Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara Indonésia 0 601 732125 729513 2026-11-10T21:37:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 6 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732125 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Indonesia infobox}}{{geulis}} '''Républik Indonésia''' ('''RI''') (Aksara Sunda: ᮛᮦᮕᮥᮘᮣᮤᮊ᮪ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ) nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Asia Tenggara]], nu diliwatan ku gurat [[khatulistiwa]] jeung aya di antara Buana [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia]] sarta antara [[Samudra Pasifik]] jeung [[Samudra Hindia]]. Indonésia mangrupa nagara [[kapuloan]] nu panggedéna sadunya, diwangun ku 13.487 pulo,<ref>[http://nasional.vivanews.com/news/read/260537-indonesia-daftarkan-13-487-pulau-ke-pbb Indonesia Daftarkan 13.487 Pulau ke PBB]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands "Indonesia has completed surveys on its 13,000 islands", ][[Antara|ANTARA News Agency]]<span>, 18 August 2010</span> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318145945/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands|date=18 March 2015}}</ref> ku kituna disebut ogé [[Nusantara]] ("pulo luar", Jawa dianggap salaku puseurna).<ref name=Kroef>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410201834/http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |archive-date=2020-04-10 |accessdate=2013-01-23 }}</ref> Kalawan populasi disawang 270 yuta jiwa dina taun 2020,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=[[1 September]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]] }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2006-09-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927070525/http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |archivedate=2006-09-27}}</ref> Indonésia minangka nagara nu populasina panglobana kaopat sadunya sarta nagara populasi pangagem [[Islam]] nu panglobana sadunya, sanajan sacara resmi Indonésia lain [[Républik Islam|nagara Islam]]. Wangun pamaréntahan Indonésia nyaéta [[républik]], kalawan [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]], [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Daérah]], jeung [[Présidén Indonésia|Présidén]] nu dipilih langsung ku rahayatna. Puseur dayeuh nagara Indonésia nyaéta [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]]. Indonésia boga wates wewengkon jeung [[Malaysia]] di [[Pulo Kalimantan]], [[Papua Nugini]] di [[Pulo Papua]], sarta [[Timor Lésté]] di [[Pulo Timor]]. Indonésia mangrupa anggota [[PBB]] sarta sahiji-hijina anggota PBB nu kungsi kaluar ti organisasi éta. Salian éta, Indonésia ogé anggota ti [[ASEAN]], [[APEC]], [[OSI]] jeung [[G-20]]. == Ngaran == {{seealso|Sajarah ngaran Indonésia}} Kecap "Indonésia" asalna ti [[Basa Latin]]<nowiki/> tina kecap ''dus'' nu hartina "Hindia" sarta kecap [[Basa Yunani]] ''nesos'' nu hartina "pulo".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |id=ISBN 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jadi, lamun ditilik sacara harti kecap ''Indonésia'' hartina [[wewengkon]] Hindia kapuloan, atanapi kapuloan nu aya di Hindia, nu nunjukkeun yén ngaran ieu geus aya saméméh Indonésia jadi nagara daulat.<ref name="indoety">{{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=[[16 Agustus]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |archive-date=2006-12-15 }}</ref> Dina taun 1850, [[George Earl]], [[étnologi|etnolog]] nu asalna ti nagara Inggris, mimiti ngusulkeun sesebutan ''Indunesia'' jeung ''Malayunesia'' pikeun pangeusi "Kapuloan Hindia atawa Kapuloan Melayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=119}}</ref> Murid éarl, [[James Richardson Logan]], maké kecap ''Indonésia'' salaku sinonim ti ''Kapuloan India''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga/page/n15 4], 252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> Tapi, panulisan akademik Walanda di média Hindia-Walanda teu maké kecap ''Indonésia'', tapi ''Kapuloan Melayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Hindia Wétan Walanda'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), atawa ''Hindia'' (''Indië''); ''Wétan'' (''de Oost''); sarta ''Insulinde'' (istilah ieu diwanohkeun taun 1860 dina novel ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' (1859), yasana [[Multatuli]], ngeunaan kritik kana kolonialisme Walanda).<ref name=Kroef/> Saprak taun 1900, ngaran Indonésia jadi leuwih ilahar dina lingkungan akademik di luareun [[Walanda]] , sarta golongan nasionalis Indonésia maké kecap éta dina widang pulitik.<ref name=Kroef/> [[Adolf Bastian]] ti [[Universitas Humboldt Bérlin|Universitas Bérlin]] ngawanohkeun ngaran ieu dina buku ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Pelajar Indonésia munggaran nu maké ngaran ieu nyaéta [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), nalika anjeunna ngawangun kantor warta di Walanda nu ngaranna ''Indonesisch Pers Bureau'' dina taun 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Indonésia}} === Sajarah awal === Titinggal fosil-fosil ''[[Homo erectus]]'', nu ku [[Antropologi|antropolog]] ogé dilandi "[[Manusa Jawa]]", mawa pamadegan yén kapuloan Indonésia geus dieusian antara 2 yuta nepi ka 500.000 taun kaliwat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-anthropology_1988_17/page/43 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=[[15 Agustus]], [[1983]] |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |accessdate= |pmid=6410399 |doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121211948/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |archive-date=2008-11-21 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |coauthors=P.Y. Sondaar, |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4, 988–4992 |date=[[9 Desember]] [[1994]] |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |accessdate= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225215/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |archive-date=2009-09-29 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}</ref>. Bangsa [[Austronésia]], nu ayeuna mangrupa mayoritas pangeusi Indonésia, pindah ka Asia Tenggara ti [[Formosa]]. Maranéhna disawang nepi ka Indonésia dina taun 2000&nbsp;SM, sarta ngabalukarkeun Bangsa [[Mélanésia]] nu geus aya saméméhna kagigirkeun ka wewengkon nu jauh di beulah wétan.<ref>Taylor (2003), kaca 5–7</ref> Kaayaan nu cocog pikeun tatanén ngabalukarkeun geu ayana kaahlian [[Sawah|melak paré]] saprak [[abad ka-8 SM]],<ref> {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/9 8]–9 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref>. ku kituna ngabalukarkeun ogé ku lobana désa, kota, jeung karajaan-karajaan leutik tumuwuh jeung mekar dina [[abad ka-1]] M. Salian ti éta, Indonésia nu aya di jalur perdagangan laut internasional jeung antar pulo, geus jadi jalur lalayaran antara India jeung Cina dina sababaraha abad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/16 15]–18 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Sajarah Indonésia saterusna boga loba pangaruh ti kagiatan paniagaan éta.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), hal. 18–20, 60, 133–134</ref> [[Gambar:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rélief kapal di Candi [[Borobudur]], <u>+</u>800 M.]] Ti pangaruh agama [[Hindu]] jeung [[Buddha]], sababaraha karajaan ngadeg di pulo [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], jeung [[Jawa]] saprak [[abad ka-4]] nepi ka [[abad ka-14]]. [[Karajaan Kutai|Kutai]], nyaéta karajaan nu pangkolotna di Indonésia nu ngadeg dina abad ka-4 di hulu [[Walungan Mahakam]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]]. Di wewengkon kulon Pulo Jawa, dina abad ka-4 nepi ka ka-7 M aya Karajaan [[Tarumanagara]]. Dina abad ka-7 aya Karajaan Malayu nu puseurna di [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]], Sumatra. [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] ngéléhkeun Malayu sarta jadi karajaan maritim nu pangkuatna di wewengkon [[Nusantara]]. Wewengkon kakawasaanna ngawengku Sumatra, Jawa, samenanjung Melayu, ogé ngawasaan paniagaan di Selat Malaka, Selat Sunda, sarta Laut Cina Kidul.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), hal. 3</ref> Kadatangan padagang-padagang [[urang Arab|Arab]] jeung [[urang Pérsia|Pérsia]] liwat Gujarat, India, tuluy mawa agama [[Islam]]. [[Samudera Pasai]] nu ngadeg dina taun [[1267]], mangrupa karajaan Islam kahiji di Indonésia. === Panjajahan === Indonésia ogé mangrupa nagara nu kungsi diéréh ku loba nagara. Ieu di handap nyaéta sababaraha nagara nu kungsi ngaéréh atawa ngajajah sakabéh atawa sabagian wewengkon Indonésia. * [[Portugal]] ([[1509]]-[[1595]]) * [[Spanyol]] ([[1521]]-[[1692]]) * [[Walanda]] * [[Perancis]], sacara teu langsung ngawasaan Jawa dina jaman 1806-1811 lantaran Karajaan Walanda taluk ka Prancis. Basa [[Louis Bonaparte]], adina [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], diistrénan di walanda dina taun 1806, ku kituna otomatis jajahan Walanda pindah ka Prancis. périodeu ieu lumangsung dina mangsa pamaréntahan Gubernur Jenderal [[Herman Willem Daendels]] di taun 1808-1811. Dipungkas taun 1811 nalika Inggris ngéléhkeun kakuatan Walanda-Prancis di pulo Jawa. * [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] [[1811]], saprak [[Kapitulasi Tungtang]] ditandatanganan nu salah sahiji eusina nyaéta [[Pulo Jawa]] dibéré ti [[Walanda]] ka [[Britania Raya|Inggris]]. Dina taun [[1814]] dilaksanakeun [[Konvénsi London]] nu eusina pamaréntah [[Walanda]] balik deui nyekel kakawasaan kana wewengkon jajahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia. Dina taun [[1816]], pamaréntahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia sacara resmi réngsé. * [[Jepang]] [[1942]] nepi ka [[1945]], ku sabab éléhna [[Jepang]] ti pihak sakutu dina [[Perang Dunya II]]. Nalika urang [[éropa]] daratang di mimiti [[abad ka-16]], maranéhna manggih sababaraha karajaan nu gampang diéléhkeun pikeun ngawasaan perdagangan rempah-rempah. Portugis mimiti nepi di 2 palabuan [[Karajaan Sunda]] nyaéta [[Banten]] jeung [[Padrao Sunda Kalapa|Sunda Kalapa]], tapi bisa ditundung jeung teras pindah ka wétan ngawasaan [[Maluku]]. Dina [[abad ka-17]], [[Walanda]] ngéléhkeun [[Britania Raya]] jeung [[Portugal]] (iwal di [[Timor Portugis]]). Disawang mangsa harita ageman [[Kristen]]<nowiki/>kmimiti sumebar dindonésia salaku salah sahiji tujuan imperialisme lawas nu kawanoh salaku ''3G'', nyaéta ''[[Gold, Glory, and Gospel]]'' atanapi "Emas, Kajayaan, jeung Ageman".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Louis B. |title=Gold, Glory, and the Gospel: The Adventurous Lives and Times of the Renaissance Explorers |url=https://archive.org/details/goldglorygospel0000unse |publisher=Atheneum |date=1970 |location=New York |pages= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ngawasaan Indonésia salaku wewengkon jajahan nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]]. KaMimitina [[VOC]], tapi tuluy ku pamaréntah Walanda saprak awal abad ka-19. [[file:Raden Sarief Bastaman Saleh - Johannes Graaf van den Bosch.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Johannes van den Bosch]], panaratas ''Cultuurstelsel''.]] Walanda nyieun sistim ''[[Cultuurstelsel]]'' (''Sistem Pamelakan'') dina abad ka-19, nyaéta sistim melak kebon-kebon garedé sarta pelak paksa nu sakabéhna dilaksanakeun di Jawa, nu méré kauntungan pikeun Walanda nu teu bisa dihasilkeun ku VOC. Dina jaman pamaréntahan panjajahan nu leuwih bébas sanggeus [[1870]], sistim ieu dihapus. Sanggeus [[1901]] pihak Walanda ngawanohkeun [[Pulitik étis|Kawijakan étis]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 |publisher=MacMillan |date =1991 |location=London |pages=151 |url= |doi= |id=ISBN 0-33-579690-X}}</ref> nu ngawengku parobahan pulitik nu tangtu sarta invéstasi nu leuwih gedé di Hindia-Walanda. Dina jaman Perang Dunya II, nalika Walanda dijajah ku [[Jérman]], [[Jepang]] ngawasaan Indonésia. Indonésia dieréh deui dina taun [[1942]], Jepang nempo yén para pajuang Indonésia mangrupa batur paniagaan nu kooperatif jeung bisa milu jadi prajurit lamun dibutuhkeun. [[Sukarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], [[Mas Mansur, Kiai Haji|KH. Mas Mansur]], jeung [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] dibéré pangajén ku [[Hirohito|Kaisar Jepang]] dina taun [[1943]]. === Indonésia merdika === {{seealso|Agrési Militér Walanda I|Agrési Militér Walanda II}} [[file:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Sukarno]], présidén kahiji Indonésia.]] Dina Maret [[1945]], Jepang ngawangun hiji komite pikeun kamerdikaan Indonésia. Sanggeus [[Perang Pasifik]] bérés dina taun 1945, dina tekenan organisasi nonoman, Soekarno-Hatta [[Proklamasi Kamerdikaan Indonésia|ngadéklarasikeun]] kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]. [[Sukarno]] jadi [[Présidén Indonésia]], sarta [[Mohammad Hatta]] jadi [[Wakil Présidén Indonésia]]. Dina usaha ngawasaan deui Indonésia, Walanda ngirimkeun pasukanna. Usaha-usaha ngalawan pergerakan kamerdikaan Indonésia ieu tuluy dipikawanoh ku Walanda salaku 'aksi kapulisian' (''Politionele Actie''), atanapi ku Indonésia dipikawanoh minangka 'Agrési Militér'.<ref>{{cite book |last=ZWEERS |first=L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Agressi II: Operatie Kraai. De vergeten beelden van de tweede politionele actie |publisher=SDU uitgevers |date=1995 |location=[[Den Haag]] |pages= |url= |doi= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ahirna ngaku kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[27 Désémber]] [[1949]] salaku nagara [[féderal]] nu disebut [[Républik Indonésia Sarikat]] sanggeus aya tekenan ti kalangan internasional, utamana [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Mosi Integral [[Natsir]] dina 17 Agustus 1950, ngahudangkeun balikna Negara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia sarta ngabubarkeun Républik Indonésia Sarikat. Dina jaman 1950-an jeung 1960-an, pamaréntahan Sukarno milu sakaligus naratas [[gerakan non-blok]] awalna, tapi tujuanna sangkan leuwih deukeut jeung blok [[sosialisme|sosialis]], saperti [[Républik Rahayat Cina]] jeung [[Yugoslavia]]. Taun 1960-an minangka saksi ayana konfrontasi militér jeung [[Malaysia]] ("''[[Konfrontasi Indonésia-Malaysia|Konfrontasi]]''"),<ref>van der Bijl, Nick. ''Confrontation, The War with Indonesia 1962—1966'', (London, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-595-8</ref> sarta kateupuasan kana héséna ékonomi. Salajuna dina 1965 aya kajadian [[G30S]] nu nyababkeun maotna 6 [[jendral]] sarta sababaraha [[perwira]] tengah lianna. Kaluar kakuatan anyar nu dilandi ''[[Orde Baru]]'' (Ordeu Anyar) nu nuduh [[Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] salaku dalang kajadian jeung boga maksud ngaléngsérkeun pamaréntahan nu keur aya sarta ngarobah dasar nagara kana paham [[sosialisme|sosialis]]-[[komunisme|komunis]]. Tuduhan ieu sakaligus dijadikeun alesan pikeun ngaganti pamaréntahan saméméhna dina paréntah Sukarno kana pamaréntahan nu anyar. Jendral [[Soeharto]] jadi Présidén Indonésia dina taun [[1967]] maké alesan pikeun ngamankeun nagara tina bahya [[komunisme]]. Ratusan rébu warga Indonésia nu dianggap milu pihak komunis ditelasan, samentara loba warga Indonésia nu keur aya di luar negri, teu wanieun mulih ka Indonésia, sarta teras dicabut [[kawarganagaraan]]na. Jaman kakawasaan Soeharto dilandi [[Orde Énggal]] sarta jaman pamaréntahan Sukarno disebut [[Orde Lawas]]. Soeharto ngagunakeun ékonomi [[néoliberalisme|néoliberal]] sarta hasil ngadatangkeun raloba [[invéstasi]] luar negri asup ka Indonésia sarta ngahasilkeun pamekaran ékonomi nu gedé, sanajan teu rata. Dina awal rézim Orde Énggal, kawijakan ékomomi Indonésia disusun ku sababaraha urang [[ékonom]] lulusan [[Universitas California, Berkeley]], nu dilandi "[[Mafia Berkeley]]".<ref>Wibowo, Sigit, Sjarifuddin. ''[http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html Ekonomi Indonesia Gagal karena Mafia Berkeley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616191928/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html |date=2008-06-16 }}'', Harian Umum Sore Sinar Harapan. Copyright © Sinar Harapan 2003. Diaksés: Salasa, 6 Agustus 2008.</ref> Soeharto ahirna dipaksa léngsér ti jabatanna ku aksi [[démonstrasi]] sarta kaayaan ékonomi nagara nu goréng dina taun [[1998]]. Sanggeus léngsérna Suharto, saprak 1998 nepi ka 2001, Indonésia miboga tilu [[Présidén Indonésia|présidén]]: [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], sareng [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. Dina taun [[2004]], diayakeun [[pamilihan umum Indonésia|pamilihan umum]] hiji poé nu panggedéna sadunya<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Laporan dari [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Center Carter Center] |pages=30 |year=2004 |title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=[[29 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2006-12-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-14}}</ref> sarta [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] kapilih salaku présidén. Sawatara wengkon Indonésia ngusahakeun pikeun misahkeun manéh, saperti [[Organisasi Papua Merdika|Papua Kulon]] jeung [[Républik Maluku Kidul|Maluku Kidul]]. [[Timor Wétan]] resmi misah ti Indonésia dina taun [[1999]] sanggeus 3 taun dina administrasi [[PBB]], jadi nagara [[Timor Lésté]]. Dina Désémber [[2004]] jeung Maret [[2005]], di wewengkon [[Acéh]] sarta [[Pulo Nias|Nias]] ngalaman [[lini]] nu nelasan rébuan jiwa. (Tingali ''[[Lini Samudra Hindia 2004]]'' jeung ''[[Lini Sumatra Maret 2005]]''.) Kajadian ieu disusul ku [[Lini Yogyakarta Méi 2006|lini di Yogyakarta]] jeung [[Lini Jawa Juli 2006|sunami]] di wewengkon [[Basisir Pangandaran]] dina taun [[2006]], sarta [[Caah leutak panas Sidoarjo 2006|caah leutak]] di [[Sidoarjo]] saprak taun 2006. == Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== {{utama|Pulitik Indonésia}} [[File:MPRDPRBuilding.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Gedong MPR-DPR Indonésia]] [[File:IstanaMerdekaFront.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Istana Merdeka''', bagian ti Istana Kaprésidénan Jakarta.]] Indonésia miboga pamaréntahan [[républik]] [[démokrasi]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] multipartéy. Sistim pulitik Indonésia didasarkeun kana [[Pamisahan kakawasaan|Trias Politika]]: [[législatif]], [[éksekutif]], jeung [[yudikatif]]. Kakawasaan législatif dibogaan ku [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat]] (MPR). MPR Indonésia pernah jadi [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia#Posisi|lembaga nagara pangluhurna]] sarta mangrupa [[sistim hiji kamar|hiji kamar (unikameral)]], tapi sanggeus [[Améndemén Ka-4 Undang-Undang Dasar Indonésia|améndmén ka-4 UUD Indonésia]] MPR sanés lembaga nu pangluhurna deui, sarta komposisi kaanggotaanna ogé robah. Saprak [[2004]], MPR miboga [[sistim dua kamar|sistim parlemén dua kamar (bikameral)]] nu disusun ku 560 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Indonésia]] (DPR) nu pajabatna ti jalur [[partéy pulitik di Indonésia|partéy pulitik]], sarta ditambih ku 132 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia]] (DPD) nu minangka wakil propinsi ti jalur [[indepénden]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ | title = Perubahan Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 | language = Indonesia | format = pdf | accessdate = 2011-05-24 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120118195924/http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ | archivedate = 2012-01-18 }}</ref> Anggota DPR jeung DPD dipilih langsung ku rahayat dina [[pamilihan umum di Indonésia|pamilihan umum législatif]] sarta diangkat pikeun masa jabatan lima taun. Lembaga éksekutif museur kana [[présién Indonésia|présidén]], [[wakil présidén Indonésia|wakil présidén]], jeung [[kabinet Indonésia|kabinét]]. Kabinét di Indonésia mangrupa kabinét présidénsial jadina mentri mibanda tanggung jawab ka présidén. Lembaga yudikatif dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah Agung Indonésia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial Indonésia|Komisi Yudisial]], jeung [[Mahkamah Konstitusi Indonésia|Mahkamah Konstitusi]]. Tapi [[Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa Indonésia|Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa]] tetep aya. == Babagian administratif == {{Utama|Propinsi di Indonésia|Kabupatén di Indonésia|Kotamadya di Indonésia|Kacamatan di Indonésia}} Indonésia ayeuna miboga 38 [[propinsi]], 5 propinsi miboga status husus. Propinsi dibagi kana [[kabupatén di Indonésia|kabupatén]] jeung [[kotamadya di Indonésia|kotamadya]] nu dibagi deui kana [[kacamatan di Indonésia|kacamatan]]. Babagian administratifna lanjut deui nepi ka bagian nu pangleutikna nyaéta Rukun Tatangga (RT) nu mangrupa daérah tingkat ka-6. Unggal propinsi miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Propinsi di Indonésia|DPRD Propinsi]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[gubernur]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kabupatén miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kabupatén di Indonésia|DPRD Kabupatén]] salakeun badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[bupati]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kotamadya miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kotamadya di Indonésia|DPRD Kotamadya]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[walikota]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Sadayana, dipilih langsung ku rahayat langku pamilihan umum. Tapi di Jakarta (Wewengkon Husus Ibu Kota Jakarta) euweuh DPRD Kabupatén atanpai Kotamadya, ku sabab Kabupatén Administrasi jeung Kota Administrasi di Jakarta sanés wewengkon otonom.<ref>[http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara ''Kabupaten - Kementerian Dalam Negeri - Republik Indonesia'' Diaksés 4 Pébruari 2013 (UTC+7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306004821/http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara |date=2016-03-06 }}</ref> Propinsi [[Acéh]], [[Daérah Husus Yogyakarta]], [[Papua Kulon]], jeung [[Papua]] miboga hak husus sarta tingkat otonomi nu leuwih luhur ti propinsi nu lian. Misalna, Acéh boga hak pikeun nagntukeun sistim hukumna sorangan; dina taun 2003, Acéh mimiti maké hukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521082956/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |archive-date=2015-05-21 |accessdate=2013-02-04 }}</ref> Yogyakarta miboga status daérah husus salaku pangakuan kana pentingna Yogyakarta dina ngarojong Indonésia nalika Révolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Bab XIV Other Provisions, Pasal 122; {{PDFlink|[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Republik_Indonesia_Nomor_5_Tahun_1974 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah]|146&nbsp;}}. [[Présidén Indonésia]] (1974). Bab VII Aturan Peralihan, Pasal 91</ref> [[Propinsi Papua]] (baheulana disebut Irian Jaya), miboga status otonomi husus taun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |archive-date=2006-01-15 }}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |archive-date=2006-01-15 }}</ref> [[DKI Jakarta]] mangrupa wewengkon husus ibu kota nagara. [[Timor Portugis]] digabungkeun ka wewengkon Indonésia minangka propinsi [[Timor Wétan]] dina 1979–1999, nu teras misahkeun manéh liwat réferéndum jadi nagara merdika, [[Timor Lésté]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archive National Security Archieve], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_University Universitas George Washington], [[Washington, D.C.]] |date=2001-12-06 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=2006-09-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171438/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |archivedate=2011-08-22 }}</ref> ==Propinsi== {{Peta Indonesia}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Sumatra]]''' * [[Acéh]] - [[Kota Banda Acéh|Banda Acéh]] * [[Langsa]] - [[Kota Langsa|Kotua Langsa]] * [[Sumatra Kalér]] - [[Kota Médan|Médan]] * [[Sumatra Kulon]] - [[Kota Padang|Padang]] * [[Riau]] - [[Kota Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] * [[Kapuloan Riau]] - [[Kota Tanjungpinang|Tanjungpinang]] * [[Jambi]] - [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]] * [[Sumatra Kidul]] - [[Kota Palembang|Palembang]] * [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung]] - [[Kota Pangkal Pinang|Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] - [[Kota Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] * [[Lampung]] - [[Kota Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]] '''Pulo [[Jawa]]''' * [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta]] * [[Banten]] - [[Kota Sérang|Sérang]] * [[Jawa Kulon]] - [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] * [[Jawa Tengah]] - [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] * [[Yogyakarta|Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]] - [[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] * [[Jawa Wétan]] - [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]] '''Kapuloan [[Sunda Alit]]''' * [[Bali]] - [[Kota Denpasar|Denpasar]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon]] - [[Kota Mataram|Mataram]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]] - [[Kota Kupang|Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Kalimantan]]''' * [[Kalimantan Kulon]] - [[Kota Pontianak|Pontianak]] * [[Kalimantan Tengah]] - [[Kota Palangka Raya|Palangka Raya]] * [[Kalimantan Kidul]] - [[Kota Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] * [[Kalimantan Wétan]] - [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] * [[Kalimantan Kalér]] - [[Tanjung Selor]] '''Pulo [[Sulawesi]]''' * [[Sulawesi Kalér]] - [[Kota Manado|Manado]] * [[Gorontalo]] - [[Kota Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] * [[Sulawesi Tengah]] - [[Kota Palu|Palu]] * [[Sulawesi Kulon]] - [[Kota Mamuju|Mamuju]] * [[Sulawesi Kidul]] - [[Kota Makassar|Makassar]] * [[Sulawesi Tenggara]] - [[Kota Kendari|Kendari]] '''Kapuloan [[Maluku]]''' * [[Maluku]] - [[Kota Ambon|Ambon]] * [[Maluku Kalér]] - [[Sofifi]] '''Pulo [[Papua]]''' * [[Papua Kulon]] - [[Kota Manokwari|Manokwari]] * [[Papua]] - [[Kota Jayapura|Jayapura]] {{col-end}} == Géografi == {{utama|Géografi Indonésia}} [[file:Waterfall Madakaripura B.JPG|150px|thumb|right|[[Curug Madakaripura]] di [[Taman Nasional Bromo-Tengger-Semeru]], [[Lumbang, Probolinggo|Lumbang]], [[Kabupatén Probolinggo|Probolinggo]], [[Jawa Wétan]].]] Indonésia mangrupa [[nagara kapuloan]] di [[Asia Tenggara]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Harm | last=Dotinga | coauthors=Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea | title=International organizations and the law of the sea: documentary yearbook, Vol 14 |pages=960 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | year=2000 | isbn=9041113452, 9789041113450}}</ref> nu miboga 17.504 pulo, kalawan kirang-langkung 6.000 pulo heunteu dieusian<ref name="Indonesia Regions">{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |title=World Economic Outlook Database |month=April |year=2006 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-07-29 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501013111/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005 |archivedate=2018-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indonesia Regions | publisher =Indonesia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate =2007-04-24 | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20051228011848/http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | archivedate =2005-12-28 }}</ref>, nu nyebar di wewengkon [[khatulistiwa]], kira-kira ti 95°BW - 141°45'BW sarta aya di antara 2 buana nyaéta [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia (buana)|Australia]]/[[Oséania]]. == Atikan == {{utama|Atikan di Indonésia}} Dumasar kana undang-undang di Indonésia, pamaréntah puseur jeung daérah miboga anggaran atikan 20% ti anggaran nagara jeung anggaran daérah salian ti upah guru jeung biaya kadinasan. Tapi dina taun [[2007]], dana nu disadiakeun karak 17,2 %<ref>World Bank, (2008), ''Spending for development: making the most of Indonesia's new opportunities : Indonesia public expenditure review'', World Bank Publications, ISBN 978-0-8213-7320-0</ref>. == Ékonomi == {{utama|Ékonomi Indonésia}} [[file:PDRB per kapita Indonesia 2008.svg|450px|thumb|left|Peta nu némbongkeun Produk Doméstik Régional Bruto (PDRB) per kapita propinsi-propinsi di Indonésia dina taun 2008. {| style="width:100%;" |- | valign=top | {{legend|#441650|Langkung ti Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#006680|Rp 50 yuta ++ - Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#217867|Rp 40 yuta ++ - Rp 50 yuta}} {{legend|#2ca089|Rp 30 yuta ++ - Rp 40 yuta}} | valign=top | {{legend|#37c8ab|Rp 20 yuta ++ - Rp 30 yuta}} {{legend|#aaeeff|Rp 10 yuta ++ - Rp 20 yuta}} {{legend|#d7eef4|Rp 5 yuta ++ - Rp 10 yuta}} {{legend|#dbdee3|Kirang ti Rp 5 yuta}} |}]] Sistim ékonomi Indonésia awalna dirojong ku ayana ''[[Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia|Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia (ORI)]]'' minangka mata uang kahiji Indonésia, nu sanggeusna ganti jadi [[Rupiah]]. Dina jaman pamaréntahan [[Orde Lawas]], Indonésia heunteu sapinuhna ngagunakeun sistim ékonomi kapitalisme, tapi dicampurkeun jeung sistim nasionalisme ékonomi. Pamaréntah nu masih anyar, raloba milu kana produksi nu boga pangaruh ka masarakat, ditambah ku kaayaan pulitik, nyababkeun ayana kateustabilan ékonomi nagara.<ref name="SCHWARZ">Schwarz, A. (1994). ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s''. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2, halaman 52–57.</ref> [[file:Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) banknotes2009.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Uang [[Rupiah]].]] Pamaréntahan Orde Énggal geura maké disiplin ékonomi pikeun neken [[inflasi]], stabilisasi mata uang, pangaturan [[tambut luar nagri]], sarta ngondang investasi asing.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Dina jaman [[1970-an]], harga [[minyak bumi]] nu naék nyababkeun naékna angka ékspor sarta tingkat tumbuh ékonomi rarata nu luhur saloba 7% antara taun 1968 nepi ka 1981.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Parobahan ékonomi salajengna dina jaman 1980-an, saperti dérégulasi kauangan jeung déflasi,<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> teras ngalirkeun invéstasi asing ka Indonésia hususna dina industri-industri nu ngarah ka ékspor antara 1989 nepi ka 1997<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |month=September |year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |format= |doi= |accessdate= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101135702/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |archivedate=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Ékonomi Indonésia ngalaman kamunduran dina ahir [[1990-an]] ku sabab [[krisis finansial Asia|krisis ékonomi]] di raloba wewengkon [[Asia]] keur éta,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-09-14 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128215856/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp |date=2006-11-28 }}</ref> nu dibarengan ku réngséna pamaréntahan Orde Énggal sarta mundurna Soeharto salaku présidén dina 21 Méi 1998. Pertumbuhan [[PDB|PDB Indonésia]] dina 2004 jeung 2005 leuwih ti 5%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Forecast |work=Country Briefings |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-10-03 |url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |accessdate= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804014414/http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |archivedate=2008-08-04 }}</ref> Tapi, akibatna heunteu boga pangaruh loba dina tingkat pangangguran, nyaéta 9,75%.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Beberapa Indikator Penting Mengenai Indonesia |date=2008-12-02 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=2008-03-18 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-03-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401200753/http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |archivedate=2008-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author=Ridwan Max Sijabat| title=Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape| publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]]| date=2007-23-03| url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501081947/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp| archive-date=2007-05-01| access-date=2013-02-04}}</ref> Perkiraan taun 2006, 17,8% masarakat hirup di handapeun [[gurat kamiskinan]], sarta aya 49,0% masarakat hirup kalawan panghasilan kirang ti AS$ 2 sapoé.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor - Overview |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |year=2006 |accessdate=[[26 Desember]] [[2006]] |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2006-12-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817013648/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |archivedate=2008-08-17}}</ref> === Sumber daya alam === Indonésia miboga raloba [[sumber daya alam]] saperti [[minyak bumi]], [[timah]], [[gas alam]], [[nikel]], [[kai]], [[bauksit]], [[taneuh subur]], [[batu bara]], [[emas]], jeung [[pérak]] kalawan babagian lemah [[tatanén]] 10%, [[perkebonan]] 7%, [[tegalan]] 7%, [[leuweung]] 62%, sarta lianna 14% kalawan wewengkon [[irigasi]] 45.970&nbsp;km²<ref name="Indonesia: environment and development">{{cite book | first= | last=World Bank | coauthors= | title=A World Bank country study Country Studies: Indonesia: environment and development | publisher=World Bank Publications | year=1994 | isbn=0821329502, 9780821329504}}</ref> Hasil tatanén nu utama saperti [[béas]], [[entéh]], [[kopi]], [[rempah-rempah]], jeung [[karét]].<ref name='indoCIA'/> Widang [[jasa]] mangrupa panyumbang PDB nu panggedéna, nyaéta 45,3% dina PDB 2005. [[Industri]] 40,7%, sareng [[tatanén]] 14,0%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Statistics and its Development in Indonesia |work=Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18–20 February, 2004 |publisher=Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific |page=19 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |accessdate=2013-02-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225211/http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |archivedate=2009-09-29 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, widang tatanén miboga pagawé nu leuwih loba ti widan séjénna, nyaéta 44,3% ti 95 yuta jiwa. Widang jasa 36,9%, sarta widang industri 18,8%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia at a Glance |work=Indonesia Development Indicators and Data |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=2006-08-13 |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/idn_aag.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223050110/http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/IDN_aag.pdf |date=2009-12-23 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, lembaga [[Transparency International]] nempatkeun Indonésia di paringkat ka-143 ti 180 nagara dina [[Indéks Persépsi Korupsi]] taun 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title =[[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2007 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |accessdate =2007-09-28 |archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20080428203145/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |archivedate =2008-04-28 }}</ref> == Démografi == {{utama|Démografi Indonésia}} [[file:Kepadatan 2010.JPG|thumb|250px|Kapadetan populasi Indonésia dumasar kana Sénsus 2010]] Dumasar kana sénsus populasi taun 2000, Indonésia miboga kirang-langkungna 206 yuta jiwa,<ref name='bps2000'>{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |date=30 Juni 2000 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2006-10-05 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725055302/http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |archivedate=2009-07-25}}</ref> sarta diperkirakeun taun 2006 miboga 222 yuta jiwa.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> 130 yuta (leuwih ti 50%) ngeusian [[Pulo Jawa]] nu mangrupa pulo nu panglobana pangeusina sakaligus pulo tempatna ibu kota [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=2006-05-03 |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=2006-09-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814170852/http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |archivedate=2006-08-14 }}</ref> Kalobaannana urang Indonésia mangrupa [[Austronésia|Urang Austronésia]], sarta aya ogé kelompok urang [[Mélanésia]], [[Polinésia]], jeung [[Mikronésia]] utamina di Indonésia beulah wétan. Aya ogé urang nu asalna ti luar nagri saperti étnis [[Tionghoa]], [[urang India|India]], jeung [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Indonésia miboga kira-kira 4 yuta populasi urang Tionghoa.<ref name="eiu">{{cite paper |title=Country Profile 2008: Indonesia |pages= |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit Economist Intelligence Unit] |date=16 Mei 2008 |doi= |url=http://portal.eiu.com/report_dl.asp?issue_id=1973383782&mode=pdf |format=pdf |id= |accessdate=2008-07-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |date=2021-01-29 }} {{Cite web |url=https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2023-05-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |archivedate=2021-01-29}}</ref> ==Ageman== {{utama|Agama di Indonésia}} [[Islam]] mangrupa [[agama]] mayoritas nu pangagemna saloba kira-kira 85,2% urang Indonésia, nu nyababkeun Indonésia salaku nagara kalawan populasi muslim nu panglobana sadunya.<ref name='indoCIA'>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indonesia - The World Factbook|accessdate=2013-02-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210041527/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|archivedate=2008-12-10}}</ref> Umat lian saperti [[Protéstan|Kristen Protéstan]] (8,9%), [[Katolik|Kristen Katolik]] (3%), [[Hindu]] (1,8%), [[Buddha]] (0,8%), jeung sajabana (0,3%). Pamaréntah Indonésia ogé sacara resmi ngakuan [[agama Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=8 |month=August |year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910063300/http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-10 }}</ref> ==Basa== {{utama|Basa di Indonésia}} Indonésia miboga [[basa Indonésia]] salaku basa kahijian jeung [[basa nasional]]. Indonésia ogé kaasup salah sahiji nagara kareng basa panglobana di dunya.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 Ethnologue Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113015058/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 |date=2013-01-13 }}</ref> laloba basa, miboga rébuan panyatur tapi kaayaanna kaancam ku sabab generasi ngorana teu nyaturkeunna deui, sarta para panyatur pindah ka basa nasional.<ref name="endanger">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language Endangered language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205000731/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language |date=2013-02-05 }}</ref> == Kabudayaan == {{utama|Budaya Indonésia}} === Péntas === [[file:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]].]] Indonésia miboga kira-kira 300 kelompok étnis nu boga rupa-rupa warisan budaya nu mekar sairing jaman, nu ogé dipangaruhan ku kabudayaan India, Arab, Cina, Éropa, sarta kaasup ogé budaya sorangan, [[Melayu]]. Saperti kasenian [[wayang]] ti wewengkon [[Jawa]] jeung [[Bali]] nu midangkeun carita-carita mitologi Hindu kawas [[Ramayana]] jeung [[Baratayuda]], ogé carita-carita adaptasi kaayaan modéren. Aya ogé kasenian tarian contona ti [[Sumatra]] saperti tari [[Tari Ratéb Meuseukat|Ratéb Meuseukat]] jeung tari [[Tari Seudati|Seudati]] ti [[Acéh]]. Aya ogé seni [[sisindiran]], [[gurindam]], jeung sajabana ti raloba wewengkon misalna Melayu. === Busana === {{utama|Daptar busana daérah Indonésia}} [[file:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Mojang [[Urang Palémbang|Palémbang]] keur maké [[songkét]], salah sahiji busana tradisional Indonésia.]] Salah sahiji budaya pakéan ti Indonésia nyaéta [[batik]]. Sababaraha wewengkon nu katelah ti industri batikna saperti [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], [[Cirebon]], [[Pandeglang]], [[Garut]], [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], jeung [[Kabupatén Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]. Busana lian ti wewengkon Indonésia saperti [[baju kurung]] jeung [[songkét]]na ti [[Sumatra Kulon]] ([[Minangkabau]]), kaén [[ulos]] ti [[Sumatra Kalér]] ([[Batak]]), [[kabaya]], [[baju bodo]] ti [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[koteka]] ti [[Papua]], jeung sajabana. === Olahraga === {{utama|Olahraga Indonésia}} [[file:Badminton Beijing 2008 Lu Lan vs Yulianti.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Maria Kristin Yulianti]] (beureum), nu meunang medali perunggu dina [[Olimpiade Usum Panas Beijing 2008]].]] Olahraga nu populér di Indonésia utamina [[badminton]] jeung [[maén bal]]. Olahraga tradisional saperti [[takraw]] jeung [[karapan sapi]]. Pasanggiri adu tempur contona ''caci'' di [[Florés]], sarta ''[[pasola]]'' di [[Sumba]]. Olahraga béla diri nu populér di Indonésia misalna saperti [[pencak silat]]. === Musik === {{utama|Musik Indonésia}} Raloba wewengkon Indonésia miboga [[musik tradisional]]na sorangan. Aya ogé musik tradisional campuran saperti [[keroncong]] nu dipangaruhan ku [[Portugal|Portugis]] di wewengkon [[Kampung Tugu|Tugu]], [[Jakarta]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |title=Kampung Tugu, Menyimpan Kenangan Sejarah |work=Kompas |date=28 April 2004 |accessdate=2008-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211203446/http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |archive-date=2008-12-11 }}</ref>. Msik Indonésia lianna saperti [[dangdut]] nyaéta musik aliran Melayu modéren nu dipangaruhan ku musik India. [[file:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Degung]]/Gamelan]] [[daptar alat musik Indonésia|Alat musik tradisional Indonésia]] di antarana: {{Col|2}} * [[Angklung]] * Bendé * [[Calung]] * [[Degung]]/[[Gamelan]] * Gandang Tabuik * Gendang Bali * Gondang Batak * Gong Kemada * Gong Lambus * Jidor * [[Tembang Cianjuran|Kacapi Suling]] * Kulcapi Batak * Kendang Jawa * Kenong * [[Kulintang]] * [[Rebab]] * [[Rebana]] * [[Saluang]] * [[Saron]] * [[Sasando]] * [[Serunai]] * Seurune Kale * Suling Lembang * Sulim Batak * Suling Sunda * [[Talempong]] * Tanggetong * Tifa, dan sebagainya </div> === Kulinér === {{utama|Masakan Indonésia}} [[file:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Soto]].]] [[Sangu]] mangrupa kadaharan utama di lolobana wewengkon Indonésia. [[Sambel]], [[saté]], [[baso]], [[soto]], jeung [[sangu goréng]] nyaéta sababaraha contoh kadaharan masarakat Indonésia.<ref>http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025194254/http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 |date=2011-10-25 }} 40 of Indonesia's best dishes. Diaksés 5 Désémber 2011.</ref> === Sinema === {{utama|Perpileman Indonésia}} [[file:Tjoet Nja' Dhien.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Poster pilem ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), pilem ngeunaan pahlawan nasional Indonésia ti Acéh.]] Pilem kahiji nu diproduksi di nusantara nyaéta pilem taun [[1926]] kalawan judul ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' nu dijieun ku sutradara Walanda, G. Kruger jeung L. Heuveldorp, dina jaman [[Hindia Walanda]]. Pilem ieu dijieun ku Pausahaan Pilem Jawa NV di [[Bandung]] sarta diputer kahiji kalina dina 31 Désémber [[1926]] di téater Elite and Majestic, [[Bandung]]. Popularitas industri pilem Indonésia muncak dina jaman 1980-an sarta diputer di raloba bioskop di Indonésia,<ref name="kompasmovies">{{cite news |last=Kristianto |first=JB |title=Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia |publisher=Kompas |date=2 Juli 2005 |url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |archive-date=2008-01-13 }}</ref>. Antawis 2000 nepi ka 2005, jumlah pilem Indonésia nu dirilis unggal taunna teras ningkatan.<ref name="kompasmovies"/> Pilem ''[[Laskar Pelangi]]'' (2008) mangrupa pilem kalawan pamasukan anu panglobana sapanjang sajarah pilem di Indonésia nepi ka danget ieu. === Kasusastraan === {{utama|Sastra Indonésia}} Figur penting dina sastra modéren Indonésia saperti panulis Walanda [[Douwes Dekker|Multatuli]] nu méré kritikan kana kalakuan Walanda ka Indonésia dina jaman panjajahan Walanda; [[Muhammad Yamin]] jeung [[Hamka]] nu mangrupa panulis sarta pulitisi pra-kamerdikaan;<ref>Taylor (2003), halaman 299–301</ref> sarta [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], panulis novel Indonésia nu kakoncara salah sahijina nyaéta nulis novel Bumi Manusia.<ref>Vickers (2005) halaman 3 to 7; Friend (2003), halaman 74, 180</ref> Salah sahiji conto panulis puisi Indonésia misalna [[Chairil Anwar]]. Raloba urang Indonésia miboga [[tradisi lisan]] nu kiat, nu ngarojong dina nerangkeun sarta ngamumulé kaayaan budayana.<ref name="UNESCO Jakarta, Indonesia">{{cite web|last= Czermak|first= Karen|authorlink= |coauthors= Philippe DeLanghe, Wei Weng|title= "Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage in Indonesia"|publisher= SIL International|url= http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|format= PDF|accessdate= 2007-07-04|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|archivedate= 2007-07-09}}</ref> == Lingkungan hirup == {{utama|Flora Indonésia|Fauna Indonésia}} [[file:Rafflesia sumatra.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''[[Rafflesia arnoldii]]'' kembang nu panggedéna sadunya.]] [[file:Varanus komodoensis6.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Komodo]], sato réptil langka ti wewengkon [[Nusa Tenggara]].]] Wewengkon Indonésia miboga rupa-rupa mahluk hirup. Ku kituna sababaraha sumber nyebatkeun yén wewengkon lingkungan Indonésia mangrupa "''Mega biodiversity''" atanapi "anéka rupa mahluk hirup nu loba"<ref>http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }} http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }}</ref><ref>http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311005957/http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html |date=2009-03-11 }} Dunia Sebut Indonesia Mega Biodiversity</ref>. Rupa-rupa mahluk hirup Indonésia aya di paringkat ka-3 sadunya sanggeus [[Brasil]] jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]].<ref>http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007155430/http://cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf |date=2010-10-07 }} Report on the CITES workshop on mega-biodiversity exporters (with the assistance of the European Commission)</ref> Sanajan kitu, [[Guinness World Records]] dina taun 2008 pernah nyutat rékor Indonésia salaku nagara nu panggancangna ruksak leuweungna sadunya. Unggal taunna, Indonésia dituar leuweungna saluas <u>+</u>1,8 yuta héktar. Karuksakan ieu aya di wewengkon hulu/jero leuweung (hutan) nu ngaruksak ogé wewengkon di hilir (basisir).<ref>http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328164842/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html |date=2008-03-28 }} Sulung Prasetyo. Ekologi Indonésia Masuki Masa Genting, Paragraf 1. Sinar Harapan Online. Diaksés 13 Nopémber 2009</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Hindia Walanda]] * [[Sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gurat wanci sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gerakan 30 Séptémber|Gerakan 30 Séptémber 1965]] == Rujukan == {{col|3}} {{Reflist}} </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Indonesia}} {{wikivoyage|Indonesia}} * {{id}} [http://www.indonesia.go.id Loka resmi pamaréntah Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203203120/http://indonesia.go.id/ |date=2012-02-03 }} * {{id}} [http://www.antara.co.id Antara - Kantor Warta Indonésia] * {{en}} [http://www.my-indonesia.info/ Pariwisata Indonésia] {{Propinsi di Indonésia}} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = [[file:Nuvola filesystems www.png|23px]]&nbsp;Géografi wewengkon |list = {{LN Indonesia}} {{Asia}} {{Asia Tenggara}} }} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = Organisasi internasional |list = {{OSI}} {{APEC}} {{G15}} {{G20}} {{ASEAN}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Indonésia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Nagara anggota ASEAN]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] ehkl4hziqxg64ny23kwlyzuakbaahnl Kaulinan 0 1075 732131 708590 2026-11-10T22:32:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732131 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Unreferenced}} '''Kaulinan''' nyaéta kagiatan rekréasi nu digawekeun ku saurang pamaen atawa leuwih, dina harti a) usaha pamaen keur meunangkeun kaulinan jeung b) sababaraha aturan ngeunaan naon anu bisa dipigawe ku pamaenna. Kaulinan dimaénkeun utamana keur karesep atawa kasenangan. Kaulinan téh sipatna global, hartina méh aya di unggal nagara di sakuliah [[dunya]]. Wangunna aya anu modéren aya ogé anu tradisional. Kaulinan bisa ogé saurang pamaen ulin nyorangan, tapi leuwih ilahar mangrupa kompetisi antara dua urang atawa leuwih. Lamun ngalakukeun hal anu di saluareun aturan, éta téh mangrupa palanggaran atawa kalicikan. [[Filsuf]] [[David Kelley]], dina karya populérna ''The Art of Reasoning'', ngadéfinisikeun konsép “kaulinan” minangka “hiji wangun rékréasi anu diwangun ku saperangkat aturan anu nangtukeun objék anu rék dihontal kalawan make cara-cara anu diijinan pikeun ngahontal éta.” Ieu ngawengku réa conto kaulinan, tapi teu cukup luyu kana kaulinan peperangan jeung olah raga anu sering dilakukeun lain keur hiburan tapi keur ngawangun kaparigelan pikeun dipaké deui engkéna. Dina ''Philosophical Investigation'', filsuf [[Ludwig Wittgensein]] boga sawangan yén konép “kaulinan” téh teu bsia dikandung ku définisi tunggal, tapi kaulinan téh kudu disawang minangka rangkay définisi anu boga “kamiripan kulawarga” nu hiji jeung nu séjénna. Sapanjang [[sajarah manusa]], kaulinan dipaké pikeun ngahibur diri sorangan jeung ogé pikeun jalma séjénna kalawan aya rupa-rupa variasi kaulinan. Réa widang téknis anu sering dilarapkeun pikeun diajar kaulinan téh, kaasup [[probabilitas]], [[statistik]], [[ékonomi]], [[étnomatématika]], jeung téori kaulinan. [[ethnomathematics]], and [[game theory]]. ==Kaulinan Budak Sunda== Pikeun [[urang Sunda]] ti baheula geus dipikawanoh [[kaulinan budak]] tradisional.Ieu kaulinan téh sumebar di wunggal wewengkon Sunda ([[Jawa Barat]] jeung [[Banten]]). Réréana kaulinan budak téh dilakukeun di kampung-kampung anu masih kénéh mibanda lahan anu lega. Sanajan kitu, sok kapanggih kénéh kaulinan anu dilakukeun di pakotaan. Sababraha kaulinan budak anu umum dipikawanoh téh di antarana [[pérépét jéngkol]], [[oray-orayan]], [[cingciripit]], [[kaléci]], [[béklen]], jeung [[galah asin]]. ==Rupa-rupa Kaulinan di Luar Nagri== * [[Alternate Reality Game]] * [[Board game]]s * [[Car game]]s * [[Card game]]s * [[Casino game]]s * [[List of traditional children's games|Children's games]] * [[Clapping game]]s * [[Computer game]]s or [[Dojin game]]s * [[Counting-out game]]s * [[Dice game]]s * [[Drinking game]]s * [[Educational game]]s * [[Game show]]s * [[Games of chance]] * [[Games of logic]] * [[Games of physical activity]] * [[Games of physical skill]] * [[Games of skill]] * [[Games of strategy]] * [[Simulation game|Games of status]] * [[Group-dynamic game]]s * [[Guessing game]]s * [[Internet game]]s * [[Letter game]]s * [[Mathematical game]]s * [[Online skill-based game]]s * [[Open gaming]] * [[Party game]]s * [[Pencil and paper game]]s * [[Play by mail game]]s * [[Political game]]s * [[Puzzle]]s * [[Quiz]] * [[Role-playing game]]s, [[MMORPG]]s * [[Singing game]]s * [[Spoken game]]s * [[String game]]s * [[Table-top game]]s * [[Tile-based game]]s * [[Traditional game]]s * [[Unclassified game]]s * [[Video game]]s * [[Word game]]s == See also == * [[List of game manufacturers]] * [[List of game topics]] * [[Game classification]] * [[Game semantics]] * [[Game theory]] * [[Play]] * [[Toy]] == External link == * [http://www.open-site.org/Games Open-Site Games] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040726030000/http://open-site.org/Games |date=2004-07-26 }} - Encyclopedia of games and game information, including vidéo games and gambling * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100519104102/http://mrxgame.com/ Free Flash Games] - Sample Games to support wikipedia. * [http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/onyet-oyag.html Onyet Oyag] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119092551/http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/onyet-oyag.html |date=2012-01-19 }} Game tatakrama basa Sunda. * [http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/aksara-ngalagena.html Ngalagena] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119100634/http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/aksara-ngalagena.html |date=2012-01-19 }} Game aksara Sunda. * [http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/waditra.html Waditra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224041500/http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2009/03/waditra.html |date=2012-02-24 }} Game tangganada waditra Sunda. * [http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2010/06/facebook-basa-sunda.html Facebook Sunda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117235941/http://sarwasunda.blogspot.com/2010/06/facebook-basa-sunda.html |date=2012-01-17 }} Aplikasi basa Sunda pikeun Facebook. [[Kategori:Kaulinan]] [[Kategori:Hiburan]] 6x4ffp2k6drtmoljxl0k2aepb6rrdj3 Génétika 0 3595 732120 728835 2026-11-10T21:14:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732120 wikitext text/x-wiki '''génétika''' (tina [[basa Yunani]] ''genno'' '''γεννώ'''= ngalahirkeun) hartina [[élmu]] [[gén]], [[hereditas|nurunna sipat]], jeung [[variasi]] [[organisme]]. Kecap génétika (''genetics'' kétang) munggaran dilarapkeun pikeun ngagambarkeun ulikan ngeunaan pola turunan jeung élmu variasi ku élmuwan [[Inggris]] [[William Bateson]] dina suratna ka [[Adam Sedgwick]] tanggal [[18 April]] [[1905]]. [[Manusa]] mimiti ngalarapkeun pangaweruh génétika ti jaman prasajarah dina prakték [[doméstikasi]] jeung [[kawin seléktif]] [[tutuwuhan]] jeung [[sato|sato ingon]]. Dina panalungtikan modérn, génétika nyadiakeun alat penting pikeun nyaliksik fungsi-fungsi gén. Dina hiji [[organisme]], émbaran génétik umumna dibawa dina [[kromosom]], dina wujud [[runtuyan DNA|struktur kimiawi]] [[molekul]] [[DNA]]na. [[Gén]] téh nyandikeun émbaran nu diperlukeun pikeun nyintésis runtuyan [[asam amino]] dina [[protéin]], nu salajengna migawé rupa-rupa pancén dina nangtukeun [[fénotipe]] ahir organismena. Dina organisme [[diploid]], [[alél]] [[dominan]] dina hiji kromosom bakal nguntup éksprési gén [[résésif]]. Frase '''nyandikeun''' mindeng dipaké nujul ka gén nu ngandung paréntah ngeunaan cara ngawangun hiji protéin. Modél dina ''gén nu nyandikeun protéinna''. Konsép "hiji gén, hiji protéin" kiwari mah dianggap simplistik, ku sabab bisa baé hiji gén ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa protéin, gumantung kana pangaturan [[transkripsi (genetika)|transkripsina]]. Gén nu nyandikeun runtuyan [[nukléotida]] dina [[messenger RNA|mRNA]], [[transfer RNA|tRNA]] jeung [[ribosomal RNA|rRNA]], diperlukeun pikeun sistésis protéin. génétika nangtukeun lolobana (tapi teu sakabéhna) panémbong hiji organisme, kaasup manusa, sarta meureun paripolahna. Béda [[lingkungan]] jeung faktor [[kaacakan|acak]] ogé mangaruhan pisan. [[Kembar|Kembar (idéntik) monozigot]], [[kloning|klon]] nu dihasilkeun tina awal meulahna hiji [[émbrio]], mibanda [[DNA]] nu sarua, tapi béda [[kapribadian]] jeung [[sidik ramo]]na. Tutuwuhan nu idéntik sacara génétik nu dipelak di [[iklim]] nu leuwih tiis biasana ngahasilkeun [[asam lemak]] nu leuwih pondok sarta leuwih teu jenuh sangkan henteu beku. ==Sajarah==<!-- Dina makalahna "Versuche uber Pflanzenhybriden" ("Ékspérimén Hibridisasi Tutuwuhan") nu dipidangkeun taun [[1865]] di payuneun Brunn Natural History Society, [[Gregor Mendel]] nyusud pola panurunan of certain traits in pea plants and showed that they could be described mathematically. Although not all features show these patterns of [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work suggested the utility of the application of statistics to the study of inheritance. Since that time many more complex forms of inheritance have been demonstrated. The significance of Mendel's work was not understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by other scientists working on similar problems. Mendel did not understand the nature of inheritance. We now know that some heritable information is carried in [[DNA]]. ([[Retrovirus]]es, including [[influenza]], [[oncovirus]]es and [[HIV]], and many [[plant virus]]es, carry information as [[RNA]].) Manipulation of DNA can in turn alter the inheritance and features of various organisms. ===Kala papanggihan penting=== :[[1859]] [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' :[[1865]] [[Gregor Mendel]]'s paper, ''Experiments on Plant Hybridization'' :[[1903]] [[Chromosome]]s are discovered to be hereditary units :[[1905]] British biologist [[William Bateson]] coins the term "genetics" in a letter to Adam Sedgwick :[[1910]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] shows that genes reside on chromosomes :[[1913]] [[Alfred Sturtevant]] makes the first genetic map of a chromosome :[[1918]] [[Ronald Fisher]] publishes ''On the correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance'' - the [[modern synthesis]] starts. :[[1913]] [[Gene map]]s show chromosomes containing linear arranged genes :[[1927]] Physical changes in genes are called [[mutation]]s :[[1928]] [[Frederick Griffith]] discovers a hereditary molecule that is transmissible between bacteria (see [[Griffiths experiment]]) :[[1931]] [[Crossing over]] is the cause of [[recombination]] (see [[Barbara McClintock]] and [[cytogenetics]]) :[[1941]] [[Edward Lawrie Tatum]] and [[George Wells Beadle]] show that genes code for [[protein]]s; see the original [[central dogma of genetics]] :[[1944]] [[Oswald Theodore Avery]], [[Colin McLeod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty]] isolate [[DNA]] as the genetic material (at that time called [[transforming principle]]) :[[1950]] [[Erwin Chargaff]] shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, but that some general rules appear to hold (e.g., that the amount of adenine, A, tends to be equal to that of thymine, T). [[Barbara McClintock]] discovers [[transposon]]s in [[maize]] :[[1952]] The [[Hershey-Chase experiment]] proves the genetic information of [[phage]]s (and all other organisms) to be DNA :[[1953]] DNA structure is resolved to be a double [[helix]] by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], with the help of [[Rosalind Franklin]] :[[1956]] [[Jo Hin Tjio]] and [[Albert Levan]] established the correct [[chromosome]] number in humans to be 46 :[[1958]] The [[Meselson-Stahl experiment]] demonstrates that DNA is [[semiconservative replication|semiconservatively replicated]] :[[1961]] The [[genetic code]] is arranged in triplets :[[1964]] [[Howard Temin]] showed using [[RNA virus]]es that Watson's [[central dogma]] is not always true :[[1970]] Restriction enzymes were discovered in studies of a bacterium, ''Haemophilius influenzae'', enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA :[[1977]] DNA is [[sequencing|sequenced]] for the first time by [[Fred Sanger]], [[Walter Gilbert]], and [[Allan Maxam]] working independently. Sanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of [[Bacteriophage]] [[Phi-X174 phage|Φ-X174;]]. :[[1983]] [[Kary Banks Mullis]] discovers the [[polymerase chain reaction]] enabling the easy amplification of DNA :[[1985]] [[Alec Jeffreys]] discovers genetic finger printing. :[[1989]] The first human gene is sequenced by [[Francis Collins]] and [[Lap-Chee Tsui]]. It encodes the [[CFTR]] protein. Defects in this gene cause [[cystic fibrosis]] :[[1995]] The genome of ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced :[[1996]] Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first [[eukaryote]] genome sequence to be released :[[1998]] The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, ''[[C. elegans]]'' is released :[[2001]] First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the [[Human Genome Project]] and [[Celera Genomics]]. :[[2003]] ([[14 April]]) Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% [[accuracy]] [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf] --> ==Widang garapan génétika==<!-- ===Genetika klasik=== :''Artikel utama:'' [[Genetika klasik]], [[Panurunan Mendel]] Classical genetics consists of the techniques and methodologies of [[genetics]] that predate the advent of [[molecular biology]]. After the discovery of the [[genetic code]] and such tools of [[Clone (genetics)|cloning]] as [[restriction enzyme]]s, the avenues of investigation open to geneticists were greatly broadened. Some classical genetic ideas have been supplanted with the mechanistic understanding brought by molecular discoveries, but many remain intact and in use, such as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]]. Patterns of inheritance still remain a useful tool for the study of [[genetic disease]]s. ===Genetika paripolah=== :''Artikel utama:'' [[genetika paripolah]] Genetika paripolah ngulik pangaruh variasi genetik kana paripolah sasatoan. ===Genetika klinis=== {{main|Genetika klinis}} [[Physician]]s who are trained as Geneticists diagnose, treat, and counsel patients with [[genetic disorder]]s or [[syndrome]]s. These doctors are typically trained in a genetics [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] and/or [[fellowship]]. Although many are [[pediatrician]]s, some are not. ===Genetika molekulér=== {{main|Genetika molekulér}} Molecular genetics builds upon the foundation of classical genetics but focuses on the structure and function of [[gene|genes]] at a [[Molecule | molecular]] level. Molecular genetics employs the methods of both classical genetics (such as [[hybridization]]) and [[molecular biology]]. It is so-called to differentiate it from other sub fields of genetics such as [[ecological genetics]] and [[population genetics]]. An important area within molecular genetics is the use of molecular information to determine the patterns of descent, and therefore the correct [[scientific classification]] of organisms: this is called [[molecular systematics]]. The study of inherited features not strictly associated with changes in the [[DNA]] sequence is called [[epigenetics]]. Some take the view that [[life]] can be defined, in [[molecule|molecular]] terms, as the set of strategies which [[RNA]] polynucleotides have used and continue to use to perpetuate themselves. This definition grows out of work on the [[origin of life]], specifically the [[RNA world hypothesis]]. ===genetika populasi, kuantitatif jeung ékologi=== :''Artikel utama:'' [[Genetika populasi]], [[Genetika kuantitatif]], [[Genetika ékologi]] Population, quantitative and ecological genetics are all very closely related subfields and also build upon classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). They are chiefly distinguished by a common theme of studying [[population]]s of organisms drawn from nature but differ somewhat in the choice of which aspect of the organism on which they focus. The foundational discipline is population genetics which studies the distribution of and change in [[allele frequency|allele frequencies]] of genes under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: [[natural selection]], [[genetic drift]], [[mutation]] and [[migration]]. It is the theory that attempts to explain such phenomena as [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] and [[speciation]]. The related subfield of quantitative genetics, which builds on population genetics, aims to predict the response to [[selection]] given data on the [[phenotype]] and relationships of individuals. A more recent development of quantitative genetics is the analysis of [[quantitative trait loci]]. Traits that are under the influence of a large number of genes are known as quantitative traits, and their mapping to a location on the [[chromosome]] requires accurate phenotypic, pedigree and marker data from a large number of related individuals. Ecological genetics again builds upon the basic principles of population genetics but is more explicitly focused on [[ecology|ecological]] issues. While molecular genetics studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, ecological genetics focuses on wild populations of organisms, and attempts to collect data on the ecological aspects of individuals as well as molecular markers from those individuals. ===Genomika=== {{main|Genomics}} A more recent development is the rise of [[genomics]], which attempts the study of large-scale genetic patterns across the [[genome]] for (and in principle, all the DNA in) a given species. Genomics depends on the availability of whole genome sequences, and computational tools developed in the field of [[bioinformatics]] for analysis of large set of data. ===Widang nu raket patali=== The science which grew out of the union of [[biochemistry]] and genetics is widely known as [[molecular biology]]. The term "genetics" is often widely conflated with the notion of [[genetic engineering]], where the DNA of an organism is modified for some kind of practical end, but most research in genetics is aimed at understanding and explaining the effect of genes on phenotypes and in the role of genes in populations (see [[population genetics]] and [[ecological genetics]]), rather than genetic engineering. ===Baca ogé=== *[[Dogma dasar biologi molekular]] *[[jaringan pangaturan gén]] *[[Konseling genetik]] *[[Skrining genetik]] *[[Uji genetik]] *[[Genetika mitokondria]] *[[Réprogenetika]] ===Publikasi=== *''[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]'' *''[[Journal of Genetics]]'' *''[[Annals of Human Genetics]]'' *''[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]]'' --> == Tumbu kaluar == === Publikasi nu patali === * ''Advanced Genetics'' * [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/home.html ''American Journal of Human Genetics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050914121140/http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/home.html |date=2005-09-14 }} * ''Annual Reviews of Genetics'' * [http://www.nature.com/ejhg/ ''European Journal of Human Genetics''] * ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20051215214712/http://www.genesdev.org/ Genes and Development]'' * [http://hmg.oupjournals.org/ ''Human Molecular Genetics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007234145/http://hmg.oupjournals.org/ |date=2008-10-07 }} * ''[http://jhered.oupjournals.org/ Journal of Heredity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526084607/http://jhered.oupjournals.org/ |date=2005-05-26 }}'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060708154045/http://www.bionews.in/index.php/archives/category/genetics/ ''Latest Genetics News''] * [http://www.nature.com/ng/ ''Nature Genetics''] * ''[[Nature Reviews Genetics]]'' ([http://www.nature.com/nrg/index.html journal home]) * [http://www.nature.com/genomics/ ''Nature Genome Gateway''] * [http://www.jpharmacogenetics.com/ ''Pharmacogenetics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021111164416/http://www.jpharmacogenetics.com/ |date=2002-11-11 }} * ''Journal of Medical Genetics'' === Lianna === * [http://www.jbpub.com/connections Exploring the Way Life Works] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050826071202/http://www.jbpub.com/connections |date=2005-08-26 }} * [http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu Genetic Science Learning Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722235258/http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/ |date=2015-07-22 }} * [http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk/corporate/Library/letter.html Letter to Adam Sedgwick in 1905 from William Bateson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050311214835/http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk/corporate/Library/letter.html |date=2005-03-11 }} * [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/genetics.shtml The Virtual Library on Genetics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215052234/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/genetics.shtml |date=2005-12-15 }} * [http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616104339/http://gene-watch.org/ |date=2017-06-16 }} * [http://geneticsmadeeasy.com Genetics made easy] {{Genetika}} {{Biologi}} [[Kategori:Disiplin akademis]] [[Kategori:Génétika]] od1tzvkuu8bhcyaeqm5qw11heqe960v Umang 0 3866 732180 712640 2026-11-11T03:42:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732180 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Umang | image = hermit_crab_corcovado.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Umang di [[Taman Nasional Corcovado]], [[Kosta Rika]] | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Artropoda]] | subphylum = [[Crustacea]] | classis = [[Malacostraca]] | ordo = [[Dékapoda|Decapoda]] | subordo = [[Pleocyemata]] | infraordo = [[Anomura]] | superfamilia = '''Paguroidea''' | superfamilia_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], [[1802]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Famili (biologi)|Famili]] | subdivision = * [[Coenobitidae]] * [[Diogenidae]] * [[King crab|Lithodidae]] * [[Paguridae]] * [[Parapaguridae]] * [[Pylochelidae]] * [[Pylojacquesidae]] }} '''Umang''', disebut ogé '''kumang''' mangrupa [[Dékapoda]] [[crustacea]] ti superfamili '''Paguroidéa''', béda ti [[keuyeup]] dina infraordo Brachyura. lolobana umang ngeusian cangkang pikeun ngajaga [[abdomén]]na nu leuleus. Nu geus kanyahoan aya kana 500 [[spésiés]] di sakuliah dunya; najan lolobana akuatik, aya ogé sababaraha spésiés darat. == Umang laut nu ilahar dipiara == Aya sababaraha spésiés umang nu ilahar aya di pasar [[akuarium laut]]. Mangpaat spésiés [[omnivora]] atawa [[hérbivora]] ieu nyaéta pikeun ngahakanan [[gang-gang]] jeung pasésaan lianna. Umang Karang Beureum (''Red Reef hermit crab'', ''Paguristes cadenati''), mangrupa spésiés nu payu di pasar, ku sabab lucu: awakna beureum caang, lebah panonna konéng, sarta ukuranana tetep leutik (kira 2–5&nbsp;cm). Nu leuwih leutik di antarana umang sébra (sukuna coklat polét bodas), umang tip-beureum, jeung umang suku-bulao. Nu ilahar dikukut di AS mah [[umang Karibia]] (''Coenobita clypeatus'') jeung [[umang Ékuador|umang Pasipik]] (''Coenobita compressus''), sedengkeun di [[Éropa]] mah [[Pagurus bernhardus|umang biasa]] (''Pagurus bernhardus''). Najan lolobana mah nu didagangkeun téh umang leutik, aya ogé nu bisa tumuwuh nepi ka badag (nu ti basisir pasipik mah bisa nepi ka 30&nbsp;cm) sarta sok ngahakanan [[batu karang]] jeung sato lianna. Umang biasana paling cocog hirup dina [[salinitas]] antara 1,023 jeung 1,025, sarta suhu antara 4-14[[Celsius|°C]] (spésiés sedeng) nepi ka 24-27&nbsp;°C (spésiés tropis), katut gang-gang sarta rupa-rupa 'imah' sangkan umangna bisa milih nu cocog. == Umur == Umur hirup umang rupa-rupa pisan. Mun nu dikandangan, umurna dua nepi ka lima taun, tapi mun dipiara bener-bener mah bisa nepi ka likuran taun atawa leuwih. Kungsi ogé kabéjakeun aya umang nu umurna nepi ka 70 taunan, tapi ieu mah ukur kasus husus. == Baca ogé == * [[keuyeup]] * [[rajungan]] * [[kapiting]] <gallery> File:Kelomang atau Umang - umang.jpg File:Hermit crab.jpg </gallery> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Hermit crab|Hermit crab]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (23 Maret 2006) * {{aut|Harvey A. & Brodie R.}}, (2001). "Development of the terrestrial hermit crab, ''Coenobita compressus'', in the laboratory". [[Journal of Crustacean Biology]], '''21''':715-732. * [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=206947 ITIS Standard Report Page: Paguroidea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060323043710/http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=206947 |date=2006-03-23 }} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.allthingscrabby.com All Things Crabby Hermit Crab Blog]. * [http://www.hermitcrabsecrets.com/ Hermit Crab Care Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309103811/http://www.hermitcrabsecrets.com/ |date=2010-03-09 }} * [http://www.crabstreetjournal.com Crab Street Journal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060208094644/http://www.crabstreetjournal.com/ |date=2006-02-08 }}. * [http://www.crabbytalk.com CrabbyTalk - Hermit Crab Care and Pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060328074144/http://www.crabbytalk.com/ |date=2006-03-28 }}. * [http://www.epicureanhermit.com Epicurean Hermit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060402203102/http://epicureanhermit.com/ |date=2006-04-02 }}. * [http://www.hermie.ch Hermie Der Einsiedlerkrebs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621060552/http://www.hermie.ch/ |date=2006-06-21 }}. * [http://www.hermitcrabaddiction.net Hermit Crab Addiction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060402212356/http://hermitcrabaddiction.net/ |date=2006-04-02 }}. * [http://www.hermitcrabassociation.com Hermit Crab Association.com]. * [http://www.hermitcrabassociation.org Hermit Crab Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607212141/http://hermitcrabassociation.org/ |date=2007-06-07 }}. * [http://www.hermit-crabs.com Hermit-Crabs.com]. * [http://www.hermitcrabsrus.com Hermit Crabs R us] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060402221412/http://hermitcrabsrus.com/ |date=2006-04-02 }} * [http://www.landhermitcrabs.com Landhermitcrabs.com]. * [http://www.landhermitcrabs.net Land Hermit Crabs.net]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060402205850/http://landhermitcrabs.org/ The Land Hermit Crab Owners Society]. * [http://www.naturallycrabby.com Naturally Crabby]. [[Kategori:Paguroidea]] 4kbt7dt419du94j93n1dwpaeq939gse Gajah 0 3998 732117 731339 2026-11-10T21:01:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732117 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Gajah | image = Elephant_Kruger_2003.jpg | image_width = 300px | image_caption = Gajah Sabana Aprika, [[Aprika Kidul]]. | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | subphylum = [[Vertebrata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | ordo = [[Proboscidea]] | familia = '''Elephantidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] jeung [[Spésiés]] | subdivision = * ''[[Loxodonta]]'' ** ''[[Loxodonta cyclotis]]'' ** ''[[Loxodonta africana]]'' * ''[[Elephas]]'' ** ''[[Elephas maximus]]'' ** ''[[Elephas recki]]'' [[extinction|†]] * ''[[Stegodon]]'' † * ''[[Mammuthus]]'' † }} '''Elephantidae''' (bangsa '''gajah''') téh [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] [[pachyderm]], hiji-hijina sésa kulawarga dina [[ordo]] [[Proboscidea]]. '''Elephantidae''' ngawengku tilu [[spésiés]] nu hirup kénéh: [[Gajah Sabana Aprika]] (''African Bush Elephant'') jeung [[Gajah Leuweung Aprika]] (''African Forest Elephant'') (nu duanana katelah Gajah Aprika) sarta [[Gajah Asia]] (tadina katelah Gajah India). Spésiés lianna geus tumpur/[[spésiés lastari|lastari]] dina panungtung [[yuga és]], nu anggeus kira 10.000 taun ka tukang.<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> Gajah téh [[mamalia]], sarta mangrupa sato darat [[sato raksasa|pangbadagna]] nu aya kénéh. Mangsa [[reuneuh]] gajah lilana 22 bulan, panglilana ti antara sato darat. Ménél (anak gajah) nu kakara borojol beuratna rata-rata 120 kg, bisa hirup nepi ka 70 taun. Gajah pangbadagna nu kungsi kacatet/karékam kungsi kapanggih di [[Angola]] taun 1974, gajah jalu nu beuratna [[1 E4 kg|12 ton]]. Nu pangleutikna, kira saukuran anak sapi atawa babi badag, kapanggih salaku [[fosil]] ti pulo [[Crete]], nu hirup kira 5000-3000 MM. Papanggihan di [[Cina]] nunjukkeun yén gajah téh ogé jadi mangsa [[manusa]] purba. ==Élmu sasatoan ''(Zoology)''== [[Image:Comparative_view_of_the_human_and_elephant_frame,_Benjamin_Waterhouse_Hawkins,_1860.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Katempo barbandingan rorongkong manusia jeung gajah, kurang leuwih taun 1860.]] <!-- ===African Elephant=== {{main articles|[[African Bush Elephant]] and [[African Forest Elephant]]}} The mammals of the genus ''Loxodonta'', often known collectively as African elephants, are found in several regions throughout the continent, after which they are named. In recent years, ''Loxodonta'' has received the attention of the world because of its dwindling numbers. Today there are approximately 600,000 African elephants in the world. Some believe this represents a stable population and that measures to protect them are unnecessary. Others argue that while elephants are locally overabundant in certain areas, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the overall population has dropped by a staggering amount. As recently as [[1979]] there were an estimated 1.3 million African elephants. One decade later, only around 600,000 remain. This decline is attributed primarily to [[poaching]], or illegal hunting, and habitat loss. African elephants are distinguished from Asians in several ways. The most noticeable difference is the [[ear]]s. Africans' ears are much larger and are shaped like the continent of their origin. The African elephant is typically larger than the Asian and has a concave back. Both males and females have external tusks and are usually less hairy than their Asian cousins. Until the late 20th century, scientists recognized one species of African elephants, ''Loxodonta africana'', and two subspecies, or races, within the species. Recent [[DNA analysis]] has led scientists to reclassify the two races as distinct species. Today, ''Loxodonta africana'' refers specifically to the Savanna Elephant, the largest of all the elephants. In fact, it is the largest land animal in the world, standing up to 13 feet (4 meters) at the shoulder and weighing approximately 15,400 pounds (7,000 kilograms). The average male stands about 3m high at the shoulder and weighs about 5500kg - 6000 kg, female being much smaller. Most often, Savanna Elephants are found in open [[grassland]]s, [[marsh]]es, and lakeshores. They range over most of Africa [[Sub-Saharan Africa|south of the Sahara]] Desert. The other, less numerous species is the Forest Elephant, recently reclassified as ''Loxodonta cyclotis''. Compared with the Savanna Elephant, its ears are usually smaller and rounder, and its tusks are also thinner and straighter. The Forest Elephant can weigh up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) and stand about 10 feet (3 m) tall. Much less is known about these animals than their savanna cousins because environmental and political obstacles make them very difficult to study. Normally they inhabit the dense African rainforests of central and western Africa, though occasionally they do inhabit the edges of forests and overlap [[Territory (animal)|territories]] with bush elephants. ===Asian Elephant=== {{main|Asian elephant}} Today scientists estimate the world population of Asian elephants, or ''Elephas maximus'', to be approximately 40,000, less than one-tenth the number of African elephants. Perhaps the Asian elephants' decline has been less noticeable because it has been more gradual. The causes of this decline are much the same as that of the African. [[Image:Re-exposure of elephant - lahugala park1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Right|Elephant In Sri Lanka]] As with the ''Loxodonta'', there are distinct subspecies of ''Elephas maximus''. In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the African. It has smaller ears, shaped like the subcontinent of India, and typically only the males have large external tusks. An Asian elephant can also be distinguished by the large bulges of depigmentation on the skin. The first subspecies is the [[Sri Lankan elephant|Sri Lankan Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus maximus''). Found only on the island of Sri Lanka, a small country off the southeast coast of India, it is the largest of the Asians. There are an estimated total of only 3,000-4,500 members of this subspecies left today in the wild, although no accurate census has been carried out in the recent past. Large males can weigh upward to 12,000 pounds and stand over 11 feet tall. Sri Lankan males have very large cranial bulges, and both sexes have more areas of depigmentation than are found in the other Asians. Typically their ears, face, trunk, and belly have large concentrations of pink-speckled skin. There is an [[Orphanage]] for elephants in [[Pinnawala]] [[Sri Lanka]], which gives shelter to disabled, injured elephants. This program plays a large role in protecting the Sri Lankan Elephant from [[extinction]]. Another subspecies, the [[Indian elephant|mainland Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus indicus'') makes up the bulk of the Asian elephant population. Numbering approximately 36,000, these elephants are lighter gray in colour, with depigmentation only on the ears and trunk. Large males will ordinarily weigh only about 11,000 pounds but are as tall as the Sri Lankan. The mainland Asian can be found in 11 Asian countries, from India to Indonesia. It prefers forested areas and transitional zones, between forests and grasslands, where greater food variety is available. The smallest of all the elephants is the [[Sumatran elephant|Sumatran Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus sumatranus''). Population estimates for this group range from 33,000 to 53,000 individuals. It is very light gray and has less depigmentation than the other Asians, with pink spots only on the ears. Mature Sumatrans will usually only measure about 10 feet at the shoulder and weigh less than 9,000 pounds. An enormous animal nonetheless, it is considerably smaller than its other Asian (and African) cousins and exists only on the island of Sumatra, usually in forested regions and partially wooded habitats. ===Body characteristics=== ====Elephant Calves==== Elephant social life, in many ways, revolves around breeding and raising of the calves. A female will usually be ready to breed around the age of thirteen, at which time she will seek out the most ''fit'' male to mate with. (The word ''fitness'', in an evolutionary sense, means the animal best suited to survive in its environment and pass on its genes.) Females want to breed with the bigger, stronger, and, most importantly, older males. In this way, they are assuring that their offspring will have the best possible chance of survival. After a twenty-two-month pregnancy, the mother will give birth to a calf that will weigh about 250 lb and stand over 2½ feet tall. Elephants have a very long childhood. They are born with fewer survival instincts than many other animals. Instead, they must rely on their elders to teach them the things they need to know. The ability to pass on information and knowledge to their young has always been a major asset in the elephant's struggle to survive. Today, however, the pressures humans have put on the wild elephant populations, from poaching to habitat destruction, mean that the elderly often die at a younger age, leaving fewer teachers for the young. All members of the tightly knit female group participate in the care and protection of the young. Since everyone in the herd is related, there is never a shortage of baby-sitters. In fact, a new calf is usually the center of attention for all herd members. All the adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. The baby is born nearly blind and at first relies, almost completely, on its trunk to discover the world around it. ====Allomothers==== After the initial excitement dies down, the mother will usually select several full-time baby-sitters, or "allomothers", from her group. According to Cynthia Moss, a well-known researcher, these allomothers will help in all aspects of raising the calf. They walk with the young as the herd travels, helping the calves along if they fall or get stuck in the mud. The more allomothers a baby has, the more free time its mother has to feed herself. Providing a calf with nutritious milk means the mother has to eat more nutritious food herself. So, the more allomothers, the better the calf's chances of survival. ====Trunk==== [[Image:Lightmatter elephanttrunk.jpg|thumb|250px|An elephant can use its trunk for a variety of purposes. This one is wiping its eye.]] The proboscis, or trunk, is perhaps the elephant's most distinctive feature. It is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, elongated and specialized to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. The trunk is basically used to manipulate objects. To facilitate this, African elephants are equipped with two fingerlike projections at the tip of their trunk, while Asians have only one. According to biologists, the elephant's trunk is said to have over forty thousand individual muscles in it, making it sensitive enough to pick up a single blade of grass, yet strong enough to rip the branches off a tree. Most herbivores (plant eaters, like the elephant) are adapted with teeth for cutting and tearing off plant materials. However, except for the very young or infirm, elephants always use their trunks to tear up their food and then place it in their mouth. They will graze on grass or reach up into trees to grasp leaves, fruit, or entire branches. If the desired food item is too high up, the elephant will wrap its trunk around the tree or branch and shake its food loose or sometimes simply knock the tree down altogether. The trunk is also used for drinking. Elephants suck water up into the trunk (up to fifteen quarts [14.2 liters] at a time) and then blow it into their mouth. Elephants also inhale water to spray on their body during bathing. On top of this watery coating, the animal will then spray dirt and mud, which act as a protective sunscreen. This appendage also plays a key role in many social interactions. Familiar elephants will greet each other by entwining their trunks, much like a handshake. They also use them while play-wrestling, caressing during courtship, and for dominance displays - a raised trunk can be a warning or threat, while a lowered trunk can be a sign of submission. Elephants can defend themselves very well by flailing their trunk at unwanted intruders or by grasping and flinging them. An elephant also relies on its trunk for its highly developed sense of smell. Raising the trunk up in the air and swiveling it from side to side, like a periscope, it can determine the location of friends, enemies, and food sources. ====Tusks==== The [[tusk]]s of an elephant are upper [[incisor]]s that are continuously growing. An adult male's tusks will grow about seven inches a year. Tusks are indispensable to an elephant. They are used primarily to dig for water, salt, and roots; to debark trees, in order to get at the tasty pulp inside; and to move downed trees and branches when clearing a path. In addition, they are used for marking trees to establish territory and occasionally as weapons. Like humans who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally shorter and more rounded at the tip from wear. Both male and female African elephants have large, impressive tusks that can reach over ten feet in length and weigh over two hundred pounds. In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have tusks which are very small or absent altogether. Asian males can have tusks as long as the much larger Africans, but they are usually much slimmer and lighter (the heaviest recorded is only 86 pounds). The tusk of both species is mostly made of [[calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. As a piece of living tissue, it is relatively soft (compared with other minerals such as rock), and the tusk, also known as [[ivory]], is strongly favoured by artisans for its carvability. The desire for elephant ivory has been one of the major factors in the dramatic decline of the world's elephant population. ====Teeth==== Elephants' [[Tooth|teeth]] are very different from those of most other mammals. Over their lives they usually have 28 teeth. These are:- *The two upper second incisors: these are the [[tusk]]s. *The [[Deciduous teeth|milk precursors]] of the tusks. *12 [[premolar]]s, 3 in each side of each jaw. *12 [[Molar (tooth)|molar]]s, 3 in each side of each jaw. Unlike most mammals, which [[Tooth development|grow]] baby teeth and then replace them with a permanent set of adult teeth, elephants have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their entire life. After one year the tusks are permanent, but the other teeth are replaced five times in an elephant's life. The teeth do not emerge from the jaws vertically like with human teeth. Instead, they have a horizontal progression, like a conveyor belt. New teeth grow in at the back of the mouth, pushing older teeth toward the front, where they wear down with use and the remains fall out. When an elephant becomes very old, the last set of teeth is worn to stumps, and it must rely on softer foods to chew. Very elderly elephants often spend their last years exclusively in marshy areas where they can feed on soft wet grasses. Eventually, when the last teeth fall out, the elephant will be unable to eat and will die of starvation. However, as more habitat is destroyed, the elephants' living space becomes smaller and smaller; the elderly no longer have the opportunity to roam in search of more appropriate food and will, consequently, die of starvation at an earlier age. Tusks in the lower jaw are also second incisors. These grew out large in [[Dinotherium]] and some [[mastodon]]s, but in modern elephants they disappear early without [[teeth|erupting]]. ====Skin==== [[Image:Elephant mugshot.jpg|thumb|right|250px]] Another name for an elephant is pachyderm, which means "thick skin". An elephant's skin is extremely tough around most parts of its body and measures about 2.5 cm (1 in) thick. However, the skin around the mouth and inside of the ear is paper thin. Normally, the skin of an Asian is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. This is most noticeable in the young. Asian calves are usually covered with a thick coat of brownish red fuzz. As they get older, this hair darkens and becomes more sparse, but it will always remain on their heads and tails. The species of elephants are typically grayish in colour, but the Africans very often appear brown or reddish from wallowing in mud holes of coloured soil. Wallowing is actually a very important behaviour in elephant society. Not only is it important for socialization, but the mud acts as a sunscreen, protecting their skin from harsh ultraviolet radiation. Though tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, as well as from insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin would suffer serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dirt on its body to help dry and bake on its new protective coat. As elephants are limited to smaller and smaller areas, there is less water available, and local herds will often come too close over the right to use these limited resources. Wallowing also aids the skin in regulating body temperatures. Elephants spend every day fighting an uphill battle to stay cool. They have a very difficult time releasing heat through the skin because, in proportion to their body size, they have very little of it. The ratio of an elephant's mass to the surface area of its skin is many times that of a human. Elephants have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose the soles of their feet, presumably in an effort to expose more skin to the air. Since wild elephants live in very hot climates, they must have other means of getting rid of excess heat. ====Ears==== [[Image:Anakotta1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|An [[Elephant Sanctuary]] at [[Punnathur kotta]], [[Kerala]], [[south India]].]] The large flapping ears of an elephant are also very important for temperature regulation. Elephant ears are made of a very thin layer of skin stretched over cartilage and a rich network of blood vessels. On hot days, elephants will flap their ears constantly, creating a slight breeze. This breeze cools the surface blood vessels, and then the cooler blood gets circulated to the rest of the animal's body. The hot blood entering the ears can be cooled as much as ten degrees Fahrenheit before returning to the body. Differences in the ear sizes of African and Asian elephants can be explained, in part, by their geographical distribution. Africans originated and stayed near the equator, where it is warmer. Therefore, they have bigger ears. Asians live farther north, in slightly cooler climates, and thus have smaller ears. The ears are also used in certain displays of aggression and during the males' mating period. If an elephant wants to intimidate a predator or rival, it will spread its ears out wide to make itself look more massive and imposing. During the breeding season, males give off an odor from a gland located behind their eyes. Joyce Poole, a well-known elephant researcher, has theorized that the males will fan their ears in an effort to help propel this "elephant cologne" great distances. Walking at a normal pace an elephant covers about 2 to 4 miles an hour (3 to 6 km/h) but they can reach 24 miles an hour (40 km/h) at full speed. ===Evolution=== Although the fossil evidence is uncertain, some scientists believe there is genetic evidence that the elephant family shares distant ancestry with the [[Sirenia]]ns (sea cows) and the [[hyrax]]es. In the distant past, members of the hyrax family grew to large sizes, and it seems likely that the common ancestor of all three modern families was some kind of amphibious hyracoid. One theory suggests that these animals spent most of their time under water, using their trunks like [[snorkel]]s for breathing. Modern elephants have retained this ability and are known to swim in that manner for up to 6 hours and 50 km. In the past, there was a much wider variety of elephant genera, including the [[mammoth]]s, [[stegodon]]s and [[deinotherium|deinotheria]]. ===Varieties=== [[Image:Baby_elephants3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Female [[African]] Elephant with calf, in [[Kenya]].]] It has long been known that the [[Savannah Elephant|African]] and [[Asian Elephant|Asian]] elephants are separate species. African elephants tend to be larger than the Asian species (up to 4 m high and 7500 kg) and have bigger ears. Male and female African elephants have long tusks, while male and female Asian Elephants have shorter tusks, with tusks in females being almost non-existent. African elephants have a dipped back, smooth forehead and two "fingers" at the tip of their trunks, as compared with the Asian species which have an arched back, two humps on the forehead and have only one "finger" at the tip of their trunks. There are two populations of African elephants, [[Savannah Elephant|Savannah]] and [[Forest Elephant|Forest]], and recent genetic studies have led to a reclassification of these as separate species, the forest population now being called ''Loxodonta cyclotis'', and the Savannah (or Bush) population termed ''Loxodonta africana''. This reclassification has important implications for conservation, because it means where there were thought to be two small populations of a single endangered species, there may in fact be two separate species, each of which is even more severely endangered. There's also a potential danger in that if the forest elephant isn't explicitly listed as an endangered species, poachers and smugglers might thus be able to evade the law forbidding trade in endangered animals and their body parts. The Forest elephant and the Savannah elephant can hybridise successfully, though their preference for different terrains reduces the opportunities to hybridise. Many captive African elephants are probably generic African elephants as the recognition of separate species has occurred relatively recently. Although hybrids between different animal genera are usually impossible, in 1978 at [[Chester Zoo]], an Asian elephant cow gave birth to a hybrid calf sired by an African elephant bull (the old terms are used here as this pre-dates current classifications). The pair had mated several times, but pregnancy was believed to be impossible. "Motty", the resulting hybrid male calf, had an African elephant's cheek, ears (large with pointed lobes) and legs (longer and slimmer), but the toenail numbers, (5 front, 4 hind) and the single trunk finger of an Asian elephant. The wrinkled trunk was like an African elephant. The forehead was sloping with one dome and two smaller domes behind it. The body was African in type, but had an Asian-type centre hump and an African-type rear hump. Sadly the calf died of infection 12 days later. It is preserved as a mounted specimen at the British Natural History Museum, London. There are unconfirmed rumours of three other hybrid elephants born in zoos or circuses, all are said to have been deformed and did not survive. ===Diet=== [[Image:Elephanteating.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Female Asian Elephant eating.]] Elephants are [[herbivore]]s, spending 16 hours a day collecting plant food. Their diet is at least 50% grasses, supplemented with leaves, twigs, bark, roots, and small amounts of fruits, seeds and flowers. Because elephants only digest 40% of what they eat, they have to make up for their digestive system's lack of efficiency in volume. An adult elephant can consume 300 to 600 pounds (140 to 270 kg) of food a day. 60% of that food leaves the elephant's body undigested. ===Social behavior=== Elephants live in a very structured social order. The social lives of male and female elephants are very different. The females spend their entire lives in tightly knit family groups made up of mothers, daughters, sisters, and aunts. These groups are led by the eldest female, or matriarch. Adult males, on the other hand, live mostly solitary lives. The social circle of the female elephant does not end with the small family unit. In addition to encountering the local males that live on the fringes of one or more groups, the female's life also involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. Most immediate family groups range from five to fifteen adults, as well as a number of immature males and females. When a group gets too big, a few of the elder daughters will break off and form their own small group. They remain very aware of which local herds are relatives and which are not. The life of the adult male is very different. As he gets older, he begins to spend more time at the edge of the herd, gradually going off on his own for hours or days at a time. Eventually, days become weeks, and somewhere around the age of fourteen, the mature male, or bull, sets out from his natal group for good. While males do live primarily solitary lives, they will occasionally form loose associations with other males. These groups are called bachelor herds. The males spend much more time than the females fighting for dominance with each other. Only the most dominant males will be permitted to breed with cycling females. The less dominant ones must wait their turn. It is usually the older bulls, forty to fifty years old, that do most of the breeding. The dominance battles between males can look very fierce, but typically they inflict very little injury. Most of the bouts are in the form of aggressive displays and bluffs. Ordinarily, the smaller, younger, and less confident animal will back off before any real damage can be done. However, during the breeding season, the battles can get extremely aggressive, and the occasional elephant is injured. During this season, known as [[musth]], a bull will fight with almost any other male it encounters, and it will spend most of its time hovering around the female herds, trying to find a receptive mate. ===Reproduction=== *Females (cows) reach sexual maturity at around 9-12 years of age and become pregnant for the first time, on average, around age 13. They can reproduce until ages 55-60. *Females give birth at intervals of about every 5 years. *An elephant's [[gestation]](pregnancy) period lasts about 22 months (630-660 days), the longest gestation period of any mammal, after which one calf typically is born. Twins are rare. *Labor ranges in length from 5 minutes to 60 hours. The average length of labor is 11 hours. *At birth, calves weigh around 90-115 kilograms (200-250 pounds), and they gain 1 kilogram (2-2.5 pounds) a day. *In the wild, the mother is accompanied by other adult females (aunts) that protect the young. *In the wild, baby elephants are raised and nurtured by the whole family group, practically from the moment they are born. ===Motherhood and calf rearing=== *The first sound a newborn calf usually makes is a sneezing or snorting sound to clear its [[nasal passages]] of [[fluids]]. (In the first few minutes after a captive birth, the keepers must monitor the calf closely for the first sound or movement. Whichever happens first, the mother typically responds to her new baby with surprise and excitement.) *With the help of its mother, a newborn calf usually struggles to its feet within 30 minutes of birth. For support, it will often lean on its mother's legs. *A newborn calf usually stands within one hour and is strong enough to follow its mother in a slow-moving herd within a few days. *Unlike most mammals, female elephants have a single pair of [[mammary glands]] located just behind the front legs. When born, a calf is about 3 feet (90 cm) high, just tall enough to reach its mother's nipples. *A calf suckles with its mouth, not its trunk, which has no [[muscle tone]]. To clear the way to its mouth so it can suckle, the calf will flop its trunk onto its forehead. *A newborn calf suckles for only a few minutes at a time but will suckle many times per day, consuming up to 11 litres (3 gallons) of milk in a single day. *A calf may nurse for up to 2 years of age or older. Complete [[weaning]] depends on the disposition of the mother, the amount of available milk, and the arrival of another calf. *Newborn calves learn primarily by observing adults, not from natural [[instinct]]. For example, a calf learns how to use its trunk by watching older elephants using their trunks. *It takes several months for a calf to control the use of its trunk. This can be observed as the calf trips over its trunk or as the trunk wiggles like a rubbery object when the calf shakes its head. ==Usefulness to the environment== Elephants' foraging activities help to maintain the areas in which they live:- *By pulling down trees to eat leaves, breaking branches, and pulling out roots they create clearings in which new young trees and other vegetation grow to provide future nutrition for elephants and other organisms. *Elephants make pathways through the environment that are used by other animals to access areas normally out of reach. The pathways have been used by several generations of elephants, and today people are converting many of them to paved roads. *During the dry season elephants use their tusks to dig into [[dry river beds]] to reach underground sources of water. These newly dug water holes may become the only source of [[water]] in the area. *Elephants are a species which many other organisms depend on. For example, [[termites]] eat elephant feces and often begin building termite mounds under piles of elephant feces. ==Threat of extinction== The threat to the African elephant presented by the ivory trade is unique to the species. Another threat to elephant's survival in general is the ongoing cultivation of their habitats with increasing risk of conflicts of interest with human cohabitants. Lacking the massive tusks of its African cousins, the Asian elephant's demise can be attributed mostly to loss of its habitat. As larger patches of forest disappear, the ecosystem is affected in profound ways. The trees are responsible for anchoring soil and absorbing water runoff. Floods and massive erosion are common results of deforestation. Elephants need massive tracts of land because, much like the slash-and-burn farmers, they are used to crashing through the forest, tearing down trees and shrubs for food and then cycling back later on, when the area has regrown. As forests are reduced to small pockets, elephants become part of the problem, quickly destroying all the vegetation in an area, eliminating all their resources. Larger, long-lived, slow-breeding animals, like the elephant, are more susceptible to overhunting than other animals. They cannot hide, and it takes many years for an elephant to grow and reproduce. An elephant needs an average of three hundred pounds of vegetation a day to survive. As large predators are hunted, the local small grazer populations (the elephant's food competitors) find themselves on the rise. The increased number of herbivores ravage the local trees, shrubs, and grasses. ===National Parks=== [[Image:Tanzanian_Elephant.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An elephant in the [[Ngorongoro|Ngorongoro creator]], [[Tanzania]]]] Africa's first official reserve eventually became one of the world's most famous and successful national parks. [[Kruger National Park]] in South Africa first became a reserve against great opposition in 1898 (then Sabi Reserve). It was deproclaimed and reproclaimed several times before it was renamed and granted national park status in 1926. It was to be the first of many. Of course, there were many problems in establishing these reserves. For example, elephants range through a wide tract of land with little regard for national borders. however, when most parks were created, the boundaries were drawn at the human-made borders of individual countries. Once a fence was erected, many animals found themselves cut off from their winter feeding grounds or spring breeding areas. Some animals died as a result, while some, like the elephants, just trampled through the fences. This did little to belie their image as a crop-raiding pest. The more often an elephant wandered off its reserve, the more trouble it got into, and the more chance it had of being shot by an angry farmer. When confined to small territories, elephants can inflict an enormous amount of damage to the local landscapes. Today there are still many problems associated with these parks and reserves, but there is now little question as to whether or not they are necessary. As scientists learn more about nature and the environment, it becomes very clear that these parks may be the elephant's last hope against the rapidly changing world around them. ==Humanity and Elephants== ===Harvest from the Wild=== [[Image:Wild elephant feces on a road.jpg|thumb|250px|Elephant dung on a road adjoining Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, [[Sri Lanka]].]] The harvest of elephants, both legal and illegal, has had some unexpected consequences on elephant anatomy as well. African ivory hunters, by killing only tusked elephants, have given a much larger chance of mating to elephants with small tusks or no tusks at all. The propagation of the absent-tusk gene has resulted in the birth of large numbers of tuskless elephants, now approaching 30% in some populations (compare with a rate of about 1% in 1930). Tusklessness, once a very rare genetic abnormality, has become a widespread hereditary trait. [http://www.gaiabooks.co.uk/environment/elephants_tuskless.html] It is possible, if unlikely, that continued selection pressure could bring about a complete absence of tusks in African elephants, a development normally requiring thousands of years of evolution. The effect of tuskless elephants on the environment, and on the elephants themselves, could be dramatic. Elephants use their tusks to root around in the ground for necessary minerals, tear apart vegetation, and spar with one another for mating rights. Without tusks, elephant behavior could change dramatically. [http://www.mail-archive.com/fact@tlk-lists.com/msg00030.html] ===Domestication and use=== [[Image:Elephant.pair.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Left to right - [[African]] Savannah Elephant ''Loxodonta africana'', born 1969, and [[Asian]] Elephant ''Elephas maximus'', born 1970, at an [[England|English]] [[zoo]].]] Elephants have been [[working animals]] used in various capacities by humans. Seals found in the Indus Valley suggest that the elephant was first domesticated in ancient India. However, elephants have never been truly domesticated: the male elephant in his periodic condition of ''[[musth]]'' is dangerous and difficult to control. Therefore elephants used by humans have typically been female, war elephants being an exception, however: as female elephants in battle will run from a male, only males could be used in war. It is generally more economical to capture wild young elephants and tame them than breeding them in captivity (see also [[Elephant "Crushing"|elephant "crushing"]]). [[War elephant]]s were used by armies in the Indian sub-continent, and later by the [[Persian empire]]. This use was adopted by [[Hellenistic]] armies after Alexander the Great experienced their worth against king [[Poros]], notably in the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid]] diadoch empires. The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] general [[Hannibal]] took elephants across the [[Alps]] when he was fighting the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], but brought too few elephants to be of much military use, although his horse cavalry was quite successful; he probably used a now-extinct third African (sub)species, the North African (Forest) elephant, smaller than its two southern cousins, and presumably easier to domesticate. A large elephant in full charge could cause tremendous damage to infantry, and cavalry horses would be afraid of them (see [[Battle of Hydaspes]]). Throughout [[Siam]], [[India]], and most of South Asia elephants were used in the military for heavy labor, especially for uprooting trees and moving logs, and were also commonly used as executioners to [[crushing by elephant|crush the condemned underfoot]]. [[Image:Elephant-tracks.jpg|thumb|right|top|250px|Elephant footprints (tire tracks for scale)]] Elephants have also been used as mounts for safari-type [[hunting]], especially Indian ''shikar'' (mainly on tigers), and as ceremonial mounts for royal and religious occasions, whilst Asian elephants have been used for [[transport]] and [[entertainment]], and are common to [[Circus (performing art)|circuses]] around the world. African elephants have long been reputed to not be domesticable, but some entrepreneurs have succeeded by bringing Asian [[mahout]]s from [[Sri Lanka]] to Africa. In Botswana, [[Uttum Corea]] has been working with African elephants and has several young tame elephants near [[Gaborone]]. African elephants are more temperamental than Asian elephants, but are easier to train. Because of their more sensitive temperaments, they require different training methods than Asian elephants and must be trained from infancy hence Corea worked with orphaned elephants. African elephants are now being used for (photo) safaris. Corea's elephants are also used to entertain tourists and haul logs. It should be noted that elephants cannot jump. ===The Elephant Trap=== Another more effective method is practiced in the Indian Subcontinent which is far less physical and brutal, and more psychological. It is called the "elephant trap". The following is taken from a newsletter. "From when an elephant is a baby they tie him for certain periods with a rope to a tree. The young elephant tries his hardest to escape, he pulls and wriggles and jumps and crawls yet the rope just tightens and to the tree it remains tied. Learning that, the elephant doesn’t try to escape and accepts his confinement. A couple of years pass and the elephant is now an adult weighing several tons. Yet the trainer continues to tie the elephant to the tree with the same rope he’s always used, for the simple reason that the elephant has the concept in his mind that the rope is stronger than him. Abiding to this conditioning the elephant is trapped for life. To break free all the elephant has to do is erase that limiting thought for in fact he is free to go." ===Elephants in Culture=== ====Pop culture==== [[Image:KandyPerahara.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Esala Perahera]] in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]]]] * [[Jumbo]], a [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] elephant, has entered the English language as a synonym for "large"; * [[Dumbo]], the flying elephant in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie; *The French children's storybook character [[Babar the Elephant]] (an elephant king) created by [[Jean de Brunhoff]] and also an animated TV series; * ''[[The Elephant's Child]]'' is one of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]''; * The [[Thai Elephant Orchestra]], a musical instrument playing group of Elephants from the [[National Elephant Institute|Thai Elephant Conservation Center]] in [[Lampang]]; *[[Joseph Merrick]], a British man in [[Victorian England]], who suffered from substantial deformities, and was nicknamed "[[The Elephant Man]]" due to the nature and extent of his condition; *The fictional planet in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' novels consists of a [[Discworld (world)|flat disc-shaped world]] carried on the backs of four elephants who ride through space on a space turtle, [[Great A'Tuin]]. *In one episode of [[The Simpsons]], [[Bart Simpson]] wins a bad-tempered elephant in a [[radio]] [[competition]], which he names Stampy. The family eventually give up the elephant after it proves too expensive to feed. A common [[adage]] is that "Elephants never forget", and later scientific evidence seems to support they have good memories. American band [[the White Stripes]]' fourth album was entitled ''Elephant'', possibly because of lead singer Jack White's fondness of the animals' extreme sensitivity toward each other. The album was number 390 in Rolling Stone Magazine's "500 Best Albums of All Time". ====Religion==== * A [[White elephant (pachyderm)|white elephant]] is considered holy in [[Thailand]]. * [[Ganesh]], the [[Hindu]] god of wisdom, has an elephant's head. * [[Elephants used for festival, south India| Elephants used in a religious festival in South India.]] ====Politics and secular Symbolism==== *After Alexander's victory over the Indian king Poros, the captured war elephants became a symbol of imperial power, used as an emblem of the [[Seleucid]] diadoch empire, e.g. on coins. *The elephant, and the white elephant (also a religious symbol of Buddha) in particular, has often been used a symbol of royal power and prestige in Asia; occurring on the flag of the kingdom Laos (three visible, supporting an umbrella, another symbol of royal power) till it became a republic in 1975, and other Indochinese and Thai realms had also displayed one or more white elephants. *The elephant is also the symbol for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] of the United States, originating in an [[1874]] cartoon by [[Thomas Nast]] of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' (Nast also originated the [[donkey]] as the symbol of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]); * See also the Danish royal [[Order of the Elephant]]. ===Elephant rage=== ====Musth==== Adult male elephants naturally enter the periodic state called "musth" (Hindi for madness), sometimes spelt "must" in English. It is characterised by very excited and/or aggressive behavior and a thick, tar-like liquid secretion that discharges through the temporal ducts from the temporal glands on the sides of the head. "Musth" is linked to sexual arousal or establishing dominance but this relationship is far from clear. A "Musth" elephant, wild or domesticated, is extremely dangerous to humans. Domesticated elephants in India are traditionally tied to a tree and denied food and water for several days. After that the musth passes. In [[zoos]] musth is often the cause of fatal accidents to elephant keepers. Zoos keeping adult male elephants need extremely strong and secure enclosures, which greatly complicates the attempts to breed elephants in zoos. Musth is accompanied by a significant rise in reproductive hormones - [[testosterone]] levels in an elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times greater than in the same elephant at other times. However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor is unknown: scientific investigation of musth is greatly hindered by the fact that even the most otherwise placid of elephants may actively try to kill any and all humans. Similarly, the tar-like secretion remains largely uncharacterised, due to the extreme difficulties of collecting a sample for analysis. Although it has often been speculated that musth is linked to [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], this is unlikely, because the female elephant's [[estrus]] cycle is not seasonally-linked. Furthermore, bulls in musth have often been known to attack female elephants, regardless of whether or not the females are in heat. [[Mahout]]s are often able to greatly shorten the duration of their elephants' musth: this is accomplished by tying the bull to two extremely strong trees, and keeping him on a starvation diet until the musth ends, typically after 5 to 7 days. It should be noted that, as mahouts work with Asian elephants, this technique has not been tried on African elephants. The word "musth" is from the [[Urdu]] ''mast'', which is from a [[Persian language|Persian]] root meaning 'intoxicated'. The [[Five (TV)|Channel 5]] [[British]] [[television]] program "The Dark Side of Elephants" (8pm 20 March 2006) stated that during musth:- *The swelling of the temporal glands presses on the elephant's [[eye]]s and causes the elephant severe pain like severe [[root abscess]] [[toothache]]. One elephant behaviour that tries to counteract this is digging the tusks in the ground. *The musth secretion, which naturally runs down into the elephant's mouth, is full of [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s and (to a person at least) tastes unbelievably foul. *As a result, musth behaviour is at least partly due to the elephant being driven mad by pain and distress. '''External links''':- *[http://www.upali.ch/musth_en.html A musth FAQ] *[[:de:Musth]]: the German wikipedia article on musth. ====Other causes==== At least a few elephants have been suspected to be drunk during their attacks. In December 1998, a herd of elephants overran a village in India. Although locals reported that nearby elephants had recently been observed drinking beer which rendered them "unpredictable", officials considered it the least likely explanation for the attack [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/241781.stm]. An attack on another Indian village occurred in October 1999, and again locals believed the reason was drunkenness, but the theory was not widely accepted [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/482001.stm]. Purportedly drunk elephants raided yet another Indian village again on December 2002 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2583891.stm]. ==Rogue elephant== '''Rogue elephant''' is a term for a lone, violently aggressive wild [[elephant]], separated from the rest of the herd. It is a direct translation of the [[Sinhala]] term ''hora aliya''. Its introduction to [[English language|English]] has been attributed by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] to Sir [[James Emerson Tennant]], but this usage may have been pre-dated by [[William Sirr]]. The term has since also been applied to human beings or institutions behaving in the same manner as such an elephant. The Republican Party symbol of an elephant has been played upon to label it a rogue elephant; the same label has been applied, for the same reasons, to [[George W Bush]] and [[Dick Cheney]]. [http://www.counterpunch.org/boyle0722.html e.g.: Francis Boyle, 'The Rogue Elephant', ''Counterpunch'', 22 July 2002] The term 'rogue' has been used in the same sense as in 'rogue elephant' in other contexts, ever since [[Geoffrey Household]]'s novel ''[[Rogue Male]]'' was published in [[1939]]; especially since it was made into a film starring [[Peter O'Toole]], [[John Standing]], [[Alastair Sim]] and [[Harold Pinter]] in [[1976]]. For example, '[[Rogue state]]'. ==See also== * [[Crushing by elephant]] * [[Dumbo]] * [[Dwarf elephant]] * [[Elephant's graveyard]] * [[Elephant (movie)]] * [[Elephant ear]] * [[Elephantiasis]] * [[Elephant in the corner]] * [[Elephant Sanctuary]] * [[Elephants of Kerala]] * [[History of elephants in Europe]] * [[List of fictional elephants]] * [[List of historical elephants]] * [[Mammal]] * [[Rogue elephant]] * [[Temple elephants]] * [[War elephant]] * [[White elephant]] * [[Year of the Elephant]]--> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Elephant|Elephant]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (11 Méi 2006). * [http://wikisource.org/wiki/The_Blindmen_and_the_Elephant The Blindmen and the Elephant] karya [[John Godfrey Saxe]] <!-- ==Footnotes== *{{Ref 1}} [http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/channel/blog/2005/05/elephant_rage.html External link to national geographics elephant rage episode of Explorer]--> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Elephant}} * [http://www.awf.org/wildlives/71 Elephant: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation] * [http://www.eleaid.com EleAid - Asian elephant charity - facts, information and pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013134845/http://eleaid.com/ |date=2007-10-13 }} * [http://www.elephant.se Absolute elephant - general information] * [http://www.elephantvoices.org How elephants communicate] * [http://www.elephant-news.com Elephant News - latest headlines about elephants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207030957/http://www.elephant-news.com/ |date=2016-12-07 }} * [http://fohn.net/elephant-pictures-facts/ Elephant Pictures & Information] * Srilal Miththapala[https://web.archive.org/web/20010404041338/http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/8298 Sri Lankan Elephants] * Tim Radford, [http://www.education.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4244642-103690,00.html "The elephant time forgot"]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''The Guardian'' 2001-08-24, 1. Describes the discovery of the third species of elephant. * C. Johnson, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s24742.htm "Elephant trunks were once snorkels"], ''News in Science'' 1999-05-11, * [http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html Photo of Pinnewella Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011185639/http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html |date=2007-10-11 }} * [http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php Seek My Bowl on elephants as symbols] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011132152/http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php |date=2007-10-11 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060428044607/http://www.pepere.org/flash-game_1_x/the-elephant-game_7.html The elephant game]. * [http://www.elephantreintroduction.org Elephant Reintroduction Foundation],The foundation is dedicated to a management system for rehabilitation of captive elephants and habitat preparation to ensure successful long-term sustainability after their return to the wild. * [http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec Animal info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028103343/http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec |date=2007-10-28 }} * Srilal Miththapala, [http:/www.geocities.com/RainForest/8298], Sri Lankan Elephants * [http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities/view_activity.cgi?activity_id=3819 List of easy-to-read articles about elephants] * [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/mammals/elephant.shtml Elephant photos and information] * [http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ African Elephant Database - for current info on African elephant distribution and numbers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030032132/http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ |date=2008-10-30 }} * [http://goplett.co.za/wiki/index.php/ Elephant Sanctuary Plettenberg Bay South Africa ]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.elephants.com/ Elephant Sanctuary, Howenwald, Tenn.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060518023713/http://www.elephantkingdom.com/ Elephant Nature Park,Northern Thailand][http://www.elephantvolunteer.org Park's Volunteer Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613010500/http://www.elephantvolunteer.org/ |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/africanelephant.php African Elephant facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613010251/http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/africanelephant.php |date=2006-06-13 }} - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia--> {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Elephantidae]] [[Kategori:Alam liar Aprika]] [[Kategori:Alam liar Asia]] 5txwpzckulg1kwuqs0fy7m6cv73roug Sukanagara, Lakbok, Ciamis 0 9329 732169 729808 2026-11-11T02:56:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732169 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Sukanagara | native_name = ᮞᮥᮊᮔᮌᮛ | settlement_type = Désa | subdivision_name = [[Jawa Barat]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Lakbok]] | area_total_km2 = 5.04 | population_total = 4920 | population_as_of = 2023 | population_density_km2 = 950 | coordinates = {{coord|7|24|15|S|108|40|30|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Sukanagara''' (ᮞᮥᮊᮔᮌᮛ) nyaéta hiji désa di [[Kacamatan Lakbok]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Jawa Barat]]. == Géografi == Désa Sukanagara boga lega 5,04 km².<ref name="BPS2024">BPS Kabupatén Ciamis. 2024. ''Kecamatan Lakbok Dalam Angka 2024'', katalog 1102001.3207110.</ref> === Wates wewengkon === * Kalér: Désa Kalapasawit * Kidul: Désa Kertajaya * Kulon: Désa Sukamulya * Wétan: Désa Baregbeg == Sajarah == Numutkeun sumber resmi Désa Sukanagara, nami "Lakbok" asalna tina ''"Melak Teu Kalebok"'' (melak tapi teu ngahasilkeun), luyu sareng kaayaan rawa-rawa baheula.<ref name="desa">[https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa Sejarah Desa Sukanagara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219033122/https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa |date=2026-02-19 }}. Situs Resmi Désa Sukanagara.</ref> Dina [[Kidung Lakbok|naskah kuno Kidung Lakbok]] (1956), wewengkon Sukanagara disebut aya di deukeut '''Pulo Erang''' (ayeuna Désa Puloerang). Désa Sukanagara resmi ngadeg dina taun '''1984''' salaku hasil pemekaran tina Désa Lakbok. Nami "Sukanagara" dicandak tina '''Lapang Sukanagara''', anu ngandung haraosan sangkan masarakat ''suka'' (cinta) deui ka ''nagara'' (desa) saatos kantos sering gagal panen. === Hubungan jeung Karajaan Sunda === Wewengkon Sukanagara kaasup kana wewengkon pangaruh Karajaan Galuh. Tingali ogé [[Karajaan Sunda]]. == Démografi == Dumasar data BPS Kacamatan Lakbok dina Angka taun 2024, Désa Sukanagara boga 4.920 jiwa (2023).<ref name="BPS2024"/> == Tatanén == Tatanén mangrupa mata pencaharian utama masarakat Sukanagara. Désa ieu katelah salaku ''"Lumbung Padi"'' Kabupatén Ciamis.<ref name="desa"/> Lahan sawahna legana 377,96 Ha, anu tiasa ngahasilkeun kurang leuwih 3.025 ton padi per taun. == Atikan == Sakola nu aya di Désa Sukanagara: * SMP Negeri 1 Lakbok * MTs Negeri Lakbok == Tempo ogé == * [[Kidung Lakbok]] * [[Kacamatan Lakbok]] * [[Désa Sidaharja]] * [[Désa Sindangangin]] * [[Karajaan Sunda]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pranala luar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20260517210336/https://kecamatan-lakbok.ciamiskab.go.id/ Situs Resmi Kacamatan Lakbok] * [https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/ Situs Resmi Désa Sukanagara] [[Kategori:Désa di Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan Lakbok]] j07tyiu82wi7ldldicytldwdvdb9ffa TV kabel 0 17204 732174 731879 2026-11-11T03:13:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732174 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:RG-59.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kabel koaksial]] sering digunakeun keur nepikeun '''televisi kabel''' ka imah.]] '''Televisi kabel''' ({{lang-en|cable television, CATV}}, {{lang-nl|kabeltelevisie}}) nyaéta sistim méré [[televisi]], pamrograman [[radio FM]] jeung layanan lianna ka konsumén ngaliwatan sinyal frékuénsi radio nu ditepikeun langsung ka televisi ngaliwatan [[serat optik]] atawa [[kabel koaksial]], henteu ngagunakeun cara udara saperti siaran televisi tradisional (ngaliwatan galura radio) nu mana dibutuhkeun ayana anté. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} It should be noted that while the acronym '''CATV''' is often used to méan "Cable TV" or "Community Access Television," it originally stood for '''Community Antenna Television'''. This comes from cable television's origins in 1948, when the first cable systems were started. Television signals could only be received by homes that were in the "line-of-sight" of the originating broadcast antenna, and péople in mountainous aréas could not receive the signal. Large antennas were constructed in these aréas, and cable was run from the antenna to homes so they could receive programming, making these large antennas "community antennas." It is most commonplace in [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Australia]] and [[East Asia]], though it is present in many other countries, mainly in [[South America]] and the [[Middle East]]. Cable TV has had little success in [[Africa]], as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated aréas, and although so-called "wireless cable" or [[MMDS|microwave]]-based systems are used, "direct-to-home" [[satellite television]] is far more popular, especially in [[South Africa]]. == Téhnologi == Technically, CATV involves distributing a number of [[television]] [[Television network|channels]] collected at a central location (called a [[Cable television headend|headend]]) to [[subscriber]]s within a community by méans of a branched network of [[optical fiber]]s and/or [[coaxial cable]]s and [[broadband]] [[amplifier]]s. Since the éarly 1990s, the most common architecture is the [[Hybrid fiber coaxial]] network. As in the case of radio broadcasting, the use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for éach. A [[Set-top box]] or the [[tuner]] of the TV, [[VCR]] or radio selects one channel from this mixed signal. The same program is often simultanéously broadcast by radio and distributed by cable, usually at different frequencies. Other programs may be distributed by cable only; rules restricting content (e.g. regarding [[nudity]] and [[pornography]]) are often more relaxed for cable than for over-the-air TV. Traditional cable TV systems worked strictly by way of [[analog signal|analog]] signals (i.e. using standard radio waves) but many modérn cable TV systems also employ the use of [[digital cable]] technology, which uses compressed digital signals, allowing them to provide many more channels than they could with analog alone. modérn cable TV systems also offer other services such as [[Video on demand]], telephony, and high-speed data. Cable television is normally regarded as a [[natural monopoly]], and most aréas are served by a single provider, though [[Australia]] is characterized by extensive [[duplication]]. == Sumebarna televisi kabel == === [[Australia]] === Cable television services have been available in Australia since [[1991]] or [[1992]], with [[Galaxy (Australian TV)|Galaxy TV]] being the first, it became insolvent in [[1997]], due to decréasing popularity with the launching of [[Foxtel]] and [[Austar]] in May of [[1995]], two cable services that offered more variety than Galaxy TV. In éarly 1997, Galaxy TV was declared insolvent, largely because of Foxtel and Austars popularity. Foxtel immediately commenced in supplying programming to Galaxy's subscribers on an interim basis. In 1999 Foxtel was able to significantly boost its customer base by acquiring Galaxy TV's subscribers from the Australis Media liquidator and commenced offering its services on a satellite television platform. There are currently two major and four minor cable television providers in Australia - [[Foxtel]] and [[Optus TV]]. Minor providers include [[Austar]], [[TransACT]], [[Bright Telecommunications]] and [[Neighbourhood Cable]], which only operate in limited aréas. Like the United Kingdom, cable is a minority méans of receiving access to subscription television in Australia. Satellite distribution is more common. Due to its history, financial backing and market dominance, most local versions of channels are either owned directly by Foxtel and Austar or through related companies. In terms of coverage, [[Foxtel]]'s cable network covers parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Adelaide]], and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. [[Optus]]'s network covers small parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], and [[Brisbane]], though its restrictive subscription rules méans that many péople living in apartments or confined living aréas may be unable to be connected. Austar is available by satellite in most of regional and rural Australia, but does have a small cable network in the city of [[Darwin]]. [[TransACT]] is only available in the city of [[Canberra]], where a custom cable network was developed. A similar situation exists in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] where a small aréa is covered by [[Bright Telecommunications]] as well in parts of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] and [[Mildura, Victoria|Mildura]] that are réached by [[Neighbourhood Cable]]. === [[Brazil]] === Cable television is distributed in [[Brazil]] by various companies. Two of them, NET and TVA, serve the majority of the country, and lesser companies, such as Viamax, TBL and VIVAX, operate regionally. Cable TV is the main distribution channel for premium TV in the metropolitan aréas, but in the rural aréas [[satellite television]] is used more frequently because of the limited availability of cables infrastructure. Free broadcast television is still the main distribution channel in the whole country, however. === [[Kanada]] === {{mainarticle|Televisi multisaluran di Kanada}} === Hong Kong === Only one traditional cable provider operates in [[Hong Kong]], [[i-Cable Communications Limited]] (branded as "''CableTV''"). Another three operators offers pay-TV via [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], they are Now Broadband TV ([[PCCW]]), HKBN Digital TV and [[TVB]] PayVision. Many in Hong Kong instéad watch subscription TV using [[satellite television|satellite]] systems like [[STAR TV]]. === [[Méksiko]] === The first cable system started to operate in the éarly Sixties in Monterrey, as a CATV service (an antenna at the top of the Loma Larga, which could get TV signals from South Texas). Most of the other major cities didn't develop cable systems until the late Eighties, due to government censorship. By 1989 the industry had had a major impulse with the founding of Multivisión—a MMDS system who started to develop its own channels in Spanish—and the later development of companies such as Cablemas and [[Megacable]]. Over the past few yéars, many US networks have started to develop content for the Latin American market, such as [[CNN en Español]], [[MTV]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Disney Channel]], and others. The country also has a DTH service called SKY (Televisa & News Corp. owned). Recently DirecTV merged with Sky. The dominant company nowadays is [[Megacable]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20070124215343/http://www.grupohevi.com.mx/ Grupo HEVI]. === [[Selandia Anyar]] === [[TelstraClear]] operate a cable television network in Wellington, Kapiti and Christchurch. Customers can subscribe to plans incorporating between 25 and 95 channels. Most content is offered on behalf of Sky Network Television however some channels such as TBN, Discovery Travel and Adventure and Deutsche welle are broadcast exclusively through TelstraCléar. === [[Républik Irlandia]] === {{utama|Televisi kabel di Républik Irlandia}} === [[Afrika Kidul]] === [[South African Broadcasting Co-operation (SABC)]] and [[e-TV]] are the only broadcasters in the country with the [[SABC]] being the State-Owned and major broadcastor. The [[SABC]] has three channels which focuses on its diverse cultures, languages and heritages. These channels are called [[SABC]] 1, 2, and 3. On the other hand, [[e-TV]] has only one channel and struggles to broadcast all the programmes. === [[Singapura]] === [[StarHub Cable Vision]] is the sole cable television operator in [[Singapore]], where private ownership of satellite dishes is banned. StarHub Cable Vision was formed as a result of a merger between [[StarHub]] and [[Singapore Cable Vision]] on [[15 May]] [[2002]]. The latter first began broadcasting as a terrestrial pay-television operator in [[1992]] as the first cable network was not completed until [[1995]]. Around 15% of households and offices in Singapore are connected to the StarHub network. === [[United Kingdom]] === In the UK Cable Television had its origins in 1938, when the first Community Antenna TV systems were set up in towns including [[Bristol]] and [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], for homes which couldn't receive transmissions over the air; however these signals were on the [[405-line]] system. In the [[1960s]] [[Rediffusion Vision]] was set up to provide cable television in the newer 625-line and [[PAL]] formats. In the éarly [[1980s]] Rediffusion Vision supplemented its service with other channels including [[Music Box (TV)|The Music Box]], [[Mirrorvision]], [[Lifesyle]] [[Screensport]], [[Sky One|Sky Channel]] and [[Network TEN|TEN]]. The service was renamed to [[Rediffusion Cablevision]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], the current generation of cable television began in the late [[1980s]] with the issue of franchises to many local operators. These small operations proved uneconomic and there has been a continuing process of consolidation and re-financing. By 2000 the two principal cable operators were [[NTL]] and [[Telewest]]. NTL's cable service was originally known as CableTel and grew rapidly through the acquisition of, among others, ComTel (which itself had bought Telecential), Comcast, Diamond Cable and finally, in [[1999]], the residential and small business operations of [[Cable & Wireless]]. Telewest acquired local cable operators including Eurobell (Plymouth and Essex) Cable London (North franchise) Birmigham cable and large franchsies in the North éast and North West of England. The original Telewest cable-co was créated after mergers of United Artists and General Cable in the mid 90's. In 2005 it was announced that NTL and Telewest would merge, after a period of co-operation in the preceding few yéars. This merger was completed on 3 March 2006 with the company being named '''ntl Incorporated'''. For the time being the two brand names and services are still being marketed separately. However, following NTL's aqusition of [[Virgin Mobile]], the NTL and Telewest services will be rebranded ''[[Virgin Media Plc|Virgin Media]]'' in the first quarter of [[2007]]<ref name="rebrand">{{cite press release | title = Virgin Media is on its way | publisher = NTL | date = [[2006-11-08]] | url = http://www.ntl.com/mediacentre/press/display.asp?id=873 | accessdate = 2006-12-06 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.ntl.com/mediacentre/press/display.asp?id=873 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2006-12-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113134754/http://www.ntl.com/mediacentre/press/display.asp?id=873 |archivedate=2006-11-13}}</ref> créating a single cable operator covering more than 95% of the UK cable market. There are a small number of other surviving cable television companies in the UK outside of NTL including [[Kingston Communications]] ([[East Riding of Yorkshire]]) and [[WightCable]] ([[Isle of Wight]], [[Ayrshire]], [[Carlisle]] and [[Lancashire]]). Cable TV faces intense competition from [[BSkyB]]'s [[Sky Digital (UK & Ireland)|Sky Digital]] [[satellite television]] service. Most channels are carried on both platforms. However, cable often lacks "interactive" féatures (e.g. text services, and extra vidéo-screens), especially on BSkyB owned channels, and the satellite platform lacks services requiring high degrees of two-way communication, such as true [[video on demand]]. However, subscription-funded [[digital terrestrial television]] proved less of a competitive thréat. The first system, [[ITV Digital]], went into liquidation in [[2002]]. [[Top Up TV]] later replaced it, however this service is shrinking as the DVB-T multiplex owners are finding FTA broadcasting more profitable. Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over [[broadband]]. This was initially launched, using [[ADSL]], in [[London]], where it is provided by [[HomeChoice]]. An IPTV service was also provided in Hull by Kingston Communications, but this céased operations in April 2006. As the speed and availability of broadband connections incréase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as [[IPTV]]. === [[Amérika Sarikat]] === lolobana panongton televisi di Amérika meunang sinyalna tina CATV. {{utama|Televisi kabel di Amérika Sarikat}} === [[Éropa]] === According to the Européan Audiovisual Observatory, there were 58 million cable households in the Européan Union as of 31 December 2004, i.e. a rate of penetration of 32 % of the television households. 5.7 millions were connected to digital networks. ==== [[Swiss]] ==== In [[Switzerland]], virtually all households have cable TV. Ironically, despite this good coverage, Switzerland has only a few public TV stations (two éach for the German, French and Italian-spéaking parts of the country); additionally, there is now only one upstart commercial network with coverage comparable to these state-run channels. To watch news or political information, Swiss channels are preferred, but in the entertainment sector (féature movies, comedies, talk shows), private TV stations from Germany, France and Italy are dominant. == Layanan dumasar-kabel lianna == Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This léaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as [[broadband internet]] and [[cable telephony]]. Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using [[cable modem]]s to convert the [[television network|network]] data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog modem to provide for the upstréam connection. This limited the upstréam speed to 31.2k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for gréater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. In [[North America]] and [[Europe]] many cable operators have alréady introduced [[cable telephone]] service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the [[local loop]] (replacing the analog [[last mile]], or [[Plain old telephone service|POTS]]) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the [[PSTN]]. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for néarly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, [[PacketCable]], seems to be the most promising and able to work with the [[Quality of Service]] demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a [[VoIP]] network providing chéap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from [[cable modem]] service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet. Beginning in 2004 in the United States, the traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies incréasingly compete in providing voice, vidéo and data services to residences. The combination of TV, telephony and Internet access is commonly called '''[[Triple play (telecommunications)|triple play]]''' regardless of whether CATV or [[Telephone company|telcos]] offer it. == Rujukan == <references/> {{CATV}} [[Kategori:Televisi kabel| ]] [[Kategori:Monopoli (ékonomi)]] n81g6dfgp1083h3lqo4y7kzbuj5vekl Ki amis 0 20241 732132 706383 2026-11-10T22:37:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732132 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Kiamis | image = Cinnamomum verum1.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Daun jeung kembang kayu manis | regnum = [[Tutuwuhan|Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Laurales]] | familia = [[Lauraceae]] | genus = ''[[Cinnamomum]]'' | species = '''''C. verum''''' | binomial = ''Cinnamomum verum'' | binomial_authority = [[Jan Svatopluk Presl|J.Presl]] }} [[Image:Cinnamomum_verum.jpg|thumb|Ki Amis]] '''Ki amis''' atawa '''kai amis''' (''Cinnamomum verum'', sinonim ''C. zeylanicum;'' {{Lang-id|Kayu manis}}) nyaéta sabangsaning [[tangkal|tatangkalan]]. Tangkal ieu kaasup kana golongan [[rempah-rempah]] nu kacida aromaan, amis, jeung ladana. Biasana rempah-rempah dipaké dina kadaharan amis nu dibeuleum, [[anggur (inuman)|anggur]] panas, atawa [[miras]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Informasi Teknologi Tanaman Rempah dan Obat|last=Wiratno|first=M|publisher=Balai Penelitian Tanaman Rempah dan Obat|year=2019|isbn=978-979-548-056-3|location=Bogor}}</ref> Kayu manis atawa ki amis nyaéta salah sahiji [[bungbu]] kadaharan pangkolotna nu dipaké ku [[manusa]]. Bungbu ieu dipaké di [[Mesir Kuno]] kira-kira 5000 [[taun]] katukang, tur disebutkan sababaraha kali dina kitab-kitab [[Perjangjian Heubeul]]. == Guaran == Ki amis mangrupa tumuwuh subur di wewengkon dataran handap atawa pagunungan atawa sakitar 2000 méter di luhureun laut, anu taneuhna ''gembur'' sarta henteu réa teuing cai nu miboga kalembaban sakitar 70-90%. <ref name=":0" /> Ki amis bisa dipelak dina polibég atawa di kebon nu taneuhna geus dipacul jeung bébas tina gulma, henteu baseuh teuing sarta di tempat nu teu katutup aling-aling, sarta kudu cukup sinar panon poé.<ref name=":0" /> Tumuwuh ki amis miboga daun, kembang, buah jeung kai. Bagéan nu bisa dimangpaatkeun nyaéta kaina. Salian ti éta bisa dimangpaatkeun panyedep rasa kadahareun atawa kué, bahan keur nyieun sirup, jeung rasa pedes kana awak. Ki amis ogé bisa digunakeun keur bahan wangunan, mebel jeung suluh.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emilda. 2018. EFEK SENYAWA BIOAKTIF KAYU MANIS Cinnamomum burmanii NEES EX.BL.) TERHADAP DIABETES MELITUS: KAJIAN PUSTAKA|last=Emilda|publisher=urnal Fitofarmaka Indonesia. 5(1): 246-252.|year=2018}}</ref> Sababaraha hiji Panelitian nyebutkeun sangkan ki amis téh bisa ngontrol kadar gula darah keur jelema nu miboga panyakit diabetés tipeu 2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jawapos.com/kesehatan/24/07/2020/penelitian-buktikan-manfaat-kayu-manis-untuk-kendalikan-gula-darah/|title=Penelitian Buktikan Manfaat Kayu Manis Untuk Kendalikan Gula Darah|last=JawaPos.com|website=JawaPos.com|language=id|accessdate=2021-07-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717081044/https://www.jawapos.com/kesehatan/24/07/2020/penelitian-buktikan-manfaat-kayu-manis-untuk-kendalikan-gula-darah/|archivedate=2021-07-17}}</ref> Panelitian lianna nyebutkeun bubuk ki amis nu ditambahkeun kana suplemén bisa nurunkeun ''tekanan darah sistolik'' (SBP).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainstein|first=Julio|last2=Stern|first2=Naftali|last3=Heller|first3=Shimrit|last4=Boaz|first4=Mona|date=2011-12|title=Dietary Cinnamon Supplementation and Changes in Systolic Blood Pressure in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes|url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/jmf.2010.0300|journal=Journal of Medicinal Food|volume=14|issue=12|pages=1505–1510|doi=10.1089/jmf.2010.0300|issn=1096-620X}}</ref> == Nyumebarna ki manis == Ki manis téh geus nyumebar ka sababaraha daérah keur didagangkeun sacara ekspor atawa lokal. Tina sababaraha jinis ki manis nu aya di Indonésia, ngan aya opat jinis nu dipikawanoh dina pardagangan ekspor atawa lokal, nyaéta. * ''Cinnamomum burmanni'', tutuwunan ieu biasana tumuwuh dina lahan anu luhurna sakitar 600-1.500 m dpl. Biasana aya di daérah Sumatera Kulon, Jambi, Sumatera Kalér, Bengkulu, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur jeung Maluku. Ciri-cirina nyaéta miboga tangkal nu luhurna bisa nepi ka 15 m, daunna leutik jaba kaku, pucukna warna beureum. Warna kulit kaina abu-abu, miboga harum nu khas nyaéta amis. Ki amis ieu téh bisa dipanén lamun umurna geus aya 10 taun, jeung miboga ukuran buleudan batangna sakitar 1 m.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://banten.litbang.pertanian.go.id/new/index.php/publikasi/folder/966-mengenal-kayu-manis|title=Buletin:Mengenal Kayu Manis|last=Yusarman|date=2016|access-date=17 Juli 2021}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan bungbu]] [[Kategori:Lauraceae]] [[Kategori:Bungbu]] [[Kategori:Panyedep]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Tropis]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] <references /> 5j7oe2ojpz6ksnjstzf364qmicmb94f Ayat-Ayat Cinta 0 23875 732101 704193 2026-11-10T19:46:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Buku | name = Ayat-Ayat Cinta | title_orig = Ayat-Ayat Cinta | translator = | image = | image_caption = | author = [[Habiburrahman El Shirazy]] | illustrator = | cover_artist = | country = [[Indonésia]] | language = [[Basa Indonésia|Indonésia]] | series = | genre = [[Novel]] | publisher = [[Basmala&Republika]] | release_date = [[2004]] | english_release_date = | media_type = Citak | pages = 418 kaca | isbn = | preceded_by = | followed_by = }} '''''Ayat-Ayat Cinta''''' mangrupa [[novel]] dina [[basa Indonésia]] yasana [[Habiburrahman El Shirazy]] nu diterbitkeun munggaran dina taun [[2004]] ku penerbit Basmala sarta Républika.<ref name="RepublikaAAC">"Sejarah Penerbitan Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://www.republika.co.id/ Republika Online]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Ieu novel dianggap salaku salah sahiji karya pelopor dina genre sastra islami modéren di Indonésia, nu hasil ngahontal gelar best-seller kalayan payu jutaan éksémplar.<ref name="GramediaAher">"Profil Penulis Habiburrahman El Shirazy". [https://www.gramedia.com/ Gramedia Blog]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Novel ieu eusina 418 kaca tur suksés jadi salah sahiji [[novel]] fiksi ''best seller'' di [[Indonésia]] nu dicitak nepi ka 160 rébu éksémplar dina jangkah wanci tilu taun wungkul.<ref name="DetikCulture">"Fenomena Ayat-Ayat Cinta di Sastra Indonesia". [https://news.detik.com/ Detik Com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729215059/https://news.detik.com/ |date=2023-07-29 }}. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Ayat-Ayat Cinta ogé dianggap mangrupa panaratas karya sastra [[Islam]]i nu keur sedeng-sedengna binangkit dina wanci kiwari, sarta muka jalan pikeun genre fiksi religi lianna di pasar buku nasional.<ref name="KompasSastra">"Kebangkitan Sastra Islami Modern". [https://www.kompas.com/ Kompas]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> ==Ringkesan Singget== Novel ieu nyaritakeun lalakon hirup saurang [[mahasiswa]] [[Indonésia]] nu ngaranna Fahri bin Abdillah Shiddiq nu keur diajar di [[Universitas Al-Azhar]], [[Mesir]].<ref name="SinopsisAAC">"Sinopsis Lengkap Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://www.gramedia.com/ Gramedia]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Fahri digambarkeun salaku pamuda anu taat kana agamana, hirup basajan di Kairo, sarta kudu nyanghareupan rupa-rupa gogoda hirup nalika manéhna kalibet dina hubungan nu rumit jeung opat tokoh awéwé anu miboga karakter jeung kasang tukang nu béda-béda.<ref name="KarakterFahri">"Analisis Tokoh Fahri dalam Novel Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://journal.unesa.ac.id/ Unesa]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Dina hiji perjalanan di jero métro, Fahri pinanggih jeung saurang mahasiswi [[Jerman]] katurunan Turki nu ngaranna Aisha. Aisha kataji ku sikep Fahri nu soméah sarta mibanda wawasan kaislaman nu lega nalika Fahri ngabéla kulawarga Aisha tina tuduhan nu teu bener.<ref name="AishaProfile">"Karakteristik Tokoh Aisha dalam Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://journal.uinjkt.ac.id/ UIN Jakarta]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Lian ti Aisha, Maria Boutros, saurang parawan [[Kristen Koptik]] nu ogé tatangga apartemén Fahri, mikacinta Fahri sacara cicing-cicing. Maria nu sok resep maca Al-Qur'an sanajan lain Muslim, kacida kagumna kana kapribadian Fahri.<ref name="MariaKoptik">"Representasi Pluralisme dina Tokoh Maria". [https://www.neliti.com/ Neliti]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> ​Kisah cinta di antara maranéhna beuki ruwet nalika dua tokoh lianna, nyaéta Nurul, anak kiai nu ogé mahasiswi di Al-Azhar, jeung Noura Bahadur, awéwé Mesir nu sok dikaniaya ku ramana, ogé mibanda rasa nu sarua ka Fahri.<ref name="PlotAAC">"Analisis Konflik Novel Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/ Undip]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> ==Film Ayat-Ayat Cinta== Ningali hasilna penjualan novel ieu nu kacida mucekilna, sutradara Indonésia [[Hanung Bramantyo]] saterusna ngagarap pilem [[Ayat-Ayat Cinta (pilem)|Ayat-Ayat Cinta]] (2008) nu diproduksi ku MD Pictures.<ref name="FilmProduction">"Produksi Film Ayat-Ayat Cinta". [https://www.antaranews.com/ Antara News]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> Ieu pilem dibéntangan ku aktor sarta aktris papan atas, di antarana: ​[[Fedi Nuril]] minangka Fahri. ​[[Rianti Cartwright]] minangka Maria. ​[[Carissa Putri]] minangka Aisha.<ref name="CastChange">"Pemeran Tokoh Aisha di Film AAC". [https://www.liputan6.com/ Liputan6]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> ​[[Zaskia Adya Mecca]] minangka Noura. ​[[Melanie Putria]] minangka Nurul. ​Ieu pilem ogé suksés pisan sacara komérsial sarta jadi salah sahiji pilem anu panglobana dilalajoan dina sajarah bioskop Indonésia, kalayan jumlah nulalajo leuwih ti 3,5 juta urang.<ref name="FilmSuccess">"Rekor Penonton Film Indonesia". [https://filmindonesia.or.id/ Film Indonesia]. Diakses ping 24 Januari 2026.</ref> == Rujukan == <div class="references-small"> <references/> </div> [[Kategori:Novel]] [[Kategori:Sastra Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sastra Islami]] [[Kategori:Novél Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Novel Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Novel taun 2004]] [[Kategori:Karya Habiburrahman El Shirazy]] [[Kategori:Pilem Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pilem taun 2008]] [[Kategori:Adaptasi novel kana pilem]] t5j904kh68yphjxfcxaue634jwervg4 Apganistan 0 24451 732099 728319 2026-11-10T19:39:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732099 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = <big>جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان </big><br /><small>''Jamhūrī-ye Islāmī-ye Afġānistān''</small> |conventional_long_name = Républik Islam Apganistan |common_name = Apganistan |image_flag = Flag of Afghanistan.svg |image_coat = |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = Afghanistan in its region.svg |national_motto = |national_anthem = ''[[Lagu Kabangsaan Apganistan|Milli Surood<br />Surood-e Milli]]'' |official_languages = [[Basa Pérsia|Pérsia]] ([[Dari (Basa Pérsia)|Dari]]), [[Basa Pastun|Pastun]], [[Basa Arab|Arab]] |demonym = Apgan |capital = [[Kabul]] |latd=34 |latm=31 |latNS=N |longd=69 |longm=08 |longEW=E |largest_city = Ibu kota |government_type = [[Républik Islam]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Apghanistan|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Apganistan|Wakil Présidén (kahiji)]] |leader_name1 = [[Hamid Karzai]] |leader_name2 = [[Mohammad Qasim Fahim]] |leader_title3 = [[Wakil Presiden Apganistan|Wakil Présidén (kadua)]] |leader_name3 = [[Karim Khalili]] |area_rank = ka-41 |area_magnitude = 1_E11 |area = 647.500 |areami² = 251.772 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 0 |population_estimate = 31.889.923 |population_estimate_year = 2007 |population_estimate_rank = ka-37 |population_census = 13.051.358 |population_census_year = 1979 |population_density = 46 |population_densitymi² = 119 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-150 |GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |GDP_PPP = $32,4 miliar |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-92 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.490 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-158 |HDI_year = 1993 |HDI = 0.229 |HDI_rank = teu karengking |HDI_category = <font color="gray">n/a</font> |FSI = 102.3 {{increase}} 2.5 |FSI_year = 2007 |FSI_rank = ka-8 |FSI_category = <font color="#FF0000">Peringetan</font> |sovereignty_type = [[Pajangjian Rawalpindi|Merdika]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Britania]] |established_event1 = Déklarasi |established_event2 = Diaku |established_date1 = [[8 Agustus]], [[1919]] |established_date2 = [[19 Agustus]], 1919 |currency = [[Afghani Apganistan|Afghani]] |currency_code = AFN |country_code = AFG |time_zone = |utc_offset = +4:30 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = +4:30 |cctld = [[.af]] |calling_code = 93 |footnote1 = }} '''Apganistan''', resmina '''[[Républik Islam]] Apganistan''' ([[Basa Pérsia]]: '''جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان''', [[Basa Pastun]]:''' د افغانستان اسلامى جمهوريت ''' ), nyaéta hiji nagara [[singkur]] nu aya di jajantungna [[Asia]]. Dicaturkeun kénéh ngeunaan perenahna Apganistan sacara géograpis, naha aya di [[Asia Tengah]]<ref>http://web.utah.edu/meca/2007Conf/2007%20MECA-%20Final%20Program.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720103531/http://web.utah.edu/meca/2007Conf/2007%20MECA-%20Final%20Program.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref><ref>http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2006/eng/01/mreo0506.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226204353/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2006/eng/01/mreo0506.pdf |date=2008-02-26 }}</ref>, [[Wétan Tengah]]<ref>http://menic.utexas.edu/Countries_and_Regions/Afghanistan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509155444/http://menic.utexas.edu/Countries_and_Regions/Afghanistan/ |date=2008-05-09 }} UT - MENIC</ref><ref>[http://www3.nationalgeographic.com/places/countries/country_afghanistan.html ''Afghanistan Profile''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312072701/http://www3.nationalgeographic.com/places/countries/country_afghanistan.html |date=2008-03-12 }}, National Geographic (dicutatd [[20 Januari]] [[2006]]).</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Geo ''Afghanistan''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709035637/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Geo |date=2016-07-09 }}, CIA Factbook (dicutat [[20 Januari]] 2006).</ref><ref>[http://www.mideasti.org/countries/countries.php?name=afghanistan ''Afghanistan''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928035455/http://www.mideasti.org/countries/countries.php?name=afghanistan |date=2007-09-28 }}, Middle East Institute (dicutat [[20 Januari]] 2006).