Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 29752 731530 708171 2026-11-05T12:52:12Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Tipologi Toponimi Sunda */ 731530 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Toponimi''' nyaéta bahasan ilmiah ngeunaan ngaran tempat (toponim), asal-usul, harti, pamakéan, sarta tipologinya. Bagian kahiji kecap kasebut asalna ti [[basa Yunani]] ''tópos'' (τόπος) anu hartosna tempat sarta dituturkeun ku ''ónoma'' (ὄνομα) anu hartosna ngaran. Toponimi mangrupa bagian ti [[onomastik]], bahasan ngeunaan sagala rupa [[ngaran]]. Nu dimaksud toponim di dieu nyaéta ngaran tempat, wewengkon, atawa hiji bagian séjén tina beungeut dunya, kaasup anu alami (kawas [[walungan]]) sarta anu mangrupa jieunan jelema (kawas [[dayeuh]]). == Toponimi di Tatar Sunda == Di [[Tatar Sunda]], prakték toponimi miboga ciri anu mandiri, di mana nami tempat mindeng pisan dicandak tina kaayaan alam (biofisik), utamana tina nami tatangkalan (floristis) sarta cai (hidrologis).<ref name="Rigg">Rigg, J. (1862). ''A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java''. Batavia: Lange & Co. Kaca v-vii.</ref> === Hubungan sareng Botani === Jonathan Rigg dina bukuna nyatet yén masarakat Sunda miboga kacenderungan masihan nami dumasar kana tutuwuhan anu janten ciri khas di hiji wewengkon (''landmark''). Hal ieu ngabuktoskeun yén toponimi Sunda mah mangrupa eunteung tina ékosistem jaman harita.<ref name="Rigg" /> Sababaraha conto di antarana: * '''[[Bogor]]:''' Sacara harafiah hartosna tunggul kawung (aren) anu parantos garing sarta parantos dilaan daunna.<ref name="Rigg" /> * '''[[Caringin]]:''' Asalna tina nami tangkal waringin (''Ficus benjamina''). Toponim ieu sering kapanggih di puseur dayeuh atawa alun-alun, margi tangkal ieu janten simbol panyayungan.<ref name="Danadibrata">Danadibrata, R.A. (2006). ''Kamus Basa Sunda''. Bandung: Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda. Kaca 121.</ref> * '''[[Sempur]]:''' Dicandak tina nami tangkal sempur (''Dillenia indica''), hiji tangkal anu kaina kuat sarta biasa tumuwuh di sisi walungan.<ref name="Heyne">Heyne, K. (1913). ''De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië''. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co. Kaca 359.</ref> === Tipologi Toponimi Sunda === Nurutkeun R.A. Danadibrata, [[toponimi Sunda]] tiasa dibagi dumasar tipologina:<ref name="Danadibrata" /> # '''Aspek Hidrografi:''' Nami tempat anu dimimitian ku kecap "Ci-" (cai), contona Ci[[tarum]], [[Cianjur]], [[Cibubur]]. # '''Aspek Geomorfologi:''' Nami tempat dumasar kana wangun taneuhna, contona [[Pasir]], [[Lamping]], [[Giri]], [[Lembur]]. # '''Aspek Biologi (Flora & Fauna):''' Contona [[Kandari]] ([[Gandaria]]]), Cisereuh ([[Sereuh]]), [[Baduy]] (tina nami tutuwuhan atanapi sato). {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Ngaran tempat]] [[Kategori:Toponimi]] [[Kategori:Géografi]] dbnun7qtntyn124fznw7r6fl4mqsopn 731531 731530 2026-11-05T12:52:38Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Tipologi Toponimi Sunda */ 731531 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Toponimi''' nyaéta bahasan ilmiah ngeunaan ngaran tempat (toponim), asal-usul, harti, pamakéan, sarta tipologinya. Bagian kahiji kecap kasebut asalna ti [[basa Yunani]] ''tópos'' (τόπος) anu hartosna tempat sarta dituturkeun ku ''ónoma'' (ὄνομα) anu hartosna ngaran. Toponimi mangrupa bagian ti [[onomastik]], bahasan ngeunaan sagala rupa [[ngaran]]. Nu dimaksud toponim di dieu nyaéta ngaran tempat, wewengkon, atawa hiji bagian séjén tina beungeut dunya, kaasup anu alami (kawas [[walungan]]) sarta anu mangrupa jieunan jelema (kawas [[dayeuh]]). == Toponimi di Tatar Sunda == Di [[Tatar Sunda]], prakték toponimi miboga ciri anu mandiri, di mana nami tempat mindeng pisan dicandak tina kaayaan alam (biofisik), utamana tina nami tatangkalan (floristis) sarta cai (hidrologis).<ref name="Rigg">Rigg, J. (1862). ''A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java''. Batavia: Lange & Co. Kaca v-vii.</ref> === Hubungan sareng Botani === Jonathan Rigg dina bukuna nyatet yén masarakat Sunda miboga kacenderungan masihan nami dumasar kana tutuwuhan anu janten ciri khas di hiji wewengkon (''landmark''). Hal ieu ngabuktoskeun yén toponimi Sunda mah mangrupa eunteung tina ékosistem jaman harita.<ref name="Rigg" /> Sababaraha conto di antarana: * '''[[Bogor]]:''' Sacara harafiah hartosna tunggul kawung (aren) anu parantos garing sarta parantos dilaan daunna.<ref name="Rigg" /> * '''[[Caringin]]:''' Asalna tina nami tangkal waringin (''Ficus benjamina''). Toponim ieu sering kapanggih di puseur dayeuh atawa alun-alun, margi tangkal ieu janten simbol panyayungan.<ref name="Danadibrata">Danadibrata, R.A. (2006). ''Kamus Basa Sunda''. Bandung: Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda. Kaca 121.</ref> * '''[[Sempur]]:''' Dicandak tina nami tangkal sempur (''Dillenia indica''), hiji tangkal anu kaina kuat sarta biasa tumuwuh di sisi walungan.<ref name="Heyne">Heyne, K. (1913). ''De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië''. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co. Kaca 359.</ref> === Tipologi Toponimi Sunda === Nurutkeun R.A. Danadibrata, [[toponimi Sunda]] tiasa dibagi dumasar tipologina:<ref name="Danadibrata" /> # '''Aspek Hidrografi:''' Nami tempat anu dimimitian ku kecap "Ci-" (cai), contona Ci[[tarum]], [[Cianjur]], [[Cibubur]]. # '''Aspek Geomorfologi:''' Nami tempat dumasar kana wangun taneuhna, contona [[Pasir]], [[Lamping]], [[Giri]], [[Lembur]]. # '''Aspek Biologi (Flora & Fauna):''' Contona [[Kandari]] ([[Gandaria]]]), Ciseureuh ([[Seureuh]]), [[Baduy]] (tina nami tutuwuhan atanapi sato). {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Ngaran tempat]] [[Kategori:Toponimi]] [[Kategori:Géografi]] 53ehg1rbs7gou49azs21gzy539fpp6n 0 29837 731532 728841 2026-11-05T13:29:08Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 731532 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; border-spacing:2px; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #aaa; float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:88%;" |+ style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; background:#333; color:white; padding:5px;" | Hajar Aswad |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Heee.jpeg|250px]]<br/>''Hajar Aswad anu dibingkai ku pérak di juru [[Ka'bah]].'' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ngaran Arab | {{lang|ar|الحجر الأسود}} (''al-Ḥajar al-Aswad'') |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Hartosna | Batu Hideung |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Lokasi | Juru Wétan-Kidul [[Ka'bah]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Fungsi | Titik awal sarta ahir [[Thawaf]] |} '''Hajar Aswad''' ([[basa Arab|Ar.]] الحجر الأسود) nu hartina '''Batu Hideung''' nyaéta hiji batu anu ceuk tradisi [[Islam]] diaku ku para [[Muslim]] salaku titinggal [[Nabi Ibrahim]], sarta jauhna titinggal [[Nabi Adam]]. Ieu batu diperenahkeun di juru wétan [[Ka'bah]], kabuyutan kuna kiblatna [[solat]] Muslim, di tengah-tengah [[Masjidil Haram]] di [[Mekah]], [[Arab Saudi]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Biography of the Prophet|author=Sheikh Safi-ur-Rahman al-Mubarkpuri|id=ISBN 1591440718| date=2002|publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications}}</ref>. Diaméter ieu batu k.l. 30&nbsp;cm, diperenahkeun 1,5 m luhureun taneuh<ref name="SaudiCities-disrupted">{{cite web|author=SaudiCities - The Saudi Experience|title=Makkah - The Holy Mosque:The Black Stone|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 13|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.saudicities.com/mmosque.htm|accessdate=2008-10-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060527040025/http://saudicities.com/mmosque.htm|archivedate=2006-05-27}}</ref>. Dina jaman panengah, ieu batu beulah, ku kituna kiwari dipigura (maké [[pérak]]). Dina prakprakan [[Haji]], jamaah [[sunat|disunatkeun]] nyium Hajar Aswad, sakumaha anu dicontokeun ku [[Nabi-nabi Islam|Nabi]] [[Muhammad]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Your Door to Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/yourdoortoarabia0000elli|last=Elliott|first=Jeri| year=1992|id=ISBN 0-473-01546-3}}</ref>. Mun teu kahontal, jamaah cukup ku nunjuk dina unggal kuriling anu tujuh ([[Thawaf]])<ref name=AtoZ>{{cite book | title=Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z | url=https://archive.org/details/hajjumrahfromtoz00moha | last = Mohamed | first= Mamdouh N. | year = 1996 | publisher=Amana Publications | id= ISBN 0-915957-54-X}}</ref>. == Asal-usul == === Jihat Islam === {{Islam}} Numutkeun tradisi Islam, Hajar Aswad anu tadina bodas nyacas ragrag ti [[Sawarga]] jaman [[Adam jeung Hawa]]. Tina bodas nyacas jadi hideung téh ku sabab nyerep dosa mangtaun-taun<ref>[[Shaykh Tabarsi]], ''Tafsir'', vol. 1, pp. 460, 468. Quoted in translation by Francis E. Peters, ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'', p. 5. SUNY Press, 1994. ISBN 0791418766</ref>. Ieu batu lajeng kapendak ku Nabi Ibrahim nalika kuriak ngabangun deui Ka'bah, dianteurkeun ku [[Malaikat Jibril]]<ref name="glasse">Cyril Glasse, ''New Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 245. Rowman Altamira, 2001. ISBN 0759101906</ref>. Taun [[602]], mangsa Muhammad can diangkat jadi nabi, Ka'bah diropéa deui ku suku-suku di Mekah. Ku kituna, Hajar Aswad dipindahkeun heula ka tempat nu aman. Dina [[Shiroh Rosululloh]] karya [[Ibnu Ishaq]], dicaritakeun yén para pupuhu suku maséakeun saha nu pantes méré nahkeun deui Hajar Aswad kana Ka'bah. Muhammad anu dipercaya kajujuranana ku sakur suku-suku Mekah, dipénta néang jalan tengah pikeun mutuskeun ieu perkara. Pamanggih anjeunna anu basajan lajeng ditarima ku para pupuhu suku. Prakprakanana, Muhammad muka sarta ngamparkeun sorbanna, méré nahkeun Hajar Aswad luhureunana, sarta para pupuhu suku babarengan ngagotong éta sorban ka tempat rék diperenahkeunana Hajar Aswad. Sanggeus kitu, Muhammad kuanjeun ngangkat éta batu kana témbok di juru Ka'bah<ref>{{cite book| last = Guillaume| first = A.