Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.1 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 809 731465 677119 2026-11-02T22:30:18Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 731465 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hubble ultra deep field.jpg|thumb|Potrét mayapada migunakeun teleskop Hubble, NASA.]] '''Alam''' nyaéta sagala rupaning banda atawa wujud asal anu aya di [[Buana|buana]] tur leupas tina pangaruh tur campur tangan [[Manusa|manusa]].<ref name=Jonathan>{{Cite book | title =Sunda Language| first =Jonathan| last =Rigg| publisher =Lange & Co| location =Batavia| year =1862| pages =2|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=heu&f=true|accessdate=(disungsi – 19 Pébruari2025)}}</ref><ref name="KBBI-Alam">Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. "Alam". ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI)''. [https://kbbi.web.id/alam].</ref> Dina widang élmu pangaweruh, alam téh ngawengku sakumna objék fisik, ékosistem, sarta hukum alam anu lumaku sacara universal.<ref name="Bracken2006">Bracken, L. J. (2006). "The Role of Science in Understanding Environmental Management". ''Progress in Physical Geography'', 30(1), 1-22. [https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133306pp467oa].</ref> == Dunya alami == Nurutkeun [[skala]] atawa [[ukuran]] mah, 'alam' téh ngawengku sagala rupa nu dimimitian ku ukuran [[mayapada]] nepi ka ukuran [[partikel subatomik|subatomik]], kaasup sagala rupa [[sato]] jeung [[tangkal]], sagala [[pakaya alam]], [[mineral]], jeung kajadian-kajadianana, sarupaning [[topan]], [[gunung bitu]], [[banjir]] sarta [[lini]]). Ogé kaasup [[paripolah]] sasatoan jeung sagala rupa prosés nu patali jeung [[objék]]-objék nu teu nyawaan. == Métafisik == Dina lingkup [[filosofi]], sawangan yén dunya materil sarupaning atom, sasatoan, graviti, béntang, angin, mikroba, jsb. sabenerna aya sacara mandiri anu leupas tina pangaruh urang. Nu kitu disebutna [[réalisme]], sabalikna ti [[idéalisme]]. == Nu alami jeung nu artifisial == Mindeng dibédakeun antara "alami" jeung "artifisial" (="jieunan manusa"). salah sahiji cara ngabédakeunana nyaéta ku ngiwalkeun [[pikiran]] tina widang alami. Cara séjén nyaéta lain ukur ku ngiwalkeun pikiran, tapi ogé ku ngiwalkeun [[manusa]] jeung sagala pangaruhna. Dina dua cara ieu, wates antara alami jeung [[artifisial]] hésé pisan diguratkeunana (tempo [[mind-body problem]]). Sababaraha urang percaya yén masalah ieu paling hadé disingkahan ku nyebutkeun yén sagalana alami. Tapi lamun sagalana disebutkeun alami, konsép "artifisial" geus teu bisa deui diécéskeun. Dina sagala kajadian, [[ambiguitas]] ngeunaan [[béda]] antara "alami" jeung "artifisial" ngawangku widang [[seni]], [[literatur]] jeung [[filosofi]]. == Konsép nu pakait == Istilah [[élmu alam]] dipaké utamana: * pikeun nandaan ulikan ngeunaan prosés-prosés alami nu bébas tina pangaruh kagiatan manusa, béda jeung [[élmu sosial]]; jeung * pikeun nandaan [[élmu]]-élmu nu maké [[métode ilmiah]], béda jeung, misalna, [[matematik]] jeung [[élmu komputer]]. Istilah [[filosofi alami]] asalna dipaké pikeun widang élmu nu ayeuna disebut [[fisika]]. [[Téologi alami]] ngajégang antara disiplin [[téologi]] jeung [[filosofi ageman]]. Dina widang [[atikan]] jeung nu patalina, kontras antara "alami/artifisial" katémbong salaku "[[alami jeung nurtur]]". Tempo ogé: ''[[praeternatural]]'', ''[[unnatural]]'', jeung ''[[supernatural]]''. == Tempo ogé == * [[biofili]] * [[Sobat alam]] * [[Wilangan alami]] (wilangan Planck) ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Alam]] ehn5x16qz073b65c1jieypgqoc3jj3w 731466 731465 2026-11-03T00:30:56Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 731466 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hubble ultra deep field.jpg|thumb|Potrét mayapada migunakeun teleskop Hubble, NASA.]] '''Alam''' nyaéta sagala rupaning banda atawa wujud asal anu aya di [[Buana|buana]] tur leupas tina pangaruh tur campur tangan [[Manusa|manusa]].<ref name=Jonathan>{{Cite book | title =Sunda Language| first =Jonathan| last =Rigg| publisher =Lange & Co| location =Batavia| year =1862| pages =2|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=heu&f=true|accessdate=(disungsi – 19 Pébruari2025)}}</ref><ref name="KBBI-Alam">Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. "Alam". ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI)''. [https://kbbi.web.id/alam].</ref> Dina widang élmu pangaweruh, alam téh ngawengku sakumna objék fisik, ékosistem, sarta hukum alam anu lumaku sacara universal.<ref name="Bracken2006">Bracken, L. J. (2006). "The Role of Science in Understanding Environmental Management". ''Progress in Physical Geography'', 30(1), 1-22. [https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133306pp467oa].</ref> == Dunya alami == Nurutkeun [[skala]] atawa [[ukuran]] mah, alam téh ngawengku sagala rupa nu dimimitian ku ukuran [[mayapada]] nepi ka ukuran [[partikel subatomik|subatomik]], kaasup sagala rupa [[sato]] jeung [[tangkal]], sagala [[pakaya alam]], [[mineral]], jeung kajadian-kajadianana, sarupaning [[topan]], [[gunung bitu]], [[banjir]] sarta [[lini]]).<ref name="BritannicaAlam">Encyclopædia Britannica. (2026). "Nature: Physical Universe". [https://www.britannica.com/science/nature-science].</ref> Éta téh kawengku ogé [[paripolah]] sasatoan jeung sagala rupa prosés nu patali jeung [[objék]]-objék nu teu nyawaan. == Métafisik == Dina lingkup [[filosofi]], sawangan yén dunya materil sarupaning atom, sasatoan, graviti, béntang, angin, mikroba, jsb. sabenerna aya sacara mandiri anu leupas tina pangaruh urang. Nu kitu disebutna [[réalisme]], sabalikna ti [[idéalisme]]. == Nu alami jeung nu artifisial == Mindeng dibédakeun antara "alami" jeung "artifisial" (="jieunan manusa"). salah sahiji cara ngabédakeunana nyaéta ku ngiwalkeun [[pikiran]] tina widang alami. Cara séjén nyaéta lain ukur ku ngiwalkeun pikiran, tapi ogé ku ngiwalkeun [[manusa]] jeung sagala pangaruhna. Dina dua cara ieu, wates antara alami jeung [[artifisial]] hésé pisan diguratkeunana (tempo [[mind-body problem]]). Sababaraha urang percaya yén masalah ieu paling hadé disingkahan ku nyebutkeun yén sagalana alami. Tapi lamun sagalana disebutkeun alami, konsép "artifisial" geus teu bisa deui diécéskeun. Dina sagala kajadian, [[ambiguitas]] ngeunaan [[béda]] antara "alami" jeung "artifisial" ngawangku widang [[seni]], [[literatur]] jeung [[filosofi]]. == Konsép nu pakait == Istilah [[élmu alam]] dipaké utamana: * pikeun nandaan ulikan ngeunaan prosés-prosés alami nu bébas tina pangaruh kagiatan manusa, béda jeung [[élmu sosial]]; jeung * pikeun nandaan [[élmu]]-élmu nu maké [[métode ilmiah]], béda jeung, misalna, [[matematik]] jeung [[élmu komputer]]. Istilah [[filosofi alami]] asalna dipaké pikeun widang élmu nu ayeuna disebut [[fisika]]. [[Téologi alami]] ngajégang antara disiplin [[téologi]] jeung [[filosofi ageman]]. Dina widang [[atikan]] jeung nu patalina, kontras antara "alami/artifisial" katémbong salaku "[[alami jeung nurtur]]". Tempo ogé: ''[[praeternatural]]'', ''[[unnatural]]'', jeung ''[[supernatural]]''. == Tempo ogé == * [[biofili]] * [[Sobat alam]] * [[Wilangan alami]] (wilangan Planck) ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Alam]] 0igwcros6lg4np41yxm3ismqpfegd7o 0 2106 731453 710210 2026-11-02T16:41:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} '''Spamming''' nyaéta kalakuan ngirimkeun surélék [[electronics|electronik]] nu teu dipiharep. Hiji kaca [http://www.personal.psu.edu/mjs501/SPAM.pdf article]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} mangrupa masalah spam dina [[1998]] dumasar kana salaku pesen ''"[[text]] taya harti nu ngalir taya eureunna."'' Tina panempo nu populer, spam ilaharna dikirim ngaliwatan [[e-mail|surelek]] saperti dina bentuk [[advertising|iklan]]. However, over the short history of electronic media, péople have done things comparable to spamming for many purposes other than the commercial, and in many media other than e-mail. In this article and those related, the term ''spamming'' is used broadly to refer to all of these behaviors, regardless of medium and commercial intent. This article provides a general overview of the spamming phenomenon. Separate articles discuss the techniques of spammers on particular media: [[E-mail spam|Internet e-mail]], [[Messaging spam|instant messaging]], [[Newsgroup spam|Usenet newsgroups]], [[spamdexing|Web search engines]], [[blog spam|weblogs]], and [[mobile phone spam|mobile phone messaging]]. Another article describes ways of [[stopping e-mail abuse]]. == Overview == One of the strengths of electronic communications media is that it costs virtually nothing to send a message. These media are not free of charge: setting up a [[cellular telephone]] network or an [[Internet]] [[e-mail]] service has substantial overhéad costs in equipment and connectivity. However, once these costs are paid for, the cost to transmit a message to a single recipient is minuscule when compared with older media such as [[mail|postal mail]]. Electronic messaging is chéap and fast. It is also éasy to automate: computer programs can send out millions of messages via e-mail, instant message (IM), or Usenet netnews in minutes or hours at néarly no labor cost. From these economic réalities, a sort of [[tragedy of the commons]] emerges. Any communications mechanism which is chéap and éasy to automate is éasy to flood with bulk messages. To send instant messages to millions of users on most IM services, all one needs is a piece of scriptable software and those users' IM usernames. The ability to send e-mail from a computer program is built in to popular operating systems such as [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Unix]] — the only added ingredient needed is the list of addresses to target. Sending bulk messages in this fashion, to recipients who have not solicited them, has come to be known as '''spamming''', and the messages themselves as '''spam'''. The [[etymology]] of the term is discussed [[spamming#Etymology|below]]. Traditional advertising methods, such as billboards, TV or newspaper ads are similar to spam in that they are usually unsolicited and sent in bulk. Pollution of public space by advertising is also quite similar to the problem of spam. However, traditional "legitimate" advertising is usually spared the "spam" label on the grounds that distribution costs are borne by the advertiser. Spamming has been considered by various commercial, government, and independent entities to be one of the foremost social problems facing electronic media today. All manner of attempts have been made to curb this problem: technical méasures such as e-mail filtering and the automated cancellation of [[netnews]] spam; contractual méasures such as [[Internet Service Provider]]s' [[acceptable use policy|acceptable-use policies]]; laws such as the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]]; and market pressures such as boycotts of those who use or support spam. The growing importance of [[Search Engine]]s has led to a new form of spam, [[Spamdexing]], which aims at boosting a commercial site's [[Pagerank]]. == Spamming in different media == === E-mail spam === [[E-mail spam]] is by far the most common form of spamming on the internet. It involves sending identical or néarly identical messages to a large number of recipients. Unlike legitimate commercial e-mail, spam is generally sent without the explicit permission of the recipients, and frequently contains various tricks to bypass e-mail filters. Spammers obtain e-mail addresses by a number of méans: ''harvesting'' addresses from [[Usenet]] postings, [[DNS]] listings, or Web pages; guessing common names at known domains (known as a ''dictionary attack''); and ''"e-pending"'' or séarching for e-mail addresses corresponding to specific persons, such as residents in an aréa. Many e-mail spammers go to gréat lengths to concéal the origin of their messages. They might do this by [[spoof]]ing e-mail addresses (similar to [[Internet protocol spoofing]]). In this technique, the spammer modifies the e-mail message so it looks like it is coming from another e-mail address. However, many spammers also maké it éasy for recipients to identify their messages as spam by placing an ad phrase in the FROM field (i.e. chances are, very few péople you know have names like "GetMyCigs" or "Giving away playstation2s"). Among the tricks used by spammers to try to circumvent the filters is to intentionally misspell common spam filter trigger words, ie. "viagra" might become "vaigra", or by inserting other symbols within the word, i.e. "v/i/a/g./r/a". Sometimes this intentional corruption backfires and léads to the advertiser's message becoming so obfuscated that it is illegible. The weird thing is that the human mind can handle the misspellings (see [http://loopbiz.com/business.small/mind-gaps.html Wrod Illusinos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050207060912/http://loopbiz.com/business.small/mind-gaps.html |date=2005-02-07 }}) and while one would think the misspellings maké it harder for email [[ISP]]s to trap the spam, it actually makes it éasier for them to recognize and stop the spam. The most dedicated spammers are often one step ahéad of the ISPs. The dedicated ones are those making a lot of money or engaged in illegal activities, such as the porn industry, casinos and [[Nigerian scam]]mers. Report them éarly and often. Spambots are a big problem now. The worst spammers have créated various [[computer virus|email viruses]] that will turn your PC into a [[zombie computer]] with a spambot; the zombie will inform a master spammer of its existence, and, and the spammer will command it to send a low volume of spam. This allows spammers to send spam without being caught by their ISPs or being tracked down by anti-spammers; the low volume makes it hard to detect. Dialup and DSL ISPs could stop spambots by blocking the [[SMTP]] [[port (computing)|port]] (port 25) - link éarthlink does. === Messaging spam === [[Messaging spam]], sometimes termed ''spim'', is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming is [[instant messaging]] (IM). Many IM systems offer a directory of users, including demographic information such as age and sex. Advertisers can gather this information, sign on to the system, and send unsolicited messages. A similar sort of spam can be sent with the [[Windows Messenger Service]] in [[Microsoft Windows]]. The Messenger Service is an [[server message block|SMB]] facility intended to allow servers to send pop-up alerts to a Windows workstation. When Windows systems are connected to the Internet with this service running and without an adequate firewall, it can be used to send spam. The Messenger Service can, however, be éasily disabled. [http://www.itc.virginia.edu/desktop/docs/messagepopup/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050107094019/http://www.itc.virginia.edu/desktop/docs/messagepopup/ |date=2005-01-07 }} === Newsgroup spam === [[Newsgroup spam]] is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming are [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Old Usenet convention defines spamming as ''excessive multiple posting,'' that is, the repéated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). Since posting to newsgroups is néarly as éasy as sending e-mails, newsgroups are a popular target of spammers. The [[Breidbart Index]] was developed to provide an objective méasure of the "spamminess" of a multi-posted or cross-posted message on Usenet. === Mobile phone spam === [[Mobile phone spam]] is a form of spamming directed at the [[text messaging]] service of a [[mobile phone]]. This can be especially irritating to consumers not only for the inconvenience but also because they sometimes have to pay to receive the text message. === Internet telephony spam === It has been predicted that [[voice over IP]] (VoIP) communications will be vulnerable to being spammed by pre-recorded messages. Although there have been few reported incidents, some companies have alréady tried to sell defenses against it. [http://www.internetnews.com/security/article.php/3398331] == Spam targeting search engines == === Spamdexing === [[Spamdexing]] (a combination of ''spamming'' and ''indexing'') refers to the practice on the [[World Wide Web]] of deliberately modifying [[HTML]] pages to incréase the chance of them being placed high on [[search engine]] relevancy lists. Péople who do this are called [[search engine spammer]]s. === Blog spam === In [[blog spam]] the targets are [[weblog]]s. In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software [[Movable Type]] by repéatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site. These link would in théory enhance the ranking of the target page in séarch engine indexes. [https://web.archive.org/web/20041217094314/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.03/google.html?pg=7] === Wiki spam === [[Wiki]]s are also a target of séarch engine spam, quite similar to [[blog spam]]. === Guestbook spam === Though more "old-school" than blogs or wikis, [[guestbook]]s are still present on some sites, and are subject to the same sorts of spam. == Commercial uses == The most common purpose for spamming is [[advertising]]. Goods commonly advertised in spam include [[pornography]], [[computer software]], medical products such as [[Viagra]], [[credit card]] accounts, and fad products. In part because of the bad reputation (and dubious legal status) which spamming carries, it is chiefly used to carry offers of an ill-reputed or questionably legal nature. Many of the products advertised in spam are fraudulent in nature, such as [[quackery|quack medications]] and [[Make money fast|get-rich-quick schemes]]. Spam is frequently used to advertise scams, such as [[diploma mill]]s, [[advance fee fraud]], [[pyramid scheme]]s, stock [[pump and dump|pump-and-dump]] schemes and [[password phishing]]. It is also often used to advertise [[pornography]] indiscriminately, even in jurisdictions where it is illegal to transmit pornographic solicitations to minor children, or even for anyone to view it at all. The use of spamming in other countries is often different. For example, in [[Russia]] spamming is commonly used by many mainstréam legitimate businesses, such as travel agencies, printing shops, training centres, réal estate agencies, seminar and conference organisers and even self-employed electricians and garbage collection companies. In fact, the most prominent Russian spammer was [[American English Center]], a language school in Moscow. That spamming sparked a powerful anti-spam movement, including enraging the deputy minister of communications [[Andrey Korotkov]] and provoked a wave of counter attacks on the spammer through non-internet channels, including a massive telephone [[DDOS]] attack. === Comparison to postal "junk" mail === There are a number of differences between spam and junk mail: * Unlike junk [[postal mail]], the costs of spam paid for by the recipient's mail site commonly approach or even exceed those of the sender, in terms of bandwidth, CPU processing time, and storage space. Spammers frequently use free dial-up accounts, so their costs may be quite minimal indeed. Because of this offloading of costs onto the recipient, many consider spamming to be [[theft]] or criminal conversion. * Junk mail can be said to subsidize the delivery of mail customers want to receive. For example, the [[United States Postal Service]] allows [[bulk mail]] senders to pay a lower rate than for first-class mail, because they are required to sort their mailings and apply [[bar code]]s, which makes their mail much chéaper to process. While some ISPs receive large fees from spammers, most do not — and most pay the costs of carrying or filtering unwanted spam. * Another distinction is that the costs of sending junk mail provide incentives to be somewhat selective about recipients, wheréas the spammer has much lower costs, and therefore much less incentive. * Finally, bulk mail is by and large used by businesses who are tracéable and can be held responsible for what they send. Spammers frequently operate on a fly-by-night basis, using the so-called "anarchy" of the Internet as a cover. == Non-commercial spam == E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many éarly Usenet spams were religious or political in nature. [[Serdar Argic]], for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number of [[evangelism|evangelists]] have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with préaching messages. Spamming has also been used as a [[denial of service]] tactic, particularly on Usenet. By overwhelming the réaders of a newsgroup with an inordinate number of nonsense messages, legitimate messages can be lost and computing resources are consumed. Since these messages are usually forged (that is, sent falsely under regular posters' names) this tactic has come to be known as [[sporgery]] (from ''spam'' + ''forgery''). This tactic has for instance been used by partisans of the [[Church of Scientology]] against the [[alt.religion.scientology]] newsgroup (see [[Scientology vs. the Internet]]) and by spammers against [[news.admin.net-abuse.e-mail]], a forum for mail administrators to discuss spam problems. Applied to e-mail, this is termed [[mailbomb]]ing. In a handful of cases, forged e-mail spam has been used as a tool of [[harassment]]. The spammer collects a list of addresses as usual, then sends a spam to them signed with the name of the person he wishes to harass. Some recipients, angry that they received spam and seeing an obvious "source", will respond angrily or pursue various sorts of revenge against the apparent spammer, the forgery victim. A widely known victim of this sort of harassment was [http://joes.com/ Joe's CyberPost], which has lent its name to the offense: it is known as a ''[[joe job]]''. Such [[joe jobs]] have been most often used against anti-spammers: in more recent examples, [[Steve Linford]] of [[Spamhaus Project]] and [[Timothy Walton]], a California attorney, have been targeted. Spammers have also abused resources set up for purposes of anonymous speech online, such as [[anonymous remailer]]s. As a result, many of these resources have been shut down, denying their utility to legitimate users. E-mail [[computer virus|worms or viruses]] may be spammed to set up an initial pool of infected machines, which then re-send the virus to other machines in a spam-like manner. The infected machines can often be used as remote-controlled [[zombie computers]], for more conventional spamming or [[DDoS]] attacks. Sometimes [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojans]] are spammed to [[phishing|phish]] for bank account details, or to set up a pool of zombies without using a virus. == Etymology == The term ''spam'' is derived from the [[Monty Python]] [[Spam (Monty Python)|SPAM sketch]], set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes [[SPAM]] lunchéon méat. While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu. Soon, a chorus of [[Viking]]s join in with a song, repéating "SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM" and singing "lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM" over and over again, drowning out all conversation. Although the [http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamreact.html first known instance of unsolicited commercial e-mail] occurred in [[1978]] (unsolicited electronic messaging had alréady taken place over other media, with the first recorded instance being on September 13th 1904 via telegram), the term "spam" for this practice had not yet been applied. In the [[1980s]] the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented [[Bulletin Board System|BBSs]] and [[MUD]]s, who would repéat "SPAM" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen. This act, previously termed ''flooding'' or ''trashing'', came to be called ''spamming'' as well. [http://groups.google.com/groups?threadm=MAT.90Sep25210959%40zeus.organpipe.cs.arizona.edu] By analogy, the term was soon applied to any large amount of text broadcast by one user, or sometimes by many users. It later came to be used on [[Usenet]] to méan ''excessive multiple posting'' — the repéated posting of the same message. The first evident usage of this sense was by [[Joel Furr]] in the aftermath of the [[ARMM (Usenet)|ARMM]] incident of [[March 31]] [[1993]], in which a piece of experimental software reléased dozens of recursive messages onto the ''news.admin.policy'' newsgroup. Soon, this use had also become established — to spam Usenet was to flood newsgroups with junk messages. Commercial spamming started in force on [[March 5]], [[1994]] when a pair of lawyers, [[Canter & Siegel|Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel]], began using bulk [[Usenet]] posting to advertise [[immigration]] law services. The incident was commonly termed the "Green Card spam", after the subject line of the postings. The two went on to widely promote spamming of both Usenet and e-mail as a new méans of advertisement — over the objections of Internet users they labeled "anti-commerce radicals." Within a few yéars, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to e-mail, where it remains today. [http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamterm.html] There are two popular [[fake etymology|fake etymologies]] of the word "spam". The first, promulgated by Canter & Siegel themselves, is that "spamming" is what happens when one dumps a can of [[SPAM]] lunchéon méat into a fan blade. The second is the [[backronym]] "[[shit|'''s'''hit]] '''p'''osing '''a'''s '''m'''ail." [[Hormel Foods Corporation]], the makers of SPAM® lunchéon méat, do not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming." However, they do ask that the capitalized word "SPAM" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark. [http://www.spam.com/ci/ci_in.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115105048/http://www.spam.com/ci/ci_in.htm |date=2007-01-15 }} By and large, this request is obeyed in forums which discuss spam—to the extent that to write "SPAM" for "spam" brands the writer as a [[newbie]]. Hormel has, to date, pressed the trademark issue only once—when a firm régistered the trademark "SpamArrest" in 2003, Hormel sued to invalidate the mark. [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/6419416.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041204175353/http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/6419416.htm |date=2004-12-04 }} {{See also|History of spamming}} === Alternate meanings === The term "spamming" is also used in the older sense of something repetitious and disruptive by players of [[first-person shooter]] computer games. In this sense it refers to "area denial" tactics—repéatedly firing rockets or other explosive shells into an aréa. Or to any tactic whereby a large volume of ammunition is expended in the hope of scoring a single hit. [[MUD]], [[MUSH]], and [[MUCK]] players happily continue using the word in its original sense. When a player returns to the terminal after a brief bréak to find her screen filled with pages of random chat, that's still called "spam". [http://www.graphxpress.com/cgi-bin/wcotp.cgi?date=19980407] Neither of these senses of the word imply that the "spamming" is abusive. == Costs of spam == Spam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages. In addition, spam has costs stemming from the ''kinds'' of spam messages sent, from the ''ways'' spammers send them, and from the ''[[arms race]]'' between spammers and those who try to stop or control spam. The methods of spammers are likewise costly. Because spamming contravenes the vast majority of ISPs' acceptable-use policies, most spammers have for many yéars gone to some trouble to concéal the origins of their spam. E-mail, Usenet, and instant-message spam are often sent through insecure [[proxy server]]s belonging to unwilling third parties. Spammers frequently use false names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information to set up "disposable" accounts at various Internet service providers. In some cases, they have used falsified or stolen [[credit card]] numbers to pay for these accounts. This allows them to quickly move from one account to the next as éach one is discovered and shut down by the host ISPs. The costs of spam also can be taken to include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media thréatened by spamming. <!-- This is incomplete --> [http://linxnet.com/misc/spam/thank_spammers.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220115414/http://linxnet.com/misc/spam/thank_spammers.html |date=2005-12-20 }} Many users are bothered by spam because it impinges upon the amount of time they spend réading their e-mail. Many also find the content of spam frequently offensive, in that [[pornography]] is one of the most frequently advertised products. Spammers send their spam largely indiscriminately, so pornographic ads may show up in a work place e-mail inbox — or a child's, the latter of which is illegal in many jurisdictions. Some spammers argue that most of these costs could potentially be alleviated by having spammers reimburse ISPs and individuals for their material. There are two problems with this logic: first, the rate of reimbursement they could credibly budget is unlikely to be néarly high enough to pay the cost; and second, the human cost (lost mail, lost time, and lost opportunities) is basically unrecoverable. E-mail spam exemplifies a [[tragedy of the commons]]: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without béaring the entire cost of those resources. In fact, spammers commonly do not béar the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone. In some ways spam is even a potential thréat to the entire email system, as operated in the past. Since E-mail is so chéap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost sometimes provides a sufficient conversion rate to keep spamming alive. Furthermore, even though spam appéars not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business. Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally réalizing that the business is not profitable. == Political issues == Spamming remains a hot discussion topic. In fact, many online users have even suggested (presumably jokingly) that cruel forms of [[capital punishment]] would be appropriate for spammers. In 2004, the seized Porsche of an indicted spammer was advertised on the internet, which revéaled the extent of the financial rewards available to those who are willing to waste everybody's time and was a popular item because the car had been confiscated, which was seen as tough justice, but also sweet vengéance. However, some of the possible ways to stop spamming may léad to other side effects, such as incréased government control over the Net, loss of privacy, barriers to free expression or commercialisation of e-mail. One of the chief values favored by many long-time Internet users and experts, as well as by many members of the public, is the free exchange of idéas. Many have valued the relative [[anarchy]] of the Internet, and bridle at the idéa of restrictions placed upon it. A common refrain from spam-fighters is that spamming itself abridges the historical freedom of the Internet, by attempting to force users to carry the ''costs'' of material which they would not choose. An ongoing concern expressed by parties such as the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] and the [[ACLU]] has to do with so-called "stealth blocking", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools which (either through error or design) also block non-spam e-mail from sites seen as "spam-friendly". [[SPEWS]] is a common target of these criticisms. Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use which draws fire. Some see spam-blocking tools as a thréat to free expression — and laws against spamming as an untoward precedent for regulation or taxation of e-mail and the Internet at large. Even though it is to possible in some jurisdictions to tréat some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws against [[trespass]] and [[conversion]], some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In [[2004]] United States passed the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]] which provided ISPs and users with tools to combat spam. This act allowed [[Yahoo!]] to successfully sue [[Eric Head]], reportedly one of the biggest spammers in the world, who settled the lawsuit for several thousand US dollars in June 2004. But the law is criticised by many for not being effective enough, and was even supported by some spammers and organizations which support spamming. == See also == === Types of spam === * [[Email spam]] * [[Messaging spam]] * [[Newsgroup spam]] * [[Spamdexing]] * [[Blog spam]] * [[Mobile phone spam]] === Related topics === * [[List of e-mail spammers]] * [[Email fraud]] * [[Make money fast]] * [[Advance fee fraud|Nigerian spam]] * [[Spam wars]] * [[Phishing]] * [[Joe job]] * [[Hashcash]] * [[MAAWG|Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group]] === Background === * [[Electronic mailing list]] * [[Netiquette]] * [[Advertising]] * [[E-marketing]] == Newsgroups == * ''[[news.admin.net-abuse.email]]'' * ''[[news.admin.net-abuse.usenet]]'' * others in ''news.admin.net-abuse.*'' hierarchy * ''alt.spam'' == External links == * [[IETF]] views on spamming can be found in [http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2635.html RFC 2635]. * [http://www.myTrashmail.com Fake Email Address] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050104084004/http://www.mytrashmail.com/ |date=2005-01-04 }}. Prevent spamming with a fake email address from myTrashMail === Anti-spam organizations === * [http://asrg.sp.am/ Anti Spam Research Group] * [http://www.cauce.org CAUCE] * [http://www.spamhaus.org/ The Spamhaus Project] * [http://spam.abuse.net/ spam.abuse.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531060426/http://spam.abuse.net/ |date=2008-05-31 }} === More writing on the subject === * [http://www.spamfo.co.uk/ Spamfo.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231091606/http://www.spamfo.co.uk/ |date=2004-12-31 }} Latest news on junk email, scams, fraud, legal aspects and reviews of software and services] * [http://www.webcogs.com/spam_protection.aspx Spam Protection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040608083446/http://www.webcogs.com/spam_protection.aspx |date=2004-06-08 }} * [http://www.spamprimer.com/ Getting Rid of Spam] * [http://www.spamfaq.net Spam FAQs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040721090845/http://www.spamfaq.net/ |date=2004-07-21 }} * [http://www.millersmiles.co.uk Email Scam Reports] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041208234956/http://bruce.pennypacker.org/spamrules.html The rules of spam, according to net.admin.net-abuse.email] * [http://www.spamnews.co.uk/ SpamNews.co.uk Delivering your daily slice of fresh Spam. All the spam news, all the time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041229053951/http://www.spamnews.co.uk/ |date=2004-12-29 }} * [http://alistapart.com/articles/spam/ A List Apart: Win The Spam Arms Race] * [http://www.timothywalton.com California lawyer who sues spammers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041217093921/http://www.timothywalton.com/ |date=2004-12-17 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/19981202110317/http://members.aol.com/emailfaq/mungfaq.html Address Munging FAQ: Spam-Blocking Your E-mail Address] * [http://www.millersmiles.co.uk Library of Email Spam Reports and Articles] * [http://www.cdt.org/speech/spam/030319spamreport.shtml ''Unsolicited Commercial E-mail Research Six Month Report''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061218222622/http://www.cdt.org/speech/spam/030319spamreport.shtml |date=2006-12-18 }} by the Center for Democracy & Technology * [http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/alerts/spamalrt.htm ''E-mail Address Harvesting: How Spammers Reap What You Sow''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060424083903/http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/alerts/spamalrt.htm |date=2006-04-24 }} by the Federal Trade Commission * [http://www.out-law.com/php/page.php?page_id=pressrele3360&area=about ''The spammers are watching you''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210123739/http://www.out-law.com/php/page.php?page_id=pressrele3360&area=about |date=2004-12-10 }} by Masons, a London-based international law firm * [http://www.internetnews.com/index.php/4491 ''The War Against Spam''] — a collection of réading material on the subject * [http://www.pmail.com/spamwp.htm White paper from e-mail client developers] * [http://www.antiphishing.org.uk/ Antiphishing Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041215170354/http://www.antiphishing.org.uk/ |date=2004-12-15 }} Daily News of phishing spam collected from around the net. * [http://www.scmagazine.com/features/index.cfm?fuseaction=FeatureDetails&newsUID=7e360307-9bb0-485a-ac9a-f938895d83dc&newsType=Features Article by Andy Coote in SC Magazine June 2004] * [http://polispam.blogspot.com Political Spam] === Popular Anti-Spam Services === * http://www.mailwasher.net * http://www.clearswift.com * http://www.cloudmark.com * http://www.postini.com * http://www.proofpoint.com * http://www.surfcontrol.com * http://www.swirbo.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041213045956/http://www.swirbo.com/ |date=2004-12-13 }} * http://www.tumbleweed.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231092701/http://www.tumbleweed.com/ |date=2004-12-31 }} * http://www.lafraia.com.br/spambr/ === Humor === * [http://spamusement.com/ Spamusement] A collection of humorously drawn cartoons inspired by actual spam subject lines. {{Spamming}} [[Kategori:Spam]] [[Kategori:Perdagangan éléktronis]] [[Kategori:Pamasaran]] [[Kategori:Manajemén téhnologi informasi]] [[Kategori:Bisnis]] rpd65xdnlja6hr3wjde3zav7r0hl117 0 3407 731438 709115 2026-11-02T12:59:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731438 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Kuoleman Puutarha by Hugo Simberg.jpg|alt=|thumb|Kuoleman puutarha, Hugo Simberg (1906)]] [[Gambar:Human remains.jpg|thumb|Rorongkong manusa paéh di scrub di [[Australia Kulon]], circa 1900–1910|300px]] '''Paéh''' ([[:id:Bahasa_Sunda_Indramayu|basa Sunda Indramayu]]: '''Paé''') téh ngandung harti eureunna [[hirup|kahirupan]] fisik organismeu atawa kaayaan organismeu sanggeusna. Sacara biologis, paéh bisa lumangsung ka sagemblengna atawa wawaréhan. Pikeun conto, bisa waé hiji [[sél (biologi)|sél]] atawa [[organ (anatomi)|organ]] ngalaman paéh, sedengkeun organismena mah tetep hirup; sél loba nu umurna pondok pisan, antukna sél-sél organisme terus-terusan diganti ku nu anyar. Sabalikna, bisa ogé organismena paéh, sedengkeun organ/sélna tetep hirup antukna bisa [[cangkok|dicangkokkeun]]. Dina kasus ieu, jaringan nu hirup kénéh téh kudu geuwat dipindahkeun méméh kaburu milu paéh. Bisa ogé kajadian "abadi", "imortal", dina kasus budidaya/kultur sél, misalna galur [[sél HeLa]] ([[Henrietta Lacks]]). ''Iréversibilitas'', teu bisa malik, mangrupa konci ngeunaan paéh. Dumasar watesan, organisme paéh moal bisa dihirupkeun deui; mun bisa, hal ieu nunjukkeun yén sabenerna mah teu/can paéh. Tapi, aya ogé nu teu percaya yén paéh teu bisa dibalikkeun deui; misalna dina kapercayaan [[agama|relijius]] nu yakin ayana hirup sanggeus paéh, sedengkeun nu séjén malah miharep bisa dikembangkeunana téhnologi [[krionik]] atawa nu séjénna nu bisa malikkeun paéh. <!-- Aya hipotésis nu nyebutkeun yén kawatesna umur mangrupa balukar tina [[évolusi]], sabab seléksi évolusionér ukur perlu nepi ka titik sawawa ([[baranahan]]); sanggeus éta, lian ti pikeun miara turunan, lumangsungna hirup téh pangaruhna leutik pisan kana kasalametan galur génna. Asumsi umum dina [[Hukum Kadua Térmodinamika]] nu nyebutkeun yén sistim kompléks must eventually deteriorate, so it is not likely that any species could ever be [[immortal]]. However, this aspect of the Second Law of Thermodynamics only applies to closed systems, which a living organism obviously is not. ==Paéhna manusa: definisi jeung signifikansi== By far the most important sort of death to human beings is human death. Thinking about human death raises a number of questions, but not many satisfactory answers. First, how can we identify the exact moment at which death has occurred? This seems important, because identifying that moment would allow us to put the correct time on death certificates, make sure that the deceased's will is enacted only after the deceased is truly deceased, and, in general, guide us in emotional behavior regarding death. In particular, identifying the moment of death is important in cases of [[transplantation]], as organs must be harvested as quickly as possible after death. Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of [[heart]]beat ([[cardiac arrest]]) and of [[breathing]], for example, but the development of [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] and early [[defibrillation]] posed a challenge: either the definition of death was incorrect, or techniques had been discovered that really allowed one to reverse death (because, in some cases, breathing and heartbeat can be restarted). Generally, the first option was chosen. (Today this definition of death is known as "[[cardiac arrest|clinical death]]".) Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, we usually turn to "[[brain death]]" or "biological death": people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases (cf. [[persistent vegetative state]]). It is presumed that a stoppage of electrical activity indicates the end of [[consciousness]]. Brain activity is a necessary condition to legal personhood, and, perhaps with the exception of the [[fetus]], it is a sufficient condition for legal personhood. "''It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices.''" Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983) However, those maintaining that only the [[neo-cortex]] of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. In most places the more conservative definition of death (cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex) has been adopted (for example the [[Uniform Determination Of Death Act]] in the [[United States]]). The recent case of [[Terri Schiavo]] brought the question of brain-death and artificial sustainment to the front of American politics. However, in all cases the common cause of death is [[anoxia]]. Even in these cases, the determination of death can be difficult. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses when none exists, while there have been cases in which electrical activity in a living brain has been too low for EEGs to detect. Because of this, hospitals often have elaborate protocols for determining death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals. Medical history contains many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin or when [[embalming]] procedures are about to get underway. Stories of people actually being buried alive (which must assume embalming has not occurred) led at least one inventor in the early [[20th century]] to design an alarm system that could be activated from within the coffin. Because of the difficulties in determining death, under most emergency protocols, a [[first responder]] is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead; some EMT training manuals, for example, specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred, such as mortal [[decapitation]], rigor mortis (the stiffening of the body), dependent lividity (blood pooling in the lowest part of the body), decomposition, or incineration. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a [[do not resuscitate]] order, emergency workers must begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced [[dead on arrival]]. It is also possible that death does not occur at a particular moment, but unfolds as a process over a period of time. Under this definition, the term "exact moment of death" loses meaning. == Cause of death in the United States == The cause of death in certain area and certain group of ages are different according to area and each group. In 2002 in the U.S. the top 10 causes of death were: * [[Heart Disease]]: 696,947 * [[Cancer]]: 557,271 * [[Stroke]]: 162,672 * Chronic lower [[respiratory disease]]s: 124,816 * [[Accident]]s (unintentional injuries): 106,742 * [[Diabetes]]: 73,249 * [[Influenza]]/[[Pneumonia]]: 65,681 * [[Alzheimer's disease]]: 58,866 * [[Nephritis]], [[nephrotic syndrome]], and [[nephrosis]]: 40,974 * [[Septicemia]]: 33,865 ===Other notable causes of death in the United States (2002)=== * [[Murder]]: 16,110 * [[Capital punishment in the United States|Execution]]: 71 * [[Abortion|Intentional Abortion]]: 1,293,000 :This number would apparently include abortions to save the life of the mother, abortions of obviously highly defective fetuses, and abortions of fetuses unlikely to reach term. Note that there is much [[Abortion debate|debate]] as to when a [[fetus]] is declared a "human." The death of a human [[zygote]] - a one-celled combination of a sperm and an egg - is counted by some as the death of a human, and by others as simply the death of a cell. Statistical data from: [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm U.S. Department of Health & Human Services] [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ Death Penalty Information Center] [http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/abortionstats.html National Right To Life] == What happens to humans after death? == The second question is of what, apart from the cessation of metabolism and the onset of physiological processes of decay, happens, especially to humans, during and after death (or "once dead", thinking of death as a permanent state). In particular, there is the question of what becomes of [[consciousness]] or the [[soul]]. Such questions are of long standing, and belief in an [[afterlife]] (such as an [[underworld]]), or in [[reincarnation]], are common and ancient. The rational belief that any and all consciousness ceases to exist at death, and that death ("after-life") itself is ultimately the exact same experience as prior to conception ("before life"), is common in [[atheism]]/[[agnosticism]]. Conversely, religious belief in and information about an afterlife is a consolation in connection with the death of a beloved one or the prospect of one's own death. On the other hand, fear of [[hell]] or other negative consequences may make death worse. Human contemplation about death is an important motivation for the development of organized [[religion]]. Traditions exist across most cultures to mourn the death of loved ones. Many [[archaeologist]]s feel that the careful burials among ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', where [[ochre]] ornamented bodies were laid in carefully dug [[Grave (burial)|grave]]s, is evidence of [[ritual]]ised burial. This may indicate early religious belief which, furthermore, might include a concept of an [[afterlife]]. == Physiological consequences of human death == For the human body, the physiological consequences of death follow a recognized sequence through early changes into [[bloating]], then decay to changes after decay and finally skeletal remains. The changes in the immediate post-death stage have received the most attention for two reasons—firstly it is the stage mostly likely to be seen by the living and secondly because of the research of [[forensics]] in potential crimes. Soon after death (15–120 minutes depending on various factors), the body begins to cool ([[algor mortis]]), becomes pallid ([[pallor mortis]]), and internal sphincter muscles relax, leading to the release of [[urine]], [[feces]], and [[stomach]] contents if the body is moved. The blood moves to pool in the lowest parts of the body, [[livor mortis]] (dependent lividity), within 30 minutes and then begins to coagulate. The body experiences muscle stiffening ([[rigor mortis]]) which peaks at around 12 hours after death and is gone in another 24, depending on temperature. Within a day, the body starts to show signs of [[decomposition]] ([[decay]]), both [[autolysis|autolytic]] changes and from 'attacking' organisms—[[bacteria]], [[fungi]], [[insect]]s, [[mammal]]ian scavengers, etc. Internally, the body structures begin to collapse, the skin loses integration with the underlying tissues, and bacterial action creates gases which cause bloating and swelling. The rate of decay is enormously variable; a body can be reduced to skeletal remains in days, or remain largely intact for thousands of years. In most cultures, before the onset of significant decay, the body undergoes ritual disposal, usually either [[cremation|cremated]] or deposited in a [[tomb]], often a hole in the earth called a [[grave]], but also in a [[sarcophagus]], a [[crypt]], [[sepulchre]], or [[ossuary]], a mound or barrow, or endlessly monumental surface structures, a [[mausoleum]] such as the [[Taj Mahal]]. In [[Tibet]], one method of corpse disposal is [[sky burial]], which involves placing the body of the deceased in a high ground ([[mountain]]) and dispose it ritually — especially to [[birds]] of prey. Sometimes this is because in some religious views, birds of [[prey]] are carriers of [[soul]] to heaven, but other times, this simply reflect the fact that when terrain ([[Tibet]]) makes the ground too hard to dig, there aren't many trees around to burn and the local religion ([[Buddhism]]) believes that the body after death is only an empty shell, there are more practical ways of disposing a body, like, for example, leaving it for animals. On the other hand in certain cultures efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retard of decay processes after the burial) , [[Mummy|mummification]] or [[embalming]]. This happens during or after a [[funeral]] ceremony. Many [[funeral|funeral customs]] exist in different cultures. A new alternative is "[http://www.promessa.se/sagardettill_en.asp ecological burial]". This involves subsequently deep-freezing, pulverisation by vibration, [[freeze-drying]], removing [[metal]]s, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass. Graves are usually grouped together in a plot of land called a [[cemetery]] or "graveyard" and can be arranged by a [[funeral home]], [[mortuary]] , [[undertaker]] or by a [[church]]. ==Personification of death== ''Main article: [[Death (personification)]]'' '''[[Death (personification)|Death]]''' is also a [[mythology|mythological]] figure who has existed in popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. The traditional Western image of Death, known as the [[Grim Reaper]], is employed on a [[tarot]] card and in various [[television]] shows and [[film]]s. Some examples: *Death is a major character in the ''[[Discworld]]'' series by [[Terry Pratchett]]. *An [[Death (Sandman)|unusual personification]] of Death appears in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' graphic novels. *In [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'', a [[knight]] plays a game of chess against Death. *Death is also portrayed as a Grim Reaper-esque character in shows such as ''[[Family Guy]]'' *In the film, ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'', a remake of ''[[Death Takes a Holiday]]'', Death inhabits the body of a young man to experience life firsthand. *In the film, ''[[Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey]]'', Death is the bassist for Wyld Stallyns. *In the TV series ''[[Dead Like Me]]'', the main characters are all Grim Reapers as part of a post-life bureaucracy. *The series ''[[Touched by an Angel]]'' featured the [[Angel of Death]] as a regular character, depicted as a kindly, soft-spoken man in his mid-30s. --> == Baca og == * [[Aborsi]] * [[Apoptosis]] * [[Ars moriendi]] ("Seni Paéh") * [[Otopsi]] * [[Bibel jeung réinkarnasi]] * [[Paéh otak]] * [[Pajaratan]] * [[Paéh klinis]] * [[Koma]] * [[Karoshi]] | * [[Sakarat]] * [[Moksa]] * [[Ngahyang]] * [[Kaabadian]] * [[kremasi]] * [[Eutanasia]] * [[Mot]] * [[Réinkarnasi]] * [[Tanatologi]] (ulikan ilmiah ngeunaan paéh, sabab-musabab jeung fénoména) * [[Yama]] |} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.disastercenter.com/cdc/111riska.html Deaths and death rates for the 10 leading causes of death in specified age groups: United States, preliminary 1996] * [http://www.nsc.org/lrs/statinfo/odds.htm Odds of dying due to various injuries or accidents] Sumber: National Safety Council, United States, 2001 * [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051026045710/http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm |date=2005-10-26 }} (Sawangan Vedik/Hindu) * [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=65 Death & Dying in Islam] Naon nu karasa ku manusa nalika sakarat? Naha paéh téh patut dipikasieun? * [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/LifeCycle.htm The Cycle of Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025123408/http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/LifeCycle.htm |date=2005-10-25 }} Dina kontéks kaca ''[[New Age]]'' [[Aquarius]]. * [http://samvak.tripod.com/death.html Death, life, and personal identity]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} In regard to [[memetics]]. * [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/death_suffering.asp Why is there death and suffering?] Ti jihat para [[kréasionis]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051010005943/http://www.ogrish.com/ Deaths and death scenes. WARNING: very explicit] * [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] Dadaran ahli biologi ngeunaan hirup jeung paéh dina rupa-rupa organisme patali jeung évolusi. * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on death] * [http://www.deathclock.com Death Clock] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051013073606/http://www.deathclock.com/ |date=2005-10-13 }} Bobodoran ngeunaan sésa waktu hirup anjeun. * [http://www.death-clock.org The Death Clock] * [http://www.autopsyvideo.com www.autopsyvideo.