</ref>, atawa [[Asia Kidul]]<ref name=Berkeley>[http://www.ias.berkeley.edu/southasia/aboutus.html Center for South Asia Studies: University of California, Berkeley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621132352/http://ias.berkeley.edu/southasia/aboutus.html |date=2008-06-21 }}</ref><ref name=Madison>[http://www.southasiaoutreach.wisc.edu/countries.htm Center for South Asia Outreach UW-Madison] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227072256/http://www.southasiaoutreach.wisc.edu/countries.htm |date=2010-02-27 }}</ref><ref name=UPenn>[http://www.southasia.upenn.edu/home/views/languages.html Department of South Asia Studies: University of Pennsylvania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304233956/http://www.southasia.upenn.edu/home/views/languages.html |date=2008-03-04 }}</ref><ref name=WorldBank>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,menuPK:158937~pagePK:158889~piPK:146815~theSitePK:223547,00.html South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724140309/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,menuPK:158937%7EpagePK:158889%7EpiPK:146815%7EtheSitePK:223547,00.html |date=2008-07-24 }}</ref><ref name="USGS">MAPS SHOWING GEOLOGY, OIL AND GAS FIELDS AND GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF SOUTH ASIA [http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |date=2013-12-25 }} Includes Afghanistan</ref><ref name="statedept">Afghanistan-Tajikistan Bridge Links Central, South Asia [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2007&m=August&x=20070829160347saikceinawz0.2609064] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221010314/http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2007&m=August&x=20070829160347saikceinawz0.2609064 |date=2006-02-21 }} Refers to Afghanistan as South Asian and Tajikistan as Central Asian</ref><ref name="uw">University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |date=2015-04-02 }}</ref><ref name="syra">Syracruse University: The South Asia Center http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326065054/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |date=2015-03-26 }}</ref>. Apganistan boga patula patali jeung nagara tatanggana sacara relijieus, kasukuan jeung basa, sarta géograpis. Diwatesan ku [[Pakistan]] di wétan jeung,<ref name="India">Catetan suku: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India including the portion bordering [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and [[Pakistan]]i held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> [[Iran]] di kulon, [[Turkménistan]], [[Uzbékistan]], jeung [[Tajikistan]] di kalér, sarta [[Républik Rahayat Cina|Cina]] jauh di wétan kaléreunnana. Ngaran Apganistan hartina "''Lemah [[Urang Pastun|Apgan]]''." == Babagian administratif == {{utama|Propinsi di Apganistan|Distrik di Apganistan}} Apganistan administratifna dibagi kana [[propinsi di Apganistan|34 propnsi]] (''[[wilayah|wilayats]]''), kalawan unggal propinsi miboga ibu kotana sorangan jeung hiji pamaréntahan kapropinsian. Propinsi-propinsina teras dibagi kana (total: kira-kira 398) [[distrik di Apganistan|distrik]]. [[Daptar gubernur propinsi di Apganistan ayeuna|Gubernur propinsi]] ditunjuk ku [[Présidén Apganistan]] sarta gubernur distrik dipilih ku gubernur propinsi. Gubernur propinsi nyaéta pawakilan pikeun pamaréntah puseur di Kabul sarta mibanda tanggung jawab kana sadaya perkawis pamaréntahan jeung kanegrian dina propinsi-propinsina. Aya ogé déwan propinsi nu dipilih langkung pamilu langsung pikeun jabatan 4 taun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |title=Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan |publisher=Iec.org.af |date=October 9, 2004 |accessdate=February 4, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archivedate=August 27, 2010 }}</ref> Kagunaan déwan propinsi nyaéta pikeun nyandak bagian dina rancangan pamekaran propinsi jeung ngring dina ngawasan jeung meunteunan lembaga kapropinsian lian. Dumasar kana Pasal 140 konstitusi jeung dekrit présidén dina hukum pamilihan, [[walikota]] kedah dipilih ;angkung pamilu nu bébas jeung langsung pikeun jabatan 4 taun. Tapi, ku sabab masalah biaya, pamilu kota teu pernah dilaksanakeun, sarta walikota ditunjuk ku pamaréntah. Pikeun ibu kota nagara, Kabul, walikotana ditunjuk ku Présidén Apganistan. Di handap nyaéta 34 [[propinsi di Apganistan]] dina susunan alfabétis sarta petana kalawan nomer di mana propinsi éta ayana. [[Gambar:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|center|350px|Apganistan dibagi kana [[propinsi di Apganistan|34 propinsi]] sarta unggal propinsi salajengna dibagi kana [[distrik di Apganistan|distrik-distrik]]]] {{col|4}} # [[Propinsi Badakhshan|Badakhshan]] # [[Propinsi Badghis|Badghis]] # [[Propinsi Baghlan|Baghlan]] # [[Propinsi Balkh|Balkh]] # [[Propinsi Bamyan|Bamyan]] # [[Propinsi Daykundi|Daykundi]] # [[Propinsi Farah|Farah]] # [[Propinsi Faryab|Faryab]] # [[Propinsi Ghazni|Ghazni]] # [[Propinsi Ghor|Ghor]] # [[Propinsi Helmand|Helmand]] # [[Propinsi Herat|Herat]] # [[Propinsi Jowzjan|Jowzjan]] # [[Propinsi Kabul|Kabul]] # [[Propinsi Kandahar|Kandahar]] # [[Propinsi Kapisa|Kapisa]] # [[Propinsi Khost|Khost]] # [[Propinsi Konar|Konar]] # [[Propinsi Kunduz|Kunduz]] # [[Propinsi Laghman|Laghman]] # [[Propinsi Logar|Logar]] # [[Propinsi Nangarhar|Nangarhar]] # [[Propinsi Nimruz|Nimruz]] # [[Propinsi Nurestan|Nurestan]] # [[Propinsi Oruzgan|Oruzgan]] # [[Propinsi Paktia|Paktia]] # [[Propinsi Paktika|Paktika]] # [[Propinsi Panjshir|Panjshir]] # [[Propinsi Parvan|Parvan]] # [[Propinsi Samangan|Samangan]] # [[Propinsi Sare Pol|Sare Pol]] # [[Propinsi Takhar|Takhar]] # [[Propinsi Vardak|Wardak]] # [[Propinsi Zabol|Zabol]] </div> == Tempo ogé == <div style="font-size:95%;"> {{columns |gap=1em |col1width=20em |col1 = * [[Perang di Apganistan (2001–kiwari)|Perang di Apganistan]] * [[Daptar pamingpin Apganistan]] * [[Tim Rékonstruksi Propinsi]] * [[International Security Assistance Force]] |col2width=18em |col2 = * [[Hak asasi manusa di Apganistan]] * [[Periode saméméh Islam di Apganistan]] * [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]] * ''[[Afuganisu-tan]]'' * [[European influence in Afghanistan]] * [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] |col3width=21em |col3 = * [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] * [[Help Afghan School Children Organization]] * [[Afghan Scout Association]] * [[Golden Needle Sewing School]] * [[Afghanaid]] }} '''Perangko''' * [[Postage stamps and postal history of Afghanistan]] * [[List of birds on stamps of Afghanistan]] * [[List of fish on stamps of Afghanistan]] </div> == Bibliograpi == <div class="references-small"> {{columns|width=50% |col1= * Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977). ''An Historical Guide to Afghanistan''. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Tourist Organization. * Fowler, Corinne. Chasing Tales: Travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan, 2007 (forthcoming), Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York. * Ghobar, Mir Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan in the Course of History, 1999, All Prints Inc. [http://www.cpol.net/history/] * Griffiths, John C. 1981. ''Afghanistan: A History of Conflict''. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0-233-05053-1. * Levi, Peter. 1972. ''The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan''. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0-00-211042-3. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0-672-51252-1. * [[William Moorcroft (traveller)|Moorcroft, William]] and [[Trebeck, George]]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-19-577199-0. |col2 = * Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press * [[Olaf Caroe|Caroe, Olaf]]. 1958. ''The Pathans'' (on the ethnic origin of Afghans). * Shahrani, M. Nazif. (1979) ''The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers and War''. University of Washington Press. 1st paperback edition with new preface and epilogue (2002). ISBN 0-295-98262-4. * Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44. * Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0-576-03322-7. * Heathcote, T.A. The Afghan Wars 1839–1999, 1980,2003, Spellmount Staplehurst. * Rall, Ted. 2002. "To Afghanistan and Back: A Graphic Travelogue" New York: NBM Publishing. * Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. ''The Afghans''. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. ISBN 0631198415. }} </div> == Rujukan jeung catetan suku == {{Reflist|2}} == Tumbu luar == {{Wikisource1911Enc|Afghanistan}} {{sisterlinks|Afghanistan}} <div style="font-size:95%;"> '''Loka pamaréntah resmi''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100621015944/http://president.gov.af/ Official website of Afghanistan] * [http://www.president.gov.af/ Official website of the President of Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621015944/http://www.president.gov.af/ |date=2010-06-21 }} * [http://www.loc.gov/law/guide/afghanistan.html Laws of Afghanistan] * [http://www.customs.gov.af/ Afghanistan Customs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111153242/http://www.customs.gov.af/ |date=2007-11-11 }} * [http://www.ands.gov.af/ Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928082412/http://www.ands.gov.af/ |date=2008-09-28 }} * [http://www.aisa.org.af/ Afghanistan Investment Support Agency (AISA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415145549/http://www.aisa.org.af/ |date=2007-04-15 }} '''Informasi umum''' * {{CIA World Factbook link|af|Afghanistan}} * [http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/brief.html Afghanistan in Brief (Embassy of Afghanistan)] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan] * [http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/destinationAfghanistan.aspx CDC Health Information for Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114130215/http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/destinationAfghanistan.aspx |date=2007-11-14 }} * [http://numismondo.com/pm/afg Afghanistan's Paper Money] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021022175857/http://numismondo.com/pm/afg/ |date=2002-10-22 }} {{wikivoyage|Afghanistan}} '''Budaya jeung warta''' * [http://www.afghan-web.com/ Afghanistan Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218214918/https://www.afghan-web.com/ |date=2021-12-18 }} * [http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081017170425/http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com/ |date=2008-10-17 }} Afghan cultural issues * [http://www.afghanistan.culturalprofiles.net/ Afghanistan Cultural Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713153833/http://www.afghanistan.culturalprofiles.net/ |date=2009-07-13 }} - Afghanistan national cultural portal * [http://www.kabulpress.org/indexkabul.htm KabulPress.org] * [http://www.aopnews.com/ Afghan Online Press] * [http://www.afgha.com/ News, Information, Pictures from Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102092956/http://afgha.com/ |date=2008-01-02 }} * [http://www.pajhwok.com/ Local Afghan News] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071027114142/http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/ RAWA News] * [http://www.bakhtarnews.com.af/?Lang=E Bakhtar News Agency (Official Afghan Agency)] * [http://www.eafghans.com/ General Afghan Information and Entertainment Portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111134949/http://eafghans.com/ |date=2007-11-11 }} '''Lianna''' * [http://asiapolis.perspektive89.com/gallery Picture galleries from Kabul and Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613121333/http://asiapolis.perspektive89.com/gallery |date=2007-06-13 }} * [http://www.afghanistan-photos.com Old photos of Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506205344/http://www.afghanistan-photos.com/ |date=2019-05-06 }} * [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan - Short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030621192703/http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001] * [http://www.icssa.org/article_detail_parse.php?a_id=804&rel= Afghanistan: The Genesis of the Final Crusade, an insider's perspective of the war on Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221113316/http://www.icssa.org/article_detail_parse.php?a_id=804&rel= |date=2008-02-21 }} * [http://www.theafghanistandirectory.com/ The Afghanistan Directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011053655/http://theafghanistandirectory.com/ |date=2007-10-11 }} </div> {{Template group |title = Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Central Asia}} {{Countries of South Asia}} {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} {{Countries of Asia}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Islamic republics}} {{Indo-Iranian-speaking regions}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)|state=collapsed}} }} {{Countries_of_the_Indosphere}} [[Kategori:Apganistan| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara Asia Tengah]] [[Kategori:Plato Iran]] [[Kategori:Républik Islam]] [[Kategori:Nagara Islam]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Anggota SAARC]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara Wétan Tengah]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Pastun]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1709]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1747]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dikawasa militér]] {{nagara-geo-stub}} erx0i27nd5l5b0895txqkp4zggcrttz Abu Raihan al-Biruni 0 24968 732096 708710 2026-11-10T19:28:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732096 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Muslim scholars | <!-- Philosopher Category --> notability = [[Sains Islam|Élmuwan Muslim]]| era = [[Jaman Kaemasan Islam]] | color = #cef2e0 | <!-- Images --> image_name =| image_caption = Biruni on a 1973 post stamp commemorating his one thousandth anniversary| signature = | <!-- Information --> name = '''Abū Rayhān Muhammad ibn Ahmad Bīrunī '''| title = '''Abu-Rayhan Biruni'''| birth = [[15 September]] [[973]] M| death = [[13 Desember]] [[1048]] M| Maddhab = | school tradition = [[Asy'ariyah]]| Ethnicity = [[urang Pérsia|Pérsia]]| Region = | notable idea= Bapa [[antropologi]], [[géodési]] jeung [[Indologi]]. Nu manggihan [[mékanika]] [[ékspérimén]]tal sarta [[astronomi]] ékspérimental. Boga kontribusi dina sababaraha widang pangaweruh lianna.| main_interests = [[Antropologi]], [[Astrologi Islam|astrologi]], [[Astronomi Islam|astronomi]], [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemistry]], [[geodesy]], [[géologi]], [[sajarah]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[pharmacology]], [[fisika]], [[Islamic science|science]]| influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Muhammad]], [[Brahmagupta]], [[Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari|al-Ash'ari]], [[al-Sijzi]], [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], [[Avicenna]] | influenced = [[Al-Sijzi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Omar Khayyam]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Zakariya al-Qazwini]], [[Maragha observatory]], [[Islamic science]], [[Islamic philosophy]] | works = ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'', ''The Mas'udi Canon'', ''Understanding Astrology'', and many other books | }}<!--End of the template--> {{redirect|Al-Biruni|kawah di bulan|Al-Biruni (kawah)}} '''{{transl|ar|ALA|Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī}}''' (babar [[15 September]] [[973]] di Kath, [[Khwarezm]] – pupus [[13 Desember]] [[1048]] di [[Ghazni]]) salah saurang [[Persian people|Persian]] ([[Tajiks|Tajik]])<ref name=Habib>Rahman Habib, ''A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE'', Mansell Publishing, p. 167: <br />{{quote|"A Persian by birth, Biruni produced his writings in Arabic, though he knew, besides Persian, no less than four other languages."}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015394 Biruni] (2007). [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Retrieved April 22, 2007.</ref><ref>David C. Lindberg, ''Science in the Middle Ages'', [[University of Chicago Press]], p. 18: <br />{{quote|"A Persian by birth, a rationalist in disposition, this contemporary of Avicenna and Alhazen not only studied history, philosophy, and geography in depth, but wrote one of the most comprehensive of Muslim astronomical treatises, the Qanun Al-Masu'di."}}</ref> [[Muslim]] [[polymath]]<ref>Mr Koïchiro Matsuura. [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001206/120699E.pdf United Nations: Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization], [[UNESCO]]. {{quote|"Biruni, a scholar in many disciplines - from [[linguistics]] to [[mineralogy]] - and perhaps medieval [[Uzbekistan]]'s most universal genius."}}</ref> dina abad ka-11, nu [[experiment|naliti]] jeung pamanggihna méh sajajar jeung nuséjéna saperti [[Leonardo da Vinci]] jeung [[Galileo]], lima ratus taun saméméh ''[[Renaissance]]''; Biruni dipikawanoh salah saurang ''[[Muslim]]'', tapi teu kawas Muslim kontémporér (saperti [[Abu al-Qasim|Abulcasis]], [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhacen]], jeung [[Avicenna]]), ngaran Biruni teu pati dipikawanoh ku dunya kulon ''[[Western world]]''. Anjeunna saurang [[élmuwan Islam]], anu mibanda kaahlian dina sagala widang élmu : [[anthropologi]], [[astronomi]], [[astrologi]], [[kimia]], [[énsklikopedi]], [[ sajarah]], [[geographer]], [[Geodesy]], [[géologi]], [[matématika]], [[kadokteran]], [[filsuf]], [[Ash'ari]] [[teologi]], [[panalungtik]] jeung [[teacher|guru]], sarta ''[[traveller]]'' mibanda pangaruh anu gedé kana sakabéh widang tadi. Anjeunna ogé salah saurang panalungtik Muslim nu munggaran naliti [[India]] jeung adat kabiasaan [[Brahmin]],<ref name=Dyczkowski1988>{{cite book | author = Dyczkowski, M.S.G. | year = 1988 | title = The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition | publisher = State University of New York Press | isbn = }}</ref> dipikawanoh salaku bapa [[élmu India]],<ref name=Khan> Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> bapak [[geodesi]], sarta "[[anthropology|ahli anthropologi munggaran]]".<ref name=Ahmed/> Meh bareng jeung [[Geber]] sarta [[Ibn al-Haytham]], al-Biruni salah saurang nu mingpin percobaan dina [[scientific method|metoda ilmiah]].<ref name=MacTutor>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref> Anjeunna nu mimiti ngawanohkeun métodeu percobaan kana [[mechanics|mekanika]],<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642/> sarta nu mimiti nerangkeun percobaan pakait jeung kajadian astronomi.<ref name=Zahoor/> [[George Sarton]], bapak élmu sajarah, nyebat Biruni saperti: {{quote|"Ngaran salah satu élmuwan Islam yang paling hebat, jeung kedah dipertimbangkeun, anjeuna téh salah saurang élmuwan pang hébatna sapanjang waktu."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 707.</ref>}} [[A. I. Sabra]] nyebat Biruni: {{quote|"Salah sahiji pamikir ilmiah anu hébat sapanjang sajarah."<ref>[[A. I. Sabra]], [http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/090351.html Ibn al-Haytham], ''[[Harvard Magazine]]'', September-October 2003.</ref>}} [[Al-Biruni (crater)|Kawah Al-Biruni]], di [[bulan]], ngaran nu dipaké sanggeus Biruni. Universita téhnik [[Tashkent]] (ngaran saméméhna Tashkentskiy Politexnicheskiy Institut) ogé dumasar kana jenengan Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. == Riwayat hirup == Anjeunna dibabarkeun di [[Khwarazm]] (saméméhna bagéan kaler-wetan [[dinasti Samaniyah]] [[Persian Empire|Persia]]) ayeuna di [[Khiva]], [[Uzbekistan]]. anjeunna diajar [[matematika]] jeung [[astronomi]] ku [[Abu Nasr Mansur]]. Anjeunna bareng jeung filsu tur ahli fisika [[Muslim]] [[Persian people|Persia]] [[Abū Alī ibn Sīnā]] (Avicenna), ahli sajarah, filsuf jeung ahli etnik [[Ibn Miskawayh]], di universitas jeung pusat elmu nu diwangun ku raja Abu al-Abbas Ma'mun Khawarazmshah. Anjeunna ogé datang ka [[Asia Kidul]] jeung [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (nu putrana jeung gaganti Masud, kulawarga deukeutna), sarta bareng jeung manéhna dina kampanye di [[India]] (dina taun 1030), diajar [[Languages of India|basa India]], sarta nalungtik agama jeung filosofi masarakatna. Di dinya, anjeunna ogé nulis ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' ("Chronicles of India"). Biruni nulis bukuna dina [[Arabic language|basa Arabi]] tur dina basa indungna nyaéta [[Persian language|Basa Persia]], sanajan bisa ngagunakeun opat basa séjén nyaéta : [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Syriac]], sarta [[Berber languages|Berber]].<ref name=Habib/> Anjeunna dikurebkeun di [[Ghazni]] di [[Afganistan]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}} == Karya == [[Gambar:Lunar phases al-Biruni.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gambar tina buku Persia Beruni. Nembongkeung beda fase bulan.]] Karya Biruni lobana 146, ieu kaasup 35 buku dina widang [[Islamic astronomy|astronomi]], 4 dina widang ''[[astrolabe]]'', 23 dina widang [[Islamic astrology|astrologi]], 5 dina widang [[chronology|kronologi]], 2 dina widang [[time measurement|ukuran waktu]], 9 dina widang [[geografi]], 10 dina widang [[geodesi]] tur téori [[map|pemetaan]], 15 dina widang [[Islamic mathematics|matematika]] (8 dina [[aritmetika]], 5 dina widang [[geometri]], 2 dina widang [[trigonometri]]), 2 dina widang [[mekanika]], 2 dina [[Islamic medicine|kadokteran]] jeung [[pharmacology|farmakologi]], 1 dina widang [[meteorology|meteorologi]], 2 dina widang [[mineralogi]] jeung [[gem|batu mulia]], 4 dina widang [[sajarah]], 2 dina widang [[India (disambiguation)|India]], 3 dina widang [[religion|agama]] jeung [[Early Islamic philosophy|filsuf]], 16 dina widang [[Islamic literature|karya literatur]], 2 buku dina widang [[magic]], sarta 9 buku séjénna. Tina karya ieu, ngan 22 nu masih kénéh aya, sarta ngan 13 karyana nu geus dicitak.<ref>E. S. Kennedy (1970). "Al-Biruni", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. II, p. 152.</ref> 6 hasil karyana nu masih aya dina widang astronomi.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=232 An overview of Muslim Astronomers], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> Karyana nu masih aya nyaéta: * ''Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused'' (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - catetan singget ngeunaan ageman jeung filsup di India * ''The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries'' (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - ngeunaan pangaweruh babandingan kalender dina budaya jeung kahirupan nu béda-béda, dumasar kana matematik, astronomi jeung sajarah. * ''The Mas'udi Canon'' (Persian قانون مسعودي) - [[encyclopedia]] nu lengkep ngeunaan astronomi, géografi, jeung rekayasa, judul nu dipaké keur ngahormat ka Mas'ud, putrana [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] * ''Understanding Astrology'' (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - tanya jawab ngeunaan matematik jeung astronomi, dina basa Arab jeung Persia ''Pharmacy'' - ngeunaan ubar jeung kasehatan * ''Gems'' (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) ngeunaan géologi, mineral, tur batu mulia, keur ngahormat Mawdud putra Mas'ud * ''Astrolabe'' * Buku Kumpulan Sajarah * ''History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father'' * ''History of Khawarazm'' == Antropologi == Biruni mangrupa "[[Anthropology|ahli antropologi]]" munggaran.<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> Anjeunna nyerat sacara lengkep babandingan elmu dina [[anthropology|antropologi]] masarakat, ageman jeung budaya di [[Middle East|Timur Tengah]], [[Mediterranean Basin|wewengkon Mediterania]] jeung [[South Asia|Asia Kidul]]. Antrologi Biruni dina widang ageman ngan mungkin keur élmuwan nu neuleuman leuwih teleb adat jeuing pangaweruh bangsa séjén.<ref>J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''59''' (3), p. 389-403.</ref> Biruni ogé dipuji ku sababaraha élmuwan keur karyana dina antropologi [[Islam]].<ref>Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '''68''' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.</ref> == Astronomi == === Alat-alat astronomi === Dina widang [[Islamic astronomy|astronomi]], al-Biruni nyieun jeung nulis acuan munggaran dina [[planisphere]] jeung [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|orthographical]] [[astrolabe]], nu sarua alusna jeung [[armillary sphere]], sarta mampuh sacara matematika keur nangtukeun arah [[Qibla]] ti unggal tempat di dunya.<ref name=Khwarizm>[http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104101845/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 |date=2010-01-04 }}, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref><ref name=Wiet>G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, [[UNESCO]].</ref> Anjeunna ogé nu nulis acuan munggaran ngeunaan [[Sextant (astronomical)|sextant]].<ref>Jean Claude Pecker (2001), ''Understanding the Heavens: Thirty Centuries of Astronomical Ideas from Ancient Thinking to Modern Cosmology'', p. 311, Springer, ISBN 3-540-63198-4.</ref> Anjeunna ogé nyieun [[hodometer]] munggaran,<ref>D. De S. Price (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines", ''IEEE Micro'' '''4''' (1), p. 22-52.</ref> sarta [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical]] [[lunisolar calendar]] [[Analog computer|computer]] nu ngagunakeun [[gear train]] jeung dalapan [[gear]]-wheels.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', p. 139-163.</ref> These were éarly examples of fixed-[[wire]]d knowledge processing [[machine]]s.<ref>Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '''9''' (1), p. 63-70 [64].</ref> [[Gambar:Biruni-russian.jpg|thumb|left|1973 [[USSR]] stamp commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] === Teori-teori === Biruni nu ngamimitian ngalaksanakeun [[experiment|percobaan]] nu rumit dina fénoména[[Astronomy|astronomi]]. Anjeunna nu mendak [[galaxy|galaksi]] [[Milky Way]] jadi sakumpulan [[star|bentang-bentang]] [[Nebula|nebulous]]. Di [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], anjeunna nalungtik jeung ngajelaskeun [[solar eclipse|gerhana panon poe]] dina 8 April 1019, sarta [[lunar eclipse|gerhana bulan]] dina 17 September 1019, sacara lengkep, tur méré garis [[latitude|lintang]] bentang nu pas salila gerhana bulan.<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626074150/http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html |date=2008-06-26 }}, [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> Dina taun 1030, Biruni ngadiskusikeun [[heliocentrism|heliosentris]] [[Indian astronomy|astronomi India]] téori [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] jeung [[Varahamihira]] dina ''Indica''. Biruni nyebatkeun yén patarosan heliosentris leuwih nujul kana filosofis batan masalah matematis.<ref name=Saliba>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref> Dina taun 1031, Biruni namatkeun enslikopedi astronomi ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi'' (di Basa [[Latin]]-keun jadi ''Canon Mas’udicus''),<ref name=Covington>Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p. 2-16.</ref> nu mangrupa catetan ngeunaan pamanggihna jeung tabel rumus astronomi. Buku ieu ngawanohkeun téhnik matematika keur analisa ''[[acceleration|percepatan]] planet'', tur hukum kahiji nyaéta gerak [[Apsis|titik pangjauhna ti panonpoe]] jeung [[precession|gerak dina orbitna]] teu sarua. Biruni ogé manggihkeun jarak antara Bumi jeung Panonpoe leuwih gedé tinimbang nu ditaksir ku [[Ptolemy]], dumasar kana yén Ptolemy ngabaikeun [[solar eclipse|gerhana panonpoe taunans]].<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref>[[George Saliba]] (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Joseph Strayer, ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', Vol. 2, p. 249. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</ref> [[Al-Sijzi|Abu Said al-Sijzi]], sajaman jeung Biruni, méré pamadegan [[heliocentrism|heliosentris]] gerak Dunya ngurilingan panonpoe, hal ieu teu ditampik ku Biruni.<ref name=Baker>A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref> Biruni satuju yén [[Earth's rotation|muterna Dunya]] dina porosna, tur dina waktu nu sarua Biruni nempo kalayan netral [[heliocentrism|heliosentris]] jeung [[geocentric mode|model geosentris]],<ref name=Marmura>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> pamadegan anjeunna yén heliosentris bakal jadi masalah filosopi.<ref name=Saliba/> Anjeunna nyatet yén lamun Dunya muter dina porosna tur ngurilingan panonpoe, ieu bakal sarua jeung paraméter astronomina, nyaéta:<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref name=Wiet/> {{quote|"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."}} [[Will Durant]] nuliskeun saperti di handap ngeunaan kontribusi Biruni dina widang astronomi: {{quote|"He wrote treatises on the astrolabe, the planisphere, the armillary sphere; and formulated astronomical tables for Sultan Masud. He took it for granted that the earth is round, noted “the attraction of all things towards the center of the earth,” and remarked that astronomic data can be explained as well by supposing that the earth turns daily on its axis and annually around the sun, as by the reverse hypothesis."<ref>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith'', p. 239-45.</ref>}} == Kimia == Bareng jeung [[al-Kindi]] jeung [[Ibnu Sina]], Biruni salah saurang [[chemist|ahli kimia]] munggaran nu nolak téori [[Philosopher's stone|transmuation of metals]] didukung ku sababaraha urang [[Alchemy (Islam)|ahli kimia muslim]].<ref name=Marmura/> == Élmu bumi == Biruni méré sababaraha kontribusi dina widang [[Élmu bumi]]. Anjeunna dileler ogé salaku bapak [[géodesi]],<ref name=Ahmed/><ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> sarta méré kontribusi nyara dina [[kartograpfi]], [[géografi]], jeung [[géologi]]. === Kartografi === Dina umur 22 taun, anjeunna nulis sababaraha karya tulis pondok, nyaéta ngeunaan [[map projections|proyeksi peta]], ''[[Cartography|Kartografi]]'', nu kaasuo kana métodeu keur proyéksi [[Sphere|hemisphere]] dina [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} === Geodesy and Geography === At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the [[latitude]] of Kath, [[Khwarazm]], using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Biruni also solved a complex [[Geodesy|geodesic]] equation in order to accurately compute the [[Earth]]'s [[circumference]], which were close to modérn values of the éarth's circumference.<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref>James S. Aber (2003). [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm Abu Rayhan al-Biruni], [[Emporia State University]].</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9&nbsp;km for the [[Earth radius]] was only 16.8&nbsp;km less than the modérn value of 6,356.7&nbsp;km. John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'': {{quote|"Important contributions to [[geodesy]] and [[geography]] were also made by Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]]. He found the [[Earth radius|radius of the earth]] to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the West until the 16th century. His ''Masudic canon'' contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge."<ref name=MacTutor/>}} In mathematical géography, Biruni, around [[1025]], was the first to describe a polar equi-[[azimuthal equidistant projection]] of the [[celestial sphere]].<ref>David A. King (1996), "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 1, p. 128-184 [153]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> === Geology === Among his writings on [[geology]], Biruni wrote the following on the [[geology of India]]: {{quote|"But if you see the soil of [[India (disambiguation)|India]] with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams."<ref>[[Abdus Salam|A. Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}} == History == === Chronology === By the age of 27, in the yéar [[1000]], he had written a book called ''[[Chronology]]'' which referred to other works he had completed (now lost) that included one book about the [[astrolabe]], one about the [[decimal system]], four about [[astrology]], and two about [[history]]. He discussed more on his idéa of [[history]] in another work, ''The Chronology of the Ancient Nations''.<ref name=Khan>M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", ''Oriens'' '''25''', p. 86-115.</ref> === Indology === Until the 10th century, [[history]] most often méant political and military history, but this was not so with [[Persian people|Persian]] historian [[Abu-Rayhan Biruni|Biruni]] (973-1048). In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind'' (''Researches on India''), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on [[History of India|India]]'s [[Culture of India|cultural]], [[Science and technology in ancient India|scientific]], social and [[Religion in India|religious]] history.<ref name=Khan/> Biruni is now regarded as the father of [[Indology]].<ref name=Khan/> == Mathematics == He made significant contributions to [[mathematics]], especially in the fields of théoretical and practical [[arithmetic]], summation of [[Series (mathematics)|series]], [[Combinatorics|combinatorial analysis]], the [[Rule of three (mathematics)|rule of three]], [[irrational number]]s, [[ratio]] théory, [[algebra]]ic definitions, method of solving [[algebraic equation]]s, [[geometry]], and the development of [[Archimedes]]' théorems. == Medicine == Biruni's ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized [[Islamic medicine]] with [[Ayurveda|Indian medicine]]. His medical investigations included one of the éarliest descriptions on [[Conjoined twins|Siamese twins]].<ref name=Zahoor/> == Physics == === Astrophysics === In [[astrophysics]] and the [[celestial mechanics]] field of [[physics]], Biruni described the [[Earth]]'s [[gravitation]] as:<ref name=Khwarizm/> {{quote|"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."}} He also discovered that gravity exists within the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial sphere]]s, and he criticized [[Aristotle]]'s views of them not having any [[levity]] or gravity and of [[circular motion]] being an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|innate property]] of the héavenly bodies.<ref name=Berjak/> === Mechanics === [[Biruni]] was the first to apply [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to [[mechanics]], especially the fields of [[statics]] and [[dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the théory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]].<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 614-642 [642], [[Routledge]], London and New York: {{quote|"Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and [[al-Khazini]] can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in [[Science in the Middle Ages|medieval science]]."}}</ref> In the [[dynamics]] and [[kinematics]] fields of [[mechanics]], Biruni was the first to réalize that [[acceleration]] is connected with non-uniform [[Motion (physics)|motion]], which is part of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref name=MacTutor/> In [[statics]], Biruni méasured the [[Relative density|specific gravities]] of eighteen [[gemstone]]s, and discovered that there is a correlation between the specific gravity of an object and the [[volume]] of water it displaces.<ref>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''The Age of Faith'', p. 244. Simon and Shuster, New York. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104101845/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 |date=2010-01-04 }}, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)</ref> He also introduced the method of checking [[test]]s during [[experiment]]s, méasured the [[weight]]s of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between [[fresh water]] and [[salt water]], and between hot water and cold water.<ref name=Rozhanskaya>M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. p. 614-642 [639], [[Routledge]], London. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104101845/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 |date=2010-01-04 }}, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)</ref> During his [[experiment]]s, he invented the [[conical measure]],<ref>Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. [[University of Wisconsin Press]].</ref> in order to find the ratio between the [[weight]] of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately méasure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding [[metal]]s, which are very close to modérn méasurements.<ref name=Rozhanskaya/> === Natural philosophy === Biruni and [[Abū Alī ibn Sīnā]] (Avicenna), who are regarded as two of the gréatest [[polymath]]s in Persian history, were both colléagues and knew éach other since the turn of the millennium. Biruni later engaged in a written debate with Avicenna, with Biruni criticizing [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] [[natural philosophy]] and the [[Peripatetic school]], while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to Biruni's criticisms in writing. Biruni began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[On the Heavens]]'', with his first question criticizing Aristotle's réasons for denying the existence of [[levity]] or [[Gravitation|gravity]] in the [[celestial sphere]]s and the Aristotelian notion of [[circular motion]] being an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|innate property]] of the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]].<ref name=Berjak>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.</ref> Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the [[heaven]]s, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that [[space]] has only six directions. The fourth question déals with the continuity and discontinuity of [[Physical body|physical bodies]], while the fifth criticizes the [[Peripatetic school]]'s denial of the possibility of there existing another [[world]] completely different from the world known to them.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.</ref> In his sixth question, Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the [[celestial sphere]]s having [[circular orbit]]s rather than [[elliptic orbit]]s. In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the héavens begins from the right side and from the [[east]], while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the [[Fire (classical element)|fire element]] being [[Sphere|spherical]]. The ninth question concerns the movement of [[heat]], and the tenth question concerns the transformation of [[element]]s.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Summer 2004.</ref> The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by [[radiation]] reflecting off a [[flask]] filled with [[water]], and the twelfth concerns the natural tendency of the [[classical element]]s in their upward and downward movements. The thirteenth question déals with [[Visual perception|vision]], while the fourteenth concerns [[habitation]] on different parts of [[Earth]]. His fifteenth question asks how two opposite [[square]]s in a square divided into four can be [[tangent]]ial, while the sixteenth question concerns [[vacuum]]. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of [[ice]] floating on water.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Winter 2004.</ref> After Avicenna responded to the questions, Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on béhalf of Avicenna.<ref name=Berjak/> === Optics === In [[optics]], Biruni was one of the first, along with [[Ibn al-Haytham]], to discover that the [[speed of light]] was finite. Biruni was also the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the [[speed of sound]].<ref name=MacTutor/><ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', "The Time of Al-Biruni".</ref> == Psychology == Along with [[al-Kindi]] and [[Ibn al-Haytham]], al-Biruni was a pioneer of [[experimental psychology]], as he was the first to [[Empiricism|empirically]] describe the concept of [[reaction time]]:<ref>[[Muhammad Iqbal]], ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]'', "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" ([[cf.]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601071319/http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |date=2009-06-01 }} and [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MI_RRTI/chapter_05.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120094810/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MI_RRTI/chapter_05.htm |date=2008-11-20 }})</ref> {{quote|"Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves."}} == Theology == === Islamic theology === Biruni was a supporter of the orthodox [[Ash'ari]] school of [[Kalam|Islamic theology]].<ref name=Sardar>[[Ziauddin Sardar]], [http://www.cgcu.net/imase/islam_science_philosophy.htm Science in Islamic philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505185046/http://www.cgcu.net/imase/islam_science_philosophy.htm |date=2009-05-05 }}</ref> He assigned to the [[Qur'an]] a separate and autonomous réalm of its own and held that:<ref>"Qur'an and Science", ''[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]]''.</ref> {{quote|"[the Qur'an] does not interfere in the business of [[Islamic science|science]] nor does it infringe on the realm of science."}} === Comparative religion === He wrote works on both Islamic théology and [[Indian philosophy|Indian theology]], and wrote on the topic of [[comparative religion]], comparing both religions. His comparisons included the following comparison between the Qur'an and the [[Indian literature|Indian religious scriptures]] in the "On the Configuration of the Heavens and the Earth According to [Indian] astrologers" chapter of the ''Indica'':<ref>Prof. Ahmad Dallal (2004), "Science and the Qur'an", in Jane McAuliffe, ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an'', vol. 4, p. 540-558.</ref> {{quote|"[The views of Indian astrologers] have developed in a way which is different from those of our [Muslim] fellows; this is because unlike the scriptures revealed before it, the Qur'an does not articulate on this subject [of astronomy], or any other [field of] necessary [knowledge] any assertion that would require erratic interpretations in order to harmonize it with that which is known by necessity."}} {{quote|"[In contrast, the religious and transmitted books of the Indians do indeed speak] of the configuration of the universe in a way which contradicts the truth which is known to their own astrologers."}} Al-Biruni also had an interest in studying [[Hermeticism]] and criticizing its religious views. He showed an interest in comparative religion, comparing Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1993), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 166. [[State University of New York Press]], ISBN 0-7914-1516-3.</ref> == Tempo ogé== * [[Islamic Golden Age]] * [[Islamic science]] * [[List of Islamic studies scholars]] * [[List of Muslim scientists]] * [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]] * [[Ibnu Sina]] * [[Ibn al-Haytham]] * [[Shen Kuo]] == References == <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> {{reflist}} </div> == Bacaan salajengna == * {{DSB|first=E. S.|last=Kennedy|title=Bīrūnī, {{IAST|Abū Rayḥān}} al-}} * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Biruni|title=Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni}} == Tumbu luar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071222065925/http://www.skyscript.co.uk/albiruni.html Extensive biography on Biruni] * [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753(195912)50%3A4%3C459%3AOTPDOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N Did Al-Biruni discover evolution by natural selection 800 years before Darwin?] * [http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/biruni-book-gemstones/page_001 "On Stones": Biruni's work on geology, medical properties of gemstones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008134830/http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/biruni-book-gemstones/page_001 |date=2014-10-08 }} full text version + comments {{DEFAULTSORT:Biruni, Abu Rayhan}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 973]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1048]] [[Kategori:Ahli matematika abad ka-10]] [[Kategori:Ahli matematika abad ka-11]] [[Kategori:Ahli kronologi]] [[Kategori:Ahli énsiklopédi]] [[Kategori:Astronomi Islam]] [[Kategori:Géografi Islam]] [[Kategori:Matematika Islam]] [[Kategori:Ahli astrologi Muslim]] [[Kategori:Ahli filsafat Muslim]] [[Kategori:Ahli astrologi urang Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Ahli astronomi urang Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Ahli matematika urang Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Ahli filsafat urang Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Nu nyieun jam]] aiiom9aaeedxf6ud7zi4x2fasfhs7pb Sistim panomeran binér 0 25057 732166 705356 2026-11-11T02:44:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732166 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:WikipediaBinary.svg|thumbnail|right|190px|Kode-kode [[ASCII]] pikeun kecap "Wikipedia" anu disajikeun dina sistem [[Binary numeral system|bineri]], sistem panomeran anu paling umum digunakeun pikeun ngodekeun informasi dina kompiyuter.]] '''Sistem panomeran bineri''', atawa '''sistem angka basis-2''', mangrupa [[sistem panomeran]] anu narjamahkeun harga-harga angka kana dua simbul, biasana [[0 (number)|0]] jeung [[1 (number)|1]]. Lantaran palaksanaannana anu gampang dina [[rangkean elektronik]], sistem bineri digunakeun dina sakabéh [[kompiyuter]] modérn. Contona, dina kompiyuter digunakeun sistem panomeran bineri [[ASCII]] anu ngodekeun aksara "a" jadi "01100001", "i" jadi "01101001", "d" jadi "01100100", "e" jadi "01100101", "k" jadi "01101011", "p" jadi "01110000", sarta "w" jadi "01010111". dumasar kana kode ASCII kasebut, kecap "wikipedia" ditulis dina sistem panomeran salaku "010101110110100101101011011010010111000001100101011001000110100101100001" {{Table Numeral Systems}} {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Sajarah == The ancient [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematician]] [[Pingala]] presented the first known description of a binary numeral system between the 8th and 4th centuries BC, written in Hindu numerals. The numeration system was based on the [[Eye of Horus]] Old Kingdom numeration system.<ref>W. S. Anglin and J. Lambek, ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, 1995, ISBN 038794544X [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN038794544X&id=mZfXHRgJpmQC&pg=RA1-PA112&lpg=RA1-PA112&ots=dq2uhf5X1y&dq=pingala+binary+indian&sig=LTdSjpurM7CiwOZ6DJxYwvKh_eQ online]</ref> A full set of 8 [[Bagua (concept)|trigram]]s and 64 [[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagram]]s, analogous to the 3-bit and 6-bit binary numerals, were known to the ancient Chinese in the [[Chinese classic texts|classic text]] ''[[I Ching]]''. Similar sets of binary combinations have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as [[Ifá]] as well as in medieval Western [[geomancy]]. An ordered binary arrangement of the hexagrams of the [[I Ching]], representing the decimal sequence from 0 to 63, and a method for generating the same, was developed by the Chinese scholar and philosopher [[Shao Yong]] in the 11th century. However, there is no evidence that Shao understood binary computation. In 1605 [[Francis Bacon]] discussed a system by which letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text. Importantly for the general théory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: "provided those objects be capable of a twofold difference only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature."<ref>Bacon, Francis ''The Advancement of Learning'', Book 6, Chapter 1, 1605. [http://home.hiwaay.net/~paul/bacon/advancement/book6ch1.html Online here.]</ref> (See [[Bacon's cipher]].) The modérn binary number system was fully documented by [[Gottfried Leibniz]] in the 17th century in his article ''[[Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire]]''. Leibniz's system used 0 and 1, like the modérn binary numeral system. In 1854, [[United Kingdom|British]] mathematician [[George Boole]] published a landmark paper detailing a system of [[logic]] that would become known as [[Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebra]]. His logical system proved instrumental in the development of the binary system, particularly in its implementation in electronic circuitry. In 1937, [[Claude Shannon]] produced his master's thesis at [[MIT]] that implemented [[Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebra]] and binary arithmetic using electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled ''[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]'', Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical [[digital circuit]] design. In November of 1937, [[George Stibitz]], then working at [[Bell Labs]], completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the "Model K" (for "'''K'''itchen", where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition. Bell Labs thus authorized a full reséarch program in late 1938 with Stibitz at the helm. Their [[Complex Number Computer]], completed [[January 8]], [[1940]], was able to calculate [[complex numbers]]. In a demonstration to the [[American Mathematical Society]] conference at [[Dartmouth College]] on [[September 11]], [[1940]], Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a [[teletype]]. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were [[John Von Neumann]], [[John Mauchly]], and [[Norbert Wiener]], who wrote about it in his memoirs. == Representation == A binary number can be represented by any sequence of [[bit]]s (binary digits), which in turn may be represented by any mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. The following sequences of symbols could all be interpreted as the same binary numeric value of [[667 (number)|667]]: 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 | - | - - | | - | | x o x o o x x o x x y n y n n y y n y y [[Image:Binary clock.svg|250px|thumbnail|right|A [[binary clock]] might use [[Light-emitting diode|LEDs]] to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a [[binary-coded decimal]] numeral of the traditional [[sexagesimal]] time. ]] The numeric value represented in éach case is dependent upon the value assigned to éach symbol. In a computer, the numeric values may be represented by two different [[voltage]]s; on a [[Magnetic field|magnetic]] [[disk]], magnetic [[polarity|polarities]] may be used. A "positive", "yes", or "on" state is not necessarily equivalent to the numerical value of one; it depends on the architecture in use. In keeping with customary representation of numerals using [[Arabic numerals]], binary numbers are commonly written using the symbols '''0''' and '''1'''. When written, binary numerals are often subscripted, prefixed or suffixed in order to indicate their base, or radix. The following notations are equivalent: :100101 binary (explicit statement of format) :100101b (a suffix indicating binary format) :100101B (a suffix indicating binary format) :bin 100101 (a prefix indicating binary format) :100101<sub>2</sub> (a subscript indicating base-2 (binary) notation) :%100101 (a prefix indicating binary format) :0b100101 (a prefix indicating binary format, common in programming languages) When spoken, binary numerals are usually pronounced by pronouncing éach individual digit, in order to distinguish them from decimal numbers. For example, the binary numeral "100" is pronounced "one zero zero", rather than "one hundred", to maké its binary nature explicit, and for purposes of correctness. Since the binary numeral "100" is equal to the decimal value four, it would be confusing, and numerically incorrect, to refer to the numeral as "one hundred" so to spéak. == Counting in binary == {| class="wikitable" align="right" |- ! Binary ! Decimal |- |align="right"|0 |align="right"|0 |- |align="right"|1 |align="right"|1 |- |align="right"|10 |align="right"|2 |- |align="right"|11 |align="right"|3 |- |align="right"|100 |align="right"|4 |- |align="right"|101 |align="right"|5 |- |align="right"|110 |align="right"|6 |- |align="right"|111 |align="right"|7 |- |align="right"|1000 |align="right"|8 |- |align="right"|1001 |align="right"|9 |- |align="right"|1010 |align="right"|10 |} Counting in binary is similar to counting in any other number system. Beginning with a single digit, counting proceeds through éach symbol, in incréasing order. Decimal counting uses the symbols '''0''' through '''9''', while binary only uses the symbols '''0''' and '''1'''. When the symbols for the first digit are exhausted, the next-higher digit (to the left) is incremented, and counting starts over at 0. In [[decimal]], counting proceeds like so: :000, 001, 002, ... 007, 008, 009, (rightmost digit starts over, and next digit is incremented) :0'''1'''0, 011, 012, ... :&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;... :090, 091, 092, ... 097, 098, 099, (rightmost two digits start over, and next digit is incremented) :'''1'''00, 101, 102, ... After a digit réaches 9, an increment resets it to 0 but also causes an increment of the next digit to the left. In binary, counting is the same except that only the two symbols 0 and 1 are used. Thus after a digit réaches 1 in binary, an increment resets it to 0 but also causes an increment of the next digit to the left: :000, 001, (rightmost digit starts over, and next digit is incremented) :0'''1'''0, 011, (rightmost two digits start over, and next digit is incremented) :'''1'''00, 101, ... == Binary simplified == One can think about binary by comparing it with our usual numbers. We use a [[Decimal|base ten]] system. This méans that the value of éach position in a numerical value can be represented by one of ten possible symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. We are all familiar with these and how the decimal system works using these ten symbols. When we begin counting values, we should start with the symbol 0, and proceed to 9 when counting. We call this the "ones", or "units" place. The "ones" place, with those digits, might be thought of as a multiplication problem. 5 can be thought of as 5 × 10<sup>0</sup> (10 to the zeroeth power, which equals 5 × 1, since any nonzero number to the zero power is one). As we move to the left of the ones place, we incréase the power of 10 by one. Thus, to represent 50 in this same manner, it can be thought of as 5 × 10<sup>1</sup>, or 5 × 10. :<math>500 = (5 \times 10^2) + (0 \times 10^1) + (0 \times 10^0)</math> :<math>5834 = (5 \times 10^3) + (8 \times 10^2) + (3 \times 10^1) + (4 \times 10^0)</math> When we run out of symbols in the decimal numeral system, we "move to the left" one place and use a "1" to represent the "tens" place. Then we reset the symbol in the "ones" place back to the first symbol, zero. Binary is a base two system which works just like our decimal system, however with only two symbols which can be used to represent numerical values: 0 and 1. We begin in the "ones" place with 0, then go up to 1. Now we are out of symbols, so to represent a higher value, we must place a "1" in the "twos" place, since we don't have a symbol we can use in the binary system for 2, like we do in the decimal system. In the binary numeral system, the value represented as 10 is (1 × 2<sup>1</sup>) + (0 × 2<sup>0</sup>). Thus, it equals "2" in our decimal system. Binary-to-decimal equivalence: :<math>1_2 = 1 \times 2^0 = 1 \times 1 = 1_{10}</math> :<math>10_2 = (1 \times 2^1) + (0 \times 2^0) = 2 + 0 = 2_{10}</math> :<math>101_2 = (1 \times 2^2) + (0 \times 2^1) + (1 \times 2^0) = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5_{10}</math> To see the actual algorithm used in computing the conversion, see the [[#Conversion to and from other numeral systems|conversion guide]] below. Here is another way of thinking about it: When you run out of symbols, for example 11111, add a "1" on the left end and reset all the numerals on the right to "0", producing 100000. This also works for symbols in the middle. Say the number is 100111. If you add one to it, you move the leftmost repéating "1" one space to the left (from the "fours" place to the "eights" place) and reset all the numerals on the right to "0", producing 101000. == Binary arithmetic == Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on binary numerals. === Addition === [[Image:Half-adder.svg|thumbnail|200px|right|The [[circuit diagram]] for a binary [[Adder (electronics)|half adder]], which adds two bits together, producing sum and carry bits.]] The simplest arithmetic operation in binary is [[addition]]. Adding two single-digit binary numbers is relatively simple: :0 + 0 = 0 :0 + 1 = 1 :1 + 0 = 1 :1 + 1 = 10 (carry:1) Adding two "1" values produces the value "10" (spoken as "one-zero"), equivalent to the decimal value 2. This is similar to what happens in decimal when certain single-digit numbers are added together; if the result equals or exceeds the value of the radix (10), the digit to the left is incremented: :5 + 5 = 10 :7 + 9 = 16 This is known as ''carrying'' in most numeral systems. When the result of an addition exceeds the value of the radix, the procedure is to "carry the one" to the left, adding it to the next positional value. Carrying works the same way in binary: 1 1 1 1 1 (carried digits) 0 1 1 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 1 ------------- = 1 0 0 1 0 0 In this example, two numerals are being added together: 01101<sub>2</sub> (13 decimal) and 10111<sub>2</sub> (23 decimal). The top row shows the carry bits used. Starting in the rightmost column, 1 + 1 = 10<sub>2</sub>. The 1 is carried to the left, and the 0 is written at the bottom of the rightmost column. The second column from the right is added: 1 + 0 + 1 = 10<sub>2</sub> again; the 1 is carried, and 0 is written at the bottom. The third column: 1 + 1 + 1 = 11<sub>2</sub>. This time, a 1 is carried, and a 1 is written in the bottom row. Proceeding like this gives the final answer 100100<sub>2</sub> (36 decimal). When computers must add two numbers, the rule that: x ^ y = x + y % 2 for any two bits x and y allows for very fast calculation, as well. === Subtraction === [[Subtraction]] works in much the same way: :0 &minus; 0 = 0 :0 &minus; 1 = 1 (with borrow) :1 &minus; 0 = 1 :1 &minus; 1 = 0 One binary numeral can be subtracted from another as follows: * * * * (starred columns are borrowed from) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 − 1 0 1 1 1 ---------------- = 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 Subtracting a positive number is equivalent to ''adding'' a [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] number of equal [[absolute value]]; computers typically use [[two's complement]] notation to represent negative values. This notation eliminates the need for a separate "subtract" operation. The subtraction can be summarized with this formula: '''A - B = A + not B + 1''' For further details, see [[two's complement]]. === Multiplication ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Binary-coded decimal]] --> [[Multiplication]] in binary is similar to its decimal counterpart. Two numbers ''A'' and ''B'' can be multiplied by partial products: for éach digit in ''B'', the product of that digit in ''A'' is calculated and written on a new line, shifted leftward so that its rightmost digit lines up with the digit in ''B'' that was used. The sum of all these partial products gives the final result. Since there are only two digits in binary, there are only two possible outcomes of éach partial multiplication: * If the digit in ''B'' is 0, the partial product is also 0 * If the digit in ''B'' is 1, the partial product is equal to ''A'' For example, the binary numbers 1011 and 1010 are multiplied as follows: 1 0 1 1 (A) × 1 0 1 0 (B) --------- 0 0 0 0 ← Corresponds to a zero in B + 1 0 1 1 ← Corresponds to a one in B + 0 0 0 0 + 1 0 1 1 --------------- = 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 See also [[Booth's multiplication algorithm]]. === Division === Binary [[Division (mathematics)|division]] is again similar to its decimal counterpart: __________ 1 0 1 | 1 1 0 1 1 Here, the divisor is 101<sub>2</sub>, or 5 decimal, while the dividend is 11011<sub>2</sub>, or 27 decimal. The procedure is the same as that of decimal [[long division]]; here, the divisor 101<sub>2</sub> goes into the first three digits 110<sub>2</sub> of the dividend one time, so a "1" is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the divisor, and subtracted from the first three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a "1") is included to obtain a new three-digit sequence: 1 __________ 1 0 1 | 1 1 0 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 0 1 1 The procedure is then repéated with the new sequence, continuing until the digits in the dividend have been exhausted: 1 0 1 __________ 1 0 1 | 1 1 0 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 0 1 1 − 0 0 0 ----- 1 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 1 0 Thus, the quotient of 11011<sub>2</sub> divided by 101<sub>2</sub> is 101<sub>2</sub>, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 10<sub>2</sub>. In decimal, 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2. == Bitwise operations == {{utama|bitwise operation}} Though not directly related to the numerical interpretation of binary symbols, sequences of bits may be manipulated using [[Boolean operation|Boolean]] [[logical operator]]s. When a string of binary symbols is manipulated in this way, it is called a [[bitwise operation]]; the logical operators [[Logical conjunction|AND]], [[Logical disjunction|OR]], and [[Exclusive disjunction|XOR]] may be performed on corresponding bits in two binary numerals provided as input. The logical [[Negation|NOT]] operation may be performed on individual bits in a single binary numeral provided as input. Sometimes, such operations may be used as arithmetic short-cuts, and may have other computational benefits as well. For example, an [[arithmetic shift]] left of a binary number is the equivalent of multiplication by a (positive, integral) power of 2. == Conversion to and from other numeral systems == === Decimal === To convert from a base-10 integer numeral to its base-2 (binary) equivalent, the number is divided by two, and the remainder is the [[least-significant bit]]. The (integer) result is again divided by two, its remainder is the next most significant bit. This process repéats until the result of further division becomes zero. For example, 118<sub>10</sub>, in binary, is: :{| class="wikitable" !Operation!!Remainder |- |118 ÷ 2 = 59 ||align="center"|0 |- |59 ÷ 2 = 29 ||align="center"|1 |- |29 ÷ 2 = 14 ||align="center"|1 |- |14 ÷ 2 = 7 ||align="center"|0 |- |7 ÷ 2 = 3 ||align="center"|1 |- |3 ÷ 2 = 1 ||align="center"|1 |- |1 ÷ 2 = 0 ||align="center"|1 |} réading the sequence of remainders from the bottom up gives the binary numeral <math>1110110_2</math>. This method works for conversion from any base, but there are better methods for bases which are powers of two, such as [[octal]] and [[hexadecimal]] given below. To convert from base-2 to base-10 is the reverse algorithm. Starting from the left, double the result and add the next digit until there are no more. For example to convert 110010101101<sub>2</sub> to decimal: :{| class="wikitable" !Result!!Remaining digits |- |'''0'''||align="right"|110010101101 |- |0 × 2 + 1 = '''1'''||align="right"|10010101101 |- |1 × 2 + 1 = '''3'''||align="right"|0010101101 |- |3 × 2 + 0 = '''6'''||align="right"|010101101 |- |6 × 2 + 0 = '''12'''||align="right"|10101101 |- |12 × 2 + 1 = '''25'''||align="right"|0101101 |- |25 × 2 + 0 = '''50'''||align="right"|101101 |- |50 × 2 + 1 = '''101'''||align="right"|01101 |- |101 × 2 + 0 = '''202'''||align="right"|1101 |- |202 × 2 + 1 = '''405'''||align="right"|101 |- |405 × 2 + 1 = '''811'''||align="right"|01 |- |811 × 2 + 0 = '''1622'''||align="right"|1 |- |1622 × 2 + 1 = '''3245'''||align="right"| |} The result is 3245<sub>10</sub>. The fractional parts of a number are converted with similar methods. They are again based on the equivalence of shifting with doubling or halving. In a fractional binary number such as .11010110101<sub>2</sub>, the first digit is <math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}</math>, the second <math>\begin{matrix} (\frac{1}{2})^2 = \frac{1}{4} \end{matrix}</math>, etc. So if there is a 1 in the first place after the decimal, then the number is at léast <math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}</math>, and vice versa. Double that number is at léast 1. This suggests the algorithm: Repéatedly double the number to be converted, record if the result is at léast 1, and then throw away the integer part. For example, <math>\begin{matrix} (\frac{1}{3}) \end{matrix}</math><sub>10</sub>, in binary, is: :{| class="wikitable" !Converting!!Result |- |<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{3} \end{matrix}</math> || 0. |- |<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{3} \times 2 = \frac{2}{3} < 1 \end{matrix}</math> || 0.0 |- |<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{2}{3} \times 2 = 1\frac{1}{3} \ge 1 \end{matrix}</math> || 0.01 |- |<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{3} \times 2 = \frac{2}{3} < 1 \end{matrix}</math> || 0.010 |- |<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{2}{3} \times 2 = 1\frac{1}{3} \ge 1 \end{matrix}</math> || 0.0101 |} Thus the repéating decimal fraction 0.{{overline|3}}... is equivalent to the repéating binary fraction 0.{{overline|01}}... . Or for example, 0.1<sub>10</sub>, in binary, is: :{| class="wikitable" ! Converting !! Result |- | '''0.1''' || 0. |- |0.1 × 2 = '''0.2''' < 1 || 0.0 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.00 |- |0.4 × 2 = '''0.8''' < 1 || 0.000 |- |0.8 × 2 = '''1.6''' ≥ 1 || 0.0001 |- |0.6 × 2 = '''1.2''' ≥ 1 || 0.00011 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.000110 |- |0.4 × 2 = '''0.8''' < 1 || 0.0001100 |- |0.8 × 2 = '''1.6''' ≥ 1 || 0.00011001 |- |0.6 × 2 = '''1.2''' ≥ 1 || 0.000110011 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.0001100110 |} This is also a repéating binary fraction 0.00011{{overline|0011}}... . It may come as a surprise that terminating decimal fractions can have repéating expansions in binary. It is for this réason that many are surprised to discover that 0.1 + ... + 0.1, (10 additions) differs from 1 in floating point arithmetic. In fact, the only binary fractions with terminating expansions are of the form of an integer divided by a power of 2, which 1/10 is not. The final conversion is from binary to decimal fractions. The only difficulty arises with repéating fractions, but otherwise the method is to shift the fraction to an integer, convert it as above, and then divide by the appropriate power of two in the decimal base. For example: :{| | <math>x</math> ||align="right"|= ||align="right"|'''1100''' ||align="left"|'''.1011100{{overline|11100}}...''' |- | <math>x \times 2^6</math> ||align="right"|= ||align="right"|'''1100101110'''||align="left"|'''.01110{{overline|01110}}...''' |- | <math>x \times 2</math> ||align="right"|= ||align="right"|'''11001''' ||align="left"|'''.01110{{overline|01110}}...''' |- | <math>x \times (2^6 - 2)</math> ||align="right"|= ||align="right"|'''1100010101''' |- |- | <math>x</math> ||align="right"|= ||align="right"|(789/62)<sub>10</sub> |} Another way of converting from binary to decimal, often quicker for a person familiar with [[hexadecimal]], is to do so indirectly&mdash;first converting (<math>x</math> in binary) into (<math>x</math> in hexadecimal) and then converting (<math>x</math> in hexadecimal) into (<math>x</math> in decimal). For very large numbers, these simple methods are inefficient because they perform a large number of multiplications or divisions where one operand is very large. A simple divide-and-conquer algorithm is more effective asymptotically: given a binary number, we divide by 10<sup>''k''</sup>, where ''k'' is chosen so that the quotient roughly equals the remainder, then éach of these pieces is converted to decimal and the two are concatenated. Given a decimal number, we split it into two pieces of about the same size, convert éach to binary, then multiply the first piece by 10<sup>''k''</sup> and add them, where ''k'' is the number of digits in the léast-significant (rightmost) piece. === Hexadecimal === Binary may be converted to and from [[hexadecimal]] somewhat more éasily. This is due to the fact that the [[radix]] of the hexadecimal system (16) is a power of the radix of the binary system (2). More specifically, 16 = 2<sup>4</sup>, so it takes four digits of binary to represent one digit of hexadecimal. The following table shows éach hexadecimal digit along with the equivalent decimal value and four-digit binary sequence: {| border=0 cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" | {| class="wikitable" !Hex!!Dec!!Binary |-align=center |0||0||0000 |-align=center |1||1||0001 |-align=center |2||2||0010 |-align=center |3||3||0011 |} | {| class="wikitable" !Hex!!Dec!!Binary |-align=center |4||4||0100 |-align=center |5||5||0101 |-align=center |6||6||0110 |-align=center |7||7||0111 |} | {| class="wikitable" !Hex!!Dec!!Binary |-align=center |8||8||1000 |-align=center |9||9||1001 |-align=center |A||10||1010 |-align=center |B||11||1011 |} | {| class="wikitable" !Hex!!Dec!!Binary |-align=center |C||12||1100 |-align=center |D||13||1101 |-align=center |E||14||1110 |-align=center |F||15||1111 |} |} To convert a hexadecimal number into its binary equivalent, simply substitute the corresponding binary digits: :3A<sub>16</sub> = 0011 1010<sub>2</sub> :E7<sub>16</sub> = 1110 0111<sub>2</sub> To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra '''0''' bits at the left (called [[padding]]). For example: :01010010<sub>2</sub> = 0101 0010 grouped with padding = 52<sub>16</sub> :11011101<sub>2</sub> = 1101 1101 grouped = DD<sub>16</sub> To convert a hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent, multiply the decimal equivalent of éach hexadecimal digit by the corresponding power of 16 and add the resulting values: :C0E7<sub>16</sub> = (12 × 16<sup>3</sup>) + (0 × 16<sup>2</sup>) + (14 × 16<sup>1</sup>) + (7 × 16<sup>0</sup>) = (12 × 4096) + (0 × 256) + (14 × 16) + (7 × 1) = 49,383<sub>10</sub> === Octal === Binary is also éasily converted to the [[octal]] numeral system, since octal uses a radix of 8, which is a [[power of two]] (namely, 2<sup>3</sup>, so it takes exactly three binary digits to represent an octal digit). The correspondence between octal and binary numerals is the same as for the first eight digits of [[hexadecimal]] in the table above. Binary 000 is equivalent to the octal digit 0, binary 111 is equivalent to octal 7, and so forth. :{| class="wikitable" !Octal!!Binary |-align=center | 0 || 000 |-align=center | 1 || 001 |-align=center | 2 || 010 |-align=center | 3 || 011 |-align=center | 4 || 100 |-align=center | 5 || 101 |-align=center | 6 || 110 |-align=center | 7 || 111 |} Converting from octal to binary proceeds in the same fashion as it does for [[hexadecimal]]: :65<sub>8</sub> = 110 101<sub>2</sub> :17<sub>8</sub> = 001 111<sub>2</sub> And from binary to octal: :101100<sub>2</sub> = 101 100<sub>2</sub> grouped = 54<sub>8</sub> :10011<sub>2</sub> = 010 011<sub>2</sub> grouped with padding = 23<sub>8</sub> And from octal to decimal: :65<sub>8</sub> = (6 × 8<sup>1</sup>) + (5 × 8<sup>0</sup>) = (6 × 8) + (5 × 1) = 53<sub>10</sub> :127<sub>8</sub> = (1 × 8<sup>2</sup>) + (2 × 8<sup>1</sup>) + (7 × 8<sup>0</sup>) = (1 × 64) + (2 × 8) + (7 × 1) = 87<sub>10</sub> == Representing real numbers ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Chaitin's constant]] --> Non-integers can be represented by using negative powers, which are set off from the other digits by méans of a [[radix point]] (called a [[decimal point]] in the decimal system). For example, the binary number 11.01<sub>2</sub> thus méans: :{| |'''1''' × 2<sup>1</sup> || (1 × 2 = '''2''') || plus |- |'''1''' × 2<sup>0</sup> || (1 × 1 = '''1''') || plus |- |'''0''' × 2<sup>−1</sup> || (0 × ½ = '''0''') || plus |- |'''1''' × 2<sup>−2</sup> || (1 × ¼ = '''0.25''') |} For a total of 3.25 decimal. All [[dyadic fraction|dyadic rational number]]s <math>\frac{p}{2^a}</math> have a ''terminating'' binary numeral&mdash;the binary representation has a finite number of terms after the radix point. Other [[rational number]]s have binary representation, but instéad of terminating, they ''recur'', with a finite sequence of digits repéating indefinitely. For instance :<math>\frac{1_{10}}{3_{10}}</math> = <math>\frac{1_2}{11_2}</math> = 0.01010101{{overline|01}}...<sub>2</sub> :<math>\frac{12_{10}}{17_{10}}</math> = <math>\frac{1100_2}{10001_2}</math> = 0.10110100 10110100 {{overline|10110100}}...<sub>2</sub> The phenomenon that the binary representation of any rational is either terminating or recurring also occurs in other radix-based numeral systems. See, for instance, the explanation in [[decimal]]. Another similarity is the existence of alternative representations for any terminating representation, relying on the fact that 0.111111... is the sum of the [[geometric series]] 2<sup>−1</sup> + 2<sup>−2</sup> + 2<sup>−3</sup> + ... which is 1. Binary numerals which neither terminate nor recur represent [[irrational number]]s. For instance, * 0.10100100010000100000100.... does have a pattern, but it is not a fixed-length recurring pattern, so the number is irrational * 1.0110101000001001111001100110011111110... is the binary representation of <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, the [[square root]] of 2, another irrational. It has no discernible pattern, although a proof that <math>\sqrt{2}</math> is irrational requires more than this. See [[irrational number]]. ==References== {{reflist}} ==See also== *[[Two's complement]] *[[Finger binary]] *[[Binary-coded decimal]] * reflected binary code, also known as [[Gray code]] * [[linear feedback shift register]] * [[Asymmetric binary system]] == Tumbu luar == {{external links}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071011005729/http://www.binarymath.info/ BinaryMath.info - arithmetic examples and conversion methods] * [http://www.swansontec.com/sbinary.htm Introduction to Binary Numbers] * [http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/leibniz.htm A brief overview of Leibniz and the connection to binary numbers] * [http://www.insidereality.net/site/content/math/base_conversion.php Simple Conversion Methods] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529125025/http://www.insidereality.net/site/content/math/base_conversion.php |date=2006-05-29 }} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/BinaryHistory.shtml Binary System] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/frac_conv.shtml Conversion of Fractions] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.mathsisfun.com/binary-digits.html Binary Digits] at [[Math Is Fun]] * [http://www.wikihow.com/Convert-from-Decimal-to-Binary How to Convert from Decimal to Binary] at [[wikiHow]] * [http://www.goldenkstar.com/number-system-school-software-maths.htm Binary numbers conversion software] Software for conversion of Numbers from Binary to other number systems and vice versa. * [http://www.jorgepena.be/binary-and-hexadecimal/ Binary and Hexadecimal Tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213191945/http://www.jorgepena.be/binary-and-hexadecimal/ |date=2007-12-13 }} * [http://www.theskull.com/javascript/ascii-binary.html Binary & ASCII conversions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218083521/http://www.theskull.com/javascript/ascii-binary.html |date=2007-12-18 }} [[Kategori:Aritmatika komputer]] [[Kategori:Aritmatika dasar]] [[Kategori:Sistim panomeran posisional| 2]] 7l8xzpmmkeia8ws2sb9qhql724ssg4e Vitamin C 0 25308 732185 712541 2026-11-11T03:56:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732185 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:L-Ascorbic acid.svg|thumb|2-okso-L-tréo-héksono-1,4- lakton-2,3-énédiol<br> atawa (''R'')-3,4-dihidroksi-5-((''S'')- 1,2-dihidroksiétil)furan-2(5''H'')-on atawa nu kawentar vitamin C]] '''Vitamin C''' atawa '''<small>L</small>-askorbat''' téh hiji [[zat gizi ésénsial]] pikeun [[simian|primata luhur]] jeung sababaraha [[spésiés]] lianna. Askorbat perlu pikeun sababaraha rupa [[métabolismeu|réaksi métabolismeu]] dina sakabéh awak [[sato]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] sarta [[biosintésis|dihasilkeun ku awak]] ampir sakabéh organismeu, iwal manusa jeung sababaraha [[primata]]. Ieu vitamin kawentar ku balukar tina kakuranganana: [[barusuh]] (skorbut)<ref name="UKFSA">{{cite web |url=http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=Food Standards Agency (UK) }}</ref><ref name="UMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |title=Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date=April 2002 |author= |publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231142109/http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |date=2005-12-31 }}</ref><ref name="OSU">{{cite web |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/|title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-07 |date=2006-01-31 |first=Jane, Ph.D. |last= Higdon|publisher=Oregon State University, Micronutrient Information Center}}</ref>. [[Farmakofor]] vitamin C téh [[ion]] askorbatna. Pikeun mahluk hirup, askorbat téh [[antioksidan]] anu naméngan awak tina [[setrés oksidatif]]<ref name="Padayatty">{{cite journal |author=Padayatty S, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee J, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta S, Levine M |title=Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18-35 |year=2003 |pmid=12569111 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929003945/http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> sarta salaku [[kofaktor]] dina sababaraha réaksi [[énzim]]atik penting<ref name="UKFSA Risk" />. == Peran biologis == [[Gambar:L-ascorbic-acid-3D-balls.png|thumb|Modél 3D Vitamin C]] Vitamin C téh [[Énantiomér|<small>L</small>-énantiomér]] askorbat; énantiomér sabalikna, <small>D</small>-énantiomér, teu boga mangpaat fisiologis anu penting. Duanana mangrupa [[kiral (kimia)|kiral]] pikeun [[wangun molekul]] anu sarua. Nalika [[rédoks|ngaréduksi]], <small>L</small>-askorbat nu [[réduktor]] kuat téh bakal robah jadi bentuk kaoksidasi, [[asam dehidroaskorbat|<small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat]]<ref name="UKFSA Risk">{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |title=Vitamin C – Risk Assessment |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=UK Food Standards Agency }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129082537/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |date=2007-11-29 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat lajeng bisa diréduksi balik jadi <small>L</small>-askorbat aktif ku énzim jeung glutation<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=269 |issue=13 |pages=9397-400 |year=1994 |pmid=8144521 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914171031/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |date=2009-09-14 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-askorbat téh [[asam gula]] [[asam lemah|lemah]] anu wangunna patali jeung [[glukosa]] nu sacara alami diciptakeun ngahiji jeung [[ion hidrogén]] ngabentuk [[assam askorbat]], atawa ngahiji jeung ion [[logam]] ngabentuk [[askorbat mineral]]. === Mangpaat === Pikeun manusa, vitamin C jétu pisan salaku [[antioksidan]], ngurangan [[setrés oksidatif]], salaku substrat [[peroksidaseu askorbat]]<ref name="OSU" />, ogé salaku [[kofaktor]] énzim dina [[biosintésis]] bahan-bahan biokimia penting. Vitamin C boga peran salaku [[donor éléktron]] pikeun dalapan énzim<ref>Levine M, Rumsey SC, Wang Y, Park JB, Daruwala R. Vitamin C. In Stipanuk MH (ed): "Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Human Nutrition." Philadelphia: W B Saunders, kc. 541–567, 2000.</ref>: * Tilu énzim dina [[hidroksilasi]] [[kolagén]]<ref>Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI: Collagens: molecular biology, diseases, and potentials for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem 64:403–434, 1995.</ref><ref>Peterkofsky B: Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 1135S–1140S, 1991.</ref><ref>Kivirikko KI, Myllyla R: Post-translational processing of procollagens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 460: 187–201, 1985.</ref>. Ieu réaksi nambahkeun [[Hidroksida|gugus hidroksil]] kana asam amino [[prolin]] atawa [[lisin]] dina molekul molekul (ngaliwatan [[hidroksilaseu prolil]] jeung [[hidroksilaseu lisil]]), antukna molekul kolagénna bisa ngabentuk wangun tripel héliks; ku kituna vitamin C jadi éséntial pikeun kamekarkeun jeung mulasara [[jaringan tatu]], [[saluran getih]], jeung kartilage<ref>McGee, William, M.D., M.H.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine and Surgery, Tufts University School of Medicine; [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Ascorbic acid]</ref>. * Dua énzim pikeun sintésis [[karnitin]]<ref>Rebouche CJ: Ascorbic acid and carnitine biosynthesis. Am J Clin Nutr 54:1147S–1152S, 1991.</ref><ref>Dunn WA, Rettura G, Seifter E, Englard S. Carnitine biosynthesis from gamma-butyrobetaine and from exogenous protein-bound 6-N-trimethyl-L-lysine by the perfused guinea pig liver. Effect of ascorbate deficiency on the in situ activity of gammabutyrobetaine hydroxylase. J Biol Chem 259:10764–10770, 1984.</ref>. Karnitin penting dina ngakut [[asam lemak]] ka [[mitokondria]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Adenosin trifosfat|ATP]]. * Anu tilu sésana nyaéta ** [[hidroksilaseu béta dopamin]] dina biosintésis [[norépinéfrin]] tina [[dopamin]]<ref>Levine M, Dhariwal KR, Washko P, Welch R, Wang YH, Cantilena CC, Yu R: Ascorbic acid and reaction kinetics in situ: a new approach to vitamin requirements. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) Spec No:169–172, 1992.</ref><ref>Kaufman S: Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. J Psychiatr Res 11: 303–316, 1974.</ref>. ** énzim nu nambahkeun gugus [[amida]] ka [[hormon péptida]], antukna leuwih stabil<ref>Eipper BA, Milgram SL, Husten EJ, Yun HY, Mains RE: Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase: a multifunctional protein with catalytic, processing, and routing domains. Protein Sci 2:489–497, 1993.</ref><ref>Eipper BA, Stoffers DA, Mains RE: The biosynthesis of neuropeptides: peptide alpha-amidation. Annu Rev Neurosci 15:57–85, 1992.</ref>. ** énzim nu ngamodulasi métabolismeu [[tirosin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Englard S, Seifter S |title=The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_1986_6/page/365 |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=6 |issue= |pages=365-406 |year=1986 |pmid=3015170 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.002053}}</ref><ref>Lindblad B, Lindstedt G, Lindstedt S: The mechanism of enzymic formation of homogentisate from p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. J Am Chem Soc 92:7446–7449, 1970.</ref>. [[Jaringan biologis]] anu ngagundukkeun vitamin C leuwih ti 100 kali kadarna dina plasma getih nyaéta [[kelenjar adrénal]], [[pituitari]], [[timus]], [[corpus luteum]], jeung [[rétina]]<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v8/n5/full/nm0502-445.html New view at C] Matthias A. Hediger , ''Nature Medicine'' 8, 445 - 446 (2002) doi:10.1038/nm0502-445 <blockquote>"''Plasma vitamin C concentrations are maintained between 10 and 160 μM, and any excess of the vitamin is excreted by the kidney. In contrast, the vitamin is concentrated to at least 100 times the plasma level in specific tissues such as the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thymus, retina, corpus luteum, and a variety of neuronal cell types.''"</blockquote></ref>. Nu ngagundukkeun antara 10 n.k. 50 kalina nyaéta [[otak]], [[limpa]], [[bayah]], [[téstis]], [[kelenjar limfe]], [[ati]], [[tiroid]], [[mémbran mukosa|mukosa]] [[usus leutik]], [[leukosit]], [[pangkréas]], [[ginjal]], jeung [[kelenjar ciduh]].<!-- === Biosynthesis === [[Image:Ascorbic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|200px|left|Model of a vitamin C [[molecule]]. Black is [[carbon]], red is [[oxygen]], and white is [[hydrogen]]]] The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four [[enzyme]]-driven steps, which convert [[glucose]] to vitamin C.<ref name="UKFSA Risk" /> The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in [[mammals]] and [[perching birds]]) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bánhegyi G, Mándl J |title=The hepatic glycogenoreticular system |journal=Pathol Oncol Res |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=107-10 |year=2001 |pmid=11458272}}</ref> In [[reptiles]] and [[birds]] the biosynthesis is carried out in the [[kidney]]s. Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are [[simian]]s, [[guinea pig]]s, the [[red-vented bulbul]],and [[Megabat|fruit-eating bats]].<ref name=" UKFSA Risk"/> Most notably, humans have no capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, [[Pseudogene]] ΨGULO, is defective.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ascorbic Acid: Subcellular Biochemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/subcellularbioch0025unse | author = Harris, J. Robin | publisher = Springer | isbn = 0306451484 | year = 1996 | pages = p. 35}}</ref> The [[mutation]] has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources, with many of these species' natural diets consisting largely of fruit. Most [[simian]]s consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.<ref>Milton, K. (1999) "Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us?" Nutrition. 1999 Jun;15(6):488-98.</ref> This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances (see [[Vitamin C#Evolutionary_rationales|Vitamin C as a macronutrient - Evolutionary rationales]]). It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down [[uric acid]]. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong [[reducing agent]]s. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Proctor P |title=Similar functions of uric acid and ascorbate in man? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1970-11-28_228_5274/page/868 |journal=Nature |volume=228 |issue=5274 |pages=868 |year=1970 |pmid=5477017|doi=10.1038/228868a0}}</ref> Ascorbic acid can be [[oxidised]] (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme [[ascorbic acid oxidase]]. An adult [[goat]], a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/197x/stone-i-orthomol_psych-1979-v8-n2-p58.htm |title=Eight Decades of Scurvy. The Case History of a Misleading Dietary Hypothesis |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last=Stone |first=Irwin |authorlink=Irwin Stone |coauthors= |date=July 16, 1978 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=''Biochemical research in the 1950’s showed that the lesion in scurvy is the absence of the enzyme, L-Gulonolactone oxidase (GLO) in the human liver (Burns, 1959). This enzyme is the last enzyme in a series of four which converts blood sugar, glucose, into ascorbate in the mammalian liver. This liver metabolite, ascorbate, is produced in an unstressed goat for instance, at the rate of about 13,000 mg per day per 150 pounds body weight (Chatterjee, 1973). A mammalian feedback mechanism increases this daily ascorbate production many fold under stress (Subramanian et al., 1973)}}</ref> Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to also use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.<ref>{{cite journal| author = C. Long, et al. | title = Ascorbic acid dynamics in the seriously ill and injured. | journal = Journal of Surgical Research | volume = 109 | issue = 2 | pages= 144–148| doi = 10.1016/S0022-4804(02)00083-5 }} <blockquote>"''Our results show that plasma ascorbic acid levels following trauma and during infection are extremely low and are not normalized with 300 or even 1000 mg/day supplemented TPN.''"</blockquote></ref> Some [[microorganism]]s such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]].<ref name="yeastAA">{{cite web |url=http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/publications/annualreports/02Indiv/20Ascorb.pdf |title=Ascorbic acid biosynthesis in higher plants and micro-organisms |accessdate=2007-02-20||author=R.D. Hancock & R. Viola |publisher=Scottish Crop Research Institute}} <blockquote>"''Our results demonstrate that yeast cells are capable of direct fermentation of <small>L</small>-galactose to <small>L</small>-AA. However, given that <small>L</small>-galactose is an extremely rare and expensive sugar a process using <small>L</small>-galactose as a starting material could never be economical. In order to overcome this problem, we are currently developing new yeast strains with extended metabolic competence for the synthesis of <small>L</small>-galactose directly from inexpensive substrates.''"</blockquote> </ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=|title=Biosynthesis of <small>L</small>-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae |accessdate=2007-02-19 |journal=FEMS Microbiol Lett.|volume=186|issue=2|pages=245-50|author=Hancock RD, Galpin JR, Viola R.|pmid=10802179}}</ref> === Deficiency === [[Scurvy]] is an [[avitaminosis]] resulting from lack of vitamin C, as without this vitamin, the synthesised [[collagen]] is too unstable to meet its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all [[mucous membrane]]s. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, [[suppuration|suppurating wounds]] and loss of [[teeth]] and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-09 |date=[[2007-01-02]] |first=William |last =McGee |publisher=National Institutes of Health }}</ref> and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. === Discovery of ascorbic acid === [[Image:GyorgyiNIH.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for the discovery of vitamin C]] In 1912, the [[Polish-American]] biochemist [[Casimir Funk]], while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of [[vitamins]] to refer to the nutrients which are essential to health. Then, from 1928 to 1933, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] research team of [[Joseph L Svirbely]] and [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] and, independently, the [[United States|American]] [[Charles Glen King]], first isolated vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid. For this, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pitt.edu/history/1932.html |title=Pitt History - 1932: Charles Glen King |accessdate=2007-02-21 |quote=In recognition of this medical breakthrough, some scientists believe that King deserved a Nobel Prize. |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh]] }}</ref> In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] attempted to prove his theory of how the [[Eskimo]]s are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir [[Walter Norman Haworth]] and Sir [[Edmund Hirst]] and, independently, the Polish chemist [[Tadeus Reichstein]], succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for this work, but the process for vitamin C retained Reichstein's name. In 1934 [[Hoffmann–La Roche]] became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of [[Redoxon]]. In 1957 the American [[J.J. Burns]] showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their [[liver]] to produce the active [[enzyme]] [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.<ref>Burns, J. J., and Evans, C., J. Biol. Chem., 200, 125 (1953).</ref><ref>Burns, J. J., Peyser, P., and Maltz, A., Science, 124, 1148 (1956).</ref> American biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the <small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. == Daily requirements == The [[North America]]n [[Dietary Reference Intake]] recommends 90 [[orders of magnitude (mass)|milligram]]s per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).<ref name="US RDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/296/webtablevitamins.pdf |title=US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date= |author= |publisher= }}</ref> Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.<ref name="Primates"/><ref name="paulingevolution"/> There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.<ref name="PR Newswire">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/07-06-2004/0002204911 |title=Linus Pauling Vindicated; Researchers Claim RDA For Vitamin C is Flawed |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[6 July]], [[2004]] |publisher=PR Newswire }}</ref> It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.<ref name="US RDA" /> High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in [[diarrhea]]. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically [[orthomolecular medicine]])<ref name="Cathcart">{{cite web |url=http://www.orthomed.com/titrate.htm |title=Vitamin C, Titrating To Bowel Tolerance, [[Anascorbemia]], and Acute Induced Scurvy |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=1994 |first=Robert |last= Cathcart |authorlink=Robert Cathcart |publisher=Orthomed }}</ref> claim the onset of [[diarrhea]] to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. Both Cathcart<ref name="Cathcart"/> and Cameron have hypothesized that very [[sick]] [[patients]] with [[cancer]] or [[influenza]] do not display any evidence of [[diarrhea]] at all until ascorbate intake reaches levels as high as 200 [[grams]] (nearly half a pound). == Vitamin C as a macronutrient == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C, promoting a great deal of added benefits. Drawing on a wide, <ref name="seanet">[http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ Ascorbate web] An historical compendium of 20th-Century medical & scientific literature attesting to the efficacy of Ascorbate</ref> but still inconclusive, body of evidence as to the benefits beyond those dosages recommended in the Dietary Reference Intakes, many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current [[Dietary Reference Intake]]. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, [[Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron]], [[Steve Hickey]], [[Irwin Stone]] and the twice [[Nobel Prize]] laureate [[Linus Pauling]] and the more controversial [[Matthias Rath]]. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.<ref name="PR Newswire"/><ref>{{cite journal |author = Forman, Robert |year=1981 |title=Medical Resistance To Innovation |journal=Medical Hypotheses |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=1009-1017 |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/198x/forman-r-med_hypotheses-1981-v7-n8-p1009.htm |accessdate=2007-02-23 }}</ref> The [[biological halflife]] for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. == Therapeutic uses == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} Since its discovery vitamin C has been considered by some enthusiastic proponents a "[[panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]", although this led to suspicions by others of it being over-hyped.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/kansa/vk/hemila/dovitami.pdf |title=Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=January 2006 |author=Hemilä, Harri |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] | format = PDF}}</ref> Other proponents of high dose vitamin C consider that if it is given "in the right form, with the proper technique, in frequent enough doses, in high enough doses, along with certain additional agents and for a long enough period of time,"<ref>{{cite book | last = Levy | first= Thomas E. | authorlink = Thomas E. Levy | title = Curing the Incurable: Vitamin C, Infectious Diseases, and Toxins | url = https://archive.org/details/curingincurablev0000levy_z9x7 | edition = | publisher = Livon Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 1-4010-6963-0 | pages = p. 36}}</ref> it can prevent and, in many cases, cure, a wide range of common and/or lethal diseases, notably the [[common cold]] and [[heart disease]],<ref>Rath MW, Pauling LC. {{US patent|5278189}} Prevention and treatment of occlusive cardiovascular disease with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein(a). USPTO. 11 Jan 1994.</ref> although the NIH considers there to be "fair scientific evidence against this use."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | work = MedLine Plus | publisher = National Institute of Health | date = [[2006-08-01]] | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitaminc.html | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }}</ref> Some proponents issued controversial statements involving it being a cure for [[AIDS]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200605220885.html |title=Nigeria: Vitamin C Can Suppress HIV/Aids Virus |accessdate=2006-06-16 |date=[[2006-05-22]] |author= |publisher=allAfrica.com }}</ref> [[H5N1|bird flu]], and [[SARS]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemilä H |title=Vitamin C and SARS coronavirus |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1049-50 |year=2003 |pmid=14613951 |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/52/6/1049}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/aids/story/0,7369,1483821,00.html |title=Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa | accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=[[2005-05-14]] |author= Boseley, Sarah | publisher = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/THE_FOUNDATION/openletter_20060407.htm |title=Open letter from Dr. Matthias Rath MD to German Chancellor Merkel |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=2005 |author=Rath, Matthias |publisher=Dr. Rath Health Foundation }}</ref> Probably the most controversial issue, the putative role of ascorbate in the management of AIDS, is still unresolved, more than 16 years after the landmark study published in the [[Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences]] (USA) showing that non toxic doses of ascorbate suppress [[HIV]] replication ''in vitro''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R, Pauling L |title=Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=87 |issue=18 |pages=7245-9 |year=1990 |pmid=1698293}}</ref> Other studies expanded on those results, but still, no large scale trials have yet been conducted.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Comparative study of the anti-HIV activities of ascorbate and thiol-containing reducing agents in chronically HIV-infected cells |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume=54 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1231S-1235S |year=1991 |pmid=1720598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=NF-kappa B-independent suppression of HIV expression by ascorbic acid |journal=AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=235-9 |year=1997 |pmid=9115810}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Ascorbate effect on cytokine stimulation of HIV production |journal=Nutrition |volume=11 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=684-7 |year= |pmid=8748252}}</ref> In an animal model of lead intoxication, vitamin C demonstrated "protective effects" on lead-induced nerve and muscle abnormalities<ref name="pmid12818354">{{cite journal |author=Hasan MY, Alshuaib WB, Singh S, Fahim MA |title=Effects of ascorbic acid on lead induced alterations of synaptic transmission and contractile features in murine dorsiflexor muscle |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_life-sciences_2003-07-11_73_8/page/1017 |journal=Life Sci. |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=1017-25 |year=2003 |pmid=12818354 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> In smokers, blood lead levels declined by an average of 81% when supplemented with 1000 mg of vitamin C, while 200 mg were ineffective, suggesting that vitamin C [[Dietary supplement|supplement]]s may be an "economical and convenient" approach to reduce lead levels in the blood.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dawson E, Evans D, Harris W, Teter M, McGanity W |title=The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=166-70 |year=1999 |pmid=10204833}}</ref> The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] published a study which concluded, based on an analysis of blood lead levels in the subjects of the Third ''National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey'', that the independent, inverse relationship between lead levels and vitamin C in the blood, if causal, would "have public health implications for control of lead toxicity".<ref name="pmid10386552">{{cite journal |author=Simon JA, Hudes ES |title=Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels |journal=JAMA |volume=281 |issue=24 |pages=2289-93 |year=1999 |pmid=10386552 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> Vitamin C has limited popularity as a treatment for [[autism spectrum]] symptoms. A 1993 study of 18 children with ASD found some symptoms reduced after treatment with vitamin C,<ref name="pmid8255984">{{cite journal |author=Dolske MC, Spollen J, McKay S, Lancashire E, Tolbert L |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> but these results have not been replicated.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year= 2005 |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |pages= 131–42 |title= Novel treatments for autistic spectrum disorders |author= Levy SE, Hyman SL |doi= 10.1002/mrdd.20062 |pmid= 15977319}}</ref> Small clinical trials have found that vitamin C might improve the [[sperm count]], sperm motility, and sperm morphology in infertile men<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akmal M, Qadri J, Al-Waili N, Thangal S, Haq A, Saloom K |title=Improvement in human semen quality after oral supplementation of vitamin C |journal=J Med Food |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=440-2 |year=2006 |pmid=17004914}}</ref>, or improve immune function related to the prevention and treatment of [[Senescence-associated diseases|age-associated diseases]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=de la Fuente M, Ferrández M, Burgos M, Soler A, Prieto A, Miquel J |title=Immune function in aged women is improved by ingestion of vitamins C and E |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-physiology-and-pharmacology_1998-04_76_4/page/373 |journal=Can J Physiol Pharmacol |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=373-80 |year=1998 |pmid=9795745}}</ref> However, to date, no large clinical trials have verified these findings. A preliminary study published in the Annals of Surgery found that the early administration of antioxidant supplementation using α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid reduces the incidence of organ failure and shortens ICU length of stay in this cohort of critically ill surgical patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nathens A, Neff M, Jurkovich G, Klotz P, Farver K, Ruzinski J, Radella F, Garcia I, Maier R |title=Randomized, prospective trial of antioxidant supplementation in critically ill surgical patients |journal=Ann Surg |volume=236 |issue=6 |pages=814-22 |year=2002 |pmid=12454520 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1422648}}</ref> More research on this topic is pending. Dehydroascorbic acid, the main form of oxidized Vitamin C in the body, was shown to reduce neurological deficits and mortality following [[stroke]], due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, while "the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) or vitamin C does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier".<ref name="ascorBBB"> {{cite journal |author=Huang J, Agus DB, Winfree CJ, Kiss S, Mack WJ, McTaggart RA, Choudhri TF, Kim LJ, Mocco J, Pinsky DJ, Fox WD, Israel RJ, Boyd TA, Golde DW, Connolly ES Jr. |title=Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/20/11720 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=20 |pages=11720-11724 |year=2001 |pmid=11573006}}</ref> In this study published by the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in 2001, the authors concluded that such "a pharmacological strategy to increase cerebral levels of ascorbate in stroke has tremendous potential to represent the timely translation of basic research into a relevant therapy for thromboembolic stroke in humans". No such "relevant therapies" are available yet and no clinical trials have been planned. In January 2007 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved a Phase I toxicity trial to determine the safe dosage of intravenous vitamin C as a possible cancer treatment for "patients who have exhausted all other conventional treatment options."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87833644.html |title=FDA OKs vitamin C trial for cancer |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=January 12, 2007 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=[[Physorg.com]] |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=Federal approval of a clinical trial on intravenous vitamin C as a cancer treatment lends credence to alternative cancer care, U.S. researchers said.}}</ref> Additional studies over several years would be needed to demonstrate whether it is effective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00441207?order=1 |title=Study of High-Dose Intravenous (IV) Vitamin C Treatment in Patients With Solid Tumors |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=The primary purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and tolerability of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) given by injection into the vein. The second and third purpose of conducting this study is to observe any evidence of tumor response to the vitamin C and compare the level of fatigue (weakness), pain control, ability to do things, and quality of life, before and after vitamin C is given. (Phase I)|}}</ref> In February 2007, an uncontrolled study of 39 terminal cancer patients showed that, on subjective questionnaires, patients reported an improvement in health, cancer symptoms, and daily function after administration of high-dose intravenous vitamin C.<ref name="pmid17297243">{{cite journal |author=Yeom CH, Jung GC, Song KJ |title=Changes of terminal cancer patients' health-related quality of life after high dose vitamin C administration |journal=J. Korean Med. Sci. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=7-11 |year=2007 |pmid=17297243 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> The authors concluded that "''Although there is still controversy regarding anticancer effects of vitamin C, the use of vitamin C is considered a safe and effective therapy to improve the quality of life of terminal cancer patients''". == Adverse effects == While being harmless in most typical quantities, as with all substances to which the human body is exposed, vitamin C can still cause harm under certain conditions. === Common side-effects === Relatively large doses of vitamin C may cause [[indigestion]], particularly when taken on an empty stomach. When taken in large doses, vitamin C causes [[diarrhea]]. In one trial, doses up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je20.htm |title=Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents |accessdate=2007-04-13 |date=4 July 1973 |author= |publisher=World Health Organization }}</ref> === Possible side-effects === As vitamin C enhances iron absorption<ref name="pmid12450906">{{cite journal | author = Fleming DJ, Tucker KL, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Wilson PW, Wood RJ | title = Dietary factors associated with the risk of high iron stores in the elderly Framingham Heart Study cohort | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 76 | issue = 6 | pages = 1375-84 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12450906 | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/6/1375?ijkey=6566b8c0d5c56a4d01b961794eb78aff12b1c135&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha}}</ref>, [[iron poisoning]] can become an issue to people with rare [[iron overload disorder]]s, such as [[haemochromatosis]]. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme [[glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] (G6PD), can cause sufferers to develop [[hemolytic anemia]] after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.<ref name="pmid11124756">{{cite journal | author = Cook JD, Reddy MB | title = Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2001-01_73_1/page/93 | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 93-8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11124756 | url http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/1/93?ijkey=eecc6c6024033b1dedbf32dd717cc5e08fd61f93&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha= }}</ref> For decades, large doses of vitamin C have been speculated to trigger [[oxalate]] formation and increase absorption of dietary oxalate, possibly causing [[kidney stone]]s.<ref name="pmid15987848">{{cite journal | author = Massey LK, Liebman M, Kynast-Gales SA | title = Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2005-07_135_7/page/1673 | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 135 | issue = 7 | pages = 1673-7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15987848 | doi = }}</ref> However, this speculation may not be justified since there is no clear relationship between excess [[ascorbic acid]] intake and [[kidney stone]] formation. <ref name="pmid14498993">{{cite journal | author = Naidu KA | title = Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 2 | issue 7 | year = 2003 | pages = | pmid = 14498993 | doi = }}</ref> During the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of [[progesterone]] from the [[corpus luteum]].<ref name="pmid4467736">{{cite journal | author = Ovcharov R, Todorov S | title = [The effect of vitamin C on the estrus cycle and embryogenesis of rats] | language = Bulgarian | journal = Akusherstvo i ginekologii͡a | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 191-5 | year = 1974 | pmid = 4467736 | doi = }}</ref> Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) is theorized to induce an early miscarriage. In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors point out that this relationship may not necessarily be a causal one.<ref name="pmid988001">{{cite journal | author = Vobecky JS, Vobecky J, Shapcott D, Cloutier D, Lafond R, Blanchard R | title = Vitamins C and E in spontaneous abortion | journal = International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift für Vitamin- und Ernährungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 291-6 | year = 1976 | pmid = 988001 | doi = }}</ref> === Chance of overdose === As discussed previously, vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram when taken orally.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html |title=Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid |accessdate= 2007-02-21 |date= [[2005-10-09]] | publisher= [[Oxford University]] }}</ref> The LD<sub>50</sub> in humans remains unknown, owing to [[medical ethics]] that preclude experiments which would put patients at risk of harm. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the LD<sub>50</sub> is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans and no data to contradict this has been found. == Natural and artificial dietary sources == [[Image:Rosa canina hips.jpg|right|thumb|[[Rose hips]] are a particularly rich source of vitamin C]] The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the [[camu camu]] fruit and the [[Kakadu plum]] contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken [[nutritional supplement]] and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals. Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson JX |title=Regulation of vitamin C transport |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=25 |issue= |pages=105-25 |year=2005 |pmid=16011461 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092647}}</ref> === Plant sources === While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on: the precise variety of the plant, the soil condition, the climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked, the storage conditions, and the method of preparation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uk.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Nutrition/Vitamin_mineral_content_is_stable/forside.htm |title=The vitamin and mineral content is stable |accessdate=2007-03-07 |publisher=Danish Veterinary and Food Administration }}</ref> === Animal sources === [[Image:Goat.jpg|thumb|300px|Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.]] The overwhelming majority of species of animals and plants synthesise their own vitamin C, making some, but not all, animal products, sources of dietary vitamin C. Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in [[Breastfeeding#Benefits|mother's milk]] and, in lower amounts, in [[Milk#Nutritional benefits|raw cow's milk]], with [[pasteurized milk]] containing only trace amounts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saanendoah.com/compare.html |title= Comparing Milk: Human, Cow, Goat & Commercial Infant Formula |accessdate=2007-02-28 |date=8 January 2007 |first=Stephanie, Ph. D | last= Clark |publisher=[[Washington State University]] }}</ref> All excess Vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system. === Food preparation === Vitamin C [[chemical decomposition|chemically decomposes]] under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Normally, boiling water at 100°C is not hot enough to cause any significant destruction of the nutrient, which only decomposes at 190°C, <ref name="Oxford"/> despite popular opinion. However, [[pressure cooking]], roasting, frying and [[grilling]] food is more likely to reach the [[decomposition temperature]] of vitamin C. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which [[catalyse]] the decomposition.<ref name="Oxford"/> Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is [[leaching]], where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C doesn't leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows [[broccoli]] seems to retain more than any other.<ref name=Combs>Combs GF. The Vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001:245–272</ref> Research has also shown that fresh-cut fruit don't lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/123/115022.htm |title=Fresh-Cut Fruit May Keep Its Vitamins |accessdate=2007-02-25 |date=2 June 2006 |first=Miranda |last=Hitti |publisher=WebMD }}</ref> === Vitamin C supplements === [[Image:RedoxonVitaminC.jpg|thumb|right|Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The [[Redoxon]] brand, launched in 1934 by [[Hoffmann-La Roche]], was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin C.]] Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.<ref> [http://www.thedietchannel.com/Vitamin-C.htm The Diet Channel] Vitamin C might be the most widely known and most popular vitamin purchased as a supplement.</ref> It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing [[bioflavonoids]] such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). === Artificial modes of synthesis === Vitamin C is produced from [[glucose]] by two main routes. The [[Tadeusz Reichstein|Reichstein process]], developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] process, originally developed in [[China]] in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/2001/fulltext/456a4.2.pdf |title=The production of vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=2001 |publisher=Competition Commission }}</ref> Research is underway at the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]] in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesise vitamin C in a single fermentation step from [[galactose]], a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.<ref name="yeastAA" /> World production of synthesised vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. Main producers today are [[BASF]]/[[Takeda Chemical Industries|Takeda]], [[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[Merck KGaA|Merck]] and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the [[People's Republic of China]]. China is slowly becoming the major world supplier as its prices undercut those of the US and European manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?n=63349-dsm-vitamin-c |title=DSM makes last stand against Chinese vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[2005-10-20]] |first=Dominique |last=Patton |publisher=nutraingredients }}</ref> --> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Vitamin C|Vitamin C]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris (5 Dés. 2007). {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == ;Jurnal * {{cite journal |author=Dolske, M.C., et al. |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi=}} * {{cite journal |author=Green VA, Pituch KA, Itchon J, Choi A, O'Reilly M, Sigafoos J |title=Internet survey of treatments used by parents of children with autism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-developmental-disabilities_january-february-2006_27_1/page/70 |journal=Research in developmental disabilities |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=70-84 |year=2006 |pmid=15919178 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.002}} ;Pustaka *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C and the Common Cold |year=1970 |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Company |location= |isbn=071670160X}} *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu'' |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminccommonco0000paul |year=1976 |publisher=W H Freeman & Co |location= |isbn=0716703610}} *{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |authorlink=Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron |coauthors=[[Linus Pauling]], |title=Cancer and Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/cancervitaminc00came |year=1979|publisher=Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine|location= |isbn=0393500004}} *{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Saul |authorlink=Saul Kent |coauthors= |title=Life Extension Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeextensionrev00kent |year=1980 |publisher=Morrow |location= |isbn= }} *{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Durk |authorlink=Durk Pearson|coauthors=Sandy Shaw|title=[[Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach]] |year=1982 |publisher=Warner Books |location= |isbn=0446387355 }} see Part IV, Chapter 7: Vitamin C *{{cite book |last=Pelton |first=Ross |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mind Food and Smart Pills: How to Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging |url=https://archive.org/details/mindfoodsmartpil0000pelt |year=1986 |publisher=T & R Pub |location= |isbn=0936809000 }} see Chapter 3: Vitamin C, The Champion Free Radical Scavenger *{{cite book |last=Clemetson |first=C.A.B |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminc0001clem |year=1989 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-4841-2 }} Monograph - Volumes I, II, III. *{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Thomas E. |authorlink=Thomas E. Levy |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C Infectious Diseases, & Toxins |year=2002 |publisher=Xlibris |location= |isbn=1401069630}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ AscorbateWeb] — a collection of twentieth century medical & scientific literature on vitamin C in the tréatment and prevention of human diséase at séanet.com * [http://autism.healingthresholds.com/therapy/vitamin-c Healing Thresholds — Research on Vitamin C in the treatment of autism.] at héalingthresholds.com * {{US patent|5278189}} — "Prevention and treatment of occlusive [[cardiovascular disease]] with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein (a)", Inventors: Matthias W. Rath and Linus C. Pauling * [http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ vitamin C] at [[Food Standards Agency|United Kingdom Food Standards Agency]] * {{cite journal |author=Naidu KA |title=Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview |journal=Nutrition journal |volume=2 |issue= |pages=7 |year=2003 |pmid=14498993 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-2-7 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/2/1/7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107173743/http://www.nutritionj.com/content/2/1/7 |archive-date=2008-01-07 |accessdate=2007-12-05 }} * [http://www.acu-cell.com/vitc.html Vitamin C Requirements: Optimal Health Benefits vs Overdose] — a moderate dose advocacy site * [http://www.doctoryourself.com/vitciv.html For Doctors: Preparation of Vitamin C IV's] — by Andrew W. Saul, PhD. at doctoryourself.com * [http://www.orthomed.com/bird.htm Information regarding treatment of the Bird Flu with massive doses of ascorbate.] — by Robert Cathcart, M.D. at orthomed.com {{Vitamin}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] [[Kategori:Asam organik]] [[Kategori:Vitamin]] [[Kategori:Koénzim]] ia5k2iqdgizgm1eoyyi8wlnwwkl08tf Cakram Blu-ray 0 25531 732105 731629 2026-11-10T20:24:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732105 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox media | name = Blu-ray Disc | logo = | image = [[Gambar:BluRayDiscBack.png|200px|Reverse side of a Blu-ray Disc]] | caption = | type = High-density [[optical disc]] | encoding = [[MPEG-2]], [[H.264|MPEG-4 AVC (H.264)]], and [[VC-1]] | capacity = 25 [[gigabyte|GB]] (single layer), 50&nbsp;GB (dual layer) | read = 1x@36&nbsp;[[Megabit per second|Mbit/s]] & 2x@72&nbsp;Mbit/s | write = | standard = | owner = [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] | use = Data storage, [[High-definition video]] and [[PlayStation 3]] Games | extended from = | extended to = }} '''Cakram Blu-ray''' (basa Inggris: '''''Blu-ray Disc''''') nyaéta hiji format [[cakram optik]] nu kacida padetna pikeun nyimpen informasi digital, kaasup [[high-definition video|video definisi luhur]]. Dimensina mah sarua jeung [[DVD]] atawa [[CD]]. Ngaran ''Cakram Blu-ray'' dicokot tina [[laser]] biru-ungu ''(blue-violet)'' nu dipaké keur maca tur nulis tipe cakram ieu. Alatan [[panjang gelombang]] nu leuwih pondok (405 [[nanometer|nm]]), sacara substansial baris leuwih loba data nu bisa disimpen dina hiji Cakram Blu-ray ti batan dina format [[DVD]] nu maké laser beureum (650&nbsp;nm). Cakram Blu-ray salapis bisa nyimpen 25 [[gigabita]] (GB), leuwih ti lima kalieun ukuran DVD salapis 4.7&nbsp;GB. Cakram Blu-ray dua lapis bisa nyimpen 50&nbsp;GB, ampir genep kalieun ukuran DVD dua lapis nu 8.5&nbsp;GB. Blu-ray dimekarkeun ku [[Blu-ray Disc Association]], hiji grup pausahaan-pausahaan maju nu midangkeun elektronika konsumen, hardware komputer, jeung produksi gambar gerak. Standarna kawengku ku sababaraha paten nu dipibanda ku sababaraha pausahaan nu béda. Nepi ka Maret 2007, hiji kasapukan lisensi gabungan keur sakabéh paten nu cocog can bisa direngsekeun.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/Significant-progress-made-toward-creation-of-joint-Blu-ray-Disc-patent-license-Press-Release.html |title = Significant progress made toward creation of joint Blu-ray Disc™ patent license (Press Release) |accessdate = 2007-10-17 |author = Seán Byrne |date = 2007-02-23 |work = cdrfreaks.com |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071112221413/http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/Significant-progress-made-toward-creation-of-joint-Blu-ray-Disc-patent-license-Press-Release.html |archivedate = 2007-11-12 }}</ref> Dumasar kana data tanggal [[2 Juli]], [[2008]] leuwih ti 650<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.blu-ray.com/movies/movies.php?show=nowavailable | title=Total available United States releases }}</ref> pilem Cakram Blu-ray geus dirilis sacara komersil di [[Amerika Sarikat]] sarta leuwih ti 410<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.watch.impress.co.jp/av/docs/bdhdship/|title=Blu-ray/HD DVD releases in Japan|publisher=AVWatch|accessdate=2008-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828181018/http://www.watch.impress.co.jp/av/docs/bdhdship/|archive-date=2008-08-28}}</ref> judul Cakram Blu-ray dirilis di [[Jepang]]. Salila [[perang format cakram optis definisi luhur]], Blu-ray [[perang format|perang]] jeung saingannana, [[HD DVD]], pikeun nangtukeun nu mana salah sahiji (lamun henteu duanana) ti antara dua format ieu nu bakal mingpin pasar eusi definisi luhur keur konsumen. Dina tanggal [[19 Pebruari]], [[2008]], [[Toshiba]]&nbsp;— pausahaan utama nu ngarojong HD DVD&nbsp;— ngembarkeun yén moal neruskeun deui mekarkeun, nyieun jeung masarkeun pamuter jeung pangrekam HD DVD,<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2008_02/pr1903.htm |title=Toshiba Announces Discontinuation of HD DVD Businesses |publisher= Toshiba |date=[[19 Pebruari]], [[2008]] |accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> nu nyababkeun ampir sakabéh nu ngarojong kana HD DVD marilu eureun, su sacara éféktifmungkas [[perang fomat]]. == Sajarah == {{Optical disc authoring}} [[Gambar:Blu-ray disc (BD-RE).JPG|ka|jmpl|200px|Cakram blu-ray kosong nu bisa ditulisan deui (BD-RE)]] Dina panengah dekade 1990-an, set [[HDTV]] komersil ahirna bisa mimiti asup kana pasar nu leuwih gedé. Sok sanajan kitu, geuningan euweuh cara nu alus tur hadé pikeun ngarekam atawa muter eusi HD. Meureun bae, da euweuh mediana nu bisa nyimpen data nu kacida gedéna, kajaba [[D-VHS|Digital VHS]]-na JVC jeung [[HDCAM|HD Betacam]]-na Sony.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB891992681208651500.html?mod=googlewsj |title= In HDTV Age, Successor to VCR Still Seems to Be a Long Way Off |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Evan Ramstad |date=1998-04-08 |work=online.wsj.com}}</ref> Sok sanajan kitu, geus kasohor yén maké laser nu panjang gelombangna pondok bakal bisa nyimpen optik kalawan leuwih padet. Nalika [[Shuji Nakamura]] nimu [[laser bulao|dioda laser bulao]] nu praktis, hal éta mangrupa hiji sensasi, sok sanajan perkara hukum patali jeung paten nu papanjangan, geus nyababkeun diwanohkeunana tehnologi ieu sacara komersil, jadi telat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,103862-page,1/article.html |title=Opening the Door for New Storage Options |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2002-08-12 |work=pcworld.com |publisher=}}</ref> === Asal === {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Sony started two projects applying the new diodes: [[UDO]] (Ultra Density Optical) and DVR Blue (together with [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]]), a format of rewritable discs which would eventually become Blu-ray (more specifically, BD-RE).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetanalog.com/features/OEG20010615S0046 |title=Blue laser bolsters DTV storage, features |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=S.B. Luitjens |date=2001-06-15 |work=planetanalog.com |publisher=}}</ref> The core technologies of the formats are essentially similar. The first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the [[CEATEC]] exhibition in October 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,105534-page,1/article.html |title = Sony Shows 'DVR-Blue' Prototype |accessdate = 2007-10-17 |date= 2000-10-11 |work = cdrinfo.com }}</ref> Because the Blu-ray Disc standard places the data recording layer close to the surface of the disc, éarly discs were susceptible to contamination and scratches and had to be enclosed in plastic cartridges for protection. In February 2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn1952.html |title = Replacement for DVD unveiled |accessdate = 2007-10-17 |author = Barry Fox |date= 2002-02-19 |work = newscientist.com }}</ref> and the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer devices were in stores on [[April 10]], 2001. This device was the Sony BDZ-S77; a BD-RE recorder that was only made available in Japan. The recommended price was US$3800.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pricenfees.com/digit-life-archives/sony-bdz-s77-recorder-review |title=SONY BDZ-S77 Recorder Review |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Maxim Liadov |date= |work=pricenfees.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202062709/https://www.pricenfees.com/digit-life-archives/sony-bdz-s77-recorder-review |archivedate=2017-02-02 }}</ref> However, there was no standard for pre-recorded vidéo (BD-ROM) and no movies were reléased for this player. The Blu-ray standard was still yéars away, since a new and secure [[Digital Rights Management|DRM]] system was needed before Hollywood studios would accept it. Nobody wanted to repéat the failure of the [[Content Scramble System]] for DVDs. === Kompetisi jeung HD DVD === The [[DVD Forum]] (which was chaired by [[Toshiba]]) was deeply split over whether to go with the more expensive blue lasers or not. In addition, the proposed Blu-ray disc with its protective caddy was both expensive and physically different from DVD, posing several problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1829241.stm |title=Next Generation DVD Born |accessdate=2007-11-4 |date=2002-02-21 |work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> In March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by [[Warner Bros.]] and other [[film studio|motion picture studios]] that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer [[DVD-9]] discs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20020301S0091 |title=Picture's fuzzy for DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2002-03-01 |work=eetimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20011212S0060 |title=Forum to weigh Microsoft's Corona as DVD encoder |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2001-12-12 |work=eetimes.com |publisher=}}</ref> However, in spite of this decision, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=5266&PageNum=2 |title=HD on DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Philip De Lancie |date=2002-06-01 |work=emedialive.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011145939/http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=5266&PageNum=2 |archivedate=2007-10-11 }}</ref> In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,104570-page,1/article.html |title=Toshiba, NEC Share Details of Blue-Laser Storage |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2002-08-29 |work=pcworld.com}}</ref> It was finally adopted by the DVD forum and renamed [[HD DVD]] the next yéar,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theinquirer.net/en/inquirer/news/2003/11/28/dvd-forum-backs-toshiba-nec-format |title=DVD Forum backs Toshiba-NEC format |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2003-11-28 |work=theinquirer.net |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025011126/http://www.theinquirer.net/en/inquirer/news/2003/11/28/dvd-forum-backs-toshiba-nec-format |archivedate=2007-10-25 }}</ref> after being voted down twice by Blu-ray Disc Association members, prompting the U.S. Department of Justice to maké preliminary investigations into the situation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6458096.html|title=Opinion: Trust's worth|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804053736/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6458096.html|archivedate=2007-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6258560.html?q=DVD+Forum+Blu%2Dray|title=Lieberfarb lobs charges at Blu-ray|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602111938/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6258560.html?q=DVD+Forum+Blu%2Dray|archivedate=2009-06-02}}</ref> Three new members had to be invited and the voting rules changed before the vote finally passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.my-esm.com/story/OEG20031114S0024 |title=High-definition DVD format divides industry into rival camps |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida and Yoshiko Hara |date=2003-11-14 |work=my-esm.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20110720141401/http://www.my-esm.com/story/OEG20031114S0024 |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB20031126S0005 |title=HD DVD Format Wins Key Nod From DVD Forum |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Yoshiko Hara |date=2003-11-26 |work=techweb.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106090311/http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB20031126S0005 |archivedate=2007-01-06 }}</ref> In the méan time, Sony spun off [[Professional Disc for DATA]] from the Blu-ray project. It was essentially Blu-ray with higher-quality media and components. The devices were too expensive for the consumer mass market. Instéad, it was aimed at the professional data storage space market as a replacement for their line of 5.25" [[Magneto-optical drive|MO]] drives. It was announced in October 2003, with the first devices shipping in December of the same yéar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dvd-recordable.org/Article890-mode=thread-order0-threshold0.phtml |title=Sony to Launch 23GB Optical Disc |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2003-10-21 |work=dvd-recordable.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018151300/http://www.dvd-recordable.org/Article890-mode=thread-order0-threshold0.phtml |archivedate=2007-10-18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theregister.com/2003/12/02/sony_ships_bluray_23gb_storage/ |title=Sony ships blu-ray 23GB storage system |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Tony Smith |date=2003-12-02 |work=theregister.co.uk |publisher=}}</ref> ==== Attempts to avoid a format war ==== The costs of a format war are large, both for consumers and for the industry. In an attempt to avoid starting one, the Blu-ray Disc Association and the DVD Forum attempted to negotiate a compromise in éarly 2005. One of the issues was that the Blu-ray camp wanted to use a Java-based platform for interactivity ([[BD-J]]), while the DVD Forum was promoting Microsoft's "iHD" (which became [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800364355_499495_f3313299.HTM |title=Sides close to deal on HD disk format |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2005-04-19 |work=eetasia.com |publisher=}}</ref> A much larger issue, though, was the physical formats of the discs themselves; the Blu-ray member companies did not want to risk losing billions of dollars in royalties as they had done with standard DVD.<ref name="stalemate">{{cite web |url=http://www.internetnews.com/storage/article.php/3671091 |title=Who Is Drawing Out The High-Def DVD Stalemate? |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Andy Patrizio |date=2007-04-12 |work=internetnews.com |publisher=}}</ref> An agreement seemed close, but negotiations proceeded slowly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8e6df286-c670-11d9-b69b-00000e2511c8.html |title=Sony-Toshiba DVD format talks stall |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Michiyo Nakamoto |date=2005-05-17 |work=ft.com |publisher=}}</ref> At the end of June 2005, Sun announced that the Blu-ray Association had chosen the Java-based BD-J interactivity layer instéad of Microsoft's [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]]. This was based on a BDA board vote favouring BD-J 10 to 4, despite a technical committee previously favouring HDi by a vote of 7 to 5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6281492.html|title=Micro-managed copies|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101192254/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6281492.html|archivedate=2008-01-01}}</ref> At the same time, Microsoft and Toshiba jointly announced that they would cooperate in developing high-definition DVD players.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2005/06/68009 |title=Microsoft, Toshiba Gear Up |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=David Cohn |date=2005-06-27 |work=wired.com |publisher=|archiveurl=https://archive.is/GMOoK|archivedate=2013-02-09}}</ref> In a top-level meeting in July, Microsoft's Bill Gates argued that the Blu-ray standard had to change to "work more smoothly with personal computers". The Blu-ray Disc Association's representatives defended the technology.<ref name="DaggersDrawn">{{cite web |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_42/b3955113.htm |title=Daggers Drawn Over DVDs |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Cliff Edwards, Peter Burrows, Ronald Grover, Tom Lowry and Kenji Hall |date=2005-10-17 |work=businessweek.com |publisher=}}</ref> On [[August 22]], [[2005]], the Blu-ray Disc Association and DVD Forum announced that the negotiations to unify their standards had failed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2005/08/22/afx2188394.html |title=Sony, Toshiba fail to unify DVD format - report |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author= |date=2005-08-22 |work=forbes.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906112416/http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2005/08/22/afx2188394.html |archivedate=2008-09-06}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906112416/http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2005/08/22/afx2188394.html |date=2008-09-06 }}</ref> Rumours surfaced that an "unnamed partner" had pressured Toshiba to stick with HD DVD—in spite of Blu-ray's strong support among Hollywood studios and some analysts saying that HD DVD's days were numbéréd—but these rumours were denied by the parties involved; instéad, the same réasons of physical format incompatibility were cited.<ref name="stalemate"/><ref name="DaggersDrawn"/> At the end of September, Microsoft and Intel jointly announced their support for HD DVD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/n6BNgaGjf2Pdrz/Microsoft-Intel-Back-Toshibas-HD-DVD.xhtml |title=Microsoft, Intel Back Toshiba's HD-DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Susan B. Shor |date=2005-09-27 |work=ecommercetimes.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723214525/http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/n6BNgaGjf2Pdrz/Microsoft-Intel-Back-Toshibas-HD-DVD.xhtml |archivedate=2009-07-23 }}</ref> [[Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) made a last attempt to broker a péace between with Blu-ray Disc Association and Microsoft. The company demanded that the Blu-ray association adopted Microsoft's [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]] instéad of its own Java solution, and that Blu-ray adopt a mandatory managed copy féature. If the demands weren't met, HP thréatened to support HD DVD instéad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144325/hp-calls-changes-blu-ray |title=HP calls for changes to Blu-ray |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Ken Young |date=2005-10-20 |work=vnunet.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051023014523/http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144325/hp-calls-changes-blu-ray |archivedate=2005-10-23}}</ref> In a reséarch report, Gartner analysts Van Baker, Laura Behrens and Mike McGuire wrote that if HP's proposal was accepted, Blu-ray would become the winner of the format war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144595/hp-blu-ray-move-spells-doom-hd |title=HP's Blu-ray move spells doom for HD-DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Robert Jaques |date=2005-10-25 |work=vnunet.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220142959/http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144595/hp-blu-ray-move-spells-doom-hd |archivedate=2007-12-20}}</ref> However, the Blu-ray disc group did not accept HP's proposal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,175904,00.html |title=Blu-Ray Won't Bow to HP's Demands |accessdate=2007-10-19 |date=2005-11-17 |work=foxnews.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106045329/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,175904,00.html |archivedate=2007-11-06}}</ref> === Format Cakram Blu-ray rengse tur dikaluarkeun === The Blu-ray physical specifications were finished in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,117242-page,1/article.html |title = New Blu-ray Details Emerge |accessyear = 2007-10-17 |author = Martyn Williams |date= 2004-08-05 |work = pcworld.com }}</ref> In January 2005, TDK announced that they had developed a hard coating polymer for Blu-ray discs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news2615.html |title=Exclusive TDK Durabis Coating Technology Makes Cartridge-Free, Ultra-Durable Blu-Ray Discs a Reality |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2005-01-09 |work=physorg.com |publisher=}}</ref> The cartridges, no longer necessary, were scrapped. The BD-ROM specifications were finalized in éarly 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/06/blu-ray_spec_done/ |title = Blu-ray Disc developers complete specification |accessdate = 2007-10-17 |author = Tony Smith |date= 2006-01-06 |work = theregister.co.uk }}</ref> AACS LA, a consortium founded in 2004,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/news/2004/07/64212 |title=Can Odd Alliance Beat Pirates? |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Katie Dean |date=2004-07-15 |work=wired.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218001722/http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/news/2004/07/64212 |archivedate=2008-12-18}}</ref> had been developing the DRM platform that could be used to securely distribute movies to consumers. However, the final AACS standard was delayed,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,123924-page,1/article.html |title=Toshiba Hints at HD-DVD Delay |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2005-12-14 |work=pcworld.com}}</ref> and then delayed again when an important member of the Blu-ray group voiced concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heise.de/english/newsticker/news/69559 |title=AACS copy protection for Blu-ray disc and HD DVD delayed again |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Craig Morris |date=2006-02-14 |work=heise.de |publisher=}}</ref> At the request of Toshiba, an interim standard was published which did not include some féatures, like managed copy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,124961-page,1/article.html |title=Burning Questions: No Copying From First High-Def Players |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Melissa J. Perenson |date=2006-03-21 |work=pcworld.com}}</ref> The first BD-ROM players were shipped in the middle of June 2006, though HD DVD players béat them in the race to the market by a few months.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,189960,00.html |title= Toshiba Starts Selling HD DVD Players in Japan |accessdate= 2007-10-17 |author= |date= 2006-03-31 |work= foxnews.com |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071106045339/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,189960,00.html |archivedate= 2007-11-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2704,1977327,00.asp |title= Samsung Ships the First Blu-Ray Player |accessdate= 2007-10-17 |author= Dan Costa |date= 2006-06-15 |work= pcmag.com |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071022184231/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2704,1977327,00.asp |archivedate= 2007-10-22 }}</ref> The first Blu-ray Disc titles were reléased on [[June 20]] [[2006]]. The éarliest reléases used [[MPEG-2]] vidéo compression, the same method used on [[DVD]]s. The first reléases using the newer [[VC-1]] and [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|AVC]] [[codec]]s were introduced in September 2006.<ref>[http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Warner/Disc_Announcements/Full_Specs_in_for_Warners_Sept_26_Lineup_Studio_to_Go_VC-1_for_Blu-ray/209 Full Specs in for Warner's Sept 26 Lineup; Studio to Go VC-1 for Blu-ray?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909072308/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Warner/Disc_Announcements/Full_Specs_in_for_Warners_Sept_26_Lineup_Studio_to_Go_VC-1_for_Blu-ray/209 |date=2007-09-09 }}, BLU-RAY NEWS, High-Def Digest, [[30 August]] [[2006]]</ref> The first movies using dual layer discs (50&nbsp;GB) were introduced in October 2006.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/click.html | title = Click: Blu-ray Disc review | accessdate = 2007-09-15 | date = 2006-10-10 | last = Bracke | first = Peter M. | work = HighDefDigest.com | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070914020236/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/click.html | archivedate = 2007-09-14 }}</ref> The first mass-market Blu-ray rewritable drive for the PC was the BWU-100A, reléased by [[Sony]] on [[July 18]] [[2006]]. It recorded both single and dual layer BD-R as well as BD-RE discs and had a suggested retail price of US$699. HD DVD had a héad start in the high definition vidéo market and Blu-ray sales were slow at first. The first Blu-ray player was perceived as expensive and buggy, and there were few titles available.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/video-players-and-recorders/samsung-bd-p1000/4505-6463_7-31799185.html |title=Samsung BD-P1000 Review |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=David Katzmaier |date=2006-06-30 |work=cnet.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021072645/http://reviews.cnet.com/video-players-and-recorders/samsung-bd-p1000/4505-6463_7-31799185.html#more |archivedate=2007-10-21 }}</ref> This changed when [[PlayStation 3]] launched, since every PS3 unit also functioned as a Blu-ray player. By February 2007, Blu-ray discs had outsold HD DVDs,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.homemediamagazine.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?article_id=10323 |title=Blu-ray Tips Scales |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Stephanie Prange |date=2007-02-23 |work=homemediamagazine.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114230056/http://www.homemediamagazine.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?article_id=10323 |archivedate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and during the first three quarters of 2007, BD discs outsold HD DVDs by about two to one.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.charleston.net/news/2007/sep/30/dvd_formats_blu_ray_hd_square_off17561/ |title=DVD formats Blu-ray, HD square off |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Sarah McBride |date=2007-09-30 |work=charleston.net |publisher=}}</ref> == Disc structure == === Laser and optics === Like its rival format [[HD DVD]], Blu-ray uses a "blue" (technically [[blue laser|violet]]) [[laser diode|laser]] operating at a [[wavelength]] of 405 [[Nanometre|nm]] to réad and write data. Conventional [[DVD]]s and [[Compact disc|CDs]] use red and néar infrared lasers at 650&nbsp;nm and 780&nbsp;nm respectively. The blue-violet laser's shorter wavelength makes it possible to store more information on a 12&nbsp;cm CD/DVD sized disc. The minimum "[[spatial resolution|spot size]]" on which a laser can be focused is limited by [[diffraction]], and depends on the wavelength of the light and the [[Numerical aperture (microscopy)|numerical aperture]] of the [[lens (optics)|lens]] used to focus it. By decréasing the wavelength, incréasing the numerical aperture from 0.60 to 0.85 and making the cover layer thinner to avoid unwanted optical effects, the laser béam can be focused to a smaller spot. This allows more information to be stored in the same aréa. In addition to the optical improvements, Blu-ray Discs féature improvements in data encoding that further incréase the capacity. (See ''[[Compact disc]]'' for information on optical discs' physical structure.) === Hard-coating technology === Since the Blu-ray data layer is closer to the surface of the disk, compared to the [[DVD]] standard, it was at first more vulnerable to scratches. The first discs were housed in cartridges for protection. Advances in [[polymer]] technology eventually made the caddies unnecessary. [[TDK Corporation|TDK]] was the first company to develop a working scratch protection coating for Blu-ray discs. It was named [[Durabis]]. In addition, both Sony and Panasonic's replication methods include proprietary hard-coat technologies. Sony's rewritable media are sprayed with a scratch-resistant and antistatic coating. Verbatim recordable and rewritable Blu-ray Disc discs use their own proprietary hard-coat technology called ScratchGuard. == Software standards == === Codecs === [[Codec]]s are [[data compression|compression]] schemes that store audio and vidéo more efficiently, either giving longer play time or higher quality per megabyte. There are both [[Lossy compression|lossy]] and [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] compression techniques. The BD-ROM specification mandates certain codec compatibilities for both hardware decoders (players) and the movie-software (content). For vidéo, all players are required to support [[MPEG-2]], [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264/AVC]], and [[SMPTE]] [[VC-1]]. MPEG-2 is the codec used on regular [[DVD]]s, which allows [[backwards compatibility]]. H.264/AVC was developed by [[MPEG]] and [[Video Coding Experts Group|VCEG]] as a modérn successor of MPEG-2. VC-1 is another MPEG-4 derivative codec mostly developed by Microsoft. BD-ROM titles with vidéo must store vidéo using one of the three mandatory codecs. Multiple codecs on a single title are allowed. The choice of codecs affects the producer's licensing/royalty costs, as well as the title's maximum runtime, due to differences in compression efficiency. Discs encoded in MPEG-2 vidéo typically limit content producers to around two hours of high-definition content on a single-layer (25&nbsp;GB) BD-ROM. The more advanced vidéo codecs (VC-1 and H.264) typically achieve a vidéo runtime twice that of MPEG-2, with comparable quality. For audio, BD-ROM players are required to support [[Dolby Digital|Dolby Digital AC-3]], [[Digital Theater System|DTS]], and [[Linear pulse code modulation|linear PCM]]. Players may optionally support [[Dolby Digital Plus]], and [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] formats [[Dolby TrueHD]] and [[DTS HD]]. BD-ROM titles must use one of mandatory schemes for the primary soundtrack. A secondary audiotrack, if present, may use any of the mandatory or optional codecs.<ref>[http://www.dolby.com/assets/pdf/tech_library/DPlus_TrueHD_whitepaper.pdf Dolby Audio Coding for Future Entertainment Formats](PDF)</ref> For users recording [[digital television]] programming, the recordable Blu-ray Disc standard's datarate of 54&nbsp;Mbit/s is more than adequate to record high-definition broadcasts from any source ([[IPTV]], cable/satellite, or terrestrial). For Blu-ray Disc movies the maximum transfer rate is 48&nbsp;Mbit/s (1.5x) (both audio and vidéo payloads together), of which a maximum of 40&nbsp;Mbit/s can be dedicated to vidéo data. This compares favorably to the maximum of 36.55&nbsp;Mbit/s in HD DVD movies for audio and vidéo data.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blu-ray.com/faq/|title=Blu-ray FAQ|accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> === Java software support === {{utama|BD-J}} At the 2005 [[JavaOne]] trade show, it was announced that [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[Java platform|Java]] cross-platform software environment would be included in all Blu-ray Disc players as a mandatory part of the standard. Java is used to implement interactive menus on Blu-ray Discs, as opposed to the method used on [[DVD]] vidéo discs, which uses pre-rendered MPEG segments and selectable subtitle pictures, which is considerably more primitive and less séamless. Java créator [[James Gosling]], at the conference, suggested that the inclusion of a [[Java Virtual Machine]] as well as network connectivity in BD devices will allow updates to Blu-ray Discs via the Internet, adding content such as additional subtitle languages and promotional féatures that are not included on the disc at pressing time. This Java Version is called [[BD-J]] and is a subset of the [[Globally Executable MHP]] (GEM) standard. GEM is the world-wide version of the [[Multimedia Home Platform]] standard. === Kode wewengkon === [[Image:Blu-ray regions with key.png|thumb|400px|right|Wewengkon keur standar Blu-ray<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.blu-raydisc.com/Section-13470/Section-14003/Section-14006/Index.html | title = Blu-ray Disc keur Video | language = | accessdate = 2007-01-14 | year = 2006 }}</ref>]] Blu-ray discs may be encoded with a '''region code''', intended to restrict the aréa of the world in which they can be played; similar to the [[DVD region code]]s. Blu-ray players sold in a certain region should only be able to play discs encoded for that region. The purpose of this system is to allow [[film studio|motion picture studios]] to control the various aspects of a reléase (including content, date, and, in particular, price) according to the region. Discs may also be produced without region coding, so they can be played on all devices. {| class="wikitable" ! Region code !! Aréa<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=11392 | title = The Authoritative Blu-ray Disc (BD) FAQ: What is Regional Playback Control? | language = | accessdate = 2006-08-29 | year = 2006 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070219115147/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11392 | archivedate = 2007-02-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219115147/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11392 |date=2007-02-19 }}</ref> |- |align="center" | A || [[Amerika Kaler]], [[Amerika Tengah]], [[Amerika Kidul]], [[Jepang]], [[Taiwan]], [[Korea Kaler]], [[Korea Kidul]], [[Hong Kong]], jeung [[Asia Tenggara]]. |- |align="center" | B || [[Eropa]], [[Greenland]], [[French overseas departments and territories|French territories]], [[Wetan Tengah]], [[Afrika]], [[Australia]], jeung [[Selandia Anyar]]. |- |align="center" | C || [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Mainland China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Rusia]], [[Asia Tengah]] jeung [[Asia Kidul|Kidul]]. |- |} This arrangement places the countries of the major Blu-ray manufacturers (Japan, Koréa, Malaysia) in the same region as the U.S., thus ensuring éarly reléases of U.S. content to those markets. Reportedly, éarly BD reléases (including ''[[Casino Royale]]'') are "ALL" region and therefore compatible in various BD players around the globe. === Digital rights management ('''DRM''') === The Blu-ray Disc format employs several layers of [[Digital rights management]].<ref name="dellbd-romprotection">{{cite web |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/vectors/brcp.pdf |title=Blu-ray Disc™ Next-Generation Optical Storage: Protecting Content on the BD-ROM |accessdate=2007-05-03 |publisher=[[DELL]] |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blu-raydisc.com/assets/downloadablefile/5th_japan_05-13343.pdf |title=Overview of BD-ROM security |accessdate=2007-05-03 |author=AJIMA, Kosuke |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2006-03-29 |year=2006 |month=March |publisher=Blu-ray Disc Association Content Protection Group |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307102259/http://www.blu-raydisc.com/assets/downloadablefile/5th_japan_05-13343.pdf |archivedate=2007-03-07 }}</ref> They have been at léast partially circumvented. '''[[Advanced Access Content System]]''' (AACS) is a standard for [[content distribution]] and [[digital rights management]]. It is developed by AACS Licensing Administrator, LLC (AACS LA), a [[consortium]] that includes [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Intel]], [[Microsoft]], [[Matsushita]] (Panasonic), [[Warner Bros.]], [[IBM]], [[Toshiba]] and [[Sony]]. Since appéaring in devices in 2006, several successful attacks have been made on the format. The first known attack relied on the [[trusted client]] problem. In addition, decryption keys have been extracted from a wéakly protected player ([[WinDVD]]). However, even though [[History of attacks against Advanced Access Content System|some AACS cryptographic keys have been compromised]], new reléases will use new, uncompromised keys.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}<span class="plainlinks"></span> '''[[BD+]]''' was developed by [[Cryptography Research Inc.]] and is based on their concept of [[Self-Protecting Digital Content]].<ref>http://www.cryptography.com/technology/spdc/bluray.html</ref> BD+ is effectively a small [[virtual machine]] embedded in authorized players. It allows content providers to include executable programs on Blu-ray Discs. Such programs can:<ref name="dellbd-romprotection"/> * examine the host environment, to see if the player has been tampered with. Every licensed playback device manufacturer must provide the BD+ licensing authority with memory footprints that identify their devices. * verify that the player's keys have not been changed. * execute native code, possibly to patch an otherwise insecure system. * transform the audio and vidéo output. Parts of the content will not be viewable without letting the BD+-program unscramble it. If a playback device manufacturer finds that its devices have been hacked, it can potentially reléase BD+-code that detects and circumvents the vulnerability. These programs can then be included in all new content reléases. The specifications of the BD+ virtual machine are only available to licensed device manufacturers. A list of licensed adopters is available from the [http://www.bdplusllc.com/home/list_of_adopters_content_participants_and_eligible_code_developers BD+ website]. BD+ was made available for content publishers in June 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=268 |title=BD+ Goes Live |accessdate=2007-11-02 |author=Josh |date=2007-06-19 |work=blu-ray.com |publisher=}}</ref> The first titles using BD+ were reléased in October the same yéar. Several players had problems playing back those titles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20071007-new-blu-ray-discs-with-bd-drm-failing-to-play-on-some-devices.html |title=New Blu-ray discs with BD+ DRM failing to play on some devices |accessdate=2007-11-02 |author=Jeremy Reimer |date=2007-10-07 |work=arstechnica.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071103224757/http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20071007-new-blu-ray-discs-with-bd-drm-failing-to-play-on-some-devices.html |archivedate=2007-11-03}}</ref> BD+ has been circumvented by the developers of the program [[AnyDVD]] as of version 6.1.9.6 beta.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.engadgethd.com/2007/11/07/slysofts-latest-anydvd-beta-cracks-bd/ |title=SlySoft's latest AnyDVD beta cracks BD+ |accessdate=2007-11-07 |author=Darren Murph |date=2007-11-07 |work=engadgethd.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109100247/http://www.engadgethd.com/2007/11/07/slysofts-latest-anydvd-beta-cracks-bd/ |archivedate=2007-11-09 }}</ref> '''[[ROM-Mark|BD-ROM Mark]]''' is a small amount of cryptographical data that is stored physically differently from normal Blu-ray Disc data. Bit-by-bit copies that do not replicate the BD-ROM Mark are impossible to decode. A specially licensed piece of hardware is required to insert the ROM-mark into the media during replication. Through licensing of the special hardware element, the BDA believes that it can eliminate the possibility of mass producing BD-ROMs without authorization. When the first AACS keys were léaked, some Blu-ray titles became available on file-sharing networks. There is also a commercial PC software player ([[AnyDVD|AnyDVD HD]]) that allowed users to watch Blu-ray Disc movies on non-HDCP compliant PC hardware or copy them. == Player profiles == The BD-ROM specification defines four profiles of Blu-ray Disc players; in addition to the three listed in the table below, there is a fourth audio-only profile that does not require vidéo decoding or [[BD-J]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gizmorepublic.com/media/blu-ray-profiles-everything-you-wanted-know-1270 |title=Blu-ray profiles, everything you wanted to know |accessdate=2007-12-19 |author= |date=2007-12-17 |work= |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220182634/http://www.gizmorepublic.com/media/blu-ray-profiles-everything-you-wanted-know-1270 |archivedate=2007-12-20 }}</ref> All the vidéo-based profiles are required to have a full implementation of [[BD-J]], but with varying levels of hardware support. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Féature<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397 |title=The Authoritative BD FAQ: II. Physical, Logical, and Application Specifications |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Hugh Bennett |date=2006-06-01 |work=emedialive.com |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029172049/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397#iij |archivedate=2007-10-29 }}</ref> ! BD-Vidéo (Grace Period Profile – Profile 1.0) ! Bonus View (Final Standard Profile – Profile 1.1) ! BD-Live (Profile 2) |- | Built-in persistent memory | 64 KB | 64 KB | 64 KB |- | Local storage capability{{ref|profiles_table_note_a|[a]}} | – | 256 MB | 1 GB |- | Secondary vidéo decoder ([[Picture-in-picture|PiP]]) | Optional | Mandatory | Mandatory |- | Secondary audio decoder{{ref|profiles_table_note_b|[b]}} | Optional | Mandatory | Mandatory |- | [[Virtual file system]] | Optional | Mandatory | Mandatory |- | Internet connection capability | No | No | Mandatory |} {{note|profiles_table_note_a}}'''a''' This is used for storing audio/vidéo and title updates. It can either be built in memory or removable media, such as a memory card or a USB flash memory. {{note|profiles_table_note_b}}'''b''' A secondary audio decoder is typically used for interactive audio and commentary On [[November 1]] [[2007]], the Grace Period Profile was superseded by "Bonus View" as the minimum profile for new players reléased to the market.<ref name="BonusView">{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6495668.html|title=Blu-ray Disc Assn. promotes new Bonus View|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218181606/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6495668.html|archivedate=2008-12-18}}</ref> With the exception of the PlayStation 3, profile 1.0 players cannot be upgraded to be Bonus View compliant.<ref>[http://crave.cnet.com/8301-1_105-9808376-1.html Does Blu-ray Profile 1.1 make past players obsolete?]</ref> On [[December 17]], [[2007]], the PlayStation 3 became Bonus View 1.1 compliant through PlayStation 3 System Software version 2.10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.us.playstation.com/2007/12/17/firmware-update-v210/| title=Firmware Update (v2.10)| publisher=Sony| first=Eric| last=Lempel| date=[[2007-12-17]]| accessdate=2007-12-18}}</ref> When software authored with interactive féatures dependent on "Bonus View" hardware capabilities are played on profile 1.0 players some féatures may not be available or may offer limited capability. Profile 1.0 players will still be able to play the main féature of the disc, however.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Joshua_Zyber/High-Def_FAQ:_Blu-ray_Profiles_Explained/1186| title=High-Def FAQ: Blu-ray Profiles Explained| first=Joshua| last=Zyber| publisher=highdefdigest.com| date=[[2007-11-23]]| accessdate=2007-12-18| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222023739/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Joshua_Zyber/High-Def_FAQ:_Blu-ray_Profiles_Explained/1186| archivedate=2007-12-22}}</ref> == Backward compatibility == While it is not compulsory for manufacturers; the Blu-ray Disc Association recommends that Blu-ray Disc drives should be capable of réading standard DVDs for [[backward compatibility]]. For instance, Samsung's first Blu-ray Disc drive can réad CDs, regular DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs. All other Blu-ray Disc players reléased are also capable of DVD playback, though not all support CD playback. This includes [[Sony]], [[Panasonic]], [[Philips]], [[LG Group|LG]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] and PC-based players from [[Alienware]], [[Sony]], and [[Dell]]. == List of Blu-ray devices == <!