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Life of Muhammad | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1955 | location = Oxford| doi = | id = }} pp. 84-87</ref><ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=The Prophet of Islam - His Biography|publisher=|accessdate=August 12|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721113854/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html|archivedate=2006-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch1s6.html|title=Muhammad's Birth and Forty Years prior to Prophethood|work=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Memoirs of the Noble Prophet|accessdate=2007-05-04|author=Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, translated by Issam Diab|date=1979|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020126105123/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch1s6.html|archivedate=2002-01-26}}</ref>. === Jihat séjén === Budaya [[Semit]] di Wétan Tengah boga tradisi ngagunakeun batu ahéng pikeun nyirian kabuyutan/tempat suci, pénoména nu kapanggih dina [[Bibel Yahudi]] jeung [[Qur'an]]<ref name="glasse" />. Grunebaum, dina ''Classical Islam'', nyebutkeun yén Ka'bah téh pangjugjugan jarah ti saméméh Islam nu bentuk aslina ukur wangunan batu. Tapi wangunan modél Ka'bah di Arab téh teu ukur hiji. Di kota [[Ghaiman]], Arab kidul aya "Batu beureum". Aya ogé "batu bodas" di 'Abalat (deukeut kota [[Tabala]], kidul Mekah). Intina, jaman bihari aya tradisi muja batu, gunung, formasi cadas, atawa tutuwuhan anu bentukna teu galib"<ref>Grunebaum, p. 24</ref>. Pasipatan fisik Hajar Aswad munggaran dipedar abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20 ku urang Éropah nu ngumbara ka Arab. [[Johann Ludwig Burckhardt]], urang [[Swiss]] nu ngumbara ka Mekah taun [[1815]]-an medar Hajar Aswad dina bukuna ''Travels in Arabia'' ([[1829]]): {{cquote|''It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter, with an undulating surface, composed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and perfectly well smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava, containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. Its colour is now a deep reddish brown approaching to black. It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar, but not quite the same, brownish colour. This border serves to support its detached pieces; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little above the surface of the stone. Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band, broader below than above, and on the two sides, with a considerable swelling below, as if a part of the stone were hidden under it. The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails.''}} Visiting the Kaaba in 1853, Sir [[Richard Francis Burton]] nu nganjang ka Ka'bah taun 1853 nyaritakeun: {{cquote|''The colour appeared to me black and metallic, and the centre of the stone was sunk about two inches below the metallic circle. Round the sides was a reddish brown cement, almost level with the metal, and sloping down to the middle of the stone. The band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found the aperture in which the stone is, one span and three fingers broad.''<ref>Quoted in Thomas Patrick Hughes, ''A Dictionary of Islam'', p. 154. W. H. Allen & Co, 1885</ref>}} <!-- The Black Stone has been described variously as [[basalt]] [[lava]], an [[agate]], a piece of natural [[glass]] or - most popularly - a stony [[meteorite]]. It is evidently a hard rock, having survived so much handling. A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the Stone's recovery in 951 AD after it had been stolen 21 years earlier; according to a chronicler, the Stone was identified by its ability to float in water. If this account is accurate, it would rule out the Black Stone being an agate, basalt lava or stony meteorite, though it would be compatible with it being glass or [[pumice]].<ref name="bevan">Alex Bevan, John De Laeter, ''Meteorites: A Journey Through Space and Time'', pp. 14-15. UNSW Press, 2002. ISBN 086840490X</ref> It has been suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment from the impact of a fragmented meteorite some 6,000 years ago at [[Wabar]], a site in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert some 1,100 km east of Mecca. The craters at Wabar are notable for the presence of blocks of [[silica]] glass, fused by the heat of the impact and impregnated by beads of nickel-iron alloy from the meteorite (most of which was destroyed in the impact). Some of the glass blocks are made of shiny black glass with a white or yellow interior and gas-filled hollows, which allow them to float on water. Although scientists did not become aware of the [[Wabar craters]] until 1932, they were located near a caravan route from [[Oman]] and were very likely known to the inhabitants of the desert. The wider area was certainly well-known; in ancient Arabic poetry, Wabar or Ubar (also known as "[[Iram of the Pillars]]") was the site of a fabulous city that was destroyed by fire from the heavens because of the wickedness of its king. If the estimated age of the crater is accurate, it would have been well within the period of human habitation in Arabia and the impact itself may have been witnessed.<ref name="bevan" /> == Ritual role == The current ritual of the [[Hajj]] involves pilgrims attempting to kiss the Black Stone seven times (once for each circumambulation of the Kaaba), emulating the actions of Muhammad. When [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] (580-644), the second [[Caliph]], came to kiss the Stone, he said in front of all assembled: "''No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither harm anyone nor benefit anyone. Had I not seen Allah's Messenger [Muhammad] kissing you, I would not have kissed you.''"<ref>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=Pilgrimage (Hajj)|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 12 |accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/026.sbt.html#002.026.667}}</ref> Many Muslims follow Umar: they pay their respects to the Stone in a spirit of trust in [[Muhammad]], not with any belief in the Stone itself. This, however, does not indicate their disrespect to the Black Stone but their belief that harm and benefit are in the hands of God, and nothing else. In modern times, large crowds no longer make it practically possible for everyone to kiss the stone, so it is currently acceptable for pilgrims to simply point in the direction of the Stone on each of their circuits around the building. Some even say that the Stone is best considered simply as a marker, useful in keeping count of the ritual circumambulations ([[Hajj#Performing the Hajj|tawaf]]) one has performed.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Saudi Arabia Information Resource|title=The Holy City of Makkah|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 12 |accessyear=2006|url=http://www.saudinf.com/main/a83.htm}}</ref> Some Muslims also accept this [[hadith]], from [[Tirmidhi]], which asserts that at the Last Judgement ([[Qiyamah]]), the Black Stone will speak for those who kissed it: :"It was narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said: The Messenger of Allah said concerning the Stone: "By Allah, Allah will bring it forth on the Day of Resurrection, and it will have two eyes with which it will see and a tongue with which it will speak, and it will testify in favour of those who touched it in sincerity." "<ref>http://www.icct.org/Hajj/BlackStone.html</ref> Apart from the ritual role of the Black Stone, its black colour is deemed to symbolise the essential spiritual virtue of detachment and poverty for God (''[[faqr]]'') and the extinction of ego required to progress towards God (''[[qalb]]'').<ref name="glasse" /> == Beulah == The Black Stone is broken into a number of fragments, with varying accounts putting the number at between seven and fifteen, held together by a silver frame.<ref name="bevan" /> The damage appears to have occurred in several stages. Legend has it that during the [[siege of Mecca]] in [[683]], the Kaaba was ignited by a flaming arrow and the fire's heat cracked the Black Stone into three large parts and several smaller fragments.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} In [[930]], the Black Stone was seized by the [[Qarmatians]] and carried off to their base at [[Bahrain]]. According to the historian [[Al-Juwayni]], the Stone was returned in [[951]] under somewhat mysterious circumstances; wrapped in a sack, it was thrown into the Friday Mosque of [[Kufa]] accompanied by a note saying "By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back." Its abduction and removal caused further damage, breaking the stone into seven pieces.<ref name="glasse" /> Some Muslims believe the Black Stone should be less accessible to the general public, as a way of protecting such a relic. --> == Ritual Thawaf == Nyium Hajar Aswad mangrupikeun sunnah anu kacida dipikaasihna ku [[Nabi Muhammad saw.]]<ref>Syeikh Muhammad bin Shaleh al-Utsaimin, ''Yang Disenangi Nabi saw. dan Yang Tak Disenangi Nabi saw.'', (Jakarta: Pustaka al-Kautsar, 2005), kaca 425. [https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Yang_Disenangi_Nabi_saw_dan_Yang_Tak_Dis/xXa_QV6f0-gC?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=hajar+aswad&pg=PA425&printsec=frontcover URL Digital], diaksés 3 Pébruari 2026.</ref> Jamaah disunnahkeun pikeun: * Istilam: Ngusap atanapi nyium Hajar Aswad upami kaayaanna ngamungkinkeun. * Isyarat: Upami pinuh sarta teu tiasa nyium, jamaah cukup masihan isyarat ku dampal leungeun bari ngucapkeun ''"Bismillahi Allahu Akbar"''.<ref>H. Bobby Herwibowo & Indriya R. Dani, ''Panduan Pintar Manasik Haji dan Umrah'', (Jakarta: WahyuMedia, 2013), kaca 36. [https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Panduan_Pintar_Manasik_Haji_dan_Umrah/wXtxEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=cara+istilam+hajar+aswad&pg=PA36&printsec=frontcover URL Digital], diaksés 3 Pébruari 2026.