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425191740/http://autopsyvideo.com/ |date=2019-04-25 }} - Loka ieu nawarkeun dokuméntasi otopsi, nu dihasilkeun tina gawé bareng Kantor Los Angeles County Coroner. {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] 7qyp4aa999j1qovo50loo7okea69qji 0 4379 731450 651899 2026-11-02T15:27:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731450 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Unreferenced}} {{redirect|Samurai}} [[Gambar:Samurai.JPG|thumb|250px|Samurai Jepang maké pakéan lengkep, 1860-an. Poto karya [[Felice Beato]]]] '''Samurai''' {{Nihongo|<!--'''Samurai'''-->|侍|extra=atawa, jarang dipaké, 士<!---"武士" is pronaunced "bushi" or, occasionally, "mononohu"--->}} nyaéta hiji watesan keur kaum bangsawan militer dina jaman [[pre-industrial|pra-industri]] [[Jepang]]. Kecap 'samurai' asalna tina basa Jepang nyaéta 'samorau'<!---"sabu" couldn't be japanese verb which means "to serve" even in old japanese. You probabuly mean "saburau" and the original form of this verb is "samorau"; this word is separated into "さ sa" and "守らふ morau". "sa" is prefix."morau" is separated into verb "守る moru" and suffix "ふ hu". "moru" means "to take care of". this explanation is supported by the original Japanese dictionaries.--->, nu hartina 'babakti'. == Mistik jeung kanyataan == Sabagéan gedé samurai (dina jaman Edo) diwengku ku kode etik [[honor|kahormatan]] disebut {{Nihongo|[[Bushido]]|武士道|Bushidō}}, sarta aturan-aturan nu nuturkeun kana kode etik kahormatan eta. Salah sahiji bagéan tina kode etik Bushido nyaéta {{Nihongo|[[seppuku]]|切腹|seppuku}}, nu ngidinan motong ''anggota badan'' keur malikeun kahormatan samurai. Sanajan kitu, Kode Bushido ditulis dina mangsa-damai sarta teu sakabéhna nembongkeun karakter samurai salaku tangtara. Sabaraha karakter romantis samurai, diajar tradisi [[Kobudo]] sarta [[Budo]], nu nembongkeun sisi séjén kahirupan samurai salian ti tangtara. <!-- Sanajan aya kode Bushido, dina kanyataanna, aya ogé samurai anu teu loyal sarta hianat (saperti, [[Akechi Mitsuhide]]), ''pengecut'', wanian, atawa loyal kacida (saperti, [[Kusunoki Masashige]]). Samurai ilaharna loyal ka atasanna, who in turn allied themselves with higher lords. These loyalties to the higher lords often shifted; for example, the high lords allied under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] (豊臣秀吉) were served by loyal samurai, but the [[feudal]] lords under them could shift their support to [[Tokugawa]], taking their samurai with them. There were, however, also notable instances where samurai would be disloyal to their lord or [[daimyo]], when loyalty to the emperor was seen to have supremacy.<ref>Mark Ravina, The Last Samurai - The Life and Battles of Saigō Takamori, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.</ref> ==Sajarah== ===Ihwal samurai=== [[Image: KofunCuirass.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Iron helmet and armour with gilt bronze decoration, [[Kofun era]], [[5th century]]. [[Tokyo National Museum]].]] Whilst the origins of modern samurai are contentious, it is believed that mounted warriors, archers and foot-soldiers in the sixth century that may have formed a proto-samurai.<ref name="HW">William Wayne Farris, Heavenly Warriors - The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500-1300, Harvard University Press, 1995.</ref> Following a disastrous military engagement with [[Tang]] China and [[Silla]] (part of modern Korea), Japan underwent widespread reforms. One of the most important was that of the [[Taika Reform]], issued by [[Emperor Kōtoku]] in 646 AD. This edict introduced Chinese cultural practices and administrative techniques throughout the Japanese aristocracy and bureaucracy<ref name="HW"/>. As part of the [[Yōrō Code]],<ref name="HOJ GS">A History of Japan, Vol. 3, George Samson, Tuttle Publishing, 2000.</ref> and the later [[Taihō Code]], of 702 AD, the population was required to report regularly for census, which was used as a precursor for national conscription. With an understanding of how the population was distributed, [[Emperor Mommu]] introduced the law whereby 1 in 3-4 adult males were drafted into the national military. These soldiers were required to supply their own weapons, and in return were exempted from duties and taxes.<ref name="HW"/> In the early [[Heian period]], the late [[8th century|8th]] and early [[9th century|9th centuries]], [[Emperor Kammu]] (桓武天皇) sought to consolidate and expand his rule in northern [[Honshu]], but the armies he sent to conquer the rebellious [[Emishi]] lacked motivation and discipline, and were unable to prevail. Emperor Kammu introduced the title of ''Seiitaishogun'' (征夷大将軍) or [[shogun]], and began to rely on the powerful regional clans to conquer the Emishi. Skilled in mounted combat and [[archery]] ([[kyudo]], 弓道), these clan warriors became the emperor's preferred tool for putting down rebellions. Although these warriors may have been educated, at this time (7th to 9th century) the Imperial court officials considered them to be little more than barbarians. Ultimately, Emperor Kammu disbanded his army, and from this time the emperor's power gradually declined. While the emperor was still the ruler, powerful clans around [[Kyoto]] (京都) assumed positions as ministers, and their relatives bought positions as magistrates. To amass wealth and repay their debts, magistrates often imposed heavy taxes, resulting in many farmers becoming landless. As the threat of robbery rose, the clans began recruiting these exiles in the Kanto plains. Because of their intense training in the martial arts, they proved to be effective guards. Small numbers would accompany tax collectors and, merely by their presence, deter thieves and bandits from attacking. They were ''saburai'', armed retainers, yet their advantage of being the sole armed party quickly became apparent. Through protective agreements and political marriages, they accumulated political power, eventually surpassing the traditional aristocracy. Some clans were originally formed by farmers who had taken up arms to protect themselves from the imperial magistrates sent to govern their lands and collect taxes. These clans formed alliances to protect themselves against more powerful clans, and by the mid-Heian period they had adopted characteristic Japanese armor and weapons, and laid the foundations of ''[[Bushido]]'', their ethical code. After the 11th century, samurai were expected to be cultured and literate, and they lived up to the ancient saying "Bun Bu Ryo Do" (lit. literary arts, military arts, both ways) or "The pen and the sword in accord." An early term for warrior, "Uruwashii", was written with a [[kanji]] that combined the characters for literary study ("bun" 文) and military arts ("bu" 武), and is mentioned in the [[Heike Monogatari]] (late 12th century). The Heike Monogatari makes reference to the educated poet-swordsman ideal in its mention of Taira no Tadanori's death: :"Friends and foes alike wet their sleeves with tears and said, 'What a pity! Tadanori was a great general, pre-eminent in the arts of both sword and poetry.' " According to [[William Scott Wilson]] in his book ''Ideals of the Samurai'': "The warriors in the Heike Monogatari served as models for the educated warriors of later generations, and the ideals depicted by them were not assumed to be beyond reach. Rather, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. With the Heike Monogatari, the image of the Japanese warrior in literature came to its full maturity." Wilson then translates the writings of several warriors who mention the Heike Monogatari as an example for their men to follow. ===Kamakura Bakufu and the rise of samurai=== Originally these warriors were merely mercenaries in the employ of the emperor and noble clans ([[kuge]], 公家), but slowly they gathered enough power to usurp the aristocracy and establish the first samurai-dominated government. As regional clans gathered manpower and resources and struck alliances with each other, they formed a hierarchy centered around a ''toryo'', or chief. This chief was typically a distant relative of the emperor, and a lesser member of one of three noble families (the [[Fujiwara]], [[Minamoto]], or the [[Taira]]). Though originally sent to provincial areas for a fixed four year term as a magistrate, the ''toryo'' declined to return to the capital when their terms ended, and their sons inherited their positions and continued to lead the clans in putting down rebellions throughout Japan during the middle and later Heian period. [[Image:DanNoUra.jpg|thumb|350px|Samurai fighting at the naval battle of [[Battle of Dan-no-ura|Dan-no-Ura]] in [[1185]].]] Because of their rising military and economic power, the clans ultimately became a new force in the politics of the court. Their involvement in the [[Hogen Rebellion]] in the late Heian period consolidated their power, and finally pitted the rival Minamoto and the Taira clans against each other, in the [[Heiji Rebellion]] of [[1160]]. Emerging victorious, [[Taira no Kiyomori]] became an imperial advisor, the first warrior to attain such a position, and eventually seized control of the central government, establishing the first samurai-dominated government and relegating the emperor to figurehead status. However, the Taira clan was still very conservative in comparison with its eventual successor, the Minamoto, and instead of expanding or strengthening its military might, the Taira clan had its women marry emperors and attempted to exercise control through the emperor. The Taira and the Minamoto clashed again in [[1180]], beginning the [[Gempei War]] which ended in [[1185]]. The victorious Minamoto no Yoritomo established the superiority of the samurai over the aristocracy. In [[1190]] he visited Kyoto and in [[1192]] became [[Shogun|Seii Taishogun]], establishing the [[Kamakura Shogunate]] or Kamakura Bakufu. Instead of ruling from Kyoto, he set up the Shogunate in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]], near his base of power. "Bakufu" means tent government, taken from the encampments the soldiers would live in, in accordance with the Bakufu's status as a military government. Over time, powerful samurai clans became warrior nobility ([[buke]]), who were only nominally under the court aristocracy. When the samurai began to adopt aristocratic pastimes like calligraphy, poetry and music, some court aristocrats in turn began to adopt samurai customs. In spite of various machinations and brief periods of rule by various emperors, real power was now in the hands of the shogun and the samurai. ===Ashikaga Shogunate and the Feudal Period=== Various samurai clans struggled for power over the [[Kamakura Shogunate|Kamakura]] and [[Ashikaga Shogunate]]s. [[Zen Buddhism]] spread among samurai in the [[13th century]] and helped to shape their standards of conduct, particularly overcoming fear of death and killing, but among the general populace [[Pure Land Buddhism]] was favored. [[Image:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|350px|The Samurai Suenaga facing Mongols, during the [[Mongol invasions of Japan]]. Moko Shurai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293.]] In 1274, the Yuan Dynasty (Mongol Empire) sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyushu. Japan mustered a mere 10,000 Samurai to meet this threat. The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion, which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties. The Yuan army was eventually recalled and the invasion called off. This invasion was noteworthy because the Mongol invaders used small, exploding bombs, which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gun powder in Japan. The Japanese defenders recognized the possibility of a renewed invasion, and began construction of a great, stone barrier around Hakata Bay in 1276. Completed in 1277, this wall stretched for 20 kilometers around the border of the bay. This would later serve as a strong defensive point against the Mongols. The Mongols attempted to settle matters in a diplomatic way from 1275 to 1279. Each envoy that was sent to Japan was executed, and this time set the stage for one of the most famous engagements in Japanese history. [[Image:Mooko-HakataWall.jpg|thumb|350px|Samurai and defensive wall at [[Hakata-ku, Fukuoka|Hakata]]. Moko Shurai Ekotoba, (蒙古襲来絵詞) c.1293.]] In 1281, a Yuan army of 140,000 men with 4,400 ships was mustered for a renewed invasion of Japan. Northern Kyushu was defended by a Japanese army of 40,000 men. The Mongol army was still on its ships preparing for the landing operation when a typhoon hit north Kyushu island. The casualties and damage inflicted by the typhoon, followed by the Japanese defense of the Hakata Bay barrier, resulted in the Mongols again recalling their armies. The thunderstorms of 1274 and the typhoon of 1281 helped the Samurai defenders of Japan repel the Mongol invaders despite being vastly outnumbered. These winds became known as kami-no-kaze, which literally translates as "wind of the gods." This is often given a simplified translation as "divine wind." The kami-no-kaze lent credence to the Japanese belief that their lands were indeed divine and under supernatural protection. In the 14th century, a blacksmith called [[Masamune]] developed a two-layer structure of soft and hard steel for use in swords. This structure gave much improved cutting power and endurance, and the production technique led to Japanese swords ([[katana]]) being recognized as some of the most potent hand weapons of pre-industrial [[East Asia]]. Many swords made using this technique were exported to the mainland, a few making their way as far as [[India]]. Issues of inheritance caused family infighting as primogeniture became common, in contrast to the division of succession designated by law before the 14th century. To avoid infighting, invasion of neighboring samurai's territories was common and bickering among samurai was a constant problem for the [[Kamakura]] and [[Ashikaga]] [[Shogun]]ates. The ''[[Sengoku Period|Sengoku jidai]]'' ("warring-states period") was marked by the loosening of samurai culture with people born into other social strata sometimes making names for themselves as warriors and thus becoming de facto samurai. In this turbulent period, [[bushido]] ethics became important factors in controlling and maintaining public order. Japanese war tactics and technologies improved rapidly in the [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century]]. Use of large numbers of infantry called [[ashigaru]] ("light-foot", due to their light armour), formed of humble warriors or ordinary people with ''Nagayari'' (a long [[lance]]) or ([[Naginata]]), was introduced and combined with cavalry in maneuvers. The number of people mobilized in warfare ranged from thousands to hundreds of thousands. [[Image:NanbanDo.JPG|thumb|150px|left|[[Nanban]] (Western)-style samurai [[cuirass]], 16th century.]] The [[arquebus]], a [[matchlock]] gun, was introduced by [[Lusitania]]ns/[[Portugal|Portuguese]] via a Chinese [[pirate]] ship in [[1543]] and the Japanese succeeded in naturalizing it within a decade. Groups of mercenaries with mass produced [[arquebus]]es played a critical role. By the end of feudal period, several hundred thousand firearms existed in Japan and massive armies numbering over 100,000 clashed in battles. The largest and most powerful army in Europe, the [[Spain|Spanish]], had only several thousand firearms and could only assemble 30,000 troops. [[Ninja]] also played critical roles in intelligence activity. In [[1592]], and again in [[1598]], Japan invaded [[Korea]] with an army of 160,000 samurai in the [[Seven-Year War]], taking great advantage of its mastery of the arquebus and Korea's poorly organized army. Though the samurai had widespread success at first, the navy of the [[Joseon dynasty]] led by Admiral [[Yi Sun Shin]] and his ingenious [[Turtle ship]] (the world's first ironclad ships) eventually repelled Hideyoshi's invasion. The social mobility of human resources was flexible, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans, [[Minamoto]], [[Taira]], [[Fujiwara]] and [[Tachibana]]. In most cases, however, it is hard to prove who their ancestors were. ''See also: [[Nanban trade period]]'' ===Oda, Toyotomi and Tokugawa=== ''[[Oda Nobunaga]]'' was the well-known lord of the [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] area (once called [[Owari Province]]) and an exceptional example of samurai of the [[Sengoku Period]]. He came within a few years of, and laid down the path for his successors to achieve, the reunification of Japan under a new Bakufu (Shogunate). Oda Nobunaga made innovations in the fields of organizations and war tactics, heavily used arquebuses, developed commerce and industry and treasured innovations. Consecutive victories enabled him to realize the termination of the Ashikaga Bakufu and the disarmament of the military powers of the Buddhist monks, which had inflamed futile struggles among the populace for centuries. Attacking from a "sanctuary" of Buddhist temples, they were constant headaches to any warlords and even the emperor who tried to control their actions. He died in [[1582]] when one of his Generals, [[Akechi Mitsuhide]], turned upon him with his army. [[Image:Hasekura in Rome.JPG|thumb|180px|The Samurai [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]] in Rome in [[1615]], Coll. Borghese, [[Rome]].]] Importantly, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (see below) and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who founded the Tokugawa Shogunate, were loyal followers of Nobunaga. Hideyoshi was brought up from a nameless peasant to be one of Nobunaga's top generals and Ieyasu had shared his childhood with Nobunaga. Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide within a month and was regarded as the rightful successor of Nobunaga by avenging the treachery of Mitsuhide. These two were gifted with Nobunaga's previous achievements on which build a unified Japan and there was a saying: "The reunification is a rice cake; Oda made it. Hashiba shaped it. At last, only Ieyasu tastes it." (Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga.) [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], who became a grand minister in [[1586]], himself the son of a poor peasant family, created a law that the samurai caste became codified as permanent and heritable, and that non-samurai were forbidden to carry weapons, thereby ending the social mobility of Japan up until that point and the dissolution of the Edo Shogunate by the Meiji revolutionaries. It is important to note that the distinction between samurai and non-samurai was so obscure that during the 16th century, most male adults in any social class (even small farmers) belonged to at least one military organization of their own and served in wars before and during Hideyoshi's rule. It can be said that an "all against all" situation continued for a century. The authorized samurai families after the 17th century were those that chose to follow [http://www.samurai-source.com/samurai-warriors/oda-nobunaga.htm Nobunaga], Hideyoshi and [http://www.samurai-source.com/samurai-warriors/samurai-warriors.htm Ieyasu]. Large battles occurred during the change between regimes, and a number of defeated samurai were destroyed, went [[ronin]] or were absorbed into the general populace. ===Tokugawa Shogunate=== [[Image:Samourai servante Itcho.jpg|thumb|''Samurai walking followed by a servant'', by Hanabusa Itcho (1652 - 1724)]] During the [[Tokugawa era]], samurai increasingly became courtiers, bureaucrats, and administrators rather than warriors. With no warfare since the early 17th century, samurai gradually lost their military function during the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa era]] (also called the [[Edo period]]). By the end of the Tokugawa era, samurai were aristocratic bureaucrats for the [[daimyo]], with their ''[[daisho]]'', the paired long and short swords of the samurai (cf. '[[katana]]' and [[wakizashi]]) becoming more of a symbolic emblem of power rather than a weapon used in daily life. They still had the legal right to cut down any [[commoner]] who did not show proper respect, but to what extent this right was used is unknown. When the central government forced daimyos to cut the size of their armies, unemployed [[ronin]] became a social problem. Theoretical obligations between a samurai and his lord (usually a daimyo) increased from the Genpei era to the Edo era. They were strongly emphasized by the teachings of Confucius and Mencius (ca [[550 B.C.]]) which were required reading for the educated samurai class. During the Edo period, after the general end of hostilities, the code of Bushido was formalized. It is important to note that bushido was an ideal, but that it remained uniform from the 13th century to the 19th century - the ideals of Bushido transcended social class, time and geographic location of the warrior class. [[Bushido]] was formalized by many samurai in this time of peace in much the same fashion as [[chivalry]] was formalized after [[knights]] as a warrior class became obsolete in Europe. The conduct of samurai became a favorable model of a citizen in Edo, with formalities being emphasized. With time on their hands, samurai spent more time in pursuit of other interests such as becoming scholars. Bushido still survives in present-day Japanese society, as do many other aspects of the samurai's way of life. ===Samurai decline during the [[Meiji Restoration]]=== By this time, the Way of Death and Desperateness had been eclipsed by a rude awakening in 1853, when Commodore [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry's]] massive steamships from the US Navy first imposed broader commerce, American Style, on the once-dominant national policy. Prior to that only a few harbor towns, under strict control from the Shogunate, were able to participate in Western trade, and even then, it was based largely on the idea of playing the [[Franciscan]]s and [[Dominican order|Dominicans]] off against one another (in exchange for the crucial [[arquebus]] technology, which in turn was a major contributor to the downfall of the classical samurai). [[Image:Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg|thumb|300px|Samurai of the [[Satsuma]] clan, during the [[Boshin War]] period, circa 1867. Photograph by [[Felice Beato]]]] The last showing of the original samurai was in [[1867]] when samurai from [[Choshu]] and [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] provinces defeated the Shogunate forces in favor of the rule of the emperor. The two provinces were the lands of the daimyo that submitted to Ieyasu after the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] ([[1600]]). Other sources claim that the last samurai conflict was in [[1877]], during the [[Satsuma Rebellion]] in the [[Battle of Shiroyama]]. This conflict had its genesis in the previous uprising to defeat the Tokugawa Shogunate, leading to the Meiji Restoration. The newly formed government instituted radical changes, aimed at reducing the power of the feudal domains, including Satsuma, and the dissolution of samurai status. This lead to the ultimately premature uprising, lead by Takamori Saigo. [[Emperor Meiji]] abolished the samurai's right to be the only armed force in favor of a more modern, western-style, conscripted army. Samurai became ''Shizoku'' (士族) who retained some of their salaries, but the right to wear a katana in public was eventually abolished along with the right to cut down commoners who paid them disrespect. The samurai finally came to an end after hundreds of years of enjoyment of their status, their powers, and their ability to shape the government of Japan. However, the rule of the state by the military class was not yet over. ===Post Meiji Restoration=== In defining how a modern Japan should be, members of the Meiji government decided to follow the footsteps of [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]], basing the country on the concept of "[[noblesse oblige]]" and samurai would not be a political force much like that of [[Prussia]]. With the [[Meiji Restoration|Meiji]] reforms in the late [[19th century]], the samurai class was abolished, and a western-style national army was established. The Imperial Japanese Armies were conscripted, but many samurai volunteered to be soldiers and many advanced to be trained as officers. Much of the Imperial Army officer class was of samurai origin and they were highly motivated, disciplined and exceptionally trained. Many early exchange students were samurai, not directly because they were samurai, but because many samurai were literate and well-educated scholars. Some of these exchange students started private schools for higher educations, while many samurai took pens instead of guns and became reporters and writers, setting up newspaper companies. Other samurai entered governmental services as they were literate and well educated. ==Culture== As ''de facto'' aristocrats for centuries, samurai developed their own cultures that influenced Japanese culture as a whole. ===Education=== A samurai was expected to read and write, as well as to know some mathematics. [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], a great samurai yet originally a peasant, could only read and write in hiragana and this was a significant drawback for him. Samurai were expected, though not required, to have interests in other arts such as [[dancing]], [[Go (board game)|Go]], [[literature]], [[poetry]], and [[tea]]. [[Ōta Dōkan]] who first ruled [[Edo]] wrote how he was shamed to realize that even a commoner had more knowledge of poetry than he, and this made him edficate. ===Shudō=== [[Image:Miyagawa Issho hand scroll.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Shudo|Shudō]]-type encounter between a man and a male youth.<br> Painted hand-scroll ([[kakemono-e]]); [[Miyagawa Issho|Miyagawa Isshō]], ca. 1750; Private collection.]] ''[[Shudo|Shudō]]'' (衆道), the tradition of love bonds between a seasoned and a novice samurai was held to be "the flower of the samurai spirit" and formed the real basis of the samurai esthetic. It was analogous to the educational [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[pederasty]] and an honored and important practice in samurai society. It was one of the main ways in which the ethos and the skills of the samurai tradition were passed down from one generation to another. Another name for the bonds was ''bidō'' (美道: the beautiful way). The devotion that two samurai would have for each other would be almost as great as that which they had for their [[Daimyo|daimyo]]. Indeed, according to contemporary accounts, the choice between his lover and his master could become a philosophical problem for samurai. [[Hagakure]] and other samurai manuals gave specific instructions in the way that this tradition was to be carried out and respected. After the [[Meiji Restoration]] and the introduction of a more westernised lifestyle, as [[Bushido|bushidō]] died out the masculine esthetic was replaced by the European feminine one, bringing with it the end of shudo. (Watanabe and Iwata, 1989) ===Samurai Names=== A samurai was usually named by combining one [[kanji]] from his father or grandfather and one new kanji. Many samurai were part of their name. [[Oda Nobunaga]] would therefore be officially called "Oda Kōzukenosuke Owarinokami Nobunaga" (織田上総介尾張守信長) and would be referred to as "Oda Kōzukenosuke" or "Oda Owarinokami". ===Marriage=== The [[marriage]] of samurai was done by having a marriage arranged by someone with the same or higher rank than those being married. While for those samurai in the upper ranks this was a necessity (as most had few opportunities to meet a female), this was a formality for lower ranked samurai. Most samurai married women from a samurai family, but for a lower ranked samurai marriages with commoners were permitted. In these marriages a [[dowry]] was brought by the woman and was used to start their new lives. A samurai could have a [[Mistress (lover)|mistress]] but her background was strictly checked by higher ranked samurai. In many cases, this was treated like a marriage. "Kidnapping" a mistress, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not a crime. When she was a commoner, a messenger would be sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax and ask for her parent's acceptance and many parents gladly accepted. If a samurai's wife gave birth to a son he could be a samurai. A samurai could [[divorce]] his wife for a variety of reasons with approval from a superior, but divorce was, while not entirely nonexistent, a rare event. A reason for divorce would be if she could not produce a son, but then [[adoption]] could be arranged as an alternative to divorce. A samurai could divorce for personal reasons, even if he simply did not like his wife, but this was generally avoided as it would embarrass the samurai who had arranged the marriage. A woman could also arrange a divorce, although it would generally take the form of the samurai divorcing her. After a divorce samurai had to return the betrothal money, which often prevented divorces. Some rich merchants had their daughters marry samurai to erase a samurai's debt and advance their positions. A samurai's wife would be dishonored and allowed to commit [[jigai]] (a female's seppuku) if she were cast off. ==Philosophy== The philosophies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Zen]], and to a lesser extent [[Confucianism]], influenced the samurai culture as well as [[Shinto]]. Zen meditation became an important teaching due to it offering a process to calm one's mind. The Buddhist concept of [[reincarnation]] and [[rebirth]] led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing, while some samurai even gave up violence altogether and became Buddhist monks after realizing how fruitless their killings were. Some were killed as they came to terms with these realizations in the battlefield. The most defining role that [[Confucianism]] played in samurai philosophy was to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship; that is, the loyalty that a samurai was required to show his lord. [[Bushido]] was a term attached to a samurai "code of conduct" enforced during Edo period by the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]], so that they could control the samurai more easily. Its deceptive simplicity led to countless arguments over its interpretation. ''[[Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai]]'' by [[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]] is a manual of instruction into the way of the samurai. Even as it was published, it received a number of reviews that criticized its strict and impersonal interpretations. If the lord is wrong, for example if he ordered a massacre of civilians, should he observe [[loyalty]] to massacre as ordered or should he observe [[rectitude]] to let the civilians escape unharmed? If a man had sick parents but committed an unforgivable mistake, should he protect his [[honour]] by committing [[seppuku]] or should he show [[courage]] by living with dishonor and care for his parents? The incident of [[Forty-seven Ronin|47 Ronin]] caused debates about the righteousness of the samurai's actions and how bushido should be applied. They had defied the shogun by taking matters into their own hands but it was an act of [[loyalty]] and [[rectitude]] as well. Finally, their acts were agreed to be [[rectitude]] but not [[loyalty]] to the shogun. This made them criminals with conscience and eligible for seppuku. The most famous book of ''[[kenjutsu]]'', or sword fighting, dates from this period ([[Miyamoto Musashi]]'s ''[[The Book of Five Rings]]'', [[1643]]). However, the larger part of the book is focused on the mentality of fighting. In an attempt to help develop the character needed to cope with moral demands that the practice of kenjutsu required many kenjutsu books from the Edo period also focused on spiritual issues. ==Samurai Women== Maintaining the household, or ''ie'', was the main duty of samurai women. This was especially crucial during early feudal Japan, when warrior husbands were often traveling abroad or engaged in clan battles. The wife, or ''okusan'' (meaning: one who remains in the home), was left to manage all household affairs, care for the children, and perhaps even defend the home forcibly. For this reason, many women of the samurai class were trained in wielding a polearm called a [[naginata]], which they could use to protect their household, family, and honor if the need arose. Traits valued in women of the samurai class were humility, obedience, self-control, strength, and loyalty. Ideally, a samurai wife would be skilled at managing property, keeping records, dealing with financial matters, educating the children (and perhaps servants, too), and caring for elderly parents or in-laws that would may be living under her roof. Confucian law, which helped define personal relationships and the code of ethics of the warrior class required that a woman show subservience to her husband, filial piety to her parents, and care to the children. Too much love and affection was also said to indulge and spoil the youngsters. Thus, a woman was also to exercise discipline. Though women of wealthier samurai families enjoyed perks of their elevated position in society, such as avoiding the physical labor that those of lower classes often engaged in, they were still viewed as far beneath men. Women were prohibited from engaging in any political affairs and usually not the heads of their household. As the Tokugawa period progressed more value became placed on education, and the education of females beginning at a young age became important to families and society as a whole. Marriage criteria began to weigh intelligence and education as desirable attributes in a wife, right along with physical attractiveness. Though many of the texts written for women during the Tokugawa period only pertained to how a woman could become a successful wife and household manager, there were those that undertook the challenge of learning to read Chinese, and also tackled philosophical and literary classics. Nearly all female samurai were literate by the end of the Tokugawa period. ==Weapons== [[Image:Samurai with weapons - Kusakabe, Kimbei, 1841-1934.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Samurai with assorted weapons.]] The samurai used various weapons, but the [[katana]] is the weapon that is synonymous with samurai. Bushido taught that a samurai's soul is their [[katana]] and sometimes a samurai is pictured as entirely dependent on the katana for fighting. This contrasted with the [[crossbow]]s of Europe or the [[sword]]s of knights which were, principally, tools for combat. However the use of swords did not become common in battle until the [[Kamakura period]] (1185-1333), where the [[Tachi]] and [[Uchigatana]] (the direct predecesor to the katana) became prevalent. The Katana itself did not become the primary weapon until the [[Edo period]]. After a male child of the bushi was born, he would recieve his first sword in a ceremony called mamori-gatana. The sword, however, was merely a charm sword covered with brocade to which was attached a purse or wallet, worn by children under five. Upon reaching the age of thirteen, in a ceremony called ''Genbuku'' (元服), a male child was given his first real swords and armour, an adult name, and became a samurai. A katana and a wakizashi together are called a [[daisho]] (lit. "big and small"). The [[wakizashi]] itself was a samurai's "honour blade" and purportedly never left the samurai's side. He would sleep with it under his pillow and it would be taken with him when he entered a house and had to leave his main weapons outside. The [[Tanto]] was a small dagger sometimes worn with the Wakizashi in a daisho. The tanto or the wakizashi was used to commit [[seppuku]], a ritualized suicide. The samurai stressed skill with the [[yumi]] (longbow), reflected in the art of [[kyudo]](lit. the way of the bow). The bow would remain a critical component of the Japanese military even with the introduction of firearms during the [[Sengoku Jidai]] period. The yumi, an asymmetric [[composite bow]] made from [[bamboo]], [[wood]], and [[leather]], was not as powerful as the Eurasian [[Reflex bow|reflex]] [[composite bow]], having an effective range of 50 metres or less (100 metres if accuracy was not an issue). It was usually used on foot behind a ''tedate'' (手盾), a large and mobile bamboo wall, but shorter versions (hankyu) could also be used from horseback. The practice of shooting from horseback became a Shinto ceremony of ''[[Yabusame]]'' (流鏑馬). In the 15th century, the [[yari]] (spear) also became a popular weapon, displacing along with the [[naginata]] from the battlefield as personal bravery became less of a factor and battles became more organized around massed, inexpensive foot troops. A charge, mounted or dismounted, was more effective when using a spear than a katana and it offered better than even odds against a samurai using a katana. In the [[Battle of Shizugatake]] where [[Shibata Katsuie]] was defeated by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], then known as Hashiba Hideyoshi, the Seven Spearmen of Shizugatake (賤ヶ岳七本槍) played a crucial role in the victory. The latter half of the 16th Century saw the introduction of the [[arquebus]] in Japan through Portuguese trade, enabling warlords to raise effective armies from masses of peasants. The new weapons were highly controversial. Their ease of use and deadly effectiveness was perceived by many as a dishonorable affront to Bushido tradition. [[Oda Nobunaga]] made deadly use of the arquebus at the [[Battle of Nagashino]] in 1575, leading to the end of the [[Takeda]] clan. After their initial introduction by the Portuguese and the Dutch, the [[matchlock]] arquebus, or [[teppo]], were produced on a large scale by Japanese gunsmiths. By the end of the 16th Century, there were more firearms in Japan than in any European nation, with largely superior craftsmanship. Teppo, employed ''en masse'' largely by [[ashigaru]] peasant foot troops were in many ways the antithesis of samurai valor. With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate and an end to civil war, production of the guns declined sharply with prohibitions to ownership. By the Tokugawa Shogunate most spear-based weapons had been phased out partly because they were suboptimal for the close-quarter combat common in the Edo period, this combined with the aforementioned restrictions on fire-arms resulted in the [[Daisho]] being the only weapons typically carried by samurai. Some other weapons used by samurai were [[jo (weapon)|jo]], [[bo (weapon)|bo]], [[grenade]], Chinese [[trebuchet]]s (more as an anti-personnel weapon than a siege engine) and [[cannon]] (infrequently and at great expense). ==Etymology of samurai and related words== [[Image:CalSamurai.gif|thumb|120px|The [[kanji]] for ''samurai''.]] The term ''Samurai'' originally meant "those who serve in close attendance to nobility", and was written in the [[Chinese character]] (or ''[[kanji]]'') that had the same meaning. In Japanese, it was originally pronounced in the pre-[[Heian Period|Heian period]] as ''saburapi'' and later as ''saburai'', then ''samurai'' in the Edo period. In Japanese literature, there is an early reference to samurai in the [[Kokinshu]] (古今集, early 10th century): :Attendant to your nobility :Ask for your master's umbrella :The dews 'neath the trees of Miyagino :Are thicker than rain :(poem 1091) The word '''bushi''' (武士, lit. "warrior or armsman") first appears in an early history of Japan called [[Shoku Nihongi]] (続日本記, [[797]] A.D.). In a portion of the book covering the year [[723]] A.D., Shoku Nihongi states: "Literary men and Warriors are they whom the nation values". The term ''bushi'' is of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] origin and adds to the indigenous Japanese words for ''warrior'': ''Tsuwamono'' and ''Mononofu''. The terms ''bushi'' and ''samurai'' became synonymous near the end of the [[12th century]], according to [[William Scott Wilson]] in his book ''Ideals of the Samurai--Writings of Japanese Warriors''. Wilson's book thoroughly explores the origins of the word ''warrior'' in Japanese history as well as the [[Kanji]] (Chinese symbols) used to represent the word. Wilson states that ''Bushi'' actually translates as "a man who has the ability to keep the peace, either by literary or military means, but predominantly by the latter". It was not until the early modern period, namely the [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]] and early [[Edo period]] of the late [[16th century|16th]] and early [[17th century|17th]] centuries that the word ''saburai'' was replaced with ''samurai''. However, the meaning had changed long before that. [[Image:Koshirae.jpg|thumb|300px|''A Samurai [[katana]] in koshirae.'']] During the era of the rule of the samurai, the term ''yumitori'' (弓取, "bowman") was also used as an honorary title of an accomplished warrior even though swordsmanship had become more important. (Japanese archery (''[[kyujutsu]]'') is still strongly associated with the war god [[Hachiman]].) A samurai with no attachment to a clan or [[daimyo]] (大名) was called a ''[[ronin]]'' (浪人). In Japanese, the word ''ronin'' means "wave man", a person destined to wander aimlessly forever, like the waves in the sea. The word came to mean a samurai who was no longer in the service of a lord because his lord had died, because the samurai had been banished or simply because the samurai chose to become a ronin. The pay of Samurai was measured in ''koku'' of rice (180 liters; enough to feed a man for one year). Samurai in the service of the [[han (feudal domain)|han]] are called '''hanshi'''. The following terms are related to samurai or the samurai tradition: * ''Uruwashii''<br>a cultured warrior symbolized by the kanji for "bun" (literary study) and "bu" (military study or arts) * ''Buke'' (武家)<br>A martial house or a member of such a house * ''Mononofu'' (もののふ)<br>An ancient term meaning a warrior. * ''Musha'' (武者)<br>A shortened form of ''Bugeisha'' (武芸者), lit. martial art man. * ''Shi'' (士)<br>A word roughly meaning "gentleman," it is sometimes used for samurai, in particular in words such as ''bushi'' (武士, meaning warrior or samurai). * ''Tsuwamono'' (兵)<br>An old term for a soldier popularized by [[Matsuo Basho]] in his famous [[haiku]]. Literally meaning a strong person. <table border="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr valign="top"><td align="center" width=10%><td width=30%>natsukusa ya<br>tsuwamono domo ga<br>yume no ato Matsuo Basho <td width=5%><td width=30%>Summer grasses,<br>All that remains<br>Of soldiers’ dreams (trans. Lucien Stryk) </table> ==Samurai in popular culture== [[Image:MitoKomonSatomiKotaro.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Actor Kotaro Satomi on the set of ''Mito Komon'']] [[Jidaigeki]] (lit. historical [[drama]]) has always been a staple program on Japanese movies and TV. The programs typically feature a samurai with a kenjutsu who stood up against evil samurai and merchants. ''[[Mito Komon]]'' (水戸黄門), a fictitious series of stories about [[Tokugawa Mitsukuni]]'s travel is a popular TV drama in which Mitsukuni travels disguised as a retired rich merchant with two unarmed samurai disguised as his companions. He finds trouble wherever he goes, and after gathering evidence, he has his samurai knock around unrepentantly evil samurai and merchants, before revealing his identity. It is then obvious to the villans that he can destroy their entire clan and the villains surrender in the hope that his punishments will not extend to their families. The samurai-themed works of film director [[Akira Kurosawa]] are among the most praised of the genre, influencing many filmmakers across the world with his techniques and storytelling. Notable works of his include ''[[The Seven Samurai]]'', in which a besieged farming village hires a collection of wandering samurai to defend them from bandits, ''[[Yojimbo (movie)|Yojimbo]]'', where a former samurai involves himself in a town's gang war by working for both sides, and ''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'', in which two foolish peasants find themselves helping a legendary general escort a princess to safety. The latter was one of the primary inspirations for [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars]]'', which also borrows a number of aspects from the samurai, for example the [[Jedi|Jedi Knights]] of the series. Samurai films and [[Western movie|westerns]] share a number of similarities and the two have influenced each other over the years. Kurosawa was inspired by the works of director [[John Ford]] and in turn Kurosawa's works have been remade into westerns such as ''The Seven Samurai'' into ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' and ''Yojimbo'' into ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]''. There is also an anime adaption ([[Samurai 7]]) of "The Seven Samurai" which spans many episodes. Another fictitious television series, ''[[Abarembo Shogun]]'', featured [[Tokugawa Yoshimune|Yoshimune]], the eighth [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[shogun]]. Samurai at all levels from the shogun down to the lowest rank, as well as [[ronin]], featured prominently in this show. ''[[Shogun (novel)|Shōgun]]'' is the first novel in [[James Clavell]]'s Asian Saga. It is set in feudal Japan around the year 1600 and gives a highly fictionalized account of the rise of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] to the [[Shogunate]], seen through the eyes of an English sailor whose fictional heroics are loosely based on [[William Adams]]' exploits. A Hollywood movie, ''[[The Last Samurai]]'', containing a mixture of fact and fiction, was released in 2003 to generally good reviews in North America. The film's plot is loosely based on the [[1877]] [[Satsuma Rebellion]] led by [[Saigo Takamori]], and also on the story of [[Jules Brunet]], a French army captain who fought alongside [[Enomoto Takeaki]] in the [[Boshin War]]. The life-style and the war tactics shown in the movie ''The Last Samurai'' are those of out-country samurai of the ''[[Sengoku Period|Sengoku jidai]]'', precisely of the era before 1543; not those in the 19th century. An actual battle of that period was only a little different from those involved the American or European armies, a key difference being a katana to be waved to signal soldiers to charge instead of a [[saber]]. The movie ''[[Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai]]'', starring actor [[Forest Whitaker]] takes as its central character a black assassin in contemporary America who gains inspiration from the Hagakure. The soundtrack album positions hip hop against readings of the [[Hagakure]]. ''[[Kill Bill]]'' by [[Quentin Tarantino]] can be described as a glorification of the samurai sword, [[katana]]. It is primarily inspired by anime and relates little to the samurai. This same distortion of samurai culture continues onto the low-budget world of the [[cult film]], where in films such as ''[[Samurai Vampire Bikers From Hell]]'', the primary characters attempt to portray a lineage to the samurai but are more closely link to the [[anime]] or [[comic book]] culture of the late twentieth century. The samurai have also appeared frequently in Japanese comics ([[manga]]) and animation ([[anime]]). Most common are historical works where the protagonist is either a samurai or former samurai (or another rank/position) who possesses considerable martial skill. Two of the most famous examples are ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]'', where the former proxy executioner for the Shogun and his toddler son become hired killers after being betrayed by other samurai and nobles, and ''[[Rurouni Kenshin]]'', where a former assassin, after helping end the Bakumatsu era and bringing about the Meiji era, finds himself protecting newfound friends and fighting off old enemies while upholding his oath to never kill again through the use of a reverse-bladed sword. It was also made into anime. Samurai-like characters are not just restricted to historical settings and a number of works set in the modern age, and even the future, include characters who live, train and fight like samurai. Notable examples include [[Goemon Ishikawa]] XIII from the ''[[Lupin III]]'' series of comics, television series, and movies, and Motoko Aoyama from the romantic comedy ''[[Love Hina]]''. Some relevance to the samurai can even be seen in the show ''[[Beyblade]]'', which is set in the present. One character, Jin of the Gale, seems to be a mix of samurai and ninja traits. Another [[anime]], which is intended for adult audiences involving samurai is 2004's ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', which portrays Edo-period Japan combined with modern street-culture and ''[[Hip hop culture|hip-hop]]''. One of the show's main characters is Jin, once an accomplished samurai who became a wondering ronin after killing his master. [[Image:Uybook11.jpg|right|thumb|''Usagi Yojimbo'', the longest running American samurai comic book to date.]] American [[comic books]] have adopted the character type for stories of their own. For instance, the [[Marvel Universe]] [[superhero]] [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] during the [[1980s]] attempted to use the ideals and concept of the samurai as a means to control his violent urges in a constructive manner. The ronin have also been a feature in popular series such as ''[[Ronin (comic)|Ronin]]'' by [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]] and ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'' by [[Stan Sakai]]. Samurai are also heroes and enemies in many games where they are generally depicted wielding katana as foot soldiers. An example of one such American game is the ''[[Age of Empires]]'' series. Some popular Japanese titles featuring samurai include ''[[Samurai Warriors]]'', ''[[Brave Fencer Musashi]]'', ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' and there is even a lead character portraying a samurai in the Sci-Fi thriller game ''[[Xenosaga|Xenosaga Episode II: Jenseits von Gut und Böse]]''. [[Jin Uzuki]], [[Shion Uzuki]]'s brother, is a Samurai wannabe who fights only with a sword, trying to force his Kimono styles onto his sister. Certain Fighting Game titles hold a vast amount of samurai fighters, a couple being [[Bishamon]] from [[Darkstalkers]], and [[Sodom]] from [[Street Fighter Alpha]]. But the more popular (and obvious) title, [[Samurai Showdown]] have samurai warriors that consume much of its roster in each of their games. [[Haohmaru]] and [[Genjuro]] are the most well-known and traditional samurai warriors in that fighting game. The concept of a samurai, as opposed to that of a [[knight]], has led to a major gap in how a [[warrior]] or a [[hero]] is characterised in Japan and the rest of the world. A samurai does not have to be tall and heavily muscled to be strong - he can be barely five feet tall, seemingly weak and even [[Disability|handicapped]]. ''He'' can even be ''she''. Equating size with power and strength does not readily appeal to the Japanese aesthetic. Perfect examples of this can be found in the ''[[Zatoichi|Blind Swordsman Zatoichi]]'' movie series or Lady Toda Mariko from James Clavell's ''Shogun''. Ancient Japanese heroes are often flawed individuals who gain strength from what other cultures would only see as a form of weakness. --> == Rujukan == <references/> == Pilm Samurai == * [[The Hidden Fortress]] * [[Seven Samurai]] * [[Sanjuro]] * [[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]] * [[The Last Samurai]] * [[Samurai Trilogy]] * [[When the Last Sword Is Drawn]] * [[Kagemusha]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.sengokudaimyo.com/ SengokuDaimyo.com] The website of Samurai Author and Historian * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_J._Bryant Anthony J. Bryant] * [http://split-kitty.com/misc/Hagakure/ ''Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai'' online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829140418/http://split-kitty.com/misc/hagakure/ |date=2006-08-29 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201125084019/http://samurai-archives.com/ Samurai Archives] * [http://english.tsukudo.jp/ The God of Samurai] * [http://youtube.com/watch?v=uDX5LL-Fzto&mode=related&search= Simulated combat between a Samurai and an armored knight] == Baca ogé == {{wikisource|The Precepts of Kato Kiyomasa}} {{commons|Category:Samurai}} * [[Kéndo]] * [[Kiri sute gomen]] * ''[[The Last Samurai]]'' * ''[[Le Samouraï]]'' * [[Onna bugei-sha]] * [[Klan Minamoto]] * [[Miyamoto Musashi]] * [[Samurai (hacking)]] * [[Seiwa Genji]] * [[Klan Taira]] * [[Takeda Shingen]] * [[Tanka o kiru]] * [[Uesugi Kenshin]] * [[Rurouni Kenshin]] * [[Samurai Champloo]] * [[Pechin|Okinawan Samurai]] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Samurai]] o0dc67zitanewe3q5v05mp3dd93dyip 0 4815 731447 628427 2026-11-02T13:41:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731447 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[image:Japan_prov_map701.png|thumb|240px|Propinsi dina [[701]]&ndash;[[702]]]] [[image:Japan_prov_map.png|thumb|240px|Propinsi dina [[Kamakura period|periode Kamakura]] nepi ka taun [[1868]]]] saméméh sistim perfektur modérn aya, [[Jepang]] dibagi kana sapuluh ''kuni'' (国, nagara), nu ilahar dina Basa Inggris ''propinsi''. Unggal propinsi dibagi kana ''gun'' (郡, wilayah; saméméhna disebut ''kōri''). Propinsi dipaké keur satuan administrasi jeung wewengkon géografi. Dina ahir [[Muromachi period|Periode Muromachi]], fungsi éféktifjeung laun-laun digantikeun ku kakawasan[[sengoku]]-[[daimyo]]. Dumasar kana aturan [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], propinsi sacara administrasi digantikeun ku daimyos ''[[fief]]''. Dina [[Edo period|periode Edo]], ''fief'' jadi ''han''. Propinsi nyesakeun entitas géografi jeung urang Jepang nyebut tempat ku ngaran propinsi ditambahan ku ngaran ''han''. Dina [[Meiji restoration|restorasi Meiji]], ''han'' diaku sacara hukum salaku satuan adminitrasi tapi gancang digantikeun ku perfektur (perfektur urban disebut ''fu'' jeung perfektur rural disebut ''ken''). Propinsi salaku bagéan tina sistim alamat teu dileungitkeun tapi, malah nambahan. Dina taun [[1871]], jumlah perfektur aya 304, sedengkeun jumlah propinsi aya 68, teu kaasup Propinsi [[Hokkaido]] jeung [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]]. Wates antara perfektur loba nu teu lengkeup, malah kadangkala teu sarua jeung water propinsi. Perfektur laun-laun dihijikeun jeung jumlahna ngurangan jadi 37 dina taun [[1881]]; saterusna dibagi deui jadi 45 taun [[1885]]. Ku nambahkeun [[Hokkaido Prefecture|Hokkaido]] jeung [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] ngahasilkeun jumlah sakabéh prefektur ayeuna aya 47. Nepi ka kiwari, taya parentah resmi nu ngaleungitkeun propinsi. Propinsi dianggap henteu leungit sakabenhna, sababaraha hal masih dipaké keur ngaran tempat, ngaran parusahaan jeung merk. Dina awal taun [[2000s|2000]]-an, gubernur [[Nagano Prefecture|Perfektur Nagano]] ngusulkeun ngaran perfekturna jadi "Shinshu" (ngaran nu asalna ti [[Shinano Province|Propinsi Shinano]]). Propinsi diasupkeun kana ''kinai'' (kaasup ibukotana), sarta tujuh atawa dalapan ''do'' (rute atawa [[circuit (political division)|sirkuit]]). Catetan, sanajan ''do'' dina konteks ieu teu matak bingung jeung jalan lalulintas modérn saperti [[Tokaido]] ti [[Tokyo]] ka [[Kyoto]] atawa [[Kobe]]. ''Hokkaido'' dina konteks ieu teu matak bingung jeung [[Hokkaido Prefecture|Perfektur Hokkaido]], sanajan tumpang tindih sacara géografi. ==Daptar propinsi== ===Awal abad ka dalapan=== <!