-- maybe we should add a column specifying the player profile. This might be a good resource: http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397#iij--> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Device name ! Manufacturer ! Type of device ! Release date ! Approximate price |- | [[PlayStation 3]] | [[Sony]] | [[Video game console]] (Profile 1.1) | [[November 11]], [[2006]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]399<ref name="PS3price">{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/10-18-2007/0004684726&EDATE=|title=Sony Computer Entertainment America Announces New 40GB Playstation 3 Configuration|accessdate=2007-10-29|date=[[2007-10-18]]|format=HTML|work=Sony|publisher=PR Newswire|language=English}}</ref>/499$ |- | [[Panasonic DMP-BD10|DMP-BD10]] | [[Panasonic]] | Stand-alone player | 2006 | [[United States dollar|US$]]599 |- | DMP-BD30 | [[Panasonic]] | Stand-alone player (Profile 1.1) | 2007 | [[United States dollar|US$]]500 |- | [[Sony BDP-S1|BDP-S1]] | [[Sony]] | Stand-alone player | [[December 4]], [[2006]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]1000 |- | BD-P1200 | [[Samsung]] | Stand-alone player | [[January 8]], [[2007]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]799 |- | BD-P1000 | [[Samsung]] | Stand-alone player | [[June 20th]], [[2006]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]450 |- | [[Sony BDP-S300|BDP-S300]] | [[Sony]] | Stand-alone player | | [[United States dollar|US$]]499 |- | [http://www.sharp.nl/php/p.php?par=30_no_no_1769 Sharp BD-HP20S ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225061638/http://www.sharp.nl/php/p.php?par=30_no_no_1769 |date=2007-12-25 }} | [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] | Stand-alone player | | |- | BD-P1400 | [[Samsung]] | Stand-alone player | | [[United States dollar|US$]]499 |- | BDP-LX70 | [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] | Stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price(MSRP is not set to this. ) |- | BDP-LX80 | Pioneer | Stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | AQUOS BD-HP1 | [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] | Stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | AQUOS BD-AV1 | Sharp | BD-RE/DVD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | AQUOS BD-AV10 | Sharp | BD-RE/DVD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | AQUOS BD-HDW15 | Sharp | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | December 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | AQUOS BD-HDW20 | Sharp | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | December 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | DMR-E700BD | [[Panasonic]] | Blu-ray/DVD Recorder | | JP Only. open price |- | DIGA DMR-BW200 | Panasonic | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | DIGA DMR-BR100<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.blurayfreak.com/2006/09/panasonic_will_.html | title = Panasonic will Launch a Blu-ray Disc Recorders with BD Playback | accessdate = 2006-10-13 | year = 2006 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061027150350/http://www.blurayfreak.com/2006/09/panasonic_will_.html | archivedate = 2006-10-27 }}</ref> | Panasonic | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | [http://panasonic.jp/diga/products/bw900_bw800_bw700/index.html DIGA DMR-BW700 ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218023648/http://panasonic.jp/diga/products/bw900_bw800_bw700/index.html |date=2007-12-18 }} | Panasonic | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1) | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | DIGA DMR-BW800 | Panasonic | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1) | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | DIGA DMR-BW900 | Panasonic | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1) | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-V7 | [[Sony]] | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-V9 | Sony | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-T50 | Sony | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-T70 | Sony | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-L70 | Sony | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | BDZ-X90 | Sony | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player | November 2007 | JP Only. open price |- | [http://www.vidabox.com/Products/MAX.htm VidaBox MAX] and [http://www.vidabox.com/Products/LUX.htm VidaBox LUX] | [[VidaBox]] | [[Media center|media center PC]] (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD) | | |- | BH-100<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.lge.com/about/press_release/detail/PRO%7CNEWS%5EPRE%7CMENU%5ERND%7CMENU_20318_PRE%7CMENU.jhtml | title = LG BH100 Combo Drive | accessdate = 2007-04-15 | year = 2007 }}</ref> | [[LG Electronics]] | Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD) | [[January 7]], [[2007]] | |- | BH-200 | [[LG Electronics]] | Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD) | [[October]], [[2007]] | |- | BD-UP5000<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.samsung.com/PressCenter/PressRelease/PressRelease.asp?seq=20070413_0000338109 | title = Samsung BD-UP5000 Combo Drive | accessdate = 2007-04-15 | year = 2007 }}</ref> | [[Samsung]] | Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD) | | |- | [[VAIO]] AR Series | [[Sony]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | 2006 | |- | [[VAIO]] FZ Series | [[Sony]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | 2007 | |- | XPS M1710 | [[Dell]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | December 2006 | [[United States dollar|US$]]3,599 |- | XPS M1730 | [[Dell]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | | |- | XPS M2010 | [[Dell]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | | |- | Pavilion Desktop | [[Hewlett-Packard]] | [[Desktop computer]] (can be customized to include a Blu-ray drive) | [[9 May]] [[2007]] | |- | TravelMate 8215WLMi<ref name="travelmate_blu-ray">{{cite web |url=http://crave.cnet.co.uk/laptops/0,39029450,49285109,00.htm |title=Acer TravelMate 8215WLMi with Blu-ray drive |accessdate=2007-12-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227142205/http://crave.cnet.co.uk/laptops/0,39029450,49285109,00.htm |archivedate=2007-12-27 }}</ref> | [[Acer]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | 2006 | |- | ASUS Lamborghini VX2<ref name="travelmate_blu-ray"/> | [[ASUSTek]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | | |- | ASUS Lamborghini W2W<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asus.com/products4.aspx?modelmenu=2&model=1834&l1=5&l2=22&l3=192&l4=0 |title=Asus W2W with Blu-ray and/or HD DVD }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | [[ASUSTek]] | [[Laptop|Laptop computer]] | | |- | BDC-2202 | [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] | PC drive | [[May 2]], [[2007]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]299<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/pna/v3/pg/press/release/detail/0,,2076_310069589_439711429,00.html | title = Pioneer BDC-2202 Blu-ray Drive - Press release | accessdate = 2007-05-04 | year = 2007 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070504021406/http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/pna/v3/pg/press/release/detail/0,,2076_310069589_439711429,00.html | archivedate = 2007-05-04 }}</ref> |- | DH-401S<ref>{{cite web|url=about:blank | title = LiteOn DH-401S SATA drive | accessdate = 2007-10-31 | year = 2007 }}</ref> | [[LiteOn]] | PC drive | [[31 October]] [[2007]] | |- | BC-1205PT<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psu.com/Blu-ray-scores-major-new-supporter--a0001253-p0.php | title = ASUS BD-ROM/DVD writer drive | accessdate = 2007-09-09 | year = 2007 }}</ref> | [[ASUS]] | PC drive | [[9 September]] [[2007]] | |- | BWU-100A | [[ASUS]] | Recordable PC drive | [[July 18]] [[2006]] | [[United States dollar|US$]]699 <ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.sel.sony.com/en/press_room/consumer/computer_peripheral/storage_sol_others/release/23478.html | title = Sony BWU-100A rewritable drive | accessdate = 2007-05-04 | year = 2007 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090221112701/http://news.sel.sony.com/en/press_room/consumer/computer_peripheral/storage_sol_others/release/23478.html | archivedate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref> |- | DZ-BD7A<ref>[http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD70A.html&level=4&section=products&parent=details&nav=left&path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ DZ-BD70A, Blu-ray/DVD Camcorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028033549/http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD70A.html&level=4&section=products&parent=details&nav=left&path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ |date=2007-10-28 }} Hitachi America, Ltd.</ref> | [[Hitachi, Ltd|Hitachi]] | Blu-ray/DVD [[Camcorder]] | | |- | DZ-BD7HA<ref>[http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD7HA.html&level=4&section=products&parent=details&nav=left&path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ DZ-BD7HA, Blu-ray/HDD(30GB)/DVD Hybrid Camcorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028032740/http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD7HA.html&level=4&section=products&parent=details&nav=left&path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ |date=2007-10-28 }} Hitachi America, Ltd.</ref> | [[Hitachi, Ltd|Hitachi]] | Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Hybrid Camcorder | | |- | Lite-On DH-4O1S<ref name="cheap-199-player">{{cite web |url=http://www.gearlog.com/2007/11/cheap_199_bluray_player_announ.php |title=Cheap $199 Blu-ray Player Announced...for the PC |publisher=Gearlog |date=[[November 13]], [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-11-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212201834/http://www.gearlog.com/2007/11/cheap_199_bluray_player_announ.php |archivedate=2008-02-12 }}</ref> | [[Philips]] and [[Lite-On]] | Read Only PC Drive | | [[United States dollar|US$]]199<ref name="cheap-199-player"/> |- |} <!-- this seems out-of-place, but I'm not sure where it should go --> Sony has said that it will reléase the first portable BD player in 2008.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Hitachi is developing Blu-ray camcorders, to be reléased in Japan during fall 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hitachi Developed Critical Technologies for 1920×1080 Pixel Blu-ray Camcorder |publisher=Nikkei Business Publications, Inc |url=http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20070723/136497/ |accessdate=2007-07-23}}</ref> == Corporate support == {{utama|List of corporations supporting Blu-ray}} [[Gambar:Img440.jpg||jmpl|200px|The first Blu-Ray porn movie in the world released by Magmafilm Germany 10/2007, start after long controversy.]] Blu-ray Disc has gained a large amount of support in the corporate world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blu-raydisc.com/general_information/Section-14009/Index.html|title=Companies supporting Blu-ray|accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> with companies such as [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Dell]], and [[Panasonic]] backing it. Blu-ray Disc was started by [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[LG Electronics|LG]], [[Panasonic]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], [[Philips]], [[Samsung]], [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]], [[Sony]], and [[Thomson SA|Thomson]] in [[February 19]], [[2002]], with Panasonic, Sony, Pioneer, and Philips as the back-bone of the foundation.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press_Archive/200202/02-0219E/ | title = Large Capacity Optical Disc Video Recording Format "Blu-ray Disc" Established | publisher=SONY Press Release | language = | date= February 19, 2002 | accessdate = 2007-08-31 }}</ref> Several members of the Blu-ray organization's Board of Directors who had originally pledged to support Blu-ray Disc later also supported [[HD DVD]], such as [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Samsung]], and [[LG]]. Among the [[Major film studio|movie studios]], Blu-ray Disc is currently exclusively supported in the United States by [[Sony Pictures Entertainment]] and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]] (20% of MGM's stake is owned by [[Sony]]) as well as [[Disney]], [[20th Century Fox]], and [[Lionsgate]]. Outside of the United States, movies from these studios are often distributed by different companies, such as [[StudioCanal]] in Europe. Thus many of these Blu-ray exclusive titles are available outside the U.S. on HD DVD.<ref name="HDOutsideUS">{{cite web|url=http://www.audioholics.com/news/editorials/blu-rays-dirty-little-secret|title=Blu-ray exclusive movies on HD DVD}}</ref> Likewise, movies that are exclusive to HD DVD in the United States have Blu-ray reléases in other regions. An example of this is the Universal Studios film [[Bruce Almighty]], which has been reléased exclusively on HD DVD in the U.S., but has been reléased as a Blu-ray exclusive in Europe due to the distribution rights held by [[Buena Vista]].{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Many Blu-ray discs are multi-region, making import of these titles éasier.<ref>[http://bluray.liesinc.net/ Region Coded/Region Free compatibility list]</ref> It is non-exclusively supported by [[Warner Bros.]], and [[New Line Cinema]]. [[Warner Bros.]] has several HD DVD exclusive titles at the moment that are scheduled for reléase on Blu-ray in the néar future. It should be noted that some of New Line Cinema's titles, the first being [[Hairspray (2007 film)|Hairspray]], were originally announced as limited time Blu-ray exclusives due to lack of region coding with HD DVD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hddvd.com/go.php/region-coding-delays-the-hd-dvd-release-of-new-line%e2%80%99s-hairspray/|title=hddvd.com - New line titles delayed for HD DVD due to lack of region coding|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120170248/http://www.hddvd.com/go.php/region-coding-delays-the-hd-dvd-release-of-new-line%e2%80%99s-hairspray|archivedate=2008-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/New_Line/Disc_Announcements/New_Line_Jumps_Into_High-Def_with_Hairspray_on_Blu-ray_HD_DVD_to_Follow_in_2008/958|title=New Line Jumps Into High-Def with 'Hairspray' on Blu-ray; HD DVD to Follow in 2008|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109201328/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/New_Line/Disc_Announcements/New_Line_Jumps_Into_High-Def_with_Hairspray_on_Blu-ray_HD_DVD_to_Follow_in_2008/958|archivedate=2007-11-09}}</ref> All future catalog titles will be reléased simultanéously in both formats. It had been reported by various sources (PC World, Ars Technica, CNN, et al) that pornography had been disallowed on Blu-ray Disc, which may have had an effect on the success of the format.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070112-8602.html |title=Adult film industry embracing HD DVD |publisher=ars technica |date=January 12, 2007 |accessdate=2007-08-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822165853/http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070112-8602.html |archivedate=2007-08-22}}</ref> However, this is inaccurate, as both formats have said they fully support all material, including porn, and have no control over what companies reléase with their license.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=196903070 |title=Sony Denies Preventing Adult Content On Blu-Ray |publisher=InformationWeek |date=January 23, 2007 |accessdate=2007-08-23}}</ref> Blu-ray is currently exclusively backed by several [[porn|adult-movie]] studios/publishers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,135222/article.html|title=PCworld.com - Japanese Porn Industry Embraces Blu-ray}}</ref> including Taisei Co. Ltd. and Total Media Agency Inc. Contrary to many internet blogs, it has been reported by ABC News that the porn industry will not be a factor in the current format war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=2835806&page=1|title=Porn Factor: Why Erotic Movies Won't Decide Next Gen DVD War|date=January 31, 2007 |accessdate=2007-09-10}}</ref> The main réason is that many pornographic websites have movie downloads as an option, thus making the disc format less important. Blockbuster, the largest U.S. movie rental company, offers Blu-ray exclusively in 1450 stores. Previously, the company test-marketed both competing formats at 250 stores and found that more than 70% of high definition rentals were Blu-ray discs. They continue to offer both formats at those initial 250 stores, as well as on its online rental service.<ref>[http://blockbuster.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=727 Blockbuster to Expand Blu-Ray to 1,700 Stores] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121021837/http://blockbuster.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=727 |date=2008-01-21 }}, Blockbuster Inc. Press Releases [[2007-06-18]].</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_513097.html | title = Blockbuster to favor Blu-ray high-definition discs over rival HD DVD format | accessdate = 2007-06-17 | year = 2007 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070620083747/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_513097.html | archivedate = 2007-06-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.b2i.us/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?BzID=553&ResLibraryID=20345&Category=1027 | title = Blockbuster to Expand Blu-Ray to 1,700 Stores | accessdate = 2007-06-17 | year = 2007 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Netflix, the world's largest online movie rental service<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.netflix.com/MediaCenter?id=5379#about | title = About Netflix | accessdate = 2007-12-13 | year = 2007}}</ref>, offers titles in both HD-DVD and Blu-Ray formats. According to a new Internet tracking report, although Netflix's Blu-ray pages receive more hits, users are more likely to set HD DVD as their preferred format.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/34235/113/ | title = Netflix sees stronger loyalty for HD DVD than Blu-ray | accessdate = 2007-12-13 | year = 2007}}</ref> On [[July 25]] [[2007]], [[Target Corporation]] announced they will carry Sony Blu-ray Disc stand alone players in their stores and promote them with end cap displays including exclusive Blu-ray Disc movies from Sony and Walt Disney. Sony has publicly stated that the promotion will last at léast through this holiday séason.<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSN2643741920070726</ref> While Target will not carry HD DVD stand alone players on its shelves, the chain will continue to sell both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD movies in all stores and HD DVD players online.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/07/25/ap3952696.html | title = Target to Promote Blu-Ray DVD Format | accessdate = 2007-07-29 | year = 2007 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070727005340/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/07/25/ap3952696.html | archivedate = 2007-07-27}}</ref> The LA Times reports that the déal to promote Sony Blu-ray Disc stand alone players was the result of a bidding war, in which Sony and three studios reportedly paid a "jaw-dropping" sum for the end cap displays.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/business/la-fi-dvdwar10sep10,1,5792818.story?coll=la-headlines-business-enter&ctrack=5&cset=true | title = A high-definition fight scene in slow motion | accessdate = 2007-09-10 | year = 2007 }}</ref> On [[August 20]] [[2007]], [[Paramount Pictures]], [[DreamWorks Pictures]] and [[DreamWorks Animation]], announced they would no longer be supporting the Blu-ray Disc format. Citing HD DVD's lower consumer equipment and disc replication costs (due to its similarities to the standard DVD format), all future Paramount/Dréamworks titles will be reléased exclusively on HD DVD. Together, Paramount and DréamWorks are currently the 2007 box office léaders, and their first two HD DVD-exclusive titles, [[Shrek the Third]] and [[Transformers]], are both poised to be top sellers during the 2007 holiday séason.<ref>[http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2007.php Paramount is box office leader in 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222211500/http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2007.php |date=2007-12-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/newstex/AFX-0013-19015486.htm | title = Paramount to drop Blu-ray high-def DVDs | accessdate = 2007-08-20 | year = 2007 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Movies directed by [[Steven Spielberg]] are not included in this announcement, as Spielberg controls his films.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/Technology/Paramount-to-Drop-BluRay-HighDef-DVDs/2007/08/21/1187462196364.html | title = Paramount to drop Blu-ray high-def DVDs {Spielberg) | accessdate = 2007-08-20 | year = 2007 }}</ref> In an interview with PC World, Alan Bell, the Executive Vice présidént and Chief Technology Officer for Paramount Pictures, stated the exclusive support for HD DVD is currently indefinite.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,136253-c,dvdtechnology/article.html | title = Interview with Executive Vice President of Paramount Pictures on HD DVD and Blu-Ray | accessdate = 2007-08-21 | year = 2007 }}</ref> However, two Viacom executives who spoke to the New York Times disclosed that the terms of the agreement were for $150 million in incentives in exchange for an exclusivity period of at léast 18 months, or through the next two holiday séasons.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/technology/21disney.html?ex=1345435200&en=fe619b851abc0231&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink | title = Two Studios to Support HD DVD Over Rival | accessdate = 2007-08-21 | year = 2007}}</ref> In response to these reports of a $150 million déal, [[DreamWorks Animation]] Céo [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]] stated that it was disingenuous for other companies to suggest that they were not compensated for endorsing Blu-ray.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117972267.html?categoryid=13&cs=1 | title = Katzenberg stands behind Spielberg | accessdate = 2007-09-19 | year = 2007 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071223120606/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117972267.html?categoryid=13&cs=1 | archivedate = 2007-12-23}}</ref> On [[September 24]] [[2007]] the Home Théater Specialists of America, a national buying consortium of 62 déalers and 800 installers with combined annual revenue of more than a half-billion dollars, officially endorsed Blu-ray Disc as its next-generation format of choice.<ref>[http://www.blu-ray.com/news/index.php?id=532 Blu-ray.com - HTSA to Support Blu-ray Exclusively]</ref> == Blu-ray Disc / HD DVD comparison == {{utama|Comparison of high definition optical disc formats}} {{Cleanup-jargon|date=July 2007}} The primary rival to Blu-ray Disc is [[HD DVD]]. As of November 2007, HD DVD has the advantage in maximum disc capacity (51&nbsp;GB triple-layer versus 50&nbsp;GB dual-layer). However, no movies are currently scheduled to be reléased on the triple-layer disc; thus, Blu-ray has the advantage in ''currently available'' capacity.<ref name="tripleApproved">{{cite web|url=http://www.dvdforum.org/40scmtg-resolution.htm|title=DVD Forum 40th Steering Committee Meeting (Nov. 15, 2007)|accessdate=2007-12-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213014035/http://www.dvdforum.org/40scmtg-resolution.htm|archivedate=2007-12-13}}</ref> It is unknown at this time whether the final triple-layer HD DVD specification will be compatible with current players.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.betanews.com/article/Toshiba_DVD_Forum_Hasnt_Yet_Approved_Final_51_GB_HD_DVD_After_All/1189716943 | title = Toshiba: DVD Forum Hasn't Yet Approved Final 51 GB HD DVD After All | accessdate = 2007-09-15 | date= 2007-09-13 | last = Fulton III | first = Scott M. | work = BetaNews | language = English }}</ref> As of November 2007, 44% of Blu-ray titles use the 50&nbsp;GB disc and 56% use the 25&nbsp;GB disc<ref name="bluraystats">[http://www.blu-raystats.com/index.php Blu-ray stats]</ref> while almost all HD DVD movies are in the 30&nbsp;GB dual layer format.<ref>[http://hddvd.highdefdigest.com/releasedates_historical.html ''Frequently updated list of historical release dates and disc capacities''], HD DVD NEWS, High-Def Digest, [[15 April]] [[2007]]</ref> In terms of audio/vidéo compression, Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD are similar on the surface: both support [[MPEG-2]], [[VC-1]], and [[H.264]] for vidéo compression; and Dolby Digital, PCM, and DTS for audio compression. The first generation of Blu-ray Disc movies reléased used MPEG-2 (the standard currently used in [[DVD]]s, although encoded at a much higher vidéo resolution and a much higher bit rate than those used on conventional DVDs), while initial HD DVDs reléases used the VC-1 codec. Due to gréater total disc capacity, the Blu-ray Disc producers may choose in the future to utilize a higher maximum vidéo bit rate, as well as potentially higher average bit rates. As of November 2007, 41% of Blu-ray Discs are encoded in MPEG-2 while AVC is used on 33% of discs and VC-1 on 26%.<ref name="bluraystats"/> In terms of audio, there are some differences. To ensure backwards compatibility with older receivers with Dolby Digital decoders, Blu-ray Disc allows conventional Dolby Digital audiotracks at 640&nbsp;kbit/s and this is the primary audio track for 33% of Blu-ray titles, while it has gone unused for HD DVD titles. The newer Dolby Digital Plus is mandatory for HD DVD players at 3&nbsp;Mbit/s (and is used in 90% of HD DVD titles){{Fact|date=December 2007}}, while optional for BD players with support at a bitrate of 1.736&nbsp;Mbit/s for mixes that require more than 5.1 channels (has only been used on two titles).<ref name="DDplus_whitepaper">[http://www.dolby.com/assets/pdf/tech_library/DPlus_TrueHD_whitepaper.pdf Dolby Digital plus ''True HD'' whitepaper] at www.dolby.com</ref> Both formats optionally support DTS-HD High Resolution Audio, a lossy compression scheme that extends the core DTS audio for better fidelity but yet is still not [[lossless]]. As for [[lossless]] audio, 43% Blu-ray Discs have 5.1 LPCM uncompressed audio,<ref name="bluraystats"/> which is the only lossless format that is mandatory for Blu-ray players. Blu-ray Disc also has optional support for Dolby TrueHD lossless encoding of up to 8 channels of audio, and DTS-HD Master Audio, a lossless encoding of up to 8 channels of audio.<ref name="BDaudio_support">[http://www.blu-ray.com/faq/#bluray_audio_codecs Blu-Ray audio codecs FAQs] at blu-ray.com</ref> As of November 2007, 7% of Blu-ray Discs are encoded in Dolby TrueHD while DTS-HD Master Audio is used on 12% on discs.<ref name="bluraystats"/> In total, 60% of Blu-ray Discs have either uncompressed or lossless audio. HD DVD also supports LPCM, but unlike Blu-ray, it has mandatory support for Dolby TrueHD, although only 20% of HD DVD movies have lossless audio.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Both HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc support the [[24p]] (traditional movie) frame rate, but technical implementations of this mode are different between the formats. Blu-ray Disc supports 24p with its native timing, while HD DVD uses 60i timing for 24p (encoded progressively, replacing missing fields with "repeat field flags"). Decoders can ignore the “flags” to output 24p.<ref>{{cite web|title=High Definition Facts | url=http://blogs.msdn.com/ptorr/archive/2006/03/15/HDFacts.aspx | accessdate=2006-12-01}}</ref> There is no impact on picture resolution and minimal impact on storage space as a result of this, as the HD DVD format often uses the same encoded vidéo—it simply adds notational overhéad.{{huh}} There is no [[Region Coding]] in the existing HD DVD specification, which méans that titles from any country can be played in players in any other country. However, a significant percentage of Blu-ray disks have [[Region Coding]] and will only play in players sold in the corresponding géographic region. Since both formats launched in the spring of 2006, an estimated 4.98 million high-definition discs have been sold, including 3.01 million in Blu-ray and 1.97 million in HD DVD through the end of September, 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.news.com/Blu-ray-outsells-HD-DVD-in-U.S.-for-first-nine-months/2100-1041_3-6214944.html | title=Blu-ray outsells HD DVD in US for First nine months of 2007 - Reuters - Cnet news}}</ref> However, those figures are dwarfed by the sales of regular DVDs. Combined, the two high-def disc formats accounted for only 2.5 % of overall disc sales during the first half of 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Industry_Trends/Disc_Sales/Disc_Sales:_Hard_Numbers_in_for_First_Half_of_2007/862 |title=Disc Sales: Hard Numbers in for First Half of 2007 |accessdate=2007-10-25 |author= |date=2007-08-15 |work=highdefdigest.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012212838/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Industry_Trends/Disc_Sales/Disc_Sales:_Hard_Numbers_in_for_First_Half_of_2007/862 |archivedate=2007-10-12 }}</ref> == Ongoing development == Although the Blu-ray Disc specification has been finalized, engineers continue working to advance the technology. Quad-layer (100&nbsp;GB) discs have been demonstrated on a drive with modified optics (TDK version) and standard unaltered optics ("Hitachi used a standard drive.").<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&recid=3 | title = TDK ANNOUNCES 100GB BLUE LASER DISC TECHNOLOGY | language = | accessdate = 2007-09-27 | year = 2005 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071106052909/http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&recid=3 | archivedate = 2007-11-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=19493 | title = Hitachi Demos Four-Layer Blu-Ray Disc Playback }}</ref> Hitachi stated that such a disc could be used to store 7 hours of 32 Mbit/s vidéo (HDTV) or 3.5 hours of 64 Mbit/s vidéo (Cinema 4K). Furthermore [[TDK]] announced in August 2006 that they have créated a working experimental Blu-ray Disc capable of holding 200&nbsp;GB of data on a single side, using six 33&nbsp;GB data layers.<ref name="TDK200GB_announcement">{{cite web | url = http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&recid=127 | title = TDK ANNOUNCES BLUE LASER DISC TECHNOLOGY TO SUPPORT 200&nbsp;GB CAPACITY | publisher = TDK | accessdate = 2006-11-27 | date = [[August 31]] [[2006]] | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061216235637/http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&recid=127 | archivedate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref> Also behind closed doors at [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES]] 2007, [[Ritek]] has revéaled that they had successfully developed a High Definition optical disc process that extends the disc capacity of both competing formats to 10 layers. That incréases the capacity of the discs to 250&nbsp;GB for Blu-ray compared to 170&nbsp;GB (HD DVD now permits 17GB per layer{{Fact|date=December 2007}}) for HD DVD using the same process. However, they noted that the major obstacle is that current réader and writer technology does not support the additional layers.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dailytech.com/article.aspx?newsid=5656 | title = Three HD Layers Today, Ten Tomorrow | accessdate = 2007-04-24 | date= 2007-01-10 | last = Yam | first = Marcus | work = DailyTech | language = English }}</ref> [[JVC]] has developed a three layer technology that allows putting both standard-definition DVD data and HD data on a BD/DVD combo. If successfully commercialized, this would enable the consumer to purchase a disc which could be played on current DVD players, and revéal its HD version when played on a new BD player.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.jvc-victor.co.jp/english/press/2004/bd-dvd.html | title = Blu-ray/ DVD Combo ROM Disc Technology | accessdate = 2006-05-30 | year = 2006 }}</ref> This hybrid disc does not appéar to be réady for production and no titles have been announced that would utilize this disc structure. [[Hitachi]] has recently {{when}} showcased 100&nbsp;GB Blu-ray Disc, which consists of four layers containing 25&nbsp;GB éach. Unlike [[TDK]] and [[Panasonic]]'s 100&nbsp;GB disc, this disc is réadable on standard Blu-ray drives that are currently in circulation, and it is believed that a firmware update is the only requirement to maké it réadable to current players and drives.<ref>[http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=559 Hitachi Develops 100GB Blu-ray disc]</ref> TDK has also produced a 200&nbsp;GB six-layer prototype.<ref name="TDK200GB_announcement"/> == Variants == === BD9 / Mini-Blu-ray Disc === BD9 is a red laser DVD with BD contents on it. This disc should be rotated at 3x speed or more to satisfy the minimum transfer rate of 30.24&nbsp;Mbit/s. These disks can be used for private storing and can be authored even without implementing AACS.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.hdtvtotal.com/module-pagesetter-viewpub-tid-1-pid-1051.html | title = Mini Blu-ray Disc: Guide for mini-Blu-ray-Disc Authoring | accessdate = 2007-08-19 | format = HTML | work = | language = English | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080712175755/http://www.hdtvtotal.com/module-pagesetter-viewpub-tid-1-pid-1051.html | archivedate = 2008-07-12 }}</ref> BD9 was originally proposed by Warner Home Vidéo, as a cost-effective alternative to regular Blu-ray discs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=16769 |title= BD9 Licensing Further Delays The Launch of Blu-ray Burners |accessdate=2007-10-18 |date=2006-04-11 |work=cdrinfo.com}}</ref> It is similar to HD DVD's [[HD DVD#3x DVD|3x DVD]] === AVCREC === AVCREC is a standard for storing BD content on red laser DVDs using [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC]] compression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,138121-page,1/article.html |title=New Chips Enable High-Def Recording on DVDs |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2007-10-05 |work=pcworld.com}}</ref> It is similar to [[HD DVD#HD REC|HD REC]] for HD DVD. === Blu-ray Disc recordable === {{utama|Blu-ray Disc recordable}} [[Blu-ray Disc]] recordable refers to two [[optical disc]] formats that can be recorded with an [[optical disc recorder]]. '''BD-R''' discs can be written to once, wheréas '''BD-RE''' can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. As of March 2007, BD-R/RE drives up to 4x retail are sold for about US$600 and 2x single-layer BD-R discs, with a capacity of 25 GB, can be found for around US$12. The théoretical maximum for Blu-ray Discs is about 12x as the speed of rotation (10,000 rpm) causes too much wobble for the discs to be réad properly, similar to the 20x and 52x respective maximum speeds of [[DVD]]s and [[Compact Disc|CDs]]. === HD DVD / Blu-Ray hybrid discs === Warner Bros. officially announced [[Total Hi Def|Total Hi Def (THD)]] at [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES 2007]]. Total Hi Def (Total HD) hybrid discs supports both HD DVD and Blu-ray, HD DVD on one side (up to two layers) and Blu-ray on the other side (up to two layers). Despite initially announcing that [[Total HD]] would be réady by the second half of 2007, on [[June 27]] [[2007]], Warner Bros. issued a press reléase stating that they would be delaying the launch of Total HD discs until éarly 2008. As of September 2007, no specific titles have yet been announced. == Tempo ogé == * [[List of Blu-ray Movies]] * [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] * [[Format war]] * [[Professional Disc for DATA]] (PDD or ProDATA) * [[Comparison of high definition optical disc formats]] * [[Laserdisc#MUSE LD|MUSE LD]] – an éarlier optical disc which contained analog HDTV signals * [[D-VHS]] – a tape-based format that allows recording of 720 or 1080 high-def DTV, while remaining compatible with older VHS libraries * [[Blu-ray Disc recordable]] === Tehnologi cakram alternatif === * [[HD DVD]] * [[AVCHD]] * [[Digital Multilayer Disk]] – the successor technology to [[Fluorescent Multilayer Disc]] * [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD) * [[Forward Versatile Disc]] (FVD) – [http://www.boser.com.tw/news/20041227.htm Taiwanese backed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408031043/http://www.boser.com.tw/news/20041227.htm |date=2007-04-08 }} red laser format * [[Fluorescent Multilayer Disc]] * [[Holographic Versatile Disc]] – standards with 200 and 300&nbsp;GB storage are under development and prototypes expected in 2008 * [[3D optical data storage]] – a next-generation technology expected to provide TB-capacity discs * [[PH-DVD]] * [[Protein-coated disc]] * [[Tapestry Media]] * [[Ultra Density Optical]] * [[Versatile Multilayer Disc]] * [[LS-R]] – a "layer selection" technology allowing the stacking of very large numbers of DVD-like data layers in a single disc. == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu luar == {{commonscat|Blu-ray Disc}} {{Portal|Blu-ray}} * [http://www.blu-raydisc.com/ Blu-ray Disc Association] * [http://www.blu-raydisc.info/ Blu-ray Disc License Web Site] * [http://www.aacsla.com/home AACS LA] * [http://panasonic.net/blu-ray/index.html Panasonic Blu-ray Portal Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229042830/http://panasonic.net/blu-ray/index.html |date=2007-12-29 }} * [http://www.us.playstation.com/PS3/About/BluRay PlayStation.com: Blu-ray Disc Technology] * [http://www.dolby.com/ Dolby Laboratories] * [http://www.dtsonline.com/ DTS] * [http://www.hdmi.org/ HDMI Licensing] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070219115147/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11392 The Authoritative Blu-ray Disc FAQ] by Hugh Bennett * [http://www.digital-digest.com/highdefdvd/faq.html The High Definition DVD FAQ] – FAQ for Blu-ray, HD DVD, EVD, FVD... * [http://www.hidefdvd.com/browse-studio-bluray.htm Studios Currently Supporting Blu-ray] === Warta === * [http://pro.jvc.com/pro/pr/2004/victor/041224BDDVD_combo_ROM_Disc.pdf JVC Develops World's First Blu-ray/DVD Combo ROM Disc Technology]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – JVC Press Reléases [[2004-12-24]]. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4921784.stm Next-generation DVD battle begins] – [[BBC News Online]] [[2006-04-19]]. * [http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20060427/116681/?ST=english TDK Prototypes 200&nbsp;GB Recordable Blu-ray Disc with Six Layers] – Nikkei Business Publications [[2006-04-27]]. * [http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20070111/126348/ Hitachi Demonstrates 4 Layer BD Playback Using 'Standard Drive'] – Nikkei Business Publications [[2007-01-11]]. * [http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200704/07-037E/index.html Establishment of Industry-leading Monthly Capacity of 1.7 million Blue-violet Diodes(lower costs)] – SONY Press Reléases [[2007-04-07]]. * [http://www.ultimateavmag.com/news/61407hddvd/ Mixed Messages From HD DVD Camp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105214853/http://www.ultimateavmag.com/news/61407hddvd/ |date=2008-01-05 }} – Ultimate AV News Desk [[2007-06-14]]. * [http://www.videostoremag.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?sec_id=2&&article_ID=10786 Starz to go Blu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190153/http://www.videostoremag.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?sec_id=2&&article_ID=10786 |date=2007-09-27 }} – Home Media Magazine Top Story [[2007-06-19]]. * [http://forum.doom9.org/showthread.php?t=120988 Volume Unique Keys for released Blu-ray titles] {{Home_video}} {{HighDefinitionMedia}} [[Kategori:Cakram Blu-ray| ]] [[Kategori:Platform Java]] [[Kategori:High-definition television]] [[Kategori:Panyimpen vidéo]] [[Kategori:Nu diwanohkeun taun 2006]] [[Kategori:Média panyimpen komputer]] [[Kategori:Panyimpen audio]] [[Kategori:DVD]] [[Kategori:Éléktronika konsumén]] g8hub7ktn61l47vg8k3n1qpu06d9c06 Vanderbilt University 0 25712 732184 731919 2026-11-11T03:55:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732184 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {| class="infobox bordered" style="width:300px; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;" |+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''Vanderbilt University''' |- class="hiddenStructure{{{gambar|}}} | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Gambar:Vanderbilt University wordmark.svg|200px]]<br /> |- ! Ngadeg: | 1873 |- ! Status: | Universitas Swasta |- ! Kalender: | Semester |- ! Sumbangan: | 3.488 [[1000000000 (number)|triliun]][[United States dollar|USD]]<ref>{{cite news |last = Brasher |first = Joan |title = A Conversation with Matthew Wright |url = http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbiltview/articles/2007/11/01/a-conversation-with-matthew-wright.48423 |work = Vanderbilt View |date = [[2007-11-01]] |accessdate = 2007-12-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115060544/http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbiltview/articles/2007/11/01/a-conversation-with-matthew-wright.48423 |date=2009-01-15 }}</ref> |- ! Rektor: | [[Martha Rivers Ingram]] |- ! Kanselir: | [[Nicholas S. Zeppos]] |- ! Fakultas: | 3.004 |- ! Mahasiswa sarjana muda: | 11.607 |- ! Mahasiswa sarjana: | 6.378 |- ! Mahasiswa pasca sarjana: | 5.229 |- ! Kampus: | [[urban area|Urban]], {{convert|330|acre|sqkm|1|lk=on}} |- ! Kota: | [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] |- ! Nagara Bagian: | [[Tennessee|TN]] |- ! Nagara: | [[United States|AS]] |- ! Ramatloka: | [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/ www.vanderbilt.edu] |- class="hiddenStructure{{{catatankaki|}}} | colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{catatankaki|}}} |} '''Vanderbilt University''' nyaéta hiji [[universitas risét]] [[private university|swasta]] di [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], [[Amerika Sarikat|AS]]. Universitas ieu diadegkeun dina taun [[1873]], sarta dibéré ngaran anu sarua jeung pangusaha [[ship transport|angkutan laut]] sarta [[rail transport|kareta api]] [[Cornelius Vanderbilt|''"Commodore"'' Cornelius Vanderbilt]], anu nyumbang sajuta [[United States dollar|USD]] pikeun ngadegkeun ieu universitas. Vanderbilt ngaharepkeun yén sumbangan ti manéhna sarta pangwangunan universitas bakal mantuan nyageurkeun kapeurih haté akibat [[American Civil War|Perang Sipil]]. Kiwari, Vanderbilt kasusun ku opat sakola [[undergraduate education|sarjana muda]] sarta genep sakola [[graduate education|sarjana]], anu nampung kira-kira 11,600 mahasiswa ti 50 [[nagara bagian AS]] jeung leuwih ti 50 nagara deungeun. Pikeun taun [[2008]], ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' nempatkeun Vanderbilt dina ''ranking'' 19, sarta nempatkeun sakola atikan, hukum, kadokteran, jeung kaparawatan salaku ''top 20'' di Amerika Sarikat. Universitas ieu ogé mangrupa ''top 25'' panarima waragad ''risét'' ''féderal''. Aya ogé sababaraha lembaga risét anu ngalakukeun gawé bareng jeung universitas, di antarana [[Freedom Forum]] [[First Amendment Center]], [[Dyer Observatory]], sarta [[Vanderbilt University Medical Center]] (VUMC), hiji-hijina [[puseur pangobatan trauma Tingkat I]] di Tennessee Tengah. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} With the exception of the off-campus [[observatory]], all of Vanderbilt's facilities are situated on a {{convert|330|acre|sqkm|1|sing=on|lk=on}} plot in the héart of Nashville only {{convert|1.5|mi|km|1|lk=on}} from downtown. Despite its [[urban]] surroundings, the campus itself is a national [[arboretum]] and féatures over 300 species of trees and shrubs. Tucked among the trees, however, is an institution that continues to grow. As part of its transition to a [[residential college]] system, Vanderbilt is créating a new living aréa for [[first year|freshmen]], called The Commons, that will comprise 10 new or newly-renovated residence halls. The Commons is expected to open in the fall of 2008, at a cost of over [[USD]]$150 million. == History == [[Gambar:Vanderbilt-reversed.jpg|thumb|right|Cornelius Vanderbilt]] In the yéars prior to the American Civil War, the [[Methodist Episcopal Church, South]] had been considering créating a regional university for the training of [[Minister (Christianity)|ministers]] located centrally for the [[congregation]]s of the church. Through the lobbying of Nashville bishop [[Holland Nimmons McTyeire|Holland McTyeire]], church léaders voted in [[1872]] to créate "Central University" in Nashville. However, lack of funds and the war-ravaged state of the South delayed the opening of the college. The following yéar, on a medical trip to [[New York City]], McTyeire stayed at the residence of [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]], whose second wife was the cousin of McTyeire's wife. Vanderbilt, the wéalthiest man in [[United States of America|America]] at the time, had been considering [[philanthropy|philanthropic]] causes as he was at an advanced age. His original plan was to establish a university on [[Staten Island]], [[New York (state)|New York]], in honor of his mother. McTyeire, however, successfully convinced him to donate USD$500,000 to endow Central University in order to "contribute to strengthening the ties which should exist between all sections of our common country."<ref name="VUhistory">{{cite web |publisher = Vanderbilt University |title = The History of Vanderbilt |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/history.html |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523140459/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/history.html |date=2007-05-23 }}</ref> The endowment (later incréased to USD$1 million) would be Vanderbilt's only philanthropy. Though the Commodore never expressed any desire to have the university named after himself, McTyeire and his fellow trustees soon rechristened the school as "the Vanderbilt University." Vanderbilt died in [[1877]] having never even visited the school named after him. [[Gambar:Holland McTyeire.jpg|thumb|left|Bishop Holland McTyeire]]In the fall of [[1875]], about 200 students enrolled at Vanderbilt; the university was dedicated in October of that yéar. Bishop McTyeire, who had been named chairman of the Board of Trust for life by Vanderbilt as a stipulation of his endowment, named [[Landon Garland]], his [[mentor]] from [[Randolph-Macon College]] in [[Virginia]] and then-[[chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Mississippi]], as [[chancellor]]. Garland shaped the school's structure and hired the school's faculty, many of whom were renowned scholars in their respective fields.<ref name="VUhistory"/> However, most of this crop of star [[faculty]] left after disputes with Bishop McTyeire. For the first 40 yéars, the Board of Trust (and therefore the university itself) was under the control of the General Conference (the governing body) of the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]], South. However, tensions began rising between the university administration and the Conference over the future of the school, particularly over the methods by which members of the Vanderbilt Board of Trust would be chosen. Conflicts escalated with the appointment of James Kirkland as chancellor in [[1893]]. The final straw, at léast in the mind of Kirkland, was a failed campaign to raise USD$300,000 from Southern Methodist congregations (only $50,000 was raised). Further disputes between the bishops and Kirkland, which erupted into litigation in [[1912]], led the Methodist conference to sever all ties with Vanderbilt University in June [[1914]].<ref name="VUhistory"/> Vanderbilt enjoyed éarly intellectual influence during the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] when it hosted two partly overlapping groups of scholars who had a large impact on American thought and letters: the [[Fugitives (poets)|Fugitives]] and the [[Southern Agrarians|Agrarians]]. During the same period, [[Ernest William Goodpasture]] and his [[Collegiality|colleagues]] in the [[Medical School]] invented methods for cultivating [[viruses]] and [[rickettsiae]] in fertilized chicken eggs. This work made possible the production of [[vaccine]]s against [[chicken pox]], [[smallpox]], [[yellow fever]], [[typhus]], [[Rocky mountain spotted fever]] and other diséases caused by agents that only propagate in living cells. In the late [[1950s]], the [[Vanderbilt Divinity School]] became something of a hotbed of the emerging [[Civil Rights movement]], and the university [[expulsion|expelled]] one of its léaders, [[James Lawson]]. Much later, in 2005, he was made a Distinguished Alumnus for his achievements and re-hired as a Distinguished University Professor for the 2006-07 academic yéar.<ref>{{cite news |last = Patterson |first = Jim |title = The Rev James Lawson to return as visiting professor |work = The Vanderbilt Register |date = [[2006-01-30]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=24339 |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221025707/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=24339 |date=2006-02-21 }}</ref> As with Lawson, the university drew national attention in [[1966]], when it recruited the first [[African American]] athlete in the Southéastern Conference, Perry Wallace.<ref>{{cite web |title = Perry Wallace |publisher = Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame |url = http://www.tshf.net/inductees/2003Wallace.htm |date = [[2003]] |accessdate = 2007-08-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724113948/http://www.tshf.net/inductees/2003Wallace.htm |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref> Wallace, from Nashville, played varsity basketball for Vanderbilt from [[1967]]-[[1970]], and faced considerable opposition from segregationists when playing at other SEC venues. In 2004, a student-led drive to have Wallace's jersey retired finally succeeded. [[Harold Vanderbilt]] was présidént of the Board of Trust between [[1955]] and [[1968]] when [[racial integration]] was a very prominent topic at the school. Today a statue of him in front of Buttrick Hall [[memorial]]izes his efforts. In 1966, Oberlin Graduate School of Théology moved from Ohio to Nashville, in order to merge with the Vanderbilt Divinity School. In [[1979]], Vanderbilt absorbed its neighbor, [[Peabody College]]. [[Gambar:vandyconfederatehall.jpg|thumb|right|Memorial Hall, located on the Peabody campus, was the subject of a lawsuit to remove the word ''Confederate'' from its façade.]] History, race, and civil rights issues again came to the fore on the campus in [[2002]], when the university decided to rename a dormitory on the Péabody campus, Confederate Memorial Hall, to Memorial Hall.<ref>{{cite news |last = Vanderbilt University |title = Confederate Memorial Hall renamed Memorial Hall |work = The Vanderbilt Register |date = [[2002-09-19]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=3316 |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212182347/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=3316 |date=2012-02-12 }}</ref> Nationwide attention resulted, in part due to a lawsuit by the Tennessee chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederacy]], who had helped pay for the building's construction in [[1933]] with a $50,000 contribution.<ref>{{cite news |last = Latt |first = Elizabeth P |title = Court ruling supports Vanderbilt decision to change name of building |work = The Vanderbilt Register |date = [[2003-10-01]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=6663 |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212182351/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=6663 |date=2012-02-12 }}</ref> The Davidson County Chancery Court dismissed the lawsuit in [[2003]], but the Tennessee Court of Appéals ruled in May [[2005]] that the university would have to pay damages based on the present value of the United Daughters of the Confederacy's contribution if an inscription béaring the name "Confederate Memorial Hall" were to be removed from the building or altered.<ref>{{cite news |last = Vanderbilt University |title = Appeals court rules on Memorial Hall dispute |work = The Vanderbilt Register |date = [[2005-05-05]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=19550 |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212182359/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=19550 |date=2012-02-12 }}</ref> In late July 2005, the university announced that although it has officially renamed the building and all university publications and offices will refer to it solely as "Memorial Hall," the university would neither appéal the matter further nor remove the inscription and pay damages.<ref>{{cite news |last = Vanderbilt University |title = Vanderbilt drops suit over Memorial Hall |work = The Vanderbilt Register |date = [[2005-07-25]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=20856 |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212182403/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=20856 |date=2012-02-12 }}</ref> == Organization == === Administration === [[Gambar:Vandy Old Main.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Old Main (1875), photographed before it burned in 1905]] Vanderbilt University, as a private corporation, is wholly governed by an independent, self-perpetuating Board of Trust. The board comprises 45 regular members (plus any number of trustees emeriti) and the [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]], the university's [[chief executive officer]]. éach trustee serves a five-yéar term (except for four recently-graduated undergraduates, who serve four-yéar terms). A complete, up-to-date listing of the members of the Board of Trust can be found [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/boardoftrust/ here]. [[Martha Rivers Ingram]] is the board's current [[chairman]]. [[Nicholas S. Zeppos]] currently serves as interim chancellor of Vanderbilt University. He was appointed to replace the departing [[Gordon Gee]] who left to assume the présidéncy of [[Ohio State University]] on [[August 1]], [[2007]].<ref>{{cite news |last = Loos |first = Ralph |title = Gee to leave Vanderbilt for Ohio State |work = [[The Tennessean]] |url = http://www.tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070711/NEWS04/70711037 |date = [[2007-07-11]] |accessdate = 2007-07-11 }}</ref> Gee had been appointed chancellor by the Board of Trust in February [[2000]]. Prior to this appointment, he was the présidént of [[Brown University]] in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]]. Controversy arose in 2006 over Gee's spending during his tenure at Vanderbilt, including the over $6 million spent on remodéling his university-owned house. An article in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' in September of that yéar criticizing the spending of college and university executives used Gee and Vanderbilt as an example of the lax oversight common to higher education. The article also revéaled that Gee's wife, a tenured professor, smoked [[marijuana]] in their home. The Board of Trust has since established a committee to monitor more closely Gee's spending.<ref>{{cite news |last = Duncan |first = Walker |title = WSJ: Vandy Making Sure Gee isn't Puffing Away Millions |work = The Nashville Post |url = http://www.nashvillepost.com/news/2006/9/26/iwsji_takes_a_hard_look_at_vanderbilt_chancellor_gordon_gees_spending_habits |date = [[2006-09-26]] |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> Since the opening of the university in 1875, only six other individuals have served as chancellor.<ref>{{cite web |last = Office of the Chancellor |title = History of the Office |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/chancellor/history.html |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224025743/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/chancellor/history.html |date=2007-02-24 }}</ref> Landon Garland was the university's first chancellor, serving from [[1875]] to [[1893]]. Garland organized the university and hired its first faculty. Garland Hall, an academic building on campus, is named in his honor. [[Gambar:Vandy-Kirkland-2.jpg|thumb|upright|right|After the fire, Old Main was rebuilt with one tower and renamed Kirkland Hall. It is currently home to Vanderbilt's administration.]] The next chancellor was [[James H. Kirkland]]—serving from [[1893]] to [[1937]], he had the longest tenure of any Vanderbilt chancellor. He was responsible for severing the university's ties with the Methodist church and relocating the medical school to the main campus. Vanderbilt's Main Building was renamed Kirkland Hall after Kirkland left in 1937. The longest-tenured chancellor was followed by the second shortest-tenured. [[Oliver Carmichael]] served Vanderbilt for just 9 yéars, 1937 to [[1946]]. Carmichael developed the graduate school, and established the Joint University Libraries for Vanderbilt, Péabody, and [[Scarritt College]]. Carmichael Towers, a set of high-rise dormitories on the northern edge of campus, were named for Chancellor Carmichael. Carmichael's successor was [[Harvie Branscomb]]. Branscomb presided over a period of major growth and improvement at the university that lasted from 1946 until 1963. He was responsible for opening the admissions policy to all races. Branscomb Quadrangle is a residence hall complex named for the chancellor. [[G. Alexander Heard|Alexander Heard]], for whom the campus library system is named, served as chancellor from 1963 to 1982. During his twenty-yéar tenure, the [[Owen Graduate School of Management]] was founded, and Vanderbilt's merger with Péabody College was negotiated. He also survived calls for his ouster because of his accommodating stance on desegregation. [[Joe B. Wyatt]] was the chancellor who served immediately before Gee, from 1982 until 2000. Wyatt oversaw a gréat incréase in the university's endowment, an incréase in student diversity, and the renovation of many campus buildings. The Wyatt Center on Péabody's campus is named for Wyatt and his wife. === Medical Center === The Vanderbilt University Medical Center is a vital component of the university and is the only [[Level I Trauma Center]] in Middle Tennessee.<ref name="revu">{{cite web |last = Vanderbilt University News Service |title = RE:VU: Quick Facts about Vanderbilt |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/facts.html |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625054413/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/facts.html |date=2007-06-25 }}</ref> VUMC comprises the following units:<ref>{{cite web |title=Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Visitors |url=http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/root/visitors.html |publisher=Vanderbilt University |accessdate=2007-07-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701222912/http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/root/visitors.html |date=2007-07-01 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Vanderbiltchildrens.JPG|thumb|left|The 11-story Doctor's Office Tower of the Monroe Carell, Jr., Children's Hospital, which was completed in 2004.]] * Vanderbilt University Hospital * Monroe Carell, Jr., Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt * Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center * The Vanderbilt Clinic * Vanderbilt Bill Wilkerson Center * Vanderbilt Stallworth Rehabilitation Hospital * Vanderbilt Psychiatric Hospital * Eskind Biomedical Library * Vanderbilt Sports Medicine * Dayani Human Performance Center * Vanderbilt Page Campbell Héart Institute * Vanderbilt University School of Medicine * Vanderbilt University School of Nursing With over 20,500 employees (including 2,689 full-time faculty), Vanderbilt is the largest private employer in Middle Tennessee and the second largest in the state (after [[FedEx]], héadquartered in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]]). Approximately 74% of the university's faculty and staff are employed by the Medical Center.<ref name="revu" /> In 2003, the medical center was placed on the Honor Roll of ''U.S. News & World Report'''s annual rating of the nation's best hospitals, and 17 of the faculty were members of one of the [[United States National Academies|National Academies]]. In 2004, the university reported that 24.1% of non-Medical Center faculty were women, while 14.4% were of a racial or ethnic minority. == Students and faculty == [[Gambar:Vanderbilt Benson Science Hall.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Benson Science Hall, one of the first campus buildings, has not been used for science classes in many years. Benson currently houses the departments of History and English.]] === Profile === As of December 2006, Vanderbilt had an enrollment of 6,378 undergraduate and 5,229 graduate and professional students. Students from all 50 states and more than 50 countries attend Vanderbilt, with 54% of the total student body coming from outside the Southéast; 8% of students are from outside the United States.<ref name="revu" /><ref name="oua-students">{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Students |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/fastFacts.php#Students |accessdate = 2007-07-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630094546/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/fastFacts.php#Students |date=2007-06-30 }}</ref> Moréover, 24% of the undergraduate class of 2010 was non-Caucasian, while roughly half were women.<ref name="profile">{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Class of 2010 |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/admissions/fastFacts.php#Profile |accessdate = 2007-05-28 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527161106/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/admissions/fastFacts.php#Profile |date=2007-05-27 }}</ref> Vanderbilt offers undergraduates the chance to pursue 70 [[academic major|majors]] in its four undergraduate schools and colleges: the [[Vanderbilt University College of Arts and Science|College of Arts and Science]], the [[Vanderbilt University School of Engineering|School of Engineering]], Péabody College of Education and Human Development, and [[Blair School of Music]]. The university also has six graduate and professional schools, including the Divinity School, [[Vanderbilt University Graduate School|Graduate School]], [[Vanderbilt University Law School|Law School]], [[Vanderbilt University School of Medicine|School of Medicine]], [[Vanderbilt University School of Nursing|School of Nursing]], and [[Vanderbilt University Owen Graduate School of Management|Owen Graduate School of Management]]. The university's undergraduate programs are highly selective: in 2006, the Office of Undergraduate Admissions accepted 34% of applicants. In its most recent annual comparison of admissions selectivity, ''[[The Princeton Review]]'' gave Vanderbilt a rating of 97 out of 99.<ref>{{cite web |last = The Princeton Review |title = Vanderbilt University: General Info |work = The Princeton Review 2006 |url = http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/profiles/generalinfomore.asp?listing=1022817&ltid=1 |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> The freshmen in the Class of 2010 had standardized test scores that were well above average: the middle 50% range of [[SAT]] scores was 1930–2190 (1300–1470 under the old scale), while the middle 50% range of [[ACT (examination)|ACT]] scores was 29–32.<ref name="profile" /> === Research === As with any large reséarch institution, Vanderbilt investigators work in a broad range of disciplines, and the university is among the top 25 recipients of federal reséarch dollars.<ref>{{cite news |last = Salisbury |first = David F |title = VU gains ground in competition for federal research dollars |work = The Vanderbilt Register |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=31832 |date = [[2007-02-05]] |accessdate = 2007-07-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328201711/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=31832 |date=2013-03-28 }}</ref> However, among its more unusual activities, the university has institutes devoted to the study of coffee and of [[contract bridge|bridge]]. Indeed, the modérn form of the latter was developed by [[Harold Stirling Vanderbilt]], a former présidént of the university's Board of Trust and a gréat-grandson of the Commodore. In addition, in mid-2004 it was announced that Vanderbilt's [[chemical biology]] reséarch may have serendipitously opened the door to the breeding of a [[blue rose]], something that has long been coveted by [[horticulture|horticulturalists]] and rose lovers.<ref>{{cite news |last = Harrison |first = David |title = A true scientific breakthrough: the blue rose |work = [[The Daily Telegraph]] |url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/23/nrose23.xml |date = [[2004-05-23]] |accessdate = 2007-07-03 }}</ref> Vanderbilt's reséarch record is blemished, however, by a study university reséarchers, in conjunction with the Tennessee Department of Héalth, conducted on [[iron]] [[metabolism]] during [[pregnancy]] in the 1940s.<ref>{{cite web |title = $10 Million Settlement In Radiation Suit |work = [[The New York Times]] |date = [[1998-05-29]] |url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9801EEDD1138F93AA15756C0A96E958260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fOrganizations%2fV%2fVanderbilt%20University |accessdate = 2007-09-20 }}</ref> Between 1945 and [[1949]], over 800 pregnant women were given [[radioactive]] iron. Standards of [[informed consent]] for reséarch subjects were not rigorously enforced at that time,{{ref label|Helsinki|A|A}} and many of the women were not informed of the potential risks. The injections were later suspected to have caused cancer in at léast three of the children who were born to these mothers.<ref>{{cite news |last = Schneider |first = Keith |title = Scientists Share in Pain Of Experiment Debates |work = The New York Times |date = [[1994-03-02]] |url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9903E0D8153AF931A35750C0A962958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=1 |accessdate = 2007-07-05 }}</ref> In 1998, the university settled a [[class action|class action lawsuit]] with the mothers and surviving children for $10.3 million.<ref>{{cite web |publisher = Lieff Cabraser Heimann and Bernstein, LLP |title = Vanderbilt University Radiation Class Action |date = [[1998-07-27]] |url = http://www.lieffcabraser.com/vanderbilt.htm |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212023006/http://www.lieffcabraser.com/vanderbilt.htm |date=2006-12-12 }}</ref> [[Gambar:MRB3.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Medical Research Building III was completed in 2003 as a joint venture between the College of Arts and Science and the School of Medicine.]] ''[http://www.exploration.vanderbilt.edu/ Exploration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830191431/http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/ |date=2017-08-30 }}'' is the university's online reséarch magazine. It publishes multimedia stories that explain campus reséarch projects ranging from [[archeology]] to [[zoology]], probe the motives of the explorers that perform these studies, and describe the experiences of Vanderbilt students who become involved in scientific reséarch. Vanderbilt undergraduates also publish [http://vurj.vanderbilt.edu/ a journal of original research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127012858/http://vurj.vanderbilt.edu/ |date=2008-01-27 }}. Vanderbilt is a member of the [[Oak Ridge Associated Universities]] and the [[Universities Space Research Association]]. === Rankings === In its [[2008]] edition, ''U.S. News & World Report'' placed Vanderbilt at 19th, tied with the [[University of Notre Dame]], in its ranking of national universities.<ref name="usnwr-overall">{{cite web |title = National Universities: Top Schools |publisher = ''U.S. News & World Report'' |work = America's Best Colleges 2008 |url = http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php |accessdate = 2007-08-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730131502/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php |date=2008-07-30 }}</ref> In the same publication's 2007 graduate program rankings, Péabody College was listed at 3rd among schools of education, the Vanderbilt Law School was listed at 16th, the School of Medicine was listed at 18th among reséarch-oriented [[medical school]]s, the School of Nursing was listed at 19th, and the Owen Graduate School of Management was listed at 34th among business schools.<ref name="usnwr-grad">{{cite web |publisher = ''U.S. News & World Report'' |title = Graduate Schools: Index |work = America's Best Graduate Schools 2008 |url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/rankindex_brief.php |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> Additionally, Vanderbilt is ranked 1st in the nation in the fields of [[special education]]<ref>{{cite web |publisher = ''U.S. News & World Report'' |title = Education: Special Education |work = America's Best Graduate Schools 2008 |url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/edu/brief/edusp07_brief.php |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> and [[audiology]].<ref>{{cite news |last = Boerner |first = Craig |title = National rankings laud Medical, Nursing schools |work = The Reporter |date = [[2007-03-30]] |url = http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/reporter/index.html?ID=5442 |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114200818/http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/reporter/index.html?ID=5442 |date=2009-01-14 }}</ref> In ''[[The Times Higher Education Supplement]] [[2006]]'', Vanderbilt is ranked 26th in North America and 53rd worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |last = O'Leary |first = John, ed |title = World University Rankings 2006 |work = [[The Times Higher Education Supplement]] |page = 3 |date = [[2006-10-06]] |url = http://www.fc.ethz.ch/facts/inst_research/thes/THES_World_University_Rankings_2006.pdf |format = [[PDF|Adobe PDF]] |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> The 2007 [[Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index]], a méasure of the scholarly output of the faculty of néarly 7,300 doctoral programs around the United States, ranked Vanderbilt 8th among large reséarch universities, and 1st in the aréas of [[comparative literature]], [[educational leadership]], [[pharmacology]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and special education.<ref>{{cite news |last = Fogg |first = Piper |title = A New Standard for Measuring Doctoral Programs |work = The Chronicle of Higher Education |page = A8 |date = [[2007-01-12]] |url = http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i19/19a00801.htm |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> ''The Wall Street Journal'' ranked Owen second among "smaller" business schools in 2004.<ref>{{cite press release |title = Owen School ranked No. 2 among smaller schools by Wall Street Journal |publisher = Vanderbilt University |date = [[2004-09-22]] |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/news/releases/2004/9/22/owen_school_ranked_no._2_among_smaller_schools_by_wall_street_journal |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> == Campus layout == {{Infobox nrhp | name =Gymnasium, Vanderbilt University | nrhp_type = | image = | caption = | location = West End and 23rd Aves.<br />Nashville, Tennessee | nearest_city = | lat_degrees = | lat_minutes = | lat_seconds = | lat_direction = | long_degrees = | long_minutes = | long_seconds = | long_direction = | area = | built = | architect =Peter J. Williamson | architecture = | added = [[February 23]], [[1972]] | visitation_num = | visitation_year = | refnum = 72001233 | mpsub = | governing_body = Vanderbilt University }} {{Infobox nrhp | name =Mechanical Engineering Hall, Vanderbilt University | nrhp_type = | image = | caption = | location = Grand Ave. and 21st Ave., S.<br />Nashville, Tennessee | nearest_city = | lat_degrees = | lat_minutes = | lat_seconds = | lat_direction = | long_degrees = | long_minutes = | long_seconds = | long_direction = | area = | built = | architect =W.C. Smith | architecture = | added = [[December 13]], [[1978]] | visitation_num = | visitation_year = | refnum = 78002582 | mpsub = | governing_body = Vanderbilt University }}[[Gambar:Vandyarboretum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|National Arboretum plaque]] The Vanderbilt campus is located approximately {{convert|1.5|mi|km|1}} west of downtown in the West End neighborhood of midtown Nashville. It has an aréa of {{convert|330|acre|sqkm|1}}, though this figure includes large tracts of sparsely used land in the southwest part of the main campus, as well as the Medical Center. The historical core of campus encompasses approximately {{convert|30|acre|sqkm|1}}. The Vanderbilt campus is roughly fan-shaped (with the point at the corner of West End and 21st Avenues) and reflects the university's gradual expansion to the south and to the west. The campus is fairly compact, however, and the farthest distance on campus takes about 25 minutes to walk. The oldest part of the Vanderbilt campus is known for its abundance of trees and green space, which stand in contrast to the surrounding cityscape of urban Nashville. The campus was designated as a national arboretum in 1988 by the Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, and over 300 species of trees and shrubs can be found on campus, including one of every species of tree that is indigenous to the state of Tennessee.<ref name="campus map">{{cite map |publisher = Vanderbilt University Office of Facilities Information Services |title = Vanderbilt University Campus Map |edition = January 2006 |section = Overleaf |accessdate = 2007-10-10 }}</ref> One tree, the Bicentennial Oak between Rand Hall and Garland Hall, is certified to have lived during the [[American Revolution]] and is the oldest living thing on the campus. === Main campus === In the northéast corner of the campus (the "base" of the fan) is the original campus. The first college buildings, including Kirkland Hall, were erected here in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s. This section stretches from West End Avenue south to the Stevenson Center and west from 21st Avenue to Alumni Lawn. The majority of the buildings of the arts and humanities departments of the College of Arts and Science, as well as the facilities of the Law School, Owen Graduate School of Management, and the Divinity School, are located in the original campus. Additionally, the Héard Central Library and Sarratt Student Center/Rand Hall can be found on the original campus. [[Gambar:Vandybicentennialtree.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bicentennial Oak, facing Buttrick Hall]] Flanking the original campus to the south are the Stevenson Center for Science and Mathematics and the School of Engineering complex (Jacobs Hall-Féatheringill Hall). Housing the Science Library, the School of Engineering, and all the science and math departments of the College of Arts and Science, save for psychology, this complex sits between the original campus and the Medical Center. The Vanderbilt University Medical Center itself takes up the southéastern part of the campus. Besides the various associated hospitals and clinics and the facilities of the Schools of Medicine and Nursing, the medical center also houses many major reséarch facilities. [[Gambar:studioartcenter.jpg|thumb|left|The E. Bronson Ingram Studio Art Center (right) and the Student Life Center, completed in 2005, are located in the heart of the central campus, near Branscomb Quadrangle.]] West of the original campus and the Medical Center, Greek Row and the bulk of the Vanderbilt residence halls are found. From north to south, Carmichael Towers, Greek Row, Branscomb Quadrangle, and Highland Quadrangle house the vast majority of on-campus residents in facilities ranging from the double-occupancy shared-bathroom dorms in Branscomb and Towers to the apartments and lodges in Highland Quadrangle. This part of campus is newer than the others; Vanderbilt's westward growth did not start until the 1950s. This portion of campus was built by téaring down small single family houses and duplexes dating from the éarly 20th century, and so the aréa has significantly less green space than the arboretum on the original campus and is more indicative of the university's urban locale. [[Memorial Gymnasium (Vanderbilt University)|Memorial Gymnasium]], [[Vanderbilt Stadium]], [[Hawkins Field]], McGugin Center, and all the other varsity athletic fields and facilities are to be found in the extreme west of campus. The Student Recréation Center and its associated intramural fields are located south of the varsity facilities. === Peabody campus === [[Gambar:peabodybridge.jpg|thumb|right|One of a pair of pedestrian bridges spanning 21st Avenue that connect the central campus to the Peabody campus.]] Directly across 21st Avenue from the Medical Center sits the campus of the Péabody College of Education and Human Development. Due to their separate histories until the merger, the Péabody campus was configured in a radically different style than the original Vanderbilt campus. Wheréas the latter has an unplanned organic design with buildings scattered throughout, Péabody campus was planned as a géometric design, similar to the [[Jeffersonian architecture|Jeffersonian]] style of the [[University of Virginia]]. The campus is home not only to Péabody College but also to the future Commons, where all freshmen will live together as part of the [[Vanderbilt University#College halls|College Halls]] plan. == Student life == === Organizations === [[Gambar:Vanderbilt Sailing Club Homecoming Regatta.jpg|thumb|left|Sailing Club Regatta]] The university recognizes néarly 400 student organizations, ranging from academic major societies and honoraries to recréational sports clubs, the oldest of which is the [[Vanderbilt Sailing Club]]. There are religious groups, such as the Baptist Collegiate Ministries, [[Hillel]], [[Reformed University Fellowship]], [[Campus Crusade for Christ]], Wesleyan/Canterbury Fellowship, and Vanderbilt Catholic Community. Despite the lack of an organized journalism curriculum, no less than ten editorially-independent media outlets are produced and controlled by students. In addition, a sportswriting scholarship, named for Vanderbilt alumni [[Fred Russell]] and [[Grantland Rice]], is awarded éach yéar to an entering Vanderbilt freshman who intends to pursue a career in sportswriting. Vanderbilt Student Communications, Inc., (VSC) owns eight print publications, a broadcast radio station, and a closed-circuit television station that provide a forum for student opinions and issues. One publication, ''The Vanderbilt Hustler'', was established in 1888 and is the oldest continuously published newspaper in [[Nashville]] (the newspaper's name references another nickname for the Commodore based on his cutthroat business practices, ''i.e.'', that he "hustled" péople out of their money). The on-campus radio station, [[WRVU]], represents the student body by playing a range of music from bluegrass to choral, with a focus on non-mainstréam music,<ref>{{cite news |last = Taylor |first = Kelly |coauthors = Sam Patton |title = Letter: Greer column fails to mention diversity of campus radio station |work = The Vanderbilt Hustler |date = [[2007-04-04]] |url = http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/3976 |accessdate = 2007-04-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128111049/http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/3976 |date=2011-11-28 }}</ref> while the campus television station, Vanderbilt Television (VTV), showcases student-produced films, skits, and news and entertainment-based shows. VSC was formed as a not-for-profit corporation in 1967 to insulate the university from potential liability and to maintain journalistic independence after a series of controversial articles published by ''The Hustler''. During the 1970s, VSC funded a visiting journalist position to provide advice and counsel to its various operating units. Initially, the directors of VSC included a faculty chairman of the board of directors, several student directors, and an outside journalist director. Among the éarlier journalist directors was [[John Seigenthaler, Sr.]], the then-présidént, publisher, and editor of ''[[The Tennessean]]'', who also played an instrumental role in the création of ''[[USA Today]]''. VSC ranks with Students of Géorgetown, Inc. ([[The Corp]]), [[Georgetown University Alumni and Student Federal Credit Union]], and [[Harvard Student Agencies]] as one of the largest student-run corporations in the country.{{fact|date=December 2007}} Additional student publications include those published by the Vanderbilt University Law School, which publishes three [[law review]]s; the flagship journal is the ''[[Vanderbilt Law Review]]''. [[Gambar:Vanderbilt Homecoming 2003.jpg|thumb|right|Vanderbilt's Homecoming Queen and King]] There are also more than thirty service organizations on campus, giving students the opportunity to perform community service across the country and around the world, including the Vanderbilt-founded [[Alternative Spring Break]]. Greeks are an active part of the social scene on and off campus. Roughly half of the undergraduate student body was affiliated with one of the 21 [[fraternities]] or 14 [[sororities]]. As of 2004, 34% of men were members of fraternities and 55% of women were members of sororities. More recently, several new chapters have been colonized at Vanderbilt, demonstrating the continued demand for available memberships. In addition, an independent fraternity, PSK (Pages, Squires, Knights), existed between 1965 and 1975.<ref>{{cite web |last = Office of the Associate Provost for Student Affairs |title = Student Affairs, Record Group 700 |publisher = Vanderbilt University |date = [[2004-08-24]] |url = http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/speccol/archives/archives/700.pdf |format = [[PDF|Adobe PDF]] |accessdate = 2007-01-16 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901082522/http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/speccol/archives/archives/700.pdf |date=2006-09-01 }}</ref> === Honor Code === Since the first classes began at Vanderbilt, the Honor System has served to strengthen the academic integrity of the university. Its principles were outlined in a famous quote by long-time Déan of Students Madison Sarratt:<ref>{{cite web |last = Sarratt |first = Madison |title = Honor Quotes |publisher = Vanderbilt University Undergraduate Honor Council |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/HonorCouncil/honorquo.php |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060911025358/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/HonorCouncil/honorquo.php |date=2006-09-11 }}</ref> {{quote|Today I am going to give you two examinations, one in trigonometry and one in honesty. I hope you will pass them both, but if you must fail one, let it be trigonometry, for there are many good [people] in this world today who cannot pass an examination in trigonometry, but there are no good [people] in the world who cannot pass an examination in honesty.}} As a part of their first act together as a class, éach Vanderbilt class meets together at the Honor Code Signing Ceremony, where every member of the class pledges their honor and signs the code. The signature pages are then hung in the Student Center. The ceremony is one of only two occasions where a class will be congregated in a single place at the same time (the other being Commencement). The Undergraduate Honor Council was formed to help enforce and protect the tradition of the Honor Code. Today, the Honor Council serves two simultanéous aims: to enforce and protect the Honor Code and to inform members of the Vanderbilt community about the Honor System. === Student housing === [[Gambar:Vandy-Kissam Hall.jpg|thumb|left|Kissam Hall was a men's dormitory from 1901 until it was razed in 1958. The baths were all in the basement.]] All undergraduate students not living with relatives in [[Davidson County, Tennessee|Davidson County]] are required to live on campus all four yéars to the extent that on-campus student housing facilities can accommodate them. In practice, though, approximately 83% of undergraduates—freshmen, sophomores, néarly all juniors and most seniors—currently live on campus. The remaining undergraduates join graduate and professional students in living off-campus. Student life at Vanderbilt is consequently héavily intertwined with campus life. [[Gambar:Highlandquad.jpg|thumb|right|Highland Quadrangle, including high-rises Morgan House and Lewis House as well as the Chaffin Apartments and Mayfield Living-Learning Lodges, is a popular housing choice among upperclassmen.]] However, the on-campus residential system is currently undergoing a radical change. The new system, announced by the administration in [[2002]], would change the current structure of quadrangle-based residence halls to a new system of residential colleges, to be called "College Halls". Similar to the residential structures at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]], [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Rice University|Rice]], and [[Yale University|Yale]], the new College Halls system would créate residence halls where students and faculty would live together in a self-contained environment, complete with study rooms, cafeterias, laundry facilities, and stores. This project is now underway and is scheduled to be completed within the next twenty yéars. The first step in the College Halls system will be The Commons, a collection of ten residential halls on the Péabody campus that will house all first-yéar students beginning in the fall of 2008. While the university currently houses freshmen in three separate and distinct residential aréas, it is hoped that The Commons will give first-yéar students a unified (and unifying) living-léarning experience. Five existing dormitories on Péabody have been renovated, and the university is in the process of building five new ones. Two of the new residence halls have received [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] silver certification, making Vanderbilt the only university in the state to be recognized by the [[United States Green Building Council|U.S. Green Building Council]].<ref>{{cite press release |title = Vanderbilt first university in Tennessee recognized for "green" building |publisher = Vanderbilt University |date = [[2007-08-17]] |url = http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/newspub/bjfTyg?id=36730 |accessdate = 2007-09-02 }} {{Cite web |url=http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/newspub/bjfTyg?id=36730 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2007-09-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209032042/http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/newspub/bjfTyg?id=36730 |archivedate=2012-02-09}}</ref> The university expects all five of the new residence halls, one renovated residence hall, and the new Commons Dining Center to all receive LEED certification.<ref>{{cite news |last = Sisk |first = Chas |title = Seven Vanderbilt buildings to get 'green' certification |url = http://www.tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070903/BUSINESS02/709030330/1045/NEWS05 |work = The Tennessean |date = [[2007-09-03]] |accessdate = 2007-09-03 }}</ref> The total cost of The Commons construction project is expected to be over $150 million.<ref>{{cite news |last = Lewis |first = Princine |title = Living and learning at Vanderbilt to undergo major transformation |work = The Vanderbilt Register |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=31832 |date = [[2005-06-13]] |accessdate = 2007-07-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328201711/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/register/articles?id=31832 |date=2013-03-28 }}</ref> With the addition of these new residence halls, the university will be able to house all undergraduate students on campus. Since university policy requires undergraduates to live on campus when possible, Vanderbilt's Office of Housing and Residential Education will no longer grant students permission to live off campus, beginning with the class graduating in 2009.<ref name="commons">{{cite news |last = Brown |first = Christine |title = Class of 2009 will not live off campus |work = The Vanderbilt Hustler |date = [[2007-01-21]] |url = http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/2543 |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928231406/http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/2543 |date=2007-09-28 }}</ref> Many current students who came to Vanderbilt with the understanding that seniors were generally allowed to live off campus are now disappointed that they must live on campus all four yéars.<ref>{{cite news |last = Levine |first = Jason |title = Administrators should work with students to resolve housing problems |work = The Vanderbilt Hustler |date = [[2007-03-18]] |url = http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/3627 |accessdate = 2007-04-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928231400/http://www.insidevandy.com/drupal/node/3627 |archive-date = 2007-09-28 }}</ref> However, university administrators believe the undergraduate community receives the gréatest benefit from living in on-campus residence halls, citing incréased interaction with faculty, better academic performance, and stronger interpersonal relationships.<ref name="commons" /> === Myths === Vanderbilt's long history has given birth to several myths and urban legends. Some of the more well known:<ref>{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Traditions & Lore |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/admissions/randomTraditions.php |accessdate = 2007-04-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703015545/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomTraditions.php |date=2007-07-03 }}</ref> * Furman Hall, the single stone building among the brick structures of the old campus, was built because a confused architect was designing buildings for both [[Duke University]] and Vanderbilt at the same time. :Fact: Although Furman Hall’s grey stone composition is in sharp contrast to adjacent brick buildings, it and the surrounding buildings were not built in the same era. * The administration at Vanderbilt has canceled classes only twice, once because of a loose bull on campus. :Fact: Vanderbilt has canceled classes many times over its history, but not because of a loose bull. * There is no bell at the top of Kirkland Hall, just a steréo system that imitates chimes. :Fact: After Kirkland Hall burned in 1905, Nashville schoolchildren collected money for a new 2,000-pound bell, which still chimes on the hour from Kirkland Tower. * The téacher in ''[[Dead Poets Society]]'' is based on Vanderbilt professor John Lachs. :Fact: The film's screenplay was written by [[Tom Schulman]], who is a Vanderbilt alumnus, but he based the story on his experiences at [[Montgomery Bell Academy]], a Nashville area prep school. == Athletics == {{utama|Vanderbilt Commodores}} [[Gambar:Memorial Gymnasium Vanderbilt.jpg|thumb|right|Vanderbilt's basketball teams play in Memorial Gymnasium.]] Vanderbilt is a charter member of the [[Southeastern Conference]] and is the conference's only private school. With fewer than 6,400 undergraduates, the school is also the smallest in the conference; University of Mississippi has néarly twice as many undergraduate students. Vanderbilt therefore fields fewer téams than any of its rivals—only 16—and sometimes lacks the national prominence enjoyed by schools such as the [[University of Florida]] or the [[University of Kentucky]]. Additionally, the school is a member of the [[American Lacrosse Conference]] for [[women's lacrosse]], as the SEC does not sponsor that sport. Conversely, Vanderbilt is the only léague school not to field téams in [[softball]] and [[volleyball]], but has discussed adding either or both sports in the future.<ref>{{cite news |last = Patton |first = Maurice |title = Success may add teams at Vandy |work = The Tennessean |date = [[2007-05-14]] |url = http://tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070514/SPORTS0602/705140359/1002/SPORTS&template=pdaart |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20120715232947/http://tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070514/SPORTS0602/705140359/1002/SPORTS&template=pdaart |date=2012-07-15 }}</ref> Men's and women's [[tennis]] and men's and women's [[basketball]] are traditionally Vanderbilt's strongest sports, with the more recently founded women's [[lacrosse]] and [[bowling]] programs as well as the long-standing men's [[baseball]] program experiencing moderate national success. After enjoying success in the first half of the 20th century, the [[Vanderbilt Commodores football|football program]] has struggled in more recent times. === Athletics restructuring === [[Gambar:Hawkins Field.JPG|right|thumb|Hawkins Field in June 2007]] In September 2003, Vanderbilt éarned national attention when it announced that it was eliminating its athletic department. Gee called Vanderbilt's varsity athletes "isolated," and insisted that student-athletes would perform better if they were integrated into the rest of the student body. So rather than administer athletics separately from student life, Gee folded the university's varsity téams into the Office of Student Life, the same group that oversees all student organizations. The university is unique in Division I in this regard.<ref>{{cite news |last = Bechtel |first = Mark |title = A Process of Elimination: Vanderbilt has found greater sports success since losing its athletics department |work = [[Sports Illustrated]] |date = [[2007-06-06]] |accessdate = 2007-07-02 }}</ref> Despite féars that Vanderbilt would lose coaches and recruits or would be forced out of the SEC, the university has experienced considerable success since the change; 2006–2007 was one of the best in the school's athletic history. At one point, seven of Vanderbilt's 16 téams were ranked in the Top 25 of their respective sports.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Seven Vanderbilt teams ranked in Top 25 | publisher = Vanderbilt University | date = [[2007-02-23]] | url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/news/releases/2007/2/23/seven-vanderbilt-teams-ranked-in-top-25 | accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.vanderbilt.edu/news/releases/2007/2/23/seven-vanderbilt-teams-ranked-in-top-25 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2007-05-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327193634/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/news/releases/2007/2/23/seven-vanderbilt-teams-ranked-in-top-25 |archivedate=2008-03-27}}</ref> Women's bowling won the NCAA championship, bringing the university its first and only téam championship since the advent of the NCAA.<ref>{{cite web |last = Vanderbilt Athletic Department |title = Vanderbilt Bowlers Make History |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://vucommodores.cstv.com/sports/w-bowl/recaps/041407aab.html |accessdate = 2007-04-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929224549/http://vucommodores.cstv.com/sports/w-bowl/recaps/041407aab.html |date=2011-09-29 }}</ref> The baseball téam qualified for the NCAA Super Regionals in 2004, had the nation's top recruiting class in 2005 according to ''[[Baseball America]]'',<ref>{{cite web |last = Kimmey |first = Will |title = Vandy Recruits Stay For Top Recruiting Class |work = Baseball America |date = [[2005-10-11]] |url = http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/college/051011vandy.html |accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> made the NCAA field again in 2006, and won the 2007 SEC regular-séason and tournament championships. Vanderbilt was ranked first in most polls for a large portion of the 2007 séason, and the téam secured the top seed in the [[2007 NCAA Division I Baseball Tournament|2007 NCAA tournament]].<ref>{{cite press release | title = Vanderbilt Awarded No. 1 National Seed | publisher = Vanderbilt University | date = [[2007-05-28]] | url = http://vucommodores.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/spec-rel/052807aae.html | accessdate = 2007-05-29 }} {{Cite web |url=http://vucommodores.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/spec-rel/052807aae.html |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2007-05-29 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727232956/http://vucommodores.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/spec-rel/052807aae.html |archivedate=2011-07-27}}</ref> === Mascot === Vanderbilt's intercollegiate athletics téams are nicknamed the Commodores, in honor of the nickname given to Cornelius Vanderbilt, who made his fortune in shipping. Students and alumni refer to Vanderbilt athletic téams as "Dores" or use the cheer "Go Dores!" The term ''[[commodore (rank)|commodore]]'' was used by the [[United States Navy|Navy]] during the mid- to late-nineteenth century. A commodore was the commanding officer of a task force of ships, and therefore higher in rank than a captain but lower in rank than an admiral. The closest parallel to this now-defunct rank is [[Rear admiral#United States|rear admiral lower-half]]. Since the term was used most during the 19th century, Vanderbilt's mascot is usually portrayed as a naval officer from the late 1800s, complete with [[sideburns|mutton chops]], [[cutlass]], and uniform. == Notable faculty and alumni == {{utama|List of Vanderbilt University people}} Vanderbilt has approximately 118,000 living alumni, with 31 alumni clubs established worldwide.<ref name="revu" /> Many Vanderbilt alumni have gone on to maké significant contributions in politics, in the arts, and in the sciences. [[Lamar Alexander]] ([[Bachelor's degree|B.A.]] [[1962]]) is a former [[List of Governors of Tennessee|Governor of Tennessee]] and a current U.S. sénator; he filled the séat left vacant by the retirement of [[Fred Dalton Thompson|Fred Thompson]] (J.D. [[1971]]).<ref name="pol-alums">{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Notable Alumni: Politics/Government |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniPol.php |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409101750/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniPol.php |date=2009-04-09 }}</ref> Two former [[Vice President of the United States|vice presidents]], [[John Nance Garner]] and [[Al Gore, Jr.]], attended the university, but did not graduate.<ref>{{cite web |last = Patenaude |first = Lionel V |title = Garner, John Nance |work = The Handbook of Texas Online |publisher = [[Texas State Historical Association]] |date = [[2002-03-08]] |url = http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/fga24.html |accessdate = 2007-04-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115014817/http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/fga24.html |date=2008-01-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Gore |first = Al |title = Al's Bio |url = http://www.algore.com/bio.html |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517020545/http://www.algore.com/bio.html |date=2007-05-17 }}</ref> However, Gore's wife, [[Tipper Gore|Tipper]], is herself an alumna, receiving a [[master's degree]] from Péabody in [[1975]].<ref>{{cite web |last = The Executive Office of the President |title = White House Biography |url = http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/VP_Wife/megbio.html |publisher = U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607142524/http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/VP_Wife/megbio.html |date=2007-06-07 }}</ref> Other alumni who are or have been involved in politics include former [[United States Supreme Court]] Associate Justice [[James Clark McReynolds]] (B.S. [[1882]]); Congressman [[Steve Cohen]] (B.A. [[1971]]); [[David Boaz]] (B.A. [[1975]]), Executive Vice présidént of the [[Cato Institute]];<ref name="pol-alums" /><ref>{{cite web |last = Cohen |first = Steve |title = Biography of Congressman Steve Cohen |url = http://cohen.house.gov/about.shtml |publisher = U.S. Congress |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070530185804/http://cohen.house.gov/about.shtml |date=2007-05-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Presidential Scholars Foundation |title = Presidential Scholars 1971 |publisher = The Commission on Presidential Scholars |url = http://www.presidentialscholars.org/scholars_year.asp?scholar_year=1971 |accessdate = 2007-04-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209202550/http://www.presidentialscholars.org/scholars_year.asp?scholar_year=1971 |date=2012-02-09 }}</ref> and [[John R. Steelman]] (M.A. [[1924]]), former [[White House Chief of Staff]]. In addition, sénator [[Theodore G. Bilbo|Theodore Bilbo]] attended both Péabody College and the Law School. Given the university's location in Nashville, it is not surprising that many of its alumni become involved in the music industry. [[Dinah Shore]] (B.A. [[1938]]), [[Rosanne Cash]] (B.A. [[1979]]), [[Amy Grant]] (B.A. [[1982]]), and [[Dierks Bentley]] (B.A. [[1997]]) are all alumni.<ref name="arts-alums">{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Notable Alumni: Arts & Entertainment |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniArt.php |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222000827/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniArt.php |date=2007-12-22 }}</ref> Shore later went on to star in a variety of films; other Vanderbilt alumni with Hollywood connections include Academy Award-winners [[Delbert Mann]] (B.A. [[1941]]) and Tom Schulman (B.A. [[1972]]) and actors [[Molly Sims]] (B.S. [[1995]]) and [[Joe Bob Briggs]] (B.A. [[1974]]).<ref name="arts-alums" /><ref name="media-alums">{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Notable Alumni: Media |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniMedia.php |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708075612/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniMedia.php |date=2009-07-08 }}</ref> In addition, the university has a rich literary and journalistic legacy. Three [[Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress|U.S. Poet Laureates]] are Vanderbilt alums: [[Allen Tate]] (B.A. [[1922]]), [[Robert Penn Warren]] (B.A. [[1925]]), and [[Randall Jarrell]] (M.A. [[1938]]). Warren later went on to the win the [[Pulitzer Prize]]. Novelists [[James Dickey]] (B.A. [[1949]]) and [[James Patterson]] (M.A. [[1970]]) also graduated from Vanderbilt.<ref name="arts-alums" /> Two well-known sportswriters, Grantland Rice (B.A. [[1901]]) and Fred Russell (B.A. [[1927]]), have a scholarship named after them at the university,<ref>{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Merit-based Aid |publisher = Vanderbilt University |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/financeMeritAid.php |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309085152/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/financeMeritAid.php |date=2009-03-09 }}</ref> and [[Buster Olney]] (B.A. [[1988]]) writes for ESPN.com and ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name="media-alums" /> Journalist [[David Brinkley]] attended briefly.<ref>{{cite news |last = Severo |first = Richard |title = David Brinkley, Elder Statesman of TV News, Dies at 82 |work = The New York Times |date = [[2003-06-12]] |url = http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/12/obituaries/12CND-BRINK.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5007&en=cff03291e81a5ba9&ex=1370836800&partner=USERLAND |accessdate = 2007-04-05 }}</ref> [[Debora Shuger]] graduated with three degrees (B.A. [[1975]]), (M.A. [[1978]]), and (M.A.T. [[1978]]) Current [[Denver Broncos]] quarterback [[Jay Cutler (American football)|Jay Cutler]] (B.S. 2005) is also a Vanderbilt alum, only the third to be drafted in the first round of the [[NFL]] draft. Three alumni, biochemist [[Stanford Moore]] (B.A. [[1935]]), economist [[Muhammad Yunus]] ([[Ph.D.]] [[1971]]), and Al Gore have won the [[Nobel Prize]].<ref>{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Notable Alumni: Science/Medicine |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniSci.php |publisher = Vanderbilt University |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222000855/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniSci.php |date=2007-12-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Office of Undergraduate Admissions |title = Notable Alumni: Philanthropy/Social Activism |url = http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniPhi.php |publisher = Vanderbilt University |accessdate = 2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222000845/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Admissions/randomAlumniPhi.php |date=2007-12-22 }}</ref> Four current or former members of the faculty also share that distinction: biochemist [[Stanley Cohen (neurologist)|Stanley Cohen]], neuroscientist [[Paul Greengard]], physiologist [[Earl Sutherland]], and pioneer molecular biologist [[Max Delbrück]].<ref name="revu" /> {|style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" <gallery> <!-- Deleted image removed: Image:Davidbrinkley.gif|<center>[[David Brinkley]]</center> --> Image:Max Delbruck.jpg|<center>[[Max Delbrück]]</center> Image:Al Gore, Vice President of the United States, official portrait 1994.jpg|<center>[[Al Gore]]</center> Image:James Clark McReynolds portrait.jpg|<center>[[James Clark McReynolds]]</center> <!--Image:Amygrant2005promo.jpg|<center>[[Amy Grant]]</center>--> </gallery> |} {|style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" <gallery> |<center>[[Dinah Shore]]</center> Image:Fred_Thompson_Iowa.jpg|<center>[[Fred Thompson]]</center> Image:Robert Penn Warren.jpg|<center>[[Robert Penn Warren]]</center> Image:Grameen_Yunus_Dec_04.jpg|<center>[[Muhammad Yunus]]</center> </gallery> |} == Notes == {{note label|Helsinki|A|A}}See article on the [[Declaration of Helsinki]]. == References == {{reflist|2}} == See also == * [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]] * [[Holland Nimmons McTyeire|Holland McTyeire]] * [[Vanderbilt University Medical Center]] * [[Vanderbilt Commodores]] * [[Southern Ivy]] == External links == {{commonscat}} * [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/ Vanderbilt University homepage] * [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/map/map.cgi?mode=1 Map of campus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014163649/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/map/map.cgi?mode=1 |date=2008-10-14 }} * [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/admissions Vanderbilt University Office of Undergraduate Admissions homepage] * [http://www.vucommodores.com Vanderbilt University Athletics homepage] * [http://www.vanderbilt.edu/alumni Vanderbilt University Alumni homepage] * [http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/ Vanderbilt University Medical Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110141217/http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/ |date=2016-11-10 }} * [http://www.vanderbiltchildrens.com/ Vanderbilt Children's Hospital] * [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/pan:@field(SUBJ+@od1(Vanderbilt)) Panoramic photograph of Vanderbilt published in 1909] * [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/vu/frame.htm Arboreal tour of campus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007042740/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/vu/frame.htm |date=2008-10-07 }} * [http://www.vscmedia.org/ Vanderbilt Student Communicatons, Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107065508/http://vscmedia.org/ |date=2008-01-07 }} {{coord|36.148649|-86.804972|display=title}} {{Vanderbilt University}} {{Southeastern Conference}} {{Tennessee private colleges and universities}} {{Association of American Universities}} [[Kategori:Oak Ridge Associated Universities]] [[Kategori:Vanderbilt family]] [[Kategori:Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] [[Kategori:Posse schools]] [[Kategori:Universities and colleges in Nashville]] [[Kategori:Registered Historic Places in Tennessee]] [[Kategori:Educational institutions established in 1873]] [[Kategori:LEED silver certified buildings]] hmepodj6oa8v41wsh9moyr71lgjxv8m Institut Teknologi Bandung 0 25713 732126 728928 2026-11-10T21:39:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732126 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo perguruantinggi |nama=Institut Teknologi Bandung |logo=[[Gambar:itb.gif|80px|Lambang ITB]] |motto= ''In Harmonia Progressio'' (Latén:"Kamajuan dina kaharmonisan") |tahun=[[1920]] (minangka TH Bandoeng)<br> [[1959]] (minangka ITB) |jenis=Paguron Luhur Negeri |rektor=Prof. Dr. Ir. Tatacipta Dirgantara, M.T. |lokasi=[[Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]] |situs=[http://www.itb.ac.id http://www.itb.ac.id]}} '''Institut Teknologi Bandung''' ('''ITB''') nyaéta hiji [[paguron luhur]] anu perenahna di [[Kota Bandung]]. ITB diadegkeun dina ping [[2 Maret]] [[1959]]. Kampus utama ITB nu perenahna di jalan Ganésa sarta di bagéan séjénna kota Bandung mibanda lega wewengkon 770.000 m². Asrama mahasiswa, padumukan dosén, sarta kantor pusat administrasi perenahna henteu di kampus utama tapi masih dina hontalan anu gampang pikeun dicukcruk. Fasilitas anu aya di kampus di antarana toko buku, kantor pos, kantin, sarta klinik. Sajaba rohangan kuliah, laboratorium, béngkél sarta studio, ITB boga hiji galeri seni nyaéta Galeri Soemardja, fasilitas olah raga, sarta hiji ''Campus Center''. Di deukeut kampus ogé aya [[Masjid Salman]] pikeun ngalakonan ibadah sarta aktivitas kaagamaan umat Islam di ITB. Pikeun ngarojong palaksanaan aktivitas akademik sarta risét, aya fasilitas-fasilitas nu ngarojong akademik, dintaranya Pabukon Pusat (kalayan koléksi kira 150.000 buku sarta 1000 judul jurnal), Sarana Olah Raga [[Sasana Budaya Ganesha]], ''Pusat Bahasa'', puseur layanan komputer (Comlabs) sarta [[Observatorium Bosscha]] (salah sahiji fasilitas ti Paguyuban Kaahlian Astronomi FMIPA), anu perenahna 11 kilométer ka kalér. Réktor ITB ayeuna nyaéta Prof. Dr. Ir. Tatacipta Dirgantara, M.T. pikeun période 2025-2030 ==Sajarah== [[Gambar:ITB 1.jpg|||thumb|Aula Barat ITB, bangunan peninggalan masa penjajahan [[Belanda]] dengan bentuk atapnya yang khas. Oleh arsitek Henri Maclaine Pont]] ITB diadegkeun dina taun [[1920]] kalayan ngaran "Technische Hooge School (THS)" te Bandoeng. ITB ogé mangrupa tempat di mana [[Daptar Présidén Indonésia|présidén]] [[Indonésia]] kahiji, [[Soekarno]] ngahontal gelar insinyurna dina widang [[Téknik Sipil]]. Dina mangsa pangjajahan Jepang, THS dirobah ngaranna jadi "Bandung Kogyo Daigaku (BKD)". Saterusna dina mangsa kamerdakaan Indonésia, taun 1945, ngaranna dirobah jadi "Sekolah Tinggi Téknik (STT) Bandung". Dina taun 1946, STT Bandung dipindahkeun ka [[Yogyakarta]] sarta jadi cikal bakal lahirna [[UGM|Universitas Gajah Mada]]. Dina tanggal 21 Juni 1946, [[NICA]] ngadegkeun Universiteit Van Indonesie jeung Faculteit van Technische Wetenschap minangka gaganti STT Bandung. Sarta dina 6 Oktober 1947, Faculteit van Exacte Wetenschap ngadeg. Ieu saterusna jadi Fakultas Téknik sarta Fakultas Élmu Pasti sarta Élmu Alam [[Universitas Indonésia]]. Saterusna dina tanggal 2 Maret 1959, Fakultas Téknik sarta Fakultas Élmu Pasti sarta Élmu Alam sacara resmi misahkeun diri jadi Institut Téknologi Bandung (ITB). Kiwari, ITB mangrupa puseur élmu sains, téknologi, sarta seni pangalusna di Indonésia.{{fact}} ITB ogé ngarojong para palajar sarta aktivitas sosial maranéhanana kalawan ngarojong [[himpunan mahasiswa]] anu aya di saban departemén. ==Fakultas== [[Image:ITBPlazaWidya.jpg|thumb|Plaza Widya ITB kalayan [[Gunung Tangkuban Perahu]] nu katembong ti kajauhan, perhatikeun wangun hateup has wangunan di ITB]] [[Image:ITB library building.JPG|thumb|Wangunan [[pabukon]] puseur ITB]] ITB mibanda 12 [[fakultas]] atawa [[sakola]], nyaéta<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itb.ac.id/fakultas-dan-sekolah|title=Fakultas dan Sekolah -|last=ITB|first=Webmaster Team, Direktorat Sistem dan Teknologi Informasi|website=Institut Teknologi Bandung|accessdate=2019-10-25}}</ref>: # Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam (FMIPA) ##[[Astronomi]] ## [[Kimia]] ## [[Matematika]] ## [[Fisika]] ##[[Aktuaria]] # Sekolah Ilmu dan Teknologi Hayati - Program Sains (SITH-S) ##[[Biologi]] ## [[Mikrobiologi]] #Sekolah Ilmu dan Teknologi Hayati - Program Rekayasa (SITH-R) ##Rekayasa Hayati ##Rekayasa Pertanian ##Rekayasa Kehutanan ##Teknologi Pascapanen # Sekolah Farmasi (SF) ## [[Sains dan Teknologi Farmasi]] ## [[Farmasi Klinik dan Komunitas]] # Fakultas Téhnik Pertambangan dan Perminyakan (FTTM) ##[[Teknik Metalurgi]] ## [[Teknik Pertambangan]] ## [[Teknik Perminyakan]] ## [[Teknik Geofisika]] # Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian (FITB) ##[[Teknik Geologi]] ##Teknik Geodesi dan Geomatika ##[[Meteorologi]] ##[[Oseanografi]] # Fakultas Teknologi Industri - Kampus Ganesha (FTI - G) ##[[Teknik Kimia]] ## [[Teknik Fisika]] ## [[Teknik Industri]] #Fakultas Teknologi Industri - Kampus Jatinangor (FTI - J) ##Teknik Bioenergi dan Kemurgi ##Teknik Pangan # Fakultas Téhnik Mesin dan Kedirgantaraan (FTMD) ##[[Teknik Mesin]] ## [[Teknik Penerbangan]] ##[[Teknik Material]] # Sekolah téhnik Elektro dan Informatika (STEI) ##[[Teknik Elektro]] ##Teknik Tenaga Listrik ##Teknik Biomedis ##Teknik Telekomunikasi ##[[Informatika|Teknik Informatika]] ##Sistem dan Teknologi Informasi # Fakultas Téhnik Sipil dan Lingkungan - Kampus Ganesa (FTSL-G) ##[[Teknik Sipil]] ##[[Teknik Lingkungan]] ##[[Teknik Kelautan]] #Fakultas Téhnik Sipil dan Lingkungan - Kampus Jatinangor (FTSL-J) ##Teknik Pengelolaan dan Sumber Daya Air ##Rekayasa Infrastruktur Lingkungan # Sekolah Arsitektur, Perencanaan dan Pengembangan Kebijakan (SAPPK) ## [[Arsitektur]] ## [[Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota]] # Fakultas Seni Rupa dan Désain (FSRD) ## [[Seni Rupa Murni]] ## [[Desain Komunikasi Visual]] ## [[Desain Interior]] ## [[Desain Produk]] ## [[Kriya Seni]] # Sekolah Bisnis dan Manajemen (SBM) ##[[Manajemen]] ##Kewirausahaan Fakultas nyaéta unit atikan di ITB anu mibanda sahenteuna 3 program studi tingkat Sarjana, sedengkeun Sakola nyaéta unit atikan anu ngan mibanda 1 atawa 2 program studi tingkat Sarjana. Tapi aya kacenderungan sawatara sakola ngabéla ngaran maranéhanana anu geus baku kawas STEI anu geus mibanda 8 program kekhususan di tingkat Sarjana, sarta SBM anu mibanda 3 program kekhususan di tingkat Sarjana. Boh Fakultas boh Sakola masing-masing dipingpin ku saurang dekan. Béda Fakultas jeung Sakola di ITB mah ngan saukur terminologi wungkul. ==Reputasi== ITB nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur kasohor di Indonésia. Dina hiji survey internasional anu dirilis ku [[w:en:THES|Times Higher Education Supplement]]-Quacquarelli Symonds (THES-QS) dina tanggal [[5 Oktober]] [[2006]], ITB aya dina peringkat ka-258. [[Universitas Indonésia]] dina survey kasebut aya dina tingkat anu leuwih luhur di posisi 250, [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] sarta [[Universitas Diponegoro]] patuturut dina posisi 270 sarta 495 <ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/indexfr.php?url=http://www.detiknews.com/index.php/detik.read/tahun/2006/bulan/11/tgl/09/time/140029/idnews/706053/idkanal/10 4 PTN asup 500 badag dunya, detik.com]</ref> <ref>Michael Tan. "[http://opinion.inq7.net/inquireropinion/columns/view_article.php?article_id=28506 World's best]", Philippine Daily Inquirer, 25 Oktober 2006. Retrieved on [[25 Oktober]] [[2006]].</ref> Universitas-universitas nagara tatangga séjénna dina survey anu sarua nyaéta di antarana [[National University of Singapore]] dina posisi ka-19 sarta [[Universiti Kabangsaan Malaysia]] dina posisi ka-128.<ref>"[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?xfile=data/theworld/20hati+ 06/October/theworld_October242.xml§ion=theworld Asian varsities rank high in world top 200 universities]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", Khaleej Times Online, 8 Oktober 2006. Retrieved on [[25 Oktober]] [[2005]].</ref> ==Rektor== {{utama|Daptar Rektor Institut Teknologi Bandung}} * Prof. Ir. R. [[Soemono]] (2 Maret 1959 - 1 November 1959)<ref>Ketua Presidium: Prof. Ir. [[Soemono]]; Anggota: Prof. Ir. [[Goenarso]]; Prof. dr. [[Djoehana Wiradikarta]] (Ketua/Dekan FIPIA UI Bandung); Prof. Ir. [[Soetedjo]] (Ketua/Dekan FT UI Bandung); Panitera: Prof. Dr. Ir. R. M. [[Soemantri Brodjonegoro]] (Ketua Jurusan Teknologi Kimia).</ref> * Prof. Ir. R. [[Otong Kosasih]] (1 November 1959 - 20 April 1964) * Ir. R. [[Ukar Bratakusumah]] (14 April 1964 - 22 Februari 1965)<ref>http://www.itb.ac.id/news/46 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119194755/http://www.itb.ac.id/news/46 |date=2016-01-19 }} ITB News Portal, 13 Maret 2003, ''Mantan Rektor ITB , Ir. Ukar Bratakusumah Meninggal''</ref> * Letnan Kolonel Ir. [[Koentoadji]] (22 Februari 1965 - 1969) * Prof. Dr. [[Doddy Achdiat Tisna Amidjaja]] (1969 - 7 Desember 1976) * Prof. Dr. Ing. [[Iskandar Alisjahbana]] (7 Desember 1976 -14 Februari 1978) * Dr. [[Soedjana Sapi'ie]] (16 Februari 1978 - 30 Mei 1979)<ref>Ketua Rektorium: Dr. [[Soedjana Sapi'ie]]; Anggota: Prof. Dr. [[Moedomo Soedigdomarto]]; Prof. Ir. [[Wiranto Arismunandar]], MSME; Ir. [[Djuanda Suraatmadja]].</ref> * Prof. Dr. [[Doddy Achdiat Tisna Amidjaja]] (30 Mei 1979 - 22 November 1980)<ref name="Pejabat Sementara">Pejabat Sementara.</ref> * Prof. [[Hariadi Paminto Soepangkat]], Ph.D. (22 November 1980 - 12 Desember 1988) * Prof. Ir. [[Wiranto Arismunandar]], MSME (12 Desember 1988 - 7 Maret 1997) * Prof. Ir. [[Lilik Hendrajaya]], M.Sc., Ph.D. (7 Maret 1997 - 10 November 2001) * Ir. [[Kusmayanto Kadiman]], Ph.D. (10 November 2001 - 21 Oktober 2004) * Prof. Ir. [[Adang Surahman]], M.Sc., Ph.D. (23 Oktober 2004 - 29 Januari 2005)<ref name="Pejabat Sementara"/> * Prof. Dr. Ir. [[Djoko Santoso (rektor ITB)|Djoko Santoso]], M.Sc. (29 Januari 2005 - 29 Januari 2010) * Prof. [[Akhmaloka]], Dipl.Biotech., Ph.D. (29 Januari 2010 - 20 Januari 2015) *Prof. Dr. Ir. [[Kadarsah Suryadi]], DEA (20 Januari 2015 - 2020) *Prof. Ir. Reini D. Wirahadikusumah MSCE, Ph. D. (2020 - ayeuna) * == Kulawarga Mahasiswa ITB == Pamaréntah ngaliwatan Mendikbud Daoed Joesoef ngagulirkeun konsép [[Normalisasi Kahirupan Kampus/Badan Koordinasi Kamahasiswaan]] anu sawajarna disingkat NKK/BKK. Déwan Mahasiswa se-Indonésia dibubarkeun sarta kamahasiswaan diatur ku Pembantu Réktor widang Kamahasiswaan ngaliwatan BKK. Mahasiswa nampik BKK, sarta tetep ngayakeun pamilihan Pupuhu DM. Tapi saban Pupuhu DM kapilih, peuting éta ogé surat anceman DO nepi. Balukarna euweuh anu daék jadi Pupuhu DM. Ahirna mahasiswa ITB mutuskeun pikeun ngabubarkeun Déwan Mahasiswa sarta ngabekukeun KM ITB. Saterusna diadegkeun Awak Koordinasi (BAKOR) pikeun ngoordinasikeun pergerakan. Samentara cita-cita KM ITB diamanatkeun ka Himpunan-himpunan minangka kantong-kantong gerakan, kalawan konsekuensi, kaderisasi aya di tingkat himpunan. == Unit kagiatan mahasiswa == * Unit Pendidikan ** PSIK - ITB ** Unit Matematika dan Linguistik - Akarna ISéa ** Pramuka ** [http://radiokampus.ee.itb.ac.id/ Radio Kampus - ITB community radio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627190042/http://radiokampus.ee.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-06-27 }} ** [http://www.arc.itb.ac.id/ Amateur Radio Club ITB - ARC ITB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422120306/http://www.arc.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-22 }} ** [http://www.gamais.itb.ac.id/ Keluarga Mahasiswa Islam "GAMAIS" (Islamic Student Society)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025329/http://gamais.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-30 }} ** Keluarga Mahasiswa Katolik "KMK" (Catholic Student Society) ** [http://www.pmk-itb.com/ Persekutuan Mahasiswa Kristen "PMK" (Christian Student Union)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420185339/http://www.pmk-itb.com/ |date=2007-04-20 }} ** Keluarga Mahasiswa Hindu "KMH" (Hindu Student Society) ** Keluarga Mahasiswa Budhis "Dhammanano" (Buddhist Student Society) ** Keluarga Donor Darah ITB "KDD" (Blood Donor Society) ** Perkumpulan Studi Ilmu Kemasyarakatan "PSIK" (Societal Study Union) ** [http://www.sef-itb.org/ Student English Forum "SEF"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519055645/http://www.sef-itb.org/ |date=2007-05-19 }} ** Unit Kajian Idéologis HATI ITB (Harmoni Amal Titian Ilmu) ** Liga Film Mahasiswa "LFM" ** Keluarga Mahasiswa Pencinta Alam Ganesha "KMPA" ** Pramuka ITB ** Resimen Mahasiswa Batalyon I/ITB (Student Regiment Battalion I / ITB) ** Unit Pembinaan Kewirausahaan Mahasiswa "UPKM" ** Koperasi Kesejahteraan Mahasiswa "KOKESMA" ** [http://www.boulevard.or.id/ Tabloid Mahasiswa Boulevard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422210132/http://www.boulevard.or.id/ |date=2007-04-22 }} ** Salman ITB (Karisma) ** Unit Kelompok Studi Ekonomi dan Pasar Modal (KSEP) ** Kolaborasi Studi Ilmiah Mahasiswa ITB (SICOS: Scientific Collaboration Studies) ** Kelompok Studi Sejarah Ekonomi dan Politik (KS-SEP) ** GaneshaTV (GTV) ** Lingkar Studi Gerakan Mahasiswa Madani (LSGMM) ** Korps Sukarela Palang Merah Indonésia (KSR-PMI) ** Lembaga Kajian dan Praksis Demokrasi (VERITAS) ** Kelompok Analisa dan Komunikasi Islam Strategis ** Studi Komunikasi Massa ITB ** Cendekia ITB ** Pers Mahasiswa ITB ** ITB Internet Community (COMMUNET-ITB) ** Online Game Reséarch Group (OGRG) * Unit Kesenian ** Unit Kebudayaan Jepang ** Studi Téater Mahasiswa (STEMA) ** Unit Kebudayaan Aceh ** Lingkung Seni Sunda (LSS) ** Unit Kesenian Minangkabau (UKM) ** [http://uksu.unit.itb.ac.id/ Unit Kesenian Sumatra Utara (UKSU)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312191114/http://uksu.unit.itb.ac.id/ |date=2008-03-12 }} ** [http://mgg.unit.itb.ac.id/ Maha Gotra Ganesha (MGG) ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312190423/http://mgg.unit.itb.ac.id/ |date=2008-03-12 }} ** [http://pstk.unit.itb.ac.id/ Perkumpulan Seni Tari&Karawitan Jawa-ITB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312131140/http://pstk.unit.itb.ac.id/ |date=2008-03-12 }} ** Paguyuban Seni Budaya Jawa Wétan ** Unit Kesenian Sulawesi Selatan (UKSS) ** Keluarga Paduan Angklung (KPA) ** Marching Band ITB "Waditra Ganesha" ** Paduan Suara Mahasiswa (PSM-ITB) ** Unit Apres ITB ** Grup Aspresiasi Sastra ITB "GAS-ITB" ** Unit Kesenian Budaya Lampung (UBL) ** Unit Kesenian Bornéo (UKB) ** Kebudayaan Irian Jaya (UKIR) ** Mahasiswa Bumi Sriwijaya (MUSI) * Unit Olahraga ** Kendo ITB ** Unit Karate ITB ** Kyokushinkai ** Unit Yudo ITB ** penca Silat Tenaga Dasar Indonésia ** Unit Renang dan Polo Air (URPA) ** Unit Catur ** Unit Hoki ** Unit Basket "GANESHA" (UBG-ITB) ** Unit Bridge ** Unit Tenis ITB ** Unit Aktivitas Tenis Meja ITB (UATM ITB) ** Unit Bola Voli (UBV) ** Unit Bulu Tangkis ** Persatuan Beladiri Kempo Indonésia ** Satria Nusantara ** Perisai Diri ** Tae Kwon - Do ** Persatuan Sepak Bola ITB (PS ITB) ** Pendawa Padma ** Unit Soft Ball ** Wanadri ** Sinar Putih ** Panahan ** Tri Eka Dharma Margaluyu "313" ** Tarung Drajat (Boxer) ** Bela Diri Hikmatul Iman ** Bridge (UAB) ** Aikido ** Aerokréasi *Himpunan mahasiswa Program Studi ** HMP PANGRIPTA LOKA ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Planologi Pangripta Loka) ** [http://hmif.if.itb.ac.id HMIF ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Informatika) ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023005857/http://hmif.if.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-10-23 }} ** [http://himpunan.ee.itb.ac.id HME ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Elektroteknik) ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808124704/http://himpunan.ee.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-08-08 }} ** [http://img.gd.itb.ac.id IMG ITB ( Ikatan Mahasiswa Geodesi ), Kita Kompak Pasti Jaya KAMERAD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212035741/http://img.gd.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-12-12 }} ** HIMASTRON ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Astronomi) ** [http://hmt.mining.itb.ac.id HMT ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Tambang) Go Fight Win!!! ] ** HMS ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Sipil) ** HIMATEK ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa téhnik Kimia) ** MTI ITB (Keluarga Mahasiswa téhnik Industri) ** HIMATIKA ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Matematika) ** HMK AMISCA ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Kimia) ** IMA-G (Ikatan Mahasiswa Arsitektur - Gunadharma) ** HMM ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Mesin) ** KMPN ITB (Keluarga Mahasiswa téhnik Penerbangan) ** HIMASITH NYMPHAéa ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa Sekolah Ilmu dan Teknologi Hayati) ** HIMATG TERRA ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa téhnik Géofisika) ** KMSR ITB (Keluarga Mahasiswa Seni Rupa) ** HIMA SITH "NYMPHAEA" (Himpunan Mahasiswa SITH "Nymphaea") ** HMTG "GEA" ITB (Himpunan Mahasiswa téhnik Géologi "GEA" ITB) ==Alumni== * [[Soekarno]], [[Presiden RI]] pertama * [[BJ Habibie]], [[Presiden RI]] ke-3, Ahli téhnik Penerbangan * [[Djuanda Kartawidjaja]], Mantan [[Perdana Menteri|Perdana Menteri Indonesia]] RI * [[Aburizal Bakrie]], [[Yang bertanggung jawab dalam kasus Lapindo]] * [[Arifin Panigoro]], Anggota [[DPR]], Pemilik [[Medco Group]] * [[Herman Johannes]], Mantan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum, Mantan Rektor [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] * [[Hartono Rekso Dharsono]]. Mantan Pangdam Siliwangi, tokoh [[Petisi 50]] * [[Al Hilal Hamdi]], Mantan Menteri Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi * [[Sarwono Kusumaatmadja]], Anggota DPD, Mantan Menteri Negara Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara * [[Ciputra]], Pengusaha * [[Hilmi Panigoro]], Pengusaha * [[Hokky Situngkir]], Ilmuwan * [[Taufik Akbar]], Ahli Satelit * [[Jusman Syafii Djamal]], Mantan Direktur Utama PT DI, Menteri Perhubungan * [[Raden Pardede]], Komisaris Bank Central Asia * [[Winardi Sutantyo]], Astronom * [[Cacuk Sudarijanto]], Mantan Direktur [[Indosat]], Direktur Utama [[Telkom]] dan mantan Kepala [[BPPN]] * [[Eddie Widiono]], Direktur Utama [[PLN]] * [[Samaun Samadikun]], Ahli Elektronika * [[Tjokorda Raka Sukawati]], Ahli Konstruksi * [[Bambang Subianto]], Mantan Menteri Keuangan * [[Fadel Muhammad]], Gubernur Provinsi [[Gorontalo]] * [[Hatta Rajasa]], [[Menteri Sekretaris Negara Republik Indonesia|Menteri Sekretaris Negara]] * [[Jero Wacik]], [[Menteri Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Republik Indonesia|Menteri Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata]] * [[Kusmayanto Kadiman]], [[Menteri Negara Riset dan Teknologi Republik Indonesia|Menteri Negara Riset dan Teknologi]] * [[Wiratman Wangsadinata]], Ahli Konstruksi * [[Laksamana Sukardi]], Mantan [[Menteri Negara Badan Usaha Milik Negara Republik Indonesia|Menteri Negara BUMN]] * [[Muslimin Nasution]], Mantan [[Menteri Kehutanan Republik Indonesia|Menteri Kehutanan]] dan Ketua [[ICMI]] * [[Purnomo Yusgiantoro]], [[Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral Republik Indonesia|Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral]] * [[Syafruddin Arsjad Temenggung]], Mantan Kepala BPPN * [[Wimar Witoelar]], Pengamat Sosial & Politik * [[Aming]], Komedian Lokal * [[Wiyoto Wiyono]], Ahli Konstruksi * [[Harijono Djojodihardjo]], Mantan Ketua [[LAPAN]] * [[Joko Anwar]], penulis naskah film * [[Said Djauharsjah Jenie]], Ketua [[BPPT]] * [[Budi Rahardjo]], pengamat IT Indonésia * [[Tri Haryo Susilo]], Céo PT Rekayasa Industri * [[Yusuf Bilyarta Mangunwijaya]], rohaniwan, novelis, aktivis HAM * [[Rinaldi Firmansyah]], Direktur Utama PT Telkom * [[Hasnul Suhaimi]], Direktur Utama PT Excelcomindo Pratama * [[Hans Wospakrik]], Fisikawan * [[Pater Drost]], Rohaniwan, Pakar pendidikan * [[Karlina Leksono]], Astronom * [[Harry Roesli]], musisi, politisi, budayawan * [[Pantur Silaban]], Fisikawan * [[Salahuddin Wahid]], Rohaniwan, Politisi * [[Siswono Yudo Husodo]], Mantan Menteri Perumahan Rakyat * [[Erna Witoelar]], Mantan Menteri Pemukiman & Prasarana Wilayah * [[Kuntoro Mangkusubroto]], Mantan Menteri Pertambangan & énérgi * [[Dian Angreniwati Soerarso]], Direktur Bank Niaga * [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita]], Ketua DPD * [[Rachmat Witoelar]], Mantan Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup * [[Betti Alisjahbana]], Céo IBM Indonésia * [[Wiranto Arismunandar]], Mantan Menteri Pendidikan & Kebudayaan * [[Abdullah Puteh]], Mantan Gubernur Nanggroe Aceh Darrusalam * [[Rizal Ramli]], Mantan Menko Perekonomian * [[Onno W Purbo]], Pengamat IT Indonésia * [[Tjia May On]], Fisikawan * [[Sedyatmo]], Penemu Pondasi Cakar Ayam * [[Sudjiwo Tedjo]], Seniman, Budayawan == Referensi == <references/> == Pranala luar == === Umum === * [http://www.itb.ac.id/ Situs resmi] * [http://www.itb.or.id/ Situs komunitas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520064435/http://www.itb.or.id/ |date=2007-05-20 }} * [http://forum.itb.or.id/ Forum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402004044/http://forum.itb.or.id/ |date=2007-04-02 }} === Fakultas/departemen/sekolah === * [http://www.gd.itb.ac.id/ Program Studi Teknik Geodesi dan Geomatika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621112754/http://www.gd.itb.ac.id/ |date=2016-06-21 }} * [http://www.math.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Matematika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905184001/http://www.math.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-09-05 }} * [http://www.as.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Astronomi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070425065440/http://www.as.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-25 }} * [http://www.ee.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Elektro] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070425133435/http://www.ee.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-25 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070916064446/http://www2.tf.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Fisika] * [http://www.ti.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Industri] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014110030/http://www.ti.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-10-14 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070517105035/http://www1.if.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Informatika] * [http://www.ae.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Penerbangan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070421225131/http://www.ae.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-21 }} * [http://www.che.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Teknik Kimia] * [http://www.sbm.itb.ac.id/ Sekolah Bisnis dan Manajemen (SBM)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070420220803/http://www.fi.itb.ac.id/ Departemen Fisika] * [http://www.sith.itb.ac.id/ Sekolah Ilmu dan Teknologi Hayati (SITH)] === Unit kagiatan mahasiswa === * [http://pstk.unit.itb.ac.id/ Perkumpulan Seni Tari&Karawitan Jawa-ITB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312131140/http://pstk.unit.itb.ac.id/ |date=2008-03-12 }} * [http://www.gamais.itb.ac.id/ Keluarga Mahasiswa Islam "GAMAIS" (Islamic Student Society)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025329/http://gamais.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-30 }} * [http://loedroek.itb.ac.id/ Paguyuban Seni Budaya Jawa Timuran (Loedroek ITB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310215723/http://loedroek.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-03-10 }} * [http://www.arc.itb.ac.id/ Amateur Radio Club ITB (ARC ITB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422120306/http://www.arc.itb.ac.id/ |date=2007-04-22 }} * [http://www.psik-itb.org/ Unit Perkumpulan Studi Ilmu Kemasyarakatan (PSIK)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513090935/http://www.psik-itb.org/ |date=2007-05-13 }} * [http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1256601233514116&url=www.geocities.com/akarnaisea Unit Matematika dan Linguistik (Akarna ISEA)] * [http://scout.itb.ac.id/ Pramuka ITB]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://psm-itb.itgo.com/ Paduan Suara Mahasiswa ITB] * [http://www.pmk-itb.com/ Persekutuan Mahasiswa Kristen (PMK) ITB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420185339/http://www.pmk-itb.com/ |date=2007-04-20 }} * [http://www.psik-itb.org/ Situs resmi PSIK ITB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513090935/http://www.psik-itb.org/ |date=2007-05-13 }} {{PTN di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia|Teknologi Bandung, Institut]] 9cyoabeun7w8v1uwhro6jvvyk39jg5i Daptar setasiun radio di Indonésia 0 27023 732113 731646 2026-11-10T20:39:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732113 wikitext text/x-wiki Dihandap ieu nyaéta '''daptar setasiun [[radio]] di [[Indonésia]]'''. == [[Sumatera]] == === Nanggroe Acéh Darussalam === ==== Dayeuh Sabang ==== * 99.9 Mhz - Radio Pro FM ==== Dayeuh Banda Acéh jeung Kabupatén Acéh Besar ==== * 89.4 Mhz - Radio Binkara FM * 90.6 Mhz - Radio Serambi FM * 95.3 Mhz - Radio Meugah FM * 96.9 Mhz - Radio SIS FM * 98.5 Mhz - Radio Baiturrahman FM * 99.3 Mhz - Radio Toss FM * 101.2 Mhz - Radio Kontiki FM [http://www.kontikifm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304135648/http://www.kontikifm.com/ |date=2008-03-04 }} * 101.6 Mhz - Radio Antero FM [http://www.radioantero.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328101359/http://www.radioantero.com/ |date=2008-03-28 }} * 102.8 Mhz - Radio Freshone FM * 103.2 Mhz - Radio KISS FM [http://www.kissfm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714135003/http://www.kissfm.co.id/ |date=2009-07-14 }} * 103.6 Mhz - Radio Jati FM * 104.4 Mhz - Radio Prima FM [http://www.radioprimafm.com] * 105.2 Mhz - Radio Flamboyan FM * 106.0 Mhz - [[Radio Nikoya FM]] [http://www.radioprimafm.com] * 107.8 Mhz - Radio Komunitas Seha FM * 107.8 Mhz - Radio Komunitas Meuraxa FM * 107.9 Mhz - Radio Komunitas Suara Perempuan FM ==== Kabupatén Pidie - Sigli ==== * 101.2 Mhz - Radio Askar FM ==== Dayeuh Lhokseumawe sarta Kabupatén Acéh Kalér ==== * 89.9 Mhz - RRI Pro-3 * 94.4 Mhz - RRI Pro-2 * 99.0 Mhz - RRI Pro-1 * 101.1 Mhz - Radio Vina Vira FM * 101.5 Mhz - Radio Bujang Salim FM * 102.7 Mhz - Radio Istiqomah Arun FM * 103.6 Mhz - Radio Adyemaja FM * 105.1 Mhz - Radio Surya FM ==== Kabupatén Bireuen ==== * 97.6 Mhz - Radio Wangwangan FM * 98.1 Mhz - Radio Getsu FM * 105.1 Mhz - Radio Andyta FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Tengah - Takengon ==== * 104.0 Mhz - Radio Amanda FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Jaya - Calang ==== * 101.0 Mhz - Radio Rapeja FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Tenggara - Kutacané ==== * 99.0 Mhz - Radio DB 99 FM ==== Kabupatén aceh selatan - Tapaktuan ==== * 88.9 Mhz - Radio SIT FM * 101.1 Mhz - Radio Kluetezz FM * 101,5 Mhz - Radio Kutanaga FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Kulon - Meulaboh ==== * 107.6 Mhz - Radio Komunitas Matahari FM * 101.2 Mhz - Radio Dalka FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Wétan - Langsa ==== * 106.1 Mhz - Radio Gipsi FM ==== Kabupatén Gayo Lues ==== * 101.1 Mhz - Radio Telangke FM ==== Kabupatén Acéh Singkil - Subulussalam ==== * 104.8 Mhz - Radio Xtra FM * 104.0 Mhz - Radio Wangwangan Pesona FM ==== Kabupatén Simeulue - Sinabang ==== * Radio Smong FM 98.7 Mhz Sinabang * Radio Simeulue Voice FM 98.7 Mhz Cai Tiis === Sumatera Kulon === * [[101 Arbes FM Padang]] 101 MHZ [http://www.arbesfm.com]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [[Pronews 90 FM Padang]] 90 MHZ [http://www.pronewsfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725010108/http://www.pronewsfm.com/ |date=2010-07-25 }} * [[Prodangdut 91.6 FM Padang]] 91.6 MHZ * [[Prosport 92.4 FM Padang]] 92.4 MHZ * [[Classy FM Padang]] 103.4 MHZ [http://www.classyfm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615001852/http://www.classyfm.co.id/ |date=2011-06-15 }} * [[Favorit FM Padang]] 101.8 MHZ [http://www.favorit-fm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230110554/http://www.favorit-fm.co.id/ |date=2007-12-30 }} * [[Elsifm Bukittinggi]] 103,1 MHZ [http://www.elsifm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702012244/http://www.elsifm.com/ |date=2010-07-02 }} * [[Rezafm Pasaman]] 103,5 MHZ [http://www.elsifm.com/rezafm.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415085611/http://www.elsifm.com/rezafm.php |date=2008-04-15 }} * [[SSBS FM Padang]] 94.3 Mhz * [[Radio Komunitas Gama Smanthr3 FM Padang]] 89.7 Mhz * [[BOOS FM 104.2 Padang]] 104.2 Mhz === Jambi === * [[Irma Nada]] 97.5 MHZ * [[Kalapa Indah]] 837 KHZ === Kapuloan Bangka Belitung === * [[Radio Sonora 101.1 FM]] [http://www.sonora.co.id] === Lubuklinggau === * [[Radio DKJFM 103.4 FM]] [http://www.dkjfm.web.id]{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [[Radio PAPEJA 101.8 FM]] [http://www.papejafm.web.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402024335/http://www.papejafm.web.id/ |date=2008-04-02 }} * [[Radio WANGWANGAN ATLAS 101 FM]] [http://www.citrafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603040703/http://www.citrafm.com/ |date=2008-06-03 }} === Palémbang === * Radio Trijaya FM 87.6 MHZ * RRI Pro 2 FM 88.4 Mhz * Radio Orban FM 90.0 MHZ * Radio Sentra FM 90.8 MHZ * RRI Pro 3 FM 91.6 MHZ * RRI Pro 1 FM 92.4 MHZ * Radio Sriwijaya FM 94.3 MHZ * Radio Trax FM 95.1 MHZ * Radio Eljhon FM 95.9 MHZ * Radio Musi FM 96.7 MHZ * Radio Play FM 97.5 MHZ * Radio Elita FM 98.3 MHZ * Radio SPI FM 99.1 MHZ * Radio Global FM 101.0 MHZ * Radio Smart FM 101.8 MHZ * Radio Sonora FM 102.6 MHZ [http://www.sonora.co.id] * Radio Dangdut Indonesia FM 103.0 MHZ * Radio LCBS FM 103.4 MHZ * Radio Moméa FM 104.2 MHZ * Radio Lanugraha FM 105.0 MHZ * Radio Ramona FM 105.8 MHZ * Radio Darussalam FM 106.7 MHZ === Riau === ==== Pekanbaru ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Radio Gress FM 105.8MHZ * Radio Pas FM 105MHZ * Radio Warna FM 104.2MHZ * Radio Clapita Mas FM 103.4MHZ * Radio Suara Arum Cendana FM 102.6MHZ * Radio Monaria FM 101.8MHZ * Radio CBSFM 101MHZ * Radio Racika FM 100.2MHZ * Radio Audi FM 99.9MHZ * Radio Smart Mandiri FM 99.5MHZ * Radio RRI Prog3 FM 99.1MHZ * Radio [http://www.arfm.info/ ARFM 93.5MHZ] * Radio Bharabas FM 97.5MHZ * Radio Graha FM 96.7MHZ * Radio Pondasi FM 95.9MHZ * Radio POP FM 95.6MHZ * Radio Jalur Sakti 95.1MHZ * Radio Mentari FM 94.7MHZ * Radio SF3 94.3MHZ * Radio Indra FM 98.3MHZ * Radio Persada FM 92.4MHZ * Radio Robbani FM 91.6MHZ * Radio RRI Prog1 FM 91.2MHZ * Radio IKMI FM 90.8MHZ * Radio Pluss FM 90.0MHZ * Radio RRI Prog2 FM 88.4MHZ * Radio Aditya FM 87.6MHZ {{col-css3-end}} ==== Talukkuantan ==== * Radio Narosa FM 99.3MHZ * Radio Nikita FM 106.8MHZ === Kapuloan Riau === ==== Ujung Balé (Karimun) ==== * Radio ROK FM 107.2 FM ==== Tanjungpinang (Bintan) ==== * Radio BISS FM 103.20 MHZ (Jl. Ahmad Yani) * Radio Swara Pesona Bintan (Radio Club FM) 105.3 MHZ [http://www.clubfm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404003112/http://www.clubfm.co.id/ |date=2008-04-04 }} * Radio Galaxy 107.3 FM [http://www.galaxy-fm.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109160327/http://www.galaxy-fm.net/ |date=2007-11-09 }} ==== Tembilahan ==== * Radio Senada FM 105.2 MHZ [http://www.elshinta.com] ==== Batam ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Radio Suara Marga Semesta (Radio Sing FM) 105.5 MHZ [http://www.singfmradio.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080122040754/http://www.singfmradio.com/ |date=2008-01-22 }} * Radio 87.6 FM The Younger's Station Seila Radio (PT.Lintas Sei Ladi) * Gress Radio Batam 88.0 MHZ * Radio Swara Wira Perkasa (Radio Wira FM) 91.7 MHZ * Radio Ramako Batam (Batam FM) 100.7 MHZ * Radio Discovery Minang (Radio Elshinta) 104.3 MHZ * Radio Hang FM 106.0 MHZ * Radio Kencana Ria Indah Suara (Kei FM) 102.3 MHZ * Radio Bigs 104.7 FM * Radio Era Baru (Xi wang zhi sheng)106.5 FM * Radio GFAN Bethelindo (Radio GFAN) 105.1 FM {{col-css3-end}} == '''[[Jawa]] barat''' == '''Bandung''' * Elshinta Radio Bandung - 89,3 FM * Global Radio Bandung - 89,7 - FM <br /> ==[[Jakarta]]== '''AM''' * Suara Melin Perdana,PT - 603 AM - KBR68H Jakarta [http://www.kbr68h.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019210102/http://www.kbr68h.com/ |date=2012-10-19 }} * Sekuntum Bunga Yonina,PT - 666 AM - Radio SBY Jakarta * Tona, PT - 702 AM - Batak's Radio Station - Jakarta * Gracia, PT - 720 AM Jakarta * Radio Suara As Syafi'iyah, PT: AM 792 Khz * Buana Komunika, PT - Radio Univ. Mercu Buana - 810 AM Jakarta * Puspa Dwi Cipta Swara,PT - 936 AM - P2sc Jakarta * RRI 999 AM Jakarta * Suara Multazam,PT - 1026 AM Jakarta * Siaran Pusat Cendrawasih,PT - 1062 AM Jakarta * Suara Mega Asri Indonésia,PT - 1080 AM Jakarta * Perkumpulan Mahasiswa Univ. Tarumanagara - 1098 AM Jakarta * RRI 1332 AM Jakarta * Ragesa Radio AM 1458 Khz * Hana Wangwangan Swara Jakarta,PT - 1494 AM Jakarta {{col-css3-end}} '''FM''' {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Hard Rock FM: 87.6 MHZ [http://www.hardrockfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318205005/http://www.hardrockfm.com/ |date=2008-03-18 }} * Mustang FM: 88.0 MHZ [http://www.mustangfm.com] * GLOBAL Radio: 88.4 MHZ * RADIO MUSIC FM [https://radiomusicfm.mantep.my.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529163331/https://radiomusicfm.mantep.my.id/ |date=2024-05-29 }} * RRI Jakarta Pro 3: 88.8 MHZ [http://www.rri-online.com] * Campursari Radio: 89.2 MHZ * Publica FM: 89.6 MHZ * Elshinta: 90.0 MHZ [http://www.elshinta.com] * Cosmopolitan FM: 90.4 MHZ [http://www.cosmopolitanfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218052241/http://www.cosmopolitanfm.com/ |date=2008-12-18 }} * Suara Gema Pemwangunan Utama (OZ Radio): 90.8 MHZ * RRI Jakarta Pro 1: 91.2 MHZ [http://www.rri-online.com] * Indika Milenia (Indika FM): 91.6 MHZ [http://www.indikafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411211958/https://indikafm.com/ |date=2023-04-11 }} * Radio Sonora: 92.0 MHZ [http://www.sonora.co.id] * PAS FM: 92.4 MHZ [http://202.146.225.106:8000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930122422/http://202.146.225.106:8000/ |date=2007-09-30 }} * PAS FM Jakarta 92.4FM; Surabaya 104.3FM; Semarang 106FM; Solo 90.9FM [http://202.146.225.106:8000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930122422/http://202.146.225.106:8000/ |date=2007-09-30 }} * RRI Jakarta Pro 4: 92.8 MHZ [http://www.rri-online.com] * HOT FM: 93.2 MHZ * Radio X Jkt: 93.5 MHZ [http://www.radioxjakarta.wordpress.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626192503/https://radioxjakarta.wordpress.com/ |date=2018-06-26 }} * MERSI FM: 93.9 MHZ * Garda Asia Bumi (Woman Radio): 94.3 MHZ * U FM (Agustina Yunior): 94.7 MHZ [http://www.u-fm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705124700/http://www.u-fm.com/ |date=2008-07-05 }} * KIS FM: 95.1 MHZ [http://www.kisfmjakarta.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211070825/http://www.kisfmjakarta.com/ |date=2005-12-11 }} * Radio Alaikassalam Sejahtera Jakarta PT.(RAS FM): 95.5 MHZ * Smart FM: 95.9 MHZ [http://www.smartfm.com] * Radio Pelita Kasih (RPK FM): 96.3 MHZ [http://www.radiopelitakasih.com] * Swara Rhadana Dunia (HITZ FM): 96.7 MHZ * RDI: 97.1 MHZ * Female Radio: 97.9 MHZ [http://www.femaleradio.com] * Cakrawala Gita Swara (Mandarin Station): 98.3 MHZ * GEN FM: 98.7 MHZ [http://www.987genfm.com/] * Delta FM: 99.1 MHZ [http://www.deltafm.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704114403/http://deltafm.net/ |date=2008-07-04 }} * Smooth FM: 99.5 MHZ * Virgin Radio Jakarta 99.9 MHZ [http://www.virginradiojakarta.com] * Radio El-gangga: 100.3 MHZ - Bekasi * 101 Jak FM: 101.0 MHZ [http://www.radioonejakarta.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723234943/http://www.radioonejakarta.com/ |date=2008-07-23 }} * iRadio: 101.4 MHZ [http://www.traxonsky.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316063912/http://www.traxonsky.com/ |date=2008-03-16 }} * Terik Matahari Bahana Pemwangunan, PT. Radio Bahana 101.8 MHZ * Prambors FM: 102.2 MHZ [http://www.pramborsfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Camajaya Surya Nada, PT - Radio Camajaya: 102.6 MHZ Jakarta * Pop FM Jakarta: 103.0 MHZ [http://riapopfm.big.net.id/listen.pls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928131507/http://riapopfm.big.net.id/listen.pls |date=2007-09-28 }} * Taman Mini, PT (Radio DFM): 103.4 MHZ Jakarta * Pesona Gita Anindita, PT - Brava Radio: 103.8 MHZ Jakarta * IMAX - Community Radio FM 104.0 MHZ Cijantung - Jakarta * Media Suara Trisakti,PT FM: 104.2 MHZ Jakarta * Trijaya Shakti,PT FM: 104.6 MHZ Jakarta [http://www.trijayafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028074244/http://www.trijayafm.com/ |date=2007-10-28 }} * RRI Jakarta Pro 2 (Pro 2 FM): 105.0 MHZ [http://www.rri-online.com] * RIM FM Jakarta: 105.2 MHZ * Niaga Chakti Bhudi Bhakti, PT - CBB FM: 105.4 MHZ Jakarta * Ramako Jaya Raya, PT - MOST FM: 105.8 MHZ - Jakarta [http://www.mostfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115030325/http://mostfm.com/ |date=2010-01-15 }} * Bens Radio:106.2 MHZ Jakarta * Pidawuh Sosok Sohor, PT - V-Radio: 106.6 MHZ Jakarta * Persada FM : 106.9 MHZ * Radio Mitra: 107.1 MHZ * Star Radio: 107.3 MHZ * Music City FM: 107.5 MHZ * Radio JJM: 107.7 MHZ * REM SSK: 107.9 MHZ {{col-css3-end}} === [[Banten]] === ==== Banten ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Héartline FM: 100.6 MHZ [http://www.heartline.co.id] * EMC Radio PT. El Mizan 93,6 FM * Sora Tunggal Angakasa Raya,PT - STAR FM: 107.3 FM - Dayeuh Tangerang, Banten * Bergaya Nyanyian Irama Sejati,PT - Bens Radio: 106.2 FM - Ciputat,Kab. Tangerang, Banten * PBS FM (Pahla Buana Sakti): 104.8 FM - Dayeuh Sérang, Banten * TOP FM: 91.8 FM - Dayeuh Cilegon, Banten * Banten FM: 95.3 FM - Dayeuh Cilegon, Banten * Harmoni FM: 98.1 FM - Dayeuh Sérang, Banten * Krakatau FM: 93.7 FM - Labuan, Banten * Radio Wangwangan Mega Swara (Megaswara FM) FM 91.4 MHZ - Sérang * Dimensi FM: 94.9 FM - Dayeuh Sérang, Banten * Pimas FM: 97.7 FM - Wewengkon Industri Sérang Wétan Cikandé * HOT Radio: 88.2 FM - Dayeuh Sérang, Banten * Radio Siaran Pemerintah Kota Cilegon: 98.8 FM - Dayeuh Cilegon, Banten * Radio Siaran Pemerintah Daerah Kabupatén Serang: 101.6 FM - Dayeuh Sérang, Banten * Radio Siaran Pemerintah Daerah Kabupatén Pandeglang: 97.3 FM - Pandéglang, Banten {{col-css3-end|2}} ==== Bekasi ==== * Gaya: 93.60 MHZ * M2 Radio: 94.00 Mhz * Radio Elgangga: FM 100.3 MHZ. * Radio Dakta: 107.00 MHZ === [[Jawa Kulon]] === ==== Sukabumi ==== * Radio Kiwari FM 95.4 MHZ * LPK Perkumpulan Pelaku Agribisnis dan Wirausaha Caraka Buana Suara - CBSNFM 107.7 * ==== Bogor ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Agri FM 107.7 Mhz [http://agrifm.blogspot.com] * Radio Siaran Pemerintah Kota Bogor FM 89.4 MHZ * Radio Kancah Irama Suara Indonesia (KISI) FM 93.4 MHZ * Radio Tegar Beriman (Pemerintah Kabupatén Cibinong) FM 95.3 MHZ * Radio Ika Lesmana FM 100.1 MHZ * Radio Wangwangan Mega Swara (Megaswara FM) FM 100.8 MHZ * Radio Swara Irama Kusuma Sena (Radio Elpas) FM 103.6 MHZ * Radio Swara Lidya Sari (Radio TABIR) FM 104.0 MHZ * RRI Bogor Pro-1 FM 106.8 MHZ * RRI Bogor Pro-3 FM 107.5 MHZ * Mitra Cerita 16, PT - Music City (MC): 107.5 FM - Cimanggis {{col-css3-end}} ==== Bandung ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * U-fm Bandung 104.3 FM [http://ufm.broadbandsimaya.com:8100/listen.pls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930135145/http://ufm.broadbandsimaya.com:8100/listen.pls |date=2007-09-30 }} * Radio MGT 101.1 FM "Spirit Of Your Life". Jl. Buah Batu 8 Bandung 40262 [http://www.mgtradio.com/] * Delta FM 94,4 * Female Radio 96,4 * Prambors Radio Bandung 98.4 FM [http://www.pramborsfm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Radio 98,8 Raka FM Jalan Sukajadi no.223 Bandung * Trijaya FM Bandung 91.3 FM * Rase FM Bandung 102.3 FM [http://www.rasefm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509193058/http://www.rasefm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Radio Paramuda Bandung 93.7 FM * Radio Ardan Bandung 105.9 FM [http://www.ardanradio.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313041301/http://www.ardanradio.com/ |date=2008-03-13 }} atawa [http://202.138.229.74:8000/ online streaming]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * KLCBS 100.4 FM [http://www.klcbs.net/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410222115/http://klcbs.net/ |date=2008-04-10 }} * Oz Radio Bandung 103.1 FM [http://www.ozradio.net/index.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212160839/http://www.ozradio.net/index.php |date=2006-02-12 }} * 99ers Radio Bandung 100 FM [http://www.999.fm]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314203753/http://www.999.fm/ |date=2008-03-14 }} * Buzz FM 89.7 FM [http://www.needbuzz.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226112639/http://www.needbuzz.com/ |date=2008-02-26 }} * Maestro FM 92.5 FM * B Radio 95.6 FM * Radio Maraghita FM 106.7 * MQ FM 102.7 FM [http://www.cybermq.com/mqfm/index.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012071119/http://www.cybermq.com/mqfm/index.php |date=2006-10-12 }} * K-lite FM 107.1 FM [http://www.klitefm.net.ms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314023632/http://www.klitefm.net.ms/ |date=2008-03-14 }} * Radio Global, ''relay'' Radio Elshinta 89.3 FM * GRG Radio Bandung 100.7 FM Jl.Talun No. 81 Majalaya Bandung * Poshway 107.9 FM * Hard Rock FM Bandung 87.7 FM [http://www.hardrockfm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318205005/http://www.hardrockfm.com/ |date=2008-03-18 }} * [[I Radio Bandung]] 105.1 FM Jl. Sulanjana 15 [http://www.iradiofm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019202540/http://www.iradiofm.com/ |date=2008-10-19 }} * Pop FM Bandung 106.3 FM * Radio Zora FM 90.1 FM Jalan Sumur Bandung 12 - Bandung [http://www.zora901fm.co.id]{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * RADIO CBL FM 91,7 FM Jl. Guntur Sari Wetan * Monalisa FM 101,3 FM Jl. Sriguntung 12 Bandung * Radio Walagri 93.3 FM, Jl. Ir. H. Djuanda no. 101 Dago - Bandung * Radio SKY9050FM Jl. Diponegoro 21 - Bandung 40115 {{col-css3-end}} ==== Cimahi ==== * AR 92.9 FM ==== Cirebon ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * SHELTER 95.3 FM Cirebon's No.1 Hits Music Station [http://www.shelter953fm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608072029/http://www.shelter953fm.com/ |date=2017-06-08 }} * DBFM 90.8 MHZ The Family Station [http://www.db908fm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822154604/http://www.db908fm.com/ |date=2007-08-22 }} * Pilaradio 88.6 MHZ Cirebon * RRI Pro 2 FM 97.5 MHZ * Nuansa FM 104.2 MHZ * Gita Suara FM 99.1 MHZ * Gracia FM 95.9 MHZ * IS Radio FM 91.80 MHZ * Cirebon FM 92.85 MHZ * Prima Sonata FM * Sindang Kasih 103.6 FM Cirebon * Salma FM * Maritim FM {{col-css3-end}} ==== Indramayu ==== * KC-10 87.9 FM * TRIAN FM 102,5 MHZ. INDRAMAYU BERCANDA PANTURA ==== Karawang ==== * Radio Komunitas Majlis Ta'lim [http://nh.web.id/ NH FM 107.7 MHZ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115090632/http://nh.web.id/ |date=2008-01-15 }}, Jl. Pramuka Km. 4, Mushalla Daarunnadwah, Désa Keusik Mukti, Kec. Telagasari, Kab. Karawang, JABAR 41381 ==== Kuningan ==== * Rasuci FM * Kost FM === '''[[Jawa Tengah]]''' === ==== [[Kabupatén Brebes]] - Jateng ==== '''FM''' * Pop FM Brebes (97,2 FM) * Gemilang FM Brebes (106,5) * MS Radio Limbangan - Brebes(105,5 FM) * Top FM Bumiayu (95,1 FM)NO 1 DI BUMIAYU * RSPD Brebes- Singosari News FM Ketanggungan (90,5 FM) * RSPD Paguyangan-brebes '''AM''' * RSPD AM * Radio BSA (Berhias Suara Angkasa)<1026 Khz> ==== Kudus ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Manggala FM 100.40 Mhz * Muria AM 1440 Khz * Suara Kudus FM (RSPD) 88.00 Mhz * Pop kudus FM 93.70 Mhz * Gelora FM 107.10 Mhz * Pamira FM 93.00 Mhz * RTK FM 106.30 Mhz?? * UMK Radio FM 94.6 Mhz {{col-css3-end}} ==== Jepara ==== * R-lisa FM 89.6 Mhz ==== Kebumen (URUT FREKUWENSI AJA DI RUBAH) ==== * Ardhana FM 89,3 (DVK) * IN FM 90,5 RSPD KEBUMEN. * Bima Sakti FM 96,8 * GONG RADIO GOMBONG 97,3 MHZ ( GAWE ATI BOMBONG ) * MAS FM 101,7 RCM RADIO-NET. * Prima FM 105,3. * ==== Pati ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Pesantenan FM 95.90 Mhz * Pas FM 101.00 Mhz * Pragola FM 94.30 Mhz * Pop FM 90.80 Mhz * Boswin FM 99.90 Mhz??? * Harbos FM 102.60 Mhz * Jalesveva FM Juwana 87.60 Mhz {{col-css3-end}} ==== Purwokerto ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Dian Swara FM: 98.2 Mhz * RGM FM * RRI Pro 2 FM: 99.0 Mhz * Cipta Ngora Binangkit FM: 99.8 Mhz * Paduka Dirgantara FM: 100.6 Mhz * Swara Mitra Nusantara FM: 104.9 Mhz * Gema Mahasiswa UNSUD FM: 105.7 Mhz * Tara Valaria FM: 106.5 Mhz * RRI Pro 3 FM: 107.3 Mhz * Channel 99 Purbalinga 90.2 * Pop FM BANJARNEGARA 91 * Yasika FM 91.5 * Pop FM 91.9 * RGBS 92.3 * RRI PRO 1 93.1 * King FM 93.9 * SBS Purbalingga 94.7 * Ardi Lawt 96.4 * Dian Swara 98.2 * Prima FM 98.6 * RRI PRO 2 99 * Pop FM Banyumas 100.2 * Paduka FM 100.6 * Suara Purwokerto FM 101.4 * Crez FM 103 * Satria Ajibarang 103.9 * Mitra FM 104.9 Purwokerto * Radenmas FM Baturaden 105.3 * Metro FM 105.7 * Ria FM 106.5 * RRI PRO 3 107.3 * Prima FM Banjarnegara 97.7 {{col-css3-end}} ==== Purwodadi ==== * Pop FM: 91.5 Mhz ==== Salatiga ==== * Pesona FM: 88.40 MHZ * Swara Salatiga FM: 106.60 Mhz * Zenith FM: 97.20 MHZ * Elisa FM: 103.9 MHZ ==== Semarang ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Pas FM: 106 Mhz - * RRI Pro-1 FM: 89.0 Mhz stasiun relay di Gn. Depok Banyumas FM: 99.4 MHZ, Gn. Gantungan FM: 101.8 MHZ, Gn. Muria-colo FM:91.2 MHZ sarta AM: 801 KHZ * TOP FM: 89.4 Mhz * Trijaya FM Semarang: 89.8 Mhz * TRAX FM Semarang: 90.2 Mhz * RRI Pro-3 FM: 90.6 Mhz jaringan jakarta * Elshinta FM: 91.0 Mhz * Smart FM: 93.4 Mhz * RRI Pro-2 FM: 95.3 MHZ * Female FM: 96.1 Mhz * Suara Semarang FM: 96.9 Mhz * Pro Alma FM: 97.7 Mhz * Gaya FM: 98.5 Mhz * Merci FM: 98.9 Mhz * Radiks FM: 99.3 Mhz * RCTFM: 101.2 Mhz * IBC FM: 101.6 Mhz * Prambors FM: 102.0 Mhz * Gajahmada FM: 102.4 Mhz [https://web.archive.org/web/20080413094057/http://www.gajahmadafm.co.id/] * Jatayu FM: 102.8 Mhz * Kis FM: 103.2 Mhz * IMELDA: 104.4 Mhz * Suara Sakti FM: 105.2 Mhz * Rasika FM: 105.6 Mhz * Radio Dakwah Islam( DAIS ) FM: 107.9 MHZ * Borobudur * Lusiana * Kalimasada * Rhema Radio FM 88,6 MHZ [http://www.rhemaradio.com/main/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222200801/http://www.rhemaradio.com/main/ |date=2008-02-22 }} {{col-css3-end}} ==== Surakarta ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Karavan FM 107.3 Mhz Jl.MH.Thamrin 11 Manahan Solo [http://www.karavanfm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119072958/http://www.karavanfm.co.id/ |date=2008-01-19 }} * PAS 90.9 FM - Radio Bisnis Solo JL.Raya Solo Anyar * Prambors Radio 99.2 MHZ [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/] * Solo Radio 92.9 FM (Ardan Group) * PTPN Rasitania 99.4FM * Jimbaran FM 103.9 Mhz Jl.MH Thamrin 11 Solo * SAS 104.3 FM JL.Raya Solo anyar * GSM 97.6 FM * Suara Slenk 92.5 FM * MQ 100.9 FM * Hizbullah 101.4 FM * Imanuel FM * JPI 106.3 FM * Pro1 FM * Pro2 FM * Swara Graha 92.1 * Mentari FM * Ria 98.8 FM Solo Sonora Group [http://www.sonora.co.id] * Kharisma 100.3 FM * Metta 104.7 FM * Solopos 103 FM * Suara Wening Ati MQ FM * UMS FM * Fiesta FM FISIP UNS 085647244884. Gedong 1 Lt. 2 FISIP UNS * Unisri FM * Ramakusala FM * Radio Komunitas Global Etnik STSI FM * 89.6 STAR FM * Pujangga 94.7 FM Pedan, Klaten [http://www.pramborsfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Prima 91.7 fm * Salma 103.3 fm Klaten al-mabrrur komp. RSI (0272)325804 * Candisewu 96.6 fm Klaten Jl. Bhayangkara (0272)322888 * RWK 89.9 fm Klaten Jl. Nonoman 238 (0272)321578 * IC 106.7 fm Klaten Islamic Center JL. Solo-jogja Km 4 * Pedan radio 88 fm Klaten Jl. R.warsito relay Gn.mijil {{col-css3-end}} ==== Tegal ==== * La Bamba FM (97,6 FM) Tegal * Sananta Gelora, PT (105 FM) Tegal [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014065115/http://www.sananta.com/] * DLC * Roshinta * Elshinta Tegal (99,9 FM) * Radi Raka * Paramount 106 FM ==== Magelang ==== * [[Magelang FM]] === [[Yogyakarta]] === {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Arma Sebelas/Radio Dangdut TPI FM 87.9 MHZ * Q Radio FM 88.3 MHZ * I Radio FM 88.7 MHZ * Fantasy FM 89.1 MHZ * Rasia Lima FM 89.5 MHZ [http://www.rbgroup.co.id/rasialima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823150949/http://www.rbgroup.co.id/rasialima/ |date=2006-08-23 }} * Sasando FM 90.3 MHZ * PTDI Medari FM 90.7 MHZ * RRI Pro 1 FM 91.1 MHZ * Amega (Aristia Megaswara) FM 91.9 MHZ * MQ FM 92.3 MHZ * MBS FM 92.7 MHZ [http://www.rbgroup.co.id/mbs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518190140/http://www.rbgroup.co.id/mbs/ |date=2006-05-18 }} * Swara Argo Sosro FM 93.2 MHZ * Rama FM 93.5 MHZ * Pratama FM 93.8 MHZ * Radio Persatuan Bantul FM 94.2 MHZ * Kotaperak FM 94.6 MHZ * Masdha FM 95.0 MHZ * Yasika FM 95.4 MHZ * Prambors FM 95.8 MHZ [http://www.pramborsfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Ista FM 96.2 MHZ * Trijaya FM 97.0 MHZ [http://www.trijayafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028074244/http://www.trijayafm.com/ |date=2007-10-28 }} * Sonora FM 97.4 MHZ [http://www.sonora.co.id] * EMC FM 97.8 MHZ * Pop FM Yogya FM 98.2 MHZ * GCD FM 98.6 MHZ * Vedac FM 99.0 MHZ * Retjo Buntung FM 99.4 MHZ [http://www.retjobuntungfm.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060724214631/http://www.retjobuntungfm.co.id/ |date=2006-07-24 }} * Radio Anak Jogja FM 99.9 MHZ * Prima FM 100.2 MHZ * Andalan Muda FM 100.5 MHZ * Channel 5 FM 100.9 MHZ * Star FM (radio gaul-nya Jogja) FM 101.3 MHZ * Swaragama FM 101.7 MHZ [http://home.swaragama.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517214153/http://home.swaragama.com/ |date=2006-05-17 }} * Eltira FM 102.1 MHZ [http://www.eltirafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828232839/http://www.eltirafm.com/ |date=2008-08-28 }} * RRI Pro 2 FM 102.5 MHZ * RRI Pro 3 FM 102.9 MHZ * Disaga FM 103.3 MHZ * Female Radio FM 103.7 MHZ * Ardhia FM 104.1 MHZ * Unisi FM 104.5 MHZ * Rakosa Female Radio FM 105.3 MHZ [http://www.rbgroup.co.id/rakosa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110153044/http://rbgroup.co.id/rakosa/ |date=2006-01-10 }} * Petra FM 105.7 MHZ * [[Geronimo FM]] 106.1 MHZ [http://www.geronimo.fm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309052759/http://www.geronimo.fm/ |date=2008-03-09 }} * Uty FM 106.9 MHZ * Suara Indrakila FM 107.2 MHZ * Global FM 107.6 MHZ {{col-css3-end}} === [[Jawa Wétan]] === ==== Batu - Malang ==== * Swara Buana FM * Kencana FM - FM 98,6 MHZ * Biga FM - FM 92,5 MHZ * Pro FM - FM 107,4 MHZ * Tidar FM - FM 90,3 MHZ * Simfoni - FM 106,9 MHZ * Mensana FM - FM 102.5 MHZ * Mitra FM ([[Elshinta]]) - FM 97.0 MHZ ==== Banyuwangi ==== *. Radio Komunitas Bung Tomo Banyuwangi * Visfm 101.5 MHZ Banyuwangi [http://www.visfmradio.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116052401/http://visfmradio.com/ |date=2007-11-16 }} * Sritanjung FM 102.3 MHZ Banyuwangi * MAS FM 94.3 MHZ Banyuwangi ==== Blitar ==== *RadioDonna 101.8 FM Srengat-blitar [https://web.archive.org/web/20071111171833/http://www.donnafm.co.cc/] *Satria 89,7 FM Blitar radio seni sarta budaya *Mayangkara - FM 101 MHZ *Patria - FM 102.6 MHZ *Mahardika - FM 95.9 ( radio pamaréntah wewengkon dayeuh ) *Persada - FM 93.4 MHZ ( radio pamaréntah wewengkon kab ) *Istana FM 88.4 MHZ *Purnama FM 95.1 MHZ *Radio Budaya jawa FM 87.6 MHZ *radio grast 91.6 Mhz *Radio GlobalFm blitar 107,8 Mhz ==== Jember ==== * RRI Jember - AM 963 khz, FM 87.9 MHZ, FM 89.5 MHZ, FM 95.4 MHZ, 104.5 MHZ * RKPD Jember * Frenco Radio - FM 90.2 MHZ * Radio Suara Akbar - FM 94.6 MHZ * Radio Suara Kartika - FM 107.3 MHZ * Radio Prosalina FM - 101.3 MHZ [http://prosalinaradio.com/] * Radio Kirana Indah Sentra Suara (KISS FM) - FM 96.2 MHZ * [[Trijaya FM|Best FM (Trijaya Network)]] - FM 102.9 MHZ * Radio Soka Adiswara - FM 102.1 MHZ [http://www.soka-radio.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131130838/http://www.soka-radio.com/ |date=2008-01-31 }} * Radio Warta Mutiara - FM 99.10 MHZ * Radio Boss FM - FM 93.7 MHZ * Ratu FM - FM 92.85 MHZ * M.I. FM - FM 92.5 MHZ ==== Malang ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * RRI Malang - AM 891 khz, FM 94.6 MHZ, FM 99.4 MHZ, FM 105.3 MHZ * Radio Kalimaya Bhaskara - FM 102.1 MHZ * Radio Tritara Yaksa - AM 828 khz * Radio Kutilang - AM 1188 khz * Radio Wangwangan Protiga - FM 87.9 MHZ * Radio Makobu FM - FM 88.7 MHZ [http://www.makobu.com/] * RCB FM - FM 89.5 MHZ * Radio Tidar Sakti - FM 90.3 MHZ * Radio Andalus - FM 91.1 MHZ * Radio Senaputra - FM 92.1 MHZ * Bhiga FM - FM 92.5 MHZ * Radio Elfara - FM 93.0 MHZ * AWEUHAN FM - FM 93.5 MHZ * Radio DJFM - FM 93.8 MHZ * Radio Kosmonita - FM 95.4 MHZ * Pionir FM - FM 96.2 MHZ * Radio Solagracia - FM 97.2 MHZ * Radio KDS8 - FM 97.8 MHZ * Radio Kencana FM - FM 98.6 MHZ * Radio Duta FM - FM 99.15 MHZ * UM FM - FM 99.9 MHZ * FM Voice Brawijaya One - FM 100.5 MHZ * Radio Malang Kucecwara - FM 101.3 MHZ * Radio Gita FM - FM 102.9 MHZ * Puspita FM - FM 103.7 MHZ * Mitra Adiswara FM - FM 104.5 MHZ [http://www.radiomasfm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225172306/http://radiomasfm.com/ |date=2008-02-25 }} * Tritara FM - FM 106.1 MHZ * Kanjuruhan FM - FM 106.5 MHZ * Sejahtera FM - FM 107.9 MHZ {{col-css3-end}} ==== Ngawi ==== * Radio Srikandi FM 107,7 Mhz * Radio Gema Suara Kebonagung (GSK FM) 89,6 Mhz ==== Ponorogo ==== * Radio Gema Surya News, Music & Culture * Radio Duta Nusantara * Romansa FM * GONG FM * Gress FM * AVIDA FM * Radio MADU Fm Ponorogo FM 107.70 Mhz * [[Smezho FM]] [http://www.smezhofm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019031602/http://www.smezhofm.com/ |date=2007-10-19 }} * Suara Gontor FM * Radio Suara Bumimas FM 103.7 MHZ ==== Surabaya ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * RRI Surabaya - AM 585 khz, FM 95.2 MHZ, FM 99.2 MHZ, FM 106.3 MHZ [http://www.rrisurabaya.