</ref> == Catetan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Black Stone|Black Stone]]''. Disalin 30 Oktober 2008. * Grunebaum, G. E. von (1970). ''Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. - 1258 A.D.''. Aldine Publishing Company. ISBN 202-15016-X * Sheikh Safi-ur-Rahman al-Mubarkpuri (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Séaled Nectar): Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 1591440718. * Elliott, Jeri (1992). ''Your Door to Arabia''. ISBN 0-473-01546-3. * Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). ''Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z''. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-X. * Time-Life Books (1988). ''Time Frame AD 600-800: The March of Islam'', ISBN 0-8094-6420-9. *{{cite journal|url=http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/blstone.htm|title=The Black Stone - the Omphalos of the Goddess|author=Bob Trubshaw|journal=Mercian Mysteries|date=February 1993|issue=No. 14}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Black Stone}} *[http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/archives/2005/do-muslims-worship-the-black-stone-of-the-kaabah/ Do Muslims Worship The Black Stone of the Ka’abah?] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070404133458/http://www.saudicities.com/images/Pic00082.jpg Picture of the Black Stone] *[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197406/the.ka.bah.house.of.god.htm Information about the Kaaba and viewpoints regarding the status of the Black Stone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611152734/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197406/the.ka.bah.house.of.god.htm |date=2008-06-11 }} *[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/kaaba.htm General information about the Kaaba and the Black Stone] *[http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/hajjexp.htm Reflections from the Hajj, by S. Khan and A. Zahoor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505124349/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/hajjexp.htm |date=2021-05-05 }} {{coord|21|25|21.02|N|39|49|34.58|E|display=title}} {{islam-pondok}} [[Kategori:Sajarah Islam]] [[Kategori:Mekah]] [[Kategori:Haji]] {{Ibadah Haji}} sha8cvrfpshvptc66zpnin7moviwe6u 0 99775 731533 707770 2026-11-05T22:31:48Z ~2026-58769-85 37724 /* */ 731533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox musical artist | name = Roger Taylor | image = Queen And Adam Lambert - The O2 - Tuesday 12th December 2017 QueenO2121217-47 (39066610085) Cropped.jpg | caption = Taylor, 2017 | background = solo_singer | birth_name = Roger Meddows Taylor | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1949|7|26}} | birth_place = [[King's Lynn]], [[Norfolk]], {{Flag|Inggris}} | genre = [[Rock]] | instrument = {{hlist|Gendang}}<!--- If you think an instrument should be listed, a discussion to reach consensus is needed first per: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Infobox_musical_artist#instrument---> | occupation = {{flat list| * [[Musisi]] * [[Penulis Lagu]] * [[Produser]] }} | years_active = 1964–ayeuna | label = {{flat list| * EMI Records * [[Elektra Records|Elektra]] * Capitol Records|Capitol * Parlophone * [[Hollywood Records|Hollywood]] * Virgin EMI Records|Virgin EMI }} | associated_acts = {{flat list| * [[Queen|Queen]] * [[Paul Rodgers]] * [[Adam Lambert]] * [[The Cross (band)|The Cross]] * [[Smile (band)|Smile]] * Felix & Arty * [[Yoshiki|Yoshiki]] * [[Lydia Canaan]] }} | website = {{URL|rogertaylorofficial.com}} | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100|OBE}} }} '''Roger Meddows Taylor''' atau '''Roger Taylor''' ({{lahirmati|[[Norfolk]], [[Inggris]]|26|7|1949}}) nyaéta musisi Inggris, penyanyi, panulis lagu sareng multi-instrumentalist, langkung dikenal salaku anggota band rock [[Queen]].<ref name="Independent">{{cite web|last1=Macnab|first1=Geoffrey|title=Roger Taylor interview: The Queen drummer has written the soundtrack for British film Solitary|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/roger-taylor-interview-the-queen-drummer-has-written-the-soundtrack-for-british-film-solitary-10179509.html|website=Independent|accessdate=6 October 2016}}</ref> Salaku tukang gendang, Taylor diwanohkeun dina awal karirna kusabab sora anu unik.<ref name="rs-149">''[[Rolling Stone]]'' – Issue 149 – 12 June 1973</ref> Anjeunna kapilih ku pendengar radio salaku tukang gendang anu kadalapan di sajarah musik batu klasik dina polling anu dilakukeun ku [[Planet Rock]] di 2005.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4669597.stm |accessdate=28 January 2008 |work= BBC News| date=10 July 2005 | title=Zeppelin voted 'ideal supergroup'}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == {{Commons category}} * {{en}} [http://queenarchives.com/viewforum.php?f=3 Roger Taylor Interviews]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{en}} [http://www.roger-taylor.net Roger-Taylor.Net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224180645/http://www.roger-taylor.net/ |date=2020-02-24 }} * {{en}} [http://www.drummerworld.com/drummers/Roger_Taylor.html drummerworld.com] * {{en}} [http://www.rogerdrums.3000.it Roger Taylor's drumpage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624174547/http://www.rogerdrums.3000.it/ |date=2020-06-24 }} * {{en}} [http://www.queenpedia.com/index.php?title=Roger_Taylor] {{DEFAULTSORT:Roger Tylor}} [[Kategori:Panyanyi Indonésia]] {{Biografi-pondok}} b1dll1menhqgq3l71yp6hkpr7fvh8zf 0 105905 731534 730875 2026-11-06T04:13:42Z KCN-NCDHNCPATPS 37508 /* */ 731534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Domain of life whose cells have nuclei}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Eukaryota | fossil_range = [[Statherian]]–[[Holocene|Present]] {{long fossil range|1650|0 |earliest=2300}} | image = {{Multiple image | perrow = 2/2/2 | total_width = 270 | image1 = Rhodomonas salina CCMP 322.jpg | caption1 = [[Cryptista]] | image2 = Ranunculus asiaticus4LEST.jpg | caption2 = [[Viridiplantae]] (plants) | image3 = Trypanosoma sp. PHIL 613 lores.jpg | caption3 = [[Discoba]] | image4 = Chaos carolinensis Wilson 1900.jpg | caption4 = [[Amoebozoa]] | image5 = Ammonia tepida.jpg | caption5 = [[Rhizaria]] | image6 = Isotricha intestinalis.jpg | caption6 = [[Alveolata]] | image7 = Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg | caption7 = [[Animalia]] | image8 = Boletus edulis (Tillegem).jpg | caption8 = [[Fungi]] | border = infobox }} | taxon = Eukaryota | authority = ([[Édouard Chatton|Chatton]], 1925) [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]] & [[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]], 1978 | subdivision_ranks = [[Supergroup (biology)|Supergroups]] and [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdoms]] | subdivision = * [[Diaphoretickes]] ** [[SAR supergroup]] ** [[Haptista]] ** [[Cryptista]] ** [[Archaeplastida]] (incl. [[Plants]]) ** [[Provora]]<ref name="Provora"/> * [[Hemimastigophora]] * [[Metamonada]] * [[Malawimonadida]] * [[Ancyromonadida]] * [[CRuMs]] * [[Amorphea]] ** [[Amoebozoa]] ** [[Breviatea]] ** [[Apusomonadida]] ** [[Opisthokonta]] *** [[Holomycota]] (incl. [[Fungi]]) *** [[Holozoa]] (incl. [[Animals]]) {{!}}- style="background:#e0d0b0;" {{!}} | synonyms = * Eucarya {{au|[[Carl Woese|Woese]] et al. 1990}}<ref name="w1990"/> * Eukarya {{au|[[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]] 1996}}<ref name="Margulis 1996"/> }} '''Eukariota''' nyaéta sakumpulan organismeu anu sélna mibanda [[Nukleus sél|nukleus]] anu ngabeungkeut mémbran (lamad). Ieu anu ngabédakeun maranéhanana jeung [[prokariota]], anu sélna teu boga nukleus atawa organél mémbran (lamad).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle CJ |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngaran "Eukariota" asalna tina basa [[Yunani]], "eu" anu hartina "hadé" atawa "alus" sarta "karyon" anu hartina "inti". Hal ieu ngagambarkeun ciri husus maranéhanana anu boga inti sél anu ''terorganisir'' jeung alus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eme |first1=Laura |last2=Tamarit |first2=Daniel |last3=Caceres |first3=Eva F. |last4=Stairs |first4=Courtney W. |last5=De Anda |first5=Valerie |last6=Schön |first6=Max E. |last7=Seitz |first7=Kiley W. |last8=Dombrowski |first8=Nina |last9=Lewis |first9=William H. |last10=Homa |first10=Felix |last11=Saw |first11=Jimmy H. |last12=Lombard |first12=Jonathan |last13=Nunoura |first13=Takuro |last14=Li |first14=Wen-Jun |last15=Hua |first15=Zheng-Shuang |last16=Chen |first16=Lin-Xing |last17=Banfield |first17=Jillian F. |last18=John |first18=Emily St |last19=Reysenbach |first19=Anna-Louise |last20=Stott |first20=Matthew B. |last21=Schramm |first21=Andreas |last22=Kjeldsen |first22=Kasper U. |last23=Teske |first23=Andreas P. |last24=Baker |first24=Brett J. |last25=Ettema |first25=Thijs J. G. |title=Inference and reconstruction of the heimdallarchaeial ancestry of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=29 June 2023 |volume=618 |issue=7967 |pages=992–999 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06186-2 |pmid=37316666 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=10307638|bibcode=2023Natur.618..992E }}</ref> Anu kalebet kana eukariota téh naon waé [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], [[fungi]], sareng seueur [[organismeu]] [[unisélular]]. Aranjeunna mangrupakeun kumpulan anu penting dina ngawangun kahirupan barengan jeung dua grup [[prokariot]] : [[Baktéri]] jeung [[Archaea]].<ref name="Hoek 95">{{cite book |last1=van den Hoek |first1=C. |last2=Mann |first2=D.G. |last3=Jahns |first3=H.M. |name-list-style=vanc |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |title=Algae An Introduction to Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-30419-9 |access-date=7 April 2023 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210172546/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi dumasar kana ukuranana umumna leuwih badag, [[biomassa]] global koléktip maranéhanana leuwih badag batan ''prokariot''. ''Eukariota'' kawasna bijil tina ''archaea Asgard'', sareng caket hubunganana sareng ''Heimdallarchaeia''.