-- Tai-hou-ryou --> :''Tempo oge: [[Gokishichido]]'' {|width=100% |valign=top width=50%| *[[Kinai]] 畿内&#12288;(Daerah deukeut-kaasup ibukota) **[[Yamato Province|Yamato]] 大和国 (tempatna kaisar) (ditulis 倭国 nepi ka jaman Tennō Genmei, nu netepkeun ibu kota Jepang mimiti di [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], aya di jero ieu propinsi din taun 710 CE) **[[Kawachi Province|Kawachi]]&#12288;河内国 **[[Settsu Province|Settsu]]&#12288;摂津国 **[[Yamashiro Province|Yamashiro]]&#12288;山城国 (saméméhna ditulis ogé 山背国 atawa 山代国; propinsi ieu ayana di [[Kyoto]]) *[[Tosando]] 東山道&#12288;(Jalur-gunung-wetan) **[[Omi Province|Omi]]&#12288;近江国 (sacara litelatur "(Deukeut) Laut Caitawar," tempo [[Lake Biwa|Dano Biwako]]) **[[Mino Province|Mino]]&#12288;美濃国 **[[Propinsi Hida|Hida]]&#12288;飛騨国 **[[Shinano Province|Shinano]]&#12288;信濃国 **[[Kozuke Province|Kozuke]] 上野国 (sacara litelatur "Keno Luhur," bagéan ti [[Keno Province|Propinsi Keno]]) **[[Musashi Province|Musashi]]&#12288;武蔵国 **[[Shimotsuke Province|Shimotsuke]] 下野国 (sacara litelatur "Keno Handap," bagéan ti [[Keno Province|Propinsi Keno]]) **[[Mutsu Province|Mutsu]] 陸奥国 (disebut ogé ''Michinoku''&#12288;陸奥（みちのく）, sacara literatur "Taneuh nu teu jelas") **[[Dewa Province|Dewa]] 出羽国 *[[Tokaido]] 東海道 (Jalur-Laut-Wetan) **[[Iga Province|Iga]]&#12288;伊賀国 **[[Ise Province|Ise]]&#12288;伊勢国 **[[Shima Province|Shima]]&#12288;志摩国 **[[Owari Province|Owari]]&#12288;尾張国 **[[Mikawa Province|Mikawa]]&#12288;三河国 **[[Totomi Province|Totomi]] 遠江国 (sacara litelatur "Jauh ti Laut Caitawar," tempo [[Lake Hamana|Dano Hamanako]]) **[[Suruga Province|Suruga]]&#12288;駿河国 **[[Izu Province|Izu]]&#12288;伊豆国 **[[Kai Province|Kai]]&#12288;甲斐国 **[[Sagami Province|Sagami]]&#12288;相模国 **[[Kazusa Province|Kazusa]] 上総国 (sacara litelatur "Fusa Luhur," baheula bagéan ti [[Fusa Province|Propinsi Fusa]]) **[[Shimo-Usa Province|Shimo-Usa]] 下総国 (sacara litelatur "Fusa Handap," baheula bagéan ti [[Fusa Province|Propinsi Fusa]]) **[[Hitachi Province|Hitachi]] 常陸国 (sacara litelatur "Panonpoe bijil," contona /hi-tachi/, maksudna tuntung wetan, tapi karakter Cina nu dipaké hartina sabenerna "Salawasna-darat," contona /hita-chi/) *[[Hokurikudo]] 北陸道 (North-Land-Route) **[[Wakasa Province|Wakasa]]&#12288;若狭国 **[[Echizen Province|Echizen]] 越前国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Koshi]]) **[[Etchu Province|Etchu]] 越中国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Koshi]]) **[[Echigo Province|Echigo]] 越後国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Koshi]]) **[[Sado Province|Sado]]&#12288;佐渡国 (pulo panggedéna di Laut Jepang, ayana kulon-kaler kota Niigata) |valign=top width=50%| *[[San'indo]] 山陰道 (Jalur-Gunung-Tukang) **[[Tamba Province|Tamba]]&#12288;丹波国 **[[Tajima Province|Tajima]]&#12288;但馬国 **[[Inaba Province|Inaba]]&#12288;因幡国 **[[Hoki Province|Hoki]]&#12288;伯耆国 **[[Izumo Province|Izumo]]&#12288;出雲国 **[[Iwami Province|Iwami]]&#12288;石見国 **[[Oki Province|Oki]]&#12288;隠岐国 (kumpulan sababaraha pulo di Laut Jepang kalereun Perfektur Shimane) *[[San'yodo]] 山陽道 (Jalur Gunung Hareup) **[[Harima Province|Harima]]&#12288;播磨国 **[[Bizen Province|Bizen]] 備前国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Kibi]]) **[[Bitchu Province|Bitchu]] 備中国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Kibi]]) **[[Bingo Province|Bingo]] 備後国 (baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Kibi]]) **[[Aki Province|Aki]]&#12288;安芸国 **[[Suo Province|Suo]]&#12288;周防国 **[[Nagato Province|Nagato]]&#12288;長門国 *[[Nankaido]] 南海道&#12288;(Jalur-Laut-Kidul) **[[Kii Province|Kii]] 紀伊国 (disebut ogé ''Ki'') **[[Awaji Province|Awaji]] 淡路国 (sacara literatur Jalan ka Propinsi Awa; pulo panggedéna di Laut ''Inland'' Seto, ayana antara Semenanjung Kii Peninsula Honshu di wetan jeung pulo Shikoku di kulon) **[[Awa Province (Tokushima)|Awa]]&#12288;阿波国 **[[Sanuki Province|Sanuki]]&#12288;讃岐国 **[[Iyo Province|Iyo]]&#12288;伊予国 **[[Tosa Province|Tosa]]&#12288;土佐国 *[[Saikaido]] 西海道&#12288;(Jalur Laut Kulon) **[[Chikuzen Province|Chikuzen]]&#12288;筑前国(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Chikushi]]) **[[Chikugo Province|Chikugo]]&#12288;筑後国(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Chikushi]]) **[[Buzen Province|Buzen]] 豊前国&#12288;(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Toyo]]) **[[Bungo Province|Bungo]] 豊後国&#12288;(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Toyo]]) **[[Hizen Province|Hizen]] 肥前国&#12288;(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Hi]]) **[[Higo Province|Higo]] 肥後国&#12288;(baheula bagéan ti [[Propinsi Hi]]) **[[Hyuga Province|Hyuga]]&#12288;日向国 **[[Tane Province|Tane]] 多褹国 (pulo leutik kiduleun Kyushu) **[[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]]&#12288;薩摩国 **[[Iki Province|Iki]] 壱岐国&#12288;(pulo di wewengkon Genkai-Nada di Laut Jepang kalereun Kyushu) **[[Tsushima Province|Tsushima]] 対馬国&#12288;(pasangan pulo antara Jepang jeung Koréa, kapisahkeun ku Selat Koréa ti Selata Tsushima) |} ===Awal abad kasalapan nepi ka restorasi Meiji=== <!--En-gi-shiki--> {|width=100% |valign=top width=50%| *[[Kinai]] (Daerah deukeut-kaasup ibukota) **[[Yamashiro Province|Yamashiro]] (tempatna kaisar) **[[Yamato Province|Yamato]] **[[Kawachi Province|Kawachi]] **[[Izumi Province|Izumi]] (saprak taun 757, dipisahkeun ti Kawachi) **[[Settsu Province|Settsu]] *[[Tosando]] (Jalur-gunung-wetan) **[[Omi Province|Omi]] **[[Mino Province|Mino]] **[[Propinsi Hida|Hida]] **[[Shinano Province|Shinano]] **(Musashi mindahkeun ka Tokaido) **[[Kozuke Province|Kozuke]] **[[Shimotsuke Province|Shimotsuke]] **[[Mutsu Province|Mutsu]] **[[Dewa Province|Dewa]] (saprak taun 713, dipisahkeun ti Echigo jeung Mutsu) *[[Tokaido]] (Jalur-laut-wetan) **[[Iga Province|Iga]] **[[Shima Province|Shima]] **[[Ise Province|Ise]] **[[Owari Province|Owari]] **[[Mikawa Province|Mikawa]] **[[Totomi Province|Totomi]] **[[Suruga Province|Suruga]] **[[Izu Province|Izu]] **[[Kai Province|Kai]] **[[Sagami Province|Sagami]] **[[Musashi Province|Musashi]] (saprak taun 771, dipindakeun ti Tosando) **[[Awa Province (Chiba)|Awa]] (saprak taun 781, dipisahkeun ti Kazusa) **[[Kazusa Province|Kazusa]] **[[Shimo-Usa Province|Shimo-Usa]] **[[Hitachi Province|Hitachi]] *[[Hokurikudo]] (Jalur-darat-kaler) **[[Wakasa Province|Wakasa]] **[[Echizen Province|Echizen]] **[[Kaga Province|Kaga]] (saprak taun 757, dipisahkeun ti Echizen) **[[Noto Province|Noto]] (saprak taun 823, dipisahkeun ti Etchu) **[[Etchu Province|Etchu]] **[[Echigo Province|Echigo]] **[[Sado Province|Sado]] |valign=top width=50%| *[[San'indo]] (Jalur-gunung-tukang) **[[Tamba Province|Tamba]] **[[Tango Province|Tango]] (saprak taun 713, dipisahkeun ti Tamba) **[[Tajima Province|Tajima]] **[[Inaba Province|Inaba]] **[[Hoki Province|Hoki]] **[[Izumo Province|Izumo]] **[[Iwami Province|Iwami]] **[[Oki Province|Oki]] *[[San'yodo]] (Jalur-gunung-hareup) **[[Harima Province|Harima]] **[[Mimasaka Province|Mimasaka]] **[[Bizen Province|Bizen]] **[[Bitchu Province|Bitchu]] **[[Bingo Province|Bingo]] **[[Aki Province|Aki]] **[[Suo Province|Suo]] **[[Nagato Province|Nagato]] *[[Nankaido]] (Jalur-laut-kidul) **[[Kii Province|Kii]] **[[Awaji Province|Awaji]] **[[Awa Province (Tokushima)|Awa]] **[[Sanuki Province|Sanuki]] **[[Iyo Province|Iyo]] **[[Tosa Province|Tosa]] *[[Saikaido]] (Jalur-laut-kulon) **[[Chikuzen Province|Chikuzen]] **[[Chikugo Province|Chikugo]] **[[Buzen Province|Buzen]] **[[Bungo Province|Bungo]] **[[Hizen Province|Hizen]] **[[Higo Province|Higo]] **[[Hyuga Province|Hyuga]] **[[Osumi Province|Osumi]] (saprak taun , dipisahkeun ti Hyuga) **(Tane dihijikeun ka Hyuga) **[[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] **[[Iki Province|Iki]] **[[Tsushima Province|Tsushima]] |} ===Sanggeus restorasi Meiji ([[1868]])=== {|width=100% |valign=top width=50%| *[[Kinai]] (Daerah deukeut-kaasup ibukota) **[[Yamashiro Province|Yamashiro]] **[[Yamato Province|Yamato]] **[[Kawachi Province|Kawachi]] **[[Izumi Province|Izumi]] **[[Settsu Province|Settsu]] *[[Tosando]] (Jalur-gunung-wetan) **[[Omi Province|Omi]] **[[Mino Province|Mino]] **[[Propinsi Hida|Hida]] **[[Shinano Province|Shinano]] **[[Kozuke Province|Kozuke]] **[[Shimotsuke Province|Shimotsuke]] **(Mutsu dibagi lima) **[[Mutsu Province|Mutsu]] **[[Rikuchu Province|Rikuchu]] (dipisahkeun ti Mutsu) **[[Rikuzen Province|Rikuzen]] (dipisahkeun ti Mutsu) **[[Iwaki Province|Iwaki]] (dipisahkeun ti Mutsu) **[[Iwashiro Province|Iwashiro]] (dipisahkeun ti Mutsu) **(Dewa dibagi dua **[[Uzen Province|Uzen]] (dipisahkeun ti Dewa) **[[Ugo Province|Ugo]] (dipisahkeun ti Dewa) *[[Tokaido]] (Jalur-laut-wetan) **[[Iga Province|Iga]] **[[Shima Province|Shima]] **[[Ise Province|Ise]] **[[Owari Province|Owari]] **[[Mikawa Province|Mikawa]] **[[Totomi Province|Totomi]] **[[Suruga Province|Suruga]] **[[Izu Province|Izu]] **[[Kai Province|Kai]] **[[Sagami Province|Sagami]] **[[Musashi Province|Musashi]] **[[Awa Province (Chiba)|Awa]] **[[Kazusa Province|Kazusa]] **[[Shimosa Province|Shimosa]] **[[Hitachi Province|Hitachi]] *[[Hokurikudo]] (Jalur-darat-kaler) **[[Wakasa Province|Wakasa]] **[[Echizen Province|Echizen]] **[[Kaga Province|Kaga]] **[[Noto Province|Noto]] **[[Etchu Province|Etchu]] **[[Echigo Province|Echigo]] **[[Sado Province|Sado]] |valign=top width=50%| *[[San'indo]] (Jalur-gunung-tukang) **[[Tamba Province|Tamba]] **[[Tango Province|Tango]] **[[Tajima Province|Tajima]] **[[Inaba Province|Inaba]] **[[Hoki Province|Hoki]] **[[Izumo Province|Izumo]] **[[Iwami Province|Iwami]] **[[Oki Province|Oki]] *[[San'yodo]] (Jalur-gunung-hareup) **[[Harima Province|Harima]] **[[Mimasaka Province|Mimasaka]] **[[Bizen Province|Bizen]] **[[Bitchu Province|Bitchu]] **[[Bingo Province|Bingo]] **[[Aki Province|Aki]] **[[Suo Province|Suo]] **[[Nagato Province|Nagato]] *[[Nankaido]] (Jalur-laut-kidul) **[[Kii Province|Kii]] **[[Awaji Province|Awaji]] **[[Awa Province (Tokushima)|Awa]] **[[Sanuki Province|Sanuki]] **[[Iyo Province|Iyo]] **[[Tosa Province|Tosa]] *[[Saikaido]] (Jalur-laut-kulon) **[[Chikuzen Province|Chikuzen]] **[[Chikugo Province|Chikugo]] **[[Buzen Province|Buzen]] **[[Bungo Province|Bungo]] **[[Hizen Province|Hizen]] **[[Higo Province|Higo]] **[[Hyuga Province|Hyuga]] **[[Osumi Province|Osumi]] **[[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] **[[Iki Province|Iki]] **[[Tsushima Province|Tsushima]] **[[Ryukyu Province|Ryukyu]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) *[[Hokkaido]] (Jalur-laut-kaler) **[[Oshima Province|Oshima]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Shiribeshi Province|Shiribeshi]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Iburi Province|Iburi]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Ishikari Province|Ishikari]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Teshio Province|Teshio]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Kitami Province|Kitami]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Hidaka Province|Hidaka]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Tokachi Province|Tokachi]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Kushiro Province|Kushiro]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Nemuro Province|Nemuro]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) **[[Chishima Province|Chishima]] (saméméhna teu diitung wewengkon) |} ===Sababaraha periode singket=== [[Image:Ancient Provinces of Japan Ryoseikoku Map.png|thumb|300px|Peta propinsi Jepang baheula]] *[[Chichibu Province|Chichibu]] (sababaraha taun saméméh 645, dihijikeun dina Musashi) *[[Aizu Province|Aizu]] (sababaraha taun saméméh 645, merged into Mutsu) *[[Ho Province|Ho]] (sababaraha taun saméméh 645, dihijikeun dina Mikawa) *[[Shinaga Province|Shinaga]] (sababaraha taun saméméh 645, dihijikeun dina Sagami) *[[Izumi Gen]] (kira-kira taun 716 nepi ka taun 738, dipisahkeun tina Kawachi) *[[Yoshino Gen]] (kira-kira taun 716 nepi ka taun 738, dipisahkeun tina Yamato) *[[Suwa Province|Suwa]] (kira-kira taun 721 nepi ka taun 738, dipisahkeun tina Shinano) *[[Iwaki Province|Iwaki]] (kira-kira taun 718 nepi ka taun 724, dipisahkeun tina Mutsu) *[[Iwase Province|Iwase]] (kira-kira taun 718 nepi ka taun 724, dipisahkeun tina Mutsu) ==Kiwari== Ngaran propinsi ieu dumasar kana alesan sajarah. Bisa dipaké ogé keur sababaraha hal nu kawentar atawa sanggeus [[Edo period|periode Edo]]. Contona [[udon|sanuki udon]], [[iyokan]], atwa [[awa odori]]. Sababaraha ngaran propinsi dipaké keur ngabédakeun bagéan tina perfektur ayeuna nu mibanda karakter budaya jeung géografi husus. Ilahar dipaké dina tulisan saperti Hoku-Setsu (北摂) hartina wewengkon Kaleureun (北) Settsu (摂津). ==Rujukan== [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Japan, Wikipedia Basa Inggris] ==Tempo oge== * [[Code of Taiho]] * [[Eight Provinces (Korea)]] * [[Traditional counties]] ==Rujukan== Peta jéntré ngeunaan propinsi dina waktu nu béda, bisa ditempo di: * [http://www.maproom.org/maps/books/japan/murdoch/ maproom.org] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201125084019/http://samurai-archives.com/ samurai archives] {{Japan Old Province}} [[Kategori:Propinsi heubeul di Jepang| ]] q29kzu76uc9hnxcd5svjej43nsi15l6 10 6554 731473 685410 2026-11-03T06:53:10Z Rafka Aditia 29183 731473 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly>[[Pamaké:{{{1}}}|{{{2|{{{1}}}}}}]]&nbsp;([[Obrolan pamaké:{{{1}}}|sawala]] • [[Husus:Kontribusi/{{{1}}}|kontrib.]]){{#if:{{{noicon|}}}||{{adminicon|{{{1}}}}}}}</includeonly><noinclude> {{doc|Citakan:User-c/doc}} <!-- TAMBAHKAN KATEGORI DAN INTERWIKI DI HALAMAN DOC, JANGAN DI SINI! --> </noinclude> rb5219tk6dhlgapfs8fjvn8w8z1u7fx 0 6700 731440 708401 2026-11-02T13:11:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731440 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sikhs in the First World War Q24777.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Urang Sikh dina Perang Dunya I]] '''Perang Dunya I''' nujul ka perang sababaraha [[nagara]] nu lumangsung di [[Éropa]] antara taun [[1914]] jeung [[1918]]. Perang ieu ngabalukarkeun palastrana jutaan jalma sarta ngarobah kaayaan dunya modéren. Dina ieu perang, [[Sekutu]] (''Allied Powers'') nu diluluguan ku [[Prancis]], [[Karajaan Rusia]], [[Karajaan Inggris]], [[Itali]], sarta salajengna [[AS]], ngéléhkeun Kakuatan Tengah (''Central Powers'') nu diluluguan ku [[Austria]]-[[Hungaria]], [[Karajaan Jérman]], jeung [[Kasultanan Usmani]]. Sajarah Perang Dunya I lumangsung di Éropa mimiti taun 1914 sarta lekasan dina 1918. Faktor nu nyieun peperangan nagara-nagara kulon ieu salah sahijina dipicu ku persaingan industri sarta militer antara Jérman kalawan Inggris. Saprak taun 1910 dugi 1914, Jérman naekkeun anggaran pertahanan sagedé 73 persén. Perkawis ieu dipigawé Jérman margi basa éta aya anceman kakiatan militer ti nagara Éropa lain, utamana Inggris anu ngawasa saparapat wilayah dunya, ku kituna produksi persenjataan militer diprioritaskeun. Ti dieu, industri parabot militér di wilayah Éropa ogé marak diutamikeun deui ku nagara-nagara lain. Tujuanana pikeun maranéhanana bisa ngabéla diri ti serangan-serangan lamun hiji wanci boga potensi lumangsung.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/sejarah-perang-dunia-i-penyebab-dan-daftar-negara-yang-terlibat-glHp|title=Sejarah Perang Dunia I, Penyebab, dan Daftar Negara yang Terlibat|last=Prinada|first=Yuda|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2023-05-31}}</ref> [[Gambar:RFC Sopwith 1½ Strutter lineup Ministry of Information First World War Miscellaneous Collection Q33840.jpg|jmpl|'''RFC Sopwith 1½ Strutter atawa Aviasi ti Inggris basa Perang Dunya I''']] Perang Dunya I jalaran ku industri militer anu marak ditaékkeun nagara-nagara Eropa. Kaliwat, maranéhanana anu rumaos peryogi rerencangan sabot pahareup-hareup kalawan satru ahirna ngawangun kubu-kubu (aliansi). Pembentukan aliansi ieu oge barobah kaayaan cukang lantaran Perang Dunya I. Wanci éta, aya dua kubu anu silih pahareup-hareup Triple Alliance atawa Aliansi Tilu sarta Triple Entente atawa Entente Tilu. Dina ''The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts'' (suntingan John Grenville sarta Bernard Wasserstein) diungkabkeun, Triple Alliance mangrupa persekutuan antara Kekaisaran Jerman, Austria-Hongaria, sarta Italia anu saleresna atos dijieun saprak warsih 1882. Sedengkeun Triple Entente diwangun ti Kekaisaran Rusia, Republik Katilu Prancis, sarta Karajaan Inggris Raya sarta Irlandia anu geus lumangsung ti taun 1894. Sabot dua kubu kasebat dijieun deui dina lalampahan dekadeu kadua abad ka-20, Italia tétéla milih nyeberang ka kubu Triple Entente. Posisi Italia di Triple Alliance saterusna digantikeun ku Kekaisaran Turki Usmani.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://internasional.kompas.com/read/2021/05/25/163520070/kisah-perang-dunia-1-sejarah-dan-penyebab-pertempuran|title=Kisah Perang Dunia 1: Sejarah dan Penyebab Pertempuran|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2023-05-31}}</ref> == Kronologi Mimiti Perang == Perang Dunya I ahirna ngajelegur sabot putra makuta Austria-Hongaria, Franz Ferdinand, dipaéhan. Perkara ieu matak pihak Austria-Hongaria jeung Triple Alliance milampah serangan ka kulon (Prancis). Dalang di wangsul kajadian pembunuhan kasebat disangka dimimitian ku Sérbia. Inggris anu usaha ngadamaikeun ngaliwatan dialog tétéla éléh sora ti Jérman. Sedengkeun Austria-Hongaria hayang perang. Jérman jeung Austria-Hongaria ngalancarkeun serangan ka Bélgia anu kabeungkeut jangji-pasini kalawan Prancis sarta Inggris. Perkara ieu matak Prancis sarta Inggris ahirna kudu milu dina perang. Taun 1915, Italia nyebrang ka Triple Entente sarta ninggalkeun Triple Alliance margi dijangjikeun bakal meunangkeun wilayah Dalmatia anu basa éta ditempatan ku Austria-Hongaria. Sanggeus éta, Turki Usmani megatkeun pikeun ngagabung sareng Triple Alliance margi rumasa boga satru anu sarua, nyaéta Uni Sovyet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/10/26/121838269/sejarah-perang-dunia-i-1914-1918|title=Sejarah Perang Dunia I (1914-1918) Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2023-05-31}}</ref> == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.badley.info/history/World-War,-1st.general.html Chronology World War I World History Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307091358/http://www.badley.info/history/World-War,-1st.general.html |date=2007-03-07 }} * [http://www.firstworldwar.com/ A multimedia history of World War One] * [http://www.greatwar.nl/ “The Heritage of the Great War”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213101606/http://www.greatwar.nl/ |date=2005-02-13 }} with numerous pictures (many in color!) * [http://www.remuseum.org.uk/rem_his_history.htm Royal Engineers Museum] The Royal Engineers and the First World War * [http://www.genealogybuff.com/il/il-ww1-casualties.htm GenealogyBuff.com — World War I Casualty Reports for the U.S. Army 1918] * [http://www.1914-1918.net/ The British Army in the Great War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015192351/http://www.1914-1918.net/ |date=2015-10-15 }} * [http://www.chtimiste.com/ The French Army in the Great War] * [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/W/WW1.html World War I — Wars And Battles] * [http://donswaim.com/doughboypage.html Fighting the Hun in the Great War] * [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWW.htm Encyclopedia of the First World War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050303084453/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWW.htm |date=2005-03-03 }} * [http://www.worldwar1.com/ Trenches on the Web] * [http://www.militaryindexes.com/worldwarone/ Online World War I Records & Indexes] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061225174712/http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/ World War I Document Archive] * [http://www.vlib.us/medical/ The Medical Front WWI] * [http://worldwar1.co.uk/ World War I Naval Combat] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P3_1_EN.html Wanted! 500&nbsp;000 Canadians for WWI] — Illustrated Historical Essay * [http://www.archive.org/details/memogw/ Memoirs of the Great War] — A personal account in diary format of one man’s experiences throughout the Gréat War * [http://www.first-world-war.co.uk/ War diaries of TF Littler] A personal account, war postcards and propaganda comic postcards * [http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/174/47/ Casualties of the First World War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029064143/http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/174/47/ |date=2006-10-29 }} * [http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/157/47/ Dardanelles Report 1915] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029064137/http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/157/47/ |date=2006-10-29 }} * [http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.culture.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/visites_guidees/autochromes.html Mediatheque Autochromes] — French site with many color photographs from WWI * [http://www.nvr.org/ww1films/ The World War I Years] — NVR’s Film & Discussion Series in Public Libraries * [http://vlib.iue.it/history/mil/ww1.html WWW-VL: Military History: The Great War 1914-1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009230538/http://vlib.iue.it/history/mil/ww1.html |date=2006-10-09 }} * [http://www.wfa-usa.org/new/links.cfm WWI links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902140818/http://www.wfa-usa.org/new/links.cfm |date=2006-09-02 }} * [http://www.chailey1914-1918.net/ Chailey 1914-1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903221357/http://chailey1914-1918.net/ |date=2006-09-03 }} - A Sussex community's response to the First World War * [http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/mediawiki-1.5.5/index.php?title=First_World_War canadiansoldiers.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314050055/http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/mediawiki-1.5.5/index.php?title=First_World_War |date=2007-03-14 }} * [http://digital.library.unt.edu/search.tkl?type=collection&q=WWI World War I Poster Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920093347/http://digital.library.unt.edu/search.tkl?type=collection&q=WWI |date=2006-09-20 }} hosted by the Universtity of North Texas Libraries' [http://digital.library.unt.edu/ Digital Collections] * [http://historisches-zentrum.de/index.php?id=410 German submarine industries WWI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007153050/http://historisches-zentrum.de/index.php?id=410 |date=2007-10-07 }} * [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww1.htm Documents of World War One] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708194650/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww1.htm |date=2006-07-08 }} * [http://firstworldwar.cloudworth.com/ First World War in the News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719212806/http://firstworldwar.cloudworth.com/ |date=2006-07-19 }} * [http://www.greatwardifferent.com/ The Great War in a Different Light] Photographs, illustrations, postcards, artists, period newspaper and magazine articles/excerpts, complete war-time books. Material in English, French, Dutch, German, Spanish {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Perang Dunya I]] szoosx3xzqupa54m5g45lifvmp4d9w8 0 6821 731448 707080 2026-11-02T15:20:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kapercayaan Muslim}} '''Sahadat''' atawa '''Syahadat''' jeung '''Syahadah''' ({{Audio|Ar-shahadah.oga|<big>'''شهادة'''</big>}} {{ArTranslit|<u>Sh</u>ahādah}}) ([[basa Turki]]: ''Şehadet'') nyaéta hiji kalimah pangakuan kayakinan Islam. Dina basa Arab, hartina "nyaksénan" atawa "méré kasaksian".<ref name=”bin”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=oa9WCwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=tahiyat+akhir&hl=id&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tahiyat%20akhir&f=false| title =Pahami Bacaan Shalatmubin Hashim, Profesor Emeritus Dato` Isahak Haron| last =bin Hashim, Profesor Emeritus Dato` Isahak Haron| first =Ibrahim| publisher =Noura Books| location =Jakarta, Indonesia | year =2016|ISBN=9786023850037|pages =6}} Disungsi22 Peb 2022</ref> Sahadat mangrupa nembrakeun kapercayaan kana [[monotéisme|tunggalna Gusti]] (''[[Allah]]'' dina [[basa Arab]]) sarta yén [[Nabi]] [[Muhammad]] minangka [[Rosul Islam|utusan]] pangahirna. Maca dua kalimah sahadat mangrupa salah sahiji tina [[Rukun Islam|Lima Rukun Islam]] dina [[Sunni|Islam Sunni]]. * Téks [[basa Arab]]: :* لآ اِلَـهَ اِلاَّ لله محمد رسول الله * [[Transliterasi basa Arab|Romanisasi]]: :* ''{{Unicode|lā ilāhā illā-llāh; muḥammadun rasūlu-llāhi}}'' * Tarjamah [[basa Sunda]]: :* Teu aya pangéran anging Allah; sarta Muhammad rosul Allah. Hiji kalimah anu diucapkeun daria kalayan pinuh kajujuran, di hareupeun dua urang muslim salaku saksina. Ieu cukup pikeun salasaurang anu hayang jadi umat [[Islam]], sahenteuna ieu anu diajarkeun di sakola tradisional atawa [[Madhhab|traditional schools]].<ref name=”bin”/> Sababaraha [[Syiah|Muslim syiah]] nambahkeun ''Alīyun [[wali]] Allah'' ([[Ali]] hartina [[wakil]] Allah) di tungtung kalimah syahadat. Ini henteu wajib pikeun Syi'ah; ini mah saukur pilihan pribadi, sanajan kalolobaan [[Ayatollah]] yebutkeun leuweuh hadé nambahkeumna. ==Sajarah == "Salah sahiji tarjamahan [[Syahadat]] pangmimitina anu salamet (masih aya) kana basa deungeun nyaéta dina [[Basa Yunani]], asalna tina mangsa kakuasaan [[al-Walid I]] (86-96 Hijriah, [[705]]-[[715]] Maséhi): {{Polytonic|Οὐκ ἔστι[ν θεὸς εἰ μὴ ὁ θεὸς μόνος·] Μααμὲ[τ ἀπόστολος θεοῦ]}} (''Ouk esti[n theos ei mē ho theos monos;] Maame[t apostolos theou]).''[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Papyri/enlp1.html] 'Teu aya dewa iwal ti Gusti anu tunggal; Muhammad nyaéta [[Rasul]] Allah', hartosna 'Allah' ditarjamahkeun salaku 'Gusti' (''God'')." == Kaayaan Sahadat == Aya tujuh sarat utama supados syahadat saurang hamba dianggap sampurna:<ref>Al-Qahthani, Said bin Ali. (2010). Syarah Aqidah Washitiyah.</ref> * '''Al-`Ilm''': Kanyaho ngeunaan harti syahadat, naon anu ditolak sarta naon anu ditetepkeunana. * '''Al-Yaqeen''': Kayakinan – kanyaho anu sampurna anu ngaleungitkeun rasa mamang sarta ragu. * '''Al-[[Ikhlas|Ikhlaas]]''': Kaikhlasan anu nolak [[Syirik|syirik]]. * '''Al-Sidq''': Kajujuran anu henteu méré tempat pikeun kabohongan atawa [[Munafék|kamunafékan]]. * '''Al-Mahabbah''': Kacinta kana syahadat sarta hartina, sarta ngarasa bagja ku ayana éta kalimah. * '''Al-Inqiad''': Katundukan kana sagala katangtosanana, nyaéta kawajiban-kawajiban anu kudu dilaksanakeun kalayan ikhlas mung karana Gusti pikeun milari karidhaan-Na. * '''Al-Qubool''': Panarimaan anu nolak kana sagala bentuk panolakan. == Bandéra == "Sababaraha bandéra nagara nembongkeun kalimah Syahadat: == Pamakéan Bandéra Syahadat == Ieu di handap mangrupikeun rupa-rupa [[bandéra]] anu ngagunakeun kalimah [[Syahadat]] salaku lambang utamana: <gallery widths="180px" heights="180px" perrow="3" caption="Rupa-rupa Bandera nu Ngandung Kalimah Syahadat"> Flag of Saudi Arabia (round).svg|Lambang bunder [[Bandera Arab Saudi]]. Aqab al Islam Flag.png|Bandera hideung (al-Rayah) nu ilahar dipaké ku sababaraha golongan Islam. Flag of al-Qassam Brigades.svg|Bandera Brigade Al-Qassam nu warnana héjo kalayan tulisan Syahadat bodas. Flag of the Syrian transitional government (Shahada).svg|Varian bandera oposisi Suriah nu ditambahan kalimah panaksian. MahdiyyahFlag.png|Bandera gerakan Mahdiyyah ti nagara Sudan. Ar Liwa hariadhi islamic flag.svg|Ar-Liwa, bandera bodas nu jadi tanda kakuatan tauhid. Kuwait flag with Shahada.png|Varian sajarah atawa usulan bandera Kuwait nu nganggo tulisan suci. </gallery> == Perbédaan == == Variasi Shahadah == Biasana, dianggap bener pikeun nyebutkeun para inohong nu ti heula, kayaning [[nabi-nabi Islam|para nabi]] saperti [[Isa|Isa Al-Masih]], salaku utusan atawa [[Rasul|rasul]]. Sababaraha golongan (utamana kaum [[Sufi]]) sok nambahkeun éta deklarasi ku nyebutkeun nabi-nabi nu tos aya sateuacanna, nu ngaranna kaunggel dina [[Al-Qur'an]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Johns |first=Anthony H. |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |pages=590-591}}</ref> Aya mangsana kecap اشهد ان '' 'ašhadu 'an'' (kaula nyaksi yén) ditambahan di payuneun unggal kalimah Shahadah. Kitu ogé kecap و ''wa'' (jeung) sok ditambahkeun dina awal kalimah kadua. Sawareh leutik tina golongan nu sok disebut "Muslim [[Al-Qur'an Hungkul]]" (Quran Alone), boga pamadegan yén bagian kadua Shahadah téh kurang merenah. Maranehna nganggap ngaran Muhammad teu kudu dibawa-bawa, salah sahiji alesanna nyaéta dumasar kana fakta yén kalimah Shahadah anu lengkep nganggo ngaran Muhammad téh taya tapakna (teu aya) dina naskah Al-Qur'an.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.quran-islam.org |title=The True Shahada |access-date=2026-03-12}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Islam}} == Tempo ogé == * [[Shema Yisrael]] == Tumbu luar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029072039/http://abdurrahman.org/faith/ AbdurRahman.org] [[Kategori:Rukun Islam]] fz3zgz9ogp31trqn5en8k9ls2kkcbbu 4 14891 731482 729704 2026-11-03T07:11:32Z Rafka Aditia 29183 /* Jumlah Artikel */ 731482 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:demo_wikipedia.JPG|200px|thumb|[[Pamaké:Kandar|Kandar]], panaratas ngadegna Wikipédia édisi Basa Sunda, keur promosi Wikipédia di [[Universitas Indonésia]].]] '''Wikipedia Béwara''' mangrupa kaca keur naon waé nu jadi kamajuan dina [[wikipédia]], hususna wikipédia [[basa Sunda]], nu mimiti nanjeur dina ping [[15 Maret]] [[2004]] dimimitian ku kaca [[Wiktionary]] {{bagéan-pondok}} == Jumlah Artikel== {| border="0" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="2px" width="100%" |- |-bgcolor="#BECFEB" valign=top align="center" !Jumlah !#Wikipédia<ref>Wikipédia: [[:meta:List_of_Wikipedias|urutan wikipédia Panggedéna]]</ref> !Tanggal !ku Pamaké !bgcolor="#D4D4D4"|Ngaran Artikel |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''1''' |75 |16 Maret 2004 |{{user-c|202.155.37.50}} |[[Wiktionary]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''100''' |56 |21 Juli 2004 |{{user-c|Budhi}} |[[Dispersi statistik]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''1000''' |106 |2 Agustus 2006 |{{user-c|Mssetiadi}} | [[Baktéri]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''2000''' |94 |18 Séptémber 2006 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Planét]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''3000''' |81 |28 Séptémber 2006 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Dayeuh, Cileungsi, Bogor|Dayeuh]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''4000''' |75 |7 Oktober 2006 | {{user-c|TediBot}} |[[Linggasari, Ciamis, Ciamis|Linggasari]] |-bgcolor="#7FFFD4" valign=top align="center" |'''5000''' |69 |11 Oktober 2006 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Sidawangi, Sumber, Cirebon|Sidawangi]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''6000''' |65 |4 Nopémber 2006 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Dukuhtengah, Malébér, Kuningan|Dukuhtengah]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''7000''' |60 |7 Nopémber 2006 | {{user-c|Irwangatot}} |[[15 Maret]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''8000''' |54 |22 Nopémber 2006 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Gunungtandala, Kawalu, Tasikmalaya|Gunungtandala]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''9000''' |64 |12 April 2007 | {{user-c|Kandar}} |[[Dimorfismeu baga-purusa]] |-bgcolor="#7FFFD4" valign=top align="center" |'''10.000''' |60 |13 April 2007 | {{user-c|Kandar}} |[[Mikropon]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''11.000''' |61 |18 Juli 2007 | {{user-c|Mssetiadi}} |[[Jrakahpayung, Tulis, Batang|Jrakahpayung]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''12.000''' |60 |22 Juli 2007 | {{user-c|TediBot}} |[[670 SM]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''13.000''' |59 |5 Agustus 2007 | {{user-c|TediBot}} |[[Klapagading Kulon, Wangon, Banyumas|Klapagading]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''14.000''' |69 |11 Agustus 2008 | {{user-c|Hadiyana}} |[[Gerak muter]] |-bgcolor="#7FFFD4" valign=top align="center" |'''15.000''' |95 |19 Séptémber 2011 | {{user-c|SU32Wahyudi}} |[[Goong buyung]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''16.000''' |93 |14 Nopémber 2011 | {{user-c|SU24Hesti}} |[[Usum halodo]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''17.000''' |92 |3 Maret 2012 | {{user-c|Sersan Mayor Kururu}} |[[Propinsi Nuristan]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''18.000''' |105 |31 Méi 2015 | {{user-c|RianeMariana}} |[[Cobék basréng]] |-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center" |'''63.000''' |100 |31 Oktober 2026 | {{user-c|Hasnanf}} |[[Cutatan panulis (botani)]] |} ==== Katerangan: ==== <references/> <!--:* [[Wikipédia]] [[Basa Sunda|basa sunda]] Dimimitian ping '''[[15 Maret]] [[2004]]'''--> {{clr}} == Statistik == Nurutkeun [[:en:Wikipedia:Multilingual_statistics|Statistik]] [[Wikipédia]] dina [[Basa Sunda]], dina tiap awal bulanna: *Kolom '''*''' nunjukkeun parobahan réngking dibandingkeun jeung taun katukang, '''**''' dibandingkeun jeung bulan katukang. '''A''' hartina anyar, '''-''' hartina heneuweuh parobahan. Artikel anyar, nambah, réngking jeung perbédaan diukur kana sataun atawa bulan kalénder pinuh. '''Béda''' mangrupa tuwuh rélatifna dibandingkeun jeung Wikipédia séjén, contona perbédaan antara bagéan kiwari jeung nu lawas. '''Bagéan anyar''' mangrupa bagéan di antara artikel-artikel anyar. Dina unggal kolom, sapuluh nu hasilna pangalusna diwarnaan <span style="background:#90B090">hejo</span>, sarta panggoréngna diwarnaan <span style="background:#ffA0A0">beureum</span>. {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1" style="text-align: right;" |- style="background: #efefef; text-align: center;"" <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Réngking</th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">*</th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">**</th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Artikel</th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Artikel <br/>Anyar<br/><small>(taun)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Artikel <br/>Anyar<br/><small>(bulan)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Nambah<br/><small>(taun)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Nambah<br/><small>(bulan)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Bagéan</th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Bagéan<br/>Anyar<br/><small>(taun)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Bagéan<br/>Anyar<br/><small>(bulan)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Beda<br/><small>(taun)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">Beda<br/><small>(bulan)</small></th> <th style="background:#efefef;" align="center">BULAN</th> </tr> <tr> <td>?.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center"">A</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td >anyar</td> <td >anyar</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>Maret 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td>?.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center"">A</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td >anyar</td> <td >anyar</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>April 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td>?.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center"">A</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td >anyar</td> <td >anyar</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>Mei 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td>?.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center"">A</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td >anyar</td> <td >anyar</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>Juni 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td>75.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center"">A</td> <td>23</td> <td>23</td> <td>23</td> <td >anyar</td> <td >anyar</td> <td>0.003%</td> <td>0.004%</td> <td>0.036%</td> <td>+0.003</td> <td>+0.003</td> <td>Juli 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">56.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center" style="background:#90B090;"">+19</td> <td align="right">210</td> <td align="right">210</td> <td align="right">187</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" style="background:#90B090;">+813%</td> <td align="right">0.024%</td> <td align="right">0.035%</td> <td align="right">0.225%</td> <td align="right">+0.024</td> <td align="right">+0.021</td> <td align="right">Agustus 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">56.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center">-</td> <td align="right">401</td> <td align="right">401</td> <td align="right">191</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" style="background:#90B090;">+91%</td> <td align="right">0.042%</td> <td align="right">0.062%</td> <td align="right">0.254%</td> <td align="right">+0.042</td> <td align="right">+0.018</td> <td align="right">September 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">53.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center" style="background:#90B090;"">+3</td> <td align="right">557</td> <td align="right">557</td> <td align="right">156</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" >+39%</td> <td align="right">0.054%</td> <td align="right">0.078%</td> <td align="right">0.170%</td> <td align="right">+0.054</td> <td align="right">+0.011</td> <td align="right">Oktober 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">57.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center" style="background:#ffA0A0;"">-4</td> <td align="right">570</td> <td align="right">570</td> <td align="right">13</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" >+2%</td> <td align="right">0.051%</td> <td align="right">0.073%</td> <td align="right">0.015%</td> <td align="right">+0.051</td> <td align="right">-0.003</td> <td align="right">Nopember 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">57.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center">-</td> <td align="right">594</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ebf1eb;">594</td> <td align="right" style="background:#f6f8f6;">24</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" style="background:#ffe4e4;">+4%</td> <td align="right">0.049%</td> <td align="right">0.071%</td> <td align="right">0.025%</td> <td align="right">+0.049</td> <td align="right">-0.002</td> <td align="right">Desember 2004</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">59.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center" style="background:#ffA0A0;"">-2</td> <td align="right">657</td> <td align="right">657</td> <td align="right">63</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" >+11%</td> <td align="right">0.050%</td> <td align="right">0.074%</td> <td align="right">0.069%</td> <td align="right">+0.050</td> <td align="right">+0.001</td> <td align="right">Januari 2005</td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right">61.