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129082215/http://www.rrisurabaya.com/ |date=2007-01-29 }} * RKPD Kodya Surabaya - AM 1350 khz * JT-FM (Radio Pamaréntah Propinsi Jawa Wétan) - FM 98.9 MHZ * Radio Pendidikan JAwa Timur - AM 1503 khz, 107.5 MHZ * RKIP - AM 1449 khz * Radio Susana FM - FM 91.3 MHZ * Pas FM - FM 104.3 Mhz - Radio Bisnis Surabaya [http://www.pasfm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102055628/http://www.pasfm.co.id/ |date=2007-11-02 }} * EBS FM - FM 105.9 Mhz [http://www.ebsfm.com/] * Suara Surabaya - FM 100.00 Mhz [http://www.suarasurabaya.net] * Sonora Surabaya FM - FM 98,0 Mhz [http://www.sonorasurabaya.co.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223144617/http://www.sonorasurabaya.co.id/ |date=2008-02-23 }} * SCFM [[Trijaya FM|Trijaya Surabaya]] - FM 104.70 MHZ * [[Elshinta|Radio Elshinta]] - FM 97.6 MHZ * Prambors FM 89.3 [http://www.pramborsfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509134111/http://www.pramborsfm.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} * Kota FM - FM 88.1 MHZ [http://www.kotafm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707093014/http://www.kotafm.co.id/ |date=2007-07-07 }} * [[DJFM 94.8]] - FM 94.80 Mhz [http://www.djfm.co.id] * Bungin FM - FM 96.80 Mhz [http://www.deltafm.net/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704114403/http://deltafm.net/ |date=2008-07-04 }} * Kosmonita - FM 92.50 Mhz [http://www.kosmonitafm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704191810/http://www.kosmonitafm.com/ |date=2007-07-04 }} * Global FM - FM 90.90 Mhz [http://www.globalfm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302203222/http://www.globalfm.co.id/ |date=2008-03-02 }} * Wijaya FM - FM 103.30 Mhz [http://www.wijayafm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808163841/http://www.wijayafm.co.id/ |date=2007-08-08 }} * Hard Rock FM - FM 89.70 Mhz [http://www.hardrockfm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318205005/http://www.hardrockfm.com/ |date=2008-03-18 }} * [[Mercury 96 FM]] - FM 96.00 Mhz [http://www.mercuryfm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107003736/http://www.mercuryfm.co.id/ |date=2017-01-07 }} * Metro FM - FM 88.5 MHZ [http://www.metrofm.co.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608185621/http://www.metrofm.co.id/ |date=2007-06-08 }} * Istara FM - FM 101.1 MHZ [http://www.istarafm.com/] * JJ FM - FM 105.1 MHZ [http://www.jjfmradio.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703022604/http://www.jjfmradio.com/ |date=2007-07-03 }} * Smart FM - FM 88.9 MHZ [http://www.smartfm.com/] * Colors FM - FM 87.7 MHZ [http://www.colorsfm.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220033038/http://www.colorsfm.com/ |date=2013-12-20 }} {{col-css3-end}} ==== Trenggalek ==== * [http://www.madufm.multiply.com/ Radio MADU FM BASISIR PRIGI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209215838/http://madufm.multiply.com/ |date=2009-02-09 }} FM 96.20 MHZ [http://www.radiomadufm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001137/http://www.radiomadufm.com/ |date=2008-11-21 }} * Radio MADU FM Trenggalek FM 100.4 MHZ [http://www.madufm.multiply.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209215838/http://madufm.multiply.com/ |date=2009-02-09 }} * Graha Musik Gaul FM / Granada FM 97.4 MHZ * Radio GEMA PERDIKAN FM Trenggalek 101,5 MHZ (http://www.radioperdikanfm.com{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) ==== Tulungagung ==== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001137/http://www.radiomadufm.com/ Radio Komunitas Pesantren MADU FM Campurdarat] - FM 107.70 MHZ [http://www.radiomadufm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001137/http://www.radiomadufm.com/ |date=2008-11-21 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001137/http://www.radiomadufm.com/ Radio Komunitas Petani MADU FM Tangunggunung] - FM 107.70 MHZ [http://madufmgunung.multiply.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114151008/http://madufmgunung.multiply.com/ |date=2009-11-14 }} * Liiur FM - FM 90.9 MHZ [http://www.liiur.com/station/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204210014/http://www.liiur.com/station/ |date=2008-02-04 }} * Radio Jos FM Tulungagung * Radio Perkasa FM * Radio jaya FM Tulungagung * Radio RKS Tulungagung * Radio Guyub Rukun Freq 106.70 MHZ == [[Bali]] sarta [[Nusa Tenggara]] == === Bali === {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Rock FM 88.2 MHZ * R* Hardrock FM: 87.8 MHZ [https://web.archive.org/web/20080318205005/http://www.hardrockfm.com/] * Rupa-rupa Rama (AR), FM 104.4 MHZ * Bali Perkasa (Balisa), FM 101.6 MHZ * Bali SWIB (Swara Widdya Besakih), AM 702 MHZ * Batur (Raba), AM 954 MHZ * Barong, AM 1188 MHZ * Besakih Rasisonia, AM 702 MHZ * Cakra Swara Perkasa (CSP), AM 1044 MHZ * Cassanova, FM 102 MHZ * Wangwangan Dharma Balisatya (CDBS), FM 94.5 MHZ * Duta, FM 92.6 MHZ * Elkoga, FM 96.9 MHZ * FBI, FM 91.8 MHZ * Gema Merdeka, FM 98.1 MHZ * Genta Bali, FM 96.1 MHZ * Global FM Bali, FM 99.15 MHZ * Guntur, FM 97.7 MHZ * Phoenix, FM 91 MHZ {{col-css3-end}} === Nusa Tenggara Kulon === * RRI Mataram - AM 855 khz, FM 89.2 MHZ, FM 91.4 MHZ, FM 93.5 MHZ, FM 96.3 MHZ, FM 104.2 MHZ * Radio Suara KotaMataram - FM 105.0 MHZ * Radio Riper FM - FM 97.5 MHZ [http://www.ripergroup.com/riper-profile.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927090915/http://www.ripergroup.com/riper-profile.php |date=2007-09-27 }} * Radio Sutra - FM 91.6 MHZ [http://www.ripergroup.com/sutra-profile.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927090927/http://www.ripergroup.com/sutra-profile.php |date=2007-09-27 }} * Radio Rasesa Sumbawa - FM 98.8 MHZ [http://www.ripergroup.com/rasesa-profile.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927090921/http://www.ripergroup.com/rasesa-profile.php |date=2007-09-27 }} == [[Kalimantan]] == === Banjarmasin === * Radio Smartfm 101.1 FM === Balikpapan === * SBI 102,1 Mhz * Gemaya 104.5 FM [http://www.gemayafm.web.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229061603/http://www.gemayafm.web.id/ |date=2007-12-29 }} * Smartfm 97.8 Mhz * Swara Media 101.3 * RSPD 99,9 FM * AMA FM 105,3 FM * Radio Sangkakala Bornéo 91,1 MHZ FM * phalma 94,6 MHZ [http://www.phalmafm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930011148/http://www.phalmafm.com/ |date=2007-09-30 }} * Rock Radio 88.7 FM [http://www.friendster.com/rockradio] === Berau === * RSPD Berau 99,3 [http://www.rspdberau.mcommunity.biz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404183313/http://www.rspdberau.mcommunity.biz/ |date=2008-04-04 }} === Bontang === * Radio Nuansa 97,2 fm === Martapura === * Radio M 107.1 FM [http://www.radiommartapura.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127132840/http://www.radiommartapura.com/ |date=2007-11-27 }} === Palangka Raya === * Radio Kalaweit 99.1 FM [http://www.kalaweitfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801184607/http://kalaweitfm.com/ |date=2015-08-01 }} * Radio OZON 105.8 FM [http://www.ozonfm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026061223/http://www.ozonfm.com/ |date=2007-10-26 }} === Pontianak === {{col-css3-begin|2}} * RRI Pontianak * Radio Swara Prima 99,5 FM * Trijaya FM Pontianak: 97.5 FM * RRI Pro 2 FM * RRI Pro 3 FM * Radio Sonora 96,7 FM [http://www.sonora.co.id] * Radio Volare [http://www.volarefm.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430001753/http://www.volarefm.com/ |date=2008-04-30 }} * Radio Mitra Mahardika * Prokom (Pro Komunikasi), Radio Komunitas {{col-css3-end}} ==== Luar Pontianak ==== {{col-css3-begin|2}} * Suara Sambas (104 Fm) * Vinka 88.50 FM (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Renita 103.5 FM (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Suara Melawi 93.5 FM (Kabupatén Melawi) {{col-css3-end}} === Samarinda === * Radio Dino 90.9 FM [http://dino909fm.blogspot.com/2007/08/radio-dino-909-fm-samarinda.html] * Radio One Way 95.2 FM * Radio Bornéo 96.0 FM [http://borneofm.anakborneo.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404212249/http://borneofm.anakborneo.com/ |date=2008-04-04 }}[http://profiles.friendster.com/36306818] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034914/http://profiles.friendster.com/36306818 |date=2010-04-06 }} * Radio Héartline 98.4 FM [http://www.yaski.co.id/radio.asp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930121534/http://www.yaski.co.id/radio.asp |date=2007-09-30 }} * Radio Suara Mahakam 101.1 FM * Radio Metro Mulawarman 101.9 FM * Radio Mitra 102.7 FM * Radio Paras 103.5 FM * Radio Gembira Raya 104.3 FM * Radio Gema Nirwana 105.1 FM === Sampit === * Radio Pesona 100,3 FM == [[Sulawesi]] == * Radio Komunitas * Radio Pendidikan dan Lingkungan Hidup 107,90 MHZ === Gorontalo === *Selebes 101 fm. *SK FM. *Nada 90,8fm. *BPKB Radio 94.7 FM === Kendari === * RRI Kendari - FM 90.8 MHZ, FM 96.7 MHZ, AM 954 khz === Makassar === * RRI Makassar - FM 94.4 MHZ, FM 96.8 MHZ * Savana FM Makassar - FM 106.5 MHZ === Manado === * RRI Manado - FM 94.5 MHZ, FM 97.7 MHZ, FM 104.4 MHZ === Palu === * RRI Palu - FM 90.8 MHZ, FM 105.0 MHZ = Radio komunitas = == Riau == == Tanjungpinang == * Radio Edukasi LPMP Riau 107.7 MHZ == Wewengkon Husus Ibukota Jakarta == === Jakarta Wétan === * FORSIWAK (Forum Radio Silaturahmi Warga Kalisari) - Kalisari 13790 * Pasbit FM 98.1 - JL. Raya Bogor KM. 26 Pekayon * Kaktus FM 98.7 - Kalapa Dua Wétan, Ciracas * RCB (Radio Wangwangan Betawi) FM 98.9 - Pekayon13790, * Power FM 104.0 - Cijantung 13770 * Damar Jaya FM 104.4 - Kalapa Dua Wétan, Ciracas * Hertz Radio FM 107.4 - Jalan Pemuda, Rawamangun * AKA Radio FM 108.0 - Cijantung 13770 * N3d Radio FM 88.6 - Kalapa Dua Wétan, Ciracas * Sky FM 88.2 - Ciracas * RKP(Radio komunitas PKP) 1077 FM - Kalapa Dua Wetan, Ciracas * Agri FM 107.7 Mhz [http://agrifm.blogspot.com] === Bandung === * Radio Komunitas Majalaya Sejahtera RAKOMAJASERA FM 107.70 MHZ === Pontianak === * Radio RAMA (Suara Masyarakat Adat) 107,9 FM, * Mazmur 21 / Psalm 21 (Komunitas Yordan), 107,7 FM === Luar Pontianak === * Bambai, Sejiram (Kabupatén Kapuas Hulu) * Bujakng Pabaras, Hayu Gundaleng (Kabupatén Landak) * Dermaga Ria Persada, Sekadau (Kabupatén Sekadau) AM 936 * Gari Bindang, Manismata (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Gema Solidaritas, Ketapang (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Gempita, Sungai Pinyuh (Kabupatén Pontianak) * Manjing Tarah, Ujung (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Menara, Bengkayang (Kabupatén Pontianak) * Pamela, Ngabang (Kabupatén Landak) * Patanyakng, Balai Semandang (Kabupatén Ketapang) * Sunia Nawangi, Tunang (Kabupatén Landak) * Swara Buluh Perindu, Bodok (Kabupatén Sanggau) * Swara Melawi, Nanga Pinoh (Kabupatén Melawi) == Jawa Wétan == Blitar Radio Global Fm Blitar 107.8 Mhz == Tulungagung == * [http://www.radiomadufm.com/ Radio Komunitas Pesantren MADU FM Campurdarat Tulungagung Freq 107.70 Mhz ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001137/http://www.radiomadufm.com/ |date=2008-11-21 }} * [http://madufmgunung.multiply.com/Radio Komunitas Petani dan Nelayan Madu Fm Tanggunggunung Freq 107.80 Mhz ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801082902/http://madufmgunung.multiply.com/Radio |date=2013-08-01 }} * Radio Komunitas Pesantren Madu FM Bendil jati Timur Sumbergempol Freq 107.9 Mhz == Jombang == * Radio Komunitas Suara Warga Jombang == Ponorogo == * Radio Komunitas Madu Fm Ponorogo Freq 107.7 MHZ == Trenggalek == * Radio Gema Perdikan FM Durenan Trenggalek * Radio Komunitas Madu Fm Pantai prigi Trenggalek Freq 96.20 MHZ * Radio Komunitas Madu FM Trenggalek Freq 100,4 MHZ * Radio Komonitas RBS FM panggul Freq 107,30 mhz # Radio Komonitas Bintangsurya freg 107,30 mhz [[Kategori:Radio]] q1oxdz7m80agy9gtf9tzyqkcpfjqb3r Ahmad Héryawan 0 27237 732098 705171 2026-11-10T19:29:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732098 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Politician |name = Ahmad Heryawan |image = Ahmad Heryawan Sunda.jpg |imagesize = |caption = |order = 14 |office = [[Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] |term_start = 13 Juni 2008 |term_end = 13 Juni 2018 |succeeding = |predecessor = [[Danny Setiawan]] |successor = Mochamad Iriawan (Pj.)<br>[[Ridwan Kamil]] |president = [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]<br>[[Joko Widodo]] |vicegovernor = [[Dédé Yusuf]]<br>[[Déddy Mizwar]] |birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1966|06|19|mf=y}} |birth_place = [[Sukabumi]], [[Jawa Kulon]] |death_date = |death_place = |nationality = |party = [[Partéy Kaadilan Sejahtera|PKS]] |spouse = Netty Prasetiani |relations = |children = | alma_mater = * [[SD Negeri Sukabumi]] * [[SMP Negeri Sukabumi]] * [[SMA Negeri 3 Sukabumi]] * [[Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Islam dan Arab|LIPIA Jakarta]] (1992) |occupation = |profession = |religion = [[Islam]] |signature = |website = [http://www.ahmadheryawan.com www.ahmadheryawan.com] |footnotes = |}} '''Ahmad Héryawan''' (éjahan asli: '''Ahmad Heryawan''', {{lahirmati|[[Sukabumi]]|19|6|1966}}) nyaéta saurang [[pulitikus]] [[Indonésia]] sarta [[gubernur]] [[propinsi]] [[Jawa Kulon]] nu ayeuna keur ngajabat. Taun [[2008]], Ahmad Héryawan kapilih jadi [[Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] pikeun période 2008-2013 babarengan jeung wawakilna [[Dédé Yusuf]].<ref name="ProfilAher">"Profil Gubernur Jawa Barat 2008-2018". [https://www.jabarprov.go.id/ Profil Pamingpin Jabar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227110159/https://www.jabarprov.go.id/ |date=2022-02-27 }}. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Sateuacan jadi gubernur, anjeunna mangrupikeun wakil ketua [[DPRD DKI Jakarta]].<ref name="AherDPRD">"Jejak Politik Ahmad Heryawan". [https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/04/14/01265814/ahmad.heryawan.dari.pendakwah.ke.kursi.gubernur Kompas.com]{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> == Biografi == Ahmad Héryawan babar di Sukabumi 19 Juni 1966.Anjeunna ngaréngsékeun atikan ti tingkat [[SD]] nepi ka [[SMA]] di kota kalahiranana, Sukabumi.<ref name="BiografiAher">"Biografi Tokoh Jawa Barat: Ahmad Heryawan". [https://www.jabarprov.go.id/ Profil Tokoh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227110159/https://www.jabarprov.go.id/ |date=2022-02-27 }}. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Salajengna, anjeunna neraskeun atikan luhur sarta nampi gelar sarjana (Lc.) ti Fakultas Syari'ah [[Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Islam dan Arab]] (LIPIA) Jakarta dina taun [[1992]].<ref name="LIPIAAher">"Alumni LIPIA di Panggung Politik Indonesia". [https://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/ UGM Digital Library]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Anjeunna mimiti terjun ka dunya pulitik sarta kapilih jadi anggota [[DPRD DKI Jakarta]] dina taun [[1999]].<ref name="DPRDAher">"Profil Anggota DPRD DKI Jakarta 1999-2004". [[tautan mencurigakan telah dihapus] Portal Resmi DPRD DKI Jakarta]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Salian ti jadi pulitikus sarta [[mubalég]], Ahmad Héryawan ogé kantos ngajar di sawatara paguron luhur sarta aktip ngabina rupa-rupa yayasan sosial, pemberdayaan balaréa, sarta lingkungan.<ref name="DetikAher">"Mengenal Ahmad Heryawan, Sang Mubaligh Pemimpin Jabar". [https://news.detik.com/ DetikNews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729215059/https://news.detik.com/ |date=2023-07-29 }}. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Ahmad Héryawan nyekel kalungguhan salaku [[Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] saatos meunang dina [[Pilgub Jabar 2008]], sarta kapilih deui pikeun période kadua dina taun [[2013]].<ref name="PilgubJabar">"Sejarah Pemilihan Gubernur Jawa Barat". [https://jabar.kpu.go.id/ KPU Provinsi Jawa Barat]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Sajaba minangka pulitikus sarta [[mubalég]], Ahmad Héryawan ogé kantos ngajar di sawatara [[paguron luhur]]. Dina widang organisasi kaagamaan, Ahmad Héryawan nyekel kalungguhan minangka Pupuhu Umum PB [[Persatuan Umat Islam]] (PUI) ti taun [[2004]] nepi ka [[2014]], saterusna anjeunna dipercaya jadi Ketua Majelis Syura PUI.<ref name="PUIOfficial">"Profil Ahmad Heryawan di Persatuan Umat Islam". [https://pui.or.id/ PUI Online]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Dina widang legislatif, anjeunna kantos nyekel kalungguhan Wawakil Pupuhu [[DPRD]] Propinsi DKI [[Jakarta]] période 2004–[[2009]], nanging anjeunna mundur dina taun [[2008]] ku sabab maju dina pamilihan gubernur.<ref name="AntaraAher">"Ahmad Heryawan: Dari Dakwah ke Kursi Gubernur". [https://www.antaranews.com/ Antara News]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Dina taun [[2008]], Ahmad Héryawan kapilih jadi [[Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] pikeun période 2008–2013. Anjeunna mangrupikeun calon ti [[Partai Keadilan Sejahtera]] (PKS) anu pasanganna jeung [[Dédé Yusuf]], saurang aktor sarta anggota [[DPR]] ti [[Partai Amanat Nasional]] (PAN).<ref name="Pilgub2008">"Hasil Pemilihan Umum Gubernur dan Wakil Gubernur Jawa Barat Tahun 2008". [https://jabar.kpu.go.id/ KPU Provinsi Jawa Barat]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> Pasangan ieu hasil unggul ti opat pasangan calon sanésna kalayan nampi sora saloba 32,53%.<ref name="KemenkesAher">"Profil Pimpinan Jawa Barat: Ahmad Heryawan". [https://perpustakaan.kemkes.go.id/ Kemenkes RI]. Diakses ping 23 Januari 2026.</ref> == Pilkada Jawa Kulon 2008 == Milangkala ngahadép ka acara pemilihan kepala daérah (gubernur) kanggo propinsi Jawa Kulon nu rék dilangsungkeun taun 2008, Partéy Kéadilan Sejahtera ngusahakeun bisa koalisi jeung sabaraha hiji partéy nu aya di DPRD Jawa Kulon, nu tujuanna sangkan bisa mawa salah sahiji kader ti parteyna jadi Wakil Gubernur di pilkada taun 2008. ku lantaran partéy-partéy nu rencana diajak koalisi ku PKS, ngusung calon masing masing, nyaéta [[Partéy Golkar]] nu koalisi jeung [[Partéy Demokrat]] ngusung pasangan gubernur ''incumbent'' [[Danny Setiawan jeu]]ng [[Iwan Ridwan Sulandjana]], tuluy [[PDIP]] nu koalisi jeung [[PPP]] ngusung pasangan [[Agum Gumelar]] jeung wakil gubernur ''incumbent'' [[Nu'man Abdul Hakim]], maka PKS pun akhirnya ngawanikeun manéh ngusung calonna sorangan jadi gubernur, calonna nyaéta Ahmad Heryawan nu keur ngajabat jadi Wakil Ketua DPRD DKI [[Jakarta]], di mana kanggo posisi wakil gubernur, PKS ngajak [[PAN]] koalisi terus nempatkeun artis Dede Yusuf atawa [[Yusuf Macan Effendie]] jadi calon wakil gubernur. Hasil itungan pilkada gubernur Jawa Kulon ieu, méré kejutan yén pasangan Ahmad-Dede nu tadina ''underdog'' tiba tiba mimpin perolehan pilkada ku 40% leuwih sora ngéléhkeun pasangan Agum-Nu'man di posisi kadua jeung Danny-Iwan di posisi terakhir. Hasil ieu nganteurkeun Ahmad Héryawan jadi gubernur Jawa Kulon nu katilubelas ngagentos pa Danny Setiawan. == Organisasi == * Pupuhu Majelis Pemuda PP PUI (1991-1999) * Pupuhu PP PUI Bidang Kepemudaan (1999-2004) * Pupuhu Umum PUI (2004-ayeuna) * Pupuhu Umum DPW partéy Kéadilan DKI Jakarta (1999-2003) * Anggota Dewan Syariah DPP partéy Kéadilan (2000-2001) * Pupuhu Umum DPW PKS DKI Jakarta (2003-2006) * Pupuhu Majelis Pertimbangan Wilayah PKS DKI Jakarta (2006-ayeuna) * Anggota Komite Pengawas BAZIS DKI Jakarta (2002-2005) * Pupuhu Komite Pengawas BAZIS DKI Jakarta (2005-ayeuna) * Pupuhu Dewan Pendiri Yayasan Émpati Sesama (2001-2006) * Pupuhu Dewan Pembina Yayasan Émpati Sesama (2006-ayeuna) * Pupuhu Dewan Pengawas Yayasan Insan Madina (2006-ayeuna) * Anggota Dewan Pembina GOKASI DKI Jakarta (2005-ayeuna) * Anggota Forum Silaturahim Masyarakat Betawi (2005-ayeuna) * Anggota Kaukus Lingkungan (2006-ayeuna) == Karir == * Dosen Lembaga Dakwah Islam Alhikmah * Dosen Universitas Ibnu Khaldun * Dosen teu tetep FE Extention UI * Pupuhu Fraksi partéy Kéadilan DPRD DKI Jakarta taun 1999-2004 * Anggota Panitia Anggaran DPRD DKI Jakarta taun 1999-2004 * Anggota Komisi C Bidang Anggaran DPRD DKI Jakarta taun 1999-2002 * Anggota Komisi E Bidang Kesejahteraan Rakyat DPRD DKI Jakarta taun 2002-2004 * Wawakil Pupuhu DPRD DKI Jakarta taun 2004-2009 * Gubernur Jawa Kulon 2008-ayeuna == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2006/112006/22/99apasiapa.htm Pikiran Rakyat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091349/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2006/112006/22/99apasiapa.htm |date=2007-09-29 }} * [http://www.ahmadheryawan.jpg Loka ramat Ahmad Heryawan]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{start box}} {{incumbent succession box | title=[[daptar Gubernur Jawa Kulon|Gubernur]] [[Jawa Kulon]] | before=[[Danny Setiawan]] | after=keur ngajabat | start=2008}} {{end box}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ahmad Heryawan}} [[Kategori:Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] [[Kategori:Inohong ti Sukabumi]] [[Kategori:Inohong Partéy Keadilan Sejahtera]]¹Q [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1966]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Jawa Kulon]] [[Kategori:Politikus Partai Keadilan Sejahtera]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Sukabumi]] [[Kategori:Alumni LIPIA]] r8xrl6w9v9k3p3rwy0ajy88x9nesnzv Surah Al-Ma'un 0 27352 732078 674785 2026-11-10T17:00:10Z Atcovi 12506 v1 732078 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Sura | name = Al Ma'un <br /><big>الْمَاعُونَ </big> | image = | katerangan = | harti = ''Barang-barang anu kapaké'' | nama_lain = | golongan = [[Makkiyah]] | surah_ka = 107 | nomer_juz = [[Juz 30]] | waktu_turun_wahyu = | jumlah_ruku = 1 ruku' | jumlah_ayat = 7 ayat | jumlah_kecap = | jumlah_aksara = | ayat_sajdah = | Harf-e-Mukatta'at = }} [[Gambar:Chapter 107, Al-Ma'un (Murattal) - Recitation of the Holy Qur'an.mp3|jmpl|Surah Al-Ma'un]] '''Surat Al Ma'un''' nyaéta surat ka-107 dina [[Al Qur'an]]. Surat ieu digolongkeun kana surat-surat [[makkiyah]] sarta diwangun ku 7 ayat. Kecap ''Al Maa'uun'' sorangan hartina barang-barang anu kapaké, dicokot tina ayat ka-7 ti surat ieu. Poko eusi suratna nyaritakeun anceman ka jalma-jalma anu digolongkeun ngabohongkeun ageman nyaéta maranéhanana anu nolak mikeun hakna budak [[yatim]], henteu nulungan fakir miskin, ujub riya takabur (hayang katanggar ku sasama manusa) dina [[solat]]na, sarta seunggah nulungan ku cara méré barang-barang anu kapaké. == Eusi jeung Tarjamah == {| class="wikitable" |- ! Ayat ka ! Tulisan Arab ! Tarjamah basa Sunda |- | 1. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>أَرَءَيۡتَ ٱلَّذِى يُكَذِّبُ بِٱلدِّينِ</big></big></div> | Naha anjeun nyaho jalma nu ingkar kana agama?<br /> |- | 2. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>فَذَٲلِكَ ٱلَّذِى يَدُعُّ ٱلۡيَتِيمَ</big></big></div> | Nya nu kitu téh jalma nu nolak (mikeun hakna) budak yatim.<br /> |- | 3. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>وَلَا يَحُضُّ عَلَىٰ طَعَامِ ٱلۡمِسۡكِينِ</big></big></div> | Jeung tara daék nguar ngajak méré dahar ka nu miskin.<br /> |- | 4. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>فَوَيۡلٌ۬ لِّلۡمُصَلِّينَ</big></big></div> | Ku kituna kacilakaan pikeun jalma-jalma nu sarolat<br /> |- | 5. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>َٱلَّذِينَ هُمۡ عَن صَلَاتِہِمۡ سَاهُونَ</big></big></div> | Nyaéta jalma-jalma nu mopohokeun tur nglalaworakeun solatna.<br /> |- | 6. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>ٱلَّذِينَ هُمۡ يُرَآءُونَ</big></big></div> | Nyaéta jalma-jalma nu ujub ria (hayang kapuji).<br /> |- | 7. | <div dir="rtl"><big><big>وَيَمۡنَعُونَ ٱلۡمَاعُونَ </big></big></div> | Sarta teu daraék tulung tinulungan.<br /> |- |} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.alquran-online.anna-world.com/ Al Maun, المَاعون] * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/pick/107.htm Al-Ma'un] at Sacred Texts * [http://altafsir.com/Quran.asp?SoraNo=107&Ayah=1&NewPage=0&Tajweed=1 Al-Ma'un] at Altafsir.com == Rujukan == # Al-Amin Al-Quran Tarjamah Sunda ku K.H. Qamaruddin Shaleh, C.V. Penerbit Diponegoro, Bandung, 2003. # Al Quran dan Terjemahnya, Departemen agama, C.V. Toha Putra, Semarang, 1971 {{SuratQuran|107|[[Quraisy]]|[[Al Kautsar]]}} [[Kategori:Surah dina Al-Qur'an]] 5g2835g0o8ms92ceb8fntg0u3vru47a Sukrosa 0 30938 732170 711525 2026-11-11T02:57:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732170 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sucrose 3Dprojection.png|thumb|[[Proyéksi Haworth]] molekul sukrosa.]] '''Sukrosa''' ('''gula méja''', ogé disebut '''sakarosa''') nyaéta [[disakarida]] [[glukosa]] jeung [[fruktosa]] nu disambungkeun ku [[beungkeut glikosida]] α (alfa) 1,2 kalawan [[rumus molekul]] C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. Ngaran sistematikna β-D-fruktofuranosil-(2→1)-α-D-glukopiranosida (ditungtungan "-osida", ku sabab lain [[gula peréduksi]]). Ieu karbohidrat ngan dihasilkeun ku [[tutuwuhan]], penting pisan salaku asupan pikeun bangsa sato. == Pasipatan fisik jeung kimia == [[Image:Sucrose.gif|left|thumb|250px|Animasi sukrosa]] Sukrosa murni ilaharna disadiakeun dina bentuk tipung bodas, tanpa bau, kristalin, kalawan rasa anu amis: gula pikeun tuang leueut. Sukrosa sacara umum diala tina sumber-sumber alami, tapi bisa ogé dijieun sacara kimiawi (munggaran ku [[Raymond Lemieux]] taun [[1953]]<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal | last = Lemieux | first = RU | coauthors = Huber, G | title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose | journal = J. Amer. Chem. Soc. | volume = 75 | issue = 16 | pages = 4118–4118 | date = 1953 | doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545 }} </ref>). <!-- Like other [[carbohydrates]], sucrose has a [[hydrogen]] to [[oxygen]] ratio of 2:1. It consists of two [[monosaccharides]], α-[[glucose]] and [[fructose]], joined by a [[glycosidic bond]] between carbon atom 1 of the glucose unit and carbon atom 2 of the fructose unit. What is notable about sucrose is that unlike most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the nonreducing end of the other. The effect of this inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a nonreducing sugar. Acidic hydrolysis can be used in laboratories to achieve the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose. Sucrose melts and decomposes at {{convert|186|°C}} to form [[caramel]], and when combusted produces [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]]. Water breaks down sucrose by [[hydrolysis]], however the process is so gradual that it could sit in solution for years with negligible change. If the [[enzyme]] [[sucrase]] is added however, the reaction will proceed rapidly. Reacting sucrose with [[sulfuric acid]] dehydrates the sucrose and forms the element [[carbon]], as demonstrated in the following equation: :C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> [[catalyst]] → 12 C + 11 H<sub>2</sub>O ==Commercial production and use== {{main|Sugar}} Sucrose is the most common food [[sweetener]], although it has been replaced in American industrial food production by other sweeteners such as [[high-fructose corn syrup|fructose syrup]]s or combinations of functional ingredients and high intensity sweeteners. This is due to the subsidization of domestic sugar by the US government and an import tariff on foreign sugar, raising the price of sucrose to levels above those of the rest of the world. <ref>http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=92869</ref><ref>http://www.accidentalhedonist.com/index.php/2006/01/24/tariffs_and_subsidies_the_literal_cost_o</ref> This makes HFCS more cost efficient for many sweetener applications. Sugar is also used in the manufacturing of an amateur rocket motor propellant called [[rocket candy]]. In that propellant it is the fuel with [[potassium nitrate]] as the oxidizer. Sucrose is the most important sugar in [[plants]], and can be found in the [[phloem]] sap. It is generally extracted from [[sugar cane]] or [[sugar beet]] and then purified and crystallized. Other (minor) commercial sources are sweet [[sorghum]] and [[sugar maple]]s. Sucrose is ubiquitous in food preparations due to both its [[sweetness]] and its functional properties; it is important to the structure of many foods including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy canes, ice cream and sorbets, and also assists in the preservation of foods. As such it is common in many processed and so-called “[[junk food]]s.” ==Sugar as a macronutrient== [[Image:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Granulated sucrose]] In mammals, sucrose is readily [[digestion|digested]] in the [[stomach]] into its component sugars, by acidic [[hydrolysis]]. This step is performed by a [[glycoside hydrolase]], which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are rapidly absorbed into the [[bloodstream]] in the [[small intestine]]. Undigested sucrose passing into the intestine is also broken down by [[sucrase]] or isomaltase [[glycoside hydrolases]], which are located in the [[cell membrane|membrane]] of the [[microvilli]] lining the [[duodenum]]. These products are also transferred rapidly into the bloodstream. Sucrose is digested by the enzyme [[invertase]] in [[bacteria]] and some [[animals]]. ===In human nutrition=== Sucrose is an easily assimilated [[nutrient|macronutrient]] that provides a quick source of energy to the body, provoking a rapid rise in [[blood glucose]] upon ingestion. Overconsumption of sucrose has been linked with some adverse [[health effects]]. The most common is [[dental caries]] or [[tooth decay]], in which oral bacteria convert sugars (including sucrose) from food into acids that attack tooth enamel. Sucrose, as a pure [[carbohydrate]], has an [[energy]] content of 3.94 [[kilocalorie]]s per gram (or 17 [[kilojoule]]s per gram). When a large amount of foods that contain a high percentage of sucrose is consumed, beneficial nutrients can be displaced from the diet, which can contribute to an increased risk for chronic disease. It has been suggested that sucrose-containing drinks may be linked to the development of obesity and [[insulin resistance]].<ref>Ten, S. & Maclaren, N. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15181020&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Insulin resistance syndrome in children]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Jun;89(6):2526-39.</ref> Although most soft drinks in the USA are now made with [[high fructose corn syrup]], not sucrose, this makes little functional difference, since [[high fructose corn syrup]] contains fructose and glucose in a similar ratio to that produced metabolically from sucrose. The rapidity with which sucrose raises blood glucose can cause problems for people suffering from defects in glucose metabolism, such as persons with [[hypoglycemia]] or [[diabetes mellitus]]. Sucrose can contribute to the development of [[metabolic syndrome]].<ref>Aguilera, A.A., et al. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15157941&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Effects of fish oil on hypertension, plasma lipids, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in rats with sucrose-induced metabolic syndrome.]. J Nutr Biochem. 2004 Jun;15(6):350-7.</ref> In an experiment with rats that were fed a diet one-third of which was sucrose, the sucrose first elevated blood levels of [[triglyceride]]s, which induced [[visceral]] fat and ultimately resulted in [[insulin resistance]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Satoshi Fukuchi | title=Role of Fatty Acid Composition in the Development of Metabolic Disorders in Sucrose-Induced Obese Rats | journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine | year=2004 | volume=229 | issue=6 | pages= 486&ndash;493 | url=http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/229/6/486 | pmid=15169967 | month=Jun | day=01}}</ref> Another study found that rats fed sucrose-rich diets developed [[hypertriglyceridemia|high triglycerides]], [[hyperglycemia]], and [[insulin resistance]].<ref>Lombardo, Y.B., et al. (1996). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=8969287&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Long-term administration of a sucrose-rich diet to normal rats: relationship between metabolic and hormonal profiles and morphological changes in the endocrine pancreas]. Metabolism. 1996 Dec;45(12):1527-32.</ref> --> == Baca ogé == *[[Karbohidrat]] *[[Gula]] *[[Gula dina arak]] *[[Kimia karbohidrat]] == Rujukan == === Catetan === {{reflist}} === Rujukan umum === *''[[:en:Sucrose|Sucrose]]'' (dicutat 27 Agustus 2009) *{{cite book | first=J. | last=Yudkin | coauthors=Edelman, J., Hough, L. | title=Sugar - Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose | url=https://archive.org/details/sugarchemicalbio0000unse | publisher=The Butterworth Group | year=1973 | isbn=0-408-70172-2}} == Tumbu kaluar == *[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Sucrose Computational Chemistry Wiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060527111618/http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Sucrose |date=2006-05-27 }} *[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/2carb/app.html Nomenclature of Carbohydrates] *[http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html 3d Images of Sucrose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217005917/http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html |date=2008-12-17 }} *[http://www.jamesyawn.com James Yawn's Website on Rocket Candy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524171434/http://www.jamesyawn.com/ |date=2019-05-24 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090224103207/http://sucropedia.com/ Sugar Industry Encyclopedia] {{Karbohidrat}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Karbohidrat]] [[Kategori:Kimia karbohidrat]] [[Kategori:Disakarida]] [[Kategori:Gula]] pfly83lu5w78844q9vhwq7elz784lgc Kaféin 0 31017 732127 729106 2026-11-10T22:15:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732127 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Caffeine.svg|180px|thumb|Wangun kimia '''kaféin''', [[stimulan sistem saraf puseur]].]] '''Kaféin''' atawa nyaéta hiji [[sanyawa kimia|sanyawa]] [[alkaloid]] [[stimulan]] [[psikoaktif]], kapanggih ku [[kimia]]wan [[Jérman]] [[Friedrich Ferdinand Runge]] taun [[1819]] (anjeunna ngistilahkeun ''kaffein'', zat kimia anu aya dina [[kopi]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/caffeine |title=caffeine - Definitions from Dictionary.com|accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref>. Ieu zat téh ogé bagian tina campuran kimia '''guaranin''' nu aya dina [[guarana]], '''matéin''' nu aya dina maté, jeung '''téin''' nu aya dina [[entéh]]; kabéhanana ngandung [[alkaloid]] lian kayaning [[téofilin]] jeung [[téobromin]], stimulan jantung<ref name="Ref-1">{{cite book|author = Balentine D. A., Harbowy M. E. and Graham H. N.|title = Tea: the Plant and its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage|journal = Caffeine|year = 1998|editor = G Spiller}}</ref>. Kaféin dikandung dina [[kacang]]/[[siki]], [[daun]], jeung [[buah]] kalawan kadar anu béda-béda. Gunana taya lian pikeun [[péstisida]] alami nu [[paralisis|maralisis]] jeung bisa maéhan [[serangga]] nu ngahakan éta tutuwuhan. Sumber kaféin pikeun manusa biasana diala tina ékstrak [[siki kopi]] jeung daun [[Camellia sinensis]], sarta kadaharan/inuman nu ngandung produk turunan [[siki kola]]. Pikeun awak [[manusa]], kaféin téh stimulan [[sistem saraf puseur]], nu balukarna sacara samentara bisa ngaleungitkeun rasa tunduh sarta ngaronjatkeun kawaspadaan. Kiwari, kaféin jadi [[zat psikoaktif]] nu panglobana dikonsumsi, utamana ku sabab ieu zat mah teu dicaram konsumsina. Di Amérika Kalér, unggal poé 90% sawawa ngonsumsi kaféin<ref name="demon drink">{{cite journal|last = Lovett|first = Richard|title = Coffee: The demon drink?|journal = New Scientist|issue = 2518|date = 24 Séptémber 2005|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725181.700|accessdate=2009-08-03|format=fee required}}</ref>. Badan POM AS (FDA) ngadaptar kaféin salaku "''multiple purpose generally recognized as safe food substance''" (zat kadaharan multiguna nu sacara umum aman)<ref name="GRAS">{{cite web |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2003/aprqtr/21cfr182.1180.htm |title=21 CFR 182.1180 |accessdate=2009-08-03|date=2003-04-01 |work=U.S. [[Code of Federal Regulations]] |publisher=U.S. [[Office of the Federal Register]] |page=462}}</ref>. [[Gambar:CoffeePalestineStereo.jpg|thumb|Adat ngopi di Paléstina, taun [[1900-an]].]] Kaféin mibanda pasipatan [[diurétik]], sahanteuna mun dibikeun ka nu teu [[toléransi obat|toléran obat]] kalawan dosis anu cukup<ref name="diuretic">{{cite journal|last=Griffin |first = R. J. |title=Caffeine ingestion and fluid balance: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-human-nutrition-and-dietetics_2003-12_16_6/page/411 |journal=Journal of human nutrition and dietetics|issue=6|volume=16|year=2003|doi=10.1046/j.1365-277X.2003.00477.x|page=411}}</ref>. Sabalikna, pikeun nu geus biasa ngonsumsi mah toléransina beuki luat<ref name="diuretic"/>, sarta teu ngabalukarkeun déhidrasi<ref name="really">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/health/nutrition/04real.html?_r=1 |title=Really? The Claim: Caffeine Causes Dehydration|publisher= The New York Times|accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref><ref name="armstrong2007">{{cite journal | author = Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Ganio MS | year = 2007 | title = Caffeine, fluid-electrolyte balance, temperature regulation, and exercise-heat tolerance | url = https://archive.org/details/exercise-sport-sciences_2007-07_35_3/page/135 | journal = Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 135–140 | pmid = 17620932 | doi = 10.1097/jes.0b013e3180a02cc1}} (Review article)</ref><ref name="armstrong2005">{{cite journal | author = Armstrong LE, Pumerantz AC, Roti MW, Judelson DA, Watson G, Dias JC, Sokmen B, Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Lieberman H, Kellogg M. | year = 2005 | title = Fluid, electrolyte, and renal indices of hydration during 11 days of controlled caffeine consumption | journal = Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 252–265 | pmid = 16131696}} (Placebo controlled randomized clinical trial)</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == === Émbaran umum === * [http://home.howstuffworks.com/caffeine.htm How Stuff Works: "How Caffeine Works"] * [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine.shtml Erowid Caffeine Vaults] * [http://sxph.org/caffeine/ Highly Caffeinated: The Caffeine Information Archive"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904024724/http://sxph.org/caffeine/ |date=2009-09-04 }} * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/feature1/ National Geographic January 2005: Caffeine] * [http://www.caffeinezone.com Caffeine Zone: Social and Medical info on caffeine and its effects.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809214850/http://caffeinezone.com/ |date=2019-08-09 }} * [http://www.thenakedscientists.com/html/columnists/dalyacolumn2.htm Naked Scientists Online: Why do plants make caffeine?] * [http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm ''The Physician and Sportsmedicine'': Caffeine: A User's Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621111946/http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm |date=2008-06-21 }} * [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU21.html The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108074858/http://www.druglibrary.org/Schaffer/LIBRARY/studies/cu/CU21.html |date=2010-11-08 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20100916061300/http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU22.html Part 2] * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6155178 Coffee: A Little Really Does Go a Long Way, NPR, [[September 28]], 2006] * [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/4664/Does-coffee-really-give-you-a-buzz- Does coffee really give you a buzz? by John Triggs in the Daily Express April 17 2007] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090926013104/http://chemsub.online.fr/chemsearch/cas_number_58-08-2.html Caffeine: ChemSub Online] * [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/caffeine/AN01211 How much caffeine is in your daily habit? (Caffeine content in common foods and drinks) by Mayo Clinic Staff October 2007] * [http://www.camo.com/downloads/resources/application_notes/decaffeinated_coffee_NIR_spectroscopy.pdf How to determine caffeine in decaffeinated coffee by NIR spectroscopy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205710/http://www.camo.com/downloads/resources/application_notes/decaffeinated_coffee_NIR_spectroscopy.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }} === Warta === * [http://historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/alcohol_and_drugs_history/caffeine/index.html Alcohol and Drugs History Society: Caffeine news page] * [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=30d6d514-1c68-441a-bbec-5b80ae23627f&k=45911 National Post: Caffeine linked to psychiatric disorders] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100823020136/http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/press_releases/2004/09_29_04.html Caffeine Withdrawal Recognized as a Disorder] === Kawaluyaan === * [http://www.benbest.com/health/caffeine.html Is Caffeine a Health Hazard?] * [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3115.htm eMedicine Caffeine-Related Psychiatric Disorders] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7326839.stm Protects brain from Alzheimer's?] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Kaféin]] [[Kategori:Kopi]] smrf0mbz5jcjat8oa93iusmpncyhf2j Hayam Pelung 0 32983 732076 495450 2026-11-10T13:40:33Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 732076 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Taxobox |name=Hayam Pelung |image= Hayam-pelung-cianjur.jpg |image_width=200px |image_caption= pelung jago jeung bikang |regnum=[[Animalia]] |phylum = [[Chordata]] |classis = [[Aves]] |ordo=[[Galliformes]] |familia=[[Phasianidae]] |genus=''[[Gallus]]'' |species=''[[Gallus gallus|G. gallus]]'' |subspecies='''''G. g. domesticus''''' |trinomial=''Gallus gallus domesticus''|author=[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]|date = [[1758]] }} '''Hayam pelung''' awalna mah ngan saukur aya di Jawa Kulon utamana di wewengkon [[Cianjur]], tapi dina kamekaranana kiwari mah, hayam pelung téh geus réa sumebar ka sababaraha wewengkon di [[Indonésia]]. Hayam Pelung kaasup hayam jenis buras (bukan ras), nyaéta [[hayam]] anu asalna asli ti Indonésia. Tina wangun jeung dedeganna mah méh sarua jeung hayam buras séjénna, ngan ari hayam Pelung mah boga sababaraha hal anu leuwih punjul ti batan hayam-hayam buras séjénna. Éta sabbarah hal kapunjullan hayam Pelung téh di antarana: #Dedegan awak nu badag: Hayam pelung nyaéta jenis hayam buras anu paling gedé beuratna saupama dibandingkeun jeung hayam buras séjén. Hayam Pelung jago déwasa beuratna bisa nepi ka 5-6 Kg hijina, lamun hayam Pelung bikangna maksimal bisa nepi ka 3,5 Kg hijina téh. Alatan awakna nu gedé, hayam pelung ogé poténsial saupama dijadikeun hayam pedaging (peunciteun). #Leuwih gancang gedé: Upama dibandingkeun jeung hayam buras nu séjén, tumuwuhna hayam pelung mah leuwih gancang. Ieu hal téh ku sabab hayam pelung boga dedegan anu bongsor, anu matak tumuwuhna hayam pelung ti mimiti [[ciak]] nepi ka jadi hayam pelung déwasa bisa leuwih gancang. #Sora kongkorongok nu ngalagu jeung panjang: Anu paling narik tina hayam pelung nyaéta sora kongkorongokna anu has nyaéta, aya irama/laguan jeung panjang. Hayam pelung anu kualitasna hadé boga sora anu teu ngan ukur panjang, tapi sora kongkorongokna téh ngelewung kalawan irama/laguna méh ketukan sora manuk [[perkutut]] Iwal ti kapunjulan-kapunjulan éta, hayam pelung ogé boga ciri-ciri anu ngabédakeun hayam pelung jeung hayam buras séjénna, di antarana: #Awak : postur awak/dedegan hayam pelung badag, tegep jeung gagah. #Suku : Biasana suku hayam pelung leuwih gedé jeung warnana téh hideung semu biru. #[[Bulu]] : Bulu dina hayam pelung katingalina leuwih hérang, jeung warna dina bulu hayam pelung teu pati aya warna anu has. Umumna mah warna bulu hayam pelung téh campuran antara hideung jeung beureum atawa campuran antara konéng jeung bodas atawa campuran héjo. #[[Jawér]] : hayam pelung boga jawér anu jenisna jawér tunggal, rupa jawér hayam pelung badag, kandel jeung ajeg, sanajan aya sawaréh hayam pelung anu boga jawér déngdék. Warna jawérna beureum. #Sora : sora kongkorongok hayam pelung leuwih ngalagu jeung leuwih panjang ti batan sora hayam buras séjén. Umumna mah para penggemar hayam pelung katarik ngingu hayam pelung ku sabab dedegan awakna anu badag, tumuwuhna hayam pelung anu gancang jeung beuki katarik sabada ngadéngé kelewungna sora kongkorongok hayam pelung anu iramana ngalagu jeung panjang. Iwal ti éta, ku sabab awak hayam pelung jalu anu badag jeung pangbeuratna, nu matak hayam pelung boga poténsi sangkan jadi hayam buras pedaging. Ana pon hayam pelung bikangna biasana mimiti ngendog téh ti umur 160-210 poé, produktivitas ngendogna hayam pelung bikang bisa nepi ka 70 siki per taun, anu matak hayam pelung bikang boga poténsi pikeun jadi hayam buras petelur. Kiwari geus réa jalma anu ngabudidayakeun hayam pelung iwal ti hobi ogé anu tujuanana sangkan jaganing géto bisa ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup hayam pelung sangkan tetep kajaga jeung teu punah. Salah sahiji cara anu dipaké pikeun numuwuhkeun rasa kacintaan dina ngabudidayakeun hayam pelung nyaéta ku diayakeunna kontés-kontés hayam pelung, utamana di wewengkon [[Jawa Barat]]. Diayakeunna [[kontés hayam pelung]] téh iwal ti minangka sarana pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirup hayam pelung, ogé pikeun néangan bibit-bibit hayam pelung anu boga kualitas hadé. Kiwari mah hésé pisan meunang bibit hayam pelung anu sora kongkorongokna bening, ngalun/ngelewung jeung panjang téh. Ku sabab kitu perlu pisan diayakeun kontés hayam pelung téh sangkan bisa nimukeun bibit-bibit hayam pelung anu teu ngan saukur alus dedegan awakna tapi ogé sora kongkorongokna anu ngelewung jeung panjang. {{Uncategorized|date=April 2017}} [[Kategori:Aves]] nyjugs1z1fpedu8lgg15qlvrs56gfd2 Rahwana 0 33412 732159 731819 2026-11-11T02:00:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732159 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten wajangpop voorstellende Prabu Dasamuka TMnr 8-111.jpg|thumb|250px|Rahwana dina [[Wayang Golék]] Purwa Sunda]] [[Gambar:Ravana on a brass chariot of Searsole Rajbari, West Bengal, India.jpg|thumb|Rahwana dina karéta kuningan, Searsole Rajbari, Benggala Kulon, India.]] '''Rahwana''' ([[devanagari]] = रावण, ravana, [[Aksara Sunda|Aks. Sunda]]:ᮛᮂᮝᮔ ) , dina [[mitologi hindu]] nya ėta palaku antagonis dina [[wiracarita]] [[Ramayana]] anu ngalawan [[Rama]], rahwana digambarkeun boga 10 hulu matakna Rahwana disebut ogé [[Dasamuka]]. Rahwana nyaéta raja Aléngka sakaligus raja iblis ([[rakhsasa]]). <ref name="sumber1">{{id}}[http://mahanagari.com/index.php?page=shop.product_details&product_id=106&flypage=flypage-ask.tpl&pop=0&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=85&vmcchk=1&Itemid=85 Rahwana a.k.a Dasamuka]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diaksés tanggal 18 September 2011)</ref><ref name="sumber2">{{id}}[http://salazad.com/2010/06/rahwana-papertoy/ Rahwana (Ravana)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628222102/http://salazad.com/2010/06/rahwana-papertoy/ |date=2011-06-28 }} (diaksés tanggal 18 September 2011)</ref> Rahwana nyaéta putra [[Resi Wisrawa]] ti padépokan [[dederpenyu]] jeung [[Déwi Sukési]], putri [[Prabu Sumali]] raja [[Aléngka]] <ref name="sumber3"/><ref name=sumber8>{{id}}[http://ki-demang.com/gambar wayang/index.php?option=com content&view=article&id=823&Itemid=823 Ki demang- Dasamuka]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diaksés tanggal 20 September 2011)</ref>. Nalika leutik ngaranna [[Dasasana]] atawa [[Dasagriwa]] <ref name="sumber3"/>. Rahwana boga tilu adi: [[Arya Kumbakarna]], [[Dewi Sarpakenaka]], jeung [[Arya Wibisana]]. Lian ti éta, Rahwana boga adi téré nyaéta [[Wisrawana]] (Prabu Damaraja) jeung [[Prabu Danapati]] raja di [[Lokapala]], putra resi wisrawa jeung [[Déwi Lokawati]].<ref name="sumber3">{{id}}[http://www.hadisukirno.com/artikel-detail?id=60 Artikel Rahwana Hadi Sukimo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619123548/https://www.hadisukirno.com/artikel-detail?id=60 |date=2024-06-19 }} (diaksés tanggal 18 September 2011)</ref> Rahwana boga loba pamajikan, tapi anu asli mah [[Déwi Mandodari]] (di Sunda biasa disebut Banondari).<ref name="rumpakaceurikrahwana">[http;//datasunda.org/php/dnl.php?type=ri...Ceurik%20Rahwana%20(2) Ceurik Rahwana] (diakses tangal 20 September)</ref>, anakna [[Mayasura]] anu nikah jeung widadari ngaranna [[Hema]]. Dina Ramayana dicaritakeun yén istana Rahwana pinuh ku awéwé geulis ti sakuliah nagri di dunya, lantaran awéwé di Aléngka ngarasa bungah lamun bisa nikah jeung Rahwana<ref name="sumber1"/>. Rahwana boga senjata pusaka nyaéta [[candrasa|chandrahasa]] atawa [[candrahasa|candrasa]] (pedang bulan), pakarang séjénis pedang anu boga dua ujung seukeut.<ref name="Sumber5">{{id}}Tim Penulis Sena Wangi.''Ensiklopedi Wayang Indonesia''.Jakarta:Penerbit Sena Wangi ISBN 979-9240-02-6</ref><ref name="Sumber8"/>. Lian ti éta rahwana kasohor ku kaparigelan maké pakarang perang katut élmu sihir<ref name="Sumber6"/>. [[Gambar:Tari topeng kelana.jpg|thumb|200px|left| Rahwana dina pagelaran [[Tari topéng]] [[kelana]]]] == Gelarna Rahwana == [[Resi Wisrawa]] miang ka Aléngka pikeun néangan jodo keur anakna<ref name="Sumber4"/>. Tapi nalika sang resi macakeun ''Sastra Jendra Hayuningrat Pangruwating Diyu'' ka [[Déwi Sukési]], Duaanana kabawa napsu [[syahwat]] terus ngalakukeun hubungan suami-istri<ref name="Sumber4">{{id}} [http://www.oneearthmedia.net/ind/?p=728 One Heart Media]{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diaksés tanggal 20 September 2011)</ref>. Tina hubungan [[haram]] éta lahir gundukan [[getih]] anu nyampur jeung wujud [[ceuli]] sarta [[kuku]]: Rahwana, rakhsasa anu lahir tina getih anu ngalambangkeun angkara murka manusa, [[Arya Kumbakarna|Kumbakarna]], rakhsasa segedé gunung anu boga sipat wijak lahir tina wujud ceuli anu ngalambangkeun rasa kaduhung kolotna, jeung [[Déwi Sarpakenaka|Sarpakenaka]], rakhsasa awéwé anu lahir tina wujud kuku, sedengkeun [[Arya Wibisana|Wibisana]] mah lahir jadi manusa normal sabab lahir ti hubungan anu sah, lain ti syahwat wungkul<ref name="Sumber4"/> == Lalakon hirup == === Tapa di Gohkarna === [[Gambar:Sculptures - Ivory Sculpture - Sri Meenakshi-Sundareshwarar Temple - Madurai - India.JPG|thumb|200px|Relief Triwikrama Rahwana di [[Candi]] [[Sri Meenakshi-Sundareshwarar]], [[Madurai]], [[India]]]] Keur ngorana, Rahwana pernah tapa di [[Gunung Gohkarna]] jeung adi-adina salila mangbulan-bulan<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Opatanana sapuk moal waka eureun tapa lamun kahayangna can ditedunan, balukarna [[kahyangan]] jadi riweuh, para [[Déwa]] jeung [[Déwi]] jadi baringung. Ahirna [[Batara Narada]] turun ka dunya terus nanya nu jadi kahayang Maranéhna<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Dasamuka ménta dibéré kasaktén sangkan euweuh hiji mahluk naon ogé anu bisa ngéléhkeun manéhna, sanajan Batara narada geus ngingetan yén sagala nu aya di dunya bakal aya ahirna, tapi éta pamundut tetep ditedunan<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Kumbakarna ménta dibéré umur anu panjang, tapi diganti, manéhna hayang hirup nikmat, dahar sapuasna, jeung saré sapuasna<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Paméntana ditedunan. Sarpakenaka ménta sangkan bisa ngalampiaskeun napsu birahi sapuas-puasna, sedengkeun Wibisana ménta sangkan boga kawani pikeun nepikeun bebeneran. Batara Narada ngabéjaan yén unggal pilihan kaasup mihak kana bebeneran téh pasti aya resikona<ref name="Sumber5"/>. === Tapa ka Brahma === Keur ngorana, Rahwana ngalakukeun tapa ka [[Batara]] [[Brahma]] salila mangtaun-taun. Déwa Brahma resep kana pamujaanana, terus nedunan kahayang Rahwana nyaéta teu bisa diéléhkeun ku Déwa jeung sagala rupa kakuatan séjénna.<ref name="Sumber8">{{en}}[http://www.indianetzone.com/6/ravana.htm Indianet zone-Dasamuka-Ravana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902141549/http://www.indianetzone.com/6/ravana.htm |date=2011-09-02 }} (Diaksés tanggal 23 September 2011)</ref>. Sanggeus meunang kakuatan manéhna jadi pangawasa Aléngka<ref name="Sumber8"/>. Nalika Rahwana jadi Raja, Aléngka jadi nagara anu makmur, konon euweuh rahayat nu kalaparan di Karajaan Aléngka.<ref name="Sumber8"/>. === Muja ka Siwa === Sanggeus jadi raja, Rahwana ngadatangan Déwa Siwa di [[Gunung]] [[Kailasha]]<ref name="Sumber6">{{en}}[http://www.indiaparenting.com/stories/krishna/rama15.shtml ''India-parenting-Ravana character sketch''] (Diaksés tanggal 24 September 2011)</ref>. Henteu disadaran, Rahwana iseng mindahkeun bari ngulinkeun éta gunung anu jadi imahna Déwa Siwa<ref name="Sumber6"/>. Siwa anu ngarasa kesel ku kaagulan Rahwana neken éta gunung ku sukuna nepi ka Rahwana katindih, terus gagauran alatan nyeri<ref name="Sumber6"/>. [[Gana]] datang pikeun méré nyaho Rahwana, kudu kasaha manéhna ménta hampura<ref name="Sumber8"/>. Rahwana nyiptakeun jeung nyanyikeun pupujian ka Siwa pikeun nebus dosana<ref name="Sumber8"/><ref name="Sumber6"/>. Konon Rahwana ngalakukeunana mangtaun-taun, nepi ka Siwa ngabébaskeun Rahwana tina hukuman<ref name="Sumber6"/>. Siwa kagugu ku kawani jeung kasatiaanana, Rahwana dibéré hadiah nyaéta candrasa (pedang bulan) anu kacida kuatna<ref name="Sumber8"/>. Saterusna Rahwana jadi pamuja Siwa saumur hirup anu kasohor ku [[tarian]] pamujaanana nyaéta ''Shiva Tandava Stotra(m)''<ref name="Sumber8"/><ref name="Sumber6"/>. == Lalakon Cinta == === Néang titisan Déwi Sri === Hiji mangsa Rahwana panggih jeung Déwi [[Widawati]], anu mangrupa titisanna [[Dewi Sri]] pamajikan [[Batara Wisnu|Wisnu]] <ref name="Sumber5"/>. Rahwana maksa hayang nikah jeung Widawati, ahirna Déwi WIdawati ngaduruk dirina sabab embung dikawin ku Rahwana<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Rahwana teu nyerah, manéhna néang deui titisan Déwi Sri nu séjén, nyaéta Déwi [[Citrawati]], pamajikan [[Arjuna Sasrabahu]], tapi gagal deui <ref name="Sumber5"/>. Sumanget Rahwana beuki ngagedur, manéhna néang deui titisan Dewi Sri nu séjén<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Ahirna Rahwana apaleun yén Déwi [[Sukasalya]], anakna Prabu [[Banputra]] ti karajaan [[Ayodya]] nyaéta titisan Déwi Sri<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Tapi Déwi Sukasalya kaburu kabur jeung Bagawan [[Rawaatmaja]], Rahwana ngudag, terus maéhan Rawaatmaja, sedengkeun Sukasalya ménta tulung Prabu [[Dasarata]] anu kabeneran papanggih<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Rahwana ngudag maranéhna, terus maéhan Rawaatmaja anu nahan Rahwana, sedengkeun Sukasalya anu geus lumpat jauh ménta tulung Prabu [[Dasarata]] anu kabeneran papanggih<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Dasarata diancam sangkan nyerahkeun Déwi Sukasalya<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Teu lila [[Batara Guru]] datang, terus nyieun Sukasalya palsu anu dibawa Rahwana ka Aléngka, sedengkeun Sukasalya asli dibawa Dasarata<ref name="Sumber5"/>. [[Gambar:Raja_Ravi_Varma,_Jatayu_vadha,_1906.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Rahwana Maéhan [[Jatayu]]]] === Rahwana Nyulik Sinta === Déwi Sarpakenaka bébéja yén [[Dewi Sinta]], pamajikan [[Rama]] keur ngalalana di [[Leuweung]] [[Dandaka]]<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Rahwana jadi inget kana caritaan [[Begawan Maryuta]] yén Sinta téh titisan Déwi Sri<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Teu loba omong deui, Rahwana miang ka Luweung Dandaka dibaturan ku [[Kala Marica]] <ref name="Sumber10">[http://candidiy.tripod.com/ramayana.htm epos Ramayana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002183440/http://candidiy.tripod.com/ramayana.htm |date=2011-10-02 }} (diaksés tanggal 22 September 2011)</ref>. Rahwana ngagunakeun cara licik: Marica robah jadi kijang sangkan Rama jeung [[Laksamana]] ngajauhan Sinta, sedengkeun Rahwana robah wujud jadi [[brahmana]] aki-aki terus nyulik Sinta ka [[Taman]] [[Argasoka]]<ref name="sumber3"/><ref name="Sumber10"/>. [[Jatayu]], sakadang Dadali dipaéhan ngagunakeun Candrasa nalika nyegah Rahwana nyulik Sinta<ref name="Sumber5"/><ref name="Sumber10"/>. Rama nyaho yén Sinta diculik Rahwana ti Jatayu anu sakarat<ref name="Sumber10"/>.Di taman Argasoka, Sinta dibaturan ku [[Trijata]], alona Rahwana<ref name="Sumber10"/>. Hampir unggal poé salila 12 taun, Sinta dirayu Rahwana, tapi Sinta ngancem rék bunuh diri lamun Rahwana wani nyekel manéhna<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Kumbakarna jeung Wibisana nentang lanceukna lantaran Rahwana dianggap nurunkeun wibawana salaku raja. Wibisana diusir ti Aléngka, sedengkeun Kumbakarna balik ka kasatriaan<ref name="Sumber5"/>. [[Gambar:Ravana losing his heads.jpg|thumb|350px|Lukisan anu ngagambarkeun Rahwana perang jeung [[Rama]]]] == Rahwana tiwas == Rahwana hésé pisan diéléhkeun, nepi ka Lesmana gé sakarat.<ref name="Sumber11">{{en}}[http://www.ramayanam.in/story/END-OF-RAVANA.php Ramayanam Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108182046/http://www.ramayanam.in/story/END-OF-RAVANA.php |date=2012-01-08 }} (diaksés tanggal 22 September 2011</ref>. Wibisana anu mantuan Rama ogé teu bisa mantuan loba, sabab najan awak Rahwaa geus ancur ku rupa-rupa pakarang perang, tapi angger Rahwana nangtung kénéh<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Najan saacanna sapuluh hulu Rahwana geus disapatkeun, tapi muncul deui<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Untungna Rama meunang pakarang perang ti Brahma<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Rama mapatkeun mantra, terus mesatkeun Brahma-astra<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Brahma-astra anu ngaluarkeun seuneu langsung niruk kana dada Rahwana anu jadi rusiah kasaktén Rahwana<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Rahwana labuh ti Karéta perangna, harita kénéh Rahwana tiwas<ref name="Sumber11"/>. Aya nu nyebutkeun ogé yén sanggeus tiwas, Rahwana ditindih Gunung [[Sumawana]] anu dibawa ku Hanoman<ref name="Sumber10"/>. Numutkeun Pawayangan Jawatimuran, Rahwana tiwas sabada sapuluh huluna sapat dipanah ku panah pusaka [[Guwawijaya]] kagungan Rama<ref name="Sumber5"/>. Unggal hulu anu sapat dicokot ku [[Hanoman]], terus diancurkeun, sedengkeun awakna ditindih ku gunung<ref name="Sumber5"/>. == Referensi == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Carita Wayang]] [[Kategori:Ramayana]] [[Kategori:Palaku Ramayana]] stjea3p995rbbqub0579chbq0m30sel Kopi 0 33840 732134 708591 2026-11-10T22:47:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732134 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |image = Coffee Beans.jpg |image_caption = Siki kopi nu geus disangray |regnum = [[Plantae]] |ordo = [[Gentianales]] |familia = [[Rubiaceae]] |subfamilia = [[Ixoroideae]] |tribus = [[Coffeeae]] |genus = '''''Coffea''''' |subdivision_ranks = Species |type_species = ''[[Coffea arabica]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/13442 |title=Genus Coffea |work=Taxonomy |publisher=UniProt |accessdate=2010-05-13}}</ref> |}} [[Gambar:RoastedCoffeeBeans.JPG|thumb|200px|Siki Kopi]] [[Gambar:YosriKopi.jpg|thumb|right]] '''Kopi''' mangrupa tangkal nu asalna ti Daksi di [[buana Afrika]].<ref name="kamus1">[[Danadibrata,R.A]].2006.Kamus Basa Sunda.Bandung:Kiblat Buku Utama</ref> [[Siki]] kopi nu geus ditipungkeun sok ditinyuh ku cai ngagolak keur inumeun.<ref name="kamus1"/> == Sajarah Kopi == Awal ayana kopi dina taun [[500]] masehi dimimitian ku [[domba]] anu henteu ngahaja ngadahar pepelakan liar sarupa buah [[céri]]<ref name="sumber1">{{id}} Saputra, Eka (2008) '''''KOPI''''', ''Dari Sejarah, Efek Bagi Kesehatan Tubuh dan Gaya Hidup'' Panembahan Yogyakarta: Harmoni</ref>. Sanggeus ngadahar daun sarta sikina, kalakuan domba éta jadi anéh<ref name="sumber1"/>. Nyaksian hal éta, nu ngangonna ogé ngasaan pepelakan anu didahar ku domba téa<ref name="sumber1"/>. Hasilna, manéhna ngarasakeun sensasi anu saterusna kasebarluaskeun<ref name="sumber1"/>. Carita séjén anu mekar ngeunaan panimuan kopi, nyaéta ti saurang syékh [[Arab]] anu nyalametkeun dirina tina kalaparan kalayan nyieun sop tina siki céri anu aya dina semak belukar<ref name="sumber1"/>. Ti kira-kira [[abad ka-5]] sarta [[abad ka-6]] kasebut, carita panimuan kopi mekar<ref name="sumber1"/>. Khaldi dipikanyaho saterusna papanggih jeung saurang rahib ngaranna Chadély atawa Scyadly, dicaritakeun kajadian anu dialaman dirina sarta embéna, ogé ka rahib kasebut, ditembrakkeun sarupaning siki céri anu didahar<ref name="sumber1"/>. Rahib kasebut ogé saterusna hayang ngarasakeun pangaruh anu diceritakeun Khaldi<ref name="sumber1"/>. Biji-bijian anu ditarimana dilemeskeun sarta dicampur jeung [[cai]] panas<ref name="sumber1"/>. Éta sajarah inuman kopi mimiti<ref name="sumber1"/> ==Jenis Kopi== Numutkeun daérahna, nyaéta: === Kopi Arabika === Asalna ti [[Moka]], Tanah[[Arab]].<ref name="kamus1"/> Rasana kurang pait, lamun di ékspor ku urang sok disebut kopi jawa.<ref name="kamus1"/> === Kopi Liberia === Asal ti [[Liberia]],ogé rasana kurang pait.<ref name="kamus1"/> === Kopi Robusta === Asalna ti [[Kongo]].<ref name="kamus1"/> Rasana pait, jeung najan nginumna saéutik, akibatna sok hésé saré. Tangkal kopi robusta leubeut buahna.<ref name="kamus1"/> == Tingali ogé == * [[Entéh]] * [[Matte]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}}3. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210128153817/https://huongvicafe.com/ Huongvicafe]{{pondok}} [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Afrika]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan industri]] [[Kategori:Inuman]] [[Kategori:Coffea]] qosz0ti6t16xh4t0je3swcraisutfhk Hayam 0 34151 732075 728863 2026-11-10T13:31:29Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 732075 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |name=Hayam |image= Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg |image_width=200px |image_caption= Hayam jago jeung hayam bikang |regnum=[[Animalia]] |phylum = [[Chordata]] |classis = [[Aves]] |ordo=[[Galliformes]] |familia=[[Phasianidae]] |genus=''[[Gallus]]'' |species=''[[Gallus gallus|G. gallus]]'' |subspecies='''''G. g. domesticus''''' |trinomial=''Gallus gallus domesticus''|author=[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]|date = [[1758]] }} '''Hayam''' (dialék Banten: '''Kotok''') (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') nyaéta sato ingu sabangsa [[manuk]] anu hirupna sapopoé dina taneuh.<ref name="sumber1">R.A Darnadibrata, .Kamus Basa Sunda. Kiblat 2006. Bandung.</ref>Anakna disebut '''Ciak''' atawa '''Pitik'''. Aya rupa-rupa hayam anu dipikawanoh saperti : hayam jago, hayam danten, hayam jajangkar, hayam kotok, jeung hayam bikang.<ref name="sumber1"/> Ngaran hayam ditangtukeun dumasar kana buluna, asalna, jeung gawéna.<ref name="sumber1"/><ref name=“Jonathan Rigg”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Jakarta| year =1862|ISBN='-}}</ref> ==Sipat Biologis jeung Habitat== Hayam téh sato [[omnivora]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ideas-4-pets.com/pages-infopages/pages_id-24/index.html |title=Info on Chicken Care |accessdate=April 14, 2015 |publisher=ideas4pets |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002012307/http://www.ideas-4-pets.com/pages-infopages/pages_id-24/index.html |archivedate=October 2, 2008 }}</ref> Dina pangencaran, hayam sok kokoréh dina taneuh nyiar sarupaning sisikian, [[serangga]] jeung [[sato]] nu rada gedé kayaning [[kadal]], [[oray]] leutik atawa anak [[beurit]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html|title=Frequently asked questions about chickens & eggs|accessdate=August 13, 2008|publisher=Ferry Landing Farm & Apiary|author=Gerard P.Worrell AKA "Farmer Jerry"|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916202420/http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html|archivedate=September 16, 2008}}</ref> Hayam bisa hirup nepika 5-10 taun, gumantung kana prosés [[réproduksi]]na.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General |title=The Poultry Guide - A to Z and FAQs |publisher=Ruleworks.co.uk |accessdate=April 14, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128085141/http://ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General#q9 |archivedate=November 28, 2010 }}</ref> Hayam pangkolotna di dunya, paéh dina umur 16 taun ku sabab gagal jantung, nurutkeun kana [[Guinness World Records]].<ref>Smith, Jamon. [http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060806/NEWS/608060400/1007/NEWS02 Tuscaloosanews.com "World’s oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show’"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106125747/http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060806/NEWS/608060400/1007/NEWS02 |date=2015-11-06 }}, ''[[Tuscaloosa News]]'' (Alabama, Amérika Sarikat). Diaksés 14 April 2015.</ref> ===Kalakuan=== ====Kalakuan Sosial==== Hayam téh [[manuk]] nu resep nyobat tur hirup babarengan dina kelompok. Hayam boga deudeukeutan komunal pikeun [[sileungleum|nyileungleuman]] [[endog]] jeung ngagedékeunana. Hayam nyorangan dina kelompok bakal ngadominasi nu séjénna, sarta hayam nu dominan miboga prioritas pikeun aksés parab jeung tempat nyayang. Mindahkeun hayam jago atawa hayam bikang tina kelompok téh bisa ngalantarankeun gangguan témporér pikeun susunan sosial, nika susunan kakawasaan anyar diadegkeun. Nambahkeun hayam, komona mah anak hayam, kana kelompok anu aya bisa nyumebabkeun hayam téh diadu jeung cidera.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stonehead |url=http://stonehead.wordpress.com/2006/06/28/introducing-new-hens-to-a-flock/ |title=Introducing new hens to a flock « Musings from a Stonehead |publisher=Stonehead.wordpress.com |accessdate=14 April, 2015}}</ref> ====Begér==== Hayam jago nu begér umumna mah sok ngigel puputeran di deukeut hayam bikangna, dibarengan ku nurun-nurunkeun jang-jangna.<ref name="grandin69">{{cite book |title= Animals in Translation|url= https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran|last= Grandin|first= Temple|authorlink= Temple Grandin|author2=Johnson, Catherine|year= 2005|publisher= Scribner|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-7432-4769-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran/page/69 69]–71}}</ref> Tarékah ieu téh pikeun mancing hayam bikang.<ref name="grandin69"/> ====Nyayang jeung Ngendog==== Hayam bikang bakal mindeng cicing di sayang nu geus aya endogan, sanajan éta endogna téh endog hayam séjén. Hayam umumna nendeun endogna di tempat nu matuh. ====Nyileungleuman==== Dina kaayaan alami, umumna mah hayam bikang sok cindeten dina sayang nepi ka bérés ngendog, tuluy ngamegarkeun sakabéh endog éta. Kitu ogé jeung hayam negeri. Hayam nu cicing bakal eureun ng[[endog]], minangka gantina bakal fokus kana prosés nyileungleuman ([[inkubasi]]). Sayang nu pinuh ku [[endog]] biasana paling loba <u>+</u> 12 siki. Ciri-ciri hayam nyilingleum biasana sok cindeten dina sayang, narajang atawa macok dina kaayaan mertahakeun saupamana kaganggu atawa dipindahkeun. Keur nyileungleum mah hayam jarang ninggalkeun sayang boh pikeun dahar atawa nginum. Samarian cicing, hayam mertahankeun sayangna supaya aya dina [[suhu]] jeung kalembapan nu angger, sarta muter-muter [[endog]] sacara tartil dina bagian munggaran nyileungleuman. ====Pamegaran==== Dina ahir waktu nyileunleuman (<u>+</u> 21 poé)<ref name="grandin69"/> endog, lamun subur, bakal megar. Prosés ngembangna endog téh baréng jeung prosés nyileungleuman, jadi sakabéh endog téh bakal megar bareng, paling béda ogé sapoé 2 poéan. Sanajan anu diteundeun kana sayang téh aya nu kurang atawa leuwih ti 2 minggu. ===Émbriologi=== Taun [[2006]], para ahli ngayakeun panalungtikéan yéh moyangna sakabéh manuk téh "asalna" tina hayam [[gén resesif]], ''talpid2'', jeung kanyahoan yén rahang émbrio dimimitian ku pangwangunan huntu, sakumaha nu kapanggih dina fosil manuk purba. John Fallon, pangawas proyék, ngedalkeun yén hayam téh mibanda "...mertahankeun pangabisa pikeun nyieun huntu, dina kaayaan tinangtu... ."<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1666805 Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to Grow Teeth] Ammu Kannampilly, [[ABC News]], Diaksés 14 April 2015.</ref> == Jenis-jenis Hayam == [[File:Yogyakarta Indonesia Taman-Sari-Roaster-02.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Hayam katé]] Dina kahirupan masarakat [[sunda]], hayam téh dikelompokkeun jadi babaraha jenis. di antarana: * [[Hayam Jabrig]], nyaéta hayam anu sukuna buluan * [[Hayam Borontok]], nyaéta hayam anu buluna totol-totol bodas dina bulu beureum * [[Hayam Katé]], nyaéta hayam leutik siga [[japati]] * [[Hayam Kedu]], nyaéta hayam nu mindeng ngendogna, asalna ti désa [[Kedu]] kacamatan [[Parakan kedu]] * [[Hayam Lisung]], nyaéta hayam lindeuk nu sok karalang-kuriling dipipir [[imah]] baé tara ngaprak jauh * [[Hayam Mutiara]], nyaéta sabangsa hayam anu dina buluna kulawu totol-totol bodas sagedé-gedé [[mutiara]] * [[Hayam kumupu]], nyaéta anak hayam anu kakara megar buluna siga kapuk kénéh * [[Hayam Renggé]], nyaéta hayam anu buluna siga bulu hiris ([[ucing]]) * [[Hayam Pelung]], nyaéta hayam jago ti [[Cianjur]] nu kongkorokna ngagoronggong laun jeung melung, haya, ieu lain pikeun didahar tapi pikeun dipiara wungkul * [[Hayam Tukung]], nyaéta hayam anu euweuh buntutna lebah buntut buluna siga batok nangkub * [[Hayam Turundul]], nyaéta hayam gundul atawa buluna saeutik pisan * [[Hayam Carambang]], nyaéta hayam nu buluna hideung tapi loba totol-totol bodas * [[Hayam Camani]], nyaéta hayam [[hideung]] anu nepi ka kulit, daging ogé tulangna hideung.<ref name="sumber1" /> Hayam ogé miboga jenis hayam aduan, nyaéta hayam anu sok dipaké ngadu hayam.<ref name="sumber2">{{id}}Hj.Patimah,spk. Ensiklopedi Sunda : Alam, Manusia dan Budaya termasuk Budaya Cirebonan dan Betawi. PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya. Jakarta 2000.</ref> Ciri-ciri hayam aduan bisa ditempo tina pamatuk, mata, bulu, jeung sisikna.<ref name="sumber2" /> Pamatuk hayam aduan anu hadé disebut [[péot jaramieun]], matana pétét, bulu jangjangna kudu nutupan nepi ka tunggir, [[cékér]]na kudu capit hurangeun nyaéta miboga capit jiga [[hurang]], [[tulang]] dadana kudu nepi ka deukeut [[telih]],.<ref name="sumber2" /> Béda jeung [[hayam jago]], [[hayam jago]] anu hadé miboga sora anu panjang sedengkeun hayam aduan sorana kudu pondok.<ref name="sumber2" /> Hayam adu tara sagawayah dileupaskeun bareng jeung hayam-hayam sjénna tapi kudu aya dina kandang ranggap.<ref name="sumber2" /> ku cara rutin hayam adu dimandian tuluy dipoyan sangkan kuat, jeung deui hayam aduan ulah sagawayah dibéré nyatu naon baé kudu anu aya gizian.<ref name="sumber2" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Phasianidae]] [[Kategori:Sato ingon]] [[Kategori:Aves]] 4pthu82b5janae8cwjz3lhiel9sfwdh Daptar nagara kalawan pangakuan kawates 0 34153 732112 728631 2026-11-10T20:39:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732112 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Limited recognition map large.png|thumb|400px| {{legend|#FF0000|Teu aya pangakuan internasional}} {{legend|#FF8484|Pangakuan kawates}} {{legend|#808040|Pangakuan mayoritas}} {{legend|#FF8040|Wewengkon nu statusna dipaséakeun; kalawan hiji institusi pamaréntah, nu diakuan ku saeutikna sababaraha nagara}}]] '''Daptar nagara kalawan pangakuan kawates''' méré hiji gambaran ngeunaan éntitas [[géopolitik]] ayeuna, nu hayang diakuan minangka [[nagara daulat]] dina [[hukum internasional]] tapi heunteu atawa tacan miboga [[pangakuan diplomatik]] dunya sacara pinuh. Éntitas kawas kieu umumna kabagi kana dua kategori. Kahiji, éntitas nu miboga pangawasaan pinuh atawa sabagian kana wewengkon nu diklaimna nu maréntah sorangan ku cara ''[[de facto]]'' jeung geus nyebutkeun hiji kahayangan pikeun merdéka pinuh. Kadua, éntitas nu teu boga pangawasaan pinuh kana wewengkon nu diklaimna, tapi diakuan miboga klaim ''[[de jure]]'' kana wewengkonna ku saeutikna hiji nagara lian nu diakuan sacara luas. Sababaraha nagara dina daptar ieu, kawas [[Siprus]] jeung [[Koréa Kidul|Républik Koréa]], diakuan ku mayoritas nagara-nagara lian jeung mangrupa anggota Sarikat Bangsa-Bangsa, tapi diasupkeun kana daptar ieu sabab sababaraha nagara lian ngabatalkeun pangakuanna. Tempo [[daptar historis nagara nu heunteu diakuan]] pikeun éntitas kawas kieu nu aya dina jaman baheula. Tempo [[daptar pamaréntahan dina pangasingan]] pikeun pamaréntahan nu teu diakuan jeung teu miboga pangawasaan kana wewengkon nu diklaimna. Aya 192 [[Daptar anggota Pasaarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|nagara anggota]] [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] (PBB). [[Tahta Suci]] diakuan [[kadaulatan|daulat dumasar kana hukum internasional]], tapi heunteu minangka anggota Pasarikatan (miboga status minangka [[Panénjo Majelis Umum Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|nagara panénjo]]).<ref>[http://www.un.org/members/nonmembers.shtml Non-member State]</ref> == Éntitas géopolitik ayeuna dumasar kana tingkat pangakuan == === Teu diakuan ku nagara naon baé === {|class="wikitable" style="width: 100%" |- !width="15%"|Ngaran !width="5%"|Dipaséakeun ti !width="53%"|Pangakuan !width="22%"|Informasi salajengna !width="7%"|Réferénsi |- | {{flagicon|Somaliland}} [[Somaliland]] |align="center"| 1991 | euweuh nagara nu ngakuan Somaliland merdéka sacara ''de jure'' ti [[Somalia]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Somaliland]] | |} === Diakuan ngan ku nagara non-anggota PBB === {|class="wikitable" style="width: 100%" |- !width="15%"|Ngaran !width="5%"|Dipaséakeun ti !width="53%"|Pangakuan !width="22%"|Informasi salajengna !width="7%"|Réferénsi |- | {{flagicon|Transnistria}} [[Transnitria]] |align="center"| 1990 | Kamerdékaan Transnistria diakuan ku [[Abkhazia]] jeung [[Ossétia Kidul]]. Sadaya nagara anggota PBB ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti [[Moldova]]. | [[Papaséaan status Transnistria|Hubungan luar nagri Transnistria]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-06-16|url=http://video.acasa.ro/view_video/1cbc0583298a23831612/transnistria-europe-s-black-hole-2-4.html|title=Abkhazia: Ten Years On|publisher=BBC 2|year=2001|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119090608/http://video.acasa.ro/view_video/1cbc0583298a23831612/transnistria-europe-s-black-hole-2-4.html|archivedate=2009-11-19}}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Nagorno-Karabakh}} [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] |align="center"| 1991 | Ngan Transnistria nu ngakuan kamerdékaan Nagorno-Karabakh. Sadaya negara ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian de jure ti [[Azerbaijan]] | | |- |} === Non-anggota PBB diakuan ku saeutikna hiji anggota PBB === {|class="sortable wikitable" style="width: 100%" |- !width="15%"|Ngaran !width="5%"|Dipaséakeun ti !class="unsortable" width="53%"|Pangakuan !width="22%" class="unsortable"|Informasi salajengna !width="7%" class="unsortable"|Réferénsi |- | {{flagicon|Abkhazia}} [[Abkhazia]] |align="center"|1992 | Kamerdékaan Abkhazia diakuan ku dua nagara anggota PBB, [[Rusia]] jeung [[Nikaragua]] jeung dua nagara non-anggota PBB, Ossétia Kidul jeung Transnistria.<ref name="tiraspoltimes.com">[http://www.tiraspoltimes.com/news/south_ossetia_opens_embassy_in_abkhazia.html ''South Ossetia opens embassy in Abkhazia'' The Tiraspol Times] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422030914/http://www.tiraspoltimes.com/news/south_ossetia_opens_embassy_in_abkhazia.html |date=2008-04-22 }}</ref> Sadaya nagara anggota PBB nu séjén ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti [[Géorgia]]. | [[Hubungan luar nageri Abkhazia]], [[Pangakuan internasional Abkhazia jeung Ossétia Kidul]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-26|url=http://www.c-r.org/resources/occasional-papers/abkhazia-ten-years-on.php|title=Abkhazia: Ten Years On|publisher=Conciliation Resources|year=2001|author=Clogg, Rachel|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205052756/http://www.c-r.org/resources/occasional-papers/abkhazia-ten-years-on.php|archivedate=2012-02-05}}</ref><ref name="Medvedev">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7582181.stm Russia recognises Georgian rebels] - BBC, 2008-08-26 [http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=96574]</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Républik Cina]] ([[Taiwan]]) |align="center"| 1949 | [[Républik Rahayat Cina]] (RRC) jeung Républik Cina (RC; katelah umumna minangka "Taiwan") ngadukung [[Kawijakan Hiji Cina]] nu nyebutkeun yén Cina sacara ''de jure'' mangrupa hiji éntitas daulat tunggal nu ngawengku wewengkon nu ayeuna aya dina pangawasaan RRC jeung RC. RC diakuan minangka sahiji-hijina pamaréntahan Cina nu sah ku [[Hubungan luar nagri Républik Cina|22]] nagara anggota PBB jeung [[Tahta Suci]]. Dumasar kana [[Résolusi Majelis Umum Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa 2758]], RRC mangrupa sahiji-hijina pamaréntahan Cina nu sah, hiji posisi nu ogé dicandak ku nagara anggota PBB nu séjén. Loba nagara miboga hubungan teu resmi sareng RC. | [[Status politik Taiwan]], [[Hubungan luar nagri Républik Cina]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://members.aol.com/JoJoLewis/Taiwan/Taiwan_index.html|date=2002-08-04|author=Lewis, Joe|title=Taiwan Independence |publisher=Digital Freedom Network }}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Kosovo}} [[Kosovo]] |align="center"| 2008 | Kamerdékaan Kosovo diakuan ku 62 nagara anggota PBB, [[Républik Cina|Républik Cina (Taiwan)]], jeung sababraha organisasi internasional. Sadaya nagara anggota PBB nu séjén ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti [[Sérbia]]. [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] geus ngurus administasi wewengkon ieu ti 1999 liwat [[Misi Ad-Interim Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa di Kosovo]], kalawan kerja sama ti [[Uni Éropa]] ti 2008. Dumasar kana [[Résolusi Déwan Kaamanan Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa 1244]], Kosovo tetep mangrupa bagian ti [[Républik Féderal Yugoslavia]] (di mana [[Sérbia]] mangrupa nagara panerusna), ngadagoan hiji réngséan politik pikeun nangtukeun status ahirna<ref>http://www.unmikonline.org/press/reports/N9917289.pdf</ref>. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Kosovo]], [[Pangakuan internasional Kosovo]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7249034.stm|date=2008-02-17|title=Kosovo MPs proclaim independence |publisher=[[BBC News]] }}</ref> |- | [[Gambar:Flag_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg|25px]] [[Républik Turki Siprus Kalér|Siprus Kalér]] |align="center"| 1983 | Kamerdékaan Siprus Kalér diakuan ku hiji nagara anggota PBB, [[Turki]]. Sadaya nagara anggota PBB nu séjén ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti [[Siprus]]. [[Organisasi Konferénsi Islam]] masihan status panénjo ka Siprus Kalér. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Républik Turki Siprus Kalér]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://antiwar.com/hadar/?articleid=8042|author=Hadar, Leon|date=2005-11-16|title=In Praise of 'Virtual States' |publisher=AntiWar }}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Palestine}} [[Otoritas Nasional Paléstina|Paléstina]] |align="center"| 1988 | Nagara Paléstina diakuan ku 93 nagara anggota PBB,<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20060404211437/http://www.pna.gov.ps/Government/gov/recognition_of_the_State_of_Palestine.asp</ref> [[Tahta Suci]], [[Liga Arab]], jeung [[Organisasi Konferénsi Islam]], sanggeus [[Déklarasi Kamerdékaan Paléstina]] ku [[Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina]]. Misi Paléstina miboga status diplomatik atawa husus di 22 nagara anggota PBB lianna jeung [[Uni Éropa]]. Israél teu ngakuan nagara Paléstina. Tapi, minangka hasil ti [[Pasatujuan Rapih Oslo]] jeung [[Pasatujuan Samentawis Israél-Paléstina]], pamaréntah Israél geus ngalihkeun kakawasaan katangtu jeung tanggung jawab pamaréntahan sorangan ka [[Otoritas Nasional Paléstina]], nu dipaké di wewengkon Tepi Kulon jeung jalur Gaza. PBB ngakuan Paléstina minangka éntitas non-anggota kalawan status panénjo. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Otoritas Nasional Paléstina]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://imeu.net/news/article0065.shtml|year=2007|title=3.10 - How many countries recognize Palestine as a state?|publisher=Institute for Middle East Understanding|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142400/http://imeu.net/news/article0065.shtml|archivedate=2014-04-13}}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi]] (RDAS) |align="center"| 1976 | [[Sahara Kulon]] mangrupa subjék ti rupa-rupa klaim nu silih-paséa: [[Maroko]] ngaklaim sakabéh wewengkonna jeung ngawasaan kalobaannana, samentara Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi (RDAS) ngan ngawasaan [[Zona Bébas (wilayah)|Zona Bébas]] tapi ngaklaim ogé kadaulatan pinuh kana sakabéh wewengkonna. Kamerdékaan Sahara Kulon dina kadaulatan RDAS diakuan ku 49 nagara anggota PBB jeung [[Uni Afrika]]. Sahara Kulon diakuan minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti Maroko ku 25 nagara anggota PBB jeung [[Liga Arab]]. Sadaya nagara anggota PBB nu séjén teu ngakuan kadua nagara miboga otoritas ''de jure'' kana wewngkon éta; wewengkon éta kaasup kana [[Daptar Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa ngeunaan Wewengkon Tampa Pamaréntahan Sorangan]] ti diasupkeun dina 1960-an minangka [[Sahara Spanyol]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi]] |align=center|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://www.wsahara.net/sadr.html|date=1976-02-27|author=Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|title=Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|publisher=Western Sahara Online|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429161652/http://www.wsahara.net/sadr.html|archivedate=2014-04-29}}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|South Ossetia}} [[Ossétia Kidul]] |align="center"|1991 | Kamerdékaan Ossetia Kidul diakuan ku dua nagara anggota PBB, [[Rusia]] jeung [[Nikaragua]] sarta dua nagara non-anggota PBB, Abkhazia jeung Transnistria.<ref name="tiraspoltimes.com"/> Sadaya nagara anggota PBB nu séjén ngakuan wewengkonna minangka bagian ''de jure'' ti [[Géorgia]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Ossétia Kidul]], [[Pangakuan internasional Abkhazia jeung Ossétia Kidul]] |align=center|<ref name="Medvedev"/><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://iys.cidi.org/humanitarian/hsr/03b/ixl95.html|date=2003-09-23|author=Stojanovic, Srdjan|title=OCHA Situation Report|publisher=Center for International Disaster Information|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021022609/http://iys.cidi.org/humanitarian/hsr/03b/ixl95.html|archivedate=2016-10-21}}</ref> |} === Nagara anggota PBB, teu diakuan ku saeutikna hiji nagara lian === {|class="sortable wikitable" style="width: 100%" |- !width="15%"|Ngaran !width="5%"|Dipaséakeun ti !class="unsortable" width="53%"|Pangakuan !width="22%" class="unsortable"|Informasi salajengna !width="7%" class="unsortable"|Réferénsi |- | {{flagicon|Cyprus}} [[Siprus]] |align="center"| 1974 | Siprus teu diakuan ku hiji nagara anggota PBB, [[Turki]], jeung hiji nagara non-anggota PBB, [[Siprus Kalér]], di mana kaduanya ngarujuk Siprus minangka ''Güney Kıbrıs Rum Kesimi'', "Bagian Yunani ti Siprus Kidul". | [[Hubungan luar nagri Siprus]] |align="center"|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cy.html|date=2008-02-28|author=CIA World Factbook|title=Cyprus|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226020655/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cy.html|archivedate=2018-12-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-07|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/01/content_3570894.htm|title=Cyprus exists without Turkey's recognition: president|publisher=XINHUA|date=2005-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312072600/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/01/content_3570894.htm|archivedate=2016-03-12 }}</ref><ref>http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/committees/studies/download.do?file=20800#search=%20Turkey</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Israél]] |align="center"| 1948 | Israél teu diakuan ku nagara-nagara anggota PBB ieu: [[Arab Saudi]], [[Indonésia]], [[Iran]]<ref>http://www.rferl.org/content/Iran_Says_Israel_Stops_Its_Aid_Ship_To_Gaza/1369553.html</ref>, [[Irak]]<ref>http://www.forward.com/articles/13571/</ref>, [[Koréa Kalér|Républik Démokratik Rahayat Koréa]], [[Kuba]], [[Kuwait]], [[Libanon]], [[Libya]]<ref>http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2008/12/04-3</ref>, [[Malaysia]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriah]], jeung [[Yaman]], sarta hiji nagara non-anggota PBB, [[Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi]]. Israél [[Surat pangakuan Israél-Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina|diakuan ku Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina]], nu ngaklaim hak pikeun ngawangun hiji nagara di wewengkon nu ayeuna dikawasaan ku Israél. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Israél]] |align="center"|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/israel.htm|date=1948-05-14|author=Government of Israel|title=Declaration of Israel's Independence 1948|publisher=[[Yale University]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213090158/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/israel.htm|archivedate=2008-02-13}}</ref><ref>http://www.mythsandfacts.org/ReplyOnlineEdition/chapter-1.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727104815/http://www.mythsandfacts.org/ReplyOnlineEdition/chapter-1.html |date=2011-07-27 }}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|North Korea}} [[Koréa Kalér|Républik Démokratik Rahayat Koréa]] |align="center"| 1948 | Rapublik Démokratik Rahayat Koréa teu diakuan ku [[Jepang]] jeung [[Koréa Kidul|Républik Koréa]].<ref name="ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp">{{cite web | url = http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~worldjpn/documents/texts/docs/19650622.T1E.html | title = Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea | accessdate = 2008-10-27 }}</ref> | [[Hubungan luar nagri Koréa Kalér]] |align="center"|<ref name="ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp"/><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-29|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836219,00.html|title=Declaration of Independence|publisher=[[TIME]]|date=1966-08-19|6=author|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106054432/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836219,00.html|archivedate=2010-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-29|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GA04Dg01.html|title=Seoul's double-talk on reunification|publisher=[[Asia Times]]|date=2005-01-04|author=Scofield, David|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419174039/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GA04Dg01.html|archivedate=2016-04-19}}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Koréa Kidul|Républik Koréa]] |align="center"| 1948 | Républik Koréa teu diakuan ku [[Rapublik Démokratik Rahayat Koréa]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Koréa Kidul]] |align="center"|<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-28|url=http://countrystudies.us/south-korea/8.htm|date=2000-10-07|author=US Library of Congress|title=World War II and Korea |publisher=Country Studies }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-02-29|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01EFD71538F930A3575AC0A962958260|title=China, Backing North Korea, Quits Armistice Commission |publisher=[[The New York Times]]|date=1994-09-03|author=Sterngold, James }}</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Liechtenstein}} [[Liechtenstéin]] |align="center"| 1993 | Liechtenstéin teu diakuan ku [[Slowakia]] sabab manéhna nolak pikeun ngakuan Slowakia kana papaséaan pamakéan [[Dekrét Beneš]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Liechtenstéin]] |align="center"|<ref name='Liechtenstein'>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-13|url=http://www.mzv.cz/wwwo/mzv/default.asp?id=21142&ido=6573&idj=2|author=MFA of Czech Republic|title=Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic - Liechtenstein}}</ref><ref name='dispute'>{{Cite web |url=http://www.radio.cz/en/article/10871 |title=dispute |accessdate=2011-10-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050119224122/http://www.radio.cz/en/article/10871 |archivedate=2005-01-19}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com.mx">[http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=MhFihFgVO3wC&dq=liechtenstein+a+modern+histroy&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=Ugv0y06xlc&sig=ugqb92_dznBB1TL_UyAQe728nqs&hl=es&ei=eqJLSvyPJoq7twekr-GbDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3]</ref> |- | {{flagicon|Slovakia}} [[Slowakia]] |align="center"| 1993 | Slowakia teu diakuan ku [[Liechtenstéin]] sabab papaséaan kana pamakéan [[Dekrét Beneš]]. | [[Hubungan luar nagri Slowakia]] |align="center"|<ref name='Liechtenstein' /><ref name="books.google.com.mx"/> |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Nagara mikro]] * [[Daptar historis nagara nu teu diakuan]] * [[Daptar gerakan otonomi jeung séparatis aktip]] * [[Daptar historis gerakan otonomi jeung séparatis]] * [[Pamaréntahan dina pangasingan]] * [[Daptar papaséaan wewengkon]] * [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]] * [[Daptar Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa ngeunaan Wewengkon Tampa Pamaréntahan Sorangan]] * [[Bandéra nagara nu teu diakuan]] == Réferénsi == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Daptar nagara| ]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipaséakeun| ]] htccfv51lrzp1f6vumfd4o34hy2xctq Romania 0 34276 732162 730895 2026-11-11T02:10:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 8 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732162 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''România'' |conventional_long_name = Romania |common_name = Romania |image_flag = Flag of Romania.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Romania.svg |image_map = EU-Romania.svg |map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color=héjo |region=[[Éropa]] |region_color=kulawu kolot |subregion=[[Uni Éropa]] |subregion_color=héjo ngora |legend=EU-Romania.svg}} |national_anthem = <span style="line-height:1.25em;">''[[Deşteaptă-te, române!]]''</span> |official_languages = [[Basa Romania|Romania]] |ethnic_groups = 89.5% Romania, 6.6% [[Hungaria]], 2.5% [[Urang Rom|Rom]], 1.4% grup minoritas lianna |government_type = Républik kahijian semi-présidénsial |capital = [[Bukares]]&nbsp;(''Bucureşti'') |latd = 44 |latm = 25 |latNS = N |longd = 26 |longm = 06 |longEW = E |largest_city = Bukares |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Romania|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Menteri Romania|Perdana Menteri]] |leader_name1 = [[:ro:Klaus Iohannis|Klaus Iohannis]] |leader_name2 = [[:ro:Nicolae Ciuca|Nicolae Ciuca]] |area_rank = 82 |area_magnitude = 1_E+11 |area = 238.391 |areami² = 92.043 |percent_water = 3 |population_estimate_year = 2021 |population_estimate = {{Nts|19186201}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf|title=Populația rezidentă la 1 Ianuarie 2021|language=ro|trans-title=The usually resident population on 1 January 2021|publisher=[[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)|National Institute of Statistics]]|website=Insse.ro|access-date=3 December 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114072541/https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf |date=14 November 2021 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = 61 |population_census_year = 2021 |population_census = 20,121,641<ref name="CensusRef" /> |population_density_km2 = 80.4 |population_density_sq_mi = 218.6 |population_density_rank = 136 |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $653.903&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_rank = 36 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $33,833<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 44 |GDP_nominal = $289.130&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021 Edition |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=3 December 2021 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407050829/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |date=7 April 2021 }}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 46 |GDP_nominal_year = 2021 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $14,968<ref name="IMFWEORO" /> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 56t |HDI_year = 2019 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.828 |HDI_rank = 63 |HDI_category = <span style="color:green;">luhur</span> |Gini = 33.8 |Gini_year = 2020 |Gini_rank = 21 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#090;">handap</span> |legislature = [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Romania|Sénat]] |established_event1 = [[Transilvania]] |established_date1 = Abad ka-10 |established_event2 = [[Wallachia]] |established_date2 = 1290 |established_event3 = [[Moldavia]] |established_date3 = 1346 |established_event4 = [[Mihai Viteazul|Unifikasi kahiji]] |established_date4 = 1599 |established_event5 = Réunifikasi [[Alexander Ioan Cuza|Wallachia jeung Moldavia]] |established_date5 = 24 Januari 1859 |established_event6 = Pangakuan kamerdékaan ti [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] |established_date6 = 13 Juli 1878 |established_event7 = Unifikasi sareng Transilvania |established_date7 = 1 Désémber 1918 |accessionEUdate = 1 Januari 2007 |currency = [[Leu Romania|Leu]] (L) |currency_code = RON |time_zone = [[Wanci Éropa Wétan|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci Usum Panas Éropa Wétan|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.ro]] [[.eu]] |calling_code = 40 |footnotes = }} '''Romania''' (ogé diéja '''Rumania''' atawa '''Roumania'''; {{lang-ro|România}}) nyaéta nagara nu aya di [[Éropa Tenggara]], di bagian kalér [[Samenanjung Balkan]] jeung tepung wates sareng [[Laut Hideung]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm|title=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|publisher=NATO|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525123235/http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm |date=2017-05-25 }}</ref> Méh sakabéh [[délta Donau|délta walungan Donau]] aya di wewengkon Romania. Nagara ieu tepung wates sareng [[Hungaria]] jeung [[Sérbia]] di kulon, [[Ukraina]] jeung [[Moldova]] di wétan-kalér, jeung [[Bulgaria]] di kidul. Sajarah nyatetan yén [[bangsa Dacia]], [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], [[Kakaisaran Bulgaria]], [[Karajaan Hungaria]], jeung [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] pernah ngawasaan wewengkon ieu. Salaku hiji nagara, Romania diwangun dina taun 1859 ti panghijian wewengkon [[Moldavia]] jeung [[Wallachia]], nu miboga pangakuan internasional dina taun 1878. Dina taun 1918, [[Transilvania]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Bessarabia]] ngadéklarasikeun ngagabung sareng Romania. Dina ahir [[Perang Dunya II]], [[Uni Soviét]] ngawasaan sabagian daérahna (kira-kira ngawengku sakabéh daérah [[Moldova]] ayeuna) jeung Romania minangka anggota [[Pakta Warsawa]]. Kalawan labuhna [[Tirai Beusi]] dina taun [[Révolusi Romania 1989|1989]], Romania ngamimitian réformasi politik jeung ékonomi. Dina ngalawan masalah ékonomi pasca-révolusi, nagara ieu maké pajak handap dina taun 2005 jeung ngagabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007. Sanajan tingkat pamasukan Romania kaasup salah sahiji nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa, réformasi geus ningkatkeun kamekaran ékonomina. Romania kiwari kaasup nagara nu miboga pamasukan nengah ka luhur. Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan téritori nu pangluasna ka-9 jeung jumlah padumuk nu panggedéna ka-7 di Uni Éropa.<ref name=population>{{Citeweb|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|title=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|year=2007|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/en/cp2.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Ibu kota jeung kota nu panggedéna nyaéta kota [[Bukares]] ({{lang-ro|Bucureşti}}), nu ogé mangrupa kota nu panggedéna ka-6 di Uni Éropa. [[Sibiu]], hiji kota di Transilvania, dina taun 2007 kapilih minangka [[Ibu kota Kabudayaan Éropa]].<ref>{{citeweb|publisher=The Selection Panel for the European Capital of Culture (ECOC) 2007|title=Report on the Nominations from Luxembourg and Romania for the European Capital of Culture 2007|date=2004-04-05|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/pdf/doc670_en.pdf|format=pdf|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Romania gabung ka [[NATO]] dina kaping 29 Maret 2004, jeung ogé mangrupa anggota ti [[Uni Latin]], [[Francophonie]], [[OSCE]], jeung [[Komunitas Nagara-nagara pamaké basa Portugis|CPLP]]. Nagara ieu méangrupakeun nagara kahijian semi-présidénsial. == Sajarah == === Sajarah awal === Sésa-sésa manusa modérn nu pangkolotna di Éropa geus dipanggih di "[[Peştera cu Oase]]", Romania.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Trinkaus|first =E.|title=Early Modern Human Cranial remains from the Peştera cu Oase|journal =Journal of Human Evolution|volume=45|pages=245–253|year=2003| accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.08.003}}</ref> Titiinggalan éta kira-kira umurna 42.000 taun, jeung meureunan téh sésa-sésa ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' awal nu asup ka buana Éropa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zilhão|first=João|title=Neanderthals and Moderns Mixed and It Matters|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume =15|pages=183–195|date=|year=2006|accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1002/evan.20110}}</ref> tapi bukti tinulis kahiji ngeunaan manusa nu ngadumuk di wewengkon Romania asalna ti [[Herodotus]], nu dina bukuna [[Historia (Herodotus)|Historia]] volume IV dina taun 440 SM nulis ngeunaan kaayaan séké-séké [[Getae]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Herodotus|author-link =Herodotus|translation =William Beloe|title =The Ancient History of Herodotus By Herodotus|digitized =Google Book Search|pages =213–217|publisher =Derby & Jackson|year =1859|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en|accessdate =2008-01-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211091917/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en |date=2023-02-11 }}</ref> [[Bangsa Dacia]], nu dianggap bagian ti Getae, mangrupa cabang ti bangsa [[Trakia]] nu nyicingan wewengkon [[Dacia]] (aya di Romania modérn, [[Moldova]], jeung [[Bulgaria]] kalér). Karajaan Dacia miboga puncak kajayaanna dina jaman Raja [[Burebista]] kira-kira taun 82 SM. Sanggeus Dacia narajang propinsi [[Moesia]] [[Romawi]] dina taun 87, Kaisar [[Trajan]]us ngayakeun [[Perang Dacia]] nu réngsé kalawan meunangna bangsa Romawi taun 106. Akibat kameunangan éta, Dacia robah kana propinsi [[Dacia Romawi]].<ref>{{Citeweb|title =Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions|publisher =De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|url =http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Lobana bijih beusi, emas, jeung pérak nu dipanggih di propinsi éta<ref>{{citeweb|title=Dacia-Province of the Roman Empire|publisher =United Nations of Roma Victor|url =http://www.unrv.com/provinces/dacia.php|text="and were found in great quantities in the [[Western Carpathians]]. After Trajan's conquest, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver"|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> ngakibatkeun bangsa Romawi ngalaksanakeun kolonisasi kana wewengkon Dacia.<ref>{{citebook|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=Colloquial Romanian|publisher=Routledge|year=1995|location=New York|pages =1|isbn=9780415129008}}</ref> Prosés kolonisasi mawa sarta basa [[Latin Vulgar]] nu nyababkeun dimimitianna période romanisasi, nu salajengna bakal ngahasilkeun basa proto-[[basa Romania|Romania]].<ref>{{citebook|last=Matley|first=Ian| title=Romania; a Profile |publisher=Praeger|year=1970|pages=85}}</ref><ref>{{citebook|last=Giurescu|first=Constantin C.|title=The Making of the Romanian People and Language|publisher=Meridiane Publishing House|year=1972|location=Bucharest|pages=43, 98–101,141}}</ref> Dina abad ka-3 séké-séké pangumbara kawas bangsa [[Goth]] loba ngalaksanakeun invasi, jadina maksa bangsa Romawi kira-kira taun 271 mundur ti Dacia, jeung nyieunanna propinsi kahiji nu ditinggalkeun ku Romawi.<ref>{{citebook|last=Eutropius|authorlink=Eutropius|coauthors=Justin, Cornelius Nepos|title=Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History|publisher=George Bell and Sons|year=1886|location=London|url=http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220200338/http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm |date=2009-02-20 }}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|last=Watkins|first=Thayer|title=The Economic History of the Western Roman Empire|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/barbarians.htm|quote="The Emperor Aurelian recognized the realities of the military situation in Dacia and around 271 A.D. withdrew Roman troops from Dacia leaving it to the Goths. The Danube once again became the northern frontier of the Roman Empire in eastern Europe"|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> === Abad patengahan === [[Image:Bran Castle TB1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Istana Bran]] diwangun dina taun 1212, jeung leuwih katelah minangka ''Istana Drakula'']] Sanggeus Romawi ninggalkeun Dacia, wewengkon éta, sacara tumurut, ditarajang ku séké [[Goth]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordanes|authorlink=Jordanes|title=Getica, sive, De Origine Actibusque Gothorum|year=551 A.D.|location=Constantinople|url=http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007203824/http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm |date=2008-10-07 }}</ref> teras ku séké [[Hun]] dina abad ka-4,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Iliescu| first=Vl.|last2=Paschale| first2=Chronicon| title=Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae|volume=II|pages=363, 587|place=Bucureşti|year=1970}}</ref> jeung dipipilu ku séké-séké nomaden nu séjén kawas séké [[Gepid]],<ref name=gepids/><ref>{{Cite web|first=István|last=Bóna|editor-last=Köpeczi|editor-first=Béla|title=History of Transylvania: II.3. The Kingdom of the Gepids|volume=1|publisher=Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York|year=2001|url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094220/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html |date=2008-12-06 }}</ref> [[Avar]],<ref>{{Cite web| first = István| last = Bóna| editor-last = Köpeczi| editor-first = Béla| title = History of Transylvania: II.4. The Period of the Avar Rule| volume = 1| publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences| distributor = Columbia University Press| location = New York| year = 2001| url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html| accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193756/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> [[Bulgar]],<ref name=gepids>{{cite book|last=Teodor|first=Dan Gh.|title=Istoria României de la începuturi până în secolul al VIII-lea|year =1995|location =Bucureşti|pages=294–325 |volume=2}}</ref> [[Pecheneg]],<ref>{{cite book| last =Constantine VII| first =Porphyrogenitus| authorlink =Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus| title =Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio| date =| location =Constantinople| url =http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html| accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023071109/http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html |date=2008-10-23 }}</ref> jeung [[Cuman]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Xenopol|first =Alexandru D.|title =Histoire des Roumains|place=Paris|year =1896|volume =i|pages=168}}</ref> Bangsa Romania salajengna kabagi dina tilu wewengkon kapangéranan nu béda: [[Wallachia]] ({{lang-ro|Ţara Românească}}), [[Moldavia]] ({{lang-ro|Moldova}}), jeung [[Transilvania]]. Transilvania jadi bagian ti [[Karajaan Hongaria]] dina abad ka-11,<ref>{{Cite web|first = László|last = Makkai|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193801/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> jeung miboga kamerdékaanna salaku [[Kapangéranan Transilvania]] ti abad ka-16<ref>{{Cite web|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: IV. The First Period of the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1606)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193819/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> nepi ka taun 1711.<ref>{{citebook|first = Ágnes R.|last = Várkonyi|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: VI. The Last Decades of the Independent Principality (1660–1711)|volume = 2|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|place = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430052120/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html |date=2008-04-30 }}</ref> Kapangéranan Romania lianna ngalawan ancaman [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] dina abad ka-14.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Ştefănescu|first =Ştefan |title =Istoria medie a României|year =1991|location =Bucharest|volume =I|pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last =Predescu|first =Lucian |title =Enciclopedia Cugetarea|year =1940}}</ref> [[File:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|250px|left|Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania dina ahir abad ka-16]] Dina taun 1541, sakabéh [[samenanjung Balkan]] jeung méh sakabéh [[Hongaria]] jadi bagian ti Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Sabalikna, Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania jadi bagian ti ''[[suzerainty]]'' Utsmaniyah, kalawan hak otonomi internal. Kapangéranan Wallachia, Moldavia, jeung Transilvania dipingpin ku pangéran Wallachia, [[Mihai Viteazul]], dina taun 1600. Mihai Vitéazul nyobian rék ngahijikeun tilu kapangéranan éta,<ref>{{cite journal|language =Romanian|last =Rezachevici|first =Constantin|title =Mihai Viteazul: itinerariul moldovean|year =2000|journal =Magazin istoric|issue =5|url =http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231040/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref> tapi kasempetan unifikasi hancur ku sabab rajapati Mihai ku tentara Austria. Sanggeus pupusna, salaku nagara ''vassal'', Moldavia jeung Wallachia geus miboga otonomi internal pinuh, nu ahirna leungit dina abad ka-18. Dina taun 1699, Transilvania jadi daérah kakaisaran Austria sanggeus meunangna Austria ti Turki dina [[Perang Turki Raya]]. Austria ngalaksanakeun paluasan kakawasaan lianna ka wewengkon Wallachia jeung Moldavia, jeung [[Kakaisaran Rusia]] ngawasaan [[Bessarabia]] taun 1812. === Kamerdékaan jeung Monarki === [[Image:Romanians before WW1.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Wewengkon nu dicicingan bangsa Romania saméméh Perang Dunya I]] Dina période kakawasaan [[Austria-Hongaria]] di Transilvania, jeung ''suzerainty'' Utsmaniyah di Wallachia jeung Moldavia, status bangsa Romania nyaéta [[Supplex Libellus Valachorum|padumuk kelas dua]] (atawa malah sanés padumuk)<ref>{{citeweb|publisher =GenealogyRO Group|title =The Magyarization Process|url= http://www.genealogy.ro/cont/13.htm |accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> di wewengkon tempat bangsa aranjeunna jadi bangsa mayoritas.<ref>{{citebook |last =Kocsis |first =Karoly |last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter |year =1999 |title =Ethnic structure of the population on the present territory of Transylvania (1880-1992) |url =http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |accessdate =2008-08-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222171134/http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |date=2008-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kocsis |first =Karoly|last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter|title =Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo |year =2001|pages =[https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo/page/102 102]|publisher =Simon Publications|isbn =193131375X}}</ref> Di sababraha kota di Transilvania, kawas [[Braşov]], bangsa Romania dilarang tinggal di jeroeun témbok kota.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Prodan|first =David |title =Supplex Libellus Valachorum= Or, The Politicle Struggle of Romanians in Transylvania During the 18th Century|publisher=Academy of Social Republic of Romania|year =1971|location =Bucharest}}</ref> Sanggeus gagalna [[Révolusi 1848]], nagara-nagara gedé teu ngadukung usaha unifikasi Romania, jadina aranjeunna kapaksa joang sorangan ngalawan Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Éléktor di Moldavia jeung Wallachia milih [[Alexander John Cuza|Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] minangka pangéran (''[[Domnitor]]'' dina [[basa Romania]]) dina taun 1859.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Bobango|first =Gerald J|title =The emergence of the Romanian national State|url =https://archive.org/details/emergenceofroman0000boba|publisher =Boulder|year =1979|location =New York|isbn = 9780914710516}}</ref> Pamilihan Alexandru Ioan Cuza minangka ''domnitor'' hasil ngahijikeun Wallachia jeung Moldavia minangka Romania, tapi Transilvania masih encan kénéh kaasup kana wewengkon Romania. Di Transilvania, bangsa Hungaria aya di kelas luhur, jadina bangsa Romania ngamimitian palawanan ka Hongaria. Dina kudéta taun 1866, [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza|Cuza]] diasingkeun jeung digantikeun ku Pangéran Karl ti [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]], nu katelah minangka [[Pangéran Karol ti Romania]]. Dina [[Perang Rusia-Turki 1877-78]], Romania ngadukung Rusia,<ref>{{Citeweb|language|Russian|title =San Stefano Preliminary Treaty|year =1878|url =http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/stefano.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung dina [[Traktat Berlin 1878]], kamerdékaan Romania diakuan.<ref>{{Cite book|work=Internet Modern History Sourcebook|title=The Treaty of Berlin, 1878 - Excerpts on the Balkans|date=July 13, 1878|place=Berlin|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|accessdate=2008-08-31|publisher=Fordham University}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608120300/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html |date=2008-06-08 }}</ref> Gagantina, Romania méré tilu distrik kidul di [[Bessarabia]] ka Rusia jeung meunangan wewengkon [[Dobrogea]]. Dina taun 1881, kapangéranan robah kana karajaan. Période 1878-1914 mangrupa période kastabilan jeung kamajuan pikeun Romania. Dina [[Perang Balkan Kadua]], Romania ngagabung jeung [[Yunani]], [[Sérbia]], [[Monténégro]], jeung [[Turki]] ngalawan [[Bulgaria]], jeung dina [[Traktat Bukares (1913)]], Romania miboga kakawasaan dina wewengkon [[Dobrogea Kidul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Anderson|first =Frank Maloy|last2 =Hershey|first2 =Amos Shartle|title =Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914|url =https://archive.org/details/handbookfordipl00hersgoog|publisher =Government Printing Office|year =1918|location =Washington D.C.}}</ref> === Perang Dunya === Dina Agustus 1914, basa [[Perang Dunya I]], Romania ngumumkeun nétral. Dua taun saterasna, dina tekenan Sakutu (utamana Perancis nu hayang muka front anyar), dina 14/27 Agustus 1916, Romania gabung ka Sakutu jeung ngadéklarasikeun perang ka [[Austria-Hongaria]]. Lantaran kitu, liwat [[Traktat Bukares (1916)|konvénsi militér rahasia]], Sakutu jangji méré dukungan ka Romania dina usaha ngahijikeun sadaya rahayat Romania.<ref>{{Cite web|last =Horne|first =Charles F.|year =Horne|title =Ion Bratianu's Declaration of War Delivered to the Austrian Minister in Romania on August 28, 1916|volume =V|publisher =Source Records of the Great War|url =http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207045455/http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm |date=2008-12-07 }}</ref> [[Kampanye Romania (Perang Dunya I)|Kampanye militér Romania]] ahir kalawan karusuhan pikeun Romania sabab [[Blok Séntral]] nalukkeun 2/3 téritori Romania dina wanci opat bulan, tapi [[Moldavia]] tetep aya dina kawasa Romania sanggeus invasi eureun dina taun 1917. Dina ahir perang, Austria-Hongaria jeung Kakaisaran Rusia ngalaman disintegrasi, jadina [[Bessarabia]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Transilvania]] ngadéklarasikeun panghijian jeung [[Karajaan Romania]]. [[File:Romania1941.png|thumb|right|250px]] Dina [[Perang Dunya Kadua]], Romania ngadéklarasikeun nétral deui, tapi dina 28 Juni 1940, Romania narima [[ultimatum Soviét Juni 1940|ultimatum ti Uni Soviét]].<ref name="ultimatum">{{cite book|url=http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archivedate=2007-11-13|title=Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940|author=Ioan Scurtu, Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu|language=Romanian|publisher=University of Bucharest|year=2002|accessdate=2011-10-30}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |date=2007-11-13 }}</ref> Dina tekenan [[Mosow]] jeung [[Bérlin]], Romania kapaksa mundur ti [[Bessarabia]] jeung [[Bukovina Kalér]] pikeun nyingkahan perang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nagy-Talavera|first=Nicolas M.|title=Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1970|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515/page/n322 305]}}</ref> Kajadian ieu, ditambih ku sababaraha faktor nu lian, nyieunan pamaréntah Romania gabung ka [[Blok Poros]]. Akibat kaputusan blok Poros, [[Dobrogea]] kidul dibéré ka Bulgaria, samentara Hongaria miboga [[Transilvania|Transilvania Kalér]].<ref>{{citejournal|author=M. Broszat|language=German|title=Deutschland — Ungarn — Rumänien. Entwicklung und Grundfaktoren nationalsozialistischer Hegemonial- und Bündnispolitik 1938-1941|journal=[[Historische Zeitschrift]]|issue=206|year=1968|pages=552–553}}</ref> Dina perang, Romania mangrupa sumber minyak nu penting pikeun [[Jérman Nazi|Nazi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti|title=The Biggest Mistakes In World War 2:Ploesti - the most important target|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918013749/http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref> jadina Sakutu [[Operasi Tidal Wave|ngalaksanakeun pamboman]]. Sanggeus [[Operasi Barbarossa|invasi Jérman ka Uni Soviét]], Romania ngarebut deui Bessarabia jeung Bukovina Kalér ti Soviét. Sanggeus Raja [[Mihai I ti Romania]] diistrénan jeung ngalabuhkeun [[Ion Antonescu]], Romania ngagabung ka Sakutu, tapi lakuannna dina nalukkeun Jérman Nazi teu diakuan ku [[Konferénsi Parapihan Paris]] taun 1947.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033400/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archivedate=2007-09-30|title=World War II – 60 Years After: Former Romanian Monarch Remembers Decision To Switch Sides|author=Eugen Tomiuc|date=May 6, 2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Wates kulon Romania balik deui kawas saméméhna, tapi Bukovina Kalér jeung Bessarabia tetep dikawasaan ku Soviet. === Komunisme === Dina taun 1947, kaum komunis maksa Raja Mihai I lungsur jeung angkat ninggalkeun nagara. Romania diproklamasikeun minangka [[républik rahayat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|publisher=CIA - The World Factbook|title=Romania|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515163205/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html |date=2020-05-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html|title=Romania - Country Background and Profile|publisher=ed-u.com|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210194350/http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> Romania tetep aya dina [[Panjajahan Soviét di Romania|panjajahan militér]] jeung [[SovRoms|kontrol ékonomi]] Uni Soviét nepi ka ahir taun 1950-an. Dina période ieu, sumber daya Romania diserep<ref>{{Cite web|first=Carmen|last=Rîjnoveanu|title=Romania's Policy of Autonomy in the Context of the Sino-Soviet Conflict|year=2003|pages=1|publisher=Czech Republic Military History Institute, Militärgeschichtliches Forscheungamt|url=http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624195137/http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf |date=2008-06-24 }}</ref> ku pausahaan Soviét-Romania ([[SovRoms]]).<ref>{{Citebook|last=Roper|first=Stephen D.|title=Romania: The Unfinished Revolution|place=London|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=9058230279|pages=18}}</ref><ref>{{Citebook|last=Cioroianu|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Cioroianu|title="On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"|language=Romanian|publisher=Editura Curtea Veche|year =2005|location=Bucharest|pages=68–73|isbn=9736691756}}</ref> [[Image:Nicolae Ceaușescu (1988).jpg|thumb|left|[[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]]] Pamaréntahan komunis ngawangun rézim nu utamana dilaksanakeun liwat [[Securitate]] (pulisi rasiah anyar). Aranjeunna ngalaksanakeun kampanye pikeun maraéhan "musuh nagara", jadina aya rajapati atawa ditangkepna individu-individu ku alesan politik jeung ékonomi.<ref>{{Citebook|last =Caraza|first =Grigore|title =Aiud însângerat|publisher =Editura Vremea XXI|year=2004|volume=Chapter IV|isbn=9736450503|language=Romanian}}</ref> Hukuman ngawengku déportasi, pangasingan internal, gawé paksa, atawa dipanjarakeun. Catetan sajarah nyatet rupa-rupa kasus panyiksaan jeung rajapati, boh ka musuh politik atawa rahayat biasa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cicerone Ioniţoiu|title=Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestaţi, torturaţi, întemniţaţi, ucişi. Dicţionar|publisher=Editura Maşina de scris|location=Bucharest|year=2000 |isbn= 973-99994-2-5|language=Romanian}}</ref> Dina taun 1965, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] mimita ngawasa jeung ngalaksanakeun kawijakan indepénden, kawas jadi sahiji-hijina nagara [[Pakta Warsawa]] nu teu satuju kana invasi Soviét ka [[Cékoslowakia]] taun 1968, neruskeun hubungan ka [[Israél]] sanggeus [[Perang Genep Poé]] tahn 1967, sarta muka hubungan diplomatik jeung ékonomi sareng [[Jérman Kulon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm|publisher=Country Studies.us|title=Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705191547/http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm |date=2009-07-05 }}</ref> Romania ogé miboga hubungan nu deukeut kalawan nagara-nagara [[Dunya Arab|Arab]], nyieun Romania maénkeun laku penting dina prosés parapihan [[Israél]]–[[Mesir]] jeung Israél–[[Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina|Paléstina]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/80.htm |publisher=countrystudies.us| title=Middle East policies in Communist Romania|publisher=Country Studies.us|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Ku sabab hutang luar nagri Romania naék drastis antara taun 1977 nepi ka 1981 (ti 3 nepi ka 10 miliar dollar AS),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=New Evidence on Romania and the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1989|publisher=Cold War International History Project e-Dossier Series|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029113345/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349 |date=2008-10-29 }}</ref> pangaruh organisasi monetér internasional kawas [[IMF]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] ningkat, nu teu cocog jeung kawijakan [[autarki]] Nicolae Céauşescu. Anjeunna ngusahakeun mayar hutang kalawan netepkeun kawijakan nu miskinkeun rahayat jeung nyieun ékonomi Romania leuleus. Salian ti éta, anjeunna ngaluasan kakawasaan [[Securitate]]. Akibatna, popularitas Céauşescu ngirang, nu ahir kalawan labuhna Céauşescu dina [[Révolusi Romania 1989]]. === Romania kiwari === Sanggeus [[Perang Tiis]] ahir, Romania mekarkeun hubungan nu leuwih deukeut sareng [[Eropa Kulon]]. Romania ngagabung ka [[NATO]] dina taun 2004, jeung jadi tuan bumi [[patepungan Puncak Bukares 2008|patepungan puncak NATO di Bukares taun 2008]].<ref>{{Cite news|title =NATO update: NATO welcomes seven new members|url =http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm|publisher =NATO|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911134550/http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm |date=2008-09-11 }}</ref> Romania ogé gabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|title=EU approves Bulgaria and Romania|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203223404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm |date=2008-12-03 }}</ref> Sabab kahéséan hirup sanggeus déprési ékonomi taun 1990-an, muncul [[diaspora Romania|diaspora]] gedé Romania. Tujuan émigrasi utama nyaéta [[Spanyol]], [[Italia]], [[Austria]], [[Jérman]], [[Britania Raya]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name=diaspora>{{cite web|url= http://www.focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1|title= Romania|accessdate= 2008-08-28|publisher= focus-migration.de}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207131655/http://focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1 |date=2009-02-07 }}</ref> == Politik jeung pamaréntahan == [[Konstitusi Romania]] dijieun dumasar kana [[Konstitusi Perancis]]<ref name="Europaworld">{{cite book|encyclopedia=The Europa World Year Book|year=2007|volume=2|edition=48|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York|title=Romania|pages=3734–3759|isbn=9781857434125}}</ref> jeung ditarima liwat réferéndum nasional dina 8 Désémber 1991.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Hiji panyandakan sora nu diayakeun dina Oktober 2003 narima 79 amandemén konstitusi, nyieunannna cocog jeung législasi Uni Éropa.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Romania téh mangrupa [[républik]] [[démokrasi|démokratis]] multipartéy. Fungsi éksekutif dilaksanakeun ku présidén jeung perdana menteri. [[Présidén Romania]] dipilih liwat pamilihan umum saban lima taun. Présidén nunjuk [[Perdana Menteri Romania|perdana menteri]], nu mingpin pamaréntahan.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Présidén hirup di [[Istana Cotroceni]], samentara Perdana Menteri jeung pamaréntahan Romania kantorna di [[Istana Victoria]]. Cabang [[législatif]] pamaréntahan Romania, nu kawanoh minangka [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] (''Parlamentul României''), diwangun ti dua majelis, ''Senat'' ([[Sénat]]), nu miboga 137 anggota (dina 2005), jeung ''[[Camera Deputaţilor]]'' (majelis handap), nu miboga 332 anggota (dina 2004). Anggota ti dua majelis ieu dipilih saban opat taun. Institusi nu pangluhurna dina sistem hukum Romania nyaéta [[Pangadilan Luhur Kasasi jeung Kaadilan]] (''Înalta Curte de Casaţie şi Justiţie''), nu mangrupa mahkamah ageung Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.scj.ro/monogr_en.asp|publisher=High Court of Cassation and Justice - —Romania|title=Presentation|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Sistem hukum di Romania loba kapangaruh ku hukum di Perancis.<ref name="Europaworld"/><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/2000//legal_system.html|title=Romanian Legal system|publisher=CIA Factbook|year=2000|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> == Hubungan luar nagri == Ti Désémber 1989, Romania terus ngiatan hubungan sareng Kulon, utamana jeung Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Éropa. Romania ngagabung ka ''[[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]'' (NATO) dina 29 Maret 2004, Uni Éropa dina 1 Januari 2007, [[Dana Monetér Internasional]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] dina taun 1972, jeung ngagabung ogé ka [[World Trade Organization]]. Pamaréntah Romania ayeuna ngusahakan ngiatan hubungan jeung nagara-nagara [[Eropa Wétan]] (utamana [[Moldova]], [[Ukraina]], jeung [[Géorgia]]).<ref name=mae>{{cite web|title=Foreign Policy Priorities of Romania for 2008|language=Romanian|url=http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914103728/http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3 |date=2008-09-14 }}</ref> Romania ogé ngadéklarasikeun dukunganna ka [[Turki]], [[Kroasia]], jeung [[Moldova]] pikeun gabung ka Uni Éropa. Dina Désémber 2005, Présidén, [[Traian Băsescu]], jeung [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat]], [[Condoleezza Rice]], nandatanganan pasatujuan nu ngijinkeun hadirna militér AS di sababaraha fasilitas Romania, utamana di bagian wétan nagara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Background Note: Romania - U.S.-Romanian Relations}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610072904/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm |date=2009-06-10 }}</ref> Dina Méi 2009, Sekretaris Nagara AS, [[Hillary Clinton]], nyebutkeun yén "Romania mangrupa salah sahiji batur nu paling dipercaya jeung paling dihormat ku Amérika Sarikat".<ref>http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512144240/http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- |date=2009-05-12 }}</ref> Hubungan diplomatik antara Romania jeung Moldova jadi istiméwa<ref name=mae/> sabab duanana miboga basa jeung sajarah nu sarua. [[Gerakan pikeun unifikasi Romania jeung Moldova]] muncul dina awal taun 1990-an sanggeus kadua nagara bébas ti kakawasaan komunis,<ref name=cfis>{{cite journal|url=http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm|title=Romania'S Relations With The Republic Of Moldova|author=Gabriel Andreescu, Valentin Stan, Renate Weber|journal=International Studies|publisher=Center for International Studies|date=1994-10-30|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223003657/http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm |date=2008-02-23 }}</ref> tapi leungit sabab pamaréntah Moldova nu anyar hayang tetep merdika ti Romania.<ref name=Ihrig>{{cite web|url=http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf|format=PDF|title=Rediscovering History, Rediscovering Ultimate Truth|author=Stefan Ihrig|accessdate=2008-09-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001165700/http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf |date=2008-10-01 }}</ref> Romania katarik jeung Moldova jeung sacara resmi nolak [[Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop]], pajangjian nu nyababkeun direbutna sabagian wewengkon Romania ku [[Uni Soviét]]<ref name=cfis/>. Tapi dua nagara ieu teu bisa tepung ka pasatujuan dina pajangjian bilateral.<ref>{{cite news|http://www.romanianewswatch.com/2007/12/moldova-urging-romania-to-sign-basic.html|title=Moldova urging Romania to sign basic political treaty|publisher=Romania News Watch|accessdate=2008-08-28|date=2007-12-16}}</ref> == Militér == Angkatan Pakarang Romania diwangun ti angkatan darat, laut, jeung udara, jeung dipingpin ku [[panglima pangluhurna]]. Présidén Romania mangrupa panglima nu pangluhurna ti angkatan pakarang dina masa perang. Romania miboga 90.000 tentara.<ref>{{cite press release|publisher=Ministry of National Defense of Romania|url=http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm|title=Press conference|date=2003-01-21|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403205407/http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm |archivedate=2008-04-03}}</ref> Romania miboga anggaran patahanan 2.05% ti [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]], nyaéta kira-kira 2.9 miliar dollar, tapi tentara Romania bakal ngagunakeun kira-kira 11 miliar dollar dina 2006 2011 pikeun modérnisasi jeung akuisisi palengkepan anyar.<ref name="ZF">{{citeweb|url= http://www.zf.ro/articol_99920/bugetul_mapn__2_05__din_pib__in_2007.html |title=MoND Budget as of 2007|publisher=''[[Ziarul Financiar]]''|date=2006-10-30|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Angkatan pakarang Romania geus kalibet dina sababaraha perang, kawas misi [[NATO]] di [[Apganistan]]. == Babagian administratif == [[Image:Romanian license plate codes.png|thumb|right|500px|Babagian administratif di Romania]] Romania dibagi kana 41 ''judeţe'', sarupa [[propinsi]], ditambih munisipalitas [[Bukares]] (Bucureşti). Saban judeţe miboga déwan judeţe (''consiliu judeţean''), nu boga tanggung jawab pamaréntahan daérah. Judeţe dibagi kana kota (tung. ''oraş'', jam. ''oraşe'') jeung komune (tung. ''comună'', jam. ''comune''). Aya 319 kota jeung 2686 komune di Romania.<ref name="total">{{cite report|language=ro|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|chapter=1.8|title=Administrative Organisation of Romanian Territory, on December 31, 2005|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |archivedate=2007-09-27}}</ref> Saban kota jeung komune miboga walikota (''primar'') jeung déwan daérah (''consiliu local''). Ieu daptar judeţe/propinsi Romania (alfabétis): {| | * [[Propinsi Alba|Alba]] * [[Propinsi Arad|Arad]] * [[Propinsi Argeş|Argeş]] * [[Propinsi Bacău|Bacău]] * [[Propinsi Bihor|Bihor]] * [[Propinsi Bistriţa-Năsăud|Bistriţa-Năsăud]] * [[Propinsi Botoşani|Botoşani]] * [[Propinsi Braşov|Braşov]] * [[Propinsi Brăila|Brăila]] * [[Propinsi Buzău|Buzău]] * [[Propinsi Caraş-Severin|Caraş-Severin]] * [[Propinsi Călăraşi|Călăraşi]] * [[Propinsi Cluj|Cluj]] * [[Propinsi Constanţa|Constanţa]] * [[Propinsi Covasna|Covasna]] * [[Propinsi Dâmboviţa|Dâmboviţa]] * [[Propinsi Dolj|Dolj]] * [[Propinsi Galaţi|Galaţi]] * [[Propinsi Giurgiu|Giurgiu]] * [[Propinsi Gorj|Gorj]] * [[Propinsi Harghita|Harghita]] | * [[Propinsi Hunedoara|Hunedoara]] * [[Propinsi Ialomiţa|Ialomiţa]] * [[Propinsi Iaşi|Iaşi]] * [[Propinsi Ilfov|Ilfov]] * [[Propinsi Maramureş|Maramureş]] * [[Propinsi Mehedinţi|Mehedinţi]] * [[Propinsi Mureş|Mureş]] * [[Propinsi Neamţ|Neamţ]] * [[Propinsi Olt|Olt]] * [[Propinsi Prahova|Prahova]] * [[Propinsi Satu Mare|Satu Mare]] * [[Propinsi Sălaj|Sălaj]] * [[Propinsi Sibiu|Sibiu]] * [[Propinsi Suceava|Suceava]] * [[Propinsi Teleorman|Teleorman]] * [[Propinsi Timiş|Timiş]] * [[Propinsi Tulcea|Tulcea]] * [[Propinsi Vaslui|Vaslui]] * [[Propinsi Vâlcea|Vâlcea]] * [[Propinsi Vrancea|Vrancea]] |} == Géografi == [[Gambar:Physical map of Romania.jpg|thumb|250px|Peta topografi Romania]] Kalawan téritori saluas {{convert|238391|km2|sqmi|}}, Romania mangrupa nagara nu pangluasna di [[Eropa Tenggara]] jeung nu panggedéna ka-12 di Éropa.<ref name="statistical">{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|title=Geography, Meteorology and Environment|date=2004|publisher=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Kalobaannana ti wates Romania jeung Serbia sarta [[Bulgaria]] diwangun ti [[Walungan Donau]]. Walungan Donau ngalir ka [[Laut Hideung]] liwat wewengkon Romania, ngawangun [[Délta Donau]], délta nu panggedéna kadua di Éropa, nu jadi [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-09}}</ref> Walungan penting lian nyaéta [[Walungan Siret|Siret]], [[Walungan Olt|Olt]] jenung [[Walungan Mureş|Mureş]].<ref name="statistical"/> Topografi Romania dibagi antara pagunungan, papasiran, jeung dataran handap. [[Pagunungan Carpathia]] ngadominasi puseur Romania, kalawan 14 puncakna nu nepi ka kaluhuran leuwih ti 2.000 méter.<ref name="statistical"/> Gunung nu pangluhurna di Romania nyaéta [[Puncak Moldoveanu]] ({{convert|2544|m|ft|disp=s|abbr=on}}). Di Romania kidul bagian tengah, pagunungan robah ka papasiran. Divérsitas géografi nyababkeun divérsitas flora jeung fauna di Romania.<ref name="statistical"/> === Ékosistem === [[Image:Retezat-bucura-peleaga.jpg|thumb|250px|Danau glasial di [[Taman Nasional Retezat]]]] 47% wewengkon Romania diwangun ti ékosistem natural jeung semi-natural.<ref name=biodiversity>{{citeweb|url=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/romania/robiodiv.htm|title=Romania's Biodiversity|publisher=Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection of Romania|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Ku sabab méh saparo leuweung di Romania (13% téritori) geus diatur pikeun konsérvasi [[Daérah Aliran Walungan]] tinimbang produksi, Romania miboga salah sahiji wewengkon leuweung nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref name=biodiversity/> Aya kira-kira {{convert|10000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} wewengkon nu dilindung di Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/protarea.htm|title=Protected Areas in Romania|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> [[Délta Donau|Cagar Biosfer Donau]] mangrupa komplék lahan baseuh nu panggedéna jeung paling saeutik diruksak di Éropa, ngawengku wewengkon saluas {{convert|5800|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/delta.htm|title=Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Pentingna biodivérsitas di Délta Donau geus diakuan di dunya, jadina didéklarasikeun minangka [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]] dina Désémber 1991.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Aya dua cagar biosfer lian di Romania, nyaéta [[Taman Nasional Retezat]] jeung [[Pagunungan Rodna|Taman Nasional Rodna]]. === Flora jeung fauna === [[Image:Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG|250px|left|thumb|[[Pelikan]] di Délta Donau]] Di Romania aya 3.700 spésiés tutuwuhan. 23 geus disebutkeun minangka monumén alam, 74 spésiés hilang, 39 spésiés kaancam, 171 spésiés pikacilakaeun, jeung 1.253 spésiés dianggap langka.<ref name="flora">{{cite web|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm|title=Flora si fauna salbatica|publisher=enrin.grida.no|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223142209/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm |date=2009-02-23 }}</ref> Tilu zona végetasi utama di Romania nyaéta zona alpine, zona leuweung, jeung zona stépa. Végetasi nyebar dumasar kana karakteristik taneuh, iklim, jeung kaluhuran. Fauna di Romania diwangun ti 33.792 spésiés, 33.085 spésiés mangrupa [[invértébrata]] jeung 707 spésiés mangrupa [[vértébrata]].<ref name="flora"/> Spésiés vértébrata diwangun ti 191 spésiés lauk, 20 spésiés ampibi, 30 spésiés réptil, 364 spésiés manuk, jeung 102 spésiés mamalia.<ref name="flora"/> Fauna nyebar dumasar kana rupa végétasi di mana maranéhna aya. === Iklim === Romania miboga iklim transisional antara [[iklim sedeng]] jeung [[iklim kontinéntal|kontinéntal]]. Rarata suhu di Romania nyaéta 11&nbsp;°C (52&nbsp;°F) di kidul jeung {{convert|8|°C}} di kalér.<ref name=climate>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/34.htm|title=Romania: Climate|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Suhu pangpanasna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta {{convert|44.5|°C}} di [[Ion Sion]] 1951 jeung suhu pangtiisna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta -38.5 (−37&nbsp;°F) di [[Bod, Braşov|Bod]] 1942.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.romaniatourism.com/climate.html|title=Romania: climate|publisher=Climate|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Di Romania aya opat usum, nyaéta usum semi, panas, gugur, jeung tiis. Usum panas biasana haneut pisan atawa panas, kalawan rarata suhu dibukares kira-kira {{convert|28|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Romania/Climate/|title=The monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest|publisher=WorldTravels|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Usum semi boga ciri isuk jeung peuting nu tiis, jeung siang nu haneut. Usum gugur boga ciri garing jeung tiis, upami usum tiis miobga rarata suhu nu pangpanasna teu leuwih ti {{convert|2|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://clic.npolar.no/disc/disc_datasets_metadata.php?s=0&desc=1&table=Datasets&id=DISC_GCMD_GGD30&tag=All&Category=&WCRP=&Location=All&stype=phrase&limit=10&q=|title=Permafrost Monitoring and Prediction in Southern Carpathians, Romania|publisher=CliC International Project Office (CIPO)|date=2004-12-22|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Rarata curah hujan di pagunungan kulon Romania nyaéta {{convert|750|mm|in|abbr=on}} per taun. Di wewengkon kidul bagian tengah (sakurilingeun Bukares), tingkat curah hujan nepi ka {{convert|600|mm|in|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|title=The 2004 Yearbook|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> ari di Délta Donau, curah hujan leutik pisan, kalawan rarata 370&nbsp;mm. == Démografi == [[Image:Romania harta etnica 2011.PNG|350px|thumb|Peta pasebaran étnis di Romania dina taun 2011]] Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2002, Romania miboga populasi 21.698.181 jeung kira-kira bakal ngirang. 89.5% padumuk Romania mangrupa [[bangsa Romania]]. Étnis minoritas nu panggedéna nyaéta [[Hungar]], nu ngawangun 6.6% populasi jeung [[urang Rom|Rom]] nu ngawangun 2.46% populasi. Dumasar kana sénsus resmi, 535.250 urang Rom tinggal di Romania. Hungar, nu mangrupa minoritas di [[Transilvania]], jadi mayoritas di county [[County Harghita|Harghita]] jeung [[County Covasna|Covasna]]. [[Bangsa Ukraina]], [[Bangsa Jérman|Jérman]], [[Lipovan]], [[Bangsa Turki|Turki]], [[Tatar]], [[Bangsa Sérbia|Sérbia]], [[Bangsa Slowakia|Slowakia]], [[Bangsa Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Bangsa Kroasia|Kroasia]], [[Bangsa Yunani|Yunani]], [[Bangsa Rusia|Rusia]], [[Yahudi]], [[Bangsa Céko|Céko]], [[Bangsa Polandia|Polandia]], [[Bangsa Italia|Italia]], [[Bangsa Arménia|Arménia]], jeung sababaraha grup étnis lianna ngawangun 1.4% populasi.<ref name="census">{{cite report|url=http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html|title=Official site of the results of the 2002 Census|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html%23 |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-03-25 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325223653/http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html%23 |archivedate=2008-03-25}}</ref> Basa resmi Romania nyaéta [[basa Romania]]. Basa Romania mangrupa basa asli pikeun 91% padumuk Romania, jeung [[basa Hongaria]] sareng [[Rom]] minangka basa minoritas nu pangpentingna, dipaké ku 6.7% jeung 1.1% padumuk.<ref name="census" /> Di tempat étnis minoritas ngawangun 20% populasi, basa minoritas éta bisa dipaké dina administrasi jeung hukum. [[Basa Inggris]] jeung [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]] mangrupa basa asing utama nu diajarkeun di sakola-sakola. Basa Inggris digunakeun ku 5 yuta padumuk Romania, Perancis ku 4–5 yuta<sup>[''nu bener?'']</sup> padumuk, jeung Jérman, Italia, jeung Spanyol dipaké ku 1–2 yuta padumuk.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.anis.ro/index.php?page=afaceri&sec=afaceri_avantaje&lang=ro|title=Outsourcing IT în România|language=Romanian|publisher=Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Saméméhna, basa Perancis mangrupa basa asing utama di Romania, tapi basa Inggris geus ngagantina. Basa Jérman diajarkeun di Transilvania lantaran kakawasaan Austria-Hongaria di propinsi ieu sebelumnya. Romania mangrupa [[nagara sékulér]], jadina teu boga agama nasional. Agama nu loba diagem nyaéta [[Garéja Orthodox Romania]] (86.7%). Agama penting lianna nyaéta [[Katolik Roma]] (4.7%), [[Protéstan]] (3.7%), [[Garéja Péntakosta|Péntakosta]] (1.5%), jeung [[Garéja Katolik-Yunani Romania]] (0.9%).<ref name="census" /> [[Islam]] ogé diagem jeung museur di [[Dobrogea]]. Salian ti Islam, agama [[Yahudi]] ogé diagem ku sabagian padumuk Romania. == Atikan == [[Image:Bucharest university.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Universitas Bukares]]]] Ti Révolusi Romania 1989, sistem atikan Romania terus diréformasi.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002165335/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html |archivedate=2008-10-02}}</ref> Dumasar kana Undang-Undang Atikan nu dipaké dina taun 1995, sistem atikan diatur ku [[Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan Romania|Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan]]. [[TK]] mangrupa atika opsional pikeun barudak nu yuswana 3 nepi ka 6 taun. Sakola dimimiti dina yuswa 7 taun (kadang-kadang 6), jeung wajib nepi ka kelas 10 (dina yuswa kira-kira 16 atawa 17).<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001200457/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html |archivedate=2008-10-01}}</ref> Dumasar kana [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]], dina taun 2006 euweuh universitas di Romania nu asup ka 500 universitas nu pangalusna di dunya.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf|format=pdf|title=Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205043418/http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf |archivedate=2012-02-05}}</ref> Dilaporkeun yén universitas nu pangalusna di Romania, [[Universitas Bukares]] ngan miboga peunteun saparo ti universitas nu miboga tingkat ka-500.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Asociaţia Ad Astra a cercetătorilor rom âni|author=Răzvan Florian|url=http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf|format=pdf|title=Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings|location=Cluj-Napoca, România|pages=7–9|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023140037/http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf |archivedate=2006-10-23}}</ref> == Ékonomi == [[Image:MittalSteelGalati200607.jpg|thumb|250px|Pabrik baja [[ArcelorMittal]] di [[Galaţi]]]] Kalawan [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]] $264 miliar jeung [[PDB per kapita]] ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) $12.285<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=968&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIPCH&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=87&pr1.y=12 |title=IMF World Economic Outlook April 2008 - Central and Eastern Europe|month=April | year=2008|publisher=IMF|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> dina taun 2008, Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan pamasukan nengah ka luhur<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income|publisher=World Bank|title=Country Classification Groups|year=2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung geus jadi bagian ti Uni Éropa ti 1 Januari 2007. Sanggeus rézim komunis labuh dina taun 1989, nagara ieu ngalaman dékade panurunan jeung kateustabilan ékonomi, disababkeun ku labuhna basis industri jeung kirangnya réformasi struktural, tapi ti taun 2000, ékonomi Romania robah kana ékonomi kalawan kastabilan [[ékonomi makro]], jeung ciri kamekaran ékonomi luhur, tingkat pangangguran handap jeung ngirangna [[inflasi]]. Dina taun 2006, Romania nyitak kamekaran ékonomi 7.7%, salah sahiji nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/pib/pibr06.pdf|format=PDF|title=GDP in 2006|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Kamekaran ékonomi turun ka 6.1% dina taun 2007,<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|title=World Bank: In 2008 Romania will have an economic growth of 5.9%|url=http://www.romanialibera.ro/a115093/banca-mondiala-in-2008-romania-va-avea-o-crestere-economica-de-5-9.html|accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> tapi nepi ka 8.9% dina salapan bulan awal taun 2008. Kamekaran ékonomi labuh ka 2.9% dina triwulan ka-4 jeung kamekaran ékonomi Romania dina taun 2008 jadi 7.1%. Hal ieu disababkeun ku ayana [[krisis finansial global 2008-2009|krisis finansial global]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea+economica+din+2008+a+franat+brusc+in+T+4|title=Creşterea economică din 2008 a frânat brusc în T 4|work=Curierul National|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030004320/http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea%20economica%20din%202008%20a%20franat%20brusc%20in%20T%204 |date=2009-10-30 }}</ref> Romania miboga tingkat pangangguran 3.9% dina Séptémber 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf|format=PDF|title=Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007|publisher=National Institute of Statistics of Romania|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827223300/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf |date=2008-08-27 }}</ref> nu lumayan handap lamjun dibandingkeun jeung nagara Éropa lianna, kawas [[Polandia]], Perancis, Jérman, jeung Spanyol. Utang luar nagri Romania ogé lumayan handap, kalawan jumlah 20.3% ti PDB.<ref name="CIA">{{citeweb|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|title=Romania|publisher=CIA World Factbook|year=2006|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Tingkat ékspor Romania ogé terus ningkat dina sababaraha taun ieu, kalawan komoditas nu diékspor nyaéta tékstil, mesin industri, pakakas éléktronik, produk [[métalurgi]], bahan atah, mobil, pakakas hipu, farmasi, bahan kimia, jeung produk agrikultur (bungbuahan, sayur, jeung kembang). Romania loba ngalaksanakeun dagang sareng nagara-nagara Uni Éropa, kalawan Jérman jeung Italia salaku mitra dagang nu panggedéna, tapi Romania ngalaman défisit dagang nu gedé, nu ningkat 50% dina taun 2007.<ref name=economywatch>{{citeweb|url=http://romaniaeconomywatch.blogspot.com/2007/11/romania-trade-balance-september-2007.html|title=Romania at A Glance - January 2008|publisher=Romania Economy Watch|year=2008|month=January|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Sanggeus privatisasi jeung réformasi dina ahir taun 1990-an jeung awal 2000-an, intervénsi pamaréntah dina ékonomi Romania leuwih handap dibandingkeun nagara-nagara Éropa lianna.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Romania|title=Index of Economic Freedom: Romania|publisher=heritage.org|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Dina taun 2005, pamaréntah ngagentos [[sistem pajak progrésif]] Romania jadi [[sistem pajak tetep]] 16%, jadina Romania miboga tanggung jawab fiskal nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa,<ref>{{cite report|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF|format=pdf|title=Taxation trends in the EU|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|date=2007-06-26|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Cite web |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2008-08-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628064604/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF |archivedate=2007-06-28}}</ref> faktor nu ngabantu tumuwuhna séktor swasta. Ékonomi Romania leuwih ngagantung dina jasa (55% ti PDB), sanajan industri (35% ti PDB) jeung agrikultur (15% ti PDB) ogé boga pangaruh. Salian ti étu, 32% padumuk Romania gawé dina séktor agrikultur jeung produksi.<ref name="CIA" /> Ti taun 2000, Romania geus narik perhatosan invéstor ti luar nagri jeung jadi tujuan invéstasi nu panggedéna di Éropa Tengah jeung Tenggara. Dina taun 2006, jumlah total arus asup ''[[foreign direct investment]]'' di Romania nyaéta €8.3 miliar.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.portalino.it/nuke/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=20346 |title=Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> == Transportasi == [[Image:Romania-drumuri.svg|right|thumb|250px|Peta jaringan jalan di Romania]] Ku lantaran lokasina, Romania mangrupa simpangan pikeun patukeran ékonomi internasional di [[Eropa]], tapi lantaran kirangna invéstasi, pangurusan jeung paropéaan infrastruktur transportasi Romania teu minuhan kabutuhan pasar jeung katinggal ti [[Eropa Kulon]].<ref name="drumuri">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20|title=Prezentarea generală a reţelei de drumuri|publisher=cnadnr.ro|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211132511/http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20 |date=2010-02-11 }}</ref> Tapi, kondisi ieu terus ngabener jeung standar [[jaringan transportasi Trans-Eropa]] terus diudag. Sababaraha proyék geus dimimitian kalawan dana ti [[Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession]] (ISPA) jeung injeuman ti [[International Financial Institutions]] ([[Bank Dunya]], [[IMF]], jsb.). Bank Dunya ngira-ngira yén jaringan rél karéta api nu aya di Romania dina taun 2004 nepi ka 22.298&nbsp;km, nyieunanna jaringan karéta api nu panggedéna ka-4 di Éropa.<ref name="cai ferate">{{citeweb|url=http://www.cfr.ro/jf/romana/0208/retea.htm|title=Reteaua feroviara|language=Romanian|publisher=cfr.to|accessdate=2009-09-06}}</ref> == Budaya == [[Image:Iasi cultural palace.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Istana Budaya (Iaşi)|Istana Budaya]] di [[Iaşi]] diwangun antara taun 1906 jeung 1925.]] Romania miboga budaya nu unik, nu kacipta ti géografi jeung sajarahna. Idéntitas Romania mimiti kawangun ti pangaruh budaya [[Romawi]] jeung [[Dacia]]. Ti abad patengahan, pangaruh budaya muncul ti [[bangsa Slavia]] nu migrasi di deukeut Romania.<ref name=influences>{{cite book|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia|author=Lucian Boia, James Christian Brown|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|isbn=9781861891037|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia/page/13 13], 36–40}}</ref> Budaya modérn Romania mekar dina pangaruh [[budaya Kulon]], utamana [[budaya Perancis|Perancis]]<ref name=iciculture/> jeung [[budaya Jérman|Jérman]].<ref name=iciculture>{{cite web|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html|title=Cultural aspects|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307182620/http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html |date=2008-03-07 }}</ref> === Seni jeung sastra === Sastra Romania mimiti évolusi sanggeus [[révolusi Wallachia 1848]]. Murid Romania mimiti neuleuman di Perancis, Italia, jeung Jérman. Filsafat Jérman jeung budaya Perancis kaintegrasi kana sastra Romania modérn jeung muncul inohong kawas [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[George Coşbuc]], jeung [[Ioan Slavici]]. Sanajan aranjeunna kirang kasohor di luar Romania, aranjeunna diapresiasikeun pisan di Romania sahah nyieun sastra Romania. Di antara aranjeunna, Eminescu dianggap salaku panyair Romania nu pangpentingna, jeung karyana masih dipikaresep, utamana puisi ''[[Luceafărul]]''.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/l_eminescu.html|title=Mihai Eminescu|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Panulis lian nu méré kontribusi dina abad ka-19 nyaéta [[Mihail Kogălniceanu]], [[Vasile Alecsandri]], [[Nicolae Bălcescu]], [[Ion Luca Caragiale]], jeung [[Ion Creangă]]. Awal abad ka-20 dianggap minangka jaman kajayaan budaya Romania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html|title=Romanian Cultural Debate of the Summer: Romanian Intellectuals and Their Status Groups|publisher=Romanian Club @ Columbia University|author=Mona Momescu|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624212717/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html |date=2016-06-24 }}</ref> Inohong penting nu geus mangaruhan budaya dunya nyaéta [[Constantin Brâncuşi]], figur utama gerakan modérn, panaratas abstraksi jeung panganyar skulptur dunya.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.brancusi.com/bio.html|title=Constantin Brâncuşi's bio|publisher=Brancusi.com|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Salah sahiji karyana, "''[[Bird in Space]]''" , kajual $27.5 yuta dina taun 2005.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://antiquesandthearts.com/AW-2005-05-10-12-15-39p1.htm|title=Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000|publisher=Antiques and the Arts Online|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://crib.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en&id=31&s=15441&arhiva=true|publisher=Romanian Information Center in Brussels|title=November 9, The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when “Bird in Space” was sold for USD 27.5 M|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Dina période antar perang dunya, inohong kawas [[Tudor Arghezi]], [[Lucian Blaga]], [[Eugen Lovinescu]], [[Ion Barbu]], [[Liviu Rebreanu]] ngusahakeun nyinkronisasikeun sastra Romania jeung sastra Éropa. [[George Enescu]], panembang Romania nu kasohor, ogé asalna ti période ini.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.enescusociety.org/georgeenescu.php|title=George Enescu, the composer|publisher=International Enescu Society|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Sanggeus perang dunya réngsé, komunisme mawa panyénsoran gedé. Kabébasan nepikeun pamikiran dilarang, tapi inohong kawas [[Gellu Naum]], [[Nichita Stănescu]], jeung [[Marin Sorescu]] hasil lolos ti panyénsoran, jeung mangrupa pamingpin "Renaissance" leutik pikeun sastra Romania.<ref>{{citebook|last=Ştefănescu|first=Alex.|title=Nichita Stănescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands|language=Romanian|publisher=Maşina de scris|year=1999|pages=8|isbn=9789739929745}}</ref> samentara teu loba karya nu hasil lolos ka dunya internasional lantaran panyénsoran, karya figur kawas [[Constantin Noica]], [[Paul Goma]], jeung [[Mircea Cărtărescu]] dipublikasikeun di luar nagri sanajan aranjeunna dipanjarakeun lantaran rupa-rupa alesan politik. Sababaraha senima milih ninggalkeun nagara jeung nyumbang karyana dina pangasingan, kawas [[Eugen Ionescu]], [[Mircea Eliade]], jeung [[Emil Cioran]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] == Catetan suku == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20061004115558/http://www.gov.ro/engleza/ Loka resmi pamaréntah Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.presidency.ro/?lang=en Présidén Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.senat.ro/ Sénat Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 Camera Deputaţilor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207033814/http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 |date=2006-12-07 }} (majelis handap di parlemén) * {{en}} [http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng Kamentrian Pariwisata] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305192745/http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng |date=2005-03-05 }} * {{ro}} [http://www.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en Kamentrian Luar Nagri] {{nagara-geo-stub}} {{Artikel Geulis}} {{Éropa}}<br/> {{Laut Hideung}}<br/> {{Uni Éropa}}<br/> {{Déwan Éropa}}<br/> {{NATO}}<br/> {{OSCE}}<br/> {{WTO}}<br/> {{Uni Latin}}<br/> {{La Francophonie}} [[Kategori:Romania| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Éropa Wétan]] 90w2sa6kakstq1f0xpiif3dp7t69nv4 Kanker Beuheung Rahim 0 35621 732128 707749 2026-11-10T22:22:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732128 wikitext text/x-wiki [[gambar:Illu female pelvis.jpg|thumb|200px]] '''Kanker Beuheung Rahim''' atawa '''Kanker Serviks''' mangrupa jenis kanker anu panglobana kapanggih dina [[awéwé]] di [[Indonésia]] (di antara jenis [[kanker]] séjénna) sarta loba ngabalukarkeun [[pati]] alatan telat kapnggihna jeing diubaranana.<ref name=sumber1>{{id}} [http://www.lusa.web.id/kanker-leher-rahim-ca-cerviks/] (Dicutat tanggal 27 Oktober 2011)</ref> [[Human papillomavirus]] (HPV) mangrupa panyabab paling umum dina kanker sérviks.<ref name=sumber2>{{en}} [http://www.jci.org/articles/view/28607/version/1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522012655/http://www.jci.org/articles/view/28607/version/1 |date=2010-05-22 }} (Dicutat tanggal 27 Oktober 2011)</ref> Ayana HPV dina ampir kabéh kanker serviks ngagambarkeun sacara teu langsung wawakil pangluhurna di sakumna dunya anu dilaporkeun jadi panyabab utama tina kanker manusa.<ref name=sumber3>{{en}} [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199909)189:1%3C12::AID-PATH431%3E3.0.CO;2-F/abstract] (Dicutat tanggal 27 Oktober 2011)</ref> ==Jenis Serviks== Dina serviks aya 2 jenis [[sél]] nyaéta [[sél skuamos]] sarta [[glandula]]r atawa [[sél endoserviks]].<ref name=sumber1 /> Dina kanker serviks, sél-sél boga léngkah sacara teu normal terus ngagedéanr sarta nyieun bénjolan atawa [[tumor]].<ref name=sumber1 /> Biasana sél-sél gangas kasebut asalna ti squamo columnar juntion.<ref name=sumber1 /> Panyabab panglobana ti kanker beuheung rahim nyaéta 99 % ti HPV (human papilloma virus) anu disebarkeun liwat laku-lampah séks anu teu bener.<ref name=sumber1 /> ==Tanda-tanda Kanker Beuheung Rahim== Kanker beuheung pianakan dina stadium mimiti teu némbongkeun tanda-tanda anu has, komo bisa tampa aya tanda.<ref name=sumber1 /> Dina stadium nu saterusna mindeng méré tanda-tanda: pendarahan post coitus, keputihan abnormal, perdarahan sanggeus haid eureun ([[menopause]]) sarta kaluar cairan teu normal (kakonéng-konéngan, bau sarta kacampur [[getih]]).<ref name=sumber1 /> ==Faktor== Nepi ka ayeuna panyabab pasti kanker beuheung rahim ieu can dipikanyaho sacara pasti.<ref name=sumber1 /> Tapi, panyabab pikeun anu kakeunaan kanker beuheung rahim nyaéta: [[hubungan séksual]] dina umur nu ngora sarta mindeng ganti-ganti pasangan; mindeng ngalaman inféksi kelamin; ngalahirkeun loba anak; kabiasaan ngudud.<ref name=sumber1 /> ==Pencegahan Kanker Beuheung Rahim== Pikeun ngurangan kanker serviks diperlukeun usaha pencegahan-pencegahan saperti: #Pencegahan primér, nyaéta usaha pikeun ngurangan atawa ngaleungitkeun kontak kalayan karsinogen pikeun nyegah inisiasi sarta promosi dina prosés karsinogen. #Pencegahan sekunder, kaasup skrining sarta detéksi dini pikeun manggihan perkara-perkara dini ku kituna kamungkinan pangubarab bisa dironjatkeun. #Pencegahan tertier, mangrupa pengobatan pikeun nyegah komplikasi klinik sarta pati mimiti. Salah sahiji cara deteksi dini kanker beuheung rahim nyaéta ku cara pamariksaan [[Pap Smear]]. ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Kanker]] sd4r3s7lkqbtz69as4v1bh4tst1ppkv Rugbi union 0 36097 732163 729283 2026-11-11T02:10:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732163 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox sport | image = New Zealand vs South Africa 2006 Tri Nations Line Out.JPG | imagesize = 300px | caption = [[Victor Matfield]] ti Afrika Kidul ngalaksanakeun ''lineout'' kana Selandia Anyar dina 2006. | union = [[International Rugby Board]] | nickname = Rugger, Rugby<ref>{{cite book |title=British language & culture |url=https://archive.org/details/britishlanguagec0000unse |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |first=David |last=Else |year=2007 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/britishlanguagec0000unse/page/97 97] |isbn=186450286X}}</ref> | first = Awal abad ka-19 (wangun awal)<br />1845 (hukum tinulis awal) | registered = 5.062.396 | clubs = 18.920 | contact = [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|Kontak pinuh]] | team = 15 | mgender = Kompetisi kapisah | category = [[Olahraga tim]], luar rohangan | equipment = [[Maén bal (bal)#Rugbi union|Bal rugbi]] | venue = | olympic = [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]]; dihupus ti program [[Olimpiade 1928|1928]]; [[Rugbi Tujuh]] dibalikkeun [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] }} '''Rugbi union''', mindeng disebut '''rugbi''' wungkul, nyaéta hiji olahraga tim [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|kontak pinuh]] nu lahir di Inggris di awal abad ka-19.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#2 |title=Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830." |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=15 August 2011}}</ref> salah sahiji [[Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union|dua kode]] ti [[maén bal rugbi]], nyaéta dina lumpat sareng bal dicandak ku tangan. Olahraga ieu dimaénkeun kalawan hiji [[bal rugbi|bal]] nu bentukna oval, di lapangan nu panjangna nepi ka 100 m jeung lébarna nepi ka 70 m kalawan pos gawang nu bentukna kawas hurup "H" dina masing-masing garis gawang. [[William Webb Ellis]] mindeng dipercaya kalawan pamanggihan lumpat sareng nyandak bal ku tangan dina 1823 di [[Sakola Rugby]] basa anjeunna diduga nyanggap bal nalika keur maén bal jeung lumpat ka gawang lawan. Tapi, bukti carita éta diragukeun. Dina 1845, hukum maén bal kahiji ditulis ku murid-murid Sakola Rugby; kajadian signifikan lianna dina pamekaran awal rugbi contona kaputusan [[Blackheath F.C.|Klub Blackheath]] ninggalkeun ''[[The Football Association]]'' dina 1863 sarta misahna rugbi union jeung [[rugbi liga]] dina 1895. Dina 1995 [[International Rugby Board|Badan Rugbi Internasional]] (''International Rugby Board'', IRB) ngahupus larangan dina bayaran ka pamaén, nyieun maénna sacara kabuka profésional dina tingkat nu pangluhurna pikeun kahijina. IRB geus jadi badan pangurus pikeun rugbi union ti pawangunanna dina 1886. Sumebarna rugbi union tumuwuh ti [[Home Nations|Bangsa Asal]] (''Home Nations''), Britania Raya jeung Irlandia, sarta diserep ku raloba nagara nu kaasosiasi jeung Kakaisaran Britania. Éksponén awal ti olahraga ieu contona Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul. Nagara-nagara nu geus ngadopsi rugbi union salaku olahraga nasionalna sacara ''[[de facto]]'' misalna Fiji, Géorgia, Selandia Anyar, Samoa, Tonga, jeung Wales. Rugbi union dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara di 6 buana jeung dina Nopémber 2010, 118 union mangrupa anggota IRB. [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1987, dilaksanakeun saban opat warsih, kalawan nu meunangna narima [[Piala Webb Ellis]]. [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] (''Six Nations Championship'') di Éropa jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugby]] (''The Rugby Championship'') di Hémisfér Kidul (nu ngaganti ''Tri Nations'') mangrupa kompetisi internasional utami anu dilaksanakeun warsihan. Kompetisi doméstik utama contona [[Top 14]] di Perancis, [[English Premiership (rugbi union)|English Premiership]] di Inggris, [[Currie Cup]] di Afrika Kidul, jeung [[ITM Cup]] di Selandia Anyar. Kompetisi antarbangsa nu lian contona [[Celtic League (rugbi union)|Celtic League]], aslina mimilukeun tim ti Irlandia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales sarta ayeuna ditambih ti Italia; [[Super Rugby]] (baheulana Super 12 jeung Super 14), mimilukeun tim ti Afrika Kidul, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar; sarta [[Heineken Cup]], mimilukeun sawatara tim ti Éropa. ==Sajarah== {{utama|Sajarah rugbi union}} [[File:Rugby School 850.jpg|box|thumb|[[Sakola Rugby]] di [[Rugby, Warwickshire]]. Katembong dina gambar gawang rugbi nu wangunna kawas hurup "H"]] Asalna maén bal rugbi dianggap salaku hiji insidén dina hiji patandingan [[Maén bal sakola umum Inggris|maén bal sakola Inggris]] di Sakola Rugby dina 1823 basa [[William Webb-Ellis]] disebut yén anjeunna nyandak bal teras lumpat barina.