Kalimantan]], sareng Semenanjung Malaya.

Wangun arsitéktur tradisional, sapertos hateup anu cocog sareng tropis sareng proporsi anu harmonis kalayan unsur hiasan dianggap masih gaduh nilai budaya anu ageung ku seueur jalmi di daérah éta. Nanging, wangunan-wangunan ieu meryogikeun pangropéa anu signifikan dibandingkeun sareng konstruksi modéren; sapertos tantangan dina ngalestarikeun bahan utama na, kai, tina pangaruh buruk cuaca tropis ogé serangan rayap. Kamampuh ngawangun vernakular ieu laun-laun leungit di [[Malaysia]] sabab kai alami beuki langka alatan deforestasi sajaba ti industrialisasi,&lt;ref name=H&gt;{{cite news |date=16 Méi 2026 |page=B7|newspaper=The Straits Times|department=Letter From... |title=Guest houses, film sets: Traditional Malay houses in demand with new lease of life|author=Hadi Azmi }}&lt;/ref&gt; sedengkeun di [[Indonésia]] tempat tinggal tradisional sapertos kitu masih kénéh aya di daérah padésaan. Sanaos transformasi urban di [[Singapura]] parantos ngaleungitkeun ampir sadaya lingkungan urban Malayu, sababaraha bumi anu nampilkeun arsitéktur vernakular ieu masih salamet, utamina dipusatkeun di pulo lepas pantai Pulau Ubin.{{Citation needed|date=Désémber 2022}}

Usaha pikeun ngalestarikeun gaya arsitéktur asli kapuloan Indonésia parantos dilaksanakeun ngalangkungan dokumentasi sareng réplika kreasi di paviliun [[daptar propinsi di Indonésia|propinsi]] di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]. Nu boga imah tradisional Malaysia anu masih kénéh aya ogé nyéwakeun imah-imah éta ka studio produksi salaku lokasi syuting pilem sareng iklan, sareng homestay, salaku sumber panghasilan tambahan.&lt;ref name=H/&gt;

=== Agama ===
[[Gambar:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|Masjid Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien di [[Brunéi]] dina wengi Ramadhan. Karajaan anu beunghar ieu nganut Melayu Islam Beraja (''Monarki Islam Malayu'') salaku filsafat nasional saprak kamerdékaanana dina taun 1984.]]

Masarakat Malayu mimiti seuseueurna [[animisme|animis]], percaya kana ayana ''semangat'' (roh) dina sagala hal.&lt;ref name=&quot;zaki1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kira-kira dina awal jaman umum, agama [[Hindu]] sareng [[agama Buddha|Budha]] diwanohkeun ku para padagang Asia Kidul ka Kapuloan Melayu, dimana aranjeunna mekar dugi ka abad ka-13, sateuacan datangna Islam anu dibawa ku para padagang Muslim [[urang Arab|Arab]], Asia Kidul, sareng Cina.

Dina abad ka-15, Islam ti aliran [[Sunni]] ortodoks mekar di [[dunya Malayu]] dina kakawasaan Kasultanan Malaka. Beda sareng agama Hindu, anu sacara dangkal ngarobih masarakat Malayu awal, Islam tiasa disebatkeun parantos terintegrasi sapinuhna kana kahirupan sapopoe pendudukna.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ti saprak jaman ieu, urang Malayu dianggap salaku kelompok étnoreligius sareng sacara tradisional ngagaduhan idéntifikasi anu caket sareng [[Islam]]{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} sareng aranjeunna henteu ngarobih agama ti saprak harita.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot; /&gt; Identitas ieu kacida kuatna nepi ka disebut-sebut yén pikeun jadi Muslim nyaéta pikeun ''masuk Melayu'' (asup ka Malayu).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Sanajan kitu, kapercayaan-kapercayaan samemehna anu miboga akar anu leuwih jero, aranjeunna tetep ngalawan kutukan Islam – sareng memang mistisisme [[tasawuf]] parantos ngahiji di antara urang Malayu, sareng roh-roh dunya animisme samemehna sareng sababaraha unsur Hindu.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Saatos taun 1970-an, kebangkitan Islam (disebut ogé re-Islamisasi{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) di sakumna dunya Muslim, seueur tradisi anu dianggap bertentangan sareng ajaran Islam sareng ngandung unsur syirik ditinggalkeun ku [[urang Malayu Malaysia|urang Malayu di Malaysia]], sedengkeun di kalangan [[urang Malayu Indonésia|urang Malayu di Indonésia]], tradisi ieu henteu dianggap takhayul sareng ngandung unsur syirik. Di antara tradisi-tradisi ieu nyaéta festival ''mandi [[Safar]]'', festival mandi pikeun ngahontal kasucian spiritual, anu tiasa dititénan ciri-cirina anu sami sareng sababaraha tradisi dina Durga Puja di [[India]].{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

Seuseueurna étnis Malayu modéren anu ngagem Islam [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 Oktober 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; sareng festival Malayu anu paling penting nyaéta anu asalna Islam - ''[[Idulfitri|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Iduladha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Muharom|Awal Muharram]]'', sareng ''[[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]]''. Urang Malayu anu kaluar tina Islam di Malaysia sareng Brunéi dianggap murtad. Nanging, aya sajumlah étnis Malayu anu cicing di luar nagara-nagara ieu ogé parantos nganut agama sanés sacara sah dumasar kana hukum.

=== Festival sareng perayaan ===
[[Gambar:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Deretan Pelita (lampu minyak) anu hurung nalika ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (peuting ka-27 [[Ramadhan]]), lampu minyak ieu sacara tradisional dianggo pikeun nyaangan bumi sareng jalan-jalan nalika Ramadhan. Katingali didieu di Muar, Johor, [[Malaysia]].]]

Kamekaran [[Islam]] hasil ngarobah harti idéntitas Malayu dina abad ka-15. Ku kituna, kalolobaan festival sareng perayaan Malayu lumangsung sajajar sareng [[kalénder Islam]], sanaos parantos ngakar jero ku karakter Malayu anu kuat. Peringatan Hari Raya (hartina &quot;Poé Agung&quot;) dua kali sataun pikeun [[Aidilfitri]] sareng [[Aidiladha]] dipuji salaku perayaan agung sacara universal di sakumna masarakat Malayu. Dua poé libur ieu penting pisan pikeun méré komentar kana dua kajadian utama sarta filsafat dina ajaran jeung kapercayaan Islam. Anu kahiji nandakeun kameunangan salaku Muslim saatos sabulan [[puasa]]/[[saum]] sareng kasabaran dina bulan [[Ramadan]], sedengkeun anu kadua nyaéta pikeun ngalaksanakeun kurban anu dilakukeun ku [[Nabi Ibrahim|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) kalayan nyebat asma [[Allah]].

Liburan ''Raya'' biasana dimimitian nalika acara mudik anu dikenal salaku Balik Kampung atanapi ''Balik Raya'' anu lumangsung sababaraha dinten sateuacan festival. Salila Hari Raya, urang Malayu bakal ngarayakeun ku ngalaksanakeun solat Hari Raya, ngayakeun pésta ageung sareng nganjang ka réréncangan, baraya sareng tatangga. Ngajugjug ka makam jalmi-jalmi anu dipikacinta anu parantos pupus ogé penting, salaku tanda hormat, kanyaah, sareng kahormatan.

[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|Upacara penobatan antara Tengku Otteman, salaku ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Putera Mahkota) Kasultanan Deli, [[Hindia-Walanda]]; jeung pamajikanana, Raja Amnah, anggota Royalti Perak salaku ''Tengku Puan Indera'' dina 1925]]

Upacara liturgi sareng agama utama anu sanésna anu dirayakeun ku urang Malayu kalebet Ramadhan, bulan suci salami sabulan anu dikhususkeun pikeun puasa siang sareng rupa-rupa kagiatan agama; [[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]], prosesi ageung khusus pikeun ngahargaan kalahiran [[Muhammad]]; [[Asyura]], pangéling-ngéling [[Muharram]] dimana urang Malayu bakal nyiapkeun hidangan khusus, anu katelah ''Bubur Asyura''; [[Nisfu Saaban|Nisfu Syaaban]], perayaan [[Sya'ban|Nisfu Sya'ban]], dinten khusus [[puasa]] pikeun ngahampura; Nuzul Quran, wahyu anu munggaran tina [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]; [[Isra Mi'raj|Israk dan Mikraj]], naékna [[Muhammad]] ka langit sareng Awal Muharram, Taun Anyar Islam; tilu perayaan anu terakhir biasana dilaksanakeun ku ngayakeun solat ''sunat'' khusus, ceramah agama sareng diskusi Islam di [[masigit]].

Aya ogé seueur festival budaya régional domestik sareng acara sosial dina rupa-rupa lingkungan Malayu. Daérah basisir sacara historis katelah ngayakeun upacara ''Mandi Safar'' atanapi ''Puja Pantai'', nyaéta mandi suci salami bulan [[Safar]] [[kalénder Islam|Islam]], anu mimitina ditiru tina ritual beberesih suci Malayu kuno pra-Islam, mirip sareng tradisi Belimau sateuacan Ramadhan; sareng ''Pesta Menuai'', festival panén anu dirayakeun ku komunitas Malayu pedalaman sareng agraris ku kaulinan tradisional, téater, Joget sareng repertoar tari-tarian sanésna. Nanging, duanana prakték éta laun-laun punah kusabab rupa-rupa révolusi sosial sareng ékonomi anu direkayasa dina komunitas Malayu dina abad ka-20. Salian ti éta, seueur urang Malayu ogé katelah ilubiung dina perayaan kaisar pikeun ngahargaan ka karaton karajaan masing-masing.

Fitur-fitur Islam ogé ngahias perayaan Malayu sacara kuat dina tingkat individu, hiji panyandingan anu kabeungkeut kana ritual spiritual salaku Muslim. Urang Malayu biasana ngayakeun ''kenduri'', nyaéta pésta upacara agama pikeun ngarayakeun atawa ménta berkah pikeun hiji acara. Aya sababaraha variasi filosofis tina kenduri, sapertos ''Doa Selamat'' (nyuhunkeun sih kurnia sareng panyalindungan ilahi), ''Kesyukuran'' (pikeun ucapan syukur sareng rasa syukur), ''Melenggang Perut'' (pijet upacara pikeun ibu anu nuju hamil anak kahijina), ''Aqiqah'' sareng ''Cukur Jambul'' (upacara orok anu nembe lahir, pikeun ngarayakeun kahirupan anyar), ''Bertindik'' (upacara tindik munggaran pikeun murangkalih awéwé), ''Khatam'' (upacara wisuda, saatos maca [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] anu munggaran pikeun murangkalih), ''Khatan'' (sunat), ''Kahwin'' ([[upacara adat nikahkeun|pernikahan]]), ''Arwah'' atanapi ''Tahlil'' (doa pikeun jalmi anu tos maot), sareng sababaraha di antarana. Acara ieu biasana diayakeun ku kulawarga sareng sacara tradisional dibantuan ku masarakat dina hiji acara sosial anu katelah ''Rewang'' atanapi ''Gotong-royong''. Salila upacara ieu, sakumna kulawarga bakal dibantuan ku tatangga sareng barayana, masrahkeun rupa-rupa tugas ti mimiti nyiapkeun tuangeun, manajemen tempat, perakitan logistik sareng kontrol téknis anu sanésna. Sanajan kitu, nuturkeun munculna urbanisme dina komunitas Malayu kontemporer, prakték ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' laun-laun digantikeun ku jasa katering anu disewa ku kulawarga.

=== Musik ===
{{See also|Musik Malayu}}
[[Musik Malayu]] nyaéta hiji genre musik tradisional anu asalna sarta dimekarkeun di basisir wétan [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta Semenanjung Malaya.&lt;ref&gt;Sahputra, T. W. H., Martarosa, &amp; Warhat, Z. (2019). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/408383-musik-jazz-melayu-dalam-kajian-kreativit-7b989836.pdf Musik jazz Melayu dalam kajian kreativitas]''. ''Melayu Arts and Performance Journal'', 2(2), 191–200. &lt;/ref&gt; Musik ieu biasana dinyanyikeun ku jalma-jalma ti kelompok étnis Malayu sareng sering dipirig ku tarian has lokal Melayu, contona nawiskeun tarian dina acara atanapi pésta tradisional, ngabagéakeun tamu kahormatan, sareng dina kagiatan agama.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Purba|first=Junaidi|last2=Putri|first2=Sabrina Maulidia|last3=Nelson|first3=Ricky|last4=Silaban|first4=Cahyani Yesika br|last5=Ridho|first5=Muhammad Habibur|last6=Andika|first6=Riki|last7=Sitorus|first7=Christina Harianti|last8=Sa|first8=Maulidha|last9=Dardanila|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/TRANSFORMATION_OF_TRADITIONAL_ARTS_RESPO/mtaeEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL ARTS: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE TIMES|publisher=Mawadra Lestari Enterprise|isbn=978-629-95611-1-8|pages=62|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Asbullah|first=Habib|last2=Rizkia|first2=Ayu|last3=Batrisya|last4=Julianto|first4=Deldi|last5=Pangestu|first5=Dimas|last6=Rania|first6=Dinda Safira|last7=Miranti|first7=Dwi|last8=Afrillia|first8=Ega|last9=Irianto|first9=Ega Deni|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengabadikan_Riau_Buku_I/WXsgEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=Mengabadikan Riau: Buku I: Antologi Esai Kebudayaan|publisher=Penerbit Pustaka Rumah C1nta|isbn=978-623-7961-67-3|pages=95|language=id|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anu pikaresepeun tina genre musik ieu nyaéta dina komposisina anu diwangun ku lirik lagu anu ngandung puisi anu disaluyukeun sareng kahirupan sapopoe, cinta (sapertos Dondang Sayang) sareng pinuh ku ajaran (pesen moral), dieusi ku sora atanapi vokal cengkok has Malayu, sareng aransemen musik anu disusun rapih.

Bareng jeung kamekaran jaman, musik Malayu geus ngalaman parobahan dina gaya musikna, contona, geus ngalaman fusi jeung [[musik pop]], [[musik rock]], jeung [[dangdut]]. Aliran ieu tiasa dipendakan di nagara-nagara anu aya patalina sareng Malayu, sapertos [[Indonésia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Brunéi]].

Dina awal kamekaranana, alat musik anu dianggo didominasi ku aksi [[rebana]] anu disebut Kompang ti [[Kabupatén Ponorogo|Ponorogo]], petik gambus, gesek [[biola]], jepit akordeon, paripolah [[goong]], sareng niup sarunai. Ieu dipangaruhan ku budaya tanah [[urang Arab|Arab]] sareng [[Éropa]] tradisional. Bareng jeung kamekaran téknologi, kabéh ieu geus diganti ku alat musik éléktronik dina wangun kibor. Nanging, dina kagiatan-kagiatan tertentu alat musik tradisional masih dianggo pikeun ngalestarikeun warisan budaya.

Dina kamajuanana, gerakan ieu populér dina taun 80-an sareng bahkan lebet kana era &quot;puncak kajayaan&quot; dina taun 90-an. Ieu ditandaan ku ningkatna jumlah penyanyi sareng [[grup musik|band]] Malayu, sareng pendatang anyar anu muncul kalayan lagu-lagu khasna nyalira.

=== Pakéan tradisional ===
[[Gambar:Busana Melayu.jpg|thumb|Lalaki Malayu dina ''busana Melayu'', gaya tradisional pakéan Malayu]]

Pakéan jeung tékstil tradisional Malayu geus terus robah ti jaman baheula. Sacara historis, urang Malayu kuno dicatet ngagunakeun rupa-rupa bahan alami salaku sumber penting pikeun lawon, pakean, sareng acuk. Nanging, dina jaman umumna, nalika nyaksian datangna para padagang mimiti ti wétan sareng kulon ka palabuhan-palabuhan di Kapuloan Malayu, aranjeunna babarengan mésér barang-barang méwah anyar, kalebet katun sareng sutra anu saé. Pakéan-pakéan éta salajengna janten sumber mode Malayu anu luhur sareng ngagaduhan peran budaya salaku idéntitas anu ngiket di Nusantara, khususna di semenanjung, Sumatra sareng daérah basisir Kalimantan.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Dina budaya Malayu, pakean sareng tékstil dihormat salaku simbol kaéndahan, kakawasaan sareng status. Seueur catetan dina hikayat Malayu anu nekenkeun tempat khusus anu ditempatan ku tékstil.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} Industri tenun tangan Malayu bisa dilacak asal-usulna ti abad ka-13 nalika jalur perdagangan wétan mekar dina jaman Dinasti Song. Sebutan ngeunaan tékstil buatan lokal ogé dominasi tenun di Semenanjung Malaya dilakukeun dina sababaraha carita Cina sareng [[urang Arab|Arab]].{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Di antara tékstil Malayu anu kasohor nyaéta [[Songkét]], [[Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' jeung ''Tekad''.

Pakéan Malayu klasik rupa-rupa di unggal daérah, tapi pakéan tradisional anu paling jero dina jaman kiwari nyaéta Baju Kurung (pikeun awéwé) sareng Baju Melayu (pikeun lalaki), anu duanana diaku salaku pakéan nasional pikeun [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Brunéi]], sareng ogé dianggo ku komunitas Malayu di [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Myanmar]] sareng [[Thailand]].

[[Gambar:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|left|Barudak Malayu maké baju adat nalika [[Idulfitri|Idul Fitri]]]]

Kecap ''Baju Kurung'', sacara literatur dihartikeun salaku &quot;ngabungkus awak&quot; anu nganggona disaluyukeun dumasar kana prinsip-prinsip Islam ngeunaan karendahan haté, kasopanan, sareng karendahan haté. Prakték ieu sajajar jeung doktrin agama Yahudi-Kristen, sabab memamerkeun [[orat|bagian awak anu intim]] dianggap dilarang dina Islam. Tafsiran éta teras diserep kana cara berpakaian sareng sudut pandang budaya Malayu, ieu tiasa disaksian pisan dina pamaréntahan Mansur Shah ti Malaka dina abad ka-15, sultan ngalarang rahayat Muslim awéwéna di tempat umum ngan ukur nganggo [[sarung]] ti dada ka handap. Sapanjang jaman, Baju Kurung Malayu ngalaman sababaraha kali reinkarnasi sateuacan ngaku bentukna ayeuna. Alatan legana rupa-rupa karajaan Malayu di Nusantara, wangun lokal jeung béda tina pola desain Baju Kurung ogé bisa disaksian di wewengkon, kaasup [[Bengkulu]], Kedah, [[Jambi]], Johor-Riau, Pahang jeung [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]].{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Mode baju kurung anu cocog pikeun lalaki katelah &quot;Baju Melayu&quot;. Bagian luhur pakean ieu didamel kalayan desain géométri anu ampir sami sareng Baju Kurung sareng umumna dipasangkan sareng lawon tenun anu dikenal salaku sarung. Pola sarung bisa ngawengku simbol status perkawinan jalma éta atawa pangkatna dina masarakat tradisional Malayu.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Pakéan Malayu klasik umum lianna pikeun lalaki nyaéta ''baju'' (kaméja) atanapi ''tekua'' (sajenis baju lengan panjang), ''baju rompi'' (rompi), ''kancing'' (kancing), ''celana'' suku leutik (calana panjang), [[sarung]] anu dianggo di sabudeureun cangkéng, ''capal'' (sandal), sareng ''tanjak'' atanapi ''tengkolok'' (tutup sirah); pikeun bangsawan, ''baju sikap'' atanapi ''baju layang'' (sajenis jas) sareng ''pending'' (gesper sabuk hias) ogé sinonim pikeun dianggo salaku pakéan resmi. Ogé umum pikeun ''Pendekar'' (pahlawan Malayu) ngagaduhan [[keris]] anu diselapkeun kana lipatan hareup sarung.

Beda sareng Baju Melayu anu ngan ukur dianggo salaku pakean upacara, Baju Kurung dianggo unggal dinten sapanjang taun ku mayoritas awéwé Malayu. Katingali pagawé sipil awéwé, pagawé profésional, sareng mahasiswa nganggo Baju Kurung mangrupikeun hal anu umum di Malaysia sareng Brunéi.

=== Seni bela diri ===
[[Gambar:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|Saurang praktisi silat awéwé ti [[Singapura]]]]

Silat sareng varianna tiasa dipendakan di sakumna [[dunya Malayu]]: Semenanjung Malaya (kalebet [[Singapura]]), [[Kapuloan Riau]], [[Sumatra]] sareng daérah basisir [[Kalimantan]]. Bukti arkéologis ngungkabkeun yén, dina abad ka-6, seni tarung formal geus dipraktékkeun di Semenanjung Malaya sareng Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} Wangun Silat pangheubeulna dipercaya geus dimekarkeun sarta dipaké dina angkatan bersenjata karajaan Melayu kuno Langkasuka (abad ka-2){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] (abad ka-7).

Pangaruh kasultanan Malayu Malaka, Johor, Pattani sareng [[Brunéi]] parantos nyumbang kana panyebaran seni bela diri ieu di Kepulauan Melayu. Ngaliwatan labirin saluran laut sareng kapiler walungan anu rumit anu ngagampangkeun pertukaran sareng perdagangan di sakumna daérah, Silat ngaléngkah ka leuweung hujan anu padet teras naék ka pagunungan. Laksamana Hang Tuah ti Malaka anu legendaris nyaéta salah sahiji ''pesilat'' (praktisi Silat) anu paling kasohor dina sajarah{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} sareng bahkan dianggap ku sababaraha urang salaku bapak silat Malayu.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Ti saprak jaman klasik, Silat Melayu ngalaman diversifikasi anu ageung sareng ngawangun naon anu ayeuna sacara tradisional diakui salaku sumber [[Penca Silat|Pencak Silat]] Indonésia sareng bentuk Silat sanésna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]].{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Salian ti Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] ogé diamalkeun ku urang Malayu, utamina di daérah kalér Semenanjung Malaya. Ieu mangrupikeun varian tina bentuk kickboxing [[Indochina|Indo-Cina]] anu dipercaya parantos sumebar di [[daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] ti saprak jaman Kakaisaran Funan (68 Masehi).

=== Seni pintonan ===
[[Gambar:Joget Gamelan 1937.jpg|thumb|Pagelaran Joget Gamelan, 1937]]

Urang Malayu miboga rupa-rupa musik jeung tari anu mangrupa gabungan tina rupa-rupa pangaruh budaya. Genre hasna mimitian ti tarian rahayat tradisional Malayu sapertos Mak Yong dugi ka tarian Zapin anu dipangaruhan ku [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Gerakan koreografi ogé rupa-rupa, ti léngkah sareng lagu anu saderhana dina Dikir barat dugi ka gerakan anu rumit dina Joget Gamelan.

Musik tradisional Malayu dasarna nyaéta musik perkusi. Rupa-rupa [[goong|gong]] nyadiakeun ketukan pikeun seueur tarian. Aya ogé kendang kalayan rupa-rupa ukuran, mimitian ti ''rebana ubi'' ageung anu dianggo pikeun nandakeun kajadian penting dugi ka ''rebana leutik anu digesek'' ([[drum|drum pigura]]) anu dianggo salaku iringan pikeun bacaan vokal dina upacara agama.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Gambar:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert &amp; Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|left|Sakelompok penari Malayu Siam anu mintonkeun Mak Yong (kira-kira abad ka-19). Dina taun 2005, éta nampi pangakuan salaku salah sahiji karya agung warisan lisan sareng teu kasat mata umat manusa ku UNESCO.]]

Musik nobat janten bagian tina Royal Regalia di karaton Malayu saprak datangna Islam dina abad ka-12 sareng ngan ukur dipintonkeun dina upacara-upacara penting karaton. Orkestrana ngawengku instrumen suci sareng dihormat pisan sapertos ''nehara'' ([[kendang]]), ''gendang'' (kendang dua sirah), ''nafiri'' (trompet), ''serunai'' (oboe), sareng sakapeung [[goong]] kenop sareng sapasang simbal.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Pangaruh India kuat dina drama kalangkang tradisional anu katelah Wayang Kulit dimana carita-carita tina epik Hindu; [[Ramayana]] &amp; [[Mahabarata|Mahabharata]] ngawangun repertoar utama. Aya opat tipe has tina teater wayang kulit nu bisa kapanggih di Semenanjung Malaya; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' jeung ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Sanajan kitu, seni sareng carita ''Wayang Purwa'' sareng ''Wayang Siam'' nunjukkeun pangaruh régional anu ngahiji sareng [[urang Jawa]] sareng Siam, sedengkeun ''Wayang Melayu'' sareng ''Wayang Gedek'' nyaritakeun bentuk sareng busana Malayu anu langkung asli.

Seni pintonan Malayu anu kakoncara séjénna nyaéta; Teater ''Bangsawan'', ''Dondang Sayang'' balad jeung tarian ''Mak Inang'' ti Kasultanan Malaka, Teater ''Jikey'' jeung ''Mek Mulung'' ti [[Kedah]], Tari ''Asyik'' jeung Drama Tari ''Menora'' ti Patani jeung Kelantan, Tari ''Ulek mayang'' jeung ''Rodat'' ti Terengganu, Teater ''Boria'' ti Penang, Tari ''Canggung'' ti Perlis, Lagu naratif ''Mukun'' ti [[Brunéi]] jeung Sarawak,{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gending Sriwijaya]] ti [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' ti Serdang,&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;/&gt; Zapin Api tari seuneu ti [[Riau]] jeung Dikir barat Singapura ti [[Singapura]].

=== Seni visual ===
[[Gambar:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|Burung Petala Indra, manuk mitos raksasa anu dijieun pikeun parade sunat agung pangeran Kelantan.]]

Seni ukir kai mangrupa bagian tina [[seni rupa|seni visual]] Malayu klasik. Urang Malayu sacara tradisional ngahias monumen, parahu, pakarang, makam, alat musik, sareng parabotna ku motif flora, kaligrafi, géométri sareng fitur kosmik. Seni ieu dilakukeun ku cara miceun sabagian kai nganggo alat seukeut sareng nuturkeun pola, komposisi, sareng urutan anu khusus. Bentuk seni ieu, katelah ''ukir'', dipuji salaku tindakan bakti para pengrajin ka nu nyiptakeun sareng hadiah ka sasama manusa.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

Bentuk seni ieu utamina disababkeun ku lobana kai di Kapuloan Malayu sareng ogé ku kaparigelan para tukang ukir kai anu ngamungkinkeun urang Malayu pikeun latihan ukir kai salaku karajinan. Latar tropis alami dimana flora sareng fauna seueur pisan parantos ngainspirasi motif pikeun digambarkeun dina bentuk abstrak atanapi bergaya kana papan kai. Kalayan datangna Islam, bentuk géométri sareng kaligrafi Islam diwanohkeun dina ukiran kai. Kai anu dianggo biasana tina spésiés kai keras tropis anu dipikanyaho awét sareng tiasa tahan serangan jamur, kumbang boot listrik, sareng rayap.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

Imah tradisional Malayu atanapi [[masjid]] biasana dihias ku langkung ti 20 komponén ukiran. Ukiran dina témbok sareng panel ngamungkinkeun angin ngahiliwir sacara efektif ka jero sareng ka luar gedong sareng tiasa ngantepkeun sinar panonpoé nyaangan bagian jero struktur. Dina waktos anu sami, kalangkang anu ditimbulkeun ku panel-panel éta ogé bakal nyiptakeun kalangkang dumasar kana motif-motif anu nambahan kaéndahan dina lanté. Ku kituna, komponén anu diukir ngalaksanakeun tujuan fungsional sareng estetika.

==Kelompok sub-étnis==
{{Tingali ogé|Urang Malayu Indonésia|Urang Malayu Malaysia}}

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Dunya Malayu]]
* [[Imah Malayu]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
* {{ms}} [http://iyco0.tripod.com/usmanawang.html Puisi Usman Awang mengenai Melayu.] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{en}} [http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=29765 Melayu]
* {{id}} [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:lYcg2r-ziWYJ:ccm.um.edu.my/umweb/fsss/images/persidangan/Kertas%2520Kerja/Pak%2520Witrianto.doc+Rumpun+Banjar&amp;hl=id&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=139&amp;gl=id&amp;client=firefox-a Modal Sosial dan Pembangunan Manusia Melayu oleh Witrianto, S.S., M.Hum., M.Si dari Universitas Andalas] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{id}} [http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm Bhinneka Tunggal Ika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126030352/http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm |date=26 Januari 2010 }}
* {{id}} [http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aW1QL3FMZVZBUkU4Ng%3D%3D= Gerakan Bangsa Melayu Besar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408223826/http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aw1ql3fmzvzbuku4ng=== |date=8 April 2016 }}

[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia|Malayu]]

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[[File:Malay couple.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Salaki pamajikan saatos ngalaksanakeun upacara akad nikah (prosesi kawinan). Panganten lalaki nganggo baju Malayu anu dipasangkan sareng songkok sareng songket, sedengkeun panganten awéwé nganggo baju kurung sareng jilbab.]]

'''Urang Malayu''' ({{langx|ms|'''Orang Melayu'''}}; [[Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو}}) wirua grup étnis [[Austronesia]] utami nu nyicingan Semenanjung Melayu, kidul [[Thailand]], pantai kidul [[Burma]], pulo [[Singapura]], [[Bornéo]] gisik basisir kaasup [[Brunéi]], [[Kalimantan Kulon]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]], Sarawak jeung basisir [[Sabah]], [[Filipina]] kulon teur kidul, jeung palulo alit nu aya di antara lokasi-tempat ieu — sacara pas dikenal salaku &quot;Dunia Melayu&quot;. Lokasi ieu ayeuna wirua bagian naragara modern [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Brunéi]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Filipina]].

[[File:Malay tricolour.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bandéra Triwarna Melayu anu némbongkeun idéntitas urang Malayu]]

Aya karagaman basa, budaya, artistik, sareng sosial anu lumayan ageung di antara seueur subgrup Melayu, utamina kusabab ratusan taun imigrasi sareng asimilasi rupa-rupa étnis sareng suku régional di Asia Tenggara Maritim. Sacara historis, populasi Melayu utamina turunan ti suku Austronesia sareng Austroasia anu nganggo basa Melayu sateuacanna anu ngadegkeun sababaraha nagara sareng karajaan dagang maritim kuno, khususna [[Brunéi]], [[Kedah]], Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, [[Karajaan Malayu|Melayu]], sareng [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 &amp; 60}}

Kamekaran sareng ngadegna Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 nyababkeun révolusi ageung dina sajarah urang Melayu. Ieu kajadian kusabab kasultanan mawa parobahan anu signifikan pisan kana sistem budaya sareng kasultanan ngahontal kamulyaan dina periode éta.

Numutkeun catetan sajarah, urang Malayu geus dipikawanoh salaku komunitas dagang lintas cai anu mibanda ciri budaya anu dinamis.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 &amp; 43}} Aranjeunna tiasa nyerep, ngabagi, sareng nyebarkeun seueur budaya unik ti kelompok étnis sanés, sapertos budaya Minang sareng Acéh.

Kadatangan Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 micu révolusi utama dina sajarah Melayu, anu pentingna aya dina warisan pulitik sareng budayana anu lega. Tanda-tanda umum anu pasti ngeunaan ka-Melayuan — agama Islam, basa sareng tradisi Malayu — dianggap parantos diproklamasikeun dina jaman ieu, anu ngarah kana étnogenesis urang Malayu salaku kelompok étnoreligius utama di daérah éta. Dina sastra, arsitéktur, tradisi kuliner, pakean tradisional, seni pertunjukan, seni bela diri sareng tradisi karaton, Malaka netepkeun standar anu ditiru ku kasultanan Melayu salajengna. Mangsa kajayaan kasultanan Melayu di Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatra Wétan, sareng basisir Kalimantan ningali seueur pendudukna, khususna ti sababaraha komunitas suku sapertos [[Batak]], Dayak, Urang Asli, sareng Urang Laut, tunduk kana Islamisasi sareng Invasi Melayu. Sapanjang sajarah, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; parantos diperpanjang ka kelompok étnis sanés dina &quot;[[Dunya Malayu]]&quot;; panggunaan ieu ayeuna seuseueurna diwatesan di Malaysia sareng Singapura, dimana turunan sanés tina kelompok étnis ieu disebut Anak Dagang (&quot;padagang&quot;) sareng seuseueurna asalna ti Indonésia sapertos urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]].

== Étimologi ==
[[Gambar:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|Kompleks Candi Muaro Jambi di [[Jambi]], sajarahna dihubungkeun sareng [[Karajaan Malayu]] pra-Islam. Urang Melayu-Sriwijaya katelah ngawangun sistem wangunan anu rumit di ibukotana, kota-kota utama, sareng pusat-pusat kota anu penting.]]
[[Gambar:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|Bukit Seguntang di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]. Numutkeun ''Sejarah Melayu'', éta pasir nyatet datangna Sang Sapurba, karuhun legendaris pikeun rupa-rupa kulawarga karajaan Malayu di Sumatra, Semenanjung Malaya, sareng Kalimantan.]]

Literatur epik ''Malay Annals'' ngahubungkeun asal usul étimologis &quot;Melayu&quot; ka walungan leutik anu dingaranan ''Sungai Melayu'' ('walungan Melayu') di [[Sumatra]], [[Indonésia]]. Epik éta salah nyebutkeun yén walungan éta ngalir ka Walungan Musi di Palembang, padahal kanyataanna ngalir ka Walungan Batang Hari di [[Jambi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=Oktober 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|298}} Istilah ieu dipercaya asalna tina kecap Melayu ''melaju'', kombinasi tina awalan verbal 'me' sareng akar kecap 'laju', anu hartosna &quot;ngagancangkeun&quot;, dianggo pikeun ngagambarkeun arus walungan anu gancang.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== Salaku ngaran tempat (toponim) ===
Sateuacan abad ka-15, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; sareng varian anu sami sigana dianggo salaku [[toponimi]] lami pikeun daérah Selat Malaka sacara umum.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}}
* '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', &quot;Malaya Dvipa&quot;, digambarkeun dina bab 48, Vayu Purana salaku salah sahiji propinsi di laut wétan anu pinuh ku emas sareng pérak. Sababaraha sarjana nyaruakeun istilah ieu sareng [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} tapi sababaraha sarjana India yakin istilah ieu kedah nujul ka Semenanjung Malaya anu pagunungan, sedengkeun Sumatra langkung pas dihubungkeun sareng Suvarnadvipa.{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}}
* '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – hiji lokasi di Golden Chersonese, tina karya Ptolemy, Geographia.{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}}
* '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – disebutkeun ku Yijing, saurang biarawan Buddha Cina ti Dinasti Tang anu nganjang ka Asia Tenggara dina taun 688–695. Nurutkeun Yijing, karajaan ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' ayana dina jarak 15 poé balayar ti Bogha (Palembang), ibukota Sribhoga ([[karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]]). Butuh waktu 15 poé balayar pikeun nepi ka Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) ti Mo-lo-yu; ku kituna, bisa disebutkeun yén Mo-Lo-Yu bakal aya di tengah-tengah antara dua tempat éta.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} Hiji téori populér ngahubungkeun ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' sareng Jambi di Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} nanging lokasi geografis Jambi bertentangan sareng katerangan Yi Jing ngeunaan &quot;satengah jalan pelayaran antara ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) sareng ''Bogha'' (Palembang)&quot;. Dina jaman Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368) sareng [[Dinasti Ming]] (1368–1644), kecap ''Ma-La-Yu'' sering disebutkeun dina téks sajarah Cina – kalayan parobahan éjahan kusabab rentang waktu antara dinasti-dinasti éta – pikeun nujul ka hiji bangsa di deukeut laut kidul. Diantara istilah anu digunakeun nyaéta &quot;Bôk-lá-yù&quot;, &quot;Mók-là-yū&quot; (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — disusud tina sumber tinulis biarawan Xuanzang) sareng Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
* '''''Malaiyur''''' – disebutkeun dina prasasti Tanjore. Karajaan ieu digambarkeun salaku karajaan anu gaduh &quot;gunung anu kuat pikeun bentengna&quot; anu murag ka penjajah Chola nalika kampanye Rajendra Chola I dina abad ka-11. Bisa jadi ayana di Sumatra, antara Pannai jeung Sriwijaya ([[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|77–78, 170}} meureun di situs arkéologis Muaro Jambi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|405}}
* '''''Malai''''' – disebutkeun ku ahli géografi Arab abad ka-12 [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] dina Tabula Rogeriana, éta ngagambarkeun semenanjung Malaya salaku pulo anu panjang sareng nyebatna Malai, wawatesan sareng Qmer (Khmer) sareng 12 dinten balayar ti Sanf (Champa).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508045322/https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ |date=2025-05-08 }}. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gerini, G. E., &amp; Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&amp;vq=malai&amp;pg=PA535#v=onepage&amp;q=malai&amp;f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;Tanah Malayu&quot;), transkripsi tina Prasasti Padang Roco tanggal 1286 CE ku Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} Istilah ieu aya patalina jeung karajaan [[Dharmasraya]].
* '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – disebutkeun dina babad Dinasti Yuan, nujul kana hiji bangsa di Semenanjung Malaya anu nyanghareupan ékspansi Karajaan Sukhothai ka kidul, nalika pamaréntahan Ram Khamhaeng.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=24 Maret 2026 |archive-date=27 Agustus 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kronik éta nyatakeun: &quot;''..Permusuhan lumangsung antara Siam sareng Ma-li-yu-er sareng duanana silih paéhan ...''&quot;. Pikeun ngaréspon tindakan Sukhothai, saurang utusan Cina angkat ka karaton Ram Khamhaeng dina taun 1295 mawa paréntah kaisar: &quot;Tepati jangji anjeun sareng ulah ngalakukeun kajahatan ka Ma-li-yu-er&quot;.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}}
* '''''Malauir''''' – disebutkeun dina catetan [[Marco Polo]] salaku karajaan anu aya di Semenanjung Malaya,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} kamungkinan sami sareng anu disebutkeun dina babad Yuan.
* '''''Malayapura''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;kota Malaya&quot; atanapi &quot;bénténg Malaya&quot;), anu diukir dina prasasti Amoghapasa anu tanggalna taun 1347 Masehi. Istilah éta dianggo ku Adityawarman pikeun nyebut [[Dharmasraya]].

Saran séjénna kaasup kecap [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] ''mlayu'' (salaku kecap pagawéan: lumpat, partisip: buronan), atawa istilah Melayu ''melaju'' (ngagancangkeun sacara ajeg), nuduhkeun mobilitas anu luhur jeung sipat migrasi masarakatna. De Barros (1552) nyebutkeun yén Iskandar Shah méré ngaran ''Malaios'' (urang Malayu) kitu lantaran bapana diusir ti nagarana. Albuquerque nerangkeun yén Parameswara ngungsi (''malayo'') ti karajaan Palembang ka Malaka.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== Salaku ngaran étnis (etnonim) ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420
| image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg
| alt1 = Urang Malayu Malaka
| caption1 = Cat cai Portugis urang Malaya di Malaka, kira-kira taun 1540, dipidangkeun dina Códice Casanatense.
| image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg
| alt2 = Pasangan Malayu
| caption2 = Ilustrasi pasangan Malayu, ti ''Reise nach Batavia'', antara taun 1669 jeung 1682
| image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg
| alt3 = Tari Joget
| caption3 = Tari Joget ti Kasultanan Malaka; seueur aspék budaya Malayu anu asalna ti karaton Malaka
}}

Kecap &quot;Melayu&quot; salaku étnonim, pikeun nuduhkeun gugusan étnologis anu béda pisan, dianggap geus jadi populer sapanjang integrasi Kasultanan Malaka salaku kakuatan régional dina abad ka-15. Ieu diterapkeun pikeun ngalaporkeun keberpihakan sosial urang Malaka dibandingkeun sareng urang asing di daérah anu sami, khususna [[urang Jawa]] sareng Thai.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} Ieu dibuktikeun tina daptar kecap Malayu awal abad ka-16 ku Antonio Pigafetta (anu milu dina pelayaran Magellan), anu ngarujuk kana panggunaan frasa ''chiara Malaiu'' ('cara Malayu') di maritim Asia Tenggara pikeun nuduhkeun ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[basa Italia]] pikeun &quot;nyarioskeun Malaka&quot;).{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Numutkeun sejarawan Anthony Milner, sastra Malayu klasik sering ngagambarkeun urang Malayu dina harti anu langkung heureut tibatan interpretasi modéren; ngarujuk kana téks-téks ieu salaku bukti pandangan ieu:&lt;ref name=&quot;Milner2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony  |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=2008 |isbn=9781444305098  |doi=10.1002/9781444305098}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|91–92}}

* ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', anu utamina ditulis dina abad ka-17, ngan ukur ngaidéntifikasi urang Malayu salaku subjék Kasultanan Malaka.&lt;ref&gt;See also {{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hikayat Patani'', anu dikarang ti taun 1690–1730, ngagunakeun istilah ieu sacara éksklusif pikeun Johor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Francis R. |date=Juni 2009 |title=Moral order in a time of damnation: The ''Hikayat Patani'' in historical context |doi=10.1017/S0022463409000150 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=40 |issue=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porath |first=Nathan |date= |title=The ''Hikayat Patani'': The Kingdom of Patani in the Malay and Thai Political World |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=84 |issue=2 (301) |page=54 |doi=10.1353/ras.2011.0016}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (katelah ogé Sejarah Kedah), anu ditulis dina ahir abad ka-18 atanapi awal abad ka-19, henteu nganggo kecap &quot;Malayu&quot; pikeun ngaranan urang [[Kedah]].
* ''Hikayat Aceh'', anu diperkirakeun ditulis antara taun 1636 sareng 1700, sacara éksplisit ngaitkeun étnis Malayu sareng Johor, tapi henteu ngalakukeun hal anu sami nalika nujul ka [[Acéh]] atanapi Deli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iskandar1958&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Iskandar |first=Teuku |title=De Hikajat Atjeh |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location='s-Gravenhage |date=1958 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260803204800/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-date=2026-08-03 |doi=10.26530/OAPEN_613413 |accessdate=2026-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|2–4}}&lt;ref&gt;See also {{cite journal |last=Braginsky |first=Vladimir |date=2008 |title=Structure, date and sources of Hikayat Aceh revisited: The problem of Mughal-Malay literary ties |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=441–467 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003662}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nanging, Milner nyatet, karya-karya ieu parantos ngalaman seueur éditan salami waktos ku rupa-rupa penyalin, anu panginten kalebet bubuka atanapi paningkatan konsép idéntitas &quot;Malayu&quot;; hiji salinan Sejarah Malayu, contona, nampilkeun pupuhu di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]] anu nujul kana &quot;turunan kuring&quot;, sedengkeun salinan anu langkung énggal maca &quot;rakyat Malayu&quot;.{{sfn|Milner2008|p=90–91}}

== Budaya ==
=== Basa ===
[[Gambar:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] ditulis dalam [[aksara Pallawa]]. Ti saprak taun 683, ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji artefak tulisan Malayu pangkolotna anu masih aya.]]
{{Main|Basa Malayu}}
{{See also|Abjad Jawi}}

[[Basa Malayu]] mangrupa salah sahiji basa anu pangpunjulna di dunya, utamana ti kulawarga basa Austronesia. Varian sareng dialek basa Melayu dianggo salaku basa resmi di [[Brunéi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Singapura]]. Basa ieu ogé dianggo di [[Thailand]] kidul, [[Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling)|Kapuloan Cocos]], [[Pulo Natal]], [[Sri Langka]]. Basa ieu diucapkeun sacara asli ku sakitar 33 juta jalma di sakuliah Kapuloan Malayu sareng dianggo salaku basa kadua ku sakitar 220 juta.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

Wangun basa Malayu pangkolotna asalna tina basa Proto-Malayu-Polinésia anu diucapkeun ku padumuk Austronésia pangkolotna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Wangun ieu engkéna mekar jadi basa Melayu Kuna nalika budaya jeung agama India mimiti nembus wewengkon éta. Basa Malayu Kuna ngandung sababaraha istilah anu masih aya nepi ka ayeuna, tapi tetep teu kaharti ku panyatur modéren, sedengkeun basa modéren ieu geus loba dipikawanoh dina basa Malayu Klasik tinulis, anu wangun pangkolotna asalna ti taun 1303 Masehi.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Basa Malayu mekar jadi basa Malayu Klasik ngaliwatan asupna rupa-rupa kosakecap [[basa Arab|Arab]] jeung [[basa Pérsi|Pérsi]] sacara laun-laun nalika Islam asup ka wilayah éta, sarta dina prosésna robah sacara signifikan. Mimitina, basa Malayu Klasik mangrupa sakumpulan dialek anu rupa-rupa, anu ngagambarkeun asal-usul karajaan Malayu di Asia Tenggara anu rupa-rupa. Salah sahiji dialek ieu, anu dimekarkeun dina tradisi sastra Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15, antukna janten dominan.