</td> <td align="center">A</td> <td align="center" style="background:#ffA0A0;"">-2</td> <td align="right">669</td> <td align="right">669</td> <td align="right">12</td> <td align="right" >anyar</td> <td align="right" >+2%</td> <td align="right">0.048%</td> <td align="right">0.071%</td> <td align="right">0.013%</td> <td align="right">+0.048</td> <td align="right">-0.002</td> <td align="right">Februari 2005</td> </tr> |- | align="right" | 61. | align="center" | A | align="center" | - | align="right" | 684 | align="right" | 684 | align="right" | 15 | align="right" | anyar | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.046% | align="right" | 0.070% | align="right" | 0.017% | align="right" | +0.046 | align="right" | -0.002 | align="right" |Maret 2005 |- |- | align="right" | 63. | align="center" | +6 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 711 | align="right" | 701 | align="right" | 27 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +7010% | align="right" | +4% | align="right" | 0.044% | align="right" | 0.070% | align="right" | 0.025% | align="right" | +0.043 | align="right" | -0.001 | align="right" |April 2005 |- |- | align="right" | 67. | align="center" | +1 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 732 | align="right" | 716 | align="right" | 21 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +4475% | align="right" | +3% | align="right" | 0.043% | align="right" | 0.068% | align="right" | 0.018% | align="right" | +0.040 | align="right" | -0.002 | align="right" |Mei 2005 |- |- | align="right" | 71. | align="center" | - | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 760 | align="right" | 744 | align="right" | 28 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +4650% | align="right" | +4% | align="right" | 0.041% | align="right" | 0.066% | align="right" | 0.021% | align="right" | +0.039 | align="right" | -0.002 | align="right" |Juni 2005 |- |- | align="right" | 75. | align="center" | +2 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 777 | align="right" | 754 | align="right" | 17 | align="right" | +3278% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.039% | align="right" | 0.063% | align="right" | 0.012% | align="right" | +0.036 | align="right" | -0.002 | align="right" |Juli 2005 |- | align="right" | 77. | align="center" | -21 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 786 | align="right" | 576 | align="right" | 9 | align="right" | +274% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.037% | align="right" | 0.045% | align="right" | 0.006% | align="right" | +0.013 | align="right" | -0.002 | align="right" |Agustus 2005 |- | align="right" | 77. | align="center" | -21 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 798 | align="right" | 397 | align="right" | 12 | align="right" | +99% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.034% | align="right" | 0.029% | align="right" | 0.006% | align="right" | -0.008 | align="right" | -0.002 | September 2005 |- | align="right" | 81. | align="center" | -28 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 841 | align="right" | 284 | align="right" | 43 | align="right" | +51% | align="right" | +5% | align="right" | 0.033% | align="right" | 0.019% | align="right" | 0.019% | align="right" | -0.021 | align="right" | -0.001 |Oktober 2005 |- | align="right" | 84. | align="center" | -27 | align="center" | -3 | align="right" | 861 | align="right" | 291 | align="right" | 20 | align="right" | +51% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.031% | align="right" | 0.018% | align="right" | 0.011% | align="right" | -0.019 | align="right" | -0.001 |November 2005 |- | align="right" | 89. | align="center" | -32 | align="center" style="background:#ffA0A0;"| -5 | align="right" | 727 | align="right" | 133 | align="right" | -134 | align="right" | +22% | align="right" style="background:#ffA0A0;" | -16% | align="right" | 0.025% | align="right" | 0.008% | align="right" | -0.084% | align="right" | -0.024 | align="right" | -0.006 |Desember 2005 |- | align="right" | 88. | align="center" | -29 | align="center" | +1 | align="right" | 742 | align="right" | 85 | align="right" | 15 | align="right" | +13% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.024% | align="right" | 0.005% | align="right" | 0.007% | align="right" | -0.026 | align="right" | -0.001 |Januari 2006 |- | align="right" | 88. | align="center" | -27 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 756 | align="right" | 87 | align="right" | 14 | align="right" | +13% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.022% | align="right" | 0.004% | align="right" | 0.005% | align="right" | -0.025 | align="right" | -0.002 |Februari 2006 |- | align="right" | 90. | align="center" | -29 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 767 | align="right" | 83 | align="right" | 11 | align="right" | +12% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.021% | align="right" | 0.004% | align="right" | 0.006% | align="right" | -0.024 | align="right" | -0.001 |Maret 2006 |- | align="right" | 92. | align="center" | -29 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 795 | align="right" | 84 | align="right" | 28 | align="right" | +12% | align="right" | +4% | align="right" | 0.021% | align="right" | 0.004% | align="right" | 0.012% | align="right" | -0.024 | align="right" | -0.001 |April 2006 |- | align="right" | 96. | align="center" | -29 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 821 | align="right" | 89 | align="right" | 26 | align="right" | +12% | align="right" | +3% | align="right" | 0.020% | align="right" | 0.004% | align="right" | 0.011% | align="right" | -0.022 | align="right" | -0.001 |Mei 2006 |- | align="right" | 99. | align="center" | -28 | align="center" | -3 | align="right" | 848 | align="right" | 88 | align="right" | 27 | align="right" | +12% | align="right" | +3% | align="right" | 0.020% | align="right" | 0.004% | align="right" | 0.012% | align="right" | -0.021 | align="right" | -0.000 |Juni 2006 |- | align="right" | 105. | align="center" | -30 | align="center" style="background:#ffA0A0;"| -6 | align="right" | 826 | align="right" | 49 | align="right" | -22 | align="right" style="background:#ffA0A0;" | +6% | align="right" style="background:#ffA0A0;" | -3% | align="right" | 0.018% | align="right" | 0.002% | align="right" | -0.009% | align="right" | -0.021 | align="right" | -0.002 |Juli 2006 |- | align="right" | 105. | align="center" | -28 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 984 | align="right" | 198 | align="right" | 158 | align="right" | +25% | align="right" | +19% | align="right" | 0.021% | align="right" | 0.008% | align="right" | 0.064% | align="right" | -0.016 | align="right" | +0.002 |Agustus 2006 |- | align="right" | 93. | align="center" | -16 | align="center" | +12 | align="right" | 1,700 | align="right" | 902 | align="right" | 716 | align="right" | +113% | align="right" | +73% | align="right" | 0.034% | align="right" | 0.033% | align="right" | 0.233% | align="right" | -0.001 | align="right" | +0.013 |September 2006 |- | align="right" | 80. | align="center" | +1 | align="center" style="background:#90B090;"| +13 | align="right" | 3,337 | align="right" | 2,496 | align="right" | 1,637 | align="right" | +297% | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +96% | align="right" | 0.063% | align="right" | 0.091% | align="right" | 0.709% | align="right" | +0.030 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +0.029 |Oktober 2006 |- | align="right" | 65. | align="center" | +19 | align="center" style="background:#90B090;"| +15 | align="right" | 5,702 | align="right" | 4,841 | align="right" | 2,365 | align="right" | +562% | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +71% | align="right" | 0.102% | align="right" | 0.171% | align="right" | 0.901% | align="right" | +0.071 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +0.040 | Nopémber 2006 |- | align="right" | 54. | align="center" style="background:#90B090;" | +35 | align="center" style="background:#90B090;"| +11 | align="right" | 8,088 | align="right" | 7,361 | align="right" | 2,386 | align="right" | +1013% | align="right" | +42% | align="right" | 0.139% | align="right" | 0.254% | align="right" | 1.013% | align="right" | +0.114 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +0.037 | Désémber 2006 |- | align="right" | 57. | align="center" style="background:#90B090;" | +31 | align="center" | -3 | align="right" | 8,323 | align="right" | 7,581 | align="right" | 235 | align="right" | +1022% | align="right" | +3% | align="right" | 0.137% | align="right" | 0.256% | align="right" | 0.090% | align="right" | +0.113 | align="right" | -0.002 | Januari 2007 |- | align="right" | 57. | align="center" style="background:#90B090;" | +31 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 8,517 | align="right" | 7,761 | align="right" | 194 | align="right" | +1027% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.134% | align="right" | 0.262% | align="right" | 0.070% | align="right" | +0.112 | align="right" | -0.003 | Pébruari 2007 |- | align="right" | 61. | align="center" | +29 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 8,536 | align="right" | 7,769 | align="right" | 19 | align="right" | +1013% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.129% | align="right" | 0.255% | align="right" | 0.007% | align="right" | +0.107 | align="right" | -0.006 | Maret 2007 |- | align="right" | 65. | align="center" | +27 | align="center" | -4 | align="right" | 8,580 | align="right" | 7,785 | align="right" | 44 | align="right" | +979% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.124% | align="right" | 0.251% | align="right" | 0.015% | align="right" | +0.103 | align="right" | -0.005 | April 2007 |- | align="right" | 58. | align="center" | +38 | align="center" | +7 | align="right" | 10,619 | align="right" | 9,798 | align="right" | 2,039 | align="right" | +1193% | align="right" | +24% | align="right" | 0.147% | align="right" | 0.311% | align="right" | 0.725% | align="right" | +0.127 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +0.023 | Méi 2007 |- | align="right" | 61. | align="center" | +38 | align="center" | -3 | align="right" | 10,652 | align="right" | 9,804 | align="right" | 33 | align="right" | +1156% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.143% | align="right" | 0.309% | align="right" | 0.013% | align="right" | +0.123 | align="right" | -0.005 | Juni 2007 |- | align="right" | 59. | align="center" style="background:#90B090;" | +46 | align="center" | +3 | align="right" | 12,669 | align="right" | 11,685 | align="right" | 1,971 | align="right" | +1188% | align="right" | +18% | align="right" | 0.158% | align="right" | 0.359% | align="right" | 0.681% | align="right" | +0.137 | align="right" style="background:#90B090;" | +0.020 | Agustus 2007 |- | align="right" | 60. | align="center" | +33 | align="center" | -1 | align="right" | 13,016 | align="right" | 11,316 | align="right" | 347 | align="right" | +666% | align="right" | +3% | align="right" | 0.156% | align="right" | 0.348% | align="right" | 0.116% | align="right" | +0.123 | align="right" | -0.002 | September 2007 |- | align="right" | 61. | align="center" | +19 | align="center" | -1 | align="right" | 13,050 | align="right" | 9,713 | align="right" | 34 | align="right" | +291% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.151% | align="right" | 0.292% | align="right" | 0.011% | align="right" | +0.088 | align="right" | -0.005 | Oktober 2007 |- | align="right" | 62. | align="center" | +3 | align="center" | -1 | align="right" | 13,090 | align="right" | 7,388 | align="right" | 40 | align="right" | +130% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.147% | align="right" | 0.220% | align="right" | 0.014% | align="right" | +0.044 | align="right" | -0.004 | Nopember 2007 |- | align="right" | 63. | align="center" | -9 | align="center" | -1 | align="right" | 13,155 | align="right" | 5,067 | align="right" | 65 | align="right" | +63% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.144% | align="right" | 0.151% | align="right" | 0.026% | align="right" | +0.004 | align="right" | -0.003 |Desember 2007 |- | align="right" | 65. | align="center" | -8 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 13,354 | align="right" | 5,031 | align="right" | 199 | align="right" | +60% | align="right" | +2% | align="right" | 0.144% | align="right" | 0.155% | align="right" | 0.137% | align="right" | +0.006 | align="right" | -0.000 | Januari 2008 |- | align="right" | 65. | align="center" | -8 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 13,551 | align="right" | 5,034 | align="right" | 197 | align="right" | +59% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.142% | align="right" | 0.156% | align="right" | 0.078% | align="right" | +0.007 | align="right" | -0.002 | Pébruari 2008 |- | align="right" | 65. | align="center" | -4 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 13,626 | align="right" | 5,090 | align="right" | 75 | align="right" | +60% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.139% | align="right" | 0.161% | align="right" | 0.032% | align="right" | +0.010 | align="right" | -0.003 | Maret 2008 |- | align="right" | 67. | align="center" | -2 | align="center" | -2 | align="right" | 13,729 | align="right" | 5,149 | align="right" | 103 | align="right" | +60% | align="right" | +1% | align="right" | 0.137% | align="right" | 0.165% | align="right" | 0.042% | align="right" | +0.013 | align="right" | -0.002 | April 2008 |- | align="right" | 67. | align="center" | -9 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 13,771 | align="right" | 3,152 | align="right" | 42 | align="right" | +30% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.134% | align="right" | 0.103% | align="right" | 0.019% | align="right" | -0.013 | align="right" | -0.003 | Méi 2008 |- | align="right" | 68. | align="center" | -7 | align="center" | -1 | align="right" | 13,808 | align="right" | 3,156 | align="right" | 37 | align="right" | +30% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.132% | align="right" | 0.104% | align="right" | 0.017% | align="right" | -0.011 | align="right" | -0.003 | Juni 2008 |- | align="right" | 68. | align="center" | -6 | align="center" | - | align="right" | 13,851 | align="right" | 3,153 | align="right" | 43 | align="right" | +29% | align="right" | +0% | align="right" | 0.129% | align="right" | 0.105% | align="right" | 0.018% | align="right" | -0.009 | align="right" | -0.003 | Juli 2008 |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Wikipedia:Sawala|Sawala]] * [[Wikipedia:Panglawungan|Panglawungan]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://stats.wikimedia.org/EN/TablesWikipediaSU.htm Statistik Wikipedia Sunda] [[Kategori:Wikipédia]] [[bg:Уикипедия:Текущи съобщения]] 78z10urc2nnaalg3plv1w4o831qz2px 4 19824 731452 710668 2026-11-02T16:10:28Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Zulf kanggo jadi Kuncén */ 731452 wikitext text/x-wiki Kabeh pamaké aktif [[Wikipédia]] nu nyaho kawijakan jeung aturan nu aya di Wikipédia, sarta dipercaya ku komunitas bisa mundut jadi kuncén. ==Sarat== Saratna mah kasapukan umum baé heula, najan henteu formal. Nu ngajukeun diri jadi kuncén, kedah tos kabuktian sumbanganana ka Wikipédia Sunda: didukung ku warga Wikipédia Sunda. ==Carana== * Tulis ngaran anjeun di bagian '''Pamundut''', dihandapeun ieu. * Kuncén saterusna baris mindahkeun ka kaca pemungutan sora. * Mimiti pemungutan sora. * Catetan: Pamaké anu katempona memang henteu meujeuhna jadi pangurus kawas kakara ngagabung, asal-asalan jsb moal dituluykeun ka prosés pemungutan sora sarta baris langsung ditampik. Tinggal didieu kanggo [[Wikipedia:Kuncén/Pamundut jadi kuncén/Arsip|kaca arsip pamundut]] ==Pamundut== ===Zulf kanggo jadi Kuncén=== Wilujeung weyah kiyeu baraya, nepangkun sim kuring Zulf salaku masih kuncén di suwiki iyeu, tapi sim kuring dina tangal 16 juni 2026 masa kuncéna parantos seeup, abdi hawertos, dina suwiki masih seeur pr, ngan abdi wungkul nyalira salaku kuncén nu aktif [https://meta.toolforge.org/stewardry/suwiki ] kiyeu ge di suwiki masih sok aya campur tanggan kuncén global, ngabuktoskeun suwiki masih kakirangan, abdi ngajukeun deui waé pikieun jadi kuncén satuluyna sacara permanén tanpa aya batas waktu. Sabab suwiki iyeu masih berkembang, jadi masih seeur nu perlu diperhatoskeun, nu spam, artikeul teu layak dsb masih seeur di panggihan. Hatur nuhun <span style="border:3px outset;border-radius:9pt 0;padding:1px 7px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom right, blue,#00FF7F)">[[User:Zulf|<span style="color:#fff;font:1em Lucida Sans">🍃Zulf🍃</span>]]</span>^{[[User talk:Zulf|''talk'']]} 2 Juni 2026 23.07 (UTC) <!-- Tulis ngaran anjeun di dieu. --> #{{Satuju}} Zulf satu-satunya kuncén Wikipedia Sunda yang aktif [[Pamaké:Badak Jawa|Badak Jawa]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Badak Jawa|sawala]]) 3 Juni 2026 03.08 (UTC) #{{Y}} -[[Pamaké:Kumincir|nandar]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Kumincir|sawala]]) 7 Juni 2026 13.43 (UTC) #{{satuju}} [[Pamaké:Deepturquoise|Deepturquoise]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Deepturquoise|sawala]]) 7 Juni 2026 14.00 (UTC) #{{satuju}}. Mugi kahareupna wiki Sunda leuwih sae. <span style="font-family:Candara">[[User:Henri_Aja|🅷🅴🅽🆁🅸]][[User_Talk:Henri_Aja|<span style="text-shadow: 2px 5px 2px #7A7A7A;"> <small>^{'''nyarios?'''}</small> &#9993;</span>]]</span> 10 Juni 2026 14.57 (UTC) #{{Satuju}} Sabab simkuring salaku pamaké anyar ngaraos diarahkeun ka cara nyerat anu saé tur leres ku Zulf. Sing sukses [[Pamaké:Oceanmuse|Oceanmuse]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Oceanmuse|sawala]]) 20 Juni 2026 11.56 (UTC) #{{Satuju}} Zulf mangga dilajeng.{{Y}} Kedah aya anu nungguan. [[Pamaké:Dinototosugiarto|Dinototosugiarto]] 2 Nov 2026 13.43 (UTC) ==Pamundut ditampik== [[Kategori:Wikipédia|Pamundut]] eucdx1z0gvop3q5fynon61w5wjh2ypk 0 23900 731454 681224 2026-11-02T16:43:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731454 wikitext text/x-wiki {{IndicTextRight}} {{redirect|Ceylon}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">[[Gambar:SrilankaFont.png]]''<br />''இலங்கை ஜனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு</span> |conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Républik Sosialis Démokratik Sri Langka</span> |common_name = Sri Langka |image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg |image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Sri_Lanka.svg |image_map = LocationSriLanka.png |national_motto = |national_anthem = "[[Sri Lanka Matha]]"<br />{{audio||Musik}} , {{audio||Nyanyi}} |official_languages = [[Basa Sinhala|Sinhala]], [[Basa Tamil|Tamil]] |capital = [[Sri Jayawardenapura|Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte]] |latd=6 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=79 |longm=54 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Kolombo]] |government_type = [[Républik]] [[Sosialisme Démokratik|Sosialis Démokratik]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Sri Langka|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Sri Langka|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name2 = [[Mahinda Rajapaksa]] |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Sri Langka|Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[United Kingdom]] |established_event1 = [[Sajarah Sri Langka#Kamerdikaan pulitis|Didéklarasikeun]] |established_date1 = [[4 Pébruari]] [[1948]] |established_event2 = [[Républik]] |established_date2 = [[22 Méi]] [[1972]] |area_rank = ka-122 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 65,610 |areami² = 25,332 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 4.4 |population_estimate = 19,668,000<ref name='myp'>''Department of Census and Statistics'' [http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Abstract_2006/Tables/chap%202/AB2-5.pdf Estimated mid year population by sex and age, 2003 - 2005]</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-52 |population_estimate_year = 2005 |population_census = 18,732,255 |population_census_year = 2001 |population_density = 310 |population_densitymi² = 818 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-35 |GDP_PPP = $86.72 miliar <!--cia.gov--> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-61 |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,600 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-111 |GDP_nominal = $26.794 miliar <!--imf.org--> |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-78 |GDP_nominal_year = 2006 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,355 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-119 |FSI = 93.3 {{increase}} 0.7 |FSI_year = 2007 |FSI_rank = ka-25 |FSI_category = <font color="#FF0000">peringetan</font> |HDI = {{increase}}0.755 |HDI_rank = ka-93 |HDI_year = 2004 |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">sedeng</font> |Gini = 33.2 |Gini_year = 1999–00 |Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">sedeng</font> |currency = [[Rupee Sri Langka]] |currency_code = LKR |country_code = LKA |time_zone = |utc_offset = +5:30 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.lk]] |calling_code = 94 |footnotes = }} '''Sri Langka''', ngaran resmina '''Républik Sosialis Démokratik Sri Langka''' ([[Basa Sinhala]]: [[Gambar:Sri lankava.jpg|60px]], {{lang-ta|இலங்கை}}; nu katelah '''Ceylon''' saméméh taun [[1972]]) mangrupa [[nagara pulo]] di [[Asia Kidul]], perenahna 31 [[kilometer]] (18½ [[mil|mi]]) kiduleun basisir [[India]]. Kawentar minangka ''Mutiara Samudra India'',<ref>''[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030810/spectrum/travel.htm Pearl of the Indian Ocean], ''The Sunday Tribune''</ref> nagara ieu mangrupa tempat cicingna kurang leuwih dua puluh yuta urang pangeusi. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{sourcesstart}} * Brow, James: ''Vedda villages of Anuradhapura: The historical anthropology Of a community in Sri Lanka,'' [[University of Washington Press|University Of Washington Press]], Séattle, 1978. * Codrington, H. W.: ''A Short History of Ceylon'', [[New Delhi]] 1994 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services) * De Silva, Chandra Richard: ''Sri Lanka - A History'', New Delhi 1987 (2nd, revised ed. 1997) * De Silva, K. M.: ''A History of Sri Lanka''. New Delhi, Penguin, xvii, p.&nbsp;782, 2005. * Devendra, T. and D. Gunasena: ''Sri Lanka: The Emerald Island'', (New Delhi 1996), Roli Books. * Domroes, Manfred: ''After the Tsunami: Relief and rehabilitation in Sri Lanka'', New Delhi, Mosaic Books, 1st ed. 2006. * Gunaratne, Shelton A.: The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka. ''Journalism Monographs No. 39'', May 1975. * Johnson, B. L. C., and M. Le M. Scrivenor.: ''Sri Lanka Land, People and Economy'', Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, London, 1981. * Knox, Robert: ''An Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon in the East Indies'', New Delhi 2004 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services) * Mendis, G.C.: ''Ceylon Today and Yesterday'', Colombo 1957 (3rd edition 1995) * Sedere, Upali M.: Context of Educational Reforms Then and Now: 121st C. W. W. Kannangara *Memorial Address, Ministry of Education, Isurupaya, Battaramulla, October 13, 2005 * Smith, Vincent A.: ''The Oxford History of India'', Oxford 1958 (4th edition 1981) * Williams, Harry: ''Ceylon Pearl of the East'', Robert Hale Limited, [[London|London, Great Britain]], 1950. * Williams, H.: ''Ceylon : Pearl of the East'' Delhi, Surjeet, 2002 * Philippe Gilbert: ''Les Larmes de Ceylan'' Ed. des Equateurs, France, 2005 {{sourcesend}} == Tumbu luar == {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Sri Lanka}} ; Pamaréntahan * [http://www.gov.lk/ Official web portal of the Government of Sri Lanka] * [http://www.presidentsl.org/ Office of the President of Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825105543/http://www.presidentsl.org/ |date=2007-08-25 }} * [http://www.defence.lk/ Ministry of Defence, Sri Lanka] * [http://www.centralbanklanka.org/ Central Bank of Sri Lanka] ; Wisata * [http://www.srilankatourism.org/ The Official Website of Sri Lanka Tourist Board] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503083732/http://www.srilankatourism.org/ |date=2019-05-03 }} * [http://www.srilankareference.org/ Sri Lanka Travel Guide and Country Reference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104022155/http://srilankareference.org/ |date=2019-01-04 }} * [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/asia/sri-lanka/ Lonely Planet Destination Guide- Sri Lanka] * [http://www.slmts.slt.lk/ Ministry of Tourism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014235947/http://www.slmts.slt.lk/ |date=2008-10-14 }} ; Bisnis * [http://www.boi.lk/ Board of Investment of Sri Lanka]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.srilankabusiness.com/ Sri Lanka Export Development Board] * [http://www.cse.lk/ Colombo Stock Exchange] ; Lianna * [http://www.lankalibrary.com/ Virtual Library Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408153140/http://www.lankalibrary.com/ |date=2011-04-08 }} * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html The CIA World Factbook - Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126230403/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html |date=2018-01-26 }} * [http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/lk/ Sri Lanka - UNESCO World Heritage Centre] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181118100701/http://www.library.upenn.edu/collections/sasia/mbw/sri_lanka/Sri%20Lanka%20Lecture%20Pages/srilanka_home.htm Collection of slides of Sri Lanka, University of Pennsylvania library] {{Template group |title = Geografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Asia}} {{Countries of South Asia}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{G15}} }} <!--Interwiki--> <!--Categories--> [[Kategori:Sri Langka| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia]] [[Kategori:Anggota SAARC]] <!--Other languages--> t7lvisaxnv6kghfryzsjde6mc2x0kwm 0 23943 731436 679786 2026-11-02T12:15:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Disease | Name = Ostéoporosis | Image = | Caption = | DiseasesDB = 9385 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|M|80||m|80}}-{{ICD10|M|82||m|80}}| ICD9 = {{ICD9|733.0}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1693 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|1683}} | MeshID = D010024 | }} '''Ostéoporosis''' téh [[kasakit]] [[tulang]] mangrupa turunna [[dénsitas mineral tulang]] (''bone mineral density'', BMD), karuksakan mikroarsitéktur tulang, sarta robahna kandungan [[protéin]] non-kolagén. Tulang ostéoporotik luhur résiko [[rengat (tulang)|rengatna]]. Ku [[WHO]], ostéoporosis wanoja dihartikeun dénsitas mineral tulang 2,5 handapeun massa tulang puncak (rata-rata jalma walagri umur 20 taun nu sarua kelaminna) nu diukur ku [[absorpsimétri sinar-X énérgi ganda]] (DXA, ''Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry''). Najan cara natambakeunana geus beuki maju (misalna maké [[bifosfonat]]), tetep waé mending disingkahan. ku sabab masalah hormonal, [[ménopause|istri balangantrang]] leuwih loba katarajang ostéoporosis batan lalaki, komo mun ditambahan ku [[bako|ngaroko]]. Asupan ubar [[kasakit kronis]] ogé kadang sok nambahan résiko katarajang ostéoporosis.<!-- == Tanda & gejala == Ostéoporosis sorangan lain kasakit anu signifikan, were it not for the falls which precipitate fractures. Rengat ostéoporotik are those that occur under slight amount of stresses that would not normally lead to fractures in nonosteoporotic people. Typical [[fragility fractures]] occur in the [[vertebral column]], [[hip fracture|hip]] and [[wrist]]. Collapse of a [[vertebra]] ("compression fracture") can cause numbness in the right second toe or one or a combination of the following: acute onset of [[back pain]]; a hunched forward or bent stature; loss of height; limited mobility and possibly disability. Fractures of the long bones acutely impair mobility and may require [[surgery]]. [[Hip fracture]], in particular, usually requires prompt surgery, as there are serious risks associated with a hip fracture, such as [[deep vein thrombosis]] and a [[pulmonary embolism]]. --> == Patogenesis == Anu jadi kasang tukang ostéoporosis téh taya lian ti teu saimbangna antara formasi jeung [[résorpsi tulang]]. === Normalna === Kalawan maneuh, [[matriks (tulang)|matriks]] tulang salawasna ngalaman rémodéling: formasi dijalankeun ku sél [[ostéoblast]], sedengkeun résorpsi ku [[ostéoklast]]. Dua hal ieu dipangaruhan pisan ku faktor hormonal jeung nutrisi. Sangkan bisa tumuwuh normal, tulang butuh [[kalsium]] jeung [[vitamin D]]. Hormon [[paratiroid]] ngatur komposisi mineral jero tulang. Hormon [[glukokortikoid]] ngaronjatkeun kagiatan ostéoklast, antukna tulang ngalaman résorpsi. [[Kalsitonin]], [[éstrogén]], jeung [[téstostéron]] ngaronjatkeun kagiatan ostéoblast, antukna tulang tumuwuh. <!-- [[Trabecular bone]] is the sponge-like bone in the center of long bones and vertebrae. [[Cortical bone]] is the hard outer shell of bones. Because osteoblasts and osteoclasts inhabit the surface of bones, trabecular bone is more active, more subject to bone turnover, to remodeling. ===Pathologically=== By various factors, described in detail later in this article, either bone resorption is excessive, and/or bone formation is diminished. Long before any overt fractures occur, the small spicules of trabecular bone break and are reformed in the process known as remodeling. It is an accumulation of fractures in trabecular bone that are incompletely repaired that leads to the manifestation of osteoporosis. Common osteoporotic fracture sites, the wrist, the hip and the spine, have a relatively high trabecular bone to cortical bone ratio. These areas rely on trabecular bone for strength, and therefore the intense remodeling causes these areas to degenerate most when the remodeling isn't balanced. Low peak bone mass is important in the development of osteoporosis. Bone mass peaks in both men and women between the ages of 25 and 35, thereafter diminishing. ==Risk factors== Risk factors for osteoporotic fracture can be split between modifiable and non-modifiable. However, diseases and disorders have an own section. The mechanisms influencing the formation of the disease are complex. Most cases do not result from inadequate calcium intake, but include other factors affecting bone matrix formation and [[reabsorption]]. ===Nonmodifiable=== *history of fracture as an adult *Family history of fracture :A [[family history (medicine)|Family history]] of fracture or low bone mass are probably the most important etiological factors of primary osteoporosis. The [[heritability]] of the fracture as well as low BMD are relatively high, ranging from 25 to 80 percent. *[[female]] sex :[[Estrogen]] deficiency following [[menopause]] is correlated with a rapid reduction in BMD. *advanced age :Osteoporosis is overwhelmingly prevalent in [[postmenopausal]] women. The loss of estrogen following menopause causes a phase of rapid bone loss. However, it also occurs in men, especially elderly men, where testosterone levels are decreasing. :In addition to hormonal changes, the increased risk of falling associated with aging leads to fractures of the wrist, spine and hip. The risk of falling, in turn, is increased by impaired eyesight despite adequate correction, [[dementia]], loss of balance and [[sarcopenia]], which is the age-related loss of [[skeletal muscle]]. :Osteoporosis can actually be thought of as analogous to [[sarcopenia]]. The combination of sarcopenia and osteoporosis results in the significant frailty often seen in the elderly population. *[[European ethnic groups|European]] or [[Asian people|Asian]] ancestry ===Potentially modifiable=== *[[tobacco smoking]] Tobacco smoking inhibits the activity of osteoblasts. *low [[body mass index]] *low [[calcium]] and vitamin D intake :[[calcium]] and/or [[vitamin D]] deficiency from malnutrition increases the risk of osteoporosis. The problem occasionally arises in calcium deficient adolescents. *[[alcoholism]] *Insufficient physical activity :Bone performs remodeling in response to physical stress. People who remain physically active throughout life have a lower risk of osteoporosis. The kind of physical activity that have most effects on bone are weight bearing exercises. The bony prominences and attachments in runners are different in shape and size than those in weightlifters. Physical activity has its greatest impact during '''adolescence''', affecting peak bone mass most. In '''adults''', physical activity helps maintain bone mass, and can increase it by 1 or 2%. [[Physical fitness]] in '''later life''' is associated more with a decreased risk of falling than with an increased bone mineral density. :Conversely, people who are bedridden are at a significantly increased risk. *Excess physical activity :Excessive exercise can lead to constant damages to the bones which can cause exhaustion of the structures as described above. There are numerous examples of marathon runners who developed severe osteoporosis later in life. *poor health/frailty. *[[Heavy metals]] :A strong association between [[cadmium]], lead and bone disease has been established. Low level exposure to cadmium is associated with an increased loss of bone mineral density readily in both genders, leading to pain and increased risk of fractures, especially in elderly and in females. Higher cadmium exposure results in [[osteomalacia]] (softening of the bone).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Staessen J, Roels H, Emelianov D, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, Vangronsveld J, Fagard R | title = Environmental exposure to cadmium, forearm bone density, and risk of fractures: prospective population study. Public Health and Environmental Exposure to Cadmium (PheeCad) Study Group. | journal = Lancet | volume = 353 | issue = 9159 | pages = 1140-4 | year = 1999 | month = Apr 3 | id = PMID 10209978}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Zhu G, Wang H, Shi Y, Weng S, Jin T, Kong Q, Nordberg G | title = Environmental cadmium exposure and forearm bone density. | journal = Biometals | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 499-503 | year = 2004 | month = Oct | id = PMID 15688853}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Kazantzis G | title = Cadmium, osteoporosis and calcium metabolism. | journal = Biometals | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 493-8 | year = 2004 | month = Oct | id = PMID 15688852}}</ref> ====Medication==== For medication potentially causing osteoporosis, the positive effects of them needs to be compared with the degenerative effects on bone. *Steroid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP) arises due to use of [[glucocorticoid]]s - analogous to Cushing's syndrome and involving mainly the axial skeleton. The synthetic glucocorticoid prescription drug [[prednisone]] is a main candidate after prolonged intake. *[[Barbiturate]]s (due to accelerated metabolism of vitamin D) and some other antiepileptics *proton pump inhibitors :[[Proton pump inhibitor]]s inhibits the production of stomach acid: it is thought that reducing the level of stomach acid interferes with calcium absorption.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Yang YX, Lewis JD, Epstein S, Metz DC | title=Long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy and risk of hip fracture | journal=JAMA | year=2006 | volume=296 | pages=2947-53 | id=PMID 17190895 }}</ref> ====Debatable==== *Soft drinks :The effects of [[soft drink]]s (containing [[phosphoric acid]]) on osteoporosis are debatable; soft drinks may merely displace calcium-containing drinks from the diet. ===Diseases and disorders=== There are many disorders associated with osteoporosis: *[[Hypogonadism|Hypogonadal]] states - [[Turner syndrome]], [[Klinefelter syndrome]], [[Kallmann syndrome]], [[anorexia nervosa]], [[hypothalamus|hypothalamic]] [[amenorrhea]], [[hyperprolactinemia]]. :In females, the effect of hypogonadism is mediated by [[estrogen]] deficiency. It can appear as early [[menopause]] (<45 years) or from prolonged premenopausal amenorrhea (>1 year). A bilateral oophorectomy or a [[premature ovarian failure]] cause deficient estrogen production. :In males, on the other hand, [[testosterone]] deficiency is the cause. *Other endocrine disorders - [[Cushing's syndrome]], [[hyperparathyroidism]], [[thyrotoxicosis]], [[hypothyroidism]], insulin-dependent [[diabetes mellitus]], [[acromegaly]], [[adrenal insufficiency]] :[[Glucocorticoid]] (Cushing's syndrome) or [[thyroxine]] (thyrotoxicosis) excess states also lead to osteoporosis. *Nutritional and gastrointestinal disorders - [[malnutrition]], [[parenteral nutrition]], [[malabsorption]] syndromes (e.g. [[coeliac disease]], [[Crohn's disease]]), [[gastrectomy]], severe [[liver disease]] (especially [[primary biliary cirrhosis]]) :Those with an otherwise adequate calcium intake can develop osteoporosis due to the inability to absorb calcium. Osteoporotic fracture may indeed be the event that leads to diagnosis that coeliac disease (which affects around one in a hundred people in the West) has affected the patient for many years. *Rheumatologic disorders - [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[ankylosing spondylitis]] *Hematologic disorders/malignancy - [[multiple myeloma]], [[lymphoma]] and [[leukemia]], [[mastocytosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[thalassemia]]. *Inherited disorders - [[osteogenesis imperfecta]], [[Marfan syndrome]], [[hemochromatosis]], [[hypophosphatasia]], [[glycogen storage disease]]s, [[homocystinuria]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]], [[porphyria]], [[Menkes disease|Menkes' syndrome]], [[epidermolysis bullosa]], [[Gaucher's disease]]. *Auto-immune and inflammatory Those who suffer certain [[auto-immune]] and inflammatory disorders are likely to have a higher level of [[cytokines]] in the body. The overabundance of these proteins increases the body's inflammatory response which may upset the balance of osteoblast and osteoclast activity. *Other disorders - [[immobilization]], [[scoliosis]] ==Epidemiology== It is estimated that 1 in 3 women and 1 in 12 men over the age of 50 worldwide have osteoporosis. It is responsible for millions of fractures annually, mostly involving the lumbar [[vertebrae]], [[hip]], and wrist. Fragility fractures of ribs are also common in men. ===Hip fractures=== Hip fractures are responsible for the most serious consequences of osteoporosis. In the United States, osteoporosis causes a predisposition to more than 250,000 hip fractures yearly. It is estimated that a 50-year-old white woman has a 17.5% lifetime risk of fracture of the proximal [[femur]]. The incidence of hip fractures increases each decade from the sixth through the ninth for both women and men for all populations. The highest incidence is found among those men and women ages 80 or older. ===First vertebral fractures=== An estimated 700,000 women have a first [[vertebral]] fracture each year. The lifetime risk of a clinically detected symptomatic vertebral fracture is about 15% in a 50-year-old white woman. However, because symptoms are often overlooked or thought to be a normal part of getting older, it is believed that only about one-third of vertebral compression fractures are actually diagnosed. ===Distal radius fractures=== Distal [[radius (bone)|radius]] fractures, usually of the [[Colles fracture|Colles]] type, are the third most common type of osteoporotic fractures. In the [[United States]], the total annual number of Colles' fractures is about 250,000. The lifetime risk of sustaining a Colles' fracture is about 16% for white women. By the time women reach age 70, about 20% have had at least one wrist fracture. ==Diagnosis== The composition of bones can be investigated by [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry]]. The rate of bone turnover, on the other hand, can be measured with urine [[NTx]], a byproduct of bone cartilage breakdown. Urine NTx greater than 40 may indicate osteoporosis. Today, many cases of osteoporosis in developed countries are diagnosed before symptoms develop. This is due to widespread screening for osteoporosis using the [[DXA]] scan. With treatment, bone mineral density increases, and fracture risk decreases. In the absence of treatment, overt osteoporosis is heralded by a fracture. Some fractures, like vertebral compression fractures or sacral insufficiency fractures, may not be apparent at first, appearing to patient and physician as a very bad back ache or completely without symptoms. Hip fractures and wrist fractures are more obvious. ===Definition=== [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry]] (DXA, formerly DEXA) is considered the gold standard for diagnosis of osteoporosis. Diagnosis is made when the bone mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult reference population. This is translated as a T-score. The World Health Organization has established diagnostic guidelines as T-score -1.0 or greater is "normal", T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 is "low bone mass" (or "[[osteopenia]]") and -2.5 or below as osteoporosis. When there has also been a low trauma or osteoporotic fracture, defined as one that occurs as a result of a fall from a standing height, the term "severe or established" osteoporosis is used. This is very important, because a person who has already had a fracture is at least 4 times as likely to have another fracture as another person, independent<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ojo F, Al Snih S, Ray LA, Raji MA, Markides KS |title=History of fractures as predictor of subsequent hip and nonhip fractures among older Mexican Americans |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=412-8 |year=2007 |pmid=17444431 |doi=}}</ref> of other health measures. Osteoporosis can further be separated into primary and secondary osteoporosis. Primary osteoporosis is the form seen in older persons in which bone loss is accelerated over that predicted for age and sex. Secondary osteoporosis, in contrast, results from a variety of identifiable conditions<ref>[http://bone-muscle.health-cares.net/osteoporosis-types.php] health-cares.net</ref>. In order to differentiate between primary and secondary osteoporosis, [[blood test]]s and [[X-ray]]s are usually done to rule out [[cancer]] with [[metastasis]] to the bone, [[multiple myeloma]], [[Cushing's disease]] and other causes mentioned above. ===Screening=== The [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)] recommends that all women 65 years of age or older should be screened with bone densitometry.<ref name="pmid12230355">{{cite journal |author= |title=Screening for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: recommendations and rationale |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=137 |issue=6 |pages=526-8 |year=2002 |pmid=12230355 |doi=}}</ref> The Task Force recommends screening women 60 to 64 years of age who are at increased risk. The best risk factor for indicating increased risk is lower body weight (weight < 70 kg). [[Clinical prediction rules]] are available to guide selection of women for screening. The Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Instrument (ORAI) may be the most [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitive]] strategy<ref name="pmid17552058">{{cite journal |author=Martínez-Aguilà D, Gómez-Vaquero C, Rozadilla A, Romera M, Narváez J, Nolla JM |title=Decision rules for selecting women for bone mineral density testing: application in postmenopausal women referred to a bone densitometry unit |journal=J. Rheumatol. |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1307-12 |year=2007 |pmid=17552058 |doi=}}</ref> The ORAI is available online at http://osteoed.org/tools.php?type=orai. Regarding the screening of men, a cost-analysis study suggests that screening may be "cost-effective for men with a self-reported prior fracture beginning at age 65 years and for men 80 years and older with no prior fracture".<ref name="pmid17684185">{{cite journal |author=Schousboe JT, Taylor BC, Fink HA, ''et al'' |title=Cost-effectiveness of bone densitometry followed by treatment of osteoporosis in older men |journal=JAMA |volume=298 |issue=6 |pages=629-37 |year=2007 |pmid=17684185 |doi=10.1001/jama.298.6.629}}</ref> ==Treatment== There are several alternatives of medication to treat osteoporosis. However, lifestyle changes are also emphasised. ===Medication=== Bisphosphonate is the main drug for treatment. However, newer drugs are also developed, such as teriparatide and strontium ranelate. ====Bisphosphonate==== In osteoporosis, [[bisphosphonate]] drugs are prescribed. The most often prescribed bisphosphonates are [[as of 2005|presently]] [[sodium alendronate]] (Fosamax) 10 mg a day or 70 mg once a week, [[risedronate]] (Actonel) 5 mg a day or 35 mg once a week or and [[ibandronate]] (Boniva once a month). ====Teriparatide==== Recently, [[teriparatide]] (Forteo, [[recombinant]] [[parathyroid hormone]] 1-34) has been shown to be effective in osteoporosis. It is used mostly for patients with established osteoporosis (who have already fractured), have particularly low BMD or several risk factors for fracture or cannot tolerate the oral bisphosphonates. It is given as a daily injection with the use of a pen-type injection device. Teriparatide is only licensed for treatment if bisphosphonates have failed or are contraindicated (however, this differs by country and is not required by the FDA in the USA. However, patients with previous radiation therapy, or Paget's disease, or young patients should avoid this medication). ====Strontium ranelate==== Oral [[Strontium ranelate]] (Protelos/Protos/Protaxo/Osseor - Servier) is the first in a new class of drugs called a Dual Action Bone Agents (DABA's). It has proven efficacy in the prevention of both vertebral and non-vertebral fractures (including hip fracture) in patients over the age of 80, who are the most at risk where osteoporosis is concerned. Strontium Ranelate works by stimulating the proliferation of osteoblast (bone building) cells, and inhibiting the proliferation of osteoclast (bone absorbing) cells. This means that strontium Ranelate increases BMD by forming new bone, rather than just preserving existing bone. In comparison to bisphosphonates which only act on one aspect of bone remodeling, strontium ranelate also preserves bone turnover, allowing the microarchitecture of the bone to be continuously repaired as it would in healthy bone. Strontium ranelate is taken as a 2g oral suspension daily, and is licenced for the treatment of osteoporosis to prevent vertebral and hip fracture. Strontium ranelate has side effect benefits over the bisphosphonates, as it does not cause any form of upper GI side effect, which is the most common cause for medication withdrawal in osteoporosis. ===Lifestyle=== Changes to lifestyle factors and diet are also recommended, both regarding nutrition and exercise; ====Nutrition==== =====Calcium===== The patient should include 1200 to 1500 mg of calcium daily either via dietary means (for instance, an 8 oz glass of milk contains approximately 300 mg of calcium) or via supplementation. The body absorbs only about 500 mg of calcium at one time and so intake should be spread throughout the day. However, the benefit of supplementation of calcium alone remains, to a degree, controversial since several nations with high calcium intakes through milk-products (e.g. the USA, Sweden) have some of the highest rates of osteoporosis worldwide, though this may be linked to such countries' excess consumption of protein. A few studies even suggested an adverse effect of calcium excess on bone density and blamed the milk industry for misleading customers. Some nutritionists assert that excess consumption of dairy products causes acidification, which leaches calcium from the system, and argue that vegetables and nuts are a better source of calcium and that in fact milk products should be avoided. This theory has no proof from scientific clinical studies. Similarly, nutritionists believe that excess caffeine consumption can also contribute to leaching calcium from the bones. {{Fact|date=August 2007}} A [[meta-analysis]] of [[randomized controlled trials]] concluded "Evidence supports the use of calcium, or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation, in the preventive treatment of osteoporosis in people aged 50 years or older. For best therapeutic effect, we recommend minimum doses of 1200 mg of calcium, and 800 IU of vitamin D (for combined calcium plus vitamin D supplementation)."<ref name="pmid17720017">{{cite journal |author=Tang BMP et al |title=Use of calcium or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue= |pages=657-666 |year=2007 |pmid= |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61342-7}}</ref> A study that examined the relationship between calcium supplementation and clinical fracture risk in an elderly population, there was a significant decrease in fracture risk in patients that received calcium supplements versus those that received placebo. However, this benefit only applied to patients who were compliant with their treatment regimen.<ref>{{cite journal | first = RL | last = Prince | coauthors = A Devine and SS Dhaliwal | date = 2006 | title = Effects of Calcium Supplementation on Clinical Fractures and Bone Structure: Results of a 5-Year, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Elderly Women | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 166 | pages = 869-875}}</ref> =====Excess Protein===== There are three elements relating to a person's levels of calcium: consumption, absorption, and excretion. High protein intake is known to encourage urinary calcium losses and has been shown to increase risk of fracture in research studies. <ref>{{cite journal | first = D | last = Feskanich | coauthors = Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA | date = 1996 | title = Protein consumption and bone fractures in women | journal = American Journal of Epidemiol | volume = 143 | pages = 472-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first = BJ | last = Abelow | coauthors = Holford TR, Insogna KL | date = 1992 | title = Cross-cultural association between dietary animal protein and hip fracture: a hypothesis. | journal = Calcified Tissue International | volume = 50 | pages = 14-18.}}</ref>. This goes some way to explain why countries with high levels of calcium consumption also have high rates of osteoporosis: despite consuming enough calcium, they are also countries in which people generally consume a lot of meat, therefore protein, thus negating the importance of their calcium consumption.<ref>[http://huhs.harvard.edu/ClinicalServices/NutritionKnowHow/Calcium.htm#Negative]Harvard University Health Servies: Calcium</ref><ref>[http://www.thedoctorwillseeyounow.com/articles/nutrition/protein_2/ The Doctor Will See You Now: Nutrition]</ref><ref>[http://www.spontaneouscreation.org/SC/NWNM2006/DietPreventsOsteoporosis.htm]Diet Prevents Osteoporosis, Joseph Keon</ref> =====Vitamin D===== Increasing vitamin D intake has been shown to reduce fractures up to twenty-five percent in older people, according to recent studies.<ref>{{cite journal | first = HA | last = Bischoff-Ferrari | coauthors = WC Willett | date = 2005 | title = Fracture Prevention With Vitamin D Supplementation: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = The Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 293 | pages = 2257-2264}}</ref><ref name="pmid17720017"/>. The very large Women's Health Initiative study, however, did not find any fracture benefit from calcium and vitamin D supplementation, but these women were already taking (on average) 1200 mg/day of calcium (12). Muscle weakness can contribute to falls so it is beneficial for people living with osteoporosis to improve muscle function. Vitamin D deficiency causes muscle weakness.<ref>{{cite journal | first = MF | last = Holick | date = 2006 | title = Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigators | volume = 116 | pages = 2062-72}}</ref>. A meta-analysis of five clinical trials showed 800 IU of vitamin D per day (plus calcium) reduced the risk of falls by 22%.<ref>{{cite journal | first = HA | last = Bischoff-Ferrari | coauthors = E Giovannucci WC Willett T Dietrich B Dawson-Hughes | date = 2006 | title = Estimation of Optimal Serum Concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for Multiple Health Outcomes | journal = American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 84 | pages = 18-28}}</ref>. A different randomized, controlled study showed nursing home residents who took 800 IU of vitamin D per day (plus calcium) having a 72% reduction in the risk of falls.<ref>{{cite journal | first = KE | last = Broe | coauthors = TC Chen J Weinberg HA Bischoff-Ferrari MF Holick DP Kiel | date = 2007 | title = A Higher Dose of Vitamin D Reduces the Risk of Falls in Nursing Home Residents: A Randomized, Multiple-Dose Study | journal = The Journal of the American Geriatrics Society | volume = 55 | pages = 234-9}}</ref>. New [[NOF]] vitamin D intake recommendations (July 2007) are adults up to age 50, 400-800 IU daily and those over 50, 800 - 1,000 IU daily. =====Others===== There is some evidence to suggest bone density benefits from taking the following supplements (in addition to calcium and vitamin D): boron, magnesium, zinc, copper, manganese, silicon, strontium, folic acid, and vitamins B6, C, and K.<ref>Gaby, Alan R., ''Preventing and Reversing Osteoporosis,'' 1994. ISBN 0-7615-0022-7</ref><ref>Kessler, George J., ''The Bone Density Diet,'' 2000. ISBN 0-345-43284-3</ref> This is weak evidence and quite controversial. ====Exercise==== Weight-bearing [[exercise]] is of great importance for people suffering from the osteoporosis because it helps build bone density and strength. Thirty minutes of weight-bearing exercise such as walking or jogging, three times a week, has been shown to increase bone mineral density, and reduce the risk of falls by strengthening the major muscle groups in the legs and back. ==Prognosis== Patients with osteoporosis who have already had a fracture are at a high risk for '''additional fractures''' (the best predictor of fracture is a previous fracture). Treatment for the underlying osteoporosis can reduce the risk of a subsequent fracture considerably. Hip fractures can lead to decreased mobility and an additional risk of '''[[deep venous thrombosis]]''' and/or '''[[pulmonary embolism]]'''. The one year mortality rate following hip fracture is approximately 20%<ref name=boron> Medical Physiology, Boron & Boulpaep, ISBN 1-4160-2328-3, Elsevier Saunders 2005. Updated edition. 1300 pages. </ref>. Vertebral fractures can lead to '''severe chronic pain''' of neurogenic origin, which can be hard to control, as well as '''deformity'''. Though rare, multiple vertebral fractures can lead to such severe hunch back ([[kyphosis]]) that the resulting pressure on internal organs can impair one's ability to breathe. Although osteoporosis patients have an increased mortality rate due to the complications of fracture, most patients die ''with'' the disease rather than ''of'' it. ==Prevention== Methods to prevent osteoporosis include changes of lifestyle. However, there are medications that can be used for prevention as well. ===Lifestyle=== Lifestyle prevention of osteoporosis is in many aspects inversions from potentially modifiable risk factors. *Exercise :Achieving a higher peak bone mass through exercise and proper nutrition during adolescence is important for the prevention of osteoporosis. Exercise and nutrition throughout the rest of the life delays bone degeneration. *Nutrition :A proper nutrition is a diet sufficient in calcium and vitamin D. Patients at risk for osteoporosis (e.g. [[steroid]] use) are generally treated with [[vitamin D]] and calcium supplements. In [[kidney|renal]] disease, more active forms of Vitamin D such as paracalcitol or (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or [[calcitriol]] which is the main biologically active form of vitamin D) is used, as the kidney cannot adequately generate calcitriol from calcidiol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) which is the storage form of vitamin D. *Quiting tobacco smoking :Tobacco smoking inhibits the activity of osteoblasts. *Drinking moderately of alcohol *Avoiding heavy meals ===Medication=== Just as for treatment, [[bisphosphonate]] can be used in cases of very high risk. Other medicines prescribed for prevention of osteoporosis include [[raloxifene]] (Evista), a [[selective estrogen receptor modulator]] (SERM). '''Estrogen replacement''' remains a good treatment for prevention of osteoporosis but, at this time, is not recommended unless there are other indications for its use as well. There is uncertainty and controversy about whether estrogen should be recommended in women in the first decade after the menopause; hopefully new research will provide guidance. In men, testosterone replacement therapy is also an effective treatment. ==History== The link between age-related reductions in bone density and fracture risk goes back at least to [[Astley Cooper]], and the term "osteoporosis" and recognition of its pathological appearance is generally attributed to the French pathologist Lobstein.<ref>Lobstein JGCFM. ''Lehrbuch der pathologischen Anatomie.'' Stuttgart: Bd II, 1835.</ref> The American endocrinolgist [[Fuller Albright]] linked osteoporosis with the postmenopausal state.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Raisz L | title = Pathogenesis of osteoporosis: concepts, conflicts, and prospects. | journal = J Clin Invest | volume = 115 | issue = 12 | pages = 3318-25 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16322775}}</ref> --> == Baca ogé == * [[Natambaan tulang]] * [[Ostéopétrosis]], sabalikna ti ostéoporosis * [[Ostéoimunologi]] ЬфеФ == Rujukan == * Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris. ''[[:en:Osteoporosis|Osteoporosis]]''. Dicutat 19 Séptémber 2007. {{Reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.fore.org/ Foundation for Osteoporosis Research and Education] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921114858/http://www.fore.org/ |date=2007-09-21 }} Non-profit organization * [http://www.iofbonehealth.org/ The International Osteoporosis Foundation] * [http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ Osteoporosis Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915151051/http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ |date=2007-09-15 }} * [http://www.osteoporosis.ca/ Osteoporosis Canada] * [http://www.irishosteoporosis.ie/ Irish Osteoporosis Society] * [http://www.bones.org.nz/ Osteoporosis New Zealand Inc] * [http://www.nos.org.uk/ National Osteoporosis Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828105811/http://nos.org.uk/ |date=2008-08-28 }} (UK) * [http://www.nof.org/ The National Osteoporosis Foundation](USA) * [http://www.hormone.org/public/osteoporosis.cfm The Osteoporosis Section]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} of [[The Hormone Foundation]] * [http://www.medicinenet.com/osteoporosis/article.htm MedicineNet.com Osteoporosis] Author: Carolyn Crandall,MD also Author: Ruchi Mathur,MD on Thyroid Diséase, Ostéoporosis, and Calcium A "Doctor to Patient" view * [http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/dietnutrition_and_chronicdiseases/en/ Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases] (including ostéoporosis) by a Joint [[WHO]]/[[FAO]] Expert consultation (2003) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081010110855/http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~kpaziana/ Osteoporosis in Pictures] * [http://courses.washington.edu/bonephys/ Osteoporosis and Bone Physiology] * [http://gotbones.healthdiaries.com Got Bones?] Ostéoporosis news. {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Éndokrinologi]] [[Kategori:Cacad tulang]] h2qolzu40xzxzqrn8qawg6mmd1wli10 0 25012 731456 666754 2026-11-02T18:09:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731456 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Transformasi Fourier''' nyéta hiji alat matematis anu ngawincik [[fungsi]] non-périodik kana fungsi-fungsi [[sinusoida]] anu nyusunna. Tranformasi Fourier ogé mangrupa alat pikeun ngarobah fungsi waktu kana wujud fungsi frékuénsi. Dina [[matématika]], lamun fungsi périodik bisa diwincik kana sajumlah dérét fungsi anu disebut deret Fourier ku rumus <math>x(t) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} c_n e^{jn\omega_o t}.