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |name-list-style=vanc |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |publisher=Enfield, Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives }}</ref> Ieu tiasa ngandung harti yén ngan aya dua domain kahirupan, [[Baktéri]] jeung ''Archaea'', kalawan ''eukariota'' diasupkeun kana ''Archaea''. Eukariota mimiti aya dina mangsa ''Paleoproterozoikum'', kawasna salaku sél ''flagellated''.<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |name-list-style=vanc |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |page=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Téori évolusionér anu utama nyaéta aranjeunna diciptakeun ku ''simbiogenesis'' antara ''archaean'' ''Asgard'' anaérobik sareng ''proteobacterium'' aérobik, anu ngawangun ''mitokondria''. Épisode kadua simbiogenesis sareng ''cyanobacterium'' nyiptakeun pepelakan, kalayan kloroplas. Sél ''eukariot'' ngandung organél anu kabeungkeut mémbran sapertos inti, ''retikulum endoplasma'', sareng aparat Golgi. Eukariota bisa jadi uniselulér atawa multiselulér. Dina babandingan, prokariot ilaharna unisélular. Eukariota ''uniséluler'' sakapeung disebut ''protista''. Eukariota bisa réproduksi boh sacara aséksual ngaliwatan ''[[mitosis]]'' jeung séksual ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'' jeung fusi gamét ''(fertilisasi)''. ==Karagaman== Eukariota téh organismeu anu dimimitian tina sél tunggal ''[[mikroskopis]]'', kayaning ''[[picozoans]]'' kurang leuwih handapeun 3 ''microméters'' sakuliah, nepika [[sato]] kawas [[paus biru]]. Beuratna nepi ka 190 [[ton]] jeung panjangna nepi ka 33,6 méter (110 ft), atawa tutuwuhan kawas tangkal [[kai]] pang jangkungna/''[[redwood]]'', jangkungna nepi ka 120 méter (390 ft).<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565"/> Loba eukariota anu unisélular; Eukariota multisélular kaasup [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], jeung [[fungi]], tapi deui, grup ieu ogé ngandung loba spésiés unisélular.<ref name=Wood/> Sél eukariot biasana leuwih badag batan sél prokariot—baktéri jeung ''archaea''—''volume'' kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih gedé.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parfrey |first1=L.W. |last2=Lahr |first2=D.J.G. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2013 |title=Multicellularity arose several times in the evolution of eukaryotes |journal=BioEssays |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=339–347 |doi=10.1002/bies.201200143 |pmid=23315654 |s2cid=13872783 |url=http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=25 July 2014 }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi, sabab loba di antarana jauh leuwih badag, ''biomassa global'' koléktif maranéhanana (468 gigatons) jauh leuwih badag batan prokariot (77 gigatons), kalawan tutuwuhan nyalira lobana kana leuwih ti 81% tina total ''biomassa Bumi''.<ref name="Hoek 95"/> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=225 caption="Eukariot ukuranana rupa-rupa ti sél tunggal nepi ka organisme anu beuratna ton-tonan"> File:Gram-negative Bacteria and Paramecium forming cyst.jpg|[[Prokaryote]]s (sél cylindrical leutik, [[baktéri]], di kénca) jeung eukariota anu sél tunggal, ''[[Paramecium]]'' File:California Redwood National Park (216450575).jpeg|Tangkal kai pang jangkungna [[Sequoia sempervirens|''Coast redwood'']] File:Anim1754 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library (rotated).jpg|[[Paus Biru]] </gallery> Eukariota mangrupa garis katurunan anu rupa-rupa, utamana diwangun ku organismeu ''mikroskopis''.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55"/> Multisélularitas dina sababaraha bentuk parantos mekar sacara mandiri sahenteuna 25 kali dina eukariota.<ref name="Grosberg2007">{{cite journal |last1=Grosberg |first1=RK |last2=Strathmann |first2=RR |name-list-style=vanc |year=2007 |title=The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition? |journal=[[Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst]] |volume=38 |pages=621–654 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735 |u b. B: :rl=https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314222721/https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Organisme multisélular kompléks, kumpulan amoéba anu teu kaétang pikeun ngabentuk ''molds slime'', ngalaman évolusi ngan dina genep runtuyan katurunan eukariot: [[sasatoan]], [[fungi]] ''symbiomycotan'', [[ganggang coklat]], [[ganggang beureum]], [[ganggang héjo]], jeung tutuwuhan darat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Popper |first1=Zoë A. |last2=Michel |first2=Gurvan |last3=Hervé |first3=Cécile |last4=Domozych |first4=David S. |last5=Willats |first5=William G.T. |last6=Tuohy |first6=Maria G. |last7=Kloareg |first7=Bernard |last8=Stengel |first8=Dagmar B. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2011 |title=Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: From algae to flowering plants |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-plant-biology_2011_62/page/567 |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |volume=62 |pages=567–590 |pmid=21351878 |hdl=10379/6762 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=11961888 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809}}</ref> Eukariota dikumpulkeun dumasar kana kamiripan génomik, ku kituna katempo grup mindeng kakurangan ciri anu kanyahoan.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55">{{cite journal |last1=Burki |first1=Fabien |last2=Roger |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Brown |first3=Matthew W. |last4=Simpson |first4=Alastair G.B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=The New Tree of Eukaryotes |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2020 |issn=0169-5347 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.008 |pages=43–55|pmid=31606140 |s2cid=204545629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020TEcoE..35...43B |url=https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1387649/FULLTEXT01 }}</ref> ==Bagéan anu jadi pangbéda== ===Nucleus (Inti)=== Ciri pangdeukeutna eukariot nyaéta sélna boga [[inti]], Ieu masihan aranjeunna namina, tina basa [[Yunani]] εὖ (eu, "well" atawa "alus") jeung κάρυον (karyon, "inti" atawa "puseur"), Sél eukariot boga rupa-rupa struktur kabeungkeut mémbran ''internal'', disebut organél, jeung ''sitoskeleton'' nu nangtukeun [[organisasi]] jeung wangun sél urang.<ref name="OnlineEtDict">{{OEtymD|eukaryotic}}</ref> Nukleus nyimpen DNA sél, nu dibagi kana kebat linier disebut kromosom; ieu dipisahkeun jadi dua sét anj cocog ku ''spindle microtubular'' salila ''division'' [[nuklir]], enggoning prosés ''mitosis eukariot'' anu has.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonev |first1=B |last2=Cavalli |first2=G |name-list-style=vanc |date=14 October 2016 |title=Organization and function of the 3D genome |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=661–678 |doi=10.1038/nrg.2016.112 |pmid=27739532 |hdl=2027.42/151884 |s2cid=31259189 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chromosome Segregation: The Role of Centromeres |last=O'Connor |first=Clare |work=Nature Education |date= 2008|access-date=18 February 2024 |url= https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/chromosome-segregation-in-mitosis-the-role-of-242/ |quote=eukar }}</ref> ===Biokimia=== Eukariot béda jeung ''prokariot'' dina sababaraha cara, kalayan jalur [[biokimi]]awi unik sapertos sintésis ''sterané''. Protéin tanda tangan eukariot teu boga ''[[homologi]]'' jeung ''[[protéin]]'' dina domain kahirupan séjén, tapi sigana [[universal]] diantara eukariota. Éta kalebet protéin ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', mesin ''[[transkripsi]]'' kompléks, sistem sortir-membran, pori nuklir, jeung sababaraha énzim dina jalur biokimiawi.<ref name="pmid11805300">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hartman H, Fedorov A |title=The origin of the eukaryotic cell: a genomic investigation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=1420–5 |date=February 2002 |pmid=11805300 |pmc=122206 |doi=10.1073/pnas.032658599 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.1420H |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mémbran internal=== {{multiple image | image1 = Prokaryote cell.svg | width1 = 5<!--to scale! the point is this is the relative size, thanks-->0 | caption1 = <small>[[Prokaryote]], to same scale</small> | image2 = Endomembrane system diagram en (edit).svg | width2 = 300 | caption2 = Sél eukariot dengan [[sistem endomembran]] | footer = Sél eukariot kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih badag batan sél prokariot dumasar volumna, sarta ngandung [[organél kabeungkeut mémbran]]. }} Sél eukariot ngawengku rupa-rupa ''[[struktur]]'' anu kabeungkeut mémbran, babarengan ngabentuk sistem [[éndomémbran]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Linka M, Weber AP |chapter=Evolutionary Integration of Chloroplast Metabolism with the Metabolic Networks of the Cells |veditors=Burnap RL, Vermaas WF |title=Functional Genomics and Evolution of Photosynthetic Systems |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-94-007-1533-2 |page=215 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529130011/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kompartemén basajan,disebut ''[[vesikel]]'' jeung ''[[vakuola]]'', bisa dibentuk ku ''budding'' kaluar mémbran séjén.