<ref>{{cite web|title = Webb Ellis, William|url = http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/webb-ellis.html|accessdate =14 September 2009}}</ref> Sanajan bukti ti carita éta diragukeun,<ref>{{cite episode|title=Flotsam|url=http://www.comedy.co.uk/guide/tv/qi/episodes/6/3/|series=QI|serieslink=QI|network=[[BBC]]|station=BBC One |location=UK|airdate=9 January 2009|seriesno=F|number=3}}</ref> hal éta diabadikeun di sakola éta kalawan hiji [[piagam pangélingan|piagam]] nu diumumkeun dina 1895.<ref>{{cite web|title = William Webb Ellis – fact or fiction?|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/low/rugby_union/6255164.stm |first=Sean|last=Davies| publisher=bbc.co.uk |accessdate =20 September 2011}}</ref> Sanajan asalna anékdot, [[Piala Webb Ellis|tropi Piala Dunya Rugbi]] dingaranan ti namina. Maén bal rugbi tumuwuh ti wangun kaulinan dimaénkeun di Sakola Rugby, nu dicandak urut siswana ka universitas; [[Albert Pell]], saurang mahasiswa ti [[Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]], diajénan ku lantaran geus ngawangun tim 'maén bal' kahiji.<ref name="Marshall13">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|p=13}}</ref> Dina période awal ieu, béda sakola béda aturan, kalawan urut murid Rugby jeung [[Kampus Eton|Eton]] ngusahakeun mawa aturan anu dipikaresepna ka universitas.<ref name="Marshall13-14">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|pp=13–14}}</ref> Kajadian-kajadian signifikan dina pamekaran awal maén bal rugbi nyaéta panyieunan sét hukum maén bal katulis anu kahiji di Sakola Rugby dina 1845,<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=9}}</ref> anu dipiluan ku '[[Aturan Cambridge]]' dijieun dina 1848.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#3 |title=Early Laws |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=6 February 2010}}</ref> Kajadian penting lianna contona kaputusan Klub Blackhéath Club ninggalkeun ''The Football Association'' dina 1863<ref name="Godwin10">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = The History of Football |url = http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |work = FIFA.com |accessdate = 25 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314172942/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |date=14 March 2013 }}</ref> jeung ngadegna [[Rugby Football Union]] dina 1871.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Kode ieu aslina disebut "maén bal rugbi" (''rugby football''); tapi sanggeus [[Sajarah rugbi liga#Peupeus di Inggris|peupeus di Inggris]] dina 1895, anu ngahasilkeun misahna [[rugbi liga]], olahraga ieu maké ngaran "rugbi union" pikeun ngabédakeunnana.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby league football|author=Tony Collins|pages=87–120|chapter=Schism 1893–1895|edition=2nd|publisher=Routlage|year=2006|isbn=0-415-39616-6}}</ref> Sanajan ngaran pinuhna rugbi union, olahraga ieu ngan disebut rugbi di kalobaannana bagian dunya.<ref>{{cite web |title = Warwickshire and Rugby Football |url = http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |work = warwickshire.gov.uk |accessdate = 26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212025019/http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |date=12 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Short History of Civilization IV |work=Five Epochs of Civilization: Chapter 7 (2000) |url=http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |publisher=worldhistorysite.com |first=William |last=McGaughey |accessdate=26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512190553/http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> [[Patandingan rugbi union Bangsa Asli 1870-71|Maén bal rugbi internasional kahiji]] lumangsung dina 27 Maret 1871, antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Dina 1881 Irlandia jeung Wales miboga tim anu ngawakilannana, jeung dina 1883 kompetisi internasional kahiji, [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa|''Home Nations Championship'']] dimimitian. 1883 ogé taundi mana turnamén [[rugbi tujuh]] kahiji lumnangsung, di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], [[Melrose Sevens]],<ref name="Godwin12">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=12}}</ref> anu masih warsihan dilaksanakeun. Lima taunsanggeusna, aya dua tur penting peuntas laut; tim [[Tur Singa Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia 1888|Kapuloan Britania]] datang ka Australia jeung Selandia Anyar. Hal éta neundeun pondasi pikeun tur [[Singa Britania jeung Irlandia]] nu engkéna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php|title=1888 Australia & New Zealand|publisher=The British and irish Lions|accessdate=13 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607033526/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php |date=7 June 2011 }}</ref> [[Tim maén bal Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888–1889|tim Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888]] mangrupa tim peuntas laut kahiji nu datang ka Britania.<ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of the All Blacks |url=https://archive.org/details/forerunnersofall0000ryan |last=Ryan |first=Greg |publisher=Canterbury University Press |year=1993 |location=Christchurch, New Zealand|isbn=0-908812-30-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/forerunnersofall0000ryan/page/44 44]}}</ref> [[File:King George V presents a cup to the captain of the winning New Zealand Services Rugby Team, London.jpeg|thumb|left|[[James Ryan (pamaén rugbi union nu lahir 1887)|James Ryan]], kaptén tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar, narima Piala Kings ti George V|alt=A black and white photo of a rugby field in which three men in military uniform, one of whom is King George, present a silver trophy to a rugby player dressed in black kit. Behind in a line are the rest of the team.]] Antara 1905 jeung 1908, sadaya tilu nagara rugbi utama ti Hémisfér Kidul ngintunkeun tim tur kahijina ka Hémisfér Kalér: [[The Original All Blacks|Selandia Anyar]] dina 1905, dimiluan ku [[Tur rugbi union Afrika Kidul 1906-07|Afrika Kidul]] dina 1906 jeung teras [[Tur rugbi union Britania Australia 1908-09|Australia]] dina 1908. Sadaya tilu tim mawa gaya maén, tingkat kaséhatan, jeung taktik nu anyar,<ref name="Godwin, p18">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=18}}</ref> jeung leuwih boga hasil tinimbang nu aya dina kritikan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1954|p=27}} ''"When they arrived in this country [Britain] they were regarded as an unknown quantity, but it was not anticipated that they would give the stronger British teams a great deal of opposition. The result of the very first match against Devon was regarded as a foregone conclusion by most British followers."''</ref> Tim tur Selandia Anyar 1905 ngalaksanakeun [[Ka Mate|haka]] saméméh saban patandingan, administrator Rugbi Union Wales, [[Tom Williams (pamaén rugbi Wales)|Tom Williams]], nyarankeun pamaén Wales, [[Teddy Morgan]], mingpin balaréa dina nembangkeun Lagu Kabangsaan Nasional Wales, ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'', salaku balesan. Sanggeus Morgan mimiti nembang, masarakat mimiluan: wayah kahiji lagu kabangsaan ditembangkeun di awal kajadian olahraga.<ref>{{cite web|title=The anthem in more recent years|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/anthem/pages/anthem-today.shtml|accessdate=3 December 2010 |publisher=[[BBC Cymru Wales]]|date=1 December 2008 |work=[[BBC Cymru Wales|BBC Cymru Wales history]]}}</ref> Dina 1905, Perancis ngalawan Inggris dina patandingan internasional kahijina.<ref name="Godwin, p18"/> Euweuh patandingan rugbi internasional jeung patandingan nu kadukung union dimaénkeun basa Perang Dunya I, tapi kompetisi lanjut liwat tim layanan saperti [[Tim rugbi Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar 1919|tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=19}}</ref> Dina Perang Dunya II, euweuh patandingan internasional dimaénkeun ku raloba nagara sanajan Italia, Jérman, jeung Romania maénkeun sawatara patandingan,<ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19590.html Tur Italia – Bukares, 14 April 1940] Romania vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19591.html Tur Italia – Stuttgart, 5 Méi 1940] Jérman vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19592.html Tur Romania – Milan, 2 Méi 1942] Italia vs Romania, Scrum.com</ref> sarta [[R.U.F.C. Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]] jeung [[RFC Universitas Oxford|Oxford]] ngalanjutkeun [[The Varsity Match|Patandingan Universitas]] warsihanna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=22}}</ref> Rugbi union diasupkeun salaku cabang dina Olimpiade opat kali dina awal 1900-an. Dina 1973, turnamén internasional rugbi tujuh anu didukung resmi lumangsung di Murrayfield, salaku bagian ti pangélingan saratus taun [[Rugbi Union Skotlandia]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Rugby in the Olympics: Future|url = http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html|work = [[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|date = |accessdate = 18 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810065813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Dina 1987, Piala Dunya Rugbi kahiji dilaksanakeun di Selandia Anyar jeung Australia, sarta nu meunang nyaéta Selandia Anyar. Turnamén Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh kahiji dilaksanakeun di Murrayfield dina 1993. Rugbi Tujuh dipikawanohkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Commonwealth Games]] dina 1998 jeung bakal dilombakeun dina Olimpiade 2016.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision"/> Rugbi union mangrupa olahraga amatir nepi ka IRB ngadéklarasikeun olahraga ieu 'kabuka' dina 1995, ngahupus larangan din bayaran ka pamaén.<ref name=Stubbs3>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = History of the RFU |url = http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |work = [[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date = |accessdate = 28 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422210444/http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |date=22 April 2010 }}</ref> Tapi, période rugbi union pra-1995 dicirian ku lobana tuduhan "[[shamateurisme]]",<ref>{{cite web|title = Ontario: The Shamateurs|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html|work = TIME|date = 29 September 1947|accessdate = 6 February 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513010050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref> kaasup hiji invéstigasi di Britania ku hiji komite Badan Pamilihan Umum.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/amateur-status-attacked-by-mps-1611641.html?CMP=ILC-refresh |title=Amateur status attacked by MPs - Sport - The Independent |first=John |last=Rentoul |work=[[The Independent]] |date=17 March 1995 |publisher=[[Independent News & Media|INM]] |location=[[London, UK|London]] |issn=0951-9467 |oclc=185201487 |accessdate=19 November 2011}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|title = History of Rugby Union|url = http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/history_of_rugby_union.html|accessdate =6 February 2010}}</ref> Nurutan dipikawanohna profésionalisme kompetisi klub trans-nasional dimimitian, kalawan [[Heineken Cup]] di Hémisfér Kalér jeung [[Super Rugby]] di Hémisfér Kidul.<ref name="historymain">{{cite web | url=http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php | title=European Rugby Cup: History | publisher=ERC | accessdate=21 March 2007 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php | archivedate=8 February 2007 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php |date=8 February 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Gaynor">{{cite news|title=Union's off-field game a real winner|date=21 April 2001|newspaper=New Zealand Herald|first=Bryan| last=Gaynor|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=184012}}</ref> [[Tri Nations (rugbi union)|Tri-nations]], hiji turnamén internasional mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia, dimimitian dina 1996.<ref name="Gaynor"/> ==Tim jeung struktur tim== {{utama|Posisi pamaén rugbi union}} [[Image:Rugby formation.svg|thumb|Formasi normal tim rugbi union, ngagambareun masing-masing posisi jeung nomerna.]] Masing-masing tim mimiti maén kalawan 15 pamaén di lapangan.<ref name="Law3">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |title=Law 3 Number of Players |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013170741/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |date=13 October 2012 }}</ref> Pamaén dina hiji tim dibagi kana 8 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Payun|payun]] (2 leuwih di [[rugbi liga]]) jeung 7 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Bék|bék]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 6">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=6|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Pamaén payun=== Kawajiban utama ti pamaén payun nyaéta miboga jeung nahankeun kabogaan bal.<ref name="talkrugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/rugby_union_positions.html |title=Rugby Union Positions |publisher=talkrugbyunion.co.uk |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> Pamaén dina posisi ieu umumna gedé jeung kiat sarti milu dina ''scrum'' jeung ''lineout''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Aranjeunna sok disebut ''pack'', utamina dina formasi ''scrum''.<ref name="Glossary">{{cite web|url=http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/page/97263.html|work=ESPN Scrum.com |title=Rugby Glossary |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> '''Baris payun'''<br/> Baris payun kawangun ti 3 pamaén, 2 prop (panyangga); ''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'', sarta ''hooker''. 2 prop ngabantu ''hooker'' dina ''scrum'', pikeun ngadukung paluncat dina ''lineouts'', jeung nyadiakeun tanaga dina ''ruck'' jeung ''maul''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Posisi katilu di baris payun nyaéta ''hooker''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' mangrupa posisi konci dina maén ofénsif jeung deféntif sarta miboga tanggung jawab meunangkan bal dina ''scrum''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' biasana anu ngalungkeun bal dina ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> '''Baris kadua'''<br/> Baris kadua kawangun ti 2 ''lock'' atanapi ''lock forwards''. ''Lock'' biasana pamaén nu pangluhurna di tim, jeung husus dina nu lincat nalika ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Kagunaan utama ''lock'' dina ''lineout'' nyaéta nyieun ''standing jump'' (luncat nangtung), mindeng dirojong ku pamaén payun nu lian, pikeun nyokot bal nu dialungkeun atawa mastikeun bal dipiboga ku reguna. ''Lock'' ogé miboga hiji kagunaan penting dina ''scrum'', nyapit langsung di tukangeun tilu pamaén baris payun jeung nyadiakeun kadali hareup.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> [[File:Chabal Rugby Racing vs Stade Toulousain 311009.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sébastien Chabal]] (kénca jauh) dina posisi nomer dalapan saméméh asup ka ''scrum''|alt=Facing right a group of seven men, in blue and white hooped jersesy, bind together and crouch to form a scrum, the eighth player stands behind them observing the off-picture opposition.]] '''Baris pengker'''<br/> Baris pengker, kadé kaliru jeung ‘Bék’, nyaéta baris katilu jeung baris pangahirna ti barisan di posisi payun. Pamaén di bari pengker mindeng disebut ''loose forwards''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Tilu posisi di baris pengker diwangun ti 2 jangjang jeung nu nomerna 8. Dua posisi jangjang, disebut jangjang ''blindside'' jeung ''openside'', mangrupa baris final dina ''scrum''. Peran utamina nyaéta pikeun meunangkeun kabogaan liwat ''turn over''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Nu nomerna 8 dina ''scrum'' miboga peran ngadalikeun bal sanggeus dioper ti payun jeung posisina nyadiakeun hiji panyambung antara nu di payun jeung pengker dina fase narajang.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=7|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Bék=== Peran bék nyaéta nyieun jeung ngonvérsi kasempetan ngahasilkeun skor, aranjeunna umumna leuwih leutik tapi leuwih gancang jeung leuwih cingceng tinimbang pamaén payun.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Bébéda nu lian antara dua posisi nyaéta bék dipiharep miboga kaahlian najong supérior, utamina dina posisi ''fly-half'' jeung ''full-back''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> '''''Half-back'''''<br/> ''Half-back'' diwangun ti 2 posisi, ''scrum-half''/''half-back'' jeung ''fly-half''/''First Five-Eighth''. ''Fly-half'' penting pikeun rencana tim, ngatur performa tim.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna biasana anu kahiji nu narima bal ti ''scrum-half'' sanggeus ''breakdown'', ''lineout'', atanapi ''scrum'' jeung kedah merhatoskeun nanao anu dilakukeun jeung éféktif dina ngomunikasi jeung bék luar.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Loba ''fly-half'' nu ogé panajong ka gawang. ''Scrum-half'' mangrupa panyambung antara pamaén payun jeung bék.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna narima bal ti ''lineout'' jeung mindahkeun bal ti bagian pengker ''scrum'', biasana ngoperkeunnana ka ''fly-half''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 8">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=8|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Aranjeunna ogé ''feed'' (méré bal) ka ''scrum'' jeung kadang kedah jadi ''loose forward'' kaopat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bompa|1981|p=62}}</ref> '''''Three quarters'''''<br/> Aya 4 posisi ''three quarter'', ''inside centre''/''Second Five-Eighth'', ''outside centre'', sarta jangjang kénca jeung katuhu. Saperti fly-half, aranjeunna umumna miboga tajongan nu alus jeung alus dina maca pamaénan jeung ngarahkeun tarajangan. ''Centre'' bakal ngusakhakeun n-''tackle'' pamaén anu narajang, nalika dina panarajangan, aranjeunna kedah ngaluarkeun kagancangan jeung tanaga pikeun norobos patahanan musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Jangjang biasana diposisikeun di luareun ''backline''. Kagunaan utamina nya éa ngaréngsékeun gerakan jeung usaha ''try''.{{sfn|Brown, Guthrie and Growden|(2010)}} Jangjang biasana pamaén anu panggancangna dina tim jeung atawa palumpat anu cingceng, atawa umumna di jaman modérn, gedé, kiat, sarta bisa ngéléhkeun ''tackle''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scottish rugby welcomes back Lomu|date=7 January 2006|first=David|last=Ferguson|url=http://sport.scotsman.com/superteams/Scottish-rugby-welcomes-back-Lomu.2740238.jp|newspaper=Scotsman|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> '''''Fullback'''''<br/> ''Fullback'' biasana aya sawatara méter tukangeun ''back line''. Anjeunna nyanggap tajongan musuh jeung mindeng jadi baris patahanan ahir anu kedah ditorobos ku musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Dua atribut penting ti saurang ''fullback'' nu alus nyaéta kaahlian nyanggap jeung najong.<ref name = "MacDonald">{{cite book|title=Rugger Practice and Tactics – A Manual of Rugby Football Technique |first=H. F. |last=MacDonald|year=1938|page=97}}</ref> ==Aturan== {{utama|Cara maén rugbi union}} [[Image:RugbyPitchMetricDetailed-su.svg|thumb|300px|right|Diagram lapangan rugbi union midangkeun garis nu kaciri jeung jarak.]] ===Skor=== Rugbi union dimaénkeun antara 2 tim – anu skorna leuwih loba nyaéta nu meunang. Skor bisa dihasilkeun liwat sababaraha cara : ''[[try]]'', ku cara mawa bal ka aréa gawang (antara garis gawang jeung garis bal paéh) jeung bari labuh ka taneuh (''grounding''), ngahasilkeun 5 poin jeung hiji ''conversion'' anu bisa ngahasilkeun 2 poin; liwat pénalti atawa ''[[drop goal]]'' ngahasilkeun 3 poin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Law 9 Method of Scoring|format=PDF|accessdate=15 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|archivedate=30 August 2011}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Skor ti cara-cara ieu geus diganti warsih-warsih.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/scoring.htm |title=Scoring through the ages |work=rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=16 August 2011}}</ref> ===Lapangan=== Lapangan rugbi sedeukeut-deukeutna maksimal panjangna 144m jeung lébar 70m.<ref name="pitch size">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |title=Law 1: The Ground |page=21 |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010221022/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> Dina patandingan sabenerna, kedah aya jarak maksimal 100m antara dua garis ''try'', kalawan di mana waé 10 jeung 22m tukangeun garis ''try'' jadi aréa bal paéh.<ref name="pitch size"/> Aya sababaraha garis anu meunatasannana, saperti garis saparo jalan, "dua puluh dua", anu aya 22m ti garis gawang.<ref name="pitch size"/> Pos gawangna saperti hurup H, jeung miboga dua tihang, kapisah 5,6m, disambungkeun ku hiji batang horizontal 3m luhureun taneuh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |title=Law 1 The Ground |page=1.4(a-b) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044847/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830124154/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Diménsi lapangan anu sabenerna mah maké [[unit impérial]], tapi geus dikonvérsi ka [[sistim métrik]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/rugby_union/six_nations/618637.stm |title=A beginner's guide to ... rugby laws |work=BBC |date=31 January 2000 |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref><ref>Sanajan diménsi lapangan geus dikonvérsi ka sistim métrik, sababaraha koméntator masih nganggo ukuran impérial basa ngarujuk kana aturan katangtu.</ref> ===Struktur patandingan=== Dina awal patandingan, kaptén ti kadua tim jeung wasit ngundi hiji koin pikeun nangtukeun tim mana anu ''kick off'' kahiji. Patandingan teras mimiti kalawan hiji ''drop kick'', jeung pamaén ngudag bal ka aréa musuh, jeung nu lian nyobian sangkan narima bal nu teras narajang. Lamun pamaén nu mawa bal di-''tackle'', salajengna bakal aya hiji [[Cara maén rugbi union#Ruck|''ruck'']].<ref name=Midgley>{{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url =|page=394 | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2}}</ref> Patandingan dibagi kana 2 babak masing-masing 40 menit, kalawan hiji [[Half-time|istirahat]] di tengahna.<ref name="IRBLaw5">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |title=Law 5: Time |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=23 September 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045621/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929014404/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |date=29 September 2011 }}</ref> Di babak kadua, tim silih tuker gawang.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Selaan pikeun kacilakaan sangkan mungkinkeun wasit ngalaksanakeun aksi disiplinér, teu kaétang salaku bagian ti wayah maén, jadi biasana waktu anu kapaké leuwih ti 80 menit.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Wasit miboga tanggung jawab dina netepkeun wayah, sanajan{{dash}}sakumaha dina loba turnamén{{dash}}anjeunna ditulungan ku hiji panangtu wayah resmi.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Upami wayahna béak tapi balna masih dimaénkeun, patandingan lanjut nepi ka balna 'paéh', jeung ngan dina éta wungkul wasit miriwit pikeun nandaan réngséna babak atawa patandingan; tapi, upamina wasti méré pénalti atawa tajongan bébas, patandingan lanjut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |title=Law 5 – Time |date=22 January 2007 |accessdate=9 July 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304115933/http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |date=4 March 2010 }}</ref> ===Ngoper jeung najong=== Operan payun (ngalungkeun bal ka payun ka pamaén lian) teu beunang; ball ngan bisa dioper ka samping atawa ka tukang.<ref name="irblaws12">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |title=Law 12 Knock-on ot Throw Forward |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045447/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125954/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Bal bisa dicandak ka payun ku tilu cara— ditajong, dicandak lumpat, atanapi ti ''scrum'' atawa [[Cara maén rugbi union#Maul|maul]]. Pamaén anu bisa di-''tackle'' atawa di-''ruck'' ngan pamaén anu mawa bal. Basa bal dipayunkeun ku hiji pamaén maké pananganna, éta ngahasilkeun ''knock-on'', anu teras dilanjutkeun ku ''scrum''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Sadaya pamaén tiasa najong bal ka payun pikeun miboga téritori. Basa saurang pamaén di mana waé di aréa maén najong sacara teu langsung ka ''[[Touch (rugbi)|touch]]'' jadina balna mantul dina lapangan, ''throw-in'' dilaksanakeun basa balna asup ka ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Upami pamaén najong langusng ka ''touch'' (saperti tanpa mantul di jero lapangan heula) tina jero garis 22 méter soranganna, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ku tim lawan di tempat bal asup ka ''touch'', tapi upami balna langsung ditajong ka ''touch'' ku saurang pamaén di luar garis 22 méter, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ka tempat tajongan anu tadi dilakukeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.1(e-h) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ===''Breakdowns''=== [[File:Schoolkids doing a rugby tackle.jpg|thumb|Hiji ''tackle'' rugbi: ''tackle'' kedah di handap beuheung kalawan tujuan ngalingan atawa ngalabuhkeun pamaén ogé balna|alt=A child running away from camera in green and black hooped rugby jersey is in the process of being tackled around the hips and legs by an opponent.]] Tujuan sisi nahan nyaéta ngeureunkeun pamaén nu mawa bal, boh liwat ngalabuhkeun manéhna (''tackle'', nu biasana dimiluan ku ''ruck''), atawa parebut posési jeung nu mawa bal dina suku (''maul''). Kaayaan kitu disebut hiji ''breakdown'' jeung miboga aturan husus. Saurang pamaén beunang n-''tackle''-an pamaén lawan anu keur miboga balna ku cara ngalabuhkeun manéhna. Anu n-''tackle'' teu beunang n-''tackle'' di luhureun taktak (tenggek jeung mastaka),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(e) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> jeung nu n-''tackle'' kedah ngusahakeun ngurilingkeun leungeunna kana pamaén anu di-''tackle'' sangkan ''tackle''-na komplit. Teu beunang ngadorong, ngadu taktak, atawa néngklas pamaén lian maké suku, tapi panangan beunang dipaké (maksudna hiji ''tap-tackle'' atawa ''[[Ankle tap|ankle-tap]]'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(d) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(g) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> ''Maul'' aya sanggeus saurang pamaén nu mawa bal kontak jeung lawanna tapi kadalina tetep dina sukuna; basa tilu pamaén cekap pikeun ngawangun hiji ''maul''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Hiji ''ruck'' mirip jeung ''maul'', tapi dina kasus ieu balna geus ka taneuh kalwan minimalna tilu pamaén milu ngalindungan balna.<ref name="Glossary"/> ===''Set pieces''=== [[File:Ireland vs Georgia, Rugby World Cup 2007 line up.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tim nasional rugbi union Irlandia|Irlandia]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union Géorgia|Géorgia]] dina ''lineout'' basa [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]]|alt=Two rows of opposing players, green to the fore, white behind, each aid a jumping player from their team by lifting him towards an off-picture ball travelling overhead.]] ====''Lineout''==== :{{utama|Line-out}} Basa balna kaluar liwat sisi lapangan, hiji [[line-out|''lineout'']] dilakukeun ku lawanna tim anu pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén payun ti saban tim baris saméter kapisah, tegak lurus jeung garis ''touch'' sarta antara 5 m jeung 15 m ti garis ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Balna dialungkeun ti garis ''touch'' ka jero lapangan ku hiji pamaén (biasana ''[[hooker (rugbi union)|hooker]]'') ti tim anu sanés pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Kajaba, upami balna kaluar ku lantaran hiji pénalti, tim anu ngalaksanakeun pénalti ngalakukeun ''line-out''-na.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Tim duanana parebut balna jeung pamaén beunang ngangkat réréncangan satimna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.10 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén nu luncat teu beunang di-''tackle'' nepi ka manéhna nangtung sarta ngan kontak taktak anu diijinkeun; palanggaran anu dihaja kana aturan eiu mangrupa bahaya, jeung bisa ngahasilkeun pénalti.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.8(p) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ====''Scrum''==== {{utama|Scrum (rugbi union)}} [[File:Scrum-1.JPG|thumb|right|Hiji ''[[scrum (rugbi)|scrum]]''|alt=Two opposing formations of eight men, in white and black to the left, red and black to the right, push against each other in a crouched position; behind them stands another player and the referee.]] Hiji ''scrum'' mangrupa hiji cara pikeun 'ngamimitian' deui patandingan kalawan aman jeung adil sanggeus palanggaran leutik.<ref name="irblaws20">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |title=Law 20 Scrum |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045535/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830130008/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ''Scrum'' dilaksanakeun ku lantaran operan payun, ''[[Offside (rugbi)#Rugbi union|offside]]'', atawa upami balna kakurung dina ''ruck'' atawa ''maul'' tanpa kasempetan bal kaambil. Hiji tim bisa ogé milih ''scrum'' salaku hadiah pénaltina.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Hiji ''scrum'' diwangun ti 8 pamaén payun ti saban tim ngariung dina 3 baris.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris payun ngawengku 2 ''prop'' (''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'') atawa sisi ''hooker''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris kadua ngawengku 2 ''lock'' jeung 2 ''flanker''. Tukangeun baris kadua nyaéta si nomer 8. Formasi ieu kawanoh salaku formasi 3–4–1.<ref name="FormingScrum">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rules_and_equipment/4205334.stm |title=Forming a scrum |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=13 August 2011 | date=14 September 2005}}</ref> Basa hiji ''scrum'' kawangun, ''scrum-half'' ti tim anu dihadiahan nga-''feed'' (méré) balna ka sela antara dua baris payun (kawanoh salaku ''tunnel'').<ref name="irblaws20"/> Dua ''hooker'' teras parebut ku cara nyapukeun bal na ka tukang maké suku, samentara masing-masing kelompok nyoba ngadorong kelompok ''scrum'' musuhna pikeun ngalindungan posési.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Tim anu meunangkeun posési mindahkeun balna ka bagian tukangna ''scrum'', di mana balna dicandak ku nu nomer 8 atawa ku ''scrum-half''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> ===Ofisial jeung sanksi=== Aya 3 ofisial patandingan: hiji wasit jeung dua asistén wasit.<ref name="IRBLaw6">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |title=Law 6: Match officials |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044908/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125555/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Asistén wasit, baheulana kawanoh salaku hakim ''toucdh'', miboga fungsi utami pikeun nunjukkeun di mana balna kaluar ti lapangan; peranna geus dilegaan jeung aranjeunna ayeuna bisa ngiringan wasit pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan, saperti nunjukkeun palanggaran jeung mariksa garis ''off-side''.<ref name="IRBLaw6"/> Tambahannana, pikeun patandingan di kompetisi luhur, sok aya ofisial patandingan télévisi (''Television Match Official'' TMO; populérna disebut "wasit vidéo"), pikeun nulungan sababaraha kaputusan, disambungkeun ka wasit ku radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-union/news-comment/peter-bills-refereeing-protocol-rules-over-common-sense-2242369.html |title=Peter Bills: Refereeing protocol rules over common sense |work=The Independent|first=Peter|last=Bills |accessdate=15 March 2011}}</ref> Para wasit miboga sistim sinyal tangan pikeun ngindikasikeun kaputusannana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coachingrugby.com/OpenPagesContent.do?requestType1=currentIssues/&requestType2=lawsSignals |title=Referee Signals |work=coachingrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Hukuman umum contona n-''tackle'' luhureun taktak, rubuh dina ''scrum'', ''ruck'', atanapi ''maul'', teu ngalepaskeun bal basa di taneuh, atawa ''off-side''.<ref name="Law10">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10: Foul Play |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |page=70 |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> Lawanna tim anu ngalanggar aturan miboga sababaraha pilihan pikeun hadiahna: hiji tajongan "tap" (balna ditajong ka jarak anu deukeut pisan ti tangan, mungkinkeun nu najongna nyandak balna deui jeung tuluy lumpat barina), hiji ''punt'' (balna ditajong ka jarak nu jauh ti tangan, pikeun posisi lapangan), hiji ''place-kick'' (nu najongna bakal nyobian nyitak gol), atawa hiji ''scrum''.<ref name="Law10"/> Pamaén bisa dikaluarkeun (dibéré [[Kartu pénalti#Kartu beureum|kartu beureum]]) atawa ditunda ("''sin-binned''") pikeun 10 menit ([[Kartu pénalti#Kartu konéng|kartu konéng]]) ku lantaran palanggaran, jeung teu beunang diganti.<ref name="Law10"/> ===Panggantian jeung substitusi=== Dina patandingan, pamaén bisa diganti (ku lantaran kacilakaan) atawa disubstitusi (pikeun alesan taktik).<ref name="Law3"/> Saurang pamaén nu geus diganti teu beunang maén deui iwal anjeunna diganti saheulaan pikeun ngadalian ciderana; saurang pamaén anu geus disubstitusi bisa maén deui saheulaan, pikeun ngaganti pamaén anu boga rahut nu getihan, atawa permanén, upami ngagantikeun pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Law3"/> Dina patandingan internasional, 7 panggantian diijinkeun; di turnamén domstik atawa antarbeungeut, dina kawijaksanaan babon organisasina, jumlahna bisa ditambihkeun nepi ka 8, nu mana 3 kedah geus dilatih jeung mibanda pangalaman anu cekap pikeun nyadiakeun pangaling pikeun tilu pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Uncontested">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |title=IRB acts on uncontested scrums |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=19 August 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822203000/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |date=22 August 2009 }}</ref> ==Pakakas== {{utama|Pakakas rugbi union}} Pakakas dasar ti rugbi union nyaéta balna, baju rugbi, [[calana pondok rugbi]], kaos suku, jeung sapatu. Bal rugbi bentukna oval, (téhnisna [[buleud manjang]]), jeung dijieun ti 4 panel.<ref name="IRBLaw2">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law2EN_7708.pdf |title=Law 2 The Ball |page=27 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091116195453/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/law2en_7708.pdf |date=16 November 2009 }}</ref> Balna baheula dijieun ti kulit, tapi ayeuna bisana ngagunakeun bal anu dijieun ti matérial sintétis. IRB ngaluarkeun ukuran spésifik bal, panjang 280-300mm, kuriling panjang 740-770mm, jeung kuriling lébar 580-620mm.<ref name="IRBLaw2"/> Sapatu rugbi miboga sol jeung [[pul]] anu mungkinkeun cekelan kana taneuh lapangan. Pulna bisa dijieun ti logam atawa plastik tapi teu kénging seukeut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |title=Law 4 Players' clothing (4.3b) |page=40 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220045617/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215090105/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_4_en.pdf |date=15 February 2010 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung opsional sarta aya aturannana. Pakakas anu paling umum nyaéta [[palindung baham]], anu dipaké ku ampir sadaya pamaén, jeung mangrupa pakakas rugbi wajib dina sababaraha nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |title=Protect Your Assets: Mouthguards |accessdate=23 September 2011 |publisher=coaching toolbox.co.nz }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208034203/http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung lianna contona [[hélm scrum|hélm]]; ipis (teu leuwih ti 10&nbsp;mm), alas taktak hampang, jeung [[palindung sampéan]]; anu dipaké di jero kaos suku.<ref name="dress">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |title=Regulation 12 Provisions relating to player dress |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514141522/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Perban atanapi bandana kénging dipaké; sababaraha pamaén maké bandana di mastakana pikeun ngalindungan cepil dina ''scrum'' jeung ''ruck''. Pamaén awéwé beunang ogé maké ales dada.<ref name="dress"/> Sanajan teu dipaké pikeun palindungan, sababaraha rupa sarung tangan tanpa ramo diidinkeun pikeun nambihan cekelan.<ref name="dress"/> mangrupa tanggung jawab ofisial patandingan pikeun mariksa pakakas jeung pakéan pamaén saméméh tanding mastikeun yén saluyu jeung aturan maén.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |title=4.5 Inspection of players' clothing) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829200052/http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |date=29 August 2011 }}</ref> ==Babon organisasi== {{Tempo ogé|International Rugby Board}} Babon organisasi internasional rugbi union (jeung kaulinan anu kaasosiasina kawas [[rugbi tujuh]]) nyaéta [[International Rugby Board]] (IRB).<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB markasna aya di [[Dublin]], Irlandia.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB, diadegkeun dina 1886, mingpin olahraga ieu disakuliah dunya jeung ngabéwarakeun aturan maén sarta [[Réngking Dunya IRB|réngking]].<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> Dina Nopémber 2010, IRB miboga 118 kahijian di kaanggotaannana, boh anggota pinuh atawa nu kaasosiasi.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html | title=Iran becomes 118th IRB Member Union | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=25 November 2010 | accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128090509/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html |date=28 November 2010 }}</ref> Dumasar kana IRB, rugbi union dimaénkeun ku lalaki jeung awéwé di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB ngadalikeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]],<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Awéwé]],<ref>{{cite web | work=rwcwomens.com | title=IRB Women's Rugby World Cup | url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917121216/http://www.rwcwomens.com/ |date=17 September 2010 }}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh]],<ref>{{cite web | work=stuff.co.nz |title = Russia to host 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/international/sevens/5634035/Russia-to-host-2013-Rugby-World-Cup-Sevens| accessdate=24 September 2011|date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[IRB Sevens World Series]],<ref>{{cite web | work=irbsevens.com | title=Rules | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903015900/http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html |date=3 September 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Championship|Junior World Championship]],<ref>{{cite web| work=IRB.com| title=Chile to host IRB Junior World Trophy| url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html| accessdate=24 September 2011| date=31 August 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111417/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy|Junior World Trophy]],<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy | url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325160709/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html |date=25 March 2008 }}</ref> [[IRB Nations Cup|Nations Cup]]<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824035936/http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html |date=24 August 2011 }}</ref>, sarta [[Piala Bangsa-Bangsa Pasifik]].<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Pacific Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902103431/http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html |date=2 September 2011 }}</ref> 6 asosiasi régional, anu mangrupa anggota IRB, nyaéta: * [[Konféderasi Rugbi Afrika]] (CAR)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=African Rugby unveils blueprint for growth|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html|date=24 December 2010|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113151724/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html |date=13 January 2011 }}</ref> * [[Uni Maén Bal Rugbi Asia]] (ARFU)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=HSBC extends commitment to Asian rugby|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html|date=19 January 2011|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016042833/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html |date=16 October 2012 }}</ref> * [[Asosiasi Rugbi Amérika Kalér jeung Karibia]] (NACRA)<ref>{{cite web | work=nawira.com | title=About North America Caribbean Rugby Association "NACRA" | url=http://www.nawira.com/about/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625043327/http://www.nawira.com/about/ |date=25 June 2013 }}</ref> * [[FIRA - Asosiasi Rugbi Éropa|Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby]] (FIRA-AER)<ref name="FIRA">{{cite web | work=fira-aer-rugby.com | title=FIRA-AER History | url=http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427115039/http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm |date=27 April 2013 }}</ref> * [[Féderasi Union Rugbi Oséania]] (FORU)<ref>{{cite web | work=oceaniarugby.com | title=FORU Mission | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004102301/http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> * [[Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby]] (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR)<ref>{{cite web | work=consur.org |title =Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (CONSUR)|url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.consur.org/&ei=O6h9Tv-5IKaR0AWPv9AC&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dconsur%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1366%26bih%3D623%26prmd%3Dimvns |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[SANZAR]] (''South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby''; Rugbi Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia) nyaéta gabungan ti [[Union Rugbi Afrika Kidul]], [[Union Rugbi Selandia Anyar]], jeung [[Union Rugbi Australia]] anu ngurus [[Super Rugby]] jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugbi|Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'')]] (baheulana ''Tri Nations'' saméméh asupna Argéntina).<ref>{{cite web | work=rugbyweek.com | title=SANZAR Boss Peters defends TriNations timing | url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date=4 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326201127/http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 |date=26 March 2012 }}</ref> Sanajan [[Union Rugbi Argéntina]] awalna teu boga pawakilan dina SANZAR, tapi geus dibéré aksés ka kagiatan organisasi, utamina Kajuaraaan Rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |title=SANZAR remains intact |first=James |last=Mortimer |work=[[New Zealand Rugby Union|AllBlacks.com]] |date=9 November 2011 |accessdate=10 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227101127/http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |date=27 December 2012 }}</ref> Union nasional nénjo rugbi union dina nagara sosorangan jeung kaafiliasi kana IRB. Déwan IRB miboga 26 korsi.<ref name="IRB Organisation">{{cite web | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | title=IRB Organisation | url=http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110922095704/http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html |date=22 September 2011 }}</ref> ==Sakuliah dunya== {{see also|Daptar nagara nu maén rugbi union}} [[File:URBA Finals.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Final Rugbi [[URBA]] 2007|alt=An airborne player wearing a hooped blue and yellow jersey is challenged by two opponents after leaping to catch a high ball.]] [[File:Germany vs Belgium rugby match.jpg|thumb|Jérman lawan Bélgia]] [[File:Walers Japan Rugby World Cup 2007 09 20 supporters1.jpg|thumb|right|Pandukung Jepang jeung Wales di [[Cardiff]], Wales|alt=A group of thirteen supporters pose together, some wearing rugby jerseys while others sport traditional Japanese costumes and Japanese flags.]] Nagara anu pangawalna ngadopsi rugbi union nyaéta [[Rugbi union di Inggris|Inggris]], nagara asal, teras dimiluan ku 3 Nagara Asal (''Home Nations'') nu lian, [[Rugbi union di Skotlandia|Skotlandia]], [[Rugbi union di Irlandia|Irlandia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Wales|Wales]]. Sumebarna rugbi union salaku olahraga dunya bisa ditulusur kana pamawaanna ku ékspatriat Britania, personél militér, jeung mahasiswa universitas di luar nagri. Hiji klub rugbi dibentuk di Sydney, [[Rugbi union di Australia|Australia]] dina 1864; samentara olahraga ieu disebut geus dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] ku Charles Munro dina 1870, anu maénkeun rugbi basa minangka murid di [[Kampus Christ (Finchley)|Christ's College, Finchley]].<ref name="Godwin10"/> Klub rugbi nu kahiji di [[Rugbi union di Perancis|Perancis]] diwangun ku padumuk Britania di Le Havre dina 1872, samentara taunsalajengna [[Rugbi union di Argéntina|Argéntina]] miboga patandingan nu kahijina: 'Banks' v 'City' di Buenos Aires.<ref name="Godwin11">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=11}}</ref> Di Amérika Kalér, hiji klub dibentuk di Montréal dina 1868, klub kahijina [[Rugbi union di Kanada|Kanada]]. Kota Montréal ogé maénkeun peranna dina pamikawanohan olahraga ieu di [[Rugbi union di Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]], basa mahasiswa [[Universitas McGill]] ngalawan hiji tim ti [[Universitas Harvard]] dina 1874.<ref name="Godwin10"/><ref name="Godwin11"/> Dina 1875, rugbi dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Afrika Kidul|Afrika Kidul]] ku prajurit Britania di Cape Town.<ref name="Godwin11"/> Sababaraha nagara kapuloan geus ngadukung olahraga ieu, loba anu dipikawanohkeun ku Britania, tapi teras nyebarkeun ka nagara tatanggana bari néangan musuh luar nagri. Rugbi kahiji kalina dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Fiji|Fiji]] kira-kira dina 1884 ku prajurit Éropa jeung Fiji ti Angkatan Kapulisian Pribumi di [[Ba (kota)|Ba]] di Pulo Viti Levu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/5392022.stm | title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date= | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> Fiji teras ngintunkeun timna ka [[Rugbi union di Samoa|Samoa]] dina 1924, anu ngadegkeun [[Union Rugbi Samoa|unionna]] dina 1927.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=174}}</ref> Nagara lian anu miboga tim rugbi nasional di Oséania contona [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Cook|Kapuloan Cook]], [[Rugbi union di Niue|Niue]], [[Rugbi union di Papua Nugini|Papua Nugini]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Solomon|Kapuloan Solomon]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html | title=Member Unions | work=oceaniarugby.com | date= | accessdate=1 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331061452/http://www.oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html |date=31 March 2015 }}</ref> Sanajan kaping pastina kadatangan rugbi union di [[Rugbi union di Trinidad jeung Tobago|Trinidad jeung Tobago]] teu kawanoh, klub kahijina, Northern RFC, dibentuk dina 1923, hiji tim nasional maén dina 1927 sarta ku lantaran hiji tur nu dibolaykeun ka [[Guiana Britania]] dina 1933, ngarobih tujuanna ka [[Rugbi union di Barbados|Barbados]]; mikawanohkeun rugbi ka ditu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=43}}</ref> Nagara Atlantik lian nu maénkeun rugbi union contona [[Rugbi union di Jamaika|Jamaika]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html | title=Jamaica | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928002800/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Bermuda|Bermuda]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html | title=Bermuda | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915192248/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html |date=15 September 2011 }}</ref> Nyebarna rugbi union di Éropa téh sporadis. Sajarahna, ku sabab kirangna patandingan internasional antara tim kandang Britania jeung Irlandia, anu leuwih kapincut kana ngalawan raksasa Hémisfér Kidul Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul, bagian Éropa lianna dipaksa pikeun nyieun hiji 'tingkat kadua' pikeun patandingan rugbi internasional. Salaku hiji nagara daratan utama jeung dina jaman nalika diisolasi ku Union Britania jeung Irlandia, Perancis jadi sahiji-hijina tim Éropa ti tingkat atas pikeun sacara régulér ngalawan nagara Éropa lianna; utamina [[Rugbi union di Bélgia|Bélgia]], [[Rugbi union di Walanda|Walanda]], [[Rugbi union di Jérman|Jérman]], [[Rugbi union di Spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Rugbi union di Romania|Romania]], [[Rugbi union di Polandia|Polandia]], [[Rugbi union di Italia|Italia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Cékoslowakia|Cékoslowakia]].<ref name="FIRA"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine/page/79 79]–94|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> Dina 1934, diusulkeun ku [[Féderasi Rugbi Perancis]], [[FIRA – Association of European Rugby|FIRA]] (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) diwangun pikeun ngatur rugbi union di luar otoritas IRB.<ref name="FIRA"/> Anggota pawangunna nyaéta Italia, Romania, Walanda, Katalonia, Portugal, Cékoslowakia, jeung Swédia. Nagara Éropa lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Rusia|Rusia]], anu patandingan resmi anu kacutatna ditandaan ku tepungna Dynamo Moskwa jeung Institut Ilmu Olahraga Moskwa dina 1933.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=148}}</ref> Sanajan Argéntina mangrupa nagara pamaén rugbi anu katelah ti Amérika Kidul, ngadegkeun [[Rugbi Union Argéntina]] dina 1899,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8362870.stm | title=Puma power: Argentinian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=16 November 2009 | accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> sababaraha nagara lian di buanana ogé miboga sajarah rugbi. Rugbi geus dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Brasil|Brasil]] ti ahir abad ka-19, tapi kaulinan ieu dimaénkeun sacara kaatur ti 1926, basa São Paulo ngéléhkeun Santos dina hiji patandingan antarkota.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=48}}</ref> Mibutuhkeun sababaraha panolakan pikeun [[Rugbi union di Uruguay|Uruguay]] ngadopsi olahraga ieu, diluluguan ku utamina raloba dukungan ti [[Klub Krikét Montevideo]]; lanjuy dina 1951 kalawan diwangunna hiji liga nasional jeung 4 klub.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=166}}</ref> Nagara di Amérika Kidul lianna anu geus ngadegkeun hiji union rugbi contona [[Rugbi union di Cili|Cili]] (1948),<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=58}}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Paraguay|Paraguay]] (1968).<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=127}}</ref> Loba nagara ti Asia anu tradisina maénkeun rugbi bisa ditulusuran ka jaman panjajahan Kakaisaran Britania. [[Rugbi union di India|India]] mimiti maénkeun rugbi dina awal 1870-an, [[Klub Maén Bal Kalkuta]] ngabentuk dina 1872. sanggeus ditarikna dinas Britania ti wewengkon ieu dina ahir dékade éta, rugbi di India ngangkleung. Paninggalan India kana olahraga ieu nyaéta [[Piala Kalkuta]] ka Uni Maén Bal Rugbi; tropi rugbi anu pangkolotna sadunya anu diparebutkeun taunan antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=92}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] ngaklaim geus ngawangun unionna dina 1878, jeung sanajan sautik informasi resmi ti jaman éta kasadia, timna meunangkeun piala All-India di Madras dina 1920.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=152}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Malaysia|Malaysia]] ogé miboga cutatan buruk. Sajarahna, patandingan anu kahijina kacutat di Malaysia nyaéta dina 1892, tapi konfirmasi tina kahiji kalina ayana rugbi nyaéta ayana ''HMS Malaya Cup'' anu, dingaranan dumasar [[HMS Malaya|HMS ''Malaya'']], anu dipidangkeun kahiji kalina dina 1922 jeung masih dihadiahkeun kana pameunang rugbi tujuh Malaysia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|pp=112–113}}</ref> Rugbi union dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Jepang|Jepang]] dina 1899 ku [[Ginnosuke Tanaka]], saurang murid ti [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]] sarta [[Edward Bramwell Clarke]], anu balajar dina [[Kampus Corpus Christi, Cambridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=105}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/6157863.stm | title=Eastern Promise: Japanese rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=12 February 2007 | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> RFU Jepang diwangun dina 1926 jeung tempatna dina sajarah rugbi direketkeun ku warta yén Jepang bakal jadi nagara palaksana [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2019]].<ref name="2015 bid">{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8170488.stm | title=England will host 2015 World Cup |work=BBC Sport | date=28 July 2009 | accessdate=7 February 2010}}</ref> Hal ieu bisa jadi kahiji kalina nagara di luar Pasamakmuran, Irlandia, jeung Perancis anu ngalaksanekun acara éta, jeung diténjo ku IRB salaku hiji kamungkinan keur rugbi union mébérkeun jangjangna leuwih lega,<ref name="2015 bid"/> utamina di Asia. Nagara ti Asia lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Singapura|Singapura]], [[Rugbi union di Koréa Kidul|Koréa Kidul]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Cina|Cina]], samentara urut jajahan Britania, [[Rugbi union di Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] katelah dina rugbi ti pamekaranna dina rugbi tujuh, utamina turnamén [[Hong Kong Sevens]] anu diadegkeun dina 1976.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html | title=HSBC join Cathay as Hong Kong Sevens sponsors | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=18 May 2011 | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611204444/http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html |date=11 June 2011 }}</ref> [[File:Ivory Coast rugby union team in 2008.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tim nasional Basisir Gading saméméh [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011 – Kualifikasi Afrika|kualifikasina]]; vs. Zambia dina 21 Juli 2008.|alt=A close up shot of the Ivory Coast players, in their country's orange jerseys, entering the field from the dressing room tunnel.]] Rugbi di wewengkon Teluk jeung Wétan Tengah miboga sajarahna dina 1950-an, kalawan klub-na dibentuk ku dinas Britania jeung Perancis anu ditempatkeun di wewengkon ieu sanggeus Perang Dunya II.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=42}}</ref> Basa aranjeunna arangkat, klub jeung tim-tim tetep diayakeun ku profésional ngora, kalobannana urang Éropa, anu gawé di nagara ieu. Union resmi [[Rugbi union di Oman|Oman]] dibentuk dina 1971, kalawan Yang Mulia [[Qaboos bin Said al Said]] salaku Palindung.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=126}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Bahrain|Bahrain]] ngabentuk unionna sataun sanggeusna, samentara dina 1975, [[Dubai Sevens]], turnamén rugbi wewengkon Teluk kawentar, dijieun ku by Klub Rugbi Dubai Exiles. Rugbi tetep minangka olahraga minoritas di wewengkon ieu kalawan [[Rugbi union di Israél|Israél]], sakumaha dina 2011, jadi union anggota sahiji-hijina ti Wétan Tengah anu kaasup kana Réngking Dunya IRB.<ref name="Full rankings">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |title=IRB World Rankings |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810042746/http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union di Afrika nyebar dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20 utamina ku padumuk jeung panjajah anu mindeng maké kawijakan 'bodas-wungkul' dina maénkeunnana. Hal ieu nyababkeun rugbi ditempo salaku hiji olahraga borjuis kju urang pribumi kalawan daya tarik anu leutik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wesclark.com/rrr/kenya_rugby.html |title=A Review of Kenyan Rugby |publisher=wesclark.com|first=Michael Mundia |last=Kamau |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara nu kahijina nempo pamaénan rugbi kompetitif contona Afrika Kidul, jeung tatanggana, [[Rugbi union di Rodésia|Rodésia]] (ayeuna Zimbabwé), anu ngawangun Union Maén Bal Rugbi Rodésia dina 1895.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=15}}</ref> Kalawan labuhna kakawasaan panjajah, kapopuléran rugbi ngirang, tapi kiwari, olahraga ieu didukung ku sababaraha nagara Afrika. Dina awal abad ka-21, [[Rugbi union di Madagaskar|Madagaskar]] ngalaman panongton saloba 40.000 dina patandingan internasional,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4471650.stm |title=Madagascar rugby inspires new passion |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Tim |last=Cocks|date=26 November 2005 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> samentara Namibia, anu sajarah rugbina bis ditulusuran ka 1915, geus pernah asup sababaraha kali ka jirangan final Piala Dunya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8951401.stm |title=Namibia rugby: Out of Boks' shadow |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies|date=4 September 2010 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara Afrika lianna anu midang dina Réngking Dunya IRB salaku Union Anggota contona [[Rugbi union di Basisir Gading|Basisir Gading]], [[Rugbi union di Kénya|Kénya]], [[Rugbi union di Uganda|Uganda]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Zambia|Zambia]].<ref name="Full rankings"/> Afrika Kidul jeung Kénya aya dina 12 "tim inti" anu milu dina sadaya pasanggiri Séri Tujuh Dunya IRB.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html#teams+announced+gold+coast+kick |title=Teams announced for Gold Coast kickoff |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=8 September 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} {{Cite web |url=http://irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=15 November 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011152812/http://irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html |archivedate=11 October 2011}}</ref> Saminimialna aya 6 nagara anu ngadopsi rugbi union salaku [[olahraga nasional]]na sacara ''[[de facto]]''; nyaéta Fiji,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/international/4272324.stm |title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies |date=13 October 2005 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Géorgia|Géorgia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |title=Scene set for an exciting Junior Trophy |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=13 May 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518181350/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> Selandia Anyar,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/28/4/229.abstract |title=The New Zealand Rugby Injury and Performance Project: II. Previous injury experience of a rugby-playing cohort |publisher=British Medical Journal |year=1994|author=Gerrard, D.F.; Waller, A.E.; Bird, Y.N. |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> Samoa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/samoa/3079758.stm |title=Sititi targets pool's big fish |publisher=BBC Sport |date=26 September 2003 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Tonga|Tonga]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|title=Exporter Guide: Tonga|publisher=New Zealand Trade and Enterprise|year=2010|accessdate=17 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|archivedate=28 September 2011}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref>, jeung Wales.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Davies|editor1-link=John Davies (historian) |editor2-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Jenkins |editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins |editor3-first=Menna |editor3-last=Baines|editor4-first=Peredur I. |editor4-last=Lynch |editor4-link=Peredur Lynch |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff|page=782 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6}}</ref> ==Rugbi union putri== [[File:Women's Rugby Mark.jpg|thumb|left|Rugbi union putri AS: NC Hustlers vs. Midwest II|alt=A female player in yellow and green kit and wearing a white scrum cap, jumps to collect a ball while supported by team mates.]] {{utama|Rugbi union putri}} Cutatan ngeunaan maén bal rugbi putri balik ka ahir abad ka-19, kalawan sumber kacutat kahiji nyaéta tulisan Emily Valentine, nu nyebutkeun yén anjeunna ngajieun hiji tim rugbi di [[Sakola Portora Royal]] di Enniskillen, Irlandia dina 1887.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |title=Emily Valentine: First Lady Of Irish And World Rugby |work=IrishRugby.ie |date=20 January 2010 |accessdate=5 November 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922022257/http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref> Sanajan aya laporan patandingan-patandingan rugbi putri awal di Selandia Anyar jeung Perancis, salah sahiji patandingan kahiji anu kaciri pikeun ngabuktikeun bukti utami nyaéta panglawungan antara Cardiff Ladies jeung Newport Ladies dina 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=D.E. |title=Cardiff Rugby Club, History and Statistics 1876–1975 |year=1975 |publisher=The Starling Press |location=Risca|pages=70–71 |isbn=0950442100}}</ref> Dina sababaraha taun ahir ieu, popularitas rugbi union dina atlét putri geus tumuwuh, sarta, dumasar kana IRB, ayeuna dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |title=Great potential for Women's Rugby in Japan |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707010439/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> Union Maén Bal Rugbi Putri Inggris (''Women's Rugby Football Union''; WRFU), tanggung jawab kana rugbi putri di Inggris, Skotlandia, Irlandia, jeung Wales, dibentuk dina 1983, jeung mangrupa babon organisasi nasional resmi anu pangkolotna pikeun rugbi putri.<ref name="WRFU">{{cite web |url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=RFUW: A Brief History |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date= |accessdate=28 September 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903054707/http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |archivedate=3 September 2011}}</ref> Union ieu teras diganti dina 1994 ku [[Union Maén Bal Rugbi pikeun Putri]] (''Rugby Football Union for Women''; RFUW) di Inggris kalawan masing-masing Nagara Asal lianna ngurusan nagarana.<ref name="WRFU"/> Kompetisi internasional utamina dina rugbi union putri nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1991.<ref name="Women's Rugby">{{cite web |url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=Women's Rugby World Cup history |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=5 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903054707/http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |archivedate=3 September 2011}}</ref> Ti 1994, Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri dilaksanakeun saban 4 warsih.<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> ==Kompetisi internasional utami==<!-- This section is linked from [[BBC Radio Five Live]] --> {{details|Daptar kompetisi rugbi union}} [[File:Coupe du monde rugby - tour Eiffel.JPG|thumb|Hiji bal rugbi gedé nu ngagumantung kana [[Munara Eiffel]] pikeun miélingkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]] nu mana tuan rumahna nyaéta Perancis|alt=An avenue of trees leads to a large iron lattice tower, in which an oversized rugby ball hangs within the lower sections.]] Turnamén anu pangpentingana di rugbi union nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], turnamén putra anu dilaksanakeun saban 4 taunngalombakeun tim-tim nasional rugbi union. [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] nyaéta juara anu panganyarna, nu meunangkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011]] anu lumangsung di Selandia Anyar, ngéléhkeun Perancis 8-7 di final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/15405316.stm |title=2011 Rugby World Cup final: New Zealand 8-7 France |publisher=BBC News |date=23 October 2011 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> euweuh pameunang Piala Dunya nu geus hasil jadi juara turut-tumurut.<ref name="rugby world cup">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |title=Rugby World Cup History - World Cup Winners List |publisher=rugby-world-cup.net |accessdate=4 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522125807/http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |date=22 May 2013 }}</ref> Inggris mangrupa tim kahiji ti Hémisfér Kalér nu meunangkeunnana. Selandia Anyar pernah meunang dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1987|1987]], Australia dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1991|1991]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1999|1999]], Afrika Kalér dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995|1995]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|2007]].<ref name="rugby world cup"/> Kompetisi internasional utami lianna saperti [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kalér sarta [[Kajuaraan Rugbi]], dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kidul. Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa (''Six Nations Championship'') nyaéta hiji kompetisi taunan mimilukeun tim Inggris, Perancis, Irlandia, Italia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales.<ref name="SixNations">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |title=Six Nations Championship: History |publisher=rbs6nations.com |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015033350/http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |date=15 October 2009 }}</ref> Masing-masing nagara ngalawan lima nu lianna sakali. Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'') nyaéta ngaran anyar ti séri taunan internasional di Hémisfér Kidul, mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Argéntina, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar. Ti awalna dina 1996 nepi ka sabagian 2011, kompetisi ieu kawanoh salaku ''Tri Nations'' (Tilu Bangsa), jeung ngan mimilukeun Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul.<ref name="TriNations History">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |title=TriNations Rugby |publisher=RugbyWeek.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019065904/http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |date=19 October 2011 }}</ref> Tim-tim ieu geus ngadominasi réngking dunya sababaraha taun ahir, jeung loba anu nyebutkeun yén kompetisi ieu mangrupa kompetisi pangkiatna dina rugbi internasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sport24.co.za/Rugby/Boks-face-aerial-bombardment-20100630 |title=NZ expect aerial bombardment |publisher=sport24.co.za |first=J.J. |last=Harmse |date=30 June 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date = 26 August 2010 | title = Preview: South Africa v Australia | work=Planet Rugby | publisher=365 Media | url = http://www.planetrugby.com/story/0,25883,16024_6340553,00.html | accessdate =27 August 2010}}</ref> ===Tur rugbi=== Dina sajarah awal rugbi union, jaman saméméh lalampahan udara komérsial, tim-tim ti buana nu béda jarang patepang. 2 tur awal anu katelah aya dina 1888, Kapuloan Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia<ref name="Lions history">{{cite news |url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |title=The History |publisher=lionsrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722073223/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |date=22 July 2013 }}</ref>, anu dimiluan ku tur tim Selandia Anyar ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |title=IRB Hall of Fame Welcomes Five Inductees |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=23 November 2008 |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824065112/http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |date=24 August 2010 }}</ref> Tradisionalna, tur anu pangluhurna nyaéta tur nagara Hémisfér Kidul (Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul) ka Hémisfér Kalér, teras tur balesan dijieun ku tim gabungan Britania jeung Irlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1987|p=ix}} ''"In the first century of rugby union's history the IRB only recognised matches with international status if both teams in a match came from a small pool of countries: Australia, British Lions, England, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales."''</ref> ===Rugbi dina turnamén internasional=== {{See also|Rugbi union dina Olimpiade|Rugbi tujuh dina Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran|Rugbi union dina Pésta Olahraga Asia}} Rugbi union dimaénkeun dina Olimpiade Usum Panas [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1908|1908]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1920|1920]], jeung [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1924|1924]].<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics">{{cite news |url=http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |title=Rugby in the Olympics: History |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=16 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810064813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Sakumaha dina aturan Olimpiade, Skotlandia, Wales, jeung Inggris teu diidinkeun maén dina tim anu kapisah ku sabab sanés nagara daulat. Dina 1900, Perancis meunangkeun emas, ngéléhkeun Britania Raya 27-8 jeung ngéléhkeun Jérman 27-17.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1908, Australasia ngéléhkeun Britania Raya, meunangkeun medali emas, kalawan skor 32-3.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1920, Amérika Sarikat, maké hiji tim anu pamaén-pamaénna karak anyar kana olahraga rugbi, tapi bisa ngéléhkeun Perancis, 8-0. Dina 1924, Amérika Sarikat ngéléhkeun Perancis deui, 17-3, jadi sahiji-hijina tim anu meunangkeun emas dua kali di olahraga ieu.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 2009, [[Komite Olimpiade Internasional]] miboga hasil pamilihan 81-8, meunangkeun rugbi union sangkan dibalikkeun salaku olahraga Olimpiade saheunteuna dina Olimpiade [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] jeung [[Olimpiade 2020|2020]], tapi dina rugbi tujuh, kalawan format turnamén 4-dinten.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/14/sports/14sports.html |title=I.O.C. Decision Draws Cheers and Complaints From Athletes |work=The New York Times |first=Jeff |last=Klein |date=13 August 2009 |accessdate=13 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/news/6281166/Rugby-sevens-and-golf-ratified-for-2016-Olympics-in-Rio-de-Janeiro.html |title=Rugby sevens and golf ratified for 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro |first=Paul |last=Kelso |publisher=Telegraph |date=9 October 2009 |accessdate=5 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430151816/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/news/6281166/Rugby-sevens-and-golf-ratified-for-2016-Olympics-in-Rio-de-Janeiro.html |date=30 April 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi tujuh geus dimaénkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran]] ti [[Commonwealth Games 1998|1998]] di Kuala Lumpur.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9031959.stm |title=Commonwealth Games 2010: Form guide – rugby sevens| publisher=BBC Sport |date=27 September 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Panyekel medali emas ayeuna nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar (tujuh)|Selandia Anyar]] anu geus meunangkeunnana 4 kali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9084566.stm |title=Commonwealth Games: NZ win sevens as England miss medal| publisher=BBC Sport |date=12 October 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi union ogé geus jadi cabang [[Pésta Olahraga Asia]] ti [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 1998|1998]] di Bangkok, Thailand. Dina kompetisi 1998 jeung 2002, anu tujuh jeung lima welas dua-duana dimaénkeun, tapi ti 2006, ngan nu tujuh anu ditahankeun. Dina 2010, rugbi tujuh putri dipikawanohkeun. Panyekel medali emas ayeuna dina turnamén tujuh, dilaksanakeun di [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 2010|2010]], nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Jepang (tujuh)|Jepang]] dina nomer putrana sarta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Kazakhstan (tujuh)|Kazakhstan]] dina nomer putrina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html|title=Japan claim Asian Games gold|publisher=planetrugby.com|date=23 November 2010|accessdate=10 October 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602181345/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |title=Kazakhstan win first Asian Games women's gold |publisher=IRBSevens.com |date=23 November 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602182627/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Rugbi internasional putri=== {{utama|Rugbi union internasional putri}} Rugbi union putri internasional kahiji mimiti 1982, kalawan hiji patandingan antara [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Perancis|Perancis]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Walanda|Walanda]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://rugbyrelics.com/museum/exhibitions/NR125/14.htm |title=Women's Rugby |work=rugbyrelics.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> Dina 2009, leuwih ti 600 patandingan internasional putri geus dimaénkeun ku leuwih ti 40 tim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/119928-womans-rugby-beautiful-side-of-brutal-game |title=Women's Rugby: Beautiful Side of a Brtual Game |work=bleacherreport.com |first=Giorgi |last=Dolidze |date=5 February 2009 |accessdate=25 September 2011 |note=1}}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]] anu kahiji dilaksanakeun di Wales dina [[Piala Dunia Rugbi Putri 1991|1991]], jeung nu meunang nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> Turnamén anu kadua dilaksanakeun dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1994|1994]], jeung saprak éta kompetisina geus dilaksanakeun saban 4 taun. Tim Selandia Ayar geus meunangkeun 4 Piala Dunya nu pangahirna ([[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1998é|1998]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2002|2002]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2006|2006]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2010|2010]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nz2011.govt.nz/news/february-2011/rugbys-prized-trophies-going-on-tour |title=Rugby’s prized trophies going on tour |work=nz2011.govt.nz |date= 6 February 2011 |accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref> Sakumaha ayana Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri, aya ogé turnamén régulérna, contona [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri]], dilaksanakeun bareng jeung nu putrana. Kahiji dimaénkeun dina [[Kajuaraan Nagara Asal Putri 1996|1996]], kompetisi ieu geus didominasi ku [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Inggris|Inggris]], anu geus meunangkeun turnamén éta 12 kali, kalawan 6 kali meunang turut-tumurut ([[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2006|2006]] nepi ka [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2011|2011]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/9428976.stm |title=England Women beat Ireland to clinch Grand Slam |work=BBC Sport|date= 18 March 2011 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> ==Varian== {{see also|Rugbi tujuh}} [[File:Spielszene BK.jpg|thumb|Patandingan rugbi basisir|alt=On a sunlit beach two teams of players, one in yellow the other in blue, play a form of rugby; the central yellow player runs forward clutching the ball with one hand, close to his chest.]] Rugbi union geus miboga sababaraha varian. Pabédaan umum dina varian olahraga ieu biasana pamaén nu leuwih saeutik atawa ngirangan kontak pamaén. Varian nu pangkoltna nyaéta [[Rugbi tujuh]] (7's, atawa VIIs), hiji varian nu gancang nu lahir di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], Skotlandia dina 1883. Di rugbi tujuh, ngan aya 7 pamaén saban tim, jeung hiji babakna biasana ngan tujuh menit. Turnamén utami contona [[Hong Kong Sevens]] jeung [[Dubai Sevens]], duanana dilaksanakeun di aréa nu teu biasa kaasosiasi jeung tingkat luhur rugbi 15. Varian lianna contona [[Rugbi sapuluh]] (10's atawa Xs), hiji varian Malaysia kalawan 10 pamaén per tim.<ref name=Completerugby1>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=71}}</ref> Ku lantaran kaayaan fisik dina maén rugbi, sababaraha varian geus dijieun pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak kalawan tingkat kontak fisik nu dikirangan.<ref name="IRB BGRU 14">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=14|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Ti vérsi-vérsi ieu, [[Touch rugbi]], nu mana ''tackles'' dijieun ku cara ngeunakeun nu mawa bal ku dua tangan. Olahraga ieu populér salaku vérsi campuran ti nu 15, dimaénkeun ku boh barudak boh déwasa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/getting-a-kick-out-of-touch/story-e6frep5o-1225699224845 |title=Touch rugby league growing in Brisbane |first=Karl|last=deKroo| work=The Courier-Mail |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/~/link.aspx?_id=A4A528E2CC22410390D89AE5E46D1EF9&_z=z |title=Touch Rugby | work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[Tag Rugby]], nyaéta vérsi di mana pamaénna maké hiji beubeur kalawan dua talian, upami dileupaskeun hartina ka-''tackle''. Dina Tag Rugby, najong bal ogé teu beunang.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |title=Tag Rugby |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810133935/http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> [[Rugbi mini]] ogé varian lian ti rugbi union pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |title=About Mini Rugby |work=irishrugby.ie |date= |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209200753/http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |date=9 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Rutherford1>{{cite book |last=Rutherford |first=Don |title=The Complete Book of Mini Rugby |publisher=Partridge |year=1993 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/completebookofmi0000ruth/page/2 2] |url=https://archive.org/details/completebookofmi0000ruth|isbn=1852251964 }}</ref> Dimaénkeun ku 9 pamaén jeung di lapangan nu leuwih leutik.<ref name="Mini Rugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|title=Mini Rugby|work=irishrugby.ie|accessdate=24 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227222214/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|archivedate=27 December 2010}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913104229/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf |date=13 September 2012 }}</ref> Mirip jeung Tag Rugby, [[Rugbi Bandéra Amérika]] (''American Flag Rugby''; AFR), mangrupa hiji varian ti rugbi union nu dimaénkeun campuran (bisa ku bareng lalaki-awéwé) tanpa kontak pikeun barudak Amérika dina kelas K-9.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |title=About AFR |work=americanflagrugby.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817210310/http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |date=17 August 2011 }}</ref> Boh Rugbi Bandéra Amérika boh Rugbi Mini duanana béda jeung Tag Rugby nu mana dina dua varian rugbi éta leuwih dipikawanohkeun deui unsur lanjutan rugbi union sajalan pamaénna tumuwuh.<ref name="Mini Rugby"/> Varian lianna contona [[rugbi basisir]] jeung [[rugbi salju]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 14"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Rugby X-treme hits the Andes|first=Frankie|last=Deges|date=15 July 2008|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726135403/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html |date=26 July 2010 }}</ref> ==Pangaruh kana olahraga lian== {{See also|Sajaran maén bal Amérika|Bandingan maén bal Amérika jeung rugbi union|Asalna maén bal Australia|Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union}} [[File:Fielding Yost-1902.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Hiji patandingan [[maén bal Amérika]] antara [[Universitas Michigan]] jeung [[Universitas Minnesota]] (1902). Bentuk awal patandingan miboga patalian nu terang jeung ékuivalén rugbi lianna.|alt=A grainy black and white photo of teams in sports jerseys and light padding contesting a play near the touchline, while watched by officials, coaches and crowds.]] Rugbi union football, jeung katurunan langsungna, maén bal rugbi, miboga pangaruh nu kiat kana sababaraha olahraga lian. [[maén bal Gridiron|Kode Gridiron]], [[maén bal Amérika]]<ref name=Completerugby2>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name=Stubbs>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=115}}</ref> jeung [[maén bal Kanada]],<ref name=CanFitba1>{{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana|volume = 8|editor=John Everett Robbins| year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal |page=110 |isbn=0717216012}}</ref> diturunkeun ti bentuk awal rugbi. Di Kanada, [[maén bal Kanada]] geus mindeng disebut "[[maén bal rugbi]]" (''rugby football''),<ref name=CanFitba1/> jeung sababaraha badan nasional jeung propinsi disebut "Union Rugbi Maén Bal" atawa "Union Rugbi", saperti Union Rugbi Maén Bal [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Ontario|Ontario]] jeung [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Quebec|Quebec]].<ref name=CanFitba1/> Contona, dina ''Encyclopedia Canadiana'', cutatan ''Rugby Football'' dimimitian ku cara ngarujuk ka "''the Canadian development of rugby union or "English rugger" introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century''" (pamekaran Kanada kana rugbi union atawa "''rugger'' Inggris" dipikawanohkeun ka Kanada dina parapat katilu abad ka-19), tapi teras nyebutkeun yén "''the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union''" (kaulinan Kanadana mangrupa hiji kadatangan radikal ti rugbi union).<ref name=CanFitba1/> [[Maén Bal Australia]] geus kapangaruh ku loba olahraga, kaasup [[maén bal Gael]], maén bal rugbi, jeung [[krikét]]. Raloba panulis percaya yén pangaruh utamina nyaéta [[maén bal rugbi]] jeung [[Kaulinan maén bal sakola umum Inggris|kaulinan lian nu lahir di sakola umum Inggris]].<ref name="See 1991, pp. 49-50">[[Geoffrey Blainey]], [[Leonie Sandercock]], Ian Turner, jeung [[Sean Fagan]] miboga dukungan tinulis kana pamikiran ieu. Tempo, contona: Richard Davis, 1991, "Irish and Australian Nationalism: the Sporting Connection: Football & Cricket", ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies Bulletin'', v.3, no.2, pp. 49–50 jeung; B. W. O'Dwyer, 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", ''Victorian Historical Journal'', v.60, no.1.</ref> [[Tom Wills]], nu diakuan salaku panaratas Maén Bal Australia, ogé pernah janten murid Sakola Rugby.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/395810.html |last=Haigh |first=Gideon |title=Murder, suicide, cricket|work=espncricinfo.com |date=21 March 2009 |accessdate=28 August 2011}}</ref> [[James Naismith]] ngarujuk ti rupa-rupa olahraga kaasup rugbi pikeun nyieun [[baskét]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |last=Wolff |first=Alexander |title=The Olden Rules |work=sportsillustrated.cnn.com |date=25 November 2002 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604031625/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |date=4 June 2011 }}</ref> Kontribusi nu terangna nyaéta kamiripan [[bal luncat]] ka ''linéout'' ogé gaya ngalung ''underhand'' nu ngadominasi taun-taun awal ti olahraga éta. Naismith pernah maén rugbi pikeun sababaraha taun dina [[Universitas McGill]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |last=Kanter |first=Jacob |title=Profile-James Naismith: Where athletics meets religious fervor |work=mcgilltribune.com |date=21 September 2010 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311152517/http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |date=11 March 2012 }}</ref> [[Maén bal Swédia (kode)|Maén bal Swédia]] nyaéta hiji kode nu aturanna mangrupa campuran ti [[Laws of the Game (maén bal)|aturan maén bal]] jeung [[maén bal rugbi|aturan maén bal rugbi]]. Sababaraha urang maénkeun kaulinan éta maké hiji bal nu buleud, samentawis nu lian maké bal oval.<ref name="jönsson203">{{cite book |last=Jönsson |first=Åke |title=Fotboll: hur världens största sport växte fram |year=2006 |publisher=Historiska media |location=Lund |isbn=91-85377-48-1 |page=203}}</ref> Kaulinan éta teu dimaénkeun deui.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=sv&u=http://svenskfotboll.se/svensk-fotboll/historia/svff-1904/&ei=p8V9TtHEKKSP0AXUvPUB&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dsvff:s%2Btillkomst%2B1904%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-gb%26prmd%3Dimvns |title=SvFF:s tillkomst 1904 |work=svenskfotboll.se |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi minangka dasar ti [[rugbi korsi roda]] (kawanoh ogé salaku "rugbi quad" atawa "''murderball''"), tapi olahraga ieu leuwih kiatna dipangaruhan ku [[baskét korsi roda]], [[hoki és]], jeung [[bal tangan]] tinimbang rugbi union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |title=About Wheelchair Rugby |work=iwrf.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424065940/http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |date=24 April 2008 }}</ref> ==Statistik jeung rékor== {{see also|Daptar pamaén rugbi union top dumasar midang internasional|Daptar panyitak skor top rugbi union}} Dumasar kana hiji laporan dina 2011 ku Puseur Bisnis Internasional olahraga di [[Universitas Coventry]], ayeuna aya leuwih ti 5 yuta urang maénkeun rugbi union atawa hiji varianna anu kaorganisasi ku IRB.<ref name="Stripes">{{cite web |url=http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |title=They're game: Rugby team willing to play all takers |first=Seth |last=Robson |publisher=stripes.com |date=8 July 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814172158/http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |date=14 August 2011 }}</ref> Hal ieu mangrupa paningkatan 19 persén ti laporan saméméhna dina 2007.<ref name="Global Rugby">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |title=Economic Impact Report on Global Rugby; Part III: Strategic and Emerging Markets |publisher=Centre for the International Business of Sport, [[Coventry University]] |first=Simon |last=Chadwick |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626220118/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |date=26 June 2011 }}</ref> Laporan ieu nyebutkeun ogé yén ti 2007, partisipasi geus ningkat 33 persén di Afrika, 22 persén di Amérika Kidul, jeung 18 persén di Asia sareng Amérika Kalér.<ref name="Global Rugby"/> Acara utami rugbi union, Piala Dunya Rugbi, geus lanjut mekarna ti lahirna dina 1987.<ref name="IRB2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |title=IRB Year in Review 2010 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |page=74 |year=2010 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514115712/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Turnamén kahijina, mimilukeun 16 tim, ditongtonkeun ka 17 nagara kalawan total pamiarsa kaakumulasi 230 yuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Panjualan tikét basa babak grup jeung final ti turnamén nu sarua kirang ti sayuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|Piala Dunya 2007]] mimilukeun 94 nagara kalawan panjualan tikét 3.850.000 dina babak grup jeung final.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Total pamiarsa acara éta, nu ditongtonkeun ka 200 nagara, nyaéta 4,2 milyar.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Pamaén nu midang internasional panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta ''halfback'' Australia, [[George Gregan]], kalawan 139 kali midang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=matches;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Samentawis pamaén internasional panyitak skor panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta [[Dan Carter]] ti Selandia Anyar, nu geus nyitak 1250 poin dina karirna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=points;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=10 September 2011}}</ref> Dina April 2010, [[Rugbi union di Lithuania|Lithuania]] ngéléhkeun rékor kameunangan internasional turut-tumurut, anu saméméhna dicekel ku Selandia Anyar jeung Afrika Kidul, kalawan 17 kali meunang turut-tumurut ngalawan nagara golongan 1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |title=Lithuania bid for World record test run |publisher=IRB |date=16 April 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131525/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref>. Lithuania meunangkeun kameunangan ka-18-na dina patandingan ngalawan nagara golongan 2, [[Rugbi union di Sérbia|Sérbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=date;spanmax1=08+May+2010;spanmin1=04+Jun+2006;spanval1=span;team=90;template=results;type=team;view=match |title=Statsguru / Test matches / Team records: Lithuania, matches between 4 June 2006 and 8 May 2010, sorted by ascending match date |work=ESPN Scrum |publisher=SFMS Limited |accessdate=6 May 2011}} ''"The dates chosen bookend Lithuania's 18-match winning streak."''</ref> Patandingan internasional anu boga skor panglobana antara dua tim nu diakuan nyaéta kameunangan Hong Kong kana Singapura, 164 - 13, dina 27 Oktober 1994.<ref name="record wins">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |title=Games where 100 or more points were scored by a team |publisher=rugbydata.com |date= |accessdate=27 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325101231/http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |date=25 March 2013 }}</ref> Rékor lian contona kameunangan <u>></u>152 poin nu dicekel ku 2 nagara, Jepang (meunang 155 - 3 ngalawan Taipéi Cina) jeung Argéntina (152 - 0 ngalawan Paraguay). Duanana dina taun 2002.<ref name="record wins"/> ==Rugbi union dina budaya== <!-- Bagian di handap ieu nyaéta pikeun INOHONG seniman kakoncara nu geus maké rugbi atawa pikeun karya nu museur kana rugbi union. Bagian ieu lain keur pamidangan umum rugbi dina budaya populér atawa fakta trivia saperti salasahiji épisode Friends ''The One with all the Rugby''.--> [[File:Henri Rousseau - The Football Players.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henri Rousseau – ''The Football Players'' (1908)|alt=An oil painting of two groups of a pair of moustached men wearing stripped jerseys and shorts, contesting a rugby ball within an avenue of trees.]] Pangaruh rugbi kana budaya bisa ditempo dina inspirasi seniman jeung panulis, ogé pangaruh pamaén jeung pangurus rugbi salaku pacontoan jeung pahlawan pikeun nagarana. Loba panulis populér nu geus maké rugbi union dina bukuna. Novél 1857 Thomas Hughes, [[Tom Brown's Schooldays]], latarna di Sakola Rugby, ngawengku carita ngeunaan patandingan maén bal rugbi, nu teras dipilemkeun dina 1940-an. James Joyce nyebutkeun tim Irlandia, [[Bective Rangers]], di sababaraha bukuna, kaasup Ulysses (1922) jeung Finnegans Wake (1939), samentawis karya semi-otobiagrafis 1916-na, ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'', miboga catetan pamaén internasional ti Irlandia, [[James Magee]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5 |title=Bective Rangers – James Joyce |date= |work=bectiverangers.com |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726215801/http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5/ |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref> Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, dina carita Sherlock Holmes 1924-na, ''[[The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire]]'', nyebutkeun yén Dr Watson maén rugbi pikeun Blackheath.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/vampires/classicstory/sussexvampire_p1.shtml|title=The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire |date=September 2005|work=BBC |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union mangrupa subjék ti skétsa awal ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu, tapi dipaké ogé ku sababaraha seniman, utamina ku sababaraha palukis Perancis awal abad ka-20. Post-Imprésionis Perancis [[Henri Rousseau]], ''Joueurs de football'', damelan 1908, némbongkeun 2 pasang pamaén rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |title=Henri Rousseau |first=Cornelia |last=Lauf |date= |work=guggenheim.org |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429080822/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> Seniman Perancis lianna nu geus ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu dina karyana contona [[Albert Gleizes]] (''Les Joueurs de football'' [1912]), [[Robert Delaunay]] (''Football. L'Equipe de Cardiff'' [1916]), jeung [[André Lhote]] (''Partie de Rugby'' [1917]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine/page/19 19]|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> [[Kompetisi seni dina Olimpiade 1928|Medali Emas pikeun Seni 1928]] dina Olimpiade Antwerp dimeunangkeun ku [[Jean Jacoby]] ti Luksemburg dina karyana ''Rugby''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |title=Art Competitions |date= |work=olympic-museum.de |accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501132439/http://www.olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |date=1 May 2008 }}</ref> Dina televisi jeung pilem, rugbi union geus dipaké minangka kasang tukan dina sababaraha produksi. Komédi 1949 ti Ealing Studios, ''[[A Run for Your Money]]'', jeung pilem televisi 1979 ti BBC Wales, ''[[Grand Slam (pilem 1978)|Grand Slam]]'', duanana museur kana pandukung panongton patandingan, sanés olahragana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berry|first=David|title=Wales and Cinema, The First Hundred Years |year=1996 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff |page=215 |isbn=0-7083-1370-1}}</ref> Pilem nu maké olahraga ieu dina rincian leuwih contona produksi indie ''[[Old Scores]]'' (1991) jeung ''[[Forever Strong]]'' (2008). ''[[Invictus (pilem)|Invictus]]'' (2009), dumasar kana bukuna [[John Carlin]], ''Playing the Enemy'', ngomongkeun kajadian dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995]] jeung usaha Nelson Mandela pikeun nganggo olahraga ieu ngahijikeun masarakat Afrika Kidul pasca-apartheid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml|title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |accessdate=28 August 2011|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=19 October 2007 | first=John | last=Carlin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8406647.stm|title=South Africa 'rugby unity': Fact and fiction |date=11 December 2009|work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Pumza | last=Fihlani}}</ref> Raloba nagara miboga patung nu ngagambarkeun rugbi union atawa pamaén rugbi. Sababarahana bisa dipanggih di stadion rugbi, saperti patung perunggu 27 suku di [[Stadion Twickenham|Twickenham]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/local/richmondnews/8196778.Iconic_sculpture_of_rugby_line_out_unveiled/ |title=RFU unveils iconic bronze of rugby line-out by sculptor Gerald Laing |date=2 June 2010 |work=yourlocalguardian.co.uk |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Joanna | last=Kilvington}}</ref> jeung pangurus rugbi Sir [[Tasker Watkins]] di [[Stadion Millenium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/8360513.stm |title=Statue of Sir Tasker is unveiled |date=15 November 2009 |work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=23 September 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén rugbi nu geus dihormatan dijieun patungna contona [[Gareth Edwards]] di Cardiff jeung [[Danie Craven]] di Stellenbosch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |title=Craven of Craven Week |date=27 June 2010 |work=rugby365.com |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719053209/http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |date=19 July 2011 }}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Rugbi union}} {{Wikinews category|Rugby}} * ''[[International Rugby Hall of Fame]]'' * ''[[IRB Hall of Fame]]'' * [[Daptar tim rugbi union internasional]] * [[Daptar kompetisi rugbi union pangkolotna]] * [[Daptar istilah rugbi union]] * [[Variasi aturan pacobian]] ==Réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ===Sumber citakeun=== {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana vol. 8|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediacana0000unse_d4e6|year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal|isbn=0717216012| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book | editor-last = Bath | editor-first = Richard | year = 1997 | title = Complete Book of Rugby | publisher=Seven Oaks Ltd | ISBN = 1862000133| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Rugby: Steps to Success|url=https://archive.org/details/rugbystepstosucc0000bisc|first1=Tony|last1=Biscombe |first2= Peter|last2=Drewett|year=2009|publisher=Human Kinetics| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Periodization in Rugby|first1=Tudor|last1=Bompa |first2= Frederick|last2=Claro|year=2008|publisher=Meyer and Meyer Sport| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Godwin |first=Terry |coauthors=Rhys, Chris |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofru0000godw |year=1981 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives Ltd |location=Enfield|isbn=0851122140| ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John|coauthors= |title=The Phoenix Book of International Rugby Records |url=https://archive.org/details/phoenixbookofint0000grif |year=1987 |publisher=Phoenix House |location=London |isbn=0460070037| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Howard |coauthors= Jordon, J.P. |title=Oxford v Cambridge, The Story of the University Rugby Match |year=1951 |publisher=Clerke & Cockeran|location=London |isbn=| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url = | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Richards| first = Huw| coauthors = | title = A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union| publisher=[[Mainstream Publishing]]| year = 2007| location = Edinburgh| url =https://archive.org/details/gameforhooligans0000rich| isbn = 978-1845962555| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Stubbs| first = Ray| coauthors = | title = The Sports Book| publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]| year = 2009| pages = | url = | isbn = 978-1405336970 |ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=J.B.G. |coauthors= Rowe, Harding|title=On Tour |year=1954 |publisher=Anchor Press Ltd.|location=Essex |isbn= | ref = harv}} {{refend}} ===Sumber éléktronik=== * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html | title=Laws of Rugby Union | publisher=IRB | year=2010 | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518105529/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html |date=18 May 2011 }} * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html | title=IRB Regulations | publisher=IRB | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130103091436/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html |date=3 January 2013 }} * [http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/story/94071.html Scrum.com Rugby guide] ==Tumbu kaluar== <!-- Please discuss on the article talk page before adding any further links here --> {{Commons category}} {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.irb.com International Rugby Board] – loka resmi babon organisasi * [http://www.rugbydata.com Rugby Data] – statistik rugbi union * [http://www.planetrugby.com/ Planet Rugby] – warta, jadwal, laporan, jsb. * [http://www.espnscrum.com/ ESPN Scrum.com] warta, laporan, statistik, jsb. {{Team Sport}} {{international rugby union}} {{Olympic sports}} {{Rugby Union Club Competitions}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rugbi Union}} [[Kategori:Rugbi union| ]] [[Kategori:Kaulinan nu maké bal]] [[Kategori:Kode maén bal]] [[Kategori:Olahraga nu lahir di Inggris]] [[Kategori:Olahraga tim]] [[Kategori:Urut olahraga Olimpiade]] d4a7xg2kacc0xcuhylwzc7x2js0njvj Koporasi Microsoft 0 36233 732135 711363 2026-11-10T22:47:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732135 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dead end}} '''Koporasi Microsoft''' nyaéta salah sahiji pausahaan software (pakakas lemes) komputer anu pangkakoncarana ku balarea sadunya. Puseur imah gawena kacaturkeun di [[Redmond]], [[Washington]], [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]]. Kiwari Microsoft miboga kirang langkung 150.000 pagawe di taun 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tekno.kompas.com/read/2020/09/03/16590097/informasi-gaji-karyawan-microsoft-tersebar-di-internet|title=Informasi Gaji Karyawan Microsoft Tersebar di Internet Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2022-01-30}}</ref> Microsoft nyawalakeun, ngajieun, tur ngalisensikeun sagala wanda software komputer. Salah sahiji banda anu mohara nyaéta Microsoft Windows anu aya dina unggal [[komputer]]. Pausahaan ieu miboga sababaraha divisi, diantarana nyaéta Divisi Bisnis. Divisi ieu nyieun Microsoft Office versi panganyarna na nyaéta [[Microsoft Office 2013]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merdeka.com/microsoft/profil/|title=Profil - Microsoft|website=merdeka.com|language=en|accessdate=2022-01-30}}</ref> Software ieu ngawengku Word, Excel, Powerpoint, Outlook, Publisher, sarta Sharepoint.<ref name=":2" /> Sajumlah produk lain anu ditambahkeun dina produksi Office 2003, nyaéta Visio, Project, Mappoint, Infopath, sarta Onenote.<ref name=":2" /> Divisi anu lain na nyaéta Divisi Entertainment atawa hiburan. Divisi ieu nyieun Windows CE OS keur sistem "embed" sarta WINDOWS Phone pikeun smartphone. Dina mimitina Windows ngasupan pasar telepon seluler kalawan ngababarkeun Windows CE, sarta saterusna ngembang barobah kaayaan WINDOWS Mobile OS sarta kiwari barobah kaayaan Windows Phone.<ref name=":2" /> Sajaba ti éta, divisi ieu ogé ngembangkeun PC game anu bisa dijalankeun di sistem Windows sarta sistem anu lain. Contona, Age of Empires, Halo, sarta sababaraha gedég Microsoft Flight Simulator.<ref name=":2" /> Microsoft heunteu ngan saukur mroduksi software keur sistem OS-na wae, pausahaan ieu ogé mroduksi Microsoft Office for Mac, software kanggo produk pausahaan [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. Produk lain anu dihasilkeun divisi ieu téh sababaraha pakakas hiburan, kawas Xbox 360, Handheld Zune media player, sarta MSN TV. Microsoft ogé mroduksi hardwere kawas mouse, keyboard sarta bermacam macem joystick sarta gamepad.<ref name=":2" /> == Sajarah Microsoft == Microsoft diwangun tanggal 4 April 1975 ku [[Bill Gates]] jeung [[Paul Allen]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://accesstrade.co.id/|title=Sejarah Microsoft, Perusahaan Software Tersukses di Dunia|website=accesstrade.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2022-01-30}}</ref> Nepi ka ayeuna kurang leuwih Microsoft geus 45 taun ngadeg.<ref name=":0" /> Ngaran Microsoft diwangun ku dua kecap nyaéta "Micro Computer" jeung Softwere anu akhirna jadi "Microsoft".<ref name=":0" /> Tujuan mimiti diadegkeunna ieu pausahaan nyaéta keur ngembengkeun jeung ngajual pakakas [[Altair 8800]] anu mangrupa komputer mimiti anu aya di dunya.<ref name=":0" /> Salah sahiji pausahaan anu ngilu ngajieun éta komputer nyaéta MITS.<ref name=":0" /> Satuluyna, Microsoft terus maju ku produk-produk softwere na. Dina taun 2000 [[Steve Ballmer]] diangkat tur mancén jadi CEO anyar Microsoft.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://metodeku.com/apa-itu-microsoft/|title=Apa Itu Microsoft {{!}} Sejarah Singkat Perusahaan Microsoft|last=Endah|website=Metodeku|language=en-US|accessdate=2022-01-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130131308/https://metodeku.com/apa-itu-microsoft/|archivedate=2022-01-30}}</ref> [[Bill Gates]] enggeus papanggih jeung [[Steve Ballmer]] di [[Universitas Harvard]] saméméh manéhna indit.<ref name=":1" /> Sanajan aya sababaraha kasalempang kana pangabisa Ballmer, Microsoft ngabela posisi pang luhurna di pasar komputer bisnis.<ref name=":1" /> Kakuatan utama Microsoft jeung kalolobaan kauntungan na ditampa ti sisi bisnis.<ref name=":1" /> Sanajan pausahaan ngajirim yen maranéhanana ngabogaan posisi utama di pasar konsumen dina kamajuan teknologi.<ref name=":1" /> Kasapukan [[Altair]] anu junun dina Januari 1975 ngainspirasi [[Bill Gates]] sarta [[Paul Allen]] keur nyieun Microsoft. Panghasilan maranéhanana dina taun 1975 leuwih kurang aya $ 16.000. Kungsi reureuh heula Microsoft nyaéta dina taun 1980, sebet kamitraan dijieun kalawan IBM anu ngahasilkeun Microsoft nyadiakeun sistem operasi butuh DOS keur PC IBM. Ieu hartina yen keur saban Komputer IBM anu jual panghasilan na dibayarkeun ka Microsoft. Dina taun 1990, [[Bill Gates|Gates]] nembongkeun rencana pika hareupeun keur Microsoft kalawan ngawanohkeun Windows 3.0. 60 juta salinan Windows geus kajual ayeuna anu sacara efektif ngajadikeun Microsoft hiji-hiji na nu ngajaga standar softwere PC.<ref name=":1" /> Microsoft saméméh taun 1990 kalolobaan mangrupa pemasok keur produsen hardwere anu jadi udagan pasar maranéhanana. Sebet teknologi canggih jeung komputer pribadi barobah kaayaan populer pisan, kalolobaan panghasilan Microsoft dihasilkeun tina pangajualan ka konsumen éta téh pausahaan softwere kahiji anu ngahontal panghasilan $ 1 Milyar. Satuluyna beuki loba vérsi Microsoft Windows dijieun, Microsoft ngahontal pangsa pasar anu leuwih luhur di PC dunya (kira-kira 90%).<ref name=":1" /> [[Proyek Longhorn]] dina taun 2001, ningali loba sistem operasi Microsoft anu asalna diganti jadi [[Windows Vista|Vista]]. [[Windows Vista|Vista]] dibabarkeun ka umum dina taun 2007 sarta éta sistem operasi anu kawilang anyar. Aya loba pilihan [[Windows Vista|Vista]] anu disadiakeun keur konsumén anu béda-béda; Imah (Dasar atawa Premium),Ultimate,Bisnis sarta loba deui. Langganan inti Microsoft pasar korporat leuwih mikaresep [[Windows XP]] lantaran sistem operasi na leuwih anyar, stabil, sarta aman.<ref name=":1" /> [[Windows 7]] dirilis dina taun 2009 keur ngagantikeun [[Windows Vista|Vista]] anu ngamankeun kapinunjulan Microsoft di pasar pakakas lunak. Ieu dituturkeun ku rilis na Windows 8 dina Oktober 2012 anu ngawengku parobahan gedé dina platform OS sarta antarmuka pamaké keur ngaronjatkeun pangalaman pamaké dina tablet. Saprak éta Windows 8.1 geus dirilis (Oktober 2013) anu eusina leuwih alus.<ref name=":1" /> Microsoft ogé ngasupan pasar kaulinan sarta hape anu junun nyerek pangsa pasar anu gedé. [[OS Windows Mobile]] dipake ku loba nu dagang kaasup HTC, [[LG Electronics|LG]], [[Samsung]] sarta LG. Dina taun 2001 Microsoft ngaluarkeun [[Xbox]] dituturkeun ku Xbox Live dina taun 2002. Kadua ngaluarkeun sukses pisan anu nempatkeun Microsoft kadua di pasar video game. Xbox 360, di kaluarkeun dina taun 2005 nyaéta konsol game anu kuat pisan bari nyanghareupan pasaingan anu kuat. Microsoft kudu motong harga konsol game maranéhanana keur meunangkeun pangsa pasar anu leuwih luhur. Ieu téh léngkah anu suksés; Xbox 360 nyaéta konsol game anu lobs dipaké di imah-imah Amerika.<ref name=":1" /> == Produk-Produk Microsoft == Sasabaraha rupa produk Microsoft nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dosenpendidikan.co.id/microsoft-corporation/|title=Microsoft Corporation - Pengertian, Sejarah, Struktur, Jenis|website=www.dosenpendidikan.co.id|accessdate=2022-01-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130073404/https://www.dosenpendidikan.co.id/microsoft-corporation/ |date=2022-01-30 }}</ref> * Windows Client * Information Worker * Microsoft Business Solutions * Server and Tools * Mobile and Embedded Devices * Home and Entertainment * Aya ogé Unit Bisnis Macintosh anu ngajadikeun Microsoft salah sahiji pangembang software Macintosh pang gedéna di luar Apple. [[Kategori:Téhnologi]] [[Kategori:Téhnologi digital]] 9tw61fg9osgkthvxklfbt52xud80qpj Sudan Kidul 0 36393 732168 713014 2026-11-11T02:55:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Republic of South Sudan'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Sudan Kidul |common_name = Sudan Kidul |image_flag = Flag of South Sudan.svg |image_coat =Coat_of_arms_of_South_Sudan.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |motto = ''Justice, Liberty, Prosperity'' |national_anthem = ''[[South Sudan Oyee!]]''<br /><center>[[Gambar:National anthem of South Sudan -South Sudan Oyee!-.ogg]]</center> |image_map = South Sudan in its region (undisputed).svg |capital = [[Juba]] |largest_city = [[Juba]] |latd = 04 |latm = 51 |latNS = N |longd = 31 |longm = 36 |longEW = E |languages_type = [[Basa resmi]]<br />{{nobold|([[Basa nasional]])}} |languages = [[Basa Inggris]]<ref name="engwork">{{cite web |url=http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/home/mainColumnParagraphs/0/content_files/file/FINAL%20TCRSS.doc |title=The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011 |accessdate=12 July 2011 |publisher=Government of South Sudan }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017114039/http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/home/mainColumnParagraphs/0/content_files/file/FINAL |date=17 October 2012 }} Part One, 6(2). "English shall be the official working language in the Republic of South Sudan".</ref><ref name="glance">{{cite web|url=http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/about/ataglance.html|title=At a Glance|date=12 July 2011|work=Official portal|publisher=Government of Southern Sudan|accessdate=2011-07-24}} {{Webarchive|url=https://swap.stanford.edu/20110628170437/http%3A//www.goss%2Donline.org/magnoliaPublic/en/about/ataglance.html |date=2011-06-28 }}</ref><br />(Sadaya basa asli Sudan Kidul)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/home/mainColumnParagraphs/0/content_files/file/FINAL%20TCRSS.doc|title=The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011|accessdate=15 July 2011|publisher=Government of South Sudan}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017114039/http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/home/mainColumnParagraphs/0/content_files/file/FINAL |date=17 October 2012 }} Part One, 6(1). "All indigenous languages of South Sudan are national languages".</ref> |demonym = South Sudanese |government_type = [[Républik]] [[démokrasi répréséntatif|démokratik]] [[Républik féderal|féderal]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Sudan Kidul|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Salva Kiir Mayardit]] |leader_title2 = [[Daptar Wakil Présidén Sudan Kidul|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Riek Machar]] |legislature = [[Législatur Nasional Sudan Kidul|Législatur Nasional]] |lower_house = [[Majelis Législatif Nasional Sudan Kidul|Majelis Législatif Nasional]] |upper_house = [[Déwan Nagara Bagian Sudan Kidul|Déwan Nagara Bagian]] |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Sudan]] |established_event1 = [[Pasatujuan Rapih Komprehénsif]] |established_date1 = 6 Januari 2005 |established_event2 = [[Pamaréntahan Sudan Kidul (2005–2011)|Otonomi]] |established_date2 = 9 Juli 2005 |established_event3 = [[Sajarah Sudan Kidul#Kamerdikaan|Kamerdikaan]] |established_date3 = 9 Juli 2011 |area_rank = ka-45 |area_magnitude = |area = 619745 |areami² = 239285 |percent_water = |population_census = 8.260.490 ''(dipaséakeun)''<ref name="n24">{{cite news|url=http://www.news24.com/Content/World/News/1073/b52cc36803164f39be83598566f1eb70/21-05-2009-07-23/Discontent_over_Sudan_census|title=Discontent over Sudan census|date=21 May 2009|work=News24.com|accessdate=2011-07-14|agency=AFP}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |population_census_year = 2008 |population_census_rank = ka-94 |population_density = 13,33 |population_densitymi² = 34,52 |population_density_rank = 214 |Gini = |Gini_year = |Gini_category = |GDP_nominal_year = 2011 |GDP_nominal = $13,227 milyar <ref name="NBS">South Sudan National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [http://ssnbs.org/storage/GDP%20Press%20release_11.08.11.pdf "Release of first Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Income (GNI) figures for South Sudan by the NBS"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617001131/http://ssnbs.org/storage/GDP%20Press%20release_11.08.11.pdf |date=2012-06-17 }} 11 August 2011 Retrieved 2011-09-05</ref> |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.546 <ref name="NBS" /> |HDI = |HDI_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_category = |currency = [[Pound Sudan Kidul]] |currency_code = SSP |time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Wétan]] |utc_offset = +3 | drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.ss]]<ref name="iana">{{cite web|url=http://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/ss.html|title=.ss Domain Delegation Data|work=[[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]]|publisher=[[ICANN]]|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> (kadaptar tapi can operasional) |iso3166code = SS |calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Sudan Kidul|211]]<ref>{{cite press release |title=New country, new number: Country code 211 officially assigned to South Sudan |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |date=14 July 2011 |url=http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2011/25.aspx |accessdate=2011-07-20 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2011/25.aspx |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2011-07-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005151037/http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2011/25.aspx |archivedate=2011-10-05}}</ref> |footnote1 = }} '''Sudan Kidul''', resmina '''Républik Sudan Kidul''' ({{lang-en|Republic of South Sudan}}),<ref name="factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/od.html|title=South Sudan|date=11 July 2011|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[CIA]]|accessdate=2011-07-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424094414/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/od.html |date=2020-04-24 }}</ref> nyaéta hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]] aya di wewengkon [[Sahel]] di [[Afrika Wétan|Afrika kalér-wétan]].<ref name="factbook"/> Nagara ieu mangrupa bagian ti sub-région PBB, [[Afrika Kalér]].<ref name="UN classification of world regions">{{cite web|title=UN classification of world regions|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm UN classification of world regions|publisher=UN|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> Ibu kotana ayeuna nyaéta [[Juba]], nu mana mangrupa kota panggedéna ogé. Ibu kotana direncanakeun bakal dipindahkeun ka [[Ramciel]].<ref name=BBCprofile>{{cite news|title=South Sudan profile|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14019208|publisher=BBC|date=5 July 2011|accessdate=24 July 2011}}</ref> Sudan Kidul wawatesan jeung [[Étiopia]] di wétan, [[Kénya]] di tenggara, [[Uganda]] di kidul, [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] di kidul-kulon, [[Républik Afrika Tengah]] di kulon, jeung [[Sudan]] di kalér. Nagara Sudan Kidul jeung Sudan ayeuna baheulana mangrupa bagian ti [[Mesir]] dina [[Dinasti Muhammad Ali]], nu teras diparéntah salaku hiji [[Sudan Anglo-Mesir|kondominium Anglo-Mesir]] nepi ka kamerdikaan Sudan dina 1956. Mimiluan [[Perang Sadulur Sudan I]], [[Wewengkon Otonom Sudan Kidul]] diwangun dina 1972 nepi ka 1983. [[Perang Sadulur Sudan II]] teras lumangsung jeung eureun kalawan [[Pasutujuan Rapih Komprehénsif]] dina 2005. Teras dina taun éta ogé, otonomina kidul dipulihkeun sarta [[Pamaréntahan Otonom Sudan Kidul]] dibentuk. Sudan Kidul merdika dina 9 Juli 2011.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sJugNxYVA8 Broadcast of Declaration of Independence (part 1)]</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/user/Laseranthem#p/a/u/0/v5m4JUyBW38 Broadcast of Declaration of Independence (part 2)]</ref> Nagara ieu mangrupa nagara anggota [[nagara anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/07/14/uk-sudan-un-membership-idUKTRE76D3I120110714|title=South Sudan admitted to U.N. as 193rd member|last=Worsnip|first=Patrick|date=14 July 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=2011-07-24}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173910/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/07/14/uk-sudan-un-membership-idUKTRE76D3I120110714 |date=2015-04-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39034&Cr=South+Sudan&Cr1= | title=UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd Member State | publisher=United Nations News Service | date=14 July 2011 | accessdate=14 July 2011}}</ref> [[Uni Afrika]],<ref name="au54">{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/east/South-Sudan-Becomes-African-Unions-54th-Member-126320433.html |title=South Sudan Becomes African Union's 54th Member |publisher=Voice of America News |date=28 July 2011 |accessdate=28 July 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916115846/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/east/South-Sudan-Becomes-African-Unions-54th-Member-126320433.html |date=16 September 2011 }}</ref>, jeung [[Otoritas Antarpamaréntah dina Pamekaran]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-25/ethiopia-agrees-to-back-somalia-army-operations-igad-says.html|title=Ethiopia Agrees to Back Somalia Army Operations, IGAD Says|agency=Bloomberg Businessweek|accessdate=25 November 2011|date=25 November 2011}}</ref> [[Gambar:Train Sudan towards Wau.jpg|thumb|Hiji karéta dina lalampahan ka [[Wau, South Sudan|Wau]]]] [[Gambar:SPAF Mi17 helicopters at Juba Airport January 2011.jpg|thumb|2 hélikopter Mi17 di Bandar Udara Juba]] == Nagara bagian jeung ''county'' == {{utama|Nagara bagian di Sudan Kidul}} [[File:SouthSudanStates.svg|thumb|center|350px|10 nagara bagian di Sudan Kidul dikelompokkeun dina 3 propinsi nalika jaman dikawasaan ku Sudan.<br /> {{legend|#9BCD9B|[[Bahr el Ghazal]]}} {{legend|#7AC5CD|[[Equatoria]]}} {{legend|#EEE685|[[Nil Luhur Raya]]}}]] Sudan Kidul dibagi kana 10 [[Nagara bagian di Sudan Kidul|nagara bagian]] nu ngawakilan 3 wewengkon basa diparéntah ku Sudan: [[Bahr el Ghazal]], [[Equatoria]], jeung [[Nil Luhur Raya]]. ; [[Bahr el Ghazal]] * [[Bahr el Ghazal Kalér]] * [[Bahr el Ghazal Kulon]] * [[Lakes (nagara bagian)|Lakes]] * [[Warrap (nagara bagian)|Warrap]] ; [[Equatoria]] * [[Equatoria Kulon]] * [[Equatoria Tengah]] (di mana ayana [[Juba]]) * [[Equatoria Wétan]] ; [[Nil Luhur Raya]] * [[Jonglei]] * [[Unity (nagara bagian)|Unity]] * [[Nil Luhur (nagara bagian)|Nil Luhur]] 10 nagara bagian éta teras dibagi kana (total) 86 [[County di Sudan Kidul|''county'']]. == Tempo ogé == *[[Sudan]] *[[Pangakuan internasional Sudan Kidul]] *[[Pamaréntahan Sudan Kidul (1972–1983)]] *[[Pamaréntahan Sudan Kidul (2005–2011)]] == Rujukan == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Bacaan salajengna == * {{Cite book|last=Biel |first=Melha Rout |title=South Sudan after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement |year=2007 |publisher=Netzbandt Verlag |location=Jena |isbn=9783937884011}} * {{cite book|last=Tvedt|first=Terje|title=South Sudan. An Annotated Bibliography. (2 vols)|year=2004|publisher=IB Tauris|location=London/New York|isbn=1-860-64987-4|edition=2nd}} *{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12107760|title=Profile: Southern Sudan leader Salva Kiir|date=5 January 2011|work=[[BBC Online]]|accessdate=2011-07-24}} *{{cite journal|date=June 2009|title=No One to Intervene: Gaps in Civilian Protection in Southern Sudan|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|location=New York|url=http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/HRW_GapsCivlianProtection_SouthernSudan.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001005138/http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/HRW_GapsCivlianProtection_SouthernSudan.pdf |date=2011-10-01 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|South Sudan}} ;Pamaréntah * [http://www.aboutsouthsudan.com/ About South Sudan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116205236/https://aboutsouthsudan.com/ |date=2021-01-16 }} : Sajarah, Lagu Kabangsaan, Peta Géografis * [http://www.goss.org/ Pamaréntah Sudan Kidul] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225222250/http://www.goss.org/ |date=2015-12-25 }} * [http://www.sslagoss.org/ Majelis Législatif Sudan Kidul] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117043005/http://www.sslagoss.org/ |date=2012-11-17 }} * {{CIA World Factbook link|od|South Sudan}} {{South Sudan topics}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Uni Afrika}} <!--leave the empty space and the catmain above as standard--> [[Kategori:Sudan| ]] [[Kategori:Sudan Kidul| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Afrika Wétan]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara féderal]] [[Kategori:Républik féderal]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Britania]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 2011]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] 44a1389f86dp1ehis1n2l0yklbquoth Kapuloan Falkland 0 36536 732129 731725 2026-11-10T22:22:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732129 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Falklands jeung Malvinas ngarah ka dieu. Pikeun kagunaan lian, tingali [[Falkland (disambiguasi)]] jeung [[Malvinas (disambiguasi)]]'' <!--Do not edit this article to include or remove any Spanish names without first discussing it on Talk. Any substantial changes without consensus on Talk may result in an immediate block from editing.--> {{Infobox country |native_name = Falkland Islands |conventional_long_name = Kapuloan Falkland |common_name = Kapuloan Falkland |demonym = Falkland Islander |image_flag = Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg |image_coat = Coa Falkland.svg |symbol = Coat of arms of the Falkland Islands |image_map = LocationFalklandIslands.png |national_motto = ''"Desire the right"'' |national_anthem = "[[God Save the Queen]]" (resmi)<br />"[[Song of the Falklands]]"{{Ref label|anthem-note|a|}} |official_languages = [[Basa Inggris]] |capital = [[Stanley, Kapuloan Falkland|Stanley]] |latd=51 |latm=42 |latNS=S |longd=57 |longm=51 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Stanley, Kapuloan Falkland|Stanley]] |ethnic_groups = 61,3% [[Urang Kapuloan Falkland|Falkland]]{{Ref label|islander-note|b|}}<br /> 29,0% Britania<br /> 2,6% [[Urang Spanyol|Spanyol]] <br /> 0,6% Jepang <br /> 6,5% [[Chili]] & nu lian<ref>{{cite web |author=Joshua Project |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/countries.php?rog3=FK |title=Ethnic People Groups of Falkland Islands |publisher=Joshua Project |date= |accessdate=28 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225075020/https://joshuaproject.net/countries/FK |date=25 December 2018 }}</ref> |government_type = [[Téritori Peuntas Laut Britania]] ([[monarki konstitusional]] jeung [[wewengkon depéndensi|depéndensi]] [[démokrasi répréséntatif|démokratik]] [[sistim parleméntér|parleméntér]]) |leader_title1 = [[Raja/Ratu Britania Raya|Ratu]] |leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II]] |leader_title2 = [[Gubernur Kapuloan Falkland|Gubernur]] |leader_name2 = [[Nigel Haywood]]<ref name=HaywoodGovernor>{{cite web |url=http://en.mercopress.com/2009/09/01/british-consul-in-basra-next-falkland-islands-governor |title=British consul in Basra next Falkland Islands governor |publisher=MercoPress |date=1 September 2009 |author=Lisa Watson |accessdate=18 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819145607/http://en.mercopress.com/2009/09/01/british-consul-in-basra-next-falkland-islands-governor |archivedate=19 August 2017 }}</ref> |leader_title3 = [[Pupuhu Eksekutif Kapuloan Falkland|Pupuhu Eksekutif]] |leader_name3 = [[Keith Padgett]]<ref>{{cite press release |title=Falkland Islands Government appoints new Chief Executive |publisher=Falkland Islands Government |date=30 August 2007 |url=http://www.falklands.gov.fk/news-2007.php |accessdate=29 October 2007 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.falklands.gov.fk/news-2007.php |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=29 October 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107135513/http://www.falklands.gov.fk/news-2007.php |archivedate=7 November 2007}}</ref> |area_rank = ka-162 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 12.173 |areami² = 4.700 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 0 |population_estimate = 3.140<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fk.html |title = Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) |publisher = CIA |accessdate = 5 March 2010 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100129145002/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fk.html |archivedate = 29 January 2010 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-220 |population_estimate_year = Juli 2008 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 0,26 |population_densitymi² = 0,65 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-240 |GDP_PPP = $75&nbsp;yuta |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-223 |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $25.000 (pakr. 2002) |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ''teu karéngking'' |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Kapuloan Falkland|Ngadeg]] |established_event1 = [[Pangadegan Ulang Kakawasaan Britania di Kapuloan Falkland|Kakawasaan Britnia ngadeg deui]] |established_date1 = 5 Januari 1833 |established_event2 = [[Invasi Kapuloan Falkland 1982|Invasi Argéntina]] |established_date2 = 2 April 1982 |established_event3 = [[Sumerahna Argéntina dina Perang Falkland|Pambébasan]] |established_date3 = 14 Juni 1982 |established_event4 = [[Konstitusi Kapuloan Falkland|Konstitusi nu ayeuna]] |established_date4 = 1 Januari 2009 |HDI = t/s |HDI_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_category = |currency = [[Pound Kapuloan Falkland]]{{Ref label|currency-note|c|}} |currency_code = FKP |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -4 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = -3 |cctld = [[.fk]] |calling_code = 500 |drives_on = kénca |footnotes = a. {{note|anthem-note}} "[[Song of the Falklands]]" dipaké salaku lagu kabangsaan di pasanggiri-pasanggiri olah raga.<br /> b. {{note|islander-note}} Kalobaannana katurunan/asli Britania.<br /> c. {{note|currency-note}} Diatur/Disaluyukeun jeung [[Pound sterling|Pound sterling (GBP)]]. }} <!-- KE HEULA! Kalimah kahiji ditulis dumasar kana konsénsus antara raloba éditor Wikipédia di Wikipédia Basa Inggris ti diskusi nu panjang jeung sesah (tempo kaca sawalana [[:en:Falkland Islands]]). Upami miboga argumén/alesan anyar ngeunaannana, omongkeun heula di ditu. --> '''Kapuloan Falkland''' ({{lang-es|Islas Malvinas}}) nyaéta hiji [[kapuloan]] di [[Samudra Atlantik Kidul]], aya kira-kira {{convert|250|nmi|mi km|lk=on}} ti basisir daratan utama [[Amérika Kidul]]. Kapuloan ieu diwangun ti [[Falkland Wétan]], [[Falkland Kulon]] jeung 776 pulo alit. Ibu kotana, [[Stanley, Kapuloan Falkland|Stanley]], aya di Falkland Wétan. == Papaséaan kadaulatan == {{utama|Papaséaan kadaulatan Kapuloan Falkland}} Sanajan [[Komite Dékolonisasi Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] ngasupkeun Kapuloan Falkland dina [[Daptar Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa ngeunaan Téritori Tanpa Pamaréntahan Sorangan]],<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gaspd422.doc.htm |title = Remaining 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories on United Nations List Are "16 Too Many", Fourth Committee Told, As It Takes Up Cluster of Decolonization Issues |date = 5 October 2009 |publisher = Department of Public Information, United Nations |accessdate = 17 May 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604121731/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gaspd422.doc.htm |archivedate = 4 June 2011 }}</ref> geus ditegeskeun yén Kapuloan Falkland mangrupa salah sahiji ti 16 téritori nu miboga populasi nu kaliwat saeutik, "pikeun jadi nagara nu bisa tetep aya, merdika pinuh."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/United-Nations/Independence-of-Colonial-Peoples-PROGRESS-OF-DECOLONIZATION.html |title = Independence of Colonial Peoples – Progress of decolonization |publisher = Encyclopedia of the Nations |accessdate = 17 May 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110610040759/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/United-Nations/Independence-of-Colonial-Peoples-PROGRESS-OF-DECOLONIZATION.html |archivedate = 10 June 2011 }}</ref> Pamaréntah boh Britania Raya boh Argéntina duanana ngaklaim tanggung jawab pikeun kapuloan ieu. Klaim Britania Raya dumasar kana administrasi nu teterusanna kana pulo ieu saprak 1833 (teu mipadulikeun panjajahan militér Argéntina dina 1982) jeung hak para warga kapuloan ieu "hak pikeun nangtukeun awak sorangan, kaasup hak tetep Britania lamun éta nu dipikahayangkeun ku maranéhna".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/south-america/falkland-islands/ |title = Falkland Islands (British Overseas Territory) |publisher = United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office |work = Travel & living abroad |accessdate = 17 May 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100309021010/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/south-america/falkland-islands/ |archivedate = 9 March 2010 }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524190529/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/south-america/falkland-islands/ |date=24 May 2011 }}</ref> Argéntina ngaklaim yén nagara éta miboga kapuloan éta ti Spanyol basa Argéntina merdika dina 1811 jeung yén Britania Raya ngaleuwihan otoritasna ku cara nundung para padumuk Argéntina dina 1833.<ref name=AR_FA>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html |title=Islas Malvinas, Georgias del Sur y Sandwich del Sur |publisher=Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores [Argentine Ministry of Foreign Affairs] |accessdate=6 March 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531174231/http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html |archivedate=31 May 2011 }}</ref> Padumuk kapuloan ieu teu narima klaim kadaulatan Argéntina.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/7287195/Falkland-Islands-Argentina-cant-scare-us-say-islanders.html |title=Falkland Islands: Argentina can't scare us, say islanders |last=Leonard |first=Tom |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=22 February 2010 |accessdate=23 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105130306/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/7287195/Falkland-Islands-Argentina-cant-scare-us-say-islanders.html |archive-date=5 January 2012 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé == *[[Argéntina]] *[[Britania Raya]] *[[Papaséaan kadaulatan Georgia Kidul jeung Kapuloan Sandwich Kidul]] == Rujukan == === Catetan suku === {{Reflist}} <!-- === Bibliography === {{cite book|author=Julius Goebel|title=The struggle for the Falkland Islands: a study in legal and diplomatic history|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V_lNAAAAMβAJ|accessdate=17 March 2011|date=August 1971|publisher=Kennikat Press|isbn=9780804613903|ref=Goebel}} {{cite book|author=Laurio Hedelvio Destéfani|title=The Malvinas, the South Georgias, and the South Sandwich Islands, the conflict with Britain|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sGAJSfxqd7oC|accessdate=17 March 2011|year=1982|publisher=Edipress|isbn=9789500169042|ref=Destefani}} {{cite book|author=David Tatham|title=The Dictionary of Falklands Biography (Including South Georgia): From Discovery Up to 1981|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0D0VNAAACAAJ|accessdate=17 March 2011|date=1 June 2008|publisher=D. Tatham|isbn=9780955898501|ref=Tatham}} --> === Bacaan salajengna === * L.L. Ivanov et al. [[wikisource:The Future of the Falkland Islands and Its People|''The Future of the Falkland Islands and Its People''.]] Sofia: Manfred Wörner Foundation, 2003. Printed in Bulgaria by Double T Publishers. 96 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 954-91503-1-3 * Carlos Escudé and Andrés Cisneros, eds. [http://www.cema.edu.ar/ceieg/arg-rree/historia_indice00.htm ''Historia de las Relaciones Exteriores Argentinas''.] Work developed and published under the auspices of the Argentine Council for International Relations (CARI). Buenos Aires: GEL/Nuevohacer, 2000. (in Spanish) ISBN 950-694-546-2 * Graham Pascoe and Peter Pepper [http://www.falklandshistory.org/gettingitright.pdf Getting it right: the real history of the Falklands/Malvinas.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216085223/http://falklandshistory.org/gettingitright.pdf |date=2012-02-16 }} May 2008. * [http://www.samueljohnson.com/falklands.html Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands by Samuel Johnson 1771] * Greig, D.W. [http://www.austlii.com/au/journals/AUYrBkIntLaw//1978/2.pdf Sovereignty and the Falkland Islands Crisis.] ''Austrialian Year Book of International Law''. Vol. 8 (1983). pp.&nbsp;20–70. ISSN: 0084-7658 * César Caviedes. [http://lasa-2.univ.pitt.edu/LARR/prot/search/retrieve/?Vol=29&Num=2&Start=172 Conflict Over The Falkland Islands: A Never-Ending Story?] ''Latin American Research Review''. Vol. 29 (1994) No. 2. pp.&nbsp;172–187. === Tumbu kaluar === {{Sisterlinks}} *{{Wikiatlas|Falkland Islands}} *{{wikivoyage|Falkland Islands}} *{{CIA World Factbook link|fk|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)}} * {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Falkland_Islands/|Kapuloan Falkland}} * [http://www.falklands.gov.fk/ Pamaréntah Kapuloan Falkland] loka resmi * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120418161028/http://visitorfalklands.com/ visitorfalklands.com] * [http://www.falklands.info/ Portal Informasi Kapuloan Falkland] {{-}} {{Falkland Islands topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{Template group |title = [[Gambar:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Géografi lokal |list = {{British dependencies}} {{Countries of South America}} {{Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories}} }} {{Template group |title = Papaséaan wewengkon |list = {{Territorial disputes involving the United Kingdom}} {{Territorial disputes involving Argentina}} }} {{English official language clickable map}} {{coord|51|41|S|59|10|W|scale:2500000_source:GNS|display=title}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Falkland Kapuloan}} [[Kategori:Kapuloan Falkland| ]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipaséakeun]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Papaséaan ngaran géografis]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1833]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Kapuloan Falkland}} <!--Interwikis--> skksk6neq2vgwj78q1676f2sl7qr54r Nikaragua 0 36683 732145 711814 2026-11-11T00:22:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732145 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Républik Nikaragua |native_name = República de Nicaragua |common_name = Nikaragua |image_flag = Flag of Nicaragua.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Nicaragua.svg |image_map = Nicaragua (orthographic projection).svg |national_motto = ''En Dios Confiamos''<ref name=cordoba>Sakumaha katémbong dina [[Córdoba Nikaragua|Córdoba]] (uang kertas jeung logam); tempo [http://bcn.gob.ni/billetes_monedas/index.html?&val=1 Banco Central de Nicaragua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506010635/http://www.bcn.gob.ni/billetes_monedas/index.html |date=2012-05-06 }} pikeun contona</ref> |national_anthem = "[[Salve a ti, Nicaragua]]" |official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol]] |regional_languages = [[Basa Miskito|Miskito]], [[Basa Rama|Rama]], [[Basa Sumo|Sumo]], [[Kréol Basisir Miskito]], [[Basa Garifuna|Garifuna]], [[Kréol Kéi Rama]] |ethnic_groups =69% [[Mestizo]]<br />17% [[Urang Amérika Latin Kulit Bodas|Bodas]] <br />5% [[Urang pribumi Amérika|Amerindian]]<br />9% [[Urang Afro-Nikaragua|Hideung]]<ref name=indexmundi>{{cite web|author=|title=Nicaragua Demographics Profile 2011|work=Nicaragua|publisher=Index Mundi|year=2011|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/demographics_profile.html|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510074111/http://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/demographics_profile.html |date=2011-05-10 }}</ref> |demonym = [[Urang Nikaragua|Nicaraguan]], [[Nica]], [[Pinolero]] |capital = [[Managua]] [[Gambar:Coat of Arms of Managua.svg|right|20px]] |latd=12 |latm=9 |latNS=N |longd=86 |longm=16 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Managua]] [[Gambar:Coat of Arms of Managua.svg|right|20px]] |government_type = [[Républik]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Nikaragua|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Daniel Ortega]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Nikaragua|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Jaime Morales Carazo]] |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = {{nobold|ti [[Spanyol]] jeung [[Méksiko]]}} |established_event1 = Didéklarasikeun |established_date1 = 15 Séptémber 1821 |established_event2 = Diakuan |established_date2 = 25 Juli 1850 |established_event3 = ti [[Kakaisaran Méksiko Kahiji]] |established_date3 = 1 Juli 1823 |established_event4 = Révolusi |established_date4 = 19 Juli 1979 |established_event5 = Konstitusi nu ayeuna |established_date5 = 9 Januari 1987<ref name=CIA2011>{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Nicaragua|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Langley, Virginia|year=2011|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213065716/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html |date=2016-02-13 }}</ref> |area_rank = ka-97 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 130.373 |areami² = 50.193 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 7,14 |population_estimate = 5.891.199 |population_estimate_rank = ka-110 |population_estimate_year = Sénsus 2010 |population_census = 5.666.301 |population_census_year = 2005 |population_density = 42 |population_densitymi² = 114 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-133 |GDP_PPP = $17,711 milyar<ref name=IMF2011>{{cite web|author=International Monetary Fund|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Nicaragua|work=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2011|publisher=International Monetary Fund|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2011|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=278&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=43&pr.y=13|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019011433/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=278&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=43&pr.y=13 |date=2012-10-19 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-132 |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3.045<ref name=IMF2011/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-167 |GDP_nominal = $6,551 milyar<ref name=IMF2011/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.126<ref name=IMF2011/> |HDI = {{increase}} 0,565<ref name=UNHDI2010>{{cite web|author=United Nations Development Programme|title=Table 1: Human Development Index and its components|work=Human Development Report 2010 (20th Anniversary Edition) The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304124612/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf |date=2012-03-04 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-115 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |Gini = 40,1 |Gini_year = 2007 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Córdoba Nikaragua|Córdoba]] |currency_code = NIO |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -6 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = Katuhu |cctld = [[.ni]] |calling_code = 505 |date_written = kk.bb.tttt |footnote1 = Basa Inggris jeung basa pribumi di basisir Karibia ogé dipaké. |footnote2 = Informasi lobana dicandak ti [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html CIA World Fact Book] }} '''Nikaragua''', resmina '''Républik Nikaragua''' ({{lang-es|link=no|República de Nicaragua}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa|pron|República_de_Nicaragua.ogg}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di Amérika Tengah, wawatesan jeung [[Honduras]] di kalér jeung [[Kosta Rika]]. Samudra Pasifik aya di kuloneunnana, sarta [[Laut Karibia]] wétaneunnana. == Departemén jeung kotamadya == {{utama|Departemén di Nikaragua|Kotamadya di Nikaragua}} Nikaragua mangrupa républik [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]]. Administratifna, Nikaragua dibagi kana 15 [[departemén (babagian administratif)|departemén]] (''departamentos'') jeung 2 wewengkon otonom. Departemén-departeménna teras dibagi kana (total 153) municipios (kotamadya). 2 wewengkon otonomna nyaéta 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' jeung 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', sok dilandi ''RAAN'' jeung ''RAAS''; saméméh miboga otonomi ti 1985 wewengkon-wewengkn éta mangrupa hiji departemén, [[Departemén Zelaya|Zelaya]].<ref name=stellent>{{cite news|title=Background and socio-economic context|url=http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/vam/wfp073961.pdf|format=PDF|page=9|accessdate=2007-05-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015212525/http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/vam/wfp073961.pdf |date=2006-10-15 }}</ref> {|style="background:none;" |- valign="top" |<!--First column:--> {|class="wikitable" |||{{Spaces|1}}'''Departemén'''||{{Smaller|'''Ibu kota'''}} |- |'''1'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Boaco.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Boaco]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Boaco|Boaco]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Boaco]]}} |- |'''2'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Jinotepe.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Carazo]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Carazo|Carazo]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Jinotepe]]}} |- |'''3'''||[[Gambar:Bandera de Chinandega.png|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Chinandega]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Chinandega|Chinandega]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Chinandega]]}} |- |'''4'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Juigalpa.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Chontales]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Chontales|Chontales]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Juigalpa]]}} |- |'''5'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Esteli.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Estelí]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Esteli|Estelí]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Estelí]]}} |- |'''6'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Granada, Nicaragua.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Granada]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Granada|Granada]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]]}} |- |'''7'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Jinotega.gif|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Jinotega]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Jinotega|Jinotega]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Jinotega]]}} |- |'''8'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Leon, Nicaragua.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Leon]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Leon|Leon]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Leon, Nicaragua|Leon]]}} |- |'''9'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Somoto.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Madriz]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Madriz|Madriz]]}}'''{{Spaces|2}}||{{Smaller|[[Somoto, Madriz|Somoto]]}} |} |<!--Second column:--> {|class="wikitable" |||{{Spaces|1}}'''Departemén'''||{{Smaller|'''Ibu kota'''}} |- |'''10'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Managua.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Managua]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Managua|Managua]]}}'''{{nbsp|2}}||{{Smaller|[[Managua]]}} |- |'''11'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Masaya.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Masaya]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Masaya|Masaya]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Masaya]]}} |- |'''12'''||{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Matagalpa|Matagalpa]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Matagalpa]]}} |- |'''13'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Nueva Segovia.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Nueva Segovia]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Nueva Segovia|Nueva Segovia]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Ocotal]]}} |- |'''14'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Rivas.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Rivas]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Rivas|Rivas]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Rivas, Nicaragua|Rivas]]}} |- |'''15'''||[[Gambar:Flag of San Carlos, Nicaragua.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Rio San Juan]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Rio San Juan|Río San Juan]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[San Carlos, Rio San Juan|San Carlos]]}} |- |'''16'''|| {{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Bilwi]]}} |- |'''17'''||[[Gambar:Bandera Atlàntic Sur.png|22x20px|Bandéra Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Bluefields]]}} |} |} == Komunikasi jeung média == Kalobaannana sumber warta di Nikaragua nyaéta radio jeung TV. Aya Leuwih ti 100 stasion radio, kalobaannana di ibu kota, jeung sababaraha jaringan TV. TV kabel kasadia di loba wewengkon pakotaan.<ref name=bbc1225218>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm#leaders|work=BBC News|title=Country profile: Nicaragua|date=2009-09-02|accessdate=2010-05-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603034458/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm#leaders |date=2010-06-03 }}</ref> Média citak rupa-rupa jeung gerilyaan, ngawakilkeun posisi pro jeung anti-pamaréntah. === Citak === La Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio === Televisi === Televicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37 === Radio === Radio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata:; Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar inohong Nikaragua]] *[[Dano Nikaragua]] == Rujukan jeung catetan == *{{StateDept}} {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Refbegin}} *Asleson, Vern. (2004) ''Nicaragua: Those Passed By''. Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1 *{{Cite book|last=Babb|first=FE|title=After revolution: mapping gender and cultural politics in neoliberal Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/afterrevolution00flor|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|year=2001|isbn=0-292-70900-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Bayard de Volo|first=L|title=Mothers of heroes and martyrs: gender identity politics in Nicaragua, 1979–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/mothersofheroesm0000baya|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|year=2001|isbn=0-8018-6764-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Belli|first=G|authorlink=Gioconda Belli|title=The Country Under My Skin : A Memoir of Love and War|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/countryundermysk0000bell_x7q1|publisher=Anchor|location=Garden City, N.Y|isbn=1-4000-3216-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Bermann|first=K|title=Under the big stick: Nicaragua and the United States since 1848|url=https://archive.org/details/underbigsticknic0000berm|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location=Boston|year=1986|isbn=0-89608-323-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Bermúdez|first=E|authorlink=Enrique Bermúdez|title=The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis|date=Summer 1988|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|work=Policy Review magazine}} *{{Cite book|last=Borge|first=T|title=The patient impatience: from boyhood to guerilla: a personal narrative of Nicaragua's struggle for liberation|url=https://archive.org/details/patientimpatienc0000borg|publisher=Curbstone Press|location=Willimantic, Connecticut|year=1992|isbn=0-915306-97-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=TX|title=The real Contra War: highlander peasant resistance in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/realcontrawarhig00brow_0|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman|year=2001|isbn=0-8061-3252-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Brunnegger|first=S|title=From Conflict to Autonomy in Nicaragua: Lessons Learnt|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|location=London|year=2007|isbn=1904584616}} *{{Cite book|last=Bugajski|first=J|title=Sandinista communism and rural Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistacommun00buga|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-275-93536-1}} *{{Cite book|last=Charlip|first=JA|title=Cultivating Coffee: The Farmers of Carazo, Nicaragua, 1880–1930 (Ohio RIS Latin America Series)|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Athens, Ohio|isbn=0-89680-227-2}} *{{Cite book|author=[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]; Herman, Edward S.|title=Manufacturing consent: the political economy of the mass media|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|year=2002|isbn=0-375-71449-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Christian|first=S|title=Nicaragua, revolution in the family|url=https://archive.org/details/nicaraguarevolut0000chri|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1986|isbn=0-394-74457-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=GC|title=With the Old Corps in Nicaragua|publisher=Presidio Press|location=Novato, California|year=2001|isbn=0-89141-737-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Colburn|first=FD|title=My car in Managua|url=https://archive.org/details/mycarinmanagua0000colb|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|year=1991|isbn=0-292-75124-9}} *{{Cite book|last1=Cox|first1=Jack|last2=Somoza|first2=A|authorlink2=Anastasio Somoza Debayle|last3=Earle|first3=P|title=[[Nicaragua Betrayed]]|publisher=Western Islands|location=Boston|year=1980|isbn=0-88279-235-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Field|first=LW|title=The grimace of Macho Ratón: artisans, identity, and nation in late-twentieth century western Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/grimaceofmachora0000fiel|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=1999|isbn=0-8223-2288-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Gilbert|first=DL|title=Sandinistas: The Party And The Revolution|year=1988|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistasparty0000gilb_h5u3|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=1-55786-006-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Gobat|first=M|title=Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua under U.S. Imperial Rule (American Encounters/Global Interactions)|year=2005|url=https://archive.org/details/confrontingameri0000goba|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|isbn=0-8223-3634-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Gordon|first=EW|title=Disparate diasporas: identity and politics in an African Nicaraguan community|url=https://archive.org/details/disparatediaspor0000gord_m2e3|publisher=University of Texas Press, Austin, Institute of Latin American Studies|location=Austin, Tex|year=1998|isbn=0-292-72819-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Gould|first=JL|title=To die in this way: Nicaraguan Indians and the myth of mestizaje, 1880–1965|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=1998|isbn=0-8223-2098-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Hale|first=CR|title=Resistance and Contradiction: Miskitu Indians and the Nicaraguan State, 1894–1987|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/resistancecontra0000char_a3c8|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif|isbn=0-8047-2800-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Heyck|first=DLD|title=Life stories of the Nicaraguan revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415902113|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-415-90211-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Horton|first=L|title=Peasants In Arms: War & Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994 (Ohio RIS Latin America Series)|year=1998|url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Athens, Ohio|isbn=0-89680-204-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Kagan|first=RA|title=A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977–1990|url=https://archive.org/details/twilightstruggle00kaga|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|year=1996|isbn=0-02-874057-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinzer|first=S|authorlink=Stephen Kinzer|title=[[Blood of Brothers: Life and War in Nicaragua]]|publisher=Putnam|location=New York|year=1991|isbn=0-399-13594-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinzer|first=S|title=Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq|publisher=Times Books|location=New York|isbn=0-8050-7861-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Kruckewitt|first=J|title=The Death of [[Ben Linder]]: The Story of a North American in Sandinista Nicaragua|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=1-58322-068-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Lancaster|first=RN|title=Life is hard: machismo, danger, and the intimacy of power in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeishard00roge_0|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1992|isbn=0-520-08929-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Macaulay|first=N|title=The Sandino Affair|publisher=Wacahoota Pr|isbn=0-9653864-4-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Morley|first=MH|title=Washington, Somoza and the Sandinistas: State and Regime in US Policy toward Nicaragua 1969–1981|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonsomoza0000morl|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0-521-52335-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Pardo-Maurer|first=R|title=The Contras, 1980–1989: a special kind of politics|url=https://archive.org/details/contras1980198900pard|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-275-93818-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Plunkett|first=H|title=In Focus Nicaragua a Guide to the People, Politics and Culture (In Focus Guides)|publisher=Interlink Publishing Group|isbn=1-56656-438-7}} *{{Cite book|last=Randall|first=M|title=Sandino's daughters: testimonies of Nicaraguan women in struggle|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinosdaughter00rand_0|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, N.J|year=1995|isbn=0-8135-2214-5}} *{{Cite book|author=Ratliff, William E.; Miranda, Roger|title=Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas|publisher=Transaction Publishers|location=New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A|isbn=1-56000-761-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Rushdie|first=S|title=The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey|year=1997|url=https://archive.org/details/jaguarsmilenicar0000rush|publisher=Owl Books|location=Clearwater, Fla|isbn=0-8050-5311-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Sabia|first=D|title=Contradiction and conflict: the popular church in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/contradictioncon00sabi|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=University|year=1997|isbn=0-8173-0873-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Sirias|first=S|title=Bernardo and the Virgin: A Novel|publisher=Northwestern University Press|location=Evanston, Ill|isbn=0-8101-2427-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Sklar|first=H|title=Washington's war on Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonswaron0000skla|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location=Boston|year=1988|isbn=0-89608-295-4}} *{{Cite book|author=Taber, Michael; Bishop, Maurice; Marcus, Bruce|title=Maurice Bishop speaks: the Grenada Revolution, 1979–83|publisher=Pathfinder Press|location=New York|year=1983|isbn=0-87348-619-6}} *{{Cite report|author=United Nations Development Programme|title=Regional Human Development Report for Latin America and the Caribbean 2010: Acting on the future: breaking the intergenerational transmission of inequality|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/idhalc_en_2010.pdf}} {{Cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/idhalc_en_2010.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2012-01-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121340/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/idhalc_en_2010.pdf |archivedate=2012-03-18}} *{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=TG|title=Nicaragua, 4th Edition|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo|isbn=0-8133-3882-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=WJ|title=The war in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/warinnicaragua0000walk|publisher=University of Arizona Press|location=Tucson|year=1985|isbn=0-8165-0882-8}} *{{Cite book|authorlink=Gary Webb|last=Webb|first=G|title=Dark Alliance : The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion|year=1998|url=https://archive.org/details/darkallianceciac00webb|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=1-888363-68-1}} *{{Cite book|last=Zimmermann|first=M|title=Sandinista: Carlos Fonseca and the Nicaraguan revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistacarlos0000zimm|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=2000|isbn=0-8223-2595-0}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{wikivoyage|Nicaragua}} *[http://www.citypictures.org/k-south-america-152-nicaragua-340.htm Nikaragua di citypictures.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105063737/http://www.citypictures.org/k-south-america-152-nicaragua-340.htm |date=2012-01-05 }} *[http://www.visitanicaragua.com/ingles/index.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214749/http://www.visitanicaragua.com/ingles/index.html |date=2013-01-16 }} Visit Nicaragua ; Informasi umum *{{CIA_World_Factbook link|nu|Nicaragua}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/nicaragua.htm Nicaragua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085335/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/nicaragua.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Central_America/Nicaragua|Nikaragua}} *{{Wikiatlas|Nicaragua}} *[http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/camerica/ni.htm Peta] ti WorldAtlas.com {{Coord|13|-85|type:country|display=title}} {{Nicaragua topics|state=uncollasped}} {{Navboxes |title=<!-- [[File:Nuvola filesystems www.png|23px]] &nbsp; --> Géografi lokal |list= {{Departments of Nicaragua}} {{Central America topic}} {{North America topic}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Kaanggotaan internasional |list= {{Organization of American States}} {{World Trade Organization}} {{Latin Union}} }} [[Kategori:Nikaragua]] [[Kategori:Nagara Karibia]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Tengah]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Pasifik]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1821]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Nikaragua}} <!--Other languages--> d7wsaqih22woh47phgwseg2j1w90dsq Divisi Barisal 0 39004 732114 707504 2026-11-10T20:44:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732114 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Divisi Barisal | native_name = বরিশাল বিভাগ | native_name_lang = bn<!-- ISO 639-2 code --> | settlement_type = [[Divisi di Bangladés|Divisi]] | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | image_map = Barishal in Bangladesh.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = Lokasi Divisi Barisal di Bangladés | latd = 22|latm = 30|latNS = N | longd = 90|longm = 20|longEW = E | coor_pinpoint = | coordinates_type = region:BD_type:adm1st_source:GNS-enwiki | coordinates_display = inline,title | coordinates_footnotes = | subdivision_type = Nagara | subdivision_name = {{flag|Bangladés}} | established_title = Ngadeg | established_date = 1797 (salaku [[Distrik Bakerganj]]) | seat_type = Ibu Kota | seat = [[Barisal]] | government_footnotes = | leader_party = | leader_title = | leader_name = | unit_pref = Metric<!