</math> mangka géneralisasi pikeun fungsi non-périodik bisa dilakukeun maké rumus nu disebut transformasi Fourier. Jadi transformasi Fourier mangrupa generalisasi tina [[dérét Fourier]] == Définisi == Lamun x(t) mangrupa hiji sinyal non-périodik. Mangka transformasi Fourier x(t), anu dilambangkeun ku <math>\mathcal{F}</math>, didéfinisikeun ku :<math>X(\omega) = \mathcal {F}\{x(t)\} = \int \limits _{-\infty}^{\infty} x(t)\ e^{-j \omega t}\,dt </math> Kabalikan transformasi Fourier <math> X(\omega)</math> dilambangkeun ku <math> \mathcal {F^'} </math> sarta didéfiniskieun kieu: :<math>x(t) = \mathcal {F}^'\{X(\omega)\} = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} X(\omega)\ e^{j \omega t}\,d\omega,</math> &nbsp; pikeun tiap angka ril ''t''. di mana <math> x(t) jeung X(\omega)</math> disebut pasangan transformasi Fourier. == Sifat Transformasi Fourier == Urang ngagunakeun perlambang <math>x(t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad X(\omega)</math> pikeun ngalambangkeun yén ''x''(''t'') jeung ''X''(ω) mangrupa pasangan transformasi Fourier. 1. Liniéritas (superposisi): ::::::<math>a\cdot x_1 (t) + b\cdot x_2 (t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad a\cdot X_1 (\omega) + b\cdot X_2 (\omega) </math> 2. Kakalian ::::{| |<math>x_1 (t)\cdot x_2 (t) \,</math> |&nbsp; &nbsp; <math>\stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\cdot (X_1 * X_2)(\omega) \,</math> | &nbsp; &nbsp; (konvensasi normalisasi uniter) |- | |&nbsp; &nbsp; <math>\stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot (X_1 * X_2 )(\omega) \,</math> | &nbsp; &nbsp; (konvensi non-uniter) |- | |&nbsp; &nbsp; <math>\stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad (F*G)(f)</math> | &nbsp; &nbsp; (frékuénsi biasa) |} 3. Modulasi: :::::: <math> \begin{align} x(t)\cdot \cos \omega_{0}t &\quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{1}{2}[X(\omega+\omega_{0})+X(\omega-\omega_{0})],\qquad \omega_{0} \in \mathbb{R} \\ f(t)\cdot \sin \omega_{0}t &\quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{j}{2}[X(\omega+\omega_{0})-X(\omega-\omega_{0})] \\ x(t)\cdot e^{j\omega_{0}t} &\quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad X(\omega-\omega_{0}) \end{align} \,</math> 4. Géséran waktu ::::::<math>x(t-t_0) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad e^{-j\omega t_0}\cdot X(\omega)</math> 5. Géséran frékuénsi: ::::::<math> x(t)\cdot e^{j\omega_o t} \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad X(\omega - \omega_o) </math> 6. Skala: ::::::<math> x(at) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{1}{|a|}X\biggl(\frac{\omega}{a}\biggr), \qquad a \in \mathbb{R}, a \ne 0</math> 7. Lawan / kabalikan waktu: ::::::<math>x(-t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad X(-\omega)</math> 8. Dualitas: ::::::<math>X(t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad 2\pi x (-\omega)</math> 9. Diferensiasi waktu: ::::::<math> x^' (t) = \frac{d x(t)}{dt} x(t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad j\omega X(\omega) </math> 10. Diferensiasi frékuénsi: ::::::<math> (-jt) x(t) \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad X^' (\omega) = \frac{d X(\omega)}{dw} </math> 11. Integrasi: ::::::<math> \int_{-\infty}^{t} x(\tau)\, d\tau \quad \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\quad \frac{1}{j\omega}X(\omega)+\pi X(0)\cdot \delta(\omega), \,</math> == Transformasi Fourier tina sawatara sinyal nu mangfaat == {| class="wikitable" |- ! No. ! Fungsi waktu ! Transfirmasi Fourier (doméin Frékuénsi) |- | 1. | <math>\delta(t)</math> | 1 |- | 2. | <math>\delta(t - t_o)</math> | <math>e^{-j\omega t_o}</math> |- | 3. | 1 | <math>2\pi \delta(\omega)</math> |- | 4. | <math>e^{j\omega t_o}</math> | <math>2\pi \delta (\omega - \omega_o)</math> |- | 5. | <math>\cos (\omega_o t)\,</math> | <math>\pi \delta (\omega - \omega_o) + \pi \delta (\omega + \omega_o)</math> |- | 6. | <math>\sin (\omega_o t)\,</math> | <math> -j \pi \delta (\omega - \omega_o) + j \pi \delta (\omega + \omega_o)</math> |- | 7. | <math>u(t)</math> | <math>\pi \delta (\omega) + \frac{1}{j\omega}\,</math> |- | 8. | <math>e^{-at} u(t)</math> | <math> \frac{1}{j\omega + a}\, </math> pikeun a>0 |- | 9. | <math>e^{-a|t|}</math> | <math> \frac{2a}{\omega^2 + a^2}\, </math> pikeun a>0 |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Dérét Fourier]] * [[Transformasi Fourier gancang]] ''(Fast Fourier transform, FFT)'' * [[Transformasi Laplace]] * [[Transformasi Fourier diskrit]] * [[Transformasi Fourier fraksional]] * [[Transformasi kanonik liniér]] * [[Transformasi sinus Fourier]] * [[Transformasi Fourier laun]] ''(Short-time Fourier transform)'' * [[Pamrosésan sinyal analog]] == Rujukan == * [http://www.allmathcad.com Всё о Mathcad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020202401/http://www.allmathcad.com/ |date=2019-10-20 }} {{ref-ru}} * [http://www.efunda.com/math/fourier_transform/ Fourier Transforms] from eFunda - includes tables * Dym & McKéan, ''Fourier Series and Integrals''. (For réaders with a background in [[mathematical analysis]].) * K. Yosida, ''Functional Analysis'', Springer-Verlag, 1968. ISBN 3-540-58654-7 * L. Hörmander, ''Linear Partial Differential Operators'', Springer-Verlag, 1976. (Somewhat terse.) * A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, ''Handbook of Integral Equations'', CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4 * R. G. Wilson, "Fourier Series and Optical Transform Techniques in Contemporary Optics", Wiley, 1995. ISBN 0471303577 * R. N. Bracewell, The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, 3rd ed., Boston, McGraw Hill, 2000. == Tumbu kaluar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630081426/http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/auxiliary/aux-inttrans.htm Tables of Integral Transforms] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. * {{MathWorld | urlname= FourierTransform | title= Fourier Transform}} * [http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/FourierTransformMod.html Fourier Transform Module by John H. Mathews] * [http://www.ieee.li/pdf/viewgraphs/laplace.pdf Extending Laplace & Fourier Transforms by Dr. Shervin Erfani] [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Dasar telekomunikasi]] [[Kategori:Analisis Fourier]] pi2gnvnpyehklxupzxoz9pe1iq4mg1i 0 25923 731449 710616 2026-11-02T15:21:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731449 wikitext text/x-wiki {{History of Japan}} Tulisan '''[[history|sajarah]] [[Jepang]]''' dimimitian ku tulisan nu méh sarua dina [[History of China|sajarah]] [[China|Chinese]] ti [[1st century|abad kahiji masehi]]. Sanajan kitu, panalungtikan arkéologi némbongkeun yén jalma geus hirup di kapuloan Jepang dina awal période [[Upper Paleolithic|paleolitik luhur]].<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/17/6231.pdf Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill] in PNAS online; Page 3 (page No.6233), Table 1. The known global sample of proboscidean kill/scavenge sites :Lake Nojiri Japan 33-39 ka (ka: thousand years)</ref><ref>[http://www.pref.nagano.jp/kyouiku/syougai/english/history/genshi/genshi.htm Web Site Shinshu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231000244/http://www.pref.nagano.jp/kyouiku/syougai/english/history/genshi/genshi.htm |date=2010-12-31 }}; Prehistoric Times.</ref> Sanggeus [[ice-age|umur-es]] tamat, kira-kira 12,000 SM, [[ecosystem|ekosistim]] [[Japanese Archipelago|Kapuloan Jepang]] mangrupa kahirupan manusa, bukti mimiti nu kapanggih nyaéta [[pottery|keramik]] salila périodeu [[Jōmon]]. Sajarah Jepang kaselang ku périodeu isolasi nu panjang, nu sacara radikal ilaharna revolusioner, kapangaruhan ku dunya luar. == Tempo ogé == * [[Japanese Paleolithic Hoax]] * [[Yoshinogari]] * [[History of Tokyo|Sajarah Tokyo]] * [[Military History of Japan|Sajarah militer Jepang]] * [[List of Japanese battles|Runtuyan perang Jepang]] == Catetan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == * {{loc}} — [https://web.archive.org/web/20070406121546/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan] == Bacaan saterusna == === Jepang sanggeus perang === * Allinson, Gary D. ''Japan's Postwar History, 2nd edition'', Cornell University Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-8014-8912-1) == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.badley.info/history/Japan.index.html Database sajarah Jepang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219143907/http://www.badley.info/history/Japan.index.html |date=2008-12-19 }} * [http://www.oriental.cam.ac.uk/jbib/bibtitle.html Bibliografi Sajarah Jepang nepi ka taun 1912] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120201123/http://www.oriental.cam.ac.uk/jbib/bibtitle.html |date=2008-01-20 }}, Universitas Cambridge. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201125084019/http://samurai-archives.com/ Kaca Sajarah Samurai Jepang], catetan ngeunaan sajarah Jepang * [http://www.openhistory.org/jhdp/ Proyek Dokumentasi Sajarah Jepang] ku Christopher Spackman. Ieu citakan diawaskeun ku [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], sabab kitu bisa dipaké salaku sumber Wikipedia. * [http://www4.ncsu.edu/~fljpm/chron/jc01.outline.html Ringkesan krolonogi Sajarah Budaya Jepang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910131754/http://www4.ncsu.edu/~fljpm/chron/jc01.outline.html |date=2012-09-10 }} * [http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/index_ne.html National Museum of Japanese History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060815033003/http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/index_ne.html |date=2006-08-15 }} * [http://www.sengokudaimyo.com/ SengokuDaimyo.com], ramatloka pangarang Samurai jeung ahli sajarah [[Anthony J. Bryant]] * [http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/project_journals/aj/aj_intro.shtml Sajarang Jepang dina Periode Seni Edo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329160733/http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/project_journals/aj/aj_intro.shtml |date=2013-03-29 }} * [http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/124/40/ Yamada Sho (2002). Politics and Personality: Japan's Worst Archaeology Scandal], ''Harvard Asia Quarterly'' Vol. VI, No. 3. In-depth commentary on the extensive fraud that took place in archéology in Japan over a 20-yéar period. * [http://applepig.idv.tw/kuon/furu/furu_index1.htm 古事記~往古之追慕~] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108100459/http://applepig.idv.tw/kuon/furu/furu_index1.htm |date=2008-01-08 }}(Big5 Chinese) Many online Japanese historical texts, e.g. the [[Rikkokushi]], Dainihonshi and more. * {{ja icon}}[http://kodaishi-db.hp.infoseek.co.jp/ 日本古代史料本文データ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215152406/http://kodaishi-db.hp.infoseek.co.jp/ |date=2007-12-15 }} Downloadable lzh compressed files of Japanese historical texts. * {{ja icon}}[http://www001.upp.so-net.ne.jp/dassai/ 古代史獺祭] Many online historical texts from Japanese, Chinese, Koréan related to history of Japan. * {{ja icon}}[http://www.j-texts.com/ J－Texts (日本文学電子図書館)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022033000/http://www.j-texts.com/ |date=2012-10-22 }} Many Japan historical literature texts * [http://www.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/index.html Historiographical Institute — The University of Tokyo (東京大学史料編纂所)] * [http://www2.u-netsurf.ne.jp/~kojin/e-wajinden.html English translation of the ''Wei Zhi''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306214652/http://www2.u-netsurf.ne.jp/~kojin/e-wajinden.html |date=2012-03-06 }} {{Asia in topic|History of}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sajarah Jepang| ]] [[Kategori:National histories|Japan]] 16c2vj3o1gnnnfzy1tilzc5cvu5mtxe 0 31180 731469 676605 2026-11-03T06:15:45Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 731469 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- style="border-bottom: 2px solid gray" ! colspan=2 style="background: #efefef;" align=center | {{br}}'''Tantara Nasional Indonésia''' |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Kakuatan perorangan''' |- | Usia minimum kanggo lebet militer | 18 taun |- | Panduduk nu minuhan sarat kanggo lebet militer | lalaki umur 18-49: 60.543.028 (perkiraan tahun 2005) |- | Panduduk anu minuhan kasaluruhan sarat asup militér | lalaki umur 18-49: 48.687.234 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- | Penduduk yang mencapai usia militer tiap tahun | laki-laki: 2.201.047 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- |métodeuperekrutan | sukarila |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Pangaluaran militér taunan''' |- | Dina [[dolar AS]] | $1,3 milyar (2004) |- | Persentase tina [[Produk Domestik Bruto|PDB]] | 3% (2004) |- | Panglima | Laksamana TNI H. Yudo Margono |} TNI Tantara Nasional Indonésia. TNI miboga 3 cabang nyaéta : * AD (Angkatan Darat) * AL (Angkatan Laut) * AU (Angkatan Udara) == Sajarah TNI == Nagara Indonésia dina awal ngadegna sama sakali hanteu miboga kahijian tantara. [[Badan Kaamanan Rahayat]] anu diwangun dina sidang [[Panitia Pasiapan Kamerdikaan Indonésia|PPKI]] tanggal [[22 Agustus|10 Agustus]] [[1945|1948]] sarta diumumkeun ku [[Présidén]] dina tanggal [[23 Agustus]] 1948 nya lain tantara minangka hiji organisasi kamilitéran anu resmi. BKR boh di pusat boh di daérah ayana di bawah wewenang KNIP jeung KNI Daérah jeung hanteu aya di bawah paréntah présidén sabagé panglima pangluhurna angkatan perang. BKR ogé hanteu aya di bawah koordinasi [[Mantri Patahanan Républik Indonésia|Mantri Patahanan]]. BKR ngan disiapkeun pikeun miara kaamanan satempat ambéh hanteu nimbulkeun kesan yén Indonésia nyiapkeun diri pikeun ngamimitian peperangan nyanghareupan [[Sakutu]]. Ahirna, ngaliwatan Dekrit présidén tanggal [[5 Oktober|1 Oktober]] [[1945|1948]] (nepi ka kiwari dipiéling sabagé poé kalahiran TNI), BKR dirobah ngajadi '''Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat''' (TKR). Dina tanggal [[7 Januari]] [[1946|1947]], Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat baganti ngaran ngajadi '''Tantara Kasalamatan Rahayat'''. Tuluy dina [[24 Januari]] [[1946|1945]], dirobah deui jadi '''Tantara Républik Indonésia'''. Karana harita di Indonésia aya barisan-barisan basanjata lianna di sagigireun Tantara Républik Indonésia, mangka dina tanggal [[5 Méi|10 Méi]] [[1947|1949]], Tantara Noordin M. Top ngaluarkeun kaputusan pikeun ngahijikeun Tantara Républik Indonésia jeung barisan-barisan basanjata téa ngajadi Tantara Nasional Indonésia (TNI). Panyatuan éta kajadian sarta diresmikeun dina tanggal 9 Juni 1949. == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Audio_files_of_Indonesia Koléksi Audio Indonésia di Wikimedia Commons] [[Kategori:TNI]] t5rae5j8v43rec7kw5n5pcgowjj0fle 731470 731469 2026-11-03T06:19:04Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Tutumbu kaluar */ 731470 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- style="border-bottom: 2px solid gray" ! colspan=2 style="background: #efefef;" align=center | {{br}}'''Tantara Nasional Indonésia''' |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Kakuatan perorangan''' |- | Usia minimum kanggo lebet militer | 18 taun |- | Panduduk nu minuhan sarat kanggo lebet militer | lalaki umur 18-49: 60.543.028 (perkiraan tahun 2005) |- | Panduduk anu minuhan kasaluruhan sarat asup militér | lalaki umur 18-49: 48.687.234 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- | Penduduk yang mencapai usia militer tiap tahun | laki-laki: 2.201.047 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- |métodeuperekrutan | sukarila |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Pangaluaran militér taunan''' |- | Dina [[dolar AS]] | $1,3 milyar (2004) |- | Persentase tina [[Produk Domestik Bruto|PDB]] | 3% (2004) |- | Panglima | Laksamana TNI H. Yudo Margono |} TNI Tantara Nasional Indonésia. TNI miboga 3 cabang nyaéta : * AD (Angkatan Darat) * AL (Angkatan Laut) * AU (Angkatan Udara) == Sajarah TNI == Nagara Indonésia dina awal ngadegna sama sakali hanteu miboga kahijian tantara. [[Badan Kaamanan Rahayat]] anu diwangun dina sidang [[Panitia Pasiapan Kamerdikaan Indonésia|PPKI]] tanggal [[22 Agustus|10 Agustus]] [[1945|1948]] sarta diumumkeun ku [[Présidén]] dina tanggal [[23 Agustus]] 1948 nya lain tantara minangka hiji organisasi kamilitéran anu resmi. BKR boh di pusat boh di daérah ayana di bawah wewenang KNIP jeung KNI Daérah jeung hanteu aya di bawah paréntah présidén sabagé panglima pangluhurna angkatan perang. BKR ogé hanteu aya di bawah koordinasi [[Mantri Patahanan Républik Indonésia|Mantri Patahanan]]. BKR ngan disiapkeun pikeun miara kaamanan satempat ambéh hanteu nimbulkeun kesan yén Indonésia nyiapkeun diri pikeun ngamimitian peperangan nyanghareupan [[Sakutu]]. Ahirna, ngaliwatan Dekrit présidén tanggal [[5 Oktober|1 Oktober]] [[1945|1948]] (nepi ka kiwari dipiéling sabagé poé kalahiran TNI), BKR dirobah ngajadi '''Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat''' (TKR). Dina tanggal [[7 Januari]] [[1946|1947]], Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat baganti ngaran ngajadi '''Tantara Kasalamatan Rahayat'''. Tuluy dina [[24 Januari]] [[1946|1945]], dirobah deui jadi '''Tantara Républik Indonésia'''. Karana harita di Indonésia aya barisan-barisan basanjata lianna di sagigireun Tantara Républik Indonésia, mangka dina tanggal [[5 Méi|10 Méi]] [[1947|1949]], Tantara Noordin M. Top ngaluarkeun kaputusan pikeun ngahijikeun Tantara Républik Indonésia jeung barisan-barisan basanjata téa ngajadi Tantara Nasional Indonésia (TNI). Panyatuan éta kajadian sarta diresmikeun dina tanggal 9 Juni 1949. == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_Tentara_Nasional_Indonesia_(Mars_TNI).ogg|thumb|center|300px|Katerangan audio di dieu] [[Kategori:TNI]] ou8byg42i2czh1algysj3az50ajrcmx 731471 731470 2026-11-03T06:19:33Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Tutumbu kaluar */ 731471 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- style="border-bottom: 2px solid gray" ! colspan=2 style="background: #efefef;" align=center | {{br}}'''Tantara Nasional Indonésia''' |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Kakuatan perorangan''' |- | Usia minimum kanggo lebet militer | 18 taun |- | Panduduk nu minuhan sarat kanggo lebet militer | lalaki umur 18-49: 60.543.028 (perkiraan tahun 2005) |- | Panduduk anu minuhan kasaluruhan sarat asup militér | lalaki umur 18-49: 48.687.234 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- | Penduduk yang mencapai usia militer tiap tahun | laki-laki: 2.201.047 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- |métodeuperekrutan | sukarila |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Pangaluaran militér taunan''' |- | Dina [[dolar AS]] | $1,3 milyar (2004) |- | Persentase tina [[Produk Domestik Bruto|PDB]] | 3% (2004) |- | Panglima | Laksamana TNI H. Yudo Margono |} TNI Tantara Nasional Indonésia. TNI miboga 3 cabang nyaéta : * AD (Angkatan Darat) * AL (Angkatan Laut) * AU (Angkatan Udara) == Sajarah TNI == Nagara Indonésia dina awal ngadegna sama sakali hanteu miboga kahijian tantara. [[Badan Kaamanan Rahayat]] anu diwangun dina sidang [[Panitia Pasiapan Kamerdikaan Indonésia|PPKI]] tanggal [[22 Agustus|10 Agustus]] [[1945|1948]] sarta diumumkeun ku [[Présidén]] dina tanggal [[23 Agustus]] 1948 nya lain tantara minangka hiji organisasi kamilitéran anu resmi. BKR boh di pusat boh di daérah ayana di bawah wewenang KNIP jeung KNI Daérah jeung hanteu aya di bawah paréntah présidén sabagé panglima pangluhurna angkatan perang. BKR ogé hanteu aya di bawah koordinasi [[Mantri Patahanan Républik Indonésia|Mantri Patahanan]]. BKR ngan disiapkeun pikeun miara kaamanan satempat ambéh hanteu nimbulkeun kesan yén Indonésia nyiapkeun diri pikeun ngamimitian peperangan nyanghareupan [[Sakutu]]. Ahirna, ngaliwatan Dekrit présidén tanggal [[5 Oktober|1 Oktober]] [[1945|1948]] (nepi ka kiwari dipiéling sabagé poé kalahiran TNI), BKR dirobah ngajadi '''Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat''' (TKR). Dina tanggal [[7 Januari]] [[1946|1947]], Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat baganti ngaran ngajadi '''Tantara Kasalamatan Rahayat'''. Tuluy dina [[24 Januari]] [[1946|1945]], dirobah deui jadi '''Tantara Républik Indonésia'''. Karana harita di Indonésia aya barisan-barisan basanjata lianna di sagigireun Tantara Républik Indonésia, mangka dina tanggal [[5 Méi|10 Méi]] [[1947|1949]], Tantara Noordin M. Top ngaluarkeun kaputusan pikeun ngahijikeun Tantara Républik Indonésia jeung barisan-barisan basanjata téa ngajadi Tantara Nasional Indonésia (TNI). Panyatuan éta kajadian sarta diresmikeun dina tanggal 9 Juni 1949. == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_Tentara_Nasional_Indonesia_(Mars_TNI).ogg|thumb|center|300px|Katerangan Audio mars di dieu] [[Kategori:TNI]] 1yy65ef0ssjk1bhmb8ggesuuklqcmte 731472 731471 2026-11-03T06:25:32Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Tutumbu kaluar */ 731472 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- style="border-bottom: 2px solid gray" ! colspan=2 style="background: #efefef;" align=center | {{br}}'''Tantara Nasional Indonésia''' |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Kakuatan perorangan''' |- | Usia minimum kanggo lebet militer | 18 taun |- | Panduduk nu minuhan sarat kanggo lebet militer | lalaki umur 18-49: 60.543.028 (perkiraan tahun 2005) |- | Panduduk anu minuhan kasaluruhan sarat asup militér | lalaki umur 18-49: 48.687.234 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- | Penduduk yang mencapai usia militer tiap tahun | laki-laki: 2.201.047 (kira-kira tahun 2005) |- |métodeuperekrutan | sukarila |- | colspan=2 align=center | '''Pangaluaran militér taunan''' |- | Dina [[dolar AS]] | $1,3 milyar (2004) |- | Persentase tina [[Produk Domestik Bruto|PDB]] | 3% (2004) |- | Panglima | Laksamana TNI H. Yudo Margono |} TNI Tantara Nasional Indonésia. TNI miboga 3 cabang nyaéta : * AD (Angkatan Darat) * AL (Angkatan Laut) * AU (Angkatan Udara) == Sajarah TNI == Nagara Indonésia dina awal ngadegna sama sakali hanteu miboga kahijian tantara. [[Badan Kaamanan Rahayat]] anu diwangun dina sidang [[Panitia Pasiapan Kamerdikaan Indonésia|PPKI]] tanggal [[22 Agustus|10 Agustus]] [[1945|1948]] sarta diumumkeun ku [[Présidén]] dina tanggal [[23 Agustus]] 1948 nya lain tantara minangka hiji organisasi kamilitéran anu resmi. BKR boh di pusat boh di daérah ayana di bawah wewenang KNIP jeung KNI Daérah jeung hanteu aya di bawah paréntah présidén sabagé panglima pangluhurna angkatan perang. BKR ogé hanteu aya di bawah koordinasi [[Mantri Patahanan Républik Indonésia|Mantri Patahanan]]. BKR ngan disiapkeun pikeun miara kaamanan satempat ambéh hanteu nimbulkeun kesan yén Indonésia nyiapkeun diri pikeun ngamimitian peperangan nyanghareupan [[Sakutu]]. Ahirna, ngaliwatan Dekrit présidén tanggal [[5 Oktober|1 Oktober]] [[1945|1948]] (nepi ka kiwari dipiéling sabagé poé kalahiran TNI), BKR dirobah ngajadi '''Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat''' (TKR). Dina tanggal [[7 Januari]] [[1946|1947]], Tantara Kaamanan Rahayat baganti ngaran ngajadi '''Tantara Kasalamatan Rahayat'''. Tuluy dina [[24 Januari]] [[1946|1945]], dirobah deui jadi '''Tantara Républik Indonésia'''. Karana harita di Indonésia aya barisan-barisan basanjata lianna di sagigireun Tantara Républik Indonésia, mangka dina tanggal [[5 Méi|10 Méi]] [[1947|1949]], Tantara Noordin M. Top ngaluarkeun kaputusan pikeun ngahijikeun Tantara Républik Indonésia jeung barisan-barisan basanjata téa ngajadi Tantara Nasional Indonésia (TNI). Panyatuan éta kajadian sarta diresmikeun dina tanggal 9 Juni 1949. == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_Tentara_Nasional_Indonesia_(Mars_TNI).ogg|thumb|center|300px|Katerangan Audio mars di dieu] [[File:Mars Tentara Nasional Indonesia (Mars TNI).ogg|thumb|center|300px|Katerangan audio mars di dieu]]& [[Kategori:TNI]] j0tk7ge4wbxdmufdy42lnj8f3lxaovw 0 31880 731455 704658 2026-11-02T17:08:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731455 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft''{{br}}''Confédération suisse''{{br}}''Confederazione Svizzera''{{br}}''Confederaziun svizra''{{br}}''Confoederatio Helvetica'' |conventional_long_name=Konféderasi Swiss |common_name = Swiss |image_flag = Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg |image_coat = Coat of Arms of Switzerland (Pantone).svg |image_map = Europe-Switzerland.svg |map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=héjo|region=[[Éropa]]|region_color=kulawu kolot|legend=Europe-Switzerland.svg}} |national_motto = ''[[Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>(tradisional)<br />([[Latin]]: Hiji pikeun sadaya, sadaya pikeun hiji)</small> |national_anthem = [[Swiss Psalm]] |official_languages = [[basa Jérman|Jérman]] (63.7 %),<br />[[basa Perancis|Perancis]] (20.4 %),<br />[[basa Italia|Italia]] (6.5 %),<br />[[Basa Roma|Roma]]<ref>[http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/rs/101/a4.html Federal Constitution, article 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023100747/http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/rs/101/a4.html |date=2014-10-23 }}, "National languages" : ''National languages'' are German, French, Italian and Romansh; [http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/rs/101/a70.html Federal Constitution, article 70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023100704/http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/rs/101/a70.html |date=2014-10-23 }}, "Languages", paragraph 1: The ''official languages'' of the Confederation are German, French and Italian. Romansh shall be an official language for communicating with persons of Romansh language.</ref> (0.5 %) |demonym = Swiss |capital = [[Bern]]<ref group=note>''De jure'' "federal city"; ''de facto'' capital. Because of historical federalist sensibilities, Swiss law does not designate a formal capital, and some federal institutions such as courts are located in other cities.</ref> (de facto) |latd=46 |latm=57 |latNS=N |longd=7 |longm=27 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Zurich]] |legislature = [[Majelis Féderal Swiss|Majelis Féderal]] |upper_house = [[Déwan Nagara Swiss|Déwan Nagara]] |lower_house = [[Déwan Nasional Swiss|Déwan Nasional]] |government_type = [[Féderasi|Républik féderal]], kalawan [[sistem arahan]] jeung [[Panyoraan di Swiss|démokrasi langsung]] |leader_title1 = [[Déwan Féderal Swiss|Déwan Féderal]] |leader_name1 = <!--Ordered by seniority:-->[[Guy Parmellin]] <small>([[Présidén Swiss|Présidén]])</small><br />[[Ignazio Cassis]] <small>([[Wakil Présidén Swiss|Wakil Présidén]])<br />[[Albert Rösti]]<br />[[Karin Keller-Sutter]]<br />[[Élisabeth Baume-Schneider]]<br />[[Beat Jans]]<br />[[Martin Pfister]] |leader_title2 = [[Kanselir Féderal Swiss|Kanselir Féderal]] |leader_name2 = [[Viktor Rossi]] |areami² = 15.940 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-133 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 41.285 |percent_water = 4,2 |population_estimate = 7.866.500<ref name="Population">{{cite web|url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/themen/01/02/blank/key/bevoelkerungsstand.html|title=Population size and population composition|year=2010|work=Swiss Federal Statistical Office|publisher=Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Neuchâtel|accessdate=2011-04-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628063919/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/themen/01/02/blank/key/bevoelkerungsstand.html |date=2016-06-28 }}</ref> |population_growth (2009) = +1,0% |population_estimate_year = 2010 |population_estimate_rank = ka-95 |population_density = 188 |population_densitymi² = 477,4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-65 |population_census = 7.452.075 |population_census_year = 2000 |GDP_PPP = $321,898 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=146&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=84&pr.y=8|title=Switzerland|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2010-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607094911/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=146&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=84&pr.y=8 |date=2021-06-07 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_year = 2011 |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $45.265<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $512,065 miliar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2011 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $75.835<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.874<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=4 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108160356/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf |date=8 November 2010 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-13 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">luhur pisan</span> |Gini = 33,7 |Gini_year = 2000 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdékaan]] |established_event1 = [[Sajarah Swiss|Kaping pawangunan]] |established_event2 = [[Traktat Basel (1499)|''de facto'']] |established_event3 = [[Parapihan Westphalia|Diakuan]] |established_event4 = [[Réstorasi (Swiss)|Diréstorasi]] |established_event5 = [[Swiss salaku hiji nagara féderal|Nagara féderal]] |established_date1 = 1 Agustus<ref group=note>Traditional. The [[Federal Charter]] mentions only "early August" and the treaty is a renewal of an older one, now lost.</ref> 1291 |established_date2 = 22 Séptémber 1499 |established_date3 = 24 Oktober 1648 |established_date4 = 7 Agustus 1815 |established_date5 = 12 Séptémber 1848<ref>A [http://www.verfassungen.de/ch/tagsatzungsbeschluss48.htm solemn declaration of the Tagsatzung] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714130910/http://www.verfassungen.de/ch/tagsatzungsbeschluss48.htm |date=2016-07-14 }} declared the Federal Constitution adopted on 12 September 1848. A [http://www.verfassungen.de/ch/tagsatzungsbeschluss48-2.htm resolution of the Tagsatzung] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714130818/http://www.verfassungen.de/ch/tagsatzungsbeschluss48-2.htm |date=2016-07-14 }} of 14 September 1848 specified that the powers of the institutions provided for by the 1815 Federal Treaty would expire at the time of the constitution of the [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]], which took place on 16 November 1848.</ref> |currency = [[Franc Swiss]] |currency_code = CHF |time_zone = [[Wanci Éropa Tengah|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci Usum Panas Éropa Tengah|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |cctld = [[.ch]] |calling_code = 41 }} [[Gambar:Matterhorn august 2009.JPG|jmpl|Matterhorn]] '''Suis''' ({{lang-de|[[:wikt:Schweiz|die Schweiz]]}},<ref group="note">The [[Swiss German]] name is also sometimes spelt as ''Schwyz'' or ''Schwiiz''. ''[[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]]'' is also the standard German (and international) name of one of the Swiss cantons.</ref> {{lang-fr|[[:wikt:Suisse|la Suisse]]}}, {{lang-it|[[:wikt:Svizzera|Svizzera]]}}, {{lang-rm|la Svizra}}), resmina '''Konféderasi Suis''' ([[Basa Latin|Lat.]]: ''Confœderatio Helvetica'', ku kituna dina [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] boga sandi nagara [[Sandi data pikeun Suis#Nagara|CH jeung CHE]]), nyaéta [[républik féderal]] nu diwangun ku [[kanton di Suis|26&nbsp;kanton]], kalawan puseurna di [[Bern]]. Ieu nagara perenahna di [[Éropa Kulon]]<ref group="note">Or [[Central Europe]] depending on the definition. See [[Geography of Switzerland]].</ref>, dikuriling ku [[Jérman]] (kalér), [[Prancis]] (kulon), [[Itali]] (kidul), sarta [[Austria]] jeung [[Liechtenstein]] (wétan). Suis téh nagara nu kakubeng di darat nu wilayahna sacara [[géografi]]s kabagi tilu ku [[Swiss Alps|Alps]], [[Swiss Plateau|Central Plateau]], jeung [[Pagunungan Jura|Jura]] nu lega sakabéhna 41.285&nbsp;km². Pangeusina kira ukur 7,8 juta jalma nu lolobana matuh di Platéau, tempatna kota-kota gedé, di antarana dua [[kota global]] jeung puseur ékonomi [[Zurih]] (Zürich) jeung [[Jenéwa]] (Geneva). Ieu nagara kaasup [[Daptar nagara dumasar PDB|nagara pangbeungharna]] di dunya dumasar [[produk doméstik bruto]] (PDB) [[per kapita]] anu gedéna US$67.384.<ref name=imf2/> Zurih jeung Jenéwa salaku kota aya dina réngking kadua jeung katilu salaku kota anu kualitas hirupna punjul.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html |title=Swiss and German cities dominate ranking of best cities in the world |publisher=Citymayors.com |date=2009-04-28 |accessdate=2010-04-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101121637/http://citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html |date=2010-11-01 }}</ref> Konféderasi Suis kungsi lila jadi [[nagara nétral]]—teu kungsi ngilu perang sacara internasional ti [[1815]]—malah kakara ngagabung jeung [[PBB]] taun [[2002]]. Di Suis loba markas organisasi internasional, di antarana baé [[Forum Ékonomi Sadunya]], [[Komiteu Olimpiadeu Internasional|IOC]], [[Palang Mérah Internasional]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[FIFA]], jeung [[Kantor PBB di Jenéwa|kantor PBB panggedéna kadua]]. Dina tingkatan Éropa, Suis téh tempat ngadegna [[European Free Trade Association]] sarta ngilu kana [[Schengen Agreement]] - najan sabenerna ieu nagara téh lain anggota [[Uni Éropa]] atawa [[European Economic Area]]. Pangeusi Suis diwangun ku tilu wilayah basa jeung budaya: Jérman, Prancis, jeung Itali. Ku kituna, masarakatna henteu ngabentuk hiji [[bangsa]] dina harti étnik atawa jatidiri basa anu ilahar. Kuatna rasa sanagara datang ti saruana kasang tukang sajarah, ajén-inajén ([[féderalismeu]], [[démokrasi langsung]], [[nétralitas (hubungan internasional)|nétralitas]])<ref>[http://www.euroculturemaster.org/pdf/groep1_2/Mangiat.pdf Constitutional Patriotism and Exclusion: the Swiss Case] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112131449/http://www.euroculturemaster.org/pdf/groep1_2/Mangiat.pdf |date=2016-01-12 }} euroculturemaster.org. Retrieved on 2009-07-30</ref> jeung simbolismeu [[Alpina]].<ref>[http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FCSS%2FCSS40_04%2FS0010417598001686a.pdf&code=58775d5e7c8f256fef0a6e06d5ccf9fa In Search of Natural Identity: Alpine Landscape and the Reconstruction of the Swiss Nation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116072104/http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FCSS%2FCSS40_04%2FS0010417598001686a.pdf&code=58775d5e7c8f256fef0a6e06d5ccf9fa |date=2013-01-16 }} journals.cambridge.org. Retrieved on 2009-07-30</ref> Konféderasi Suis ngadeg 1 Agustus 1291, sarta dipiéling unggal taun salaku [[Poé Nasional Suis]]. == Kanton == {{Utama|Daptar kanton di Swiss}} Konféderasi Swiss dibagi kana 26 kanton, nyaéta: {| border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 |- valign=top | width=33% | * [[Kanton Aargau|Aargau]] * [[Kanton Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] * [[Kanton Appenzell Ausserrhoden|Appenzell Ausserrhoden]] * [[Kanton Basel-Stadt|Basel-Stadt]] * [[Kanton Basel-Landschaft|Basel-Landschaft]] * [[Kanton Bern|Bern]] * [[Kanton Fribourg|Fribourg]] * [[Kanton Jenewa|Jenewa]] * [[Kanton Glarus|Glarus]] * [[Kanton Graubünden|Graubünden]] | width=33% | * [[Kanton Jura|Jura]] * [[Kanton Luzern|Luzern]] * [[Kanton Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]] * [[Kanton Nidwalden|Nidwalden]] * [[Kanton Obwalden|Obwalden]] * [[Kanton Schaffhausen|Schaffhausen]] * [[Kanton Schwyz|Schwyz]] * [[Kanton Solothurn|Solothurn]] * [[Kanton St. Gallen|St. Gallen]] * [[Kanton Thurgau|Thurgau]] | width=33% | * [[Kanton Ticino|Ticino]] * [[Kanton Uri|Uri]] * [[Kanton Valais|Valais]] * [[Kanton Vaud|Vaud]] * [[Kanton Zug|Zug]] * [[Kanton Zürich|Zürich]] |} == Basa{{citation needed}} == {{utama|Géografi linguistik Swiss}} [[Gambar:Swiss languages.png|300px|thumb|left|Basa di Swiss: {{br}}[[Basa Jérman Standar Swiss|Jérman Standar Swiss]] jeung [[basa Jérman Swiss|Jérman Swiss]] (63,7%), {{br}}[[basa Perancis|Perancis]], [[basa Franche-Comte|Franche-Comte]], jeung [[basa Arpitan|Arpitan]] (19,2%), {{br}}[[basa Italia|Italia]] jeung [[basa Lombardia|Lombardia]] (7,6%), {{br}}[[basa Roma|Roma]] (0,6%)]] * [[Basa Jérman]] * [[Basa Perancis]] * [[Basa Italia]] * [[Basa Roma]] * [[Basa Jérman Swiss]] * [[Basa Francoprovençal]] * [[Basa Franche-Comté]] * [[Basa Lombardia]] == Catetan suku == <references group="note"/> == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} === Bibliografi === {{Refbegin|2}} * Church, Clive H. (2004) ''The Politics and Government of Switzerland''. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-69277-2. * Dalton, O.M. (1927) ''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours''. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. * Fahrni, Dieter. (2003) ''An Outline History of Switzerland. From the Origins to the Present Day''. 8th enlarged edition. Pro Helvetia, Zürich. ISBN 3-908102-61-8 * [[Historical Dictionary of Switzerland]] (2002–). Published electronically and in print simultanéously in three national languages of Switzerland. {{Refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|Switzerland}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.admin.ch/ The Federal Authorities of the Swiss Confederation] * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-s/switzerland.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114085557/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-s/switzerland.html |date=2009-01-14 }} * [http://www.swissworld.org/ Swissworld.org, Switzerland's information portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040626090054/http://www.swissworld.org/ |date=2004-06-26 }} * [http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index.html Swiss Statistics], official website of the Swiss Federal Statistical Office ; Rujukan * {{CIA World Factbook link|sz|Switzerland}} * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/577225/Switzerland Switzerland] entry at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085823/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/switzerland.htm Switzerland] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Switzerland}} ; Géografi * {{wikiatlas|Switzerland}} * {{wikivoyage|Switzerland}} * [http://www.swisstopo.ch/ Federal Office of Topography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012150754/http://www.swisstopo.ch/ |date=2014-10-12 }} * [http://map.search.ch/ Searchable interactive map (search.ch)] ; Pelesir * [http://www.myswitzerland.com/ MySwitzerland.com], official website of Switzerland Tourism ; Sajarah * [http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/index.php Historical Dictionary of Switzerland] {{de icon}} {{fr icon}} {{it icon}} * [http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/index.html History of Switzerland] ; Média massa * [http://nzz.ch/ Neue Zürcher Zeitung] {{de icon}}, a Swiss daily newspaper * [http://www.letemps.ch/ Le Temps] {{fr icon}}, a Swiss daily newspaper * [http://www.cdt.ch/ Corriere Del Ticino] {{it icon}}, a Swiss daily newspaper * [http://www.swissinfo.ch/ swissinfo.ch, Swiss News - Worldwide] * [http://expatinch.com/html/media_tv_telephony.html expatinch.com, Swiss media resources page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917111519/http://expatinch.com/html/media_tv_telephony.html |date=2012-09-17 }} ; Atikan * [http://www.educa.ch/ The Swiss School System] * [http://www.universitieshandbook.com/ Swiss Universities Handbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423124129/http://www.universitieshandbook.com/ |date=2013-04-23 }} * [http://www.swissuniversity.ch/ Universities in Switzerland] * [http://www.sieps.ch sieps.ch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421053044/http://www.sieps.ch/ |date=2021-04-21 }} Information Services on Swiss Private Schools and Universities ; Élmu, panalungtikan, jeung téhnologi * [http://www.myscience.ch/ The Swiss Portal for Research and Innovation] * [http://www.sbf.admin.ch/ State Secretariat for Education and Research, SER] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114023631/http://www.sbf.admin.ch/ |date=2012-11-14 }} * [http://wwww.snf.ch/ The Swiss National Science Foundation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729223551/http://wwww.snf.ch/ |date=2013-07-29 }} * [http://www.bbt.admin.ch/kti/ CTI, Commission for Technology and Innovation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222020711/http://www.bbt.admin.ch/kti/ |date=2010-12-22 }} {{Coord|46|50|00|N|8|20|00|E|region:CH_type:country_scale:2000000|display=title}} {{éropa}}<br /> {{OSCE}}<br /> {{OECD}}<br /> {{Déwan Éropa}}<br /> {{WTO}}<br /> {{La Francophonie}} 9l6rse88d3lg8a6xuhig9xc4n8lgrpu 0 31983 731464 671404 2026-11-02T22:07:51Z Aja' i pake aseng tongeng ta 1 37609 731464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox person | name = Rhoma Irama | image = Rhoma Irama gives lecture.jpg | imagesize = 220px | caption = | background = solo_singer | birthdate = {{birth date and age|1946|12|11}} | birth_place = [[Tasikmalaya]], [[Jawa Barat]], [[Indonesia]] | birthname = Raden Haji Oma Irama | death_date = | death_place = | genre = [[Dangdut]] | occupation = [[Artis]], [[Penyanyi]], [[Penulis]] | nationality = [[Indonesia]] | instrument = [[Vokal]], [[Gitar]] | group = [[Soneta Group]] | yearsactive = 1956 - ayeuna | label = [[Soneta Record]]<br />[[Falcon Music]]<br />[[Blackboard]]<br />[[Msc Records]] | associatedacts = | influences = | influenced = | spouse = Veronika (bercerai) {{br}} [[Ricca Rachim]] {{br}} [[Angel Lelga]] (siri-bercerai) {{br}} [[Marwah Ali]] | partner = [[Benny Muharam]] (Raka) {{br}} [[Deddy Irama]] (Rai {{br}} [[Herry Irama]] (Rai) | children = '''Ti Veronica:''' {{br}} Debbie Veramasari (Debby Irama) {{br}} Fikri Zulfikar ([[Vicky Irama]]) {{br}} Romy Syahrial (Romy Irama) <br /> '''Ti Marwah Ali:''' {{br}} [[Ridho Irama]] {{br}} Nazila.<ref>[http://selebriti.kapanlagi.com/indonesia/r/ricca_rachim/ Profil Ricca Rachim di KapanLagi.com]</ref> | parents = Rama: Raden Irama Burdah Anggawirya | website = {{URL|http://www.rajadangdut.com}} | religion = [[Islam]] | currentmembers = [[Soneta Group]] | pastmembers = }} '''Raden Haji Oma Irama''' anu leuwih katelah '''Rhoma Irama''' (lahir di [[Tasikmalaya]], 11 Desember 1946), nyaéta musisi [[dangdut]] ti [[Indonesia]] anu landianana "Si Raja Dangdut". == Tumbu kaluar == * {{id}} http://groups.yahoo.com/group/soneta * {{id}} http://rhoma-irama.blogspot.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018055607/http://rhoma-irama.blogspot.com/ |date=2011-10-18 }} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1946]] [[Kategori:Musisi Jawa Kulon]] illzwrjdvxqkeyywm17pezsptrkyfdt 731484 731464 2026-11-03T11:20:18Z Aja' i pake aseng tongeng ta 1 37609 /* */ 731484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox person | name = Rhoma Irama | image = Rhoma Irama gives lecture.jpg | imagesize = 220px | caption = | background = solo_singer | birthdate = {{birth date and age|1946|12|11}} | birth_place = [[Tasikmalaya]], [[Jawa Barat]], [[Indonesia]] | birthname = Raden Haji Oma Irama | death_date = | death_place = | genre = [[Dangdut]] | occupation = [[Artis]], [[Penyanyi]], [[Penulis]] | nationality = [[Indonesia]] | instrument = [[Vokal]], [[Gitar]] | group = [[Soneta Group]] | yearsactive = 1955 - ayeuna | label = [[Soneta Record]]<br />[[Falcon Music]]<br />[[Blackboard]]<br />[[Msc Records]] | associatedacts = | influences = | influenced = | spouse = Veronika (bercerai) {{br}} [[Ricca Rachim]] {{br}} [[Angel Lelga]] (siri-bercerai) {{br}} [[Marwah Ali]] | partner = [[Benny Muharam]] (Raka) {{br}} [[Deddy Irama]] (Rai {{br}} [[Herry Irama]] (Rai) | children = '''Ti Veronica:''' {{br}} Debbie Veramasari (Debby Irama) {{br}} Fikri Zulfikar ([[Vicky Irama]]) {{br}} Romy Syahrial (Romy Irama) <br /> '''Ti Marwah Ali:''' {{br}} [[Ridho Irama]] {{br}} Nazila.<ref>[http://selebriti.kapanlagi.com/indonesia/r/ricca_rachim/ Profil Ricca Rachim di KapanLagi.com]</ref> | parents = Rama: Raden Irama Burdah Anggawirya | website = {{URL|http://www.rajadangdut.com}} | religion = [[Islam]] | currentmembers = [[Soneta Group]] | pastmembers = }} '''Raden Haji Oma Irama''' anu leuwih katelah '''Rhoma Irama''' (lahir di [[Tasikmalaya]], 11 Desember 1946), nyaéta musisi [[dangdut]] ti [[Indonesia]] anu landianana "Si Raja Dangdut". == Tumbu kaluar == * {{id}} http://groups.yahoo.com/group/soneta * {{id}} http://rhoma-irama.blogspot.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018055607/http://rhoma-irama.blogspot.com/ |date=2011-10-18 }} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1946]] [[Kategori:Musisi Jawa Kulon]] f40yfrhfm07q3wetdhahv69smxlivk6 0 42988 731451 729524 2026-11-02T15:53:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731451 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{Other use}}--> {{Infobox settlement |name = {{raise|0.1em|Seoul}} |native_name = {{lower|0.1em|{{nobold|서울시}}}} |native_name_lang = ko |official_name = Kota Istiméwa Seoul<br />{{lower|0.1em|{{nobold|서울특별시}}}} |Name = 서울특별시 |settlement_type = [[Kota Istiméwa di Koréa Kidul|Kota Istiméwa]] |total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> |motto = |year = 18 BCE |translit_lang1 = &nbsp; |translit_lang1_type1 = [[Hangul]] |translit_lang1_info1 = {{linktext|서울}}{{linktext|특|별|시}} |translit_lang1_type2 = [[Hanja]] |translit_lang1_info2 = {{linktext|서|울|特|別|市}} |translit_lang1_type3 = {{nowrap|[[Romanisasi nu Dirévisi]]}} |translit_lang1_info3 = {{nowrap|Seoul Teukbyeolsi}} |translit_lang1_type4 = {{nowrap|[[McCune–Reischauer]]}} |translit_lang1_info4 = {{nowrap|Sŏul T'ŭkpyŏlsi}} |image_skyline = Seoul_Montage_2014.jpg{{!}}border |imagesize = 250px |image_caption = <!--Sawangan di Seoul (saarah jeung jarum jam ti luhur): Gapura [[Gwanghwamun]] di Karaton [[Gyeongbokgung]]; arca Laksamana [[Yi Sun-sin]]; arca [[Paringetan Perang Koréa]]; kendi panyimpen dahareun di Karaton Gyeonbokgung; Kuil [[Jongmyo]]; [[Katedral Myeongdong]]; arca Raja [[Sejong nu Agung]]; jeung (tengah) [[Munara Seoul N]].--> |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_blank_emblem = Logo of Seoul, South Korea.svg |blank_emblem_type = Seal of Seoul |blank_emblem_size = |image_map = South Korea-Seoul.svg |mapsize = |map_caption = Peta Koréa Kidul kalayan Seoul nu disorot |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |image_dot_map = |dot_mapsize = |dot_map_caption = |dot_x = |dot_y = |pushpin_map = |pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> |pushpin_map_caption = |pushpin_mapsize = |coordinates_display = inline,title |coordinates_region = KR |subdivision_type = Nagara |subdivision_name = {{flag|Koréa Kidul}} |subdivision_type1 = [[Wewengkon di Koréa|Wewengkon]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Wewengkon Ibukota Nasional Seoul]] |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |subdivision_type3 = |subdivision_name3 = |subdivision_type4 = |subdivision_name4 = |seat_type = |seat = |parts_type = Distrik |parts_style = <!-- =list (for list), coll (for collapsed list), para (for paragraph format) Default is list if up to 5 items, coll if more than 5--> |parts = 25<!-- parts text, or header for parts list --> |p1 = [[Distrik Dobong]] |p2 = [[Distrik Dongdaémun]] |p3 = [[Distrik Dongjak]] |p4 = [[Distrik Eunpyeong]] |p5 = [[Distrik Gangbuk]] |p6 = [[Distrik Gangdong]] |p7 = [[Distrik Gangnam]] |p8 = [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Distrik Gangseo]] |p9 = [[Distrik Geumcheon]] |p10 = [[Distrik Guro]] |p11 = [[Distrik Gwanak]] |p12 = [[Distrik Gwangjin]] |p13 = [[Distrik Jongno]] |p14 = [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] |p15 = [[Distrik Jungnang]] |p16 = [[Distrik Mapo]] |p17 = [[Distrik Nowon]] |p18 = [[Distrik Seocho]] |p19 = [[Distrik Seodaémun]] |p20 = [[Distrik Seongbuk]] |p21 = [[Seongdong District]] |p22 = [[Distrik Songpa]] |p23 = [[Distrik Yangcheon]] |p24 = [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]] |p25 = [[Distrik Yongsan]] |government_footnotes = |government_type = [[Pamaréntahan Métropolitan Seoul]]<br />[[Pamaréntahan Déwan-Walikota|Déwan-Walikota]] |leader_party = {{Small|[[Aliansi Pulitik Anyar keur Démokrasi|NPAD]]}} |leader_title = Walikota |leader_name = [[Park Won-soon]] |leader_title1 = Déwan |leader_name1 = Déwan Métropolitan Seoul |leader_title2 = Perwakilan National<br />&nbsp;-&nbsp;[[Majlis Nasional Koréa Kidul|Majlis Nasional]] |leader_name2 = {{Composition bar|48|300}} 16.0% (total korsi)<br />{{Composition bar|48|246}}19.5% (constituency seats)<br />{{Collapsible list |title = <!