Jaman Malaka ditandaan ku robahna basa Melayu jadi basa Islam, sarupa jeung basa Arab, Persia, Urdu, jeung [[basa Swahili|Swahili]]. [[Aksara Arab]] anu diadaptasi anu disebut [[abjad Jawi|Jawi]] dianggo pikeun ngagantikeun aksara Kawi, terminologi agama sareng budaya Islam diasimilasi sacara lega, miceun seueur kecap Hindu-Buda, sareng basa Malayu janten basa pangajaran sareng panyebaran Islam di sakumna wilayah Asia Tenggara. Dina puncak kakawasaan Malaka dina abad ka-15, basa Melayu Klasik nyebar ka saluareun dunya&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}&lt;/ref&gt; panyatur basa Malayu tradisional sareng ngahasilkeun ''lingua franca'' anu disebut ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' (&quot;Bazaar Malayu&quot;) atanapi ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' (&quot;Malayu Handap&quot;), sabalikna tina ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' (&quot;Malayu Luhur&quot;) Malaka.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} Sacara umum dipercaya yén basa Malayu Bazaar mangrupikeun basa pidgin sareng kamekaran anu paling penting nyaéta basa pidgin dikréolisasi, nyiptakeun sababaraha basa énggal sapertos basa Malayu Ambon, Malayu Manado sareng [[basa Batawi]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

Pangarang [[Éropa]] dina abad ka-17 sareng ka-18, sapertos Tavernier, Thomassin sareng Werndly ngagambarkeun basa Melayu salaku &quot;''basa anu dipimilik ku jalma-jalma terpelajar di sakumna Hindia, sapertos [[basa Latén]] di Éropa''&quot;.{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} Ieu ogé anu paling seueur dianggo nalika jaman kolonial Inggris sareng Walanda di Kapuloan Malayu.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} Anu sabalikna katingali di Hindia Wétan Spanyol, dimana latinisasi massal di kapuloan ieu salami mangsa kolonial nyababkeun kudeta sajarah basa Malayu di Filipina.

Dialek Kasultanan Johor, panerus langsung Malaka, janten basa standar di kalangan urang Malayu di [[Singapura]] sareng [[Malaysia]], sareng éta ngawangun dasar asli pikeun [[basa Indonésia]] anu distandardisasi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Salian ti basa Malayu standar, anu dimekarkeun di lingkungan Malaka-Johor, aya ogé rupa-rupa dialek Malayu lokal. Contona, urang Bangka, urang Brunéi, urang Jambi, urang Kelantan, urang Kedah, urang Negeri Sembilan, urang Palémbang, urang Pattani, urang Sarawak, urang Terengganu, jeung réa-réa deui.

Basa Malayu sacara historis ditulis nganggo [[aksara Pallawa]], [[aksara Kawi|Kawi]] sareng Rencong. Saatos datangna Islam, [[abjad Jawi|aksara Jawi]] anu dumasar kana [[basa Arab]] diadopsi sareng masih dianggo dugi ka ayeuna salaku salah sahiji tina dua aksara resmi di Brunéi sareng salaku aksara alternatif di Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-date=29 Oktober 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dimimitian ti abad ka-17, salaku hasil tina penjajahan Inggris sareng Walanda, Jawi laun-laun diganti ku aksara Rumi&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=26 Juni 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; anu dumasar kana Latin anu antukna janten aksara resmi modéren pikeun basa Malayu di [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Indonésia]], sareng aksara resmi di [[Brunéi]].

=== Arsitéktur ===
{{See also|Imah Malayu}}
[[Gambar:Rumah kedah.gif|thumb|350px|Imah tradisional Malayu di [[Kedah]], dihias ku panel ukiran khas Semenanjung Malaya kalér.]]

[[Imah Malayu]] nujul kana tempat tinggal vernakular urang Malayu, hiji kelompok étno-linguistik anu cicing di [[Sumatra]], basisir [[Kalimantan]], sareng Semenanjung Malaya.

Wangun arsitéktur tradisional, sapertos hateup anu cocog sareng tropis sareng proporsi anu harmonis kalayan unsur hiasan dianggap masih gaduh nilai budaya anu ageung ku seueur jalmi di daérah éta. Nanging, wangunan-wangunan ieu meryogikeun pangropéa anu signifikan dibandingkeun sareng konstruksi modéren; sapertos tantangan dina ngalestarikeun bahan utama na, kai, tina pangaruh buruk cuaca tropis ogé serangan rayap. Kamampuh ngawangun vernakular ieu laun-laun leungit di [[Malaysia]] sabab kai alami beuki langka alatan deforestasi sajaba ti industrialisasi,&lt;ref name=H&gt;{{cite news |date=16 Méi 2026 |page=B7|newspaper=The Straits Times|department=Letter From... |title=Guest houses, film sets: Traditional Malay houses in demand with new lease of life|author=Hadi Azmi }}&lt;/ref&gt; sedengkeun di [[Indonésia]] tempat tinggal tradisional sapertos kitu masih kénéh aya di daérah padésaan. Sanaos transformasi urban di [[Singapura]] parantos ngaleungitkeun ampir sadaya lingkungan urban Malayu, sababaraha bumi anu nampilkeun arsitéktur vernakular ieu masih salamet, utamina dipusatkeun di pulo lepas pantai Pulau Ubin.{{Citation needed|date=Désémber 2022}}

Usaha pikeun ngalestarikeun gaya arsitéktur asli kapuloan Indonésia parantos dilaksanakeun ngalangkungan dokumentasi sareng réplika kreasi di paviliun [[daptar propinsi di Indonésia|propinsi]] di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]. Nu boga imah tradisional Malaysia anu masih kénéh aya ogé nyéwakeun imah-imah éta ka studio produksi salaku lokasi syuting pilem sareng iklan, sareng homestay, salaku sumber panghasilan tambahan.&lt;ref name=H/&gt;

=== Agama ===
[[Gambar:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|Masjid Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien di [[Brunéi]] dina wengi Ramadhan. Karajaan anu beunghar ieu nganut Melayu Islam Beraja (''Monarki Islam Malayu'') salaku filsafat nasional saprak kamerdékaanana dina taun 1984.]]

Masarakat Malayu mimiti seuseueurna [[animisme|animis]], percaya kana ayana ''semangat'' (roh) dina sagala hal.&lt;ref name=&quot;zaki1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kira-kira dina awal jaman umum, agama [[Hindu]] sareng [[agama Buddha|Budha]] diwanohkeun ku para padagang Asia Kidul ka Kapuloan Melayu, dimana aranjeunna mekar dugi ka abad ka-13, sateuacan datangna Islam anu dibawa ku para padagang Muslim [[urang Arab|Arab]], Asia Kidul, sareng Cina.

Dina abad ka-15, Islam ti aliran [[Sunni]] ortodoks mekar di [[dunya Malayu]] dina kakawasaan Kasultanan Malaka. Beda sareng agama Hindu, anu sacara dangkal ngarobih masarakat Malayu awal, Islam tiasa disebatkeun parantos terintegrasi sapinuhna kana kahirupan sapopoe pendudukna.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ti saprak jaman ieu, urang Malayu dianggap salaku kelompok étnoreligius sareng sacara tradisional ngagaduhan idéntifikasi anu caket sareng [[Islam]]{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} sareng aranjeunna henteu ngarobih agama ti saprak harita.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot; /&gt; Identitas ieu kacida kuatna nepi ka disebut-sebut yén pikeun jadi Muslim nyaéta pikeun ''masuk Melayu'' (asup ka Malayu).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Sanajan kitu, kapercayaan-kapercayaan samemehna anu miboga akar anu leuwih jero, aranjeunna tetep ngalawan kutukan Islam – sareng memang mistisisme [[tasawuf]] parantos ngahiji di antara urang Malayu, sareng roh-roh dunya animisme samemehna sareng sababaraha unsur Hindu.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Saatos taun 1970-an, kebangkitan Islam (disebut ogé re-Islamisasi{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) di sakumna dunya Muslim, seueur tradisi anu dianggap bertentangan sareng ajaran Islam sareng ngandung unsur syirik ditinggalkeun ku [[urang Malayu Malaysia|urang Malayu di Malaysia]], sedengkeun di kalangan [[urang Malayu Indonésia|urang Malayu di Indonésia]], tradisi ieu henteu dianggap takhayul sareng ngandung unsur syirik. Di antara tradisi-tradisi ieu nyaéta festival ''mandi [[Safar]]'', festival mandi pikeun ngahontal kasucian spiritual, anu tiasa dititénan ciri-cirina anu sami sareng sababaraha tradisi dina Durga Puja di [[India]].{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

Seuseueurna étnis Malayu modéren anu ngagem Islam [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 Oktober 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; sareng festival Malayu anu paling penting nyaéta anu asalna Islam - ''[[Idulfitri|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Iduladha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Muharom|Awal Muharram]]'', sareng ''[[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]]''. Urang Malayu anu kaluar tina Islam di Malaysia sareng Brunéi dianggap murtad. Nanging, aya sajumlah étnis Malayu anu cicing di luar nagara-nagara ieu ogé parantos nganut agama sanés sacara sah dumasar kana hukum.

=== Festival sareng perayaan ===
[[Gambar:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Deretan Pelita (lampu minyak) anu hurung nalika ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (peuting ka-27 [[Ramadhan]]), lampu minyak ieu sacara tradisional dianggo pikeun nyaangan bumi sareng jalan-jalan nalika Ramadhan. Katingali didieu di Muar, Johor, [[Malaysia]].]]

Kamekaran [[Islam]] hasil ngarobah harti idéntitas Malayu dina abad ka-15. Ku kituna, kalolobaan festival sareng perayaan Malayu lumangsung sajajar sareng [[kalénder Islam]], sanaos parantos ngakar jero ku karakter Malayu anu kuat. Peringatan Hari Raya (hartina &quot;Poé Agung&quot;) dua kali sataun pikeun [[Aidilfitri]] sareng [[Aidiladha]] dipuji salaku perayaan agung sacara universal di sakumna masarakat Malayu. Dua poé libur ieu penting pisan pikeun méré komentar kana dua kajadian utama sarta filsafat dina ajaran jeung kapercayaan Islam. Anu kahiji nandakeun kameunangan salaku Muslim saatos sabulan [[puasa]]/[[saum]] sareng kasabaran dina bulan [[Ramadan]], sedengkeun anu kadua nyaéta pikeun ngalaksanakeun kurban anu dilakukeun ku [[Nabi Ibrahim|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) kalayan nyebat asma [[Allah]].

Liburan ''Raya'' biasana dimimitian nalika acara mudik anu dikenal salaku Balik Kampung atanapi ''Balik Raya'' anu lumangsung sababaraha dinten sateuacan festival. Salila Hari Raya, urang Malayu bakal ngarayakeun ku ngalaksanakeun solat Hari Raya, ngayakeun pésta ageung sareng nganjang ka réréncangan, baraya sareng tatangga. Ngajugjug ka makam jalmi-jalmi anu dipikacinta anu parantos pupus ogé penting, salaku tanda hormat, kanyaah, sareng kahormatan.

[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|Upacara penobatan antara Tengku Otteman, salaku ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Putera Mahkota) Kasultanan Deli, [[Hindia-Walanda]]; jeung pamajikanana, Raja Amnah, anggota Royalti Perak salaku ''Tengku Puan Indera'' dina 1925]]

Upacara liturgi sareng agama utama anu sanésna anu dirayakeun ku urang Malayu kalebet Ramadhan, bulan suci salami sabulan anu dikhususkeun pikeun puasa siang sareng rupa-rupa kagiatan agama; [[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]], prosesi ageung khusus pikeun ngahargaan kalahiran [[Muhammad]]; [[Asyura]], pangéling-ngéling [[Muharram]] dimana urang Malayu bakal nyiapkeun hidangan khusus, anu katelah ''Bubur Asyura''; [[Nisfu Saaban|Nisfu Syaaban]], perayaan [[Sya'ban|Nisfu Sya'ban]], dinten khusus [[puasa]] pikeun ngahampura; Nuzul Quran, wahyu anu munggaran tina [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]; [[Isra Mi'raj|Israk dan Mikraj]], naékna [[Muhammad]] ka langit sareng Awal Muharram, Taun Anyar Islam; tilu perayaan anu terakhir biasana dilaksanakeun ku ngayakeun solat ''sunat'' khusus, ceramah agama sareng diskusi Islam di [[masigit]].

Aya ogé seueur festival budaya régional domestik sareng acara sosial dina rupa-rupa lingkungan Malayu. Daérah basisir sacara historis katelah ngayakeun upacara ''Mandi Safar'' atanapi ''Puja Pantai'', nyaéta mandi suci salami bulan [[Safar]] [[kalénder Islam|Islam]], anu mimitina ditiru tina ritual beberesih suci Malayu kuno pra-Islam, mirip sareng tradisi Belimau sateuacan Ramadhan; sareng ''Pesta Menuai'', festival panén anu dirayakeun ku komunitas Malayu pedalaman sareng agraris ku kaulinan tradisional, téater, Joget sareng repertoar tari-tarian sanésna. Nanging, duanana prakték éta laun-laun punah kusabab rupa-rupa révolusi sosial sareng ékonomi anu direkayasa dina komunitas Malayu dina abad ka-20. Salian ti éta, seueur urang Malayu ogé katelah ilubiung dina perayaan kaisar pikeun ngahargaan ka karaton karajaan masing-masing.

Fitur-fitur Islam ogé ngahias perayaan Malayu sacara kuat dina tingkat individu, hiji panyandingan anu kabeungkeut kana ritual spiritual salaku Muslim. Urang Malayu biasana ngayakeun ''kenduri'', nyaéta pésta upacara agama pikeun ngarayakeun atawa ménta berkah pikeun hiji acara. Aya sababaraha variasi filosofis tina kenduri, sapertos ''Doa Selamat'' (nyuhunkeun sih kurnia sareng panyalindungan ilahi), ''Kesyukuran'' (pikeun ucapan syukur sareng rasa syukur), ''Melenggang Perut'' (pijet upacara pikeun ibu anu nuju hamil anak kahijina), ''Aqiqah'' sareng ''Cukur Jambul'' (upacara orok anu nembe lahir, pikeun ngarayakeun kahirupan anyar), ''Bertindik'' (upacara tindik munggaran pikeun murangkalih awéwé), ''Khatam'' (upacara wisuda, saatos maca [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] anu munggaran pikeun murangkalih), ''Khatan'' (sunat), ''Kahwin'' ([[upacara adat nikahkeun|pernikahan]]), ''Arwah'' atanapi ''Tahlil'' (doa pikeun jalmi anu tos maot), sareng sababaraha di antarana. Acara ieu biasana diayakeun ku kulawarga sareng sacara tradisional dibantuan ku masarakat dina hiji acara sosial anu katelah ''Rewang'' atanapi ''Gotong-royong''. Salila upacara ieu, sakumna kulawarga bakal dibantuan ku tatangga sareng barayana, masrahkeun rupa-rupa tugas ti mimiti nyiapkeun tuangeun, manajemen tempat, perakitan logistik sareng kontrol téknis anu sanésna. Sanajan kitu, nuturkeun munculna urbanisme dina komunitas Malayu kontemporer, prakték ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' laun-laun digantikeun ku jasa katering anu disewa ku kulawarga.

=== Musik ===
{{See also|Musik Malayu}}
[[Musik Malayu]] nyaéta hiji genre musik tradisional anu asalna sarta dimekarkeun di basisir wétan [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta Semenanjung Malaya.&lt;ref&gt;Sahputra, T. W. H., Martarosa, &amp; Warhat, Z. (2019). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/408383-musik-jazz-melayu-dalam-kajian-kreativit-7b989836.pdf Musik jazz Melayu dalam kajian kreativitas]''. ''Melayu Arts and Performance Journal'', 2(2), 191–200. &lt;/ref&gt; Musik ieu biasana dinyanyikeun ku jalma-jalma ti kelompok étnis Malayu sareng sering dipirig ku tarian has lokal Melayu, contona nawiskeun tarian dina acara atanapi pésta tradisional, ngabagéakeun tamu kahormatan, sareng dina kagiatan agama.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Purba|first=Junaidi|last2=Putri|first2=Sabrina Maulidia|last3=Nelson|first3=Ricky|last4=Silaban|first4=Cahyani Yesika br|last5=Ridho|first5=Muhammad Habibur|last6=Andika|first6=Riki|last7=Sitorus|first7=Christina Harianti|last8=Sa|first8=Maulidha|last9=Dardanila|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/TRANSFORMATION_OF_TRADITIONAL_ARTS_RESPO/mtaeEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL ARTS: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE TIMES|publisher=Mawadra Lestari Enterprise|isbn=978-629-95611-1-8|pages=62|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Asbullah|first=Habib|last2=Rizkia|first2=Ayu|last3=Batrisya|last4=Julianto|first4=Deldi|last5=Pangestu|first5=Dimas|last6=Rania|first6=Dinda Safira|last7=Miranti|first7=Dwi|last8=Afrillia|first8=Ega|last9=Irianto|first9=Ega Deni|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengabadikan_Riau_Buku_I/WXsgEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=Mengabadikan Riau: Buku I: Antologi Esai Kebudayaan|publisher=Penerbit Pustaka Rumah C1nta|isbn=978-623-7961-67-3|pages=95|language=id|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anu pikaresepeun tina genre musik ieu nyaéta dina komposisina anu diwangun ku lirik lagu anu ngandung puisi anu disaluyukeun sareng kahirupan sapopoe, cinta (sapertos Dondang Sayang) sareng pinuh ku ajaran (pesen moral), dieusi ku sora atanapi vokal cengkok has Malayu, sareng aransemen musik anu disusun rapih.

Bareng jeung kamekaran jaman, musik Malayu geus ngalaman parobahan dina gaya musikna, contona, geus ngalaman fusi jeung [[musik pop]], [[musik rock]], jeung [[dangdut]]. Aliran ieu tiasa dipendakan di nagara-nagara anu aya patalina sareng Malayu, sapertos [[Indonésia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Brunéi]].

Dina awal kamekaranana, alat musik anu dianggo didominasi ku aksi [[rebana]] anu disebut Kompang ti [[Kabupatén Ponorogo|Ponorogo]], petik gambus, gesek [[biola]], jepit akordeon, paripolah [[goong]], sareng niup sarunai. Ieu dipangaruhan ku budaya tanah [[urang Arab|Arab]] sareng [[Éropa]] tradisional. Bareng jeung kamekaran téknologi, kabéh ieu geus diganti ku alat musik éléktronik dina wangun kibor. Nanging, dina kagiatan-kagiatan tertentu alat musik tradisional masih dianggo pikeun ngalestarikeun warisan budaya.

Dina kamajuanana, gerakan ieu populér dina taun 80-an sareng bahkan lebet kana era &quot;puncak kajayaan&quot; dina taun 90-an. Ieu ditandaan ku ningkatna jumlah penyanyi sareng [[grup musik|band]] Malayu, sareng pendatang anyar anu muncul kalayan lagu-lagu khasna nyalira.

=== Pakéan tradisional ===
[[Gambar:Busana Melayu.jpg|thumb|Lalaki Malayu dina ''busana Melayu'', gaya tradisional pakéan Malayu]]

Pakéan jeung tékstil tradisional Malayu geus terus robah ti jaman baheula. Sacara historis, urang Malayu kuno dicatet ngagunakeun rupa-rupa bahan alami salaku sumber penting pikeun lawon, pakean, sareng acuk. Nanging, dina jaman umumna, nalika nyaksian datangna para padagang mimiti ti wétan sareng kulon ka palabuhan-palabuhan di Kapuloan Malayu, aranjeunna babarengan mésér barang-barang méwah anyar, kalebet katun sareng sutra anu saé. Pakéan-pakéan éta salajengna janten sumber mode Malayu anu luhur sareng ngagaduhan peran budaya salaku idéntitas anu ngiket di Nusantara, khususna di semenanjung, Sumatra sareng daérah basisir Kalimantan.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Dina budaya Malayu, pakean sareng tékstil dihormat salaku simbol kaéndahan, kakawasaan sareng status. Seueur catetan dina hikayat Malayu anu nekenkeun tempat khusus anu ditempatan ku tékstil.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} Industri tenun tangan Malayu bisa dilacak asal-usulna ti abad ka-13 nalika jalur perdagangan wétan mekar dina jaman Dinasti Song. Sebutan ngeunaan tékstil buatan lokal ogé dominasi tenun di Semenanjung Malaya dilakukeun dina sababaraha carita Cina sareng [[urang Arab|Arab]].{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Di antara tékstil Malayu anu kasohor nyaéta [[Songkét]], [[Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' jeung ''Tekad''.

Pakéan Malayu klasik rupa-rupa di unggal daérah, tapi pakéan tradisional anu paling jero dina jaman kiwari nyaéta Baju Kurung (pikeun awéwé) sareng Baju Melayu (pikeun lalaki), anu duanana diaku salaku pakéan nasional pikeun [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Brunéi]], sareng ogé dianggo ku komunitas Malayu di [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Myanmar]] sareng [[Thailand]].

[[Gambar:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|left|Barudak Malayu maké baju adat nalika [[Idulfitri|Idul Fitri]]]]

Kecap ''Baju Kurung'', sacara literatur dihartikeun salaku &quot;ngabungkus awak&quot; anu nganggona disaluyukeun dumasar kana prinsip-prinsip Islam ngeunaan karendahan haté, kasopanan, sareng karendahan haté. Prakték ieu sajajar jeung doktrin agama Yahudi-Kristen, sabab memamerkeun [[orat|bagian awak anu intim]] dianggap dilarang dina Islam. Tafsiran éta teras diserep kana cara berpakaian sareng sudut pandang budaya Malayu, ieu tiasa disaksian pisan dina pamaréntahan Mansur Shah ti Malaka dina abad ka-15, sultan ngalarang rahayat Muslim awéwéna di tempat umum ngan ukur nganggo [[sarung]] ti dada ka handap. Sapanjang jaman, Baju Kurung Malayu ngalaman sababaraha kali reinkarnasi sateuacan ngaku bentukna ayeuna. Alatan legana rupa-rupa karajaan Malayu di Nusantara, wangun lokal jeung béda tina pola desain Baju Kurung ogé bisa disaksian di wewengkon, kaasup [[Bengkulu]], Kedah, [[Jambi]], Johor-Riau, Pahang jeung [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]].{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Mode baju kurung anu cocog pikeun lalaki katelah &quot;Baju Melayu&quot;. Bagian luhur pakean ieu didamel kalayan desain géométri anu ampir sami sareng Baju Kurung sareng umumna dipasangkan sareng lawon tenun anu dikenal salaku sarung. Pola sarung bisa ngawengku simbol status perkawinan jalma éta atawa pangkatna dina masarakat tradisional Malayu.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Pakéan Malayu klasik umum lianna pikeun lalaki nyaéta ''baju'' (kaméja) atanapi ''tekua'' (sajenis baju lengan panjang), ''baju rompi'' (rompi), ''kancing'' (kancing), ''celana'' suku leutik (calana panjang), [[sarung]] anu dianggo di sabudeureun cangkéng, ''capal'' (sandal), sareng ''tanjak'' atanapi ''tengkolok'' (tutup sirah); pikeun bangsawan, ''baju sikap'' atanapi ''baju layang'' (sajenis jas) sareng ''pending'' (gesper sabuk hias) ogé sinonim pikeun dianggo salaku pakéan resmi. Ogé umum pikeun ''Pendekar'' (pahlawan Malayu) ngagaduhan [[keris]] anu diselapkeun kana lipatan hareup sarung.

Beda sareng Baju Melayu anu ngan ukur dianggo salaku pakean upacara, Baju Kurung dianggo unggal dinten sapanjang taun ku mayoritas awéwé Malayu. Katingali pagawé sipil awéwé, pagawé profésional, sareng mahasiswa nganggo Baju Kurung mangrupikeun hal anu umum di Malaysia sareng Brunéi.

=== Seni bela diri ===
[[Gambar:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|Saurang praktisi silat awéwé ti [[Singapura]]]]

Silat sareng varianna tiasa dipendakan di sakumna [[dunya Malayu]]: Semenanjung Malaya (kalebet [[Singapura]]), [[Kapuloan Riau]], [[Sumatra]] sareng daérah basisir [[Kalimantan]]. Bukti arkéologis ngungkabkeun yén, dina abad ka-6, seni tarung formal geus dipraktékkeun di Semenanjung Malaya sareng Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} Wangun Silat pangheubeulna dipercaya geus dimekarkeun sarta dipaké dina angkatan bersenjata karajaan Melayu kuno Langkasuka (abad ka-2){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] (abad ka-7).

Pangaruh kasultanan Malayu Malaka, Johor, Pattani sareng [[Brunéi]] parantos nyumbang kana panyebaran seni bela diri ieu di Kepulauan Melayu. Ngaliwatan labirin saluran laut sareng kapiler walungan anu rumit anu ngagampangkeun pertukaran sareng perdagangan di sakumna daérah, Silat ngaléngkah ka leuweung hujan anu padet teras naék ka pagunungan. Laksamana Hang Tuah ti Malaka anu legendaris nyaéta salah sahiji ''pesilat'' (praktisi Silat) anu paling kasohor dina sajarah{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} sareng bahkan dianggap ku sababaraha urang salaku bapak silat Malayu.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Ti saprak jaman klasik, Silat Melayu ngalaman diversifikasi anu ageung sareng ngawangun naon anu ayeuna sacara tradisional diakui salaku sumber [[Penca Silat|Pencak Silat]] Indonésia sareng bentuk Silat sanésna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]].{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Salian ti Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] ogé diamalkeun ku urang Malayu, utamina di daérah kalér Semenanjung Malaya. Ieu mangrupikeun varian tina bentuk kickboxing [[Indochina|Indo-Cina]] anu dipercaya parantos sumebar di [[daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] ti saprak jaman Kakaisaran Funan (68 Masehi).

=== Seni pintonan ===
[[Gambar:Joget Gamelan 1937.jpg|thumb|Pagelaran Joget Gamelan, 1937]]

Urang Malayu miboga rupa-rupa musik jeung tari anu mangrupa gabungan tina rupa-rupa pangaruh budaya. Genre hasna mimitian ti tarian rahayat tradisional Malayu sapertos Mak Yong dugi ka tarian Zapin anu dipangaruhan ku [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Gerakan koreografi ogé rupa-rupa, ti léngkah sareng lagu anu saderhana dina Dikir barat dugi ka gerakan anu rumit dina Joget Gamelan.

Musik tradisional Malayu dasarna nyaéta musik perkusi. Rupa-rupa [[goong|gong]] nyadiakeun ketukan pikeun seueur tarian. Aya ogé kendang kalayan rupa-rupa ukuran, mimitian ti ''rebana ubi'' ageung anu dianggo pikeun nandakeun kajadian penting dugi ka ''rebana leutik anu digesek'' ([[drum|drum pigura]]) anu dianggo salaku iringan pikeun bacaan vokal dina upacara agama.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Gambar:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert &amp; Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|left|Sakelompok penari Malayu Siam anu mintonkeun Mak Yong (kira-kira abad ka-19). Dina taun 2005, éta nampi pangakuan salaku salah sahiji karya agung warisan lisan sareng teu kasat mata umat manusa ku UNESCO.]]

Musik nobat janten bagian tina Royal Regalia di karaton Malayu saprak datangna Islam dina abad ka-12 sareng ngan ukur dipintonkeun dina upacara-upacara penting karaton. Orkestrana ngawengku instrumen suci sareng dihormat pisan sapertos ''nehara'' ([[kendang]]), ''gendang'' (kendang dua sirah), ''nafiri'' (trompet), ''serunai'' (oboe), sareng sakapeung [[goong]] kenop sareng sapasang simbal.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Pangaruh India kuat dina drama kalangkang tradisional anu katelah Wayang Kulit dimana carita-carita tina epik Hindu; [[Ramayana]] &amp; [[Mahabarata|Mahabharata]] ngawangun repertoar utama. Aya opat tipe has tina teater wayang kulit nu bisa kapanggih di Semenanjung Malaya; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' jeung ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Sanajan kitu, seni sareng carita ''Wayang Purwa'' sareng ''Wayang Siam'' nunjukkeun pangaruh régional anu ngahiji sareng [[urang Jawa]] sareng Siam, sedengkeun ''Wayang Melayu'' sareng ''Wayang Gedek'' nyaritakeun bentuk sareng busana Malayu anu langkung asli.

Seni pintonan Malayu anu kakoncara séjénna nyaéta; Teater ''Bangsawan'', ''Dondang Sayang'' balad jeung tarian ''Mak Inang'' ti Kasultanan Malaka, Teater ''Jikey'' jeung ''Mek Mulung'' ti [[Kedah]], Tari ''Asyik'' jeung Drama Tari ''Menora'' ti Patani jeung Kelantan, Tari ''Ulek mayang'' jeung ''Rodat'' ti Terengganu, Teater ''Boria'' ti Penang, Tari ''Canggung'' ti Perlis, Lagu naratif ''Mukun'' ti [[Brunéi]] jeung Sarawak,{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gending Sriwijaya]] ti [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' ti Serdang,&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;/&gt; Zapin Api tari seuneu ti [[Riau]] jeung Dikir barat Singapura ti [[Singapura]].

=== Seni visual ===
[[Gambar:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|Burung Petala Indra, manuk mitos raksasa anu dijieun pikeun parade sunat agung pangeran Kelantan.]]

Seni ukir kai mangrupa bagian tina [[seni rupa|seni visual]] Malayu klasik. Urang Malayu sacara tradisional ngahias monumen, parahu, pakarang, makam, alat musik, sareng parabotna ku motif flora, kaligrafi, géométri sareng fitur kosmik. Seni ieu dilakukeun ku cara miceun sabagian kai nganggo alat seukeut sareng nuturkeun pola, komposisi, sareng urutan anu khusus. Bentuk seni ieu, katelah ''ukir'', dipuji salaku tindakan bakti para pengrajin ka nu nyiptakeun sareng hadiah ka sasama manusa.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

Bentuk seni ieu utamina disababkeun ku lobana kai di Kapuloan Malayu sareng ogé ku kaparigelan para tukang ukir kai anu ngamungkinkeun urang Malayu pikeun latihan ukir kai salaku karajinan. Latar tropis alami dimana flora sareng fauna seueur pisan parantos ngainspirasi motif pikeun digambarkeun dina bentuk abstrak atanapi bergaya kana papan kai. Kalayan datangna Islam, bentuk géométri sareng kaligrafi Islam diwanohkeun dina ukiran kai. Kai anu dianggo biasana tina spésiés kai keras tropis anu dipikanyaho awét sareng tiasa tahan serangan jamur, kumbang boot listrik, sareng rayap.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

Imah tradisional Malayu atanapi [[masjid]] biasana dihias ku langkung ti 20 komponén ukiran. Ukiran dina témbok sareng panel ngamungkinkeun angin ngahiliwir sacara efektif ka jero sareng ka luar gedong sareng tiasa ngantepkeun sinar panonpoé nyaangan bagian jero struktur. Dina waktos anu sami, kalangkang anu ditimbulkeun ku panel-panel éta ogé bakal nyiptakeun kalangkang dumasar kana motif-motif anu nambahan kaéndahan dina lanté. Ku kituna, komponén anu diukir ngalaksanakeun tujuan fungsional sareng estetika.

==Kelompok sub-étnis==
{{Tingali ogé|Urang Malayu Indonésia|Urang Malayu Malaysia|Urang Malayu Singapura}}

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Dunya Malayu]]
* [[Imah Malayu]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
* {{ms}} [http://iyco0.tripod.com/usmanawang.html Puisi Usman Awang mengenai Melayu.] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{en}} [http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=29765 Melayu]
* {{id}} [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:lYcg2r-ziWYJ:ccm.um.edu.my/umweb/fsss/images/persidangan/Kertas%2520Kerja/Pak%2520Witrianto.doc+Rumpun+Banjar&amp;hl=id&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=139&amp;gl=id&amp;client=firefox-a Modal Sosial dan Pembangunan Manusia Melayu oleh Witrianto, S.S., M.Hum., M.Si dari Universitas Andalas] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{id}} [http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm Bhinneka Tunggal Ika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126030352/http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm |date=26 Januari 2010 }}
* {{id}} [http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aW1QL3FMZVZBUkU4Ng%3D%3D= Gerakan Bangsa Melayu Besar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408223826/http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aw1ql3fmzvzbuku4ng=== |date=8 April 2016 }}

[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia|Malayu]]

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[[File:Malay couple.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Salaki pamajikan saatos ngalaksanakeun upacara akad nikah (prosesi kawinan). Panganten lalaki nganggo baju Malayu anu dipasangkan sareng songkok sareng songket, sedengkeun panganten awéwé nganggo baju kurung sareng jilbab.]]

'''Urang Malayu''' ({{langx|ms|'''Orang Melayu'''}}; [[Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو}}) wirua grup étnis [[Austronesia]] utami nu nyicingan Semenanjung Melayu, kidul [[Thailand]], pantai kidul [[Burma]], pulo [[Singapura]], [[Bornéo]] gisik basisir kaasup [[Brunéi]], [[Kalimantan Kulon]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]], Sarawak jeung basisir [[Sabah]], [[Filipina]] kulon teur kidul, jeung palulo alit nu aya di antara lokasi-tempat ieu — sacara pas dikenal salaku &quot;Dunia Melayu&quot;. Lokasi ieu ayeuna wirua bagian naragara modern [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Brunéi]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Filipina]].

[[File:Malay tricolour.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bandéra Triwarna Melayu anu némbongkeun idéntitas urang Malayu]]

Aya karagaman basa, budaya, artistik, sareng sosial anu lumayan ageung di antara seueur subgrup Melayu, utamina kusabab ratusan taun imigrasi sareng asimilasi rupa-rupa étnis sareng suku régional di Asia Tenggara Maritim. Sacara historis, populasi Melayu utamina turunan ti suku Austronesia sareng Austroasia anu nganggo basa Melayu sateuacanna anu ngadegkeun sababaraha nagara sareng karajaan dagang maritim kuno, khususna [[Brunéi]], [[Kedah]], Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, [[Karajaan Malayu|Melayu]], sareng [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 &amp; 60}}

Kamekaran sareng ngadegna Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 nyababkeun révolusi ageung dina sajarah urang Melayu. Ieu kajadian kusabab kasultanan mawa parobahan anu signifikan pisan kana sistem budaya sareng kasultanan ngahontal kamulyaan dina periode éta.

Numutkeun catetan sajarah, urang Malayu geus dipikawanoh salaku komunitas dagang lintas cai anu mibanda ciri budaya anu dinamis.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 &amp; 43}} Aranjeunna tiasa nyerep, ngabagi, sareng nyebarkeun seueur budaya unik ti kelompok étnis sanés, sapertos budaya Minang sareng Acéh.

Kadatangan Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15 micu révolusi utama dina sajarah Melayu, anu pentingna aya dina warisan pulitik sareng budayana anu lega. Tanda-tanda umum anu pasti ngeunaan ka-Melayuan — agama Islam, basa sareng tradisi Malayu — dianggap parantos diproklamasikeun dina jaman ieu, anu ngarah kana étnogenesis urang Malayu salaku kelompok étnoreligius utama di daérah éta. Dina sastra, arsitéktur, tradisi kuliner, pakean tradisional, seni pertunjukan, seni bela diri sareng tradisi karaton, Malaka netepkeun standar anu ditiru ku kasultanan Melayu salajengna. Mangsa kajayaan kasultanan Melayu di Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatra Wétan, sareng basisir Kalimantan ningali seueur pendudukna, khususna ti sababaraha komunitas suku sapertos [[Batak]], Dayak, Urang Asli, sareng Urang Laut, tunduk kana Islamisasi sareng Invasi Melayu. Sapanjang sajarah, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; parantos diperpanjang ka kelompok étnis sanés dina &quot;[[Dunya Malayu]]&quot;; panggunaan ieu ayeuna seuseueurna diwatesan di Malaysia sareng Singapura, dimana turunan sanés tina kelompok étnis ieu disebut Anak Dagang (&quot;padagang&quot;) sareng seuseueurna asalna ti Indonésia sapertos urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]].

== Étimologi ==
[[Gambar:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|Kompleks Candi Muaro Jambi di [[Jambi]], sajarahna dihubungkeun sareng [[Karajaan Malayu]] pra-Islam. Urang Melayu-Sriwijaya katelah ngawangun sistem wangunan anu rumit di ibukotana, kota-kota utama, sareng pusat-pusat kota anu penting.]]
[[Gambar:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|Bukit Seguntang di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]. Numutkeun ''Sejarah Melayu'', éta pasir nyatet datangna Sang Sapurba, karuhun legendaris pikeun rupa-rupa kulawarga karajaan Malayu di Sumatra, Semenanjung Malaya, sareng Kalimantan.]]

Literatur epik ''Malay Annals'' ngahubungkeun asal usul étimologis &quot;Melayu&quot; ka walungan leutik anu dingaranan ''Sungai Melayu'' ('walungan Melayu') di [[Sumatra]], [[Indonésia]]. Epik éta salah nyebutkeun yén walungan éta ngalir ka Walungan Musi di Palembang, padahal kanyataanna ngalir ka Walungan Batang Hari di [[Jambi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=Oktober 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|298}} Istilah ieu dipercaya asalna tina kecap Melayu ''melaju'', kombinasi tina awalan verbal 'me' sareng akar kecap 'laju', anu hartosna &quot;ngagancangkeun&quot;, dianggo pikeun ngagambarkeun arus walungan anu gancang.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== Salaku ngaran tempat (toponim) ===
Sateuacan abad ka-15, istilah &quot;Melayu&quot; sareng varian anu sami sigana dianggo salaku [[toponimi]] lami pikeun daérah Selat Malaka sacara umum.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}}
* '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', &quot;Malaya Dvipa&quot;, digambarkeun dina bab 48, Vayu Purana salaku salah sahiji propinsi di laut wétan anu pinuh ku emas sareng pérak. Sababaraha sarjana nyaruakeun istilah ieu sareng [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} tapi sababaraha sarjana India yakin istilah ieu kedah nujul ka Semenanjung Malaya anu pagunungan, sedengkeun Sumatra langkung pas dihubungkeun sareng Suvarnadvipa.{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}}
* '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – hiji lokasi di Golden Chersonese, tina karya Ptolemy, Geographia.{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}}
* '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – disebutkeun ku Yijing, saurang biarawan Buddha Cina ti Dinasti Tang anu nganjang ka Asia Tenggara dina taun 688–695. Nurutkeun Yijing, karajaan ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' ayana dina jarak 15 poé balayar ti Bogha (Palembang), ibukota Sribhoga ([[karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]]). Butuh waktu 15 poé balayar pikeun nepi ka Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) ti Mo-lo-yu; ku kituna, bisa disebutkeun yén Mo-Lo-Yu bakal aya di tengah-tengah antara dua tempat éta.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} Hiji téori populér ngahubungkeun ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' sareng Jambi di Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} nanging lokasi geografis Jambi bertentangan sareng katerangan Yi Jing ngeunaan &quot;satengah jalan pelayaran antara ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) sareng ''Bogha'' (Palembang)&quot;. Dina jaman Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368) sareng [[Dinasti Ming]] (1368–1644), kecap ''Ma-La-Yu'' sering disebutkeun dina téks sajarah Cina – kalayan parobahan éjahan kusabab rentang waktu antara dinasti-dinasti éta – pikeun nujul ka hiji bangsa di deukeut laut kidul. Diantara istilah anu digunakeun nyaéta &quot;Bôk-lá-yù&quot;, &quot;Mók-là-yū&quot; (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — disusud tina sumber tinulis biarawan Xuanzang) sareng Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
* '''''Malaiyur''''' – disebutkeun dina prasasti Tanjore. Karajaan ieu digambarkeun salaku karajaan anu gaduh &quot;gunung anu kuat pikeun bentengna&quot; anu murag ka penjajah Chola nalika kampanye Rajendra Chola I dina abad ka-11. Bisa jadi ayana di Sumatra, antara Pannai jeung Sriwijaya ([[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|77–78, 170}} meureun di situs arkéologis Muaro Jambi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|405}}
* '''''Malai''''' – disebutkeun ku ahli géografi Arab abad ka-12 [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] dina Tabula Rogeriana, éta ngagambarkeun semenanjung Malaya salaku pulo anu panjang sareng nyebatna Malai, wawatesan sareng Qmer (Khmer) sareng 12 dinten balayar ti Sanf (Champa).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508045322/https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ |date=2025-05-08 }}. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gerini, G. E., &amp; Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&amp;vq=malai&amp;pg=PA535#v=onepage&amp;q=malai&amp;f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;Tanah Malayu&quot;), transkripsi tina Prasasti Padang Roco tanggal 1286 CE ku Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} Istilah ieu aya patalina jeung karajaan [[Dharmasraya]].
* '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – disebutkeun dina babad Dinasti Yuan, nujul kana hiji bangsa di Semenanjung Malaya anu nyanghareupan ékspansi Karajaan Sukhothai ka kidul, nalika pamaréntahan Ram Khamhaeng.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=24 Maret 2026 |archive-date=27 Agustus 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kronik éta nyatakeun: &quot;''..Permusuhan lumangsung antara Siam sareng Ma-li-yu-er sareng duanana silih paéhan ...''&quot;. Pikeun ngaréspon tindakan Sukhothai, saurang utusan Cina angkat ka karaton Ram Khamhaeng dina taun 1295 mawa paréntah kaisar: &quot;Tepati jangji anjeun sareng ulah ngalakukeun kajahatan ka Ma-li-yu-er&quot;.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}}
* '''''Malauir''''' – disebutkeun dina catetan [[Marco Polo]] salaku karajaan anu aya di Semenanjung Malaya,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} kamungkinan sami sareng anu disebutkeun dina babad Yuan.
* '''''Malayapura''''' – (sacara harfiah &quot;kota Malaya&quot; atanapi &quot;bénténg Malaya&quot;), anu diukir dina prasasti Amoghapasa anu tanggalna taun 1347 Masehi. Istilah éta dianggo ku Adityawarman pikeun nyebut [[Dharmasraya]].