-- or US or UK --> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 13.644,85 | area_note = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = | population_footnotes = | population_total = 8147000 | population_as_of = Sénsus 2011 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_note = | timezone1 = [[Wanci Standar Bangladés|BST]] | utc_offset1 = +6 | iso_code = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | footnotes = }} '''Divisi Barisal''' ({{lang-bn|বরিশাল বিভাগ}}) nyaéta salah sahiji [[divisi di Bangladés|divisi]] di [[Bangladés]]. Divisi ieu wawatesan jeung [[Divisi Dhaka]] di kalér, [[Teluk Benggala]] di kidul, [[Divisi Chittagong]] di wétan, sarta [[Divisi Khulna]] di kulon. Ibu kotana, Kota [[Barisal]], aya di Délta [[Walungan Gangga]] (Padma). ==Distrik== Divisi Barisal dibagi kana 6 distrik (zila) (ngawengku 39 [[Upazila di Bangladés|upazila]]). Unit pamaréntahan nu leuwih leutikna nyaéta 353 [[union parishad]], 3.159 [[mouza]], 12 [[munisipalitas]], 25 [[distrik kota]], sareng 4.163 désa. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-bottom: 0;" ! Distrik !! Ibu Kota !! Aréa (km²) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 1991) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 2001) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 2011) <br> (hasil <br> saheulaan) |- | [[Distrik Barguna]] || [[Barguna]] || {{formatnum: 1831.31}} || {{formatnum: 775693}} || {{formatnum: 848554}} || {{formatnum: 883000}} |- | [[Distrik Barisal]] || [[Barisal]] || {{formatnum: 2790.51}} || {{formatnum: 2207426}} || {{formatnum: 2355967}} || {{formatnum: 2291000}} |- | [[Distrik Bhola]] || [[Bhola]] || {{formatnum: 3737.21}} || {{formatnum: 1476328}} || {{formatnum: 1703117}} || {{formatnum: 1758000}} |- | [[Distrik Jhalokati]] || [[Jhalokati]] || {{formatnum: 758.06}} || {{formatnum: 666139}} || {{formatnum: 694231}} || {{formatnum: 596000}} |- | [[Distrik Patuakhali]] || [[Patuakhali]] || {{formatnum: 3220.15}} || {{formatnum: 1273872}} || {{formatnum: 1460781}} || {{formatnum: 1517000}} |- | [[Distrik Pirojpur]] || [[Pirojpur]] || {{formatnum: 1307.61}} || {{formatnum: 1063185}} || {{formatnum: 1111068}} || {{formatnum: 1103000}} |} == Sumber jeung rujukan == <references/> *Badan Statistik Bangladés ==Tumbu kaluar== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20130128153932/http://www.amaderbarisal.com/ Loka resmi Amader Barisal] *[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/waves/barisal.htm The Barisal Guns] {{Divisions and districts of Bangladesh}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Barisal, Divisi}} [[Category:divisi Barisal| ]] [[Category:Divisi di Bangladés]] 4jmo61ocs9m4cc6ps1zcs5gpr9i57l3 Divisi Sylhet 0 39023 732074 650325 2026-11-10T12:52:22Z Manggadua 32229 732074 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Divisi Sylhet | native_name = | native_name_lang = bn<!-- ISO 639-2 code --> | other_name = Sylhet Raya | settlement_type = [[Divisi di Bangladés|Divisi]] | image_skyline = Tea Garden Srimongol Sylhet Bangladesh 2.JPG | image_alt = | image_caption = Kebon entéh di Srimongol | image_map = Sylhet in Bangladesh.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = Lokasi Divisi Sylhet di Bangladés | latd = 24|latm = 30|latNS = N | longd = 91|longm = 40|longEW = E | coor_pinpoint = | coordinates_type = region:BD_type:adm1st_source:GNS-enwiki | coordinates_display = inline,title | coordinates_footnotes = | subdivision_type = Nagara | subdivision_name = {{flag|Bangladés}} | established_title = | established_date = | seat_type = | seat = | government_footnotes = | leader_party = | leader_title = | leader_name = | unit_pref = Metric<!-- or US or UK --> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 12.595,95 | area_note = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = | population_footnotes = | population_total = 9807000 | population_as_of = Sénsus 2011 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_note = | timezone1 = [[Wanci Standar Bangladés|BST]] | utc_offset1 = +6 | iso_code = }} '''Divisi Sylhet''' ({{lang-bn|সিলেট বিভাগ}}, ''Sileṭ Bibhag''), atanapi '''Sylhet Raya''', '''Wewengkon Sylhet''',<ref>[http://www.cimmyt.org/Bangladesh/Publications/m16.PDF Greater Sylhet Region] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630222934/http://www.cimmyt.org/bangladesh/Publications/m16.PDF |date=2007-06-30 }} CIMMYT. Dicutat 26 Maret 2009.</ref> nyaéta salah sahiji [[Divisi di Bangladés|divisi]] di [[Bangladés]]. Divisi ieu wawatesan jeung Nagara Bagian [[Meghalaya]] ([[India]]) di kalér, Nagara Bagian [[Tripura]] (India) di kidul, Nagara Bagian [[Assam]] (India) di wétan, [[Divisi Dhaka]] kulon, sarta jeung [[Divisi Chittagong]] di kidul-kulon. ==Distrik== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-bottom: 0;" ! Distrik !! Ibu Kota !! Aréa (km²) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 1991) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 2001) !! Populasi <br> (Sénsus 2011) <br> (hasil <br> saheulaan) |- | [[Distrik Habiganj]] || [[Habiganj]] || {{formatnum: 2636.58}} || {{formatnum: 1526609}} || {{formatnum: 1757665}} || {{formatnum: 2059000}} |- | [[Distrik Maulvi Bazar]] || [[Maulvi Bazar]] || {{formatnum: 2799.39}} || {{formatnum: 1376566}} || {{formatnum: 1612374}} || {{formatnum: 1902000}} |- | [[Distrik Sunamganj]] || [[Sunamganj]] || {{formatnum: 3669.58}} || {{formatnum: 1708563}} || {{formatnum: 2013738}} || {{formatnum: 2443000}} |- | [[Distrik Sylhet]] || [[Sylhet]] || {{formatnum: 3490.40}} || {{formatnum: 2153301}} || {{formatnum: 2555566}} || {{formatnum: 3404000}} |} ==Rujukan jeung sumber== {{reflist}} *Badan Statistik Bangladés ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://www.banglapedia.org//HT/S_0651.HTM Artikel Sylhet di Banglapedia] {{Divisions and districts of Bangladesh}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sylhet}} [[Category:divisi Sylhet| ]] [[Category:Divisi di Bangladés]] mqxdwh95hex2n2r0x50xm4wg6psy1sy Barisal 0 39048 732103 728423 2026-11-10T19:56:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732103 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|kotana|distrikna|Distrik Barisal|divisina|Divisi Barisal}} {{Infobox settlement |name = Barisal |official_name = Barisal |native_name = বরিশাল |settlement_type = [[Métropolitan]] |total_type = |nickname = ''Chandradvipa'',''Vénésia Wétan'' |motto = |image_skyline = Barisal City.jpg |imagesize = 300px |image_caption = |pushpin_map = Bangladés |pushpin_label_position = |pushpin_map_caption = Lokasi Barisal di [[Bangladés]] |pushpin_mapsize = 280px |coordinates_region = BD |subdivision_type = [[Daptar nagara|Nagara]] |subdivision_name = {{flag|Bangladés}} |subdivision_type1 = [[Divisi Bangladés|Divisi]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Divisi Barisal]] |subdivision_type2 = [[Distrik Bangladés|Distrik]] |subdivision_name2 = [[Distrik Barisal]] |subdivision_type3 = |subdivision_name3 = |subdivision_type4 = |subdivision_name4 = |established_title = Munisipalitas |established_date = 1957 |established_title1 = Badan Kota |established_date1 = 2000 |established_title3 = Status kota |established_date3 = 2003<ref name="ccc">{{cite web|url=http://www.ccc.org.bd/mayors_hague.html|title=Speech of Mayor on Spacial Intarnational Working Conference|publisher=[[Badan Kota Chittagong]]|accessdate=2009-12-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125213916/http://www.ccc.org.bd/mayors_hague.html|archivedate=2007-11-25}}</ref> |unit_pref = |area_footnotes =<ref name="bbspaurashava">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/census/municip.pdf|title=Area, Population and Literacy Rate by Paurashava –2001|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|accessdate=2009-09-18|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217230450/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/census/municip.pdf|archivedate=2008-12-17}}</ref> |area_total_km2 = 20 |area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> |area_water_km2 = |area_total_sq_mi = |area_land_sq_mi = |area_water_sq_mi = |area_water_percent = |area_urban_km2 = |area_urban_sq_mi = |area_metro_km2 = |area_metro_sq_mi = |population_as_of = 2012 |population_footnotes =<ref name="BangladeshStatPock2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pby/pk_book_08.pdf|title=Statistical Pocket Book, 2008|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|format=pdf|accessdate=2009-08-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419080055/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pby/pk_book_08.pdf|archivedate=2009-04-19}}</ref> |population_note = |population_total = 272169 |population_density_km2 = 10.524 |population_density_sq_mi = |population_metro = 385.093 |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |population_urban = |population_density_urban_km2 = |population_density_urban_sq_mi = |population_blank1_title = |population_blank1 = |population_density_blank1_km2 = |population_density_blank1_sq_mi = |population_blank2_title = |population_blank2= |timezone = [[Wanci Standar Bangladés|BST]] |utc_offset = +6 |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |latd=22 |latm=48 |lats=0 |latNS=N |longd=90 |longm=30 |longs=0 |longEW=E |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use<ref> </ref> tags--> |elevation_m = |elevation_ft = 4 |postal_code_type = [[daptar kode pos di Bangladés|Kode pos]] |postal_code = 8200 |area_code = |blank1_name = [[nomer telepon di Bangladés|Kode telepon]] |blank1_info = 0431 |blank2_name = |blank2_info = |blank3_name = |blank3_info = |blank4_name = |blank4_info = |blank5_name = |blank5_info = |website = [http://www.dcbarisal.gov.bd/ Portal Wéb Resmi] |footnotes = }} Kota '''Barisal''' ({{lang-bn|বরিশাল}} ''Bariśāl'') nyaéta kota palabuan kolot di [[Kirtankhola]], basisireun [[Teluk Benggala]] di wewengkon kidul [[Bangladés]]. Kota Barisal minangka ibu kota ti [[Divisi Barisal]] jeung [[Distrik Barisal]]. ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commonscat}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20130128153932/http://www.amaderbarisal.com/ Amader Barisal] *{{Cite EB1911|W1EC=1|wstitle=Barisal}} {{coord|22|42|N|90|22|E|display=title}} {{BDeshCities}} [[Category:pamukiman di Divisi Barisal]] nkvtyn4wdh5eh7cdr0aealeuzqkauyg Radio VHF kalautan 0 39259 732158 730756 2026-11-11T02:00:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{globalize|date=December 2010}} [[Image:Maritime VHF Sailor type.jpg|thumb|A VHF set and a VHF channel 70 DSC set, the DSC on top.]] [[Image:Handheld Maritime VHF.jpg|thumb|A standard handheld maritime VHF, mandatory on larger seagoing vessels under the GMDSS rules]] [[Image:Maritime VHF Sailor RT144.JPG|thumb|A classic maritime VHF set]] '''Radio VHF kalautan''' dipasang dina sakabéh kapal balayar badag sarta kapal leutik di sagara. Hal ieu ogé dipaké, jeung aturan anu saeutik béda, di walungan sarta situ. Hal ieu dipaké pikeun sagala rupa tujuan, kaasup ngagero layanan [[kasalametan]] sarta komunikasi jeung [[palabuhan]], [[Lock (water transport)|locks]], [[rohang nakoda]]s and [[marina]]s, sarta operasi dina kisaran [[very high frequency]] (VHF) , antara 156 and 162.025 [[Megahertz|MHz]]. Sanajan loba dipaké pikeun nyingkahan tabrakan, pamakéanana pikeun tujuan anu kontroversial sarta pohara nguciwakeun sawatara nagara, kaasup Inggris.<ref name= "UK Marine">UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency Marine Guidance Note MGN324</ref> {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} A marine VHF set is a combined transmitter and receiver and only operates on standard, international frequencies known as [[channel (communications)|channels]]. '''Channel 16''' (156.8&nbsp;MHz) is the international calling and distress channel. '''Channel 9''' can also be used in some places as a secondary call and distress channel. Transmission power ranges between 1 and 25 watts, giving a [[line-of-sight propagation|maximum range]] of up to about 60 [[nautical mile]]s (111&nbsp;km) between [[Antenna (radio)|aerial]]s mounted on tall ships and hills, and {{convert|5|nmi|0}} between aerials mounted on small [[boat]]s at séa level.<ref name= "UK Marine" /> [[Frequency modulation]] (FM) is used, with vertical polarization, méaning that antennas have to be vertical in order to have good reception. modérn-day marine VHF radios not only offer basic transmit and receive capabilities. Permanently mounted marine VHF radios on séagoing vessels are required to have certification of some level of "[[Digital Selective Calling]]" (DSC) capability, to allow a distress signal to be sent with a single button press. Marine VHF mostly uses "[[half-duplex]]" transmission, where communication can only take place in one direction at a time. A transmit button on the set or microphone determines whether it is operating as a transmitter or a receiver. The majority of channels, however, are set aside as "[[Duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]]" transmission channels where communication can take place in both directions simultanéously.<ref name= "UK Marine" /> éach duplex channel has two frequency assignments. Duplex channels can be used to place calls on the public [[telephone]] system for a fee via a marine operator. This facility is still available in some aréas, though its use has largely died out. Marine VHF radios can also receive [[weather radio]] broadcasts, where they are available. ==Types of equipment== Sets can be fixed or portable. A fixed set generally has the advantages of a more reliable power source, higher transmit power, a larger and more effective aerial and a bigger display and buttons. A portable set (often essentially a waterproof, VHF [[walkie-talkie]] in design) can be carried on a kayak, or to a [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]] in an emergency, has its own power source and is water-proof if [[GMDSS]] approved. A few portable VHFs are even approved to be used as emergency radios in environments requiring intrinsically safe equipment (e.g. gas tankers, oil rigs, etc.). Marine radios can be "voice-only" or can include "[[Digital Selective Calling]]" (DSC). '''Voice-only''' equipment is the traditional type, which relies totally on the human voice for calling and communicating. Digital Selective Calling equipment, a part of the [[Global Maritime Distress Safety System]] (GMDSS), provides all the functionality of voice-only equipment and, additionally, allows several other féatures: * a transmitter can automatically call a receiver equipped with Digital Selective Calling, using a telephone-type number known as a [[Maritime Mobile Service Identity]] or MMSI. The DSC information is sent on the reserved Channel 70. When the receiver picks up the call, his active channel is automatically switched to the transmitter's channel and normal voice communication can proceed. * a distress button, which automatically sends a digital distress signal identifying the calling vessel and the nature of the emergency * a connection to a [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] receiver allowing the digital distress message to contain the distressed vessel's position The MMSI is used for séagoing vessels and consists of a nine-digit number identifying a VHF set or group of sets. The left hand digits of MMSI indicate the country and type of station. For example, here are MMSI prefixes of four station types: * Ship : 232, 233, 234 or 235 are the [[United Kingdom]] – e.g. a UK ship : 232003556 * Coastal station : 00 – e.g. Solent Coastguard : 002320011 * Group of stations : 0 – e.g. 023207823 * Portable DSC equipment : for UK 2359 - e.g. 235900498 For use on the inland waterways within continental Europe, a compulsory [[Automatic Transmitter Identification System (marine)|Automatic Transmitter Identification System]] (ATIS) transmission conveys the vessel's identity after éach voice transmission. This is a ten-digit code that is either an encoded version of the ship's alphanumeric call sign, or for vessels from outside the region, the ship MMSI prefixed with '9'. The requirement to use ATIS in Europe, and which VHF channels maybe used are strongly regulated, most recently by the Basel agreements. ==Operating procedure== The accepted conventions for use of marine radio are collectively termed "proper operating procedure." These conventions include: * Listening for 2 minutes before transmitting * Using Channel 16 only to establish communication (if necessary) and then switch to a different channel * using a set of international "calling" procedures such as the "[[Mayday (distress signal)|Mayday]]" distress call, the "[[Pan-pan]]" urgency call and "[[Securite|Securité]]" navigational hazard call. * using "[[Procedure word|pro-words]]" based on the [[English language]] such as ''Acknowledge, All after, All before, All stations, Confirm, Correct, Correction, In figures, In letters, Over, Out, Radio check, Read back, Received, Repeat, Say again, Spell, Standby, Station calling, This is, Wait, Word after, Word before, Wrong'' (local language is used for some of these, when talking to local stations) * using the [[ICAO spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet]]: ''Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu'' * using a phonetic numbering system based on the [[English language]] or a combination of English and [[Roman languages]]: ''Wun, Too, Tree, Fow-er, Fife, Six, Sev-en, Ait, Nin-er, Zero, Decimal'', alternatively in marine communication: ''unaone, bissotwo, terrathree, kartefour, pantafive, soxisix, setteseven, oktoeight, novenine, nadazero'' Slightly adjusted regulations can apply for inland shipping, such as the Basle rules in Western Europe. Marine VHF radio is sometimes illegally operated inland. Since enforcement is often the job of the local [[coast guard]], enforcement away from the water is sometimes difficult. ==Marine VHF Channels and Frequencies== <!-- Fill in more details, please. Add an <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> if the allocation is simplex on the A channel, and <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> for the B channel; no circled letter indicates duplex operation. --> {| class=wikitable ! rowspan=2 | Channel<br/>number ! colspan=2 | Frequencies (MHz) <!-- Do not change these frequencies; they are a systematic pattern that form the framework for all countries' marine VHF radio usage plans --> ! rowspan=2 | {{GBR}} <ref name ="RYA VHF Radio">{{cite book|editor1-first= Alison|ditor1-last= Noice|publisher= [[RYA]]|title= VHF Radio (including GMDSS)|edition= 2nd|year= 2008|isbn= 978-1-906435-20-2}}</ref> ! rowspan=2 | {{USA}} ! rowspan=2 | {{CAN}} ! rowspan=2 | {{AUS}} ! rowspan=2 | {{NZL}} ! rowspan=2 | {{FIN}}<ref>Kommunikationsverket 2010: ''Handbok i VHF-radiokommunikation för radiooperatör med kusttrafikcertifikat''</ref> |- ! <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span><br/><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 100%;">Usually ship stations</span> ! <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span><br/><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 100%;">Usually coast stations</span> |- | 0 || 156.000 || 160.600 | Private, coast guard <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | | | |- | 1 || 156.050 || 160.650 | |Ship-to-ship/shore, commercial and safety<br/>West Coast <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span><P> | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>BC Coast | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 2 || 156.100 || 160.700 | | | Public<br/>BC Coast | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 3 || 156.150 || 160.750 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Illegal for public use<sup>1</sup> | Public<br/>BC Coast/Inland | | Boat to Boat - Kawau | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 4 || 156.200 || 160.800 | | | Ship-to-ship/shore, commercial and safety<br/>éast Coast and Inland <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span><P> Canadian Coast Guard - public working channel<br/>BC Coast<sup>4</sup> <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Boat to Boat - Tutukaka/Raglan | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 5 || 156.250 || 160.850 | | | Ship Movements | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 6 || 156.300 || 160.900 | Ship-to-ship + Ship-to-Air <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Ship-to-ship + Ship-to-Air <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Distress - Ship-to-Air | Working - Intership | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship<br/>also SAR: Ship-to-Ship + Ship-to-Air |- | 7 || 156.350 || 160.950 | | | General working channel | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 8 || 156.400 || 161.000 | Ship-to-ship <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Ship-to-ship<br/>éast and west coasts,<br/>Lake Winnipeg <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Working - Intership | Working - Intership | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship |- | 9 || 156.450 || 161.050 | Frequently used by pilots <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Calling <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span>, commercial and non-commercial. | Ship-to-air for maritime support<br/>Atlantic and BC coasts <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Pilots, Port Operations | Port Operations | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> VTS<br/>(Ship-to-ship + Port Operations |- | 10 || 156.500 || 161.100 | Frequently used by HM Coastguard <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Ship-to-air - SAR and antipollution <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span><br/>General working - <br/>Atlantic and BC coasts,<br/>Gréat Lakes | | Port Operations | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations<br/>also SAR and oil cléanup<br/>only VTS on Gulf of Finland |- | 11 || 156.550 || 161.150 | Port Operations | | VTS - BC Coast <br/>Pilotage <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Port Operations | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Port Operations |- | 12 || 156.600 || 161.200 | Port Operations | VTS - San Francisco offshore <br/>Pilotage <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | VTS - BC Coast<br/>Port and pilot ops <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Port Operations, VTS | Port Operations | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Port Operations |- | 13 || 156.650 || 161.250 | Bridge-to-Bridge Working <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Bridge-to-Bridge safety <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span>: Vessels > 20m must maintain watch, Tx limited to 1 watt. Movable bridge / lock operations. | VTS - BC Coast<br/>Bridge-to-bridge safety <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Port Operations, VTS | Intership Nav Safety | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Pilots<br/>Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations |- | 14 || 156.700 || 161.300 | Port Operations | VTS - San Francisco Bay and Delta <br/>Pilotage <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | VTS - BC Coast<br/>Port and pilot ops <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Port Operations | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Working channel for SAR authorities, Turku Radio<br/>(Port Operations) |- | 15 || 156.750 || 161.350 | On board working (limited to 1 watt) <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> max 1 W<br/>Intraship<br/>Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations |- | '''[[Channel 16 VHF|16]]''' || 156.800 || 156.800 | colspan=6 | <center>'''International distress, safety and calling <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span>'''</center><br /> All vessels equipped with VHF must maintain watch. |- | 17 || 156.850 || 161.450 | On board Working <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | | Aquatic Sports Events | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> max 1 W<br/>Intraship<br/>Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations |- | 18 || 156.900 || 161.500 | | | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 19 || 156.950 || 161.550 | | Landside facilities: harbormaster, marinas. | Canadian Coast Guard - Working Channel | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 20 || 157.000 || 161.600 | | | | Repéater Operations | Continuous Wéather<br/>Maritime Safety Service | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 21 || 157.050 || 161.650 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Coast Guard Only | [[Continuous marine broadcast]]s <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> (WX 8) | | Continuous Wéather<br/>Maritime Safety Service | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 22 || 157.100 || 161.700 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Coast Guard—public working channel<sup>2</sup> | | | Continuous Wéather<br/>Maritime Safety Service | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 23 || 157.150 || 161.750 | HM Coastguard Maritime Safety Information | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Coast Guard Only | | | Continuous Wéather<br/>Maritime Safety Service | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 24 || 157.200 || 161.800 | UKSAR G/A Winching <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> <br/>UKSAR TWC <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> | | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 25 || 157.250 || 161.850 | | | | |Maritime Radio Working Channel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 26 || 157.300 || 161.900 | HM Coastguard Maritime Safety Information | Public correspondence (marine telephone operator) | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 27 || 157.350 || 161.950 | | | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 28 || 157.400 || 162.000 | | | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 60 || 156.025 || 160.625 | | | | | | [[GOFREP]] on Gulf of Finland<br/>Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 61 || 156.075 || 160.675 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Illegal for public use<sup>1</sup> | | | | GOFREP (Estonia) on Gulf of Finland<br/>Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 62 || 156.125 || 160.725 | UKSAR Calling & Helicopter Channel <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> <br/>UKSAR TWC <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> | | | | Boat to Boat - Waiheke/Whangaroa | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 63 || 156.175 || 160.775 | UKSAR TWC (simplex) | | | | Boat to Boat - Manukau | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 64 || 156.225 || 160.825 | UKSAR TWC (simplex) | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Illegal for public use<sup>1</sup> | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 65 || 156.275 || 160.875 | | | Marine Assistance Working Channel | | Boat to Boat - Coromandel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 66 || 156.325 || 160.925 | | | Marinas - BC Coast <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 67 || 156.375 || 160.975 | UK Small Ship Safety Channel | | | Working Channel, Marine Wéather | Maritime Radio Working Channel | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> VTS<br/>(Ship-to-ship + Port Operations) |- | 68 || 156.425 || 161.275 | | Non-commercial <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | Maritime Radio Working Channel | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Port Operations |- | 69 || 156.475 || 161.075 | Port Operations | Non-commercial <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | Australian Navy | Maritime Radio Working channel<br/>Surf Lifesaving | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations |- | 70 || 156.525 || 161.125 | colspan=6 | [[Digital Selective Calling]] <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> |- | 71 || 156.575 || 161.175 | | Non-commercial <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | Maritime Radio Working Channel | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> VTS<br/>(Ship-to-ship + Port Operations) Port Operations |- | 72 || 156.625 || 161.225 | Ship-to-ship <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Non-commercial ship-to-ship <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | Ship-to-ship | | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship<br/>Ship-to-air |- | 73 || 156.675 || 161.275 | HM Coastguard Safety Broadcasts | | | Ship-to-ship | Marinas - Working | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship<br/><br/>Ship-to-air<br/>(Port Operations) |- | 74 || 156.725 || 161.325 | British Waterways/Canal and River Trust Channel (Canal and River System) | | | Ship-to-ship | Working - Coast/Ship | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Port Operations |- | 75 || 156.775 || 161.375 | Navigaton related communications (limited to 1 watt) | | | | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span>Restricted<br/>Ship-to-ship<br/>Port Operations |- | 76 || 156.825 || 161.425 | | | | | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Restricted<br/>Port Operations |- | 77 || 156.875 || 161.475 | Ship-to-ship <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | Ship-to-ship | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> Ship-to-ship |- | 78 || 156.925 || 161.525 | | Non-commercial <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 79 || 156.975 || 161.575 | | | | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex) <br/>Port Operations |- | 80 || 157.025 || 161.625 | UK Marina Channel | | | Repéater Operations | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | GOFREP on Gulf of Finland<br/>Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 81 || 157.075 || 161.675 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Government Use Only | | Repéater Operations | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | GOFREP (Estonia) on Gulf of Finland<br/>Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 82 || 157.125 || 161.725 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Government Use Only | Canadian Coast Guard - Working Channel | | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 83 || 157.175 || 161.775 | | <span style="color: white; background-color: red;">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</span> U.S. Coast Guard Use Only | Continuous Marine Broadcasts <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> (WX 9) | | | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 84 || 157.225 || 161.825 | HM Coastguard Maritime Safety Information | | | | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 85 || 157.275 || 161.875 | UKSAR TWC (simplex) | | Radio Telephone - Duplex | | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 86 || 157.325 || 161.925 | HM Coastguard Maritime Safety Information | | | | Coastguard Radio - Working Channel | Public Correspondence (Ship-to-Shore Duplex)<br/>Port Operations |- | 87 || 157.375 || 161.975 | colspan=5 | [[Automatic Identification System]] <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> |- | 88 || 157.425 || 162.025 | colspan=5 | [[Automatic Identification System]] <span style="color: white; background-color: blue;">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</span> |} '''Notes:''' 1: Some radios enable channels 3A, 61A, and 64A when configured for "USA mode" even though those channels are allocated exclusively for Public Safety use by the FCC. The frequencies 156.075, 156.150, and 156.225&nbsp;MHz are used for interoperability communication by police and fire departments in many aréas. 2: Channel 22A is reserved for communication between the U.S. Coast Guard vessels and private vessels. The Coast Guard does not monitor 22A: Contact must first be established on 16. 3: UKSAR land based séarch & rescue téams have access to the simplexed versions of 24, 62, 63, 64, 85 for operational & training needs. These include Mountain Rescue téams in England, Wales & Scotland. 4: CCG public operations moved from 22A to 04A to avoid interference from USCG stations in northern Washington state. ==See also== * [[2182 kHz]] * [[Maritime mobile amateur radio]] * [[Radio horizon]] ==References== <references /> ==External links== {{Commons category|Marine radios VHF}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110614020205/http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=mtBoater US Coast Guard basic radio information for boaters] *[http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=vhf Coast Guard marine channel listing (with frequencies)] {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://wireless.fcc.gov/marine/vhfchanl.html US FCC marine channel listing (by function)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916043753/http://wireless.fcc.gov/marine/vhfchanl.html |date=2007-09-16 }} *[http://www.mcga.gov.uk/c4mca/mgn_324.pdf UK MCA advice on use of VHF at sea, including collision avoidance, effective ranges, and International channel usage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927003402/http://www.mcga.gov.uk/c4mca/mgn_324.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}* *[http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01011.html#sched1 Canadian VHF Bands in the Maritime Service] *[http://www.GemiTrafik.com/vhf.htm VHF Marine Band Plan in TURKEY (Türkiye'deki VHF Deniz Telsiz Frekans Kanal Listesi)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416010406/http://www.gemitrafik.com/vhf.htm |date=2013-04-16 }} *[http://www.GemiTrafik.com/canliyayin.htm Listen LIVE! VHF Marine Radio @ East of Izmit Bay / TURKEY (İzmit Körfezi Doğusu - Canlı VHF Marin Telsiz Dinleme)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110122448/http://www.gemitrafik.com/canliyayin.htm |date=2013-01-10 }} *[http://www.vhfradio.co.nz New Zealand VHF Radio Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818084711/http://www.vhfradio.co.nz/ |date=2010-08-18 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20130330035940/http://vhfradiocourse.com/ Australian VHF Radio Network locations and How to Make A Distress Call] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121102151840/http://www.vhfradiocourse.com/Be_Prepared.html#Phonetic_Alphabet Phonetic Alphabet] {{Two-way radio}} {{Telecommunications}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Marine Vhf Radio}} [[fr:Bandes marines#Bande VHF]] st08fu5zelf1edg6r7sjqp19klj3oip Kornét 0 41768 732136 707539 2026-11-10T22:47:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732136 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Corned-beef-1.jpg|thumb|210px|Kornét nu karék dipesék]] '''Kornét''' nyaéta bahan olaheun tina [[daging]] [[sapi]] anu diawétkeun.<ref name="hiji">Ir. Hj. Komariah, M.Si, dkk. 2013. ''Aneka Olah Daging Sapi''. Jakarta: Agro Media Pustaka.</ref> Jinis kadaharan ieu geus kasohor di [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]], sanajan teu alabatan kasohorna siga [[:id:bakso|baso]].<ref name= "hiji" /> Kiwari kornét geus jadi salah sahiji jinis produk olaheun tina [[daging]] [[sapi]] anu loba dipaké dina papasakan [[Indonésia]]. Kornét [[daging]] [[sapi]] diolah ku cara diawétkeun dina ci uyah ([[:en:brine|''brine'']]), nyaéta cai anu dicampuran ku uyah. Satuluyna diasakan ku cara [[:en:simmering|''simmering'']], nyaéta dikulub ku seuneu leutik pikeun nyegah ancurna si [[daging]] [[sapi]] téa.<ref name= "dua">http://www.<!--ok-->duniasapi.<!--ok-->com. 2011. '' Kornét Pada Awalnya Dibuat Dari Daging Sapi Perah Yang Tidak Lagi Menghasilkan Susu''. Indonesia: [http://www.duniasapi.com Dunia Sapi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824191850/http://duniasapi.com/ |date=2016-08-24 }}.</ref> == Tujuan Dijeunna Kornét == Tujuan dijieunna kornét [[daging]] [[sapi]] nyaéta supaya tetep bisa ngonsumsi produk [[daging]] [[sapi]] anu warna [[euceuy]], awét jeung prahtis.<ref name= "dua"/> Ku diprosés jadi kornét, perkara nyimpen [[daging]] [[sapi]] seger teu pikahariwangeun (''sieun buruk''). Supaya awét, [[daging]] [[sapi]] seger émang kudu diteundeun dina hawa nu nyelecep atawa hawa beku, alatanna jadi teu prahtis mun rék diolahkeun.<ref name= "dua"/> Sedengkeun [[daging]] [[sapi]] seger anu geus diprosés jadi kornét saterusna dikaléngan, bisa diteundeun dina hawa rohangan kira-kira dua taun.<ref name= "dua"/> == Sajarah Dijeunna Kornét == Ngaran kornét asalna tina [[basa Inggris]] ''“corned”'', tina kecap ''“corn”'' nu maksudna rates, nyaéta alatan tina partikel [[uyah]] kasar anu dipaké pikeun ngolah éta kornét.<ref name= "dua"/> Cara ngolah [[daging]] [[sapi]] sangkan jadi kornét, parkiraan mimiti medalna dina [[abad ka-12]] di [[Irlandia]].<ref name= "dua"/> Data ieu dumasar kana padalisan puisi [[:en:Aislinge Meic Con Glinne|Aislinge Meic Con Glinne]] atawa [[:en:The Vision of MacConglinne|The Vision of MacConglinne]], anu nyebut daging olahan ngeunah sajinis kornét.<ref name= "dua"/> Di [[:en: Ireland|Irlandia]], dina [[abad ka-12]], kagiatan meuncit [[sapi]] dilakonan nalika sapi peres geus teu ngahasilkeun susu deui, atawa mun sapi daging teu bisa deui digawé.<ref name="dua" /> Jadi kornét anu asalna tina [[daging]] [[sapi]] nyaéta susuguh nu jarang jeung kacida mibanda harga.<ref name="dua" /> Dina taun [[1740]] kajadian musibah mangrupa robahna iklim anu ekstrim anu nimpah wewengkon [[:en: Ireland|Irlandia]], nu pas harita mah dijajah [[Inggris]].<ref name="dua" /> Ampir sakabéh lahan tani gé gararing jeung pangeusi [[:en: Ireland|Irlandia]] kaancam kalaparan, kaasup piaraan samodél sapi nu dipiboga ku maranéhanana.<ref name="dua" /> Pipiaraan [[sapi]] daging (sapi potongeun ) jeung [[sapi]] peres anu dipiboga ku warga [[:id:Irlandia|Irlandia]] saterusna disalametkeun ka [[Inggris]].<ref name="dua" /> Namung ku sabab kabutuhan kana [[daging]] [[sapi]] di [[Inggris]] téh terus baé ngaronjat, pamaréntah [[Inggris]] harita lainna ngabantuan nyalametkeun warga [[Irlandia]] tina kalaparan ieuh, éta urang [[Inggris]] téh kalakah maksa warga [[:id:Irlandia|Irlandia]] pikeun ngarobah lahan tani jadi pangangonan [[sapi]] [[daging]] (sapi potongeun), anu hasilna diolah jadi kornét pikeun di eskpor ka [[Inggris]].<ref name="dua" /> [[File:Corned beef selection (2510356627).jpg|thumb|250px|Kornét nu dijualan jeung didahar ku urang deungeun]] Pangeusi [[:id:Irlandia|Irlandia]] anu lain tukang ngingu [[sapi]] ngan ukur dibéré lahan kawates pikeun melak kentang pikeun kaperluan maranéhanana urang [[Inggris]] téa.<ref name="dua" /> Kaayaan ieu sacara teu langsung ngarobah pola dahar pangeusi [[Irlandia]], jeung teu ngasupkeun deui [[daging]] [[sapi]] kana menu dahar maranéhanana.<ref name="dua" /> Kaayaan ieu mingkinan joré wé, alatanna dina [[abad ka-18]] aya goromolan pangungsi [[Irlandia]] ka [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="dua" /> Di wewengkon anyar ieu, warga [[Irlandia]] bisa deui ngadahar [[daging]] [[sapi]] anu saterusna diolah jadi kornét.<ref name="dua" /> Warga Irlandia emang leuwih akrab jeung kornét, dibandingkeun jeung olahan [[daging]] [[sapi]] di Amérika nyaéta [[:en:bacon|''bacon'']].<ref name="dua" /> == Kornét nu Ayeuna == Kiwari, najan asalna ti [[Irlandia]], kornét geus teu dianggep deui minangka susuguh [[nasional]] [[Irlandia]].<ref name= "dua"/> Ogé ayeuna mah nu ngadahar kornét téh sok dikaitkeun kana budaya [[Irlandia]]-[[:id:Amerika|Amérika]] saperti raraméan [[en=Saint Patrick’s Day|Saint Patrick’s Day]], ping [[17 Maret]], nyaéta salah sahiji poé peré kaageman ([[katolik]]) di [[Irlandia]].<ref name= "dua"/> Di [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Kanada]], kornét biasana dipasarkeun di [[:en:delicatessens|delicatessens]] (warung kadaharan) dina 2 wangun nyaéta: sempalan [[daging]] [[sapi]] (biasana jinis sandung lamur, kadang-kadang mah jinis [[:en:round|''round'']] atawa [[:en:silverside|'silverside'']]) anu diawétkeun, atawa [[daging]] [[sapi]] anu dikeueum dina ci uyah jeung dikekeb dina kaléng (satengah asak).<ref name= "dua"/> Kornét ieu béda jeung kornét anu diimpor ti [[Amérika Kidul]], nu mana [[daging]] [[sapi]]na téh dicacag heula saméméhna.<ref name= "dua"/> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Kadaharan]] cc79nqd5q3w2vp6dvxvxw1he0626cxc Seoul 0 42988 732077 731526 2026-11-10T15:26:30Z Dr. Thomas Liptak 35959 /* Musieum */ photo updated (2026) 732077 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{Other use}}--> {{Infobox settlement |name = {{raise|0.1em|Seoul}} |native_name = {{lower|0.1em|{{nobold|서울시}}}} |native_name_lang = ko |official_name = Kota Istiméwa Seoul<br />{{lower|0.1em|{{nobold|서울특별시}}}} |Name = 서울특별시 |settlement_type = [[Kota Istiméwa di Koréa Kidul|Kota Istiméwa]] |total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> |motto = |year = 18 BCE |translit_lang1 = &nbsp; |translit_lang1_type1 = [[Hangul]] |translit_lang1_info1 = {{linktext|서울}}{{linktext|특|별|시}} |translit_lang1_type2 = [[Hanja]] |translit_lang1_info2 = {{linktext|서|울|特|別|市}} |translit_lang1_type3 = {{nowrap|[[Romanisasi nu Dirévisi]]}} |translit_lang1_info3 = {{nowrap|Seoul Teukbyeolsi}} |translit_lang1_type4 = {{nowrap|[[McCune–Reischauer]]}} |translit_lang1_info4 = {{nowrap|Sŏul T'ŭkpyŏlsi}} |image_skyline = Seoul_Montage_2014.jpg{{!}}border |imagesize = 250px |image_caption = <!--Sawangan di Seoul (saarah jeung jarum jam ti luhur): Gapura [[Gwanghwamun]] di Karaton [[Gyeongbokgung]]; arca Laksamana [[Yi Sun-sin]]; arca [[Paringetan Perang Koréa]]; kendi panyimpen dahareun di Karaton Gyeonbokgung; Kuil [[Jongmyo]]; [[Katedral Myeongdong]]; arca Raja [[Sejong nu Agung]]; jeung (tengah) [[Munara Seoul N]].--> |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_blank_emblem = Logo of Seoul, South Korea.svg |blank_emblem_type = Seal of Seoul |blank_emblem_size = |image_map = South Korea-Seoul.svg |mapsize = |map_caption = Peta Koréa Kidul kalayan Seoul nu disorot |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |image_dot_map = |dot_mapsize = |dot_map_caption = |dot_x = |dot_y = |pushpin_map = |pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> |pushpin_map_caption = |pushpin_mapsize = |coordinates_display = inline,title |coordinates_region = KR |subdivision_type = Nagara |subdivision_name = {{flag|Koréa Kidul}} |subdivision_type1 = [[Wewengkon di Koréa|Wewengkon]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Wewengkon Ibukota Nasional Seoul]] |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |subdivision_type3 = |subdivision_name3 = |subdivision_type4 = |subdivision_name4 = |seat_type = |seat = |parts_type = Distrik |parts_style = <!-- =list (for list), coll (for collapsed list), para (for paragraph format) Default is list if up to 5 items, coll if more than 5--> |parts = 25<!-- parts text, or header for parts list --> |p1 = [[Distrik Dobong]] |p2 = [[Distrik Dongdaémun]] |p3 = [[Distrik Dongjak]] |p4 = [[Distrik Eunpyeong]] |p5 = [[Distrik Gangbuk]] |p6 = [[Distrik Gangdong]] |p7 = [[Distrik Gangnam]] |p8 = [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Distrik Gangseo]] |p9 = [[Distrik Geumcheon]] |p10 = [[Distrik Guro]] |p11 = [[Distrik Gwanak]] |p12 = [[Distrik Gwangjin]] |p13 = [[Distrik Jongno]] |p14 = [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] |p15 = [[Distrik Jungnang]] |p16 = [[Distrik Mapo]] |p17 = [[Distrik Nowon]] |p18 = [[Distrik Seocho]] |p19 = [[Distrik Seodaémun]] |p20 = [[Distrik Seongbuk]] |p21 = [[Seongdong District]] |p22 = [[Distrik Songpa]] |p23 = [[Distrik Yangcheon]] |p24 = [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]] |p25 = [[Distrik Yongsan]] |government_footnotes = |government_type = [[Pamaréntahan Métropolitan Seoul]]<br />[[Pamaréntahan Déwan-Walikota|Déwan-Walikota]] |leader_party = {{Small|[[Aliansi Pulitik Anyar keur Démokrasi|NPAD]]}} |leader_title = Walikota |leader_name = [[Park Won-soon]] |leader_title1 = Déwan |leader_name1 = Déwan Métropolitan Seoul |leader_title2 = Perwakilan National<br />&nbsp;-&nbsp;[[Majlis Nasional Koréa Kidul|Majlis Nasional]] |leader_name2 = {{Composition bar|48|300}} 16.0% (total korsi)<br />{{Composition bar|48|246}}19.5% (constituency seats)<br />{{Collapsible list |title = <!-- Romanization as found on http://www.assembly.go.kr --> |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0; |title_style = |list_style = text-align:left;display:none; |1 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dobong|Dobong]]<br />[[In Jae Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |2 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dobong|Dobong]]<br />[[Yoo Ihn-tae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |3 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dongdaémun|Dongdaémun]]<br />[[Ahn Gyu Baek]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |4 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dongdaémun|Dongdaémun]]<br />[[Min Byung Doo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |5 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Dongjak|Dongjak]]<br />[[Jun Byung-Hun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |6 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Dongjak|Dongjak]]<br />[[Chung Mong-Joon|Chung Mong Joon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |7 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Eunpyeong|Eunpyeong]]<br />[[Lee Mi Kyung]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |8 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Eunpyeong|Eunpyeong]]<br />[[Lee Jae Oh]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |9 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangbuk|Gangbuk]]<br />[[Oh Young-Sik]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |10 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangbuk|Gangbuk]]<br />[[You Dae Woon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |11 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangdong|Gangdong]]<br />[[Shin Dong-Woo]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |12 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangdong|Gangdong]]<br />[[Shim Jae Kwon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |13 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangnam|Gangnam]]<br />[[Shim Yoon Joe]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |14 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangnam|Gangnam]]<br />[[Kim Jong Hoon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |15 =Distrik 1 [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Gangseo]]<br />[[Shin Ki-Nam]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |16 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Gangseo]]<br />[[Kim Sung Tae]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |17 =Distrik [[Distrik Geumcheon|Geumcheon]]<br />[[Rhee Mok Hee]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |18 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Guro|Guro]]<br />[[Lee In-Young]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |19 =Distrik 2 [[Distrik Guro|Guro]]<br />[[Park Young-Sun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |20 =[[Gwanak District|Gwanak]] 1st district<br />[[Yoo Ki Hong]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |21 =[[Gwanak District|Gwanak]] 2nd district<br />[[Lee Sang Kyu]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|UPP]]) |22 =[[Gwangjin District|Gwangjin]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Han Gil]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |23 =[[Gwangjin District|Gwangjin]] 2nd district<br />[[Choo Mi Ae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |24 =[[Jongno District|Jongno]] district<br />[[Chung Sye-Kyun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |25 =[[Jung District, Seoul|Jung]] district<br />[[Chyung Hojoon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |26 =[[Jungnang District|Jungnang]]<br />[[Seo Young Kyo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |27 =[[Jungnang District|Jungnang]] 2nd district<br />[[Park Hong Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |28 =[[Mapo District|Mapo]] 1st district<br />[[Noh Woong Rae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |29 =[[Mapo District|Mapo]] 2nd district<br />[[Jung Cheong Rae]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |30 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 1st district<br />[[Lee No Keun]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |31 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 2nd district<br />[[Woo Won-Shik]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |32 =[[Nowon District|Nowon]] 3rd district<br />[[Roh Hoe Chan]]<br />([[Partéy Progrésif Ngahiji|UPP]]) |33 =[[Seocho District|Seocho]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Hoe Sun]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |34 =[[Seocho District|Seocho]] 2nd district<br />[[Kang Seoghoon]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |35 =[[Seodaemun District|Seodaemun]] 1st district<br />[[Woo Sang Ho]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |36 =[[Seodaemun District|Seodaemun]] 2nd district<br />[[Chung Doo-un|Chung Doo-Un]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |37 =[[Seongbuk District|Seongbuk]] 1st district<br />[[You Seung-Hee]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |38 =[[Seongbuk District|Seongbuk]] 2nd district<br />[[Shin Geh-Ryoon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |39 =[[Seongdong District|Seongdong]] 1st district<br />[[Choi Jae Cheon]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |40 =[[Seongdong District|Seongdong]] 2nd district<br />[[Hong Ihk Pyo]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |41 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 1st district<br />[[Park In-Sook]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |42 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 2nd district<br />[[Yoo Il Ho]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |43 =[[Songpa District|Songpa]] 3rd district<br />[[Kim Eul Dong]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |44 =[[Yangcheon District|Yangcheon]] 1st district<br />[[Kil Jeong Woo]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |45 =[[Yangcheon District|Yangcheon]] 2nd district<br />[[Kim Yongtae]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) |46 =[[Yeongdeungpo District|Yeongdeungpo]] 1st district<br />[[Kim Young Joo]]<br />([[Democratic United Party|DUP]]) |47 =[[Yeongdeungpo District|Yeongdeungpo]] 2nd district<br />[[Shin Kyoung Min]]<br />([[Partéy Démokrat Ngahiji|DUP]]) |48 =[[Yongsan District|Yongsan]] district<br />[[Chin Young]]<br />([[Partéy Saénuri|Saénuri]]) }} |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |leader_title4 = |leader_name4 = |established_title = <!-- Settled --> |established_date = |established_title1 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> |established_date1 = |established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> |established_date2 = |established_title3 = |established_date3 = |founder = |named_for = |area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> |unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric--> |area_footnotes = <ref name="seoul1"/> |area_total_km2 = 605.21 <!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> |area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--> |area_water_km2 = |area_water_percent = |area_urban_km2 = |area_metro_km2 = |area_blank1_title = |area_blank1_km2 = |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use<ref> tags--> |elevation_m = |elevation_max_m = |elevation_min_m = |population_as_of = 31 Oktober 2014<ref name="Population estimate">http://rcps.egov.go.kr:8081/ageStat.do?command=month {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035927/http://rcps.egov.go.kr:8081/ageStat.do?command=month |date=2014-11-29 }}</ref> |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = 10,117,909 |population_density_km2 = auto |population_metro = 25,620,000 |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_urban = |population_density_urban_km2 = |population_blank1_title= [[Démonim]] |population_blank1 = 서울 사람 (Seoul saram), 서울시민 (Seoul-simin), Seoulite |population_blank2_title= Lentong |population_blank2 = [[Lentong Seoul|Seoul]] |population_density_blank1_km2 = |blank_name_sec2 = GDP |blank_info_sec2 = [[American Dollar|US$]] 845.9&nbsp;billion <ref name="brookingsgdp">{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/global-metro-monitor-3|title=Global city GDP 2014|publisher=Brookings Institution|accessdate=18 November 2014}}</ref> |blank1_name_sec2 = GDP per kapita |blank1_info_sec2 = US$ 34,355 <ref name="brookingsgdp" /> |timezone = UTC +09:00 (Korean Time) |utc_offset = |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = | coor_pinpoint = <!-- can be used to specify exactly where/what the coordinates refer to --> |latd=37 |latm=34 |latNS=N |longd=126 |longm=58 |longEW=E |postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> |postal_code = |area_code = |twin1 = |twin1_country = |twin2 = |twin2_country = |twin3 = |twin3_country = |twin4 = |twin4_country = |twin5 = |twin5_country = |twin6 = |twin6_country = |twin7 = |twin7_country = |blank_name = Manuk |blank_info = [[Korean Magpie]] |blank1_name = Kelir |blank1_info = Seoul Red<ref name="Seoul Metropolitan Government">{{cite web|title=Color|url=http://www.seoul.go.kr/v2012/seoul/symbol/color.html}}</ref> |blank2_name = Kembang |blank2_info = [[Forsythia]] |blank3_name = Aksara |blank3_info = Aksara Seoul ([[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] jeung [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]]) |blank4_name = Maskot |blank4_info = Haéchi |blank5_name = Slogan |blank5_info = “함께 만드는 서울, 함께 누리는 서울” (Literally "Seoul We Create Together, Seoul We Enjoy Together") |blank6_name = Lagu |blank6_info = "서울의 빛" ("Cahya Seoul") |blank7_name = Tangkal |blank7_info = [[Ginkgo biloba|Ginkgo]] |website = [http://english.seoul.go.kr/ seoul.go.kr] |footnotes = }} '''Séoul''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|s|oʊ|l}}; {{IPA-ko|sʰʌ.ul|lang|ko-Seoul.ogg}})<!--please do not repeat info already in infobox, e.g. Korean: 서울특별시-->&nbsp;– resmina '''Kota Istiméwa Séoul'''&nbsp; – mangrupa ibu kota tur [[métropolis]] panggedéna di [[Koréa Kidul]], nu mangrupa jajantung [[Wewengkon Ibukota Seoul]], kaasup sabudeureun métropolis [[Incheon]] jeung propinsi [[Gyeonggi-do|Gyeonggi]], [[Daptar wewengkon métropolitan dumasar populasi|wewengkon métropolitan kadua panggedéna]] sadunya kalayan 25.6&nbsp;yuta urang pangeusi.<ref>http://www.moj.go.kr/HP/COM/bbs_03/ShowData.do?strNbodCd=noti0097&strWrtNo=167&strAnsNo=A&strFilePath=moj/&strRtnURL=MOJ_40402000&strOrgGbnCd=104000</ref> mangrupa tempat leuwih ti satengahna pangeusi Koréa Kidul kaasup 678,102 warga internasional.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A |title=국가통계포털 |publisher=Kosis.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826055149/http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A |date=2013-08-26 }}</ref> Kalayan pangeusi leuwih ti 10 yuta, ieu [[kota gedé]] mangrupa [[List of cities proper by population|largest city proper]] di [[OECD]]. Perenahna di [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], sajarah Séoul ti mangsa ka tukang kacida panjangna leuwih ti dua rébu taun ti saprak diadegkeun taun 18 SM ku [[Baékjaé]], salah sahiji tina [[Tilu Karajaan di Koréa]]. Séoul masih tumuluy jadi ibu kota [[Koréa]] nalika [[Dinasti Joseon]]. [[Wewengkon Ibu kota Seoul]] ngawengku lima [[Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]]: [[Changdeokgung|Karato Changdeok]], [[Bénténg Hwaseong]], [[Jongmyo|Kuil Jongmyo]], [[Namhansanseong]] katut [[Makam Karajaan Dinasti Joseon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/kr|title=Lists: Republic of Korea |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> Séoul dikurilingan ku pagunungan, nu pangluhurna mah [[Bukhansan|Gunung Bukhan]], taman nasional nu panglobana didatangan per suku pasagina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264309 |title=Bukhansan National Park (북한산국립공원) |publisher=English.visitkorea.or.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928122447/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264309 |date=2013-09-28 }}</ref> Cicirén modéren di antarana [[Munara Seoul N]], [[Wangunan 63]] kelir emas, [[Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park|Dongdaemun Design Plaza]] nu ''neofuturiskik'', [[Lotte World]], taman jejeran jero rohangan panggedéna kadua sadunya,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viator.com/Seoul-attractions/Lotte-World/d973-a4955 |title=Lotte World – Seoul Attractions |publisher=Viator.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> [[Moonlight Rainbow Fountain]], cai mancer sasak pangpanjangna sadunya<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/6000/longest-bridge-fountain |title=Longest bridge fountain |publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com |date=2008-01-01 |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> katut [[Some Sevit|Pulo Ngambang Sevit]]. Minangka tempat lahirna [[K-pop]] katut [[Korean Wave]], Séoul narima leuwih ti 12 yuta turis internasional dina taun 2013,<ref>[http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=409&lang=eng Seoul Statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927051259/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=409&lang=eng |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> ngajadikeun Séoul minangka [[Pelesir#Indéks Kota Tujuan Global MasterCard|kota ka-10 panglobana didatangan]] sadunya katut ka-6 pangngahasilkeunana dina hal pelesir.<ref>[http://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Mastercard_GDCI_2014_Letter_Final_70814.pdf MasterCard-Global Destination Cities index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916112828/https://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Mastercard_GDCI_2014_Letter_Final_70814.pdf |date=2018-09-16 }}</ref> Kiwari, Séoul dianggap minangka hiji [[kota global]] nu pinunjul tur ngaronjat, nu dihasilkeun tina hasil ekonomi nu disebut [[Kaahéngan Walungan Han]] nu ngarobah tina karuksakan [[Perang Koréa]] jadi [[Daptar kota dumasar kana GDP|ékonomi métropolitan panggedéna ka-4]] kalayan [[GDP]] US$774 miliar<ref>At [[purchasing power parity]], see [[List of cities by GDP]].</ref> dina taun 2012 sanggeus [[Tokyo]], [[Kota New York]] katut [[Los Angeles]]. Puseur téhnologi dunya nu pinunjul di [[Gangnam (3 Distrik)|Gangnam]] katut [[Kota Média Digital]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/technology/tech-capitals-of-the-world/2007/06/16/1181414598292.html |title=Tech capitals of the world – Technology |publisher=theage.com.au |date=2009-06-15 |accessdate=2013-08-07 |location=Melbourne}}</ref> Wewengkon Ibu kota Séoul bisa ngagulkeun 15<ref>http://fortune.com/global500/samsung-electronics-13/</ref> pausahaan [[Fortune Global 500]] saperti [[Samsung]], [[Daptar pausahaan téhnologi panggedéna|pausahaan téhnologi panggedéna]] sadunya, katambah ku [[LG]] jeung [[Grup Otomotif Hyundai Kia|Hyundai-Kia]]. Dina taun 2013, [[Daptar wewengkon di Koréa Kidul dumasar GDP|GDP per kapita (PPP)]] ieu kota nu $39,448 bisa dibandingken jeung [[Perancis]] katut [[Finlandia]]. Réngking kagenep dina [[Kota global|Indéks Kota Daya Global]] sarta kagenep dina [[Indéks Puseur Finansial Global]], ieu métropolis ngadorong pangaruh nu gedé dina urusan global minangka salah sahiji tina lima [[Uni Asosiasi Internasional|tuan rumah konférénsi global]] nu pinunjul.<ref>http://www.uia.be/sites/uia.be/files/documents/statistics/press/press12.pdf</ref> Séoul meunang réngking katujuh dina [[Sustainable Cities Index]], pangluhurna di Asia tur réngking kadua sadunya dina kategori sosial. Ogé mangrupa tuan rumah pembukaan seni panglobana sadunya per mil pasagina.<ref name="travel.cnn.com">http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/life/50-reasons-why-seoul-worlds-greatest-city-534720 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022092637/http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/life/50-reasons-why-seoul-worlds-greatest-city-534720 |date=2014-10-22 }}</ref> Séoul mangrupa kota pangkahubungkeunana ku kabel sadunya<ref name="travel.cnn.com"/> tur réngking kahiji dina kasiapan téhnologi dumasar kana laporan ''Kota Kasempetan'' [[PwC]].<ref>http://www.pwc.com/us/en/cities-of-opportunity/2014/assets/cities-of-opportunity-2014.pdf</ref> Infrastruktur transportasi publikna mangrupa nu pangpadetna sadunya<ref>http://www.thecrystal.org/assets/download/120724_GCI_SummaryReport_final2.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418083359/http://www.thecrystal.org/assets/download/120724_GCI_SummaryReport_final2.pdf |date=2015-04-18 }}</ref> tur karéngking minangka nu panghadéna di [[Beulahan Bumi Kalér]] dina [[Sustainable Cities Index]].<ref>http://www.sustainablecitiesindex.com/wp-content/uploads/Sustainable-Cities-Index-2015-Press-Release.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212115804/http://www.sustainablecitiesindex.com/wp-content/uploads/Sustainable-Cities-Index-2015-Press-Release.pdf |date=2015-02-12 }}</ref> Dirojong ku [[karéta gancang]] [[Korea Train Express|KTX]] katut [[Subway Seoul]], jajaring [[Rapid transit|subway]] panggedé sadunya,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railway-technology.com/features/featurethe-worlds-longest-metro-and-subway-systems-4144725 |title=The world's longest metro and subway systems |publisher=Railway-technology.com |accessdate=2014-02-20}}</ref> nyayagakeun [[4G LTE]], [[WiFi]] katut [[Digital Multimedia Broadcasting|DMB]] dina kandaraan handapeun lemah. Séoul kahubung ku [[AREX]] ka [[Bandara Internasional Incheon]], nu meunang pangajén minangka [[Airports Council International|bandara panghadéna salila salapan taun patuturut (2005–2013)]] sadunya ti [[Airports Council International]].<ref>http://nwww.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20140527001084 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402204636/http://nwww.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20140527001084 |date=2019-04-02 }}</ref> [[Lotte World Tower]], [[pemcakar langit]] ''[[supertall]]'' 556m (1,824&nbsp;ft) kalayan 123 lantéy, diwangun di Séoul nu jadi pangluhurna dina [[OECD]] taun 2015 kalayan galadak observasi katut galeri seni pangluhurna sadunya.<ref name=CTBUH>{{cite web|url=http://buildingdb.ctbuh.org/?do=building&building_id=88|title=Lotte World Premium Tower|publisher=''[[CTBUH]]''|accessdate=10 April 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725213730/http://buildingdb.ctbuh.org/?do=building&building_id=88 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>http://www.lwt.co.kr/introduce/tour/tour.do {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016191654/http://www.lwt.co.kr/introduce/tour/tour.do |date=2014-10-16 }}</ref> Its [[Lotte Cinema]] houses the world's largest cinema screen.<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com">http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-4000/largest-permanent-35mm-cinema-screen/</ref>[[COEX Mall]] Séoul mangrupa mall pangbalanjaan panggedéna di sahandapeun lemah.<ref>http://www.newsis.com/ar_detail/view.html?ar_id=NISX20141201_0013328698&cID=10402&pID=10400</ref> [[Emporis]] nyababkeun ''skyline'' Séoul meunang réngking minangka pangaruh visual pangluhurna kaopat sadunya di antara kota-kota gedé.<ref>http://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106210644/http://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking |date=2012-11-06 }}</ref> Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]], [[Olimpiade Usum Panas 1988]], [[Piala Dunia FIFA 2002]] jeung [[KTT Seoul G-20 2010]]. [[Jaringan Kota Kréatif|Kota Disain UNESCO]], Séoul dingaranan [[Ibu kota Disain Dunia|Ibu kota Disain Dunia 2010]]. ==Étimologi== {{main|Ngaran Seoul}} Ieu kota geus kasohor ti jaman baheula kalayan ngaran [[Wiryéseong|Wiryé-seong]] (위례성/{{lang|ko|慰禮城}}, nalika jaman [[Baékjé]]), [[Hanju]] (한주/{{lang|ko|漢州}}, nalika jaman [[Silla]]), [[Namgyeong]] (남경/{{lang|ko|南京}}, nalika jaman [[Goryeo]]), [[Hanseong]] (한성/{{lang|ko|漢城}}, nalika jaman [[Baékjé]] jeung jaman [[Dinasti Joseon|Joseon]]), [[Hanyang]] (한양/{{lang|ko|漢陽}}, nalika jaman [[Dinasti Joseon|Joseon]]), Gyéongséong (경성/{{lang|ko|京城}}, nalika [[Koréa nalika dijajah Jepang|jaman penjajahan]]).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul |title=Seoul |year=2009 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=6 September 2009|quote=The city was popularly called Seoul in Korean during both the [[Chosŏn]] (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910) and the period of Japanese rule (1910–45), although the official names in those periods were [[Hansŏng]] (Hanseong) and [[Kyŏngsŏng]] (Gyeongseong), respectively.}}</ref> Ngaran nu kiwari mah asalna tina kecap [[basa Koréa]] nu hartina "ibu kota," nu dipercaya diturunkeun tina kecap ''Seorabeol'' (서라벌/{{lang|ko|徐羅伐}}), nu asalna nujul kana [[Gyeongju]], ibu kota [[Silla]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-221948-seoul_history-i |title=yahoo |publisher=Uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107185557/http://uk.holidaysguide.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-221948-seoul_history-i |date=2007-01-07 }}</ref> Séoul boga loba ngaran tangtu aya alesanana. Nalika dijajah ku Jepang, "Hanseong" (漢城) diganti ngaran ku "Gyeongseong" (京城) sangkan teu patukeur jeung karakter "{{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}}" sabab nujul ogé ka urang China. Dina kanyataanana mah, ngaran kuna Séoul, Hanséong {{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}} asalna boga harti "Gedé" atawa "Lega". Pamaréntah Jepang mutuskeun pikeun nganti ieu karakter ti {{lang|ko|{{linktext|漢}}}} jadi {{lang|ko|{{linktext|京}}}} sangkan rahayat henteu saralah nganggap yén Séoul boga hubungan jeung urang China. Henteu kawas lolobana ngaran tempat di Koréa, "Seoul" mah henteu boga [[hanja]] ([[karakter China]] nu dipaké dina [[basa Koréa]]). Dina tanggal 18 Januari 2005, pamaréntah Séoul sacara resmi ngaganti ngaran basa China resmina ku ''Shou'er'' ({{zh|s=首尔|t=首爾|p=shǒu'ěr}}) tina Hancheng ({{zh|t=漢城|s=汉城|p=hànchéng}}), nu tuluy jadi henteu pati ilahar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=104&oid=022&aid=0000126138 |script-title=ko:서울특별시표기 ''首爾''로...중국, 곧 정식 사용키로 :: 네이버 뉴스 |language= ko |publisher=News.naver.com |date=2005-10-23 |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-01/20/content_410881.htm |title='Seoul' morphs into Chinese 'Shouer' |publisher=Chinadaily.com.cn |date=2005-01-20 |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://goodcharacters.com/newsletters/summer2006-seoul-korea.html |title=goodcharacters.com |publisher=goodcharacters.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930195048/http://goodcharacters.com/newsletters/summer2006-seoul-korea.html |date=2018-09-30 }}</ref> ==Sajarah== {{Main|Sajarah Seoul}} {{see also|Gurat wanci Seoul}} [[File:Donggwol-do.jpg|left|thumb|300px|''[[Donggwoldo]]'', lukisan pemandangan Changdeokgung]] Pakampungan di wewengkon [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], tempat perenahna Séoul kiwari, geus mimiti ditempatan ti kira-kira taun 4000 SM.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul/24023/Cultural-life#toc24024|title=Seoul|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Séoul munggaran kacatet minangka Wiryeséong, ibu kota [[Baékjé]] (ngadeg taun 18 SM) di béh kalér wétan wewengkon Séoul.<ref name="Britannica" /> Aya sababaraha pinding dayeuh nu nyésa di ieu wewengkon nu nuduhkeun tanggal harita. [[Pungnaptoseong]], pinding béh wétan di saluareun Séoul, dipercaya ku balaréa minangka loka Wiryeéséong utama.<ref name="toseong">{{cite web|url=http://m.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&m&p=02&menu=0004003002017&art_id=535&searchLoca&searchTheme=0002000001003&flag&searchType|title=Pungnap-toseong (Earthen Ramparts)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222005911/http://m.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&m&p=02&menu=0004003002017&art_id=535&searchLoca&searchTheme=0002000001003&flag&searchType |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Alatan Tilu Karajaan marebutkeun wewengkon nu stratégis ieu, kadali pindah ti Baékjé ka [[Goguryeo]] dina abad ka-5, sarta ti Goguryéo ka [[Silla]] dina abad ka-6. Dina abad ka-11 [[Goryeo]], nu ngaganti [[Silla Ngahiji]], ngawangun hiji karaton usum panas di Séoul, nu dianggap "Ibu kota Kidul". Ti saprak harita, Séoul jadi hiji panganjrekan nu beuki leuwih lega.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nalika [[Joseon]] ngaganti Goryéo, ieu ibu kota pindah ka Séoul (katelah ogé Hanyang sarta satuluyna Hanséong), nu tumuluy nepi ka runtagna ieu dinasti. [[Gyeongbokgung|Karaton Gyeongbok]], nu diwangun dina abad ka-14, dipidangkeun minangka panyicingan karajaan tepi ka taun 1592. Karaton gedé lianna, [[Changdeokgung]], diwangun taun 1405, dipidangkeun minangka karaton karajaan utama ti taun 1611 tepi ka 1872.<ref name="Britannica" /> Tadina mah ieu kota téh sagemblengna dikurilingan ku [[Pinding bénténg Seoul|pinding batu]] pikeun ngamankeun wargana tina sato galak, nu maling katut serangan ti luar. Ieu kota tuluy tuwuh ka saluareun éta pinding tur sok sanajan pindingna geus euweuh ogé (kajaba di sapanjang Gunung Bugaksan (북악산), di béh kalér wewengkon puseur dayeuh<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1061818|title=Bugaksan Mountain|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222062015/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1061818 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref>), gapurana mah nyésa kénéh di deukeuteun tengah kota Séoul, kaasup Sungnyémun (ilaharna kasohor minangka [[Namdaémun]]) katut Honginjimun (ilaharna kasohor minangka [[Dongdaémun]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5781/|title=Seoul City Wall|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Salila dinasti Joséon, ieu gapura dibuka jeung ditutup unggal poé, dibarengan ku sora loncéng gedé di [[Munara loncéng (arsitéktur)|munara]] [[Bosingak]] .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264135|title=Bosingak Belfry|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222062012/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264135 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Dina abad ka-19 ahir, sanggeus ratusan taun kaisolasi, Séoul muka gapurana keur urang deungeun tur mimiti dimodérenkeun. Séoul jadi dayeuh munggaran di Asia Wétan nu ngawanohkeun listrik di karaton karajaan, diwangun ku [[Edison Illuminating Company]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/images/8/85/Nam-Early_History.pdf|title=Early History of Electrical Engineering in Korea: Edison and First Electric Lighting in the Kingdom of Corea|author=Nam Moon Hyon|work=Promoting the History of EE Jan 23–26, 2000|publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> tur sapuluh taun sanggeusna Séoul nerapkeun ogé lampu jalan.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=cbRhAQAAQBAJ|title=A History of Korea|author=Kyung Moon Hwang|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=142|year=2010|isbn=9780230364523}}</ref> lolobana kamekaran Séoul nyaéta alatan perdagangan jeung nagara deungeun kayaning [[Perancis]] katut [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Contona baé, [[Seoul Electric Company]], Séoul Electric Trolley Company, and Séoul Fresh Spring Water Company kabéhanana mangrupa pausahaan nu dipiboga babarengan ku Koréa katut Amérika.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=3h080YYhS3QC|title=Korea under Siege, 1876–1945 : Capital Formation and Economic Transformation|author=Young-Iob Chung|page=70|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=9780198039662}}</ref> Dina taun 1904, salah saurang urang Amérika nu ngaranna Angus Hamilton ngadatangan ieu dayeuh tur nyarita, "Jalan di Seoul mah haradé, lalega, bareresih, pikatajieun tur saluran caina ogé ogé hadé. Lajur nu hareureut jeung kotor geus dilegaan, solokanana geus ditutup, atuh jalan rayana ogé geus dilalegaan. Seoul téh geus kairong bakal jadi dayeuh panghadéna, pangpikatajieun, jeung pangberesihna di wewengkon Wétan."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=LR8svgdNOAYC&pg=PT123&lpg=PT123&dq=The+streets+of+Seoul+are+magnificent,+spacious,+clean,+admirably+made+and+well-drained&source=bl&ots=RK26xBMz3b&sig=TTDRAs3pIqejESGp1T2J1QoS-84&hl=hu&sa=X&ei=ob70UpPxNMOihgfyr4HACg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=The%20streets%20of%20Seoul%20are%20magnificent%2C%20spacious%2C%20clean%2C%20admirably%20made%20and%20well-drained&f=false|author=[[Bruce Cumings]]|title=Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2005|isbn=9780393347531}}</ref> Sanggeus [[Perjangjuan Anéksasi Jepang-Koréa|perjangjian anéksasi]] dina taun 1910, [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] ngajajah Koréa sarta ngaganti ngarang ieu dayeuh jadi [[Gyeongseong]] ("Kyongsong" dina basa Cina atawa "Kéijo" dina basa Jepang). Téhnologi Jepang diimpor, pinding dayeuh dipiceun, sababaraha gapura diancurkeun. Jalan diubinan sarta wangunan gaya Kulon diwangun. Ieu dayeuh diliberalisasi dina mangsa ahir [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref name="Britannica" /> Dina taun 1945 mah ieu dayeuh téh resmi dingarangan Séoul tur diputuskeun minangka [[Kota istiméwa di Koréa Kidul|kota istiméwa]] taun 1949.<ref name="Britannica" /> Salila [[Perang Koréa]], sababaraha kali Séoul pundah-pindah leungeun antara angkatan bersenjata Koréa Kalér nu dibéking ku Rusia/Cina, jeung Koréa Kidul nu dibéking ku Amérika Sarikat, nu nyababkeun ieu dayeuh ruksak parna sanggeusna perang. Ibu kota sawatara waktu mah dipindahkeun heula ka [[Busan]].<ref name="Britannica" /> Ceuk salah sahiji perkiraan ngeunaan kaayaan ruksakna Séoul mah, sahanteuna 191.000 wangunan, 55.000 imah, katut 1.000 pabrik rata jeung taneuh. Katambah deui, banjir pangungsi geus asup ka Seul nalika perang, nyababkeun kamekaran jumlah pangeusi ieu dayeuh katut wewengkon mtropolitanana nepikeun ka kurang leuwih 1.5 yuta jiwa taun 1955.<ref name="hamnett">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=8GSpAgAAQBAJ|title=Planning Asian Cities: Risks and Resilience|page=159|publisher=Routledge|year= 2012|editor=Stephen Hamnett, Dean Forbes|isbn= 9781136639272}}</ref> Sanggeusna perang, Séoul mimiti fokus kana ngarékonstruksi jeung ngamodérnisasi. Alatan [[Kaajaiban Walungan Han|ékonomi Koréa mimiti tuwuh kacida rongkahna]] ti saprak taun 1960-an, urbanisasi ogé beuki gancang sarta para pagawé mimiti narempatan Séoul katut dayeuh gedéliana.<ref name="hamnett" /> Ti taun 1970-an, ukuran wewengkon administratif Séoul beuki ngalegaan pisan alatan nyokot sababaraha kota leutik katut désa ti sababaraha county sabudeureunana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spp.seoul.go.kr/cms/board/Download.jsp?fileId=IUAjJDMyMTY1LS0kJA==|title=Urban Planning of Seoul|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|format=PDF|year=2009|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125042517/http://spp.seoul.go.kr/cms/board/Download.jsp?fileId=IUAjJDMyMTY1LS0kJA== |date=2016-01-25 }}</ref> Dumasar kana data sénsus taun 2012, populasi wewengkon Séoul geus kira-kira 20% tina total populasi Koréa Kidul,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/Korea-at-a-Glance/Facts-about-Korea|title=Facts about Korea|publisher=Korea.net|accessdate=2014-02-07}}</ref> Séoul geus ngajadi puseurna ékonomi, pulitik katut budaya di ieu nagara,<ref name="Britannica" /> kalayan sababaraha pausahaan [[Fortune 500]], kaasup [[Samsung]], [[SK Holdings]], [[Hyundai]], [[POSCO]] katut [[LG Group]] nu kantor puseurna di dinya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/countries/SouthKorea.html|title=GLOBAL 500|publisher=CNN Money|accessdate=2014-02-07|date=2012-07-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410023118/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/countries/SouthKorea.html |date=2014-04-10 }}</ref> Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]] jeung [[Olimpiade Usum Panas 1988]] sajaba ti mangrupa salah sahiji tempat [[Piala Dunya FIFA 2002|Piala Dunya Maén Bal 2002]]. ==Géografi== [[File:Hangang Railway Bridge.jpg|left|thumbnail|[[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]]]] Séoul perenahna di béh kalér kulon Koréa Kidul. Legana 605,25&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>,<ref name="seoul1">{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/Seoul_System5.jsp?stc_cd=412|title=Seoul Statistics (Land Area)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=24 March 2010}}</ref> kalayan radius kurang leuwih {{convert|15|km|0|abbr=on}}, nu sacara gurat badag kabagi jadi wewengkon kalér jeung kidul nu dipisahkeun ku Walungan Han. Ieu walungan katut wewengkon sabudeureunana boga pancén nu kacida pentingna dina sajarah Koréa. Tilu Karajaan Koréa kacida merjuangkeun pikeun bisa ngadalikeun ieu lemah, sabab ieu walungan mangsa harita mah dipaké keur jalur dagang ka Cina (ngaliwatan [[Laut Konéng]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=10833&lang=en&m=0004003002015&p=03|title=Brief History of Hangang (River)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612131834/http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&m=0004003002015&p=03&art_id=10833&lang=en |date=2010-06-12 }}</ref> Ieu walungan kiwari henteu bisa dipaké deui keur balayar alatan [[muhara]]na aya dina wates antara dua Koréa nu henteu beunang sagawayah jelema sipil bisa larsup. Ieu dayeuh diwatesan ku dalapan gunung, kaasup lemah pangluhurna dina daratan Walungan Han jeung wewengkon béh kulon. ===Iklim=== {{Main|Iklim Seoul}} {{climate chart | Seoul |- 6|2|21 |- 3|5|25 |2|10|47 |8|18|65 |13|23|106 |18|27|133 |22|29|395 |22|30|364 |17|26|169 |10|20|52 |3|12|53 |- 3|4|22 |float=right |clear=none |units=metric}} Séoul boga iklim transisional [[buana beueus]]/[[subtropis beueus|subtropis]] ([[klasifikasi iklim Köppen]] ''Dwa/Cwa''), kalayan karakteristik iklim di antara duanana. Salila bulan Nopémber–Méi, iklim Séoul leuwih deukuet kana iklim buana (kontinén) sedengkeun nalika usum panas mah, iklim di ditu kawas iklim subtropis nu ngandung unsur iklim baseuh/garing tropis. Usum panas mah ilaharna panas jeung beueus, dibarung ku [[angin muson Asia Wétan]] ti Juni tepi ka Séptémber. Sedengkeun kira-kira bulan Agustus mah, nu mangrupa bulan pangpanasna, boga suhu rata-rata {{convert|22.4|to|29.6|C|F|0}} malahan mah bisa jadi leuwih ti éta. Dina usum tiis mah mindeng kacida nyecep tepi ka bekuna kalayan suhu rata-rata dina bulan Januari tepikeun ka {{convert|-5.9|to|1.5|C|F|1}} sarta ilaharna leuwih garing ti batan nalika usum panas, kalayan rata-rata 28 poé saljuan unggal taunna. Kadang-kadang, hawa turun kacida dramatisna tepi ka sahandapeun {{convert|-10.0|C|F|}}, malah bisa nepikeun ka {{convert|-15.0|C|F|}} sanajan arang ogé, nyaéta nalika mangsa tengah usum tiis antara Januari jeung Pébruari. {{Seoul weatherbox}} ==Distrik administratif== {{Main|Daptar distrik di Seoul}} [[File:Flag of Seoul (1946–1996).svg|thumb|right|[[Bandéra]] Seoul (1947–1996)]] [[File:01-00-seoul-en.svg|thumb|400px|Distrik Seoul]] Séoul kabagi jadi 25 ''[[Babagian administratif Koréa Kidul#Gu (Distrik)|gu]]'' (구; {{linktext|區}}) (distrik).<ref name="Administrative Districts"/> ''Gu'' béda-béda legana (ti 10 tepi ka 47&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) katut populasina (ti leuwih saeutik ti 140,000 tepikeun ka 630,000). Songpa boga jumlah warga nu panglobana, sedengkeun Séocho mah wewengkonna panglegana. Pamaréntahan unggal gu nyekel loba fungsi nu dicekel ogé ku pamaréntahan kota di yurisdiksi lianna. Unggal ''gu'' kabagi jadi "''[[Dong (lingkungan)|dong]]''" (동; {{linktext|洞}}) atawa lingkungan. Sababaraha gu ukur boga saeutik dong sedengkeun lianna saperti Distrik Jongno mah jumlah lingkunganana kacida lobana. Gu di Séoul ngawengku 423 dong administratif (행정동).<ref name="Administrative Districts">{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=5 |title=Administrative Districts |publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government |accessdate=2014-02-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102212612/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=5 |date=2014-01-02 }}</ref> ''Dong'' kabagi deui jadi 13,787 ''tong'' (통; {{linktext|統}}), nu satuluyna kabagi deui jadi 102,796 ''ban''. {| |- | valign="top" | * [[Distrik Dobong]] (도봉구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|道|峰|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Dongdaémun]] (동대문구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|東|大|門|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Dongjak]] (동작구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|銅|雀|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Eunpyeong]] (은평구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|恩|平|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangbuk]] (강북구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|北|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangdong]] (강동구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|東|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangnam]] (강남구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|南|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gangseo, Seoul|Distrik Gangseo]] (강서구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|江|西|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Geumcheon]] (금천구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|衿|川|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Guro, Seoul|Distrik Guro]] (구로구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|九|老|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gwanak]] (관악구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|冠|岳|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Gwangjin]] (광진구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|廣|津|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Jongno]] (종로구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|鍾|路|區}}}}) | valign="top" | * [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] (중구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|中|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Jungnang]] (중랑구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|中|浪|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Mapo]] (마포구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|麻|浦|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Nowon]] (노원구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|蘆|原|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seocho]] (서초구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|瑞|草|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seodaémun]] (서대문구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|西|大|門|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seongbuk]] (성북구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|城|北|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Seongdong]] (성동구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|城|東|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Songpa]] (송파구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|松|坡|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yangcheon]] (양천구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|陽|川|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]] (영등포구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|永|登|浦|區}}}}) * [[Distrik Yongsan]] (용산구; {{lang|ko|{{linktext|龍|山|區}}}}) |} ==Démografi== Proper Séoul kasohor ku [[kapadetan populasi]]na, nu ampir dua kalieun [[Kota New York|New York]] sarta dalapan kalieun [[Roma]]. Wewengkon métropolitanana mangrupa nu pangpadetna di Asia taun 2012 dumasar kana [[OECD]], tur kadua di dunya sanggeus [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite journal|year=2013|title=Regional population density: Asia and Oceania, 2012: Inhabitants per square kilometre, TL3 regions|journal=OECD Regions at a Glance 2013|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-regions-at-a-glance-2013/regional-population-density-asia-and-oceania-2012_reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|accessdate=2014-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221234115/http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-regions-at-a-glance-2013/regional-population-density-asia-and-oceania-2012_reg_glance-2013-graph37-en|archive-date=2014-02-21}}</ref> Ampir sakabéhna warga Séoul nyaéta [[urang Koréa]], kalayan saeutik [[urang Cina]], [[urang Jepang]], katut minoritas [[ékspatriat]]. Dina bulan Désémber 2013, populasina 10.14 yuta,<ref name="chosunpop">{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/02/14/2014021400795.html|title=Seoul's Population Drops Below 10 Million for First Time in 25 Years|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=2014-02-16|date=2014-02-14}}</ref> taun 2012, populasina 10,442,426.<ref name="seoul2">{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS00/outer_Seoul.jsp?stc_cd=1|title=Seoul Statistics (Population)|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government|accessdate=3 March 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019064405/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS00/outer_Seoul.jsp?stc_cd=1 |date=19 October 2013 }}</ref> Ahir Juni 2011, 10.29 yuta warga Républik Koréa cicing di ieu kota. Turun .24% dbandingkeun ahir 2010. Populasi Séoul terus turun ti awal 1990-an, sabab cicing di Séoul mah mahal, katambah ku ngolotanana populasi.<ref name="chosunpop" /> Jumlah urang asing nu nganjrek di Séoul nyaéta 255,501 urang dina taun 2010 dumasar kana sumber resmi Séoul.<ref>{{cite news |last=Park |first=Chung-a |title=Foreign population in Seoul continue to dwindle |publisher=Korea Times |url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/07/113_66455.html }}</ref> Dina bulan Juni 2011, 281,780 urang deungeun nganjrek di Séoul. Di antara eta, 186,631 urang deungeun (66%) mangrupa warga [[urang Cina]] ti karuhun urang Koréa. Naek 8.84% ti ahir 2010 jeung 12.85% ti Juni 2010. Kelompok panggedéna deui nyaéta warga Cina nu lain suku Koréa; 29,901 di antarana cicing di Séoul. Kelompok panggedéna deui nyaéta 9,999 urang warga Amérika Sarikat nu lain turunan Koréa. Satuluyna nyaéta warga Républik Cina (Taiwan), 8,717 urang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2011/09/117_94610.html|title= Korean Chinese account for nearly 70% of foreigners in Seoul|publisher= ''[[The Korea Times]]''|date=September 11, 2011|accessdate=2014-02-11}}</ref> ===Ageman=== {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Ageman di Seoul (2005)<ref name="2005religionmap">[http://www.sisapress.com/news/photo/200610/41926_37953_1632.jpg 2005 Census – Religion Results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904074206/http://www.sisapress.com/news/photo/200610/41926_37953_1632.jpg |date=2015-09-04 }}</ref> |label1 = Teu boga ageman |value1 = 46.2 |color1 = Gray |label2 = [[Protestan]] |value2 = 22.8 |color2 = DodgerBlue |label3 = [[Buda]] |value3 = 16.8 |color3 = Gold |label4 = [[Katolik]] |value4 = 14.2 |color4 = DarkOrchid }} Dua ageman utama di Séoul nyaéta [[Kristen di Koréa|Kristen]] jeung [[Buda di Koréa|Buda]]. Ageman lianna kaasup [[Muisme]] (ageman karuhun) katut [[Konghucu]]. Séoul mangrupa tempat jama'ah Kristen panggedéna di dunya, [[Yoido Full Gospel Church]], nu boga anggahota kira-kira 830,000 urang.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21532340|title=South Korean mega-churches. For God and country|publisher=Economist|accessdate=2014-02-11|date=2011-10-15}}</ref> Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2005, tina sakabéh urang Séoul, 39% ngagem [[Kristen]] (22.8% [[Protéstan]] jeung 14.2% [[Garéja Katolik|Katolik]]) jeung 16.8% ngagem [[Buda]].<ref name="2005religionmap"/> 46.2% tina ieu populasi lolobanaana henteu boga ageman atawa ngagem Muisme jeung ageman asli lianna. ==Ékonomi== [[File:Lotte World.jpg|right|thumbnail|Taman jero wangunan katut mall pangbalanjaan [[Lotte World]]]] {{See also|Ékonomi Koréa Kidul}} Séoul mangrupa puseur bisnis katut kauangan di Koréa Kidul. Sanajan legana ukur 0.6 persén tina sakabéh wewengkon daratan nasional, Séoul ngahasilkeun 21 persén tina GDP ieu nagara taun 2006.<ref>{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp|title=Welcome to KTC|publisher=Lmg.go.kr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116120403/http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp|archivedate=2013-01-16|accessdate=2015-04-17}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227175321/http://www.lmg.go.kr/2006iaescsi/generalinfo/seoul.asp |date=2011-02-27 }}</ref> Taun 2008, indéks [[Worldwide Centers of Commerce]] ngaréngking Séoul minangka No.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mastercard.com/us/company/en/insights/pdfs/2008/MCWW_WCoC-Report_2008.pdf|title=Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index™|publisher=[[MasterCard]]|accessdate=2014-02-13}}</ref> [[Global Financial Centres Index]] taun 2012 ngadaptar Séoul minangka kota pangkompetitifna ka-6 sadunya sacara finansial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zyen.com/PDF/GFCI%2012.pdf|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 12|publisher=Z/Yen Group|year=2012|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323125707/http://www.zyen.com/PDF/GFCI%2012.pdf |date=2014-03-23 }}</ref> [[The Economist Intelligence Unit]] ngaréngking Séoul minangka nu ka-15 dina daptar "Overall 2025 City Competitiveness" ngeunaan daya saing kota ka hareupna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.citigroup.com/citi/citiforcities/pdfs/hotspots2025.pdf|title=Hot Spots 2025: Benchmarking the Future Competitiveness of Cities|publisher=[[The Economist Intelligence Unit]]|year=2013|accessdate=2014-02-13}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109040339/http://www.citigroup.com/citi/citiforcities/pdfs/hotspots2025.pdf |date=2014-01-09 }}</ref> ===Pabrik=== [[File:Gangnam, Seoul, Korea.jpg|left|thumbnail|Kantor puseur Samsung di [[Stasion Gangnam]]]] Industi pabrik nu tradisional jeung intensif maké karyawan geus sacara tuluy tumuluy diganti ku industri tipeu [[téhnologi informasi]], [[éléktronis]] jeung ''assembly'',<ref name="britannica-economy">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534948/Seoul/24016/City-layout#toc24019|title=Seoul: Economy|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2014-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu11ee/uu11ee0i.htm|title=The primacy of Seoul and the capital region|publisher=United Nations University|accessdate=2014-02-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104072715/http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu11ee/uu11ee0i.htm|archivedate=2014-11-04}}</ref> tapi, produksi dahareun jeung inuman mah, kawas percitakan katut penerbitan masih nyésa di antara industri inti.<ref name="britannica-economy" /> Pabrik nu garedé mah kantor puseurna aya di ieu kota, kayaning [[Samsung]], [[LG]], [[Hyundai]], [[Kia Motors|Kia]] katut [[SK Group|SK]]. Pausahaan dahareun jeung inuman nu kasohor kaasup [[Jinro]], nu nyieun inuman alkoholan [[soju]] nu sumebar ka sakuliah dunya, geus ngéléhkeun [[vodka]] [[Smirnoff]];<ref name="bestselling">{{cite news|url=http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/drink/soju-most-sold-drink-world-930177|title=It's official: Jinro soju is the world's best-selling liquor|date=2012-06-12|publisher=CNN Travel|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref> pabrik bir panglobana ngajual [[Hite Brewery|Hite]] (ngahiji jeung Jinro) jeung [[Oriental Brewery]].<ref name=economist>{{cite news|title=Fiery food, boring beer|url=http://www.economist.com/news/business/21567120-dull-duopoly-crushes-microbrewers-fiery-food-boring-beer|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=2013-04-24|date=2012-11-24}}</ref> Ieu kota ogé mangrupa tempatna raksasa dahareun saperti [[Seoul Milk|Seoul Dairy Cooperative]], [[Grup Nongshim]] katut [[Lotté (konglomerat)|Lotté]]. ===Kauangan=== Konséntrasi gegedéan pausahaan-pausahaan internasional kantor puseurna aya di Séoul.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2008/cities/ |title=Global : Cities |publisher=CNN }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529093252/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2008/cities/ |date=2010-05-29 }}</ref> [[Korea Exchange Bank]] ogé kantor puseurna aya di ieu kota. lolobana kantor puseur bank katut [[Korea Exchange]] perenahna di [[Yeouido]] (Pulo Yéoui),<ref name="britannica-economy" /> nu mindeng disebut "[[Wall Street]] Koréa" tur geus midang minangka puseur finansial ieu kota ti taun 1980-an.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2914830|title=Neon shines brightly during the bustle on Yeouido stock street|publisher=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=2010-01-05|accessdate=2014-02-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517161814/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2914830|archivedate=2014-05-17}}</ref> ===Balanja=== {{Main|Balanja di Seoul}} Pasar grosir katut écéran panggedéna di Koréa Kidul, nyaéta [[Pasar Dongdaémun]], perenahna di Séoul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=662&lang=en&m=0003001005007&p=03|title=Dongdaemun Market|publisher=Visit Seoul|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222025740/http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_method=view&art_id=662&lang=en&m=0003001005007&p=03 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Myeongdong]] nyaéta wewengkon pangbalanjaan katut hiburan di puseur dayeuh Séoul kalayan toko kelas panengah tepi ka kelas luhur, butik pakéan katut ''outlét'' mérek internasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264312|title=Myeong-dong|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140215191420/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264312 |date=2014-02-15 }}</ref> [[Pasar Namdaémun]] deukeuteunana, nu dingaranan dumasar kana [[Gapura Namdaémun]], mangrupa pasar pangkolotna di Séoul nu kiwari masih dipaké.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&p=02&art_id=673|title=Namdaemun Market|publisher=Visit Seoul|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222021157/https://www.visitseoul.net/en/m/article/article.do?_method=view&p=02&art_id=673 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Sinchon-dong, Seoul|Sinchon]] nyaéta wewengkon pangbalanjaan nu disadiakeun keur nonoman katut mahasiswa universitas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=256043|title=Sinchon Street, full of energy|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133248/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=256043 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> [[Insadong]] mah mangrupa pasar seni budaya di Séoul, tempat di mana karya seni Koréa tradisional katut modéren, saperti lukisan, ukiran katut kaligrafi dijual.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/SH_EN_7_2_2_1.jsp|title=Insa-dong|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116073234/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/SH_EN_7_2_2_1.jsp |date=2014-01-16 }}</ref> [[Pasar loak Hwanghak-dong]] katut Pasar antik Janganpyéong ogé nawarkeun barang antik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_2_4.jsp?gotoPage=&category=&areaCode=&recommCid=257325&cid=273747|title=Hwanghak-dong Flea Market|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222135206/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_2_4.jsp?gotoPage=&category=&areaCode=&recommCid=257325&cid=273747 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/cav/shop/antique.php|title=Antique Markets|publisher=Seoul Matropolitan Government|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008074320/http://english.seoul.go.kr/cav/shop/antique.php |date=2010-10-08 }}</ref> Sababaraha toko keur parancang lokal geus dibuka di [[Samcheong-dong]], tempat perenahna sababaraha galeri seni laleutik. [[Itaéwon]] utamana sadia keur turis deungeun katut soldadu Amérika nu boga basis di ieu dayeuh.<ref name="KT Itaewon">{{cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/02/203_130484.html|title=Itaewon: Going Gangnam Style?|publisher=The Korea Times|date=2013-02-14|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> [[Distrik Gangnam]] mangrupa wewengkon pangmakmurna di Séoul<ref name="KT Itaewon" /> tur kasohor ku wewengkon [[Apgujeong-dong]] katut [[Cheongdam-dong]] sarta [[COEX Mall]] nu modéren. Pasar grosir di antarana [[Pasar Grosir Lauk Noryangjin]] katut [[Pasar Garak]]. [[Pasar Éléktronik Yongsan]] mangrupa pasar éléktronik panggedéna di Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_touringseoul_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page&No=24205|title=Yongsan Electronics Market, Asia’s largest IT shopping mall|publisher=[[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS World]]|date=2011-03-01|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221060206/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_touringseoul_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page&No=24205 |date=2014-02-21 }}</ref> [[Times Square (Seoul)|Times Square]] mangrupa salah sahiji mall pangbalanjaan panggedéna nu ngagulkeun [[CJ CGV|Starium CGV]], layar bioskop permanén panggedéna di dunya, [[film 35mm|35 mm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-4000/largest-permanent-35mm-cinema-screen |title=Largest Permanent 35mm Cinema Screen |publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com |date=2009-08-18 |accessdate=2013-08-07}}</ref> ==Arsitéktur== {{See also|Arsitéktur Koréa Kidul}} {{wide image|Seoul Panorama from Namhansanseong..jpg|1600px|<center>Panorama Seoul ti Namhansanseong</center>}} [[File:Namdaemun Buildings.JPG|thumb|right|[[Sungnyémun]]]] Jajantung tradisional Séoul nyaéta dayeuh kolot [[Dinasti Joseon]], nu kiwari jadi wewengkon puseur karaméan, nu mana di éta wewengkon ngumpul karaton, kantor pamaréntahan, kantor puseur pausahaan, hotél, katut pasar tradisional. [[Cheonggyécheon]], wahangan nu ngamalir ti kulon ka wétan ngaliwatan léngkob saméméh tuluy ngamuhara ka [[Walungan Han (Koréa)|Walungan Han]], keur sababaraha taun mah katutupan ku beton, tapi ahirna dibalikkeun deui ngaliwatan proyék kabangkitan kota taun 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=85750|title=Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon Stream symbolizes Korea’s past, present and tomorrow|publisher=Korea.net|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142757/http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=85750 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Jalan [[Jongno]], nu hartina "Jalan Loncéng," geus mangrupa hiji jalan utama tur salah sahiji jalan komérsil pangbiharina di ieu dayeuh,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.hu/books?id=M8Xj7pHu1jEC|title=The Emerging Asian City: Concomitant Urbanities and Urbanisms|editor=Vinayak Bharne |page=59|publisher=Routledge|year= 2013|isbn=9780415525978}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2012/06/137_68203.html|title=Jongno walk|date=2010-06-24 |publisher=The Korea Times|author=Andrei Lankov |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> nu mana di dinya bisa kapanggih [[Bosingak]], hiji paviliun nu eusina loncéng gedé. Éta loncéng nyirénan wanci nu béda-béda sapanjang poé tur ngaadalikeun opat gapura ka ieu dayeuh. Di béh kaléreun puseur karaméan aya [[Gunung Bukhan]], tur di kiduleunana aya [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]] nu leuwih leutik. Tuluy ka béh kidul aya pipir dayeuh nu geus kolot, nyaéta [[Distrik Yongsan]] jeung [[Distrik Mapo]]. Sapanjang Walungan Han aya wewengkon nu leuwih anyar jeung makmur nyaéta [[Distrik Gangnam]], [[Distrik Seocho]] katut wewengkon sabudeureunana. ===Arsitéktur dumasar sajarah=== [[File:Gyeongbok-gung palace-05 (xndr).jpg|left|thumb|[[Gyeongbokgung]]]] [[File:Changdeokgung-Injeongjeon.jpg|thumb|left|[[Changdeokgung]], salah sahiji tina lima karaton di Koréa, nyaéta hiji [[Loka Warisan Dunya]] [[UNESCO]].]] Séoul mibanda sababaraha tempat penting sacara sajarah katut budaya. Di [[Amsa-dong|Loka Pamukiman Prasajarah Amsa-dong]], [[Distrik Gangdong]], sésa-sésa néolitikum kakali jeung teu kahaja katimu alatan banjir taun 1925.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264111 |title=Amsa-dong Prehistoric Settlement Site |publisher=[[Korea Tourism Organization]] |accessdate=2014-02-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222135311/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264111 |date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> Perencanaan urban jeung sipil mangrupa konsép utama nalika Séoul mimiti dirarancang keur ngajadi ibu kota dina ahir abad ka-14. [[Dinasti Joseon]] ngawangun "Lima Karaton Agung" di Séoul – [[Changdeokgung]], [[Changgyeonggung]], [[Deoksugung]], [[Gyeongbokgung]] katut [[Gyeonghuigung]] – sakabéhna aya di [[Distrik Jongno]] jeung [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]]. Di antara sakabéh éta, Changdéokgung asup kana Daptar [[Warisan Dunya]] UNESCO taun 1997 minangka "conto rarancang arsitéktur karaton katut taman di Wétan Jauh nu pinunjul". Karaton utama mah, nyaéta [[Gyeongbokgung]], keur ngalaman proyék réstorasi gegedéan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.royalpalace.go.kr/html/eng/data/data_01.jsp?dep1=2&dep2=1|title=About the Palace|publisher=Gyeongbokgung Palace|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> Ieu karaton-karaton téh dianggap arsitéktur percontoan tina mangsa Joséon. Di sagédéngeun karaton, [[Unhyeongung]] kasohor minangka tempat cicingna Bupati [[Daéwongun]], bapana [[Kaisar Gojong]] dina ahir Dinasti Joséon. [[File:Deoksugung-02.jpg|thumb|right|[[Deoksugung]] nalika usum gugur]] Séoul dikurilingan ku pinding nu diwangun keur ngatur singsaha waé nu baris nganjang ti wewengkon séjén sarta pikeun ngajaga dayeuh tina serangan musuh. [[Pungnap Toseong]] mangrupa hiji pinding taneuh rata nu diwangun dina juru Walungan Han nu dipercaya ku balaréa minangka mandalana [[Wiryéseong]]. Ari [[Mongchontoseong|Mongchon Toseong]] (몽촌토성; 蒙村土城) mah nyaéta pinding taneuh liana nu diwangun nalika mangsa [[Baékjé]] nu kiwari perenahna di sajeroeun [[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade]].<ref name="toseong" /> [[Bénténg Seoul]] diwangun dina mangsa Dinasti Joséon munggaran keur ngajaga ieu dayeuh. Sanggeus sababaraha abad ruksak jeung diwangun deui, kiwari nyésa kurang leuwih 2/3-na, kaasup genep tina [[Dalapan Gapura di Seoul|dalapan gapura]] nu asli. Gapura-gapura ieu kaasup [[Sungnyémun]] jeung [[Heunginjimun]], nu kiwari ilaharna disebut Namdaémun (Gapura Gedé Kidul) jeung Dongdaémun (Gapura Gedé Wétan). Namdaémun mangrupa gapura kai pangkolotna tepikeun ka kajadian aya nu ngaduruk taun 2008, tur kiwari dibuka deui sanggeu réstorasina réngsé taun 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sungnyemun to open to great fanfare after more than five years of renovation|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20130430000738|accessdate=1 May 2013|publisher=The Korea Herald|date=30 April 2013}}</ref> Di deukeuteun ieu gapura aya pasar tradisional katut puseur pangbalanjaan panggedéna, [[Pasar Namdaémun]] jeung [[Pasar Dongdaémun]]. Aya ogé loba wangunan nu dijieun kalayan gaya mancanagara dina ahir abad ka-19, awal abad ka-20. [[Gapura Kamerdikaan]] diwangun taun 1897 keur méré ilham ngeunaan pentingna boga sumanget kamerdikaan. [[Stasion Seoul]] dibuka taun 1900 minangka Stasion Gyéongséong. ===Arsitektur moderen=== [[File:Lotte World Tower under construction on January 2015.png|thumb|right|[[Mall Lotte World]] dibuka taun 2014 kalayan bioskop panggedéna<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com"/> katut [[Munara Lotte World]] [[superluhur]] 123 lantéy nu baris dibuka taun 2016 kalayan galadak observasi pangluhurna sadunya.]] Mangrupa-rupa [[wangunan kantor]] katut wangunan panyicingan nu laluhur, saperti Gangnam Finance Center, [[Tower Palace]], [[N Seoul Tower]] katut [[Jongno|Jongno Tower]], ngadominasi langit ieu dayeuh. Saruntuyan wangunan luhur anyar keur diwangun, kaasup [[Munara Lotte World]], nu direncanakeun baris réngsé taun 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/11/18/seoul-helicopter-crash-raises-fears-over-new-skyscraper/|title=Seoul Helicopter Crash Raises Fears Over New Skyscraper|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> Bulan Fébruari 2014 mah, [[Daptar wangunan pangluhurna di Seoul|wangunan pangluhurna di ieu kota]] téh nyaéta [[Three International Finance Center]] nu luhurna 279m.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-buildings-seoul-southkorea|title=Seoul's tallest buildings – Top 20|publisher=Emporis|accessdate=2014-02-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023134717/http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-buildings-seoul-southkorea |date=2013-10-23 }}</ref> [[World Trade Center Seoul]], nu perenahna di [[Distrik Gangnam]], mangrupa tuan rumah sababaraha paméran katut konférénsi. Di Distrik Gangnam aya ogé [[COEX Mall]], nu mangrupa komplék pangbalanjaan katut hiburan di jero rohangan nu kacida gedéna. Ka hilirkeun ti Distrik Gangnam aya [[Yeouido]], hiji pulo nu jadi tempat Déwan Nasional, studio siaran gedé, katut sajumlah gedé wangunan kantor gedé, kayaning Koréa Finance Building katut [[Garéja Yoido Full Gospel]]. [[Stadion Olimpiade (Seoul)|Stadion Olompiade]], [[Taman Olompiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade]], katut [[Lotte World]] perenahna di [[Distrik Songpa]], di sisi béh kidul Walunga Han, naék ti Distrik Gangnam. Dua cicirén modéren Séoul nu anyar nyaéta [[Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park]], nu dirancang ku [[Zaha Hadid]], katut [[Balé Kota Seoul]], ku [[Yoo Kerl]] ti [[iArc]]. Dina taun 2010 Séoul ditunjuk jadi [[Ibu kota Disain Dunya]] keur taun harita.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-02-27/the-seoul-of-world-designbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice|title=The Seoul of World Design|date=2008-02-27|accessdate=2014-02-12|publisher=Bloomberg Businessweek}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814070328/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-02-27/the-seoul-of-world-designbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |date=2012-08-14 }}</ref> ==Budaya== ===Téhnologi=== Séoul boga [[infrastruktur]] nu maju sacara téhnologi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=25697|title=KOREA: Future is now for Korean info-tech|publisher=Regents of the University of California|work=AsiaMedia|date=14 June 2005}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213160036/http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=25697 |date=13 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/technology/tech-capitals-of-the-world/2007/06/16/1181414598292.html |title=Tech capitals of the world – Technology |work=The Age |date= 18 June 2007|location=Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> Boga pénétrasi [[pita lega]] [[serat kaca]] pangluhurna sadunya, nu ngahasilkeun konéksi internét panggancangna sadunya tepi ka 1 [[Gbps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php |title=Hi Seoul, SOUL OF ASIA – Seoul Located In the Center of Asian Metropolises |publisher=English.seoul.go.kr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813063824/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php |date=2013-08-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/technology/22iht-broadband22.html | work=The New York Times | first=Mark | last=McDonald | title=South Korea Seeks Internet Speed of 1 Gigabit a Second | date=2011-02-21}}</ref> Séoul nyadiakeun aksés [[Wi-Fi]] gratis di luar rohangan. Proyék 47.7&nbsp;miliar won ($44&nbsp;yuta) ieu baris méré aksés keur warga katut nu ngaranjang di 10.430 taman, jalan katut patempatan publik lianna taun 2015.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110615/bs_afp/skoreainternettelecom Wifi in All Public Areas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623182554/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110615/bs_afp/skoreainternettelecom |date=2011-06-23 }}</ref> ===Musieum=== {{Main|Daptar musieum di Seoul}} [[File:National Museum of Korea (4).jpg|thumb|[[Musieum Nasional Koréa]]]] Di Séoul aya 115 musieum,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=401&lang=eng|title=Status of Museum|accessdate=2014-09-18|publisher=Seoul Metropolitan Government}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911123740/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/Octagon/jsp/WWS7/WWSDS7100.jsp?stc_cd=401&lang=eng |date=2014-09-11 }}</ref> kaasup di antarana tilu musieum nasional katut salapan musieum kota. [[Musieum Nasional Koréa]] mangrupa musieum nu henteu ukur ngawakilan Séoul, tapi ogé ngawakilan sakabéh [[Koréa Kidul]]. Ti saprak ngadeg taun 1945, ieu musieum geus ngawangun koléksi mangrupa 220,000 artefak.<ref name="CNN">{{cite web|url=http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/play/seouls-best-museums-060516|title=Seoul's best museums|date=2011-10-27|publisher=[[CNN]]|accessdate=2013-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916014140/http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/play/seouls-best-museums-060516 |date=2014-09-16 }}</ref> Dina Oktober 2005, ieu musieum pindah ka wangunan anyar di Taman Kulawarga Yongsan. [[National Folk Museum of Korea|National Folk Museum]] perenahna di dadasar [[Karaton]] [[Gyeongbokgung]] di Distrik Jongno District tur maké réplika obyék sajarah pikeun ngilustrasikeun sajarah bangsa Koréa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268152|title=National Folk Museum of Korea|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716225730/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268152 |date=2014-07-16 }}</ref> [[Bukchon Hanok Village]] jeung [[Namsangol Hanok Village]] mangrupa wewengkon panganjrekan heubeul nu ngandung imah, taman katut musieum tradisional Koréa [[hanok]] nu méré kasempetan keur turis pikeun ngarasakeun budaya Koréa tradisional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264116|title=Namsangol Hanok Village|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012013656/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264116 |date=2014-10-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=561382|title=Bukchon Hanok Village|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915192817/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=561382 |date=2014-09-15 }}</ref> [[Tugu Perang (Seoul)|Tugu Perang]], salah sahiji tina salapan musieum kota di Séoul, nawarkeun pangalaman édukasional katut émosional ka nu nganjanganana, ngeunaan rupa-rupa perang nu ngalibetkeun Koréa, kaasup jejer [[Perang Koréa]] themes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/travel/cityguide/article/0,31489,1848378_1848364_1848280,00.html|title=Seoul: 10 Things to Do|publisher=[[Time magazine]]|accessdate=2014-09-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268131|title=The War Memorial of Korea|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214214704/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268131 |date=2015-02-14 }}</ref> [[Pangbuian Seodaémun]] mangrupa hiji urut pangbuian nu diwangun salila penjajahan Jepang, tur kiwari dipaké keur musieum sajarah<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268143|title=Seodaemun Prison History Museum|publisher=Korea Tourism Organization|accessdate=2014-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604201044/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=268143 |date=2014-06-04 }}</ref> [[File:Seoul, Jongno District, National Folk Museum of Korea.jpg|left|thumb|[[Musieum Rahayat Nasional Koréa]].]] [[Musieum Seni Seoul]] katut [[Musieum Seni Ilmin]] ngajaga rupa wangunan heubeul nu unik sacara visual tina wangunan luhur tur modéren di sabudeureunana. Saméméhna dioperasikeun ku Déwan Kota Séoul tur boga tempat deukeuteun Karaton Gyéonghuigung, karaton karajaan dinasti Joséon. Keur lolobana jalma nu mikaresep pilem Koréa mah, [[Arsip Pilem Koréa]] ngayakeun Musieum Pilem Koréa jeung Cinematheque KOFA di puseur utamana di [[Digital Media City]](DMC), Sangam-dong. [[Tteok & Kitchen Utensil Museum]] jeung [[Kimchi Field Museum]] nyadiakeun informasi nu patali jeung sajarah kulinér Koréa. ===Monumén ageman=== [[File:Myeongdongchurch.jpg|thumb|[[Katedral Myeongdong]]]] [[File:Jongmyo-Jeongjeon.jpg|left|thumb|[[Kuil Jongmyo]], salah sahiji [[Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].]] Aya ogé wangunan rélijius nu boga pancén penting dina masarakat katut pulitik Koréa. Altar [[Wongudan]] mangrupa tempat upacara nalika para pamingpin Koréa ngayakeun ritual kasawargaan ti saprak jaman Tilu Karajaan. Ti saprak [[Dinasti Joseon]] maké [[Konghucu]] minangka idiologi nasional dina abad ka-14, ieu nagara ngawangun loba kelenténg Konghucu. Katurunan kulawarga karajaan Joséon masih neruskeun tradisi dina ngayakeun sérémoni pikeun miéling para karuhun di [[Jongmyo]]. Ieu tempat mangrupa kuil Konghucu karajaan pangkolotna nu jadi cagar tur sérémoni ritualna nuluykeun tradisi nu dijieun dina abad ka-14. [[Munmyo]] katut [[Dongmyo]] diwangun dina mangsa nu sarua. Sok sanajan Buda didedetkeun ku pamaréntahan Joséon, ieu ageman tetep aya. [[Jogyésa]] mangrupa markas gedé [[Ordo Jogyé]] [[Buda Koréa]]. Hwagyésa katut [[Bongeunsa]] ogé mangrupa [[Daptar candi Buda di Seoul|candi Buda di Seoul]] nu gedé. [[Katedral Myeongdong]] mangrupa cicirén [[Myeongdong]], [[Distrik Jung, Seoul|Distrik Jung]] tur mangrupa garéja Katolik panggedéna nu diwangun taun 1883. Ieu garéja mangrupa lambang Katolik di Koréa. Ogé mangrupa fokus béda pamadegan pulitik taun 1980-an. Dina ieu hal, Garéja Katolik Roma kacida boga pangaruhna ka masarakat Koréa. Loba ogé garéja Protéstan di Séoul. Nu panglobana mah [[Présbisterian]], tapi loba ogé garéja [[Métodis]], [[Baptis]], katut [[Lutheran]]. [[Garéja Yoido Full Gospel]] mangrupa garéja [[Pantékosta]] nu patali jeung [[Majlis Pangéran]] di [[Yeouido]] di Séoul. Kalayan kurang leuwih 830.000 anggahota (2007), ieu téh mangrupa jamaah Kristen Pantékosta panglobana di dunya, nu geus kacatet dina [[Guinness Book of World Records]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} ===Féstival=== Dina bulan Oktober 2012 [[KBS Hall]] di Séoul jadi tuan rumah féstival musik internasional rongkah&nbsp;– [[Féstival Lagu ABU 2012|Féstival Lagu TV katut Radio ABU]] munggaran dina raraga Majlis Umum [[Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union]] ka-49 General Assembly.<ref>{{cite web|title=ABU TV and Radio Song Festivals 2012|url=http://esckaz.com/2012/abu.htm|publisher=ESCKAZ.com|accessdate=17 August 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410022318/http://esckaz.com/2012/abu.htm|archivedate=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ABU GA Seoul 2012|url=http://www.abu2012seoul.com/|publisher=Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union|accessdate=17 August 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303011118/http://www.abu2012seoul.com/ |date=3 March 2013 }}</ref> [[Hi! Seoul Festival]] mangrupa hiji féstival budaya uusuman nu diayakeun opat kali sataun nalika usum semi, usum panas, usum gugur, katut usum tiis di Séoul, [[Koréa Kidul]] ti taun 2003. Ieu féstival dumasar kana "Poé Warga Seoul" nu diayakeun unggal Oktober ti saprak taun 1994 pikeun miéling sajarah 600 taun Séoul minangka ibu kota nagara. Ieu féstival diayakeun ku [[Pamaréntah Métropolitan Seoul]]. Taun 2012, Séoul geus jadi tuan rumah [[Ultra Music Festival]] Koréa, nyaéta féstival musik jeung ibing nu diayakeun dina ahir minggu ka-2 bulan Juni.<ref>http://www.umfkorea.com/</ref> ===Taman=== {{further|Daptar taman di Seoul}} [[Namsan (Seoul)|Taman Namsan]] bisa dipaké keur ''hiking'', rékréasi katut ''skyline'' keur ningali pemandangan tengah kota Séoul. [[Munara Seoul N]] perenahna di dieu. [[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul|Taman Olimpiade Seoul]] perenahna di [[Distrik Songpa]] tur diwangung keur tempat Olimpiade Usum Panas taun 1988. Pagoda 10 tingkat [[Pagoda Wongaksa|Wongaksa]] perenahna di [[Taman Tapgol]], hiji taman publik nu legana {{convert|19599|m²|0|abbr=on}}. Wewengkon sabudeureun wahangan disadiakeun minangka tempat publik keur rélaksasi jeung rékréasi. Wahangan [[Tancheon]] katut wewengkon deukeuteunana dsadiakeun minangka taman nu lega kalayan lajur keur nu laleumpang katut nu sasarapédahan. [[Cheonggyecheon]], hiji wahangan nu panjangna {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} ngaliwatan tengah kota Séoul, kasohor keur warga Séoul katut turis. [[File:Seoul-Olympic.Park-01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Taman Olimpiade, Seoul]].]] [[Wewengkon métropolitan]] Séoul ngawengku genep taman gedé, kaasup [[Leuweung Seoul]], nu dibuka dina panengah taun 2005. [[Wewengkon Ibu kota Nasional Seoul]] ogé boga [[beubeur héjo]] nu ditujukeun keur nyegah kota tina ''[[Urban sprawl|sprawling]]'' kaluar ka [[Babagian administratif Koréa Kidul|Propinsi]] [[Gyeonggi-do|Gyeonggi]] deukeuteunana. Ieu wewengkon mindeng ditéangan ku jalma nu hayang lumpat tina kahirupan urban dina ahir minggu jeung nalika peré. Séoul ogé mangrupa tempat [[taman hiburan]] jero rohangan panggedéna sadunya, [[Lotte World]]. Puseur pelesir lianna nyaéta stadion Olimpiade jeung [[Stadion Piala Dunya Seoul|Piala Dunya]] katut alun-alun [[balé kota]]. ==Olahraga== [[File:Seoul.Olympic.Stadium.01 copy.jpg|thumb|[[Stadion Olimpiade Seoul]].]] ===Kompetisi internasional=== Séoul jadi tuan rumah [[Asian Games 1986]] jeung [[Asian Games 2014|2014]], ilaharna katelah [[Asian Games|Asiad]], [[Olimiape Usum Panas 1988|Olimpiade 1988]], jeung [[1988 Summer Paralympics|Paralympic Games]]. Jadi tuan rumah ogé keur [[Piala Dunya FIFA 2002]]. [[Stadion Piala Dunya Seoul]] jadi tempat pembukaan sarta tanding munggaran. [[Taékwondo]] mangrupa olah raga nasional Koréa sarta Séoul mangrupa tempat [[Kukkiwon]], markas besar dunya taékwondo, jeung [[Federasi Taékwondo Dunya]]. ===Kleub olah raga doméstik=== ====Maén bal==== {{Main|Maén bal di Seoul}} Kleub maén bal pangkasohorna di Séoul nyaéta [[FC Seoul]]. Ieu kleub mangrupa salah sahiji kleub maén bal panghasilna di Asia.<br /> Recently, FC Séoul jadi ''runner-up'' dina [[Liga Champion AFC 2013]]. * '''Maén bal lalaki''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tingkat ! Liga ! Kleub ! Stadion ! Catetan |- | Pangluhurna |[[K League Classic]] |[[FC Seoul]] |[[Seoul World Cup Stadium]] (Séoul Kalér) | |- | Ka-2 |[[K League Challenge]] |[[Seoul E-Land FC]] |[[Olympic Stadium (Seoul)|Seoul Olympic Stadium]] (Séoul Kidul) | |- | rowspan="3"| Ka-4 |rowspan="3"| [[K3 League]] |[[Seoul United FC|Seoul United]] |[[Madeul Stadium]] | |- |[[Seoul FC Martyrs]] |Gangbuk Public Stadium | |- |[[Jungnang Chorus Mustang FC|Jungnang Chorus Mustang]] |Jungnang Public Ground | |} * '''Maén bal wanoja''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tingkat ! Liga ! Kleub ! Stadion | Catetan |- | Top |[[WK-League]] |[[Seoul Metropolitan Government WFC]] |[[Hyochang Stadium]], [[Seoul Olympic Stadium|Seoul Olympic Auxiliary Stadium]] | |- |} ====Baseball==== Séoul boga tilu kleub baseball profésional dina cekelan [[Korean Baseball Organization|KBO]]: Salah sahiji kleub pangkolotna, [[Doosan Bears]], [[LG Twins]] katut [[Nexen Heroes]]. ====Basketball==== * [[Seoul SK Knights]] jeung [[Seoul Samsung Thunders]]. ==Transportasi== {{Main|Transportasi di Seoul}} Séoul mangrupa salah sahiji dayeuh nu infrastruktur transportasina pangmajuna sadunya nu terus kénéh dimekarkeun. Sistemna dimimitian ti mangsa [[Kamaharajaan Koréa]], nalika réngséna jalur trém munggaran katut jalan raya nu ngahubungkeun Séoul jeung Inchéon. Jalur trém pangpentingna di Séoul sapanjang Jongno diganti ku Jalur 1 sistem subway dina awal 1970-an. Jalan penting lianna di puseur karaméan Séoul kaasup [[Euljiro]], [[Téhéranno]], [[Séjongno]], [[Chungmuro]], Yulgongno, katut Toegyéro. Aya salapan jalur subway gedé nu manjang leuwih ti {{convert|250|km|0|abbr=on}}, kalayan sajalur tambahan deui nu geus dirarancang. Taun 2010, 25% populasina boga wanci pulang anting sajam atawa leuwih. ===Beus=== {{Main|Beus Seoul}} [[File:Seoul Buses.png|right|thumb|Beus Seoul]] Sistem beus di Séoul dijalankeun ku Pamaréntah Métropolitan Séoul, kalayan opat konfigurasi beus primér énu sayaga keur ngaladénan lolobana tempat di ieu dayeuh. Séoul boga loba terminal antar kota atawa beus gancang nu galedé. Ieu beus ngahubungkeun Séoul jeung kota-kota di Koréa Kidul. Séoul Express Bus Terminal, Central City Terminal katut Terminal Nambu Séoul perenahna di [[Distrik Seocho]]. Minangka tambahan, Terminal Beus Séoul Wétan di [[Distrik Gwangjin]] katut Sangbong Terminal Sangbong di [[Distrik Jungnang]] dioperasikeun di béh wétan kota. Pikeun ngurangan polusi udara di wewengkon métropolitan, pamaréntah kota boga rencana pikeun ngarobah leuwih ti tujuh rébu beus nu maké mesin disel ka gas alam taun 2010.<ref>[http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v3/news_lite.php?id=337462 "Seoul More Enjoyable For a Day"]. Retrieved 30 July 2008.</ref> ===Subway=== [[File:Yongsansta09.jpg|thumb|[[Stasion Yongsan]]]] {{Main|Subway Métropolitan Seoul}} Séoul boga jajaring subway nu kompréhénsif nu ngahubungkeun unggal distrik di ieu dayeuh katut wewengkon sabudeureunana. Kalayan leuwih ti 8 yuta panumpang unggal poéna, Séoul boga [[Sistem métro dumasar kana perjalanan panumpang unggal tauna|sistem subway pangsibukna sadunya]]. Subway Métropolitan Séoul sakabéhna boga 19 jalur nu ngaladénan Séoul, Inchéon, propinsi Gyéonggi, propinsi Gangwon béh kulon, katut propinsi Chungnam béh kalér. Minangka tambahan, pikeun nyaluyukeun mangrupa-rupa moda transportasi, pamaréntah métropolitan Séoul ngagawékeun sababaraha urang ahli matématika pikeun ngoordinasikeun subway, beus, katut jadwal lalu lintas jadi tabél wanci. Sababaraha jalur dijalankeun ku [[Korail]], [[Seoul Metro]], [[Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation]], [[NeoTrans Co. Ltd.]], [[AREX]], katut Séoul Metro Line 9 Corporation. ===Karéta api=== [[File:KTX-Sancheon.jpg|thumb|[[KTX Sancheon]]]] Séoul kasambungkeun ka unggal kota gedé di Koréa ku karéta. Séoul ogé kasambungkeun ka lolobana kota gedé di Koréa ku karéta gancang [[Korea Train Express|KTX]], nu gancang normalna leuwih ti {{convert|300|km/h|0|abbr=on}}. Stasion karéta gedé di antarana: * [[Stasion Seoul]], [[Distrik Yongsan]]: Jalur Gyéongbu ([[KTX]]/[[Saémaul-ho|Saémaul]]/[[Mugunghwa-ho]]), Jalur Gyéongui (Saémaul/[[Komuter]]) * [[Stasion Yongsan]], [[Distrik Yongsan]]: Jalur Honam (KTX/Saémaul/Mugunghwa), Jalur Jéolla/Janghang (Saemaul/Mugunghwa) * [[Stasion Yeongdeungpo]], [[Distrik Yeongdeungpo]]: Jalur Gyéongbu/Honam/Janghang (Saémaul/Mugunghwa) * [[Stasion Cheongnyangni (di luhur lemah)|Stasion Cheongnyangni]], [[Distrik Dongdaémun]]: Jalur Gyéongchun/Jungang/Yéongdong/Taebaek (Mugunghwa) ===Bandara=== Dua bandara internasional aya di Séoul. [[Bandara Internasional Gimpo]], saméméhna aya di [[Kota Gimpo|Gimpo]] tapi dicokot ku Séoul taun 1963, geus sababaraha taun (ti saprak konstruksi aslina nalika [[Perang Koréa]]) jadi bandara hiji-hijina nu ngaladénan Séoul. Bandara doméstik lianna ogé diwangun nalika ieu perang, kaasup [[Yeouido]]. Nalika dibuka bulan Maret 2001, [[Bandara Internasional Incheon]] di pulo [[Yeongjong]] di [[Incheon]] ngarobah pancén Bandara Gimpo sacara signifikan. Inchéon kiwari boga tanggung jawab keur ampir sakabéh penerbangan internasional katut sababaraha penerbangan doméstik, sedengkeun Gimpo mah ukur ngaladénan penerbangan doméstik kajaba penerbangan ka [[Bandara Hanéda]] di Tokyo, [[Bandara Internasional Kansai Osaka]], [[Bandara Songshan Taipéi]] di Taipéi, [[Bandara Internasional Hongqiao Shanghai|Bandara Hongqiao]] di Shanghai, katut [[Bandara Internasional Ibukota Béijing]] di Béijing. Ku ayana ieu hal, penerbangan ti Bandara Gimpo turun drastis, sok sanajan masih kaasup salah sahiji bandara pangsibukna ogé. Sedengkeun, Bandara Internasional Inchéon geus jadi puseur transportasi gedé keur Asia Wétan, babarengan jeung [[Bandara Internasional Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]. Inchéon jeung Gimpo kahubungkeun ka Séoul ku jalan raya, tur di antara duanana ku [[Rél Karéta Bandara Internasinal Incheon]], nu nyambung ogé ka Inchéon jalur #1. Gimpo ogé kahubungkeun ku subway (jalur No.&nbsp;5 jeung #9). Rél Karéta Bandara Internasional Inchéon, nu ngahubungkeun ieu bandara sacara langsung ka Stasion Séoul di puseur Séoul, kakara dibuka. Beus ogé mawa panumpang antara bandara Inchéon jeung Gimpo. ==Atikan== {{further|Atikan di Koréa Kidul|Daptar universitas di Seoul}} ===Universitas=== [[File:SNU gate.jpg|left|thumb|[[Universitas Nasional Seoul]]]] Séoul mangrupa tempat mayoritas universitas préstisius di Koréa Kidul, kaasup di antarana [[Universitas Nasional Seoul]], [[Universitas Yonséi]], [[Universitas Koréa]], [[Universitas Sogang]], [[Universitas Sungkyunkwan]], [[Universitas Hanyang]], [[Universitas Chung-Ang]], [[Universitas Dongguk]], [[Universitas Wanoja Éwha]], [[Universitas Atikan Deungeun Hankuk]], [[Universitas Hongik]], [[Universitas Kookmin]], [[Universitas Konkuk]], [[Universitas Kyung Héé]], [[Universitas Kwangwoon]], [[Universitas Atikan Nasional Seoul]], [[Universitas Soongsil]], [[Universit Wanoja Sookmyung]], katut [[Universitas Seoul]]. ===Atikan sekundér=== Atikan diwajibkeun ti kelas 1–10. Murid baris ngaréngsékeun genep taun di sakola dasar, tilu taun di sakola panengah, jeung tilu taun deui di sakola luhur. Sakola sekundér ilaharna nyaratkeun yén muridna maraké seragam. Aya ujian kalulusan sangkan bisa lulus ti sakola luhur sarta loba murid nu baris asup ka tingkat universitas dipénta pikeun nyokot ''[[College Scholastic Ability Test]]'' nu diayakeun unggal Nopémber tapi maranéhanana henteu perlu milu. Séoul mangrupa tempat [[sakola kajuruan]], kaasup tilu sakola luhur sains ([[Hansung Science High School]], [[Sejong Science High School]] jeung [[Seoul Science High School]]), katut genep sakola luhur basa deungeun ([[Daewon Foreign Language High School]], [[Daeil Foreign Language High School]], [[Ewha Girls' Foreign Language High School]], [[Hanyoung Foreign Language High School]], [[Myungduk Foreign Language High School]] jeung [[Seoul Foreign Language High School]]). Kantor Atikan Métropolitan Séoul ngawengku 235 sakola luhur persiapan paguron luhur, 80 sakola magang, 377 sakola panengah, katut 33 sakola atikan husus taun 2009. ==Hubungan mancanagara== Séoul mangrupa anggota [[Jajaring Kota Gedé 21 di Asia]] katut [[Kelompok Kapamingpinan Iklim Dayeuh C40]]. {{See also|Daptar kota kembar katut kota baraya di Koréa Kidul}} ===Kota kembar – Kota baraya=== <div class="noprint"> {| class="wikitable collapsible" |- ! colspan="3"|Séoul's [[Kota kembar katut kota baraya]] Séoul di sakuliah dunya:<ref name="Seoul twinnings">{{cite web |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325052520/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |archivedate=2012-03-25 |title=Seoul – Sister Cities [via WayBackMachine] |accessdate=2013-08-23 |work=Seoul Metropolitan Government (archived 2012-04-25) }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325052520/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=6 |date=2012-03-25 }}</ref><ref name="Seoul twinnings2">{{cite web|url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html|title=International Cooperation: Sister Cities|accessdate=26 January 2008|work=Seoul Metropolitan Government|publisher=www.seoul.go.kr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210175055/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html|archivedate=10 December 2007}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210175055/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html |date=10 December 2007 }}</ref> |- {|style="width:100%" |- | style="width:33.3%;"| * {{flagicon|IRN}} [[Téhéran]], [[Iran]] (1963)<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wQiJ3vBJfvQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=New Economic Spaces in Asian Cities: From Industrial Restructuring to the Cultural Turn |publisher=Routledge and the Taylor & Francis Group |year=2012 |accessdate=2013-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.tehran.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=252 |title=Atlas of Tehran Metropolis |publisher=Tehran Municipality |date= |accessdate=2013-10-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221306/http://atlas.tehran.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=252 |date=2018-10-09 }}</ref> * {{flagicon|ROC}} [[Taipéi]], [[Taiwan]] (1968)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="Taipei sisters">[http://www.edunet.taipei.gov.tw/attach/The%2045%20Sister%20Cities%20list.doc Taipei Sister city list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410023801/http://www.edunet.taipei.gov.tw/attach/The%2045%20Sister%20Cities%20list.doc |date=2014-04-10 }} Taipei City Council</ref> * {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Ankara]], [[Turki]] (1971)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[Honolulu]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (1973)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[San Francisco]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (1976)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|BRA}} [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] (1977)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="São Paulo twinnings">{{cite web|url=http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|title=Pesquisa de Legislação Municipal – No 14471|accessdate=2013-08-23|work=Prefeitura da Cidade de São Paulo [Municipality of the City of São Paulo]|language=Portuguese|trans_title=Research Municipal Legislation – No 14471|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018123138/http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|archivedate=2011-10-18}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018123138/http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000 |date=2011-10-18 }}</ref><ref name="São Paulo WikiSource">[http://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Lei_Municipal_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_14471_de_2007 Lei Municipal de São Paulo 14471 de 2007] WikiSource {{pt icon}}</ref> * {{flagicon|COL}} [[Bogota]], [[Kolombia]] (1982)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|IDN}} [[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] (1984)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> || * {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tokyo]], [[Jepang]] (1988)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Moskow]], [[Rusia]] (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|AUS}} [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]n state (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Paris]], [[Perancis]] (1991)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|MEX}} [[Mexico City]], [[Méksiko]] (1992)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|PRC}} [[Béijing]], [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]] (1993)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|MNG}} [[Ulaanbaatar]], [[Mongolia]] (1995)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|VIE}} [[Hanoi]], [[Viétnam]] (1996)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> || * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Warsawa]], [[Polandia]] (1996)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|EGY}} [[Kairo]], [[Mesir]] (1997)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Roma]], [[Itali]] (2000)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Astana]], [[Kazakhstan]] (2004)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|USA}} [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Amérika Serikat]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|GRE}} [[Aténa]], [[Yunan]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> * {{flagicon|THA}} [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] (2006)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/><ref name="BMA sister cities">{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/list|title=Relationship with Sister Cities|author=International Affairs Division|work=International Affairs Division website|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|accessdate=12 September 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611230221/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/list |date=11 June 2016 }}</ref> * {{flagicon|UZB}} [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbékistan]] (2010)<ref name="Seoul twinnings"/> |} ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Koréa}} * [[Géografi Koréa Kidul]] * [[Daptar kota di Koréa Kidul]] * [[Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Koréa]] * [[Walikota Seoul]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Wiktionary|Seoul}} ===Loka resmi=== {{commons|Seoul}} {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://english.seoul.go.kr/ Seoul Metropolitan Government] * [http://opengov.seoul.go.kr/ Seoul Information & Communication Plaza] ===Informasi pelesir katut tempat cicing=== * [http://www.visitseoul.net/ i Tour Seoul]&nbsp;– The Official Séoul Tourism Guide Site * [http://www.youtube.com/visitseoul VisitSeoul]&nbsp;– The Official Séoul Tourism Guide YouTube Channel * [http://www.theseoulguide.com/ Seoul Travel Guide]&nbsp;– Travel information for visitors to Séoul ====Peta==== * [http://maps.visitseoul.net/index.jsp?lang=eng Seoul Map Browser] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126101418/http://maps.visitseoul.net/index.jsp?lang=eng |date=2011-01-26 }} (from Séoul Metropolitan Government web site) * [http://www.seoulmetro.co.kr/station/eng/linemap.action Seoul subway map] ===Poto=== * [http://www.seoulsnapshots.com/ Seoul Snapshots] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110182715/http://seoulsnapshots.com/ |date=2016-01-10 }} * [http://www.lovely-seoul.jimdo.com/ Pictures of Seoul] * [http://seoulstreetart.com/ Seoul Street Art & Graffiti] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222032809/http://www.seoulstreetart.com/ |date=2015-02-22 }} {{S-start}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea|Capital of Baekje]]| before=|after=[[Gongju|Ungjin]]|years=18 BC–475 AD}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea]]| before=[[Kaesong|Gaegyeong]]|after=Abolished|years=}} {{Succession box|title=[[Capital of Korea|Capital of South Korea]]| before=New creation|after=Incumbent|years=1948–}} {{S-end}} {{Navboxes |title = Artikel nu patali jeung Seoul |list = {{Districts of Seoul}} {{Neighbourhoods of Seoul}} {{Regions and administrative divisions of South Korea}} {{Metropolitan cities of South Korea}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} {{List of Asian capitals by region}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{Paralympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{Asian Games Host Cities}} {{G-20 leaders' summits}} {{Seoul landmarks}} {{ABU Radio Song Festival}} {{ABU TV Song Festival}} }} |} [[Kategori:Seoul| ]] [[Kategori:Ibukota di Asia]] eq0qh4q6qovw8k7dnc99rtxjouv520s Karéta api Argo Wilis 0 48475 732130 729172 2026-11-10T22:26:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732130 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox rail line | name = Argo Wilis | image = Argo_Wilis_Train_in_Lebakjero_Station.jpg | caption = KA Argo Wilis ti [[Stasion Bandung|Bandung]] jurusan [[Stasion Surabaya Gubeng|Surabaya]] ngaliwatan [[Stasion Lebakjero]], 2025 | image_width = 250px | logo = | locale = Daop 2 Bandung | system = Karéta api ékspres | status = Beroperasi | open = 8 Nopémber 1998 | close = | owner = [[Kereta Api Indonesia|PT Kereta Api Indonesia]] | operator = [[Daérah Operasi II Bandung]] | termini = [[Stasion Bandung|Bandung]]<br>[[Stasion Surabaya Gubeng|Surabaya Gubeng]] | character = lintas pagunungan | gauge = 1.067 mm | el = | elevation = +848 m (Nagrég) | stations = 12 | speed = 70–120 km/jam | stock = [[CC203]], [[CC206]] }} '''Karéta api Argo Wilis''' ([[Aksara Sunda Baku]]: {{sund|ᮊᮛᮦᮒ ᮃᮕᮤ ᮃᮁᮌᮧ ᮝᮤᮜᮤᮞ᮪}}) nyaéta karéta api kelas éksekutif argo anu ngahubungkeun [[Stasion Bandung]] jeung [[Stasion Surabaya Gubeng]] liwat [[Stasion Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]]–[[Stasion Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]].<ref name="KA Argo Wilis>http://www.utiket.com/id/kereta-api/ka-argo_wilis.html {{id}} <small>Diakses tanggal 25 Desember 2015</small></ref> Karéta api Argo Wilis dioperasikeun ku [[Daérah Operasi II Bandung|Daop 2 Bandung]].<ref name="KA Argo Wilis"/> Karéta api Argo Wilis gaduh waktos perjalanan kirang langkung 9 jam 43 menit.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://keretaapikita.com/jadwal-kereta-api-argo-wilis/|title=Jadwal Kereta Api Argo Wilis 2025|date=2025-02-01|work=Kereta Api Kita|access-date=2025-08-11|language=id|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421115931/http://keretaapikita.com/jadwal-kereta-api-argo-wilis/|archive-date=2025-04-21}}</ref> Di patengahan taun [[2018]], karéta api Argo Wilis meunang rangkéan karéta éksekutip kaluaran panganyarna (K1 18 BD), ngagantikeun rangkéan anu geus heubeul. [[File:KA Argo Wilis Rajapolah.jpg|200px|thumb|Argo Wilis ngaliwat langsung [[stasion Rajapolah]]]] Asalna, karéta ieu jadi hiji-hijina karéta argo anu teu ngalayanan [[Stasion Gambir]]. Ngan, ti saprak lumakuna Grafik Perjalanan Kereta Api (GAPEKA) 2019 ti tanggal [[1 Désémber]] [[2019]], ruteu KA Argo Wilis dipanjangan nepi ka [[Stasion Gambir]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://travel.kompas.com/read/2019/11/22/132200327/daftar-ka-baru-yang-berangkat-dari-stasiun-gambir-dan-pasar-senen-per-1|title=Daftar KA Baru yang Berangkat dari Stasiun Gambir dan Pasar Senen Per 1 Desember 2019 Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2019-12-07}}</ref> Tuluy per tanggal 1 Séptémber 2020, rute KA Argo Wilis dipondokan ngan nepi ka Bandung deui saperti harita.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jabarprov.go.id/index.php/news/39017/2020/09/01/Mulai-September-KAI-Lakukan-Penyesuaian-Perjalanan-KA|title=Mulai September KAI Lakukan Penyesuaian Perjalanan KA|last=Barat|first=Pemerintah Provinsi Jawa|website=www.jabarprov.go.id|accessdate=2021-05-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922085557/https://www.jabarprov.go.id/index.php/news/39017/2020/09/01/Mulai-September-KAI-Lakukan-Penyesuaian-Perjalanan-KA|archivedate=2021-09-22}}</ref> Ieu kawijakan téh lumaku ogé di GAPEKA 2021 per tanggal 10 Pébruari 2021. == Asal usul ngaran == Ngaran ''Argo Wilis'' téh diwangun ku dua kecap nyaéta Argo jeung Wilis.<ref name="KA Argo Wilis"/> Argo téh nyaéta ''brand image'' kelas éksekutip, Wilis nyaéta ngaran gunung di wewengkon [[Kabupatén Nganjuk|Nganjuk]], [[Jawa Wétan]].<ref name="KA Argo Wilis"/> == Spesifikasi karéta == * Lokomotip CC206 * 7 karéta éksekutip argo ''stainless steel'' (K1 18/19 BD) * 1 karéta ''panoramic'' (K1 xx BD) * 1 karéta makan (M1 18/19 BD) * 1 karéta pembangkit (P1 18/19 BD)<ref name="Jadwal">https://www.stasiunbandung.com/jadwal-kereta-api/jadwal-argo-wilis{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{id}}</ref> == Stasion nu dilayanan == Stasion nu dilayanan ku Argo Wilis nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tingkatkan Aksesibilitas Transportasi Priangan Timur, KA Argo Wilis Resmi Berhenti di Stasiun Ciamis|url=https://timesindonesia.co.id/ekonomi/546653/tingkatkan-aksesibilitas-transportasi-priangan-timur-ka-argo-wilis-resmi-berhenti-di-stasiun-ciamis|work=TIMES Indonesia|access-date=2024-07-16|lang=id|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260106220603/https://timesindonesia.co.id/ekonomi/546653/tingkatkan-aksesibilitas-transportasi-priangan-timur-ka-argo-wilis-resmi-berhenti-di-stasiun-ciamis|archive-date=2026-01-06}}</ref> * [[Stasion Bandung]] * [[Stasion Cipeundeuy]] * [[Stasion Tasikmalaya]] * [[Stasion Ciamis]] * [[Stasion Banjar]] * [[Stasion Kroya]] * [[Stasion Kutoarjo]] * [[Stasion Yogyakarta]] * [[Stasion Solo Balapan]] * [[Stasion Madiun]] * [[Stasion Kertosono]] * [[Stasion Jombang]] * [[Stasion Mojokerto]] * [[Stasion Surabaya Gubeng]] == Jadwal == [[Gambar:Argo Wilis train route geographic map (2025).svg|kiri|450x450px|jmpl|Péta ruteu karéta api Argo Wilis dina Gapéka 2025]] {{Clear}} Argo Wilis diberangkatkeun ti [[Stasion Bandung|Bandung]] isuk-isuk, nepi ka [[Surabaya]] Gubeng soré, jeung sabalikna. <ref name="Jadwal" /> Waktu nu diperlukeun kira-kira kirang ti 10 jam. <ref name="Jadwal" />. == Insidén == * Tanggal [[4 Pébruari]] [[2013]], karéta api Argo Wilis anu ditarik CC201 14 nabrak mobil Toyota Avanza, di daérah [[Manonjaya, Warung Sumedang, Tasikmalaya]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Saurang salamet, jeung lima urang luka parah.<ref>[http://news.detik.com/berita/2160809/ka-argo-wilis-tabrak-mobil-avanza-di-tasikmalaya-5-orang-terluka KA Argo Wilis Tabrak Mobil Avanza di Tasikmalaya, 5 Orang Terluka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114142455/http://news.detik.com/berita/2160809/ka-argo-wilis-tabrak-mobil-avanza-di-tasikmalaya-5-orang-terluka |date=2020-01-14 }} {{id}} <small>diakses tanggal 25 Desember 2015 </small></ref> * Tanggal [[20 Désémber]] [[2013]], aya rél nu ruksak di km 393+<sup>8</sup>/<sub>9</sub> antara Maos-Sikampuh. Ahmad Suryadi, salah sahiji warga bisa ngaeureunkeun karéta api Argo Wilis nu gancang sangkan bisa eureun saacan ngaliwatan rél nu ruksak éta.<ref>[http://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/selamatkan-penumpang-warga-cilacap-hentikan-kereta-argo-wilis.html Selamatkan Penumpang, Warga Cilacap Hentikan Kereta Argo Wilis] {{id}} <small>Diakses tanggal 24 Desember 2015</small></ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Karéta api Turangga]], karéta api kelas éksekutip satwa nu ngalayanan rute nu sarua. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Argo Wilis Train|karéta api Argo Wilis|position=left}} {{id}} [https://www.kereta-api.co.id Situs resmi PT KAI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207010112/https://www.kereta-api.co.id/ |date=2016-12-07 }} {{Daptar karéta api}}{{karéta-stub}} [[Kategori:Angkutan karéta di Indonésia]] cadbr6le2v3ghshig7gbj7qoj8ttvl1 Abdul Halim Syatari 0 50267 732095 731595 2026-11-10T19:26:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732095 wikitext text/x-wiki : ''Pikeun mantan Perdana Menteri [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] kalayan ngaran nu sarua, tingali: Abdul Halim.'' '''Abdul Halim''' atawa '''K.H. Abdul Halim''', atawa kakoncara '''K.H. Abdul Halim Majaléngka''' ({{Lahirmati|Desa [[Ciborélang, Jatiwangi, Majalengka|Ciborélang]], Kecamatan [[Jatiwangi, Majalengka]], [[Kabupatén]] [[Majaléngka]], [[Jawa Barat]]|26|6|1887|[[Majalengka]]|7|5|1962}}) ngarupikeun Pahlawan Nasional dumasar Kaputusan présidén [[Indonésia|Republik Indonesia]], [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono|Susilo Bambang Yudoyono]] Nomor: 041/TK/taun 2008 tanggal [[6 Nopémber|6 November]] [[2008]].<ref>http://pahlawancenter.com/pahlawancenterbaru/?p=2055</ref>. Saurang tokoh pergerakan nasional, tokoh organisasi [[Islam]], jeung [[ulama]] anu kasohor toléran dina nyanghareupan beda paham/ pamadegan antara ulama tradisional jeung ulama modérnis.<ref name="Ensiklopedi">{{Cite book|author=H.M. Bibit Suprapto|title=Ensiklopedi Ulama Nusantara|publisher=Gelegar Media Indonesia|year=2009|id=ISBN 979-980-6611-14-5}}</ref><ref name="Menguak">{{Cite book|author=Asvi Warman Adam|title=Menguak Misteri Sejarah|publisher=Penerbit Buku Kompas|year=2010|id=ISBN 978-979-709-504-8}}</ref><ref name="Mengenang">{{Cite book|author=Ajip Rosidi|title=Mengenang hidup orang lain: sejumlah obituari|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2010|id=ISBN 978-979-9102-22-5}}</ref>. == Biografi == Kiai Abdul Halim putrana K.H. Muhammad Iskandar, lahir dinamian Otong Syatori.<ref name="www.pondokpesantren.net">[http://www.pondokpesantren.net/ponpren/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=175 www.pondokpesantren.net: K.H. Abdul Halim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413150248/http://www.pondokpesantren.net/ponpren/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=175 |date=2014-04-13 }}.</ref><ref name="pelitatangerang">[http://pelitatangerang.xtgem.com/index/__xtblog_entry/59383-kh-abdul-halim-majalengka?__xtblog_block_id=1 www.pelitatangerang.xtgem.com: K.H. Abdul Halim, Majalengka].</ref> Ia téh mangrupa anak terakhir dari delapan bersaudara dari pasangan K.H. Muhammad Iskandar dan Hj. Siti Mutmainah.<ref name="pelitatangerang"/> Salian ngasuh pasantrén, ramana ngarupikeun panghulu di Kawadanan, [[Jatiwangi, Majalengka|Jatiwangi, Majaléngka]]. Minangka nonoman nu dilahirkeun di lingkungan kulawarga [[Pasantrén|pesantren]], Kiai Halim geus narima atikan agama ti kulawarga jeung masyarakat.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Ramana pupus nalika Kiai Halim masih leutik, diasuh ku ibu jeung kakak-kakakna.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/>. Dina umur 21 taun, Kiai Halim nikah jeung Siti Murbiyah puteri K.H. Muhammad Ilyas (Panghulu Landraad [[Kabupatén Majaléngka|Majaléngka]]).<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/><ref name="pelitatangerang"/> Pernikahan méré ka dikaruniai tujuh orang anak.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Salah sawios putuna nu aktif di organisasi [[Islam]] saperti jadi pengurus BP4 Pusat,<ref>^ http://bimasislam.kemenag.go.id/post/berita/menag-atikan-pra-nikah-perlu-dijadikan-gerakan-nasional- {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>, BMOIWI (Badan Musyawarah Organisasi Islam Wanita Indonésia), GUPPI (Gerakan Usaha Pembaharuan Atikan Islam), miwah Wanita PUI nyaéta Dra. Hj. [[Dadah Cholidah]], M.Pd.I. Presidium BMOIWI ([[2015]]-[[2016]]). == Silsilah K.H. Abdul Halim == * K.H. Abdul Halim/ Otong Syatori Iskandar bin * Abdullah Iskandar bin * Abdullah Qomar bin * Tubagus Nursalim bin * Sultan Muhammad Arif Zainal Asiqin bin * Sultan Muhammad Waasi' Zainal Alimin bin * Sultan Syarifudin Ratu Syarifa bin * Sultan Muhammad Syifa Zainal Arifin bin * Sultan Abul Mahasin Zainul Abidin bin * Sultan Abdul Fadl bin * Sultan Abun-Nashor Abdul Qohar bin * Sultan Ageng Tirtoyoso (Abdul Fatah) (1651) bin * Sultan Abdul Mufahir Mahmud Abdul Qodir bin * Maulana Muhammad bin * Maulana Yusuf bin * Maulana Hasanudin (Pangéran Sabakingkin) bin * Sunan Gunung Djati/ Syarif Hidayatulloh (1458-1578 M)<ref>Dari Hj. Dadah Cholidah, Cucu KH Abdul Halim dari puterinya, Halimah Halim</ref> == Masantrén == Ti leuleutik Kiai Halim kaasup murangkalih anu resep nyiar élmu.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Buktosna anjeunna loba maca élmu-élmu kaislaman ogé élmu-élmu kamasyarakatan.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Nalika umur 10 taun Kiai Halim diajar [[Qur'an|al-Qur'an]] jeung [[Hadis]] ka K.H. Anwar, minangka guru munggaran di luar kulawargana.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> K.H. Anwar téh mangrupa séorang ulama kasohor dari Ranji Wetan, [[Kabupatén Majalengka|Majalengka]].<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Ku resepna nyiar élmu, Kiai Halim ngalap élmu liana, teu mandang guruna téh saaliran ([[Islam]]) atawa béda, asal aya manfaat pikeun perjuangan kelak.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Contona Kiai Halim diajar [[Basa Walanda]] jeung [[Alfabét Latin|huruf latin]] ka Van Hoeven, saurang pendéta jeung misionaris di Cideres, [[Kabupatén Majalengka|Majalengka]].<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Nincak umur sawawa, Kiai Halim mimiti mondok di Pasantrén di wilayah [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa Barat]].<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Di antarana pasantrén tempat ngulik élmu Kiai Halim nyaéta :<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> * Pasantren Lontang jaya, Penjalinan, Leuwimunding, [[Kabupatén Majalengka|Majaléngka]], pimpinan Kiai Abdullah. * Pasantren Bobos, [[Kacamatan|Kecamatan]] [[Sumber, Cirebon]], [[Kabupatén Cirebon|Cirebon]], asuhan Kiai Sujak. * Pasantren Ciwedus, Timbang, [[Kacamatan|Kecamatan]] [[Cilimus, Kuningan]], [[Kabupatén Kuningan]], asuhan K.H. Ahmad Shobari.<ref>^^^Nina Herlina, Sejarah Perkembangan Islam di Jawa Barat, (Bandung: Pustaka UNPAD, 2011), hlm. 37-38.</ref>.<ref>http://aseprohim70.blogspot.com/2015/02/sejarah-pesantren-penyebaran-pesantren.html</ref> * Jeung terakhir K.H. Abdul Halim guguru ka K.H. Agus, Kedungwangi, Kenayangan, [[Kota Pekalongan|Pekalongan]], nu akhirna balik deui neuleuman élmu di Pasantrén Ciwedus, [[Cilimus, Kuningan]], [[kabupatén]] Kuningan. Di sela-sela sibukna masantren, Kiai Halim ogé dagang.<ref name="www.pondokpesantren.net"/> anjeunna jualan minyak wangi, batik, jeung kitab-kitab palajaran agama.<ref name="www.pondokpesantren.net"/> === Nyiar élmu di Mekkah === Sabada masantrén, Kiai Halim miang [[Mekah|Mekkah]] neuleuman élmu-élmu kaislaman.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Di Mekah, Kiai Halim guguru ka ulama di antarana, Syeikh Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi, saurang ulama asal [[Indonésia]] anu tumetep di Mekah jeung Imam di Masjidil Haram.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/><ref name="Historiografi">{{Cite book|author=M Saleh Putuhena|title=Historiografi Haji Indonesia|publisher=LKiS|year=2007|id=ISBN 978-979-25-5264-5}}</ref> Salila nyiar élmu di [[Mekah|Mekkah]], Kiai Halim saangkatan jeung K.H. Mas Mansur engkéna jadi Ketua Umum PP Muhammadiyah jeung K.H. Abdul Wahab Hasbulloh salah saurang anu ngadegkeun Nahdlotul 'Ulama jeung Rois 'Am Syuriyah (Ketua Umum Dewan Syuro) PBNU organisasi kasebut sabada Kiai Hasjim Asy'ari pupus dina taun [[1947]].<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> ku lantaran Kiai Halim deukeut reujeung dua sobatna anu béda pamadegan, nu hiji modérnis dan nu hiji deui tradisional, ku kituna anjeunna jadi ulama anu kacida toleran.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Salian ti ngélmu ka Syeikh Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi, Kiai Halim ogé maca kitab-kitab ulama sanésna, saperti kitab anggitan Syékh Muhammad Abduh, Syékh Muhammad Rasyid Ridlo, jeung ulama modérnis (anu nganut paham modérn -dina pamikiran Islam)sanésna.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Selain itu Kiai Halim juga banyak membaca [[Campaka (majalah)|majalah]] al-Urwatul Wutsqo maupun al-Manar yang membahas tentang pemikiran kedua ulama tersebut.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/>. == Pasantrén Santi Asromo == Aya dua titinggal K.H. Abdul Halim anu masih lastari nepi ka kiwari, yaéta: [[Pasantrén|pesantren]] Santi Asromo dan organisasi Persatuan Umat Islam (PUI) anu ilubiung dina agama, pangatikan, sosial jeung budaya. Santri Asromo ngarupikeun pasantrén anu mekelan santrina ku katerampilan. “Ngélmu di Santi Asromo aya tukang panday, nyuling minyak kayu putih, tatanén kopi dan sahang jeung ngingu hayam, embé jeung ngingu lauk”, saur Dadah Cholidah, incu K.H. Abdul Halim ti putrina, Halimah Halim. nepi ka kiwari Pasantrén Santi Asromo anu legana 12 héktar geus jadi fasilitas pasantrén, MI PUI, SMP Prakarya, tur SMA Prakarya. Sekretaris Jénderal Persatuan Umat Islam (PUI) Pusat période [[2009]] - [[2014]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pui.or.id/tentang-pui/susunan-pengurus-2009-2014/susunan-pengurus-2009-2014/ |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2016-04-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250923085747/http://pui.or.id/tentang-pui/susunan-pengurus-2009-2014/susunan-pengurus-2009-2014/ |archivedate=2025-09-23}}</ref>, Ahmadie Thoha nyaur, modél pangatikan Santri Asromo anu ngajarkeun santri entrepreneurship maju ngaheulaan zamanna. “Mangsa harita aya mesin jait jeung percétakan. Jadi bisa dibayangkeun mangsa harita geus modern”, ceuk Kang Ahmadie. == Perserikatan Ulama Indonesia/ Persatuan Umat Islam == Sabada tilu taun nyiar élmu di [[Mekah|Mekkah]], Kiai Halim mulih ka [[Indonésia|Indonesia]]. Dina [[1911]], sajolna ti Mekah anjeunna ngadegkeun ''Majlis Ilmi'' (Lembaga Pangatikan) di [[Kabupatén Majalengka|Majalengka]] pikeun ngadidik santri di daérah kasebut.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Sataun sabada lembaga Majlis Ilmi sumebar, Kiai Halim ngadegkeun organisasi ''Hayatul Qulub'', anu Majlis Ilmi bagian ti antarana.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Hayatul Qulub (Hayat al-Qulub) diadegkeun taun [[1912]] organisasi kasebut lain dina widang pangatikan wungkul, nanging dina widang ekonomi.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> ku sabab Kiai Halim hoyong ngamajukeun widang pangatikan ogé perdagangan.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> ku kituna anggotana sanés santri, guru, kiai tapi patani jeung tukang dagang.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> di mana sodagar urang [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]] leuwih hasil dina widang perdagangan.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> karana [[Pamaréntah|pemerintah]] [[Hindia-Walanda|Hindia Belanda]] leuwih ngabéla sodagar Cina anu dibéré status hukum leuwih kuat ti batan kelompok pribumi.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Dina tanggal [[16 Méi|16 Mei]] [[1916]], Kiai Halim ngadegkeun lembaga pangatikan anyar ''Jam’iyah al-I’anat al-Muta’alimin''.<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Sataun kakocap [[Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto|HOS Cokroaminoto]] méré dukungan terus dirobah jadi ''Perserikatan Ulama'' atawa katelah PUI (Perserikatan Ulama Indonésia).<ref name="Ensiklopedi"/> Perserikatan kasebut mibanda panti asuhan, percétakan, jeung hiji pertinunan.<ref name="Historiografi"/>. == Pergerakan Nasional == Dina mangsa dijajah ku [[Jepang]], Kiai Abdul Halim diangkat jadi anggota Cuo Sangi In (semacam dewan perwakilan). Dina bulan [[Méi|Mei]] [[1945]], anjeunna diangkat jadi anggota Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kamerdékaan Indonésia (BPUPKI) anu tugasna nyiapkeun sagala anu patali jeung ngadegkeun negara. Dina BPUPKI ieu K.H. Abdul Halim jadi anggota Panitia Pembélaan Nagara. Satuntas [[Indonésia|Républik Indonésia]] ngadeg, Abdul Halim diangkat jadi anggota Badan Pekerja Komite Nasional Indonésia Daérah (PB KNID) [[Kabupatén Cirebon|Cirebon]]. Dina waktu [[Walanda|Belanda]] ngalancarkeun agrési militér kadua [[19 Désémber|19 Desember]] [[1948]], Abdul Halim aktif ngabantu kebutuhan logistik pikeun pasukan [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]] jeung para gerilyawan. Résidén [[Kabupatén Cirebon|Cirebon]] kungsi ngangap anjeunna jadi [[Bupati]] [[Kabupatén Majalengka|Majalengka]]. Taun [[1928]], anjeunna diangkat jadi pengurus Majelis Ulama anu diadegkeun ku Sarékat Islam babarengan jeung K.H.M Anwaruddin ti [[Kabupatén Rembang|Rembang]], K.H. Abdullah Siradj ti [[Yogyakarta]]. anjeunna ogé jadi anggota pengurus MIAI (Majlis Islam A’la Indonésia) anu diadegkeun [[1937]] di [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]]. Sabada perang kamerdékaan lekasan, K.H. Abdul Halim tetep aktif dina organisasi kaagamaan jeung ngabina Santi Asromo. Nanging minangka ulama anu berwawasan kabangsaan dan persatuan, anjeunna teu satuju gerakan Darul Islam pimpinan Kartosuwiryo, sanajan cicing di tempat nu dikawasa ku Darul Islam. Ogé anjeunna salah saurang tokoh nu nungtut dibubakeunana Nagara Pasundan ciptaan [[Walanda|Belanda]]. Dina taun 1950-an K.H. Abdul Halim kungsi jadi anggota Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Daérah [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa Barat]] dan terus jadi anggota Konstituante (DPR Pusat, kiwari). == Wafatna == K.H. Abdul Halim, mugia [[Alloh]] ''yaghfiru wayarham'' ulama tanah Pasundan ieu mulang ka rohmatulloh [[7 Méi|7 Mei]] [[1962]] dina yuswa 74 taun jeung dikurebkeun di [[Kabupatén Majaléngka|Majaléngka]]. Kacida picontoeun lir Rosul [[Muhammad]] s.a.w. anu muli ka jati mulang ka asal teu mawa anging lawon saraket awak miwah amal anu mapat pahalana satungtung zaman diprakkeun: “Ngantunkeun harta banda diwakafkeun keur madrosah keur institusi pangatikan/ atikan. Malih bumi pribadi anjeuna diwakafkeun ka PUI”, saur putuna, Dra. Hj. Dadah Cholidah, M.PdI, ogé anggota Déwan Pertimbangan Wanita PUI Pusat.<ref>http://www.hijarpui.org/2015/07/perintis-kemerdekaan-dari-majalengka.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331133926/http://www.hijarpui.org/2015/07/perintis-kemerdekaan-dari-majalengka.html |date=2016-03-31 }}</ref><ref>http://puipusat.org/halaman/wanita-pui {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725004056/http://puipusat.org/halaman/wanita-pui |date=2016-07-25 }}</ref> == Pahlawan Nasional Ti Majaléngka == Ku jasa-jasa anjeunna, Pamaréntah [[Indonésia|Républik Indonésia]], Présidén [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono|Susilo Bambang Yudoyono]] nganugrahkeun Gelar Pahlawan Nasional dumasar Kaputusan Présidén [[Indonésia|Républik Indonésia]] Nomor : 041/TK/taun 2008 tanggal [[6 Nopémber|6 November]] [[2008]].<ref>https://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-2 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120085337/http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-2 |date=2017-01-20 }}</ref> == Referensi == {{Reflist}} {{Pahlawan Nasional Indonésia}} {{BPUPKI}} [[Kategori:Pahlawan nasional Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1887]] [[Kategori:Inohong Sunda]] bsurp9zl0hlcszkdmeeyiz9jqngd36k Porog 0 50326 732151 703857 2026-11-11T01:46:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[File:Microtus arvalis2.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Beurit katéwak alatan asup ka porog]] '''Porog''' nyaéta hiji alat/parabot anu dijieun pikeun néwak [[sasatoan]] liar, utamana sasatoan anu matak ngaruksak kana tatanén jeung ingon-ingon ku lantaran bisa ngabalukarkeun karugian. Porog dina wangunna bisa mangrupa kandang, jaring, lém/[[geutah]] leugeut jeung alat séjén anu dijieun kalawan maksud pikeun néwak, nyangkalak, nyerek sato anu digolongkeun kana hama.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kuningan.cirebontrust.com/habitat-terancam-warga-kuningan-resah-serangan-hama-babi-hutan-dan-monyet.html |title=Monyet Jeung Babi ku lantarang ngaganggu dicangkalak make Porog |accessdate=2016-05-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260106120916/http://kuningan.cirebontrust.com/habitat-terancam-warga-kuningan-resah-serangan-hama-babi-hutan-dan-monyet.html |archivedate=2026-01-06}}</ref> ==Pedaran== Porog ngahaja dijieun pikeun newak sasatoan utamana anu matak ngaganggu kana pepelakan leuwih jauh katengtreman hirup, Dina kanyataan porog pikeun sasatoan geus dijieun ku alatan loba pamaksudan, mimiti ngusir hama, ngahaja arék diarah daging jeung buluna, hasilna bisa waé pikeun dijual hirup-hirup atawa dina kaayaan paéh. Neupi kapalebah dieu porog dijieun pikeun maksud néang kauntungan. Aya ogé porog anu dijieun pikeun ngurangan jumlah hama tur ngajaga ulah ngaranjah kana leuit tempat nyimpen hasil panén, pepelakan jeung ingon-ingon saperti : [[beurit]], [[careuh]], bagong, [[manuk]], [[bayawak]], jeung réa-réa deui.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.easterncoyoteresearch.com/downloads/DoubleLittersFollowingDeathOfMalesJWay.pdf |title=research|format=PDF}}</ref> kauntungan séjén tina porog nyaéta pikeun ngariksa sasatoan hama sangkan ulah loba teung jumlahna ku alatan ieu bisa ngurangan karuksakan anu bisa waé dibalukarkeun ku ieu hama, utamana pikeun sasatoan anu ''dilindungi'' ku alatan jumlahna anu ngan saeutik deui, porog bisa dipaké pikeun ngajaga, nyingkahkeun, atawa ngurangan sato-sato anu sok ngaganggu (''predator'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fwp.mt.gov/fishAndWildlife/management/managementPrinciples.html|title=Principles of Wildlife Management in Montana}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504042244/http://fwp.mt.gov/fishAndWildlife/management/managementPrinciples.html |date=2016-05-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://joomla.wildlife.org/documents/positionstatements/09-Trapping.pdf |title=Joomla.wildlife.org |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-03-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226124009/http://joomla.wildlife.org/documents/positionstatements/09-Trapping.pdf |date=2012-02-26 }}</ref> <gallery> File:Trap for wild boar 01.jpg|Porog keur néwak bagong File:Vermin trap across the Snar Water - geograph.org.uk - 191042.jpg|Porog paragi néwak [[beurit]], buut, jeung sato leutik séjén anu ngadon meuntas File:Limba hunters trap in rock shelter south of Kamabai, Sierra Leone (West Africa) in the 1960s (411553749).jpg|salah sahiji porog anu dipaké di Sierra Léone File:Harstock.jpg| Porog sederhana Paragi néwak kelenci File:Siida traps Wolf stall Sudenhuone 2.JPG|Porog pikeun néwak [[ajag]] atawa bagong File:Baitedtrap.jpg|Porog [[manuk]] </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[http://desalebakherang.blogspot.co.id/2012/02/moro-babi-hama-patani-di-desa.html Porog pikeun nyangkalak bagong] *[http://uun-halimah.blogspot.co.id/2008/09/moro-bagong.html ''Kagiatan'' moro [[bagong]] ngagunakeun porog] *[http://pengembara-sukma.blogspot.co.id/2013/04/cerita-pantun-perginya-pajajaran.html Porog manuk] *[http://pengembara-sukma.blogspot.co.id/2013/04/cerita-pantun-perginya-pajajaran.html Porog keur nyangkalak [[monyét]]] *[http://kuningan.cirebontrust.com/habitat-terancam-warga-kuningan-resah-serangan-hama-babi-hutan-dan-monyet.html Monyet Jeung Babi dicangkalak make Porog] *[http://gazebo8.blogspot.co.id/2014/02/bumi-berguncang.html Porog dipaké néwak [[manuk]] piit] {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Pakakas]] [[Kategori:Parabot]] gda4p1jnx8phnr5wt1pmjze4p9f8m1x Candi Kalasan 0 53366 732107 728551 2026-11-10T20:25:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732107 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Candi Kalasan, Java 1122.jpg|thumb|200px|Candi Kalasan]] '''Candi kalasan''' nyaéta candi anu pernahna di [[Désa Kalibening]], [[Tirtamani]], [[Kabupatén Sléman]], [[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]].<ref name=sajarah>{{cite web |url=http://candi.perpusnas.go.id/temples/deskripsi-yogyakarta-candi_kalasan |title=Kepustakaan Candi |publisher=Perpustakaan Nasional |date=1 Juni 2014 |accessdate=16 April 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152708/http://candi.perpusnas.go.id/temples/deskripsi-yogyakarta-candi_kalasan |archivedate=8 May 2017 }}</ref> Ieu candi diadegkeun dina [[abad ka-9]] wangunna mibanda wanda ageman [[Buddha]] <ref>{{cite web|url= https://books.google.co.id/books?id=J0ydjjcrV_UC&dq=candi+kalasan&hl=id&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title= Ilmu Pegetahuan Sosil |publisher= Yudhistira Ghalia Indonésia |accessdate=16 April 2017}}</ref>. Salah sahiji [[prasasti]] anu aya dina éta candi mibanda tulisan kalasan, ku kituna ieu candi minangkana ngan hiji-hijina candi anu mibanda tulisan dina prasastina loyog jeung tempat di mana ngadegna éta candi.