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors=Marsh M | title=Endocytosis| url=https://archive.org/details/endocytosis0000unse_i6q0 | publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2001| page=vii| isbn=978-0-19-963851-2}}</ref> Loba sél nyerna dahareun jeung bahan séjén ngaliwatan prosés ''[[endositosis]]'', dimana mémbran luar ''invaginates'' lajeng ''pinches'' kaluar pikeun ngabentuk hiji ''[[vesicle]]''. Sababaraha produk sél bisa ninggalkeun dina vesikel ngaliwatan ''exocytosis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stalder |first1=Danièle |last2=Gershlick |first2=David C. |name-list-style=vanc |date=November 2020|title=Direct trafficking pathways from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane |journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology |volume=107 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.04.001 |pmc=7152905 |pmid=32317144}}</ref> Inti dikurilingan ku mémbran ganda nu katelah amplop nuklir/''[[nuclear envelope]]'', kalawan ''pori'' nuklir nu ngidinan bahan pikeun mindahkeun asup jeung kaluar. Rupa-rupa ''tabung''- jeung lembaran-kawas éksténsi mémbran nuklir ngabentuk ''retikulum endoplasmic'', nu aub dina angkutan [[protéin]] jeung ''maturation''/kadéwasaan.<ref name=TheNuclearEnvelope-NCBI>{{cite journal | vauthors=Hetzer MW | title=The nuclear envelope | journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=a000539 | date=March 2010 | pmid=20300205 | pmc=2829960 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a000539 }}</ref> Ieu ngawengku rétikulum ''endoplasma'' kasar, katutupan ku ''ribosom'' nu nyintésis protéin; ieu asup kana rohangan intérior atawa ''lumen''. Salajengna, aranjeunna umumna asup kana ''vesikel'', nu kuncup kaluar lalaunan tina ''[[retikulum endoplasmic]]''. Dina kalolobaan eukariota, vesikel anu mawa protéin ieu dileupaskeun sarta salajengna dirobah dina tumpukan vesikel datar (''cisternae''), puseur pangolahan. Vesikel bisa jadi husus; contona, ''[[lisosom]]'' ngandung énzim ''pencernaan'' anu ngarecah biomolekul dina ''[[sitoplasma]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055727/https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golgi Apparatus |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060218/http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |archive-date=13 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Mitochondria=== [[File:Mitochondrion structure.svg |thumb |upright=1.4 |[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] v. ]] Mitokondria nyaéta ''organél'' pada sél eukariot.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, Rojas M, Lafyatis R |display-authors=3 |title=Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension |journal=Pulmonary Circulation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–144 |date=July 1957 |pmid=32166015 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0757-131 |pmc=7052475 |bibcode=1957SciAm.197a.131S }}</ref> Mitokondria biasana disebut "''powerhouse sél''", pikeun fungsina nyadiakeun énérgi ku cara ngoksidasi [[gula]] atawa [[lemak]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[molekul]] ATP nu nyimpen-énergi.<ref name=Voet>{{cite book | vauthors=Voet D, Voet JC, Pratt CW |name-list-style=vanc |title=Fundamentals of Biochemistry |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 547, 556] |isbn=978-0471214953 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 }}</ref> Mitokondria mibanda dua mémbran sakurilingna, masing-masing lapisan ganda ''fosfolipid''; bagian jero nu narilep kana ''invaginations'' disebut ''cristae'' mana réspirasi aérobik lumangsung.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |title=Re: Are there eukaryotic cells without mitochondria? |date=1 May 2006 |work=madsci.org |vauthors=Mack S |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424224700/http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mitokondria ngandung DNA sorangan, nu mibanda kamiripan struktural deukeut jeung DNA baktéri, ti mana asalna, jeung nu ngodekeun rRNA jeung tRNA gén nu ngahasilkeun RNA nu strukturna leuwih deukeut jeung RNA baktéri ti RNA eukariota.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zick |first1=M |last2=Rabl |first2=R |last3=Reichert |first3=AS |name-list-style=vanc |title=Cristae formation-linking ultrastructure and function of mitochondria. |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research |date=January 2009 |volume=1793 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |pmid=18620004 |doi=10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.06.013 |doi-access=}}</ref> Sababaraha eukariota, sapertos ''[[metamonads Giardia]]'' sareng ''[[Trichomonas]]'', sareng ''[[amoebozoan Pelomyxa]]'', sigana kurang mitokondria, tapi sadayana ngandung organél turunan mitokondria, seperti ''[[hidrogénosom]]'' atanapi ''mitosom'', kaleungitan mitokondria kadua. Aranjeunna meunang énergi ku aksi énzimatik dina ''sitoplasma''.<ref name="Karn">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karnkowska A, Vacek V, Zubáčová Z, Treitli SC, Petrželková R, Eme L, Novák L, Žárský V, Barlow LD, Herman EK, Soukal P, Hroudová M, Doležal P, Stairs CW, Roger AJ, Eliáš M, Dacks JB, Vlček Č, Hampl V |display-authors=3 |title=A Eukaryote without a Mitochondrial Organelle |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1274–1284 |date=May 2016 |pmid=27185558 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.053 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016CBio...26.1274K }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria |title=Scientists Shocked To Discover Eukaryote With NO Mitochondria |date=13 May 2016 |vauthors=Davis JL |website=IFL Science |access-date=2016-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217214255/https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria/ |archive-date=17 February 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Plastida=== [[File:Chloroplast II.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Jinis [[plastid]] anu paling umum nyaéta [[kloroplas]], anu ngandung [[klorofil]] sareng ngahasilkeun sanyawa [[organik]] ku [[fotosintésis]]. ]] Tutuwuhan jeung sagala rupa golongan ganggang boga plastida ogé mitokondria.<ref name="Kleptoplastidy Hypothesis">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bodył A | s2cid=24613863 | title=Did some red alga-derived plastids evolve via kleptoplastidy? A hypothesis | journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume=93 | issue=1 | pages=201–222 | date=February 2018 | pmid=28544184 | doi=10.1111/brv.12340 }}</ref> Plastida, sapertos mitokondria, gaduh [[DNA]] sorangan sareng dikembangkeun tina [[éndosimbion]], dina hal ieu [[sianobaktéri]]. Biasana aya dina bentuk kloroplas anu, seperti sianobakteri, ngandung [[klorofil]] sarta ngahasilkeun sanyawa organik (sapertos glukosa) ngaliwatan fotosintésis.Nu séjénna milu nyimpen dahareun.Sanajan plastida sigana boga asal tunggal,teu sakabéh grup plastid-ngandung patalina raket. Gantina, sababaraha eukariotaaranjeunna geus meunang ti batur ngaliwatan endosymbiosis sekundér atawa ingestion.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=Sato N |year=2006 |pages= 75–102 |title=The Structure and Function of Plastids |volume=23 |veditors=Wise RR, Hoober JK |publisher= Springer Netherlands|chapter=Origin and Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids |isbn=978-1-4020-4060-3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4061-0_4 |series=Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration}}</ref> Panangkepan sareng sequestering sél fotosintétik sareng kloroplas, kleptoplasti, lumangsung dina loba jenis organismeu eukariot modern.<ref name=pmid18518896>{{cite journal |vauthors=Minnhagen S, Carvalho WF, Salomon PS, Janson S |title=Chloroplast DNA content in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae) from different cell cycle stages is consistent with kleptoplasty |journal=Environ. Microbiol. |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=2411–7 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18518896 |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01666.x |bibcode=2008EnvMi..10.2411M }}</ref> ===Struktur sitoskeletal=== Sitoskeleton nyadiakeun ''[[struktur]]'' kaku jeung titik kantétan pikeun struktur motor anu ngamungkinkeun pikeun mindahkeun sél, ngarobah bentuk, atawa angkutan bahan. Struktur ''[[motorik]]'' nyaéta ''[[mikrofilamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'' sareng protéin beungkeut ''[[aktin]]'', kaasup ''α-aktinin'', ''[[fimbrin]]'', sarta ''[[filamin]]'' aya dina beungkeutan lapisan ''[[cortical submembranous]]'' na. Protéin motor ''[[mikrotubulus]]'', ''[[dynein]]'' sareng ''[[kinesin]]'', sarta ''[[miosin]]'' tina ''[[filamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'', nyadiakeun karakter ''[[dinamis]]'' tina kantétan.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Molecular Motors |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |date=2002-01-01 |first1=Bruce |last1=Alberts |first2=Alexander |last2=Johnson |first3=Julian |last3=Lewis |first4=Martin |last4=Raff |first5=Keith |last5=Roberts |first6=Peter |last6=Walter |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3 |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308094109/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sweeney">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sweeney HL, Holzbaur EL |title=Motor Proteins |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages= a021931|date=May 2018 |pmid=29716949 |pmc=5932582 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a021931 |url=}}</ref> Loba eukariota boga proyéksi ''[[sitoplasma motil]]'' ramping panjang,disebut ''[[flagélla]]'', atawa sababaraha ''struktur'' pondok disebut ''[[silia]]''. Organél ieu rupa-rupa aub dina gerakan, dahar, jeung sénsasi. Utamana diwangun ku ''[[tubulin]]'', sarta sagemblengna béda ti ''[[flagella prokariot]]''.