Saran séjénna kaasup kecap [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] ''mlayu'' (salaku kecap pagawéan: lumpat, partisip: buronan), atawa istilah Melayu ''melaju'' (ngagancangkeun sacara ajeg), nuduhkeun mobilitas anu luhur jeung sipat migrasi masarakatna. De Barros (1552) nyebutkeun yén Iskandar Shah méré ngaran ''Malaios'' (urang Malayu) kitu lantaran bapana diusir ti nagarana. Albuquerque nerangkeun yén Parameswara ngungsi (''malayo'') ti karajaan Palembang ka Malaka.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== Salaku ngaran étnis (etnonim) ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420
| image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg
| alt1 = Urang Malayu Malaka
| caption1 = Cat cai Portugis urang Malaya di Malaka, kira-kira taun 1540, dipidangkeun dina Códice Casanatense.
| image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg
| alt2 = Pasangan Malayu
| caption2 = Ilustrasi pasangan Malayu, ti ''Reise nach Batavia'', antara taun 1669 jeung 1682
| image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg
| alt3 = Tari Joget
| caption3 = Tari Joget ti Kasultanan Malaka; seueur aspék budaya Malayu anu asalna ti karaton Malaka
}}

Kecap &quot;Melayu&quot; salaku étnonim, pikeun nuduhkeun gugusan étnologis anu béda pisan, dianggap geus jadi populer sapanjang integrasi Kasultanan Malaka salaku kakuatan régional dina abad ka-15. Ieu diterapkeun pikeun ngalaporkeun keberpihakan sosial urang Malaka dibandingkeun sareng urang asing di daérah anu sami, khususna [[urang Jawa]] sareng Thai.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} Ieu dibuktikeun tina daptar kecap Malayu awal abad ka-16 ku Antonio Pigafetta (anu milu dina pelayaran Magellan), anu ngarujuk kana panggunaan frasa ''chiara Malaiu'' ('cara Malayu') di maritim Asia Tenggara pikeun nuduhkeun ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[basa Italia]] pikeun &quot;nyarioskeun Malaka&quot;).{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Numutkeun sejarawan Anthony Milner, sastra Malayu klasik sering ngagambarkeun urang Malayu dina harti anu langkung heureut tibatan interpretasi modéren; ngarujuk kana téks-téks ieu salaku bukti pandangan ieu:&lt;ref name=&quot;Milner2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony  |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=2008 |isbn=9781444305098  |doi=10.1002/9781444305098}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|91–92}}

* ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', anu utamina ditulis dina abad ka-17, ngan ukur ngaidéntifikasi urang Malayu salaku subjék Kasultanan Malaka.&lt;ref&gt;See also {{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hikayat Patani'', anu dikarang ti taun 1690–1730, ngagunakeun istilah ieu sacara éksklusif pikeun Johor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Francis R. |date=Juni 2009 |title=Moral order in a time of damnation: The ''Hikayat Patani'' in historical context |doi=10.1017/S0022463409000150 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=40 |issue=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porath |first=Nathan |date= |title=The ''Hikayat Patani'': The Kingdom of Patani in the Malay and Thai Political World |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=84 |issue=2 (301) |page=54 |doi=10.1353/ras.2011.0016}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (katelah ogé Sejarah Kedah), anu ditulis dina ahir abad ka-18 atanapi awal abad ka-19, henteu nganggo kecap &quot;Malayu&quot; pikeun ngaranan urang [[Kedah]].
* ''Hikayat Aceh'', anu diperkirakeun ditulis antara taun 1636 sareng 1700, sacara éksplisit ngaitkeun étnis Malayu sareng Johor, tapi henteu ngalakukeun hal anu sami nalika nujul ka [[Acéh]] atanapi Deli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iskandar1958&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Iskandar |first=Teuku |title=De Hikajat Atjeh |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location='s-Gravenhage |date=1958 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260803204800/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32197 |archive-date=2026-08-03 |doi=10.26530/OAPEN_613413 |accessdate=2026-08-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|2–4}}&lt;ref&gt;See also {{cite journal |last=Braginsky |first=Vladimir |date=2008 |title=Structure, date and sources of Hikayat Aceh revisited: The problem of Mughal-Malay literary ties |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=441–467 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003662}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nanging, Milner nyatet, karya-karya ieu parantos ngalaman seueur éditan salami waktos ku rupa-rupa penyalin, anu panginten kalebet bubuka atanapi paningkatan konsép idéntitas &quot;Malayu&quot;; hiji salinan Sejarah Malayu, contona, nampilkeun pupuhu di [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]] anu nujul kana &quot;turunan kuring&quot;, sedengkeun salinan anu langkung énggal maca &quot;rakyat Malayu&quot;.{{sfn|Milner2008|p=90–91}}

== Budaya ==
=== Basa ===
[[Gambar:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] ditulis dalam [[aksara Pallawa]]. Ti saprak taun 683, ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji artefak tulisan Malayu pangkolotna anu masih aya.]]
{{Main|Basa Malayu}}
{{See also|Abjad Jawi}}

[[Basa Malayu]] mangrupa salah sahiji basa anu pangpunjulna di dunya, utamana ti kulawarga basa Austronesia. Varian sareng dialek basa Melayu dianggo salaku basa resmi di [[Brunéi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Singapura]]. Basa ieu ogé dianggo di [[Thailand]] kidul, [[Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling)|Kapuloan Cocos]], [[Pulo Natal]], [[Sri Langka]]. Basa ieu diucapkeun sacara asli ku sakitar 33 juta jalma di sakuliah Kapuloan Malayu sareng dianggo salaku basa kadua ku sakitar 220 juta.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

Wangun basa Malayu pangkolotna asalna tina basa Proto-Malayu-Polinésia anu diucapkeun ku padumuk Austronésia pangkolotna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Wangun ieu engkéna mekar jadi basa Melayu Kuna nalika budaya jeung agama India mimiti nembus wewengkon éta. Basa Malayu Kuna ngandung sababaraha istilah anu masih aya nepi ka ayeuna, tapi tetep teu kaharti ku panyatur modéren, sedengkeun basa modéren ieu geus loba dipikawanoh dina basa Malayu Klasik tinulis, anu wangun pangkolotna asalna ti taun 1303 Masehi.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Basa Malayu mekar jadi basa Malayu Klasik ngaliwatan asupna rupa-rupa kosakecap [[basa Arab|Arab]] jeung [[basa Pérsi|Pérsi]] sacara laun-laun nalika Islam asup ka wilayah éta, sarta dina prosésna robah sacara signifikan. Mimitina, basa Malayu Klasik mangrupa sakumpulan dialek anu rupa-rupa, anu ngagambarkeun asal-usul karajaan Malayu di Asia Tenggara anu rupa-rupa. Salah sahiji dialek ieu, anu dimekarkeun dina tradisi sastra Kasultanan Malaka dina abad ka-15, antukna janten dominan.

Jaman Malaka ditandaan ku robahna basa Melayu jadi basa Islam, sarupa jeung basa Arab, Persia, Urdu, jeung [[basa Swahili|Swahili]]. [[Aksara Arab]] anu diadaptasi anu disebut [[abjad Jawi|Jawi]] dianggo pikeun ngagantikeun aksara Kawi, terminologi agama sareng budaya Islam diasimilasi sacara lega, miceun seueur kecap Hindu-Buda, sareng basa Malayu janten basa pangajaran sareng panyebaran Islam di sakumna wilayah Asia Tenggara. Dina puncak kakawasaan Malaka dina abad ka-15, basa Melayu Klasik nyebar ka saluareun dunya&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}&lt;/ref&gt; panyatur basa Malayu tradisional sareng ngahasilkeun ''lingua franca'' anu disebut ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' (&quot;Bazaar Malayu&quot;) atanapi ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' (&quot;Malayu Handap&quot;), sabalikna tina ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' (&quot;Malayu Luhur&quot;) Malaka.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} Sacara umum dipercaya yén basa Malayu Bazaar mangrupikeun basa pidgin sareng kamekaran anu paling penting nyaéta basa pidgin dikréolisasi, nyiptakeun sababaraha basa énggal sapertos basa Malayu Ambon, Malayu Manado sareng [[basa Batawi]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

Pangarang [[Éropa]] dina abad ka-17 sareng ka-18, sapertos Tavernier, Thomassin sareng Werndly ngagambarkeun basa Melayu salaku &quot;''basa anu dipimilik ku jalma-jalma terpelajar di sakumna Hindia, sapertos [[basa Latén]] di Éropa''&quot;.{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} Ieu ogé anu paling seueur dianggo nalika jaman kolonial Inggris sareng Walanda di Kapuloan Malayu.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} Anu sabalikna katingali di Hindia Wétan Spanyol, dimana latinisasi massal di kapuloan ieu salami mangsa kolonial nyababkeun kudeta sajarah basa Malayu di Filipina.

Dialek Kasultanan Johor, panerus langsung Malaka, janten basa standar di kalangan urang Malayu di [[Singapura]] sareng [[Malaysia]], sareng éta ngawangun dasar asli pikeun [[basa Indonésia]] anu distandardisasi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon 2003 59&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Salian ti basa Malayu standar, anu dimekarkeun di lingkungan Malaka-Johor, aya ogé rupa-rupa dialek Malayu lokal. Contona, urang Bangka, urang Brunéi, urang Jambi, urang Kelantan, urang Kedah, urang Negeri Sembilan, urang Palémbang, urang Pattani, urang Sarawak, urang Terengganu, jeung réa-réa deui.

Basa Malayu sacara historis ditulis nganggo [[aksara Pallawa]], [[aksara Kawi|Kawi]] sareng Rencong. Saatos datangna Islam, [[abjad Jawi|aksara Jawi]] anu dumasar kana [[basa Arab]] diadopsi sareng masih dianggo dugi ka ayeuna salaku salah sahiji tina dua aksara resmi di Brunéi sareng salaku aksara alternatif di Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&amp;sec=nation |archive-date=29 Oktober 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dimimitian ti abad ka-17, salaku hasil tina penjajahan Inggris sareng Walanda, Jawi laun-laun diganti ku aksara Rumi&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=26 Juni 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; anu dumasar kana Latin anu antukna janten aksara resmi modéren pikeun basa Malayu di [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Indonésia]], sareng aksara resmi di [[Brunéi]].

=== Arsitéktur ===
{{See also|Imah Malayu}}
[[Gambar:Rumah kedah.gif|thumb|350px|Imah tradisional Malayu di [[Kedah]], dihias ku panel ukiran khas Semenanjung Malaya kalér.]]

[[Imah Malayu]] nujul kana tempat tinggal vernakular urang Malayu, hiji kelompok étno-linguistik anu cicing di [[Sumatra]], basisir [[Kalimantan]], sareng Semenanjung Malaya.

Wangun arsitéktur tradisional, sapertos hateup anu cocog sareng tropis sareng proporsi anu harmonis kalayan unsur hiasan dianggap masih gaduh nilai budaya anu ageung ku seueur jalmi di daérah éta. Nanging, wangunan-wangunan ieu meryogikeun pangropéa anu signifikan dibandingkeun sareng konstruksi modéren; sapertos tantangan dina ngalestarikeun bahan utama na, kai, tina pangaruh buruk cuaca tropis ogé serangan rayap. Kamampuh ngawangun vernakular ieu laun-laun leungit di [[Malaysia]] sabab kai alami beuki langka alatan deforestasi sajaba ti industrialisasi,&lt;ref name=H&gt;{{cite news |date=16 Méi 2026 |page=B7|newspaper=The Straits Times|department=Letter From... |title=Guest houses, film sets: Traditional Malay houses in demand with new lease of life|author=Hadi Azmi }}&lt;/ref&gt; sedengkeun di [[Indonésia]] tempat tinggal tradisional sapertos kitu masih kénéh aya di daérah padésaan. Sanaos transformasi urban di [[Singapura]] parantos ngaleungitkeun ampir sadaya lingkungan urban Malayu, sababaraha bumi anu nampilkeun arsitéktur vernakular ieu masih salamet, utamina dipusatkeun di pulo lepas pantai Pulau Ubin.{{Citation needed|date=Désémber 2022}}

Usaha pikeun ngalestarikeun gaya arsitéktur asli kapuloan Indonésia parantos dilaksanakeun ngalangkungan dokumentasi sareng réplika kreasi di paviliun [[daptar propinsi di Indonésia|propinsi]] di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]. Nu boga imah tradisional Malaysia anu masih kénéh aya ogé nyéwakeun imah-imah éta ka studio produksi salaku lokasi syuting pilem sareng iklan, sareng homestay, salaku sumber panghasilan tambahan.&lt;ref name=H/&gt;

=== Agama ===
[[Gambar:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|Masjid Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien di [[Brunéi]] dina wengi Ramadhan. Karajaan anu beunghar ieu nganut Melayu Islam Beraja (''Monarki Islam Malayu'') salaku filsafat nasional saprak kamerdékaanana dina taun 1984.]]

Masarakat Malayu mimiti seuseueurna [[animisme|animis]], percaya kana ayana ''semangat'' (roh) dina sagala hal.&lt;ref name=&quot;zaki1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kira-kira dina awal jaman umum, agama [[Hindu]] sareng [[agama Buddha|Budha]] diwanohkeun ku para padagang Asia Kidul ka Kapuloan Melayu, dimana aranjeunna mekar dugi ka abad ka-13, sateuacan datangna Islam anu dibawa ku para padagang Muslim [[urang Arab|Arab]], Asia Kidul, sareng Cina.

Dina abad ka-15, Islam ti aliran [[Sunni]] ortodoks mekar di [[dunya Malayu]] dina kakawasaan Kasultanan Malaka. Beda sareng agama Hindu, anu sacara dangkal ngarobih masarakat Malayu awal, Islam tiasa disebatkeun parantos terintegrasi sapinuhna kana kahirupan sapopoe pendudukna.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ti saprak jaman ieu, urang Malayu dianggap salaku kelompok étnoreligius sareng sacara tradisional ngagaduhan idéntifikasi anu caket sareng [[Islam]]{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} sareng aranjeunna henteu ngarobih agama ti saprak harita.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syed&quot; /&gt; Identitas ieu kacida kuatna nepi ka disebut-sebut yén pikeun jadi Muslim nyaéta pikeun ''masuk Melayu'' (asup ka Malayu).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Sanajan kitu, kapercayaan-kapercayaan samemehna anu miboga akar anu leuwih jero, aranjeunna tetep ngalawan kutukan Islam – sareng memang mistisisme [[tasawuf]] parantos ngahiji di antara urang Malayu, sareng roh-roh dunya animisme samemehna sareng sababaraha unsur Hindu.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Saatos taun 1970-an, kebangkitan Islam (disebut ogé re-Islamisasi{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) di sakumna dunya Muslim, seueur tradisi anu dianggap bertentangan sareng ajaran Islam sareng ngandung unsur syirik ditinggalkeun ku [[urang Malayu Malaysia|urang Malayu di Malaysia]], sedengkeun di kalangan [[urang Malayu Indonésia|urang Malayu di Indonésia]], tradisi ieu henteu dianggap takhayul sareng ngandung unsur syirik. Di antara tradisi-tradisi ieu nyaéta festival ''mandi [[Safar]]'', festival mandi pikeun ngahontal kasucian spiritual, anu tiasa dititénan ciri-cirina anu sami sareng sababaraha tradisi dina Durga Puja di [[India]].{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

Seuseueurna étnis Malayu modéren anu ngagem Islam [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=11 Agustus 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 Oktober 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; sareng festival Malayu anu paling penting nyaéta anu asalna Islam - ''[[Idulfitri|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Iduladha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Muharom|Awal Muharram]]'', sareng ''[[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]]''. Urang Malayu anu kaluar tina Islam di Malaysia sareng Brunéi dianggap murtad. Nanging, aya sajumlah étnis Malayu anu cicing di luar nagara-nagara ieu ogé parantos nganut agama sanés sacara sah dumasar kana hukum.

=== Festival sareng perayaan ===
[[Gambar:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Deretan Pelita (lampu minyak) anu hurung nalika ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (peuting ka-27 [[Ramadhan]]), lampu minyak ieu sacara tradisional dianggo pikeun nyaangan bumi sareng jalan-jalan nalika Ramadhan. Katingali didieu di Muar, Johor, [[Malaysia]].]]

Kamekaran [[Islam]] hasil ngarobah harti idéntitas Malayu dina abad ka-15. Ku kituna, kalolobaan festival sareng perayaan Malayu lumangsung sajajar sareng [[kalénder Islam]], sanaos parantos ngakar jero ku karakter Malayu anu kuat. Peringatan Hari Raya (hartina &quot;Poé Agung&quot;) dua kali sataun pikeun [[Aidilfitri]] sareng [[Aidiladha]] dipuji salaku perayaan agung sacara universal di sakumna masarakat Malayu. Dua poé libur ieu penting pisan pikeun méré komentar kana dua kajadian utama sarta filsafat dina ajaran jeung kapercayaan Islam. Anu kahiji nandakeun kameunangan salaku Muslim saatos sabulan [[puasa]]/[[saum]] sareng kasabaran dina bulan [[Ramadan]], sedengkeun anu kadua nyaéta pikeun ngalaksanakeun kurban anu dilakukeun ku [[Nabi Ibrahim|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) kalayan nyebat asma [[Allah]].

Liburan ''Raya'' biasana dimimitian nalika acara mudik anu dikenal salaku Balik Kampung atanapi ''Balik Raya'' anu lumangsung sababaraha dinten sateuacan festival. Salila Hari Raya, urang Malayu bakal ngarayakeun ku ngalaksanakeun solat Hari Raya, ngayakeun pésta ageung sareng nganjang ka réréncangan, baraya sareng tatangga. Ngajugjug ka makam jalmi-jalmi anu dipikacinta anu parantos pupus ogé penting, salaku tanda hormat, kanyaah, sareng kahormatan.

[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|Upacara penobatan antara Tengku Otteman, salaku ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Putera Mahkota) Kasultanan Deli, [[Hindia-Walanda]]; jeung pamajikanana, Raja Amnah, anggota Royalti Perak salaku ''Tengku Puan Indera'' dina 1925]]

Upacara liturgi sareng agama utama anu sanésna anu dirayakeun ku urang Malayu kalebet Ramadhan, bulan suci salami sabulan anu dikhususkeun pikeun puasa siang sareng rupa-rupa kagiatan agama; [[Muludan|Maulidur Rasul]], prosesi ageung khusus pikeun ngahargaan kalahiran [[Muhammad]]; [[Asyura]], pangéling-ngéling [[Muharram]] dimana urang Malayu bakal nyiapkeun hidangan khusus, anu katelah ''Bubur Asyura''; [[Nisfu Saaban|Nisfu Syaaban]], perayaan [[Sya'ban|Nisfu Sya'ban]], dinten khusus [[puasa]] pikeun ngahampura; Nuzul Quran, wahyu anu munggaran tina [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]; [[Isra Mi'raj|Israk dan Mikraj]], naékna [[Muhammad]] ka langit sareng Awal Muharram, Taun Anyar Islam; tilu perayaan anu terakhir biasana dilaksanakeun ku ngayakeun solat ''sunat'' khusus, ceramah agama sareng diskusi Islam di [[masigit]].

Aya ogé seueur festival budaya régional domestik sareng acara sosial dina rupa-rupa lingkungan Malayu. Daérah basisir sacara historis katelah ngayakeun upacara ''Mandi Safar'' atanapi ''Puja Pantai'', nyaéta mandi suci salami bulan [[Safar]] [[kalénder Islam|Islam]], anu mimitina ditiru tina ritual beberesih suci Malayu kuno pra-Islam, mirip sareng tradisi Belimau sateuacan Ramadhan; sareng ''Pesta Menuai'', festival panén anu dirayakeun ku komunitas Malayu pedalaman sareng agraris ku kaulinan tradisional, téater, Joget sareng repertoar tari-tarian sanésna. Nanging, duanana prakték éta laun-laun punah kusabab rupa-rupa révolusi sosial sareng ékonomi anu direkayasa dina komunitas Malayu dina abad ka-20. Salian ti éta, seueur urang Malayu ogé katelah ilubiung dina perayaan kaisar pikeun ngahargaan ka karaton karajaan masing-masing.

Fitur-fitur Islam ogé ngahias perayaan Malayu sacara kuat dina tingkat individu, hiji panyandingan anu kabeungkeut kana ritual spiritual salaku Muslim. Urang Malayu biasana ngayakeun ''kenduri'', nyaéta pésta upacara agama pikeun ngarayakeun atawa ménta berkah pikeun hiji acara. Aya sababaraha variasi filosofis tina kenduri, sapertos ''Doa Selamat'' (nyuhunkeun sih kurnia sareng panyalindungan ilahi), ''Kesyukuran'' (pikeun ucapan syukur sareng rasa syukur), ''Melenggang Perut'' (pijet upacara pikeun ibu anu nuju hamil anak kahijina), ''Aqiqah'' sareng ''Cukur Jambul'' (upacara orok anu nembe lahir, pikeun ngarayakeun kahirupan anyar), ''Bertindik'' (upacara tindik munggaran pikeun murangkalih awéwé), ''Khatam'' (upacara wisuda, saatos maca [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] anu munggaran pikeun murangkalih), ''Khatan'' (sunat), ''Kahwin'' ([[upacara adat nikahkeun|pernikahan]]), ''Arwah'' atanapi ''Tahlil'' (doa pikeun jalmi anu tos maot), sareng sababaraha di antarana. Acara ieu biasana diayakeun ku kulawarga sareng sacara tradisional dibantuan ku masarakat dina hiji acara sosial anu katelah ''Rewang'' atanapi ''Gotong-royong''. Salila upacara ieu, sakumna kulawarga bakal dibantuan ku tatangga sareng barayana, masrahkeun rupa-rupa tugas ti mimiti nyiapkeun tuangeun, manajemen tempat, perakitan logistik sareng kontrol téknis anu sanésna. Sanajan kitu, nuturkeun munculna urbanisme dina komunitas Malayu kontemporer, prakték ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' laun-laun digantikeun ku jasa katering anu disewa ku kulawarga.

=== Musik ===
{{See also|Musik Malayu}}
[[Musik Malayu]] nyaéta hiji genre musik tradisional anu asalna sarta dimekarkeun di basisir wétan [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta Semenanjung Malaya.&lt;ref&gt;Sahputra, T. W. H., Martarosa, &amp; Warhat, Z. (2019). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/408383-musik-jazz-melayu-dalam-kajian-kreativit-7b989836.pdf Musik jazz Melayu dalam kajian kreativitas]''. ''Melayu Arts and Performance Journal'', 2(2), 191–200. &lt;/ref&gt; Musik ieu biasana dinyanyikeun ku jalma-jalma ti kelompok étnis Malayu sareng sering dipirig ku tarian has lokal Melayu, contona nawiskeun tarian dina acara atanapi pésta tradisional, ngabagéakeun tamu kahormatan, sareng dina kagiatan agama.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Purba|first=Junaidi|last2=Putri|first2=Sabrina Maulidia|last3=Nelson|first3=Ricky|last4=Silaban|first4=Cahyani Yesika br|last5=Ridho|first5=Muhammad Habibur|last6=Andika|first6=Riki|last7=Sitorus|first7=Christina Harianti|last8=Sa|first8=Maulidha|last9=Dardanila|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/TRANSFORMATION_OF_TRADITIONAL_ARTS_RESPO/mtaeEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL ARTS: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE TIMES|publisher=Mawadra Lestari Enterprise|isbn=978-629-95611-1-8|pages=62|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Asbullah|first=Habib|last2=Rizkia|first2=Ayu|last3=Batrisya|last4=Julianto|first4=Deldi|last5=Pangestu|first5=Dimas|last6=Rania|first6=Dinda Safira|last7=Miranti|first7=Dwi|last8=Afrillia|first8=Ega|last9=Irianto|first9=Ega Deni|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengabadikan_Riau_Buku_I/WXsgEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&amp;gbpv=0|title=Mengabadikan Riau: Buku I: Antologi Esai Kebudayaan|publisher=Penerbit Pustaka Rumah C1nta|isbn=978-623-7961-67-3|pages=95|language=id|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anu pikaresepeun tina genre musik ieu nyaéta dina komposisina anu diwangun ku lirik lagu anu ngandung puisi anu disaluyukeun sareng kahirupan sapopoe, cinta (sapertos Dondang Sayang) sareng pinuh ku ajaran (pesen moral), dieusi ku sora atanapi vokal cengkok has Malayu, sareng aransemen musik anu disusun rapih.

Bareng jeung kamekaran jaman, musik Malayu geus ngalaman parobahan dina gaya musikna, contona, geus ngalaman fusi jeung [[musik pop]], [[musik rock]], jeung [[dangdut]]. Aliran ieu tiasa dipendakan di nagara-nagara anu aya patalina sareng Malayu, sapertos [[Indonésia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], sareng [[Brunéi]].

Dina awal kamekaranana, alat musik anu dianggo didominasi ku aksi [[rebana]] anu disebut Kompang ti [[Kabupatén Ponorogo|Ponorogo]], petik gambus, gesek [[biola]], jepit akordeon, paripolah [[goong]], sareng niup sarunai. Ieu dipangaruhan ku budaya tanah [[urang Arab|Arab]] sareng [[Éropa]] tradisional. Bareng jeung kamekaran téknologi, kabéh ieu geus diganti ku alat musik éléktronik dina wangun kibor. Nanging, dina kagiatan-kagiatan tertentu alat musik tradisional masih dianggo pikeun ngalestarikeun warisan budaya.

Dina kamajuanana, gerakan ieu populér dina taun 80-an sareng bahkan lebet kana era &quot;puncak kajayaan&quot; dina taun 90-an. Ieu ditandaan ku ningkatna jumlah penyanyi sareng [[grup musik|band]] Malayu, sareng pendatang anyar anu muncul kalayan lagu-lagu khasna nyalira.

=== Pakéan tradisional ===
[[Gambar:Busana Melayu.jpg|thumb|Lalaki Malayu dina ''busana Melayu'', gaya tradisional pakéan Malayu]]

Pakéan jeung tékstil tradisional Malayu geus terus robah ti jaman baheula. Sacara historis, urang Malayu kuno dicatet ngagunakeun rupa-rupa bahan alami salaku sumber penting pikeun lawon, pakean, sareng acuk. Nanging, dina jaman umumna, nalika nyaksian datangna para padagang mimiti ti wétan sareng kulon ka palabuhan-palabuhan di Kapuloan Malayu, aranjeunna babarengan mésér barang-barang méwah anyar, kalebet katun sareng sutra anu saé. Pakéan-pakéan éta salajengna janten sumber mode Malayu anu luhur sareng ngagaduhan peran budaya salaku idéntitas anu ngiket di Nusantara, khususna di semenanjung, Sumatra sareng daérah basisir Kalimantan.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Dina budaya Malayu, pakean sareng tékstil dihormat salaku simbol kaéndahan, kakawasaan sareng status. Seueur catetan dina hikayat Malayu anu nekenkeun tempat khusus anu ditempatan ku tékstil.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} Industri tenun tangan Malayu bisa dilacak asal-usulna ti abad ka-13 nalika jalur perdagangan wétan mekar dina jaman Dinasti Song. Sebutan ngeunaan tékstil buatan lokal ogé dominasi tenun di Semenanjung Malaya dilakukeun dina sababaraha carita Cina sareng [[urang Arab|Arab]].{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Di antara tékstil Malayu anu kasohor nyaéta [[Songkét]], [[Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' jeung ''Tekad''.

Pakéan Malayu klasik rupa-rupa di unggal daérah, tapi pakéan tradisional anu paling jero dina jaman kiwari nyaéta Baju Kurung (pikeun awéwé) sareng Baju Melayu (pikeun lalaki), anu duanana diaku salaku pakéan nasional pikeun [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Brunéi]], sareng ogé dianggo ku komunitas Malayu di [[Indonésia]], [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Myanmar]] sareng [[Thailand]].

[[Gambar:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|left|Barudak Malayu maké baju adat nalika [[Idulfitri|Idul Fitri]]]]

Kecap ''Baju Kurung'', sacara literatur dihartikeun salaku &quot;ngabungkus awak&quot; anu nganggona disaluyukeun dumasar kana prinsip-prinsip Islam ngeunaan karendahan haté, kasopanan, sareng karendahan haté. Prakték ieu sajajar jeung doktrin agama Yahudi-Kristen, sabab memamerkeun [[orat|bagian awak anu intim]] dianggap dilarang dina Islam. Tafsiran éta teras diserep kana cara berpakaian sareng sudut pandang budaya Malayu, ieu tiasa disaksian pisan dina pamaréntahan Mansur Shah ti Malaka dina abad ka-15, sultan ngalarang rahayat Muslim awéwéna di tempat umum ngan ukur nganggo [[sarung]] ti dada ka handap. Sapanjang jaman, Baju Kurung Malayu ngalaman sababaraha kali reinkarnasi sateuacan ngaku bentukna ayeuna. Alatan legana rupa-rupa karajaan Malayu di Nusantara, wangun lokal jeung béda tina pola desain Baju Kurung ogé bisa disaksian di wewengkon, kaasup [[Bengkulu]], Kedah, [[Jambi]], Johor-Riau, Pahang jeung [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]].{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Mode baju kurung anu cocog pikeun lalaki katelah &quot;Baju Melayu&quot;. Bagian luhur pakean ieu didamel kalayan desain géométri anu ampir sami sareng Baju Kurung sareng umumna dipasangkan sareng lawon tenun anu dikenal salaku sarung. Pola sarung bisa ngawengku simbol status perkawinan jalma éta atawa pangkatna dina masarakat tradisional Malayu.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Pakéan Malayu klasik umum lianna pikeun lalaki nyaéta ''baju'' (kaméja) atanapi ''tekua'' (sajenis baju lengan panjang), ''baju rompi'' (rompi), ''kancing'' (kancing), ''celana'' suku leutik (calana panjang), [[sarung]] anu dianggo di sabudeureun cangkéng, ''capal'' (sandal), sareng ''tanjak'' atanapi ''tengkolok'' (tutup sirah); pikeun bangsawan, ''baju sikap'' atanapi ''baju layang'' (sajenis jas) sareng ''pending'' (gesper sabuk hias) ogé sinonim pikeun dianggo salaku pakéan resmi. Ogé umum pikeun ''Pendekar'' (pahlawan Malayu) ngagaduhan [[keris]] anu diselapkeun kana lipatan hareup sarung.

Beda sareng Baju Melayu anu ngan ukur dianggo salaku pakean upacara, Baju Kurung dianggo unggal dinten sapanjang taun ku mayoritas awéwé Malayu. Katingali pagawé sipil awéwé, pagawé profésional, sareng mahasiswa nganggo Baju Kurung mangrupikeun hal anu umum di Malaysia sareng Brunéi.

=== Seni bela diri ===
[[Gambar:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|Saurang praktisi silat awéwé ti [[Singapura]]]]

Silat sareng varianna tiasa dipendakan di sakumna [[dunya Malayu]]: Semenanjung Malaya (kalebet [[Singapura]]), [[Kapuloan Riau]], [[Sumatra]] sareng daérah basisir [[Kalimantan]]. Bukti arkéologis ngungkabkeun yén, dina abad ka-6, seni tarung formal geus dipraktékkeun di Semenanjung Malaya sareng Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} Wangun Silat pangheubeulna dipercaya geus dimekarkeun sarta dipaké dina angkatan bersenjata karajaan Melayu kuno Langkasuka (abad ka-2){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] (abad ka-7).

Pangaruh kasultanan Malayu Malaka, Johor, Pattani sareng [[Brunéi]] parantos nyumbang kana panyebaran seni bela diri ieu di Kepulauan Melayu. Ngaliwatan labirin saluran laut sareng kapiler walungan anu rumit anu ngagampangkeun pertukaran sareng perdagangan di sakumna daérah, Silat ngaléngkah ka leuweung hujan anu padet teras naék ka pagunungan. Laksamana Hang Tuah ti Malaka anu legendaris nyaéta salah sahiji ''pesilat'' (praktisi Silat) anu paling kasohor dina sajarah{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} sareng bahkan dianggap ku sababaraha urang salaku bapak silat Malayu.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Ti saprak jaman klasik, Silat Melayu ngalaman diversifikasi anu ageung sareng ngawangun naon anu ayeuna sacara tradisional diakui salaku sumber [[Penca Silat|Pencak Silat]] Indonésia sareng bentuk Silat sanésna di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]].{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Salian ti Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] ogé diamalkeun ku urang Malayu, utamina di daérah kalér Semenanjung Malaya. Ieu mangrupikeun varian tina bentuk kickboxing [[Indochina|Indo-Cina]] anu dipercaya parantos sumebar di [[daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] ti saprak jaman Kakaisaran Funan (68 Masehi).

=== Seni pintonan ===
[[Gambar:Joget Gamelan 1937.jpg|thumb|Pagelaran Joget Gamelan, 1937]]

Urang Malayu miboga rupa-rupa musik jeung tari anu mangrupa gabungan tina rupa-rupa pangaruh budaya. Genre hasna mimitian ti tarian rahayat tradisional Malayu sapertos Mak Yong dugi ka tarian Zapin anu dipangaruhan ku [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Gerakan koreografi ogé rupa-rupa, ti léngkah sareng lagu anu saderhana dina Dikir barat dugi ka gerakan anu rumit dina Joget Gamelan.

Musik tradisional Malayu dasarna nyaéta musik perkusi. Rupa-rupa [[goong|gong]] nyadiakeun ketukan pikeun seueur tarian. Aya ogé kendang kalayan rupa-rupa ukuran, mimitian ti ''rebana ubi'' ageung anu dianggo pikeun nandakeun kajadian penting dugi ka ''rebana leutik anu digesek'' ([[drum|drum pigura]]) anu dianggo salaku iringan pikeun bacaan vokal dina upacara agama.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Gambar:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert &amp; Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|left|Sakelompok penari Malayu Siam anu mintonkeun Mak Yong (kira-kira abad ka-19). Dina taun 2005, éta nampi pangakuan salaku salah sahiji karya agung warisan lisan sareng teu kasat mata umat manusa ku UNESCO.]]

Musik nobat janten bagian tina Royal Regalia di karaton Malayu saprak datangna Islam dina abad ka-12 sareng ngan ukur dipintonkeun dina upacara-upacara penting karaton. Orkestrana ngawengku instrumen suci sareng dihormat pisan sapertos ''nehara'' ([[kendang]]), ''gendang'' (kendang dua sirah), ''nafiri'' (trompet), ''serunai'' (oboe), sareng sakapeung [[goong]] kenop sareng sapasang simbal.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Pangaruh India kuat dina drama kalangkang tradisional anu katelah Wayang Kulit dimana carita-carita tina epik Hindu; [[Ramayana]] &amp; [[Mahabarata|Mahabharata]] ngawangun repertoar utama. Aya opat tipe has tina teater wayang kulit nu bisa kapanggih di Semenanjung Malaya; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' jeung ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Sanajan kitu, seni sareng carita ''Wayang Purwa'' sareng ''Wayang Siam'' nunjukkeun pangaruh régional anu ngahiji sareng [[urang Jawa]] sareng Siam, sedengkeun ''Wayang Melayu'' sareng ''Wayang Gedek'' nyaritakeun bentuk sareng busana Malayu anu langkung asli.

Seni pintonan Malayu anu kakoncara séjénna nyaéta; Teater ''Bangsawan'', ''Dondang Sayang'' balad jeung tarian ''Mak Inang'' ti Kasultanan Malaka, Teater ''Jikey'' jeung ''Mek Mulung'' ti [[Kedah]], Tari ''Asyik'' jeung Drama Tari ''Menora'' ti Patani jeung Kelantan, Tari ''Ulek mayang'' jeung ''Rodat'' ti Terengganu, Teater ''Boria'' ti Penang, Tari ''Canggung'' ti Perlis, Lagu naratif ''Mukun'' ti [[Brunéi]] jeung Sarawak,{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gending Sriwijaya]] ti [[Kota Palémbang|Palémbang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' ti Serdang,&lt;ref name=&quot;Ahmad Salehuddin 2009&quot;/&gt; Zapin Api tari seuneu ti [[Riau]] jeung Dikir barat Singapura ti [[Singapura]].

=== Seni visual ===
[[Gambar:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|Burung Petala Indra, manuk mitos raksasa anu dijieun pikeun parade sunat agung pangeran Kelantan.]]

Seni ukir kai mangrupa bagian tina [[seni rupa|seni visual]] Malayu klasik. Urang Malayu sacara tradisional ngahias monumen, parahu, pakarang, makam, alat musik, sareng parabotna ku motif flora, kaligrafi, géométri sareng fitur kosmik. Seni ieu dilakukeun ku cara miceun sabagian kai nganggo alat seukeut sareng nuturkeun pola, komposisi, sareng urutan anu khusus. Bentuk seni ieu, katelah ''ukir'', dipuji salaku tindakan bakti para pengrajin ka nu nyiptakeun sareng hadiah ka sasama manusa.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

Bentuk seni ieu utamina disababkeun ku lobana kai di Kapuloan Malayu sareng ogé ku kaparigelan para tukang ukir kai anu ngamungkinkeun urang Malayu pikeun latihan ukir kai salaku karajinan. Latar tropis alami dimana flora sareng fauna seueur pisan parantos ngainspirasi motif pikeun digambarkeun dina bentuk abstrak atanapi bergaya kana papan kai. Kalayan datangna Islam, bentuk géométri sareng kaligrafi Islam diwanohkeun dina ukiran kai. Kai anu dianggo biasana tina spésiés kai keras tropis anu dipikanyaho awét sareng tiasa tahan serangan jamur, kumbang boot listrik, sareng rayap.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

Imah tradisional Malayu atanapi [[masjid]] biasana dihias ku langkung ti 20 komponén ukiran. Ukiran dina témbok sareng panel ngamungkinkeun angin ngahiliwir sacara efektif ka jero sareng ka luar gedong sareng tiasa ngantepkeun sinar panonpoé nyaangan bagian jero struktur. Dina waktos anu sami, kalangkang anu ditimbulkeun ku panel-panel éta ogé bakal nyiptakeun kalangkang dumasar kana motif-motif anu nambahan kaéndahan dina lanté. Ku kituna, komponén anu diukir ngalaksanakeun tujuan fungsional sareng estetika.

==Kelompok sub-étnis==
{{Tingali ogé|Urang Malayu Indonésia|Urang Malayu Malaysia|Urang Malayu Singapura|Urang Malayu Brunéi}}

==Tingali ogé==
* [[Dunya Malayu]]
* [[Imah Malayu]]

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
* {{ms}} [http://iyco0.tripod.com/usmanawang.html Puisi Usman Awang mengenai Melayu.] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{en}} [http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=29765 Melayu]
* {{id}} [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:lYcg2r-ziWYJ:ccm.um.edu.my/umweb/fsss/images/persidangan/Kertas%2520Kerja/Pak%2520Witrianto.doc+Rumpun+Banjar&amp;hl=id&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=139&amp;gl=id&amp;client=firefox-a Modal Sosial dan Pembangunan Manusia Melayu oleh Witrianto, S.S., M.Hum., M.Si dari Universitas Andalas] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{id}} [http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm Bhinneka Tunggal Ika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126030352/http://www.indonesiamedia.com/2004/05/early/budaya/budaya-0504-bhinneka.htm |date=26 Januari 2010 }}
* {{id}} [http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aW1QL3FMZVZBUkU4Ng%3D%3D= Gerakan Bangsa Melayu Besar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408223826/http://melayuonline.com/article/?a=aw1ql3fmzvzbuku4ng=== |date=8 April 2016 }}

[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia|Malayu]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia|Malayu]]

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      <text bytes="4050" sha1="ohikt9s9e6a8u1zznixsoito4imrauo" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer &lt;!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --&gt;
|image        = E. L. James - 2019 (cropped).jpg
|caption      = James, 2019
|pseudonym    = E. L. James
|birth_date   = {{birth date and age|1963|3|7|df=y}}
|birth_name   =Erika Mitchell
|birth_place  = [[London]], Inggris
|citizenship  = [[Britania Raya]]
|education   = [[Wycombe High School]]&lt;br&gt;[[University of Kent]]
|occupation   = [[Sastrawan]]
|genre        = [[Novel roman|Romansa]], [[Erotika]], [[Fiksi penggemar]] 
|notableworks = Trilogi ''[[Fifty Shades of Grey (novel)|Fifty Shades od Grey]]''
|influences   = [[Stephenie Meyer]]&lt;ref name=&quot;AccessHollywood&quot;&gt;[http://www.accesshollywood.com/fifty-shades-of-grey-author-el-james-inspired-by-twilights-stephenie-meyer_article_63452 'Fifty Shades Of Grey' Author Reveals ‘Twilight’ Inspiration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820022228/http://www.accesshollywood.com/fifty-shades-of-grey-author-el-james-inspired-by-twilights-stephenie-meyer_article_63452 |date=2012-08-20 }}. Access Hollywood&lt;/ref&gt;
|influenced   =
|publisher    = [[Vintage Books]] &lt;ref name=&quot;NewYorkTimes&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/10/business/media/an-erotic-novel-50-shades-of-grey-goes-viral-with-women.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0  'An Erotic Novel, 'Fifty Shades of Grey', Goes Viral With Women]. New York Times&lt;/ref&gt;
|website      = http://www.eljamesauthor.com
|spouse       = Niall Leonard
|children     = 2 putra
|signature    = 
}}

'''Erika Mitchell''' ({{lahirmati||7|3|1963}}),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=E.L. James|url=http://www.waterstones.com/waterstonesweb/navigate.do?pPageID=200001718|website=Waterstones.com|publisher=Waterstones|accessdate=1 September 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; atawa '''E. L. James''', nyaéta panulis Inggris. Anjeunna nyerat trilogi pangjual novel romantik érotis ''[[Fifty Shades of Grey (novel)|Fifty Shades of Grey]]'', ''[[Fifty Shades Darker]]'', jeung ''[[Fifty Shades Freed]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/22/books/fifty-shades-of-grey-by-e-l-james-in-demand-at-libraries.html?pagewanted=all|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 May 2012|title=Libraries Debate Stocking ‘Fifty Shades of Grey’ Trilogy|author=Julie Bosman}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://entertainment.time.com/2012/03/29/the-shy-british-mum-behind-50-shades-of-grey/|work=Time Magazine|title=The Shy British Mum Behind 50 Shades of Grey|date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228175438/http://entertainment.time.com/2012/03/29/the-shy-british-mum-behind-50-shades-of-grey/|archive-date=28 February 2014|access-date=21 July 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tilu novélna parantos dijual langkung ti 70 juta éksemplar ka dunya, langkung ti 35 juta salinan di Amérika Serikat, sareng ngarobih catetan dina [[Britania Raya]] salaku novél anu paling gancang dina ngajual sajarah.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2128881_2128882_2129207,00.html Who Should be Time's Person of the Year 2012? E.L. James] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126170101/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2128881_2128882_2129207,00.html |date=2012-11-26 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author={author} |url=http://www.salon.com/2013/01/10/fifty_shades_of_grey_coming_in_hardcover/ |title=&quot;Fifty Shades of Grey&quot; coming in hardcover |publisher=Salon.com |date=10 January 2013 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Taun 2012, [[Time (majalah)|''Time'']] majalah namina salah &quot;The World's 100 Most Influential People.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112140,00.html The World's 100 Most Influential People] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419071848/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112140,00.html |date=2012-04-19 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Rujukan ==
{{Reflist}}

== Tumbu luar ==
{{Biografi-pondok}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.eljamesauthor.com/ Official author website]
* {{IMDb name|1093317}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:James, E.L.}}
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      <text bytes="20639" sha1="q5og7r5z89d0p90lsp692zv6mbt0bov" xml:space="preserve">{{Peta Neuron|Déndrit}}

'''Déndrit''' (tina [[basa Yunani]] δένδρον ''déndron'', &quot;[[tangkal]]&quot;), atawa '''déndron''', mangrupa salah sahiji cabang tina Neuron panyambungan protoplasmik tina sél saraf anu nyebarkeun stimulasi [[éléktrokimia]] anu ditampa ti sél saraf anu séjenna ka jero awak sél, atawa disebut ogé salaku soma, ti neuron (tempat pikeun ngaproyéksikeun déndrit). Stimulasi listrik dikirimkeun kana déndrit ku hulu neuron (biasana ngaliwatan akson) ngaliwatan sinapsis anu perenahna di sababaraha titik sapanjang tangkal dendritik. Déndrit nyekelan peran anu kritis dina ngahijikeun input sinaptik jeung dina nangtukeun nepi ka mana poténsi tindakan nu dihasilkeun ku neuron. '''Arborisasi''' dendritik atawa '''pancabangan déndritik''', mangrupa prosés biologis multi-léngkah ku cara neuron ngawangun tangkal jeung cabang dendritik anyar pikeun nyiptakeun sinapsis anu anyar.  Morfologi déndrit jiga kapadetan cabang jeung pola pangelompokan aya hubunganana pisan jeung fungsi neuron. Malformasi déndrit ogé patali jeung gangguan fungsi sistem saraf. Sababaraha gangguan anu aya hubunganana jeung malformasi déndrit nyaéta autismeu, déprési, skizofrénia, sindrom Down jeung kahariwangan.