<ref name=sindonews>{{Cite web | url = https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/1030881/189/menikmati-keelokan-candi-kalasan-1439045511| title = Menikmati Keelokan Candi Kalasan | date = 2015-08-9 | author = Ridho Hidayat| accessdate = 2017-05-11 | work = sindonews}}</ref> <ref name="Candi">{{Cite  book|title=Dvarapalas in Indonesia: Temple Guardians and Acculturation|last=A. van Bemmel|first=Helena|coauthors=Taylor & Francis|year=1994|page=62|location=Trotterdam|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9789054101550|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=kNlt08SXW48C&pg=PA65&dq=CANDI+INDONESIA&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMxfeNsd7tAhUY73MBHeaKARU4ChDoATAFegQIAhAC#v=onepage&q=CANDI%20INDONESIA&f=false}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Dumasar kana prasasti kalasan, Candi Kalasan diwangun dina taun [[778|778 M]] ku kulawarga Sailendra maksudna pikeun tempat nyembah Déwi Tara <ref name=Wendoris/>, anu mana disajeroeun éta Candi aya hiji [[arca]] Déwi Tara anu dijieun tina bahan [[parunggu]] éta Déwi Tara téh taya lian istrina Buddha.<ref name=Tenor>{{Cite book | author =Forum Tenor | year = 2015 | chapter = Bahas Tuntas 1001 Soal IPS| editor = Dedy GNR | title =Bahas Tuntas 1001 Soal IPS SD Kelas 4, 5, dan 6 | location = [[Yogyakarta]]| publisher = Pustaka Widyatama|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=keP2yGapsd0C&pg=RA1-PR20&dq=candi+kalasan&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2voCy26PTAhVCto8KHcDKA8I4ChDoAQhRMAg#v=onepage&q=candi%20kalasan&f=false|isbn=979-610-350-8}}</ref> Ku lantaran kitu ieu Candi Kalasan ogé sok disebut Candi Tara. <ref name=Sejati>{{Cite book | author = Dwi Fajar Sejati | year = 2015 | chapter = Seputar Indonésia | pages = 274 | editor = Linda, Tesa | title =RPUL: Rangkuman Pengetahuan Umum Lengkap SD Kelas 4, 5, & 6 | location = Jakarta Selatan|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=eDbkCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false| publisher = Cmedia Imprint Kawan Pustaka }}</ref> Candi Kalasan atawa candi Kali bening dijieun mangsa Raja Panagkaran anu taya lian raja kadua ti karajaan [[Mataram]] [[Hindu]].<ref name=Wendoris/> Raja-raja Mataram Hindu téh dimimitian ku Raja Sanjaya, Srimaharaja Rakai Panangkaran, Srimaharaja Rakai Pikatan, Srimaharaja Rakai Kayuwangi, Srimaharaja Ratu Watuhulumalang, jeung Srimaharaja Rakai Watukara Dyah Balitung Dharmadoya Mahachambu.<ref name=Wendoris>{{Citation | last = Wendoris| first = Thomas| | year = 2008| title = Mengenal Candi-candi Nusantara|page=22-23| publisher = Pustaka Widyatama| isbn = 979-610-236-6}}</ref> [[File:Kalasan Inscription.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Prasasti Kalasan titimangsa 700 Saka atawa 778 M]] Sawaréh arkéolog mibanda pamadegan, ieu [[Candi]] Kalasan geus dipugar aya kana tilu kalina.<ref name=sajarah/> Hal ieu dumasar kana ayana opat bagéan suku candi anu leuwih maju ka hareup.<ref name=sajarah/> Di sagigireun éta aya hiji urut ngagurat anu ngahaja dijieun pikeun kaperluan ''restorasi'' dina taun [[1927]] sarta 1929 ku [[Van Romondt]], hiji ahli purbakala urang [[Walanda]].<ref name=sajarah/> Kiwari Candi Kalasan masih dipaké pikeun tempat ibadah urang Buddha, hususna aliran ''Tantra'' Buddha sarta ''devotees'' anu muja ka déwi Tara<ref name=sajarah/>. == Arsitéktur == Candi kalasan mibanda opat [[panto]], ngan anu bisa dipaké asup nepi ka jero candi ngan hiji taya lian ti panto beulah [[wétan]] dumasar kana ieu [[panto]] asup, bisa disebutkeun ieu candi téh nyanghareup ka beulah wétan <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kadampanewyork.org/temple/ |title=New York Buddhist Temple for World Peace |publisher=Kadampanewyork.org |date=1997-08-01 |accessdate=2012-06-20}}</ref>. Ditempo tina wujudna Candi Kalasan mah mibanda relief/ukiran anu leuwih éndah ti batan candi anu séjénna <ref name=Jordan>{{Citation | last = Jordan| first = Roy| | year = 2009| title = Memuji Prambanan: Bunga Rampai Para Cendekiawan Belanda tentang Kompleks ... | location = [[Jakarta]]|page=18 - 296| publisher = Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia| isbn = 978-602-433-210-5}}</ref>. Hal ieu dikuatkeun ku pamanggih salah saurang [[Arkéologi|arkéolog]] salaku kokolot déwan kabudayaan Yogya ngeunaan kaéndahan tur kaunikan ieu candi, malahan mah bisa nandingan kaéndahan Candi Séwu.<ref name=Jordan/> [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stenen beelden in de vorm van een makara op de Candi Kalasan TMnr 10015966.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Papaés Lawang panto ka candi]] Wangunan Candi ngajungjulang jangkung aya kana duapuluh [[méter]] tina luhureun [[taneuh]], upama diitung jeung luhur [[pasir]] tempat éta candi ngadeg ayakana 34 m.<ref name=Jordan/> Candi Kalasan napak dina salasar anu ngurilingan candi legana 45X45 m.<ref name=Jordan/> Unggal pipir candi mibanda [[Tarajé|panétéan]] paranti asup ka jero candi kénca jeung katuhu dipapaésan ku sapasang sirah [[naga]] dina lawang asup.<ref name=Jordan/> Di hareupeun panétéan dikuriling ku ubin batu beunang ngentepkeun.<ref name=sajarah/> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * {{id}} [http://www.jogjatrip.com/id Panduan pariwisata Yogyakarta dan sekitarnya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609020059/http://jogjatrip.com/id |date=2018-06-09 }} * {{id}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20251011224403/https://www.sobatjogja.com/candi-kalasan-wisata-jogja-yang-penuh-kisah-kedamaian/ Candi Kalasan, wisata Jogja yang penuh kisah kedamaian] *{{id}} [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=LReVFTELXcwC&pg=PA138&dq=candi+kalasan&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjnpNDQz6PTAhVBRI8KHefnBIUQ6AEINjAD#v=onepage&q=candi%20kalasan&f=false Prasasti kalasan] ==Baca ogé == *[http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/nasional/2016/08/10/candi-kalasan-bakal-dipugar-377151 Candi kalasan dipugar] *[[Candi Cangkuang]] *[[Candi Batujaya]] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Candi]] [[Kategori:Buddhisme]] [[Kategori:Tempat pelesir di Jawa Tengah]] [[Kategori:Wangunan sajarah di Jawa Tengah]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] [[Kategori:Situs arkéologi]] 7zgnu6ufxm6jonxhzr6bih5aev84tmq SpeedCast 0 54363 732167 731863 2026-11-11T02:49:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Company | company_name = PT SpeedCast | company_logo = | company_type = Publik | foundation = [[Séptémber]] [[1999]] | location = {{flagicon|Hong Kong}} ,[[Hong Kong]] | key_people = Pierre - Jean Beylier (Presiden direktur & CEO) | revenue = | net_income = | homepage = [http://www.speedcast.com www.speedcast.com] }} '''SpeedCast''' nyaéta pausahaan panyadia [[raramat]] sadunya sarta layanan [[Satelit Komunikasi|satelit komunikasi]] nu nawarkeun layanan jasa raramat kualitas panghadéna leuwih ti 90 nagara; sarta raramat [[maritim]] nu ngalayanan konsumén di sakuliah dunya.<ref name=TA/> Kalayan 40 kantor ''[[sales]]'' pangrojong di sakuliah dunya sarta 39 ''[[téléport]]'', SpeedCast mibanda [[infrastruktur]] unik nu ngawula konsumén global.<ref name=TA/> Kalayan leuwih ti 2.200 palanggan ngaliwatan leuwih ti 4.000 situs ''[[téréstrial]]'' sarta sakitar 5.000 [[Jackup Rig|rig]] jeung kapal cai di sagara.<ref name=TA/> Udagan SpeedCast dina solusi nu disaluyukeun pikeun lima ''ségmén'' palanggan utama: [[Telekomunikasi|télékomunikasi]], [[maritim]], [[Énergi|énérgi]] & sumber daya alam, [[pamaréntah]] & LSM, sarta [[Pausahaan Jasa|pausahaan]].<ref name=TA>{{cite web|url=https://www.ta.com/portfolio/investments/speedcast-international-limited|title=SpeedCat International Ltd|publisher=TA Associates|accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> [[File:Speedcast Logo.gif|thumb]] ==Sajarah== SpeedCast diadegkeun dina taun [[1999]]. <ref name=SPDCT/>[[AsiaSat]] jadi nu nyekel saham utama di SpeedCast dina bulan [[Maret]] [[2000]].<ref name=SPDCT/> Dina bulan [[Nopémber]] [[2007]], AsiaSat meuli sakabéh saham jadi 100% mibanda SpeedCast.<ref>{{cite web |work=Telecom Asia Net. |date=2007-11-15 |title=AsiaSat to pay $3.4m for Speedcast stake |accessdate=2017-05-16 |publisher=telecomasia.net |url=http://www.telecomasia.net/content/asiasat-pay-34m-speedcast-stake-0 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114085210/http://www.telecomasia.net/content/asiasat-pay-34m-speedcast-stake-0 |archivedate=2016-11-14}}</ref> SpeedCast ngalayanan jasa [[Satelit Komunikasi|satelit komunikasi]] pikeun konsumén leuwih ti 13 taun kaliwat.<ref name=SPDCT>{{cite web|url=https://www.speedcast.com/about-us/|title=About Us|publisher=SpeedCat International Ltd|accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> Asosiasi TA, hiji pausahaan ékuitas swasta global nu kasohor, meuli SpeedCast ti [[AsiaSat]] dina bulan [[Séptémber|September]] [[2012]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-09-24 |title=TA Associates Completes Buyouts of SpeedCast Ltd |accessdate=2017-05-16 |publisher=SpeedCast Ltd. |url=http://www.speedcast.com/component/content/article/3-latest-news/232-ta-associates-completes-buyout-of-speedcast-ltd }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235218/http://www.speedcast.com/component/content/article/3-latest-news/232-ta-associates-completes-buyout-of-speedcast-ltd |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> Ti mangsa harita, SpeedCast geus meuli tilu pausahaan [[Satelit Komunikasi|satelit komunikasi]]: Australian Satellite Communications ("ASC") puseurna di Australia Kidul dina bulan [[Désémber]] [[2012]];[http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20121205006387/en/TA-Associates-Partners-SpeedCast-Complete-Buyout-Australian] Elektrikom Satellite Service ("Elektrikom") puseurna di [[Walanda]] dina bulan [[Januari]] [[2013]];[https://web.archive.org/web/20160717054705/http://vsat.nl/speedcast/] sarta Pactel International ("Pactel") puseurna di [[Australia]] dina bulan April [[2013]].[https://www.ta.com/about/news/ta-associates-continues-asia-pacific-satellite-consolidation-strategy-partnering-with-portfolio-company-speedcast-in-buyout-of-pactel-international] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ta.com/portfolio/investments/speedcast-international-limited|title=SpeedCat International Ltd|publisher=TA Associates|accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Juni]] [[2014]], SpeedCast ngabéwarakeun akuisisi [[Oceanic Broadband]] minangka panyadia integrator sarta solusi [[Australia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2014/06/20/speedcast-acquires-oceanic-broadband/ |title=SpeedCast acquires Oceanic Broadband |publisher=TeleGeography |date=2014-06-20 |accessdate=2017-05-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720032327/https://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2014/06/20/speedcast-acquires-oceanic-broadband/ |archivedate=2019-07-20 }}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Agustus]] [[2014]], SpeedCast kadaptar di [[Bursa Éfék Australia]] (ASX: SDA).[http://www.asx.com.au/asx/statistics/announcements.do?by=asxCode&asxCode=SDA&timeframe=Y&year=2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125193826/https://www.asx.com.au/asx/statistics/announcements.do?by=asxCode&asxCode=SDA&timeframe=Y&year=2014 |date=2025-01-25 }},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/mediareleases/20134/speedcast-listed-on-the-australian-stock-exchange/|title=SpeedCast Listed on the Australian Stock Exchange Today at 12pm AEST|publisher=PC World|accessdate=2017-05-16}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Maret]] [[2015]], SpeedCast meuli pausahaan [[Hermes Datacomms]] panyadia layanan raramat global kasohor pikeun widang industri migas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.realwire.com/releases/SpeedCast-Acquisition-Of-Hermes-Datacomms-Creates-New-Global-Force |title=SpeedCast Acquisition Of Hermes Datacomms |publisher=real wire |date=2015-03-16 |accessdate=2017-05-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812163840/http://www.realwire.com/releases/SpeedCast-Acquisition-Of-Hermes-Datacomms-Creates-New-Global-Force |archivedate=2016-08-12 }}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Méi]] [[2015]], SpeedCast meuli pausahaan [[Geolink Satellite Services]] diharepkeun pikeun ngaronjatkeun pausahaan di [[Afrika]], kalayan Geolink aktif leuwih ti 20 negara. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.commsmea.com/14816-speedcast-acquires-geolink-satellite-services/|title=SpeedCast Acquires Geolink Satellite Services |publisher=Comms MEA |accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Juli]] [[2015]], SpeedCast meuli pausahaan [[NewSat & SAIT Communication]] panyadia layanan [[komunikasi]] maritim nu mekar pesat di Éropa kidul.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satellitetoday.com/telecom/2015/07/28/speedcast-acquires-sait-communications-gains-maritime-foothold-in-europe/|title=SpeedCast Acquires Sait Communications, Gains Maritime Foothold in Europe|publisher=Satellite Today |date=2015-07-28 |accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Nopémber]] [[2015]], SpeedCast meuli pausahaan [[ST Teleport]] panyadia layanan [[komunikasi]] [[Satelit Komunikasi|satelit]] kasohor di [[Singapura]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satellitetoday.com/telecom/2015/11/13/speedcast-to-buy-st-teleport-makes-fifth-acquisition-of-2015/|title=SpeedCast to Buy ST Teleport, Makes Fifth Acquisition of 2015|publisher=Satellite Today |date=2015-11-13 |accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Désémber]] [[2015]], SpeedCast meuli pausahaan [[NewCom International]] panyadia layanan [[komunikasi]] [[Satelit Komunikasi|satelit]] di wewengkon Kidul sarta [[Amérika Tengah]].<ref name=NewCom/> Kalayan ''akuisisi'' ieu, SpeedCast ngarancanakeun pikeun ngaronjatkeun kamampuhna pikeun ngalayanan sarta ngarojong palanggan sacara global, ngawengku pasar [[Amérika Kidul]] nu keur mekar. <ref name=NewCom>{{cite web|url=http://www.satellitetoday.com/technology/2015/12/29/speedcast-acquires-newcom-continues-expansion-to-south-america/|title=SpeedCast Acquires NewCom, Continues Expansion to South America|publisher=Satellite Today|date=2015-12-12|accessdate=2017-05-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513110729/http://www.satellitetoday.com/technology/2015/12/29/speedcast-acquires-newcom-continues-expansion-to-south-america/ |date=2016-05-13 }}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Agustus]] [[2016]], SpeedCast meuli pausahan [[WINS System]] panyadia layanan [[komunikasi]] [[VSAT]] sarta [[L-band]] sarta layanan raramat [[Telepon keupeul|telepon selular]] maritim internasional pikeun kapal-kapal pasiar sarta kapal féri.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marinemec.com/news/view,speedcast-acquires-wins-satcoms_44061.htm|title=SpeedCast acquires WINS satcoms|publisher=Marine E&C|date=2016-08-12|accessdate=2017-05-16}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Nopémber]] [[2016]], SpeedCast meuli kontan pausahaan Harris Caprock US $ 425 juta. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacenews.com/speedcast-to-purchase-harris-caprock-for-425-million-in-cash/|title=SpeedCast to purchase Harris CapRock for $425 million in cash|publisher=SPACE NEWS |date=2016-11-01 |accessdate=2017-05-16}}</ref> ==Inohong penting== Pierre-Jean Beylier, CEO: Pierre-Jean ngagabung SpeedCast dina [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Désémber]] [[2000]], Pupuhu utama ''Sales'' & ''Marketing'' sarta ayeuna ngajabat minangka CEO ti [[Bulan (wayah)|bulan]] [[Juli]] [[2004]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.speedcast.com/investor/leadership/|title=About Us|publisher=SpeedCast International Ltd|accessdate=2017-05-16}} </ref> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://www.speedcast.com Official Website: www.SpeedCast.com] * [http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=755534 Bloomberg Businessweek Company Profile] {{DEFAULTSORT:Speedcast}} [[Kategori:Pausahaan]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan internasional]]‎ [[Kategori:Pausahaann Satelit Komunikasi]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan nu kantor puseurna di Hong Kong]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan nu didaptar di Bursa Saham Australia]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] ndxac7u0k6papz79jmyf95ujlwir0vi Honda RC212V 0 62850 732122 728883 2026-11-10T21:28:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732122 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Motorcycle | name = Honda RC212V | image = [[Image:HONDA RC212V 2007.jpg|250px]] | aka = | manufacturer = [[Honda Racing Corporation]] | production = 2006-2011 | predecessor = [[Honda RC211V]] | successor = [[Honda RC213V]] | parent_company = | class = | platform = | engine = {{convert|800|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}} [[Four-stroke cycle|4-tak]] [[V4 engine|V4]] | transmission = | rake = | trail = | wheelbase = | length = | width = | seat_height = | dry_weight = | wet_weight = | fuel_economy = | fuel_capacity = | related = [[Honda CBR600RR]]<br>[[Honda CBR1000RR]] | similar = [[Ducati Desmosedici|Ducati Desmosedici GP7]]<br>[[Ilmor X3]]<br>[[Kawasaki Ninja ZX-RR]]<br>[[Suzuki GSV-R]]<br>[[Team Roberts KR212V]]<br>[[Yamaha YZR-M1]] }} '''Honda RC212V''' nyaéta motor balap nu dimekarkeun pikeun balap di [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] {{convert|800|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="HondaRC212V"/> Sacara resmi diwanohkeun tanggal 30 [[Oktober]] 2006 minangka gaganti [[Honda RC211V|RC211V]] di [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]], dimekarkeun ku ''[[Honda Racing Corporation]]'' ([[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]]) taun 2006 sarta sacara remi mimiti dipaké balap dina usum [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2007|2007]].<ref name="HondaRC212V">{{cite news|title=Honda RC212V|publisher=honda-wiki.org|date=2007-02-28|url=http://www.honda-wiki.org/wiki/Honda_RC212V|accessdate=18 Juni 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429192910/http://www.honda-wiki.org/wiki/Honda_RC212V|archive-date=2014-04-29}}</ref> Ngaran modél dumasar kana :<ref name="HondaRC212VGPBike">{{cite news |title=We Ride Honda's RC211V GP bike|publisher=motorcyclistonline.com|date=2007-02-28 |url=http://www.motorcyclistonline.com/exclusive-we-ride-hondas-rc211v-gp-bike |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> * '''RC'''= Awalan balap tradisional Honda pikeun motor 4-tak <ref name="HondaRC212VGPBike"/> * '''212'''= Motor karya mimiti dina abad ka-21 <ref name="HondaRC212VGPBike"/> * '''V'''= Mesin V <ref name="HondaRC212VGPBike"/> Taun 2007, tetekon kelas [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] dirobah pikeun ngurangan tanaga motor nu kaleuleuwihi: kapasitas maksimum mesin [[Mesin 4-tak|4-tak]] dikurangan ti 990cc jadi 800cc.<ref name="RC212V"/> [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] medalkeun RC212V minangka gaganti [[Honda RC211V|RC211V]] pikeun nyumponan tetekon kalayan ngaganti mesin [[Mesin V-5|V-5]] ku mesin [[Mesin V-4|V-4]].<ref name="RC212V">{{cite news |title=Honda RC212V|publisher=world.honda.com|url=http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/700wins/machine/RC212V//exclusive-we-ride-hondas-rc211v-gp-bike |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> ==2007== [[File:DaniPedrosa.jpg|thumb|[[Dani Pedrosa]] mecakan RC212V.]] [[Dani Pedrosa]] jeung [[Nicky Hayden]] mangrupa tim balap pabrikan nu dirojong sagemblengna ku pabrik, sedengkeun [[Marco Melandri]], [[Toni Elías]], [[Carlos Checa]], sarta [[Shinya Nakano]] mangrupa tim satelit.<ref name="HondaRC212V"/> Saacan balapan usum 2007 dimimitian, [[Marco Melandri|Melandri]] cumarita, ''"Dina sababaraha tés panungtungan kuring nempo pamekaran nu ngaronjat dina motor [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]], tapi urang mah can kabagéan suku cadang anyar ti Honda."''<ref name="Melandri">{{cite news |title=Melandri Still Waiting on Equal Machinery |publisher=MotoGP.com |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/Melandri+still+waiting+on+equal+machinery |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329063553/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/Melandri+still+waiting+on+equal+machinery |archive-date=2012-03-29 }}</ref> Sanggeus sababraha rintakan, purah balap [[Repsol Honda|Honda]] teu bisa nyumponan nu dipikaharep, pupuhu [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] [[Satoru Horiike]] rumasa yén geus nyieun kasalahan dina pamekaran motor.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chércoles |first=Mela |title=Honda admite que se ha equivocado |language=Spanish |publisher=As.com |date=2007-05-08 |url=http://www.as.com/motor/articulo/honda-admite-ha-equivocado/dasmot/20070508dasdaimot_4/Tes |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[Marco Melandri|Melandri]] mutuskeun pikeun pindah ka tim [[Ducati Motor Holding|Ducati]] taun 2008<ref name="Autosport.com 22 July 2007">{{cite news |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/61083 |title=Melandri to ride for Ducati in 2008 |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2007-07-22 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref>, cenah mah cukang lantaran ningalkeun [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] pedah timburu kana motor [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]].<ref name="Pedrosa">{{cite news |last=Noyes |first=Dennis |title=Pedrosa in Talks with Honda, (Possibly) Kawasaki |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2007-08-22 |url=http://www.speedtv.com/articles/moto/motogp/39654/ |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194443/http://www.speedtv.com/articles/moto/motogp/39654/ |archive-date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Panungtungan taun 2007, aya tanda-tanda pikeun ngaronjat, kalayan tim [[Repsol Honda]] ngahontal posisi ''pole'' kalima dina usum ieu sarta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] meunang dina rintakan panungtung di [[2007 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|Valencia]].<ref name="PedrosaValensia">{{cite news|title=Honda wins final MotoGP of 2007 |publisher=iol.co.za |url=http://www.iol.co.za/motoring/bikes-quads-karts/honda-wins-final-motogp-of-2007-853670|accessdate= 17 Juni 2007}}</ref> ==2008== [[File:NickyHayden.jpg|thumb|[[Nicky Hayden]] mecakan RC212V.]] Pikeun taun [[2008 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2008]], HRC ngarancanakeun pikeun migunakeun [[pneumatic valve springs|''pneumatic valve springs'']] sarta sasis anyar.<ref name="pneumatic">{{cite news |title=2008 RC212V Unveiled by Repsol Honda |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2007-11-06 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/2008+RC212V+unveiled+by+Repsol+Honda |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719024340/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/2008+RC212V+unveiled+by+Repsol+Honda |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Pamuseuran beurat dina model taun 2007 dianggap jauh teuing, minagka gantina modél 2008, ngurangan panas sarta ngaronjatkeun kasaimbangan.<ref name="Hayden2">{{cite news |last=Adams |first=Dean |title=Nick Hayden Interview: Epilog |publisher=SuperbikePlanet.com |date=2007-11-27 |url=http://www.superbikeplanet.com/2007/Nov/071127-69-4.htm |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610212400/http://www.superbikeplanet.com/2007/Nov/071127-69-4.htm |archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref> Tim pabrikan nyaéta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] (nepi ka taun 2009<ref name="Pedrosa2">{{cite news |last=Moody |first=Toby |title=Pedrosa confirmed until 2009 |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2007-09-21 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/62588 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref>) sarta [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]] (nepi ka taun 2008<ref name="Hayden">{{cite news |title=Hayden re-signs for Honda |publisher=Crash.net |date=2007-09-02 |url=http://www.crash.net/news_View~t~Hayden-re-signs-for-Honda-~cid~6~id~137706.htm |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref>). Purah balap tim satelit nyaéta [[Shinya Nakano|Nakano]],<ref name="Nakano">{{cite news |title=Nakano Signs Gresini Honda Deal |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2007-10-25 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/Nakano+signs+Gresini+Honda+deal |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719024437/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2007/Nakano+signs+Gresini+Honda+deal |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> [[Andrea Dovizioso]],<ref name="Dovizioso">{{cite news |title=Dovizioso confirms MotoGP move |publisher=Crash.net |date=2007-09-15 |url=http://www.crash.net/news_view~cid~6~id~154512.htm |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[Randy de Puniet]]<ref name="de Puniet">{{cite news |last=Moody |first=Toby |title=De Puniet signs two-year deal with LCR |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2007-08-24 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/61712 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> and [[Alex de Angelis]].<ref name="de Angelis">{{cite news |last=Birt |first=Matthew |title=Estoril MotoGP: Alex de Angelis to join Gresini Honda |publisher=MotorCycleNews.com |date=2007-09-15 |url=http://www.motorcyclenews.com/MCN/sport/sportresults/mcn/2007/september/sep10-16/sep1507estorilmotogpalexdeangelistojoingresinihonda/?&R=EPI-94636 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[File:NickyHayden2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nicky Hayden]] mecakan RC212V.]] [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]] mecakan motor mesin taun 2007 sasis taun 2008, sarta masih can nyumponan nu dipikaharep, tim [[Repsol Honda]] migunakeun mesin vérsi taun 2007 dina rintakan latihan mimiti pikeun tujuan babanding.<ref name="bike version">{{cite news |last=Moody |first=Toby |title=Honda to run last year's bike in practice |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2008-03-06 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/65502 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Pikeun balapan, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] milih sasis taun 2008 nu dirévisi sedengkeun [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]] milih taun 2007.<ref name="bike version 2">{{cite news |last=Young |first=Colin |title=MOTOGP: Stoner Victorious Under the Lights |publisher=SPEEDTV.com |date=2008-03-09 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/spoiler-warning-motogp-results-round-1//P2/ |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313213257/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/spoiler-warning-motogp-results-round-1//P2/ |archive-date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Mesin ''pneumatik'' mimiti dipaké balap ku [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]] di Donington, sarta manéhna didakwa ngamekarkeun mesin anyar pikeun sésa usum ieu ([[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] mutuskeun pikeun neruskeun maké mesin kelép konvénsional).<ref name="Hayden pneumo">{{cite news |last=Strang |first=Simon |last2=Lostia |first2=Michele |title=Hayden to continue with pneumatic engine |publisher=Autosport |date=2008-06-25 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68619 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Masalah elektronik di rintakan Assen nu ngabalukarkeun [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]] béakeun bahan beuleum saacan gurat ''finish'', nu ngalantarankeun [[Colin Edwards]] nyiap sarta ngahontal posisi sésa podium.<ref name="gas">{{cite news |title=Hayden assured of electronic issue resolution |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2008-07-07 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Hayden+assured+of+electronic+issue+resolution |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210102554/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Hayden+assured+of+electronic+issue+resolution |archive-date=2012-02-10 }}</ref> Dina rintakan ka 13 [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] ngabéwarakeun ngagantii gilinding ku [[Bridgestone]] pikeun sésa usum,<ref name="switch">{{cite news |title=Pedrosa switches to Bridgestone with immediate effect |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2008-08-31 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Pedrosa+switches+to+Bridgestone+with+immediate+effect |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111125621/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Pedrosa+switches+to+Bridgestone+with+immediate+effect |archive-date=2014-11-11 }}</ref> sarta manéhna ogé ngarancanakeun mimiti balap maké mesin kelép ''pneumatic'' dina rintakan ka in the 14 di [[2008 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|Indianapolis]].<ref name="bike version 3">{{cite news |title=Pedrosa to race pneumatic at Indy |publisher=Crash.net |date=2008-09-05 |url=http://www.crash.net/motorsport/motogp/news/168566-0/pedrosa_to_race_pneumatic_at_indy.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Béda ti tim [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] lianna, [[Team LCR|Tim LCR]] [[de Puniet]] maké suspénsi [[Öhlins]] tibatan suspénsi [[Showa Corporation|Showa]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Cecchinello outlines LCR Honda strategies |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2008-03-17 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Cecchinello+outlines+LCR+Honda+strategies |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719025214/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Cecchinello+outlines+LCR+Honda+strategies |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> ==2009== [[File:NickyHayden3.jpg|thumb|[[Nicky Hayden]] mecakan RC212V.]] Pikeun taun [[2009 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2009]], purah balam tim pabrikan nyaéta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]], sarta purah balap tim satelit nyaéta [[Toni Elías|Elías]], [[De Angelis]], [[de Puniet]] sarta [[Yuki Takahashi]]; [[Toni Elías|Elías]] dibéré spésifikasi mesin pabrikan .<ref name="elias bike">{{cite news |title=TEAM SAN CARLO HONDA GRESINI - DEFINED SPORTS PROGRAMME FOR 2009 |publisher=Gresini Racing |date=2008-10-02 |url=http://www.gresiniracing.com/index.php?IDC=2&ID=643 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Modél taun 2009 sebagéan badag sarua jeung taun 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last=McLaren |first=Peter |title=Pedrosa: Why I didn’t want a 'new' Honda |publisher=Crash.net |date=2009-02-08 |url=http://www.crash.net/MotoGP/News/142744/1/pedrosa_why_i_didnt_want_a_new_honda.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McLaren |first=Peter |title=Dovizioso goes with 'old' chassis |publisher=Crash.net |date=2009-02-10 |url=http://www.crash.net/MotoGP/News/142816/1/dovizioso_goes_with_old_chassis.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Kabéh RC212V (6 siki) maké mesin kelép ''pneumatik''.<ref>{{cite news |title=MotoGP, la Honda satellite 2009 avrà le valvole pneumatiche |language=Italian |publisher=GPone.com |date=2008-11-26 |url=http://www.gpone.com/news/News.asp?NNews=3108 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Wakil persidén [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]], [[Shuhei Nakamoto]], cumarita ''"Mun [[Dani Pedrosa|Dani]] teu meunang juara dunyaéta téh tanggung jawab Honda, lain tanggung jawab [[Dani Pedrosa|Dani]],"''<ref>{{cite news |last=Young |first=Colin |title=Nakamoto: Blame Honda if Dani Doesn’t Win |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2009-04-30 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-nakamoto-blame-honda-if-dani-doesnt-win/ |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506055459/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-nakamoto-blame-honda-if-dani-doesnt-win |archive-date=2009-05-06 }}</ref> Sedengkeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] cumarita ''"Kuring geus cumarita ka (Nakamoto) ogé geus cumarita ka unggal jalma, tapi sigana éta tilu taun carita nu sarua. Nu dipikahayang geus katempo datang, lain ukur dédéngéan, cumarita, atawa gempungan. Kuring nyatakeun hébat, hatur nuhun, ieu hadé."''<ref>{{cite news |last=Young |first=Colin |title=Pedrosa Admits Frustration With Honda |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2009-05-15 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-pedrosa-admits-frustration-with-honda/ |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519225429/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-pedrosa-admits-frustration-with-honda |archive-date=2009-05-19 }}</ref> [[File:MotoGPCockpitHondaRCV212.jpg|thumb|left|Kokpit RC212V.]] Saacan rintakan ka 6 di [[2009 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|Katalunya]], [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] ngarasa hanjelu yén [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] baris dibéré prioritas tés sanggeus balapan, kaayaan kondisi fisik urang [[Spanyol]] nu butut moal ngahontal évaluasi nu produktif.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lostia |first=Michele |last2=Beer |first2=Matt |title=Dovizioso wants to test Honda upgrades |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2009-06-13 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/76141 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Dina balapan, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] anggeus di posisi ka 4 sarta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] di posisi ka 6, sarta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] ngabéwarakeun manéhna moal ngalakukeun tés.<ref>{{cite news |title=No Barcelona regrets for Pedrosa |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2009-06-14 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Pedrosa+Barcelona+review |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719032246/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Pedrosa+Barcelona+review |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Migunakeun sasis anyar, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] mangrupa purah balap nu pinunjul dina tés éta.<ref>{{cite news |title=Testing top man Dovizioso ‘not strong enough, but close’ |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2009-06-16 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Dovizioso+tests+new+chassis+in+Barcelona |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719034715/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Dovizioso+tests+new+chassis+in+Barcelona |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Mangsa latihan rintakan ka 7 [[2009 Dutch TT|di Assen]] [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] nyebutkeun yén sasis anyar ngaronjatkeun dina pangeréman jeung stabilitas, tapi boh [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] atawa [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] labuh dina balapan dina péngkolan nu sarua.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beer |first=Matt |title=Pedrosa feeling in better shape |publisher=Autosport.com |date=2009-06-25 |url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/76528 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Dina rintakan saterusna di [[2009 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|Laguna Seca]], [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] meunang balapan, sedengkeun [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] labuh.<ref name="Laguna Seca">{{cite news |title=Race results - Laguna Seca MotoGP|publisher=crash.net|date=05 Juli 2009 |url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/results/149377/1/laguna-seca-motogp-race-results.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Mangsa tés sanggeus balapan di Brno, tim [[Repsol Honda|Repsol]] mecakan komponén suspénsi [[Öhlins]], nu nepikeun ka kiwari keur maké [[Showa Corporation|Showa]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Dovizioso To Run Ohlins For Rest Of Season |publisher=motomatters.com |date=2009-09-03 |url=https://motomatters.com/news/2009/09/03/dovizioso_to_run_ohlins_for_rest_of_seas.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926084839/https://motomatters.com/news/2009/09/03/dovizioso_to_run_ohlins_for_rest_of_seas.html |archive-date=2020-09-26 }}</ref> For the [[2009 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|San Marino]] round, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] will use [[Öhlins]] and [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] will use [[Showa]] suspension.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dovizioso to use Öhlins suspension at Misano |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2009-09-03 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Dovizioso+to+use+hlins+suspension+at+Misano |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719081215/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/Dovizioso+to+use+hlins+suspension+at+Misano |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Usum taun 2009 lekasan kalayan 3 kali kameunangan pikeun tim [[Repsol Honda]] —2 kali pikeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] sarta sakali pikeun [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]]—sarta juara ka 2 konstruktor pikeun [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]].<ref>{{cite news |title = MotoGP World Standing 2009 |publisher=resources.motogp.com |date=08 Nopémber 2009 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2009/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_96143780 |accessdate= 18 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] ngahontal waktu panggancangna ka 3 jeung ka 6 dina mangsa 3 poé tés.<ref>{{cite news |title=Honda Strikes Back? |publisher=SuperbikePlanet.com |date=2009-11-09 |url=http://superbikeplanet.com/2009/Nov/091009iaz8s.htm |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112091403/http://www.superbikeplanet.com/2009/Nov/091009iaz8s.htm |archive-date=2009-11-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pedrosa, Dovizioso make 2010 RCV debut |publisher=Crash.net |date=2009-11-09 |url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/154539/1/pedrosa_dovizioso_make_2010_rcv_debut.html |accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> ==2010== Pikeun usum balap [[2010 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2010]], purah balap tim pabrikan nyaéta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]], sarta purah balap tim satelit nyaéta [[Hiroshi Aoyama]], [[de Puniet]], [[Marco Melandri|Melandri]] sarta [[Marco Simoncelli]].<ref>{{cite news |title=2010 MotoGP Teams |publisher=gpupdate.net |date=2010-04-23 |url=http://www.gpupdate.net/en/line-up/111/2010-motogp-teams/|accessdate=18 Juni 2017}}</ref> Sistim éléktronik dironjatkeun, sarta motor leuwih pondok kalayan puseur gravitasi leuwih luhur.<ref>{{cite news |title=A technical view of the RC212V from Lucio Cecchinello |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-02-09 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/Cecchinello+talks+about+new+RC212V |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719081153/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/Cecchinello+talks+about+new+RC212V |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Ogé, [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] ngarékrut [[Andre Zugna]] jeung [[Cristian Battaglia]], baheulana insinyur balap tim [[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] , sarta [[Carlo Luzzi]], baheulana teknisi télémétri [[Jorge Lorenzo]] di Yamaha.<ref>{{cite news |last=Garcia Casanova |first=Germán |title=La ‘fuga de cerebros’ de Yamaha nutrirá a Honda HRC |language=Spanish |publisher=Motocuatro.com |date=2009-11-01 |url=http://www.motocuatro.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=585&catid=1:general&Itemid=18 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714120626/http://www.motocuatro.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=585&catid=1:general&Itemid=18 |archive-date=2011-07-14 }}</ref> Dumasar hiji panalungtikan tés saacan usum balap di Sepang jeung Qatar, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] rata-rata ngalakukeun tés di posisi katilu, sedengkeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] di posisi kasalapan.<ref>{{cite news |last=Noyes |first=Dennis |title=Countdown To Qatar, Pt. I |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2010-03-23 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-countdown-to-qatar-pt-i/P2 |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100430102242/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-countdown-to-qatar-pt-i/P2 |archive-date=2010-04-30 }}</ref> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] humadeuar masalah suspénsi jeung sasis,<ref>{{cite news |title=Pedrosa: "We’ve advanced with the electronics, but the chassis needs to be adjusted a bit more" |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-03-01 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/Pedrosa+after+Sepang |accessdate=18 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719081142/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/Pedrosa+after+Sepang |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> sarta di usum balapan mimiti di [[2010 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|Qatar]], [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] anggeus di posisi katilu, sedengkeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] anggeus di posisi katujuh.<ref>{{cite news |title=2010 MotoGP Qatar Results |publisher=motorcycle-usa.com |date=2010-05-24 |url=http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/2010/04/article/2010-motogp-qatar-results/ |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] ngarasa motorna oyag-oyagan di bagéan hareup nalika lempeng, sarta [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] nétélakeun yén maranéhna geus nyieun kasalahan dina ngadesain sasis.<ref>{{cite news |last=Young |first=Colin |title=Big Problems For Little Pedrosa |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2010-04-23 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-big-problems-for-little-pedrosa/ |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427064158/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-big-problems-for-little-pedrosa |archive-date=2010-04-27 }}</ref> Kalayan rintakan saterusna di [[2010 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|Jerez]], [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] maké motor sasis anyar<ref>{{cite news |title=Chassis changes help Pedrosa |publisher=Eurosport.Yahoo.com |date=2010-04-30 |url=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/30042010/23/chassis-changes-help-pedrosa.html |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505140200/http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/30042010/23/chassis-changes-help-pedrosa.html |archivedate=2010-05-05}}</ref> sarta anggeus balapan di posisi kadua sarta [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] anggeus di posisi kagenep; dina mangsa tés sanggeus balapan, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] anggeus leuwih gancang sarta [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] di posisi kalima, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] migunakeun motor kalayan leungeun ayun (''swingarm'') anyar jeung sasis anyar.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pedrosa wraps up Jerez Test with top time |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-05-03 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/final+report+test+jerez+pedrosa |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719025939/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/final+report+test+jerez+pedrosa |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Jerez Test reviewed: The riders’ reaction |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-05-04 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/test+jerez+review+motogp |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917051831/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/test+jerez+review+motogp |archive-date=2012-09-17 }}</ref> Pedrosa cumarita sarta Honda negeskeun yén masalah sénsor bahan beuleum nu ngabalukarkeun RC212V ngalaunan di lap panungtung.<ref>{{cite news |last=Young |first=Colin |title=Honda RC212V Faster Than It Looks |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2010-05-20 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-honda-faster-than-it-looks/ |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522111423/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-honda-faster-than-it-looks/ |archive-date=2010-05-22 }}</ref> Di rintakan katilu di [[2010 French motorcycle Grand Prix|Le Mans]], [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] anggeus balapan di posisi katilu sarta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] di posisi kalima kasiap di lap panungtung ku [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] jeung [[Nickey Hayden|Hayden]], tuluy [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] ngalaporkeun lantaran aya masalah dina rém tukang.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pedrosa dissatisfied with fifth |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-05-24 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/pedrosa+disappointed+after+le+mans |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719081204/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/pedrosa+disappointed+after+le+mans |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> [[Marco Melandri|Melandri]] balik deui maké suspénsi [[Showa]] sarta anggeus balapan di posisi kagenep.<ref>{{cite news |title=Melandri: "This year is the last chance" |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-05-24 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/melandri+sixth+at+le+mans+grand+prix |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719081131/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/melandri+sixth+at+le+mans+grand+prix |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref> Di rintakan ka genep di [[2010 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|Mugello]], [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] meunang balapan, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] anggeus di posisi katilu sarta [[Marco Melandri|Melandri]] anggeus di posisi kalima. <ref>{{cite news|title=2010 MotoGP Mgello Results|publisher=motorcycle-usa.com|date=06 Juni 2010|url=http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/2010/06/article/2010-motogp-mugello-results/|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] migunakeun suspénsi tukang taun 2009.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pedrosa wins on old Ohlins |publisher=GPOne.com |date=2010-06-07 |url=http://www.gpone.com/index.php/en/news/braking-news/904-pedrosa-vince-con-i-vecchi-ohlins.html |accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref> Dina mangsa latihan mimiti di rintakan ka 14 di Motegi, kabel gas macét sarta ngabalukarkeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] kacilakaan nu ngabalukarkeun tulang salangkana potong, antukna manéhna teu milu balapan.<ref>{{cite news |title='Throttle problem' caused Pedrosa crash |publisher=Crash.net |date=2010-10-01|url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/163807/1/throttle_problem_caused_pedrosa_crash.html |accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref> Di rintakan ka 16 di [[2010 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|Australia]], [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] motorna aya masalah antukna teu anggues balapan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Technical hitch ends Dovizioso podium run |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2010-10-18 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/dovizioso+out+at+phillip+island+race |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924180613/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2010/dovizioso+out+at+phillip+island+race |archive-date=2012-09-24 }}</ref> Usum balapan réngsé kalawan [[Repsol Honda|Honda]] ngahontal juara kadua konstruktor [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] kalawan peunteun 342, kacék 62 di tukangeun [[Yamaha]] juara kahiji sarta 56 di hareupeun [[Ducati]] juara katilu.<ref name = "World Standing 2010">{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2010 |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=07 Nopémber 2010 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2010/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_3099bcec|accessdate= 20 Juni 2017}}</ref> ==2011== Pikeun taun [[2011 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2011]] tim pabrikan dirojong ku [[Andrea Dovizioso]], [[Dani Pedrosa]], [[Casey Stoner]], sarta [[Marco Simoncelli]] sedengkeun purah balam tim satelit nyaéta [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] and [[Toni Elías]]. Purah balap [[Repsol Honda|Honda]] pinunjul dina mangsa tés saacan usum balapan.<ref>{{cite news |last=Noyes |first=Dennis |title=Noyes’ Notebook - Honda Goes For Broke |publisher=SpeedTV.com |date=2011-02-11 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-noyes-notebook-honda-goes-for-broke |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207000104/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-noyes-notebook-honda-goes-for-broke |archive-date=2011-02-07 }}</ref> Frame geometry and rigidity are the same as the previous year, making the 2011 bike an evolution of the 2010 version. Salah sahiji pamekaran mesin 2011 nyaéta "transmisi tanpa wates".<ref>{{cite news |title=MotoGP 2011 HRC Team Principal Shuhei Nakamoto Track Report, v.1 |publisher=Honda.com |date=2011-03-23 |url=http://world.honda.com/MotoGPreport/vol1/ |accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] jeung [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] milih maké sasis taun 2011, sedengkeun [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] milih angger migunakeun vérsi taun 2010 nu leuwih fléksibel .<ref>{{cite news |last=McLaren |first=Peter |title=The Repsol Honda MotoGP chassis options |publisher=Crash.net |date=2011-02-28 |url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/167044/1/the_repsol_honda_motogp_chassis_options.html |accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Garcia Casanova |first=Germán |title=Pedrosa: "Voy a correr con el chasis de 2010 porque lo conozco mejor" |language=Spanish |publisher=Motocuatro.com |date=2011-03-19 |url=http://www.motocuatro.com/index.php/news/grandes-premios/2606-pedrosa-voy-a-correr-con-el-chasis-de-2010-porque-lo-conozco-mejor |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323205131/http://www.motocuatro.com/index.php/news/grandes-premios/2606-pedrosa-voy-a-correr-con-el-chasis-de-2010-porque-lo-conozco-mejor |archive-date=2011-03-23 }}</ref> Sanggeus rintakan katilu di Estoril, [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] mimiti migunakeun desain kupling anyar pikeun ngurangan motor ajol-ajolan nalika ngerém.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dovizioso targeting podium with new clutch |publisher=Crash.net |date=2011-05-12 |url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/169161/1/dovizioso_targeting_podium_with_new_clutch.html |accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref> [[Repsol Honda|Honda]] ngahontal juara konstruktor kalayan 13 kali kameunangan nyaéta [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] sapuluh kali meunang sarta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] tilu kali meunang.<ref name ="World Standing 2011">{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2011 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=06 Nopémber 2011 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2011/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_36bd2f9a|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref> ==Spésifikasi== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 90%;" |- ! colspan=2 | ! width="120" | 2007<ref name="2007 specs">{{cite web |url= http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/2007/index.html |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP – Spec |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}</ref> ! width="120" | 2008<ref name="2008 specs">{{cite web |url= http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/2008/index.html |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP – Spec |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}</ref> ! width="120" | 2009<ref name="2009 specs">{{cite web |url= http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/2009/index.html |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP – Spec |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}</ref> ! width="120" | 2010<ref name="2010 specs">{{cite web |url= http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/2010/index.html |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP – Spec |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}</ref> ! width="120" | 2011<ref name="2011 specs">{{cite web |url= http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/spec/ |title= Honda Worldwide - Motor Sports - MotoGP – Spec |accessdate=20 Juni 2017 |publisher=Honda Racing }}</ref> |- ! colspan=2 | Panjang | {{convert|2050|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | {{convert|2060|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | {{convert|2052|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Rubak | colspan=5 | {{convert|645|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Jangkung | colspan=3 | {{convert|1125|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 |{{convert|1110|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Jarak gilinding | {{convert|1440|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | {{convert|1450|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | {{convert|1435|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Jarak jalan | colspan=3 | {{convert|125|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | {{convert|115|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Beurat | colspan=3 | over {{convert|148|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | over {{convert|150|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Tipeu mesin | colspan=5 | [[Water cooling|Liquid-cooled]], [[Four-stroke cycle|Four-stroke]], [[Overhead camshaft|DOHC]] [[Multi-valve|4 Valve]], [[V4 engine|V-4]] |- ! colspan=2 | Kapasitas | colspan=5 | {{convert|800|cc|cuin|0|abbr=on}} |- ! colspan=2 | Tanaga Maksimal | colspan=3 | Over {{convert|210|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} | colspan=2 | Over 155&nbsp;kW (208&nbsp;hp) |- ! colspan=2 | Tipeu Sasis | colspan=5 | Aluminum Twin-tube |- ! rowspan=4 | Ukuran Gilinding |- ! Hareup | colspan=2 | {{convert|16|in|cm|0|abbr=on}} | colspan=3 | {{convert|16.5|in|cm|0|abbr=on}} |- ! Mérek |[[Michelin]] |[[Michelin]], [[Bridgestone]] | colspan=3 |[[Bridgestone]] |- ! Tukang | colspan=5 | {{convert|16.5|in|cm|0|abbr=on}} |- ! rowspan=4 | Suspénsi |- ! Hareup | colspan=5 | Telescopic fork |- ! Suspénsi | |[[Showa Corporation|Showa SPL]] |[[Showa Corporation|Showa SPL]], [[Öhlins]] | colspan=2 |[[Öhlins]] |- ! Tukang | New Unit Pro-link | colspan=4 | Pro-link |- ! colspan=2 | Kapasitas Bahan Beuleum | colspan=5 | {{convert|21|L|abbr=on}} |- |} ==Kasimpulan hasil MotoGP == Meunang Gelar <br> Purah balap: 2011 (Casey Stoner) <ref name ="World Standing 2011"/><br> Konstruktor: 2011 <ref name ="World Standing 2011"/> Meunang Balapan<br> Total: 24<br> 2011: Stoner 10, Pedrosa 3 <ref name ="World Standing 2011"/><br> 2010: Pedrosa 4 <ref name = "World Standing 2010"/> <br> 2009: Pedrosa 2, Dovizioso 1 <ref name ="World Standing 2009">{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2009 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=08 Nopémber 2009 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2009/VAL/MotoGP/RAC/worldstanding.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> 2008: Pedrosa 2 <ref name ="World Standing 2008">{{cite news|title=MotoGP World Standing 2008|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=26 Oktober 2008|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2008/MotoGP/VAL/world+standing.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928074321/http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2008/MotoGP/VAL/world+standing.pdf?v1_96143780|archive-date=2016-09-28}}</ref><br> 2007: Pedrosa 2 <ref name ="World Standing 2007">{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2007 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=04 Nopémber 2007 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2007/MotoGP/VAL/world+standing.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> 2006: Pedrosa 2 <ref name ="World Standing 2006">{{cite news |title=MotoGP World Standing 2006 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=29 Oktober 2008 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2006/MotoGP/VAL/world+standing.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> <br> ''Pole''<br> Total: 11<br> 2011: Stoner 12, Pedrosa 3 <ref name ="Pole 2011">{{cite news |title=Pole Positions Statistics 2011 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=27 Agustus 2011 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2011/INP/PolePositions.pdf?v1_7806f68d|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> 2010: Pedrosa 4, Dovizioso 1 <ref name ="Pole 2010">{{cite news |title=Pole Positions Statistics 2010 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=28 Agustus 2010 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2010/INP/PolePositions.pdf?v3_b2033bfc|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> 2009: Pedrosa 2 <ref name ="Pole 2009">{{cite news |title=Pole Positions Statistics 2009 |publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=15 Agustus 2009 |url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2009/CZE/PolePositions.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017}}</ref><br> 2008: Pedrosa 2 <ref name ="Pole 2008">{{cite news|title=Pole Positions Statistics 2008|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=16 Agustus 2008|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2008/VAL/pole+positions+statistics.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928204651/https://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2008/VAL/pole+positions+statistics.pdf?v1_96143780|archive-date=2020-09-28}}</ref><br> 2007: Pedrosa 5, Hayden 1 <ref name ="Pole 2007">{{cite news|title=Pole Positions Statistics 2007|publisher=resources.motogp.com|date=03 Nopémber 2007|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2007/VAL/pole+positions+statistics.pdf?v1_96143780|accessdate=20 Juni 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410101546/http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2007/VAL/pole+positions+statistics.pdf?v1_96143780|archive-date=2016-04-10}}</ref> == Hasil MotoGP lengkep == ([[Citakan:Motorsport driver results legend|katerangan]]) (hasil nu tulisan '''kandel''' nandakeun posisi ''pole''; hasil nu tulisan in ''idéngdék'' nandakeun ''lap'' panggancangna) (tim nu ditulis '''kandel''' nandakeun tim pabrikan; purah balap nu ditulis '''kandel''' nandakeun tim satelit maké motor pabrikan) {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:95%" |- ! Taun ! Gilinding ! Tim ! No. ! Purah balap ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 ! 16 ! 17 ! 18 ! Peunteun ! {{Tooltip|Juara|Riders' championship position}} |- ! rowspan="9"| {{MGP|2007}} | || || || || [[2007 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] || [[2007 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] || [[2007 Turkish motorcycle Grand Prix|TUR]] || [[2007 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] || [[2007 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] || [[2007 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] || [[2007 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] || [[2007 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] || [[2007 Dutch TT|NED]] || [[2007 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] || [[2007 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] || [[2007 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] || [[2007 San Marino motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]] || [[2007 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] || [[2007 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] || [[2007 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] || [[2007 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] || [[2007 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] || |- ! rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} ! rowspan="2"| Repsol Honda Team | 1 | [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 17 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| '''''4''''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 ! 127 ! Ka 8 |- | 26 | [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2''' |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ''2'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#efcfff;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''242''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''Ka 2''' |- | rowspan="1"| Honda LCR | 7 | [[Carlos Checa]] |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 17 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 18 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 ! 65 ! Ka 14 |- ! rowspan="4"| {{Bridgestone}} | rowspan="4"| Honda Gresini | 24 | [[Toni Elías]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| ''12'' || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ''3'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 ! 104 ! Ka 12 |- | 33 | [[Marco Melandri]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffffff;"| WD |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 ! 187 ! Ka 5 |- | 17 | [[Miguel Duhamel]] || || || || || || || || || || |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret || || || || || || || ! 0 ! NC |- | 84 | [[Michel Fabrizio]] || || || || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 || || || || || || || || ! 6 ! Ka 21 |- ! rowspan="1"| {{Michelin}} | rowspan="1"| Konica Minolta Honda | 56 | [[Shinya Nakano]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 ! 47 ! Ka 17 |- ! rowspan="8"| {{MGP|2008}} || || || || || [[2008 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] || [[2008 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] || [[2008 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] || [[2008 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] || [[2008 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] || [[2008 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] || [[2008 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] || [[2008 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] || [[2008 Dutch TT|NED]] || [[2008 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] || [[2008 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] || [[2008 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] || [[2008 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]] || [[2008 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] || [[2008 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] || [[2008 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] || [[2008 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] || [[2008 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] || |- ! rowspan="1"| {{Michelin}} {{Bridgestone}}{{refn|Sanggeus anggeus di [[2008 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|Misano]], [[Dani Pedrosa]] ganti gilinding kana [[Bridgestone]] pikeun sésa balapan.|group="N"}} ! rowspan="3"| Repsol Honda Team | 2 | [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''249''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''Ka 3''' |- ! rowspan="4"| {{Michelin}} | 69 | [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 || |style="background:#ffffff;"| DNS |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ''3'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 ! 155 ! Ka 6 |- | 8 | [[Tadayuki Okada]] || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 || || || || || || || || || || || || ! 2 ! Ka 21 |- | rowspan="1"| JiR Team Scot MotoGP | 4 | [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 ! 174 ! Ka 5 |- | rowspan="1"| LCR Honda MotoGP | 14 | [[Randy de Puniet]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 ! 61 ! Ka 15 |- ! rowspan="2"| {{Bridgestone}} | rowspan="2"| San Carlo Honda Gresini | 15 | [[Alex de Angelis]] |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 17 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 ! 63 ! Ka 14 |- | 56 | [[Shinya Nakano]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 17 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 ! 126 ! Ka 9 |- ! rowspan="8"| {{MGP|2009}} | rowspan="8"| {{Bridgestone}} || || || || [[2009 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] || [[2009 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] || [[2009 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] || [[2009 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] || [[2009 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] || [[2009 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] || [[2009 Dutch TT|NED]] || [[2009 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] || [[2009 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] || [[2009 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] || [[2009 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] || [[2009 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] || [[2009 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]] || [[2009 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] || [[2009 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] || [[2009 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] || [[2009 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] || || |- ! rowspan="2"| Repsol Honda Team | 3 | [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''''3''''' |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ''3'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| '''10''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ''3'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' || |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''234''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''Ka 3''' |- | 4 | [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffffbf;"| 1 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 || ! 160 ! Ka 6 |- | rowspan="1"| LCR Honda MotoGP | 14 | [[Randy de Puniet]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 | ! 106 ! Ka 11 |- | rowspan="2"| San Carlo Honda Gresini | 15 | [[Alex de Angelis]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 || ! 111 ! Ka 9 |- | 24 | [[Toni Elías]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 || ! 115 ! Ka 7 |- | rowspan="2"| Scot Racing Team | 72 | [[Yuki Takahashi]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 || || || || || || || || || || | ! 9 ! Ka 21 |- | 41 | [[Gábor Talmácsi]] || || || || || |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 17 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 || ! 19 ! Ka 17 |- ! rowspan="10"| {{MGP|2010}} | rowspan="10"| {{Bridgestone}} || || || || [[2010 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] || [[2010 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] || [[2010 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] || [[2010 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] || [[2010 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] || [[2010 Dutch TT|NED]] || [[2010 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] || [[2010 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] || [[2010 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] || [[2010 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] || [[2010 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] || [[2010 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]] || [[2010 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] || [[2010 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] || [[2010 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] || [[2010 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] || [[2010 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] || [[2010 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] || |- ! rowspan="2"| Repsol Honda Team | 4 | [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| ''14'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 ! 206 ! Ka 5 |- | 26 | [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ''2'' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ''2'' |style="background:#ffffff;"| DNS || |style="background:#ffffff;"| DNS |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| ''7'' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''245''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''Ka 2''' |- | rowspan="3"| Interwetten Honda MotoGP | 7 | [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#ffffff;"| DNS || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 ! 53 ! Ka 15 |- | 64 | [[Kousuke Akiyoshi]]{{refn|[[Kousuke Akiyoshi]] ngaganti pikeun [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] tim [[Interwetten Racing (MotoGP)|Interwetten Honda]] .|group="N"}} || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 || || || || || || || || || || || ! 4 ! Ka 20 |- | 15 | [[Alex de Angelis]] || || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 || || || || || || || || ! 11 ! Ka 18 |- | rowspan="2"| LCR Honda MotoGP | 14 | [[Randy de Puniet]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 ! 116 ! Ka 9 |- | 95 | [[Roger Lee Hayden]] || || || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 || || || || || || || || || ! 5 ! Ka 19 |- | rowspan="2"| San Carlo Honda Gresini | 33 | [[Marco Melandri]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffffff;"| DNS |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 ! 103 ! Ka 10 |- | 58 | [[Marco Simoncelli]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 14 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 ! 125 ! Ka 8 |- ! rowspan="12"| {{MGP|2011}} | rowspan="12"| {{Bridgestone}} || || || || [[2011 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] || [[2011 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] || [[2011 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] || [[2011 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] || [[2011 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] || [[2011 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] || [[2011 Dutch TT|NED]] || [[2011 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] || [[2011 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] || [[2011 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] || [[2011 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] || [[2011 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] || [[2011 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|RSM]] || [[2011 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] || [[2011 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] || [[2011 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] || [[2011 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] || [[2011 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] || |- ! rowspan="4"| Repsol Honda Team | 4 | [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffffff;"| C |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ''3'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''228''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''Ka 3''' |- | 26 | [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#efcfff;"| ''Ret'' || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#efcfff;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#ffffff;"| '''C''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 ! 219 ! Ka 4 |- | 27 | [[Casey Stoner]] |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#efcfff;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1''' |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| ''1'' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#ffffff;"| C |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''350''' |style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''Ka 1''' |- | 7 | [[Hiroshi Aoyama]]{{refn|Aoyama ngaganti Dani Pedrosa maké motor pabrikan [[Repsol Honda]] pikeun [[2011 Dutch TT|Dutch TT]] di [[TT Circuit Assen|Assen]], sanggeus Pedrosa tatu di [[2011 French motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix perancis]]|group="N"}} || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 || || || || || || || || || || || ! 8 (98) ! Ka 10 |- ! rowspan="1"| Honda Racing Team | 72 | [[Shinichi Ito]]{{refn|Di GP [[Twin Ring Motegi|Motegi]] di Jepang taun 2011, Ito jeung Kousuke Akiyoshi dibéré wildcard pikeun "Boga wawanén sarta nunjukkeun pangrojong pikeun wewengkon Jepang Wétan", nu geus kacida susah sanggeus kajadian [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami]]. Ito baris balap pikeun [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC Honda]] - maké motor Honda RC212V spésifikasi pabrikan.|group="N"}} || || || || || || || || || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 || || || ! 3 ! Ka 22 |- | rowspan="3"| San Carlo Honda Gresini | 58 | '''[[Marco Simoncelli]]''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| '''6''' |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| '''9''' |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 5 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 6 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2 |style="background:#ffffff;"| C{{refn|[[Marco Simoncelli]] tatu parna mangsa [[2011 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Malaysia]] sarta balapan dieureunkeun.|group="N"}} || ! 139 ! Ka 6 |- | 7 | [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 4 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 7 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#ffffff;"| C |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 ! 90 (98) ! Ka 10 |- | 64 | [[Kousuke Akiyoshi]]{{refn|Akiyoshi ngaganti sakali deui Aoyama tim [[Gresini Racing]] pikeun [[Dutch TT 2011]], henteu lantaran tatu, sakumaha Aoyama ngaganti Dani Pedrosa di Repsol Honda.|group="N"}} || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 || || || || || || || || || || || ! 3 (7) ! Ka 20 |- | rowspan="3"| LCR Honda MotoGP | 24 | [[Toni Elías]] |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 9 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#cfcfff;"| 16 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 11 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 13 |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 15 |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 8 |style="background:#ffffff;"| C |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 10 ! 61 ! Ka 15 |- | 23 | [[Ben Bostrom]] || || || || || || || || || |style="background:#efcfff;"| Ret || || || || || || || || ! 0 ! NC |- | 64 | [[Kousuke Akiyoshi]]{{refn|Akiyoshi ogé balapan di [[2011 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix| Grand Prix Jepang]] minangka wildcard kalayan [[Team LCR|LCR Honda]] – bareng jeung Shinichi Ito, balapan pikeun HRC Honda – sabagé isyarat dukungan pikeun maranéhna nu keuna ku gempa bumi Tōhoku jeung tsunami bulan Maret 2011. |group="N"}} || || || || || || || || || || || || || || |style="background:#dfffdf;"| 12 || || || ! 4 (7) ! Ka 20 |} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} {{Reflist|group="N"}} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{commons category|Honda RC212V}} * [http://world.honda.com/MotoGP/ Honda MotoGP] ramatloka resmi Honda MotoGP * [http://www.motorcycledaily.com/30october06_rc212v.htm Honda Releases More Details On Their New 800cc MotoGP Contender] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118192635/http://www.motorcycledaily.com/30october06_rc212v.htm |date=2006-11-18 }} artikel ti Motorcycle Daily * [http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/Article_Page.aspx?ArticleID=3898&Page=1 Honda Talks 2007 RC212V] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061125031140/http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/Article_Page.aspx?ArticleID=3898&Page=1 |date=2006-11-25 }} artikel ti Motorcycle USA * [http://www.crash.net/news_View~t~Honda-unveil--RC212V--~cid~6~id~139699.htm Honda unveil 'RC212V'] artikel ti Crash.net * [http://www.speedtv.com/articles/moto/motogp/33692/ Honda Unveils RC212V V4 800] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109171213/http://www.speedtv.com/articles/moto/motogp/33692/ |date=2006-11-09 }} artikel ti SPEEDtv {{Grand Prix motorcycles}} [[Kategori:Motor Honda|RC212V]] [[Category:Motor Grand Prix]] kxck68nh8b0jhcho5hh6i73o87s1klb Cau kepok 0 71092 732073 728562 2026-11-10T12:01:23Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 732073 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox biota" style="float: right; clear: right; width: 300px; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; padding: 4px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #d3edbc; text-align: center; font-size: 115%; padding: 6px;" | Musa acuminata × balbisiana (Kultivar BBB) |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:Saba banana tree.jpg|250px|Tangkal jeung buah cau saba / kepok]]<br /><small>Tangkal jeung buah cau (kepok kelompok BBB)</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eef5df; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Klasifikasi ilmiah |- | '''Karajaan''' || [[Tutuwuhan|Plantae]] |- | '''Kalisah''' || [[Tracheophytes]] |- | '''Divisi''' || [[Tutuwuhan kembangan|Angiosperms]] |- | '''Kelas''' || [[Monokotil|Monocots]] |- | '''Ordo''' || [[Zingiberales]] |- | '''Famili''' || [[Musaceae]] |- | '''Genus''' || ''[[Musa (genus)|Musa]]'' |- | '''Spésiés hibrid''' || ''M. acuminata'' × ''M. balbisiana'' |- | '''Kultivar''' || Kelompok genom BBB (misalna: [[Cau kepok]] / Saba banana) |} '''Cau kepok''' (''Musa acuminata balbisiana cultivars (BBBc)'') nyaéta cau anu asalna tina [[spésiés]]: ''Musa balbisiana'', ''Genom Triploid BBB (cooking).''<ref name=Valmayor/> Cau kepok kaasup kana ''Musa paradisiaca forma typica (plantain)'' taya lian cau anu bisa didahar anu saméméhna kudu diasakan heula, bisa digoréng, diseupan, dikulub, dibubuy, jeung sajabana.<ref name=Setiawan>{{Cite book | title = Atlas tumbuhan obat Indonesia, Volume 3| last = Dalimartha| first = Setiawan | publisher = Niaga Swadaya | location = [[Jakarta]] | year = 2008|isbn=979-3235-73-x}}</ref> Di sababaraha [[nagara]] cau kepok disebut ogé : ''Saba'' ([[Philipina]]) ; ''Pisang nipah'' ([[Malaysia]]) ; ''Kluain Hin'' ([[Thailand]]) ; saba ([[Vietnam]]).<ref name=Valmayor>{{Cite book | title =Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia| last = Valmayor| first = R.V | coauthors = S.H. Jamaluddin, B.Silayoi, S. Kusumo, L.D. Danh, O.C. Pascua, R.R.C. Espino |publisher = Inibap-Aspnet | location = Philipina | year = 1994| isbn=971-91751-2-5 }}</ref> Cau kepok aya sababaraha rupa: Kepok bodas, kepok konéng, kepok siem, jeung kepok saba.<ref name=Rahmat>{{Cite book | title = TTG.AnekaOlahanLimbah,Tnm.Pisang| last = Rukmana, MBA.,M.Sc | first = Ir. H. Rahmat| publisher = Kanisius | location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 2001|isbn=978-979-672-617-2}}</ref> Cau kepok anu ilahar dijual di [[pasar]] aya dua rupa: cau kepok bodas jeung cau kepok konéng.<ref name=Agromedia/> Cau kepok bodas cauna rada heuras jeung henteu pati seungit, [[kulit]]na leuwih kandel tibadan cau kepok konéng.<ref name=Agromedia/> Saturuy cau kepok beuratna kurang leuwih 14–22&nbsp;kg, dina saturuy aya 10 nepi ka 16 sikat, unggal sikatna mibanda kurang leuwih 20 cau.<ref name=Agromedia>{{Cite book | title = Buku Pintar: Budi Daya Tanaman Buah Unggul Indonesia| last = Redaksi AgroMedia| first = Eric | publisher = Agro media pustaka | location = [[Jakarta]] | year = 2009|ISBN=979-006-220-6 }}</ref> == Hama cau kepok == Sababaraha panyakit anu remen nyerang kana tangkal cau kepok anu ngabalukakeun karugian ku lantaran cau henteu buahan malahan nepi ka teu hirup: # ''Fusarium oxysporum'' (layu darah), ieu panyakit mimiti nyerang kana [[daun]] beulah luar, tuluy mapay ka jerona anu ngabalukarkeun daun jadi sumpung.<ref name=WWF/>Ieu [[baktéri]] tuluy nerekab kana palapah daun, balukar tina ieu panyakit buah cau anu dihasilkeun di jerona harideung kawas cau buruk.<ref name=WWF>{{Cite web | url = http://www.bappeda-kotabaru.info/sekilasinfo/85/ | title = Pisang Kepok D-15 Atasi Penyakit Layu "Darah" | date = 2006-7-6 | accessdate = 2017-7-6 | work = [Bapeda Kota baru] | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170708033446/http://www.bappeda-kotabaru.info/sekilasinfo/85 | archivedate = 2017-07-08 }}</ref> # [[Hileud]] (''Erionata thrax L'') nyerang kana [[daun]] ngabalukarkeun daun cau kepok pating péréntél nepi ka béak tingal palapahna.<ref name=SAMARINDA/> # [[Bangbung]] cau (''Cosmopolies sordidus Germar'') nyerang kana [[tangkal]] cau, balukarna tangkal cau katémbong layu, tuluy koropok tengahna, tungtungna runtuh katebak [[angin]].<ref name=SAMARINDA/> # Virus bunchy top, tangkal cau katémbong leuwih buntet, palapah daun leuwih pondok tur jegjreg, lila kaliaan daunna konéng, teu kungnsi lila tiharita tangkalna runtuh.<ref name=SAMARINDA/> # Bakteri ''Mycosphaerella musicola'', nyerang kana daun ngabalukarkeun daun borontok, lila kalilaan semu [[hideung]], antukna daun layu tur garing saacan waktuna.<ref name=SAMARINDA>{{Cite web | url = http://www.mahakamtpid.org/pengendalian-hama-dan-penyakit-terpadu-pada-pisang-kepok.html | title = Pengendalian Hama dan Penyakit Terpadu Pada Pisang Kepok | date = 2013-1-1 | accessdate = 2017-6-7 | work = SAMARINDA | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170521193106/http://www.mahakamtpid.org/pengendalian-hama-dan-penyakit-terpadu-pada-pisang-kepok.html | archivedate = 2017-05-21 }}</ref> == Mangpaat jeung kagunaan == Cau kepok geus ilahar dijieun rupa-rupa olahan : seupan cau, [[kiripik]], [[kolek]], goréng, jeung sajabana.<ref name=Edysoetono>{{Cite book | title = Teknologi Tepat Guna MEMBUAT KERIPIK PISANG| last = Soetono| first = Edy| publisher = Kanisius | location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 1998|ISBN=979-672-269-0 }}</ref> Sagigireun ti éta aya kagunaan séjén tina cau kepok : * Cau kepok anu kolot tapi acan asak dimangpaatkeun pikeun bahan nyieun [[tipung]] cau.<ref name=Budi>{{Cite book | title = Teknologi Tepat Guna TEPUNG PISANG| last = Santoso| first = Hieronymus Budi | publisher = Kanisius | location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 1995| isbn=979-497-425-0 }}</ref> * Cai peresan tina beuti tangkal cau kepok bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[ubar]] [[diséntri]], dipaké kekemu pikeun ngubaran [[amandel]] ogé ngubaran gangguan dina [[peujit]] ''(radang usus)'',<ref name=Rahmat/> * daunna geus pada mikawanoh dipaké pikeun nandéan, mungkus jeung mapaés rupa-rupa olahan, saperti: [[Bugis]], [[pais]], [[leupeut]], [[congclot]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=lilly>{{Citation | last = Erwin | first = Lilly T.| coauthors = -| year =2004| title = Dekorasi Lipat Daun utk Jamuan Pesta| publisher = PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama | isbn =978-979-22-3733-7}}</ref> * Panalungtikan anu dilakukeun cau kepok ogé bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyieun inuman ''probiotik''.<ref name=UNS>{{Cite journal | author = M. Faizul Umam, Rohula Utami, Asti Widowati| year = 2012 | title = Kajian karakteristik minuman sinbiotik pisang kepok | journal = Teknosains Pangan | volume = 1| pages = 4-10}}</ref> <gallery> File:Young saba banana plants.JPG|Anak [[tangkal]] cau kepok File:M. acuminata x balbisiana.JPG|Jantung [[cau]] kepok File:Musa acuminata × balbisiana 01.JPG|Saturuy cau kepok File:Kepok banana Indonesia.JPG|Cau kepok asak File:Banana ancestors (Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana) original range.png|Daérah anu loba kapanggih hirup tangkal cau kepok (héjo) </gallery> == Tempo ogé == * [[Cau ambon]] * [[Cau limpung]] * [[Cau nangka]] * [[Cau ambon]] * [[Cau manggala]] == Daptar pustaka == * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=zx7nCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=isbn&f=false|title=Apotik Herbal di Sekitar Anda: buku yang memuat jenis-jenis daun herbal |first=Obi |last=Andareto|date=January 2015|publisher=Pustaka Ilmu Semesta}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=SpN9FX2RUD8C&hl=id&source=gbs_navlinks_s|title=Dekorasi Lipat Daun utk Jamuan Pesta|last = Erwin | first = Lilly T.|date=2004|publisher=PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama | isbn =978-979-22-3733-7}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=WAHX9kDlQScC&pg=PA20&dq=pisang+batu&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjsvZ_C_aPUAhUHsY8KHYAzBDcQ6AEILTAC#v=onepage&q=isbn&f=false|title=Hidangan nikmat bergizi dari bumi Indonesia: aneka sajian mi dan olahan lain|last=Soenardi|first=Tuti|date=2002|publisher=PT Gramedia pustaka utama | isbn = 978-979-22-4932-3}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=h0lFAKmWwSYC&pg=PA6&dq=pisang+batu&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjn7M2J9KXUAhUOR48KHaUYDKE4FBDoAQhSMAk#v=onepage&q=pisang%20batu&f=false|last=Sunarjono|first=Drs. H. Hendro.|date=January 1990|publisher=Niaga Swadaya|title=Membuat buah tanpa biji}} == Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|2}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Cau]] [[Kategori:Musaceae]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] ogd8efoggjijqgq0wqu89m4cn6dboyb RAM 0 71720 732154 705009 2026-11-11T01:58:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732154 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:RAM n.jpg|jmpl|RAM]] '''''RAM''''' nyaéta singgetan ti ''Random Access Memory''. Nyaéta memori manager anu tanggel walon luhur memori utami. Memori manajer mariksa ''validitas'' saban pemintaan ngeunaan rohang memori. Lamun kahoyong éta ditarima, manajer memori badé ngaalokasikeun sapalih ti memori anu digunakeun. Dina lingkungan réa pamaké (''multiuser''), manajer memori badé midamel tabél ngeunaan saha anu ngagunakeun memori sarta haturan manten ti memori anu dipakena. Sabot anjog waktuna kanggo neda balik rohang memori, manajer memori badé ngaleupaskeun atawa ngadéalokasikeun memori.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mengulas Sistem Operasi|last=Setiawan|first=Antonio Fran|publisher=Skripta|year=2013|isbn=|location=Yogyakarta|pages=3}}</ref> RAM nyaéta hiji tipe panyimpanan [[komputer]] anu di eusina bisa diaksés dina wanci anu angger henteu memperdulikeun lokasi data kasebat dina memori. Kadudukan ti Ram nyaéta kanggo ngabantuan kinérja komputer anjeun supados bisa nunda data sacara samentara. Maksimum nambahan ram gumantung ogé kalawan sistem operasi anu hoyong atawa kanggo urang anggo,contona urang ngagunakeun sistem operasi windows xxx versi 32 bit mangka maksimum upgrade ram ngan dugi 4 giga. loh naha kitu? margi lamun anjeun nambahan kapasitas langkung ti 4 giga anu terbaca sarta terpakai ku sistem operasi 32 bit ngan 4 giga wae, éta alesanna.<ref>http://www.tuntor.com/pengertian-fungsi-ram-dan-cara-menambah-ram-lengkap/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006043639/http://www.tuntor.com/pengertian-fungsi-ram-dan-cara-menambah-ram-lengkap |date=2017-10-06 }}</ref> Di dieu nyaéta tipe RAM, antara séjén ngawengku: * RAM (Cim RAM) mangrupa tipe RAM anu kedah périodik jadi refreshed ku CPU (Unit Processing Tengah) ku kituna data ngandung therein teu ngiles. * SDRAM mangrupa akronim pikeun "Sychronous Cim Random Access Memori" tipe RAM nu mangrupa tuluyan tina DRAM tapi geus nyingkronkeun ku sistem jam sarta ngabogaan speed leuwih luhur ti DRAM. * DDR RAM anu pondok pikeun "Double Laju Random Access Memori". DDR RAM ieu mindeng disebut minangka DDR wungkul. jenis ieu memori nyaéta téhnologi tuluyan / penyuluhan SDRAM. Aya ogé tuluyan tina DDR2 (Double Data Rate 2 RAM generasi) jeung DDR3 (Double Data Rate 3 generasi RAM), meureun malah di dieu bakal aya generasi anyar. * RDRAM nyaéta pondok pikeun "Rambus Cim Aksés Mémori" a tipe memori nu geus gancang sarta ogé leuwih mahal ti SDRAM. memori Ieu bisa dipaké dina sistem anu maké Pentium 4 (opat). * SRAM ieu kawanoh ogé salaku "statis Random Access Memori" tipe memori nu teu merlukeun refreshment ku CPU supados data dikandung dina éta tetep disimpen bener. RAM tina tipe ieu boga speed luhur dibandingkeun kalawan DRAM atawa SDRAM. * EDORAM téh asalna tina singketan tina "ngalegaan Data Out Random Access Memori", nu mangrupa tipe memori anu digunakeun dina sistem anu geus dipaké Pentium. jenis ieu bisa nyimpen jeung meunangkeun eusi mémori dina waktu anu jeung, jadi laju dibaca sarta manéhna nulis jadi rada gancang.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pengertianku.net/2014/09/pengertian-ram-dan-fungsinya-pada-komputer.html |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2017-10-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026201351/http://www.pengertianku.net/2014/09/pengertian-ram-dan-fungsinya-pada-komputer.html |archivedate=2017-10-26}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Komputer]] dslklkktqmd9q89halzmftmggdn1uiz ROM 0 72079 732155 705010 2026-11-11T01:59:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732155 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Casiotone ROM Pack RO-301.jpg|jmpl|ROM Komputer]] '''ROM (réad Only Memory)''' nyaéta [[mémori]] anu ngan bisa dibaca, henteu bisa dihapus atawa dirobah ku pamakéna, sabab [[program]] éta geus dieusian ku [[pabrik]] anu ngadamelna, ROM ayana panceg tina [[BIOS]] anu panceg dina [[motherboard]] anu ngagaduhan fungsi keur ngatur [[peripheral]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pengertianku.net/2014/10/pengertian-rom-dan-fungsinya-beserta-cara-kerjanya.html|title=Pengertian ROM Dan Fungsinya Beserta Cara Kerjanya - Pengertian Apapun|website=www.pengertianku.net|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-10-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031075533/http://www.pengertianku.net/2014/10/pengertian-rom-dan-fungsinya-beserta-cara-kerjanya.html|archivedate=2017-10-31}}</ref> ROM béda jeung [[RAM,]] upami ROM mah ngan bisa dibaca wungkul alias henteu bisa dirobah, édit jeung sajabana, upami RAM mah salian bisa diédit jeung dirobah, bisa ogé dibaca.<ref name=":0" /> Data dina ROM diselapkeun langsung ku jalan [[mask]] wanoh ti assembly chip.<ref name=":0" /> Hal ieu ngajadikeun éta pisan ekonomis, utamana lamun urang ngahasilkeun baréa-réa.<ref name=":0" /> Tapi ogé jadi pisan mahal sabab henteu fléksibel.<ref name=":0" /> Salah sahiji parobahan malah salah [[Bitis|bit]] merlukeun topeng anyar nu geus pasti moal mirah.<ref name=":0" /> Sabab henteu fléksibel lajeng jarang ngagunakeun éta deui, aplikasi sejen nu sarua jeung [[CD-ROM]] ieu prerecorded anu kasohor, salah sahiji CD musik.<ref name=":0" /> Kontras jeung pamadegan loba jalma yén CD-ROM ieu ditulis kalayan laser data dina CD-ROM rada dicitak dina piring plastik.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Komputer]] eeiw07lvol4mlsec6vd2ru23sytpa0y Universitas Komputer Indonesia 0 72330 732181 731907 2026-11-11T03:46:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo perguruantinggi |nama=Universitas Komunikasi Indonesia <br>(UNIKOM) |logo= |tahun=[[28 Agustus]] [[2000]] |jenis=Paguron luhur swasta |rektor= Dr. Ir. Eddy Suryanto Soegoto |lokasi=[[Bandung]], [[Jawa Barat]] |alamat=Jalan Dipatiukur No 112-114 Bandung |situs=[http://www.unikom.ac.id http://www.unikom.ac.id] }} '''Universitas Komputer Indonesia''' atawa nu ilahar dipiwanoh '''UNIKOM''' nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur swasta nu aya di [[Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]], alamatna di [[Jalan Dipatiukur]] No 112-114, Bandung. == Sajarah == UNIKOM sacara resmi gadeg dina tanggal [[8 Agustus 2000]] numutkeun Surat Keputusan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional nomor 126/D/0/2000. Munggaran dimimitian di bulan Juli taun [[1994]] waktu di adegkeunna '''Lembaga Pendidikan Komputer Indonesia Jerman''', disingget '''LPKIG''' nu tempatna di jalan Dipati Ukur 102 Bandung. Miboga hiji rohang kelas nu eusina bisa dipaké pikeun 50 urangeun jeung hiji ''[[laboratorium]]'' [[komputer]] nu miboga 25 unit komputer. Lembaga ieu ngabuka program pendidikan sataun jeung 5 program studi nyaéta [[Ahli Komputer Aplikasi Bisnis]], [[Ahli Komputer Keuangan dan Perbankan]], [[Ahli Komputer Akuntansi dan Perpajakan]], [[Ahli Komputer Manajemen dan Pemasaran]] jeung [[Sekretaris Eksekutif]]. Jumlah sakabéh pamilon atikan di taun mimiti nyaéta 223 siswa. Di taun kadua, [[1995]] mimiti dibuka program studi 3 taun, salian ti ngamekarkeun [[institusi]], pikeun nyumponan lobana mahasiswa ditaun ajaran munggaran. Dina taun ieu ogé dibuka program anyar, nyaéta: [[Ahli Komputer Teknik Informatika]], [[Ahli Komputer Manajemen Informatika]] dan [[Sekretaris Eksekutif]]. Rohang kelas ditambahan 2 rohang jeung ''labolatorium'' komputer jadi 2, jumlah siswana nyaéta 457 urang Dina taun katilu, [[1996]], nambahan gedung kuliah anyar nu tempatna di jalan Dipati Ukur 116 ( nu ayeuna gedung FISIP ) sakaligus mindahkeun puseur administrasi jeung kantor. Di gedung ieu ditambahan hiji rohang ''labolatorium'', jeung 5 rohang kelas, rohangan pikeun [[dosén]] jeung rohangan pikeun kamahasiswaan. Jumlah siswa ti taun [[1996]] nepi ka taun [[1998]] nambahan tina 632 urang jadi 1184 urang. Dina taun kalima, [[1998]],mimiti diwangun gedung kampus anyar (Gedung Rektorat / nu ayeuna kampus-1 miboga 6 tingkat ) di jalan Dipati Ukur No. 114. Wangunan gedung anyar ieu bisa anggeus di bulan [[agustus]] taun [[1999]], nu bisa dipaké di pakuliahan bulan [[september]] taun [[1999]]. Dina tanggal [[24 Desember 1998]] diadegkeun '''Yayasan Science dan Teknologi''' jeung dituluykeun ngajukeun pikeun ngadegna '''STIMIK IGI''' jeung '''STIE IGI''' ka [[DIKTI]]. Di bulan [[Juli]] taun [[1999]] STIE IGI diresmikeun ku kaluarna SK Mendiknas no. 119/D/O/1999 nu ngawengku 5 program studi : [[Akuntansi]] S1, [[Manajemen]] S1, [[Manajemen Pemasaran]] D3, [[Keuangan Perbankan]] D3 sarta [[Akuntansi]] D3. Dina bulan [[Agustus 1999]] '''STIMIK IGI''' diresmikeun ku kaluarna SK Mendiknas no. 143/D/O/1999 nu ngawengku 5 program studi : [[Teknik Informatika]] S1, [[Manajemen Informatika]] D3, [[Teknik Komputer]] D3, [[Komputerisasi Akuntansi]] D3 sarta [[Teknik Informatika]] D3. Sangkan sistem didunia atikan leuwih produktif, 6 bulan sanggeus éta diajukeun ka DIKTI pikeun ngagabungkeun kadua Sakola Luhur éta jadi [[Universitas]]. Tanggal [[8 Agustus 2000]] kaluar SK MENDIKNAS no. 126/D/O/2000 keur '''Universitas Komputer Indonesia''' atawa nu disingget '''UNIKOM'''. Dina SK éta sakaligus diijinan pikeun dibukana 11 program studi anyar nyaéta : [[Teknik Komputer]] S1, [[Manajemen Informatika]] S1, [[Teknik Industri]] S1, [[Teknik Arsitektur]] S1, [[Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota]] S1, [[Ilmu Hukum]] S1, [[Ilmu Komunikasi]] S1, [[Ilmu Pemerintahan]] S1, [[Desain Interior]] D3, [[Desain Komunikasi Visual]] S1 jeung [[Desain Komunikasi Visual]] D3. Ti mimiti ngadegna taun [[2000]], unggal taunna '''UNIKOM''' narima kurang leuwih 2.000 mahasiswa anyar. Panungtungan di taun [[2014]] narima 3.108 mahasiswa anyar. Nepi ka taun ajaran 2015/2016, '''UNIKOM''' miboga 6 Fakultas sarta 23 Program Studi kalawan jumlah mahasiswa 15.000 urang nu asalna ti sababaraha daérah di [[Indonésia]], aya ogé nu ti luar nagri. == Daptar fakultas == Ieu di handap nyaéta daptar fakultas-fakultas nu aya di [http://www.unikom.ac.id/ UNIKOM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015175929/https://unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-15 }}, sarta program studi nu aya difakultas sewang-sewangan, pikeun strata 1 (sarjana – S1), atawa nu diploma 3 (ahli madya – D3) === Fakultas Teknik dan Ilmu Komputer === * [http://tk.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Komputer (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110110725/http://tk.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-10 }} * [http://if.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Informatika (S1)] * [http://ti.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Industri (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116224000/http://ti.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-16 }} * [http://sipil.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Sipil (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111174522/http://sipil.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-11 }} * [http://elektro.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Elektro (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028131656/http://elektro.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://ar.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Arsitektur (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129080619/http://ar.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-29 }} * [http://pwk.unikom.ac.id/ Perencanaan Kota dan Regional (S1)] * [http://mi.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen Informatika (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109211206/http://mi.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-09 }} * [http://ka.unikom.ac.id/ Komputerisasi Akuntansi (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123042101/http://ka.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-01-23 }} === Fakultas Ekonomi === * [http://mn.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027102332/http://mn.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-27 }} * [http://ak.unikom.ac.id/ Akuntansi (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023091057/http://ak.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-23 }} * [http://mp.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen Pemasaran(D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104013459/http://mp.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-04 }} * [http://kp.unikom.ac.id/ Keuangan dan Perbankan (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114103129/http://kp.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-14 }} === Fakultas Hukum === * [http://hk.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Hukum (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171101044742/http://hk.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-01 }} === Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Politik === * [http://ik.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Komunikasi (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028131556/http://ik.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://ip.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Pemerintahan (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028130808/http://ip.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://hi.unikom.ac.id/ Hubungan Internasional (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123014252/http://hi.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-23 }} * [http://se.unikom.ac.id/ Sekretaris Eksekutif (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109012431/http://se.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-09 }} * [http://pr.unikom.ac.id/ Public Relations (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104013300/http://pr.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-04 }} === Fakultas Desain === * [http://dkv.unikom.ac.id/ Desain Komunikasi Visual (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103112850/http://dkv.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-03 }} * [http://di.unikom.ac.id/ Desain Interior (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102064948/http://di.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} === Fakultas Sastra === * [http://si.unikom.ac.id/ Sastra Inggris (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102075113/http://si.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [http://sj.unikom.ac.id/ Sastra Jepang (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030220924/http://sj.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} === Pasca Sarjana/Magister === * [http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ Magister Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802155751/http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-08-02 }} * [http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ Magister Information System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802155751/http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-08-02 }} == Fasilitas == Fasilitas nu aya di UNIKOM kaitung lengkep, ampir sakabéh kagiatan nu aya sok ditepikeun ngaliwatan ''online''. Mahasiswa ogé bisa nyitak jeung ninggali daptar nilai ujian ngaliwatan hiji situs khusus. Salian ti éta, sadia ''labolatorium'' saluyu jeung program studi nu aya. Salaku Universitas Komputer nu munggaran aya di Indonésia, mata kuliah ''[[software]]'' jeung ''[[hardware]]'' dijadikeun mata kuliah wajib pikeun mahasiswa di UNIKOM. Di UNIKOM ogé disadiakeun fasilitas internet haratis atawa nu ilaar disebut [[Hotspot]] (''Wi-fi) .'' Sababaraha fasilitas ''online'' nu aya di UNIKOM : === Fasilitas online === * [http://kampus.unikom.ac.id/ Layanan Jejaring Sosial Unikom] * [http://repository.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom Scholar Repository] * [http://m.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom Mobil Layanan informasi akademik via Handphone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102080307/http://m.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [http://nilaionline.unikom.ac.id/ Layanan informasi Nilai Online] * [http://kuliahonline.unikom.ac.id/ Kuliah Online dan Materi Kuliah Online Open Course Ware] * [http://mail.unikom.ac.id/ Webmail Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316094845/https://mail.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2016-03-16 }} * [http://wap.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom WAP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030211002/http://wap.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} * [http://autodebet.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Autodebet] * [http://forum.unikom.ac.id/ Forum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923103128/http://forum.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-09-23 }} * [http://blog.unikom.ac.id/ Blog Komunitas Unikom Bandung] * [http://email.unikom.ac.id/ E Mail mahasiswa] === Perpustakaan === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171025022632/http://lib.unikom.ac.id/ Web Perpustakaan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210210223224/http://elib.unikom.ac.id/ Elektronik Library Perpustakaan Digital] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170606015938/http://abstrak.unikom.ac.id/ Abstrak] * [http://jurnal.unikom.ac.id/ Jurnal Unikom] === Informasi Institusi === * [http://perwalian.unikom.ac.id/ Perwalian] * [http://dokumen.unikom.ac.id/ Dokumen Online] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171119083129/http://jadwal.unikom.ac.id/ Jadwal Online] * [http://perwalian.unikom.ac.id/ KRS Online] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171021040953/http://aset.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Aset] * [http://borang.unikom.ac.id/ Akreditasi Institusi & Program Studi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103034236/http://borang.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-03 }} * [http://simep.unikom.ac.id/ Sistem Informasi Evaluasi Perkuliahan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171105051401/http://alumni.unikom.ac.id/ Daftar Alumni dan Komunitas alumni Unikom] * [http://career.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Lowongan Kerja] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114014251/http://career.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-14 }} * [http://unikom.jobecs.net/ Informasi Lowongan Kerja di jobecs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128191244/http://unikom.jobecs.net/ |date=2012-01-28 }} * [http://baak.unikom.ac.id/ BAAK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102064517/http://baak.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171109144547/http://www.unikomcenter.com/ Unikom Center] * [http://msdn.unikom.ac.id/ MSDN Academic Alliance Microsoft Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030213441/http://msdn.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} === Direktorat jeung lembaga lianna === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171109144547/http://www.unikomcenter.com/ Direktorat ICT&Multimedia Unikom Center] * [http://rnd.unikom.ac.id/ Direktorat Researc & Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210083407/http://rnd.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2018-02-10 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171118171247/http://csr.unikom.ac.id/ Direktorat Corporate Social Responsibility] * [http://lppm.unikom.ac.id/ LPPM Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716145947/https://lppm.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-07-16 }} == Rujukan == * [https://www.unikom.ac.id/page/sejarah Situs resmi UNIKOM] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur swasta di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron swasta di Bandung]] gh18nwbj5l6jgbt6apkk85qz1xjuhlw Guratmangsa 0 72613 732119 544818 2026-11-10T21:12:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732119 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|jmpl|250x250px|Guratmangsa kumembangna [[Jagat|jagat raya]].]] '''Guratmangsa''', '''linimasa''' atawa '''gariswanci''' téh hiji répresentasi [[kronologis]] runtuyan kajadian atawa jadwal aktivitas. Guratmangsa bisa dijieun dumasar jaman, abad, taun, bulan, minggu, poé, jeung deuih jam nu panjangna varéatif. Dina guratmangsa, nyangkaruk titik-titik nu ngawakilan kajadian-kajadian penting. == Tutumbu luar == * (Basa Inggris) [http://www.datesofhistory.com World History Database] * (Basa Inggris) [http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/13/timelines.php A Timeline of Timelines] * (Basa Inggris) [http://www.timelines.info Timelines.info - Graphical timelines of world history] * (Basa Inggris) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120403082851/http://www.wikitimescale.org/ WikiTimeScale, Wiki for graphical illustration of historic events, persons and so on.] * (Basa Inggris) [http://www.historyexplorer.net Historical Timelines] [[Kategori:Kronologi]] [[Kategori:Waktu]] cr2esd05vniq3p9wt0i89818zye6rf3 Manuk onta 0 72888 732142 711093 2026-11-10T23:27:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732142 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Struthio camelus 23zz.jpg|jmpl|Manuk Onta|211x211px]] Manuk Onta (''Struthio camelus'') mangrupa jenis [[manuk]] nu pangbadagna nu masih hirup nepi ka kiwari.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|url=https://portal-ilmu.com/burung-unta/|title=Burung Unta – Deskripsi Lengkap Burung Pelari {{!}} Portal-Ilmu.com|date=2016-06-10|newspaper=Portal-Ilmu.com|language=id-ID|access-date=2018-01-19}}</ref> Ieu manuk kaasup kana keluarga nu sarua jeung manuk kasuari, rhéa, emu, jeung kiwi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.habaloen.com/2017/01/ciri-ciri-burung-unta-dan-jenis-jenis.html|title=ciri-ciri burung unta dan jenis-jenis burung unta serta Cara beternak burung unta|website=www.habaloen.com|accessdate=2018-01-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311122738/http://www.habaloen.com/2017/01/ciri-ciri-burung-unta-dan-jenis-jenis.html |date=2018-03-11 }}</ref> Lantaran awakna badag, manuk onta teu bisa ngapung siga manuk sejénna.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jualayamhias.com/15-hal-unik-yang-perlu-kita-ketahui-tentang-burung-unta/|title=15 Hal Unik yang Perlu Kita Ketahui Tentang Burung Unta - Jual Ayam Hias|date=2016-05-13|newspaper=Jual Ayam Hias|language=en-US|access-date=2018-01-19}}</ref> Manuk onta jangkungna bisa nepika 2.5 meter.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.kopi-ireng.com/2016/03/20-fakta-menarik-tentang-burung-unta.html|title=20 Fakta Menarik Tentang Burung Unta, Burung Pelari Tercepat di Dunia|last=FB|first=PROFIL|newspaper=Kopi-ireng.com|access-date=2018-01-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208135211/http://www.kopi-ireng.com/2016/03/20-fakta-menarik-tentang-burung-unta.html |date=2017-12-08 }}</ref> Beuratna bisa nepika 140&nbsp;kg.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://satujam.com/fakta-burung-unta/|title=Ciri-Ciri dan Fakta Menarik Burung Unta - Satu Jam|date=2016-03-04|newspaper=Satu Jam|language=id-ID|access-date=2018-01-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506050026/http://www.satujam.com/fakta-burung-unta |date=2017-05-06 }}</ref> Ciri hasna nyaéta beuheungna nu panjang pikeun nempo posisi musuh aya di mana.<ref name=":0" /> Dingaranan manuk onta lantaran beuheungna nu panjang siga [[onta]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.jalaksuren.net/karakteristik-burung-unta/|title=Karakteristik Burung Unta dan Keunikan yang Dimilikinya|date=2017-09-25|newspaper=UD. Jalak Suren|language=id-ID|access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref> == Habitat == Manuk onta lain manuk asli [[Indonesia]], tapi manuk nu asalna ti [[Afrika]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=http://animals.mom.me/habitat-food-sources-ostrich-2284.html|title=The Habitat & Food Sources of the Ostrich|language=en|access-date=2018-01-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124213251/http://animals.mom.me/habitat-food-sources-ostrich-2284.html |date=2018-01-24 }}</ref> Sacara husus, aya di belah wetan atawa kidul [[Afrika]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/stauder_abig/habitat.htm|title=Ostrich (Struthio camelus)|website=bioweb.uwlax.edu|language=en-us|accessdate=2018-01-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003190411/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/stauder_abig/habitat.htm |date=2017-10-03 }}</ref> Tapi sok aya ogé di [[Sagara sahara|sagara Sahara]].<ref name=":1" /> Manuk onta resep hirup di [[tegal]] nu garing, [[sagara]], jeung [[havana]].<ref name=":1" /> Epidermis, awakna, jeung karakteristikna ngamungkinkeun manuk onta hirup di habitat nu ékstrim.<ref name=":1" /> Lamun di ekosistem [[tropis]] nu leuweungna loba ku [[tatangkalan]], manuk onta moal bisa hirup lila lantaran teu bisa ngapung jeung teu boga ruang bebas pikeun lumpat nalika aya bahaya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sciencing.com/ostrichs-natural-habitat-6391764.html|title=Ostrich's Natural Habitat|website=Sciencing|language=en|accessdate=2018-01-31}}</ref> == Perilaku == Manuk onta kaasup jenis sato sosial.<ref name=":2" /> Manéhna bisa babarengan nyimpen [[endog]] di tempat nu sarua.<ref name=":2" /> Tapi bisa ogé ngabedakeun [[Endog asin|endog]] nu mana nu rék dihasilkeun.<ref name=":2" /> Tempat keur endogna ukuranna kurang leuwih 3 meter.<ref name=":2" /> [[Gambar:Ostrich egg.jpg|jmpl|Endog manuk onta]] Endog manuk onta nyaéta nu pangbadagna di antara manuk nu sején.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/345784-nutritional-facts-on-ostrich-eggs/|title=Nutritional Facts on Ostrich Eggs|last=Bird|first=Beverly|newspaper=LIVESTRONG.COM|language=en-US|access-date=2018-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925230536/http://www.livestrong.com/article/345784-nutritional-facts-on-ostrich-eggs/|archive-date=2017-09-25}}</ref> Ukuran diameterna bisa nepi ka 12–18&nbsp;cm, lamun panjangna kurang leuwih 46&nbsp;cm.<ref name=":3" /> Cangkang endogna lumayan teuas.<ref name=":2" /> Endogna bakal megar sanggeus 45 poé direkem.<ref name=":2" /> Nalika kaayaan bahaya atawa kaancam, manuk onta bakal gogoleran di taneuh atawa lumpat kabur.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=http://bobo.grid.id/Sains/Flora-Dan-Fauna/Inilah-4-Jenis-Burung-Yang-Tidak-Bisa-Terbang|title=Inilah 4 Jenis Burung yang Tidak Bisa Terbang|newspaper=Bobo.Grid.ID|access-date=2018-02-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129091009/http://bobo.grid.id/Sains/Flora-Dan-Fauna/Inilah-4-Jenis-Burung-Yang-Tidak-Bisa-Terbang |date=2018-01-29 }}</ref> Manuk onta bisa lumpat nepi ka gancangna 70&nbsp;km/jam.<ref name=":4" /> Dina sakali ngaléngkah bisa nepika 5 meter.<ref name=":4" /> Lamun kaayaana geus kaserang, manuk onta bakal najong maké sukuna nu kuat.<ref name=":5" /> Saking kuatna, bisa nepi ka nyieun jalma atawa sato predator siga [[singa]] maot.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/o/ostrich/|title=Ostrich {{!}} National Geographic|date=2010-11-11|access-date=2018-02-01}}</ref> == Kadaharan == Manuk onta kaasup kana sato [[omnivora]] nyaéta sato nu sagala dihakan boh éta tutuwuhan atawa daging.<ref name=":6" /> Manéhna butuh kadaharan nu miboga kandungan gizi jeung vitamin nu loba.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=http://www.roysfarm.com/food-of-ostrich/|title=Food Of Ostrich {{!}} Modern Farming Methods|date=2012-04-27|newspaper=Modern Farming Methods|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123061027/http://www.roysfarm.com/food-of-ostrich |date=2018-01-23 }}</ref> Jenis kadaharan mantuan pikeun ngaoptimalkeun produksina jeung kaséhatannana.<ref name=":7" /> Umumna mah sok ngadahar dadaunan,akar-akaran,siki-sikian,sato gegemetan, kadal nepi ka sato leutik nu aya di sakurilingna.<ref name=":2" /> == Mangpaaat == Manuk onta miboga sababaraha mangpaat boh éta tanagana,endogna, jeung bagéan tina awakna siga kulit,bulu, jeung dagingna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agrobisnisinfo.com/2015/04/burung-unta.html|title=Fakta-Fakta Tentang Burung Unta {{!}} AGROBISNISINFO.Com|website=www.agrobisnisinfo.com|accessdate=2018-02-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210213051/http://www.agrobisnisinfo.com/2015/04/burung-unta.html |date=2018-02-10 }}</ref> Tanagana biasana sok dipaké pikeun transportasi atawa balap.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=Storypedia: Binatang Paling|last=Setiafitri|first=Pipit|publisher=Buah Hati|year=2013|isbn=|location=Tangerang|pages=}}</ref> Hususna daerah [[Afrika Utara]] jeung [[Arab]].<ref name=":9" /> Kulitna biasana sok dipaké pikeun bahan nyieun kantong.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mediamuda.com/bahan-baku-tas-tas-mahal-ternyata-kulit-hewan/|title=Kulit Burung Unta Menjadi Bahan Baku Tas-Tas Termahal - Media Muda|date=2016-05-10|newspaper=Media Muda|language=id-ID|access-date=2018-02-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619085100/https://www.mediamuda.com/bahan-baku-tas-tas-mahal-ternyata-kulit-hewan/ |date=2021-06-19 }}</ref> Buluna mah dipaké pikeun industri pembersih.<ref name=":8" /> Endog jeung dagingna biasana sok dikonsumsi manusa.<ref name=":8" /> Daging onta rasana mirip pisan jeung daging [[sapi]] umumna, ngan kaleuwihanna kadar lemak jeung kolesterol nu saeutik, sarta kadar kalsium, protein, jeung zat beusi nu loba.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://www.aryanto.id/artikel/id/1700/manfaat-dan-kebaikan-daging-burung-unta-bagi-tubuh|title=Manfaat dan Kebaikan Daging Burung Unta Bagi Tubuh|last=Maryati|first=Sri|newspaper=Aryantoid Informasi Kesehatan dan Pengobatan Herbal|access-date=2018-02-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922082436/https://www.aryanto.id/artikel/id/1700/manfaat-dan-kebaikan-daging-burung-unta-bagi-tubuh |date=2020-09-22 }}</ref> Dagigna miboga sababaraha mangpaat kaséhatan pikeun awak di antarana jang kekebalan,stamina, nyegah panyakit saraf jeung otak.<ref name=":10" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sato omnivora]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] 1zl7ji0uqr1jxhbm8891k0hksklr1p0 Citakan:Chart 10 73045 732079 536784 2026-11-10T17:12:52Z Rafka Aditia 29183 732079 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly><templatestyles src="Chart/styles.css"/><!-- -->{{#ifeq:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|center|<div class="center" role="figure" aria-labelledby="suwiki-chart-header-id">}}<!-- 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-->{{#if:{{{thumb|{{{1|}}}}}}||<div style="clear: {{#switch:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|right=right|left=left|#default=both}};"></div>}}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown={{main other|[[Kategori:Kaca nu maké bagan kalawan paraméter nu teu dipikanyaho|_VALUE_{{PAGENAME}}]]}}|preview=Kaca nu maké [[Citakan:Chart]] kalawan paraméter "_VALUE_" nu teu dipikanyaho|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | align | border | caption | chart | data | definition | hideSource | source | style | thumb | title | width }}{{#invoke:Check for conflicting parameters|check |nested=1 |template=Chart |cat={{main other|Kategori:Kaca nu maké bagan kalawan paraméter nu teu saluyu}} | 1; thumb |2; align | 3; width; Width | 4; caption | chart ; definition }}</includeonly><noinclude>{{Dokuméntasi}}</noinclude> buwhnr2ga02ol4zmuppt0xcmv39c6v7 732081 732079 2026-11-10T17:18:37Z Rafka Aditia 29183 732081 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly><templatestyles src="Chart/styles.css"/><!-- -->{{#ifeq:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|center|<div class="center" role="figure" aria-labelledby="suwiki-chart-header-id">}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{thumb|{{{1|}}}}}} |<div class="thumb {{#switch:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|center|none=tnone|left=floatleft|right|#default=floatright}}" {{#if:{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3|}}}}}}}}}||style="width: 100%"}}><div class="thumbinner" {{#if:{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3|}}}}}}}}}|style="width: fit-content;"}}><div class="thumbimage suwiki-chart"<!-- -->|<div class="suwiki-chart {{#switch:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|right=floatright|left=floatleft|#default=floatnone}}" <!-- -->}}<!-- End if thumb/1 -->{{#if: {{{width|{{{Width|{{{3|}}}}}}}}}{{{style|}}}{{{border|}}} | style="{{#if: {{{width|{{{Width|{{{3|}}}}}}}}}| width:{{ifnumber|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}px|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}}};}}<!-- -->{{#ifeq: {{yesno|{{{border|}}}}}| yes | border: 1px solid var(--border-color-base);}}<!-- -->{{#if: {{{style|}}}|{{{style}}};}}"<!-- -->}}><!-- --><div class="suwiki-chart-content"><!-- -->{{#if: {{{data|}}} | {{#chart:{{{chart|{{{definition|}}}}}}|data={{{data|}}}}}<!-- -->| {{#chart:{{{chart|{{{definition|}}}}}}}}<!-- -->}}<!-- --></div><!-- End suwiki-chart-content div -->{{#if:{{{thumb|{{{1|}}}}}}|</div><!-- End thumbimage div --><div class="thumbcaption" {{#if: {{{width|{{{Width|{{{3|}}}}}}}}}|style="width:{{ifnumber|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}px|{{{width|{{{Width|{{{3}}}}}}}}}}};"}}>|<div class="center"><small>}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{title|}}}|<span class="suwiki-chart-title" id="suwiki-chart-header-id">{{{title}}}</span>}}<span class="caption suwiki-chart-caption" role="caption" id="suwiki-chart-caption-id">{{{caption|{{{4|}}}}}}</span> <!-- -->{{#if: {{{hideSource|}}} ||<!-- -->Tempo {{#if: {{{source|{{{data|}}}}}} | [[c:Data:{{{source|{{{data|}}}}}}|data sumber]]. | [[c:Data:{{{chart|{{{definition|}}}}}}|pedaran bagan]]. }}}}{{#if:{{{thumb|{{{1|}}}}}}|</div>|</small>}}</div><!-- End thumbinner div --></div><!-- End suwiki-chart/thumb div -->{{#ifeq:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|center|</div>}}<!-- End center div -->{{#if:{{{thumb|{{{1|}}}}}}||<div style="clear: {{#switch:{{{align|{{{2|}}}}}}|right=right|left=left|#default=both}};"></div>}}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown={{main other|[[Kategori:Kaca nu maké bagan kalawan paraméter nu teu dipikanyaho|_VALUE_{{PAGENAME}}]]}}|preview=Kaca nu maké [[Citakan:Chart]] kalawan paraméter "_VALUE_" nu teu dipikanyaho|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | align | border | caption | chart | data | definition | hideSource | source | style | thumb | title | width }}{{#invoke:Check for conflicting parameters|check |nested=1 |template=Chart |cat={{main other|Kategori:Kaca nu maké bagan kalawan paraméter nu teu saluyu}} | 1; thumb |2; align | 3; width; Width | 4; caption | chart ; definition }}</includeonly><noinclude>{{Dokuméntasi}}</noinclude> hhd2f3xs6zru99tk0m05epxoh7f41ay Citakan:Tree chart/end 10 73046 732086 536785 2026-11-10T17:38:46Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:Chart/end]] ka [[Citakan:Tree chart/end]] 536785 wikitext text/x-wiki </table><noinclude>{{Documentation|Template:Chart/end/doc}}</noinclude> jjrdu02t8qbnwvx3we9wbon1hsj06sj Pamaké:Kumincir/Salsilah Sunda 2 73048 732090 536787 2026-11-10T17:58:07Z Rafka Aditia 29183 732090 wikitext text/x-wiki ==House of Plantagenet== {{chart top|width=100%|House of Plantagenet}} {{tree chart/start|style=font-size:110%|align=center| summary=Boxes and lines diagram with 155 boxes}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HOP | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | HOP=[[House of Plantagenet|House<br>of<br>Plantagenet]]| boxstyle_HOP=border-width:0px;}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Geo |y|Mat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Geo=<small>m. 1128</small><br />[[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey<br />Plantagenet<br /> <small>Count of Anjou</small>]]<br /><small>1113–1151</small>| boxstyle_Geo=border-width:2px;| Mat='''[[Empress Matilda|Matilda]]'''<br /><small>c.1102–1167<br />r. 1141<br>''208 Days''<br>''Disputed''</small>| boxstyle_Mat=border-width:2px;}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | GN | |EA |y|HT | | WF | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | GN=[[Geoffrey, Count of Nantes|Geoffrey<br /><small>Count of Nantes</small>]]<br /><small>1134–1158 </small>| EA=<small>m. 1152</small><br />[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor<br /><small>of Aquitaine</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1122–1204</small>| boxstyle_EA=border-width:2px;| HT='''[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]'''<br /><small>1133–1189<br />r. 1154–1189</small>| boxstyle_HT=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| WF=[[William FitzEmpress|William X<br /><small>of Poitou</small>]]<br /><small>1136–1163/64</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | |GB |y| CB | |MS |y| HL |!|EC |y| AC | | WS |y|JS |y| RT | | | | | | | | | GB=[[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey II<br /><small>Duke of<br /> Brittany</small>]]<br /><small>1158–1186</small>| boxstyle_GB=border-width:2px| CB=<small>m. 1181</small><br />[[Constance, Duchess of Brittany|Constance<br /><small>Duchess of<br /> Brittany</small>]]<br /><small>1161–1201</small>| MS=[[Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony|Matilda<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1156–1189 </small>| boxstyle_MS=border-width:2px| HL=<small>m. 1168</small><br />[[Henry the Lion|Henry III<br /><small>Duke of Saxony</small>]]<small><br />''The Lion''<br />1129–1195</small>| EC=[[Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile|Eleanor<br /> <small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1162–1214 </small>| boxstyle_EC=border-width:2px| AC=<small>m. 1177</small><br />[[Alfonso VIII of Castile|Alfonso VIII<br /><small>of Castile</small>]]<br /><small>1155–1214</small>| WS=<small>m. 1177</small><br />[[William II of Sicily|William II<br /><small>of Sicily</small>]]<br /><small>1155–1189</small>| JS=[[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1165–1199 </small>| boxstyle_JS=border-width:2px| RT=<small>m. 1197</small><br />[[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse|Raymond VI<br /><small>Count of<br /> Toulouse</small>]]<br /><small>1156–1222</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|.| | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| EB | | MB | | AB | | | |CH2 | | |!| | |EC2 | | | | | | BA | |CH | | | | | | | | | | | EB=[[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany|Eleanor<br /> <small>of Brittany</small>]]<small><br>c. 1184–1241</small>| MB=Matilda <br /><small>of Brittany</small><br><small>1185–before1189 </small>| AB=[[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur I<br /><small>Duke of Brittany</small>]]<br><small>1187–1203 </small>| CH2=''[[House of Welf|<small>House<br />of Welf</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| EC2=''[[Anscarids|<small>House of<br /> Burgundy</small>]]''| boxstyle_EC2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| BA=[[Bohemond, Duke of Apulia|Bohemond<br /><small>Duke of Apulia</small>]]| CH=''[[Counts of Rouergue|<small>House of<br />Rouergue</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | |WP | |HYK |~| MF | |RI |~|BN | |IA |y|KJ |~|IG | | | | | | | | | | | | | WP=[[William IX, Count of Poitiers|William IX<br /><small>Count of Poitiers</small>]]<br /><small>1153–1156</small>| boxstyle_WP=border-width:2px| HYK=[[Henry the Young King|Henry<br /><small>Duke of<br /> Normandy</small>]]<br /><small>''The Young King''<br />1155–1183</small>| boxstyle_HYK=border-width:2px| MF=<small>m. 1160</small><br />[[Margaret of France, Queen of England and Hungary|Margaret<br />o<small>f France</small>]]<br /><small>1157–1197</small>| RI='''[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]'''<br />''Lionheart''<br /><small>1157–1199<br />r. 1189–1199</small>| boxstyle_RI=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| BN=<small>m. 1191</small><br />[[Berengaria of Navarre|Berengaria <br /><small>of Navarre</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1165–1230</small>| boxstyle_BN=border-width:2px;| IA=<small>m. 1200</small><br />[[Isabella of Angoulême|Isabella<br /><small>of Angoulême</small>]]<br /><small>1188–1246</small>| boxstyle_IA=border-width:2px| KJ='''[[John, King of England|John]]'''<br /><small>''Lackland''<br />1166–1216<br />r. 1199–1216</small>| boxstyle_KJ=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| IG=<small>m. 1189–1199</small><br />[[Isabella, Countess of Gloucester|Isabel<br /><small>Countess of<br /> Gloucester</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1173–1217</small>| boxstyle_IG=border-width:2px;}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1|EP |y|HT2 | | WM |~|EL |y| SD | | IM |y|RC |y| SA | |JE |~| AS | |IH |y| FH | EP=<small>m. 1236</small><br />[[Eleanor of Provence|Eleanor <br /><small>of Provence</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1223–1291</small>| boxstyle_EP=border-width:2px;| HT2='''[[Henry III of England|Henry III]]'''<br /><small>1207–1272<br />r. 1216–1272</small>| boxstyle_HT2=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| WM=<small>m. 1224</small><br />[[William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|William <br />Marshal<br /><small>2nd Earl <br />of Pembroke</small>]]<br /><small>1190–1231</small>| EL=[[Eleanor of Leicester|Eleanor<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1215–1275</small>| boxstyle_EL=border-width:2px| SD=<small>m. 1238</small><br />[[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon <br />de Montfort]]<br /><small>1208–1265</small>| IM=<small>m. 1231</small><br />[[Isabel Marshal|Isabel<br /> Marshal]]<br /><small>1200–1240</small>| RC=[[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Richard<br /><small>1st Earl of<br /> Cornwall</small>]]<br /><small>1209–1272 </small>| boxstyle_RC=border-width:2px;| SA=<small>m. 1243</small><br />[[Sanchia of Provence|Sanchia <br /><small>of Provence</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1228–1261</small>| JE=[[Joan of England, Queen of Scotland|Joan <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1210–1238 </small>| boxstyle_JE=border-width:2px;| AS=<small>m. 1221</small><br />[[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II<br /><small>of Scotland</small>]]<br /><small>1198–1249</small>| IH=[[Isabella of England|Isabella <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1214–1241</small>| boxstyle_IH=border-width:2px;| FH=<small>m. 1235</small><br />[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II<br /><small>Holy Roman<br /> Emperor</small>]]<br /><small>1194–1250</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| |,|-|-|-|v|-|'| |:| |`|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | |!| | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| HA | |OT | | BF | | ED | | RC2 | |OTH | | | |CH3 | | | HA=[[Henry of Almain|Henry <br />of Almain]]<br /><small>1235–1271</small>| OT=''[[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall#Marriages and issue|Others]]''| boxstyle_OT=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| BF=<small>m. 1269</small><br />[[Beatrice of Falkenburg|Beatrice<br /><small>of Falkenburg</small>]]<br /><small>c.1254–1277</small>| ED=[[Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall|Edmund<br /><small>2nd Earl of<br /> Cornwall</small>]]<br /><small>1249–1300</small>| RC2=Richard <br /><small>of Cornwal</small>| OTH=''[[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall#Marriages and issue|Others]]''| boxstyle_OTH=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CH3=''[[House of Hohenstaufen|<small>House of<br />Hohenstaufen</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH3=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| HDM | | SDM | | ADM | | RDM | | JDM | | | | | | GDM |~| MA | | EDM |y| LG | | | | | HDM=[[Henry de Montfort|Henry <br /><small>de Montfort</small>]]<br /><small>1238–1265</small>| SDM=[[Simon the Younger de Montfort|Simon <br /><small>the Younger <br />de Montfort</small>]]<br /><small>1240–1271</small>| ADM=[[Amaury de Montfort, Canon of York|Amaury <br /><small>de Montfort<br />Canon of York</small>]]<br /><small>1242–1301</small>| RDM=Richard <br /><small>de Montfort</small><br/><small>1252–1266</small>| JDM=Joanna <br /><small>de Montfort<br>1248/1251</small>| GDM=[[Guy de Montfort, Count of Nola|Guy<br /><small>de Montfort<br />Count of Nola</small>]]<br /><small>1244–c. 1288</small>| MA=Margherita<br /><small>Aldobrandesca</small>| EDM=[[Eleanor de Montfort|Eleanor<br /><small>de Montfort</small>]]<br /><small>1252–1282</small>| LG=<small>m. 1275</small><br />[[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd|Llywelyn<br /><small>ap Gruffudd</small>]]<br /><small>c.1223–1282</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |`|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |`|-|-|-|-|-|.| }} {{tree chart|border=1|EC3 |y|ED2 |y|MF2 | |KT | | AF |~|EL2 |y| BA2 | |BE |y| JB | |MS2 |y| AS2 | | GW | EC3=<small>m. 1254</small><br />[[Eleanor of Castile|Eleanor <br /><small>of Castile</small>]]<br /><small>1241–1290</small>| boxstyle_EC3=border-width:2px| ED2='''[[Edward I of England|Edward I]]<br />'''<small>''Longshanks''<br />1239–1307<br />r.1272–1307</small>| boxstyle_ED2=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| MF2=<small>m. 1299</small><br />[[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret<br /><small>of France</small>]]<br /><small>1279–1318</small>| boxstyle_MF2=border-width:2px;| KT=Katherine <br /><small>of England</small><br /><small>1253–1257</small>| boxstyle_KT=border-width:2px;| AF=<small>m. 1269</small><br />[[Aveline de Forz|Aveline<br /><small>de Forz</small>]]<br /><small>1259–1274</small>| EL2=[[Edmund, 1st Earl of Lancaster|Edmund<br /><small>1st Earl of<br />Lancaster</small>]]<br />''<small>Crouchback''<br />1245–1296</small>| boxstyle_EL2=border-width:2px;| BA2=<small>m. 1276</small><br />[[Blanche of Artois|Blanche <br /><small>of Artois</small>]]<br /><small>1248–1302</small>| BE=[[Beatrice of England|Beatrice <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1242–1275</small>| boxstyle_BE=border-width:2px;| JB=<small>m. 1260</small><br />[[John II, Duke of Brittany|John II<br /><small>Duke of Brittany</small>]]<br /><small>1239–1305</small>| MS2=[[Margaret of England|Margaret <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1240–1275</small>| boxstyle_MS2=border-width:2px;| AS2=<small>m. 1251</small><br />[[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III<br /><small>of Scotland</small>]]<br /><small>1241–1286</small>| GW=[[Gwenllian of Wales|Gwenllian<br /><small>of Wales</small>]]<br /><small>1282–1337</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |`|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!| | | | | | | |`|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |!| |`|-|.| | | | | | | |!| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!|EL3 | |ED3 |y| MW | | AH |y|TH |~| MB2 | |COE | |COB | | | | | |CH5 | | | | | EL3=Eleanor <br /><small>of England<br />1306–1310</small>| boxstyle_EL3=border-width:2px;| ED3=[[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|Edmund<br /><small>of Woodstock<br />1st Earl<br />of Kent</small>]]<br /><small>1301–1330</small>| boxstyle_ED3=border-width:2px;| MW=<small>m. 1325</small><br />[[Margaret Wake, 3rd Baroness Wake of Liddell|Margaret<br />Wake]]<br /><small>c. 1297–1349</small>| AH=<small>m. 1319</small><br />Alice <br />Hayles| TH=[[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Thomas <br /><small>of Brotherton<br />1st Earl of<br /> Norfolk</small>]]<br /><small>1300–1338</small>| boxstyle_TH=border-width:2px;| MB2=<small>m. 1335</small><br />Mary <br />Braose| COE=''[[House of Plantagenet|<small>House of<br /> Plantagenet</small>]]''| boxstyle_COE=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| COB=''<small>[[Counts of Dreux|House of Dreux]]</small>''| boxstyle_COB=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CH5=<small>[[House of Dunkeld|House of<br /> Dunkeld]]</small>| boxstyle_CH5=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |)|-|.| | | | | |!| | | | | |,|-|'| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|.| | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!|MW2 | | | |COE2 | | | |COT | |KAT | |JA | |JO | |HE | |AC2 | |BE2 |!| | | | MW2=[[Mary of Woodstock|Mary <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1279–c. 1332</small>| boxstyle_MW2=border-width:2px;| COE2=''[[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|<small>Plantagenet<br /> Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_COE2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| COT=''[[Thomas of Brotherton#Marriages and issue and death|<small>Plantagenet<br />Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_COT=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| KAT=Katherine <br /><small>of England</small><br /><small>c.1261–1264</small>| boxstyle_KAT=border-width:2px;| JA=Joan <br /><small>of England</small><br /><small>1265</small>| boxstyle_JA=border-width:2px;| JO=John <br /><small>of England</small><br /><small>1266–1271</small>| boxstyle_JO=border-width:2px;| HE=[[Henry, son of Edward I|Henry]]<br /><small>1267–1274</small>| boxstyle_HE=border-width:2px;| AC2=[[Alphonso, Earl of Chester|Alphonso<br /><small>Earl of Chester</small>]]<br /><small>1273–1284</small>| boxstyle_AC2=border-width:2px;| BE2=Berengaria<br /><small>of England</small><br /><small>1276–1278</small>| boxstyle_BE2=border-width:2px;}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |`|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|'| | | }} {{tree chart|border=1|IF |y|ED4 | | JC |~|ER |y| HDB | |EL4 |y| HB | | GC |y|JE2 |y| RM | |ME |y| JB2 | IF=<small>m. 1308</small><br />[[Isabella of France|Isabella<br /><small>of France</small>]]<br /><small>c.1295–1358</small>| boxstyle_IF=border-width:2px;| ED4='''[[Edward II of England|Edward II]]'''<br /><small>1284–1327<br />r.1307–1327</small>| boxstyle_ED4=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| JC=<small>m. 1297</small><br />[[John I, Count of Holland|John I<br /><small>Count of<br /> Holland</small>]]<br /><small>1284–1299</small>| ER=[[Elizabeth of Rhuddlan|Elizabeth<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1282–1316</small>| boxstyle_ER=border-width:2px;| HDB=<small>m. 1302</small><br />[[Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford|Humphrey <br /><small>de Bohun<br />4th Earl of<br /> Hereford</small>]]<br /><small>1276–1322</small>| EL4=[[Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar|Eleanor <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1269–1298</small>| boxstyle_EL4=border-width:2px;| HB=<small>m. 1293</small><br />[[Henry III, Count of Bar|Henry III<br /><small>Count of Bar</small>]]<br /><small>1259–1302</small>| GC=<small>m. 1290</small><br />[[Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester|<small>Gilbert<br />de Clare<br />7th Earl of<br />Gloucester</small>]]<br /><small>1243–1295</small>| JE2=[[Joan of Acre|Joan <small><br />of England</small>]]<br /><small>1272–1307 </small>| boxstyle_JE2=border-width:2px;| RM=<small>m. 1297</small><br />[[Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer|Ralph<br /><small>de Monthermer<br />1st Baron <br />Monthermer</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1270–1325</small>| ME=[[Margaret of England, Duchess of Brabant|Margaret<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1275–1333</small>| boxstyle_ME=border-width:2px;| JB2=<small>m. 1290</small><br />[[John II, Duke of Brabant|John II<br /><small>Duke of<br /> Brabant</small>]]<br /><small>1275–1312</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | |CH7 | | | | | |CD2 | | | | | |COJ | |CH6 | | | | | |CD | | | CH7=''[[Elizabeth of Rhuddlan#Issue|<small>de Bohun<br />Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH7=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CD2=''[[Counts and Dukes of Bar|<small>House of<br />Montbelliard</small>]]''| boxstyle_CD2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| COJ=''[[Joan of Acre#First marriage|<small>de Clare<br />Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_COJ=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CH6=''[[Joan of Acre#Secret second marriage|<small>de<br />Monthermer<br /> Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH6=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CD=''[[House of Reginar|<small>House of<br />Reginar</small>]]''| boxstyle_CD=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |`|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1|PH |y|ED5 | |JE3 | |EW |~| RG | |JT |~| DS | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | PH=<small>m. 1328</small><br />[[Philippa of Hainault|Philippa <br /><small>of Hainault</small>]]<br /><small>1314–1369</small>| boxstyle_PH=border-width:2px;| ED5='''[[Edward III of England|Edward III]]'''<br /><small>1312–1377<br />r. 1327–1377</small>| boxstyle_ED5=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| JE3=[[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall|John <br /><small>of Eltham<br />Earl of Cornwall</small>]]<br /><small>1316–1336</small>| boxstyle_JE3=border-width:2px;| EW=[[Eleanor of Woodstock|Eleanor<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1318–1355</small>| boxstyle_EW=border-width:2px;| RG=<small>m. 1332</small><br />[[Reginald II, Duke of Guelders|Reginald II<br /><small>Duke of<br /> Guelders</small>]]<br /><small>c.1295–1343</small>| JT=[[Joan of The Tower|Joan <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br><small>1321–1362</small>| boxstyle_JT=border-width:2px;| DS=<small>m. 1328<br></small>[[David II of Scotland|David II<br /><small>of Scotland</small>]]<small><br>1324–1371</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |)|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!|JO2 | |WH | |MA2 |~| JB3 | |MAR |~| JH | |WW | |IS |~| EC4 | |TW |~| ELB | JO2=[[Joan of England (1335–1348)|Joan <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1335–1348</small>| boxstyle_JO2=border-width:2px;| WH=William <br /><small>of Hatfield<br />1337</small>| boxstyle_WH=border-width:2px;| MA2=[[Mary of Waltham|Mary <br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1344–1362</small>| boxstyle_MA2=border-width:2px;| JB3=<small>m. 1361<br /></small>[[John V, Duke of Brittany|John V<br /><small>Duke of Brittany</small>]]<br /><small>1339–1399</small>| MAR=[[Margaret, Countess of Pembroke|Margaret<br /><small>of England</small>]]<br /><small>1346–1361</small>| boxstyle_MAR=border-width:2px;| JH=<small>m. 1359<br /></small>[[John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|John<br />Hastings<br /><small>2nd Earl of<br /> Pembroke</small>]]<br /><small>1347–1375</small>| WW=William <small><br />of Windsor<br />1348</small>| boxstyle_WW=border-width:2px;| IS=[[Isabella de Coucy|Isabella <br /><small>of England</small>]]<small><br />1332–<br />1379/1382</small>| boxstyle_IS=border-width:2px;| EC4=<small>m. 1365<br /></small>[[Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy|Enguerrand<br />VII<br /><small>Lord of Coucy</small>]]<br /><small>1340–1397</small>| TW=[[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas<br /><small>of Woodstock<br />1st Duke of<br />Gloucester</small>]]<br /><small>1355–1397</small>| boxstyle_TW=border-width:2px;| ELB=<small>m. 1376<br /></small>[[Eleanor de Bohun|Eleanor<br /><small>de Bohun</small>]]<br><small>c. 1366–1399</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |`|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!|F|~|~|~|~|y|~|7| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| JK |y|ED6 | | | | | | BL |y|JG |y| CC |!| KS | |EDY |y| ICY | | EDB |y|LA |~| VV | JK=<small>m. 1361</small><br />[[Joan of Kent|Joan<small><br />of Kent</small>]]<br /><small>1328–1385</small>| ED6=[[Edward, the Black Prince|Edward<br /><small>of Wales</small>]]<br />''<small>The Black<br /> Prince''<br />1330–1376</small>| boxstyle_ED6=border-width:2px;| BL=<small>m. 1359<br /></small>[[Blanche of Lancaster|Blanche<br /><small>of Lancaster</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1347–1368</small>| JG=[[John of Gaunt|John<br /><small>of Gaunt<br />1st Duke of<br />Lancaster</small>]]<br /><small>1340–1399</small>| boxstyle_JG=border-width:2px;| CC=<small>m. 1371<br /></small>[[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance<br /><small>of Castile</small>]]<br /><small>1354–1394</small>| KS=<small>n m. 1396<br></small>[[Katherine Swynford|Katherine<br />Swynford]]<br><small>1350–1403</small>| EDY=[[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Edmund<br /><small>of Langley<br />1st Duke<br />of York</small>]]<br /><small>1341–1402</small>| boxstyle_EDY=border-width:2px;| ICY=<small>m. 1372<br /></small>[[Isabella of Castile, Duchess of York|Isabella<br /><small>of Castile</small>]]<br /><small>c.1355–1392 </small>| EDB=<small>m. 1352<br /></small>[[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth<br /> <small>de Burgh<br />4th Countess <br />of Ulster</small>]]<br /><small>1332–1363</small>| LA=[[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence|Lionel<br /><small>of Antwerp<br />1st Duke of<br />Clarence</small>]]<br /><small>1338–1368</small>| boxstyle_LA=border-width:2px;| VV=<small>m. 1368<br /></small>[[Violante Visconti|Violante<br />Visconti]]<br /><small>1354–1386</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|b|-|.| | | | | |!| | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| |,|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | |`|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | |!| |!| | | | | |`|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1|EA2 | |AB2 |~|RT2 |~|IV | |HOL | | JO3 | | CC2 |y| HC |!|HOB | | | | | | PH2 |y| EM | EA2=[[Edward of Angoulême|Edward <br /><small>of Angoulême</small>]]<br/><small>1365–1372</small>| boxstyle_EA2=border-width:2px;| AB2=<small>m. 1382<br /></small>[[Anne of Bohemia|Anne<br /><small>of Bohemia</small>]]<br /><small>1366–1394</small>| boxstyle_AB2=border-width:2px;| RT2='''[[Richard II of England|Richard II]]'''<br /><small>1367–1400<br>r.1377–1399</small>| boxstyle_RT2=border-width:2px; border-color:#CC0000;| IV=<small>m. 1396<br /></small>[[Isabella of Valois|Isabella<br /><small>of Valois</small>]]<br /><small>1389–1409</small>| boxstyle_IV=border-width:2px;| HOL='''[[House of Lancaster|''House <br />of <br />Lancaster'']]'''| boxstyle_HOL=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| JO3=John <br /><small>of Lancaster</small><br /><small>1374–1375</small>| CC2=[[Catherine of Lancaster|Catherine<br /><small>of Lancaster</small>]]<br /><small>1373–1418</small>| HC=<small>m. 1388<br /></small>[[Henry III of Castile|Henry III<br /><small>of Castile</small>]]<br /><small>1379–1406</small>| HOB=''[[House of Beaufort|<small>House<br />of Beaufort</small>]]''| boxstyle_HOB=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| PH2=[[Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster|Philippa<br /><small>5th Countess<br />of Ulster</small>]]<br><small>1355–1382</small>| EM=<small>m. 1368<br></small>[[Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March|Edmund<br />Mortimer<br /><small>3rd Earl<br /> of March</small>]]<br><small>1352–1381</small>}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |`|-|.| |!| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HT3 |!| | | | | AH2 |y| RM2 | |OT3 | HT3=''[[House of Trastámara|<small>House of<br />Trastámara</small>]]''| boxstyle_HT3=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| AH2=<small>m. 1388<br /></small>[[Alianore Holland, Countess of March|Alianore<br />Holland]]<br /><small>1373–1405</small>| RM2=[[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March|Roger<br />Mortimer<br /><small>4th Earl <br />of March</small>]]<br /><small>1374–1398</small>| OT3=''[[Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster#Marriage and issue|Others]]''| boxstyle_OT3=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |OT2 | | RC3 |y| ANN | |OM2 | | | | | OT2=''[[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York#Marriage|Others]]''| boxstyle_OT2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| RC3=<small>m. 1406<br /></small>[[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge|Richard<br /><small>of Conisburgh<br />3rd Earl of<br /> Cambridge</small>]]<br /><small>c. 1375–1415</small>| ANN=[[Anne de Mortimer|Anne <br /><small>de Mortimer</small>]]<br /><small>1390–1411</small>| OM2=''[[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March#Children|Others]]''| boxstyle_OM2=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|'| | | | | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HOY | | | | | | | | | | | | | HOY='''''[[House of York|House<br />of <br />York]]'''''| boxstyle_HOY=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}} <!-- Unused parameters: --> {{tree chart| CH4=''[[Guy de Montfort, Count of Nola|<small>de Montfort<br /> Family</small>]]''| boxstyle_CH4=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top| CH8=''[[Counts and Dukes of Guelders|House of Wassenberg]]''| HOC=''[[Lords of Coucy|House of Coucy]]''| HOP2=''[[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester#Heirs|Plantagenet Family]]''}} {{tree chart/end}} {{chart bottom}} gd3fpmv4qfdsspom6dftwfeuh7oxjod Citakan:Tree chart/start 10 73049 732083 536788 2026-11-10T17:32:55Z Rafka Aditia 29183 732083 wikitext text/x-wiki <table class="tree-chart" style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate; {{#switch: {{{align|}}} |left = float: left; |right = float: right; |center = margin: 0 auto; |#default = }} {{{style|}}}"><noinclude> {{Tree chart/end}} {{Dokuméntasi}} </noinclude> dwab0ckwwoln8rz6hmacb22g2s636c7 732084 732083 2026-11-10T17:33:08Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:Chart/start]] ka [[Citakan:Tree chart/start]] 732083 wikitext text/x-wiki <table class="tree-chart" style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate; {{#switch: {{{align|}}} |left = float: left; |right = float: right; |center = margin: 0 auto; |#default = }} {{{style|}}}"><noinclude> {{Tree chart/end}} {{Dokuméntasi}} </noinclude> dwab0ckwwoln8rz6hmacb22g2s636c7 Sandiaga Uno 0 73287 732164 703734 2026-11-11T02:28:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732164 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Pajabat|name=Sandiaga Salahuddin Uno|image=Wagub Sandi.jpg|party=[[Berkas:Logo Gerindra.svg|20px]] [[Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya]]|governor=[[Anies Baswedan]]|office=[[Wakil Gubernur DKI Jakarta]]|predecessor=[[Djarot Saiful Hidayat]]|president=[[Joko Widodo]]|birth_name=Sandiaga Salahuddin Uno|birthname=Sandiaga Salahuddin Uno|birth_date={{birth date and age|1969|6|28}}|birth_place={{negara|Indonesia}} [[Rumbai, Pekanbaru]], [[Riau]], [[Indonesia]]|spouse=Nur Asia|children=Anneesha Atheera Uno {{br}} Amyra Atheefa Uno {{br}} Sulaiman Saladdin Uno|alma_mater=[[Wichita State University]] ([[1990]]){{br}}[[George Washington University]] ([[1992]])|occupation=Pebisnis{{br}}Politikus|religion=[[Islam]]|website={{url|http://sandiaga-uno.com}}}}'''[[H]].<ref name="m.republika.co.id_SandiagaSUno,Be">{{Cite web|title=Sandiaga S Uno, Berhaji Sebagai Tonggak Sejarah|author=|work=ihram.co.id|date=|accessdate={{date|2017-12-21}}|url=http://m.republika.co.id/berita/jurnal-haji/pengalaman-haji/14/09/20/nc6nxr-sandiaga-s-uno-berhaji-sebagai-tonggak-sejarah|language=|quote=Sandi, begitu sapaan akrabnya, menunaikan rukun Islam kelima pada 1998. Dia berhaji sambil menemani ibundanya Mien R Uno.|archivedate=2018-04-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402182613/http://m.republika.co.id/berita/jurnal-haji/pengalaman-haji/14/09/20/nc6nxr-sandiaga-s-uno-berhaji-sebagai-tonggak-sejarah|dead-url=no}}</ref> Sandiaga Salahuddin Uno, B. B. A., M. B. A.''' (lahir di Rumbai, Pekanbaru{{lahirmati|[[Rumbai, Pekanbaru]], [[Riau]]|28|6|1969}}<ref name="seragen">http://www.sragenkab.go.id {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702141651/https://www.sragenkab.go.id/ |date=2023-07-02 }}. [http://www.sragenkab.go.id/berita/berita.php?id=7191 "Profil Pembicara Seminar Nas. Pemuda Indonesia (2), Sandiaga S. Uno, cerdas punya felling bisnis tinggi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009130454/http://www.sragenkab.go.id/berita/berita.php?id=7191 |date=2010-10-09 }}. (diakses 16 April 2010)</ref>) nyaéta pangusaha jeung pulitikus [[Indonésia]]. Manéhna meunang pamilihan umum Gubernur Jakarta dina 2017 babarengan jeung Anies Baswedan, jeung nu mimiti ulayat diangkat jadi Wakil Gubernur DKI Jakarta, di oktober 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Carina|first1=Jessi|editor-last1=Rastika|editor-first1=Icha|title=Agus-Sylvi Nomor 1, Ahok-Djarot Nomor 2, dan Anies-Sandiaga Nomor 3|url=http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2016/10/25/20421221/agus-sylvi.nomor.urut.1.ahok-djarot.nomor.2.dan.anies-sandiaga.nomor.urut.3|accessdate=21 Desember 2016|work=Kompas|date=25 Oktober 2016}}</ref><ref>http://www.thejakartapost.com. [http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/02/25/ri039s-sandiaga-uno-among-asia-fellows.html "RI's Sandiaga Uno among Asia fellows"]. (diakses 15 April 2010)</ref> Mindeng hadir dina [[seminar]]-seminar, Sandiaga Uno katurunan [[Gorontalo]] mindeng dibéré pengarahan ngeunaan jiwa kewirausahaan (''kewirausahaan''), utamana dina nonoman. Sandiaga Uno ngamimitian bisnis sanggeus manéhna jadi hiji pangangguran  pausahaan anu dipolahna manéhna bangkrut. Bareng jeung batur sapagawéan-na, manéhna ngadegkeun hiji pausahaan dina widang keuangan, PT Pasadena Panaséhat. Usaha ieu kabukti suksés jeung geus dicokot leuwih ti sababaraha pausahaan séjén .<ref name="kompas">Kompas, 4 September 2008.[http://cetak.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/09/04/0124478/kebangkitan.hidup.sandiaga.uno "Kebangkitan Hidup Sandiaga Uno"]. (diakses 13 April 2010)</ref> Dina taun 2009, manéhna didaptarkeun salaku urang richest raraga ka-29 di Indonesia, nurutkeun majalah ''Forbes''. dina 2011, ''Forbes'' dileupaskeun daptar sahiji jalma richest di Indonesia. Manéhna rengking 37th jeung kabeungharan total US$ 660 juta<ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/read/2011/11/24/114227/1774630/10/ini-dia-40-orang-terkaya-indonesia Artikel:"Ini Dia 40 Orang Terkaya Indonesia " di detik.com]</ref>. == Karir == Password Uno nyaéta lulusan ''Wichita State University'', [[Amérika Sarikat]], jeung predikat ''summa cum laude''. Sandi mimiti karirna salaku hiji pagawe Bank Summa dina taun 1990. Taun saterusna manéhna meunang béasiswa pikeun nuluykeun atikan-na di ''George Washington University'', Amérika Serikat. Manéhna lulus jeung prestasi kumulatif indéks (IPK) 4.00. Saterusna, dina taun 1993 manéhna ngagabung pikeun séapower Asia Investment Limited di [[Singapura]] salaku manager investasi di sakali dina MP Nyekel Group Limited (mulai 1994). Dina taun 1995 manéhna pindah ka NTI Resources Ltd. di [[Kanada]] jeung dilayanan salaku Wakil présidén Eksekutif of NTI Resources Ltd. jeung hiji panghasilan 8.000 pérak per bulan. Tapi, krisis moneter saprak ahir taun 1997 ngarah ka pausahaan tempat manéhna digawé bangkrut. Sandi bisa henteu deui neruskeun pakasaban-na.{{Fact}} Manéhna balik ka Indonesia kalayan judul pangangguran. sanajan kitu, alatan kajadian, Sandi Uno mangka ngarobah cara nepi jeung robah arah jadi hiji pengusaha. Dina taun 1997 Sandi Uno diadegkeun finansial sungut piwuruk, PT Recapital Advisors jeung sma-na babaturan, Rosan Perkasa Roeslani. salah sahiji mentor bisnis anu William Soeryadjaya.{{Fact}} Saterusna, dina taun 1998, manéhna jeung Edwin Soeryadjaya, putra William, diadegkeun pausahaan investasi ngaranna PT Pasadena Investama Sedaya. lingkup bisnis ngawengku pertambangan, [[telekomunikasi]], jeung produk kahutanan. == Rujukan == {{reflist|30em}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1969]] dt8fttahhffx644fk8nu3usi38oe3lx Maltosa 0 75513 732141 705729 2026-11-10T23:26:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732141 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maltosa''', atawa [[gula]] gandum, nyaéta [[disakarida]] nu terbentuk tina dua unit [[glukosa]] nu ngagabung jeung ikatan α(1 → 4), terbentuk ti [[Réaksi kondensasi|reaksi kondensasi.]] Disakarida ieu dijieun mangsa pati dipecah ku amilase,jeung biasana dipanggihan dina biji nu berkecambah, contona nyaéta gandum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://halosehat.com/gizi-nutrisi/panduan-gizi/maltosa|title=Maltosa|last=|first=|website=Halo Sehat|publisher=|accessdate=2 Maret 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722080335/https://halosehat.com/gizi-nutrisi/panduan-gizi/maltosa|archivedate=2019-07-22}}</ref> Rasa tina maltosa éta sorangan nyaéta amis, ku sabab maltosa téh memang gula nu aya fruktosa di jero na kira-kira hijipergenep kandungan jeung satengahna nyaéta glukosa. Maltosa biasana dijual di toko-toko permen nu aya di [[Makau]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]] jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina selatan]] jeung mun dek ngakonsumsina, nu paling umum carana nyaéta ngagunakeun maltosa ngalapisan 2 potong roti. == Sipat Maltosa == # Ngalaman [[hidrolisis]] kalayan nu geus disebutkeun, nyaéta ngamecahkeun jadi dua [[monosakarida]] sajenis atawa ogé nu beda jenis. # Meunang larut tina jero [[cai]] # Ngabogaan rasa amis sanajan teu saamis [[fruktosa.]] # nyaéta gula pereduksi sarengan jeung laktosa, samentawis [[sukrosa]] teu kaasup gula pereduksi. Maltosa disebat gula pereduksi ku sabab memang dipikanyaho bisa mereduksi larutan Fehling nu dipicu ku ayana sesa hiji gugus hemiasetal bebas ku maltosa jeung laktosa nu disebut ogé ku istilah gugus pereduksi. Sedengkeun jang sukrosa, pembentukana memang aya gugus hemiastal nu kalibat jeung ogé hemiastal fruktosa jadina gugus pereduksi teu dibogaan ku sukrosa. == Manpaat Maltosa == Maltosa ngabogaan manpaat Salaku Pangamis Buatan,Ngadukung dijieunna Minuman Ringan jeung [[Bir]], Ngadukung dijieunna Makanan Bayi. == Sumber Maltosa == Teu kaitung loba bahan makanan nu ngabogaan maltosa, mung aya sababaraha kadaharan nu apabila ku urang cerna dina jero awak, saenggeusna bakal ngahasilkeun maltosa, sapertI: # [[Sayuran]] # Bungbuahan # Kacang-kacangan # [[Kentang]] # [[Jagong]] # Seréal # Biji-bijian == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Gula]] [[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]] 1txg1craqgggdne4vmtm6kzquo0rf55 Puyuh 0 98129 732153 712480 2026-11-11T01:57:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox|color=orange|name=Puyuh / Turnicidae|image=Barred_Buttonquail_Turnix_suscitator_male_by_Dr._Raju_Kasambe_DSCN8040_(8).jpg|image_width=250px|image_caption=Puyuh Tegal|image2=|image2_width=250px|image2_caption=|regnum=[[Sato|Animalia]]|phylum=[[Chordata]]|classis=[[manuk|Aves]]|ordo=[[Charadriiformes]]|familia='''Turnicidae''' (GR Gray,1840)|subdivision_ranks=Genera|subdivision=''Turnix'' (Bonnaterre, 1791) <br />''Ortyxelos'' (Vieillot, 1825)| range_map = Turnicidae rangmap.PNG | range_map_caption = Panyebaran manuk puyuh}} Manuk '''Puyuh''' téh nyaéta sarupaning manuk leutik ti kulawarga '''Turnicidae''', cirina nu paling kaciri, tina bulu tonggongna nu ngabogaan pola siga batik, warna utamana ti mimiti warna célé, coklat péang, coklat, konéng, oranye tur semu beureum ditambahan ku polét atawa totol-totol bodas, beureum, hideung, nyampur dina pola nu jadi ciri spésiésna masing-masing. Ciri séjénna sukuna pondok, beuheung méh teu kaciri, ramona ngan tilu kabéh nyanghareup, warna suku konéng, hideung atawa konéng-hideung atawa hawuk, kitu ogé jeung warna pamatukna. Buntutna parondok. Puyuh kaasup [[manuk]] leutik, ukuran puyuh ''plover'', hiji-hijina spésiés ti génera ''[[Ortyxelos]]'', ngan 10&nbsp;cm jeung beuratna 20 gram. Sedeng ti génera '''''Turnix''''' panjangna rupa-rupa antara 12&nbsp;cm semet ka 23&nbsp;cm, beuratna 20g semet ka 130g. Katempona sarimbag pisan jeung naon nu disebut puyuh ti génera ''Coturnix'', kajaba ku teu boga telih jeung ramo tukang. Ogé puyuh bikangna ti Turnicidae mibanda organ vokal nu khas nu asalna tina trachéa nu ngagedéan sarta ruang hawa dina ésophagusna, nu bisa ngaluarkeun sora handaruan.<ref name=":3" /> Salian ciri di luhur, numutkeun Erich Tenius, puyuh ogé mibanda sipat-sipat hayam-hayam ternak, nyaéta: * Liang irung katutup ku bulu laleutik. * Téréh ngaréaan, wanci subur tiap 4-5 bulan. * Pola bulu nu siga kaén ngagantung sarimbag jeung hahayaman. * Bulu jangjang leutik téréh pisan megar wanci ciak kéneh. * Buluna malegar wanci rumaja. * Resep kokoréh. Tapi puyuh ogé mibanda sifat-sifat bango atawa manuk-manuk ranca, nyaéta: * Teu boga telih. * Garis jero dina dua sisi satukangeun ''sternum'' (tulang sahandapeun beuteung). * Endogna totol-totol. * Cara ngahuapan anak-anakna. Sajaba ti dua sifat-sifat di luhur, puyuh ogé boga sifat nu mandiri: * Wanci baranahan nu téréh pisan, 12-13 poé. * Fakta yén jaluna nu nyileungleum jeung ngasuh anak-anakna.<ref>Thenius, Erich (1969) dina [http://battlequail.org/BattleQuail/taxonomy.html/ Taxonomy of Buttonquail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030222411/http://battlequail.org/BattleQuail/taxonomy.html |date=2020-10-30 }}, ''VECHTKWARTEL'', diakses tanggal 07/10/2019.</ref> == Terminologi jeung Taksonomi == [[Gambar:Japanese Quail.jpg|jmpl|220x220px|Puyuh Jepang]] Dina basa Inggris puyuh pituin Indonésia jeung sabangsana disebut ''buttonquail'' (puyuh kancing). Kecap puyuh sorangan dipaké ngahartikeun kecap ''quail''<ref>ilikan di Google Translate</ref> tina basa Inggris nu ngacu kana sajenis sasatoan ti kulawarga [[Phasianidae]]<ref name=":0">[https://www.britannica.com/animal/quail "Quail"] ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', diakses tanggal 7/10/2019.</ref> (hahayaman). ''Buttonquail'' gé mun nulisna dipisahkeun jadi ''button quail'' hartina bisa jadi béda, jadi ngacu kana hiji spésiés nu disebut  puyuh batu ti kulawarga Phasianidae tadi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cyberquail.com/homepage.html|title=Welcome to Button Quail Home Page|last=|first=|website=Cyberquail|publisher=|accessdate=07/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724081512/http://www.cyberquail.com/homepage.html |date=2019-07-24 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Barred Buttonquail Rajkot.jpg|jmpl|Manuk puyuh]] Di [[Indonésia]] ku alatan ''homoplasy'', aya sababaraha jenis manuk nu disebut maké kecap puyuh, nyaéta ti kulawarga Turnicidae contona puyuh tegal, sarta ti kulawarga Phasianidae, contona [[puyuh jepang]] ti génera ''[[Coturnix]]'' jeung [[puyuh gonggong]] ti génera ''[[Arborophila]]''. Ku lantaran puyuh jepang loba diternakkeun di Indonésia,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Adimika|first=N., et al.|date=2019|title=Keragaman genetik puyuh Jepang (Coturnix japonica) berdasarkan analisis sekuen DNA mitokondria gen Cytochrome-b|url=|department=Universitas Sebelas Maret|journal=Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Peternakan|publisher=Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonésia|volume=29(2)|page=144|doi=10.21776/ub.jiip.2019.029.02.05.|issn=2443-0765|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> mangka puyuh jepang jadi leuwih populér batan puyuh pituin Indonésia. ku kituna loba author jeung blogger-blogger ngora nu nganggap nu dimaksud ku puyuh téh nyaéta puyuh jepang. Buktina lamun urang nyaliksik dina Google maké kecap ‘puyuh’ mangka nu kaluar pangluhurna téh situs-situs ngeunaan puyuh Jepang. Malahan mah bisa semet ka sababaraha laman karak kaluar nu ngaranna puyuh ti kulawarga Turnicidae.<ref>Hasil nyaliksik ti Google maké kecap konci “puyuh”, tanggal 29 Séptémber 2019.</ref> Puyuh Jepang karak asup ka Indonésia dina taun 1979,<ref name=":1" /> sedeng kecap puyuh geus aya ti baheula mula. Asa pamohalan lamun karuhun urang [[Sunda]] / Indonésia ngamaksudkeun kecap puyuh (tanpa dikantetkeun jeung kecap séjénna) kana puyuh jepang. Ku kituna, sangkan teu kena ku paribasa jati ka silih ku junti, dina artikel ieu nu dimaksud ku puyuh téh nyaéta puyuh pituin Indonésia (Turnicidae atawa ''buttonquail'' ceuk urang barat). Pikeun urang barat, puyuh (''buttonquail'') ogé dikenal ku sebutan ''[[hemipode]]'' (''hemipod''), tina basa [[Yunani]] nu hartina satengah suku. Kecap éta asalna tina ramo suku puyuh nu ngan tilu siki nu kabéh nyanghareup téa, mangkana disebut satengah suku.