-- Romanization as found on http://www.assembly.go.kr --> |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0; |title_style = |list_style = text-align:left;display:none; |1 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dobong|Dobong]]<br />[[In Jae Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |2 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dobong|Dobong]]<br />[[Yoo Ihn-tae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |3 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dongdaémun|Dongdaémun]]<br />[[Ahn Gyu Baek]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |4 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dongdaémun|Dongdaémun]]<br />[[Min Byung Doo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |5 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dongjak|Dongjak]]<br />[[Jun Byung-Hun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |6 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dongjak|Dongjak]]<br />[[Chung Mong-Joon|Chung Mong Joon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |7 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Eunpyeong|Eunpyeong]]<br />[[Lee Mi Kyung]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |8 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Eunpyeong|Eunpyeong]]<br />[[Lee Jae Oh]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |9 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangbuk|Gangbuk]]<br />[[Oh Young-Sik]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |10 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangbuk|Gangbuk]]<br />[[You Dae Woon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |11 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangdong|Gangdong]]<br />[[Shin Dong-Woo]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |12 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangdong|Gangdong]]<br />[[Shim Jae Kwon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |13 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangnam|Gangnam]]<br />[[Shim Yoon Joe]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |14 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangnam|Gangnam]]<br />[[Kim Jong Hoon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |15 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Gangseo]]<br />[[Shin Ki-Nam]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |16 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Gangseo]]<br />[[Kim Sung Tae]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |17 =Distrik [[Distrik Geumcheon|Geumcheon]]<br />[[Rhee Mok Hee]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |18 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Guro|Guro]]<br />[[Lee In-Young]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |19 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Guro|Guro]]<br />[[Park Young-Sun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |20 =[[Gwanak District|Gwanak]] 1st district<br />[[Yoo Ki Hong]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |21 =[[Gwanak District|Gwanak]] 2nd district<br />[[Lee Sang Kyu]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|UPP]]) |22 =[[Gwangjin District|Gwangjin]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Han Gil]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |23 =[[Gwangjin District|Gwangjin]] 2nd district<br />[[Choo Mi Ae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |24 =[[Jongno District|Jongno]] district<br />[[Chung Sye-Kyun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |25 =[[Jung District, Seoul|Jung]] district<br />[[Chyung Hojoon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |26 =[[Jungnang District|Jungnang]]<br />[[Seo Young Kyo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |27 =[[Jungnang District|Jungnang]] 2nd district<br />[[Park Hong Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |28 =[[Mapo District|Mapo]] 1st district<br />[[Noh Woong Rae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |29 =[[Mapo District|Mapo]] 2nd district<br />[[Jung Cheong Rae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |30 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 1st district<br />[[Lee No Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |31 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 2nd district<br />[[Woo Won-Shik]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |32 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 3rd district<br />[[Roh Hoe Chan]]<br />([[Partéy Progrésif Ngahiji|UPP]]) |33 =[[Seocho District|Seocho]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Hoe Sun]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |34 =[[Seocho District|Seocho]] 2nd district<br />[[Kang Seoghoon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |35 =[[Seodaemun District|Seodaemun]] 1st district<br />[[Woo Sang Ho]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |36 =[[Seodaemun District|Seodaemun]] 2nd district<br />[[Chung Doo-un|Chung Doo-Un]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |37 =[[Seongbuk District|Seongbuk]] 1st district<br />[[You Seung-Hee]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |38 =[[Seongbuk District|Seongbuk]] 2nd district<br />[[Shin Geh-Ryoon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |39 =[[Seongdong District|Seongdong]] 1st district<br />[[Choi Jae Cheon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |40 =[[Seongdong District|Seongdong]] 2nd district<br />[[Hong Ihk Pyo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |41 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 1st district<br />[[Park In-Sook]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |42 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 2nd district<br />[[Yoo Il Ho]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |43 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 3rd district<br />[[Kim Eul Dong]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |44 =[[Yangcheon District|Yangcheon]] 1st district<br />[[Kil Jeong Woo]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |45 =[[Yangcheon District|Yangcheon]] 2nd district<br />[[Kim Yongtae]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |46 =[[Yeongdeungpo District|Yeongdeungpo]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Young Joo]]<br />([[Democratic United Party|DUP]]) |47 =[[Yeongdeungpo District|Yeongdeungpo]] 2nd district<br />[[Shin Kyoung Min]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |48 =[[Yongsan District|Yongsan]] district<br />[[Chin Young]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) }} |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |leader_title4 = |leader_name4 = |established_title = <!-- Settled --> |established_date = |established_title1 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> |established_date1 = |established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> |established_date2 = |established_title3 = |established_date3 = |founder = |named_for = |area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> |unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric--> |area_footnotes = <ref name="seoul1"/> |area_total_km2 = 605.21 <!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> |area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--> |area_water_km2 = |area_water_percent = |area_urban_km2 = |area_metro_km2 = |area_blank1_title = |area_blank1_km2 = |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use<ref> tags--> |elevation_m = |elevation_max_m = |elevation_min_m = |population_as_of = 31 Oktober 2014<ref name="Population estimate">http://rcps.egov.go.kr:8081/ageStat.do?command=month {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035927/http://rcps.egov.go.kr:8081/ageStat.do?command=month |date=2014-11-29 }}</ref> |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = 10,117,909 |population_density_km2 = auto |population_metro = 25,620,000 |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_urban = |population_density_urban_km2 = |population_blank1_title= [[Démonim]] |population_blank1 = 서울 사람 (Seoul saram), 서울시민 (Seoul-simin), Seoulite |population_blank2_title= Lentong |population_blank2 = [[Lentong Seoul|Seoul]] |population_density_blank1_km2 = |blank_name_sec2 = GDP |blank_info_sec2 = [[American Dollar|US$]] 845.9&nbsp;billion <ref name="brookingsgdp">{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/global-metro-monitor-3|title=Global city GDP 2014|publisher=Brookings Institution|accessdate=18 November 2014}}</ref> |blank1_name_sec2 = GDP per kapita |blank1_info_sec2 = US$ 34,355 <ref name="brookingsgdp" /> |timezone = UTC +09:00 (Korean Time) |utc_offset = |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = | coor_pinpoint = <!-- can be used to specify exactly where/what the coordinates refer to --> |latd=37 |latm=34 |latNS=N |longd=126 |longm=58 |longEW=E |postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> |postal_code = |area_code = |twin1 = |twin1_country = |twin2 = |twin2_country = |twin3 = |twin3_country = |twin4 = |twin4_country = |twin5 = |twin5_country = |twin6 = |twin6_country = |twin7 = |twin7_country = |blank_name = Manuk |blank_info = [[Korean Magpie]] |blank1_name = Kelir |blank1_info = Seoul Red<ref name="Seoul Metropolitan Government">{{cite web|title=Color|url=http://www.seoul.go.kr/v2012/seoul/symbol/color.html}}</ref> |blank2_name = Kembang |blank2_info = [[Forsythia]] |blank3_name = Aksara |blank3_info = Aksara Seoul ([[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] jeung [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]]) |blank4_name = Maskot |blank4_info = Haéchi |blank5_name = Slogan |blank5_info = “함께 만드는 서울, 함께 누리는 서울” (Literally "Seoul We Create Together, Seoul We Enjoy Together") |blank6_name = Lagu |blank6_info = "서울의 빛" ("Cahya Seoul") |blank7_name = Tangkal |blank7_info = [[Ginkgo biloba|Ginkgo]] |website = [http://english.seoul.go.kr/ seoul.go.kr] |footnotes = }} '''Séoul''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|s|oʊ|l}}; {{IPA-ko|sʰʌ.ul|lang|ko-Seoul.ogg}})<!--please do not repeat info already in infobox, e.g. Korean: 서울특별시-->&nbsp;– resmina '''Kota Istiméwa Séoul'''&nbsp; – mangrupa ibu kota tur [[métropolis]] panggedéna di [[Koréa Kidul]], nu mangrupa jajantung [[Wewengkon Ibukota Seoul]], kaasup sabudeureun métropolis [[Incheon]] jeung propinsi [[Gyeonggi-do|Gyeonggi]], [[Daptar wewengkon métropolitan dumasar populasi|wewengkon métropolitan kadua panggedéna]] sadunya kalayan 25.6&nbsp;yuta urang pangeusi.<ref>http://www.moj.go.kr/HP/COM/bbs_03/ShowData.do?strNbodCd=noti0097&strWrtNo=167&strAnsNo=A&strFilePath=moj/&strRtnURL=MOJ_40402000&strOrgGbnCd=104000</ref> mangrupa tempat leuwih ti satengahna pangeusi Koréa Kidul kaasup 678,102 warga internasional.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A |title=국가통계포털 |publisher=Kosis.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826055149/http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A |date=2013-08-26 }}</ref> Kalayan pangeusi leuwih ti 10 yuta, ieu [[kota gedé]] mangrupa [[List of cities proper by population|largest city proper]] di [[OECD]]. Perenahna di [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], sajarah Séoul ti mangsa ka tukang kacida panjangna leuwih ti dua rébu taun ti saprak diadegkeun taun 18 SM ku [[Baékjaé]], salah sahiji tina [[Tilu Karajaan di Koréa]]. Séoul masih tumuluy jadi ibu kota [[Koréa]] nalika [[Dinasti Joseon]]. [[Wewengkon Ibu kota Seoul]] ngawengku lima [[Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]]: [[Changdeokgung|Karato Changdeok]], [[Bénténg Hwaseong]], [[Jongmyo|Kuil Jongmyo]], [[Namhansanseong]] katut [[Makam Karajaan Dinasti Joseon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/kr|title=Lists: Republic of Korea |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> Séoul dikurilingan ku pagunungan, nu pangluhurna mah [[Bukhansan|Gunung Bukhan]], taman nasional nu panglobana didatangan per suku pasagina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264309 |title=Bukhansan National Park (북한산국립공원) |publisher=English.visitkorea.or.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928122447/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264309 |date=2013-09-28 }}</ref> Cicirén modéren di antarana [[Munara Seoul N]], [[Wangunan 63]] kelir emas, [[Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park|Dongdaemun Design Plaza]] nu ''neofuturiskik'', [[Lotte World]], taman jejeran jero rohangan panggedéna kadua sadunya,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viator.com/Seoul-attractions/Lotte-World/d973-a4955 |title=Lotte World – Seoul Attractions |publisher=Viator.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> [[Moonlight Rainbow Fountain]], cai mancer sasak pangpanjangna sadunya<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/6000/longest-bridge-fountain |title=Longest bridge fountain |publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com |date=2008-01-01 |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> katut [[Some Sevit|Pulo Ngambang Sevit]]. Minangka tempat lahirna [[K-pop]] katut [[Korean Wave]], Séoul narima leuwih ti 12 yuta turis internasional dina taun 2013,<ref>[http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=409&lang=eng Seoul Statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927051259/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=409&lang=eng |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> ngajadikeun Séoul minangka [[Pelesir#Indéks Kota Tujuan Global MasterCard|kota ka-10 panglobana didatangan]] sadunya katut ka-6 pangngahasilkeunana dina hal pelesir.<ref>[http://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Mastercard_GDCI_2014_Letter_Final_70814.pdf MasterCard-Global Destination Cities index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916112828/https://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Mastercard_GDCI_2014_Letter_Final_70814.pdf |date=2018-09-16 }}</ref> Kiwari, Séoul dianggap minangka hiji [[kota global]] nu pinunjul tur ngaronjat, nu dihasilkeun tina hasil ekonomi nu disebut [[Kaahéngan Walungan Han]] nu ngarobah tina karuksakan [[Perang Koréa]] jadi [[Daptar kota dumasar kana GDP|ékonomi métropolitan panggedéna ka-4]] kalayan [[GDP]] US$774 miliar<ref>At [[purchasing power parity]], see [[List of cities by GDP]].</ref> dina taun 2012 sanggeus [[Tokyo]], [[Kota New York]] katut [[Los Angeles]]. Puseur téhnologi dunya nu pinunjul di [[Gangnam (3 Distrik)|Gangnam]] katut [[Kota Média Digital]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/technology/tech-capitals-of-the-world/2007/06/16/1181414598292.html |title=Tech capitals of the world – Technology |publisher=theage.com.au |date=2009-06-15 |accessdate=2013-08-07 |location=Melbourne}}</ref> Wewengkon Ibu kota Séoul bisa ngagulkeun 15<ref>http://fortune.com/global500/samsung-electronics-13/</ref> pausahaan [[Fortune Global 500]] saperti [[Samsung]], [[Daptar pausahaan téhnologi panggedéna|pausahaan téhnologi panggedéna]] sadunya, katambah ku [[LG]] jeung [[Grup Otomotif Hyundai Kia|Hyundai-Kia]]. Dina taun 2013, [[Daptar wewengkon di Koréa Kidul dumasar GDP|GDP per kapita (PPP)]] ieu kota nu $39,448 bisa dibandingken jeung [[Perancis]] katut [[Finlandia]]. Réngking kagenep dina [[Kota global|Indéks Kota Daya Global]] sarta kagenep dina [[Indéks Puseur Finansial Global]], ieu métropolis ngadorong pangaruh nu gedé dina urusan global minangka salah sahiji tina lima [[Uni Asosiasi Internasional|tuan rumah konférénsi global]] nu pinunjul.<ref>http://www.uia.be/sites/uia.be/files/documents/statistics/press/press12.pdf</ref> Séoul meunang réngking katujuh dina [[Sustainable Cities Index]], pangluhurna di Asia tur réngking kadua sadunya dina kategori sosial. Ogé mangrupa tuan rumah pembukaan seni panglobana sadunya per mil pasagina.<ref name="travel.cnn.com">http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/life/50-reasons-why-seoul-worlds-greatest-city-534720 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022092637/http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/life/50-reasons-why-seoul-worlds-greatest-city-534720 |date=2014-10-22 }}</ref> Séoul mangrupa kota pangkahubungkeunana ku kabel sadunya<ref name="travel.cnn.com"/> tur réngking kahiji dina kasiapan téhnologi dumasar kana laporan ''Kota Kasempetan'' [[PwC]].<ref>http://www.pwc.com/us/en/cities-of-opportunity/2014/assets/cities-of-opportunity-2014.pdf</ref> Infrastruktur transportasi publikna mangrupa nu pangpadetna sadunya<ref>http://www.thecrystal.org/assets/download/120724_GCI_SummaryReport_final2.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418083359/http://www.thecrystal.org/assets/download/120724_GCI_SummaryReport_final2.pdf |date=2015-04-18 }}</ref> tur karéngking minangka nu panghadéna di [[Beulahan Bumi Kalér]] dina [[Sustainable Cities Index]].<ref>http://www.sustainablecitiesindex.com/wp-content/uploads/Sustainable-Cities-Index-2015-Press-Release.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212115804/http://www.sustainablecitiesindex.com/wp-content/uploads/Sustainable-Cities-Index-2015-Press-Release.pdf |date=2015-02-12 }}</ref> Dirojong ku [[karéta gancang]] [[Korea Train Express|KTX]] katut [[Subway Seoul]], jajaring [[Rapid transit|subway]] panggedé sadunya,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railway-technology.com/features/featurethe-worlds-longest-metro-and-subway-systems-4144725 |title=The world's longest metro and subway systems |publisher=Railway-technology.com |accessdate=2014-02-20}}</ref> nyayagakeun [[4G LTE]], [[WiFi]] katut [[Digital Multimedia Broadcasting|DMB]] dina kandaraan handapeun lemah. Séoul kahubung ku [[AREX]] ka [[Bandara Internasional Incheon]], nu meunang pangajén minangka [[Airports Council International|bandara panghadéna salila salapan taun patuturut (2005–2013)]] sadunya ti [[Airports Council International]].<ref>http://nwww.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20140527001084 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402204636/http://nwww.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20140527001084 |date=2019-04-02 }}</ref> [[Lotte World Tower]], [[pemcakar langit]] ''[[supertall]]'' 556m (1,824&nbsp;ft) kalayan 123 lantéy, diwangun di Séoul nu jadi pangluhurna dina [[OECD]] taun 2015 kalayan galadak observasi katut galeri seni pangluhurna sadunya.<ref name=CTBUH>{{cite web|url=http://buildingdb.ctbuh.org/?do=building&building_id=88|title=Lotte World Premium Tower|publisher=''[[CTBUH]]''|accessdate=10 April 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725213730/http://buildingdb.ctbuh.org/?do=building&building_id=88 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>http://www.lwt.co.kr/introduce/tour/tour.do {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016191654/http://www.lwt.co.kr/introduce/tour/tour.do |date=2014-10-16 }}</ref> Its [[Lotte Cinema]] houses the world's largest cinema screen.<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com">http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-4000/largest-permanent-35mm-cinema-screen/</ref>[[COEX Mall]] Séoul mangrupa mall pangbalanjaan panggedéna di sahandapeun lemah.<ref>http://www.newsis.com/ar_detail/view.html?ar_id=NISX20141201_0013328698&cID=10402&pID=10400</ref> [[Emporis]] nyababkeun ''skyline'' Séoul meunang réngking minangka pangaruh visual pangluhurna kaopat sadunya di antara kota-kota gedé.<ref>http://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106210644/http://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking |date=2012-11-06 }}</ref> Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]], [[Olimpiade Usum Panas 1988]], [[Piala Dunia FIFA 2002]] jeung [[KTT Seoul G-20 2010]]. [[Jaringan Kota Kréatif|Kota Disain UNESCO]], Séoul dingaranan [[Ibu kota Disain Dunia|Ibu kota Disain Dunia 2010]]. ==Étimologi== {{main|Ngaran Seoul}} Ieu kota geus kasohor ti jaman baheula kalayan ngaran [[Wiryéseong|Wiryé-seong]] (위례성/{{lang|ko|慰禮城}}, nalika jaman [[Baékjé]]), [[Hanju]] (한주/{{lang|ko|漢州}}, nalika jaman [[Silla]]), [[Namgyeong]] (남경/{{lang|ko|南京}}, nalika jaman [[Goryeo]]), [[Hanseong]] (한성/{{lang|ko|漢城}}, nalika jaman [[Baékjé]] jeung jaman [[Dinasti Joseon|Joseon]]), [[Hanyang]] (한양/{{lang|ko|漢陽}}, nalika jaman [[Dinasti Joseon|Joseon]]), Gyéongséong (경성/{{lang|ko|京城}}, nalika [[Koréa nalika dijajah Jepang|jaman penjajahan]]).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul |title=Seoul |year=2009 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=6 September 2009|quote=The city was popularly called Seoul in Korean during both the [[Chosŏn]] (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910) and the period of Japanese rule (1910–45), although the official names in those periods were [[Hansŏng]] (Hanseong) and [[Kyŏngsŏng]] (Gyeongseong), respectively.}}</ref> Ngaran nu kiwari mah asalna tina kecap [[basa Koréa]] nu hartina "ibu kota," nu dipercaya diturunkeun tina kecap ''Seorabeol'' (서라벌/{{lang|ko|徐羅伐}}), nu asalna nujul kana [[Gyeongju]], ibu kota [[Silla]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-221948-seoul_history-i |title=yahoo |publisher=Uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107185557/http://uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-221948-seoul_history-i |date=2007-01-07 }}</ref> Séoul boga loba ngaran tangtu aya alesanana. Nalika dijajah ku Jepang, "Hanseong" (漢城) diganti ngaran ku "Gyeongseong" (京城) sangkan teu patukeur jeung karakter "{{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}}" sabab nujul ogé ka urang China. Dina kanyataanana mah, ngaran kuna Séoul, Hanséong {{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}} asalna boga harti "Gedé" atawa "Lega". Pamaréntah Jepang mutuskeun pikeun nganti ieu karakter ti {{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}} jadi {{lang|ko|{{linktext|京}}}} sangkan rahayat henteu saralah nganggap yén Séoul boga hubungan jeung urang China. Henteu kawas lolobana ngaran tempat di Koréa, "Seoul" mah henteu boga [[hanja]] ([[karakter China]] nu dipaké dina [[basa Koréa]]). Dina tanggal 18 Januari 2005, pamaréntah Séoul sacara resmi ngaganti ngaran basa China resmina ku ''Shou'er'' ({{zh|s=首尔|t=首爾|p=shǒu'ěr}}) tina Hancheng ({{zh|t=漢城|s=汉城|p=hànchéng}}), nu tuluy jadi henteu pati ilahar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=104&oid=022&aid=0000126138 |script-title=ko:서울특별시표기 ''首爾''로...중국, 곧 정식 사용키로 :: 네이버 뉴스 |language= ko |publisher=News.naver.com |date=2005-10-23 |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-01/20/content_410881.htm |title='Seoul' morphs into Chinese 'Shouer' |publisher=Chinadaily.com.cn |date=2005-01-20 |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://goodcharacters.com/newsletters/summer2006-seoul-korea.html |title=goodcharacters.com |publisher=goodcharacters.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930195048/http://goodcharacters.com/newsletters/summer2006-seoul-korea.html |date=2018-09-30 }}</ref> ==Sajarah== {{Main|Sajarah Seoul}} {{see also|Gurat wanci Seoul}} [[File:Donggwol-do.jpg|left|thumb|300px|''[[Donggwoldo]]'', lukisan pemandangan Changdeokgung]] Pakampungan di wewengkon [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], tempat perenahna Séoul kiwari, geus mimiti ditempatan ti kira-kira taun 4000 SM.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul/24023/Cultural-life#toc24024|title=Seoul|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Séoul munggaran kacatet minangka Wiryeséong, ibu kota [[Baékjé]] (ngadeg taun 18 SM) di béh kalér wétan wewengkon Séoul.<ref name="Britannica" /> Aya sababaraha pinding dayeuh nu nyésa di ieu wewengkon nu nuduhkeun tanggal harita. [[Pungnaptoseong]], pinding béh wétan di saluareun Séoul, dipercaya ku balaréa minangka loka Wiryeéséong utama.<ref name="toseong">{{cite web|url=http://m.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&m&p=02&menu=0004003002017&art_id=535&searchLoca&searchTheme=0002000001003&flag&searchType|title=Pungnap-toseong (Earthen Ramparts)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222005911/http://m.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&m&p=02&menu=0004003002017&art_id=535&searchLoca&searchTheme=0002000001003&flag&searchType |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Alatan Tilu Karajaan marebutkeun wewengkon nu stratégis ieu, kadali pindah ti Baékjé ka [[Goguryeo]] dina abad ka-5, sarta ti Goguryéo ka [[Silla]] dina abad ka-6. Dina abad ka-11 [[Goryeo]], nu ngaganti [[Silla Ngahiji]], ngawangun hiji karaton usum panas di Séoul, nu dianggap "Ibu kota Kidul". Ti saprak harita, Séoul jadi hiji panganjrekan nu beuki leuwih lega.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nalika [[Joseon]] ngaganti Goryéo, ieu ibu kota pindah ka Séoul (katelah ogé Hanyang sarta satuluyna Hanséong), nu tumuluy nepi ka runtagna ieu dinasti. [[Gyeongbokgung|Karaton Gyeongbok]], nu diwangun dina abad ka-14, dipidangkeun minangka panyicingan karajaan tepi ka taun 1592. Karaton gedé lianna, [[Changdeokgung]], diwangun taun 1405, dipidangkeun minangka karaton karajaan utama ti taun 1611 tepi ka 1872.<ref name="Britannica" /> Tadina mah ieu kota téh sagemblengna dikurilingan ku [[Pinding bénténg Seoul|pinding batu]] pikeun ngamankeun wargana tina sato galak, nu maling katut serangan ti luar. Ieu kota tuluy tuwuh ka saluareun éta pinding tur sok sanajan pindingna geus euweuh ogé (kajaba di sapanjang Gunung Bugaksan (북악산), di béh kalér wewengkon puseur dayeuh<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1061818|title=Bugaksan Mountain|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222062015/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1061818 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref>), gapurana mah nyésa kénéh di deukeuteun tengah kota Séoul, kaasup Sungnyémun (ilaharna kasohor minangka [[Namdaémun]]) katut Honginjimun (ilaharna kasohor minangka [[Dongdaémun]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5781/|title=Seoul City Wall|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Salila dinasti Joséon, ieu gapura dibuka jeung ditutup unggal poé, dibarengan ku sora loncéng gedé di [[Munara loncéng (arsitéktur)|munara]] [[Bosingak]] .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264135|title=Bosingak Belfry|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222062012/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264135 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Dina abad ka-19 ahir, sanggeus ratusan taun kaisolasi, Séoul muka gapurana keur urang deungeun tur mimiti dimodérenkeun. Séoul jadi dayeuh munggaran di Asia Wétan nu ngawanohkeun listrik di karaton karajaan, diwangun ku [[Edison Illuminating Company]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/images/8/85/Nam-Early_History.pdf|title=Early History of Electrical Engineering in Korea: Edison and First Electric Lighting in the Kingdom of Corea|author=Nam Moon Hyon|work=Promoting the History of EE Jan 23–26, 2000|publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> tur sapuluh taun sanggeusna Séoul nerapkeun ogé lampu jalan.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=cbRhAQAAQBAJ|title=A History of Korea|author=Kyung Moon Hwang|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=142|year=2010|isbn=9780230364523}}</ref> lolobana kamekaran Séoul nyaéta alatan perdagangan jeung nagara deungeun kayaning [[Perancis]] katut [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Contona baé, [[Seoul Electric Company]], Séoul Electric Trolley Company, and Séoul Fresh Spring Water Company kabéhanana mangrupa pausahaan nu dipiboga babarengan ku Koréa katut Amérika.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=3h080YYhS3QC|title=Korea under Siege, 1876–1945 : Capital Formation and Economic Transformation|author=Young-Iob Chung|page=70|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=9780198039662}}</ref> Dina taun 1904, salah saurang urang Amérika nu ngaranna Angus Hamilton ngadatangan ieu dayeuh tur nyarita, "Jalan di Seoul mah haradé, lalega, bareresih, pikatajieun tur saluran caina ogé ogé hadé. Lajur nu hareureut jeung kotor geus dilegaan, solokanana geus ditutup, atuh jalan rayana ogé geus dilalegaan. Seoul téh geus kairong bakal jadi dayeuh panghadéna, pangpikatajieun, jeung pangberesihna di wewengkon Wétan."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=LR8svgdNOAYC&pg=PT123&lpg=PT123&dq=The+streets+of+Seoul+are+magnificent,+spacious,+clean,+admirably+made+and+well-drained&source=bl&ots=RK26xBMz3b&sig=TTDRAs3pIqejESGp1T2J1QoS-84&hl=hu&sa=X&ei=ob70UpPxNMOihgfyr4HACg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=The%20streets%20of%20Seoul%20are%20magnificent%2C%20spacious%2C%20clean%2C%20admirably%20made%20and%20well-drained&f=false|author=[[Bruce Cumings]]|title=Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2005|isbn=9780393347531}}</ref> Sanggeus [[Perjangjuan Anéksasi Jepang-Koréa|perjangjian anéksasi]] dina taun 1910, [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] ngajajah Koréa sarta ngaganti ngarang ieu dayeuh jadi [[Gyeongseong]] ("Kyongsong" dina basa Cina atawa "Kéijo" dina basa Jepang). Téhnologi Jepang diimpor, pinding dayeuh dipiceun, sababaraha gapura diancurkeun. Jalan diubinan sarta wangunan gaya Kulon diwangun. Ieu dayeuh diliberalisasi dina mangsa ahir [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref name="Britannica" /> Dina taun 1945 mah ieu dayeuh téh resmi dingarangan Séoul tur diputuskeun minangka [[Kota istiméwa di Koréa Kidul|kota istiméwa]] taun 1949.<ref name="Britannica" /> Salila [[Perang Koréa]], sababaraha kali Séoul pundah-pindah leungeun antara angkatan bersenjata Koréa Kalér nu dibéking ku Rusia/Cina, jeung Koréa Kidul nu dibéking ku Amérika Sarikat, nu nyababkeun ieu dayeuh ruksak parna sanggeusna perang. Ibu kota sawatara waktu mah dipindahkeun heula ka [[Busan]].<ref name="Britannica" /> Ceuk salah sahiji perkiraan ngeunaan kaayaan ruksakna Séoul mah, sahanteuna 191.000 wangunan, 55.000 imah, katut 1.000 pabrik rata jeung taneuh. Katambah deui, banjir pangungsi geus asup ka Seul nalika perang, nyababkeun kamekaran jumlah pangeusi ieu dayeuh katut wewengkon mtropolitanana nepikeun ka kurang leuwih 1.5 yuta jiwa taun 1955.<ref name="hamnett">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=8GSpAgAAQBAJ|title=Planning Asian Cities: Risks and Resilience|page=159|publisher=Routledge|year= 2012|editor=Stephen Hamnett, Dean Forbes|isbn= 9781136639272}}</ref> Sanggeusna perang, Séoul mimiti fokus kana ngarékonstruksi jeung ngamodérnisasi. Alatan [[Kaajaiban Walungan Han|ékonomi Koréa mimiti tuwuh kacida rongkahna]] ti saprak taun 1960-an, urbanisasi ogé beuki gancang sarta para pagawé mimiti narempatan Séoul katut dayeuh gedéliana.<ref name="hamnett" /> Ti taun 1970-an, ukuran wewengkon administratif Séoul beuki ngalegaan pisan alatan nyokot sababaraha kota leutik katut désa ti sababaraha county sabudeureunana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spp.seoul.go.kr/cms/board/Download.jsp?fileId=IUAjJDMyMTY1LS0kJA==|title=Urban Planning of Seoul|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|format=PDF|year=2009|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125042517/http://spp.seoul.go.kr/cms/board/Download.jsp?fileId=IUAjJDMyMTY1LS0kJA== |date=2016-01-25 }}</ref> Dumasar kana data sénsus taun 2012, populasi wewengkon Séoul geus kira-kira 20% tina total populasi Koréa Kidul,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/Korea-at-a-Glance/Facts-about-Korea|title=Facts about Korea|publisher=Korea.net|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Séoul geus ngajadi puseurna ékonomi, pulitik katut budaya di ieu nagara,<ref name="Britannica" /> kalayan sababaraha pausahaan [[Fortune 500]], kaasup [[Samsung]], [[SK Holdings]], [[Hyundai]], [[POSCO]] katut [[LG Group]] nu kantor puseurna di dinya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/countries/SouthKorea.html|title=GLOBAL 500|publisher=CNN Money|accessdate=2014-02-07|date=2012-07-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410023118/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/countries/SouthKorea.html |date=2014-04-10 }}</ref> Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]] jeung [[Olimpiade Usum Panas 1988]] sajaba ti mangrupa salah sahiji tempat [[Piala Dunya FIFA 2002|Piala Dunya Maén Bal 2002]]. ==Géografi== [[File:Hangang Railway Bridge.jpg|left|thumbnail|[[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]]]] Séoul perenahna di béh kalér kulon Koréa Kidul. Legana 605,25&nbsp;km²,<ref name="seoul1">{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/Seoul_System5.jsp?stc_cd=412|title=Seoul Statistics (Land Area)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=24 March 2010}}</ref> kalayan radius kurang leuwih {{convert|15|km|0|abbr=on}}, nu sacara gurat badag kabagi jadi wewengkon kalér jeung kidul nu dipisahkeun ku Walungan Han. Ieu walungan katut wewengkon sabudeureunana boga pancén nu kacida pentingna dina sajarah Koréa. Tilu Karajaan Koréa kacida merjuangkeun pikeun bisa ngadalikeun ieu lemah, sabab ieu walungan mangsa harita mah dipaké keur jalur dagang ka Cina (ngaliwatan [[Laut Konéng]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=10833&lang=en&m=0004003002015&p=03|title=Brief History of Hangang (River)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612131834/http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&m=0004003002015&p=03&art_id=10833&lang=en |date=2010-06-12 }}</ref> Ieu walungan kiwari henteu bisa dipaké deui keur balayar alatan [[muhara]]na aya dina wates antara dua Koréa nu henteu beunang sagawayah jelema sipil bisa larsup. Ieu dayeuh diwatesan ku dalapan gunung, kaasup lemah pangluhurna dina daratan Walungan Han jeung wewengkon béh kulon. ===Iklim=== {{Main|Iklim Seoul}} {{climate chart | Seoul |- 6|2|21 |- 3|5|25 |2|10|47 |8|18|65 |13|23|106 |18|27|133 |22|29|395 |22|30|364 |17|26|169 |10|20|52 |3|12|53 |- 3|4|22 |float=right |clear=none |units=metric}} Séoul boga iklim transisional [[buana beueus]]/[[subtropis beueus|subtropis]] ([[klasifikasi iklim Köppen]] ''Dwa/Cwa''), kalayan karakteristik iklim di antara duanana. Salila bulan Nopémber–Méi, iklim Séoul leuwih deukuet kana iklim buana (kontinén) sedengkeun nalika usum panas mah, iklim di ditu kawas iklim subtropis nu ngandung unsur iklim baseuh/garing tropis. Usum panas mah ilaharna panas jeung beueus, dibarung ku [[angin muson Asia Wétan]] ti Juni tepi ka Séptémber. Sedengkeun kira-kira bulan Agustus mah, nu mangrupa bulan pangpanasna, boga suhu rata-rata {{convert|22.4|to|29.6|C|F|0}} malahan mah bisa jadi leuwih ti éta. Dina usum tiis mah mindeng kacida nyecep tepi ka bekuna kalayan suhu rata-rata dina bulan Januari tepikeun ka {{convert|-5.9|to|1.5|C|F|1}} sarta ilaharna leuwih garing ti batan nalika usum panas, kalayan rata-rata 28 poé saljuan unggal taunna. Kadang-kadang, hawa turun kacida dramatisna tepi ka sahandapeun {{convert|-10.0|C|F|}}, malah bisa nepikeun ka {{convert|-15.0|C|F|}} sanajan arang ogé, nyaéta nalika mangsa tengah usum tiis antara Januari jeung Pébruari. {{Seoul weatherbox}} ==Distrik administratif== {{Main|Daptar distrik di Seoul}} [[File:Flag of Seoul (1946–1996).svg|thumb|right|[[Bandéra]] Seoul (1947–1996)]] [[File:01-00-seoul-en.svg|thumb|400px|Distrik Seoul]] Séoul kabagi jadi 25 ''[[Babagian administratif Koréa Kidul#Gu (Distrik)|gu]]'' (구; {{linktext|區}}) (distrik).<ref name="Administrative Districts"/> ''Gu'' béda-béda legana (ti 10 tepi ka 47&nbsp;km²) katut populasina (ti leuwih saeutik ti 140,000 tepikeun ka 630,000). Songpa boga jumlah warga nu panglobana, sedengkeun Séocho mah wewengkonna panglegana. Pamaréntahan unggal gu nyekel loba fungsi nu dicekel ogé ku pamaréntahan kota di yurisdiksi lianna. Unggal ''gu'' kabagi jadi "''[[Dong (lingkungan)|dong]]''" (동; {{linktext|洞}}) atawa lingkungan. Sababaraha gu ukur boga saeutik dong sedengkeun lianna saperti Distrik Jongno mah jumlah lingkunganana kacida lobana. Gu di Séoul ngawengku 423 dong administratif (행정동).<ref name="Administrative Districts">{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=5 |title=Administrative Districts |publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government |accessdate=2014-02-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102212612/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=5 |date=2014-01-02 }}</ref> ''Dong'' kabagi deui jadi 13,787 ''tong'' (통; {{linktext|統}}), nu satuluyna kabagi deui jadi 102,796 ''ban''. {| |- | valign="top" | * [[Distrik Dobong]] (도봉구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|道|峰|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Dongdaémun]] (동대문구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|東|大|門|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Dongjak]] (동작구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|銅|雀|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Eunpyeong]] (은평구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|恩|平|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangbuk]] (강북구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|北|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangdong]] (강동구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|東|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangnam]] (강남구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|南|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Distrik Gangseo]] (강서구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|西|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Geumcheon]] (금천구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|衿|川|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Guro, Seoul|Distrik Guro]] (구로구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|九|老|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gwanak]] (관악구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|冠|岳|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gwangjin]] (광진구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|廣|津|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Jongno]] (종로구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|鍾|路|區}}}}) | valign="top" | * [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] (중구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|中|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Jungnang]] (중랑구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|中|浪|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Mapo]] (마포구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|麻|浦|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Nowon]] (노원구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|蘆|原|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seocho]] (서초구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|瑞|草|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seodaémun]] (서대문구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|西|大|門|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seongbuk]] (성북구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|城|北|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seongdong]] (성동구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|城|東|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Songpa]] (송파구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|松|坡|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yangcheon]] (양천구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|陽|川|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]] (영등포구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|永|登|浦|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yongsan]] (용산구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|龍|山|區}}}}) |} ==Démografi== Proper Séoul kasohor ku [[kapadetan populasi]]na, nu ampir dua kalieun [[Kota New York|New York]] sarta dalapan kalieun [[Roma]]. Wewengkon métropolitanana mangrupa nu pangpadetna di Asia taun 2012 dumasar kana [[OECD]], tur kadua di dunya sanggeus [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite journal|year=2013|title=Regional population density: Asia and Oceania, 2012: Inhabitants per square kilometre, TL3 regions|journal=OECD Regions at a Glance 2013|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-regions-at-a-glance-2013/regional-population-density-asia-and-oceania-2012_reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|accessdate=2014-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221234115/http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-regions-at-a-glance-2013/regional-population-density-asia-and-oceania-2012_reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|archive-date=2014-02-21}}</ref> Ampir sakabéhna warga Séoul nyaéta [[urang Koréa]], kalayan saeutik [[urang Cina]], [[urang Jepang]], katut minoritas [[ékspatriat]]. Dina bulan Désémber 2013, populasina 10.14 yuta,<ref name="chosunpop">{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/02/14/2014021400795.html|title=Seoul's Population Drops Below 10 Million for First Time in 25 Years|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=2014-02-16|date=2014-02-14}}</ref> taun 2012, populasina 10,442,426.<ref name="seoul2">{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS00/outer_Seoul.jsp?stc_cd=1|title=Seoul Statistics (Population)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=3 March 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019064405/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS00/outer_Seoul.jsp?stc_cd=1 |date=19 October 2013 }}</ref> Ahir Juni 2011, 10.29 yuta warga Républik Koréa cicing di ieu kota. Turun .24% dbandingkeun ahir 2010. Populasi Séoul terus turun ti awal 1990-an, sabab cicing di Séoul mah mahal, katambah ku ngolotanana populasi.<ref name="chosunpop" /> Jumlah urang asing nu nganjrek di Séoul nyaéta 255,501 urang dina taun 2010 dumasar kana sumber resmi Séoul.<ref>{{cite news |last=Park |first=Chung-a |title=Foreign population in Seoul continue to dwindle |publisher=Korea Times |url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/07/113_66455.html }}</ref> Dina bulan Juni 2011, 281,780 urang deungeun nganjrek di Séoul. Di antara eta, 186,631 urang deungeun (66%) mangrupa warga [[urang Cina]] ti karuhun urang Koréa. Naek 8.84% ti ahir 2010 jeung 12.85% ti Juni 2010. Kelompok panggedéna deui nyaéta warga Cina nu lain suku Koréa; 29,901 di antarana cicing di Séoul. Kelompok panggedéna deui nyaéta 9,999 urang warga Amérika Sarikat nu lain turunan Koréa. Satuluyna nyaéta warga Républik Cina (Taiwan), 8,717 urang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2011/09/117_94610.html|title= Korean Chinese account for nearly 70% of foreigners in Seoul|publisher= ''[[The Korea Times]]''|date=September 11, 2011|accessdate=2014-02-11}}</ref> ===Ageman=== {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Ageman di Seoul (2005)<ref name="2005religionmap">[http://www.sisapress.com/news/photo/200610/41926_37953_1632.jpg 2005 Census – Religion Results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904074206/http://www.sisapress.com/news/photo/200610/41926_37953_1632.jpg |date=2015-09-04 }}</ref> |label1 = Teu boga ageman |value1 = 46.2 |color1 = Gray |label2 = [[Protestan]] |value2 = 22.8 |color2 = DodgerBlue |label3 = [[Buda]] |value3 = 16.8 |color3 = Gold |label4 = [[Katolik]] |value4 = 14.2 |color4 = DarkOrchid }} Dua ageman utama di Séoul nyaéta [[Kristen di Koréa|Kristen]] jeung [[Buda di Koréa|Buda]]. Ageman lianna kaasup [[Muisme]] (ageman karuhun) katut [[Konghucu]]. Séoul mangrupa tempat jama'ah Kristen panggedéna di dunya, [[Yoido Full Gospel Church]], nu boga anggahota kira-kira 830,000 urang.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21532340|title=South Korean mega-churches. For God and country|publisher=Economist|accessdate=2014-02-11|date=2011-10-15}}</ref> Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2005, tina sakabéh urang Séoul, 39% ngagem [[Kristen]] (22.8% [[Protéstan]] jeung 14.2% [[Garéja Katolik|Katolik]]) jeung 16.8% ngagem [[Buda]].<ref name="2005religionmap"/> 46.2% tina ieu populasi lolobanaana henteu boga ageman atawa ngagem Muisme jeung ageman asli lianna. ==Ékonomi== [[File:Lotte World.jpg|right|thumbnail|Taman jero wangunan katut mall pangbalanjaan [[Lotte World]]]] {{See also|Ékonomi Koréa Kidul}} Séoul mangrupa puseur bisnis katut kauangan di Koréa Kidul. Sanajan legana ukur 0.6 persén tina sakabéh wewengkon daratan nasional, Séoul ngahasilkeun 21 persén tina GDP ieu nagara taun 2006.<ref>{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp|title=Welcome to KTC|publisher=Lmg.go.kr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116120403/http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp|archivedate=2013-01-16|accessdate=2015-04-17}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227175321/http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp |date=2011-02-27 }}</ref> Taun 2008, indéks [[Worldwide Centers of Commerce]] ngaréngking Séoul minangka No.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mastercard.com/us/company/en/insights/pdfs/2008/MCWW_WCoC-Report_2008.pdf|title=Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index™|publisher=[[MasterCard]]|accessdate=2014-02-13}}</ref> [[Global Financial Centres Index]] taun 2012 ngadaptar Séoul minangka kota pangkompetitifna ka-6 sadunya sacara finansial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zyen.com/PDF/GFCI%2012.pdf|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 12|publisher=Z/Yen Group|year=2012|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323125707/http://www.zyen.com/PDF/GFCI%2012.pdf |date=2014-03-23 }}</ref> [[The Economist Intelligence Unit]] ngaréngking Séoul minangka nu ka-15 dina daptar "Overall 2025 City Competitiveness" ngeunaan daya saing kota ka hareupna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.citigroup.com/citi/citiforcities/pdfs/hotspots2025.pdf|title=Hot Spots 2025: Benchmarking the Future Competitiveness of Cities|publisher=[[The Economist Intelligence Unit]]|year=2013|accessdate=2014-02-13}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109040339/http://www.citigroup.com/citi/citiforcities/pdfs/hotspots2025.pdf |date=2014-01-09 }}</ref> ===Pabrik=== [[File:Gangnam, Seoul, Korea.jpg|left|thumbnail|Kantor puseur Samsung di [[Stasion Gangnam]]]] Industi pabrik nu tradisional jeung intensif maké karyawan geus sacara tuluy tumuluy diganti ku industri tipeu [[téhnologi informasi]], [[éléktronis]] jeung ''assembly'',<ref name="britannica-economy">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul/24016/City-layout#toc24019|title=Seoul: Economy|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2014-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu11ee/uu11ee0i.htm|title=The primacy of Seoul and the capital region|publisher=United Nations University|accessdate=2014-02-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104072715/http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu11ee/uu11ee0i.htm|archivedate=2014-11-04}}</ref> tapi, produksi dahareun jeung inuman mah, kawas percitakan katut penerbitan masih nyésa di antara industri inti.<ref name="britannica-economy" /> Pabrik nu garedé mah kantor puseurna aya di ieu kota, kayaning [[Samsung]], [[LG]], [[Hyundai]], [[Kia Motors|Kia]] katut [[SK Group|SK]]. Pausahaan dahareun jeung inuman nu kasohor kaasup [[Jinro]], nu nyieun inuman alkoholan [[soju]] nu sumebar ka sakuliah dunya, geus ngéléhkeun [[vodka]] [[Smirnoff]];<ref name="bestselling">{{cite news|url=http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/drink/soju-most-sold-drink-world-930177|title=It's official: Jinro soju is the world's best-selling liquor|date=2012-06-12|publisher=CNN Travel|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref> pabrik bir panglobana ngajual [[Hite Brewery|Hite]] (ngahiji jeung Jinro) jeung [[Oriental Brewery]].<ref name=economist>{{cite news|title=Fiery food, boring beer|url=http://www.economist.com/news/business/21567120-dull-duopoly-crushes-microbrewers-fiery-food-boring-beer|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=2013-04-24|date=2012-11-24}}</ref> Ieu kota ogé mangrupa tempatna raksasa dahareun saperti [[Seoul Milk|Seoul Dairy Cooperative]], [[Grup Nongshim]] katut [[Lotté (konglomerat)|Lotté]]. ===Kauangan=== Konséntrasi gegedéan pausahaan-pausahaan internasional kantor puseurna aya di Séoul.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2008/cities/ |title=Global : Cities |publisher=CNN }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529093252/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2008/cities/ |date=2010-05-29 }}</ref> [[Korea Exchange Bank]] ogé kantor puseurna aya di ieu kota. lolobana kantor puseur bank katut [[Korea Exchange]] perenahna di [[Yeouido]] (Pulo Yéoui),<ref name="britannica-economy" /> nu mindeng disebut "[[Wall Street]] Koréa" tur geus midang minangka puseur finansial ieu kota ti taun 1980-an.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2914830|title=Neon shines brightly during the bustle on Yeouido stock street|publisher=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=2010-01-05|accessdate=2014-02-13}}</ref> ===Balanja=== {{Main|Balanja di Seoul}} Pasar grosir katut écéran panggedéna di Koréa Kidul, nyaéta [[Pasar Dongdaémun]], perenahna di Séoul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=662&lang=en&m=0003001005007&p=03|title=Dongdaemun Market|publisher=Visit Seoul|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222025740/http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=662&lang=en&m=0003001005007&p=03 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Myeongdong]] nyaéta wewengkon pangbalanjaan katut hiburan di puseur dayeuh Séoul kalayan toko kelas panengah tepi ka kelas luhur, butik pakéan katut ''outlét'' mérek internasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264312|title=Myeong-dong|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140215191420/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264312 |date=2014-02-15 }}</ref> [[Pasar Namdaémun]] deukeuteunana, nu dingaranan dumasar kana [[Gapura Namdaémun]], mangrupa pasar pangkolotna di Séoul nu kiwari masih dipaké.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&p=02&art_id=673|title=Namdaemun Market|publisher=Visit Seoul|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222021157/https://www.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&p=02&art_id=673 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Sinchon-dong, Seoul|Sinchon]] nyaéta wewengkon pangbalanjaan nu disadiakeun keur nonoman katut mahasiswa universitas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=256043|title=Sinchon Street, full of energy|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133248/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=256043 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Insadong]] mah mangrupa pasar seni budaya di Séoul, tempat di mana karya seni Koréa tradisional katut modéren, saperti lukisan, ukiran katut kaligrafi dijual.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/SH_EN_7_2_2_1.jsp|title=Insa-dong|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116073234/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/SH_EN_7_2_2_1.jsp |date=2014-01-16 }}</ref> [[Pasar loak Hwanghak-dong]] katut Pasar antik Janganpyéong ogé nawarkeun barang antik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_2_4.jsp?gotoPage=&category=&areaCode=&recommCid=257325&cid=273747|title=Hwanghak-dong Flea Market|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222135206/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_2_4.jsp?gotoPage=&category=&areaCode=&recommCid=257325&cid=273747 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/cav/shop/antique.php|title=Antique Markets|publisher=Seoul Matropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008074320/http://english.seoul.go.kr/cav/shop/antique.php |date=2010-10-08 }}</ref> Sababaraha toko keur parancang lokal geus dibuka di [[Samcheong-dong]], tempat perenahna sababaraha galeri seni laleutik. [[Itaéwon]] utamana sadia keur turis deungeun katut soldadu Amérika nu boga basis di ieu dayeuh.<ref name="KT Itaewon">{{cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/02/203_130484.html|title=Itaewon: Going Gangnam Style?|publisher=The Korea Times|date=2013-02-14|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> [[Distrik Gangnam]] mangrupa wewengkon pangmakmurna di Séoul<ref name="KT Itaewon" /> tur kasohor ku wewengkon [[Apgujeong-dong]] katut [[Cheongdam-dong]] sarta [[COEX Mall]] nu modéren. Pasar grosir di antarana [[Pasar Grosir Lauk Noryangjin]] katut [[Pasar Garak]]. [[Pasar Éléktronik Yongsan]] mangrupa pasar éléktronik panggedéna di Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_touringseoul_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page&No=24205|title=Yongsan Electronics Market, Asia’s largest IT shopping mall|publisher=[[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS World]]|date=2011-03-01|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221060206/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_touringseoul_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page&No=24205 |date=2014-02-21 }}</ref> [[Times Square (Seoul)|Times Square]] mangrupa salah sahiji mall pangbalanjaan panggedéna nu ngagulkeun [[CJ CGV|Starium CGV]], layar bioskop permanén panggedéna di dunya, [[film 35mm|35 mm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-4000/largest-permanent-35mm-cinema-screen |title=Largest Permanent 35mm Cinema Screen |publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com |date=2009-08-18 |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> ==Arsitéktur== {{See also|Arsitéktur Koréa Kidul}} {{wide image|Seoul Panorama from Namhansanseong..jpg|1600px|<center>Panorama Seoul ti Namhansanseong</center>}} [[File:Namdaemun Buildings.JPG|thumb|right|[[Sungnyémun]]]] Jajantung tradisional Séoul nyaéta dayeuh kolot [[Dinasti Joseon]], nu kiwari jadi wewengkon puseur karaméan, nu mana di éta wewengkon ngumpul karaton, kantor pamaréntahan, kantor puseur pausahaan, hotél, katut pasar tradisional. [[Cheonggyécheon]], wahangan nu ngamalir ti kulon ka wétan ngaliwatan léngkob saméméh tuluy ngamuhara ka [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], keur sababaraha taun mah katutupan ku beton, tapi ahirna dibalikkeun deui ngaliwatan proyék kabangkitan kota taun 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=85750|title=Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon Stream symbolizes Korea’s past, present and tomorrow|publisher=Korea.net|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142757/http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=85750 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Jalan [[Jongno]], nu hartina "Jalan Loncéng," geus mangrupa hiji jalan utama tur salah sahiji jalan komérsil pangbiharina di ieu dayeuh,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=M8Xj7pHu1jEC|title=The Emerging Asian City: Concomitant Urbanities and Urbanisms|editor=Vinayak Bharne |page=59|publisher=Routledge|year= 2013|isbn=9780415525978}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2012/06/137_68203.html|title=Jongno walk|date=2010-06-24 |publisher=The Korea Times|author=Andrei Lankov |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> nu mana di dinya bisa kapanggih [[Bosingak]], hiji paviliun nu eusina loncéng gedé. Éta loncéng nyirénan wanci nu béda-béda sapanjang poé tur ngaadalikeun opat gapura ka ieu dayeuh. Di béh kaléreun puseur karaméan aya [[Gunung Bukhan]], tur di kiduleunana aya [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]] nu leuwih leutik. Tuluy ka béh kidul aya pipir dayeuh nu geus kolot, nyaéta [[Distrik Yongsan]] jeung [[Distrik Mapo]]. Sapanjang Walungan Han aya wewengkon nu leuwih anyar jeung makmur nyaéta [[Distrik Gangnam]], [[Distrik Seocho]] katut wewengkon sabudeureunana. ===Arsitéktur dumasar sajarah=== [[File:Gyeongbok-gung palace-05 (xndr).jpg|left|thumb|[[Gyeongbokgung]]]] [[File:Changdeokgung-Injeongjeon.jpg|thumb|left|[[Changdeokgung]], salah sahiji tina lima karaton di Koréa, nyaéta hiji [[Loka Warisan Dunya]] [[UNESCO]].]] Séoul mibanda sababaraha tempat penting sacara sajarah katut budaya. Di [[Amsa-dong|Loka Pamukiman Prasajarah Amsa-dong]], [[Distrik Gangdong]], sésa-sésa néolitikum kakali jeung teu kahaja katimu alatan banjir taun 1925.