Sababaraha kelas déndrit ngandung proyéksi leutik anu disebut cucuk dendritik anu ningkatkeun sipat réséptif déndrit pikeun ngisolasikeun spésifisitas sinyal. Ngaronjatna kagiatan saraf jeung pangwangunan potensiasi jangka panjang dina tulang tonggong déndritik ngarobah ukuran, bentuk, jeung konduksi. Kamampuan pikeun tumuwuhna déndritik dianggap mibanda peran dina narima pangatikan jeung ngabentuk mémori. Aya saloba 15.000 cucuk per sél, anu masing-masing fungsina salaku prosés postinaptik pikeun akson presinaptik individual.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=C.|last2=Zador, A.|date=February 1993|title=The Function of Dendritic Spines: Devices Subserving Biochemical Rather Than Electrical Compartmentalization|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=2|pages=413–422|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-02-00413.1993|pmc=6576662|pmid=8426220}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pacabangan dendritik bisa leuwih lega deui, contona dina sababaraha kasus, bisa mahi saloba 100.000 input ka hiji neuron.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alberts 2009&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Déndrit mangrupa salah sahiji tina dua jenis tonjolan protoplasmik anu kaluar tina awak sél neuron, anu séjénna mangrupa akson. Akson bisa dibédakeun tina déndrit ku sababaraha fitur kaasup bentuk, panjang, sareng fungsina. Dendrites sering kali langsing dina bentuk sareng langkung pondok, sedengkeun akson condong ngajaga radius konstan sareng relatif panjang. Ilaharna, akson ngirimkeun sinyal éléktrokimia sareng dendrites nampi sinyal éléktrokimia, sanaos sababaraha jinis neuron dina spésiés tangtu kakurangan akon sareng ngan saukur ngirimkeun sinyal ngalangkungan dendritesna.  Dendrites nyayogikeun luas permukaan anu diperbesar pikeun nampi sinyal tina tombol terminal tina akson anu sanésna, sareng aksonna ogé biasana dibagi-bagi di ujung na kana seueur cabang ( telodendria ) anu masing-masing tungtungna terminal saraf, ngamungkinkeun sinyal kimia ngalirkeun sakaligus pikeun seueur sél targét.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alberts 2009&quot;/&gt; Ilaharna, nalika sinyal éléktrokimia ngarangsang neuron, éta lumangsung dina dendrite sareng nyababkeun parobahan poténsial listrik dina mémbran mémbran neuron. Parobihan dina poténsi mémbran sacara pasip bakal sumebar ka dendrite tapi janten lemah sareng jarak tanpa poténsi tindakan. Poténsi tindakan nyebarkeun kagiatan listrik sapanjang mémbran dendrites neuron kana awak sél teras afferently turun panjang akon kana terminal akson, di mana éta micu sékrési neurotransmitter kana beulahan synaptic.  Nanging, sinapsis anu ngalibatkeun dendrites ogé tiasa janten axodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal akson pikeun dendrite, atanapi dendrodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal antara dendrites.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carlson 2013&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Physiology of Behavior|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-23939-9|edition=11th}}&lt;/ref&gt; Autaps mangrupikeun sinaps di mana akon hiji neuron ngirimkeun sinyal ka dérditna sorangan.

Aya tilu jinis utama neuron; multipolar, bipolar, sareng unipolar. Neuron multipolar, sapertos anu dipidangkeun dina gambar, diwangun ku hiji akson sareng seueur tangkal dendritik. Sél piramida mangrupikeun neuron kortikal multipolar sareng awak sél bentukna piramida sareng dendrites ageung disebat dendrit apical anu dugi ka permukaan korteks. Neuron bipolar ngagaduhan hiji akson sareng hiji tangkal dendritik dina tungtung tungtung awak sél. Neuron unipolar gaduh gagang anu ngalegaan tina awak sél anu kapisah janten dua dahan anu hiji ngandung dendrites sareng anu sanésna nganggo tombol terminal. Dendrites unipolar dipaké pikeun ngadeteksi rangsangan indrawi sapertos touch atanapi suhu.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carlson 2013&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Pinel|first=John P.J.|title=Biopsychology|url=https://archive.org/details/biopsychology0000pine_s7c3|date=2011|publisher=Allyn &amp; Bacon|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-83256-9|edition=8th}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jan|first=Y. N.|last2=Jan|first2=L. Y.|year=2010|title=Branching out: Mechanisms of dendritic arborization|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=11|issue=5|pages=316–328|doi=10.1038/nrn2836|pmc=3079328|pmid=20404840}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Sajarah ==
Istilah ''déndrit'' mimiti dipaké dina taun 1889 ku Wilhelm His pikeun ngajelaskeun jumlah &quot;prosés protoplasmik&quot; anu langkung alit anu napel kana sél saraf .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Origins of neuroscience : a history of explorations into brain function|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing|last=Finger|first=Stanley|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=9780195146943|pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing/page/44 44]|oclc=27151391|quote=The nerve cell with its uninterrupted processes was described by Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters (1834-1863) in a work that was completed by Max Schultze (1825-1874) in 1865, two years after Deiters died of typhoid fever. This work portrayed the cell body with a single chief &quot;axis cylinder&quot; and a number of smaller &quot;protoplasmic processes&quot; (see figure 3.19). The latter would become known as &quot;dendrites&quot;, a term coined by Wilhelm His (1831-1904) in 1889.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ahli anatomis Jérman Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters umumna dikredit ku pamanggihan akson ku ngabédakeun éta sareng dendrites.

Sababaraha rékaman intrasélular munggaran dina sistim saraf dilakukeun dina akhir taun 1930an ku Kenneth S. Cole sareng Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker sareng Jérman Robert Remak mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngaidentipikasi sareng ngabentuk segmen awal akson. Alan Hodgkin sareng Andrew Huxley ogé padamelan akson raksasa cumi (1939) sareng ku 1952 aranjeunna parantos kéngingkeun gambaran kuantitatif lengkep dasar ionik tina poténsi aksi, ngarah nyusun modél Hodgkin – Huxley. Hodgkin sareng Huxley dilélér babarengan Hadiah Nobel pikeun karya ieu di 1963. Formula anu merinci kalakuan axonal diperpanjang ka vertebrata dina persamaan Frankenhaeuser – Huxley. Louis-Antoine Ranvier mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngajelaskeun sela atanapi titik anu dipendakan dina akson sareng pikeun sumbangan ieu fitur-fitur aksonon ieu ayeuna biasa disebut salaku Node of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, saurang anatomis Spanyol, ngusulkeun yén akson mangrupikeun komponén kaluaran neuron.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Debanne|first=D|last2=Campanac, E|last3=Bialowas, A|last4=Carlier, E|last5=Alcaraz, G|date=Apr 2011|title=Axon physiology.|url=https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01766861/file/Debanne-Physiol-Rev-2011.pdf|journal=Physiological Reviews|volume=91|issue=2|pages=555–602|doi=10.1152/physrev.00048.2009|pmid=21527732}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anjeunna ogé ngajukeun yén neuron mangrupikeun sél diskrit anu saling komunikasi ngalangkungan sambungan khusus, atanapi spasi, antara sél, anu ayeuna dikenal salaku sinapsis. Ramón y Cajal ningkatkeun prosés noda pérak anu katelah metode Golgi, anu parantos dikembangkeun ku sainganna, Camillo Golgi .&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=López-Muñoz|first=F|date=October 2006|title=Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal|journal=Brain Research Bulletin|volume=70|issue=4–6|pages=391–405|doi=10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.07.010|pmid=17027775}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Pangembangan déndrit ==
[[Gambar:Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg|ka|jmpl|277x277px]]
Nalika ngembangkeun déndrit, sababaraha faktor bisa ngaruh kana diférénsiasi. Diantarana nyaéta modulasi input indera, polutan lingkungan, suhu awak, jeung pamakéan narkoba.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McEwen|first=Bruce S.|year=2010|title=Stress, sex, and neural adaptation to a changing environment: mechanisms of neuronal remodeling|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1204|pages=38–59|bibcode=2010NYASA1204...38M|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05568.x|pmc=2946089|pmid=20840167}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salaku conto, beurit anu diangkat ti lingkungan anu poék dipendakan mibanda jumlah tulang tonggong dina sél piramida anu aya dina korteks visual primér sareng parobihan anu nyata dina distribusi dendrite branching dina lapisan 4 sél stellat.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Borges|first=S.|last2=Berry, M.|date=15 July 1978|title=The effects of dark rearing on the development of the visual cortex of the rat|url=https://archive.org/details/the-journal-of-comparative-neurology_1978-07-15_180_2/page/277|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=180|issue=2|pages=277–300|doi=10.1002/cne.901800207|pmid=659662}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ékspérimén anu dilakukeun dina vitro sareng vivo parantos nunjukkeun yén ayana afferents sareng aktivitas input per se tiasa modulate pola di mana dendrites ngabedakeun.

Saeutik dipikaterang ngeunaan prosés anu dendrites orientasi nyalira dina vivo sareng dipaksa nyiptakeun pola cabang anu rumit anu unik pikeun tiap kelas neuron khusus. Hiji téori ngeunaan mékanisme pamekaran dendritik arbor nyaéta Hipotésis Synaptotropic. Hipotesis synaptotropic ngajukeun yén input tina presynaptic kana sél postsynaptic (sareng kematangan input sinaptik anu ngagumbirakeun) antukna tiasa ngarobih jalan pembentukan sinaps dina dendritic sareng axonal arbor.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Cline|first=H|last2=Haas, K|date=Mar 15, 2008|title=The regulation of dendritic arbor development and plasticity by glutamatergic synaptic input: a review of the synaptotrophic hypothesis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-physiology_2008-03-15_586_6/page/1509|journal=The Journal of Physiology|volume=586|issue=6|pages=1509–17|doi=10.1113/jphysiol.2007.150029|pmc=2375708|pmid=18202093}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pembentukan sinaps ieu diperyogikeun pikeun ngembangkeun struktur neuron dina otak anu fungsina. Kasaimbangan antara biaya metabolisme tina elaborasi dendritik sareng kabutuhan pikeun nutupan médan reseptip panginten tiasa ngukur ukuran sareng bentuk dendrites. Asép Sunandar Sunarya kompléks isyarat ékstrélélular sareng intrasélular modél pangembangan dendrite kalebet faktor transkripsi, interaksi reséptor-ligand, sababaraha jalur sinyal, mesin tarjamahan lokal, unsur siktoskeletal, pospasi Golgi sareng endosom. Ieu nyumbang kana panataan dendrites dina awak sél masing-masing sareng panempatan dendrites ieu dina sirkuit neuron. Salaku conto, éta nunjukkeun yén β-actin zipcode beungkeutan protéin 1 (ZBP1) nyumbang kana cabang dendritik anu pas. Faktor transkripsi penting anu kalebet dina morfologi dendrites kalebet CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6 / drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 jst. Protéin anu disékrésikeun sareng reséptor permukaan sél kalebet neurotrofin sareng reséptor tirosin kinase, BMP7, Wnt / disheveled, EPHB 1-3, Semaphorin / plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 sareng RhoA janten régulator cytoskeletal sareng protéin motor kalebet KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Jalan sekretaris sareng endositik anu penting ngendalikeun kamekaran dendritik kalebet DAR3 / SAR1, DAR2 / Sec23, DAR6 / Rab1 jsb. Sadaya molekul ieu saling saling hubungan dina ngadalikeun morphogenesis dendritic kalebet akuisisi jinis arborisasi dendritik khusus, régulasi ukuran dendrite sareng organisasi dendrites anu asalna tina neuron anu béda.

== Sipat listrik ==
Struktur sareng cabang tina dendrites neuron, ogé kasadiaan sareng variasi konduktansi ion gated voltase, kuat mangaruhan kumaha neuron ngahijikeun input ti neuron sanés. Integrasi ieu duanana temporal, ngalibetkeun kasimpulan rangsangan anu dugi ka gancang, ogé spasial, anu nyababkeun agregasi input ngagumbirakeun sareng ngahambat tina cabang anu misah.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|title=Principles of neural science.|date=2003|publisher=McGrawHill|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-8385-7701-6|edition=4th|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dendrites sakalina panginten ngan saukur nganterkeun stimulasi listrik sacara pasip. Transmisi pasip ieu hartosna yén [[Voltase|parobihan voltase anu]] diukur dina awak sél mangrupikeun akibat tina aktivasi sinaps distal nyebarkeun sinyal listrik kana awak sél tanpa bantosan saluran ion gated voltase. Téori kabel pasip ngajelaskeun kumaha parobihan voltase di lokasi anu tangtu dina dendrite ngirimkeun sinyal listrik ieu ngalangkungan sistem konéksi dendrite anu bénten-diaméterna, panjangna, sareng sipat listrik. Dumasar kana téori kabel pasip, urang tiasa ngalacak kumaha parobihan morfologi dendritik neuron mangaruhan tegangan mémbran dina awak sél, sahingga kumaha variasi dina arsitéktur dendrite mangaruhan ciri kaluaran neuron sacara umum.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koch 1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=Christof|title=Biophysics of computation : information processing in single neurons|url=https://archive.org/details/biophysicsofcomp0000koch|date=1999|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=0-19-510491-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Häusser 2008&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Häusser|first=Michael|title=Dendrites|url=https://archive.org/details/dendrites0002unse|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-856656-4|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sinyal éléktrokimia disebarkeun ku poténsial aksi anu ngamangpaatkeun saluran ion tegangan-gated antarmembran pikeun ngangkut ion natrium, ion kalsium, sareng ion kalium. Unggal spésiés ion gaduh saluran protéinina masing-masing aya dina lipid bilayer mémbran sél. Membran sél neuron nutupan akson, awak sél, dendrites, jst. Saluran protéin tiasa bénten antara spésiés kimia dina jumlah voltase aktivasina anu diperyogikeun sareng durasi aktivasina.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alberts 2009&quot;/&gt;

Poténsi aksi dina sél sato dihasilkeun ku saluran ion natrium-gated atanapi kalsium-gerbang dina mémbran plasma. Saluran ieu ditutup nalika poténsi mémbran caket, atanapi dina, poténsi sél sél. Saluranna bakal mimiti kabuka upami poténsi mémbran naék, ngamungkinkeun natrium atanapi ion kalsium ngalir kana sél. Nalika langkung seueur ion lebet kana sél, poténsi mémbran terus ningkat. Prosésna teras dugi ka sadaya saluran ion kabuka, nyababkeun paningkatan gancang dina poténsi mémbran anu teras micu turunna poténsi mémbran. Dépolarisasi disababkeun ku nutup saluran ion anu nyegah ion natrium tina lebet kana neuron, sareng aranjeunna teras diangkut sacara aktif kaluar tina sél. Saluran kalium teras diaktipkeun, sareng aya aliran luar ion kalium, balikkeun gradién éléktrokimia kana poténsi istirahat. Saatos poténsi tindakan parantos kajantenan, aya pergeseran négatip samentawis, anu disebat afterhyperpolarization atanapi jaman réfraktori, kusabab arus kalium tambahan. Ieu mékanisme anu nyegah poténsial tindakan tina ngumbara deui sapertos anu nembé sumping.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alberts 2009&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barnett|first=MW|last2=Larkman, PM|date=Jun 2007|title=The action potential.|journal=Practical Neurology|volume=7|issue=3|pages=192–7|pmid=17515599}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fitur penting séjén dendrites, dikaruniai konduktivitas gated voltase aktifna, nyaéta kamampuanna pikeun ngirim poténsial aksi balik ka arbor dendritik. Dipikawanoh salaku poténsi tindakan anu nyebarkeun deui, sinyal ieu ngaleungitkeun arbor dendritik sareng nyayogikeun komponén penting pikeun modulasi sinaps sareng potentiation jangka panjang. Saterasna, karéta poténsial tindakan balik-nyebarkeun sacara artifisial dihasilkeun dina soma tiasa nyababkeun poténsi aksi kalsium ( paku dendritik ) di zona inisiasi dendritik dina sababaraha jinis neuron. 

== Plastisitas ==
Dendrites sorangan sigana sanggup ngarobih palastik nalika hirup sawawa sato, kaasup invertebrata. Dendrites neuron ngagaduhan sababaraha kompartemen anu dikenal salaku unit fungsional anu tiasa ngitung rangsangan anu datang. Unit fungsional ieu kalibet dina ngolah input sareng diwangun ku subdomain dendrites sapertos duri, dahan, atanapi pengelompokan dahan. Ku alatan éta, plastisitas anu nyababkeun parobahan struktur dendrite bakal mangaruhan komunikasi sareng pamrosésan dina sél. Salila ngembangkeun, morfologi dendrite dibentuk ku program intrinsik dina génom sél sareng faktor ékstrinsik sapertos sinyal tina sél anu sanés. Tapi dina kahirupan déwasa, sinyal ékstrinsik janten langkung pangaruh sareng nyababkeun parobahan anu langkung signifikan dina struktur dendrite dibandingkeun sareng sinyal intrinsik nalika dikembangkeun. Dina bikang, struktur dendritic tiasa robih akibat tina kaayaan fisiologis anu diakibatkeun ku hormon salami periode sapertos kakandungan, laktat, sareng nuturkeun siklus estrous. Ieu katingali khusus dina sél piramida daérah CA1 tina hippocampus, di mana kapadetan dendrites tiasa bénten-bénten dugi ka 30%.

== Cutatan ==
 {{Reflist|refs=&lt;ref name=perycz&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Perycz | first1 = M. | last2 = Urbanska | first2 = A. S. | last3 = Krawczyk | first3 = P. S. | last4 = Parobczak | first4 = K. | last5 = Jaworski | first5 = J. | title = Zipcode Binding Protein 1 Regulates the Development of Dendritic Arbors in Hippocampal Neurons | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2387-10.2011 | journal = Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 31 | issue = 14 | pages = 5271–5285 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21471362 | pmc = 6622686 | url = http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922035952/http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | archive-date = 2017-09-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=urbanska&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Urbanska | first1 = M. | last2 = Blazejczyk | first2 = M. | last3 = Jaworski | first3 = J. | title = Molecular basis of dendritic arborization | journal = Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 264–288 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18511961}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=Tavosanis&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Tavosanis | first1 = G. | title = Dendritic structural plasticity | doi = 10.1002/dneu.20951 | journal = Developmental Neurobiology | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–86 | year = 2012 | pmid = 21761575 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=Yau&gt;{{Cite journal | pmid = 1018277| year = 1976| last1 = Yau| first1 = K. W.| title = Receptive fields, geometry and conduction block of sensory neurones in the central nervous system of the leech| journal = The Journal of Physiology| volume = 263| issue = 3| pages = 513–38| pmc = 1307715 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011643}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

== Référénsi ==

* {{Cite journal|last=Lorenzo|first=L. E.|last2=Russier|first2=M|last3=Barbe|first3=A|last4=Fritschy|first4=J. M.|last5=Bras|first5=H|year=2007|title=Differential organization of gamma-aminobutyric acid type a and glycine receptors in the somatic and dendritic compartments of rat abducens motoneurons|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=504|issue=2|pages=112–26|doi=10.1002/cne.21442|pmid=17626281}}

== Tumbu luar ==

* Histology image: 3_09  - &quot;Geser 3 [[Tulang tonggong]] &quot;
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120608112038/http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?keyword=dendritic%20tree&amp;stype=lite&amp;event=display&amp;Submit=Go&amp;start=1 Tangkal Dendritic - Cell Centered Database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103223/http://www.detraditie.nl/sdt_sdtreferenceseries/sdt_rsi_2011_dendrites.pdf Gambar stereo tangkal dendritik dina organ éléktroréktor ''Kryptopterus'']

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'''Leila Khaled''' ([[Basa Arab|Arab]]: ليلى خالد [ˈlajla ˈxaːled]; babar 9 April 1944) nyaéta saurang aktivis [[Paléstina (wewengkon)|Paléstina]] jeung urut militan anu jadi anggota ''[[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]'' (PFLP). Manéhna kasohor alatan perenna dina dua kajadian ngabajak pesawat, jeung jadi awéwé kadua anu kalibet dina operasi jiga kitu.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://alif.id/perempuan/leila-khaled-ikon-perempuan-palestina-yang-tak-pernah-mati|title=Leila Khaled, Ikon Perempuan Palestina yang Tak Pernah Mati|website=Alif.ID - Berkeislamanan dalam Kebudayaan|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Khaled mimiti dipikawanoh sacara lega gara-gara perenna dina ngabajak Pesawat TWA Penerbangan 840 dina taun 1969, sarta salah sahiji tina opat pangbajakan babarengan di [[Dawson's Field]] dina taun saterusna salaku bagian tina kampanye ''Black September'' di [[Yordania]]. Sanggeus ditéwak jeung dipenjara, manéhna dibébaskeun dina prosés tukeuran tahanan jeung sandera sipil anu diculik ku anggota PFLP séjénna.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.paramadina-pusad.or.id/dilema-leila/|title=PUSAD Paramadina {{!}} Dilema Leila Sang Pembajak|language=id|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Keur leutik ==
Khaled babar tanggal 9 April 1944 di [[Haifa]], wilayah Mandat Paléstina, ti kolot anu urang Arab. Kulawargana ngungsi ka [[Libanon]] dina tanggal 13 April 1948 salaku bagian tina kajadian pangusiran jeung pangungsian Paléstina taun 1948, sarta ninggalkeun bapana di ditu.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.972mag.com/interview-with-leila-khaled-bds-is-effective-but-it-doesnt-liberate-land/|title=Interview with Leila Khaled: 'BDS is effective, but it doesn't liberate land'|last=Magazine|first=+972|website=+972 Magazine|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina umur 15 taun, nuturkeun lacak lanceukna, manéhna gabung jeung Gerakan Nasionalis Arab (pan-Arab)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/index.php?news=5412&amp;searchFor=Jansen|title=Palestinian patriot {{!}} Jordan Times|website=www.jordantimes.com|accessdate=2026-05-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125091105/http://www.jordantimes.com/index.php?news=5412&amp;searchFor=Jansen|archivedate=2015-11-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; anu mimitina diadegkeun dina ahir taun 1940-an ku [[George Habash]], anu harita keur jadi mahasiswa kedokteran di ''[[American University of Beirut]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.avsec.com/interviews/leila-khaled.htm|title=Aviation Security International|website=www.avsec.com|accessdate=2026-05-27}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827170102/http://www.avsec.com/interviews/leila-khaled.htm |date=2008-08-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Cabang Paléstina tina ieu gerakan satuluyisna robah jadi ''Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine'' (PFLP) sanggeus Perang Genep Poé taun 1967. Khaled ogé kungsi ngajar sawatara waktu di [[Kuwait]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.onepalestine.org/resources/articles/My_People_Shall_Live.html|title=My People Shall Live|website=www.onepalestine.org|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kajadian Pangbajakan ==

=== Pesawat TWA Penerbangan 840 (1969) ===
Dina tanggal 29 Agustus 1969, Khaled jadi bagian tina tim anu ngabajak Pesawat TWA Penerbangan 840 anu keur hiber ti Roma ka [[Tel Aviv]], sarta mindahkeun jalur hiber pesawat Boeing 707 éta ka [[Damaskus]]. Nurutkeun sawatara sumber média, pimpinan PFLP ngira yén Yitzhak Rabin, anu harita jadi duta besar Israél keur Amérika Sarikat, aya di jero pesawat éta; padahal mah euweuh. Khaled ngaku yén manéhna maréntahkeun pilot pikeun ngapungkeun pesawat luhureun kota Haifa, sangkan manéhna bisa nempo tempat lahirna. Euweuh korban anu tatu, tapi sanggeus sakabéh panumpang turun, para pangbajak ngabeledugkeun bagian irung pesawat.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title='I made the ring from a bullet and the pin of a hand grenade'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/jan/26/israel|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2001-01-26|access-date=2026-05-27|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Katharine|last=Viner}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.adl.org/resources/blog/leila-khaled-her-own-words|title=Leila Khaled: In Her Own Words {{!}} ADL|website=www.adl.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sanggeus kajadian pangbajakan ieu, poto manéhna (nu dicokot ku Eddie Adams) keur nyepeng bedil AK-47 jeung maké kaffiyeh sumebar di rupa-rupa média. Alatan hal éta, manéhna ngalaman genep kali operasi plastik dina irung jeung gado pikeun nyamurkeun identitasna sangkan bisa milu deui dina pangbajakan di mangsa hareup, sarta lantaran manéhna embung katelah salaku ikon (simbol).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://newint.org/features/2023/06/05/interview-leila-khaled-palestine|title=The Interview: Leila Khaled {{!}} New Internationalist|website=newint.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.plutobooks.com/blog/leila-khaled-the-poster-girl-of-palestinian-militancy-international-womans-day/|title=leila khaled the poster girl of palestinian militancy international womans day|last=Orford|first=Emily|website=Pluto Press|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Pesawat El Al Penerbangan 219 (1970) ===
Dina tanggal 6 Séptémber 1970, Khaled jeung Patrick Argüello, saurang warga Amérika-Nikaragua, nyoba ngabajak Pesawat El Al Penerbangan 219 ti Amsterdam ka New York. Ieu aksi mangrupa bagian tina pangbajakan Dawson's Field, nyaéta runtuyan pangbajakan anu lumangsung méh bareng anu dilakukeun ku PFLP. Khaled jeung Argüello ngancam bakal ngabeledugkeun granat lamun maréhna teu diidinan asup ka kokpit. Pilot nolak nuturkeun kahayang maréhna, sarta kalah ngalegotkeun pesawat nyirorot ka handap.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jweekly.com/2020/09/16/el-al-pilots-harrowing-tale-of-outmaneuvering-hijacker-invited-to-speak-at-s-f-state/|title=El Al pilot's harrowing tale of outmaneuvering hijacker Leila Khaled|last=Pine|first=Dan|website=J.|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sanajan rupa-rupa sumber béda pamanggih ngeunaan runuyan kajadianana, dina kaributan anu lumangsung, aya anu neunggeul sirah Argüello ku botol wiski; Argüello némbak sarta nyideraan saurang kru, jeung dikabarkeun ngalungkeun granat (anu teu bitu) ka arah panumpang; sarta agén kaamanan pesawat (''sky marshal'') némbak Argüello sababaraha kali nepi ka tatu parah sarta maot. Pilot mindahkeun jalur pesawat ka Bandara Heathrow di London. Ambulans mawa kru anu tatu jeung Argüello ka rumah sakit. Kru pesawat salamet, sedengkeun Argüello maot di jero ambulans. Khaled ditéwak, sanajan engkéna dibébaskeun deui dina prosés tukeuran sandera.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/hijacked-1970-hijackings/|title=1970 Hijackings {{!}} American Experience {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://aviation-safety.net/asndb/331008|title=Unlawful Interference Boeing 707-458 4X-ATB, Sunday 6 September 1970|last=Ranter|first=Harro|website=aviation-safety.net|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/people-involved-and-affected/|title=The People Involved and Affected {{!}} American Experience {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kahirupan kiwari ==
Dina sababaraha wawancara, Khaled kungsi nyebutkeun yén manéhna jadi resep ka Britania Raya ([[Inggris]]) gara-gara jalma mimiti anu ngalongok manéhna di jero panjara saurang patugas imigrasi malah nanya naha manéhna bisa datang ka éta nagara tanpa visa anu sah. Manéhna ogé jadi akrab jeung dua pulisi awéwé anu ditugaskeun keur ngajaga manéhna di [[Ealing]], sarta satuluyisna osok silih kirim surat. Khaled terus datang deui ka Inggris pikeun jadi panyatur nepi ka taun 2002. Sanajan kitu, dina taun 2005, kedutaan gedé Inggris nolak méré [[visa]] nalika manéhna diondang jadi panyatur dina acara ''Féile an Phobail'' di Belfast. Tungtungna, manéhna tetep bisa nyarita ka jalma-jalma di acara éta ngaliwatan sambungan vidéo (''video link'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/13953|title=A just solution is the way out of conflict - Leila Khaled {{!}} An Phoblacht|website=www.anphoblacht.com|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nurutkeun Khaled, sabenerna euweuh anu ngaranna prosés perdamaian Arab-Israél. Manéhna nyatakeun, &quot;Éta mah prosés politik anu kauntunganana aya di pihak Israél, lain keur urang. Maréhna nyepeng kabéh kartu keur maén, sedengkeun urang Paléstina euweuh keur prioritaskeun, komo deui kaayaan PLO keur teu ngahiji.&quot; Khaled ogé ngadukung gerakan politik Kurdi anu aya di sabudeureun ''Peoples' Democratic Party'' (HDP), sarta ngaitkeun kasaruaan nasib antara rahayat Paléstina jeung urang Kurdi.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/politics/2020/02/24/iconic-liberation-activist-at-hdp-congress-long-live-palestine-long-live-kurdistan|title=Iconic liberation activist at HDP congress: Long live Palestine, long live Kurdistan!|last=English|first=Duvar|website=https://www.duvarenglish.com/politics/2020/02/24/iconic-liberation-activist-at-hdp-congress-long-live-palestine-long-live-kurdistan|language=tr-TR|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://anfenglishmobile.com/guncel/dbp-albay-i-dais-katletti-34323|title=DBP: Albay’ı DAİŞ katletti|website=ANF News|language=tr|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Manéhna mimiti aub kana dunya politik, jadi anggota Déwan Nasional Paléstina (''Palestinian National Council''), jeung remen mucunghul di acara ''World Social Forum''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://infochangeindia.org/200906257801/Governance/Features/The-activistocracy.html|title=InfoChange India News &amp; Features development news India - The activistocracy|last=Administrator|website=infochangeindia.org|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/dinamic.php?pagina=coletivas_280105_ing|title=Fórum Social Mundial|website=www.forumsocialmundial.org.br|accessdate=2026-05-27}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609163921/http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/dinamic.php?pagina=coletivas_280105_ing |date=2007-06-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://english.pnn.ps/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=1521|title=PNN - Palestine News Network - Palestine on the table at World Social Forum in Kenya|website=english.pnn.ps|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Khaled nikah jeung saurang dokter ngaranna Fayez Rashid (1950–2023) sarta matuh babarengan jeung dua anak lalakina, Bader jeung Bashar, di Amman, Yordania.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://irelandsown.net/leilakhalid2.html|title=Ireland's OWN: Women Freedom Fighters|last=Gould|first=Dawn-Michele|website=irelandsown.net|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Manéhna saurang anu teu ngagem ageman (irrelijius). Kisah hirupna kungsi dijadikeun pilem anu judulna ''Leila Khaled, Hijacker'', anu disutradaraan ku sineas Paléstina, Lina Makboul.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.972mag.com/interview-with-leila-khaled-bds-is-effective-but-it-doesnt-liberate-land/|title=Interview with Leila Khaled: 'BDS is effective, but it doesn't liberate land'|last=Magazine|first=+972|website=+972 Magazine|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/c.php?g=1027937&amp;p=7551027|title=Subject Guides: Streaming Video Guides: Area Studies -- Middle East and North Africa|last=Kelshian|first=Rob|website=subjectguides.library.american.edu|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pilem ieu munggaran dipidangkeun dina bulan Novémber 2005 dina acara ''International Documentary Film Festival'' di [[Amsterdam]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.leilakhaled.com/leila_frames.html|title=Leila Khaled - Hijacker|website=www.leilakhaled.com|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Leila Khaled: Hijacker (2005) {{!}} MUBI|url=https://mubi.com/en/us/films/leila-khaled-hijacker|accessdate=2026-05-27|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina bulan Novémber 2017, Khaled ditolak asup ka kota [[Roma]], [[Italia]], di [[Bandara Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino]], sarta dipaksa kudu balik deui ka [[Amman]] lantaran manéhna mangrupa anggota ti kelompok anu dianggap organisasi téroris ku pamaréntah Italia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilgiornaleditalia.org/news/cronaca/892943/Leila-Khaled-respinta-a-Fiumicino.html|title=Leila Khaled respinta a Fiumicino - giornaleditalia|website=www.ilgiornaleditalia.org|accessdate=2026-05-27}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129095505/http://www.ilgiornaleditalia.org/news/cronaca/892943/Leila-Khaled-respinta-a-Fiumicino.html |date=2017-11-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina pertengahan Séptémber 2020, Khaled dijadwalkeun pikeun nyarita dina konferensi virtual Zoom di ''San Francisco State University'' anu diayakeun ku Rabab Abdulhadi jeung Tomomi Kinukawa. Sanajan kitu, alatan lobina desakan tina koalisi kelompok [[Yahudi]] &quot;End Jewish Hatred&quot;, pihak ''Zoom Video Communications'' bareng jeung YouTube sarta Facebook, ngalarang acara konferensi éta ngagunakeun aplikasi sarta platform vidéo maréhna, kalawan alesan patuh kana aturan kontrol ékspor, sanksi, jeung undang-undang anti-térorisme [[Amérika Sarikat]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/09/25/zoom-refuses-stream-university-event-featuring-member-terrorist-organization|title=Zoom Draws a Line|last=Flaherty|first=Colleen|website=Inside Higher Ed|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jweekly.com/2020/09/22/after-protest-zoom-will-not-host-s-f-state-event-featuring-leila-khaled/|title=Zoom will not host S.F. State event featuring Leila Khaled|last=Greschler|first=Gabriel|website=J.|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Dina Budaya Populér ==
Khaled kungsi dijadikeun objék lukisan potrét anu sakabéhna dijieun tina lipen, judulna &quot;The Icon&quot;. Karya seni ieu dijieun ku seniman Amer Shomali ngagunakeun 14 warna jeung 3.500 lipstik. Lagu anu judulna &quot;Like Leila Khaled Said&quot; tina albeum ''Wilder'' (1981) bogana grup musik ''The Teardrop Explodes'' mangrupa lagu cinta keur Khaled. Nu nulis laguna, Julian Cope, nyebutkeun yén éta téh lagu cinta keur manéhna &quot;sabab kuring mikir manéhna téh geulis pisan. Tapi kuring nyaho yén sakabéh carita éta sabenerna mah siga béja goréng.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://screamingsecrets.com/discography/tx_albums/html/a_5.html|title=TEARDROP EXPLODES DISCOGRAPHY {{!}} ALBUMS|website=screamingsecrets.com|accessdate=2026-05-27}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040716055135/http://screamingsecrets.com/discography/tx_albums/html/a_5.html |date=2004-07-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nepi ka taun 2018, manéhna diabadikeun dina wujud lukisan témbok (mural) di ''International Wall'' di Jalan Falls, Belfast, Irlandia Kalér. Éta mural dijieun dumasar kana poto Khaled nu dicokot ku Eddie Adams keur nyepeng AK-47 kalayan aya bandéra Paléstina di tukangeunana. Gambar manéhna dipajang bareng jeung gambar pejuang Républik Irlandia, Oglach Charlie Hughes, sarta aya tulisan &quot;Perjuangan Urang Bakal Terus Lumangsung&quot;. Déwan Kota Johannesburg ogé ngesahkeun kaputusan dina bulan Novémber 2018 pikeun ngarobah ngaran Jalan Sandton Drive di Johannesburg jadi Jalan Leila Khaled.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/2018-12-01-fight-over-renaming-of-sandton-drive-after-palestinian-leila-khaled/|title=Fight over renaming of Sandton Drive after Palestinian Leila Khaled|last=MABOTJA|first=KGOPI|website=IOL|language=en|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kantor konsulat Amérika Sarikat di Johannesburg perenahna aya di jalan éta.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/news/the-american-consulate-at-1-leila-khaled-drive|title=The American Consulate at 1 Leila Khaled Drive? {{!}} Politicsweb|website=www.politicsweb.co.za|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://businesstech.co.za/news/government/817781/ramaphosa-steps-in-over-sandton-drive-name-change/|title=Ramaphosa steps in over Sandton Drive name change|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nu nulis carita, Chris Boucher, nyebutkeun yén manéhna méré ngaran karakter pejuang liar &quot;Leela&quot; dina serial ''Doctor Who'' dumasar kana ngaran Khaled. Lagu kasapuluh dina albeum ''Friværdi'' anu dirilis tanggal 26 Séptémber 2005 ku grup band rock asal Dénmark, ''Magtens Korridorer'', miboga judul &quot;Leila Khaled&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Magtens Korridorer – Leila Khaled|url=https://genius.com/Magtens-korridorer-leila-khaled-lyrics|accessdate=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salian ti éta, ''Leila Khaled: Hijacker'' nyaéta pilem dokuméntér taun 2006 ngeunaan Leila Khaled anu dijieun ku sineas Swédia-Paléstina, Lina Makboul.

Dina albeum ''Olive no Ki no Shita de'' anu dirilis taun 2007 ku panyanyi rock Jepang, Panta, aya lagu anu judulna &quot;Leila's Ballade&quot;. Lirik ieu lagu ditulis ku urut anggota Tentara Beureum Jepang, Fusako Shigenobu, jeung anakna, Mei Shigenobu. Ngaran Khaled ogé disebut ku grup musik ''Fun-da-mental'' dina lagu &quot;Mother India&quot; dina CD ''Love India'' (2010) anu sumebar lega di Amérika Sarikat ngaliwatan Starbucks. Dina taun 2012, Khaled diondang kana acara paringetan 40 taun kajadian pambantaian Bandara Lod ku kelompok sayap kénca radikal Jepang di Kyoto. Dina acara éta, Panta nembangkeun lagu kasebut langsung di hareupeun Khaled.

== Référénsi ==
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    <title>Gunung Aseupan</title>
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|+ '''Gunung Aseupan'''
|-
! Jangkung
| 1.174 mdpl
|-
! Lokasi
| [[Kabupatén Pandeglang]], [[Banten]], [[Indonésia]]
|-
! Koordinat
| 6°18′S 105°57′E
|}

'''Gunung Aseupan''' nyaéta hiji gunung anu perenahna di Kabupaten Pandeglang, Propinsi Banten, Indonésia. Jangkungna kira-kira 1.174 méter di luhureun permukaan laut.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Géografi ==
Gunung ieu jarakna kira-kira 18 km ka kulon ti pusat Kota Pandeglang.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Di wewengkon puncakna aya makam, tapi can dipikanyaho saha anu dimakamkeun di dinya.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Jalur Pendakian ==
Pikeun nepi ka puncak, aya tilu jalur anu geus disadiakeun basecamp pikeun pendaki.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Salah sahiji jalur nu populér nyaéta ngaliwatan Kaduhejo Sukaraja, Kecamatan Pulosari.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Di jalur ieu pendaki bisa ningali curug ti mata cai gunung.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://bantenprov.go.id/index.php/berita/4-gunung-di-pandeglang-banten-untuk-pendaki-pemula |title=4 Gunung di Pandeglang Banten untuk Pendaki Pemula |publisher=bantenprov.go.id |access-date=6 April 2026}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ekosistem jeung Wisata ==
Salian ti jalur pendakian, Gunung Aseupan ogé kasohor ku kaéndahan alamna. Di sabudeureun jalur pendakian pendaki tiasa mendakan tutuwuhan jeung sato anu hirup di wewengkon pagunungan Banten.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://excitingbanten.id/destinasi/wisata-alam/gunung-aseupan |title=Gunung Aseupan |publisher=excitingbanten.id |access-date=6 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Pikeun kaamanan, pendaki disarankeun ngagunakeun pituduh lokal jeung nyiapkeun parabot pendakian anu lengkep sateuacan ngamimitian perjalanan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://excitingbanten.id/destinasi/wisata-alam/gunung-aseupan |title=Gunung Aseupan |publisher=excitingbanten.id |access-date=6 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

[[Kategori:Gunung di Banten]]
[[Kategori:Gunung di Indonésia]]</text>
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    <title>Urang Malayu Indonésia</title>
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      <text bytes="2617" sha1="ah9xjzpg3twki2ztirj9oz7ur7ypmds" xml:space="preserve">[[File:About indonesian culture.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Hiji pasangan Malayu [[Riau]] ngarasakeun Gambus tradisional. Panel latar tukang ngagabungkeun palét tilu warna Malayu.]]