<ref name="Bardy Ng Jarrell 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bardy SL, Ng SY, Jarrell KF | title=Prokaryotic motility structures | journal=Microbiology | volume=149 | issue=Pt 2 | pages=295–304 | date=February 2003 | pmid=12624192 | doi=10.1099/mic.0.25948-0 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Silflow Lefebvre 2001">{{cite journal | vauthors=Silflow CD, Lefebvre PA | title=Assembly and motility of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_plant-physiology_2001-12_127_4/page/1500 | journal=Plant Physiology | volume=127 | issue=4 | pages=1500–7 | date=December 2001 | pmid=11743094 | pmc=1540183 | doi=10.1104/pp.010807 }}</ref> Éta dirojong ku kebat/amparan ''[[mikrotubulus]]'' anu timbul tina ''[[séntriol]]'', ciri disusun salaku salapan pasang sabudeureun dua singlets. Flagela tiasa gaduh bulu ''(mastigonemes)'', sakumaha dina loba ''Stramenopiles''. Bagian jerona kontinyu sareng sitoplasma sél. ''[[Centrioles]]'' sering aya, sanajan dina sél jeung grup nu teu boga flagella, tapi ''conifers'' jeung tutuwuhan kembangan boga. Aranjeunna umumna lumangsung dina grup anu ngabalukarkeun rupa-rupa akar ''microtubular''. Ieu ngabentuk komponén primér ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', sarta mindeng dirakit ngaliwatan sababaraha divisi sél, kalawan hiji ''[[flagellum]]'' dipikagaduh ti indungna sarta séjéna diturunkeun tina. ''[[Centrioles]]'' ngahasilkeun benang/''spindle'' salila division [[nuklir]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Vorobjev IA, Nadezhdina ES |title=The centrosome and its role in the organization of microtubules |volume=106 |pages=227–293 |year=1987 |pmid=3294718 |doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)61714-3 |isbn=978-0-12-364506-7 |series=International Review of Cytology }}</ref> ===Témbok sél=== Sél tutuwuhan, [[ganggang]], [[fungi]] sareng seueur ''kromalveolat'', tapi sanés [[sato]], dikurilingan ku [[témbok sél]]. Ieu lapisan luar mémbran sél, nyayogikeun sél kalayan dukungan struktural, panyalindungan, jeung mékanisme nyaring. Témbok sél ogé nyegah ékspansi kaleuleuwihan nalika [[cai]] asup kana sél.<ref name="Howland 2000">{{cite book | vauthors=Howland JL | year=2000 | title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life | url=https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl | pages=[https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl/page/69 69]–71 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-511183-5}}</ref> ''[[Polisakarida]]'' utama anu ngawangun dinding sél primér tutuwuhan darat nyaéta ''[[sélulosa]]'', ''[[hémiselulosa]]'', jeung ''[[pektin]]''. ''[[Mikrofibril]]'' sélulosa dihijikeun sareng ''hémiselulosa'', diasupkeun kana matriks pektin. ''[[Hémiselulosa]]'' anu paling umum dina témbok sél primér nyaéta ''[[xyloglucan]]''.<ref name="Fry1989">{{cite journal | vauthors=Fry SC |title=The Structure and Functions of Xyloglucan |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=40 |issue=1 |year=1989 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1093/jxb/40.1.1}}</ref> ===Réproduksi séksual=== [[File:Sexual cycle N-2N.svg|thumb|[[Reproduksi séksual]] merlukeun [[siklus hirup biologis|siklus hirup]] anu silih ganti antara fase [[haploid]], kalayan hiji salinan unggal [[kromosom]] dina sél, jeung hiji [[diploid]] fase, kalayan dua salinan. Dina eukariota, haploid [[gamet]]s dihasilkeun ku [[meiosis]]; dua gamét ngahiji ngabentuk diploid [[zigot]].]] Eukariota memiliki siklus hidup yang ngalibatkeun réproduksi séksual, pilihganti antara bagéan ''[[haploid]]'', dimana ngan hiji salinan unggal ''[[kromosom]]'' aya dina unggal [[sél]], jeung nalika ''[[diploid]]'', kalawan dua salinan unggal kromosom dina unggal sél. Fase diploid dibentuk ku ''[[fusi]]'' dua [[gamét]] haploid, sapertos [[endog]] sareng spérmatozoa, pikeun ngabentuk [[zigot]]; Ieu bisa tumuwuh jadi awak, kalayan sélna ngabagi ku ''[[mitosis]]'', sarta dina sababaraha tahap ngahasilkeun ''gamet haploid'' ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'', ''[[division]]'' anu ngurangan jumlah ''kromosom'' sarta nyieun ''[[variability genetik]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Matthew B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Population genetics |url=https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami |url-access=limited |year=2009 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-3277-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami/page/n69 55]}}</ref> Aya variasi anu kacida penting dina pola ieu. [[Tutuwuhan]] gaduh fase ''[[multisélular]]'' haploid sareng diploid. Eukariot memiliki laju metabolisme yang lebih rendah dan waktu generasi yang lebih lama dibandingkan prokariot, sabab leuwih badag sarta ku kituna boga aréa mun ''[[rasio]]'' volume ''permukaan'' leutik.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=TN |last2=Kerp |first2=H |last3=Hass |first3=H |name-list-style=vanc |year=2005 |title=Life history biology of early land plants: Deciphering the gametophyte phase |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=16 |pages=5892–5897 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0501985102 |pmid=15809414 |pmc=556298 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Évolusi réproduksi séksual bisa jadi ciri mimiti /''[[primordial]]'' eukariota. Dumasar analisis filogenetik, Dacks sareng Roger parantos ngusulkeun yén séks fakultatif aya dina karuhun umum grup éta.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dacks J, Roger AJ |s2cid=9441768 |title=The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1999-06_48_6/page/779 |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=779–783 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10229582 |doi=10.1007/PL00013156 |bibcode=1999JMolE..48..779D }}</ref> Sakumpulan inti gén anu fungsina dina ''meiosis'' aya dina ''[[Trichomonas vaginalis]]'' sareng ''[[Giardia intestinalis]]'', dua organismeu saméméhna dianggap aséksual. Kusabab dua spésiés ieu turunan tina silsilah anu ''[[diverged]]'' mimiti tina tangkal évolusionér eukariot, gén meiotik inti, sareng ku kituna séks, kemungkinan gede aya dina karuhun umum eukariota.<ref name=Ramesh>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM |title=A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis |journal=Current Biology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=185–191 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15668177 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003 |s2cid=17013247 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005CBio...15..185R }}</ref><ref name=Malik>{{cite journal |vauthors=Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM |title=An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e2879 |date=August 2007 |pmid=18663385 |pmc=2488364 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002879 |veditors=Hahn MW |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2879M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Spésiés pernah dianggap aséksual, sapertos parasit ''Leishmania'', gaduh siklus séksual. ''[[Amoebae]]'', saméméhna dianggap aséksual, anu baheulana seksual; grup aséksual kiwari bisa waé mecenghul anu anyar.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E |title=The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=278 |issue=1715 |pages=2081–2090 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21429931 |pmc=3107637 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.0289 }}</ref> ==Évolusi== [[File:Openly available illustrations as tools to describe eukaryotic microbial diversity - Journal.pbio.3002395.g001.tif|thumb|Tangkal eukariota nunjukkeun ''subgrup'' utama sareng ''diagram'' gambar leutik anggota wawakilan unggal grup. Sintésis diropéa dumasar kana rékonstruksi ''[[filogénomik]]'' panganyarna (nepi ka 2023).<ref>{{Cite Q|Q123558544|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] ===Sajarah klasifikasi=== Dina jaman baheula, dua katurunan [[sasatoan]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] ieu dipikawanoh ku [[Aristoteles]] jeung [[Theophrastus]]. Silsilahna dibéré pangkat [[taksonomi]] Karajaan ku [[Linnaeus]] dina abad ka-18. Padahal anjeunna kaasup [[fungi]] jeung tutuwuhan jeung sababaraha ''[[reservations]]'', éta engkéna baris sadar yén aranjeunna rada béda jeung ngajamin éta karajaan anu misah. Rupa-rupa eukariota sél tunggal asalna disimpen sareng tutuwuhan atanapi sasatoan nalika aranjeunna dipiwanoh.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goldfuß |title=Ueber die Classification der Zoophyten |journal=Isis, Oder, Encyclopädische Zeitung von Oken |date=1818 |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=1008–1019 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |trans-title=On the classification of zoophytes |language=de |access-date=15 March 2019 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324105702/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |url-status=live }} From p. 1008: ''"Erste Klasse. Urthiere. Protozoa."'' (First class. Primordial animals. Protozoa.) [Note: each column of each page of this journal is numbered; there are two columns per page.]</ref> Dina taun 1818, ahli [[biologi]] Jerman [[Georg A. Goldfuss]] nyiptakeun kecap ''[[protozoa]]'' pikeun ngarujuk kana organismeu sapertos ''[[ciliates]]'', sarta grup ieu dimekarkeun nepi ka [[Ernst Haeckel]] ngajadikeun éta karajaan ngawengku sakabéh eukariota sél tunggal, nu ''[[Protista]]'', taun 1866. Eukariota jadi katempona opat karajaan:<ref name=Scamardella1999>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scamardella JM |title=Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista |year=1999 |journal=[[International Microbiology]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=207–221 |pmid=10943416 |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614000656/http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name=Rothschild1989>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rothschild LJ |title=Protozoa, Protista, Protoctista: what's in a name? |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=277–305 |year=1989 |pmid=11542176 |doi=10.1007/BF00139515 |s2cid=32462158 |authorlink=Lynn J. Rothschild |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204233203/https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Whittaker">{{cite journal |vauthors=Whittaker RH |title=New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1969-01-10_163_3863/page/150 |journal=Science |volume=163 |issue=3863 |pages=150–60 |date=January 1969 |pmid=5762760 |doi=10.1126/science.163.3863.150 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.5430 |bibcode=1969Sci...163..150W }}</ref> #Karajaan ''Protista'' (mikro organismeu unik) #Karajaan ''Plantae'' (Tutuwuhan) #Karajaan ''Fungi'' #Karajaan ''Animalia''(Sasatoan) Protista dina waktos éta dianggap "bentuk primitif", sahingga hiji kelas évolusionér, dihijikeun ku alam unisélular primitif maranéhanana.