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264111 |title=Amsa-dong Prehistoric Settlement Site |publisher=[[Korea Tourism Organization]] |accessdate=2014-02-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222135311/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264111 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Perencanaan urban jeung sipil mangrupa konsép utama nalika Séoul mimiti dirarancang keur ngajadi ibu kota dina ahir abad ka-14. [[Dinasti Joseon]] ngawangun "Lima Karaton Agung" di Séoul – [[Changdeokgung]], [[Changgyeonggung]], [[Deoksugung]], [[Gyeongbokgung]] katut [[Gyeonghuigung]] – sakabéhna aya di [[Distrik Jongno]] jeung [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]]. Di antara sakabéh éta, Changdéokgung asup kana Daptar [[Warisan Dunya]] UNESCO taun 1997 minangka "conto rarancang arsitéktur karaton katut taman di Wétan Jauh nu pinunjul". Karaton utama mah, nyaéta [[Gyeongbokgung]], keur ngalaman proyék réstorasi gegedéan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.royalpalace.go.kr/html/eng/data/data_01.jsp?dep1=2&dep2=1|title=About the Palace|publisher=Gyeongbokgung Palace|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> Ieu karaton-karaton téh dianggap arsitéktur percontoan tina mangsa Joséon. Di sagédéngeun karaton, [[Unhyeongung]] kasohor minangka tempat cicingna Bupati [[Daéwongun]], bapana [[Kaisar Gojong]] dina ahir Dinasti Joséon. [[File:Deoksugung-02.jpg|thumb|right|[[Deoksugung]] nalika usum gugur]] Séoul dikurilingan ku pinding nu diwangun keur ngatur singsaha waé nu baris nganjang ti wewengkon séjén sarta pikeun ngajaga dayeuh tina serangan musuh. [[Pungnap Toseong]] mangrupa hiji pinding taneuh rata nu diwangun dina juru Walungan Han nu dipercaya ku balaréa minangka mandalana [[Wiryéseong]]. Ari [[Mongchontoseong|Mongchon Toseong]] (몽촌토성; 蒙村土城) mah nyaéta pinding taneuh liana nu diwangun nalika mangsa [[Baékjé]] nu kiwari perenahna di sajeroeun [[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade]].<ref name="toseong" /> [[Bénténg Seoul]] diwangun dina mangsa Dinasti Joséon munggaran keur ngajaga ieu dayeuh. Sanggeus sababaraha abad ruksak jeung diwangun deui, kiwari nyésa kurang leuwih 2/3-na, kaasup genep tina [[Dalapan Gapura di Seoul|dalapan gapura]] nu asli. Gapura-gapura ieu kaasup [[Sungnyémun]] jeung [[Heunginjimun]], nu kiwari ilaharna disebut Namdaémun (Gapura Gedé Kidul) jeung Dongdaémun (Gapura Gedé Wétan). Namdaémun mangrupa gapura kai pangkolotna tepikeun ka kajadian aya nu ngaduruk taun 2008, tur kiwari dibuka deui sanggeu réstorasina réngsé taun 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sungnyemun to open to great fanfare after more than five years of renovation|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20130430000738|accessdate=1 May 2013|publisher=The Korea Herald|date=30 April 2013}}</ref> Di deukeuteun ieu gapura aya pasar tradisional katut puseur pangbalanjaan panggedéna, [[Pasar Namdaémun]] jeung [[Pasar Dongdaémun]]. Aya ogé loba wangunan nu dijieun kalayan gaya mancanagara dina ahir abad ka-19, awal abad ka-20. [[Gapura Kamerdikaan]] diwangun taun 1897 keur méré ilham ngeunaan pentingna boga sumanget kamerdikaan. [[Stasion Seoul]] dibuka taun 1900 minangka Stasion Gyéongséong. ===Arsitektur moderen=== [[File:Lotte World Tower under construction on January 2015.png|thumb|right|[[Mall Lotte World]] dibuka taun 2014 kalayan bioskop panggedéna<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com"/> katut [[Munara Lotte World]] [[superluhur]] 123 lantéy nu baris dibuka taun 2016 kalayan galadak observasi pangluhurna sadunya.]] Mangrupa-rupa [[wangunan kantor]] katut wangunan panyicingan nu laluhur, saperti Gangnam Finance Center, [[Tower Palace]], [[N Seoul Tower]] katut [[Jongno|Jongno Tower]], ngadominasi langit ieu dayeuh. Saruntuyan wangunan luhur anyar keur diwangun, kaasup [[Munara Lotte World]], nu direncanakeun baris réngsé taun 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/11/18/seoul-helicopter-crash-raises-fears-over-new-skyscraper/|title=Seoul Helicopter Crash Raises Fears Over New Skyscraper|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> Bulan Fébruari 2014 mah, [[Daptar wangunan pangluhurna di Seoul|wangunan pangluhurna di ieu kota]] téh nyaéta [[Three International Finance Center]] nu luhurna 279m.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-buildings-seoul-southkorea|title=Seoul's tallest buildings – Top 20|publisher=Emporis|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023134717/http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-buildings-seoul-southkorea |date=2013-10-23 }}</ref> [[World Trade Center Seoul]], nu perenahna di [[Distrik Gangnam]], mangrupa tuan rumah sababaraha paméran katut konférénsi. Di Distrik Gangnam aya ogé [[COEX Mall]], nu mangrupa komplék pangbalanjaan katut hiburan di jero rohangan nu kacida gedéna. Ka hilirkeun ti Distrik Gangnam aya [[Yeouido]], hiji pulo nu jadi tempat Déwan Nasional, studio siaran gedé, katut sajumlah gedé wangunan kantor gedé, kayaning Koréa Finance Building katut [[Garéja Yoido Full Gospel]]. [[Stadion Olimpiade (Seoul)|Stadion Olompiade]], [[Taman Olompiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade]], katut [[Lotte World]] perenahna di [[Distrik Songpa]], di sisi béh kidul Walunga Han, naék ti Distrik Gangnam. Dua cicirén modéren Séoul nu anyar nyaéta [[Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park]], nu dirancang ku [[Zaha Hadid]], katut [[Balé Kota Seoul]], ku [[Yoo Kerl]] ti [[iArc]]. Dina taun 2010 Séoul ditunjuk jadi [[Ibu kota Disain Dunya]] keur taun harita.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-02-27/the-seoul-of-world-designbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice|title=The Seoul of World Design|date=2008-02-27|accessdate=2014-02-12|publisher=Bloomberg Businessweek}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814070328/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-02-27/the-seoul-of-world-designbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |date=2012-08-14 }}</ref> ==Budaya== ===Téhnologi=== Séoul boga [[infrastruktur]] nu maju sacara téhnologi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=25697|title=KOREA: Future is now for Korean info-tech|publisher=Regents of the University of California|work=AsiaMedia|date=14 June 2005}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213160036/http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=25697 |date=13 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/technology/tech-capitals-of-the-world/2007/06/16/1181414598292.html |title=Tech capitals of the world – Technology |work=The Age |date= 18 June 2007|location=Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> Boga pénétrasi [[pita lega]] [[serat kaca]] pangluhurna sadunya, nu ngahasilkeun konéksi internét panggancangna sadunya tepi ka 1 [[Gbps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php |title=Hi Seoul, SOUL OF ASIA – Seoul Located In the Center of Asian Metropolises |publisher=English.seoul.go.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813063824/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php |date=2013-08-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/technology/22iht-broadband22.html | work=The New York Times | first=Mark | last=McDonald | title=South Korea Seeks Internet Speed of 1 Gigabit a Second | date=2011-02-21}}</ref> Séoul nyadiakeun aksés [[Wi-Fi]] gratis di luar rohangan. Proyék 47.7&nbsp;miliar won ($44&nbsp;yuta) ieu baris méré aksés keur warga katut nu ngaranjang di 10.430 taman, jalan katut patempatan publik lianna taun 2015.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110615/bs_afp/skoreainternettelecom Wifi in All Public Areas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623182554/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110615/bs_afp/skoreainternettelecom |date=2011-06-23 }}</ref> ===Musieum=== {{Main|Daptar musieum di Seoul}} [[File:National Museum of Korea (4).jpg|thumb|[[Musieum Nasional Koréa]]]] Di Séoul aya 115 musieum,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=401&lang=eng|title=Status of Museum|accessdate=2014-09-18|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911123740/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=401&lang=eng |date=2014-09-11 }}</ref> kaasup di antarana tilu musieum nasional katut salapan musieum kota. [[Musieum Nasional Koréa]] mangrupa musieum nu henteu ukur ngawakilan Séoul, tapi ogé ngawakilan sakabéh [[Koréa Kidul]]. Ti saprak ngadeg taun 1945, ieu musieum geus ngawangun koléksi mangrupa 220,000 artefak.<ref name="CNN">{{cite web|url=http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/play/seouls-best-museums-060516|title=Seoul's best museums|date=2011-10-27|publisher=[[CNN]]|accessdate=2013-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916014140/http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/play/seouls-best-museums-060516 |date=2014-09-16 }}</ref> Dina Oktober 2005, ieu musieum pindah ka wangunan anyar di Taman Kulawarga Yongsan. [[National Folk Museum of Korea|National Folk Museum]] perenahna di dadasar [[Karaton]] [[Gyeongbokgung]] di Distrik Jongno District tur maké réplika obyék sajarah pikeun ngilustrasikeun sajarah bangsa Koréa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268152|title=National Folk Museum of Korea|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716225730/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268152 |date=2014-07-16 }}</ref> [[Bukchon Hanok Village]] jeung [[Namsangol Hanok Village]] mangrupa wewengkon panganjrekan heubeul nu ngandung imah, taman katut musieum tradisional Koréa [[hanok]] nu méré kasempetan keur turis pikeun ngarasakeun budaya Koréa tradisional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264116|title=Namsangol Hanok Village|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012013656/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264116 |date=2014-10-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=561382|title=Bukchon Hanok Village|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915192817/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=561382 |date=2014-09-15 }}</ref> [[Tugu Perang (Seoul)|Tugu Perang]], salah sahiji tina salapan musieum kota di Séoul, nawarkeun pangalaman édukasional katut émosional ka nu nganjanganana, ngeunaan rupa-rupa perang nu ngalibetkeun Koréa, kaasup jejer [[Perang Koréa]] themes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/travel/cityguide/article/0,31489,1848378_1848364_1848280,00.html|title=Seoul: 10 Things to Do|publisher=[[Time magazine]]|accessdate=2014-09-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268131|title=The War Memorial of Korea|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214214704/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268131 |date=2015-02-14 }}</ref> [[Pangbuian Seodaémun]] mangrupa hiji urut pangbuian nu diwangun salila penjajahan Jepang, tur kiwari dipaké keur musieum sajarah<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268143|title=Seodaemun Prison History Museum|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604201044/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268143 |date=2014-06-04 }}</ref> [[File:Folk Museum of Korea.jpg|left|thumb|[[Musieum Rahayat Nasional Koréa]].]] [[Musieum Seni Seoul]] katut [[Musieum Seni Ilmin]] ngajaga rupa wangunan heubeul nu unik sacara visual tina wangunan luhur tur modéren di sabudeureunana. Saméméhna dioperasikeun ku Déwan Kota Séoul tur boga tempat deukeuteun Karaton Gyéonghuigung, karaton karajaan dinasti Joséon. Keur lolobana jalma nu mikaresep pilem Koréa mah, [[Arsip Pilem Koréa]] ngayakeun Musieum Pilem Koréa jeung Cinematheque KOFA di puseur utamana di [[Digital Media City]](DMC), Sangam-dong. [[Tteok & Kitchen Utensil Museum]] jeung [[Kimchi Field Museum]] nyadiakeun informasi nu patali jeung sajarah kulinér Koréa. ===Monumén ageman=== [[File:Myeongdongchurch.jpg|thumb|[[Katedral Myeongdong]]]] [[File:Jongmyo-Jeongjeon.jpg|left|thumb|[[Kuil Jongmyo]], salah sahiji [[Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].]] Aya ogé wangunan rélijius nu boga pancén penting dina masarakat katut pulitik Koréa. Altar [[Wongudan]] mangrupa tempat upacara nalika para pamingpin Koréa ngayakeun ritual kasawargaan ti saprak jaman Tilu Karajaan. Ti saprak [[Dinasti Joseon]] maké [[Konghucu]] minangka idiologi nasional dina abad ka-14, ieu nagara ngawangun loba kelenténg Konghucu. Katurunan kulawarga karajaan Joséon masih neruskeun tradisi dina ngayakeun sérémoni pikeun miéling para karuhun di [[Jongmyo]]. Ieu tempat mangrupa kuil Konghucu karajaan pangkolotna nu jadi cagar tur sérémoni ritualna nuluykeun tradisi nu dijieun dina abad ka-14. [[Munmyo]] katut [[Dongmyo]] diwangun dina mangsa nu sarua. Sok sanajan Buda didedetkeun ku pamaréntahan Joséon, ieu ageman tetep aya. [[Jogyésa]] mangrupa markas gedé [[Ordo Jogyé]] [[Buda Koréa]]. Hwagyésa katut [[Bongeunsa]] ogé mangrupa [[Daptar candi Buda di Seoul|candi Buda di Seoul]] nu gedé. [[Katedral Myeongdong]] mangrupa cicirén [[Myeongdong]], [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] tur mangrupa garéja Katolik panggedéna nu diwangun taun 1883. Ieu garéja mangrupa lambang Katolik di Koréa. Ogé mangrupa fokus béda pamadegan pulitik taun 1980-an. Dina ieu hal, Garéja Katolik Roma kacida boga pangaruhna ka masarakat Koréa. Loba ogé garéja Protéstan di Séoul. Nu panglobana mah [[Présbisterian]], tapi loba ogé garéja [[Métodis]], [[Baptis]], katut [[Lutheran]]. [[Garéja Yoido Full Gospel]] mangrupa garéja [[Pantékosta]] nu patali jeung [[Majlis Pangéran]] di [[Yeouido]] di Séoul. Kalayan kurang leuwih 830.000 anggahota (2007), ieu téh mangrupa jamaah Kristen Pantékosta panglobana di dunya, nu geus kacatet dina [[Guinness Book of World Records]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} ===Féstival=== Dina bulan Oktober 2012 [[KBS Hall]] di Séoul jadi tuan rumah féstival musik internasional rongkah&nbsp;– [[Féstival Lagu ABU 2012|Féstival Lagu TV katut Radio ABU]] munggaran dina raraga Majlis Umum [[Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union]] ka-49 General Assembly.<ref>{{cite web|title=ABU TV and Radio Song Festivals 2012|url=http://esckaz.com/2012/abu.htm|publisher=ESCKAZ.com|accessdate=17 August 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410022318/http://esckaz.com/2012/abu.htm|archivedate=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ABU GA Seoul 2012|url=http://www.abu2012seoul.com/|publisher=Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union|accessdate=17 August 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303011118/http://www.abu2012seoul.com/ |date=3 March 2013 }}</ref> [[Hi! Seoul Festival]] mangrupa hiji féstival budaya uusuman nu diayakeun opat kali sataun nalika usum semi, usum panas, usum gugur, katut usum tiis di Séoul, [[Koréa Kidul]] ti taun 2003. Ieu féstival dumasar kana "Poé Warga Seoul" nu diayakeun unggal Oktober ti saprak taun 1994 pikeun miéling sajarah 600 taun Séoul minangka ibu kota nagara. Ieu féstival diayakeun ku [[Pamaréntah Métropolitan Seoul]]. Taun 2012, Séoul geus jadi tuan rumah [[Ultra Music Festival]] Koréa, nyaéta féstival musik jeung ibing nu diayakeun dina ahir minggu ka-2 bulan Juni.<ref>http://www.umfkorea.com/</ref> ===Taman=== {{further|Daptar taman di Seoul}} [[Namsan (Seoul)|Taman Namsan]] bisa dipaké keur ''hiking'', rékréasi katut ''skyline'' keur ningali pemandangan tengah kota Séoul. [[Munara Seoul N]] perenahna di dieu. [[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade Seoul]] perenahna di [[Distrik Songpa]] tur diwangung keur tempat Olimpiade Usum Panas taun 1988. Pagoda 10 tingkat [[Pagoda Wongaksa|Wongaksa]] perenahna di [[Taman Tapgol]], hiji taman publik nu legana {{convert|19599|m²|0|abbr=on}}. Wewengkon sabudeureun wahangan disadiakeun minangka tempat publik keur rélaksasi jeung rékréasi. Wahangan [[Tancheon]] katut wewengkon deukeuteunana dsadiakeun minangka taman nu lega kalayan lajur keur nu laleumpang katut nu sasarapédahan. [[Cheonggyecheon]], hiji wahangan nu panjangna {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} ngaliwatan tengah kota Séoul, kasohor keur warga Séoul katut turis. [[File:Seoul-Olympic.Park-01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul]].]] [[Wewengkon métropolitan]] Séoul ngawengku genep taman gedé, kaasup [[Leuweung Seoul]], nu dibuka dina panengah taun 2005. [[Wewengkon Ibu kota Nasional Seoul]] ogé boga [[beubeur héjo]] nu ditujukeun keur nyegah kota tina ''[[Urban sprawl|sprawling]]'' kaluar ka [[Babagian administratif Koréa Kidul|Propinsi]] [[Gyeonggi-do|Gyeonggi]] deukeuteunana. Ieu wewengkon mindeng ditéangan ku jalma nu hayang lumpat tina kahirupan urban dina ahir minggu jeung nalika peré. Séoul ogé mangrupa tempat [[taman hiburan]] jero rohangan panggedéna sadunya, [[Lotte World]]. Puseur pelesir lianna nyaéta stadion Olimpiade jeung [[Stadion Piala Dunya Seoul|Piala Dunya]] katut alun-alun [[balé kota]]. ==Olahraga== [[File:Seoul.Olympic.Stadium.01 copy.jpg|thumb|[[Stadion Olimpiade Seoul]].]] ===Kompetisi internasional=== Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]] jeung [[Asian Games 2014|2014]], ilaharna katelah [[Asian Games|Asiad]], [[Olimiape Usum Panas 1988|Olimpiade 1988]], jeung [[1988 Summer Paralympics|Paralympic Games]]. Jadi tuan rumah ogé keur [[Piala Dunya FIFA 2002]]. [[Stadion Piala Dunya Seoul]] jadi tempat pembukaan sarta tanding munggaran. [[Taékwondo]] mangrupa olah raga nasional Koréa sarta Séoul mangrupa tempat [[Kukkiwon]], markas besar dunya taékwondo, jeung [[Federasi Taékwondo Dunya]]. ===Kleub olah raga doméstik=== ====Maén bal==== {{Main|Maén bal di Seoul}} Kleub maén bal pangkasohorna di Séoul nyaéta [[FC Seoul]]. Ieu kleub mangrupa salah sahiji kleub maén bal panghasilna di Asia.<br /> Recently, FC Séoul jadi ''runner-up'' dina [[Liga Champion AFC 2013]]. * '''Maén bal lalaki''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tingkat ! Liga ! Kleub ! Stadion ! Catetan |- | Pangluhurna |[[K League Classic]] |[[FC Seoul]] |[[Seoul World Cup Stadium]] (Séoul Kalér) | |- | Ka-2 |[[K League Challenge]] |[[Seoul E-Land FC]] |[[Olympic Stadium (Seoul)|Seoul Olympic Stadium]] (Séoul Kidul) | |- | rowspan="3"| Ka-4 |rowspan="3"| [[K3 League]] |[[Seoul United FC|Seoul United]] |[[Madeul Stadium]] | |- |[[Seoul FC Martyrs]] |Gangbuk Public Stadium | |- |[[Jungnang Chorus Mustang FC|Jungnang Chorus Mustang]] |Jungnang Public Ground | |} * '''Maén bal wanoja''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tingkat ! Liga ! Kleub ! Stadion | Catetan |- | Top |[[WK-League]] |[[Seoul Metropolitan Government WFC]] |[[Hyochang Stadium]], [[Seoul Olympic Stadium|Seoul Olympic Auxiliary Stadium]] | |- |} ====Baseball==== Séoul boga tilu kleub baseball profésional dina cekelan [[Korean Baseball Organization|KBO]]: Salah sahiji kleub pangkolotna, [[Doosan Bears]], [[LG Twins]] katut [[Nexen Heroes]]. ====Basketball==== * [[Seoul SK Knights]] jeung [[Seoul Samsung Thunders]]. ==Transportasi== {{Main|Transportasi di Seoul}} Séoul mangrupa salah sahiji dayeuh nu infrastruktur transportasina pangmajuna sadunya nu terus kénéh dimekarkeun. Sistemna dimimitian ti mangsa [[Kamaharajaan Koréa]], nalika réngséna jalur trém munggaran katut jalan raya nu ngahubungkeun Séoul jeung Inchéon. Jalur trém pangpentingna di Séoul sapanjang Jongno diganti ku Jalur 1 sistem subway dina awal 1970-an. Jalan penting lianna di puseur karaméan Séoul kaasup [[Euljiro]], [[Téhéranno]], [[Séjongno]], [[Chungmuro]], Yulgongno, katut Toegyéro. Aya salapan jalur subway gedé nu manjang leuwih ti {{convert|250|km|0|abbr=on}}, kalayan sajalur tambahan deui nu geus dirarancang. Taun 2010, 25% populasina boga wanci pulang anting sajam atawa leuwih. ===Beus=== {{Main|Beus Seoul}} [[File:Seoul Buses.png|right|thumb|Beus Seoul]] Sistem beus di Séoul dijalankeun ku Pamaréntah Métropolitan Séoul, kalayan opat konfigurasi beus primér énu sayaga keur ngaladénan lolobana tempat di ieu dayeuh. Séoul boga loba terminal antar kota atawa beus gancang nu galedé. Ieu beus ngahubungkeun Séoul jeung kota-kota di Koréa Kidul. Séoul Express Bus Terminal, Central City Terminal katut Terminal Nambu Séoul perenahna di [[Distrik Seocho]]. Minangka tambahan, Terminal Beus Séoul Wétan di [[Distrik Gwangjin]] katut Sangbong Terminal Sangbong di [[Distrik Jungnang]] dioperasikeun di béh wétan kota. Pikeun ngurangan polusi udara di wewengkon métropolitan, pamaréntah kota boga rencana pikeun ngarobah leuwih ti tujuh rébu beus nu maké mesin disel ka gas alam taun 2010.<ref>[http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v3/news_lite.php?id=337462 "Seoul More Enjoyable For a Day"]. Retrieved 30 July 2008.</ref> ===Subway=== [[File:Yongsansta09.jpg|thumb|[[Stasion Yongsan]]]] {{Main|Subway Métropolitan Seoul}} Séoul boga jajaring subway nu kompréhénsif nu ngahubungkeun unggal distrik di ieu dayeuh katut wewengkon sabudeureunana. Kalayan leuwih ti 8 yuta panumpang unggal poéna, Séoul boga [[Sistem métro dumasar kana perjalanan panumpang unggal tauna|sistem subway pangsibukna sadunya]]. Subway Métropolitan Séoul sakabéhna boga 19 jalur nu ngaladénan Séoul, Inchéon, propinsi Gyéonggi, propinsi Gangwon béh kulon, katut propinsi Chungnam béh kalér. Minangka tambahan, pikeun nyaluyukeun mangrupa-rupa moda transportasi, pamaréntah métropolitan Séoul ngagawékeun sababaraha urang ahli matématika pikeun ngoordinasikeun subway, beus, katut jadwal lalu lintas jadi tabél wanci. Sababaraha jalur dijalankeun ku [[Korail]], [[Seoul Metro]], [[Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation]], [[NeoTrans Co. Ltd.]], [[AREX]], katut Séoul Metro Line 9 Corporation. ===Karéta api=== [[File:KTX-Sancheon.jpg|thumb|[[KTX Sancheon]]]] Séoul kasambungkeun ka unggal kota gedé di Koréa ku karéta. Séoul ogé kasambungkeun ka lolobana kota gedé di Koréa ku karéta gancang [[Korea Train Express|KTX]], nu gancang normalna leuwih ti {{convert|300|km/h|0|abbr=on}}. Stasion karéta gedé di antarana: * [[Stasion Seoul]], [[Distrik Yongsan]]: Jalur Gyéongbu ([[KTX]]/[[Saémaul-ho|Saémaul]]/[[Mugunghwa-ho]]), Jalur Gyéongui (Saémaul/[[Komuter]]) * [[Stasion Yongsan]], [[Distrik Yongsan]]: Jalur Honam (KTX/Saémaul/Mugunghwa), Jalur Jéolla/Janghang (Saemaul/Mugunghwa) * [[Stasion Yeongdeungpo]], [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]]: Jalur Gyéongbu/Honam/Janghang (Saémaul/Mugunghwa) * [[Stasion Cheongnyangni (di luhur lemah)|Stasion Cheongnyangni]], [[Distrik Dongdaémun]]: Jalur Gyéongchun/Jungang/Yéongdong/Taebaek (Mugunghwa) ===Bandara=== Dua bandara internasional aya di Séoul. [[Bandara Internasional Gimpo]], saméméhna aya di [[Kota Gimpo|Gimpo]] tapi dicokot ku Séoul taun 1963, geus sababaraha taun (ti saprak konstruksi aslina nalika [[Perang Koréa]]) jadi bandara hiji-hijina nu ngaladénan Séoul. Bandara doméstik lianna ogé diwangun nalika ieu perang, kaasup [[Yeouido]]. Nalika dibuka bulan Maret 2001, [[Bandara Internasional Incheon]] di pulo [[Yeongjong]] di [[Incheon]] ngarobah pancén Bandara Gimpo sacara signifikan. Inchéon kiwari boga tanggung jawab keur ampir sakabéh penerbangan internasional katut sababaraha penerbangan doméstik, sedengkeun Gimpo mah ukur ngaladénan penerbangan doméstik kajaba penerbangan ka [[Bandara Hanéda]] di Tokyo, [[Bandara Internasional Kansai Osaka]], [[Bandara Songshan Taipéi]] di Taipéi, [[Bandara Internasional Hongqiao Shanghai|Bandara Hongqiao]] di Shanghai, katut [[Bandara Internasional Ibukota Béijing]] di Béijing. Ku ayana ieu hal, penerbangan ti Bandara Gimpo turun drastis, sok sanajan masih kaasup salah sahiji bandara pangsibukna ogé. Sedengkeun, Bandara Internasional Inchéon geus jadi puseur transportasi gedé keur Asia Wétan, babarengan jeung [[Bandara Internasional Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]. Inchéon jeung Gimpo kahubungkeun ka Séoul ku jalan raya, tur di antara duanana ku [[Rél Karéta Bandara Internasinal Incheon]], nu nyambung ogé ka Inchéon jalur #1. Gimpo ogé kahubungkeun ku subway (jalur No.&nbsp;5 jeung #9). Rél Karéta Bandara Internasional Inchéon, nu ngahubungkeun ieu bandara sacara langsung ka Stasion Séoul di puseur Séoul, kakara dibuka. Beus ogé mawa panumpang antara bandara Inchéon jeung Gimpo. ==Atikan== {{further|Atikan di Koréa Kidul|Daptar universitas di Seoul}} ===Universitas=== [[File:SNU gate.jpg|left|thumb|[[Universitas Nasional Seoul]]]] Séoul mangrupa tempat mayoritas universitas préstisius di Koréa Kidul, kaasup di antarana [[Universitas Nasional Seoul]], [[Universitas Yonséi]], [[Universitas Koréa]], [[Universitas Sogang]], [[Universitas Sungkyunkwan]], [[Universitas Hanyang]], [[Universitas Chung-Ang]], [[Universitas Dongguk]], [[Universitas Wanoja Éwha]], [[Universitas Atikan Deungeun Hankuk]], [[Universitas Hongik]], [[Universitas Kookmin]], [[Universitas Konkuk]], [[Universitas Kyung Héé]], [[Universitas Kwangwoon]], [[Universitas Atikan Nasional Seoul]], [[Universitas Soongsil]], [[Universit Wanoja Sookmyung]], katut [[Universitas Seoul]]. ===Atikan sekundér=== Atikan diwajibkeun ti kelas 1–10. Murid baris ngaréngsékeun genep taun di sakola dasar, tilu taun di sakola panengah, jeung tilu taun deui di sakola luhur. Sakola sekundér ilaharna nyaratkeun yén muridna maraké seragam. Aya ujian kalulusan sangkan bisa lulus ti sakola luhur sarta loba murid nu baris asup ka tingkat universitas dipénta pikeun nyokot ''[[College Scholastic Ability Test]]'' nu diayakeun unggal Nopémber tapi maranéhanana henteu perlu milu. Séoul mangrupa tempat [[sakola kajuruan]], kaasup tilu sakola luhur sains ([[Hansung Science High School]], [[Sejong Science High School]] jeung [[Seoul Science High School]]), katut genep sakola luhur basa deungeun ([[Daewon Foreign Language High School]], [[Daeil Foreign Language High School]], [[Ewha Girls' Foreign Language High School]], [[Hanyoung Foreign Language High School]], [[Myungduk Foreign Language High School]] jeung [[Seoul Foreign Language High School]]). Kantor Atikan Métropolitan Séoul ngawengku 235 sakola luhur persiapan paguron luhur, 80 sakola magang, 377 sakola panengah, katut 33 sakola atikan husus taun 2009. ==Hubungan mancanagara== Séoul mangrupa anggota [[Jajaring Kota Gedé 21 di Asia]] katut [[Kelompok Kapamingpinan Iklim Dayeuh C40]]. {{See also|Daptar kota kembar katut kota baraya di Koréa Kidul}} ===Kota kembar – Kota baraya=== <div class="noprint"> {| class="wikitable collapsible" |- ! colspan="3"|Séoul's [[Kota kembar katut kota baraya]] Séoul di sakuliah dunya:<ref name="Seoul twinnings">{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325052520/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |archivedate=2012-03-25 |title=Seoul – Sister Cities [via WayBackMachine] |accessdate=2013-08-23 |work=Seoul Metropolitan Government (archived 2012-04-25) }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325052520/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |date=2012-03-25 }}</ref><ref name="Seoul twinnings2">{{cite web|url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html|title=International Cooperation: Sister Cities|accessdate=26 January 2008|work=Seoul Metropolitan Government|publisher=www.seoul.go.kr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210175055/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html|archivedate=10 December 2007}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210175055/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html |date=10 December 2007 }}</ref> |- {|style="width:100%" |- | style="width:33.3%;"| * {{flagicon|IRN}} [[Téhéran]], [[Iran]] (1963)<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wQiJ3vBJfvQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=New Economic Spaces in Asian Cities: From Industrial Restructuring to the Cultural Turn |publisher=Routledge and the Taylor & Francis Group |year=2012 |accessdate=2013-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.tehran.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=252 |title=Atlas of Tehran Metropolis |publisher=Tehran Municipality |date= |accessdate=2013-10-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221306/http://atlas.tehran.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=252 |date=2018-10-09 }}</ref> * {{flagicon|ROC}} [[Taipéi]], [[Taiwan]] (1968)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="Taipei sisters">[http://www.edunet.taipei.gov.tw/attach/The%2045%20Sister%20Cities%20list.doc Taipei Sister city list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410023801/http://www.edunet.taipei.gov.tw/attach/The%2045%20Sister%20Cities%20list.doc |date=2014-04-10 }} Taipei City Council</ref> * {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Ankara]], [[Turki]] (1971)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[Honolulu]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (1973)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[San Francisco]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (1976)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|BRA}} [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] (1977)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="São Paulo twinnings">{{cite web|url=http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|title=Pesquisa de Legislação Municipal – No 14471|accessdate=2013-08-23|work=Prefeitura da Cidade de São Paulo [Municipality of the City of São Paulo]|language=Portuguese|trans_title=Research Municipal Legislation – No 14471|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018123138/http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|archivedate=2011-10-18}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018123138/http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000 |date=2011-10-18 }}</ref><ref name="São Paulo WikiSource">[http://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Lei_Municipal_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_14471_de_2007 Lei Municipal de São Paulo 14471 de 2007] WikiSource {{pt icon}}</ref> * {{flagicon|COL}} [[Bogota]], [[Kolombia]] (1982)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|IDN}} [[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] (1984)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> || * {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tokyo]], [[Jepang]] (1988)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Moskow]], [[Rusia]] (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|AUS}} [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]n state (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Paris]], [[Perancis]] (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|MEX}} [[Mexico City]], [[Méksiko]] (1992)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|PRC}} [[Béijing]], [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]] (1993)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|MNG}} [[Ulaanbaatar]], [[Mongolia]] (1995)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|VIE}} [[Hanoi]], [[Viétnam]] (1996)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> || * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Warsawa]], [[Polandia]] (1996)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|EGY}} [[Kairo]], [[Mesir]] (1997)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Roma]], [[Itali]] (2000)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Astana]], [[Kazakhstan]] (2004)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|GRE}} [[Aténa]], [[Yunan]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|THA}} [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="BMA sister cities">{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/list|title=Relationship with Sister Cities|author=International Affairs Division|work=International Affairs Division website|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|accessdate=12 September 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611230221/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/list |date=11 June 2016 }}</ref> * {{flagicon|UZB}} [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbékistan]] (2010)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> |} ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Koréa}} * [[Géografi Koréa Kidul]] * [[Daptar kota di Koréa Kidul]] * [[Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Koréa]] * [[Walikota Seoul]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Wiktionary|Seoul}} ===Loka resmi=== {{commons|Seoul}} {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://english.seoul.go.kr/ Seoul Metropolitan Government] * [http://opengov.seoul.go.kr/ Seoul Information & Communication Plaza] ===Informasi pelesir katut tempat cicing=== * [http://www.visitseoul.net/ i Tour Seoul]&nbsp;– The Official Séoul Tourism Guide Site * [http://www.youtube.com/visitseoul VisitSeoul]&nbsp;– The Official Séoul Tourism Guide YouTube Channel * [http://www.theseoulguide.com/ Seoul Travel Guide]&nbsp;– Travel information for visitors to Séoul ====Peta==== * [http://maps.visitseoul.net/index.jsp?lang=eng Seoul Map Browser] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126101418/http://maps.visitseoul.net/index.jsp?lang=eng |date=2011-01-26 }} (from Séoul Metropolitan Government web site) * [http://www.seoulmetro.co.kr/station/eng/linemap.action Seoul subway map] ===Poto=== * [http://www.seoulsnapshots.com/ Seoul Snapshots] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110182715/http://seoulsnapshots.com/ |date=2016-01-10 }} * [http://www.lovely-seoul.jimdo.com/ Pictures of Seoul] * [http://seoulstreetart.com/ Seoul Street Art & Graffiti] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222032809/http://www.seoulstreetart.com/ |date=2015-02-22 }} {{S-start}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea|Capital of Baekje]]| before=|after=[[Gongju|Ungjin]]|years=18 BC–475 AD}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea]]| before=[[Kaesong|Gaegyeong]]|after=Abolished|years=}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea|Capital of South Korea]]| before=New creation|after=Incumbent|years=1948–}} {{S-end}} {{Navboxes |title = Artikel nu patali jeung Seoul |list = {{Districts of Seoul}} {{Neighbourhoods of Seoul}} {{Regions and administrative divisions of South Korea}} {{Metropolitan cities of South Korea}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} {{List of Asian capitals by region}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{Paralympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{Asian Games Host Cities}} {{G-20 leaders' summits}} {{Seoul landmarks}} {{ABU Radio Song Festival}} {{ABU TV Song Festival}} }} |} [[Kategori:Seoul| ]] [[Kategori:Ibukota di Asia]] rhx1vnqhfmcmdrma758ilpwhabo1ujf 0 50361 731459 712698 2026-11-02T19:24:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox Officeholder |name = Drs. H. Wahyu Widiana, M.A. |image = Pak-Wahyu.jpg |imagesize = 200px |caption = |office = Katua Umum [[Badan Penasihatan Pembinaan dan Pelestarian Perkawinan|BP4 Pusat]] |order = 15 |term_start = 13 Oktober 2014 |term_end = 18 Februari 2020 |succeeding = |president = Jend. (purn) [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]<br> Ir. [[Joko Widodo]] |vicegovernor = |predecessor = |successor = |office2 = Direktur Jénderal [[Badan Peradilan Agama|Badilag]] [[Mahkamah Agung Republik Indonesia|MA RI]] |order2 = 1 |term_start2 = 2005 |term_end2 = 2012 |president2 = Jend. (purn) [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] |governor2 = |lieutenant2 = |predecessor2 = |successor2 = |birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1952|09|18}} |birth_place = {{nagara|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]], [[DKI Jakarta]] |death_date = |death_place = |nationality = [[Indonésia]] |party = |spouse = Nina Noor Farah |relations = |parents= |children = Rifqi WM <br> Rizqi WF<br>Z.Zenith<br>W.Alia<br>Ziqo F<br>Adli Minfadli Robby |alma_mater = IAIN/ Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta<br>University of Michigan Amerika Serikat |occupation = Ahli élmu Falak <br/> Dosén <br/> Aktivis <br/> |profession = |religion = [[Islam]] |signature = |website = {{URL|https://wahyuwidiana.wordpress.com/}} |facebook = |namafacebook = |twitter = |footnotes = }} '''Wahyu Widiana''' ({{Lahirmati|[[Tasikmalaya]]|18|09|1952}}) mangrupa Katua Umum [[Badan Penasihatan Pembinaan dan Pelestarian Perkawinan|BP4]] Pusat ngajabat mimiti [[13 Oktober]] [[2014]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bimasislam.kemenag.go.id/post/berita/wahyu-widiana-mantan-dirjen-badilag-dilantik-sebagai-ketua-baru-bp4 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2016-05-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702072421/http://bimasislam.kemenag.go.id/post/berita/wahyu-widiana-mantan-dirjen-badilag-dilantik-sebagai-ketua-baru-bp4 |archivedate=2017-07-02}}</ref>. Kungsi ngajabat Diréktur Jénderal di Diréktorat Jénderal Badan Peradilan Agama Mahkamah Agung Républik Indonésia périodeu [[2005]]-2012.<ref>Mantan Dirjen Badilag jadi Ketua Umum BP4 pusat http://badilag.net/seputar-ditjen-badilag/seputar-ditjen-badilag/mantan-dirjen-badilag-terpilih-menjadi-ketum-bp4 dicutat tgl 14 Mei 2016</ref> Wahyu Widiana mangrupa inohong dina widang [[élmu Falak]] jeung Paradilan agama di Indonésia jeung ngajabat minangka Katua Badan Hisab Rukyat Nasional [[2000]]-[[2004]]. Dina [[13 Oktober]] [[2014]], Wahyu Widiana resmi dikukuhkeun Katua Umum [[Badan Penasihatan Pembinaan dan Pelestarian Perkawinan|BP4]] Pusat périodeu 2014 - 2019 oléh Menteri Agama Lukman Hakim Saifuddin ngaganti Drs. H. [[Mubarok]], M.Si., Katua I BP4 Pusat minangka (Palaksana Tugas) Katua Umum margi kaséhatan Katua Umum BP4 Pusat Périodeu 2009 - 2014 nyaéta Drs. H.Taufiq,S.H.,M.H (al-maghfur walmarhum). == Pangatikan == * SDN Ciawi [[Kota Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], tamat 1965 [[Jawa Barat|Jawa Kulon]]. * SMPN Ciawi [[Kota Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], tamat 1968 [[Jakarta]]. * SMA Pesantren Cipasung, [[Kota Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], [[Jawa Barat|Jawa Kulon]], tamat [[1971]]. * S1 Jurusan Peradilan Agama, Fak. Syari’ah IAIN Yogyakarta [[Yogyakarta]], tamat [[1977]]. * S2 Néar éastern Studies, University of Michigan [[Amérika Sarikat|Amerika Serikat]]<ref>http://lsa.umich.edu/neareast/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310025653/http://lsa.umich.edu/neareast/ |date=2016-03-10 }}</ref>, tamat [[1990]]. == Jabatan Struktural == * Dosén Fakultas Syari’ah & Hukum UIN Jakarta (2012–ayeuna) * Diréktur Jénderal Badan Peradilan Agama di Diréktorat Jénderal Badan Peradilan Agama (Badilag) Mahkamah Agung RI périodeu (2005 – 2012) * Diréktur Pambinaan Peradilan Agama (Dirbinpéra) pada Ditjén Bimas Islam jeung Penyelenggaraan Haji (2001 – 2005) == Riwayat pekerjaan/jabatan (non/semi struktural) == * Asistén Dosén (Luar Biasa) Ilmu Falak pada Fak. Syari’ah Yogyakarta, 1976-1978 * Dosén (Luar Biasa) Universitas Islam Syékh Yusuf Jakarta/Tangerang, 1979-1982 * Dosén (Luar Biasa) Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta, 1981-1984 * Dosén (Luar Biasa) Universitas Islam Negeri Jakarta, 2002 - 2003 * Anggota Badan Hisab Rukyat (Nasional) Kementrian Agama, 1980-sekarang. * Katua Badan Hisab Rukyat (Nasional), 2000-2004 * Katua Tim Nasional Panyalarasan Rukyat jeung Taqwim Islam sa Asia Tenggara (MABIMS), 2001-2004 * Sekretaris Menteri Agama, Juni 1996- Mei 2000 * Rédaksi Majalah Mimbar Hukum, 2001-Ayeuna. * Sekretaris Dewan Pembina HISSI (2012- Ayeuna) * Senior Adviser Australia-Indonésia Partnership for Justice (2012-ayeuna) * Katua Umum BP4 Pusat (2014 – Ayeuna) == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Pranala luar == * {{id}} {{official|https://wahyuwidiana.wordpress.com/}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1952]] [[Kategori:Inohong Sunda]] hw8srsrwrg5mua9fepyyn1b4mtmcuh9 0 98016 731437 592494 2026-11-02T12:27:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Location map+ | Indonesia | caption = Lokasi Jakarta (puseur dayeuh ayeuna) sarta lokasi-lokasi anu diusulkeun jadi puseur dayeuh anyar. | relief = | width = 500 | places = {{Location map~ | Indonesia | label = Jakarta | position = top | marksize = 7 | label_size = 80 | link = Jakarta | lat_deg = -6.23 | lon_deg = 106.69 }} {{Location map~ | Indonesia | label = Penajam Paser Utara | mark = Cyan pog.svg | position = bottom | marksize = 7 | label_size = 80 | link = Kabupaten Penajam Paser Utara | lat_deg = -1.24 | lon_deg = 116.78 }} {{Location map~ | Indonesia | label = {{nowrap|Kutai Kartanegara}} | mark = Cyan pog.svg | position = right | marksize = 7 | label_size = 80 | link = Kabupaten Kutai Kartanegara | lat_deg = -0.43 | lon_deg = 116.97 }} }} Upaya '''pamindahan puseur dayeuh Indonésia''' dimimitian ti taun 2019 di jaman pamaréntahan Présidén [[Joko Widodo]]. Liwat rapat kawates pamaréntah di tanggal 29 April 2019, Joko Widodo mutuskeun rék mindahkeun puseur dayeuh nagara ka luar [[Pulo Jawa]].<ref>https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/04/29/15384561/kepala-bappenas-presiden-setuju-ibu-kota-negara-dipindah-ke-luar-jawa</ref> Pamindahan puseur dayeuh ieu aya dina ''Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional 2020-2024''.<ref>https://money.kompas.com/read/2019/05/09/184859926/kepala-bappenas-pemindahan-ibu-kota-masuk-rpjmn-2020-2024</ref> Di tanggal 26 Agustus 2019, Présidén Joko Widodo ngabéwarakeun yén puseur dayeuh anyar bakal diwangun di wewengkon administratip [[Kabupatén Penajam Pasér Utara]] jeung [[Kabupatén Kutai Kartanegara]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kusuma |first1=Hendra |title=Resmi! Jokowi Putuskan Ibu Kota RI Pindah ke Kaltim |url=https://finance.detik.com/properti/d-4681152/resmi-jokowi-putuskan-ibu-kota-ri-pindah-ke-kaltim |accessdate=26 August 2019 |work=detikfinance |date=26 August 2019 |language=id |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204121431/https://finance.detik.com/properti/d-4681152/resmi-jokowi-putuskan-ibu-kota-ri-pindah-ke-kaltim |archive-date=4 December 2020}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == Usulan pikeun mindahkeun puseur dayeuh Indonésia ti [[Jakarta]] ka lokasi nu séjén geus disawalakeun ti jaman Présidén [[Soekarno]] nepi ka [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. Présidén Yudhoyono ngarojong idé pikeun nyieun puseur pulitik jeung administrasi [[Indonésia]] nu anyar, ku lantaran masalah lingkungan jeung kaayaan Jakarta anu geus gegek teuing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inilah.com/read/detail/798451/tiru-malaysia-sby-dukung-pemindahan-ibukota|title=Read Inilah.com - Telinga, Mata, dan Hati Rakyat - Berita Terkini|first=PT. Indonesia News|last=Center|website=inilahcom|accessdate=16 Desember 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://news.okezone.com/read/2010/12/14/337/403406/sby-mari-lanjutkan-ide-membangun-ibukota-baru SBY: Mari Lanjutkan Ide Membangun Ibu kota Baru - news.okezone.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == Alesan lokasi anyar == Ceuk Présidén Joko Widodo, alesan wewengkon di Penajam Pasér Utara jeung Kutai Kartanegara dijadikeun lokasi puseur dayeuh anyar ku lantaran leutikna kamungkinan beunang musibah alam di daérah éta, lokasi nu "aya di tengah-tengah Indonésia", lokasi di deukeut kota [[Balikpapan]] jeung [[Samarinda]] anu geus mekar, "infrastruktur anu rélatif lengkep", sarta aya 180 [[hektar]] tanah anu dipiboga ku pamaréntah.<ref name=tirto>{{cite news|title=Alasan Jokowi Pilih Penajam-Kutai Jadi Ibu Kota Baru, Ganti Jakarta|url=https://tirto.id/alasan-jokowi-pilih-penajam-kutai-jadi-ibu-kota-baru-ganti-jakarta-eg2i|publisher=Tirto|date=26 Agustus 2019|author=Yulaika Ramadhani}}</ref> == Rarancang pamaréntah == Dina béwara tanggal 26 Agustus 2019, Joko Widodo nyebutkeun yén pamaréntah bakal ngarancang undang-undang pikeun mindahkeun ibu kota pikeun disatujuan ku [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Républik Indonésia|Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat]]. Pangwangunan dimimitian di taun 2020, sarta pamindahan bakal dilakukeun sacara bertahap ti taun 2024.<ref name=tirto/> == Kamandang == Sékjén [[Partai Persatuan Pembangunan]] [[Arsul Sani]] sarta dosén Universitas Trisakti [[Yayat Supriatna]] nyebutkan perluna disahkeun undang-undang sangkan kaputusan pamaréntahan Joko Widodo jadi kukuh sarta teu bisa dirobah ku présidén nu engké ngajabat. Ayeuna, posisi Jakarta salaku ibu kota didasarkeun kana UU 29/2007 ngeunaan Pamaréntah Provinsi Daérah Khusus Ibu kota Jakarta.<ref name=tirto/> Sultan Adji Muhammad Arifin, pamingpin [[Kasultanan Kutai Kartanegara ing Martadipura]], ngarasa sukur ku ayana pamindahan puseur dayeuh nagara lantaran wewengkon éta mangrupa tempat diadegkeunana [[Karajaan Kutai]], karajaan anu boga bukti sajarah pangkolotna di Indonésia.<ref>https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2019/08/30/wawancara-eksklusif-sultan-kutai-adji-muhammad-wajar-ibu-kota-pindah-ke-wilayah-kerajaan-tertua</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Pamindahan puseur dayeuh Jawa Kulon]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Indonésia di taun 2019]] [[Kategori:Pamaréntahan Indonésia]] 3fvkuzjqbw5ze66d02si4ktvahzc8bw 0 98754 731460 675786 2026-11-02T19:32:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox river | name = Rogue River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = ''Coquins'' (rogues), used by early French visitors to the region to describe the local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] (Indians){{sfn|McArthur|McArthur|2003|p=822}} <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = File:The Wild & Scenic Rogue River (48205898602).jpg | image_caption = Rogue River ti Hellgate Canyon | image_size = 300 | map = Rogue River Watershed.png | map_size = 300 | map_caption = Peta daérah cai walungan Rogue | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Nagara | subdivision_name1 = [[Amérika Sarikat]] | subdivision_type2 =Nagara bagian | subdivision_name2 = [[Oregon]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = County | subdivision_name4 = [[Klamath County, Oregon|Klamath]], [[Douglas County, Oregon|Douglas]], <br />[[Jackson County, Oregon|Jackson]], [[Josephine County, Oregon|Josephine]], jeung [[Curry County, Oregon|Curry]] | subdivision_type5 = Kota | subdivision_name5 = [[Grants Pass, Oregon|Grants Pass]] <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|215|mi|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="topoquest Hamaker Butte">{{cite web | author = [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Hamaker Butte, Oregon quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat=43.0815696932&lon=-122.254610677&datum=nad83&zoom=4&map=auto&coord=d&mode=zoomin&size=m | accessdate = April 15, 2009}} The map includes a [[river mile]] (RM) marker for RM&nbsp;211 (river kilometer&nbsp;346) near the confluence of the Rogue River with Mazama Creek.</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= deukeut [[Agness, Oregon|Agness]], {{convert|29.7|mi|km}} ti muhara<ref name="Agness gauge">{{cite web | publisher = United States Geological Survey | url = http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2007/pdfs/14372300.2007.pdf | format = PDF | title = Water-data report 2007: 14372300 Rogue River near Agness, OR | accessdate = April 21, 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718174044/http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2007/pdfs/14372300.2007.pdf |date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref> | discharge1_min = {{convert|608|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|6622|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Agness gauge"/> | discharge1_max = {{convert|290000|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = Sirah cai [[Taman Nasional Situ Crater]] | source1_location = [[Cascade Range]], [[Klamath County, Oregon|Klamath County]], [[Oregon]] | source1_coordinates= {{coord|43|3|57|N|122|13|56|W|display=inline}}<ref name="gnis"/> | source1_elevation = {{convert|5320|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="GE">Tingkat kaluhuran [[Google Earth]] pikeun koordinat GNIS</ref> | mouth = [[Samudra Pasifik]] | mouth_location = [[Gold Beach, Oregon|Gold Beach]], [[Curry County, Oregon|Curry County]], [[Oregon]] | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|42|25|21|N|124|25|45|W|display=inline,title}}<ref name="gnis"/> | mouth_elevation = {{convert|0|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = {{convert|5156|sqmi|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Crown|Meyers|Tugaw|Turner|2008|loc=summary|p=i}} | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = {{Designation list | embed = yes | designation1 = nwsr | designation1_type = Wild, Scenic, Recreational | designation1_date = October 2, 1968 | designation1_number = }} }} [[File:Crater Lake Fairwell Bend.jpg|200px|thumb|Walungan Rogue jeung tatangkalan pines]] [[File:Mule Creek Canyon.jpg|200px|thumb|''Mule Creek Canyon'']] '''Walungan Rogue''' ([[basa Tolowa]]: yan-shuu-chit’ taa-ghii~-li~’,<ref>{{Cite web|author=Confederated Tribes of Siletz|title=Siletz Talking Dictionary|url=http://siletz.swarthmore.edu/?entry=6448|publisher=Swarthmore College|year=2007|accessdate=June 4, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710051841/http://siletz.swarthmore.edu/?entry=6448|archivedate=July 10, 2017}}</ref> [[basa Takélma]]: tak-elam<ref>{{cite news|last=Fattig|first=Paul|title=Bits of Lost Takelma Language Preserved|work=Mail Tribune|location=Medford, Oregon|date=August 16, 1998|url=http://www.mailtribune.com/article/19980816/NEWS/308169999|publisher=Local Media Group|accessdate=March 8, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309032124/http://www.mailtribune.com/article/19980816/NEWS/308169999|archivedate=2016-03-09|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309032124/http://www.mailtribune.com/article/19980816/NEWS/308169999 |date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref>) nyaéta hiji [[walungan]] anu aya di nagara bagian [[Oregon]], [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="gnis">{{cite web | work = [[Geographic Names Information System]] (GNIS) | publisher = United States Geological Survey | date = November 28, 1980 | url ={{Gnis3|1148698}} | title = Rogue River | accessdate = April 16, 2009}}</ref> Walungan Rogue dipikawanoh ku lantaran arusna anu tarik. Walungan ieu dikurilingan ku pagunungan leuweung sarta babatuan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.blm.gov/programs/recreation/permits-and-passes/lotteries-and-permit-systems/oregon-washington/rogue-river|title=Programs Recreation: Permits and Passes: Lotteries and Permit Systems: Oregon-Washington: Rogue River|website=www.blm.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-07}}</ref> Walungan ieu jarakna 215 mil ti Cascade Range nepi ka [[Samudra Pasifik]], girangna ti deukeut Situ Kawah sarta muharana aya di Gold Beach Oregon. Walungan Rogue mangrupa salah sahiji ti dalapan walungan asli anu disebutkeun dina ''Wild and Scenic Rivers Act'' di taun [[1968]]. Hutan Nasional Rogue-Klamath-Siskiyou sarta Leuweung Kalmiopsis ngurilingan Walungan Rogue. ''Daérah Aliran Sungai'' (DAS) Walungan Rogue nyaéta salah sahiji ti opat leuweung tipeu konifér nu boga iklim sedeng anu ragamna panglobana di dunya, anu eusina 3.500 spésiés tutuwuhan anu baréda.<ref name=":2" /> == Asal usul ngaran == Mmitina, kecap ''rogue'' anu hartina tukang tipu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/#view=home&op=translate&sl=en&tl=id&text=rogue|title=Google Tarjamah|website=translate.google.com|accessdate=2020-01-08}}</ref> dilarapkeun ku [[urang Éropa]] ka pribumi asli [[Amérika]] anu nyicingan walungan éta ti saprak Perang Indian ti [[1855]] nepi ka [[1856]]. Urang Éropa nyebut pribumi minangka "Indian Rogue". Kadieunakeun, kecap "rogue" dipaké pikeun nyebutkeun ngaran walunganana.