'''Urang Malayu Indonésia''' ([[Basa Malayu]]/[[Basa Indonésia]]: ''Orang Melayu Indonesia''; [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو ايندونيسيا}}) nyaéta [[urang Malayu|étnis Malayu]] anu cicing di sakuliah [[Indonésia]]. Aranjeunna salah sahiji masarakat pribumi nagara éta.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Badan Kesatuan Bangsa dan Politik|url=http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272|access-date=20 Juni 2026|website=kesbangpol.riau.go.id|archive-date=8 Juli 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272 |date=2022-07-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Basa Indonésia]], basa nasional Indonésia, nyaéta wangun standar basa Malayu Riau.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon&quot;&gt;Sneddon 2003, ''The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society'', p. 69–70&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Kamus Saku Bahasa Indonesia'', p. 272, PT Mizan Publika, {{ISBN|9789791227834}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aya seueur karajaan anu aya patalina sareng urang Malayu Indonésia sareng étnis-étnis sanés di tempat anu ayeuna disebut [[Indonésia]], utamina di pulo [[Kalimantan]] sareng [[Sumatra]]. Di antarana [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]], [[Karajaan Malayu]], [[Dharmasraya]], Kasultanan Deli, Kasultanan Siak Sri Indrapura, Kasultanan Riau-Lingga, Kasultanan Bulungan, Kasultanan Pontianak, jeung Kasultanan Sambas. Sénsus taun 2010 nyatakeun yén aya 8 juta urang Malayu di Indonésia; angka ieu asalna tina klasifikasi urang Malayu di Sumatra Wétan sareng basisir Kalimantan anu diakui ku pamaréntah Indonésia. Klasifikasi ieu béda ti sénsus [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Singapura]] anu ngagolongkeun urang Malayu salaku kategori ras anu langkung lega, anu sajaba ti étnis inti Malayu ogé ngawengku sadaya kelompok étnis Muslim ti kapuloan Indonésia (kalebet urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]]) salaku [[urang Malayu]].

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
{{Commonscat|Malay people of Indonesia}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mW_l4fN1EIQ&amp;t Malay dialects of Indonesia] 
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090304100951/http://melayuonline.com/ MelayuOnline]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2721" sha1="hxv8t55tcz25z22z5qn5i95hqs8z5c6" xml:space="preserve">[[File:About indonesian culture.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Hiji pasangan Malayu [[Riau]] ngarasakeun Gambus tradisional. Panel latar tukang ngagabungkeun palét tilu warna Malayu.]]

'''Urang Malayu Indonésia''' ([[Basa Malayu]]/[[Basa Indonésia]]: ''Orang Melayu Indonesia''; [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو ايندونيسيا}}) nyaéta [[urang Malayu|étnis Malayu]] anu cicing di sakuliah [[Indonésia]]. Aranjeunna salah sahiji masarakat pribumi nagara éta.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Badan Kesatuan Bangsa dan Politik|url=http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272|access-date=20 Juni 2026|website=kesbangpol.riau.go.id|archive-date=8 Juli 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&amp;id=272 |date=2022-07-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Basa Indonésia]], basa nasional Indonésia, nyaéta wangun standar basa Malayu Riau.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sneddon&quot;&gt;Sneddon 2003, ''The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society'', p. 69–70&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Kamus Saku Bahasa Indonesia'', p. 272, PT Mizan Publika, {{ISBN|9789791227834}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aya seueur karajaan anu aya patalina sareng urang Malayu Indonésia sareng étnis-étnis sanés di tempat anu ayeuna disebut [[Indonésia]], utamina di pulo [[Kalimantan]] sareng [[Sumatra]]. Di antarana [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]], [[Karajaan Malayu]], [[Dharmasraya]], Kasultanan Deli, Kasultanan Siak Sri Indrapura, Kasultanan Riau-Lingga, Kasultanan Bulungan, Kasultanan Pontianak, jeung Kasultanan Sambas. Sénsus taun 2010 nyatakeun yén aya 8 juta urang Malayu di Indonésia; angka ieu asalna tina klasifikasi urang Malayu di Sumatra Wétan sareng basisir Kalimantan anu diakui ku pamaréntah Indonésia. Klasifikasi ieu béda ti sénsus [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Singapura]] anu ngagolongkeun urang Malayu salaku kategori ras anu langkung lega, anu sajaba ti étnis inti Malayu ogé ngawengku sadaya kelompok étnis Muslim ti kapuloan Indonésia (kalebet urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]]) salaku [[urang Malayu]].

== Tingali ogé ==
* [[Urang Malayu Malaysia]]
* [[Urang Malayu Singapura]]
* [[Urang Malayu Brunéi]]

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Tautan éksternal ==
{{Commonscat|Malay people of Indonesia}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mW_l4fN1EIQ&amp;t Malay dialects of Indonesia] 
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090304100951/http://melayuonline.com/ MelayuOnline]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia]]</text>
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    <title>Urang Malayu Malaysia</title>
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      <text bytes="2513" sha1="sum1ibtutg715t70shtyhtybjyrn6ju" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Tarik upih pinang.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Barudak Malayu keur ulin ''Tarik Upih Pinang'', kaulinan tradisional nu ngalibatkeun nyered daun palem.]]

'''Urang Malayu Malaysia''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Malaysia}}; [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|أورڠ ملايو مليسيا}}}}) nyaéta urang [[Malaysia]] ti [[urang Malayu|étnis Malayu]] anu karuhunna asalna sagemblengna atanapi sabagian ti Dunya Malayu. Sacara umum, aranjeunna tiasa digolongkeun kana dua kategori utama; ''Anak Jati'' (urang Malayu pribumi atanapi Malayu lokal) sareng ''Anak Dagang'' (urang Malayu dagang atanapi Malayu asing).&lt;ref name=&quot;MMO&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author1=Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rosli|author2=Rahmat Mohamad|title=Were the Malays immigrants? |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/what-you-think/article/were-the-malays-immigrants-mohd-hazmi-mohd-rusli-and-rahmat-mohamad#6S4ortxP2ZO8Ts0F.97|website=The Malay Mail Online|access-date=20 Juni 2026|date=5 Juni 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Miller&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Miller|Williams|2006|pp=45–46}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Suku ''Anak Jati'' atawa urang Malayu asli diwangun ku jalma-jalma anu taat kana budaya Malayu asli ti daérah basisir Semenanjung Malaya sareng [[Kalimantan]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Miller&quot;/&gt; Di antara kelompok anu kasohor kalebet urang Brunéi, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Sarawak sareng Terengganu. Di sisi séjén, ''Anak Dagang'' atawa urang Malayu asing, diwangun ku turunan imigran ti bagian séjén Kapuloan Malayu anu jadi warga kasultanan Malayu sarta diserep sarta diasimilasi kana budaya Malayu dina waktu anu béda, dibantuan ku kamiripan dina gaya hirup jeung agama anu sarua.

Urang Malayu deungeun boga karuhun Aceh, Banjar, Bugis, [[urang Jawa|Jawa]], Mandailing jeung [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] nu asalna ti [[Indonésia]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gulrose Karim|1990|p=74}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Suad Joseph|Afsaneh Najmabadi|2006|p=436}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sababaraha urang Malayu asing ogé tiasa asalna ti bagian sanés di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]], kalebet Chams di Indocina, Malayu Cocos di Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling) Australia ogé Malayu Patani di [[Thailand]] kidul. Aya ogé sajumlah minoritas urang Malayu anu sabagian turunan ti imigran anyar ti seueur nagara sanés anu parantos berasimilasi kana budaya Muslim Malayu.

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Tingali ogé ==
{{Commonscat|People of Malaysia of Malay descent}}
* [[Basa Malayu]]
* [[Urang Malayu]]
* [[Urang Malayu Indonésia]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia]]</text>
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'''Urang Malayu Malaysia''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Malaysia}}; [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|أورڠ ملايو مليسيا}}}}) nyaéta urang [[Malaysia]] ti [[urang Malayu|étnis Malayu]] anu karuhunna asalna sagemblengna atanapi sabagian ti Dunya Malayu. Sacara umum, aranjeunna tiasa digolongkeun kana dua kategori utama; ''Anak Jati'' (urang Malayu pribumi atanapi Malayu lokal) sareng ''Anak Dagang'' (urang Malayu dagang atanapi Malayu asing).&lt;ref name=&quot;MMO&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author1=Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rosli|author2=Rahmat Mohamad|title=Were the Malays immigrants? |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/what-you-think/article/were-the-malays-immigrants-mohd-hazmi-mohd-rusli-and-rahmat-mohamad#6S4ortxP2ZO8Ts0F.97|website=The Malay Mail Online|access-date=20 Juni 2026|date=5 Juni 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Miller&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Miller|Williams|2006|pp=45–46}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Suku ''Anak Jati'' atawa urang Malayu asli diwangun ku jalma-jalma anu taat kana budaya Malayu asli ti daérah basisir Semenanjung Malaya sareng [[Kalimantan]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Miller&quot;/&gt; Di antara kelompok anu kasohor kalebet urang Brunéi, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Sarawak sareng Terengganu. Di sisi séjén, ''Anak Dagang'' atawa urang Malayu asing, diwangun ku turunan imigran ti bagian séjén Kapuloan Malayu anu jadi warga kasultanan Malayu sarta diserep sarta diasimilasi kana budaya Malayu dina waktu anu béda, dibantuan ku kamiripan dina gaya hirup jeung agama anu sarua.

Urang Malayu deungeun boga karuhun Aceh, Banjar, Bugis, [[urang Jawa|Jawa]], Mandailing jeung [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] nu asalna ti [[Indonésia]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gulrose Karim|1990|p=74}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Suad Joseph|Afsaneh Najmabadi|2006|p=436}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sababaraha urang Malayu asing ogé tiasa asalna ti bagian sanés di [[Asia Kidul Wétan]], kalebet Chams di Indocina, Malayu Cocos di Kapuloan Cocos (Keeling) Australia ogé Malayu Patani di [[Thailand]] kidul. Aya ogé sajumlah minoritas urang Malayu anu sabagian turunan ti imigran anyar ti seueur nagara sanés anu parantos berasimilasi kana budaya Muslim Malayu.

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Tingali ogé ==
{{Commonscat|People of Malaysia of Malay descent}}
* [[Basa Malayu]]
* [[Urang Malayu]]
* [[Urang Malayu Indonésia]]
* [[Urang Malayu Brunéi]]
* [[Urang Malayu Singapura]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia]]
[[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Malaysia]]</text>
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    <title>Musieum Louvre</title>
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      <text bytes="3598" sha1="lfrt7tnm1c5suttnttayjtqvc28yl0j" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox museum
|name = Musieum Louvre
|image = Louvre Museum Wikimedia Commons.jpg
|caption = Istana Louvre
|imagesize = 300
|pushpin_map = Paris, Prancis
|latitude = 
|longitude = 
|established = 1793
|dissolved =
|location = Palais Royal, Musée du Louvre,&lt;br /&gt;75001 Paris, Prancis
|type = [[Musium]] [[seni]], museum desain/tekstil, situs sajarah
|visitors = 7.7&amp;nbsp;juta (2022)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://goodstats.id/article/sederet-museum-dengan-jumlah-pengunjung-terbanyak-2022-louvre-museum-teratas-60ECv|title=Sederet Museum dengan Jumlah Pengunjung Terbanyak 2022, Louvre Museum Teratas!|last=GoodStats|website=GoodStats|language=id|accessdate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;br&gt;8.9&amp;nbsp;juta (2023)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://presse.louvre.fr/?p=1063000215090|title=8.9 million visitors to the Musée du Louvre in 2023|last=Benaiteau|first=Marion|website=Espace presse du musée du Louvre|language=en-EN|accessdate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;8.7&amp;nbsp;juta (2024)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://presse.louvre.fr/?p=1063000223874|title=8.7 million visitors to the Musée du Louvre in 2024|last=Benaiteau|first=Marion|website=Espace presse du musée du Louvre|language=en-EN|accessdate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|director = Henri Loyrette
|curator = Marie-Laure de Rochebrune
|publictransit =
|website = [http://www.louvre.fr/llv/commun/home_flash.jsp?bmLocale=en www.louvre.fr]
}}
'''Musieum Louvre''' (Basa Perancis: ''Musée du Louvre'') nyaéta hiji [[musium|musieum]] seni nasional di [[Paris]], [[Prancis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2026/03/31/exclusive-the-worlds-100-most-visited-museums-in-2025-new-museums-a-big-hit-with-visitors|title=Exclusive {{!}} The world's 100 most visited art museums in 2025: new venues a big hit with visitors|last=Cheshire|first=Lee|last2=Goukassian|first2=Elena|website=The Art Newspaper - International art news and events|language=en|accessdate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tempatna di sisi katuhu [[Walungan Seine]] jeung mangrupakeun tempatna sababaraha karya seni Kulon anu pang kanonikna, kalebet ''Mona Lisa'', ''Venus de Milo'', sareng ''Winged Victory''. Ieu musieum aya di Istana Louvre, anu mimitina diwangun dina ahir abad ka-12 dugi ka-13 di handapeun kapamimngpinan Philip II. Sésa-sésa bénténg Louvre Abad Pertengahan katingali di ruang handap musieum ieu.

Musieum Louvre miboga kira-kira 500.000 banda&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mini-site.louvre.fr/trimestriel/2023/RA_2022/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=Rapport d'activité 2022 (PDF).|website=Louvre|accessdate=24 Juli 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; sarta némbongkeun 35.000 karya seni dina dalapan departemén kuratorial anu legana leuwih ti 60.600 m² dihususkeun pikeun koleksi permanén.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://museums.eu/museum/details/702/louvre-museum|title=Louvre Museum|website=museums.eu|language=en|accessdate=2026-07-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260724123114/http://museums.eu/museum/details/702/louvre-museum|archivedate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ogé némbongkeun sagala rupa [[Patung]] jeung lukisan.

Dina hiji waktu, pirang-pirang 38.000 banda ti jaman prasejarah dugi ka abad ka-21 dipamerkeun dina tempat nu legana 72.735 m², nu ngajadikeun ieu musieum panggedéna di dunya. Dina taun 2025, pangunjung nu daratang nepika 9.0 juta jalma.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.artforum.com/news/the-louvre-is-still-the-worlds-most-visited-museum-in-2025-1234746867/|title=The Louvre is Still the World’s Most Visited Museum, 2025 Study Shows|last=Desk|first=News|website=Artforum|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-07-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>lfrt7tnm1c5suttnttayjtqvc28yl0j</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi/Bak pasir</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>108840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731343</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>731343</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="345" sha1="f6kbex1ebgkfz65dbdqtwexfyahen5z" xml:space="preserve">*[[Andalas]]
*[[Benteng Ehrenbreitstein]]
*[[Cuaca]]
*[[Cutatan panulis (botani)]]
*[[Johanna Louisa Frederika Koch]]
*[[Kartografi]]
*[[Klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn]]
*[[Météorologi]]
*[[Noménklatur botani]]
*[[Seni botani]]
*[[Spésimén botani]]
*[[Topografi]]
*[[Vulkanologi]]
*[[Warisan géologi]]
*[[Ékspédisi botani]]
*[[Étnobiologi]]</text>
      <sha1>f6kbex1ebgkfz65dbdqtwexfyahen5z</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>731377</id>
      <parentid>731343</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:32:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-</comment>
      <origin>731377</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="44" sha1="55c6utk9ovttwhzjo6pfsp7mgfttnhk" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--
INI HALAMAN KOSONG. MAU NGEDIT APA?
--&gt;</text>
      <sha1>55c6utk9ovttwhzjo6pfsp7mgfttnhk</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026</title>
    <ns>1728</ns>
    <id>108853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731338</id>
      <parentid>731306</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:00:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed [[Category:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
      <origin>731338</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7438" sha1="ea1j0dcysctqz1n4ssr72rtzgva5nd4" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
__NOEDITSECTION__
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css&quot; /&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0;&quot;
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|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Média'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
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|}&lt;br&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS&quot;&gt;
{{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br&gt;

Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''&quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan.

Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari.

&lt;div class=&quot;panyeluk&quot;&gt;Hayu, langsung baé ilubiung kana kagiatan ieu jeung tulis artikel anjeun!&lt;/div&gt;

==Tujuan==
Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta:
*Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam.
*Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital.
*Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup.

==Cara miluan==
*Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga.
*Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol &quot;Register for Event&quot;/&quot;Daftar untuk Acara&quot; di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot; copy&gt;{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Prung, tulis artikel anjeun. Tingali [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|Daftar artikel]] pikeun rékomendasi artikel nu bisa dijieun.

==Katangtuan umum==
*Anjeun Warga Nagara indonésia (WNI).
*Anjeun tumut kana [[Wikipedia:Kawijakan|kawijakan]] anu lumaku di Wikipédia salila milu kagiatan ieu.
*Anjeun teu meunang miluan ieu kagiatan, lamun kapanggih migawé palanggaran sarupaning diblokir alatan spam, ngiklan, jsb. Ogé palanggaran atawa sanksi saméméhna dina kagiatan-kagiatan ti [[meta:Category:Wikimedia communities in Indonesia|komunitas Wikimedia di Indonésia]] anu aya patalina jeung proyék-proyék Wikimedia.
*Panitia boga hak ngadiskualifikasi anjeun saupama ngaganggu kalancaran ieu kagiatan.
*Sakumna parobahan katangtuan baris ditambahkeun dina ieu kaca sarta dibéwarakeun kana sutél pamilon anu nyambung ka akun wiki.

==Katangtuan artikel==
*Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''.
*Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap'''.
*Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''.
*Gaya panulisan kudu deskriptif, lain naratif, arguméntatif, jeung lain saukur daptar poin atawa daptar tabél.
*Masing paragraf kudu aya hiji rujukan anu krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum.
*Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula kalawan gaya basa anu saé.
*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] di Wikipédia Indonésia.
*Pamilon ngumpulkeun artikel nu beunang dipigawé kana [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 alat ieu]. Tingali pituduh dina bagian [[#Ngirim artikel]]
*Lamun anjeun aya kasusah dina hal teknis atawa kawijakan, anjeun bisa tanya ka [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Juri|salah sahiji panita]]. Anjeun oge bisa ngajukeun patalékna di [[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|kaca sawala]] anu disadiakeun.

==Daptar artikel==
Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rékoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (téangan judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh).
{{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}}

==Ngirim artikel==
*Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu].
*Pastikeun anjeun abus heula saméméh nyieun artikel naon waé di Wikipédia. Éditan anu dipigawé kalawan teu asup log moal kaitung.
*Lamun anjeun manggih masalah, tanyakeun ka [[#Juri|juri]].

==Aprésiasi==
*Pamilon anu bisa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[#Katangtuan artikel]] baris dilélér medali digital nu dipidangkeun dina kaca sawala pamilon.
*Pamilon nu nyieun artikel kalawan kualitas hadé, aya suvenir husus ti Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung jeung Project Junghuhn. (Pangiriman kawates ukur alamat nu aya di Indonésia wungkul).

==Juri==
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Pijri Paijar|Pijri Paijar]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi|Akbar Soepadhi]]

==Panata kagiatan==
&lt;div class=&quot;panitia&quot;&gt;Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;center style=&quot;margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px&quot;&gt;kalawan dirojong ku:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|[[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]]
|{{pad|2em}}
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Logo Project Junghuhn.png|bSize=200|cHeight=120|oTop=60|Location=center}}
|}
&lt;/center&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ea1j0dcysctqz1n4ssr72rtzgva5nd4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>731340</id>
      <parentid>731338</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+1 kategori</comment>
      <origin>731340</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7480" sha1="aoojfo1wp1o41x7d1sq4plcsq5bkys1" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
__NOEDITSECTION__
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css&quot; /&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0;&quot;
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS&quot;&gt;
{{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br&gt;

Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''&quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan.

Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari.

&lt;div class=&quot;panyeluk&quot;&gt;Hayu, langsung baé ilubiung kana kagiatan ieu jeung tulis artikel anjeun!&lt;/div&gt;

==Tujuan==
Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta:
*Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam.
*Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital.
*Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup.

==Cara miluan==
*Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga.
*Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol &quot;Register for Event&quot;/&quot;Daftar untuk Acara&quot; di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot; copy&gt;{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Prung, tulis artikel anjeun. Tingali [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|Daftar artikel]] pikeun rékomendasi artikel nu bisa dijieun.

==Katangtuan umum==
*Anjeun Warga Nagara indonésia (WNI).
*Anjeun tumut kana [[Wikipedia:Kawijakan|kawijakan]] anu lumaku di Wikipédia salila milu kagiatan ieu.
*Anjeun teu meunang miluan ieu kagiatan, lamun kapanggih migawé palanggaran sarupaning diblokir alatan spam, ngiklan, jsb. Ogé palanggaran atawa sanksi saméméhna dina kagiatan-kagiatan ti [[meta:Category:Wikimedia communities in Indonesia|komunitas Wikimedia di Indonésia]] anu aya patalina jeung proyék-proyék Wikimedia.
*Panitia boga hak ngadiskualifikasi anjeun saupama ngaganggu kalancaran ieu kagiatan.
*Sakumna parobahan katangtuan baris ditambahkeun dina ieu kaca sarta dibéwarakeun kana sutél pamilon anu nyambung ka akun wiki.

==Katangtuan artikel==
*Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''.
*Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap'''.
*Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''.
*Gaya panulisan kudu deskriptif, lain naratif, arguméntatif, jeung lain saukur daptar poin atawa daptar tabél.
*Masing paragraf kudu aya hiji rujukan anu krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum.
*Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula kalawan gaya basa anu saé.
*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] di Wikipédia Indonésia.
*Pamilon ngumpulkeun artikel nu beunang dipigawé kana [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 alat ieu]. Tingali pituduh dina bagian [[#Ngirim artikel]]
*Lamun anjeun aya kasusah dina hal teknis atawa kawijakan, anjeun bisa tanya ka [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Juri|salah sahiji panita]]. Anjeun oge bisa ngajukeun patalékna di [[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|kaca sawala]] anu disadiakeun.

==Daptar artikel==
Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rékoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (téangan judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh).
{{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}}

==Ngirim artikel==
*Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu].
*Pastikeun anjeun abus heula saméméh nyieun artikel naon waé di Wikipédia. Éditan anu dipigawé kalawan teu asup log moal kaitung.
*Lamun anjeun manggih masalah, tanyakeun ka [[#Juri|juri]].

==Aprésiasi==
*Pamilon anu bisa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[#Katangtuan artikel]] baris dilélér medali digital nu dipidangkeun dina kaca sawala pamilon.
*Pamilon nu nyieun artikel kalawan kualitas hadé, aya suvenir husus ti Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung jeung Project Junghuhn. (Pangiriman kawates ukur alamat nu aya di Indonésia wungkul).

==Juri==
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Pijri Paijar|Pijri Paijar]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi|Akbar Soepadhi]]

==Panata kagiatan==
&lt;div class=&quot;panitia&quot;&gt;Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;center style=&quot;margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px&quot;&gt;kalawan dirojong ku:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|[[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]]
|{{pad|2em}}
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Logo Project Junghuhn.png|bSize=200|cHeight=120|oTop=60|Location=center}}
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
      <sha1>aoojfo1wp1o41x7d1sq4plcsq5bkys1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>731341</id>
      <parentid>731340</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:13:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed [[Category:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
      <origin>731341</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7438" sha1="ea1j0dcysctqz1n4ssr72rtzgva5nd4" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
__NOEDITSECTION__
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css&quot; /&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0;&quot;
|- style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Tepas'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Daftar artikel'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Média'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Sawala'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Hasil|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Hasil'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|}&lt;br&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS&quot;&gt;
{{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br&gt;

Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''&quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan.

Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari.

&lt;div class=&quot;panyeluk&quot;&gt;Hayu, langsung baé ilubiung kana kagiatan ieu jeung tulis artikel anjeun!&lt;/div&gt;

==Tujuan==
Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta:
*Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam.
*Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital.
*Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup.

==Cara miluan==
*Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga.
*Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol &quot;Register for Event&quot;/&quot;Daftar untuk Acara&quot; di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot; copy&gt;{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Prung, tulis artikel anjeun. Tingali [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|Daftar artikel]] pikeun rékomendasi artikel nu bisa dijieun.

==Katangtuan umum==
*Anjeun Warga Nagara indonésia (WNI).
*Anjeun tumut kana [[Wikipedia:Kawijakan|kawijakan]] anu lumaku di Wikipédia salila milu kagiatan ieu.
*Anjeun teu meunang miluan ieu kagiatan, lamun kapanggih migawé palanggaran sarupaning diblokir alatan spam, ngiklan, jsb. Ogé palanggaran atawa sanksi saméméhna dina kagiatan-kagiatan ti [[meta:Category:Wikimedia communities in Indonesia|komunitas Wikimedia di Indonésia]] anu aya patalina jeung proyék-proyék Wikimedia.
*Panitia boga hak ngadiskualifikasi anjeun saupama ngaganggu kalancaran ieu kagiatan.
*Sakumna parobahan katangtuan baris ditambahkeun dina ieu kaca sarta dibéwarakeun kana sutél pamilon anu nyambung ka akun wiki.

==Katangtuan artikel==
*Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''.
*Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap'''.
*Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''.
*Gaya panulisan kudu deskriptif, lain naratif, arguméntatif, jeung lain saukur daptar poin atawa daptar tabél.
*Masing paragraf kudu aya hiji rujukan anu krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum.
*Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula kalawan gaya basa anu saé.
*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] di Wikipédia Indonésia.
*Pamilon ngumpulkeun artikel nu beunang dipigawé kana [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 alat ieu]. Tingali pituduh dina bagian [[#Ngirim artikel]]
*Lamun anjeun aya kasusah dina hal teknis atawa kawijakan, anjeun bisa tanya ka [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Juri|salah sahiji panita]]. Anjeun oge bisa ngajukeun patalékna di [[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|kaca sawala]] anu disadiakeun.

==Daptar artikel==
Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rékoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (téangan judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh).
{{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}}

==Ngirim artikel==
*Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu].
*Pastikeun anjeun abus heula saméméh nyieun artikel naon waé di Wikipédia. Éditan anu dipigawé kalawan teu asup log moal kaitung.
*Lamun anjeun manggih masalah, tanyakeun ka [[#Juri|juri]].

==Aprésiasi==
*Pamilon anu bisa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[#Katangtuan artikel]] baris dilélér medali digital nu dipidangkeun dina kaca sawala pamilon.
*Pamilon nu nyieun artikel kalawan kualitas hadé, aya suvenir husus ti Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung jeung Project Junghuhn. (Pangiriman kawates ukur alamat nu aya di Indonésia wungkul).

==Juri==
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Pijri Paijar|Pijri Paijar]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi|Akbar Soepadhi]]

==Panata kagiatan==
&lt;div class=&quot;panitia&quot;&gt;Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;center style=&quot;margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px&quot;&gt;kalawan dirojong ku:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|[[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]]
|{{pad|2em}}
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Logo Project Junghuhn.png|bSize=200|cHeight=120|oTop=60|Location=center}}
|}
&lt;/center&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>731381</id>
      <parentid>731341</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:40:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>731381</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7471" sha1="ej9j8dka8ary7h76js11uw7b41uwuly" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
__NOEDITSECTION__
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css&quot; /&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0;&quot;
|- style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Tepas'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Daftar artikel'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Média'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Sawala'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|class=&quot;up&quot;|
|class=&quot;hateup&quot;|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Hasil|&lt;span class=&quot;teks&quot;&gt;'''Hasil'''&lt;/span&gt;]]
|}&lt;br&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS&quot;&gt;
{{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br&gt;

Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''&quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan.

Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari.

&lt;div class=&quot;panyeluk&quot;&gt;Hayu, langsung baé ilubiung kana kagiatan ieu jeung tulis artikel anjeun!&lt;/div&gt;

==Tujuan==
Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta:
*Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam.
*Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital.
*Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup.

==Cara miluan==
*Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga.
*Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol &quot;Register for Event&quot;/&quot;Daftar untuk Acara&quot; di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot; copy&gt;{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Prung, tulis artikel anjeun. Tingali [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|Daftar artikel]] pikeun rékomendasi artikel nu bisa dijieun.

==Katangtuan umum==
*Anjeun Warga Nagara indonésia (WNI).
*Anjeun tumut kana [[Wikipedia:Kawijakan|kawijakan]] anu lumaku di Wikipédia salila milu kagiatan ieu.
*Anjeun teu meunang miluan ieu kagiatan, lamun kapanggih migawé palanggaran sarupaning diblokir alatan spam, ngiklan, jsb. Ogé palanggaran atawa sanksi saméméhna dina kagiatan-kagiatan ti [[meta:Category:Wikimedia communities in Indonesia|komunitas Wikimedia di Indonésia]] anu aya patalina jeung proyék-proyék Wikimedia.
*Panitia boga hak ngadiskualifikasi anjeun saupama ngaganggu kalancaran ieu kagiatan.
*Sakumna parobahan katangtuan baris ditambahkeun dina ieu kaca sarta dibéwarakeun kana sutél pamilon anu nyambung ka akun wiki.

==Katangtuan artikel==
*Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''.
*Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap'''.
*Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''.
*Gaya panulisan kudu deskriptif, lain naratif, arguméntatif, jeung lain saukur daptar poin atawa daptar tabél.
*Masing paragraf kudu aya hiji rujukan anu krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum.
*Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula kalawan gaya basa anu saé.
*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] di Wikipédia Indonésia.
*Pamilon ngumpulkeun artikel nu beunang dipigawé kana [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 alat ieu]. Tingali pituduh dina bagian [[#Ngirim artikel]]
*Lamun anjeun aya kasusah dina hal teknis atawa kawijakan, anjeun bisa tanya ka [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Juri|salah sahiji panita]]. Anjeun oge bisa ngajukeun patalékna di [[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|kaca sawala]] anu disadiakeun.

==Daptar artikel==
Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rékoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (téangan judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh).
{{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}}

==Ngirim artikel==
*Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu.
&lt;center&gt;
{{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}}
&lt;/center&gt;
*Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu].
*Pastikeun anjeun abus heula saméméh nyieun artikel naon waé di Wikipédia. Éditan anu dipigawé kalawan teu asup log moal kaitung.
*Lamun anjeun manggih masalah, tanyakeun ka [[#Juri|juri]].

==Aprésiasi==
*Pamilon anu bisa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[#Katangtuan artikel]] baris dilélér medali digital nu dipidangkeun dina kaca sawala pamilon.
*Pamilon nu nyieun artikel kalawan kualitas hadé, aya suvenir husus ti Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung jeung Project Junghuhn. (Pangiriman kawates ukur alamat nu aya di Indonésia wungkul).

==Juri==
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Pijri Paijar|Pijri Paijar]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]]
*[[Obrolan pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi|Akbar Soepadhi]]

==Panata kagiatan==
&lt;div class=&quot;panitia&quot;&gt;Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;center style=&quot;margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px&quot;&gt;kalawan dirojong ku:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{| style=&quot;border: none; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
|[[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]]
|{{pad|2em}}
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Logo Project Junghuhn.png|bSize=200|cHeight=120|oTop=60|Location=center}}
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
      <sha1>ej9j8dka8ary7h76js11uw7b41uwuly</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel</title>
    <ns>1728</ns>
    <id>108855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731379</id>
      <parentid>730552</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T03:33:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
      <origin>731379</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5669" sha1="c9nkkxeejzr08onn1mamimpmeq4b95d" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;&gt;
=== Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn|de}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|KITLV/Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen|Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences|en}}
{{Div col end}}

=== Bidang kajian ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Botani|Botani}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Araceae}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Hérbarium|Herbarium}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Étnobotani|Etnobotani}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Fitogéografi|Fitogeografi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Cutatan panulis (botani)|Kutipan penulis (botani)}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Taksonomi tutuwuhan|Plant taxonomy|en}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Noménklatur botani|Nomenklatur botani}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Seni botani|Botanical illustration|en}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Ékspédisi botani|Botanical expedition|en}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Spésimén botani|Spesimen botani|id}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Végétasi|Vegetas|id}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Antropologi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Étnografi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Étnobiologi}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Klimatologi|Klimatologi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Iklim}}
** {{small|[[Klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn]]}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Géologi|Geologi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Warisan géologi|Warisan geologi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Vulkanologi|Vulkanologi}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Géografi|Geografi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Topografi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kartografi}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Météorologi|Meteorologi}}
** {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Cuaca}}
{{Div col end}}

=== Tempat ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Tangkuban Parahu|Tangkuban Perahu}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Lémbang, Bandung Kulon|Lembang}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kawah Putih}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Gedé|Gunung Gede}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Patuha}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Pangrango}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Slamet}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Butak}}
&lt;!--* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Gamping}}--&gt;
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Cagar Alam Gunung Gamping}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Cikotok, Cibeber, Lebak}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Karajaan Pannai|Kerajaan Pannai}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Pusat Kaanékaragaman Hayati Naturalis|Naturalis Biodiversity Center|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kew Herbarium|Kew Herbarium|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Musieum Nasional Sajarah Alam Prancis|National Museum of Natural History, France|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Hérbarium Nasional Victoria|National Herbarium of Victoria|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kebon Raya Karajaan Victoria|Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria|en}}
{{Div col end}}

=== Karya ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Die Battaländer auf Sumatra|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn#Die Battaländer auf Sumatra|de}} {{small|(buku)}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Topographische und naturwissenschaftliche Reisen durch Java|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn#Topographische und naturwissenschaftliche Reisen durch Java|de}} {{small|(buku)}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Java, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke und innere Bauart|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn#Java, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke und innere Bauart|de}} {{small|(buku)}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Rückreise von Java nach Europa|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn#Rückreise von Java nach Europa|de}} {{small|(buku)}}
* {{small|[[Reizen door Java, voornamelijk door het oostelijk gedeelte van dit eiland]] (buku)}}
* {{small|[[Licht und Schattenbilder aus dem Innern von Java]] (buku)}}
* {{small|[[Java-Album]] (kumpulan litograf)}}
{{Div col end}}
==== Peristiwa pakait jeung karya ====
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Pendakian gunung di Pulo Jawa|Pendakian gunung di Pulau Jawa}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kampanye militér Padri di Taneuh Batak|Kampanye Militer Padri di Tanah Batak (1818–1820)}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Panyebaran agama Kristen ka Suku Batak|Sejarah penyebaran agama Kristen ke suku Batak}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Ékspédisi tambang emas Cikotok|Sejarah penambangan emas di Indonesia}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Lini Batavia 1699|Gempa bumi Batavia 1699}}
{{Div col end}}

=== Inohong pakait ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Justus Carl Hasskarl|Justus Carl Hasskarl|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Johannes Elias Teijsmann|Johannes Elias Teijsmann|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Johan Eliza de Vrij|Johan Eliza de Vrij|de}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Johan Coenraad van Hasselt|Johan Coenraad van Hasselt|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Thomas Horsfield|Thomas Horsfield|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Pieter Willem Korthals|Pieter Willem Korthals|en}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Alexander von Humboldt|Alexander von Humboldt|en}}
{{Div col end}}

=== Hérbarium Junghuhn ===
{{Div col|2}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kina|Cinchona}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Andalas|Andalas (pohon)}}
* {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Pinang kera paya}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia africana]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia chlamydospora]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia collabens]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia glabricystidia]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia globospora]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia japonica]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia kotlabae]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia luteoalba]]}}
* {{small|[[Junghuhnia nitida]]}}
* {{small|[[Alsophila junghuhniana]]}}
* {{small|[[Nepenthes junghuhnii]]}}
{{Div col end}}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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    <title>Andalas</title>
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      <text bytes="5872" sha1="06c35uaptsz5ujr1w426cwu1ssl1cft" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Morus macroura 191303665.jpg|jmpl|257x257px|Tangkal Andalas]]
'''Tangkal Andalas''' (''Morus macroura'' Miq.) téh mangrupa tutuwuhan éndemik nu masih baraya deukeut jeung murbei. Tutuwuhan ieu geus resmi ditetepkeun jadi maskot atawa flora idéntitas Propinsi [[Sumatra Kulon|Sumatera]] [[Sumatra Kulon|Kulon]] ti tanggal 14 Agustus 1990 ngaliwatan Surat Kaputusan Gubernur No. 522-414-1990.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://wartapalaindonesia.com/mengenal-pohon-andalas-pohon-langka-yang-dilestarikan-mapala-universitas-muhammadiyah-sumatera-barat/|title=Mengenal Pohon Andalas, Pohon Langka yang Dilestarikan Mapala Universitas Muhammadiyah Sumatera Barat|last=|first=|website=WARTAPALA INDONESIA|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://agroindonesia.co.id/membangkitkan-pohon-andalas/|title=Membangkitkan Pohon Andalas|last=|website=AgroIndonesia|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu tangkal boga beungkeutan budaya jeung sajarah anu kuat pisan jeung masarakat [[Urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sarta [[Sumatra|Pulo Sumatera]] umumna. Ku lantaran pentingna ieu tutuwuhan, ngaran &quot;Andalas&quot; baheula mindeng dipaké pikeun sesebutan séjén Pulo Sumatera (Pulo Andalas), sarta diabadikeun jadi ngaran salah sahiji paguron luhur pangkolotna tur panggedéna di Sumatera Barat, nyaéta [[Universitas Andalas]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.halodoc.com/artikel/mengenal-keunikan-pohon-andalas-yang-menjadi-identitas-sumbar|title=Mengenal Keunikan Pohon Andalas yang Menjadi Identitas Sumbar|last=|first=|website=halodoc|language=id|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Klasifikasi jeung morfologi ==
Dina élmu [[Taksonomi (biologi)|taksonomi]], tangkal Andalas asup kana kulawarga ''[[Moraceae]]'' (kulawarga caringin-caringinan) jeung boga ngaran ilmiah séjén (sinonim) ''Morus laevigata''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://alamendah.org/2011/01/16/pohon-andalas-tanaman-khas-sumatera-barat/|title=Pohon Andalas Tanaman Khas Sumatera Barat|last=|website=Alamendah's Blog|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu tangkal kaasup jenis tangkal tropis kaina gedé anu bisa hirup jangkung nepi ka 40 méter kalawan diaméter batangna 1 nepi ka 3 méter.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Tangkal Andalas pangkolotna tur panggedéna nu kungsi kapanggih aya di [[Nagari Andaleh]], [[Kabupatén Tanah Datar]], nu ukuran buleudan batangna nepi ka sagedé rangkulan dalapan jalma déwasa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Daun tangkal Andalas wangunna jiga jantung jeung sisina rérégéan, sarta beungeut daunna rada kasar lantaran dituwuhan ku bulu-bulu lemes nu bisa matak ateul kana kulit nu sénsitif. Ari buahna mangrupa buah majemuk nu warnana héjo lamun ngora kénéh sarta robah jadi bungur semu beureum lamun geus asak. Ieu buah loba caina sarta rasana haseum amis tur bisa didahar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
[[Gambar:Morus macroura 191303671.jpg|jmpl|245x245px|Daun Andalas]]

== Habitat jeung siklus tumuwuh ==
Habitat asli tangkal Andalas aya di wewengkon leuweung dataran luhur nu curah hujanna cukup badag, pasna dina kaluhuran antara 900 nepi ka 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut cai laut. Sanajan jadi ikon Sumatera Kuln, ieu tangkal sabenerna boga wilayah sebaran alami ti mimiti [[India]], Tiongkok beulah kidul, [[Kamboja]], [[Thailand]], nepi ka [[Indonésia]] (pangpangna Sumatera jeung sabagian Jawa beulah kulon).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Sacara [[Biologi|biologis]], tangkal Andalas mangrupa spésiés nu lambat tumuwuhna jeung sipatna boga imah dua (''dioecious''), nu hartina tangkal jalu jeung bikangna hirup pisah. Kaayaan biologis ieu nu disangka kuat jadi sabab handapna tingkat régenerasi alami tangkal Andalas di kawasan leuweung.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Mangpaat jeung kagunaan ==
Dina budaya Minangkabau, kai Andalas kawéntar pisan ku kualitasna nu hadé nepikeun ka mindeng dijulukan &quot;Jati Sumatera&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kaina kuat pisan, teuas, awét, teu gampang bobo ku hujan atawa ruksak ku panas, sarta kuat pisan tina serangan [[simeut]] (serangga) jeung [[rinyuh]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Kusabab sipat fisikna nu alus éta, masarakat Minang ti jaman karuhun salawasna mangpaatkeun ieu kai pikeun bahan utama nyieun wangunan adat [[Imah Gadang]] (boh keur tihang utama, balok landasan, nepi ka bilik) sarta pikeun nyieun perabotan imah jeung tihang-tihang masjid.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bptn2.kerinciseblat.id/kehati/andalas/|title=Andalas (Morus macroura Miq.)|website=Balai Besar Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat (BPTN II)|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Salian ti kaina, bagéan séjén tina tangkal Andalas kawas daun, dahan, nepi ka akarna, boga poténsi gedé dina dunya médis jeung kosmétik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Rupa-rupa panalungtikan méré nyaho yén ékstrak dahan jeung daun Andalas ngandung sanyawa métabolit sékundér nu beunghar ku [[antioksidan]], [[antiinflamasi]], [[antimikroba]], nepi ka [[Antioksidan|antitoksin]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ieu sanyawa boga poténsi pikeun dikembangkeun jadi [[inhibitor tirosinase]] (''anti-browning'') nu hasiatna pikeun mutihkeun kulit, ngajaga kulit tina ruksak akibat paparan sinar UV ([[ultraviolét]]), jeung nyegah [[strés oksidatif]] dina kacantika.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Status konsérvasi jeung palestarian ==
Sanajan ieu spésiés can asup kana daptar beureum (''red list'') ampir punah ku IUCN, ayana tangkal Andalas di Indonésia hususna di Sumatera Kulon kiwari beuki langka jeung hésé pisan kapanggih di alam liar lantaran éksploitasi nu kaleuleuwihi bari teu diimbangan ku penanaman deui Sadar kana ancaman kapunahan ieu, rupa-rupa pihak mimiti ngagencarkeun gerakan konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]
[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5839" sha1="aacneh40zubg4qnjko248lprkedxwan" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Morus macroura 191303665.jpg|jmpl|257x257px|Tangkal Andalas]]
'''Tangkal Andalas''' (''Morus macroura'' Miq.) téh mangrupa tutuwuhan éndemik nu masih baraya deukeut jeung murbei. Tutuwuhan ieu geus resmi ditetepkeun jadi maskot atawa flora idéntitas Propinsi [[Sumatra Kulon|Sumatera]] [[Sumatra Kulon|Kulon]] ti tanggal 14 Agustus 1990 ngaliwatan Surat Kaputusan Gubernur No. 522-414-1990.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://wartapalaindonesia.com/mengenal-pohon-andalas-pohon-langka-yang-dilestarikan-mapala-universitas-muhammadiyah-sumatera-barat/|title=Mengenal Pohon Andalas, Pohon Langka yang Dilestarikan Mapala Universitas Muhammadiyah Sumatera Barat|last=|first=|website=WARTAPALA INDONESIA|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://agroindonesia.co.id/membangkitkan-pohon-andalas/|title=Membangkitkan Pohon Andalas|last=|website=AgroIndonesia|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu tangkal boga beungkeutan budaya jeung sajarah anu kuat pisan jeung masarakat [[Urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sarta [[Sumatra|Pulo Sumatera]] umumna. Ku lantaran pentingna ieu tutuwuhan, ngaran &quot;Andalas&quot; baheula mindeng dipaké pikeun sesebutan séjén Pulo Sumatera (Pulo Andalas), sarta diabadikeun jadi ngaran salah sahiji paguron luhur pangkolotna tur panggedéna di Sumatera Barat, nyaéta [[Universitas Andalas]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.halodoc.com/artikel/mengenal-keunikan-pohon-andalas-yang-menjadi-identitas-sumbar|title=Mengenal Keunikan Pohon Andalas yang Menjadi Identitas Sumbar|last=|first=|website=halodoc|language=id|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Klasifikasi jeung morfologi ==
Dina élmu [[Taksonomi (biologi)|taksonomi]], tangkal Andalas asup kana kulawarga ''[[Moraceae]]'' (kulawarga caringin-caringinan) jeung boga ngaran ilmiah séjén (sinonim) ''Morus laevigata''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://alamendah.org/2011/01/16/pohon-andalas-tanaman-khas-sumatera-barat/|title=Pohon Andalas Tanaman Khas Sumatera Barat|last=|website=Alamendah's Blog|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu tangkal kaasup jenis tangkal tropis kaina gedé anu bisa hirup jangkung nepi ka 40 méter kalawan diaméter batangna 1 nepi ka 3 méter.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Tangkal Andalas pangkolotna tur panggedéna nu kungsi kapanggih aya di [[Nagari Andaleh]], [[Kabupatén Tanah Datar]], nu ukuran buleudan batangna nepi ka sagedé rangkulan dalapan jalma déwasa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Daun tangkal Andalas wangunna jiga jantung jeung sisina rérégéan, sarta beungeut daunna rada kasar lantaran dituwuhan ku bulu-bulu lemes nu bisa matak ateul kana kulit nu sénsitif. Ari buahna mangrupa buah majemuk nu warnana héjo lamun ngora kénéh sarta robah jadi bungur semu beureum lamun geus asak. Ieu buah loba caina sarta rasana haseum amis tur bisa didahar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
[[Gambar:Morus macroura 191303671.jpg|jmpl|245x245px|Daun Andalas]]