<ref name="w1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML |author1-link=Carl Woese |author2-link=Otto Kandler |author3-link=Mark Wheelis |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1990-06_87_12/page/4576 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |date=June 1990 |pmid=2112744 |pmc=54159 |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Knoll 1992">{{cite journal |last=Knoll |first=Andrew H. |name-list-style=vanc |authorlink=Andrew H. Knoll |title=The Early Evolution of Eukaryotes: A Geological Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1992-05-01_256_5057/page/622 |journal=Science |volume=256 |issue=5057 |year=1992 |doi=10.1126/science.1585174 |pages=622–627 |pmid=1585174 |bibcode=1992Sci...256..622K |quote=Eucarya, or eukaryotes}}</ref> Pamahaman ngeunaan branchings pangkolotna dina tangkal kahirupan ngan dimekarkeun substansi kalawan runtuyan DNA, pangheulana kana sistem domain tinimbang karajaan salaku pangkat tingkat luhur anu diajukeun ku [[Carl Woese]], [[Otto Kandler]], sareng [[Mark Wheelis]] taun 1990, ngahijikeun sakabéh karajaan eukariota dina domain "Eucarya", nyatakeun, kumaha ogé, yén "'eukariota' bakal terus jadi [[sinonim]] umum bisa ditarima".<ref name=Rothschild1989/> Dina taun 1996, ahli biologi évolusionér [[Lynn Margulis]] ngusulkeun pikeun ngagentos Karajaan sareng Domain sareng nami "inklusif" pikeun nyiptakeun "filogéni dumasar simbiosis", masihan katerangan "Eukarya (organismee nukleus turunan simbiosis)".<ref name="Margulis 1996">{{cite journal |last=Margulis |first=Lynn |authorlink=Lynn Margulis |name-list-style=vanc |title=Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=93 |issue=3 |date=6 February 1996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071 |pages=1071–1076 |pmid=8577716 |pmc=40032 |bibcode=1996PNAS...93.1071M |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Filogéni=== Nepi ka 2014, konsensus kasar mimiti muncul tina studi filogénomik dua dasawarsa saméméhna.<ref name="burki2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F |title=The eukaryotic tree of life from a global phylogenomic perspective |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=a016147 |date=May 2014 |pmid=24789819 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a016147 |pmc=3996474 }}</ref><ref name="UntanglingEarlyEukaryotes">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F, Kaplan M, Tikhonenkov DV, Zlatogursky V, Minh BQ, Radaykina LV, Smirnov A, Mylnikov AP, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Untangling the early diversification of eukaryotes: a phylogenomic study of the evolutionary origins of Centrohelida, Haptophyta and Cryptista |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=283 |issue=1823 |pages=20152802 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26817772 |pmc=4795036 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.2802 }}</ref> Mayoritas eukariota bisa ditempatkeun dina salah sahiji dua ''[[clades]]'' badag disebut ''[[Amorphea]]'' (komposisi sarupa jeung hipotésa unikont) jeung ''[[Diphoda]]'' (baheulana bikonts), nu ngawengku tutuwuhan jeung lolobana turunan ganggang.<ref name="SchönZlatogursky2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schön ME, Zlatogursky VV, Singh RP, Poirier C, Wilken S, Mathur V, Strassert JF, Pinhassi J, Worden AZ, Keeling PJ, Ettema TJ |display-authors=3 |title=Picozoa are archaeplastids without plastid |journal=Nature Communications |year=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6651 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26918-0 |pmid=34789758 |pmc=8599508 |biorxiv=10.1101/2021.04.14.439778 |s2cid=233328713 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-189959 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202091441/https://umu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1614928&dswid=-3028 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grup utama katilu, ''[[Excavata]]'', parantos ditinggalkeun salaku grup formal sabab ''[[paraphyletic]]''/ampir sampurna. Filogén anu diusulkeun di handap ieu ngan ukur kalebet hiji kumpulan ékskavasi (Discoba), sareng ngalebetkeun usulan 2021 yén ''[[picozoan]]'' mangrupikeun baraya deukeut ''[[rhodophytes]]''. ''[[Provora]]'' mangrupikeun sakumpulan prédator mikroba anu kapanggih dina 2022.<ref name="Provora">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tikhonenkov DV, Mikhailov KV, Gawryluk RM, Belyaev AO, Mathur V, Karpov SA, Zagumyonnyi DG, Borodina AS, Prokina KI, Mylnikov AP, Aleoshin VV, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Microbial predators form a new supergroup of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=December 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=714–719 |pmid=36477531 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05511-5 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..714T |s2cid=254436650 }}</ref> {{stem group kingdoms}} {{clear}} Sisipkan tabel disini Hiji pintonan karajaan hébat sarta grup bobot maranéhanana. ''Metamonada hésé ditempatkeun, jadi adina meureun ka Discob, jigana ka Malawimonada.''<ref name="Brown 2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Heiss |first2=Aaron A. |last3=Kamikawa |first3=Ryoma |last4=Inagaki |first4=Yuji |last5=Yabuki |first5=Akinori |last6=Tice |first6=Alexander K |last7=Shiratori |first7=Takashi |last8=Ishida |first8=Ken-Ichiro |last9=Hashimoto |first9=Tetsuo |last10=Simpson |first10=Alastair |last11=Roger |first11=Andrew |name-list-style=vanc |date=2018-01-19 |title=Phylogenomics Places Orphan Protistan Lineages in a Novel Eukaryotic Super-Group|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evy014 |pmc=5793813|pmid=29360967}}</ref> ===Asal usul eukariota=== [[File:Symbiogenesis 2 mergers.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dina téori [[simbiogenesis]], ngahiji tina ''[[''archaean'']]'' jeung ''[[baktéri aérobik]]'' nyiptakeun ''[[eukariota]]'', jeung ''[[mitokondria aérobik]]''; ngahiji kadua ditambahkeun ''[[kloroplas]]'', nyieun tutuwuhan héjo.<ref name=latorre/>]] Asal usul sél ''[[eukariot]]'', atawa ''[[eukariogenesis]]'', mangrupakeun milestone (titik hontalan) dina évolusi kahirupan, sabab ''[[eukariota]]'' ngawengku sakabéh sél kompléks jeung ampir sakabéh organismeu [[multisélular]].<ref name="Gabaldón">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gabaldón T |title=Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell |journal=Annual Review of Microbiology |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=631–647 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34343017 |doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213 |s2cid=236916203 }}</ref> Karuhun umum eukariot panungtung (LECA) tayalian asal hipotétis ti sakabéh eukariota hidup, tur éta paling dipikaresep populasi biologis, lain individu tunggal.<ref name="O'Malley Leger Wideman Ruiz-Trillo pp. 338–344">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Malley MA, Leger MM, Wideman JG, Ruiz-Trillo I |title=Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=338–344 |date=March 2019 |pmid=30778187 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..338O |hdl-access=free |s2cid=67790751 |hdl=10261/201794 }}</ref> LECA dipercaya mangrupa [[protista]] nu boga inti, sahenteuna hiji ''[[centriole]]'' sareng ''[[flagellum]]'', mitokondria aérobik fakultatif, kelamin (meiosis jeung syngamy), kista dorman kalawan témbok sél ''[[kitin]]'' atawa ''[[selulosa]]'', sarta ''[[peroksisom]]''. <ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leander BS |title=Predatory protists |journal=Current Biology |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=R510–R516 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32428491 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.052 |s2cid=218710816 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020CBio...30.R510L }}</ref><ref name="RedAlgalDerivedPlastids">{{cite journal |vauthors=Strassert JF, Irisarri I, Williams TA, Burki F |title=A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1879 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33767194 |pmc=7994803 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.1879S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Koumandou Wickstead Ginger van der Giezen 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Koumandou |first1=V. Lila |last2=Wickstead |first2=Bill |last3=Ginger |first3=Michael L. |last4=van der Giezen |first4=Mark |last5=Dacks |first5=Joel B. |last6=Field |first6=Mark C. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Molecular paleontology and complexity in the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology |volume=48 |issue=4 |year=2013 |doi=10.3109/10409238.2013.821444 |pages=373–396|pmid=23895660 |pmc=3791482 }}</ref> Gabungan éndosimbiotik antara ''[[archaea]]'' ''anaérobik motil'' jeung ''[[alphaproteobacterium]] aérobik'' ngalahirkeun LECA jeung sakabéh [[''eukariota'']], kalawan ''[[mitokondria]]''. Sadetik, loba engké ''[[endosymbiosis]]'' jeung ''[[cyanobacterium]]'' ngahudangkeun karuhun [[tutuwuhan]], kalawan ''[[kloroplas]]''.<ref name=latorre>{{cite book |vauthors=Latorre A, Durban A, Moya A, Pereto J |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |chapter=The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution |title=Origins and Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective |veditors=Gargaud M, López-Garcìa P, Martin H |year=2011 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=326–339 |isbn=978-0-521-76131-4 |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055723/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ayana ''biomarker eukariot'' dina [[archaea]] nunjuk ka arah asal ''[[archaeal]]''. ''Genom Asgard archaea'' gaduh seueur gén protéin tanda tangan ''[[Eukariot]]'', nu maénkeun peran kacida penting dina ngembangkeun ''[[sitoskeleton]]'' jeung ''struktur'' sélular kompléks ciri ''eukariota''. Dina 2022, tomografi cryo-éléktron nunjukkeun yén ''[[Asgard archaea]]'' boga [[sitoskeleton]] basis aktin kompléks, nyadiakeun bukti ''visual'' langsung munggaran ngeunaan karuhun ''[[archaeal eukariota]]''.