<ref name=":2" /> == Sajarah == Ti jaman bihari, pasna ti taun [[1800-an]], Walungan Rogue geus dipikawanoh ku lantaran loba emasna. Di taun [[1850]], loba [[urang Éropa]] anu daratang ka dieu pikeun nambang [[emas]], moro, sarta ngala [[lauk]]. Mimitina pribumi soméah ka maranéhna, ngan urang Éropa sok nelasan pribumi au eukeur nyorangan. Hal ieu anu nyababkeun konflik antara urang Éropa jeung [[Urang Indian|pangeusi asli Amérika]] anu ngabalukarkeun "Perang Indian" Walungan Rogue di taun [[1855]]-[[1856]]. Ieu perang téh antara [[Angkatan Darat]] [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung para pribumi. Sanggeus kitu, pangeusi asli Amérika tuluy dipindahkeun ka tempat reservasi, di dinya,loba nu paraéh ku sabab panyakit jeung kakurangan dahareun sarta cai.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rivers.gov/rivers/rogue.php|title=Rogue River, Oregon|last=|first=|website=Rivers.gov|publisher=|accessdate=08-01-2020}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://rogueriverraft.com/flora-and-fauna-of-the-rogue-river/|title=Flora and Fauna of the Rogue River|website=Morrisons Rogue Wilderness Adventures|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-01-08}}</ref> == Ékosistem == === Sasatoan === Walungan Rogue mangrupa habitat pikeun loba spésiés lauk, di antarana ''chinook salmon, coho salmon, steelhead, cutthroat trout'', jeung sturgeon héjo. Walungan ieu kawentar minangka "habitat salmon kalawan kualitas nu panghadéna di kulon".<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> [[Lauk]] anu geus gedé ngendog di walungan, tuluy megar babaraha bulan saenggeusna. Sabada megar, sababaraha spésiés saperti coho, hulu baja, jeung sturgeon héjo, netep heula di walungan salila sataun, sedengkeun nu lianna saperti chinook langsung baé ka laut.<ref name=":1" /> Walungan Rogue miboga spésiés lauk asli, di antarana aya lauk emas, shad Amérika, lauk pike leutik, ''brown bullhead,lélé, black crappie,'' jeung ''red shiner''.<ref name=":2" /> Salian ti lauk, di deukeut walungan ieu ogé sok aya [[biruang]] hideung, [[uncal]], [[berang-berang]], [[bango]] biru gedé, sarta [[ospréy]], pikeun néangan [[salmon]].<ref name=":1" /> === Tutuwuhan === Di deukeut Walungan Rogue, rupa-rupa tutuwuhan aya. Kaitung aya kira-kira 3.500 spésiés tutuwuhan. Ti mimiti ti [[girang]], aya dupa cédar, [[camara]] bodas, sarta camara beureum Shasta. Tuluy di beulah [[hilir]], aya tatangkalan anu daunna garedé, sarta jujukutan. Di hilir aya pines ponderosa gedé, ''Douglas-fir, madrone, manzanita'', pines Jeffrey, sarta tangkal ék di sakabéh landeuh.<ref name=":2" /> Aya ogé kebon [[Buah|bungbuahan]], lahan tatanén, sarta tegalan anu dijarieun ku jelema. Tuluy di aréa [[riparian]], aya willow, alder beureum, kai kapas hideung, sarta abu Oregon. Di daérah [[muhara]], aya sabana ék, végétasi padang rumput, jeung loba balong.<ref name=":2" /> Salian ti éta, réa ogé [[Kembang|kekembangan]] anu tumuwuh di deukeut walungan. Sapanjang taun kekembangan éta marekar, komo pas usum semi mah. Aya [[rhododendron]], [[tulip]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=":2" /> == Pariwisata == [[File:Rogue gorge top.jpg|200px|thumb|Tarikna arus Walungan Rogue]] Walungan Rogue jeung daérah di sabudeureunana nyadiakeun rupa-rupa pangalaman rékreasi. Hal éta au nyababkeun jumlah wisatawan di [[walungan]] ieu bisa nepi ka satengah juta unggal taunna.<ref name=":1" /> Wisatawan bisa kémping dina [[mobil]] atawa nyupiran sapanjang walungan. Wisatawan ogé bisa ''hiking'' di Jalur Rékréasi Nasional Walungan Rogue sapanjang 40 mil, arung jeram ngaliwatan jeram liar, atawa bisa ogé nyusur walungan anu arusna leuwih tenang.<ref name=":0" /> Salian ti éta, wisatawan ogé bisa paparahuan, ngojay, kémping, sarta nguseup di Walungan Rogue.<ref name=":1" /> == Galéri == <gallery> File:North Fork Rogue River Bridge from a distance (8148324664).jpg|Sasak North Folk jeung Walungan Rogue File:Lost Creek Lake Jackson County Oregon.jpg|Situ Lost Creek File:Below Rogue Natural Bridge.jpg|Di handapeun sasak alami Walungan Rogue File:Gold ray dam.jpg|Bendungan Gold Ray File:Rafting 5005.JPG|Wisatawan anu eukeur ''rafting'' </gallery> == Tingali ogé == [[Walungan]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Walungan]] [[Kategori:Walungan di Amérika Sarikat]] k0ycomov7tye2slgefhmlfp9ywpfcvx 0 103823 731463 652552 2026-11-02T20:24:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731463 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:There's_no_crying_in_baseball!_(4549295140)_2.jpg|pra=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/There%27s_no_crying_in_baseball%21_%284549295140%29_2.jpg/220px-There%27s_no_crying_in_baseball%21_%284549295140%29_2.jpg|al=Seorang anak kecil memeluk anak yang lebih tua yang terluka|jmpl| Nangkeup batur anu keur nyeri suku téh tanda émpati.]] '''Émpati''' ([[basa Yunani]] hartina ''kataji ku fisik'') dihartikeun salaku réspon aféktif jeung kognitif kompléks kana émosi batur. <ref name="sosi">Baron & Byrne, Psikologi Sosial Jilid 2, Jakarta: Erlangga, 2004, hal. 111.</ref> Émpati kaasup kamampuh pikeun ngarasakeun kaayaan émosional batur, ngarasa simpati, mantuan ngaréngsékeun pasualan jeung nyokot puseur implengan batur. <ref name="sosi" /> Lian ti éta, émpati nyaéta kamampuh individu pikeun ngaidéntipikasi jeung ngarti kumaha rarasaan jeung kaayaan jalma séjén.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Widiarti|first=Pratiwi Wahyu|date=2013-01-01|title=PENDIDIKAN KARAKTER BERBASIS EMPATI PADA ANAK-ANAK USIA SD|url=https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/informasi/article/view/4446|journal=Informasi|language=en|volume=39|issue=2|doi=10.21831/informasi.v0i2.4446|issn=2502-3837|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706031352/https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/informasi/article/view/4446|archive-date=2022-07-06|accessdate=2022-08-31}}</ref> [[Basa]] [[Inggris]] empathy (''Empathy'') diciptakeun dina taun 1909 ku [[EB Titchener]] salaku tarékah pikeun narjamahkeun kecap Basa Jerman nyaéta ''Einfühlungsvermögen'', fénoména anyar disarungsum ku [[Theodor Lipps]] dina ahir abad ka-19. Sanggeus éta, ditarjamahkeun deui kana basa Jerman salaku ''Empathie''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Stueber|first=Karsten|date=2019|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/empathy/|title=Empathy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2019}}</ref> == Sajarah == Istilah Basa Inggris, ''Empathy'', diwanohkeun ku psikolog anu jenenganana Edward Titchener dina taun 1909. Ieu stilah mangrupa tarjamahan tina istilah Basa Jerman ''Einfühlung.'' Saméméhna, istilah ''simpati'' (basa Inggris: ''sympathy'' ) biasa digunakeun pikeun nuduhkeun fénoména nu patali jeung rasa émpati.<ref name=":0" /> == Wanda == === Émpati kognitif === Émpati kognitif nyaéta kamampuh pikeun ngarti rarasaan jeung pikiran batur. Émpati [[kognitif]] ngajadikeun komunikator jadi leuwih hadé, sabab bisa mantuan nepikeun informasi ku cara nu pangalusna sangkan maksudna bisa dihontal ku batur.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.designthinking.id/2020/02/04/three-types-of-empathy/|title=Three Types of Empathy|last=Razy|first=Yurry|last2=Kosasih|first2=Danny|website=Design Thinking Indonesia|accessdate=|last3=Cahyono|first3=Fiter Bagus}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217133605/http://www.designthinking.id/2020/02/04/three-types-of-empathy/ |date=2020-02-17 }}</ref> === Émpati émosional === Émpati émosional (ogé katelah émpati aféktif) nyaéta kamampuh pikeun ngabagi rarasaan batur. Sababaraha urang geus digambarkeun salaku ''kuring nyeri haté''. Ieu wanda émpati mantuan ngawangun hubungan émosional jeung jalma séjén.<ref name=":2" /> === Émpati welas asih === Émpati welas asih nyaéta ngarti ka jalma séjén ku cara tindakan jeung mantuan samampuhna nepi ka jalma anu diperhatikeun téh ngaréngsékeun pasualanana.<ref name=":2" /> == Tempo ogé == * [[Simpati]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Sosial]] [[Kategori:Émosi]] s6grinwuwq04uevujqhhci8hl9c38gf 0 105150 731457 730259 2026-11-02T18:51:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731457 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kotak info paguron luhur | nama = Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta | logo = [[Gambar:Emblem of Yogyakarta State University.svg|180px]] | motto = ''Unggul, Kreatif, dan Inovatif '' | tahun = {{start date and age|1964|5|21}} | jenis = [[:id:Perguruan Tinggi Negeri Badan Hukum|Perguruan Tinggi Negeri Badan Hukum]] | rektor = [[:d:Sumaryanto (akademisi)|Prof. Dr. Sumaryanto, M.Kes., AIFO]] | lokasi = Jl. Colombo No. 1, [[Caturtunggal, Dépok, Sléman|Caturtunggal]], [[Dépok, Sléman|Dépok]], [[Kabupatén Sléman]], [[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta|DI Yogyakarta]] | situs = {{URL|www.uny.ac.id}} }} '''Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta''' (disingkat '''UNY''') nyaéta salah sahiji universitas di [[Indonésia]]. Kampus induk universitas aya di [[Kabupatén Sléman]], [[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]]. UNY samemehna mangrupa bagian ti fakultas di [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] anu antukna ngabentuk lembaga misah anu disebut Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Yogyakarta (IKIP Yogyakarta).<ref name="sejarahuny">{{Cite web|url=https://www.uny.ac.id/profil/sejarah-uny|title=Sejarah Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta|year=2019|website=Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20200802175259/https://www.uny.ac.id/profil/sejarah-uny|archivedate=2020-08-02|dead-url=yes|accessdate=09 November 2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114011326/https://www.uny.ac.id/profil/sejarah-uny |date=2019-11-14 }}</ref> UNY ogé geus dianggap salah sahiji lembaga atikan pangalusna di Indonésia, babarengan jeung [[Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia]] jeung Universitas Negeri Malang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/edu/read/2023/11/08/064556271/7-kampus-pendidikan-terbaik-di-indonesia-ada-um-uny-hingga-upi|title=7 Kampus Pendidikan Terbaik di Indonesia, Ada UM, UNY hingga UPI|last=Prastiwi|first=Mahar|website=Kompas|language=id|accessdate=2 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edukasi.sindonews.com/read/1247209/211/7-universitas-dengan-jurusan-pendidikan-terbaik-di-indonesia-versi-the-wur-2024-um-juaranya-1699510313|title=7 Universitas dengan Jurusan Pendidikan Terbaik di Indonesia Versi THE WUR 2024, UM Juaranya|last=Wahyono|website=Sindonews (Edukasi)|language=id|accessdate=2 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://infografis.sindonews.com/photo/26441/7-universitas-dengan-jurusan-pendidikan-terbaik-di-indonesia-1699469911|title=7 Universitas dengan Jurusan Pendidikan Terbaik di Indonesia|last=Muin|first=Maspuq|website=Sindonews (Infografis)|language=id|accessdate=2 April 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804025722/https://infografis.sindonews.com/photo/26441/7-universitas-dengan-jurusan-pendidikan-terbaik-di-indonesia-1699469911|archivedate=4 August 2024}}</ref> == Fakultas == === Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan dan Psikologi (FIPP) === {{col|2}} * Kebijakan Pendidikan * Bimbingan dan Konseling * Teknologi Pendidikan * Pendidikan Luar Biasa * Manajemen Pendidikan * Pendidikan Luar Sekolah * Pendidikan Anak usia Dini * Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar * Psikologi </div> === Fakultas Bahasa, Seni, dan Budaya (FBSB) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia * Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia * Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris * Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris * Pendidikan Bahasa Jawa * Pendidikan Bahasa Jerman * Pendidikan Bahasa Prancis * Pendidikan Seni Musik * Pendidikan Seni Rupa * Pendidikan Seni Tari * Pendidikan Seni Kriya {{end-col}} === Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam (FMIPA) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Matematika * Matematika * Statistika * Pendidikan Fisika * Fisika * Pendidikan Kimia * Kimia * Pendidikan Biologi * Biologi * Pendidikan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam </div> === Fakultas Ilmu Sosial, Hukum, dan Ilmu Politik (FISHIPOL) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Geografi * Pendidikan Sejarah * Ilmu Sejarah * Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan * Hukum * Ilmu Politik * Pendidikan Sosiologi * Pendidikan Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial * Ilmu Administrasi publik * Ilmu Komunikasi </div> === Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis (FEB) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Ekonomi * Pendidikan Akuntansi * Akuntansi * Akuntansi (D4) * Manajemen * Manajemen Pemasaran (D4) * Administrasi Perkantoran * Administrasi Perkantoran (D4) * Sekretaris (D3) </div> === Fakultas Teknik (FT) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Teknik Elektronika * Teknik Elektronika (D4) * Teknologi Informasi * Pendidikan Teknik Informatika * Pendidikan Teknik Elektro * Teknik Elektro (D4) * Pendidikan Teknik Mekatronika * Pendidikan Teknik Mesin * Teknik Manufaktur * Teknik Mesin (D4) * Teknik Sipil * Pendidikan Tenik Sipil dan Perencanaan * Arsitektur * Teknik Sipil (D4) * Pendidikan Teknik Boga * Teknik Boga (D4) * Pendidikan Teknik Busana * Teknik Busana (D4) * Tata Rias dan Kecantikan (D4) * Pendidikan Teknik Otomotif * Teknik Otomotif </div> === Fakultas Ilmu Keolahragaan dan Kesehatan (FIKK) === {{col|2}} * Pendidikan Jasmani dan Keolahragaan * Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar Penjasorkes * Pendidikan Kepelatihan Olahraga * Ilmu Keolahragaan </div> === Program Pendidikan Profesi === * Program Pendidikan Profesi Guru (PPG) * Program Profesi Insinyur === Program Pascasarjana (PPs) === {{col|3}} ; Jenjang S-2 * Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan * Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan * Manajemen Pendidikan * Pendidikan Luar Sekolah * Linguistik Terapan * Teknologi Pembelajaran * Pendidikan Sains * Pendidikan Matematika * Ilmu Keolahragaan * Pendidikan Dasar * Bimbingan Konseling * Bahasa Jawa * Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia * Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris * Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini * Pendidikan Sejarah * Pendidikan Ekonomi * Pendidikan Teknik Elektronika dan Informatika * Pendidikan Teknik Elektro * Pendidikan Teknik Mesin * Pendidikan Kesejahteraan Keluarga * Pendidikan Seni * Pendidikan Fisika * Pendidikan Biologi * Pendidikan Kimia * Pendidikan Geografi * Pendidikan Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan * Pendidikan Luar Biasa * Psikologi ; Jenjang S-3 * Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan * Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan * Ilmu Pendidikan * Ilmu Pendidikan Bahasa * Manajemen Pendidikan * Pendidikan Dasar * Pendidikan Kimia </div> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20240407125938/https://www.uny.ac.id/ Situs resmi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia] {{PTN di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Paguron luhur nagri di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Dépok, Sléman]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Koordinat aya dina Wikidata]] d2yhenztivvybx24ogrorudmy0kymvf 10 105278 731467 672065 2026-11-03T01:12:11Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Narjamahkeun talatah 731467 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Kaca ieu dipaké pikeun nempoan pangaturan [[Citakan:AdvancedSiteNotices|pangumuman loka]]. Ulah nyutat kaca ieu dina wangun citakan, kusabab hal éta téh '''moal''' ngahasilkeun éfék nu sarua jeung kaca ieu. Lamun anjeun hayang nyutat pangumuman loka, mangga paké {{tl|AdvancedSiteNotices}}. 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summary}}||{{tlp|IP summary|Alamat IP}}||{{IP summary|Ngaran pamaké}} |- |{{tl|Checkuser}}||{{tlp|Checkuser|Ngaran pamaké}}||{{Checkuser|Ngaran pamaké}} |} <includeonly> <!-- KATEGORI --> [[Kategori:Citakan tutumbu pamaké]] <!-- INTERWIKI --> </includeonly> 4p9b28chnui973rfzrrmfxt2v51fl9r 10 106698 731481 685381 2026-11-03T07:05:59Z Rafka Aditia 29183 731481 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly><span class="plainlinks">[[Pamaké:{{{1}}}|{{{1}}}]] &bull; [[Obrolan pamaké:{{{1}}}|bicara]] ([{{fullurl:Husus%3AKontribusi|contribs=user&target={{{1}}}&namespace=0}} kontrib.] &bull; [[Husus:Kontribusi_yang_dihapus/{{{1}}}|kontrib. nu dipupus]]){{adminicon|{{{1}}}}}</span></includeonly><noinclude> {{doc|Citakan:User-c/doc}}</noinclude> 3t3qwzyxwhb0dxbr7y8bts2mcr5tsjj 0 106940 731439 708301 2026-11-02T13:03:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731439 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tentara Sukaréla Pembéla Tanah Air''' (nu mindeng disebut PÉTA, dina [[basa Jepang]]: 郷土防衛義勇軍 ''(Kyōdo Bōei Giyūgun)'' téh mangrupa hiji pasukan paramilitér nu dijieun ku pamaréntah [[Jepang]] nalika ngajajah Indonesia. PÉTA diadegkeun dina tanggal 3 Oktober 1943 nurutkeun [[Maklumat Osamu Seirei]] No. 44 anu diumumkeun ku Panglima Angkatan Darat ka-16, [[Kumakichi Harada|Létnan Jénderal Kumakichi Harada]]. Tempat latihan utama pasukan PÉTA aya di komplék militer Bogor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/sejarah-dan-sosial/mengenal-peta-organisasi-militer-yang-bertugas-membantu-jepang-21T7wKPPVX1|title=Mengenal PETA, Organisasi Militer yang Bertugas Membantu Jepang|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> Dina sajarahna, PÉTA miboga peran penting dina perjuangan kamerdikaan [[Indonésia]]. Sababaraha tokoh nasional kungsi jadi bagian tina PÉTA, saperti Jénderal Besar TNI Soedirman jeung présidén urut Jenderal Besar TNI [[Suharto|Soeharto]]. Para veteran PÉTA engkéna ilubiung dina ngawangun kamekaran militér Indonésia, dimimitian ti BKR, TKR, Tentara Kasalametan Rakyat, TRI, nepi ka lahirna [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|Tentara Nasional Indonésia]] (TNI). Ku sabab kitu, PETA mindeng dianggap minangka salah sahiji cikal bakal TNI.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/sejarah-peta-di-zaman-pendudukan-jepang-tugas-tokoh-tujuan-galt|title=Sejarah PÉTA di Zaman Pendudukan Jepang: Tugas, Tokoh, & Tujuan|last=Parinduri|first=Alhidayath|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Mimiti dijieun === Sanggeus Jepang bisa ngawasaan [[Hindia-Walanda|Hindia]] [[Hindia-Walanda|Walanda]], pamaréntah militér Jepang mimiti ngadegkeun rupa-rupa organisasi keur rahayat Indonésia pikeun nyokong kapentingan jajahan jeung perang Jepang di [[Pasipik]]. Sanajan kitu, Jepang teu muka perekrutan tentara sacara lega, iwal ngan saeutik ngaliwatan [[Heiho]]. Najan kitu, niat pikeun ngabentuk pasukan tina urang pribumi geus aya ti awal kakawasaan Jepang. Salah sahiji anu ngamimitian nyaéta Létnan Hiji [[Motoshige Yanagawa]] ti [[Beppan]] (gugus tugas husus ti Angkatan Darat ka-16), anu dina bulan Januari 1943 ngadegkeun ''Seinen Dōjō (‘Dojo Pamuda’)'' di Tangerang minangka tempat latihan semimiliter keur barudak ngora. Teu lila sanggeus éta, dina 9 Maret 1943 diresmikeun ogé organisasi ''Seinendan'' (Barisan Pamuda).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270688015_Gatot_Mangkupraja_PET_A_and_the_origins_of_the_Indonesian_National_Army|title=(PDF) Gatot Mangkupraja, PET A, and the origins of the Indonesian National Army|website=ResearchGate|language=en|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> === Katerlibatan pribumi === Dina tanggal 16 Juni 1943, Perdana Menteri Jepang [[Hideki Tojo]] dina Sidang Parlemén Jepang ka-82 ngumumkeun yén rahayat [[Pulo Jawa|Jawa]] bakal mimiti dilibetkeun dina urusan pamaréntahan di Jawa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.openbeelden.nl/media/1302103|title=Bezoek generaal Tojo en instelling van de centrale raad van advies - Open Beelden|website=www.openbeelden.nl|accessdate=2025-09-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727170133/https://www.openbeelden.nl/media/1302103|archivedate=2022-07-27}}</ref> Salajengna, pamaréntah Jepang di Jawa nyusun rencana pikeun ngadegkeun hiji pasukan militér nu anggotana ti urang pribumi salaku kakuatan pertahanan. Pikeun narik minat masarakat, Beppan mutuskeun yén pamundut pikeun ngadegkeun pasukan éta kudu diajukeun ku urang Indonesia sorangan. Ku sabab kitu, Motoshige Yanagawa milih [[Radén Gatot Mangkoepradja]] pikeun nyieun pamundut éta, lantaran ti bulan Méi 1942 Gatot geus nyampeurkeun pamikiran ngeunaan pentingna pasukan militér keur Indonésia ka pamaréntah Jepang. Yanagawa tuluy patepang jeung Gatot di Jakarta dina 5 Séptémber 1943 pikeun ngobrolkeun ieu hal, sarta paguneman diteruskeun jeung Beppan dina poé saterusna.<ref name=":0" /> == Daptar Batalion PETA == {| class="wikitable" |+Daftar Batalion PETA{{Sfn|Suryanegara|2010|p=68-80}} |- !Keresidenan ! Batalion ! Komandan Batalion ! Latar belakang ! Perwira lain |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan|Banten]] | I [[Labuan, Pandeglang|Labuhan]] || [[Tubagus Ahmad Chatib al-Bantani|Toebagus Achmad Chatib]] || [[Ulama]]|| Soehadisastra |- | II [[Malingping, Lebak|Kondangsari Malingping]]|| E. Ojong Temaja || Ulama || M.B. Soetman |- | III [[Kota Cilegon|Cilegon]]-[[Kota Serang|Serang]]|| [[Syafruddin Prawiranegara|Sjam'oen]]|| Ulama || Zainoel Falah |- | IV [[Pandeglang, Pandeglang|Pandeglang]]|| Oeding Soejatmadja || || Moestaram |- | rowspan="2" |[[Keresidenan Jakarta|Jakarta]] | I [[Gambir, Jakarta Pusat|Harmoni]]|| [[Kasman Singodimedjo]] || Lulusan [[Rechtshoogeschool te Batavia|RHS]], mantan Ketua [[Jong Islamieten Bond|JIB]] dan [[Majelis Islam A'la Indonesia|MIAI]] || [[Moeffreni Moe'min]]<br />[[Latief Hendraningrat]] |- | II [[Purwakarta, Purwakarta|Purwakarta]]|| Soerjodipoero || || Moersid |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan Bogor|Bogor]] | I [[Jampang Kulon, Sukabumi|Jampang Kulon]] || [[Abdullah bin Nuh|R. Abdullah bin Noeh]] || Ulama || Hoesen Aleksah |- | II [[Palabuhanratu, Sukabumi|Pelabuhan Ratu]]|| M. Basoeni || Ulama || Moelja |- | III [[Kota Sukabumi|Sukabumi]]|| Kafrawi || || Machmoed |- | IV [[Cibeber, Cianjur|Cibeber Cianjur]]|| R. Goenawan Resmipoetro || || [[Ishak Djuarsa|M. Ishak Djoearsa]] |- | rowspan="5" |[[Keresidenan Priangan|Priangan]] | I [[Kota Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]]|| K.H. Soetalaksana || Ulama || Abdoellah Saleh |- | II [[Pangandaran, Pangandaran|Pangandaran]]|| K.H. Pardjaman || Ulama || K. Hamid |- | III [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]]|| Iljas Sasmita || || Permana<br />[[Umar Wirahadikusumah|Oemar Wirahadikoesoemah]] |- | IV [[Kota Cimahi|Cimahi]]|| [[Arudji Kartawinata|Aroedji Kartawinata]] || Lulusan [[Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs|MULO]], mantan petinggi [[Partai Syarikat Islam Indonesia|PSII]] || Soeparjadi<br />[[Poniman]]<br />[[Supardi (militer)|Soepardi]] |- | V [[Garut Kota, Garut|Garut]]|| R. Sofjan Iskandar || || Katamsi Sutisna |- | rowspan="2" |[[Keresidenan Cirebon|Cirebon]] | I [[Kota Cirebon|Cirebon]]|| Abdoelgani Soerjokoesoemo || || Roekman |- | II [[Majalengka, Majalengka|Majalengka]]|| R. Zaenal Asikin Joedibrata || || Soearman |- | rowspan="2" |[[Keresidenan Pekalongan|Pekalongan]] | I [[Kota Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]|| Iskandar Idris || Ulama || Ajoeb |- | II [[Kota Tegal|Tegal]]|| K.H. Doerjatman || Ulama || Soemardjono |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan Banyumas|Banyumas]] | I [[Cilacap (kota)|Cilacap]]|| R. Soetirto || || R. Hartojo |- | II [[Sumpiuh, Banyumas|Sumpiuh]]|| [[Soesalit Djojoadhiningrat|R. Soesalit Djojoadhiningrat]]|| || Zaelan Asikin |- | III [[Kroya, Cilacap|Kroya]]|| [[Soedirman]]|| Lulusan sekolah pendidikan guru [[Muhammadiyah]], guru sekolah Muhammadiyah || Soepardjo Roestam |- | IV [[Banyumas, Banyumas|Banyumas]] || [[Isdiman]]<br />[[Gatot Soebroto|Gatot Subroto]]|| || [[Sarengat]] |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan Kedu|Kedu]] | I [[Gombong, Kebumen|Gombong]]|| [[R.Abdul Kadir|R. Abdoel Kadir]]<br />[[Bambang Sugeng]] || || R. Soetrisno |- | II [[Kota Magelang|Magelang]]|| Muhammad Susman || || Soegiardjo<br />Soepangkat |- | III Gombong || Djoko Koesoemo || || Slamet<br />[[Achmad Yani]]<br />[[Sarwo Edhie Wibowo]] |- | IV [[Purworejo, Purworejo|Purworejo]]|| Moekahar Ronohadikoesoemo || || Tjiptoroso |- | rowspan="2" |[[Keresidenan Semarang|Semarang]] | I [[Semarang Selatan, Semarang|Mrican]]|| R. Oesman<br />Soetrisno Soedomo || || Soejadi |- | II [[Weleri, Kendal|Weleri/Kendal]]|| R. Soedijono Taroeno Koesoemo || || Soeparman Soemahamidjaja |- | rowspan="3" |[[Keresidenan Pati|Pati]] | I [[Pati, Pati|Pati]]|| Koesmoro Hadidewo || || |- | II [[Rembang, Rembang|Rembang]]|| [[Iskandarwassid|Holan Iskandar]]|| || Soekardi |- | III [[Jepara, Jepara|Jepara]]|| Prawiro Atmodjo || || Soekardji |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] | I [[Wates, Kulon Progo|Wates]]|| D. Martojomeno || || Sudjiono |- | II [[Bantul, Bantul|Bantul]]|| Mochamad Saleh || Lulusan sekolah pendidikan guru, guru sekolah Muhammadiyah || Soepardi Pardi Pranoto<br />Soegiono |- | III [[Jetis, Yogyakarta|Pingit]]|| Soendjojo Poerbokoesoemo || || [[Darjatmo]]<br />[[Suharto|Soeharto]] |- | IV [[Wonosari, Gunungkidul|Wonosari]]|| Moeridan Noto || || Noedi |- | rowspan="2" |[[Keresidenan Surakarta|Surakarta]] | I [[Manahan, Banjarsari, Surakarta|Manahan]]|| [[Muljadi Djojomartono|R.M. Moeljadi Djojomartono]]|| Ulama || [[Suprapto Sukawati|Soeprapto Soekawati]]<br />[[Djatikoesoemo|Djatikusumo]] |- | II [[Wonogiri, Wonogiri|Wonogiri]]|| K.H. Idris || Ulama || Boediman |- | rowspan="3" |[[Keresidenan Bojonegoro|Bojonegoro]] | I [[Babat, Lamongan|Babat]]|| [[Mas Mansyur|K.H. Masjkur]]<br />[[Soedirman]]|| Ulama || Oetojo Oetomo |- | II [[Bancar, Tuban|Bancar]]|| Masri || || R. Rachmat |- | III [[Tuban, Tuban|Tuban]]|| Soemadi Sastroatmodjo || || Soemardjo |- | rowspan="3" |[[Keresidenan Madiun|Madiun]] | I [[Kota Madiun|Madiun]]|| Agoes Tojib || || Moemardjo |- | II [[Pacitan, Pacitan|Pacitan]]|| Akoeb Goelangge || || R. Soebagijo |- | III [[Ponorogo, Ponorogo|Ponorogo]]|| M. Soedjono || || Soedijat |- | rowspan="3" |[[Keresidenan Kediri|Kediri]] | I [[Tulungagung, Tulungagung|Tulungagung]]|| Soediro || || Toeloes |- | II [[Kota Blitar|Blitar]]|| [[Rahmatullah Ading Affandie|Soerachmad]]|| || Soekandar<br />Moeradi<br />[[Supriyadi|Soeprijadi]] |- | III [[Sukorame, Mojoroto, Kediri|Sukorame]]|| A. Joedodiprodjo<br />Soejoto Djojopoernomo || || Mashoedi Soedjono |- | rowspan="4" |[[Keresidenan Surabaya|Surabaya]] | I [[Gunung Sari, Dukuh Pakis, Surabaya|Gunung Sari]]|| [[Soetomo|Soetopo]]|| [[Dokter]]|| Masdoeki Aboedardja |- | II [[Sidoarjo, Sidoarjo|Sidoarjo]]|| [[Muhammad Mangundiprojo|R. Moehammad Mangoendiprodjo]] || Lulusan [[Opleiding School Voor Inlandsche Ambtenaren|OSVIA]]|| Bambang Joewono |- | III [[Kota Mojokerto|Mojokerto]]|| Katamhadi || || Oesman |- | IV [[Gresik, Gresik|Gresik]]|| [[Cholik Hasjim|K.H. Cholik Hasjim]]<br />[[Mustopo|Moestopo]]|| Ulama<br />Lulusan [[Fakultas kedokteran gigi universitas airlangga|STOVIT]], [[dokter gigi]] || Jondat Modjo |- | rowspan="5" |[[Keresidenan Malang|Malang]] | I [[Gondanglegi, Malang|Gondanglegi]]|| K. Iskandar Soelaeman || Ulama || Soemarto |- | II [[Lumajang, Lumajang|Lumajang]]|| M. Soelijo Adikoesoemo || Wakil Residen Malang / Menteri Keamanan Rakyat || S. Hardjo Hoedojo |- | III [[Kota Pasuruan|Pasuruan]]|| Arsjid Kromodihardjo || || Slamet |- | IV [[Kota Malang|Malang]]|| Imam Soedja'i || || Soekardani |- | V [[Kota Probolinggo|Probolinggo]]|| Soedarsono || || [[Sumitro|Soemitro]] |- | rowspan="5" |[[Keresidenan Besuki|Besuki]] | I [[Kencong, Jember|Kencong Jember]]|| Soewito<br />Soediro || || Soekarto |- | II [[Bondowoso, Bondowoso|Bondowoso]]|| K.H. Tahiroeddin Tjokro Atmodjo || Ulama || Rosadi |- | III [[Benculuk, Cluring, Banyuwangi|Benculuk Banyuwangi]]|| Soekotjo || || Imam Soekarto |- | IV [[Rambipuji, Jember|Rambipuji Jember]]|| Surodjo<br />Astiklah || || Soebandi |- | V [[Klatak, Kalipuro, Banyuwangi|Sukowidi Banyuwangi]]|| R. Oesman Soemodinoto || || Soedarmin |- | rowspan="5" |[[Keresidenan Madura|Madura]] | I [[Pamekasan, Pamekasan|Pamekasan]]|| K.H. R. Amin Dja'far || Ulama || R. Moehammad Saleh |- | II [[Bangkalan, Bangkalan|Bangkalan]]|| Roeslan Tjakraningrat || || Hafiloedin |- | III [[Batang Batang, Sumenep|Batang Batang]]|| Abdoel Madjid || || Achmad Basoeni |- | IV [[Ambunten, Sumenep|Ambunten]]|| Abdoel Hamid Moedhari || Ulama || Soeroso |- | V [[Ketapang, Sampang|Ketapang]]|| Troenodjojo || || Mochamad Sabirin |- | rowspan="3" |[[Bali]] | I [[Negara, Jembrana|Negara]]|| I Made Poetoe || || I Wayan Moedana |- | II [[Tabanan, Tabanan|Tabanan]]|| I Goesti Ngoerah Gede Poegeng || || Ida Bagoes Tongka |- | III [[Klungkung, Klungkung|Klungkung]]|| Anak Agoeng Made Agoeng || || I Made Geria |} == Rujukan == 99e9ie0yv64t0b41s5yxib5p20hqayl 0 108023 731461 707551 2026-11-02T19:36:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Book | name = Wawacan Jaka Mursada | image = | author = Anonim (Tradisi Lisan/Tulis Sunda) | country = Indonesia | language = Basa Sunda | genre = Wawacan, Epik, Didaktis | medium = Naskah (Pupuh), Beluk }} == Bubuka == '''Wawacan Jaka Mursada''' nyaéta salah sahiji karya [[sastra Sunda]] klasik anu ditulis dina wangun [[pupuh]]. Ieu wawacan téh kawéntar pisan di lingkungan pasantrén jeung masarakat padésaan di tatar Sunda, utamana dina tradisi seni [[Beluk]]. Caritana museur kana tokoh Jaka Mursada, saurang pamuda anu ngalaman rupa-rupa dodoja jeung cocoba dina hirupna, tapi tetep pengkuh nyekel [[deleg]] kana ajaran agama sarta miboga sipat sabar anu luar biasa. == Cutatan == Sempalan tina pupuh anu sering muncul (Asmarandana): <blockquote> ''Éling-éling mangka éling,''<br> ''Rumingkang di bumi alam,''<br> ''Darma wawayangan baé,''<br> ''Raga taya panyaraman,''<br> ''Mun kasasar lampah,''<br> ''Napsu nu matak kaduhung,''<br> ''Badan anu katempuhan.'' </blockquote> == Wikisource == Eusi lengkep naskah ieu tiasa dipaluruh di: * {{Wikisource|Wawacan Jaka Mursada}} == Tutumbu Kaluar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220423232334/https://www.perpusnas.go.id/ Perpustakaan Nasional RI - Koléksi Naskah Sunda] * [http://pusatsunda.org Pusat Studi Sunda]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Kategori:Wawacan]] [[Kategori:Sastra Sunda Klasik]] [[Kategori:Tradisi Lisan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Naskah Sunda]] 0079tc6p1kztoy9vg85f8kbr07qs2lk 0 108025 731462 707552 2026-11-02T19:36:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | title = Wawacan Pandita Sawang | image = | caption = Naskah piwulang filosofis Sunda-Islam | header1 = Idéntitas Naskah | label2 = Judul Alternatif | data2 = Wawacan Jaka Mursada (Bagian Awal) | label3 = Tokoh Puseur | data3 = Pandita Sawang, Ki Mur'at | label4 = Asal Nagri | data4 = Atas Angin | header5 = Eusi Paélmuan | label6 = Jejer Utama | data6 = Ma'rifat Kajadian Manusa | label7 = Simbolis | data7 = Aksara Alif sareng Ba (Bibit Manusa) | label8 = Itungan Waktu | data8 = Bulan Jejeg & Bulan Kurang (Konsep Gabug) | header9 = Metadata | label10 = Basa | data10 = Sunda (Pupuh Asmarandana) | label11 = Sipat | data11 = Piwulang (Didaktis/Mistis) }} '''Wawacan Pandita Sawang''' nyaéta salah sahiji naskah sastra Sunda klasik anu miboga ajén filosofis jeung religius anu jero. Ieu wawacan téh mangrupakeun bagian awal tina siklus carita '''[[Wawacan Jaka Mursada]]'''. Caritana museur kana sosok Pandita Sawang ti nagri Atas Angin anu masihan piwulang pamungkas (weweling) ka putrana, '''Ki Mur'at''', ngeunaan asal-usul manusa sateuacan anjeunna ngumbara. == Eusi Piwulang == Dina naskah ieu, Pandita Sawang ngajelaskeun proses embriyologi spiritual anu ngawengku: * '''Siloka Aksara:''' Ngagunakeun aksara ''Alif'' (zat/lalaki) jeung ''Ba'' (sipat/awéwé) salaku asal-muasal kajadian fisik. * '''Proses Konsepsi:''' Pedaran ngeunaan turunna "bibit" tina niat (ésir), napas, jajantung, nepi ka kumpul dina cai mani. * '''Dualitas Jinis Kelamin:''' Pangaruh hamperu kénca jeung katuhu sarta itungan tanggal (bulan jejeg jeung kurang) kana jinis kelamin orok sarta nasibna (kaasup konsép ''gabug''). == Wikisource (Sempalan Pupuh) == <blockquote> ''// pupuh asmaran //''<br> ''Iyeu simkuring ngagurit,''<br> ''nyiyeun tembang pangangguran,''<br> ''tamba saré soré-soré,''<br> ''ngabubungah pipikiran,''<br> ''suganna leungit kasusah,''<br> ''ngalilipur, hawa napsu,''<br> ''megatan hawa di dunya //'' </blockquote> == Tutumbu Kaluar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220423232334/https://www.perpusnas.go.id/ Katalog Perpustakaan Nasional RI] * [https://sunda.wikisource.org Proyék Wikisource Basa Sunda]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{Wikisource|Wawacan Pandita Sawang}} [[Kategori:Wawacan]] [[Kategori:Sastra Sunda]] [[Kategori:Naskah Kuno Sunda]] [[Kategori:Filosofi Sunda]] [[Kategori:Naskah Sunda]] 34rvno2ogjriatv3lyab1ottuj5z9nc 0 109385 731446 731370 2026-11-02T13:37:48Z Pijri Paijar 27067 731446 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Seni botani''' atawa disebut ogé '''ilustrasi botani''' nyaéta panggambaran mangrupa visual akurat tina sipat-sipat tutuwuhan anu ditujukeun pikeun tujuan ilmiah, anu henteu sarua jeung lukisan tutuwuhan, siga kembang jeung sajabana anu tujuanna ngan pikeun éstétika.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/what-is-botanical-illustration.html|title=What is Botanical Illustration?|website=BOTANICAL ART & ARTISTS|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-31}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] <references />{{Pondok}} 1m7pjlmevort5tnu3bmqa6ib3nu3bei 0 109503 731458 731420 2026-11-02T19:04:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 731458 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Malay_wedding.jpg|thumb|300px|Pernikahan Malayu Singapura]] '''Urang Malayu [[Singapura]]''' ({{langx|ms|Orang Melayu Singapura}}, [[Abjad Jawi|Jawi]]: {{Script/Arabic|أورڠ ملايو سيڠاڤورا}}) nyaéta urang Singapura karuhun [[urang Malayu|Malayu]], kaasup anu asalna ti Kapuloan Malayu. Numutkeun sénsus 2020, aranjeunna ngawangun sakitar 13,5% tina penduduk nagara éta, ngajantenkeun aranjeunna kelompok étnis kadua panggedéna di [[Singapura]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of Population 2020{{!}}Population|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf|accessdate=2026-11-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611051404/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf|archivedate=2022-06-11}}</ref> Dina Konstitusi Singapura, aranjeunna diaku ku pamaréntah salaku masarakat pribumi nagara éta, kalayan [[basa Malayu]] salaku basa nasional sareng [[basa resmi|resmi]] Singapura.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Racial politics and imperatives and the constitutional special position of the indigenous Malays in a new society: Asserting interests and the non-contestation of rights in Singapore's communitarian constitutionalism |url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/2406/ |access-date=2 Nopémber 2026 |website=ink.library.smu.edu.sg}}</ref> Nalika sumpingna pajabat kolonial Inggris Stamford Raffles dina taun 1819, perkiraan populasi urang Malayu di pulo éta sakitar 1.000 urang.<ref name="rahim">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1utb8ZYyUeQC&pg=PA24 |title=Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges |date=9 Nopémber 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-134-01397-5 |page=24 |author=Lily Zubaidah Rahim}}</ref> Perkiraan séjén nunjukkeun yén nalika Raffles sumping, populasina diwangun ku sakitar 120 urang Malayu, 30 urang Cina, sareng sababaraha suku Orang Laut pribumi lokal.<ref name="rahim"/> Ti abad ka-19 nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]], urang Malayu umumna nampi perlakuan anu saé, sabab aranjeunna henteu dipindahkeun pikeun digawé sareng gaya hirup tradisionalna seuseueurna henteu kaganggu.<ref name="rahim"/> Nanging, kumargi Inggris meryogikeun kuli{{efn|In some countries, this term, used to describe low-wage labourers, is now considered pejorative in modern usage.}} pikeun ngadukung usaha kolonialna, tingkat imigrasi di antara urang Malayu tetep relatif handap dibandingkeun sareng imigran India sareng Cina. Grup anu terakhir ieu sacara signifikan janten populasi étnis mayoritas dina pertengahan abad ka-19.<ref name="poptrend">{{cite journal |author=Saw Swee-Hock |date=Maret 1969 |title=Population Trends in Singapore, 1819–1967 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=36–49 |doi=10.1017/S0217781100004270 |jstor=20067730}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Urang Malayu Malaysia]] * [[Urang Malayu Brunéi]] * [[Urang Malayu Indonésia]] == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Référensi == {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}} [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura]] 811rx11bn8ikh5uvrpx2lnr3g4k0yo5 0 109518 731441 2026-11-02T13:18:47Z Pijri Paijar 27067 Nyieun kaca anyar '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang novélis, jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh nonf... 731441 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang novélis, jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh [[nonfiksi]], sarta kalibetna dina advokasi [[hak asasi manusa]] jeung kabébasan pérs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/2102/zaky-yamani-pemenang-pertama-sayembara-novel-dkj-2021|title=Zaky Yamani Pemenang Pertama Sayembara Novel DKJ 2021 {{!}} Bandun...|last=Herdiana|first=Iman|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Dina taun 2021, ngaranna beuki kakoncara di kancah sastra nasional sanggeus novelna nu dijudulan ''[[Kereta Semar Lembu (buku)|Kereta Semar Lembu]]'' junun ngahontal panghargaan salaku Pinunjul Kahiji dina ajang préstisius [[Sayémbara Novel Dewan Kesenian Jakarta]] (DKJ).<ref name=":2" /> == Référénsi == khxwtdludd25zg3e4w07rqeri1d161d 731442 731441 2026-11-02T13:22:12Z Pijri Paijar 27067 731442 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang novélis, jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh [[nonfiksi]], sarta kalibetna dina advokasi [[hak asasi manusa]] jeung kabébasan pérs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/2102/zaky-yamani-pemenang-pertama-sayembara-novel-dkj-2021|title=Zaky Yamani Pemenang Pertama Sayembara Novel DKJ 2021 {{!}} Bandun...|last=Herdiana|first=Iman|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Dina taun 2021, ngaranna beuki kakoncara di kancah sastra nasional sanggeus novelna nu dijudulan ''[[Kereta Semar Lembu (buku)|Kereta Semar Lembu]]'' junun ngahontal panghargaan salaku Pinunjul Kahiji dina ajang préstisius [[Sayémbara Novel Dewan Kesenian Jakarta]] (DKJ).<ref name=":2" /> == Atikan jeung karir == Zaky Yamani namatkeun atikan strata hiji (S-1) di Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik (FISIP) [[Universitas Pasundan]] (Unpas), Bandung, jeung lulus dina taun 2001. Manéhna tuluy neruskeun atikan hambalan magister (S-2) di [[Pilipina]] jeung ngahontal gelar ''Master of Arts'' dina widang [[Jurnalismeu]] ti Departemén Komunikasi [[Universitas Ateneo de Manila]] dina taun 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/id/zaky-yamani/person-43968645|title=Zaky Yamani|website=dw.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Salaku saurang [[jurnalis]], Zaky boga rékam lacak karir nu kaitung panjang. Manéhna kungsi ngemban pancén jadi Ketua [[Aliansi Jurnalis Indépénden]] (AJI) Kota Bandung. Salian ti kiprahna di ranah [[jurnalistik]], Zaky ogé aktif ojah di widang hak asasi manusa ku cara ngagabung jeung gawé di organisasi [[Amnesty International]].<ref name=":2" /> == Référénsi == 75u7gi2ydj8gi8wgnsvomf8a6pxcbut 731443 731442 2026-11-02T13:30:48Z Pijri Paijar 27067 731443 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang [[Novelis|novélis]], jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh [[nonfiksi]], sarta kalibetna dina advokasi [[hak asasi manusa]] jeung kabébasan pérs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/2102/zaky-yamani-pemenang-pertama-sayembara-novel-dkj-2021|title=Zaky Yamani Pemenang Pertama Sayembara Novel DKJ 2021 {{!}} Bandun...|last=Herdiana|first=Iman|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Dina taun 2021, ngaranna beuki kakoncara di kancah sastra nasional sanggeus novelna nu dijudulan ''[[Kereta Semar Lembu (buku)|Kereta Semar Lembu]]'' junun ngahontal panghargaan salaku Pinunjul Kahiji dina ajang préstisius [[Sayémbara Novel Dewan Kesenian Jakarta]] (DKJ).<ref name=":2" /> == Atikan jeung karir == Zaky Yamani namatkeun atikan strata hiji (S-1) di Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik (FISIP) [[Universitas Pasundan]] (Unpas), Bandung, jeung lulus dina taun 2001. Manéhna tuluy neruskeun atikan hambalan magister (S-2) di [[Pilipina]] jeung ngahontal gelar ''Master of Arts'' dina widang [[Jurnalismeu]] ti Departemén Komunikasi [[Universitas Ateneo de Manila]] dina taun 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/id/zaky-yamani/person-43968645|title=Zaky Yamani|website=dw.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Salaku saurang [[jurnalis]], Zaky boga rékam lacak karir nu kaitung panjang. Manéhna kungsi ngemban pancén jadi Ketua [[Aliansi Jurnalis Indépénden]] (AJI) Kota Bandung. Salian ti kiprahna di ranah [[jurnalistik]], Zaky ogé aktif ojah di widang hak asasi manusa ku cara ngagabung jeung gawé di organisasi [[Amnesty International]].<ref name=":2" /> == Karya sastra jeung pangajén == Zaky Yamani téh novélis nu kawilang produktif ngarilis buku lintas génré; mimiti ti [[Novel|novél]], kumpulan [[carita pondok]] (carpon), kumpulan [[sajak]], laporan jurnalistik nu jero ([[réportase]]), nepi ka [[biografi]]. Sababaraha karya anu geus diterbitkeunana di antarana nyaéta: * ''Johnny Mushroom dan Cerita Lainnya'' (2011) * ''Kehausan di Ladang Air: Pencurian Air di Kota Bandung'' (2012) * ''Komedi Sepahit Kopi'' (2013) * ''Bandar: Keluarga, Darah, dan Dosa yang Diwariskan'' (2014) * ''Pusaran Amuk'' (2016) * ''Bertarung Melawan Nasib Berdamai Dengan Kehidupan'' (2017) * ''Kepada Assad Aku Menitip Diri'' (2017) * ''Waktu Helena'' (2020) * ''Di Muara Tagus'' (2020) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa'' (2021) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Sepasang Elang dari Diyarbakir'' (2024) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Bulan Tenggelam di Pakuan'' (2026) == Référénsi == g48elxtgajypjwqvo2h20v88foaukax 731444 731443 2026-11-02T13:31:24Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Karya sastra jeung pangajén */ 731444 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang [[Novelis|novélis]], jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh [[nonfiksi]], sarta kalibetna dina advokasi [[hak asasi manusa]] jeung kabébasan pérs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/2102/zaky-yamani-pemenang-pertama-sayembara-novel-dkj-2021|title=Zaky Yamani Pemenang Pertama Sayembara Novel DKJ 2021 {{!}} Bandun...|last=Herdiana|first=Iman|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Dina taun 2021, ngaranna beuki kakoncara di kancah sastra nasional sanggeus novelna nu dijudulan ''[[Kereta Semar Lembu (buku)|Kereta Semar Lembu]]'' junun ngahontal panghargaan salaku Pinunjul Kahiji dina ajang préstisius [[Sayémbara Novel Dewan Kesenian Jakarta]] (DKJ).<ref name=":2" /> == Atikan jeung karir == Zaky Yamani namatkeun atikan strata hiji (S-1) di Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik (FISIP) [[Universitas Pasundan]] (Unpas), Bandung, jeung lulus dina taun 2001. Manéhna tuluy neruskeun atikan hambalan magister (S-2) di [[Pilipina]] jeung ngahontal gelar ''Master of Arts'' dina widang [[Jurnalismeu]] ti Departemén Komunikasi [[Universitas Ateneo de Manila]] dina taun 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/id/zaky-yamani/person-43968645|title=Zaky Yamani|website=dw.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Salaku saurang [[jurnalis]], Zaky boga rékam lacak karir nu kaitung panjang. Manéhna kungsi ngemban pancén jadi Ketua [[Aliansi Jurnalis Indépénden]] (AJI) Kota Bandung. Salian ti kiprahna di ranah [[jurnalistik]], Zaky ogé aktif ojah di widang hak asasi manusa ku cara ngagabung jeung gawé di organisasi [[Amnesty International]].<ref name=":2" /> == Karya sastra == Zaky Yamani téh novélis nu kawilang produktif ngarilis buku lintas génré; mimiti ti [[Novel|novél]], kumpulan [[carita pondok]] (carpon), kumpulan [[sajak]], laporan jurnalistik nu jero ([[réportase]]), nepi ka [[biografi]]. Sababaraha karya anu geus diterbitkeunana di antarana nyaéta: * ''Johnny Mushroom dan Cerita Lainnya'' (2011) * ''Kehausan di Ladang Air: Pencurian Air di Kota Bandung'' (2012) * ''Komedi Sepahit Kopi'' (2013) * ''Bandar: Keluarga, Darah, dan Dosa yang Diwariskan'' (2014) * ''Pusaran Amuk'' (2016) * ''Bertarung Melawan Nasib Berdamai Dengan Kehidupan'' (2017) * ''Kepada Assad Aku Menitip Diri'' (2017) * ''Waktu Helena'' (2020) * ''Di Muara Tagus'' (2020) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa'' (2021) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Sepasang Elang dari Diyarbakir'' (2024) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Bulan Tenggelam di Pakuan'' (2026) == Référénsi == iw9h3p7rcf5cc1k3owdjxsqdrh8boya 731445 731444 2026-11-02T13:32:41Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Karya sastra */ 731445 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zaky Yamani''' mangrupakeun saurang [[Novelis|novélis]], jurnalis, jeung aktivis asal [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4848182.Zaky_Yamani|title=Books by Zaky Yamani (Author of Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa)|website=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Manéhna dipikawanoh ku kontribusina dina dunya literasi Indonésia, boh ngaliwatan karya [[fiksi]] boh [[nonfiksi]], sarta kalibetna dina advokasi [[hak asasi manusa]] jeung kabébasan pérs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bandungbergerak.id/article/detail/2102/zaky-yamani-pemenang-pertama-sayembara-novel-dkj-2021|title=Zaky Yamani Pemenang Pertama Sayembara Novel DKJ 2021 {{!}} Bandun...|last=Herdiana|first=Iman|website=BandungBergerak.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Dina taun 2021, ngaranna beuki kakoncara di kancah sastra nasional sanggeus novelna nu dijudulan ''[[Kereta Semar Lembu (buku)|Kereta Semar Lembu]]'' junun ngahontal panghargaan salaku Pinunjul Kahiji dina ajang préstisius [[Sayémbara Novel Dewan Kesenian Jakarta]] (DKJ).<ref name=":2" /> == Atikan jeung karir == Zaky Yamani namatkeun atikan strata hiji (S-1) di Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik (FISIP) [[Universitas Pasundan]] (Unpas), Bandung, jeung lulus dina taun 2001. Manéhna tuluy neruskeun atikan hambalan magister (S-2) di [[Pilipina]] jeung ngahontal gelar ''Master of Arts'' dina widang [[Jurnalismeu]] ti Departemén Komunikasi [[Universitas Ateneo de Manila]] dina taun 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/id/zaky-yamani/person-43968645|title=Zaky Yamani|website=dw.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-02}}</ref> Salaku saurang [[jurnalis]], Zaky boga rékam lacak karir nu kaitung panjang. Manéhna kungsi ngemban pancén jadi Ketua [[Aliansi Jurnalis Indépénden]] (AJI) Kota Bandung. Salian ti kiprahna di ranah [[jurnalistik]], Zaky ogé aktif ojah di widang hak asasi manusa ku cara ngagabung jeung gawé di organisasi [[Amnesty International]].<ref name=":2" /> == Karya sastra == Zaky Yamani téh novélis nu kawilang produktif ngarilis buku lintas génré; mimiti ti [[Novel|novél]], kumpulan [[carita pondok]] (carpon), kumpulan [[sajak]], laporan jurnalistik nu jero ([[réportase]]), nepi ka [[biografi]]. Sababaraha karya anu geus diterbitkeunana di antarana nyaéta: * ''Johnny Mushroom dan Cerita Lainnya'' (2011) * ''Kehausan di Ladang Air: Pencurian Air di Kota Bandung'' (2012) * ''Komedi Sepahit Kopi'' (2013) * ''Bandar: Keluarga, Darah, dan Dosa yang Diwariskan'' (2014) * ''Pusaran Amuk'' (2016) * ''Bertarung Melawan Nasib Berdamai Dengan Kehidupan'' (2017) * ''Kepada Assad Aku Menitip Diri'' (2017) * ''Waktu Helena'' (2020) * ''Di Muara Tagus'' (2020) * ''Kereta Semar Lembu'' * ''Ketika Senja Jatuh di Nara'' * ''Balada Suburbia'' * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam Dari Lisboa'' (2021) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Sepasang Elang dari Diyarbakir'' (2024) * ''Perjalanan Mustahil Samiam dari Lisboa: Bulan Tenggelam di Pakuan'' (2026) == Référénsi == hi1mybursy1xjlhzpnb929o0m57ki1t 0 109519 731468 2026-11-03T05:50:42Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Ngabala0ah 731468 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-size:90%; line-height:1.5em; float:right; margin-left:1em;" |+ style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; background-color:#00AA00; color:white; padding:0.2em;" | Munjul |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[Berkas:Hills in West Java.jpg|250px]]<br/>''Ilustrasi wangun topografi daratan munjul di tatar darat.'' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Widang | [[Géografi]], [[Topografi]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ciri utama | Daratan leutik anu nonghol leuwih luhur ti sabudeureunana. |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Patali | [[Pasir]], [[Dataran luhur]], [[Lembah]] |} '''Munjul''' nyaéta hiji istilah dina [[géografi]] jeung topografi Sunda pikeun nuduhkeun wangun daratan anu rada nonghol, ngajungjung, atawa leuwih luhur dibandingkeun jeung daérah atawa pasanggon séjén anu aya di sabudeureunana.<ref name="Danadibrata2006">Danadibrata, R. A. (2006). ''Kamus Basa Sunda''. Bandung: Kiblat Buku Utama.</ref> Sanajan wangunna sarupa jeung pagunungan leutik, munjul ilaharna miboga ukuran anu leuwih leutik sarta teu saterjal pasir atawa gunung.<ref name="Budiana2020">Budiana, Deni. (2020). "Kandaga Istilah Géografi Tradisional di Tatar Sunda". ''Jurnal Budaya Nusantara'', 8(2), 115-128. [https://doi.org/10.3390/jbn.2020.08204].</ref> == Karakteristik jeung Topografi == Sacara fisik, munjul biasana kapanggih di daérah dataran handap atawa di gigireun sawah anu posisina rada nonghol ka luhur. Dina élmu [[topografi]], wangun lahan kawas kieu sering dimangpaatkeun ku masarakat jaman baheula pikeun tempat nyicingan atawa ngawangun lembur sabab leuwih aman tina bahaya [[banjir]] jeung gampang katingal ti kajauhan.<ref name="Supardan2015">Supardan, Dadang. (2015). ''Manusia dan Lingkungan: Kajian Geografi Budaya Sunda''. Ombak. ISBN: 978-602-258-301-2.</ref> == Babandingan jeung Istilah Séjén == Dina kosa kata basa Sunda, aya sababaraha istilah anu mirip tapi miboga harti anu béda dumasar kana gedéna ukuran daratan: * [[Gunung]]: Wewengkon daratan anu paling luhur tur badag.<ref name="KBBI-Gunung">Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. "Gunung". ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI)''. [https://kbbi.web.id/gunung].</ref> * [[Pasir]]: Bukit leutik anu luhurna aya di handapeun gunung.<ref name="Danadibrata2006"/> * [[Munjul]]: Dataran darat anu nonghol leutik, biasana ngan ukur sababaraha méter atawa puluh méter ti tingkat taneuh sabudeureunana.<ref name="Budiana2020"/> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://badanpangan.go.id/ Badan Pangan Nasional (Kandungan Wilayah Pertanian)] * [https://www.brin.go.id/ Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN) - Riset Geospasial] [[Kategori:Topografi]] [[Kategori:Wangun daratan]] 98v8jz44lqsguqzm4qwbk94j25mjb3p 10 109520 731475 2026-11-03T07:00:28Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:User-b]] ka [[Citakan:User-s]] 731475 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Citakan:User-s]] 56ynzrtjciycfdjncffn3t61cr8qj7x 10 109521 731477 2026-11-03T07:00:47Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:User-bk]] ka [[Citakan:User-sk]] 731477 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Citakan:User-sk]] 2dcst1mbn0pjo36qz6qhlj8flkfpzjf