== Habitat jeung siklus tumuwuh ==
Habitat asli tangkal Andalas aya di wewengkon leuweung dataran luhur nu curah hujanna cukup badag, pasna dina kaluhuran antara 900 nepi ka 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut cai laut. Sanajan jadi ikon Sumatera Kuln, ieu tangkal sabenerna boga wilayah sebaran alami ti mimiti [[India]], Tiongkok beulah kidul, [[Kamboja]], [[Thailand]], nepi ka [[Indonésia]] (pangpangna Sumatera jeung sabagian Jawa beulah kulon).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Sacara [[Biologi|biologis]], tangkal Andalas mangrupa spésiés nu lambat tumuwuhna jeung sipatna boga imah dua (''dioecious''), nu hartina tangkal jalu jeung bikangna hirup pisah. Kaayaan biologis ieu nu disangka kuat jadi sabab handapna tingkat régenerasi alami tangkal Andalas di kawasan leuweung.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Mangpaat jeung kagunaan ==
Dina budaya Minangkabau, kai Andalas kawéntar pisan ku kualitasna nu hadé nepikeun ka mindeng dijulukan &quot;Jati Sumatera&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kaina kuat pisan, teuas, awét, teu gampang bobo ku hujan atawa ruksak ku panas, sarta kuat pisan tina serangan [[simeut]] (serangga) jeung [[rinyuh]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Kusabab sipat fisikna nu alus éta, masarakat Minang ti jaman karuhun salawasna mangpaatkeun ieu kai pikeun bahan utama nyieun wangunan adat [[Imah Gadang]] (boh keur tihang utama, balok landasan, nepi ka bilik) sarta pikeun nyieun perabotan imah jeung tihang-tihang masjid.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bptn2.kerinciseblat.id/kehati/andalas/|title=Andalas (Morus macroura Miq.)|website=Balai Besar Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat (BPTN II)|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Salian ti kaina, bagéan séjén tina tangkal Andalas kawas daun, dahan, nepi ka akarna, boga poténsi gedé dina dunya médis jeung kosmétik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Rupa-rupa panalungtikan méré nyaho yén ékstrak dahan jeung daun Andalas ngandung sanyawa métabolit sékundér nu beunghar ku [[antioksidan]], [[antiinflamasi]], [[antimikroba]], nepi ka [[Antioksidan|antitoksin]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ieu sanyawa boga poténsi pikeun dikembangkeun jadi [[inhibitor tirosinase]] (''anti-browning'') nu hasiatna pikeun mutihkeun kulit, ngajaga kulit tina ruksak akibat paparan sinar UV ([[ultraviolét]]), jeung nyegah [[strés oksidatif]] dina kacantika.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Status konsérvasi jeung palestarian ==
Sanajan ieu spésiés can asup kana daptar beureum (''red list'') ampir punah ku IUCN, ayana tangkal Andalas di Indonésia hususna di Sumatera Kulon kiwari beuki langka jeung hésé pisan kapanggih di alam liar lantaran éksploitasi nu kaleuleuwihi bari teu diimbangan ku penanaman deui Sadar kana ancaman kapunahan ieu, rupa-rupa pihak mimiti ngagencarkeun gerakan konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==

[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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'''Benteng Ehrenbreitstein''', nyaéta salah sahiji bénténg di nagara bagian [[Jérman]], [[:en:Rhineland-Palatinate|Rheinland-Pfalz]], nu pernahna di sisi wétan Walungan [[:en:Rhine|Rhine]], pas di peuntas sungapan Walungan [[:en:Moselle|Moselle]], sarta madep ka Kota Koblenz. Ieu bénténg tempatna [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]] dihukum.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/junghuhn-duel-kawah-putih-dan-kina-cvjv|title=Junghuhn: Duel, Kawah Putih, dan Kina|last=Matanasi|first=Petrik|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mimiti hukuman jang Junghuhn ==
Hiji waktu, nalika mulang ka imah kolotna di Mansfeld dina taun 1830-an manéhna nyoba maéhan manéh alatan déprési, ieu ceuk E. M. Beekman dina ''[[iarchive:fugitivedreamsan0000embe|Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Literature (1988)]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Culture (Periplus Library of the Indies Series)|url=http://archive.org/details/fugitivedreamsan0000embe|publisher=Periplus Editions|date=2000-08|isbn=978-962-593-627-7|last=Internet Archive}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina bagian éta buku, aya bubuka jembar ti Beekman nu dilengkepan ku tarjamahan ti rupa-rupa tokoh, salah sahijina Wilhelm Junghuhn (1809-1864), nu dijulukan &quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Boon|first=James A.|date=1990-02|title=Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Literature. Edited and translated by E. M. Beekman. Library of the Indies. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988. xvi, 323 pp. $35.00.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/fugitive-dreams-an-anthology-of-dutch-colonial-literature-edited-and-translated-by-e-m-beekman-library-of-the-indies-amherst-university-of-massachusetts-press-1988-xvi-323-pp-3500/DA9A860B26F293BB70CADBED5CEFF377|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|language=en|volume=49|issue=1|pages=198–199|doi=10.2307/2058512|issn=1752-0401}}&lt;/ref&gt; Junghuhn kagolong kana kelompok jalma nonkonformis, rélativis, radikal, sarta anarkis nu boga pangalaman lila di wewengkon jajahan nu ngawangun sudut pandang unikna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
[[Gambar:Koblenz, Festung Ehrenbreitstein -- 2015 -- 7638.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Koblenz, Bénténg Ehrenbreitstein]]
Tulisan-tulisanana nampilkeun pethikan nu ngagambarkeun kaayaan nu matak leungit semangat sarta kasingkirkeunana di éta wewengkon, nu ngajadikeun manéhna salah sahiji pencatat sajarah nu pohara punjul dina mangsana.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Sataun ti harita, Junghuhn nu beuki kacanduan élmu jeung karék umur 22 taun, mutuskeun pikeun asup ka dinas militér Prusia, ngaran nagara Jerman baheula, salaku ahli bedah.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Masalah anyar tuluy aya deui. Dina taun 1831, manéhna kapanggih adu jago jeung hiji mahasiswa ti Swiss. Junghuhn ngalaman loba tatu. Ku sabab duél dilarang ku hukum Prusia, dina tungtung taun 1831, Junghuhn ogé ditewak. Manéhna beunang hukuman 10 taun penjara sarta dikandangkeun di Bénténg Ehrenbreitstein ti mimiti taun 1832.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah benteng ==
Lamun nempo deui dina urut benteng saméméhna nu geus dihancurkeun ku Perancis dina taun 1801, ieu benténg diwangun ku Prusia antara taun 1817 jeung 1828 salaku tulang tonggong ti sistem bénténg régional, Festung Koblenz, sarta dipaké pikeun ngajaga wewengkon tengah Walungan Rhine, hiji wewengkon nu saméméhna bolak-balik ditarajang ku wadyabala [[Prancis|Perancis.]] Benteng Prusia ieu teu pernah ditarajang atawa diserang ku musuh. Prak ti taun 2002, Ehrenbreitstein geus jadi bagian ti [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] World Heritage Site ''[[:en:Rhine_Gorge|Upper Middle Rhine Valley]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.reflectionsenroute.com/unesco-world-heritage-sites-germany/|title=Unesco World Heritage Sites in Germany to Visit Now [All the Best!]|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mimiti pangwangunan ===
Dina sakitar taun 1000, hiji bangsawan nu ngaranna Ehrenbert ngadegkeun kastil di éta pasir. Ngaran awalna &quot;Burg Ehrenbertstein&quot; nu engkéna robah jadi Burg Ehrenbreitstein.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot;&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Ehrenbreitstein|volume=9|pages=130–131}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kastil ieu mimiti disebutkeun dina dokumén tinulis nu masih aya dina taun 1139, salaku milik ti Uskup Agung Trier. Uskup Agung Hillin ngalegaan ieu kastil dina taun 1152-1169. Hiji kastil pangrojong (Burg Helferstein) diwangun di pasir nu katelah Helfenstein di sisih kidulna. Bénténg ieu tuluy dilegaan deui ku Uskup Agung Henry ti Fénétrange dina taun 1286, sarta Uskup Agung John II ti Baden dina taun 1481.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot; /&gt;

Dina abad ka-16, pangwangunan mimiti dilakukeun pikeun ngarobah kastil jadi bénténg nu bisa nahan serangan pakarang bubuk mesiu anyar. Salah sahiji miam anu mimiti nyaéta meriam Greif nu beuratna 9 ton ti taun 1524. Di suku pasir, nu ditangtayungan ku benteng, Philipp Christoph von Sötern ngawangun karaton Phillipsburg dina taun 1625-1629. Benteng ieu terus ditingkatkeun ku penerusna, Karl Kaspar von der Leyen jeung Johann Hugo von Orsbeck. Dina taun 1632, benteng ieu dikuasai ku Perancis sarta dina taun 1637 ku pasukan Kakaisaran nalika Perang Tilu Puluh Taun.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot; /&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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'''Benteng Ehrenbreitstein''', nyaéta salah sahiji bénténg di nagara bagian [[Jérman]], [[:en:Rhineland-Palatinate|Rheinland-Pfalz]], nu pernahna di sisi wétan Walungan [[:en:Rhine|Rhine]], pas di peuntas sungapan Walungan [[:en:Moselle|Moselle]], sarta madep ka Kota Koblenz. Ieu bénténg tempatna [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]] dihukum.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/junghuhn-duel-kawah-putih-dan-kina-cvjv|title=Junghuhn: Duel, Kawah Putih, dan Kina|last=Matanasi|first=Petrik|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mimiti hukuman jang Junghuhn ==
Hiji waktu, nalika mulang ka imah kolotna di Mansfeld dina taun 1830-an manéhna nyoba maéhan manéh alatan déprési, ieu ceuk E. M. Beekman dina ''[[iarchive:fugitivedreamsan0000embe|Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Literature (1988)]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Culture (Periplus Library of the Indies Series)|url=http://archive.org/details/fugitivedreamsan0000embe|publisher=Periplus Editions|date=2000-08|isbn=978-962-593-627-7|last=Internet Archive}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina bagian éta buku, aya bubuka jembar ti Beekman nu dilengkepan ku tarjamahan ti rupa-rupa tokoh, salah sahijina Wilhelm Junghuhn (1809-1864), nu dijulukan &quot;Humboldt ti Jawa&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Boon|first=James A.|date=1990-02|title=Fugitive Dreams: An Anthology of Dutch Colonial Literature. Edited and translated by E. M. Beekman. Library of the Indies. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988. xvi, 323 pp. $35.00.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/fugitive-dreams-an-anthology-of-dutch-colonial-literature-edited-and-translated-by-e-m-beekman-library-of-the-indies-amherst-university-of-massachusetts-press-1988-xvi-323-pp-3500/DA9A860B26F293BB70CADBED5CEFF377|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|language=en|volume=49|issue=1|pages=198–199|doi=10.2307/2058512|issn=1752-0401}}&lt;/ref&gt; Junghuhn kagolong kana kelompok jalma nonkonformis, rélativis, radikal, sarta anarkis nu boga pangalaman lila di wewengkon jajahan nu ngawangun sudut pandang unikna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
[[Gambar:Koblenz, Festung Ehrenbreitstein -- 2015 -- 7638.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Koblenz, Bénténg Ehrenbreitstein]]
Tulisan-tulisanana nampilkeun pethikan nu ngagambarkeun kaayaan nu matak leungit semangat sarta kasingkirkeunana di éta wewengkon, nu ngajadikeun manéhna salah sahiji pencatat sajarah nu pohara punjul dina mangsana.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Sataun ti harita, Junghuhn nu beuki kacanduan élmu jeung karék umur 22 taun, mutuskeun pikeun asup ka dinas militér Prusia, ngaran nagara Jerman baheula, salaku ahli bedah.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Masalah anyar tuluy aya deui. Dina taun 1831, manéhna kapanggih adu jago jeung hiji mahasiswa ti Swiss. Junghuhn ngalaman loba tatu. Ku sabab duél dilarang ku hukum Prusia, dina tungtung taun 1831, Junghuhn ogé ditewak. Manéhna beunang hukuman 10 taun penjara sarta dikandangkeun di Bénténg Ehrenbreitstein ti mimiti taun 1832.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah benteng ==
Lamun nempo deui dina urut benteng saméméhna nu geus dihancurkeun ku Perancis dina taun 1801, ieu benténg diwangun ku Prusia antara taun 1817 jeung 1828 salaku tulang tonggong ti sistem bénténg régional, Festung Koblenz, sarta dipaké pikeun ngajaga wewengkon tengah Walungan Rhine, hiji wewengkon nu saméméhna bolak-balik ditarajang ku wadyabala [[Prancis|Perancis.]] Benteng Prusia ieu teu pernah ditarajang atawa diserang ku musuh. Prak ti taun 2002, Ehrenbreitstein geus jadi bagian ti [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] World Heritage Site ''[[:en:Rhine_Gorge|Upper Middle Rhine Valley]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.reflectionsenroute.com/unesco-world-heritage-sites-germany/|title=Unesco World Heritage Sites in Germany to Visit Now [All the Best!]|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mimiti pangwangunan ===
Dina sakitar taun 1000, hiji bangsawan nu ngaranna Ehrenbert ngadegkeun kastil di éta pasir. Ngaran awalna &quot;Burg Ehrenbertstein&quot; nu engkéna robah jadi Burg Ehrenbreitstein.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot;&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Ehrenbreitstein|volume=9|pages=130–131}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kastil ieu mimiti disebutkeun dina dokumén tinulis nu masih aya dina taun 1139, salaku milik ti Uskup Agung Trier. Uskup Agung Hillin ngalegaan ieu kastil dina taun 1152-1169. Hiji kastil pangrojong (Burg Helferstein) diwangun di pasir nu katelah Helfenstein di sisih kidulna. Bénténg ieu tuluy dilegaan deui ku Uskup Agung Henry ti Fénétrange dina taun 1286, sarta Uskup Agung John II ti Baden dina taun 1481.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot; /&gt;

Dina abad ka-16, pangwangunan mimiti dilakukeun pikeun ngarobah kastil jadi bénténg nu bisa nahan serangan pakarang bubuk mesiu anyar. Salah sahiji miam anu mimiti nyaéta meriam Greif nu beuratna 9 ton ti taun 1524. Di suku pasir, nu ditangtayungan ku benteng, Philipp Christoph von Sötern ngawangun karaton Phillipsburg dina taun 1625-1629. Benteng ieu terus ditingkatkeun ku penerusna, Karl Kaspar von der Leyen jeung Johann Hugo von Orsbeck. Dina taun 1632, benteng ieu dikuasai ku Perancis sarta dina taun 1637 ku pasukan Kakaisaran nalika Perang Tilu Puluh Taun.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot; /&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="5956" sha1="9688d0ouorc2kbbk0aew7dpp5rfb4zh" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Mevrouw Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch in haar huis met gasten onder wie mevrouw De Vrij kinderen en huispersoneel TMnr 10018738.jpg|jmpl|Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch di imahna bareng jeung para tamu]]
[[Johanna Louisa Frederika Koch]] (18 Januari 1827-7 Mei 1914)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://gw.geneanet.org/assel209?lang=en&amp;n=koch&amp;p=johanna+louisa+frederica|title=Family tree of Johanna Louisa Frederica Koch|website=Geneanet|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://picryl.com/media/kitlv-16069-junghuhn-franz-wilhelm-1809-1864-mrs-johanna-louisa-frederica-junghuhn-066976|title=KITLV - 16069 - Junghuhn, Franz Wilhelm (1809-1864) - Mrs. Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch in Leiden - circa 1855|website=Universiteitsbibliotheek Leiden|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; nyaéta pamajikan ti [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://igv.nl/overleden-in-de-japanse-burgerkampen-te-padang-en-bangkinang-april-1942-september-1945/|title=Overleden in de Japanse burgerkampen te Padang en Bangkinang, april 1942 – september 1945 {{!}} IGV|last=Verbaarschott|first=H. J.|language=nl-NL|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; hiji ahli alam (naturalis) tur ahli gunung api (volkanolog) kasohor asal [[Jérman]] nu loba ngalalakon di Pulo Jawa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/134206999/mengekalkan-franz-junghuhn-lewat-keindahan-karya-litografinya?page=all|title=Mengekalkan Franz Junghuhn Lewat Keindahan Karya Litografinya|last=Pranata|first=Galih|date=21 Januari 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Manéhna ngalangsungkeun pernikahan jeung Junghuhn dina tanggal 23 Januari 1850 nalika Junghuhn keur balik heula ka [[Éropa]]. Tina pernikahan ieu, maranéhanana dikaruniai hiji putra. Johanna ogé nu matangan sarta ngadampingan Junghuhn nalika mutuskeun balik deui pikeun matuh jeung neruskeun panalungtikanana di Pulo Jawa dina taun 1855 sanggeus salakina cageur tina panyakitna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Patepung jeung Junghuhn ==
Singkat carita dina taun 1849 nepi ka 1855,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.genarchives.com/Davies-Sumatra/g2/p1289.htm|title=Davies-Sumatra - Person Page 1,289|website=www.genarchives.com|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; Junghuhn cicing di [[Walanda]]. Dina rentang waktu éta pisan, manéhna patepung jeung jodohna nu sanggup ngagoncangkeun jiwa teulasna. Éta wanoja pujaan haté téh ngaranna Louisa Frederica Koch. Manéhna nyaéta wanoja resep jeprut (geulis sarta simpé) putri ti hiji perwira militér Walanda nu ngaranna Kolonél Johan Christiaan Frederik Koch. Tuan Koch nyaéta sosok bapa nu galak sarta teureus, utamana dina ngadidik Louisa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/1597934/telusur-sejarah-lembang-kisah-cinta-franz-wilhelm-junghuhn|title=TELUSUR SEJARAH LEMBANG: Kisah Cinta Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn {{!}} ...|last=Alifa|first=Malia Nur|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Louisa tumuwuh jadi budak awéwé nu disiplin jaba teu gampang menyerah. Manéhna nyaéta wanoja nu mémang diciptakeun ku Gusti pikeun sanggup hirup di wewengkon leuweung sarta hirup dina sarat keterbatasan fasilitas. Louisa resep pisan kana alam, sahingga engkéna mémang cocog jadi pasangan ti hiji ahli alam (naturalis).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Dina tanggal 23 Januari 1850, ahirna Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn ngawin Louisa Frederika Koch di Walanda. Harita umur Junghuhn 41 taun sarta umur Louisa 22 taun. Tilu taun ti harita, Junghuhn meunangkeun kawarganagaraan Walanda. Sarta meureun teu loba jalma nu nyaho yén salian ti berkarya ngeunaan alam, Junghuhn ogé ngatransmisikeun karya-karya ngeunaan filsafat kahirupanana sarta ideu-ideu mikir bébas ngeunaan agama sarta garéja. Dina tanggal 30 Agustus 1855, Junghuhn jeung Louisa layar nuju ka Hindia Walanda, maranéhanana boga niat pikeun ninggalkeun Éropa pikeun salawasna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Kahirupan sanggeus nikah ==
[[Gambar:Junghuhn-Grabmal.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Makam Junghuhn di Jayagiri, Lembang]]
Milu ka salakina, Johanna pernah cicing di Cianjur. Dina taun-taun awal pernikahan maranéhanana, Louisa katara pisan bisa ngimbangan teureusna sipat Junghuhn. Sataun ti harita, nyaéta dina tanggal 15 Juli 1857, ieu pasangan ahirna pindah ka wewengkon Jayagiri, Lembang. Di dieu pisan cinta maranéhanana terpatri kalawan jero sarta abadi, malahan putra maranéhanana, Frans Lodewijk Christiaan Junghuhn, babar di Lembang.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Junghuhn mimiti resep kana widang fotografi. Manéhna mindeng pisan ngabadagkeun momen-momen matak resep sarta rékan-rékan gawéna. Aya kalana manéhna poéan ngan jeung alat-alat potona waé, tuluy Louisa ngan saukur ngadawuh, “Hayu ka kebon, urang moto deui.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
Salian ti ngadukung kana pagawéanana, Louisa ogé ngadukung pisan kana hobi salakina. Manéhna boga moto nu lamun ditarjamahkeun mah nyaéta sakumaha berikut: “Kuring nyaah ka manéhna salaku dirina sorangan, lain salaku manéhna pikeun ngacapan égo kuring.” Saéstuna hiji pemikiran nu pohara bijaksana nu kudu ditulad ku sadaya pasangan nu maca ieu tulisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Sanggeus Junghuhn pupus dina taun 1864, Louisa ngarasakeun kasepian nu jero, tapi manéhna teu eureun di dinya. Manéhna babarengan jeung anakna, Lodewijk, nu engkéna jadi pagawe di pausahaan kai di Sumatra, muka hiji motél leutik di kiduleun Taman Junghuhn. Lokasi motél éta ayeuna pas pisan di lokasi hiji swalayan (Borma). Baheula éta motél téh durung boga ngaran, ngan sababaraha urang waé nu nginep dina sabulan. Sarta sanggeus Louisa ninggalkeun tempat éta (balik ka Walanda), éta motél ngagolér teu kaurus lumayan lila. Dina ahirna, éta motél leutik sarta sederhana téh dijual ka Jacoba atawa Nyonya Homann sarta robah ngaranna jadi hotel Beau Séjour.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="5923" sha1="6y6swbcfxmd7ytu58lp23e9st3pfg5l" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Mevrouw Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch in haar huis met gasten onder wie mevrouw De Vrij kinderen en huispersoneel TMnr 10018738.jpg|jmpl|Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch di imahna bareng jeung para tamu]]
[[Johanna Louisa Frederika Koch]] (18 Januari 1827-7 Mei 1914)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://gw.geneanet.org/assel209?lang=en&amp;n=koch&amp;p=johanna+louisa+frederica|title=Family tree of Johanna Louisa Frederica Koch|website=Geneanet|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://picryl.com/media/kitlv-16069-junghuhn-franz-wilhelm-1809-1864-mrs-johanna-louisa-frederica-junghuhn-066976|title=KITLV - 16069 - Junghuhn, Franz Wilhelm (1809-1864) - Mrs. Johanna Louisa Frederica Junghuhn-Koch in Leiden - circa 1855|website=Universiteitsbibliotheek Leiden|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; nyaéta pamajikan ti [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://igv.nl/overleden-in-de-japanse-burgerkampen-te-padang-en-bangkinang-april-1942-september-1945/|title=Overleden in de Japanse burgerkampen te Padang en Bangkinang, april 1942 – september 1945 {{!}} IGV|last=Verbaarschott|first=H. J.|language=nl-NL|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; hiji ahli alam (naturalis) tur ahli gunung api (volkanolog) kasohor asal [[Jérman]] nu loba ngalalakon di Pulo Jawa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/134206999/mengekalkan-franz-junghuhn-lewat-keindahan-karya-litografinya?page=all|title=Mengekalkan Franz Junghuhn Lewat Keindahan Karya Litografinya|last=Pranata|first=Galih|date=21 Januari 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Manéhna ngalangsungkeun pernikahan jeung Junghuhn dina tanggal 23 Januari 1850 nalika Junghuhn keur balik heula ka [[Éropa]]. Tina pernikahan ieu, maranéhanana dikaruniai hiji putra. Johanna ogé nu matangan sarta ngadampingan Junghuhn nalika mutuskeun balik deui pikeun matuh jeung neruskeun panalungtikanana di Pulo Jawa dina taun 1855 sanggeus salakina cageur tina panyakitna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Patepung jeung Junghuhn ==
Singkat carita dina taun 1849 nepi ka 1855,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.genarchives.com/Davies-Sumatra/g2/p1289.htm|title=Davies-Sumatra - Person Page 1,289|website=www.genarchives.com|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; Junghuhn cicing di [[Walanda]]. Dina rentang waktu éta pisan, manéhna patepung jeung jodohna nu sanggup ngagoncangkeun jiwa teulasna. Éta wanoja pujaan haté téh ngaranna Louisa Frederica Koch. Manéhna nyaéta wanoja resep jeprut (geulis sarta simpé) putri ti hiji perwira militér Walanda nu ngaranna Kolonél Johan Christiaan Frederik Koch. Tuan Koch nyaéta sosok bapa nu galak sarta teureus, utamana dina ngadidik Louisa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/1597934/telusur-sejarah-lembang-kisah-cinta-franz-wilhelm-junghuhn|title=TELUSUR SEJARAH LEMBANG: Kisah Cinta Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn {{!}} ...|last=Alifa|first=Malia Nur|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Louisa tumuwuh jadi budak awéwé nu disiplin jaba teu gampang menyerah. Manéhna nyaéta wanoja nu mémang diciptakeun ku Gusti pikeun sanggup hirup di wewengkon leuweung sarta hirup dina sarat keterbatasan fasilitas. Louisa resep pisan kana alam, sahingga engkéna mémang cocog jadi pasangan ti hiji ahli alam (naturalis).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Dina tanggal 23 Januari 1850, ahirna Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn ngawin Louisa Frederika Koch di Walanda. Harita umur Junghuhn 41 taun sarta umur Louisa 22 taun. Tilu taun ti harita, Junghuhn meunangkeun kawarganagaraan Walanda. Sarta meureun teu loba jalma nu nyaho yén salian ti berkarya ngeunaan alam, Junghuhn ogé ngatransmisikeun karya-karya ngeunaan filsafat kahirupanana sarta ideu-ideu mikir bébas ngeunaan agama sarta garéja. Dina tanggal 30 Agustus 1855, Junghuhn jeung Louisa layar nuju ka Hindia Walanda, maranéhanana boga niat pikeun ninggalkeun Éropa pikeun salawasna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Kahirupan sanggeus nikah ==
[[Gambar:Junghuhn-Grabmal.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Makam Junghuhn di Jayagiri, Lembang]]
Milu ka salakina, Johanna pernah cicing di Cianjur. Dina taun-taun awal pernikahan maranéhanana, Louisa katara pisan bisa ngimbangan teureusna sipat Junghuhn. Sataun ti harita, nyaéta dina tanggal 15 Juli 1857, ieu pasangan ahirna pindah ka wewengkon Jayagiri, Lembang. Di dieu pisan cinta maranéhanana terpatri kalawan jero sarta abadi, malahan putra maranéhanana, Frans Lodewijk Christiaan Junghuhn, babar di Lembang.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Junghuhn mimiti resep kana widang fotografi. Manéhna mindeng pisan ngabadagkeun momen-momen matak resep sarta rékan-rékan gawéna. Aya kalana manéhna poéan ngan jeung alat-alat potona waé, tuluy Louisa ngan saukur ngadawuh, “Hayu ka kebon, urang moto deui.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
Salian ti ngadukung kana pagawéanana, Louisa ogé ngadukung pisan kana hobi salakina. Manéhna boga moto nu lamun ditarjamahkeun mah nyaéta sakumaha berikut: “Kuring nyaah ka manéhna salaku dirina sorangan, lain salaku manéhna pikeun ngacapan égo kuring.” Saéstuna hiji pemikiran nu pohara bijaksana nu kudu ditulad ku sadaya pasangan nu maca ieu tulisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Sanggeus Junghuhn pupus dina taun 1864, Louisa ngarasakeun kasepian nu jero, tapi manéhna teu eureun di dinya. Manéhna babarengan jeung anakna, Lodewijk, nu engkéna jadi pagawe di pausahaan kai di Sumatra, muka hiji motél leutik di kiduleun Taman Junghuhn. Lokasi motél éta ayeuna pas pisan di lokasi hiji swalayan (Borma). Baheula éta motél téh durung boga ngaran, ngan sababaraha urang waé nu nginep dina sabulan. Sarta sanggeus Louisa ninggalkeun tempat éta (balik ka Walanda), éta motél ngagolér teu kaurus lumayan lila. Dina ahirna, éta motél leutik sarta sederhana téh dijual ka Jacoba atawa Nyonya Homann sarta robah ngaranna jadi hotel Beau Séjour.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Rujukan ==

[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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    <title>Klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn</title>
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      <text bytes="5876" sha1="eh8kdrobp9zso8vh2mbdaglxvnu9qh6" xml:space="preserve">'''Klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn''' téh mangrupa sistem panggolongan iklim nu dirumuskeun ku saurang panjelajah, ahli botani, sakaligus ahli géografi asal Walanda nu ngaranna [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ruangguru.com/blog/klasifikasi-tipe-iklim|title=Pengertian Iklim dan 5 Macam Klasifikasinya|last=Soshum|first=Kak Ali MT|last2=Team|first2=Ruangguru Tech|website=Belajar Gratis di Rumah Kapan Pun! {{!}} Blog Ruangguru|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/03/31/180000369/pembagian-iklim-menurut-junghuhn-kppen-schmidt-ferguson-dan-oldman|title=Pembagian Iklim Menurut Junghuhn, Köppen, Schmidt-Ferguson, dan Oldman|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/ragam-info/pembagian-iklim-junghuhn-didasarkan-pada-apa-ini-penjelasannya-22TCP6iPCat|title=Pembagian Iklim Junghuhn Didasarkan Pada Apa? Ini Penjelasannya|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Ieu sistem klasifikasi jadi salah sahiji dasar pangolompokan iklim di daérah [[tropis]], hususna cocog (rélevan) pisan diterapkeun di wewengkon kapuloan pagunungan kawas [[Indonésia]] (pangpangna [[Pulo Jawa]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.geografi.org/2017/11/pembagian-iklim-menurut-f-junghuhn.html|title=Pembagian Iklim menurut F. Junghuhn|last=Pambudi|first=Aan|website=Geografi.org|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Béda jeung sistem iklim séjén nu ngandelkeun [[suhu]], [[Présipitasi|curah hujan]], atawa sorot [[panonpoé]] sacara global, babagian iklim Junghuhn didasarkeun kana dua faktor utama nyaéta,  jangkungna hiji tempat tina beungeut laut ([[élévasi]]) jeung jenis [[végétasi]] (tutuwuhan) nu bisa hirup tur dibudidayakeun sacara optimal luyu jeung suhu di éta katinggian.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2022/09/28/073000669/4-klasifikasi-iklim-menurut-junghuhn|title=4 Klasifikasi Iklim Menurut Junghuhn|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Dasar panggolongan ==
[[Gambar:Junghuhn self-portrait.jpg|jmpl|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]]
Junghuhn ngarumuskeun klasifikasina ngaliwatan observasi (titénan) lapangan nu jero kana pola sebaran kahirupan tutuwuhan sacara vertikal (ti dataran handap nepi ka puncak gunung).&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Junghuhn sadar kana ayana hukum kalandéyan suhu ([[adiabatik]]), di mana beuki jangkung hiji tempat tina beungeut laut, suhu hawa bakal beuki turun (jadi leuwih tiis).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Parobahan gradasi suhu vertikal ieu tétéla mangaruhan pisan kana kamampuh hirup jenis tutuwuhan nu tangtu, hususna dina widang [[agrikultur]] (tatanén jeung perkebunan).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kusabab pandekatanana nu aplikatif pisan pikeun budidaya tutuwuhan, klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn mindeng pisan dirujuk jeung dimangpaatkeun ku para patani katut ahli perkebunan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Zona babagian iklim ==
Dumasar kana paraméter élévasi jeung kacocogan végétasi éta, Junghuhn ngabagi tipe iklim sacara vertikal kana opat zona utama, nyaéta:

=== Zona iklim panas (tropis) ===
Perenahna dina kaluhuran 0 nepi ka 600 méter (sababaraha rujukan nyebutkeun nepi ka 700 méter) di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa rata-rata taunan di ieu zona lumayan luhur, aya dina kisaran antara 22°C nepi ka 26,3°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Ieu zona mangrupa aréa pangpanasna nepi ka idéal pisan pikeun tumuwuhna tutuwuhan komoditas tropis, kawas [[paré]], [[jagong]], [[tiwu]], [[karét]], [[kalapa]], jeung [[bako]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim sedeng ===
Aya di wewengkon nu jangkungna 600 nepi ka 1.500 méter (atawa 700–1.500 méter) di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa di ieu zona mimiti karasa leuwih sejuk, nyaéta dina kisaran 17,1°C nepi ka 22°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Tutuwuhan budidaya nu pangcocogna tur bisa hirup optimal di ieu zona di antarana nyaéta [[kopi]], [[entéh]], [[kakao]] (coklat), [[kina]], jeung rupa-rupa [[sayuran]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim sejuk ===
Ngawengku daérah pagunungan nu élévasina mimiti ti 1.500 nepi ka 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; ata-rata suhu hawa taunanna lumayan tiis, nyaéta antara 11,1°C nepi ka 17,1°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Di kawasan nu hawana sejuk ieu, jenis tutuwuhan nu masih mampuh dibudidayakeun sacara ékonomis mimiti kawatesanan kana jenis nu tangtu kawas entéh, kopi, tangkal [[kina]], sarta tutuwuhan [[hortikultura]] (sayur-sayuran jeung kembang).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim tiis ===
Aya di wewengkon dataran nu jangkung pisan atawa puncak gunung nu élévasina di luhureun 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa di ieu aréa kacida tiisna, aya dina kisaran antara 6,2°C nepi ka 11,1°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Dina zona iklim ieu, lahanna geus teu cocog deui atawa teu mungkinkeun pikeun budidaya tutuwuhan tatanén komérsial.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Végétasi alami nu mampuh tahan hirup di wewengkon nu iklimna ékstrém ieu umumna ukur jenis-jenis [[lukut]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

Sababaraha rujukan sékundér ogé nambahkeun Zona Iklim Salju Tropis (di luhureun katinggian 4.000 mdpl), di mana suhu ékstrém pisan (di handapeun 6,2°C) jeung éta wewengkon didominasi ku babatuan atawa salju tanpa ayana kahirupan tutuwuhan (nir-végétasi).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; 

== Référénsi ==

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]
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      <text bytes="5843" sha1="5wh3b2mxk14pebv88dikh0u2zeer05b" xml:space="preserve">'''Klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn''' téh mangrupa sistem panggolongan iklim nu dirumuskeun ku saurang panjelajah, ahli botani, sakaligus ahli géografi asal Walanda nu ngaranna [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ruangguru.com/blog/klasifikasi-tipe-iklim|title=Pengertian Iklim dan 5 Macam Klasifikasinya|last=Soshum|first=Kak Ali MT|last2=Team|first2=Ruangguru Tech|website=Belajar Gratis di Rumah Kapan Pun! {{!}} Blog Ruangguru|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/03/31/180000369/pembagian-iklim-menurut-junghuhn-kppen-schmidt-ferguson-dan-oldman|title=Pembagian Iklim Menurut Junghuhn, Köppen, Schmidt-Ferguson, dan Oldman|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/ragam-info/pembagian-iklim-junghuhn-didasarkan-pada-apa-ini-penjelasannya-22TCP6iPCat|title=Pembagian Iklim Junghuhn Didasarkan Pada Apa? Ini Penjelasannya|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Ieu sistem klasifikasi jadi salah sahiji dasar pangolompokan iklim di daérah [[tropis]], hususna cocog (rélevan) pisan diterapkeun di wewengkon kapuloan pagunungan kawas [[Indonésia]] (pangpangna [[Pulo Jawa]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.geografi.org/2017/11/pembagian-iklim-menurut-f-junghuhn.html|title=Pembagian Iklim menurut F. Junghuhn|last=Pambudi|first=Aan|website=Geografi.org|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Béda jeung sistem iklim séjén nu ngandelkeun [[suhu]], [[Présipitasi|curah hujan]], atawa sorot [[panonpoé]] sacara global, babagian iklim Junghuhn didasarkeun kana dua faktor utama nyaéta,  jangkungna hiji tempat tina beungeut laut ([[élévasi]]) jeung jenis [[végétasi]] (tutuwuhan) nu bisa hirup tur dibudidayakeun sacara optimal luyu jeung suhu di éta katinggian.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2022/09/28/073000669/4-klasifikasi-iklim-menurut-junghuhn|title=4 Klasifikasi Iklim Menurut Junghuhn|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Dasar panggolongan ==
[[Gambar:Junghuhn self-portrait.jpg|jmpl|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]]
Junghuhn ngarumuskeun klasifikasina ngaliwatan observasi (titénan) lapangan nu jero kana pola sebaran kahirupan tutuwuhan sacara vertikal (ti dataran handap nepi ka puncak gunung).&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Junghuhn sadar kana ayana hukum kalandéyan suhu ([[adiabatik]]), di mana beuki jangkung hiji tempat tina beungeut laut, suhu hawa bakal beuki turun (jadi leuwih tiis).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Parobahan gradasi suhu vertikal ieu tétéla mangaruhan pisan kana kamampuh hirup jenis tutuwuhan nu tangtu, hususna dina widang [[agrikultur]] (tatanén jeung perkebunan).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kusabab pandekatanana nu aplikatif pisan pikeun budidaya tutuwuhan, klasifikasi iklim Junghuhn mindeng pisan dirujuk jeung dimangpaatkeun ku para patani katut ahli perkebunan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Zona babagian iklim ==
Dumasar kana paraméter élévasi jeung kacocogan végétasi éta, Junghuhn ngabagi tipe iklim sacara vertikal kana opat zona utama, nyaéta:

=== Zona iklim panas (tropis) ===
Perenahna dina kaluhuran 0 nepi ka 600 méter (sababaraha rujukan nyebutkeun nepi ka 700 méter) di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa rata-rata taunan di ieu zona lumayan luhur, aya dina kisaran antara 22°C nepi ka 26,3°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Ieu zona mangrupa aréa pangpanasna nepi ka idéal pisan pikeun tumuwuhna tutuwuhan komoditas tropis, kawas [[paré]], [[jagong]], [[tiwu]], [[karét]], [[kalapa]], jeung [[bako]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim sedeng ===
Aya di wewengkon nu jangkungna 600 nepi ka 1.500 méter (atawa 700–1.500 méter) di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa di ieu zona mimiti karasa leuwih sejuk, nyaéta dina kisaran 17,1°C nepi ka 22°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Tutuwuhan budidaya nu pangcocogna tur bisa hirup optimal di ieu zona di antarana nyaéta [[kopi]], [[entéh]], [[kakao]] (coklat), [[kina]], jeung rupa-rupa [[sayuran]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim sejuk ===
Ngawengku daérah pagunungan nu élévasina mimiti ti 1.500 nepi ka 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; ata-rata suhu hawa taunanna lumayan tiis, nyaéta antara 11,1°C nepi ka 17,1°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Di kawasan nu hawana sejuk ieu, jenis tutuwuhan nu masih mampuh dibudidayakeun sacara ékonomis mimiti kawatesanan kana jenis nu tangtu kawas entéh, kopi, tangkal [[kina]], sarta tutuwuhan [[hortikultura]] (sayur-sayuran jeung kembang).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

=== Zona iklim tiis ===
Aya di wewengkon dataran nu jangkung pisan atawa puncak gunung nu élévasina di luhureun 2.500 méter di luhureun beungeut laut.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Suhu hawa di ieu aréa kacida tiisna, aya dina kisaran antara 6,2°C nepi ka 11,1°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Dina zona iklim ieu, lahanna geus teu cocog deui atawa teu mungkinkeun pikeun budidaya tutuwuhan tatanén komérsial.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Végétasi alami nu mampuh tahan hirup di wewengkon nu iklimna ékstrém ieu umumna ukur jenis-jenis [[lukut]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

Sababaraha rujukan sékundér ogé nambahkeun Zona Iklim Salju Tropis (di luhureun katinggian 4.000 mdpl), di mana suhu ékstrém pisan (di handapeun 6,2°C) jeung éta wewengkon didominasi ku babatuan atawa salju tanpa ayana kahirupan tutuwuhan (nir-végétasi).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; 