<ref name="Rodrigues-Oliveira et al 2023">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rodrigues-Oliveira T, Wollweber F, Ponce-Toledo RI, etal. |title=Actin cytoskeleton and complex cell architecture in an Asgard archaean |journal=Nature |volume=613 |pages=332–339 |date=2023 |issue=7943 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05550-y|pmid=36544020 |pmc=9834061 |bibcode=2023Natur.613..332R |hdl=20.500.11850/589210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ===Fosil=== Waktu asal usul ''[[eukariota]]'' sesah ditetepkeun tapi kapanggihna ''Qingshania magnificia'', ''eukariota multiseluler'' pangheubeulna ti [[Cina]] Kalér nu hirup salila 1,635 milyar taun ka tukang, nunjukkeun yén grup mahkota eukariota asalna ti [[Paleoproterozoic]] ahir (Statherian); [[Eukariota uniseluler]] pangheubeulna [[unequivocal]] nu hirup salila kurang leuwih 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang ogé kapanggih ti Cina Kalér:''Tappania plana'', ''Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum'', ''Dictyosphaera macroreticulata'', ''Germinosphaera alveolata'', sareng ''Valeria lophostriata''. Sababaraha ''[[acritarchs]]'' dipikanyaho ti sahenteuna 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang, jeung fosil, ''[[Grypania]]'', nu bisa jadi [[alga]], nyaéta saloba 2,1 milyar taun. hiji "masalah" fosil Diskagma geus kapanggih dina ''[[paleosol]]'' heubeul 2,2 miliar taun.<ref name="Retallack 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Retallack GJ, Krull ES, Thackray GD, Parkinson DH |title= Problematic urn-shaped fossils from a Paleoproterozoic (2.2 Ga) paleosol in South Africa. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_precambrian-research_2013-09_235/page/71 |journal=Precambrian Research |year=2013 |volume=235 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2013.05.015 |bibcode=2013PreR..235...71R }}</ref> [[File:Diskagma butonii.jpg|thumb|left|Rekonstruksi tina masalah <ref name="Retallack 2013"/> ''[[Diskagma buttonii]]'', fosil terestrial jangkungna kirang ti 1mm, tina batu heubeul sabudeureun 2,2 milyar taun]] Struktur anu diusulkeun pikeun ngagambarkeun "organisme kolonial badag" geus kapanggih dina shales hideung tina ''[[Palaeoproterozoic]]'' kayaning Formasi Francevillian B, di Gabon, dijuluki "biota Francevillian" anu umurna 2,1 milyar taun. <ref name="El Albani Bengtson Canfield 2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=El Albani A, Bengtson S, Canfield DE, Bekker A, Macchiarelli R, Mazurier A, Hammarlund EU, Boulvais P, Dupuy JJ, Fontaine C, Fürsich FT, Gauthier-Lafaye F, Janvier P, Javaux E, Ossa FO, Pierson-Wickmann AC, Riboulleau A, Sardini P, Vachard D, Whitehouse M, Meunier A |display-authors=3 |s2cid=4331375 |title=Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-07-01_466_7302/page/100 |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=7302 |pages=100–104 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20596019 |doi=10.1038/nature09166 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..100A }}</ref> Tapi, status struktur ieu salaku fosil dilombakeun, kalawan pangarang séjén suggesting yén maranéhna bisa ngagambarkeun pseudofossils. Fosil-fosil pangkolotna anu teu jelas ditugaskeun ka eukariota nyaéta ti Grup Ruyang Cina, kira-kira 1,8-1,6 milyar taun ka tukang.<ref name="El Albani 2023">{{cite journal |title=A search for life in Palaeoproterozoic marine sediments using Zn isotopes and geochemistry |last=El Albani |first=Abderrazak |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2023 |volume=623 |page=118169 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169|bibcode=2023E&PSL.61218169E |s2cid=258360867 |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-04095643/file/El%20Albani%20et%20al._EPSL_2023.pdf }}</ref> Fosil anu jelas patali jeung grup modern mimiti muncul kira 1,2 miliar taun ka tukang, dina bentuk ganggang beureum, sanajan karya panganyarna nunjukkeun ayana fosil ganggang filamén dina cekungan Vindhya dating deui meureun 1,6 nepi ka 1,7 miliar taun ka tukang.<ref name="Ossa Ossa Pons Bekker Hofmann 2023">{{cite journal | last1=Ossa Ossa | first1=Frantz | last2=Pons | first2=Marie-Laure | last3=Bekker | first3=Andrey | last4=Hofmann | first4=Axel | last5=Poulton | first5=Simon W. | last6=Andersen | first6=Morten B. | last7=Agangi | first7=Andrea | last8=Gregory | first8=Daniel | last9=Reinke | first9=Christian | last10=Steinhilber | first10=Bernd | last11=Marin-Carbonne | first11=Johanna | last12=Schoenberg | first12=Ronny | display-authors=5 | title=Zinc enrichment and isotopic fractionation in a marine habitat of the c. 2.1 Ga Francevillian Group: A signature of zinc utilization by eukaryotes? | journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters | volume=611 | date=2023 | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118147 | page=118147| doi-access=free | bibcode=2023E&PSL.61118147O | url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/197720/8/1-s2.0-S0012821X23001607-main.pdf }}</ref> Ayana steranes, biomarker khusus eukariot, dina shales Australia saméméhna nunjukkeun yén eukariota aya dina batuan ieu tanggal 2,7 milyar taun,tapi biomarker Archaean ieu geus rebutted salaku rereged engké. Catetan biomarker valid pangkolotna umurna ngan sakitar 800 juta taun. Sabalikna, analisis jam molekular nunjukkeun mecenghulna biosintésis stérol ti mimiti 2,3 milyar taun ka tukang. Sifat sterana salaku biomarker eukariot langkung rumit ku produksi stérol ku sababaraha baktéri.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wei JH, Yin X, Welander PV |title=Sterol Synthesis in Diverse Bacteria |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=7 |pages=990 |date=2016-06-24 |pmid=27446030 |pmc=4919349 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.00990 |doi-access=free |authorlink3=Paula V. Welander }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoshino Y, Gaucher EA |title=Evolution of bacterial steroid biosynthesis and its impact on eukaryogenesis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=25 |pages=e2101276118 |date=June 2021 |pmid=34131078 |pmc=8237579 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2101276118 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11801276H |doi-access=free }}</ref> Iraha waé asal-usulna, eukariot bisa jadi teu jadi dominan sacara ékologis nepi ka engké; kanaékan masif dina komposisi séng sédimén laut 800 juta taun ka tukang geus dikaitkeun kana kabangkitan populasi badag eukariota, nu preferentially meakeun jeung ngasupkeun séng relatif ka prokariot, kira-kira samilyar taun sanggeus asal maranéhanana (paling panganyarna)<ref name="pmid29869832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Isson TT, Love GD, Dupont CL, Reinhard CT, Zumberge AJ, Asael D, Gueguen B, McCrow J, Gill BC, Owens J, Rainbird RH, Rooney AD, Zhao MY, Stueeken EE, Konhauser KO, John SG, Lyons TW, Planavsky NJ |display-authors=3 |title=Tracking the rise of eukaryotes to ecological dominance with zinc isotopes |journal=Geobiology |volume=16|issue=4|pages=341–352|date=June 2018 |pmid=29869832 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12289 |bibcode=2018Gbio...16..341I |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Élmu alam]] [[Kategori:Élmu]] rzb5ucnif70li8l28b7z1lskahw1yei 0 108325 731529 708207 2026-11-05T12:40:30Z ~2026-58830-04 37723 /* Pamakéan dina Toponimi */ 731529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Sari | native_name = ᮞᮛᮤ | settlement_type = [[Toponimi]] | image_skyline = The Lake (260787691).jpeg | image_caption = Kaéndahan alam (sari) mangrupa gabungan antara cai, gunung, sarta tatangkalan anu asri. | image_size = 280px | subdivision_type = Wilayah | subdivision_name = [[Tatar Sunda]] | subdivision_type1 = Harti Filologis | subdivision_name1 = Inti kageulisan / Kaségaran }} '''Sari''' nyaéta hiji istilah [[toponimi]] dina [[Basa Sunda]] anu nujul kana kualitas hiji tempat anu dianggap miboga kaéndahan, kaségaran hawa, atanapi taneuh anu kacida suburna.<ref name="Danadibrata">Danadibrata, R.A. (2006). ''Kamus Basa Sunda''. Bandung: Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda. Kaca 616.</ref> Istilah ieu sering dipaké salaku panglengkep nami tempat pikeun negeskeun yén éta wewengkon téh mangrupa "inti" tina kageulisan alam di sabudeureunana. == Étimologi == Kecap sari asalna tina basa [[Sangsakerta]] anu hartina "inti" atawa "kembang". Dina kamus '''Jonathan Rigg''' (1862), sari dihartikeun salaku ''"Essence, flower, beauty"'' sarta sering dipasangkeun dina nami-nami tempat di [[Pulo Jawa]] pikeun némbongkeun aspék éstétika hiji wilayah.<ref name="Rigg">Rigg, J. (1862). ''A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java''. Batavia: Lange & Co. Kaca 435.</ref> == Pamakéan dina Toponimi == Bénten sareng istilah [[Ranca]] atanapi [[Léngkob]] anu nujul kana wangun fisik taneuh, "Sari" leuwih nujul kana rasa sarta ajén éstétika. Dina kamekaranana, loba nami tempat anyar atanapi padumukan anu ngagunakeun kecap sari sangkan méré kesan asri. Contona: * '''[[Sariwangi, Tasikmalaya|Sariwanggi]]''': Nujul kana vonto nami wewengkon anu aya di Tasikmalaya. * '''[[Sarijadi, Sukasari, Bandung|Sarijadi]]''': Nami perumahan/wilayah anu hartina "kageulisan anu jadi/nyata". * '''[[Puspasari, Pedes, Karawang|Puspasari]]''': Campuran kecap kembang (puspa) sarta sari, némbongkeun tempat anu éndah kawas taman. == Tempo ogé == * [[Toponimi Sunda]] * [[Tanjung]] * [[Mekar]] == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Wangun daratan]] [[Kategori:Ngaran tempat]] [[Kategori:Toponimi di Tatar Sunda]] [[Kategori:Géografi]] [[Kategori:Toponimi]] [[Kategori:Basa Sunda]] reft9agqinic18ytsionw5q8k98nnxd