== Référénsi ==

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    <title>Vulkanologi</title>
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      <text bytes="5336" sha1="9jiwweyzsrmlav1i332fk5rol1ajfri" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Sampling lava with hammer and bucket.jpg|jmpl|295x295px|Lava gunung api]]
'''Vulkanologi''' nyaéta cabang élmu kabumian ([[géologi]]) nu fokus kana ulikan ngeunaan gunung api, [[magma]], [[lava]], jeung fénoména géologis nu patali.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/volcanology|title=Volcanology {{!}} Eruptions, Magma, Lava {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/volcanology.html|title=Volcanology|website=Volcano Discovery}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina gabungan dua basa kuno; kecap ''Vulcan'' nu mangrupa ngaran dewa seuneu jeung panday beusi dina [[mitologi Romawi]], sarta ahiran [[basa Yunani]] ''-logia'' nu hartina ulikan atawa élmu kanyaho.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/volcanology|title=Definition of VOLCANOLOGY|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Salaku hiji disiplin élmu, vulkanologi narékahan pikeun ngarti kana  prosés kabentukna gunung api, mékanismeu bituna, sarta sipat fisik jeung kimiawi material vulkanik nu dikaluarkeun ti jero bumi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah jeung kamekaran ==
Saméméh mekar jadi élmu kanyaho nu kastruktur, fénoména bituna gunung api mindeng dijelaskeun ngaliwatan [[mitos]] jeung [[legénda]], kawas ambekna dewa atawa roh alam (misalna mitos Dewa Vulcan di [[Roma]] atawa Dewi Pele di [[Hawaii]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/news/a-brief-history-volcanology-myths-and-legends-a-modern-and-interdisciplinary|title=A Brief History Volcanology Myths and Legends a Modern and Interdisciplinary|website=USGS}}&lt;/ref&gt; Akar tina vulkanologi observasional dimimitian saprak abad kahiji Maséhi, persisna basa élmuwan Romawi, [[Pliny the Younger]], sacara wincik nyatet jeung ngadéskripsikeun bituna [[Gunung Vesuvius]] nu kacida dahsyatna dina taun 79 Maséhi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencing.com/history-volcanology-5397406/|title=The History Of Volcanology|last=Chandler|first=Joe|website=Sciencing|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Asup ka éra modérn, vulkanologi ngalaman luncatan badag dina pertengahan abad ka-19 nu ditandaan ku ngadegna lembaga pangamatan gunung api munggaran di dunya, nyaéta [[Observatorium Vesuvius]] di [[Italia]] dina taun 1841, jeung tuluy disusul ku observatorium penting séjénna kawas Hawaiian Volcano Observatory di awal abad ka-20.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Ruang lingkup jeung pendekatan multidisiplin ==
Élmu vulkanologi modérn boga sipat nu interdisiplinér pisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Ieu widang henteu nangtung sorangan, tapi ngagabungkeun prinsip-prinsip tina [[géofisika]], [[géokimia]], [[séismologi]], jeung [[pétrologi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/research-groups/volcanology|title=Volcanology|website=www.earth.ox.ac.uk|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Para panalungtik di ieu widang ngulik dinamika rohangan magma (kantong magma) di handapeun beungeut bumi, nganalisis komposisi unsur kimia tina gas jeung batuan (kawas [[batu apung]], [[téfra]], jeung [[lebu vulkanik]]), sarta diajar interaksi antara aktivitas vulkanik jeung [[Wiati|atmosfér]], [[hidrosfér]], katut iklim bumi sacara sagemblengna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Pamahaman ti rupa-rupa multidisiplin ieu dipaké pikeun nyieun modél iraha, kumaha, jeung naha hiji gunung api bitu.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Peran vulkanolog jeung mitigasi bencana ==
Jalma nu ahli jeung boga profési dina ieu élmu disebutna [[vulkanolog]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/cascades-volcano-observatory/information-about-volcanologists|title=Volcanologist|website=USGS}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pagawéan saurang vulkanolog kabagi kana panalungtikan lapangan jeung analisis laboratorium.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://studyinca.ac.id/vulkanologi/|title=Vulkanologi: Ilmu tentang Gunung Berapi dan Aktivitas Vulkanik|last=Paulin|website=Study Inca|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di lapangan, maranéhna ngumpulkeun sampél material vulkanik, mantau émisi gas (kawas [[sulfur dioksida]]), ngukur déformasi (parobahan wangun) beungeut gunung, sarta ngarékam aktivitas lini vulkanik ([[séismisitas]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://work.chron.com/volcanology-job-description-19743.html|title=Volcanology Job Description|last=Joyner|first=Jeffrey|website=Chron - Work|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salian ti tujuan akademis murni, peran nu pang-krusialna ti saurang vulkanolog nyaéta ngalakukeun paniléyan résiko bahaya géologi (''hazard assessment'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Maranéhna ngarancang peta kawasan rawan bencana jeung méré sistem pépéling ti anggalna (peringatan dini) ka pamaréntah atawa masarakat sangkan léngkah évakuasi bisa dilakukeun saméméh érupsi kajadian, demi ngaminimalisir korban jiwa jeung ruksaknya infrastruktur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

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      <text bytes="5303" sha1="56zpbml36e7h0sfivpdgtepzya10t90" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Sampling lava with hammer and bucket.jpg|jmpl|295x295px|Lava gunung api]]
'''Vulkanologi''' nyaéta cabang élmu kabumian ([[géologi]]) nu fokus kana ulikan ngeunaan gunung api, [[magma]], [[lava]], jeung fénoména géologis nu patali.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/volcanology|title=Volcanology {{!}} Eruptions, Magma, Lava {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/volcanology.html|title=Volcanology|website=Volcano Discovery}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina gabungan dua basa kuno; kecap ''Vulcan'' nu mangrupa ngaran dewa seuneu jeung panday beusi dina [[mitologi Romawi]], sarta ahiran [[basa Yunani]] ''-logia'' nu hartina ulikan atawa élmu kanyaho.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/volcanology|title=Definition of VOLCANOLOGY|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Salaku hiji disiplin élmu, vulkanologi narékahan pikeun ngarti kana  prosés kabentukna gunung api, mékanismeu bituna, sarta sipat fisik jeung kimiawi material vulkanik nu dikaluarkeun ti jero bumi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah jeung kamekaran ==
Saméméh mekar jadi élmu kanyaho nu kastruktur, fénoména bituna gunung api mindeng dijelaskeun ngaliwatan [[mitos]] jeung [[legénda]], kawas ambekna dewa atawa roh alam (misalna mitos Dewa Vulcan di [[Roma]] atawa Dewi Pele di [[Hawaii]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/news/a-brief-history-volcanology-myths-and-legends-a-modern-and-interdisciplinary|title=A Brief History Volcanology Myths and Legends a Modern and Interdisciplinary|website=USGS}}&lt;/ref&gt; Akar tina vulkanologi observasional dimimitian saprak abad kahiji Maséhi, persisna basa élmuwan Romawi, [[Pliny the Younger]], sacara wincik nyatet jeung ngadéskripsikeun bituna [[Gunung Vesuvius]] nu kacida dahsyatna dina taun 79 Maséhi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencing.com/history-volcanology-5397406/|title=The History Of Volcanology|last=Chandler|first=Joe|website=Sciencing|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Asup ka éra modérn, vulkanologi ngalaman luncatan badag dina pertengahan abad ka-19 nu ditandaan ku ngadegna lembaga pangamatan gunung api munggaran di dunya, nyaéta [[Observatorium Vesuvius]] di [[Italia]] dina taun 1841, jeung tuluy disusul ku observatorium penting séjénna kawas Hawaiian Volcano Observatory di awal abad ka-20.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Ruang lingkup jeung pendekatan multidisiplin ==
Élmu vulkanologi modérn boga sipat nu interdisiplinér pisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Ieu widang henteu nangtung sorangan, tapi ngagabungkeun prinsip-prinsip tina [[géofisika]], [[géokimia]], [[séismologi]], jeung [[pétrologi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/research-groups/volcanology|title=Volcanology|website=www.earth.ox.ac.uk|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Para panalungtik di ieu widang ngulik dinamika rohangan magma (kantong magma) di handapeun beungeut bumi, nganalisis komposisi unsur kimia tina gas jeung batuan (kawas [[batu apung]], [[téfra]], jeung [[lebu vulkanik]]), sarta diajar interaksi antara aktivitas vulkanik jeung [[Wiati|atmosfér]], [[hidrosfér]], katut iklim bumi sacara sagemblengna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Pamahaman ti rupa-rupa multidisiplin ieu dipaké pikeun nyieun modél iraha, kumaha, jeung naha hiji gunung api bitu.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Peran vulkanolog jeung mitigasi bencana ==
Jalma nu ahli jeung boga profési dina ieu élmu disebutna [[vulkanolog]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/cascades-volcano-observatory/information-about-volcanologists|title=Volcanologist|website=USGS}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pagawéan saurang vulkanolog kabagi kana panalungtikan lapangan jeung analisis laboratorium.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://studyinca.ac.id/vulkanologi/|title=Vulkanologi: Ilmu tentang Gunung Berapi dan Aktivitas Vulkanik|last=Paulin|website=Study Inca|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di lapangan, maranéhna ngumpulkeun sampél material vulkanik, mantau émisi gas (kawas [[sulfur dioksida]]), ngukur déformasi (parobahan wangun) beungeut gunung, sarta ngarékam aktivitas lini vulkanik ([[séismisitas]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://work.chron.com/volcanology-job-description-19743.html|title=Volcanology Job Description|last=Joyner|first=Jeffrey|website=Chron - Work|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salian ti tujuan akademis murni, peran nu pang-krusialna ti saurang vulkanolog nyaéta ngalakukeun paniléyan résiko bahaya géologi (''hazard assessment'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Maranéhna ngarancang peta kawasan rawan bencana jeung méré sistem pépéling ti anggalna (peringatan dini) ka pamaréntah atawa masarakat sangkan léngkah évakuasi bisa dilakukeun saméméh érupsi kajadian, demi ngaminimalisir korban jiwa jeung ruksaknya infrastruktur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

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      <text bytes="1565" sha1="44gd90ci45gioflqjwaqhvht6z3w1t7" xml:space="preserve">'''Warisan géologi''' (atawa dina basa internasional dipikawanoh salaku ''Geoheritage'') téh mangrupa istilah konséptual nu dipaké pikeun ngadéskripsikeun situs-situs géologi (wangun lahan, bentang alam, nepi ka formasi batuan) nu boga harti nu jero lantaran jadi saksi sajarah panjang prosés kabentukna bumi. Ieu konsép aya dina titik panggih antara élmu sains, masarakat, jeung kaberlanjutan (kalestarian). Hiji kawasan ditetepkeun jadi warisan géologi lamun éta kawasan teu ukur boga ajén éstétika atawa kaéndahan wungkul, tapi ogé nyimpen ajén-ajén luhung tina segi kaélmuan géologis, tapak lacak édukasi, sajarah peradaban, signifikansi budaya (misalna patali jeung lacak peradaban karuhun), nepi ka mangpaat [[ékonomi]] jeung [[ékologi]] pikeun wewengkon di sabudeureunna.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://geologi.esdm.go.id/media-center/mengenal-warisan-geologi-geoheritage-dieng|title=Berita {{!}} Portal Layanan Satu Pintu Badan Geologi|website=geologi.esdm.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://brin.go.id/news/127701/geoheritage-jendela-sejarah-bumi-dan-masa-depan|title=Geoheritage: Jendela Sejarah Bumi dan Masa Depan|website=BRIN - Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/geology-energy-and-minerals-science-center/science/geoheritage-sites-nation|title=Geoheritage Sites of the Nation|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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      <text bytes="1532" sha1="1ra8i4g3283lvtm5pwid6c8tddoibjc" xml:space="preserve">'''Warisan géologi''' (atawa dina basa internasional dipikawanoh salaku ''Geoheritage'') téh mangrupa istilah konséptual nu dipaké pikeun ngadéskripsikeun situs-situs géologi (wangun lahan, bentang alam, nepi ka formasi batuan) nu boga harti nu jero lantaran jadi saksi sajarah panjang prosés kabentukna bumi. Ieu konsép aya dina titik panggih antara élmu sains, masarakat, jeung kaberlanjutan (kalestarian). Hiji kawasan ditetepkeun jadi warisan géologi lamun éta kawasan teu ukur boga ajén éstétika atawa kaéndahan wungkul, tapi ogé nyimpen ajén-ajén luhung tina segi kaélmuan géologis, tapak lacak édukasi, sajarah peradaban, signifikansi budaya (misalna patali jeung lacak peradaban karuhun), nepi ka mangpaat [[ékonomi]] jeung [[ékologi]] pikeun wewengkon di sabudeureunna.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://geologi.esdm.go.id/media-center/mengenal-warisan-geologi-geoheritage-dieng|title=Berita {{!}} Portal Layanan Satu Pintu Badan Geologi|website=geologi.esdm.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://brin.go.id/news/127701/geoheritage-jendela-sejarah-bumi-dan-masa-depan|title=Geoheritage: Jendela Sejarah Bumi dan Masa Depan|website=BRIN - Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/geology-energy-and-minerals-science-center/science/geoheritage-sites-nation|title=Geoheritage Sites of the Nation|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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'''Étnobiologi''' sacara konséptual téh mangrupa cabang kaélmuan nu ngulik ngeunaan hubungan antara manusa atawa masarakat di hiji wewengkon jeung lingkungan biologis di sabudeureunna, nu ngawengku [[tutuwuhan]], [[sato]], jeung [[ékosistem]]. Ieu élmu sacara husus fokus kana persépsi jeung konsépsi masarakat tradisional dina neuleuman, ngokolakeun, katut ngamangpaatkeun éta komponén [[biologi]] sangkan aya gunana pikeun kalangsungan hirup maranéhna sapopoé. Dina praktékna, ruang lingkup ulikan étnobiologi téh lega pisan jeung umumna dibagi jadi sababaraha subdisiplin utama, di antarana nyaéta [[étnobotani]] (interaksi manusa jeung tutuwuhan), [[étnozoologi]] (interaksi manusa jeung sato), sarta [[étnoékologi]] (interaksi manusa jeung ékosistem lingkunganana).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ethnobiology.org/about-ethnobiology/what-is-ethnobiology|title=What is Ethnobiology? {{!}} Society of Ethnobiology|website=ethnobiology.org|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://search.worldcat.org/title/24067509|title=Ethnobiological classification : principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies {{!}} WorldCat.org|website=search.worldcat.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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'''Étnobiologi''' sacara konséptual téh mangrupa cabang kaélmuan nu ngulik ngeunaan hubungan antara manusa atawa masarakat di hiji wewengkon jeung lingkungan biologis di sabudeureunna, nu ngawengku [[tutuwuhan]], [[sato]], jeung [[ékosistem]]. Ieu élmu sacara husus fokus kana persépsi jeung konsépsi masarakat tradisional dina neuleuman, ngokolakeun, katut ngamangpaatkeun éta komponén [[biologi]] sangkan aya gunana pikeun kalangsungan hirup maranéhna sapopoé. Dina praktékna, ruang lingkup ulikan étnobiologi téh lega pisan jeung umumna dibagi jadi sababaraha subdisiplin utama, di antarana nyaéta [[étnobotani]] (interaksi manusa jeung tutuwuhan), [[étnozoologi]] (interaksi manusa jeung sato), sarta [[étnoékologi]] (interaksi manusa jeung ékosistem lingkunganana).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ethnobiology.org/about-ethnobiology/what-is-ethnobiology|title=What is Ethnobiology? {{!}} Society of Ethnobiology|website=ethnobiology.org|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://search.worldcat.org/title/24067509|title=Ethnobiological classification : principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies {{!}} WorldCat.org|website=search.worldcat.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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      <text bytes="4936" sha1="kl7tidtlvtdy6b0036nq55m3yzwbibr" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Peta topografi kaldera Beratan, Bali.png|jmpl|Conto peta topografi]]
'''Topografi''' mangrupa hiji cabang élmu [[géografi]] jeung géodési nu ngulik, mapakeun (metakeun), jeung ngagambarkeun wangun, réliéf, sarta karakteristik bentang alam atawa beungeut bumi sacara wincik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography|title=Definition of TOPOGRAPHY|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-6225562/apa-itu-topografi-peta-topografi-dan-fungsinya|title=Apa Itu Topografi, Peta Topografi, dan Fungsinya|last=Wulandari|first=Trisna|website=detikedu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.regaeng.com/back-to-basics-in-topography-what-is-it-and-why-you-need-it|title=Back to Basics in Topography: What Is It and Why You Need It|website=REGA Engineering Group}}&lt;/ref&gt; Istilah &quot;topografi&quot; asalna tina [[basa Yunani kuno]], nyaéta ''topos'' nu hartina &quot;tempat&quot; jeung ''graphein'' nu hartina &quot;nulis,&quot; &quot;ngagambarkeun,&quot; atawa &quot;ngalukis&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.technogis.co.id/topografi-artinya-definisi-topografi-dan-istilah-terkait/|title=Topografi Artinya: Definisi Topografi dan Istilah Terkait|last=|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara ésénsial, topografi méré gambaran struktur tilu diménsi tina beungeut bumi kana wangun format dua diménsi ([[Peta géologis|peta]] atawa modél), nu ngawengku konfigurasi fitur alam (kawas [[gunung]], [[pasir]], [[léngkob]], [[walungan]], jeung [[situ]]) atawa fitur kultural/jieunan manusa (kawas [[jalan]], [[cukang]], [[wangunan]], jeung [[utilitas]]) katut posisi rélatif jeung katinggian (élévasi) géografisna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Répreséntasi ==
Répréséntasi utama tina data topografi téh nyaéta [[peta topografi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Béda jeung peta biasa, peta topografi nyajikeun gambaran réliéf atawa luhur-handapna beungeut bumi nu diukur kana hiji datum vertikal (kawas rata-rata beungeut cai laut/Luhur Beungeut Cai Laut).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bpiw.pu.go.id/bankdata/dictionary/words?q=topografi&amp;id=1373|title=Topografi|website=Kamus Badan Pengembangan Infrastruktur Wilayah (BPIW) - Kementerian PUPR RI.}} {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Fitur pang-hasna tina hiji peta topografi nyaéta ayana [[garis kontur]] (garis élévasi).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Garis kontur téh mangrupa garis implengan (hayal) dina peta nu nyambungkeun titik-titik di beungeut bumi nu boga tingkat katinggian nu sarua.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Tingkat kerepna (kerapatan) garis kontur ieu téh informatif pisan; garis kontur nu jarakna kerep némbongkeun médan atawa daérah nu curam jeung lungkawing, sedengkeun garis kontur nu anggang némbongkeun médan nu landéy atawa datar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kaakuratan informasi dina ieu peta ogé ditangtukeun pisan ku skalana (leutik, sedeng, atawa gedé), di mana skala nu leuwih gedé bakal ngahasilkeun gambaran posisi data di lapangan nu jauh leuwih akurat jeung wincik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Kagunaan ==
Pamahaman ngeunaan topografi boga peran jeung fungsi nu vital pisan salaku fondasi dina rupa-rupa disiplin rékayasa (kawas [[Rékayasa sipil|téhnik sipil]] jeung [[téhnik lingkungan]]), rarancang tata ruang, nepi ka manajemén bencana.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Fungsi utama peta jeung survei topografi di antarana nyaéta:

=== Rarancang tata letak (s''ite'' ''planning'') ===
Méré data dasar nu akurat pisan ngeunaan kaayaan lahan sangkan para [[insinyur]] jeung [[Arsitek|arsiték]] bisa ngarancang tata letak (pangwangunan jalan, rél karéta, gedong, jeung fasilitas publik) sacara presisi, pikeun nyegah kasalahan konstruksi jeung neken résiko gagalna struktur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Manajemén sistim drainase ===
Mantuan dina ngukur condongna lahan (gradién) pikeun nganalisis pola aliran cai beungeut, ngarancang sistem tata kelola cai hujan (''stormwater''), mitigasi résiko banjir, sarta nyegah [[érosi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Navigasi jeung éksplorasi luar rohangan ===
Umumna dipaké ku para pamanjat gawir, pandaki, panggiat alam liar, jeung personil militér pikeun nangtukeun rute lalampahan nu aman ngaliwatan idéntifikasi variasi médan.

=== Konsérvasi lingkungan ===
Mantuan mapakeun jeung ngajénan (menilai) daérah-daérah ékologis nu sénsitif (kawas lahan baseuh atawa habitat kritis) sangkan teu keuna ku pangaruh ruksakna alatan pangwangunan infrastruktur, sakaligus ngarojong kapatuhan kana régulasi perijinan lahan (zonasi).

== Référénsi ==

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      <text bytes="4903" sha1="e9joxaqeq580qm69yqbh6p6s489rnga" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Peta topografi kaldera Beratan, Bali.png|jmpl|Conto peta topografi]]
'''Topografi''' mangrupa hiji cabang élmu [[géografi]] jeung géodési nu ngulik, mapakeun (metakeun), jeung ngagambarkeun wangun, réliéf, sarta karakteristik bentang alam atawa beungeut bumi sacara wincik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography|title=Definition of TOPOGRAPHY|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-6225562/apa-itu-topografi-peta-topografi-dan-fungsinya|title=Apa Itu Topografi, Peta Topografi, dan Fungsinya|last=Wulandari|first=Trisna|website=detikedu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.regaeng.com/back-to-basics-in-topography-what-is-it-and-why-you-need-it|title=Back to Basics in Topography: What Is It and Why You Need It|website=REGA Engineering Group}}&lt;/ref&gt; Istilah &quot;topografi&quot; asalna tina [[basa Yunani kuno]], nyaéta ''topos'' nu hartina &quot;tempat&quot; jeung ''graphein'' nu hartina &quot;nulis,&quot; &quot;ngagambarkeun,&quot; atawa &quot;ngalukis&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.technogis.co.id/topografi-artinya-definisi-topografi-dan-istilah-terkait/|title=Topografi Artinya: Definisi Topografi dan Istilah Terkait|last=|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara ésénsial, topografi méré gambaran struktur tilu diménsi tina beungeut bumi kana wangun format dua diménsi ([[Peta géologis|peta]] atawa modél), nu ngawengku konfigurasi fitur alam (kawas [[gunung]], [[pasir]], [[léngkob]], [[walungan]], jeung [[situ]]) atawa fitur kultural/jieunan manusa (kawas [[jalan]], [[cukang]], [[wangunan]], jeung [[utilitas]]) katut posisi rélatif jeung katinggian (élévasi) géografisna.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Répreséntasi ==
Répréséntasi utama tina data topografi téh nyaéta [[peta topografi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Béda jeung peta biasa, peta topografi nyajikeun gambaran réliéf atawa luhur-handapna beungeut bumi nu diukur kana hiji datum vertikal (kawas rata-rata beungeut cai laut/Luhur Beungeut Cai Laut).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bpiw.pu.go.id/bankdata/dictionary/words?q=topografi&amp;id=1373|title=Topografi|website=Kamus Badan Pengembangan Infrastruktur Wilayah (BPIW) - Kementerian PUPR RI.}} {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Fitur pang-hasna tina hiji peta topografi nyaéta ayana [[garis kontur]] (garis élévasi).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Garis kontur téh mangrupa garis implengan (hayal) dina peta nu nyambungkeun titik-titik di beungeut bumi nu boga tingkat katinggian nu sarua.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Tingkat kerepna (kerapatan) garis kontur ieu téh informatif pisan; garis kontur nu jarakna kerep némbongkeun médan atawa daérah nu curam jeung lungkawing, sedengkeun garis kontur nu anggang némbongkeun médan nu landéy atawa datar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Kaakuratan informasi dina ieu peta ogé ditangtukeun pisan ku skalana (leutik, sedeng, atawa gedé), di mana skala nu leuwih gedé bakal ngahasilkeun gambaran posisi data di lapangan nu jauh leuwih akurat jeung wincik.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Kagunaan ==
Pamahaman ngeunaan topografi boga peran jeung fungsi nu vital pisan salaku fondasi dina rupa-rupa disiplin rékayasa (kawas [[Rékayasa sipil|téhnik sipil]] jeung [[téhnik lingkungan]]), rarancang tata ruang, nepi ka manajemén bencana.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Fungsi utama peta jeung survei topografi di antarana nyaéta:

=== Rarancang tata letak (s''ite'' ''planning'') ===
Méré data dasar nu akurat pisan ngeunaan kaayaan lahan sangkan para [[insinyur]] jeung [[Arsitek|arsiték]] bisa ngarancang tata letak (pangwangunan jalan, rél karéta, gedong, jeung fasilitas publik) sacara presisi, pikeun nyegah kasalahan konstruksi jeung neken résiko gagalna struktur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Manajemén sistim drainase ===
Mantuan dina ngukur condongna lahan (gradién) pikeun nganalisis pola aliran cai beungeut, ngarancang sistem tata kelola cai hujan (''stormwater''), mitigasi résiko banjir, sarta nyegah [[érosi]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Navigasi jeung éksplorasi luar rohangan ===
Umumna dipaké ku para pamanjat gawir, pandaki, panggiat alam liar, jeung personil militér pikeun nangtukeun rute lalampahan nu aman ngaliwatan idéntifikasi variasi médan.

=== Konsérvasi lingkungan ===
Mantuan mapakeun jeung ngajénan (menilai) daérah-daérah ékologis nu sénsitif (kawas lahan baseuh atawa habitat kritis) sangkan teu keuna ku pangaruh ruksakna alatan pangwangunan infrastruktur, sakaligus ngarojong kapatuhan kana régulasi perijinan lahan (zonasi).

== Référénsi ==

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    <title>Kartografi</title>
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'''Kartografi''' mangrupakeun disiplin élmu pangaweruh, seni, jeung téknologi nu patali jeung konsépsi, nyieun, nyebarkeun, sarta ulikan ngeunaan peta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cca-acc.org/resources/what-is-cartography|title=What is Cartography? {{!}} Canadian Cartographic Association|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2023/02/24/090000569/kartografi--pengertian-dan-fungsinya|title=Kartografi: Pengertian dan Fungsinya|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography|title=Cartography {{!}} Maps, Mapping Techniques &amp; History {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina [[basa Yunani Kuno]], nyaéta kecap ''carto'' (atawa ''chartis'') nu hartina beungeut (permukaan), jeung ''graft'' (atawa ''graphein'') nu hartina gambaran atawa tulisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ieu élmu fokus kana téknik nepikeun informasi ngeunaan kaayaan rohangan atawa beungeut bumi ngaliwatan wangun grafis (peta) nu gampang diilikan ku manusa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/sejarah-dan-sosial/kartografi-pengertian-dan-klasifikasinya-23PqNCfdVcs|title=Kartografi: Pengertian dan Klasifikasinya|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salaku hiji disiplin akademis nu kompléks, kartografi teu ukur ngawengku prosés mékanis nyitak peta, tapi ogé ngalimpudan aspék historis, matematis, kognitif, sarta évaluasi perséptual kana peta éta sorangan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah ==
Nyieun peta téh mangrupa prakték kuno nu diyakinkeun geus dimimitian saprak jaman [[prasajarah]] pikeun ngagambarkeun wewengkon pamoroan jeung kawasan ngala lauk.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Dina jaman peradaban Babilonia, dunya masih digambarkeun dina wangun piringan datar. Fondasi kartografi nu leuwih sistematis kakara ditunda dina abad ka-2 Maséhi ku [[Claudius Ptolemaeus]] (Ptolemy) ngaliwatan mahakaryana, ''[[Geographike hyphegesis]]'', nu mimiti némbongkeun répréséntasi bumi nu buleud.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Salila Abad Pertengahan, nyieun peta [[Éropa]] mindeng maké modél peta-T (''T-maps'') nu puseurna di [[Yerusalem|Yérusalem]] jeung ukur ngamuat Buana Éropa, [[Asia]], katut [[Afrika]], saméméh ahirna ngalaman deui luncatan akurasi dina abad ka-14 lantaran mekarna bagan navigasi laut (portolan). Asup ka Éra Panjelajahan, inovasi kawas téknik triangulasi jeung sistem proyéksi peta (misalna proyéksi Mercator jeung proyéksi silinder) mimiti diwanohkeun pikeun ngungkulan tangtangan ngarépréséntasikeun beungeut bumi nu melengkung kana hiji widang datar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Di éra modérn, disiplin kartografi ngalaman révolusi téknologi nu kacida badagna alatan ayana komputer.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Pamakéan métode fotogramétri nu dumasar kana poto udara jeung citra satélit mampuh ngahasilkeun tingkat présisi peta nu saméméhna mustahil kahontal.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Peta nu baheulana murni digambar sacara manual maké mangsi kiwari diproduksi sacara digital sarta kaintegrasi raket jeung Sistem Informasi Géografis (SIG) katut panginderaan jauh, nepi ka peta modérn kiwari jadi alat nu krusial pikeun ngaréspons rupa-rupa pasualan kompléks kawas tata guna lahan, navigasi, nepi ka manajemén lingkungan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Ruang lingkup jeung tujuan ==
Tujuan utama tina élmu kartografi nyaéta ngumpulkeun, nganalisis, jeung ngaprosés data nyata tina fénoména beungeut bumi pikeun tuluy disajikeun kana wangun grafis spasial nu ngamuat skala jeung unsur informasi nu kaukur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ruang lingkup gawéna ngawengku ranté prosés nu panjang, mimiti ti ngumpulkeun jeung klasifikasi data, évaluasi katut analisis, rarancang inteléktual jeung grafis, nepi ka tahap réproduksi jeung panafsiran peta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Kusabab pajeujeutna, dina proyék nu skalana badag, prosés kartografis tara diarahkeun ku saurang individu wungkul, tapi digawékeun ngaliwatan kolaborasi ti rupa-rupa tanaga ahli.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Référénsi ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]
[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4289" sha1="lj84iijqhjfr2ufdjep7ufgwdlum04o" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Cartography 04.jpg|jmpl|Kartografi]]
'''Kartografi''' mangrupakeun disiplin élmu pangaweruh, seni, jeung téknologi nu patali jeung konsépsi, nyieun, nyebarkeun, sarta ulikan ngeunaan peta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cca-acc.org/resources/what-is-cartography|title=What is Cartography? {{!}} Canadian Cartographic Association|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2023/02/24/090000569/kartografi--pengertian-dan-fungsinya|title=Kartografi: Pengertian dan Fungsinya|website=Kompas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography|title=Cartography {{!}} Maps, Mapping Techniques &amp; History {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina [[basa Yunani Kuno]], nyaéta kecap ''carto'' (atawa ''chartis'') nu hartina beungeut (permukaan), jeung ''graft'' (atawa ''graphein'') nu hartina gambaran atawa tulisan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ieu élmu fokus kana téknik nepikeun informasi ngeunaan kaayaan rohangan atawa beungeut bumi ngaliwatan wangun grafis (peta) nu gampang diilikan ku manusa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/sejarah-dan-sosial/kartografi-pengertian-dan-klasifikasinya-23PqNCfdVcs|title=Kartografi: Pengertian dan Klasifikasinya|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Salaku hiji disiplin akademis nu kompléks, kartografi teu ukur ngawengku prosés mékanis nyitak peta, tapi ogé ngalimpudan aspék historis, matematis, kognitif, sarta évaluasi perséptual kana peta éta sorangan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah ==
Nyieun peta téh mangrupa prakték kuno nu diyakinkeun geus dimimitian saprak jaman [[prasajarah]] pikeun ngagambarkeun wewengkon pamoroan jeung kawasan ngala lauk.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Dina jaman peradaban Babilonia, dunya masih digambarkeun dina wangun piringan datar. Fondasi kartografi nu leuwih sistematis kakara ditunda dina abad ka-2 Maséhi ku [[Claudius Ptolemaeus]] (Ptolemy) ngaliwatan mahakaryana, ''[[Geographike hyphegesis]]'', nu mimiti némbongkeun répréséntasi bumi nu buleud.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Salila Abad Pertengahan, nyieun peta [[Éropa]] mindeng maké modél peta-T (''T-maps'') nu puseurna di [[Yerusalem|Yérusalem]] jeung ukur ngamuat Buana Éropa, [[Asia]], katut [[Afrika]], saméméh ahirna ngalaman deui luncatan akurasi dina abad ka-14 lantaran mekarna bagan navigasi laut (portolan). Asup ka Éra Panjelajahan, inovasi kawas téknik triangulasi jeung sistem proyéksi peta (misalna proyéksi Mercator jeung proyéksi silinder) mimiti diwanohkeun pikeun ngungkulan tangtangan ngarépréséntasikeun beungeut bumi nu melengkung kana hiji widang datar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Di éra modérn, disiplin kartografi ngalaman révolusi téknologi nu kacida badagna alatan ayana komputer.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Pamakéan métode fotogramétri nu dumasar kana poto udara jeung citra satélit mampuh ngahasilkeun tingkat présisi peta nu saméméhna mustahil kahontal.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Peta nu baheulana murni digambar sacara manual maké mangsi kiwari diproduksi sacara digital sarta kaintegrasi raket jeung Sistem Informasi Géografis (SIG) katut panginderaan jauh, nepi ka peta modérn kiwari jadi alat nu krusial pikeun ngaréspons rupa-rupa pasualan kompléks kawas tata guna lahan, navigasi, nepi ka manajemén lingkungan.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Ruang lingkup jeung tujuan ==
Tujuan utama tina élmu kartografi nyaéta ngumpulkeun, nganalisis, jeung ngaprosés data nyata tina fénoména beungeut bumi pikeun tuluy disajikeun kana wangun grafis spasial nu ngamuat skala jeung unsur informasi nu kaukur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Ruang lingkup gawéna ngawengku ranté prosés nu panjang, mimiti ti ngumpulkeun jeung klasifikasi data, évaluasi katut analisis, rarancang inteléktual jeung grafis, nepi ka tahap réproduksi jeung panafsiran peta.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Kusabab pajeujeutna, dina proyék nu skalana badag, prosés kartografis tara diarahkeun ku saurang individu wungkul, tapi digawékeun ngaliwatan kolaborasi ti rupa-rupa tanaga ahli.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Référénsi ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4586" sha1="aqm5ohpxabhh0oafz6xduss6azgug72" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Port and lighthouse overnight storm with lightning in Port-la-Nouvelle.jpg|jmpl|Météoologi]]
'''Météorologi''' mangrupakeun élmu interdisiplinér nu ngulik [[Wiati|atmosfér]] bumi katut fénoména-fénoména nu kajadian di jerona, kalawan fokus utama kana pamahaman [[cuaca]] jeung ngaramal cuaca. Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina [[basa Yunani Kuno]], nyaéta ''meteōron'' nu hartina &quot;sagala rupa nu aya di udara&quot; atawa &quot;benda langit&quot;, jeung ''logia'' nu hartina &quot;élmu&quot; atawa &quot;ulikan&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kalteng.bmkg.go.id/tampil/?judul=Sekilas-Tentang-Meteorologi|title=Stasiun Meteorologi Kelas I Tjilik Riwut Palangka Raya {{!}} Tentang|website=kalteng.bmkg.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/meteorology|title=Meteorology|website=education.nationalgeographic.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sanajan silih patali, météorologi béda jeung [[klimatologi]]. Lamun klimatologi ngulik pola cuaca rata-rata dina jangka waktu nu panjang pisan (iklim), météorologi leuwih nitikberetkeun kana prosés fisik jeung kaayaan atmosfér dina jangka waktu pondok, mimiti ti itungan menit, poé, nepi ka minggu.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://hidrologi.net/wiki/definisi-iklim-dan-meteorologi/|title=Definisi Iklim dan Meteorologi|last=doelxyz|website=Hidrologi|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ruang lingkup ==
Salaku cabang tina élmu atmosfér, météorologi ngawengku ulikan ngeunaan fisika, kimia, jeung dinamika atmosfér. Para ahli meteorologi (météorolog) nganalisis kumaha variabél-variabél kawas suhu, tekenan udara, kalembaban, kacepetan jeung arah angin silih interaksi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rmets.org/career-resources/considering/what-is-meteorology|title=Royal Meteorological Society|website=RMetS|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu ulikan narékahan pikeun ngajelaskeun kumaha énergi radiasi ti panonpoé mangaruhan atmosfér bumi, ngagerakkeun sirkulasi udara, micu daur hidrologi (kawas panguapan jeung présipitasi), sarta ngawangun fénoména cuaca nu rupa-rupa, mimiti ti kabentukna méga jeung hujan nepi ka kaayaan ékstrém kawas badéy, tornado, jeung siklon tropis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Ramalan cuaca ==
Dina praktékna, météorologi mindeng dianggap salaku paduan antara [[Élmu|sains]] jeung [[seni]] (''the science and art of meteorology''). Tina sisi sains, ngaramal cuaca merlukeun pangumpulan data kuantitatif sacara masif ti rupa-rupa instrumén observasi kawas stasion cuaca darat, balon udara (radiosondé), radar cuaca Doppler, jeung satélit cuaca sarta pamodélan matematika numérik nu dumasar kana hukum fisika.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/science-art-meteorology|title=The Science and Art of Meteorology|website=education.nationalgeographic.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ngan, lantaran atmosfér téh sistem fluida nu dinamis pisan jeung ''chaotic'' (salawasna robah sacara teu teratur), unsur &quot;seni&quot; nu mangrupa intuisi jeung pangalaman émpiris ti saurang météorolog kacida diperlukeunna. [[Meteorologi|Météorolog]] kudu ngaintérprétasikeun data komputer, ngabandingkeun rupa-rupa modél prakiraan, jeung narjamahkeunana kana basa informasi nu gampang dipikaharti ku masarakat umum.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Météorologi kiwari ==
Di éra modérn, meteorologi geus ngalaman révolusi téknologi nu gancang pisan. Pamakéan superkomputer, kacerdasan jieunan (AI), jeung analitik ''big data'' geus ngaronjatkeun akurasi katut kacepetan prakiraan cuaca sacara signifikan. Ieu téknologi ngamungkinkeun simulasi pamodélan atmosfér global résolusi luhur sacara ''real-time''. Informasi météorologis nu présisi kiwari jadi tulang tonggong pikeun kalancaran operasional rupa-rupa séktor penting. Séktor panerbangan jeung palayaran gumantung pisan kana data cuaca pikeun navigasi nu aman; séktor tatanén ngagunakeunana pikeun nangtukeun mangsa melak jeung panén; samentara dunya bisnis katut pamaréntah ngamangpaatkeunana pikeun mitigasi résiko bencana hidrométéorologis. Di Indonésia, otoritas resmi nu boga tanggung jawab dina pangamatan, pépéling ti anggalna (peringatan dini), jeung nyadiakeun informasi nu patali jeung ieu élmu nyaéta [[Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, jeung Géofisika]] (BMKG).

== Référénsi ==

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]
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'''Météorologi''' mangrupakeun élmu interdisiplinér nu ngulik [[Wiati|atmosfér]] bumi katut fénoména-fénoména nu kajadian di jerona, kalawan fokus utama kana pamahaman [[cuaca]] jeung ngaramal cuaca. Sacara étimologis (asal-usul kecap), ieu istilah asalna tina [[basa Yunani Kuno]], nyaéta ''meteōron'' nu hartina &quot;sagala rupa nu aya di udara&quot; atawa &quot;benda langit&quot;, jeung ''logia'' nu hartina &quot;élmu&quot; atawa &quot;ulikan&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://kalteng.bmkg.go.id/tampil/?judul=Sekilas-Tentang-Meteorologi|title=Stasiun Meteorologi Kelas I Tjilik Riwut Palangka Raya {{!}} Tentang|website=kalteng.bmkg.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/meteorology|title=Meteorology|website=education.nationalgeographic.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sanajan silih patali, météorologi béda jeung [[klimatologi]]. Lamun klimatologi ngulik pola cuaca rata-rata dina jangka waktu nu panjang pisan (iklim), météorologi leuwih nitikberetkeun kana prosés fisik jeung kaayaan atmosfér dina jangka waktu pondok, mimiti ti itungan menit, poé, nepi ka minggu.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://hidrologi.net/wiki/definisi-iklim-dan-meteorologi/|title=Definisi Iklim dan Meteorologi|last=doelxyz|website=Hidrologi|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ruang lingkup ==
Salaku cabang tina élmu atmosfér, météorologi ngawengku ulikan ngeunaan fisika, kimia, jeung dinamika atmosfér. Para ahli meteorologi (météorolog) nganalisis kumaha variabél-variabél kawas suhu, tekenan udara, kalembaban, kacepetan jeung arah angin silih interaksi.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rmets.org/career-resources/considering/what-is-meteorology|title=Royal Meteorological Society|website=RMetS|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu ulikan narékahan pikeun ngajelaskeun kumaha énergi radiasi ti panonpoé mangaruhan atmosfér bumi, ngagerakkeun sirkulasi udara, micu daur hidrologi (kawas panguapan jeung présipitasi), sarta ngawangun fénoména cuaca nu rupa-rupa, mimiti ti kabentukna méga jeung hujan nepi ka kaayaan ékstrém kawas badéy, tornado, jeung siklon tropis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Ramalan cuaca ==
Dina praktékna, météorologi mindeng dianggap salaku paduan antara [[Élmu|sains]] jeung [[seni]] (''the science and art of meteorology''). Tina sisi sains, ngaramal cuaca merlukeun pangumpulan data kuantitatif sacara masif ti rupa-rupa instrumén observasi kawas stasion cuaca darat, balon udara (radiosondé), radar cuaca Doppler, jeung satélit cuaca sarta pamodélan matematika numérik nu dumasar kana hukum fisika.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/science-art-meteorology|title=The Science and Art of Meteorology|website=education.nationalgeographic.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ngan, lantaran atmosfér téh sistem fluida nu dinamis pisan jeung ''chaotic'' (salawasna robah sacara teu teratur), unsur &quot;seni&quot; nu mangrupa intuisi jeung pangalaman émpiris ti saurang météorolog kacida diperlukeunna. [[Meteorologi|Météorolog]] kudu ngaintérprétasikeun data komputer, ngabandingkeun rupa-rupa modél prakiraan, jeung narjamahkeunana kana basa informasi nu gampang dipikaharti ku masarakat umum.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Météorologi kiwari ==
Di éra modérn, meteorologi geus ngalaman révolusi téknologi nu gancang pisan. Pamakéan superkomputer, kacerdasan jieunan (AI), jeung analitik ''big data'' geus ngaronjatkeun akurasi katut kacepetan prakiraan cuaca sacara signifikan. Ieu téknologi ngamungkinkeun simulasi pamodélan atmosfér global résolusi luhur sacara ''real-time''. Informasi météorologis nu présisi kiwari jadi tulang tonggong pikeun kalancaran operasional rupa-rupa séktor penting. Séktor panerbangan jeung palayaran gumantung pisan kana data cuaca pikeun navigasi nu aman; séktor tatanén ngagunakeunana pikeun nangtukeun mangsa melak jeung panén; samentara dunya bisnis katut pamaréntah ngamangpaatkeunana pikeun mitigasi résiko bencana hidrométéorologis. Di Indonésia, otoritas resmi nu boga tanggung jawab dina pangamatan, pépéling ti anggalna (peringatan dini), jeung nyadiakeun informasi nu patali jeung ieu élmu nyaéta [[Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, jeung Géofisika]] (BMKG).

== Référénsi ==

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    <title>Cuaca</title>
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      <text bytes="1269" sha1="qa68zyyeh30ehr0a5pbu0yt2ng0cdvs" xml:space="preserve">'''Cuaca''' mangrupakeun kaayaan atawa kondisi fisik atmosfér di hiji wewengkon nu tangtu dina waktu nu rélatif singget, nu wengkuan waktuna bisa dina itungan menit, jam, nepi ka sababaraha poé.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://gaw-bariri.bmkg.go.id/publikasi/gawsarium/253-cuaca|title=BMKG {{!}} Stasiun Pemantau Atmosfer Global (SPAG) Lore Lindu Bariri - Cuaca|website=gaw-bariri.bmkg.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ncas.ac.uk/learn/what-is-weather/|title=What is weather? - NCAS|website=NCAS|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cuaca ngarépréséntasikeun fluktuasi [[Wiati|atmosfér]] sapopoé nu karasa sacara langsung ku urang, kawas kaayaan panas, tiis, [[hujan]], bengras (cerah), saljuan, atawa loba angin. Sabagian gedé fénoména cuaca nu mangaruhan kahirupan di Bumi kajadian di lapisan atmosfér panghandapna, nyaéta [[troposfér]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-7363852/pengertian-cuaca-sifat-unsur-dan-perbedaannya-dengan-iklim|title=Pengertian Cuaca, Sifat, Unsur, dan Perbedaannya dengan Iklim|last=Sholeha|first=Nur Wasilatus|website=detikedu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Référénsi ==

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      <text bytes="1236" sha1="8jeeealc1tv44rwqojjarp0w5afjuyn" xml:space="preserve">'''Cuaca''' mangrupakeun kaayaan atawa kondisi fisik atmosfér di hiji wewengkon nu tangtu dina waktu nu rélatif singget, nu wengkuan waktuna bisa dina itungan menit, jam, nepi ka sababaraha poé.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://gaw-bariri.bmkg.go.id/publikasi/gawsarium/253-cuaca|title=BMKG {{!}} Stasiun Pemantau Atmosfer Global (SPAG) Lore Lindu Bariri - Cuaca|website=gaw-bariri.bmkg.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ncas.ac.uk/learn/what-is-weather/|title=What is weather? - NCAS|website=NCAS|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cuaca ngarépréséntasikeun fluktuasi [[Wiati|atmosfér]] sapopoé nu karasa sacara langsung ku urang, kawas kaayaan panas, tiis, [[hujan]], bengras (cerah), saljuan, atawa loba angin. Sabagian gedé fénoména cuaca nu mangaruhan kahirupan di Bumi kajadian di lapisan atmosfér panghandapna, nyaéta [[troposfér]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-7363852/pengertian-cuaca-sifat-unsur-dan-perbedaannya-dengan-iklim|title=Pengertian Cuaca, Sifat, Unsur, dan Perbedaannya dengan Iklim|last=Sholeha|first=Nur Wasilatus|website=detikedu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Référénsi ==

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    <title>Aktivis Indonesia NGO</title>
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      <text bytes="4134" sha1="cid3nbbxuk28mnfdxo21irgj34uaiov" xml:space="preserve">{{Orphan|date=Oktober 2026}}
{{Kotak info organisasi
| nama           = Aktivis Indonesia
| image          = Aktivisindonesialsm.png
| caption        = Logo resmi Aktivis Indonesia NGO
| type           = [[Organisasi non-pemerintah|Organisasi Non-Pemerintah (NGO)]]
| abbreviation   = AIN
| purpose        = Menyuarakan aspirasi masyarakat sipil serta mengawal isu publik (sosial, politik, ekonomi, hukum, HAM, dan budaya) demi terwujudnya demokrasi partisipatif.
| headquarters   = [[Kota Kediri]], [[Jawa Timur]], [[Indonesia]]
| leader_title   = Pangadeg
| leader_name    = [[Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar]]
| formation      = {{start date and age|2023|12|01|df=y}}
| website        = {{url|https://aktivisindonesia.netlify.app/}}
}}

'''Aktivis Indonesia NGO''' nyaéta hiji lembaga non-pamaréntahan ([[basa Inggris]]: ''Non-Governmental Organization''/'''NGO''') atawa Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (LSM) indepénden anu diadegkeun dina tanggal [[1 Désémber]] [[2023]] di Kota [[Kediri]], [[Jawa Wétan]].&lt;ref name=&quot;official&quot; /&gt; Ieu organisasi lahir minangka wadah pergerakan sipil sarta saluran pikeun ngedalkeun aspirasi masarakat dina rupa-rupa isu publik.&lt;ref name=&quot;devjobs&quot; /&gt; 

Ieu lembaga mimitina dipiceun ku kelompok mahasiswa sarta ngalaman mekarna anu kawilang gancang dina ngumpulkeun dukungan di roang masarakat sipil.&lt;ref name=&quot;kompasiana&quot; /&gt;

== Sajarah jeung Pendirian ==
Aktivis Indonesia diadegkeun ku [[Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar]], saurang mahasiswa ti Fakultas Kedokteran [[Universitas Brawijaya]] anu asalna ti [[Malang]].&lt;ref name=&quot;official&quot; /&gt; Manéhna ngadegkeun ieu organisasi dumasar kana kagelisahan ningali gerakan mahasiswa jeung advokasi isu publik anu mindeng boga sipat sporadis (saheulaanan) sarta teu lumangsung lila (berkelanjutan).&lt;ref name=&quot;kompasiana&quot; /&gt; Kusabab éta, dina tanggal [[1 Désémber]] [[2023]], lembaga ieu sacara resmi diadegkeun di Kota Kediri pikeun jadi platform mandiri anu fokusna maneuh.&lt;ref name=&quot;indorelawan&quot; /&gt;

== Pokus Gerakan ==
Ieu organisasi miboga tilu pilar atawa pokus utama dina aktivitasna, di antarana:&lt;ref name=&quot;official&quot; /&gt;
* '''Nyarita (''Speak''):''' Ngadugikeun sora anu jujur ​​jeung tarik ngeunaan isu-isu anu disanghareupan ku masarakat Indonésia sapopoé.
* '''Ngayakeun (''Organize''):''' Ngahijikeun nonoman di kampus, kota, jeung rupa-rupa propinsi kana hiji gerakan kolaboratif.
* '''Ngabéla (''Defend''):''' Nangtung pikeun hak asasi manusa, démokrasi, jeung martabat sacara mandiri tina partéy pulitik atawa patron naon waé.

Bédana jeung gerakan éskalasi massa biasa, Aktivis Indonesia leuwih ngutamakeun métode pergerakan ngaliwatan saluran digital, diskusi publik, kampanye kesadaran, sarta kajian kawijakan anu bisa diaksés ku masarakat lega ngaliwatan média sosial jeung ramatloka resmi lembaga.&lt;ref name=&quot;carrd&quot; /&gt;

== Struktur Organisasi ==
Ti mimiti diadegkeun, kepengurusan ieu NGO dipingpin langsung ku pendiri utamana:&lt;ref name=&quot;official&quot; /&gt;
* '''Koordinator Pusat:''' Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar (2023–ayeuna).

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist|refs=
&lt;ref name=&quot;official&quot;&gt;&quot;Aktivis Indonesia NGO — Independent Movement&quot;, Ramatloka Resmi di [https://netlify.app netlify.app]. Diakses 2026-10-28.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;devjobs&quot;&gt;&quot;Aktivis Indonesia NGO&quot;, Profil Organisasi di [https://devjobsindo.org Devjobsindo]. Diakses 2026-10-28.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;kompasiana&quot;&gt;&quot;Aktivis Indonesia, NGO Inisiatif mahasiswa Kedokteran yang berhasil Raih Ribuan Dukungan&quot;, [https://kompasiana.com Kompasiana]. Diakses 2026-10-28.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;indorelawan&quot;&gt;&quot;Profil Komunitas Aktivis Indonesia&quot;, [https://indorelawan.org Indorelawan]. Diakses 2026-10-28.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;carrd&quot;&gt;&quot;Official Website Aktivis Indonesia NGO&quot;, [https://carrd.co Carrd]. Diakses 2026-10-28.&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Tumbu luar ==
* [https://netlify.app Ramatloka Resmi Aktivis Indonesia]
* [https://instagram.com Akun Instagram Resmi Aktivis Indonesia]
* [https://indorelawan.org Kaca Aktivis Indonesia di Indorelawan]

[[Kategori:Organisasi non-pamaréntah]]
[[Kategori:Kota Kediri]]
[[Kategori:Pulitik di Indonésia]]
[[Kategori:Organisasi Hak Asasi Manusa]]

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    <title>Ékspédisi botani</title>
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      <text bytes="760" sha1="g4iq7xldd135ow2x50ssdumo5zig7n2" xml:space="preserve">'''Ékspédisi botani''' (atawa kadang disebut ogé '''berburu tutuwuhan''') nyaéta lalampahan ilmiah anu ditujukeun pikeun éksplorasi tutuwuhan ti hiji wewengkon, boh pikeun tujuan spésipik atawa bagéan tina hiji ékspédisi anu leuwih gedé. Saurang naturalis, botanis, atawa holtikulturalis biasana jadi pananggungjawab pikeun idéntipikasi, déskripsi, sarta koleksi tina spésimén tutuwuhan anu ditéang.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/adventure-and-discovery-around-the-world-with-plant-hunters|title=Adventure and discovery around the world with the plant hunters {{!}} Kew|website=www.kew.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="727" sha1="hylro71ia5404q3uwjzvtxpvf2pctwx" xml:space="preserve">'''Ékspédisi botani''' (atawa kadang disebut ogé '''berburu tutuwuhan''') nyaéta lalampahan ilmiah anu ditujukeun pikeun éksplorasi tutuwuhan ti hiji wewengkon, boh pikeun tujuan spésipik atawa bagéan tina hiji ékspédisi anu leuwih gedé. Saurang naturalis, botanis, atawa holtikulturalis biasana jadi pananggungjawab pikeun idéntipikasi, déskripsi, sarta koleksi tina spésimén tutuwuhan anu ditéang.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/adventure-and-discovery-around-the-world-with-plant-hunters|title=Adventure and discovery around the world with the plant hunters {{!}} Kew|website=www.kew.org|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="801" sha1="k76p33044qu538mtf31565x6s4v2b1l" xml:space="preserve">'''Spésimén botani''' (atawa disebut ogé '''spésimen tutuwuhan''') nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu bisa dipaké pikeun conto tina hiji spésiés nu ditangtukeun pikeun jadi bahan panalungtikan panalungtik, sajarawan, sarta seniman. Botanis ngoléksi spésimén pikeun mantuan panalungtikan panganyarna, mantuan panalungtikan ka hareup, atawa pikeun minuhan kakosongan botanis.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/botany/news/plant-press/guide-collecting-plant-specimens-us-national-herbarium|title=A guide to collecting plant specimens for the US National Herbarium {{!}} Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|website=naturalhistory.si.edu|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="768" sha1="gf00tx0h0whfkrh972uei0serzr3xwf" xml:space="preserve">'''Spésimén botani''' (atawa disebut ogé '''spésimen tutuwuhan''') nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu bisa dipaké pikeun conto tina hiji spésiés nu ditangtukeun pikeun jadi bahan panalungtikan panalungtik, sajarawan, sarta seniman. Botanis ngoléksi spésimén pikeun mantuan panalungtikan panganyarna, mantuan panalungtikan ka hareup, atawa pikeun minuhan kakosongan botanis.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/botany/news/plant-press/guide-collecting-plant-specimens-us-national-herbarium|title=A guide to collecting plant specimens for the US National Herbarium {{!}} Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|website=naturalhistory.si.edu|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="570" sha1="6j9s3wnooi396wu20u2ld3sn27ctd2a" xml:space="preserve">'''Seni botani''' atawa disebut ogé '''ilustrasi botani''' nyaéta panggambaran mangrupa visual akurat tina sipat-sipat tutuwuhan anu ditujukeun pikeun tujuan ilmiah, anu henteu sarua jeung lukisan tutuwuhan, siga kembang jeung sajabana anu tujuanna ngan pikeun éstétika.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/what-is-botanical-illustration.html|title=What is Botanical Illustration?|website=BOTANICAL ART &amp; ARTISTS|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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      <text bytes="537" sha1="87tge14hqaan8p98csfq7isjc9dkoga" xml:space="preserve">'''Seni botani''' atawa disebut ogé '''ilustrasi botani''' nyaéta panggambaran mangrupa visual akurat tina sipat-sipat tutuwuhan anu ditujukeun pikeun tujuan ilmiah, anu henteu sarua jeung lukisan tutuwuhan, siga kembang jeung sajabana anu tujuanna ngan pikeun éstétika.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/what-is-botanical-illustration.html|title=What is Botanical Illustration?|website=BOTANICAL ART &amp; ARTISTS|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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    <title>Cutatan panulis (botani)</title>
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      <text bytes="695" sha1="5js3dyg34h9iunlk74rpvezx8u8coir" xml:space="preserve">'''Cutatan panulis''' dina ilmu '''[[botani]]''' nyaéta cara nyutat jalma perseorangan atawa tina kelompok anu sacara valid ngunjal ngaran botani, nyaéta anu mimiti ngunjal ngaran sabari minuhan sarat-sarat formal sakumaha ditangtukeun ku [[International Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rickett|first=H. W.|date=1948|title=Citation of Authors' Names in Taxonomy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2485393|journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club|publisher=Torrey Botanical Society|volume=75|issue=2|pages=172–174|doi=10.2307/2485393|issn=0040-9618}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

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      <text bytes="662" sha1="tc1jsmk0f8ugtjn1x41dj0a3fasxa22" xml:space="preserve">'''Cutatan panulis''' dina ilmu '''[[botani]]''' nyaéta cara nyutat jalma perseorangan atawa tina kelompok anu sacara valid ngunjal ngaran botani, nyaéta anu mimiti ngunjal ngaran sabari minuhan sarat-sarat formal sakumaha ditangtukeun ku [[International Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rickett|first=H. W.|date=1948|title=Citation of Authors' Names in Taxonomy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2485393|journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club|publisher=Torrey Botanical Society|volume=75|issue=2|pages=172–174|doi=10.2307/2485393|issn=0040-9618}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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      <text bytes="853" sha1="njb3cq09zlypo1q7mhpowk0xyzg69o3" xml:space="preserve">'''Noménklatur botani''' nyaéta cara méré ngaran sacara formal jeung ilmiah pikeun tutuwuhan. Konsép ieu pakait tapi béda jeung [[Taksonomi (biologi)|taksonomi]]. Konsép noménklatur botani diformalkeun ku International Code of Nomenclature (ICN).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nesbitt|first=Mark|last2=McBurney|first2=Rory P. H.|last3=Broin|first3=Melanie|last4=Beentje|first4=Henk J.|date=2010-09-01|title=Linking biodiversity, food and nutrition: The importance of plant identification and nomenclature|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157509001197|journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis|series=Horticulture, Biodiversity and Nutrition|volume=23|issue=6|pages=486–498|doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2009.03.001|issn=0889-1575}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]
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      <text bytes="820" sha1="2anqupkmhcz8rmoi1s629ibbwnk2mf9" xml:space="preserve">'''Noménklatur botani''' nyaéta cara méré ngaran sacara formal jeung ilmiah pikeun tutuwuhan. Konsép ieu pakait tapi béda jeung [[Taksonomi (biologi)|taksonomi]]. Konsép noménklatur botani diformalkeun ku International Code of Nomenclature (ICN).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nesbitt|first=Mark|last2=McBurney|first2=Rory P. H.|last3=Broin|first3=Melanie|last4=Beentje|first4=Henk J.|date=2010-09-01|title=Linking biodiversity, food and nutrition: The importance of plant identification and nomenclature|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157509001197|journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis|series=Horticulture, Biodiversity and Nutrition|volume=23|issue=6|pages=486–498|doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2009.03.001|issn=0889-1575}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Kategori:Démografi dumasar nagara|Singapura]] [[Kategori:Masarakat Singapura]]</comment>
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[[Kategori:Masarakat Singapura]]</text>
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Kategori:Masarakat dumasar nagara|Singapura]] [[Kategori:Singapura]]</comment>
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Kategori:Sélér bangsa dumasar nagara|Brunéi]] [[Kategori:Démografi Brunéi]]</comment>
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[[Kategori:Démografi Brunéi]]</text>
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Kategori:Démografi dumasar nagara|Brunéi]] [[Kategori:Masarakat Brunéi]]</comment>
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[[Kategori:Masarakat Brunéi]]</text>
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Kategori:Masarakat dumasar nagara|Brunéi]] [[Kategori:Brunéi]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="66" sha1="lb8d96qx91baevtb32rvt9jrs0eqvmj" xml:space="preserve">[[Kategori:Masarakat dumasar nagara|Brunéi]]
[[Kategori:Brunéi]]</text>
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      <comment>+</comment>
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      <text bytes="149" sha1="8jjmi4391nj2htt4nnrhmlitrw0ipwc" xml:space="preserve">Kaca ieu ngawengku artikel-artikel anu dijieun dina kagiatan [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]

[[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gajah sumatra</title>
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar '''Gajah Sumatra''' (basa Laten: ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''Critically Endangered''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi...</comment>
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      <text bytes="1413" sha1="4cuu7z70ca9wdduauujkgqxdl4aljq6" xml:space="preserve">'''Gajah Sumatra''' (basa Laten: ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''Critically Endangered''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah Sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana kalapa sawit), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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      <comment>added [[Category:Gajah]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="1433" sha1="qp44cz5tb6wkpttg6fx2irl9jc1wjgy" xml:space="preserve">'''Gajah Sumatra''' (basa Laten: ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''Critically Endangered''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah Sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana kalapa sawit), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <text bytes="2510" sha1="ct58vmp3pg9v70htvpysn9g9at3dqd3" xml:space="preserve">'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''Critically Endangered''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah Sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana kalapa sawit), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah Sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di Indonésia, beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah Sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup sato anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga uteuk anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot kadaharan jeung cai ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan konsérvasi di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara manusa jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2518" sha1="t72ev1ydy1luu0qqbbbukhrrfv2sslt" xml:space="preserve">'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah Sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di Indonésia, beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup sato anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga uteuk anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot kadaharan jeung cai ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan konsérvasi di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara manusa jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2518" sha1="jj96ezriwpgwk7n5auko4lynajsjol0" xml:space="preserve">'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di Indonésia, beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup sato anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga uteuk anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot kadaharan jeung cai ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan konsérvasi di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara manusa jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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        <id>12262</id>
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      <text bytes="3503" sha1="p8hmxtv1aq49yiqnxhtmwworydrwv22" xml:space="preserve">{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Gajah sumatra betina beserta anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di Indonésia, beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup sato anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga uteuk anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot kadaharan jeung cai ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan konsérvasi di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara manusa jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3515" sha1="0g10anylbc7vwt7hks90g16dmogi6eh" xml:space="preserve">{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Gajah sumatra betina beserta anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi kebon (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup sato anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga uteuk anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung cai ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan konsérvasi di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Gajah sumatra betina beserta anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi [[kebon]] (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup [[sato]] anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga [[uteuk]] anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung [[cai]] ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung tulalé éta pungsina siga ramo anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan [[konsérvasi]] di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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    <revision>
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| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Gajah sumatra betina beserta anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 ékor dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi [[kebon]] (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup [[sato]] anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga [[uteuk]] anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung [[cai]] ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung [[tulalé]] éta pungsina siga [[ramo]] anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan [[konsérvasi]] di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>731402</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-11-02T06:27:52Z</timestamp>
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| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Gajah sumatra betina beserta anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 gajah dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi [[kebon]] (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup [[sato]] anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga [[uteuk]] anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung [[cai]] ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung [[tulalé]] éta pungsina siga [[ramo]] anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan [[konsérvasi]] di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
      <sha1>jw3c5qt5pkc7erj43jk0gxebnm6e85v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>731422</id>
      <parentid>731402</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T07:51:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hayati Mayang Arum</username>
        <id>12262</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>731422</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3541" sha1="baws4ty904de5s256jcbl1mviedv7sy" xml:space="preserve">{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jantan di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Indung gajah sumatra jeung anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 gajah dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi [[kebon]] (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup [[sato]] anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga [[uteuk]] anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung [[cai]] ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung [[tulalé]] éta pungsina siga [[ramo]] anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan [[konsérvasi]] di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
      <sha1>baws4ty904de5s256jcbl1mviedv7sy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>731423</id>
      <parentid>731422</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T07:51:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hayati Mayang Arum</username>
        <id>12262</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>731423</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3539" sha1="c68n1ro56divv5b6l9ev3dq4edvwny2" xml:space="preserve">{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Gajah sumatra
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=iucn&gt;{{cite iucn |title=''Elephas maximus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Williams, C. |author2=Tiwari, S.K. |author3=Goswami, V.R. |author4=de Silva, S. |author5=Kumar, A. |author6=Baskaran, N. |author7=Yoganand, K. |author8=Menon, V. |date=2020 |article-number=e.T7140A45818198 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en |access-date=3 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| image = Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
| image_caption = Gajah sumatra jalu di [[Provinsi Aceh]]
| image2 = Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
| image2_caption = Indung gajah sumatra jeung anaknya di [[Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo]]
| genus = Elephas
| species = maximus
| species_link = Gajah asia
| subspecies = sumatranus&lt;ref name=MSW&gt;{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500007 |page=90 |heading=Subspecies ''Elephas maximus sumatranus''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1847
}}
'''Gajah Sumatra''' ([[basa Laten:]] ''Elephas maximus sumatranus'') nyaéta subspésiés gajah Asia anu habitatna ngan aya di Pulo Sumatra. Awak gajah Sumatra leuwih leutik batan subspésiés gajah India. Populasina beuki ngurangan sarta kaasup kana katégori kritis (''[[Critically Endangered]]''/CR). Dumasar kana hasil data panganyarna, jumlah populasina  kira-kira kari 924–1.359 gajah&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mongabay.co.id/2026/09/18/berapa-populasi-gajah-sumatera-estimasi-terbaru-sekitar-1-365-1-719-individu/|title=Berapa Populasi Gajah Sumatera? Estimasi Terbaru Sekitar 1.365-1.719 Individu|last=R|first=Rahmadi|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; turun kalawan signifikan tina hasil estimasi saméméhna, nyaéta 2.400–2.800 gajah dina taun 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/08/saving-sumatran-elephants-starts-with-counting-them-indonesia-wont-say-how-many-are-left/|title=Saving Sumatran elephants starts with counting them. Indonesia won’t say how many are left|last=Jacobson|first=Philip|website=Conservation news|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancaman utama pikeun gajah sumatra di antarana leungit jeung ruksakna habitat akibat tina alih fungsi lahan jadi [[kebon]] (utamana [[kalapa sawit]]), ogé ngaronjatna konflik jeung manusa. Leuwih ti 69% habitat poténsialna geus leungit dina hiji generasi gajah.

Gajah sumatra mangrupa [[mamalia]] panggedéna di [[Indonésia]], beuratna bisa nepi ka 6 ton sarta jangkungna ngahontal 3,5 méter di bagian taktakna. Mangsa kakandungan gajah sumatra lumangsung salila 22 bulan, ari umur hirupna rata-rata bisa nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah kaasup kana sasatoan ''[[herbivora]]'' (dahar tutuwuhan) kalayan awakna kacida gedéna. Gajah kaasup [[sato]] anu kacida pinterna sarta miboga [[uteuk]] anu leuwih gedé dibandingkeun jeung mamalia darat séjénna. Ceulina anu kawilang gedé mantuan gajah pikeun ngadéngé kalawan hadé sarta digunakeun pikeun ngurangan panas awakna. Tulaléna dipaké pikeun nyokot [[kadaharan]] jeung [[cai]] ku cara nyekel atawa ngaranggeum ku bagian tungtungna. Tungtung [[tulalé]] éta pungsina siga [[ramo]] anu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaregot cai atawa pikeun nyokot barang. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup gajah nyaéta ngaliwatan [[konsérvasi]] di kawasan lindung, puseur panyalametan satwa, sarta ngungkulan konflik antara [[manusa]] jeung gajah anu salah shaijina dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah jeung organisasi konsérvasi.

== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Kategori:Gajah]]</text>
      <sha1>c68n1ro56divv5b6l9ev3dq4edvwny2</sha1>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Citakan:Subspeciesbox</title>
    <ns>10</ns>
    <id>109502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731393</id>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T04:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akbar Soepadhi</username>
        <id>23282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>citakan anyar</comment>
      <origin>731393</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7166" sha1="m9physo8w598ciyfdljna5sto7oi5ed" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!-- 
-======================================================================
-  Template:Subspeciesbox - Generate a taxobox infobox for a subspecies
-  whose name is governed by the zoological code
-======================================================================
--
--   This template chooses parameters to send to {Taxobox/core}, to
--   generate a right-side taxobox infobox.  Most parameters are just
--   passed directly; some are explained with a comment.  When run as
--   stand-alone, the template shows Panthera tigris tigris as sample
--   output.
--
--   The genus name, species name and subspecies name must be
--   supplied separately: the combined taxon parameter cannot be used.
--
--   The genus name is then the entry into the taxonomic hierarchy.
--
-------------------------------- Invoke {Taxobox/core}
The nowiki that follows is needed because of parser bug T18700--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{Taxobox/core
&lt;includeonly&gt;| edit link = {{{edit link|{{{edit_link|e}}} }}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!--

FOSSIL RANGE:
If the specified fossil range is a period supported by templates &quot;period start&quot; and &quot;next period&quot;, then incorporate the specified range into template:Fossil range, having checked that it will display correctly.
Otherwise, just pass on the stated parameter.

--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
| temporal_range = {{{fossil range|{{{fossil_range|}}} }}}&lt;!-- 
PARENT: this parameter ought really be called &quot;taxon&quot;, not &quot;parent&quot; --&gt;
| parent = {{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!--
DISPLAY PARENTS:
 Number of immediate parents to display. Defaults to 1 to give the taxon some context.
--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
| display_taxa = {{#expr:{{{display parents|{{{display_parents|1}}}}}}-2}}&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!--
AUTHORITY (etc):
In the format &quot;author, year&quot;.  
--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
| species_authority = {{{parent_authority|{{{parent authority|{{{binomial authority|{{{binomial_authority|}}}}}}}}}}}}
| subgenus_authority = {{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|{{{grandparent_authority|{{{grandparent authority|}}} }}} }}
| authority = &lt;!--
genus authority, = grandparent (or greatgrandparent, if subgenus specified) authority
 --&gt;{{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|{{{greatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} |{{{grandparent authority|{{{grandparent_authority|}}} }}} }}
| parent_authority = {{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|{{{greatgreatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgreatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} |{{{greatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} }}
| grandparent_authority = {{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|{{{greatgreatgreatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgreatgreatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} |{{{greatgreatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgreatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} }}
| greatgrandparent_authority = {{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|{{{greatgreatgreatgreatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgreatgreatgreatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} |{{{greatgreatgreatgrandparent authority|{{{greatgreatgreatgrandparent_authority|}}} }}} }}&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!--
NAME :
 As given, or genus + species + subspecies by default
 If the page title should be italicized, then the #ifeq: statement includes {{italic title}} in the name parameter.  This will be the case whenever the genus + species + subspecies matches the page name.
--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
| name = {{#invoke:Automated taxobox|infraspeciesboxName|{{{name|&lt;noinclude&gt;''Panthera tigris tigris''&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|{{{species|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}||{{{subspecies|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|{{PAGENAMEBASE}}|{{{italic_title|yes}}}}}&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;!--
 -- colour:  (Note UK spelling here) There are two cases:
 1) the parameter color_as has a value – the colour is found directly using {{Taxobox colour|color_as}}
 2) otherwise – Module:Autotaxobox|taxoboxColour searches up the taxonomic hierarchy to try to find a taxon that
    determines the taxobox colour
--&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
| colour  = {{#if:{{{color_as|{{{colour_as|{{{color as|{{{colour as|}}}}}}}}}}}}|{{Taxobox colour|{{{color_as|{{{colour_as|{{{color as|{{{colour as|}}}}}}}}}}}}}}|{{#invoke:Autotaxobox|taxoboxColour|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}} }} }}
| status  = {{{status|}}}
| status_system = {{{status system|{{{status_system|}}} }}}
| status_ref = {{{status ref|{{{status_ref|}}} }}}
| status2  = {{{status2|}}}
| status2_system = {{{status2 system|{{{status2_system|}}} }}}
| status2_ref = {{{status2 ref|{{{status2_ref|}}} }}}
| trend = {{{trend|}}}
| image = {{{image|}}}
| image_width = {{{image_width|{{{image width|}}} }}}
| upright = {{{image_upright|{{{image upright|}}}}}}
| image_alt = {{{image alt|{{{image_alt|}}} }}}
| image_caption = {{{image caption|{{{image_caption|}}} }}}
| image_caption_align = {{{image caption align|{{{image_caption_align|center}}} }}}
| image2 = {{{image2|}}}
| image2_width = {{{image2 width|{{{image2_width|}}} }}}
| upright2 = {{{image2_upright|{{{image2 upright|}}}}}}
| image2_alt = {{{image2 alt|{{{image2_alt|}}}}}}
| image2_caption = {{{image2 caption|{{{image2_caption|}}}}}}
| classification_status = {{{classification status|{{{classification_status|}}} }}}
| diversity = {{{diversity|}}}
| diversity_link = {{{diversity link|{{{diversity_link|}}} }}}
| extinct = {{{extinct|}}}
| subgenus = {{Taxon info|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|dagger}}{{#if:{{{subgenus|}}}|''{{{subgenus}}}''}}
| species = {{#if:{{{species extinct|{{{species_extinct|}}}}}}|{{extinct}}|{{Taxon info|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|dagger}}}}&lt;!--
--&gt;''[[{{{species link|{{{species_link|{{first word|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}}} {{{species|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}} }}}}}}{{!}}{{str left|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|1}}. {{{species|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}]]''
| subspecies = {{#if:{{{extinct|{{{species_extinct|{{{species extinct|}}}}}}}}}|{{extinct}}|{{Taxon info|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|dagger}}}}'''''{{str left|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|1}}. {{str left|{{{species|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}|1}}. {{{subspecies|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}'''''
| trinomial = {{#if:{{{extinct|{{{species_extinct|{{{species extinct|}}}}}}}}}|&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/span&gt;|}}''{{first word|{{{genus|&lt;noinclude&gt;Panthera&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}}} {{{species|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}} {{{subspecies|&lt;noinclude&gt;tigris&lt;/noinclude&gt;}}}''
| trinomial_authority = {{{authority|{{{trinomial authority|{{{trinomial_authority|}}} }}} }}}
| subdivision = {{{subdivision|}}}
| subdivision_ranks = {{{subdivision ranks|{{{subdivision_ranks|}}} }}}
| type_strain = {{{type strain|{{{type_strain|}}} }}}
| type_strain_ref = {{{type_strain_ref|{{{type strain ref|}}} }}}
| range_map = {{{range map|{{{range_map|}}} }}}
| range_map_upright = {{{range_map_upright|{{{range map upright|}}}}}}
| range_map_width = {{{range map width|{{{range_map_width|}}} }}}
| range_map_alt = {{{range map alt|{{{range_map_alt|}}} }}}
| range_map_caption = {{{range map caption|{{{range_map_caption|}}} }}}
| synonyms_ref = {{{synonyms ref|{{{synonyms_ref|}}} }}}
| synonyms = {{{synonyms|}}}
}}&lt;noinclude&gt;{{documentation}}[[Kategori:Citakan taksonomi otomatis]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Urang Malayu Singapura</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>109503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>731396</id>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T06:18:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-55037-88</username>
        <id>37566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Gambar:Malay_wedding.jpg|thumb|300px|Pernikahan Malayu Singapura]]  '''Urang Malayu [[Singapura]]''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Singapura}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو سيڠاڤورا}}) nyaéta urang Singapura karuhun [[urang Malayu|Malayu]], kaasup anu asalna ti Kapuloan Malayu. Numutkeun sénsus 2020, aranjeunna ngawangun sakitar 13,5% tina penduduk nagara éta, ngajantenkeun aranjeunna kelompok étnis kadua panggedéna di [[Singapura]].&lt;r...</comment>
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      <text bytes="2803" sha1="0hn83138tma28pqyzy82a26kta3zwqd" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:Malay_wedding.jpg|thumb|300px|Pernikahan Malayu Singapura]]

'''Urang Malayu [[Singapura]]''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Singapura}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو سيڠاڤورا}}) nyaéta urang Singapura karuhun [[urang Malayu|Malayu]], kaasup anu asalna ti Kapuloan Malayu. Numutkeun sénsus 2020, aranjeunna ngawangun sakitar 13,5% tina penduduk nagara éta, ngajantenkeun aranjeunna kelompok étnis kadua panggedéna di [[Singapura]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Census of Population 2020{{!}}Population|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina Konstitusi Singapura, aranjeunna diaku ku pamaréntah salaku masarakat pribumi nagara éta, kalayan [[basa Malayu]] salaku basa nasional sareng [[basa resmi|resmi]] Singapura.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Racial politics and imperatives and the constitutional special position of the indigenous Malays in a new society: Asserting interests and the non-contestation of rights in Singapore's communitarian constitutionalism |url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/2406/ |access-date=2 Nopémber 2026 |website=ink.library.smu.edu.sg}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nalika sumpingna pajabat kolonial Inggris Stamford Raffles dina taun 1819, perkiraan populasi urang Malayu di pulo éta sakitar 1.000 urang.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1utb8ZYyUeQC&amp;pg=PA24 |title=Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges |date=9 Nopémber 2010 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-134-01397-5 |page=24 |author=Lily Zubaidah Rahim}}&lt;/ref&gt; Perkiraan séjén nunjukkeun yén nalika Raffles sumping, populasina diwangun ku sakitar 120 urang Malayu, 30 urang Cina, sareng sababaraha suku Orang Laut pribumi lokal.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;/&gt; Ti abad ka-19 nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]], urang Malayu umumna nampi perlakuan anu saé, sabab aranjeunna henteu dipindahkeun pikeun digawé sareng gaya hirup tradisionalna seuseueurna henteu kaganggu.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;/&gt; Nanging, kumargi Inggris meryogikeun kuli{{efn|In some countries, this term, used to describe low-wage labourers, is now considered pejorative in modern usage.}} pikeun ngadukung usaha kolonialna, tingkat imigrasi di antara urang Malayu tetep relatif handap dibandingkeun sareng imigran India sareng Cina. Grup anu terakhir ieu sacara signifikan janten populasi étnis mayoritas dina pertengahan abad ka-19.&lt;ref name=&quot;poptrend&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Saw Swee-Hock |date=Maret 1969 |title=Population Trends in Singapore, 1819–1967 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=36–49 |doi=10.1017/S0217781100004270 |jstor=20067730}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Catetan ==
{{notelist}}

== Référensi ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura]]</text>
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'''Urang Malayu [[Singapura]]''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Singapura}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو سيڠاڤورا}}) nyaéta urang Singapura karuhun [[urang Malayu|Malayu]], kaasup anu asalna ti Kapuloan Malayu. Numutkeun sénsus 2020, aranjeunna ngawangun sakitar 13,5% tina penduduk nagara éta, ngajantenkeun aranjeunna kelompok étnis kadua panggedéna di [[Singapura]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Census of Population 2020{{!}}Population|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dina Konstitusi Singapura, aranjeunna diaku ku pamaréntah salaku masarakat pribumi nagara éta, kalayan [[basa Malayu]] salaku basa nasional sareng [[basa resmi|resmi]] Singapura.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Racial politics and imperatives and the constitutional special position of the indigenous Malays in a new society: Asserting interests and the non-contestation of rights in Singapore's communitarian constitutionalism |url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/2406/ |access-date=2 Nopémber 2026 |website=ink.library.smu.edu.sg}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nalika sumpingna pajabat kolonial Inggris Stamford Raffles dina taun 1819, perkiraan populasi urang Malayu di pulo éta sakitar 1.000 urang.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1utb8ZYyUeQC&amp;pg=PA24 |title=Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges |date=9 Nopémber 2010 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-134-01397-5 |page=24 |author=Lily Zubaidah Rahim}}&lt;/ref&gt; Perkiraan séjén nunjukkeun yén nalika Raffles sumping, populasina diwangun ku sakitar 120 urang Malayu, 30 urang Cina, sareng sababaraha suku Orang Laut pribumi lokal.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;/&gt; Ti abad ka-19 nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]], urang Malayu umumna nampi perlakuan anu saé, sabab aranjeunna henteu dipindahkeun pikeun digawé sareng gaya hirup tradisionalna seuseueurna henteu kaganggu.&lt;ref name=&quot;rahim&quot;/&gt; Nanging, kumargi Inggris meryogikeun kuli{{efn|In some countries, this term, used to describe low-wage labourers, is now considered pejorative in modern usage.}} pikeun ngadukung usaha kolonialna, tingkat imigrasi di antara urang Malayu tetep relatif handap dibandingkeun sareng imigran India sareng Cina. Grup anu terakhir ieu sacara signifikan janten populasi étnis mayoritas dina pertengahan abad ka-19.&lt;ref name=&quot;poptrend&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Saw Swee-Hock |date=Maret 1969 |title=Population Trends in Singapore, 1819–1967 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=36–49 |doi=10.1017/S0217781100004270 |jstor=20067730}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tingali ogé ==
* [[Urang Malayu Malaysia]]
* [[Urang Malayu Brunéi]]
* [[Urang Malayu Indonésia]]

== Catetan ==
{{notelist}}

== Référensi ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
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      <comment>Nyieun kaca anyar [[Gambar:AF Mlm Berbedak.jpg|thumb|300px|Panganten Malayu Brunéi nalika upacara pra-kawinan ''Malam Berbedak''. Tradisi ''Malam Bebedak'' unik di Distrik Brunéi-Muara.]]  '''Urang Malayu Brunéi''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Brunei}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو بروني}}) nyaéta kelompok étnis [[urang Malayu|Malayu]] asli anu cicing di [[Brunéi]], wilayah féderal Labuan, basisir kidul-kulon [[Sabah]] sareng bagian kalér Sarawak.&lt;ref&gt;{{...</comment>
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      <text bytes="3104" sha1="n0efaj9zujgv2kbufsomnzp94p4wfpa" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:AF Mlm Berbedak.jpg|thumb|300px|Panganten Malayu Brunéi nalika upacara pra-kawinan ''Malam Berbedak''. Tradisi ''Malam Bebedak'' unik di Distrik Brunéi-Muara.]]

'''Urang Malayu Brunéi''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Brunei}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو بروني}}) nyaéta kelompok étnis [[urang Malayu|Malayu]] asli anu cicing di [[Brunéi]], wilayah féderal Labuan, basisir kidul-kulon [[Sabah]] sareng bagian kalér Sarawak.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html|title=The Malay of Malaysia|work=Bethany World Prayer Center|year=1997|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html|archive-date=10 Oktober 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/clusters/8101.html|title=The Diaspora Malay|work=Bethany World Prayer Center|year=1997|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718130911/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/clusters/8101.html|archive-date=18 Juli 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{#tag:ref|Brunei Malay in its various forms can be identified with a nation, an ethnic group and a region.{{sfn|Nicholl|1995|p=241}}{{sfn|Deterding|Athirah|2017|pp=99–108}}|group=&quot;notes&quot;}} Urang Malayu Brunéi nyaéta sub-kelompok tina populasi étnis Malayu anu langkung ageung anu aya di bagian sanés [[dunya Malayu]], nyaéta Malaysia Kulon sareng daérah tengah sareng kidul Sarawak, kalebet tanah tatangga sapertos [[Singapura]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Thailand]] kidul, anu gaduh béda anu katingali, khususna dina basa sareng budaya, sanaos sacara étnis aranjeunna silih patali sareng [[Islam]].{{sfn|Wong|2000|pp=1–17}}

Sadaya urang Malayu Brunéi anu lahir atanapi cicing di Malaysia Wétan bahkan salami sababaraha generasi sateuacan atanapi saatos dibentukna federasi Malaysia dina taun 1963 ogé dianggap [[urang Malayu Malaysia]] dina sensus nasional sareng aya dina status anu sami sareng urang Malayu Malaysia anu cicing di nagara-nagara bagian Malaysia Kulon sareng bagian tengah sareng kidul Sarawak. Éta ogé didefinisikeun salaku bagian tina klasifikasi ras Bumiputera babarengan salaku subgrup dina populasi étnis Melayu Malaysia sareng Kadazan, Dusun, Orang Ulu, Iban, Portugis Malaka, Murut, Rungus, Paitan (Orang Sungai), Bajau, Suluk, Melanau sareng Siam Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://sahamonline.miti.gov.my/documents/SENARAI_RUJUKAN_BUMIPUTERA_SPSKB.pdf|title=SENARAI SUKU/KAUM/KETURUNAN YANG DIANGGAP SEBAGAI BUMIPUTERA|trans-title=LIST OF TRIBES/RACE/DESCENTS CONSIDERED AS BUMIPUTERA|language=ms|work=Special Bumiputera Share Allocation, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry of Malaysia|page=1|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250918231029/https://sahamonline.miti.gov.my/documents/SENARAI_RUJUKAN_BUMIPUTERA_SPSKB.pdf|archive-date=18 Séptémber 2025|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Catetan ==
{{reflist|group=notes}}

== Référensi ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3211" sha1="ifc9t4r1jk7mtemh8fcm3euxtw7yp4s" xml:space="preserve">[[Gambar:AF Mlm Berbedak.jpg|thumb|300px|Panganten Malayu Brunéi nalika upacara pra-kawinan ''Malam Berbedak''. Tradisi ''Malam Bebedak'' unik di Distrik Brunéi-Muara.]]

'''Urang Malayu Brunéi''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Brunei}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو بروني}}) nyaéta kelompok étnis [[urang Malayu|Malayu]] asli anu cicing di [[Brunéi]], wilayah féderal Labuan, basisir kidul-kulon [[Sabah]] sareng bagian kalér Sarawak.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html|title=The Malay of Malaysia|work=Bethany World Prayer Center|year=1997|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html|archive-date=10 Oktober 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/clusters/8101.html|title=The Diaspora Malay|work=Bethany World Prayer Center|year=1997|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718130911/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/clusters/8101.html|archive-date=18 Juli 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{#tag:ref|Brunei Malay in its various forms can be identified with a nation, an ethnic group and a region.{{sfn|Nicholl|1995|p=241}}{{sfn|Deterding|Athirah|2017|pp=99–108}}|group=&quot;notes&quot;}} Urang Malayu Brunéi nyaéta sub-kelompok tina populasi étnis Malayu anu langkung ageung anu aya di bagian sanés [[dunya Malayu]], nyaéta Malaysia Kulon sareng daérah tengah sareng kidul Sarawak, kalebet tanah tatangga sapertos [[Singapura]], [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Thailand]] kidul, anu gaduh béda anu katingali, khususna dina basa sareng budaya, sanaos sacara étnis aranjeunna silih patali sareng [[Islam]].{{sfn|Wong|2000|pp=1–17}}

Sadaya urang Malayu Brunéi anu lahir atanapi cicing di Malaysia Wétan bahkan salami sababaraha generasi sateuacan atanapi saatos dibentukna federasi Malaysia dina taun 1963 ogé dianggap [[urang Malayu Malaysia]] dina sensus nasional sareng aya dina status anu sami sareng urang Malayu Malaysia anu cicing di nagara-nagara bagian Malaysia Kulon sareng bagian tengah sareng kidul Sarawak. Éta ogé didefinisikeun salaku bagian tina klasifikasi ras Bumiputera babarengan salaku subgrup dina populasi étnis Melayu Malaysia sareng Kadazan, Dusun, Orang Ulu, Iban, Portugis Malaka, Murut, Rungus, Paitan (Orang Sungai), Bajau, Suluk, Melanau sareng Siam Malaysia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://sahamonline.miti.gov.my/documents/SENARAI_RUJUKAN_BUMIPUTERA_SPSKB.pdf|title=SENARAI SUKU/KAUM/KETURUNAN YANG DIANGGAP SEBAGAI BUMIPUTERA|trans-title=LIST OF TRIBES/RACE/DESCENTS CONSIDERED AS BUMIPUTERA|language=ms|work=Special Bumiputera Share Allocation, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry of Malaysia|page=1|access-date=2 Nopémber 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250918231029/https://sahamonline.miti.gov.my/documents/SENARAI_RUJUKAN_BUMIPUTERA_SPSKB.pdf|archive-date=18 Séptémber 2025|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tingali ogé ==
* [[Urang Malayu Malaysia]]
* [[Urang Malayu Singapura]]
* [[Urang Malayu Indonésia]]

== Catetan ==
{{reflist|group=notes}}

== Référensi ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}}
[[Kategori:Grup étnis di Brunéi]]</text>
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