<ref name=":0" /> Sacara taksonomi, puyuh mangrupa sato ti kelas [[Aves]], asalna kaasup kana ordo [[Gruiformes]] méméh jadi ordo mandiri [[Turniciformes]] numutkeun taksonomi  Sibley-Ahlquist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birding.in/orders/turniciformes.htm|title=Turniciformes - Buttonquails|last=|first=|website=Turniciformes - Buttonquails|publisher=Birds and birding in India.|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Kiwari puyuh diasupkeun kana ordo [[Charadriiformes]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fain|first=Mathew G.|last2=Houde|first2=Peter|date=08 Maret 2007|title=Multilocus perspectives on the monophyly and phylogeny of the order Charadriiformes (Aves)|url=https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-7-35|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|series=35|publisher=BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of Springer Nature.|volume=7|doi=|pmid=|access-date=07/10/2019}}</ref> Dina Turnicidae aya dua génera, 18 spésiés jeung 59 taxa.<ref name=":2">Clements Checklist v2019(2012) [https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/ Universitas CornellCornell Lab of Ornithology] New York. <br /></ref> == Cara Hirup == Puyuh mangrupa sato poliandri, kajaba [[Puyuh plover|puyuh ''plover'']] ti génera ''Ortyxelos''. Bikang biasana leuwih sugih ku warna sarta nu tiheula ngajak kawin. Jalu bikang babarengan nyieun sayang dina luhuren taneuh, tapi biasana nu jaluna nu nyileungleuman endog sarta tuluy ngasuh anak-anakna. Sanggeus endogan nu bikang  tuluy miang nyiar deui jalu séjén. Endogna megar sanggeus disileungleuman kana 12-13 poéna. Umur dua minggu anakna geus bisa haliber.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fatbirder.com/ornithology/turnicidae-buttonquails/|title=Turnicidae – Buttonquails|last=|first=|website=Fat Birder|publisher=Fat Birder|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Anak puyuh kaasup jenis ''precocial'', hartina geus aya dina fase nu leuwih déwasa (bisa dahar sorangan, teu kudu dihuapan), geus buluan sarta bisa leumpang, nunutur bapana nu mere parab ku [[rinyuh]] jeung sisikian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/597/Buttonquails-Turnicidae-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae Behavior And Reproduction|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh hirup dina daratan 2.500m saluhureun beungeut cai.<ref name=":3">Debus, S. & Bonan, A. (2019). Buttonquails (''Turnicidae''). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive''. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from https://www.hbw.com/node/52225 on 29 September 2019).</ref> Habitat hirup puyuh nyaéta di tegal jukut, rungkun saliara sarta aya ogé nu di [[leuweung]]. Najan bisa ngapung, puyuh tara ngapung. Sapopoé méakkeun hirupna di darat. Karesepna cicing na [[jukut]], [[eurih]] atawa di [[huma]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/601/Buttonquails-Turnicidae.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh utamana mah tukang ngahakanan sisikian. Najan kitu, kadang-kadang puyuh ngahakanan material tutuwuhan, [[geugeumetan]] jeung [[kéong]]. Pikeun ngalancarkeun peujitna, puyuh ogé sok neureuyan keusik saeutik. Puyuh nyiar hakaneun dina taneuh, dina tumpukan kalakay sarta dina tatangkalan pendék. Loba spésiés puyuh nu boga cara khusus dina nyiar hakaneun, kokoréh ku suku nu hiji, bari nangtung dina suku nu hijina nu tuluy nieun gerakan muter saeutik-saeutik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/596/Buttonquails-Turnicidae-DIET.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae Diet|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> == Ambahan == Puyuh kaasup asalna sato ti dunya heubeul, ngan, katambahan aya ogé di [[Australia|Australi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birdquest-tours.com/world-bird-families-with-birdquest-birding-tours/|title=Bird Families Guide|last=|first=|website=The Ultimate In Birding Tours|publisher=Bird Quest|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Ti beulah kulon baheulana mah puyuh bisa kapanggih di Spanyol, nyaéta ''andalusian hemipode''. Taun ‘81 ''hemipode'' kabejakeun geus ludes di [[Spanyol]], tapi harirup di [[Maroko]], [[Afrika Kalér]], peuntanseunana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.magornitho.org/2018/11/andalusian-buttonquail-declared-extinct-spain/|title=Andalusian Buttonquail in Spain declared extinct|last=MaghrebOrnitho|first=|website=Birding and Ornithology in Morocco and the Maghreb|publisher=MaghrebOrnitho|page=|publication-date=09/11/2018|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh ogé aya di daérah séjén di [[Afrika]] nyaéta di [[Sénégal|Sinégal]], [[Uganda]], [[Kamérun]] jeung [[Madagaskar|Kapuloan Madagaskar]]. Di Asia puyuh liar aya di [[Yaman]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Sri Langka|Srilanka]], [[Cina]], [[Taiwan]] tuluy mapay ka nagara-nagara [[Asia Tenggara]] semet ka [[Papua Kulon]]. Kadituna puyuh aya di [[Kapuloan Solomon]] jeung di [[Buana Ustrali]].<ref name=":2" /> == Rupa-Rupa Puyuh == === Numutkeun Taxonomi === Numutkeun taxonomy puyuh aya 18 spésiés tina dua génera.  Nyaéta génera ''Turnix''  (Bonnaterre, 1791) jeung ''Ortyxelos'' (Vieillot, 1825).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=176151#null|title=Turnicidae|last=|first=|website=ITIS Report|publisher=Integrated Taxonomic Information System|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> ==== Ti Génera ''Turnix'' ==== ===== ''[[Turnix Sylvaticus]]'' (Desfontaines, 1787) / puyuh biasa / ''common buttonquail'' / ''small buttonquail''  / ''andalusian hemipode'' ===== Kaasup kana salah sahiji puyuh leutik, panjangna 11&nbsp;cm semet ka 17&nbsp;cm. Beuratna rata-rata 60 gram, béda-béda antara subspésiés. Nu bikang leuwih gedé batan nu jalu. Bikang miboga warna burik hideung jeung abu-abu sarta beureum kacoklatan di bagéan luhur. Sirahna totol-totol hideung, beutengna warna bodas. Nu jalu méh sarua warnana jeung nu bikang, tapi leuwih burem. Hirupna dina taneuh garing nu keusikan, rungkun jeung jujukutan nu parendék atawa di kebon. Dapuran awi karesepna, cadu hirup di leuweung  gonggong,  keusik atawa ranca.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_sylvaticus/ Turnix sylvaticuscommon buttonquail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 07/10/2019)</ref> Ambahanna nerekab ti Afrika, [[Asia Kidul]], [[Indocina]], Asia Tenggara semet ka [[Pulo Lombok]] di Indonésia<ref name=":4">BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix sylvaticus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''2016: e.T22680500A90008182. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680500A90008182.en. Diakses tanggak 08/10/2019.</ref> Aya salapan subspésiés,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: [[Gambar:Small Buttonquail Turnix sylvaticus Amravati (3). Maharashtra, India.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix sylvaticus'']] ''Turnix sylvaticus sylvaticus'': [[Bobojong Ibéria]] Kidul, Maroko Kalér, Aljazair jeung [[Tunisia]] ''Turnix sylvaticus lepurana'': [[Gurun Sahara]] Afrika Kidul jeung [[Arabian Peninsula|Bobojong Arab]] ''Turnix sylvaticus dussumier'': béh wétan [[Iran]] semet ka India jeung [[Myanmar]] ''Turnix sylvaticus davidi'': Bobojong Thailand semet ka  kidul Cina, Indocina jeung Taiwan ''Turnix sylvaticus bartelsorum'': [[Jawa]] jeung [[Bali]] ''Turnix sylvaticus whiteheadi'': [[Pulo Luzon]] ([[Pilipina|Philipina]]) ''Turnix sylvaticus nigrorum'': Pulo Negros (Philipina) ''Turnix sylvaticus céléstinoi'': Philipina kidul (Bohol jeung [[Mindano]]) ''Turnix sylvaticus suluensis'': [[Kapuloan Sulu]]. Status konsérvasina LC<ref name=":4" /> (teu pati hariwang). ===== ''[[Turnix maculosus]]'' (Temminck, 1815) / ''Red-backed buttonquail'' / puyuh tonggong beureum / puyuh jaya wijaya ===== Puyuh leutik nu resep nyumput. Biasana nyicingan habitat tegal jukut nu semu baseuh. Spésiés ieu éraan pisan sarta remen katempo ngaburisat tina panyumputanna jeung tuluy ngapung gagancangan – ngébréhkeun pola jangjang nu pias kontras jeung tonggong jeung tungtung jangjang nu leuwih poék. Mibanda warna beuheung nu coklat semu beureum, pamatuk konéng,  sarta aya warna totol hideung nu manjang tina handapeun panon semet ka jangjang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/rebbut2/|title=Red-backed Buttonquail Turnix maculosus|last=|first=|website=eBird|publisher=eBird|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008192500/https://ebird.org/species/rebbut2/ |date=2019-10-08 }}</ref> Tonggongna warna beureum paselang jeung hideung. Sumebar di [[Sulawesi]], [[Kapuloan Sunda Leutik]], [[Papua Nugini]], Kapuloan Solomon jeung Buana Australi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-backed-buttonquail-turnix-maculosus|title=Red-backed Buttonquail Turnix maculosus|last=|first=|website=Data Zone|publisher=BirdLife International (2019)|accessdate=08/10/2019}}</ref> Subspésiésna nyaéta: ''Turnix maculosus maculosus'': Sunda Leutik ([[Roté]], [[Semau]], [[Timor]], [[Wetar]], [[Moa]] jeung  [[Kisar]]) ''Turnix maculosus beccarii'': Sulawesi, Muna jeung  PuloTomia (Pulo Tukang Besi ) ''Turnix maculosus kinneari'': [[Pulo Peleng]] ([[Pulo Banggai]] wétaneun Sulawesi) ''Turnix maculosus obiensis'': Pulo Obi, Pulo Kai Kecil jeung Pulo Babar. ''Turnix maculosus sumbanus'': [[Pulo Sumba]] (Sunda Leutik) ''Turnix maculosus floresianus:'' Sunda Leutik ([[Sumbawa]], [[Pulo komodo|Komodo]], Padar, [[Flores]] jeung [[Alor]]) ''Turnix maculosus savuensis'': Pulo Sawu (Sunda Leutik) [[Gambar:Red-backed Button-quail.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix maculosus'']] ''Turnix maculosus saturatus'': Archipelago Bismarck (Britania Anyar jeung Duke of York) ''Turnix maculosus furvus'': Bobojong Huon (kalér wétan Nugini) ''Turnix maculosus giluwensis'': wétan tengah Nugini ''Turnix maculosus horsbrughi'': kidul Nugini ''Turnix maculosus mayri'': Archipelago Louisiade ''Turnix maculosus salomonis'': Pulo Guadalcanal (Kapuloan Solomon) ''Turnix maculosus melanotus'': kalér jeung wétan Australi.<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix maculosus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680512A92864941. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680512A92864941.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix tanki]]'' (Blyth, 1843) / ''yellow-legged buttonquail'' / puyuh suku konéng ===== Cirina nu mandiri nyaéta surup kana ngaranna, sukuna warna konéng, kitu ogé pamatukna, tapi béh luhur aya polét beureuman. Ukuranna ngan leuwih gedé saeutik ti manuk goléjra. Kocéak bikangna nu dengér bisa jadi hiji cara nu panggampangna pikeun manggihan manuk nu resep hirup dina tegalan jukut ieu. Nu bikang boga warna nu leuwih nyata batan nu jalu, katempo dina punduk jeung beuteung nu warnana oranyeu caang. Nu jalu méh sarua corak warnana ngan leuwih bureum. Hirup di daérah Asia Kidul, Cina Kidul, sabudeureun Myanmar jeung  Indocina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/yelbut1/|title=Yellow-legged Buttonquail Turnix tanki|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008184655/https://ebird.org/species/yelbut1/ |date=2019-10-08 }}</ref> Aya dua taxa,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: ''Turnix ocellatus ocellatus'': kidul jeung tengan Pulo Luzon (Philipina) ''Turnix ocellatus benguetensis'': Pagunungan kaléreun Pulo Luzon (Philipina). Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix ocellatus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''2016: e.T22680542A92865445. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680542A92865445.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix hottentottus]]'' (Temminck, 1815) jeung ''[[Turnix nanus]]'' (Sundevall, 1851)  / ''Black rumped buttonquail''  ===== Harirup di buana Afrika wungkul, di Afirka Tengah semet ka Kidul.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/hotbut3/|title=Black-rumped Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809232200/https://ebird.org/species/hotbut3 |date=2019-08-09 }}</ref> Karesepna hirup dina sabana, tegal jukut jeung rurungkunan, bisa ogé di ranca atawa ka kebon-kebon. Cirina nyaéta pupuhu buntutna warna hideung sarta loba totol coklat kahideungan dina dada jeung sisi awakna. Panjang nu bikang 15 centi sedeng nu jalu 14 centi. Beuratna 40 – 60 gr. Nu bikang huluna hideung totol-totol oranyeu. Nu bikang leuwih gedé batan nu jalu.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_hottentottus/ Turnix hottentottus black-rumped buttonquail], Animal Diversity Web (ADW), University of Micihigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019)</ref> Masing-masing teu boga subspésiés. ''Turnix nanus'': Ghana nepi ka Kénya, Uganda jeung kidul wétan Tanjung Harapan ''Turnix hottentottus'': tengah-tengah semet ka kiduleun Afika Kidul (kidul kulon Tanjung Harapan semet ka Port Elizabeth).<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina ''Turnix hottentottus'' dina bahaya / EN.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix hottentottus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22725519A94894783. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22725519A94894783.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ''Turnix nanus'' LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix nanus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22725531A94895080. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22725531A94895080.en</nowiki>. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix ocellatus]]'' (Scopoli, 1786) / ''Spotted buttonquail''  / puyuh tutul ===== [[Gambar:TurnixOcellataSmit.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix ocellatus'']] Hirup éndemik di Philipina wungkul. Karesepna sarua jeung nu séjén hirup di tegal jukut jeung rungkun saliara, tapi kadang sok ngulampreng mipir-mipir sisi jurang. ogé aya digugunungan jeung leuweung. Panjangna bisa nepi 17,8  centi-an. Beuratna bisa 110 gr. Nu bikang leuwih gedé jeung leuwih sugih ku warna. Béh luhurna coklat abu-abu bari jeung tutul-tutul coklat  atawa hideung, dadana oranyeu kolot, suku tur pamatukna konéng.<ref>Madge, S., P. McGowan. 2002. ''Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse: A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails and Sandgrouse of the World''. London: Christopher Helm. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_ocellatus/ Turnix ocellatus spotted buttonquail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019).</ref> Aya dua taxa, nyaéta: ''Turnix ocellatus ocellatus'': kidul jeung tengan Pulo Luzon (Philipina) ''Turnix ocellatus benguetensis'': Pagunungan kaléreun Pulo Luzon (Philipina).<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix ocellatus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680542A92865445. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680542A92865445.en. Download 8/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix suscitator]]'' (Gmelin, JF, 1789) / b''arred buttonquail''  / puyuh tegal loréng  / gemak (Jawa) ===== Béh luhur warna coklat ditambah ku bulu-bulu nu ngajalur semu siga sisit. Bikangna, lebah beuheung nepi ka dada aya garis hideung léstréng, beuteng oranyeu, pamatuk jeung sukuna bisa warna hawuk atawa warna célé atawa campuran duanana. Rada hésé disiar, resep seselendepan di antara rungkun saliara di tegal, tungtung leuweung jeung di huma. Lagu hiber ngaluarkeun sora nyiriwik. Bikang nu begér ngaluarkeun sora handaruan ti jero rungkun nu gomplok. Hirup di Asia Selatan, Indocina, Asia Tenggara, kaasup Jawa, Sulawesi jeung Kapuloan Sunda Leutik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/barbut1/|title=Barred Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009155834/https://ebird.org/species/barbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Aya 17 taxa,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: ''Turnix suscitator taigoor'': India ''Turnix suscitator leggei'':  Sri Lanka ''Turnix suscitator plumbipes'': Nepal, Sikkim jeung Bangladesh semet ka Myanmar. [[Gambar:Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator Pair Amravati.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix suscitator'']] ''Turnix suscitator bengalensis'': kalér wétan India (sahandapeun kulon Bengal) ''Turnix suscitator okinavensis'': kiduleun P. Kyushu jeung Makenoshima kidulen P. Ryukyu ''Turnix suscitator rostratus'': Taiwan ''Turnix suscitator blakistoni'': Myanmar nepi ka Cina kidul, kalér Indocina jeung P. Hainan ''Turnix suscitator pallescens'': kidul-tengah Myanmar ''Turnix suscitator thai'': Thailand tengah ''Turnix suscitator atrogularis'': Bobojong Thailand – Malaysia ''Turnix suscitator suscitator'': [[Sumatra]], [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung|P. Belitung jeung P. Bangka,]] Jawa jeung Bali ''Turnix suscitator baweanus'': P. Bawéan di Jawa ''Turnix suscitator fasciatus'': Philipna kalér (Luzon semet Mindoro, Sibuyan jeung  Masbate) ''Turnix suscitator haynaldi'': kidul wétan Philipina (Palawan jeung Kapuloan Calamian) [[Gambar:Madagascar Buttonquail SMTC.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix nigricollis'']] ''Turnix suscitator nigrescens'': Philipina (Negros, Cebu jeung Panay) ''Turnix suscitator rufilatus'': Sulawesi ''Turnix suscitator powelli'': Kapuloan Sunda Leutik. Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix suscitator''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680549A92865610. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680549A92865610.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix nigricollis]]'' (Gmelin, JF, 1789) / puyuh madagaskar ===== Hirup éndemik di Madagaskar wungkul. Tempat hirup sarua jeung rata-rata puyuh séjén, tegal jukut, rungkun jeug sajabana. Pola bulu méh sarua jeung Turnix suscitator, kajaba warna beuteungna teu oranyeu. Warna oranyeu justru aya di sahareupen jangjang. Beurat antara 67 sampe 84 gr.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_nigricollis/ Turnix nigricollis Madagascan buttonquail(Also: Madagascar buttonquail)], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019).</ref> Teu boga sub spésiés. Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix nigricollis''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680552A92865904. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680552A92865904.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix varius - Castlereigh nature reserve.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix varius'']] ===== ''[[Turnix varius]]'' (Latham, 1801) (monotipik) / ''painted buttonquail'', jeung ''[[Turnix varius novaecaledoniae]]'' (Ogilvie-Grant, 1889) (politipik) / puyuh kaledonia baru (calon dipisahkeun)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=ABB5B3B0245CEF92|title=Painted Buttonquail (New Caledonian) Turnix varius novaecaledoniae Ogilvie-Grant, 1889|last=|first=|website=Avibase - The World Bird Database|publisher=Denis Lepage|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> ===== Puyuh ieu ngabogaan iris panon beureum, buluna lebah dada , beuteung jeung sisi katempo pias. Sukuna konéng tapi pamatukna hawuk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/paibut/|title=Painted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009155833/https://ebird.org/species/paibut/|archivedate=2019-10-09}}</ref> Hirup di Australia kapuloan béh wétan kulon Australi jeung aya ogé di [[Kaledonia Anyar]]. Aya tilu subspésiés:<ref name=":2" /> ''Turnix varius novaecaledoniae'': Kalédonia Anyar ''Turnix varius scintillans'': Kapuloan Houtman Abrolhos (kidul kuloneun Australi) ''Turnix varius varius'': kidul kulon, wétan jeung kidul wétan Australi jeung Tasmania. Status konservasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix varius''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T62288672A95193778. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T62288672A95193778.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> Kajaba ''T.v. novaecaledoniae,'' kritis / CR.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix novaecaledoniae''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22734789A95096865. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734789A95096865.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Black-breasted Button-quail male inskip (cropped).JPG|jmpl|''Turnix melanogaster'']] ===== ''[[Turnix melanogaster]]'' / ''black-breasted buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu hideung ===== Hirup éndemik di Australi wétan, dina leuweung gerot nu dadasarna pinuh ku lapisan daun paéh. Bikang mibanda sirah jeung bulu bagéan handap nu warnana hideung, panonna bodas. Jalu bulu beungeutna pias jeung teu loba tanda hideung dina bagéan handapna. Nalika nyiar dahareun puyuh ieu nyieun logak nu bunder jeung jero dina lapisan dangdaunan paéh dina taneuh; nu bisa jadi tanda pikeun kahadiranna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/blbbut2/|title=Black-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173751/https://ebird.org/species/blbbut2/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina rada kaancam / NT.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix melanogaster''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680556A92866106. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680556A92866106.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix castanotus]]'' (Gould, 1840)  / ''chestnut backed buttonquail'' / puyuh tonggong coklat ===== Warna pamatukna abu-abu pias, ari suku konéng. Tonggong coklat dihias ku garis-garis bodas jeung hideung. Mun kaganggu leuwih condong lumpat batan nyerang. Hirup di Australi bagéan kalér.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/chbbut2/|title=Chestnut-backed Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173748/https://ebird.org/species/chbbut2/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix castanotus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680560A92866466. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680560A92866466.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix olivii]]'' (Robinson, 1900) / ''buff-breasted buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu oranyeu ===== Puyuh nu resep pisan ngiles jeung nyumput. Boga pamatuk nu leutik tapi kuat. Hirupna kawengku di leuweung ékaliptus di kalér wétan Queensland Ustrali. Ukuran awakna nu leuwih gedé jadi pangbéda ti puyuh tonggong beureum jeung puyuh dada beureum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/bubbut1/|title=Buff-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009160012/https://ebird.org/species/bubbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Ku sawatara author dianggap minangka subspésiés ti turnix varius.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=0D9258BFE1F265BE|title=Buff-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=Avibase - The World Bird Database|publisher=Denis Lepage|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> Status konsérvasina EN.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix olivii''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680572A92866714. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680572A92866714.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix worcesteri]]'' (McGregor, 1904) / puyuh luzon / ''luzon buttonquail'' / ''pugo'' (bahasa Philipina) ===== Hirup éndemik di kapuloan Luzon Philipina. Kaceluk ku resep nyicingan sawah, atawa rurungkunan deukeut huma ku alatan réa nyadiaan sisikian jeung geugeumetan. Manuk ieu ditandaan ku sirahna nu hideung tutul-tutul bodas, awakna coklat atawa coklat semu oranyeu, sarta nu jalu sukuna konéng, sedeng nu bikang sukuna coklat tutul-tutul bodas atawa hideung. Manuk ieu téh resep pisan nyumput, ukur milih hiji jalan nu maneuh ka sérang atawa kebon nu hanyakalna téh matak mawa bala ka manéhna sorangan alatan ku barudak sok diboro di jajalaneunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewebsiteofeverything.com/animals/birds/Gruiformes/Turnicidae/Turnix-worcesteri|title=Luzon Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=Birds|publisher=The Website of Everything|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173750/https://thewebsiteofeverything.com/animals/birds/Gruiformes/Turnicidae/Turnix-worcesteri |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina kurang data / DD.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix worcesteri''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680588A92866987. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680588A92866987.en<nowiki/>.Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Sumba Buttonquail.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix everetti'']] ===== ''[[Turnix everetti]]'' (Hartert, E, 1898) / puyuh sumba ===== Manuk ieu éndemik Pulo Sumba. Hirup siga nu séjén dina tegal jukut, ngan tara ka huma. Osok ogé mapay kana pasir batu kapur. Cirina nu ngabédakeun tina puyuh séjén nyaéta tina morfologi pamatukna nu leuwih gedé, hasil adaptasi tina barang daharna nu sok ngahakanan sisikian garedé. Najan kaasup manuk nu tara iincahan, sakapeung sok pipindahan tempat pikeun nyiar hakaneun.<ref name=":5">BirdLife International 2017. ''Turnix everetti'' (amended version of 2016 assessment). ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2017: e.T22680592A110139877. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22680592A110139877.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref><br />Status konsérvasina rawan / VU.<ref name=":5" /> Di Indonésia kaasup sato nu aya dina panyalindungan.<ref>Permen NOMOR P.106/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/12/2018.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix pyrrhothorax.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix pyrrhothorax'']] ===== ''[[Turnix pyrrhothorax]]'' (Gould, 1841) / ''red-chested buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu beureum ===== Najan disebut harigu beureum, tapi warna harigu nu sabenerna mah oranyeu. Hirup éndemik di Ustrali Wétan ti béh kalér semet ka kidul. Bikangna nu dewasa ngabogaan warna gado jeung harigu oranyeu karahaan, sedeng jaluna mah warna hariguna leuwih pias sarta gadona bodas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/recbut1/|title=Red-chested Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173749/https://ebird.org/species/recbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix pyrrhothorax''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680595A92867439. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680595A92867439.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix velox - 1820-1863 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - UBA01 IZ17100171 Cropped.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix velox'']] ===== ''[[Turnix velox]]'' (Gould, 1841) / ''Little buttonquail'' / puyuh lemét ===== Manuk leutik, mangrupa puyuh nu pias, panonna pias, pamatukna kandel. Hirup di daratan Australi. Nu jalu buluna ngabogaan pola burik poék dina dada jeung kénca katuhuna, nu bikang boga warna bubuluan nu leuwih béngras.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/litbut1/|title=Little Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173746/https://ebird.org/species/litbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix velox''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680599A92867607. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680599A92867607.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ==== Hiji-hijina ti génera ''Ortyxelos'' ==== [[Gambar:Quail Plover, Poli, Cameroon (5891141663).jpg|jmpl|''Ortyxelos meiffrenii'']] ===== ''[[Ortyxelos meiffrenii]]'' (Vieillot, 1819) / ''quail-plover'' / ''lark quail'' ===== Hirup di Buana Afrika, nyebar ti mimiti wétan Sinegal, tengah-tengah [[Sudan]] semet ka kaléreun [[Kénya]]. Kadang kapanggih di daérah [[basisir]]. Hirupna di tegal jukut, sabana jeung gurun ogé gunung keusik. Sirah, punduk jeung tonggongna warna coklat kabeureuman bari tungtung bulu-buluna warna hideung tuluy warna krim. Beungeutna warna krim jeung bercak kaemasan. Awak handapna didominasi ku warna krim. Pamatukna kakonéngan semet ka héjo pias. Suku jeung ramona bodas seger semet ka warna krim kakonéngan. Bikang leuwih gedé awakna. Bulu dadana sarua jeung jalu tapi leuwih poék sarta tungtung buntutna warna coklat jeung warna bodas dina tungtung bulu-buluna leuwih rubak. Panjang nu jalu 30 centian sedeng nu bikang 34 centian. Beuratna antara 15,7 semet ka 19,5 gr.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Ortyxelos_meiffrenii/ Ortyxelos meiffrenii lark buttonquail(Also: quail-plover]), ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019).</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Ortyxelos meiffrenii''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680603A92867780. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680603A92867780.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> === NUMUTKEUN BAHASA === ==== [[Puyuh Jepang]] / ''[[Coturnix japonica]]'' ==== Luyu jeung ngaranna, asalna ti nagri Jepang. Manuk ieu kaasup manuk nu sok migrasi, najan sawatara populasi netep tumetep di Jepang.<ref name=":6">BirdLife International 2016. ''Coturnix japonica''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22678949A95209097. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22678949A95209097.en. Diakses tanggal 9/10/2019.</ref> Puyuh jepang kiwari loba diternakkeun di Indonésia, diarah endog jeung dagingna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Damayanti, F., Nur, H., jeung Anggraeni|first=|date=2018|title=Pemberian Tepung Bawang Putih dan Tepung Jintan pada Pakan Komersial terhadap Performa Puyuh (Coturnix Japonica) Periode Awal Produksi|url=|journal=Jurnal Peternakan Nusantara|volume=4(1)|pages=1-12|doi=|issn=2442-2541|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Puyuh jepang asup kana génus ''Coturnix'' ti kulawarga Phasianidae. Tekstur buluna sarimbag jeung puyuh biasa, ngan sukuna boga opat ramo. Puyuh jepang leuwih subur batan puyuh biasa, endogan sapoé hiji, nalika mangsa endogan bisa 7-14 endog.<ref>Hoffmann, E. 1988. ''Coturnix Quail''. Taipei: Yi Hisien Publishing Co.. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Coturnix_japonica/ Coturnix japonica Japanese quail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', Universitiy of Michigan Museum Zoology. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019).</ref> Najan loba diternak di sakuliah dunia, status konsérvasi di habitat aslina rada kaancam / NT.<ref name=":6" /> [[Gambar:Arborophila javanica 0zz.jpg|jmpl|Puyuh gonggong]] ==== [[Puyuh Gonggong]] / ''Patridge'' / ''[[Arborophila]]'' ==== Kasasup kana kulawarga Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes.<ref name=":2" /> Tagogan puyuh gonggong méh sarua jeung puyuh biasa, ngan warnana nu béda. Warna bulu tonggongna biru jeung hawuk atawa hawuk semu nila. Corakna sarua burik ku polét-polét hideung. Puyuh gonggong leuwih gedé batan puyuh biasa. Di Indonésa aya genep spésiés manuk nu disebut puyuh gongong nyaéta:<ref name=":2" /> Puyuh gonggong kalimantan : ''[[Arborophila hyperythra]]'' Puyuh gonggong sumatra : ''[[Arborophila charltonii]]'', ''[[Arborophila rolli]]'' jeung ''[[Arborophila sumatrana]]''. Puyuh gonggong jawa: ''Arborophila orientalis'' jeung ''[[Arborophila javanica]]''. [[Gambar:CRESTED WOOD-PARTRIDGE (7181284331).jpg|jmpl|Puyuh makuta jalu bikang]] ==== [[Puyuh Makuta]] / ''Crested Partridge'' / ''[[Rollullus roulroul]]'' ==== Puyuh Makuta atawa ''Rollullus roulroul'' kasup ogé kana Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes. Dibanding puyuh séjénna warna buluna paling éndah. Nu jaluna aya jambulan nu siga makuta dina sirahna. ku kituna manuk ieu remen dipaké minangka manuk hias. Di Indonésa habitat aslina di [[Kalimantan]] jeung di [[Sumatra]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://burung-puyuh.blogspot.com/2012/12/puyuh-mahkota-rollulus-roulroul.html|title=Puyuh Mahkota|last=|first=|website=Puyuh Blitar Blitar Sentral Peternakan Puyuh Petelur di Indonesia|publisher=Puyuh Blitar|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> Cirina nu jalu ngabogaan makuta dina sirahna warnana beureum sarta puhuna bodas. Panonna beureum dikurilingan ku warna beureum caang. Dina puhu pamatukna –dina sawatara spésiés – aya bulu nu siga kumis nu jagreg ka luhur. Pamatukna pondok jeung kuat, warnana beureum jeung lebah congona hideung. Warna bulu awakna héjo sarta warna semu biru dina tonggong, buntut, dada jeung beuteungna. Beuheungna warna biru kolot, jangjangna warna coklat campur jeung coklat kahideungan. Sukuna warna beureum kolot. Puyuh makuta nu bikang teu bogaeun jambul.<ref name=":7" /> Status konsérvasi manuk ieu NT.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Rollulus rouloul''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22679106A92802856. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22679106A92802856.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ==== [[Puyuh Batu]] / ''Asian Blue Quai''l / ''[[Synoicus chinensis]]'' ==== [[Gambar:Asian Blue or Chinese Painted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) captive - Flickr - S. Rae.jpg|jmpl|Puyuh batu sajodo]] Puyuh batu, ''Synoicus chinensis'' baheulana ''[[Coturnix chinensis]]'' kaasup kana kulawarga Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes.<ref name=":8">BirdLife International 2016. ''Synoicus chinensis''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22678979A92797212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22678979A92797212.en. Diaksese tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> Warna nu bikangna siga manuk puyuh pituin, tapi warna nu jaluna jajauheun pisan. Warna nu jalu bagéan tonggong tengah beureum dihapit ku hawuk semu nila, lebah tonggong aya ogé pola warna siga manuk puyuh umumna, bagéan tengah jeung jangjang luhur biru, sedeng bagéan handap jeung tungtung jangjang beureum. Gado jeung  beuheung warna bodas hideung. Lemét-lemetna mah sarua jeung umumna puyuh. Sukuna oranyeu kolot. Ramona sukuna aya opat. Pamatukna hideung. Status konsérvasi manuk ieu LC.<ref name=":8" /> == Catetan Suku == <references /> [[Kategori:Aves]] mc4tk2sh70csqf4bqzviree7boshngz Raden Muhammad Mulyadi 0 98510 732157 708829 2026-11-11T01:59:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732157 wikitext text/x-wiki Raden Muhammad Mulyadi nyaéta sajarawan kalahiran Bandung, 14 Pebruari 1969. Anjeunna aktip janten dosen sareng peneliti di Universitas Padjadjaran ogé salaku Ketua Program Studi Magister Ilmu Sejarah. Salian tina ngadosenan, anjeuna aktip naliti jeung nulis rupi-rupi tulisan. Aya dinu bentuk jurnal, artikel, ogé buku-buku sajarah margi anjeunna pokus dinu penelitian kasajarahan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unpad.ac.id/fakultas/ilmu-budaya/ilmu-sejarah/|title=Ilmu Sejarah|website=Universitas Padjadjaran|language=en|accessdate=2019-11-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331155408/https://www.unpad.ac.id/fakultas/ilmu-budaya/ilmu-sejarah/ |date=2023-03-31 }}</ref> Teu cukup ngajar jeung naliti, Raden Muhammad Mulyadi seueur aktip dinu kagiatan organisasi. Di antarana PPSI (Perkumpulan Prodi Sejarah Seluruh Indonesia), nyaéta hiji organisasi anu didirikeun ku para sajarawan sa-Indonesia jang ngamunculkeun kaelmuan sajarah ti para pengajar jeung peneliti. Harita basa taun 2016 tepi ka 2018, Raden Muhammad Mulyadi nyekel Dipisi Penelitian jeung Publikasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ppsi.or.id/page/81/struktur-pengurus-periode-2016-2018|title=PPSI {{!}} Struktur Pengurus Periode 2016-2018|website=ppsi.or.id|accessdate=2019-11-30}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Geus loba rupi-rupi karya anu dijieun boh ku nyalirana atawa tim peneliti. Tepi ka danget ieu, Raden Muhammad Mulyadi geus ngapublikasikeun jurnal di Artefak (jurnal nu bogana Universitas Galuh),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jurnal.unigal.ac.id/index.php/artefak/about/displayMembership/89|title=People|website=jurnal.unigal.ac.id|accessdate=2019-11-30}}</ref> di Paramita,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/search/authors/view?firstName=R.M.&middleName=&lastName=Mulyadi&affiliation=Fakultas%20Ilmu%20Budaya,%20Universitas%20Padjadjaran&country=ID|title=Author Details|website=journal.unnes.ac.id|accessdate=2019-11-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029080011/http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/search/authors/view?firstName=R.M.&middleName=&lastName=Mulyadi&affiliation=Fakultas%20Ilmu%20Budaya%2C%20Universitas%20Padjadjaran&country=ID|archivedate=2020-10-29}}</ref> di Garuda (Garda Rujukan Digital) anu diterbitkeun ku Kemenristekdikti,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://garuda.ristekdikti.go.id/author/view/324541|title=Garuda - Garba Rujukan Digital|last=kementrian riset, teknologi dan pendidikan tinggi|website=garuda.ristekdikti.go.id|language=en|accessdate=2019-11-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130231306/http://garuda.ristekdikti.go.id/author/view/324541 |date=2019-11-30 }}</ref> di jurnal Patanjala (Jurnal Penelitian Sejarah dan Budaya),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ejurnalpatanjala.kemdikbud.go.id/patanjala/index.php/patanjala|title=Patanjala : Jurnal Penelitian Sejarah dan Budaya|website=ejurnalpatanjala.kemdikbud.go.id|accessdate=2019-11-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205133036/http://ejurnalpatanjala.kemdikbud.go.id/patanjala/index.php/patanjala/ |date=2019-12-05 }}</ref> sarta sababaraha hiji buku anu kabehna pokus ngangkat masalah budaya, sajarah lokal jeung sajarah nasional. Katambahan jadi Dewan Editor saacan terbit kabehna jurnal téh di Universitas Padjadjaran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jurnal.unpad.ac.id/metahumaniora/about/editorialTeamBio/48151|title=Dewan Editorial|website=jurnal.unpad.ac.id|accessdate=2019-11-30}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Panalitian Jeung Publikasi Ilmiah == Jurnal Patanjala “Elmu Anyar: Syncretism In The Spreading Of Christianity In West Java From The Nineteenth To The Early Twenty Century” - taun 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=whLjuuYAAAAJ&hl=id|title=Raden Muhammad Mulyadi - Pengutipan Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.co.id|accessdate=2019-11-30}}</ref> Jurnal Patanjala “Polemik A. Hassan Dan Muchtar Luthfi Mengenai Paham Kebangsaan (1929-1935)” - taun 2018 Editor Buku Kepingan Peristiwa Sejarah Indonesia “Kerusuhan Rasial Di Bandung 5 Agustus 1973” - taun 2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://besta-indonesia.academia.edu/RadenMulyadi|title=Raden M U H A M M A D Mulyadi {{!}} Universitas Padjadjaran - Academia.edu|website=besta-indonesia.academia.edu|accessdate=2019-11-30}}</ref> Prosiding Universitas Indonesia, Seminar Nasional Sejarah Lokal Munas II “Bencana Kelaparan Di Karawang Tahun 1977” - taun 2016 Disertasi, Universitas Indonesia “Koes Plus: Tonggak Dan Karakteristik Ke-Indonesia-an Dalam Musik Pop” taun 2014 Tesis, Universitas Indonesia “Industri Musik Nasional (Pop, Rock dan Jazz)” - taun 1999 == Pendidikan == Doktor Ilmu Sejarah, Universitas Indonesia (2008-2014) Magister Ilmu Sejarah, Universitas Indonesia (1996-1999) Sarjana Ilmu Sejarah, Universitas Padjadjaran (1987-1992) p0ey01cd2gqz0u35jb5rut7izhaz27v Taman Alam Lumbini 0 98649 732177 708841 2026-11-11T03:15:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732177 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Pagoda Taman Alam Lumbini Berastagi. Kabupaten Karo. Provinsi Sumatera Utara.jpg|jmpl|Pagoda Taman Alam Lumbini]] '''Taman Alam Lubini''' nyaéta salah sahiji tempat wisata rohani, anu aya di Indonésia, nyaéta di [[Sumatra Utara]]. Taman Alam Lubini, nyaéta tempat wisata anu wangunna [[Pagoda]], kaéndahanana dilengkepan ku tiisna hawa [[Tanah Karo]]. Ti saprak dibuka dina tau 2010 Taman Alam Lubini, kiwari jadi déstinasi wisata Brastagi anu kakoncara.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ksmtour.com/informasi/tempat-wisata/sumatera-utara/taman-alam-lumbini-hadirkan-pagoda-megah-di-sumatera-utara.html|title=Taman Alam Lumbini Hadirkan Pagoda Megah di Sumatera Utara - Sumatera Utara|website=ksmtour.com|language=id|accessdate=2019-12-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221031610/https://ksmtour.com/informasi/tempat-wisata/sumatera-utara/taman-alam-lumbini-hadirkan-pagoda-megah-di-sumatera-utara.html |date=2019-12-21 }}</ref> Pagoda anu aya di Taman Alam Lubini mangrupa Pagoda warna emas agréng jeung méwah, sarta jadi pagoda anu pangjangkungna di Indonésia, kalayan geus kacatet di [[Museum Rekor Muri Indonésia]]. Dina jero Pagoda bagian tengah, aya opat rupang [[Buddha]] ukuran sedeng kalayan nyanghareup ka opat juru rohangan, anu tengah-tengahna dijadikeun tempat ibadah pikeun anu daratang ka dinya. Di Taman Alam Lubini, aya aturan pikeun tamu, nyaéta teu meunang motrét ngagunakeun HP jeung teu meunang barangdahar di jero Pagodana. Taman Alam Lubini nyimpen kurang leuwih 2.958 rupang Buddha, 30 rupang [[Arahat]] jeung 108 relik suci sarta gegedéna dicokot langsung ti Myanmar, kaasup pucak Pagonana , anu jangkungna 46, 8 meter dina luhureun stupa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiawisata.com/taman-alam-lumbini/|title=Taman Alam Lumbini|last=Wisata|first=Asia|website=ASIAWISATA.COM|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-12-20}}</ref> Legana Taman Alam Lubini téh kira-kira tilu héktar, kalayan disuguhan ku rupa-rupa kaéndahan alam jeung ornamén-ornamén Buddha, sarta nu matak leuwih ngirutna aya réplika pagoda anu ceplés jeung pagoda anu di Myanmar sarta jadi répliika ka dua panggedéna sa-[[Asia Tenggara]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nativeindonesia.com/taman-alam-lumbini/|title=Taman Alam Lumbini, Perpaduan Wisata Alam Dan Religi|last=Rudi|website=NativeIndonesia.com|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-21}}</ref> == Pantangan == Taman Alam Lubini, mémang lain sagawayah tempat peleseiran, tapi mangrupa tempat wisata rohani, ku kituna teu héran saupama aya sababaraha pantangan anu kudu diperhatikeun ku para tatamu anu daratang, pantangan éta nyaéta di antarana; # Teu meunang motrét ngagunakeun HP # Teu meunang maké sendal atawa sapatu # Teu meunang mawa kadaharan jeung inuman # Wajib ngagunakeun pakéan anu sopan jeung rapih # Teu meunang haliwu, sarta wajib ngajaga katartiban # Wajib ngajaga kabersihan di sabudeureu Taman Alam Lubini<ref name=":0" /> == Lokasi == Pikeun nepi ka Taman Alam Lubini, bisa ditempuh dina waktu kurang leuwih dua jam ti kota Médan. Pernahna Taman Lubini téh di [[Désa Tongkoh]], Kacamatan Dolan Rakyat, [[Kabupatén Karo]], [[Sumatra Kalér]]. Jam oprasioanalna ti jam salapan isuk-isuk nepi ka jam genep burit. Husus dina poé [[Saptu]] jeung [[Minggu]], atawa poé libur séjénna dimimitian buka ti jam sapuluh isuk-isuk nepi ka jam dalapan peuting. Saupama digunakeun pikeun acara ibadah, ieu tempat bakal tutup leuwih gancang, kira-kira jam satengah genep burit.<ref name=":0" /> Saupama hayang meunang hasil dokuméntasi anu alus, disarankeun datang isuk-isuk kira-kira jam 07.00 sabab langit keur meumeujeuhna biru sarta panon poé keur alus warnana meujeuhna moncorong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.superadventure.co.id/news/20037/melihat-lebih-dekat-keindahan-pagoda-tertinggi-se-indonesia-di-taman-alam-lumbini/|title=Melihat Lebih Dekat Keindahan Pagoda Tertinggi se-Indonesia di Taman Alam Lumbini|website=Melihat Lebih Dekat Keindahan Pagoda Tertinggi se-Indonesia di Taman Alam Lumbini|language=en|accessdate=2019-12-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231042803/https://www.superadventure.co.id/news/20037/melihat-lebih-dekat-keindahan-pagoda-tertinggi-se-indonesia-di-taman-alam-lumbini/|archivedate=2019-12-31}}</ref> == Sejarah Réplika Pagoda Shwedagon == Réplika [[Pagoda Shwedagon]] téh diwangun kira-kira taun 2007, sarta bisa diréngsékeun dina taun 2010. Peresmianna dihadiran ku 1.250 anggota [[Sangha]] anu ngawengku tina 100 urang [[Bhiksu]] ti Indonésia jeung 650 anggota anu asalna ti [[Burma Myanmar]] sarta 40 anggota dating langsung ti [[Thailand]], malah aya ogé anu datang ti nagara séjén, kurang-leuwih aya 20 urang, sarta kacatet dina sajarah yén nalika peresmianna meunang rekor muri katégori [[Panja Bakti]] alias pemberkahan panglobana, anu didatangan ku rébuan anggota Sangha. sedengkeun sajarah ngaran Taman Alam Lubini dicokot tina hiji ngaran tempat, anu mana ngaran tempat kasebut ngaranna Lubini, pernahna aya dina suku gunung [[Himalaya]], [[Nepal]]. Lubini mangrupa tempat SIddharta Gautama dilahirkeun sarta satuluyna [[Siddharta Gautama]] bakal jadi Buddha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jejakpiknik.com/taman-alam-lumbini/|title=10 Foto Taman Alam Lumbini Berastagi Kabupaten Karo Sumatera Utara, Lokasi Alamat + Jam Buka {{!}} JejakPiknik.com|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-12-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927131123/https://jejakpiknik.com/taman-alam-lumbini/ |date=2020-09-27 }}</ref> <br /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tempat pelesir]] obk41fulqozr2ugqlvxeoei7pbjqccy Panyakit dékompresi 0 98704 732148 709111 2026-11-11T01:09:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732148 wikitext text/x-wiki {{keur dikeureuyeuh}} [[Gambar:PENYELAM MAKHRUZI RAHMAN.jpg|jmpl|Tukang Teuleum]] '''Panyakit dekompresi''' nyaéta jinis panyakit nu timbul kusabab parobahan tekanan, boh tekanan [[cai]] atawa [[angin]]. Panyakit ieu biasana nyerang ka tukang teuleum.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Duke|first=Halena Isrumanti|last2=Hadisaputro|first2=Suharyo|last3=Chasani|first3=Sofa|last4=Anies|first4=Anies|last5=Munasik|first5=Munasik|date=2016-02-07|title=Beberapa Faktor yang Berpengaruh terhadap Kejadian Penyakit Dekompresi pada Penyelam Tradisional (Studi Kasus di Karimunjawa)|url=https://ejournal2.undip.ac.id/index.php/jekk/article/view/3936|journal=Jurnal Epidemiologi Kesehatan Komunitas|language=en-US|volume=1|issue=1|pages=9–14|issn=2615-4854}}</ref> Ilaharna ieu kasakit téh kalarapan ku  tukang teuleum, jeung nelayan salian ti tukang teuleum, nelayan ogé sok katarajang ieu kasakit. Ciri-cirina mangrupa lieur [[sirah]], awak asa lalungsé, nepi ka hésé engapan. Biasana panyakit ieu narajang kusabab awak ngarasakeun parobahan tekanan angin atawa cai nu kaliwat gancang, nu ngakibatkeun [[nitrogén]] dina jero [[getih]] ngabentuk gelembung nu mangpet [[pambuluh getih]] sarta jaringan organ.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Rahmadayanti|first=Rahmadayanti|last2=Budiyono|first2=Budiyono|last3=Darundiati|first3=Yusniar Hanani|date=2017-02-10|title=FAKTOR RISIKO GANGGUAN AKIBAT PENYELAMAN PADA PENYELAM TRADISIONAL DI KARIMUNJAWA JEPARA|url=https://ejournal3.undip.ac.id/index.php/jkm/article/view/15799|journal=Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat (e-Journal)|language=en-US|volume=5|issue=1|pages=473–481|issn=2356-3346|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229114755/https://ejournal3.undip.ac.id/index.php/jkm/article/view/15799|archive-date=2019-12-29|accessdate=2019-12-29}}</ref> == Jinis panyakit dékomprési == === Panyakit dékomprési tipe hiji === Panyakit dékomprési tipe hiji ditandaan ku ayana hiji atawa kombinasi gejala-gejala kayaning nyeri nu teu parna salila kurang leuwih 10 menit, ateul atawa [[kulit]] asa katarik nu ngabalukarkeun arateul jeung aya rasa peurih panas asa kaduruk, ''Curtis marmorata'' nyaéta ruam atawa papul/plak dina kulit nu warnana biru semu kabeureuman nu sumebar di bagéan awak. Cutis marmorata ieu diakibatkeun ku amplifikasi émboli gas dina kapilér kutaneus. Katerlibatan kelennjar limfe jarang jeung biasana ditandaan ku ''edema pitting'' nu teu nyeri. Sababaraha ahli nyebutkeun yén ''[[Anoréksi|anoreksi]]'' jeung kacapéan nu kaleuleuwihi sanggeus neuleum mangrupakeum maniféstasi panyakit dékomprési tipe hiji. Nyeri saperti asa ditalian atawa katarik mangrupa gejala ni ilhar di dékomprési tipe hiji ieu (sekitar 70-85%) karasa ku pasén nu katarajang. Nyeri mangrupa gejala ''klinis'' nu ilahar. [[Sendi]] dina [[taktak]] mangrupa sendi nu pang minengna katarajang. <ref name=":4" /> === Panyakit dékomprési tipe dua === Panyakit dékomprési tipe dua ngabogaan karakteristik atawa gejala kayaning ''[[pulmoner]]'', ''[[syok hipovolemia]]'', jeung keterlibatan sistem [[saraf]]. Gejala-gejala klinis ieu biasana langsung karasana tapi bisa ogé karasa sanggeus 36 jam. * Sistem saraf ''[[Medulla spinalis]]'' nyaéta tempat nu paling mindeng katarajang dina dékomprési tipe II, gejanana kayaning sarupa jeung trauma ''medulla spinalis''. Nyeri dina [[tulang]] tukang bisa karasa sababaraha menit nepi ka sababaraha jam sanggeus neuleum jeung bisa ngabalukarkeun ''[[paresis]]'', ''[[parestesia]]'', sarta leungitna ''control spinchter'' jeung nyeri di awak bagéan handap. *[[Panon]], wanci kasakit ieu keuna nepi ka [[Uteuk|otak]], loba gejala nu bisa karasa. ''[[Skotomata negative]]'', nyeri [[sirah]], gangguan tetempoan, lieur, parobahan status mental ogé bisa tumiba. *  [[Ceuli]], mun keuna ka ''labirinti'', panyakit dékomprési ieu ngakibatkeun gejala sebel, Utah, [[vertigo]], jeung ''nystagmus'', sarta ''tinnitus'' jeung bisa nepi ka teu bisa ngareungeu sabeulah. *  ''Pulmo'', mun keuna ka pulmo, panyakit ieu gejalana biasana mangrupa rasa kayaning kaduruk dina ''substernal'', batuk nu ngakibatkeun ''paroksismal'' jeung ''distress'' ngarénghap nu beurat. * Sistem sirkulasi, bisa ogé ngaronjatkeun ''[[hématokrit]]'' luyu jeung jerona neuleum. Hal ieu bisa ngabalukarkeun ''syok hipovolemia''.<ref name=":4" /> == Musabab == Kasakit ieu narajang kusabab parobahan tekanan cai atawa angin nu kaliwat gancang. Misalkeun keur neuleum, panyakit ieu bakal narajang mun prosés balik ka beungeut cai dilakukeun sakaligus henteu luyu jeung tahapan-tahapan nu kuduna dilarapkeun saluyu jeung aturan nu geus dijieun pikeun kasalametan nu teuleum.<ref name=":0" /> Dina dasarna, awak [[manusa]] téh perlu waktu pikeun adaptasi jeung parobahan tekanan nu aya. Mun parobahan tekanan kaliwat gancang, [[nitrogén]] nu aya dina jero getih bisa ngabentuk gelembung nu ngakibatkeun mangpetna pambuluh getih jeung jaringan organ. Nu tuluy, pambuluh getih nu mangpet ieu nimbulkeun rasa nyeri nu kacida sarta gejala liana.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/penyakit-dekompresi|title=Penyakit Dekompresi|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2019-12-29}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Widyastuti|first=Sri Rahayu|last2=Hadisaputro|first2=Suharyo|last3=Munasik|first3=Munasik|date=2019-03-03|title=Berbagai Faktor yang Berpengaruh Terhadap Kualitas Hidup Penyelam Tradisional Penderita Penyakit Dekompresi|url=https://ejournal2.undip.ac.id/index.php/jekk/article/view/4429|journal=Jurnal Epidemiologi Kesehatan Komunitas|language=id-ID|volume=4|issue=1|pages=45–54|issn=2615-4854}}</ref> Aya sababarah faktor nu ngakibatkeun résiko panyakit ieu leuwih gancang narajang, diantarana nyaéta *[[Obéstitas]] atawa [[lemak]] diawak bisa jadi salah sahiji gampangna katarajang kupanyakit dekompresi, aya téori nu nyatakeun yén nitrogen gampang pisan nyerepna ka jaringan lemak, ku kituna, nu miboga beurat leuwih, leuwih gedé résiko katarajanngna. * . Ngalakukeun aktifitas pisik sanggeus neuleum bias ngaronjatkeun résiko kabentukna gelembung kusabab tekanan getih naék jeung gelembung bias leuwih babari ditransfer ti [[véna]] ka [[artéri]] dina system sirkulasi. * Jinis kelamin sacara téori, awéwé miboga résiko nu leuwih gedé tibatan lalaki kusabab awéwé sacara husus miboga ''massa'' lemak nu leuwih gedé. Tapi can aya panalungtikan nu ngabuktieun ieu téori. * Umur, sacara umum, umur nu kolot miboga résiko nu leuwih gedé pikeun katarajang ku ieu kasakit. * Miboga kasakit séjén kayaning [[jantung]], [[asma]], * Pakakas pikeun neuleum saayana (teu luyu jeung prosedur), * Kurangna pangaweruh ngeunaan cara pikeun neuleum, biasana ieu kasorang ku nalayan, kusabab maranéhna jalma awam, nu pikirna pangalaman wungkul cukup pikeun modal neuleum, awak kurang séhat jeung kurangna istirahat.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" /> == Gejala panyakit dékompresi == Gejala panyakit ieu bisa rupa-rupa ka unggal jelma, gumantung tempat mangpetna aliran pambuluh getih. Gejala nu ilharna kayaning nyeri dina [[sendi]], lieur [[sirah]], awak asa lalungsé, hésé ngarénghap, ateul atawa [[kaligata]] nu ngagareblég, aya sababaraha bagéan awak nu [[singsireumeun]] sarta teu bisa ngarasakeun nanaon.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Salian toéta, ieu di handap sababraha gejala nu ilahar kaciri dipanyakit dékomprési: * Gejala parobahan status méntal, kayaning ciga nu linglung, teu sadar, parobahan kapribadian * Gejala mata jeung ceuli: ''diplopia'', titinggalian teu jelas, ''paresis'' otot-otot ''ekstraokular'', ''tinnitus'', atawa gangguan pangreungeuan * Gejala-gejala di kulit kayaninng ateul atawa ruam gatal * Gejala-gejala ''pulmoner'', kayaning hésé rénghap, batuk ''nonproduktif'', atawa ''hemoptisis'' * Gejala-gejala ''kardiak'', kayaning nyeri dada asa ditojosan jarum atawa asa kaduruk * Gejala-gejala ''gastrointestinal'', kayaning nyeri dibagéan beuteung, ''inkontinensia alvi, nausea'' atawa utah * Gejala-gejala ''genitourinaria'', kayaning ''inkontinensi urine'' atawa ''retensi urine'' * Gejala-gejala ''neurologis'' kayaning parestesia, ''parese, paralisis, migrain, vertigo, disarthria,'' atawa ''ataksia'' * Gejala-gejala ''limfatik'' == Diagnosis panyakit dékomprési == Dina ngadiagnosisi kasakit ieu, dokter biasana méré sababaraha patanyaan ngeunaan faktor résiko sarta patanyaan ngeunaan kumaha cara teuleum terahir. Salian ti éta [[dokter]] gé bakal ngalakukeun pamariksaan ngeunaan gejala nu karasa, riwayat kasakit, sarta kaayaan pasén sacara umum.<ref name=":1" /> == Nyageurkeun panyakit dékomprési == Prosés nungkulan ieu kasakit, léngkah mimiti nu kudu dilakukeun nyaéta nitah pasén nangkarak, tuluy ngagaringkeun awak pasén sarta ngahaneutan awakna kucara disimbutan (mun suhu awakna turun pisan). Leuwih hadé mun aya [[oksigén]], pasén dibéré oksigén aliran tinggi nngaliwatan masker.<ref name=":1" /> Térapi oksigén ''hiperbarik'' mangrupa metode nu dipaké pikeun ngungkulan panyakit dékomprési. Térapi ieu make alat mangrupa tabung atawa kamar nu husus pikeun ngasimulasi tekanan. Tekanan nu aya dina tabung bisa nyegah nitrogén ngabentuk gelembung dina getih sarta ngarobah deui gelembung éta jadi gas nu bisa larut dina jero getih. Sanajan kitu, térapi oksigén ''hiperbarik'' gmantung kana tingkat kaparahan gejala nu dialaman ku pasén.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://med.unhas.ac.id/kedokteran/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Bahan-Ajar-Penyakit-Dekompresi.pdf|title=Penyakit Dekompresi|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|accessdate=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910102353/https://med.unhas.ac.id/kedokteran/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Bahan-Ajar-Penyakit-Dekompresi.pdf |date=2021-09-10 }}</ref> == Cara nyingkahan panyakit dékomprési == Panyakit dekompresi téh kondisi nu bisa diingkahan. Pikeun nu sok neuleum, ieu di handap sababaraha upaya pikeun nyingkahan ieu kasakit, diantarana :<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/dcs.pdf|title=Pilot Safety Brochures|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Urang kudu taat kana aturan kaamanan  nu geus ditetepkeun ku juru teuleum. Salian ti éta ieu aya sababaraha cara pikeun nyingkahan ieu kasakit, diantarana: * Konsultasikeun atawa obrolkeun jeung juru teuleum ngeunaan batesan-batesan ka jeroan neuleum sarta sabaraha lila waktu neuleum. * Mun dibutuhkeun, bisa ogé make ''dive computer'' atawa alat husus nu bisa nulungan pikeun ngukur ka jeroan neleum nepi ka sésa waktu neuleum. * Larapkeun ''safety stop'' atawa eureun heulaanan sababaraha menit ti ka jeroan nu nu ilaharna 4-5 m’eter, saacan balik ka beungeut cai. *  Ingkahan iinditan nu maké [[kapal udara]], sahenteuna dua puluh opat jam sanggeus neuleum. * Jalma nu geus kasawat panyakit ieu, hadéna ulah waka neuleum sahenteuna salial 2 minggu sanggeus neuleum. * Ingkahan ngonsumsi [[alkohol]] saacan jeung sanggeus neuleum. * Ingkahan ''sauna'' atawa mandi ku cai panas sanggeus neuleum. * Pastikeun cairan dina awak cukup, henteu ''[[déhidrasi]]''. * Mun miboga kondisi nu résiko katarajang ieu kasakit luhur, kayaning panyakit jantung jeung asma, ulah neuleum saacan konsultasi heula ka dokter, kusabab aya sababaraha kndisi nu teu ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngalakukeun teuleum. == Rujukan == <references /> nvbo7o6ioz45phfn6qzi3xv8zk3l06b Iguana héjo 0 98795 732123 730737 2026-11-10T21:35:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732123 wikitext text/x-wiki {{speciesbox | name = Iguana héjo | image = Iguana iguana Portoviejo 01.jpg | image_caption = déwasa, [[Ékuador]] | image2 = Green iguana (Iguana iguana) juvenile.jpg | image2_caption = rumaja, [[Grand Cayman]] | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite journal | authors = Bock, B., Malone, CL, Knapp, C., Aparicio, J., Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Cacciali, P., Caicedo, J.R., Chaves, G., Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, P., Lamar, W., Moravec, J., Perez, P., Porras, L.W., Rivas, G., Scott, N., Solórzano, A. & Sunyer, J. | title = ''Iguana iguana'' | journal = [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume= | page = e.T174481A1414646 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | year = 2018| doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T174481A1414646.en }}</ref> | genus = Iguana | species = iguana | authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) | synonyms = * ''Lacerta iguana'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> * ''Hypsilophus tuberculatus'' <small>Wagler 1830</small> * ''Iguana hernandessi'' <small>Jan 1857</small> * ''Iguana iguana rhinolopha'' <small>Wiegman, 1834</small> * ''Hypsilophus rhinolophus'' <small>Fitzinger, 1843</small> * ''Iguana rhinolopha'' <small>Dumeril & Bibron, 1837</small> * ''Iguana rhinolophus'' <small>Günther, 1885</small> | range_map = Iguana iguana distribution map.png }} '''Iguana héjo''' nyaéta sato anu ngaran latinna ''Iguana iguana'', nu kaasup ti kulawarga ''[[Iguanidae]].''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/174481/1414646|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|last=|first=|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|publisher=|accessdate=2020-01-10}}</ref> Ieu iguana mangrupa pituin ti wewengkon [[Amérika Tengah]] jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]], bisa kapanggin ti Sinaloa jeung Veracruz, [[Méksiko]], di kidulna nepi ka ''Tropic of Capricorn'' di [[Paraguay]] jeung [[Brasil]] kidul wétan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.floridagardener.com/critters/iguanas.htm|title=The common green iguana (Iguana iguana)|website=www.floridagardener.com|accessdate=2020-01-10}}</ref> Ieu kadal badag ogé nyicingan loba pulo di sakuliah wewengkon [[Karibia]] sarta basisir wétan [[Pasifik]], ogé geus diwanohkeun ka [[Florida]] kidul jeung [[Hawaii]].<ref name=":0" /> == Déskripsi == Na mangsa tilu taun, iguana nu mimiti megarna kur sajeung 12 gram téh bisa jadi 1 kg, sarta kaasup iguana déwasa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/61467/IPA-Green-Iguana-Risk-Assessment.pdf|title=IPA Green Iguana Risk Assessment|last=|first=|website=Queensland Government|publisher=|accessdate=}}</ref> Sanggeus megar tinu jadi endog, ieu panjang iguana héjo kurang leuwih antara 17 nepi ka 25 cm.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.anywhere.com/flora-fauna/reptile/green-iguana|title=Animal Information: Green Iguana|website=www.anywhere.com|accessdate=2020-01-10}}</ref> Lolobana mah iguana déwasa beuratna antara 4 jeung 6 kg, tapi di sawatara wewengkon di [[Amérika Kidul]], ku cara dahar nu tinangtu mah bisa nepi kana 8 kg beuratna. Ieu kadal badag panjang ti hulu nepi ka buntut téh kurang leuwih 2 méter.<ref name=":1" /> Sanajan disebut iguana héjo, satemenna ieu kadal téh miboga warna-warna nu varéatif.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenigsociety.org/colors.htm|title=Color Changes|website=www.greenigsociety.org|accessdate=2020-01-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208171514/http://www.greenigsociety.org/colors.htm|archivedate=2020-02-08}}</ref> Kadal déwasa jadi leuwih saragam warnana téh lantaran beuki nambahna umur éta iguana, sedengkeun anu ngorana mah sok katempo totol-totol atawa saru antara warna héjo jeung coklat.<ref name=":2" /> Warna ogé bisa varéatifna dumasar kaayaan haté, suhu, kaséhatan, atawa status sosialna.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.petcoach.co/article/green-iguana-color-change-causes/|website=www.petcoach.co|accessdate=2020-01-10|title=Arsip salinan|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219181334/https://www.petcoach.co/article/green-iguana-color-change-causes|archivedate=2020-12-19}}</ref> Parobahan warna kawas kitu bisa mantuan ieu iguana dina térmorégulasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.plos.org/everyone/2016/01/11/whats-warming-the-cold-blooded-iguana/,%20http://blogs.plos.org/everyone/?p=20195|title=What's Warming the Cold-Blooded Iguana? {{!}} EveryONE: The PLOS ONE blog|last=Hofl|first=Rebecca|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-01-10}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Na waktu isuk, nalika suhu awak rendah, warna kulit jadi leuwih poék, tujuanna sangkan iguana nyerep panas tina cahya panonpoé.<ref name=":3" /> Tapi nalika tengah poé anu mana panonpoé nyorot luhureun sirah, ieu iguana warnana jadi leuwih caang atawa malah jadi pias, maksudna sangkan mantulkeun cahya panonpoé sarta ngaminimalisir panas nu diserep.<ref name=":3" /> Iguana anu kawilang aktif biasana mah miboga warna leuwih poék tinimbang iguana nu cicingeun nu hirup di lingkungan babarengan.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/amazing-social-life-of-green-iguana/|title=Amazing social life of the Green iguana|last=Naish|first=Darren|website=Scientific American Blog Network|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-10}}</ref> Anu ngabédakeun tina ieu iguana nyaéta jawér nu ngagayot handapeun beuheung, nu mangrupa gagayotan kulit nu manteng tina beuheung tengah nepi ka puhu buntut, sarta buntut panjang nu nyungcung.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.petcoach.co/article/behavior-of-the-green-iguana/|website=www.petcoach.co|accessdate=2020-01-10|title=Arsip salinan|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811132504/https://www.petcoach.co/article/behavior-of-the-green-iguana/|archivedate=2021-08-11}}</ref> Jawér jalu leuwih ngumembang batan jawér nu iguana bikang.<ref name=":4" /> Legana tulang hyoid ngarengken sarta ngadorong tungtung panghareupna tina ieu struktur, nu dipaké dina patahanan téritorial atawa nalika ieu iguana kasieunan.<ref name=":4" /> Ieu jawér ogé miboga fungsi dina nyerep sarta disipasi panas nalika dipanjangkeun.<ref name=":4" /> == Habitat == Iguana héjo mangrupa kadal badag nu hirup dina tatangkalan, komona mah biasa hirup dina dahan tangkal pangluhurna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/green_iguana.htm|title=Green Iguana|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref> Iguana anu ngora nyicingan tangkal di bagian landeuh nu kaiuhan, sedengkeun iguana kolot cicing di bagian tangkal nu leuwih luhur.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/juvenile-green-iguana-iguana-iguana-in-a-small-palm-tree-in-news-photo/849939484|title=A juvenile Green Iguana, Iguana iguana, in a small palm tree in Costa...|website=Getty Images|language=en-us|accessdate=2020-01-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250602205626/https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/juvenile-green-iguana-iguana-iguana-in-a-small-palm-tree-in-news-photo/849939484|archivedate=2025-06-02}}</ref> Kabiasaan hirup dina tangkal téh ngamumkinkeun ieu kadal bisa moyan handapeun cahya panonpoé, arang turun kana taneuh iwal iguana bikang nu ngali liang pikeun endogan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/51153-iguanas.html|title=Iguana Facts|last=Contributor 2015-06-12T04:30:52Z|first=Alina Bradford-Live Science|website=livescience.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref> Sanajan iguana héjo leuwih resep hirup dina tatangkalan, tapi da ieu iguana téh bisa ogé nyaluyukeun hirup ka aréa nu leuwih nembrak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theleopardgecko.org/common-green-iguana/|website=theleopardgecko.org|accessdate=2020-01-11|title=Arsip salinan|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111054203/https://theleopardgecko.org/common-green-iguana/|archivedate=2020-01-11}}</ref> Rék di mana waé ieu iguana cicingna, karesepna mah di tempat nu loba cai lantaran ieu iguana bisaan dina ngojayna sarta hadé pisan na waktu teuleum di jero cai pikeun nyingkahan prédator.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/iguana-iguana|title=GREEN IGUANA - Iguana iguana|last=|first=|website=www.tsusinvasives.org|publisher=|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref> == Réproduksi == Lolobana iguana héjo nepi kana majadna téh antara tilu nepi ka opat taunan, sanajan ieu kadéwasaan téh saenya bisa kahontal leuwih anggal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.townofpalmbeach.com/909/What-is-a-Green-Iguana|title=What is a Green Iguana? {{!}} Palm Beach, FL - Official Website|website=www.townofpalmbeach.com|accessdate=2020-01-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113012128/https://www.townofpalmbeach.com/909/What-is-a-Green-Iguana|archivedate=2020-01-13}}</ref> Iguana leuwih mindeng baranahan di usum halodo, tujuanna sangkan aranakanna megar dina usum ngijih nalika kadaharan leuwih gampang sayaga.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.anapsid.org/iguana/breedingaggression.html|title=Dealing With Male Green Iguana Breeding Aggression|website=www.anapsid.org|accessdate=2020-01-13}}</ref> Pakawinan iguana kaasup kana sato nu poligini, saurang iguana jalu bisa kawin jeung sababaraha iguana bikang.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Developmental Psychobiology and Behavioral Ecology|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=enLSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124&lpg=P#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|date=2012-12-06|isbn=978-1-4684-5421-5|language=en|first=Elliott M.|last=Blass}}</ref> Sapatemonna dilakonan di wilayah datangna bikang anu mana leuwih ti hiji bikang.<ref name=":6" /> Teu saeutik ogé kajadian konflik antara iguana jalu.<ref name=":5" /> Kalakuan kawin jalu katara kayaning ngayun-ayunkeun sirah, manjangkeun sarta mondokkeun jawér handap, ogé susuruntul atawa ngégél beuheung bikangna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenigsociety.org/breedingseason.htm|title=Breeding Season Issues|website=www.greenigsociety.org|accessdate=2020-01-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222175658/http://www.greenigsociety.org/breedingseason.htm|archivedate=2019-12-22}}</ref> Jalu nu dominan ogé sok nandaan batu, rokrak, atawa bikangna ku zat anu ngandung féromon liket nu dikaluarkeun tina pori-pori fémurina.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Iguana Den's Care and Keeping of Giant Green Iguanas|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=dKEKnIQVsS4C&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=Lulu.com|date=2005-04-01|isbn=978-1-4116-2842-7|language=en|first=Meredith|last=Martin}}</ref> Nalika kawin, iguana jalu ngadeukeutan iguana bikang sarta numpak kana tonggongna, bari ngangkang.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.anapsid.org/iguana/breedingbasics.html|title=Iguana Breeding Season Basics|website=www.anapsid.org|accessdate=2020-01-13}}</ref> Pikeun nahan pasangaranna, iguana jalu gewewek kana kulit punduk iguana bikang ku sungutna, sakapeung bisa ngajadikeun tatu.<ref name=":7" /> Iguana jalu ngadekkeun liang kloaka-na ka iguana bikang sarta ngasupkeun salah sahiji hémipénna kana kloaka bikang.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Reproductive Medicine, An Issue of Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice E-Book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=puSVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27-IA77&lpg=PA27-IA77#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|date=2017-03-30|isbn=978-0-323-52867-2|language=en|first=Vladimir|last=Jekl}}</ref> Kopulasi bisa lumangsung sawatara menit. Iguana bikang bisa nyimpen cimani nika mangtaun-taun, ngamumkinkeun bisa ngabuahan sél endog di mangsa nu ka hareupna.<ref name=":8" /> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|}} a083j2h6vw5zkvan77wiwvf38y7mply Pandémi koronavirus 2019 di Amérika Sarikat 0 99248 732147 729245 2026-11-11T01:00:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox pandemic | name = Pandémi Koronavirus di [[Amérika Sarikat]] | first_case = [[Everett]], [[Washington]] | total_ili = | suspected_cases = | deaths = {{Unbulleted list |135,991 ([[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]])<ref name=CDCnumbers>{{cite web|title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Cases in U.S.|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=July 15, 2020}}</ref> |137,357 ([[Johns Hopkins University|JHU]])<ref name=JHU>{{cite web|work=Johns Hopkins CSSE|title=Coronavirus COVID-19 (2019-nCoV)|format=ArcGIS|accessdate=July 12, 2020|url=https://www.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6}}</ref> |129,525 ([[COVID Tracking Project|CTP]])<ref name=CTP>{{Cite web|url=https://covidtracking.com/data/|title=Our Data|website=The COVID Tracking Project|accessdate=July 12, 2020}}</ref>}} | confirmed_cases = {{Unbulleted list |3,416,428 ([[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]])<ref name=CDCnumbers/> |3,495,537 ([[Johns Hopkins University|JHU]])<ref name=JHU/> |3,478,419 ([[COVID Tracking Project|CTP]])<ref name=CTP/> }} | active_cases = | recovery_cases = 1,075,882 | origin = [[Wuhan]], [[Hubei]], Tiongkok | arrival_date = 21 Januari 2020 | location = [[Amérika Sarikat]] | map1 = COVID-19_Outbreak_Cases_in_the_United_States_(Density).svg | virus_strain = [[SARS-CoV-2]] | disease = [[COVID-19]] | legend3 = | map3 = | legend2 = | map2 = | legend1 = {{center|Wewengkon nagara bagian di [[Amérika Sarikat]] kalawan kasus kakonfirmasi per tanggal 13 Maret 2020}} {{legend|#FFE4A3|Kakonfirmasi <50}}{{legend|#F2A88D|Kakonfirmasi 51–150}}{{legend|#E57814|Kakonfirmasi 151–300}}{{legend|#FF0000|Kakonfirmasi 301-800}}{{legend|#A81C1B|Kakonfirmasi >801}} | website = }} '''Pandémi koronavirus 2019 di Amérika Sarikat''' mimiti kapanggih di tanggal [[20 Januari]] [[2020]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Holshue|first=Michelle L.|last2=DeBolt|first2=Chas|last3=Lindquist|first3=Scott|last4=Lofy|first4=Kathy H.|last5=Wiesman|first5=John|last6=Bruce|first6=Hollianne|last7=Spitters|first7=Christopher|last8=Ericson|first8=Keith|last9=Wilkerson|first9=Sara|date=2020-03-05|title=First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States|url=https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=10|pages=929–936|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001191|issn=0028-4793|pmid=32004427}}</ref> Per tanggal 2 April 2020, kacatet geus aya 215.344 kasus positip virus korona, sarta 5.112 urang anu tiwas ku sabab ieu sasalad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dunia.tempo.co/read/1326833/200-000-lebih-warga-amerika-serikat-terinfeksi-virus-corona|title=200.000 Lebih Warga Amerika Serikat Terinfeksi Virus Corona|last=Saputra|first=Eka Yudha|website=Tempo|language=en|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/4217206/jumlah-warga-as-terpapar-corona-covid-19-tembus-200-ribu-orang|title=Jumlah Warga AS Terpapar Corona COVID-19 Tembus 200 Ribu Orang|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://palu.tribunnews.com/2020/04/02/update-corona-dunia-kamis-2-april-2020-938923-kasus-positif-dan-195416-dinyatakan-sembuh|title=Update Corona Dunia, Kamis 2 April 2020: 938.923 Kasus Positif dan 195.416 Dinyatakan Sembuh|website=Tribun Palu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suara.com/news/2020/04/02/114847/kasus-corona-di-amerika-serikat-tembus-200-ribu-lebih|title=Kasus Corona di Amerika Serikat Tembus 200 Ribu Lebih|website=suara.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> Tuluy isukanana di tanggal 3 April, kacatet geus aya 243.970 kasus (28.967 kasus anyar), sarta anu tiwas nepi ka 5.883 orang (781 kasus anyar).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/04/03/064540865/update-virus-corona-di-dunia-kasus-positif-covid-19-mencapai-1-juta|title=Update Virus Corona di Dunia: Kasus Positif Covid-19 Mencapai 1 Juta|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> Kasus virus korona di [[Amérika Sarikat]] geus kawilang parah dibanding jeung nagara séjén di dunya. Kacatet dina sapoé, ti tanggal 25 Maret nepi ka 26 Maret, geus aya 12.000 kasus baru jelema anu positip virus korona.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sukabumiupdate.com/detail/ragam-berita/internasional/66756-Dalam-Sehari-12-Ribu-Warga-AS-Positif-Terjangkit-Virus-Corona|title=Dalam Sehari, 12 Ribu Warga AS Positif Terjangkit Virus Corona|website=https://sukabumiupdate.com/|language=en|accessdate=2020-04-03}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Malahan mah jumlah kasus di Amérika Sarikat ngaleuwihan jumlah kasus di Tiongkok, sarta disebut-sebut jadi nagara nomer hiji kasus COVID-19 panglobana sadunya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20200327111300-8-147896/amerika-serikat-catatkan-kasus-corona-melebihi-china|title=Amerika Serikat Catatkan Kasus Corona Melebihi China|last=TV|first=CNBC Indonesia|website=news|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suara.com/news/2020/03/27/103311/amerika-peringkat-1-kasus-corona-indonesia-diminta-belajar|title=Amerika Serikat Peringkat 1 Kasus Corona, Indonesia diminta Belajar|website=suara.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/04/03/171800965/saat-as-alami-lonjakan-kasus-dan-kematian-akibat-virus-corona-|title=Saat AS Alami Lonjakan Kasus dan Kematian akibat Virus Corona...|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> Sabab-sabab kasus COVID-19 di Amérika Sarikat kawilang loba di antarana kurangna véntilator pikeun pasién positip, distribusi alat uji anu lila, pamaréntah pusat AS anu embung ngalumakukeun kawijakan lockdown sa-Amérika Sarikat, sarta lolobana kasus positip ngarumpul di Kota [[New York]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wartaekonomi.co.id/read278329/4-penyebab-angka-positif-corona-di-amerika-serikat-tertinggi-di-dunia|title=4 Penyebab Angka Positif Corona di Amerika Serikat Tertinggi di Dunia|website=Warta Ekonomi|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328180123/https://www.wartaekonomi.co.id/read278329/4-penyebab-angka-positif-corona-di-amerika-serikat-tertinggi-di-dunia |date=2020-03-28 }}</ref> == Mimiti == Kasus mimiti di Amérika Sarikat nyaéta hiji lalaki 35 taun di Nagara Bagian [[Washington]] anu positip beunang virus korona saenggeus mulang ti Kota [[Wuhan]], [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]], tempat asal éta virus.<ref>{{Cite news|title=A Timeline of the Coronavirus Pandemic|url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/coronavirus-timeline.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2020-04-02|access-date=2020-04-03|issn=0362-4331|language=en-US|first=Derrick Bryson|last=Taylor}}</ref> Di tanggal 19 Januari 2020, manéhna datang ka klinik perawatan darurat di Snohomish County, Washington, saenggeus ngarasa batuk jeung panas salila opat poé. Saméméhna manéhna geus ti Wuhan, nepungan kulawargana. Tuluy, hasil tes laboratorium nunjukkeun yén manéhna positip beunang virus korona isukanana, tanggal 20 Januari.<ref name=":0" /> == Sumebarna virus == Per tanggal 2 April, kacatet kabéh nagara bagian di Amérika Sarikat geus aya jelema anu positip virus korona.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/coronavirus-updates-united-states.html|title=Coronavirus in the US: Latest COVID-19 news and case counts|last=April 2020|first=Live Science Staff 02|website=livescience.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> Virus korona gancang sumebar di Amérika sarikat ku sabab 25% warga anu kajangkit virus teu nunjukkeun gelana nanaon. Ku sabab kitu, babaraha pamaréntah nagara bagian, saperti [[Florida]], méré pépéling ka warga sangkan cicing di imahna séwang-séwangan sarta teu indit-inditan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/4218002/dalam-sehari-1000-nyawa-melayang-akibat-virus-corona-covid-19-di-as|title=Dalam Sehari, 1.000 Nyawa Melayang Akibat Virus Corona COVID-19 di AS|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Data jumlah anu kapanggih positip virus korona per tanggal 2 April 2020<ref name=":1" /> !Nagara bagian !Jumlah kasus !Jumlah nu tiwas !Nagara bagian !Jumlah kasus !Jumlah nu tiwas |- |Alabama |1.108 |28 |Missouri |1.581 |18 |- |Alaska |143 |3 |Montana |217 |6 |- |Arizona |1.413 |29 |Nebraska |210 |4 |- |Arkansas |624 |10 |Nevada |1.279 |26 |- |California |9.936 |215 |New Hampshire |415 |4 |- |Colorado |3.342 |80 |New Jersey |22.255 |355 |- |Connecticut |3.557 |85 |New Mexico |363 |6 |- |Delaware |368 |11 |New York |83.901 |2.219 |- |Distrik Columbia |586 |11 |North Carolina |1.717 |15 |- |Florida |7.773 |101 |North Dakota |142 |3 |- |Georgia |4.748 |154 |Ohio |2.547 |65 |- |Hawaii |258 |1 |Oklahoma |719 |30 |- |Idaho |673 |9 |Oregon |736 |19 |- |Illinois |6.980 |141 |Pennsylvania |6.002 |74 |- |Indiana |2.565 |65 |Rhode Island |566 |10 |- |Iowa |549 |9 |South Carolina |1.293 |26 |- |Kansas |487 |11 |South Dakota |129 |2 |- |Kentucky |680 |20 |Tennessee |2.683 |25 |- |Louisiana |6.424 |273 |Texas |4.068 |60 |- |Maine |344 |7 |Utah |1.012 |7 |- |Maryland |1,985 |31 |Vermont |321 |16 |- |Massachusetts |7.738 |122 |VIrginia |1.484 |34 |- |Michigan |9.334 |337 |Washington |5.984 |254 |- |Minnesota |689 |17 |West Virginia |191 |2 |- |Mississippi |1.073 |22 |Wyoming |137 | - |} == Dampak == === Kawijakan ''lockdown'' === Sanajan kasus virus korona di Amérika Sarikat geus parah, tapi Pamaréntah Pusat keukeuh moal nerapkeun kawijakan ''lockdown'' di AS. [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]], [[Donald Trump]], boga kayakinan saupama AS ngalumakukeun kawijakan ''lockdown'', bakal ngancurkeun ékonomi nagara éta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/4204708/as-akan-lockdown-ini-kata-donald-trump|title=AS Akan Lockdown? Ini Kata Donald Trump|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> Tuluy, sanajan Nagara Bagian [[New York]] jeung [[Florida]] jadi nagara bagian kalawan kasus panglobana, sarta kungsi aya rancana pikeun ngalumakukeun kawijakan lockdown di dua nagara bagian éta,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/4207724/gubernur-new-york-perintahkan-lockdown-akibat-corona-covid-19|title=Gubernur New York Perintahkan Lockdown Akibat Corona COVID-19|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> tapi pamaréntah tungtungna ngabedokeun éta rancana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/global/read/2020/03/29/120857270/wabah-covid-19-trump-batalkan-lockdown-kota-new-york|title=Wabah Covid-19, Trump Batalkan Lockdown Kota New York Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-4957250/trump-batal-lockdown-new-york-kematian-akibat-corona-di-as-tembus-2000|title=Trump Batal Lockdown New York, Kematian Akibat Corona di AS Tembus 2.000|last=Erwanti|first=Marlinda Oktavia|website=detiknews|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-04-03}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330191300/https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-4957250/trump-batal-lockdown-new-york-kematian-akibat-corona-di-as-tembus-2000 |date=2020-03-30 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dunia.tempo.co/read/1325181/trump-mau-total-lockdown-new-york-gubernur-menolak|title=Trump Mau Total Lockdown New York, Gubernur Menolak|last=Saputra|first=Eka Yudha|website=Tempo|language=en|accessdate=2020-04-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330113150/https://dunia.tempo.co/read/1325181/trump-mau-total-lockdown-new-york-gubernur-menolak|archivedate=2020-03-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indozone.id/news/9DsaNx/presiden-donald-trump-batal-lockdown-new-york-kok-bisa|title=Presiden Donald Trump Batal Lockdown New York, Kok Bisa?|last=Minggu|last2=Maret 2020|first2=29 Maret 2020 12:14 WIB 29|website=indozone.id|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-04-03|last3=Wib|first3=12:14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227003544/https://www.indozone.id/news/9DsaNx/presiden-donald-trump-batal-lockdown-new-york-kok-bisa|archivedate=2021-02-27}}</ref> === Ékonomi === Ku sabab ayana ieu sasalad, ékonomi di Amérika Sarikat ngalemah, sarta diperkirakeun bakal beunang résési anu pangparahna sapanjang sajarah nagara éta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dunia.tempo.co/read/1327393/virus-corona-picu-pengangguran-amerika-masuki-resesi-terburuk|title=Virus Corona Picu Pengangguran, Amerika Masuki Resesi Terburuk|last=Pramadiba|first=Istman Musaharun|website=Tempo|language=en|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voaindonesia.com/a/virus-corona-picu-kekhawatiran-resesi-ekonomi-di-as/5327221.html|title=Virus Corona Picu Kekhawatiran Resesi Ekonomi di AS|website=VOA Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2020-04-03}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Pandémi koronavirus 2019]] * [[Pandémi]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Pandémi]] [[Kategori:Pandémi koronavirus 2019]] 4wgdy5n0akvbo32sfip24gzvf5g42em Sulfasalazin 0 99609 732171 711057 2026-11-11T02:58:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732171 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Penyangkalan-medis}} {{Drugbox | Verifiedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 460764435 | image = Sulfasalazine.svg <!--Clinical data--> | synonyms = Sulphasalazine | tradename = Azulfidine, Salazopyrin, Sulazine, others | Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|sulfasalazine}} | MedlinePlus = a682204 | DailyMedID = Sulfasalazine | pregnancy_AU = A | pregnancy_AU_comment = <ref name="Drugs.com Pregnancy">{{cite web | title=Sulfasalazine Use During Pregnancy | website=Drugs.com | date=9 November 2018 | url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/sulfasalazine.html | access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref> | pregnancy_US = B | pregnancy_US_comment = <ref name="Drugs.com Pregnancy" /> | pregnancy_category= | routes_of_administration = [[Oral administration|ngaliwatan baham]] | class = Sulfonamides | ATCvet = | ATC_prefix = A07 | ATC_suffix = EC01 <!-- Legal status --> | legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled--> | legal_AU_comment = | legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F--> | legal_BR_comment = | legal_CA = <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled--> | legal_DE_comment = | legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UK = POM | legal_UK_comment = <ref name="UK sulfasalazine label">{{cite web | title=Sulfasalazine 250mg/5ml Oral Suspension - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) | website=electronic medicines compendium (emc) | date=13 September 2019 | url=https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/413/smpc | access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=UKlabel2014 /> | legal_US = Rx-only | legal_US_comment = | legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> | legal_UN_comment = | legal_status = <!--For countries not listed above--> <!--Pharmacokinetic data--> | bioavailability = <15% | metabolism = | elimination_half-life = 5-10 jam | excretion = <!--Identifiers--> | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CAS_number = 599-79-1 | PubChem = 5339 | PubChemSubstance = | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00795 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 10481900 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 3XC8GUZ6CB | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D00448 | KEGG2_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG2 = C07316 | ChEBI = 9334 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 421 <!--Chemical data--> | IUPAC_name = 2-hydroxy-5-[(''E'')-2-<nowiki/>{4-[(pyridin-2-yl)sulfamoyl]phenyl}diazen-1-yl]benzoic acid | C=18 | H=14 | N=4 | O=5 | S=1 | molecular_weight = 398.394 g/mol | SMILES = C1=CC=NC(=C1)NS(=O)(=O)C2=CC=C(C=C2)N=NC3=CC(=C(C=C3)O)C(=O)O | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C18H14N4O5S/c23-16-9-6-13(11-15(16)18(24)25)21-20-12-4-7-14(8-5-12)28(26,27)22-17-3-1-2-10-19-17/h1-11,23H,(H,19,22)(H,24,25) | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = NCEXYHBECQHGNR-UHFFFAOYSA-N | melting_point = 240 | melting_high = 245 | melting_notes = (dec.) }} '''Sulfasalazin''' nyaéta ubar antiperadangan nu dipaké pikeu nurunkeun gejala radang [[Peujit|usus]] atawa ''kolitis ulseratif'' nu mangrupa nyeri beuteung, panas awak, [[diaré]], atawa pendarahan dina bagian tungtung usus gedé (rektum).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-6260/sulfasalazine-oral/details|title=Drugs & Medications|website=www.webmd.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-04}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00795|title=Sulfasalazine|website=www.drugbank.ca|accessdate=2020-06-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804091324/https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00795|archivedate=2020-08-04}}</ref> == Kagunaan == Sulfasalazin ieu teu bisa ngubaran kasakit radang usus ngan ngabantuan nurunkeun gejala nu karasa. Salian ti éta, sulfazalazin ogé bisa dipaké pikeun nanganan ''[[rheumatoid arthritis]]'' nu teu bisa diubaran ku pangobatan séjén.<ref name=":0" /> Ubar ieu gawé kucara nguranngan iritasi jeung bengkak di usus gedé, sarta ngabantu ngurangan nyeri [[sendi]], pembengkakan, jeung kakakuan. Pengobatan dini ''artritis rheumatoid'' bisa ngabantu ngurangan atawa nyegah karusakan sendi nu leuwih parna, ku kituna urang bisa ngalakukeun aktifitas sapopoé sacara normal. Ubar ieu dipaké jeung ubar séjén, istirahat, sarta ngalakukeun térapi fisik ka pasén nu can ngaréspon kana ubar séjén (salisilat, ''nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs''- NSAID).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682204.html|title=Sulfasalazine: MedlinePlus Drug Information|website=medlineplus.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/sulfasalazine|title=Sulfasalazine|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2020-06-04}}</ref> Ubar ieu ogé biasa dipaké pikeun ngubaran jenis panyakit usus lianna nu disebut panyakit ''[[Crohn]].''<ref name=":2" /> == Cara maké == Nginum ubar ieu ngaliwatan [[baham]],tablét atawa kapsul salut enterik sulfasalazin hadéna diinum sanggeus dahar ku sagelas cai hérang ( 8 ons nepi ka240 ml) atawa saluyu jeung nu dianjurkeun ku [[dokter]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/mtm/sulfasalazine.html|title=Sulfasalazine Uses, Side Effects & Warnings|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-04}}</ref> Telen tablét atawa kapsul sacara utuh, tong dibubukeun atawa digayem heula kusabab cara éta bisa ningkatkeun kamungkinan nyeri [[beuteung]]. Pikeun nyingkahan nyeri beuteung, biasana dokter bakal ningkatkeun dosis sacara saeutik-saeutik , dosis dumasar kana kaayaan kaséhatan pasén, sarta réspon kana térapi, sadengkeun pikeun budak leutik dosis gumantung kana beurat awak pasén.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Usahakeun nginum ubar ieu dina waktu nu saru unggal poéna, mun kapohoan teu nginum ieu ubar, gera inum ubar ieu mun sakirana jarak ka nginum nu satuluyna jauh kénéh, mun geus deukeut jarakna ulah diinum sarta ulah ngagandakeun dosis ubar ieu dina waktu sanggeusna. Ulah eureun nginum ubar ieu salian ti anjuran dokter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> Inum loba cai wanci keur ngonsumsi ubar ieu, kusabab cara ieu bisa matuan nyingkahan panyakit batu ginjal. Béré nyaho dokter mun kaayaan euweuh kamajuan atawa beuki parna. Pikeun parawatan ''rheumatoid arthritis'', bisa jadi merlukeun waktu 1-3 bulan saacan urang kamajuan tina gejala. <ref name=":0" /> == Ngaran lian == Ieu di handap sababaraha ngaran lian tina sulfasalazalin:<ref name=":3" /> * Salazosulfapiridina * Salazosulfapyridine * Salazosulfapyridinum * Salicylazosulfapyridine * Sulfasalazin * Sulfasalazina * Sulfasalazine * Sulfasalazinum == Interaksi ubar Sulfasalazine == === Ubar séjén === Interaksi ubar ieu bisa ngarobah gawé ubarna sarta ningkatkeun résiko éfék samping nu leuwih parna.Sok sanajan sababaraha ubar teu bisa dipaké dina waktu nu babarengan, dina kasus séjén dua ubar nu béda bisa jadi meunanng dipaké dina waktu nu barengan sanajan bisa nyababkeun interaksi antar ubar. Penting pikeun ngajéntrékeun heula ka dokter atawa apoteker ngeunaan ubar nu keur dikonsumsi boh vitamin atawa ubar herval. Ieu di handap sababaraha conto interaksi ubar antara sulfasalazin jeung ubar lianna: *''[[Methenamine]]'': Teu dianjurkeun pikeun maké ubar ieu babarengan jeung sulfasalazin. Ngagabungkeu ubar ieu bisa nyababkeun kabentukna kristal dina urin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/methenamine-with-sulfasalazine-1582-0-2130-0.html|title=Methenamine and sulfasalazine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Mercaptopurine]]'': Maké ubar ieu babarengan jeung sulfasalazin bisa ningkatkeun résiko mercaptopurine. tepungan dokter mun anjeun ngarasakeun gejala kayaning diaré, lieur, sebel, pendarahan, panas awak, katirisan atawa tanda-tanda interaksi lianna. Lamun dokter ngaresepkeun ubar ieu babarengan, anjeun butuh dosis nu disaluyukeun atawa tes hudud pikeun pamakéan ubar ieu. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/mercaptopurine-with-sulfasalazine-1565-0-2130-0.html|title=Mercaptopurine and sulfasalazine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Teriflunomide]]'': Bisa ningkatkeun résiko éfék samping nu mangaruhan fungsi sumsum tulang anjeun, nu matak jumlah sél-sél getih nu béda jumlahna jadi saeutik. Bisa nyababkeun anjeun anémia, masalah pendarahan, atawa inféksi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/sulfasalazine-with-teriflunomide-2130-0-3417-0.html|title=Sulfasalazine and teriflunomide Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Tolazamide]]'': Pamakéan sulfasalazin jeung insulin bisa ningkatkeun résiko hipoglikemia, atawa gula darah rendah. Gejalana kaasup nyeri sirah, lieur, tunduh, geumpeur, kabingungan, trémor, leuleus, sarta ngaratug jantung.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/sulfasalazine-with-tolazamide-2130-0-2209-0.html|title=Sulfasalazine and tolazamide Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Digoxi]]'': Pamakéan sulfasalazin jeung digoxin bisa ngurangan pangaruh digoxin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/digoxin-with-sulfasalazine-883-0-2130-0.html|title=Digoxin and sulfasalazine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Cyclosporine]]'': Lamun dipaké babrengann jeung ieu ubar bisa ningkatkeunn résiko panolakan organ patali jeung tingkat cyclosporine nu leutik. Kombinasi ieu bisa ningkatkeun éfék samping bahaya pikeun ginjal. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/cyclosporine-with-sulfasalazine-763-0-2130-0.html|title=Cyclosporine and sulfasalazine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> *''[[Warfarin]]'': Pamakéan warfarin bareng jeung sulfasalazin bisa ningkatkeun résiko pendarahan, utamana pikeun nu geus kolot atawa nu miboga gangguan ginjal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/sulfasalazine-with-warfarin-2130-0-2311-0.html|title=Sulfasalazine and warfarin Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref>. === Kaayan kaséhatan === Ayana masalah kaséhatan lianna dina awak bisa mangaruhan pamakéan ieu ubar. J'entr'ekeun ka dokter mun anjeun miboga kaayan kaséhatan kayaning:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/sulfasalazine/|title=Sulfasalazine : Fungsi, Dosis, Efek Samping, Cara Pakai|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-04}}</ref> * Alérgi kana ubar sulfa atawa ''salicylates'' * Panyumbatan usus *''[[Porphyria]]'' (masalah dina énzim) * Panyumbatan dina kandung kemih. *[[Panyakit Asma|Asma]]: paké kalawan ati-ati kusabab bisa ningkatkeun résiko alérgi. * Masalah dina [[getih]] atawa [[tulang sumsum]] (misal, ''agranulocytosis'', ''aplastic'' ''anemia'') * Panyakit [[ginjal]] * Panyakit [[Kawaya]]/hati * Kakurangan ''Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase'' (G6PD) —bisa nyababkeun hemolytic [[Anémia|anemia]] (kalainan getih) * Inféksi: Bisa nurunkeun kamampuan awak dina ngalawan inféksi. == Éfék samping == Éfék samping mangrupa hiji éfék nu teu dipiharep tina ubar. Éfék samping ieu bisa mangrupa-rupa di sababaraha jalma gumantung kana kaayaan panyakit, umur, beurat awak, jinis kelamin, étnis, jeung sababaraha kaayaan kaséhatan lianna. Ieu di handap sababaraha éfék samping nu bisa karasa sanggeus nginum sulfasalazin:<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/sfx/sulfasalazine-side-effects.html|title=Sulfasalazine Side Effects: Common, Severe, Long Term|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-05}}</ref> * Ngarasa teu ngeunah awak * Ngurangan napsu dahar * Nyeri [[sirah]] * Nyeri [[beuteung]] *[[Diaré]] * Batuk * Hésé [[saré]] * Ruam [[kulit]] nu karasa ateul *[[Tinnitus]] * Nyeri dina baham * Gangguan indera parasa. * Nyeri [[otot]] * Nyeri dada * Darah dina [[Tai|tinja]] atawa urin * Kulit malegar == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/sulfasalazine.html Interaksi ubar] * [https://www.drugs.com/sfx/sulfasalazine-side-effects.html Éfék samping sulfasalazin] == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Ubar]] 8uugrzc2a62a3449g68fl9u5ugs2d2x Niklosamid 0 99685 732146 729237 2026-11-11T00:22:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732146 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Penyangkalan-medis}} {{Drugbox|Verifiedfields=changed|Cl=2|KEGG_Ref={{keggcite|correct|kegg}}|KEGG=D00436|ChEMBL_Ref={{ebicite|correct|EBI}}|ChEMBL=1448|ChEBI=7553 <!--Chemical data-->|IUPAC_name=5-Chloro-''N''-(2-chloro-4-nitrophenyl)-2-hydroxybenzamide|C=13|H=8|N=2|UNII_Ref={{fdacite|correct|FDA}}|O=4|molecular_weight=327.119 g/mol|smiles=Clc2cc(ccc2NC(=O)c1cc(Cl)ccc1O)[N+]([O-])=O|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChI=1S/C13H8Cl2N2O4/c14-7-1-4-12(18)9(5-7)13(19)16-11-3-2-8(17(20)21)6-10(11)15/h1-6,18H,(H,16,19)|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=RJMUSRYZPJIFPJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N|melting_point=225|UNII=8KK8CQ2K8G|ChemSpiderID=4322|Watchedfields=changed|ATC_suffix=DA01|verifiedrevid=462260260|image=Niclosamide.svg <!--Clinical data-->|tradename=Niclocide, Fenasal, Phenasal, others<ref name="pubchem">{{PubChem|4477}}</ref>|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|CONS|niclosamide}}|pregnancy_category= Katégori B|legal_status=|routes_of_administration=Ngaliwatan baham|ATC_prefix=P02|ATC_supplemental={{ATCvet|P52|AG03}} <!--Pharmacokinetic data-->|ChemSpiderID_Ref={{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}|bioavailability=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=|excretion= urin<!--Identifiers-->|CAS_number_Ref={{cascite|changed|??}}|CAS_number=50-65-7|PubChem=4477|DrugBank_Ref={{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}|DrugBank=DB06803|melting_high=230}} '''Niklosamid''' nu miboga ngaran dagang '''Nicloside'''<ref name=":0" /> nyaéta ubar umum nu dipaké pikeun ngungkulan inféksi nu disababkeun ku cacing, Niklosamid kaasup kana jinis anthelmintik.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/cons/niclosamide.html|title=Niclosamide Advanced Patient Information|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-15}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB06803|title=Niclosamide|website=www.drugbank.ca|accessdate=2020-06-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316130532/https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB06803|archivedate=2020-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202406.html|title=MedlinePlus Drug Information: Niclosamide (Oral)|website=web.archive.org|accessdate=2020-06-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216072757/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202406.html|archivedate=2006-12-16}}</ref> Ubar ieu kapanggih di taun 1958.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=3rd ed|title=Encyclopedia of parasitology|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233974520|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-48996-2|oclc=233974520|last=Mehlhorn, Heinz.|last2=Aspöck, Horst.}}</ref> == Kagunaan == Niklosamide nu kaasup kana jinis ubar anthelmintik ieu dipaké pikeun ngubaran inféksi nu disababkeun ku sababaraha jinis [[cacing pita]], kayaning cacing kerdil (''H. nana''), nepi ka cacing pita ynu aya dina daging (''T. saginata'', ''T. solium'', dan ''D. latum''),<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/obat-cacing-dan-efek-sampingnya|title=Obat Cacing dan Efek Sampingnya|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2020-06-16}}</ref> cacing pita lauk, cacing pita dwarf, jeung cacing pita sapi.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehatq.com/obat/niclosamide|title=Niclosamide {{!}} Fungsi, Cara Pemakaian, Dosis, Efek Samping|website=SehatQ|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018020816/https://www.sehatq.com/obat/niclosamide |date=2021-10-18 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/4477|title=Niclosamide|last=PubChem|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-15}}</ref> Numutkeun hiji artikel ti ''Cellular Signalling'', ubar niklosamid aya kamungkinan miboga poténsi pikeun ngungkulan panyakit séjén kayaning.sababaraha [[panyakit kanker]], inféksi bakteri jeung virus, diabetes tipe 2, nepi ka ''[[rheumatoid arthritis]]''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/niclosamide/|title=Niclosamide : Fungsi, Dosis, Efek Samping, Cara Pakai|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-15}}</ref> Ubar cacing ieu teu réaksi jeung inféksi cacing tipe lianna, kayaning [[cacing kremi]] atawa [[Annelida|cacing gelang]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Wei|last2=Mook|first2=Robert A.|last3=Premont|first3=Richard T.|last4=Wang|first4=Jiangbo|date=2018-1|title=Niclosamide: Beyond an antihelminthic drug|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5628105/|journal=Cellular Signalling|volume=41|pages=89–96|doi=10.1016/j.cellsig.2017.04.001|issn=0898-6568|pmc=5628105|pmid=28389414}}</ref> == Cara gawé == Niklosamid gawé kucara maéhan cacing pita dina jero awak, cacing pita dewasa (lain endogna) biasana gancang dipaéhan, kusabab leupasna fosforilasi oksidatif atawa stimulasi aktivitas ATPase. Cacing-cacing nu geus dipaéhan ieu tuluy dikaluarkeun ngaliwatan [[tinja]] atawa kadang diancurkeun di usus. Niklosamid bisa gawé salaku moluskisida ku cara ngiket jeung ngarusak [[DNA]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> == Cara maké == Pikeun maké bar ieu, saluyu jeung anjuran dokter atawa apoteker. Ieu di handap sababaraha cara pikeun nginum ieu ubar:<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/niclosamide-oral-route/proper-use/drg-20065068|title=Niclosamide (Oral Route) Proper Use - Mayo Clinic|website=www.mayoclinic.org|accessdate=2020-06-16}}</ref> * Niklosamid bisa diinum sajam atawa dua jam snggeus dahar. Masingkeun kitu, pikeun ngurangan résiko [[nyeri beuteung]], ubar ieu alusna mah diinum sanggeus dahar * Tablet niklosamid kudu digayem nepi ka bener-bener ancur, tuluy diteureuy maké cai. * Saacan méré ubar ieu ka budak leutik, ancurkeun hehula tablét ubar ieu nepi ka lemes, tuluy campurkeun jeung cai saeutik. * Pikeun ngungkulan cacing pita tina daging sapi, atawa tina lauk, pastikeun nginumna saluyu jeung nu diisntruksikeun ku dokter, sok sanajan pikeun sababaraha jalma dosis tunggal bisa ngungkulan inféksi ieu, tapi aya dina sababaraha kasus, dosisi tambahan bisa ogé diperlukeun. * Pikeun ngungkulan inféksi cacing pita dwarf, pastikeun anjeun nginum ubar ieu salila tujuh poé nepi ka perawatanna bener-bener anggeus. Mun anjeun eureun wanci keur nginum ubar ieu, résiko katarajang ku ieu cacing beuki gedé. == Cara nyimpen == Pikeun nyimpen ubar Niklosamid ieu, simpen di wadah nu katutup, dina suhu kamar, jauh ti panas, lembab, sarta [[panonpoé]] langsung., ulah disimpen dikamar mandi. Jauhkeun tina titik beku sarta ti budak leutik.<ref name=":0" /> Ulah nyimpen ubar nu geus heubeul atawa geus teu diperlukeun deui. Mun anjeun geus teu maké ubar ieu atawa mun geus kadaluwarsa, piceun ubar ieu saluyu jeung aturanna. Salah sahijina ulah nyampurkeun ubar ieu jeung runtah biasa, ulah ogé miceun ubar ieu ka jajalaneu cai kayaning jamban. Tanyakeun ka [[apotéker]] atawa dinas nu aya patalina pikeun ngungkulan limbah médis.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202406.html|title=MedlinePlus Drug Information: Niclosamide (Oral)|website=web.archive.org|accessdate=2020-06-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216072757/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202406.html|archivedate=2006-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-63850/niclosamide-oral/details|title=Drugs & Medications|website=www.webmd.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-16}}</ref> == Hal nu kudu diperhatikeun == Saacan nginum ubar niklosamid aya sababaraha hal nu kudu diperhatikeun, kayanging:<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> * Jéntrékeun ka [[dokter]] atawa apotéker mun anjeun miboga alérgi ka ubar niklosamid atawa ubar séjénna. * Jéntrékeun ka dokter atawa apotéker mun anjeun keur nginum ubar séjén, boh resép ti dokter tawa lain kaasup [[vitamin]]. * Jéntrékeun ka dokter atawa apotéker mun anjeun anjeun keur kakandungan, miboga rencana keur hamil atawa keur nyusuan. Salian ti hal nu di luhur geus dijéntrékeun, ubar ieu kaasup ka résiko kahamilan katégori B numutkeun ''US Food and Drugs Administration'' (FDA). Ieu di handap référénsi katégori kahamilan numutkeun FDA: * A= Teu miboga résiko, * B=Teu miboga résiko dina sababaraha panalungtikan, * C=Kamungkinan miboga résiko, * D=Aya bukti positif tina résiko, * X=Kontraindikasi, * N=Teu dipikanyaho == Interaksi Niklosamid == Interaksi ubar bisa ngarobah gawé niklosamid, atawa bisa ningkatkeun tingkat résiko éfék samping nu leuwih serius. Simpen daftar sakabeh produk ubar nu dipaké ku anjeun (kaasup ubar resép atawa lain, sarta produk herbal), jeung utamana ulah poho konsultasikeun ka dokter saacan anjeun nginum ubar ieu. Ulah maké sarta ngeuruenkeun, atawa ngaganti dosis dokter saacan meunang persetujuan dokter. <ref name=":3" /> Salian ti ubar, kadaharan ogé bisa nyababkeun interaksi jeung niklosamid, salah sahiji conto nu geus ilahar nyaéta [[alkohol]] jeung [[bako]], ulah nginum alkohol salila keur pamakéan ubar ieu. Sarta aya saabaraha kaayaan kaséhatan nu aya kamungkinan interaksi jeung niklosamid, jéntrekeun ka dokter ngeunaan kaayaan kaséhatan saacan urang ngonsumsi ubar ieu.<ref name=":2" /> == Éfék samping == Éfék samping mangrupa hiji éfék nu teu dipiharep tina ubar. Éfék samping ieu bisa mangrupa-rupa di sababaraha jalma gumantung kana kaayaan panyakit, umur, beurat awak, jinis kelamin, étnis, jeung sababaraha kaayaan kaséhatan lianna. Ieu di handap sababaraha éfék samping nu bisa karasa sanggeus nginum niklosamid:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> Niklosamida bisa nyababkeun éfék samping dapat menyebabkan efek samping kayaning: *[[Diaré]] * Nyeri beuteung * Leungitna kahayang dahar * Sebel atawa utah Sok sanajan jarang karandapan ieu di handap sababaraha kaayaan nu bisa narajang kusabab éfék samping tina niklosamid: *[[Nyeri sirah]] * Tunduh * Atel di daérah [[rektum]] *[[Ruam kulit]] * Teu ngareunah rarasaan di wewengkon [[biwir]] *[[Sirah]] asa ngoléang *''Pruritus'' (ateul dina kulit) Lamun anjeun ngarandapan kaayaan alérgi nu leuwih parna (anafilaktik) kana ubar ieu, , geura tepungan dokter, sababaraha kaayan alérgi nu parna ieu kayaning: * Arateul * Hésé rénghap * Barareuh dina beungeut, biwir, [[létah]], atawa [[tikoro]] Teu sakabéh jalma ngalaman 'éfék samping sarua. Kamungkinan aya sababaraha éfék samping nu teu disebutkeun di luhur. Mun anjeung ngarasa ringrnag bisa tuluy dikonsultasikeun ka dokter atawa apotéker. == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/niclosamide Niclosamide] == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Ubar]] 95pixhcbf2v20mvwxg3y8wmap2tswy3 Panyakit wilson 0 99697 732149 705740 2026-11-11T01:09:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732149 wikitext text/x-wiki <br />{{Penyangkalan-medis}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Panyakit Wilson | image = Kayser-Fleischer ringArrow.jpg | image_size = 300px | caption = garis kacoklatan dina sakuliling kornéa mangrupa salah sahiji gejalan panyakit Wilsun nu bisa kaciri ([[Kayser–Fleischer ring]]) | synonyms = Panyakit Wilson, degenerasi hepatolenticular | field = [[Gastroenterologi]] | symptoms = [[edema|Bareuh suku]], [[jaundice|Kulit konéng]], parobahan sikep | onset = Umur 5 nepi 35 | duration = | causes = Bawaan atawa génétik | risks = | diagnosis = | differential = [Panyakit liver kronis]], [[Panyakit Parkinson]], [[Sklerosis ganda]], lianna<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=D. Joanne|last2=Newton|first2=Herbert B.|last3=Rae-Grant|first3=Alexander|title=The 5-minute Neurology Consult|date=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=9780683307238|page=442|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fneFeGiBonMC&pg=PA442|language=en|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107092506/https://books.google.com/books?id=fneFeGiBonMC&pg=PA442|archivedate=2016-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sahani|first1=Dushyant V.|last2=Samir|first2=Anthony E.|title=Abdominal Imaging: Expert Radiology Series|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323431613|page=400|edition=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=36qODAAAQBAJ&pg=PA400|language=en|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107013340/https://books.google.com/books?id=36qODAAAQBAJ&pg=PA400|archivedate=2016-11-07}}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Parobahan pola dahar, [[agén pengkelat]], [[suplement zinc]], [[Transpantasi Liver]] | medication = | frequency = ~1 per 30,000 | deaths = }} '''Panyakit wilson''' atawa ''degenerasi hepatolentikular'' nyaéta kalainan génétik atawa turunan langka nu tumiba ka hiji tina 30 rébu kalahiran jalma di sakuliah alam dunya,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/penyakit-wilson|title=Wilson's Disease|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2020-06-21}}</ref> panyakit wilson nyababkeun awak karacunan [[tambaga]] nu disababkeun ku ayana panumpukan logam tambaga dina jero awak. Tambaga nu numpuk ieu ka akumulasi dina haté jeung sababaraha organ awak lianna kayaning [[panon]], jeung [[Uteuk|otak]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.halodoc.com/kenali-gangguan-hati-karena-penyakit-wilson|title=|last=|first=|website=Halodoc|publisher=|accessdate=22 Juni 2020}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://halosehat.com/penyakit/penyakit-wilson/penyakit-wilson|title=Penyakit Wilson - Gejala, Penyebab, Diagnosa, Komplikasi dan Pengobatan|website=HaloSehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622030830/https://halosehat.com/penyakit/penyakit-wilson/penyakit-wilson|archivedate=2020-06-22}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Fery|first=Fery|date=2016|title=Penyakit Wilson – Diagnosis dan Tatalaksana|url=http://www.cdkjournal.com/index.php/CDK/article/view/78/75|journal=Cermin Dunia Kedokteran|doi=|pmid=CDK-242/ vol. 43 no. 7 th. 2016|access-date=22 Juni 2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112151300/http://www.cdkjournal.com/index.php/CDK/article/view/78/75 |date=2020-01-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/kesehatan/penyakit/penyakit-wilson-menyerang-hati-dan-otak/|title=Wilson Disease (Penyakit Wilson) : Gejala, Penyebab, dan Pengobatan|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-21}}</ref> == Harti == Panyakit ieu tumiba ka hiji tina tilu puluh rébu kalahiran jalma di alam dunya, kaasup kana panyakit langka, panyakit wilson ieu nyababkeun awak karacunan ku tambaga.<ref name=":0" /> Ku kituna, panyakit ieu biasana teu mangaruhan langsung kana fisik budak leutik, ngan leuwih ngarah ka fungsi organ-organ dina jero awak. Dina kaayaan nu normal, organ haté bakal nyaring kaleuwihan tambaga jeung ngaluarkeun ngaliwatan [[urin]] atawa cai kiih, dina jalma nu katarajang panyakit ieu, organ haté teu bisa miceun kaleuwihan tambaga, hal ieu nyababkeun tambaga numpuk dina organ kayaning otak, haté, jeung panon.<ref name=":1" /> Mangpaat tambaga téh penting pisan keur kaséhatan saraf, tulang, kolagén jeung pigmén mélanin dina kulit.Awak meunang tambaga tina sababaraha jinis kadaharan, nu tuluy dipaké pikeun pambentukan [[sél getih beureum]] jeung menerkeun jaringan [[tulang]]. Pasén nu miboga kasakit ieu ngabogaan mutasi gén ATP7B jeung kalaimanni diturunkeun ku pola ''autosomal resesif''. Mutasi ieu tuluy nyieun tambaga dina haté teu bisa dipiceun ka [[hampru]], nu tuluy ditalian ku ''ceruloplasmin''.<ref name=":2" /> == Gejala == Parobahan gén nyababkeun panyakit wilson bisa karandapan bayi nu karék lahir, ngan biasana butuh waktu sababaraha taun pikeun jumlah tambaga nu numpuk dina jero awak bisa mangaruhan fungsi haté, otak, jeung organ lianna. Ku kituna gejala panyakit wilson biasana kakara kaciri dina umur 6 taun nepi ka umur 45 taun. Bentuk nu paling ilahar tina panyakit ieu nyaéta gabungan tina panyakit haté, gangguan saraf (neurologis), jeung gangguan kajiwaan. Lamun panyakit Wilson ieu mimiti karasa wanci geus rumaja atawa dewasa, kaayaan ieu bisa nyababkeun masalah kana sistem saraf jeung masalah kajiwaan. Totondén nu pang iilaharna mah trémor, hésé leumpanng, gangguan ngomong, gangguan pipikiran, gangguan kacemasan, suasana haté nu babari robah, nepi ka déprési. Panyakit Wilson nyaéta kalainan bawaan nu miboga gejala beda-beda gumantung kana organ mana nu boga kadar panumpukan tambaga nu kaliwat loba.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> === Gejala panyakit Wilson sacara umum === Sababaraha gejala panyakit wilson atawa savara garis badagna:<ref name=":2" /> * Turun kahayang keur dahar * Kacapéan nu parna * Warna panon robah jadi héjo kacokelatan atawa agak emas ''(Kayser-Fleischer rings)'' * Panumpukan cairan dina [[suku]] atawa [[beuteung]] * Gangguan ngomong, hésé neureuy, * Kakakuan [[otot]]-otot awak * Gerakan awak teu bisa ka kontrol === Gejala dina organ haté === Sababaraha gejala gangguan dina organ haté nu nandakeun panyakit Wilson, kayaning:<ref name=":1" /> * Turunna beurat awak bayi, beurat awak balita, beurat awak budak atawa dewasa * Sebel jeung utah * Kacapéan * Leungitna kahayang pikeun dahar * Arateul dina [[kulit]] * Warna kulit jadi kakonéngan (''jaundice'') * Bareuh dina suku, beuteung, atawa ''abdomen'' kusabab ayana panumpukan cairan * Bagéan beuteung karasa nyeri atawa kembung * Pembuluh darah kaciri jelas dina kulit (''spider angiomas'') * Kram otot Sababaraha gejala kayaning kulit konéng jeung edema ampir sarua jeung gejala panyakit gagal haté atau gagal ginjal. Éta sababna, panyakit Wilson mineng disalah artikeun sarua jeung panyakit gagal haté jeung gagal ginjal, padahal panyakit ieu téh sifatna bawaan atawa génétik. === Gejala dina sistem saraf === Sababaraha gejala nu patali jeung masalah dina sistem saraf ni bisa nandakeun panyakit Wilson kayaning:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> * Turunna daya inget atawa panénjoan * Awak leuleus * Cara leumpang nu teu normal * Gerakan leungeun nu teu ka kontrol === Gejala dina kaséhatan méntal === Sababaraha gejala nu patali jeung masalah kaséhatan méntal yang nu bisa nandakeun panyakit Wilson kayaning:<ref name=":1" /> * Parobahan suasana haté, parobahan sikap, jeung parobahan perilaku * Budak ngarandapan [[déprési]] * Budak ngarandapan kacemasan Dina kaayaan nu parna, panyakit Wilson nyaéta kaayaan nu bisa nimbulkeun kejang otot sarta rasa nyeri dina otot wanci ngalakukeun sababaraha gerakan nu tangtu. Salian ti éta, dina organ-organ awak lianna, panyakit Wilson nyaéta ayana akumulasi tambaga dina jero awak nu ditandaan ku sababaraha rupa gejala.<ref name=":1" /> Sababaraha gejala éta kayaning parobahan warna dina [[kuku]] jadi biru, batu [[ginjal]], pangoroposan tulang dini atawa ''osteoporosis'', artritis, ménstruasi nu teu taratur, sarta tekanan darah rendah. Panyakit Wilson nyaéta kalainan bawaan nu gejala utamana bisa ditandaan ku ayana pigméntasi kacokelatan dina [[kornéa panon]].<ref name=":1" /> == Musabab == Panyakit Wilson disababkan ku parobahan atawa mutasi dina gén nu miboga fungsi pikeun ngatur haté, pikeun ngaluarkeun kaleuwihan tambaga tina awak. Kusabab ayana mutasi, jadi lumangsung panumpukan tambaga dina organ haté. Mun kaayaan ieu tuluy lumangsung, tambaga bakal asup kana aliran [[getih]], jeung numpuk dina bagéan awak lianna, utamana dina otak. Jalma nu ngarandapan kasakit ieu kusabab kolotna masing-masing miboga gén nu teu normal. Mun ngan saukur diturunkeun ku salah sahiji kolotna, éta jalma ngan saukur miboga poténsi pikeun nurunkeun ka anakna, tapi teu katarajang panyakit éta. Kalainan gén ieu disebut ogé kalainan ''autosomal resesif''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.klikdokter.com/penyakit/penyakit-wilson|title=Penyakit Penyakit Wilson - Gejala, Penyebab, Pengobatan - Klikdokter.com|website=www.klikdokter.com|accessdate=2020-06-23}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Ngadiagnosis panyakit Wilson lain hal nu babari, kusabab gejala jeung tandana ampir sarua jeung jeung panyakit liver atawa panyakit saraf lianna. Dokter bakal mariksa sakabéh awak pasén, kaasup beuteung jeung panon, pikeun mastikeun panyakit WIlson, dokter biasana ngalakukeun sababaraha pamariksaan kayaning:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehatq.com/penyakit/penyakit-wilson|title=Penyakit Wilson|website=SehatQ|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625234557/https://www.sehatq.com/penyakit/penyakit-wilson |date=2020-06-25 }}</ref> * Tés getih. Tés getih dilakukeun pikeun ninggali fungsi haté, sarta mariksa sakabéh kadar tambaga dina getih jeung parobahan gén. * Tés urin. Dokter bakal ngagundukkeun sampel urin pasén salila 24 jam, pikeun mariksa kadar tambaga dina jero urin. * Biopsi haté. Biopsi (nyokot sampel jaringan) haté dilakukeun pikeun kalainan nu lumangsung dina jero organ haté. Biopsi dilakukeun maké bius lokal. * Uji pencitraan. MRI atawa ''CT'' ''scan'' bisa nunjukeun kaayaan otak atawa haté nu teu normal. == Ngubaran panyakit Wilson == Ngubaran panyakit Wilson miboga tujuan pikeun ngaluarkeun tambaga tina awak sarta nyegah tambaga numpuk deui dina jero awak. Pikeun ngaluarkeun tambaga tina jero awak dokter bakal nyarankeun térapi khelasi, nyaéta ubar-ubaran nu bisa ngiket logam beurat, kaasup tambaga. Conto ubar nu bisa dipaké nyaéta [[penisilamin]] atawa trientine. Pangobatan ieu bisa ngabutuhkeun waktu salila 4-6 bulan.<ref name=":0" /> Sanggeus tambaga diiket jeung dipiceun, diperlukeun ubar pikeun nyingkahan tambaga supaya teu nngagunduk deui jeung ''zinc acetate.'' Pikeun nulungan nyingkahan tambaga nu ngagunduk na awak, singkahan ngadahar kadaharan nu ngandung tambaga kayaning bungbuahan nu garing, ati, [[suung]], [[kacang]], [[kerang]], coklat, jeung produk multivitamin.<ref name=":1" /> Mun karusakan haté geus parna, dokter bakal nyarankeun pikeun transplantasi haté nyaéta kucara ngaganti haté pasén ku sabagéan haté ti jalma sehat nu ngadonor masih sehat.<ref name=":0" /> == Komplikasi panyakit Wilson == Mun tuluy diantepkeun tampa diubaran, bisa nyababkeun sababaraha komplikasi serius, kayaning:<ref name=":0" /> * '''Gangguan saraf permanen'''. Gangguan saraf ka pasén penyakit Wilson uilaharna leungit sanggeus meunang pangobatan. Tapi, sabagéan pasén tetep ngalaman gangguan saraf, sok sanajan geus meunang pangobatan * '''Sirosis'''. [[Sirosis]] atawa jaringan parut di hatié, bisa kabentuk pas sél haté ruksak kusabab gawé nu beurat pikeun ngaluarkeun tambaga nu kaleuwihan * '''Panyakit ginjal'''. Panyakit Wilson bisa ngaruksak ginjal sarta nimbulkeun masalah kayaning batu ginjal jeung gagal ginjal * [[Anémia hémolitik.|'''Anémia hémolitik'''.]] Hal ieu lumangsung kkusabab pangancuran sél darah merah nu kaliwat gancang * '''Gangguan kajiwaan'''. Pasén penyakit Wilson miboga résiko ngarandpaan gangguan jiwa kayaning psikosis, gangguan bipolar, parobahan kapribadian, jeung déprési. == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Panyakit]] [[Kategori:Optométri]] dref60sw6jd8bv8uqyxmpap82pttxse Puncak Jayawijaya 0 99943 732152 707768 2026-11-11T01:55:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732152 wikitext text/x-wiki {{keur dikeureuyeuh}} [[Gambar:Carstenzs from other side.jpg|jmpl|Carstenzs ]] '''Puncak Jayawijaya''' atawa biasa ogé Puncak Carstensz nyaéta hiji-hijina puncak gunung di Indonésia anu saljuna lana. Saumurna éta puncak gunung téh teu weléh katutupan ku és.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://anekatempatwisata.com/10-tempat-wisata-di-indonesia-yang-wajib-dikunjungi/|title=10 Tempat Wisata di Indonesia yang Wajib Dikunjungi|website=Aneka Tempat Wisata|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-06-29}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Puncak Jayawijaya téh luhurna kurang leuwih 5.000 méter luhureun laut, malah ieu gunung téh kaasup kana daftar ''Seven Summits'' atawa asup kana daftar tujuh gunung pangluhurna saalam dunya.<ref name=":0" /> Puncak Jayawijaya aya dina titik koordinat S 04°04.733 jeung E 137°09.572.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://katalogwisata.com/mendaki-puncak-jayawijaya-sebagai-satu-satunya-gunung-salju-beriklim-tropis|title=Mendaki Puncak Jayawijaya Sebagai Satu – Satunya Gunung Salju Beriklim Tropis – Katalog Tempat Wisata & Liburan|last=G-Traveler|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629115859/https://katalogwisata.com/mendaki-puncak-jayawijaya-sebagai-satu-satunya-gunung-salju-beriklim-tropis |date=2020-06-29 }}</ref> Pagunungan Jayawijaya aya di [[Provinsi Papua Timur]] manjang nepi ka [[Papua Nugini|Papua Newguinea]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://wisatakita.com/wisata/Papua.Timur/Puncak.Jaya/Puncak.Jayawijaya|title=Puncak Jayawijaya|last=ABSystem.id|last2=ABSystem.id|website=Wisata Puncak Jayawijaya,   Pegunungan Jayawijaya adalah nama untuk deretan pegunungan yang terbentang memanjang di tengah provinsi Papua Timur, Papua (|accessdate=2020-06-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210082210/https://wisatakita.com/wisata/Papua.Timur/Puncak.Jaya/Puncak.Jayawijaya|archivedate=2019-12-10}}</ref> Pagunungan ieu téh kabentuk ti rébuan taun ka tukang anu diakibatkeun tina ngangkatna dasar lautan.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boombastis.com/rahasia-bumi-papua/69125|title=Rahasia yang Tersimpan di Balik Megahnya Puncak Carstensz, Tiang Dunia di Bumi Papua|website=Boombastis.com {{!}} Portal Berita Unik {{!}} Viral {{!}} Aneh Terbaru Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629141934/https://www.boombastis.com/rahasia-bumi-papua/69125 |date=2020-06-29 }}</ref> Puncak Jayawijayamagrupa pagunungan pangjangkungna sa-Indonésia, hanjakal kiwari gunung és na geus mimiti ngipisan.<ref name=":1" /> Ngaran séjén [[Carstensz Pyramide]] téh dicokokot tina ngaran salah sahiji jalma urang Walanda anu mangrupa jalma munggaran anu hasil naék ka éta puncak gunung. Ieu hal téh dianggap istiméwa alatan puncak Jayawijaya lain puncak anu gampang ditalukkeun alatan suhuna anu kacida tirisna, kondisi alamna geueuman tur tarahal, angin jeung hujanna gedé, katambah ku ipisna [[oksigén]].<ref name=":1" /> == Salju Jayawijaya == Indonésaia mémang nagara tropis sarta aya dina garis katulistiwa anu ngan ukur ngabogaan dua usum, nyaéta usum hujan jeung usum halodo.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://katalogwisata.com/mendaki-puncak-jayawijaya-sebagai-satu-satunya-gunung-salju-beriklim-tropis|title=Mendaki Puncak Jayawijaya Sebagai Satu – Satunya Gunung Salju Beriklim Tropis – Katalog Tempat Wisata & Liburan|last=G-Traveler|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629115859/https://katalogwisata.com/mendaki-puncak-jayawijaya-sebagai-satu-satunya-gunung-salju-beriklim-tropis |date=2020-06-29 }}</ref> Ku kituna lolobana nganggap hal anu teu mungkin ayana salju.<ref name=":2" /> Kitu ogé anu di puncak Jayawijaya. Tapi ieu mangrupa hiji hal anu unik, sabab bisa disebut ngalawan hukum alam, anu mana di nagara tropis mah moal aya salju.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://m.trubus.id/baca/34183/terus-menyusut-es-puncak-jayawijaya-terancam-lenyap|title=Terus Menyusut, Es Puncak Jayawijaya Terancam Lenyap|website=Trubus.id|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630005543/https://m.trubus.id/baca/34183/terus-menyusut-es-puncak-jayawijaya-terancam-lenyap |date=2020-06-30 }}</ref> Anu ahirna Jayawijaya jadi kakoncara lantaran kaédahanna. Jayawijaya, sajaba disimbutan ku salju ogé ngabogaan [[gletser]].<ref name=":3" /> Salju di Jayawijaya disebut-sebut salau salju ''abadi''. Hanjakal, unggal taun éta salju téh beuki susud, ngipisan. Malah dina jurnal bogana ''[[National Akademi of Science]]'', Amérika Serikat nyebutkeun yén gletser di Papua téh dianggap bakal pangheulana leungit.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/4136421/salju-di-puncak-jaya-papua-yang-tak-lagi-abadi|title=Salju di Puncak Jaya Papua yang Tak Lagi Abadi|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-29}}</ref> Ieu hal dibalukarkeun lantaran gletserna kaitung handap.<ref name=":4" /> Dumasar panalungtik di ''Byrd and Climate Centre Ohio State University'' mah nyebutkeun yén gletser di Papua nyaéta "''kenari di tengah batu bara''" hartina gletser ieu bakal pangheulana leungit dibanding gletser-gletser séjénna.<ref name=":3" /> Kiwari, malah batu-batuna mimiti katémbong alatan és anu beuki ngipisan.<ref name=":3" /> Cairna glétser ngaronjat kalayan gancang, upamana taun 2015, El Nino na (kajadian alam anu mana suhu beungeut cai laut jeung suhu almosfer beuki haneut) kacida kuat pisan nepi ka taun 2016.<ref name=":3" /> == Fosil Sato Laut == Saha nu nyangka lamun gunung anu sakitu luhurna téh mimitina mah lautan. Ieu hal téh tangtu ngabutuhkeun waktu anu teu saeutik.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.boombastis.com/rahasia-bumi-papua/69125|title=Rahasia yang Tersimpan di Balik Megahnya Puncak Carstensz, Tiang Dunia di Bumi Papua|website=Boombastis.com {{!}} Portal Berita Unik {{!}} Viral {{!}} Aneh Terbaru Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629141934/https://www.boombastis.com/rahasia-bumi-papua/69125 |date=2020-06-29 }}</ref> Ahirna, teu anéh saupama di Jayawijaya loba kapanggih fosil sato-sato laut, nepi ka jumlahna rébuan.<ref name=":5" /> Salah sahiji anu dianggap unik di Jayawijaya nyaéta pisan kapanggig barang-barang mangrupa kerang, jeung sajabana.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hipwee.com/list/11-fakta-gunung-jayawijaya-di-papua-yang-belum-kamu-ketahui/|title=11 Fakta Gunung Jayawijaya di Papua yang Belum Kamu Ketahui|last=Ramadhan|first=Sani|website=Hipwee|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> Dumasar kana hasil panalungtikan arkéologis, diperkirakeun kira-kira 60 juta taun ka tukang gunung anu ayeuna ngajegir téh nyaéta lautan tina ruruntukan ti benua Pangea anu masih kénéh ngahijij jeung Australia ngalaman ''endapan'' anu ahirna daratan Papua kawangun.<ref name=":5" /> Satuluyna bareng jeung papisahna tanag Papua jeung Australia, tanah kasebut jadi naék sarta kadorong lémpéngan bumi, Jadi puncak Jayawijaya téh tadina mangrupa dasar tina lautan.<ref name=":6" /> == Jalur Pendakian == === 1. Rute PT Freeport Indonésia === [[Gambar:Ekspedisi Soedirman V Jaya Wijaya Papua.jpg|jmpl|Ekspedisi Soedirman V Jaya Wijaya Papua]] Lalampahan sangkan nepi ka Carstensz bisa ngaliwatan PT Freeport Indonésia, anu lalampahanna kaitung téréh, ukur butuh waktu dina itungan jam. Lalampahan téh dimimitian ti Timika laju naék mobil salila dua jam ka Tembangpura. Ti Tembangpura, laju deui ka Grasberg baék trém, ti Tembangpura dituluykeun deui ka Bali Dump (wates ahir wilayang PT Freeport kurang leuwih lalampahan 20 menit. Satuluyna ti Bali Dump leumpang deui kurang leuwih dua jam pikeun bisa nepi ka ''basecamp'' Danau-danau. Tapi lalampahan ieu téh tnagtuna kudu siap jeung resikona, hartina teu bisa sagawayah, sabab butuh persiapan sarta kakuatan pisik jeung méntal anu cukup. Ieu téh sabab Timika ngan ukur aya sababara méter tina luhureun beungeut cai laut, sedengkeun ''basecamp'' Danau-danau aya dina angka 4621 mdpl luhureun cain laut. Tangtuna lamun tanpa persiapan anu asak, parobahan cuaca jeung situasi anu béda tingkat luhurna wilayah bakal nimbulkeun ''Accute Mountain Sickness'' (AMS). Jadi, hadéna mah pendaki kudu naék ka luhur téh sacara bertahap, ulah sakaligus (''aklimatiasasi'').<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://penjelajah.com/opsi-rute-perjalanan-dan-jalur-pendakian-puncak-jaya-atau-carstensz-pyramid/|title=Opsi Rute Perjalanan dan Jalur Pendakian Puncak Jaya atau Carstensz Pyramid|last=Pratiwi|first=Hana|website=Penjelajah|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630165315/https://penjelajah.com/opsi-rute-perjalanan-dan-jalur-pendakian-puncak-jaya-atau-carstensz-pyramid/ |date=2020-06-30 }}</ref> === 2. Rute Sugapa === Béda jeung jalur Frepepor anu bisa ditempuh dina waktu itungan jam, liwat Sugapa mah bakal méakeun waktu sababarha poé. Tapi kaonjoyanna nyéta, résikona leuwih leutik batan tadi, sabab parobahan situasi alam jeung luhurna témpatna dialaman kalayan bertahap, teu sakaligus. Sugana mangrupa slaah sahiji Kacamatan atawa Distrik sakaligus mangrupa ibu kota Intan Jaya. Pikeun naék ka Puncak Jayawjaya ngaliwatan Kabupatén Intan Jaya bakal dimimitian ku lalampahan nuju ka Timika atawa Nabire ngagunakeun pesawat perintis anu bakal eureun di Bandara Bilogai anu aya di Kalurahan Bilogai, Kacamatan Sugapa. Satuluyna, lalampahan bisa teruskeun ngaliwatan Ugimba atawa Soagama.<ref name=":7" /> ==== 2.1. Puncak Jaya Jalur Ugimba ==== Satuluyna, lalampahan nuju ka Puncak Jayawijaya bisa ditempuh liwat Ugimba, hal ieu téh sabab Puncak Jaya ayana di Kacamatan Ugimba, Kabupatén Intan Jaya. Tapi nya kitu sarua jeung lalampahan liwat jalur séjénna, pikeun nepi ka Ugimba téh lain perkara anu gampang, sarta perlu waktu sababarah jam leumpang kalayan mapayan pasir-pasir jeung walungan Kemabu anu caina taril. Ti Ugimba lalampahan diteruskeun nepi ka engkéna nepi ka ''New Zealand Pass''. Ti ''New Zealand Pass'' merlukeun deui waktu sategah poéan pikeun nepi ka puncak atawa nepi ka ''Bacecamp'' Danau-danau.<ref name=":7" /> ==== 2.2. Puncak Jaya Jalur Jalur Sugapa ==== Sajaba ti jalur Ugimba, bisa ogé ngaliwatan jalur Sugapa. Ti Sugapa bisa naék mobil, motor atwa leumpang nuju ka Désa Soagama di Kacamaan Hitadipa. Lalampahan ti Soegana diteruskeun ka Camp Zambusiga anu luhurna 2181 mdpl, ti dinya diteruskeun deui ka Camp Inda Tsiga anu luhurna 3222 mdpl, ti dinya diteruskeun deui ka Nasidome Camp anu luhurna 3726 mdpl, teruskeun deui ka ''Zealand Pass'', ahirna bakal nepi ka nu di tuju nyaéta ''Basecamp'' Danau-danau anu luhurna 4261 mdpl.<ref name=":7" /> === 3. Rute Ilaga === Jalur satuluyna pikeun nepi ka Puncak Jayawijaya bisa ngaliwatan Ilaga, di Kbauptén Puncak (Kabupatén hasil pamekaran ti Kabupatén Puncak Jaya). Ilaga mangrupa ibu kota ti Kabupatén Puncak, sarta luhurna aya dina 2286 mdpl. Pikeun nepi ka dieu, kudu naék pesawat leutik ti Timika atawa Nabira ka Bandara Ilaga salila 25 menit, dina sapoé bisa ngapungeun 20 kali, gumantung kana situasi jeung kondisi alamna.<ref name=":7" /> === 4. Rute Hélikopter === Rute ieu téh rute anu panggampangna, sakaligus pangmahalna. Lamun urnag teu hayang riweuh ngurus perijinan sarta teu siap ngaliwatan rembetna leuweung Papua anu geledegan jeung tarahal, alternatipna nyaéta ngaunakeun Hélikopter. Pikeun bisa nepi ka Puncak Jaya ngagunakeun hélikopter, leuwih tiheula urang kudu nepi heula ka kota Enarotali atawa Timika. Ti dinya bisa naék hélikopter sarta turun di ''Yellow Valey'' atawa sok disebut ogé Lembah Kuning, anu mangrupa salah sahiji aréa sanggeus ''Basecamp'' Danau-danau.<ref name=":7" /> == Référénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Wisata]] [[Kategori:Tempat Wisata]] dvxe9ka0iys99xtokfdiq5phlqjwtx8 Ranitidin 0 99966 732160 711050 2026-11-11T02:02:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Penyangkalan-medis}} {{Drugbox |Verifiedfields= changed |Watchedfields = changed |verifiedrevid = 458460406 |drug_name = |INN = |type = <!-- empty --> |image = Ranitidine.svg |width = 250 |alt = |image2 = File:Ranitidine-A-3D-balls.png |width2 = |alt2 = |caption = <!-- Clinical data --> |pronounce = {{IPAc-en|r|ə|ˈ|n|ɪ|t|ᵻ|d|iː|n}} |tradename = Zantac<ref name=Patient.info>{{cite web|author=Michael Stewart, <small>BPharm, MRPharmS</small>|date=12 Apr 2018|title=Zantac – Ranitidine to reduce stomach acid|url=https://Patient.info/medicine/ranitidine-to-reduce-stomach-acid-zantac|website=Patient.info|location=[[Leeds]], England, United Kingdom|publisher=[[Patient UK|Patient Platform Limited]]|accessdate=31 March 2020|quote=Ranitidine reduces the amount of acid produced by your stomach. Any side-effects are usually mild and do not last long.}}</ref> <small>(original)</small>, and others |Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|ranitidine-hydrochloride}} |MedlinePlus = a601106 |licence_CA = <!-- Health Canada may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> |licence_EU = <!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> |DailyMedID = Ranitidine |licence_US = Ranitidine |pregnancy_AU= B1 |pregnancy_AU_comment= <ref name=RanitidinePregnancy>{{cite web|title=Ranitidine use during pregnancy|website=Drugs.com|date=2 December 2019|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/ranitidine.html|access-date=18 December 2019}}</ref> |pregnancy_US= B |pregnancy_US_comment= <ref name=RanitidinePregnancy/> |pregnancy_category= |dependency_liability= |addiction_liability= |routes_of_administration= [[Oral administration|ngaliwatan baham]], [[intravenous therapy|Intravena]] (IV) |class = [[H2 antagonist|Histamine H<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonist]], aka H2 blocker<ref name=Patient.info/> |ATCvet = |ATC_prefix = A02 |ATC_suffix = BA02 |ATC_supplemental= <br>{{ATC|A02|BA07}} (ranitidin bismut sitrat) <!-- Legal status --> |legal_AU= S2 |legal_AU_comment= |legal_BR= <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F--> |legal_BR_comment= |legal_CA= <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> |legal_CA_comment= |legal_DE= <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled--> |legal_DE_comment= |legal_NZ= <!-- Class A, B, C --> |legal_NZ_comment= |legal_UK= GSL |legal_UK_comment= |legal_US= |legal_US_comment= Withdrawn<ref name="FDA Q&A" /><ref name="FDA removal PR" /> |legal_UN= <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> |legal_UN_comment= |legal_status= <!--for countries not listed above--> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> |bioavailability= 50% (Ngaliwatan baham) |protein_bound = 15% |metabolism = [[Liver]]: [[Flavin-containing monooxygenase|FMO]]s, kaasup [[FMO3]]; énzim lianna |metabolites = |onset = 55–65&nbsp;minutes (150&nbsp;mg dose)<ref name="pmid12144582"/><br>55–115&nbsp;minutes (75&nbsp;mg dose)<ref name="pmid12144582">{{cite journal|vauthors=Gardner JD, Ciociola AA, Robinson M, McIsaac RL|display-authors=3|title=Determination of the time of onset of action of ranitidine and famotidine on intra-gastric acidity|journal=Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.|volume=16|issue=7|pages=1317–1326|date=July 2002|pmid=12144582|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2036.2002.01291.x|url= }}</ref> |elimination_half-life= 2–3 jam |duration_of_action= |excretion= 30–70% [[Ginjal]] <!-- Identifiers --> |JAN = ranitidin hidroklorida |CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} |CAS_number = 66357-35-5 |CAS_supplemental= |PubChem = 3001055 |PubChemSubstance= |IUPHAR_ligand = 1234 |DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} |DrugBank = DB00863 |ChemSpiderID_Ref= {{chemspidercite|changed|chemspider}} |ChemSpiderID = 4863 |UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |UNII = 884KT10YB7 |KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |KEGG = D00422 |ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |ChEBI = 8776 |ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |ChEMBL = 1790041 |NIAID_ChemDB = |PDB_ligand = |synonyms = Dimethyl [(5-<nowiki/>{[(2-<nowiki/>{[1-(methylamino)-2-nitroethenyl]amino}ethyl)sulfanyl]methyl}furan-2-yl)methyl]amina <!-- Chemical and physical data --> |IUPAC_name = ''N''-(2-[(5-[(Dimethylamino)methyl]furan-2-yl)methylthio]ethyl)-''N'''-methyl-2-nitroethene-1,1-diamine |chemical_formula = |C=13 |H=22 |N=4 |O=3 |S=1 |molecular_weight = |SMILES = [O-][N+](=O)C=C(NC)NCCSCc1ccc(o1)CN(C)C |Jmol = |StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} |StdInChI = 1S/C13H22N4O3S/c1-14-13(9-17(18)19)15-6-7-21-10-12-5-4-11(20-12)8-16(2)3/h4-5,9,14-15H,6-8,10H2,1-3H3 |StdInChI_comment = |StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} |StdInChIKey = VMXUWOKSQNHOCA-UHFFFAOYSA-N |density = |density_notes = |melting_point = |melting_high = |melting_notes = |boiling_point = |boiling_notes = |solubility = |sol_units = |specific_rotation= }} '''Ranitidin''' téh salah sahiji ubar golongan antagonis reseptor H2 histamin,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00863|title=Ranitidine|website=www.drugbank.ca|accessdate=2020-06-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017200622/https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00863|archivedate=2019-10-17}}</ref> nyaéta ubar nu dipaké pikeun ngubaran kaayaan nu aya patalina jeung [[asam lambung]] dina [[beuteung]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/ranitidine.html|title=Ranitidine: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Warnings|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> Miboga fungsi pikeun nyingkahan sarta ngungkulan rasa panas dina beuteung, [[maag]], jeung kasakit lianna nu disababkeun ku tukak lambung.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/ranitidine/|title=Ranitidine : Fungsi, Dosis, Efek Samping, Cara Pakai|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> Ubar ieu dipikawanoh ogé salaku Zantac, sadia dina sababaraha bentuk kaasup tablét, jeung injéksi.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/ranitidin|title=Ranitidin|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-4091-4033/ranitidine-oral/ranitidine-liquid-oral/details|title=Drugs & Medications|website=www.webmd.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> == Kagunaan == Ubar ieu ogé dipaké pikeun ngubaran kasakit lianna nu aya dina beuteung jeung tikoro nu disababkeun ku lobana asam lambung, produksi asam lambung nu kaleuleuwihi bisa micu iritasi jeung peradangan dina dinding lambung jeung saluran pencernaan'''.''' kayaning ''erosive esophagitis'' jeung refluks asam lambung (''gastroesophageal reflux disease'', [[GERD]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> == Ngaran lian sarta ngaran dagang == Ieu di handap sababaraha ngaran lian tina ranitidin:<ref name=":0" /> * Ranitidina * Ranitidine * Ranitidinum Sarta ngaran dagang tina ranitidin ieu:<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doktersehat.com/ranitidin-1/|title=Obat Ranitidin: Dosis, Kegunaan, Efek Samping|last=Putrikrislia|first=Ursula Penny|website=Informasi Kesehatan dan Tips Kesehatan - Dokter Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810020520/https://doktersehat.com/ranitidin-1/ |date=2020-08-10 }}</ref> * Ranitidin, * Ranitidine, * ''Ranitidine'' Hydrochloride, * Ranitidine HCL. * Acran, * Anitid, * Conranin, * Curadyn, * Fordin, * Gastridin, * Graseric, == Cara gawé == Sanggeus dahar, [[hormon gastrin]] nu diproduksi ku sel-sel di lapisan beuteung, ngarangsang leupasna histamin, nu tuluy aya patalina jeung reseptor histamin H2, nu nyababkeun sekresi asam lambung. Ranitidin ngurangan sekresi asam lambung kucara meungkeut reversibel ka reseptor histamin (H2), nu kapanggih dina sel parietal lambung. Proses ieu ngarah ka panghambatan meungkeut histamin ka reseptor ieu, nyababkeun ngurangan sekresi asam lambung. Nurunkeun gejala nu patali jeung asam lambung, bisa karasa sanggeus 60 menit nginum ubar ieu, sarta dan éfékna bisa lumangsung salila 4-10 jam, nurunkeun gejala kalawan gancang sarta éféktif.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> == Cara maké == Ranitidin nyaéta ubar nu biasana diinum hiji nepi ka dua kali dina sapoé atawa saluyu jeung instruksi dokter. Dina sababaraha kaayaan, bisa nepi ka diresépkeun opat kali sapoé. Mun aneun nginum ubar ieu sakali dina sapoé, biasana kudu diinum sanggeus dahar ti peuting atawa saacan [[saré]].<ref name=":2" /> Turutkeun paréntah [[dokter]] sarta kudu maca katerangan nu aya dina kemasan saacan maké ranitidin. Ulah ngagandakeun dosis atawa ngurangan dosis. Ranitidin bisa diinum sanggeus atawa saacan dahar, usahakaeun pikeun nginum ubar ieu dina jam nu sarua unggal poéna supaya ubar ieu bisa leuwih éféktif gawéna.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> == Hal nu kudu diperhatikeun == Ieu di handap sababraha hal nu kuu diperhatikeun saacan nginum ranitidin:<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> * Ulah maké ranitidin mun anjeun boga alérgi kana ieu ubar atawa ubar séjén tina golongan nu sarua jeung ranitidin, kayaning ''[[cimetidine]]'' jeung ''[[Famotidin|famotidine]]''. * Jéntrékeun ka dokter mun anjeun kungsi atawa keur ngarandapan panyakit [[porfiria]], [[fenilketonuria]], [[diabetes]], gangguan sistem imun, [[gangguan ginjal]], [[gangguan haté]], sarta [[gangguan paru]]. * Jéntrékeun ka dokter mun anjeun keur maké ubar lianna kaasup vitamin atawa ubar herbal, Pikeun awéwé nu keur kakandungann, can aya panalungtikan nu ngabuktikeun yén ubar ieu miboga pangaruh. Numutkeun ''US Food and Drugs Administration'' atawa FDA ubar ieu asup kana résiko kahamilan kategori B nu hartina teu miboga résiko dina sababaraha panalungtikan. <ref name=":1" /> == Interaksi ubar == Ranitidin bisa nyababkeun sababaraha interaksi ubar mun diinum babarengan jeung ubar séjénna. Ieu di handap sababaraha interaksi ubar nu bisa karandapan:<ref name=":3" /> * Bisa ningkatkeun konsentrasi serum jeung ngalambatkeunabsorpsi ranitidin ku saluran pencernaan, mun dipaké babarengan jeung [[Propantheline bromide|''propantheline bromide'']]. * Ngahambat metabolisme [[teofilin]], [[diazepam]], jeung [[propanolol]] dina organ haté. * Ngaganggu panyerepan ubar-ubar nu tingkat panyerepanna dipangaruhan ku pH, kayaning [[ketoconazol]] jeung [[midazolam]]. * Nurunkeun bioavailabilitas ranitidin, mun dipaké babarengan jeung obat antasida. * [[Atazanavir]], pamakéan ubar ieu jeung ranitidin bisa nyababkeun panyerapan atazanavir nu jadi ngurangan éféktivitasnya,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/atazanavir-with-ranitidine-272-0-1991-0.html|title=Atazanavir and ranitidine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> * [[Dasatinib]], nginum dasatinib babarengan jeung ranitidin ilaharna mah teu dianjurkeun. Ranitidin bisa ngaganggu penyerepan dasatinib kana jero getih nu bisa nyababkeun ubar ieu kurang éféktif dina ngubaran [[kanker]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/dasatinib-with-ranitidine-787-0-1991-0.html|title=Dasatinib and ranitidine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-07-01}}</ref> * [[Loperamid]], pamakéan ranitidin jeung loperamid bisa sacara signifikan ninngkatkeun kadar loperamide dina getih. IIeu bisa nyababkeun komplikasi serius sarta miboga poténsi parna kayaning ratug jantung jadi teu taratur sarta eureunna jantung, utamana mun dosis nu dipaké leuwih ti dosis nu dianjurkeun, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/loperamide-with-ranitidine-1482-0-1991-0.html|title=Loperamide and ranitidine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-07-01}}</ref> * [[Neratinib]], kucara ngurangan tingkat keasaman dina beuteung, ranitidin bisa ngaganggu panyerepan neratinib jeung ngurangan éféktivitasna,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/neratinib-with-ranitidine-3827-0-1991-0.html|title=Neratinib and ranitidine Drug Interactions|website=Drugs.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-07-01}}</ref> * Salian ti interaksi jeung ubar lian, ranitidin ogé bisa nyababkeun interaksi jeung kaayaan kaséhatan pasén, contona panyakit ginjal, haté sarta ''prophyria''.<ref name=":3" /> == Éfék samping == Éfék samping mangrupa hiji éfék nu teu dipiharep tina ubar. Éfék samping ieu bisa mangrupa-rupa di sababaraha jalma gumantung kana kaayaan panyakit, umur, beurat awak, jinis kelamin, étnis, jeung sababaraha kaayaan kaséhatan lianna. Sababaraha éfék samping nu ilahar karandapan sanggeus nginum ranitidin kayaning sebel jeung utah, nyeri sirah,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.farmasi-id.com/ranitidine/|title=Ranitidine {{!}} Kandungan, Indikasi, Efek Samping, Dosis, Obat Apa|website=Farmasi-id.com|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-07-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702202449/https://www.farmasi-id.com/ranitidine/ |date=2020-07-02 }}</ref> [[insomnia]], [[vértigo]], [[ruam kulit]], [[konstipasi]], [[diaré]].<ref name=":4" /> Tapi mun ngarandapan éfék samping nu leuwih parna kayaning [[nyeri beuteung]], teu hayang barangdahar, cikiih kiruh, [[kulit]] babari geuneuk, ratug [[jantung]] nu naék turun teu taratur, [[buuk]] murudul, linglung, halusinasi, [[panyakit konéng]], gera tepungan dokter keur pamariksaan nu leuwih serius.<ref name=":3" /> == Kontrovérsi == Dina tanggal 13 Séptémber 2019, FDA ngabéwarakeun yén tés saacanna manggihan kandungan N-nitrosodimethylamine atawa NDMA di ranitidin, ubar maag nu ilahar dipaké.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/popular-heartburn-drug-ranitidine-recalled-what-you-need-to-know-and-do-2019092817911|title=Popular heartburn drug ranitidine recalled: What you need to know and do|last=ScD|first=Joshua Gagne, PharmD|website=Harvard Health Blog|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-requests-removal-all-ranitidine-products-zantac-market|title=FDA Requests Removal of All Ranitidine Products (Zantac) from the Market|last=Commissioner|first=Office of the|website=FDA|language=en|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> Lian ti éta, Badan Pemeriksa Obat dan Makanan (BPOM) geus ménta perusahaan farmasi pikeun ngeureunkeun sarta narik ubar Ranitidin kusabab ngandung N-Nitrosodimethylamine atau NDMA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2019/11/21/194642265/ranitidin-dapat-diedarkan-kembali-ini-penjelasan-bpom|title=Ranitidin Dapat Diedarkan Kembali, Ini Penjelasan BPOM Halaman 2|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> NDMA mangrupa zat nu sabenerna teu bahaya mun diinumm dina batas normal, ngan BPOM manggihan kandungan di luhureun batas normal nu nyababkeun NDMA jadi miboga sifat [[karsinogenik]] atawa bisa micu kanker, ku kituna ubar ieu geus kungsi ditarik tina pasaran. Tapi teu kungsi lila, BPOM méré ijin deui pikeun ubar ieu dipasarkeun, kusabab sanggeus dilakukeun panalungtikan ngeunaan ambang batas normal batas cemaran N-Nitrosodimethykamine (NDMA) nu kakandung dina ranitidin. NDMA ogé dipiwanoh salaku pencemar lingkungan nu aya dina cai, [[daging]], [[sayuran]], jeung produk susu. Studi global mutuskeun yén nilai ambang batas cemaran NDMA di ijinkeun nyaéta 96 mg/sapoé. Mun diinum di luhureun batas normal unggal poe dina jangka wkatu nu lila, miboga poténsi karsinogenik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20191008165103-20-437820/ranitidin-obat-asam-lambung-yang-diduga-picu-kanker|title=Ranitidin, Obat Asam Lambung yang Diduga Picu Kanker|website=nasional|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-06-30}}</ref> == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.drugs.com/sfx/ranitidine-side-effects.html Éfek Samping Ranitidin] * [https://www.drugs.com/drug-interactions/ranitidine.html Interaksi Ranitidin] == Rujukan == <references /> b8ors9gxnr4wpeaoym0e56v9kyxvi8t Universitas Negeri Makassar 0 99980 732182 702921 2026-11-11T03:48:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Universitas | name = Universitas Negeri Makassar | native_name = UNM | image_size = 150px | image_alt = | caption = Lambang Universitas Negeri Makassar | latin_name = | motto = Tetap Jaya Dalam Tantangan | mottoind = | established = [[1 Agustus]] [[1961]] | closed = | type = [[Perguruan Tinggi Negeri]] <br />[[Universitas negeri|Universitas Negeri]] | endowment = | budget = | rector = Prof. Dr. H. Husain Syam, M.T.P. | officer_in_charge = | chairman = | chancellor = | president = | vice-president = | superintendent = | provost = | vice_chancellor = | principal = | dean = | director = | head_label = | head = | academic_staff = | administrative_staff = | students = 32.000 orang | undergrad = | postgrad = | doctoral = | other = | city = [[Kota Makassar]] | state = | province = [[Sulawesi Kidul]] | country = {{negara|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]] | coor = | campus = | former_names = Institut Keguruan Ilmu Pendidikan Ujung Pandang | free_label = Alamat | free = Jl. Andi Pangerang Pettarani <small>(Kampus I Gunung Sari)</small> <br />Jl. Daeng Tata <small>(Kampus II Parang Tambung)</small> <br />Jl. Wijaya Kusuma <small>(Kampus III Banta-Bantaeng)</small> <br />Jl. Tamalate I <small>(Kampus IV Tidung)</small> | athletics = | colours = {{color box|orange}} Jingga | sports = | nickname = UNM | mascot = | affiliations = | website = http://www.unm.ac.id | logo = | footnotes = | image_name = | colors = }} '''Universitas Negeri Makassar''' atanapo '''UNM''' nyaéta [[paguron luhur]] ti [[Makassar]], [[Indonesia]], anu nangtung dina [[1 Agustus]] [[1961]]. == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20200701095442/https://unm.ac.id/ Situs resmi Universitas Negeri Makassar] * {{id}} [http://pps.unm.ac.id/ Situs resmi Pasca Sarjana Universitas Negeri Makassar] * {{id}} [http://www.profesi-unm.com/ Lembaga Penerbitan dan Penyiaran Mahasiswa (LPPM PROFESI) Universitas Negeri Makassar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812060308/https://profesi-unm.com/ |date=2020-08-12 }} * {{id}} [http://digilib.unm.ac.id/ Digital Library Universitas Negeri Makassar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702193316/http://digilib.unm.ac.id/ |date=2020-07-02 }} * {{id}} [http://lpse.unm.ac.id/eproc/ LPSE Universitas Negeri Makassar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628171136/http://lpse.unm.ac.id/eproc/ |date=2019-06-28 }} * {{id}} [http://www.penalaran-unm.org/ Lembaga Penelitian Mahasiswa (PENALARAN) Universitas Negeri Makassar] * {{id}} [http://mapalateknisiftunm.blogspot.com/ Mapala Teknisi FT UNM] {{PTN di Indonesia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Negeri, Makassar}} [[Kategori:Paguron luhur nagri di Indonésia]] {{Indo-perti-stub}} anngzp5bahlo4c4xc1pxbcanqb61owy Universitas Udayana 0 99992 732183 731912 2026-11-11T03:50:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox university | name = Universitas Udayana | native_name = {{script|bali|ᬉᬦᬶᬧᬾᬃᬲᬶᬢᬲ᭄ᬳᬸᬤᬬᬦ|''Unipérsitas Udayana''}} |image = Logo-unud-baru.png | caption = | motto = ''Takitakining Sewaka Guna Widya'' ([[basa Bali|Bali]]) | mottoeng = People who oblige knowledge shall pursue wisdom and virtue |mottoind= Jalma anu diajar kedah ngudag kanyaho sareng kautamaan. |established = [[29 Séptémber]] [[1962]] |type = [[Perguruan Tinggi Negeri Badan Hukum]] |rector = Prof. Dr. Ir. I Nyoman Gde Antara, M.Eng., IPU. |address = Jl. Raya Kampus UNUD, Kampus Bukit Jimbaran, [[Jimbaran, Kuta Selatan, Badung|Jimbaran]] <br/> |city = [[Kabupatén Badung]] |state = [[Bali]] |country = [[Indonesia]] |coor = |campus = Kampus Pusat Bukit Jimbaran <br/>Kampus Sudirman <br/>Kampus Nias |colors = Biru {{color box|#3A53A4}}, Emas {{color box|#CFB721}} |telephone = +62-361-701954 |fax = +62-361-701907 | academic_staff = 1,603 (2008)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buku Putih Universitas Udayana|last=Bakta|first=I Made|publisher=Udayana University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia|pages=}}</ref> | administrative_staff = 594 (2008)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buku Putih Universitas Udayana|last=Bakta|first=I Made|publisher=Udayana University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia|pages=}}</ref> | students = 18,297 (2008)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buku Putih Universitas Udayana|last=Bakta|first=I Made|publisher=Udayana University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia|pages=}}</ref> | undergrad = 17,435 (2008)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buku Putih Universitas Udayana|last=Bakta|first=I Made|publisher=Udayana University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia|pages=}}</ref> | postgrad = 1,492 (2008)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buku Putih Universitas Udayana|last=Bakta|first=I Made|publisher=Udayana University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia|pages=}}</ref> |jenis = Perguruan Tinggi Negeri | affiliations = [[Association of Universities of Asia and the Pacific|AUAP]],<ref>http://auap.sut.ac.th/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=52&Itemid=82 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709220313/http://auap.sut.ac.th/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=52&Itemid=82 |date=2011-07-09 }}</ref> [[ASEAN-European University Nework|ASEA UNINET]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uibk.ac.at/asea-uninet/members.html |title=Member Universities |publisher=Uibk.ac.at |date= |accessdate=2010-05-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818104659/http://www.uibk.ac.at/asea-uninet/members.html |date=2012-08-18 }}</ref> |website = [https://www.unud.ac.id www.unud.ac.id] |image_name=Widya Cakra Prawartana}} '''Universitas Udayana''', disingget jadi '''UNUD''', nyaéta [[paguron luhur]] nagri ti [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], madeg dina [[29 Séptémber]] [[1962]]. [[Rektor Universitas Udayana]] ayeuna nyaéta [[Prof. Dr. Ir. I Nyoman Gde Antara, M.Eng., IPU.]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.unud.ac.id/ Situs Resmi Universitas Udayana] *[https://if.unud.ac.id Situs Resmi Program Studi Informatika Universitas Udayana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617190229/https://if.unud.ac.id/ |date=2020-06-17 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200803084713/https://undiksha.ac.id/ Situs Resmi Unuversitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Singaraja] * [http://www.isi-dps.ac.id Situs Resmi Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719034134/http://www.isi-dps.ac.id/ |date=2012-07-19 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200706192515/http://stpbali.ac.id/ Situs Resmi Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Nusa Dua] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201106082214/http://www.pnb.ac.id/ Situs Resmi Politeknik Negeri Bali] {{PTN di Indonesia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Udayana}} [[Kategori:Paguron luhur nagri di Indonésia]] {{Indo-perti-stub}} rve04m00yjorc13qmdhh1rxo96d5y0b Linda McCartney 0 100194 732140 712123 2026-11-10T23:14:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732140 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Linda McCartney | image =Linda McCartney 1976 (cropped).jpg | alt = | caption = Linda, 1976 | birth_name = Linda Louise Eastman | birth_date = {{birth date|1941|9|24}} | birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Scarsdale, New York]], A.S.}} | death_date = {{death date and age|1998|4|17|1941|9|24}} | death_place = [[Tucson, Arizona]], A.S. | death_cause = [[Breast cancer]] | nationality = {{USA}} | other_names = | occupation = {{flat list| * Fotografer * musisi * aktivis }} | years_active = 1965–1998 | spouse = {{marriage|Melville See Jr.|1962|1965|end=div}} <br /> {{marriage|[[Paul McCartney]]|1969<!--Omission per template instructions-->}} | children = {{unbulleted list | [[Heather McCartney]] | [[Mary McCartney]] | [[Stella McCartney]] | [[James McCartney]] }} | website = {{URL|lindamccartney.com/|LindaMcCartney.com}} | module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes | background = solo_singer | instrument = {{flatlist| *Keyboard *vocal}} | associated_acts = {{flatlist| *[[The Beatles]] *[[Wings (band)|Wings]] *[[Denny Laine]] *[[Suzy and the Red Stripes]]}} }} }} '''Linda Louise McCartney, Lady McCartney''' (''née'' '''Eastman'''; atawa '''See'''; {{lahirmati||24|9|1941||27|4|1998|}}) ieu fotografer Amérika, musisi, [[Hak asasi hewan]] aktivis, sareng pengusaha. Anjeunna paling dikenal salaku pamajikan munggaran [[Paul McCartney]] tina [[The Beatles]] sareng pikeun foto dirina tina selebriti jeung musisi kontemporer. Poto nya dikaluarkeun dina buku ''[[Linda McCartney's Sixties|Linda McCartney's Sixties: Portrait of an Era]]'' dina taum 1992.<ref>McCartney, Linda. ''Linda McCartney's Sixties: Portrait of an Era''. Bullfinch Press. 1992.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/linda-mccartney-dies-at-56-181082/ |last1=Skanse |first1=Richard |title=Linda McCartney Dies at 56 |website=rollingstone.com |accessdate=October 19, 2019|date=April 20, 1998 }}</ref><ref name="about.com">{{cite web |url=http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/a/mccartneylinda.htm |title=Paul McCartney and Linda Eastman Marriage Profile |publisher=Marriage.about.com |accessdate=February 3, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021115911/http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/a/mccartneylinda.htm |date=October 21, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatlesbible.com/1969/03/12/paul-mccartney-marries-linda-eastman/ |title=12 March 1969: Paul McCartney marries Linda Eastman |publisher=The Beatles Bible |accessdate=February 3, 2014|date=March 12, 1969 }}</ref> ==Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == {{Biografi-pondok}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category}} * {{Britannica|353924|Linda Louise Eastman McCartney}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060613054849/http://newfrontier.com/1/foodo795.htm The Path of the Vegetarian] by Linda McCartney * [http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/l/linda_mccartney.html Linda McCartney quotes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512173552/http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/l/linda_mccartney.html |date=2012-05-12 }} * [http://www.wingspan.ru/bookseng/coleman/coleman08.html Biography of Linda McCartney at Wingspan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160803081744/http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist/ITN/1984/01/17/AS170184009/ Footage of Linda McCartney in 1984] * [http://www.lindamccartneyfoods.co.uk Linda McCartney Foods] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:McCartney, Linda}} [[Kategori:Panyanyi Amérika Sarikat]] 1i5jgyvgb8kuhesnjuqu58h4oca3txi Daptar Wakil Gubernur Jawa Kulon 0 100376 732111 731644 2026-11-10T20:38:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732111 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Jabatan Politik |jabatan = Wakil Gubernur |lembaga = Jawa Barat |insignia = Coat of arms of West Java.svg |ukuraninsignia = 75px |keteranganinsignia = |departemen = |namaasli = |image = Deputy Governor of West Java Uu Ruzhanul Ulum.png |imagesize = 125px |alt = |incumbent = [[Uu Ruzhanul Ulum]] |incumbentsince = 5 September 2018 |gelar = |kediaman = |tempo = 5 tahun |dibentuk = 1 April 1947 |pertama = [[Ipik Gandamana]] |website = }} '''Wakil Gubernur Jawa Kulon''' nyaéta wakil kepala daérah tingkat I anu mégang jabatan dina pamaréntahan Jawa Kulon baréng Gubernur jeung 120 anggota [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Jawa Kulon]]. Gubernur jeung Wakil Gubernur Jawa Kulon dipilih tiap 5 tahun sakali. Gubernur Jawa Kulon anu ayeuna ngajabat nyaéta [[Uu Ruzhanul Ulum]]. == Daptar == Ieu mangrupa daptar wakil gubernur anu ngajabat Jawa Kulon {| class="wikitable " |- style="background-color:#258B18; color:#FFF200;" | colspan="3" align="center" |'''Wakil Gubernur''' | colspan="2" align="center" |'''Masa Ngajabat''' | rowspan="2" align="center" |'''Partai politik''' | colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" |'''Gubernur''' | rowspan="2" align="center" |'''Période''' | rowspan="2" align="center" |'''Katerangan''' |- style="background-color:#258B18; color:#FFF200;" | align="center" |'''No''' | align="center" |'''Potret resmi''' | align="center" |'''Nama''' | align="center" |'''Mulai Jabatan''' | align="center" |'''Akhir Jabatan''' |- | colspan="10" align="center" |[[Gambar:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg|25x25px]] '''Wakil Gubernur [[Jawa Barat]]''' [[Gambar:Coat_of_arms_of_West_Java.svg|29x29px]] |- align="center" | rowspan="4" bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''1''' | rowspan="4" |[[Gambar:Ipikgandamana.jpg|pra=Special:FilePath/Ipikgandamana.jpg]] | rowspan="4" |'''[[Ipik Gandamana]]''' | rowspan="4" |1 April 1947 | rowspan="4" |1952 | rowspan="4" |'''''Nonpartisan''''' | bgcolor="#a5682a" | |[[R. Mas Sewaka|Raden Mas Sewaka]] | rowspan="2" |04 | rowspan="4" | |- align="center" | bgcolor="#660000" | |[[Ukar Bratakusumah]] {{small|(''Komisaris Republik Indonesia di Jawa Barat'')}} |- align="center" | bgcolor="#a5682a" | |[[R. Mas Sewaka|Raden Mas Sewaka]] |05 |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#660000" | | rowspan="2" |[[Sanusi Hardjadinata]] | rowspan="2" |06 |- align="center" | colspan="3" rowspan="2" |'''''Lowong''''' | rowspan="2" |1952 | rowspan="2" |6 Februari 1960 | rowspan="2" |— | rowspan="2" | |- align="center" | colspan="2" |• [[Ipik Gandamana]] {{small|(1957–1960)}} • [[Oja Somantri]] {{small|(1958–1960)}} |07 (1957) (1958) |- align="center" | bgcolor="#ff6666" |{{white|'''2'''}} |[[Gambar:Achmad_Astrawinata_Konstituante_Republik_Proklamasi.jpg|134x134px]] |'''[[Astrawinata]]''' |6 Februari 1960 |9 Desember 1963 |[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] | rowspan="4" bgcolor="#7B8738" | | rowspan="4" |[[Mashudi]] | rowspan="2" |08 (1960) |{{refn|Berdasarkan Keputusan Presiden RI No.252 Tahun 1963 tertanggal [[9 Desember]] [[1963]], [[Astrawinata]] sebagai Menteri Kehakiman menggantikan Wirjono Prodjodikoro sedangkan [[Oei Tjoe Tat]] dilantik sebagai Menteri Negara yang diperbantukan pada Presidium Kabinet Kerja|group=ket.}}<ref>Pikiran Rakjat, 2 Februari 1960, 5 Februari 1960, 6 Februari 1960, 8 Februari 1960, dan Pikiran Rakyat 6 Mei 2005</ref><ref>{{cite press release|last=|first=|date=9 Desember 1963|title=Keppres No. 252 Tahun 1963|url=http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/63kp252.pdf|location=Jakarta|publisher=Badan Pembinaan Hukum Nasional|agency=|access-date=5 November 2017}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/63kp252.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=18 September 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414234706/http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/63kp252.pdf |archivedate=14 April 2023}}</ref> |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#7B8738" |{{white|'''3'''}} | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" |'''E. Dachjar Sudiawijaya''' | rowspan="2" |9 Desember 1963 | rowspan="2" |1967 | rowspan="2" |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | rowspan="2" |{{refn|Keppres No. 65 Tahun 1967 tentang Pemberhentian E. Dahjar Sudiawijaya Dari Jabatan Wakil Kepala Daerah Tingkat II Jawa Barat|group=ket.}} |- align="center" |09 (1965) |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#7B8738" |{{white|'''4'''}} | rowspan="2" |[[Gambar:R.A_Nashuhi.jpg|pra=Special:FilePath/R.A_Nashuhi.jpg]] | rowspan="2" |'''Raden Ahmad Nashuhi''' | rowspan="2" |2 November 1968 | rowspan="2" |1973 | rowspan="2" |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] |10 (1967) | rowspan="2" |<ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0zx3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT107&lpg=PT107&dq=gubernur+Jawa+barat+tahun+1965&source=bl&ots=behGWVHRj-&sig=ACfU3U1IKltduUAwzir9W5sza_AoNYKQaA&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpmsPphevpAhXBF3IKHcJzBuYQ6AEwCXoECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=gubernur%20Jawa%20barat%20tahun%201965&f=false Malam Bencana 1965 Dalam Belitan Krisis Nasional] Books.google.co.id</ref> |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#7B8738" | | rowspan="2" |[[Solihin Gautama Purwanegara]] | rowspan="2" |11 (1970) |- align="center" | colspan="3" rowspan="2" |'''''Lowong''''' | rowspan="2" |1973 | rowspan="2" |1 Agustus 1978 | rowspan="2" |— | rowspan="2" | |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#7B8738" | | rowspan="2" |[[Aang Kunaefi]] |12 (1975) |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''5''' |[[Gambar:Soehoed_Warnaen_Poeraatmadja,_Mimbar_Departemen_Dalam_Negeri,_p10.png|145x145px]] |'''[[Soehoed Warnaen]]''' |1 Agustus 1978 |19 Mei 1980 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' |13 (1978) |<ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=-5_xxJr2cYkC&pg=RA15-PA9&lpg=RA15-PA9&dq=Soehoed+Warnaen+poeraatmadja&source=bl&ots=VTwAGq1LYv&sig=ACfU3U06faziO7g8ETonSjK_inTf5uTLaA&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3s42m0v7pAhWXYisKHWhuBw4Q6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q=Soehoed%20Warnaen%20poeraatmadja&f=false Mimbar Departemen Dalam Negeri] Books.google.co.id. Diakses tanggal 13 Juni 2020</ref> |- align="center" | colspan="10" |[[Wakil Gubernur Jawa Barat#1985–2003|''Wakil Gubernur Bidang Pamaréntahan jeung Kasejahteraan Rahayat'']] [[Wakil Gubernur Jawa Barat#1985–2003|''Wakil Gubernur Bidang Ékonomi jeung Pembangunan'']] |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/meta/color}}" |{{white|'''6'''}} | |'''[[Nu'man Abdul Hakim]]''' |13 Juni 2003 |13 Juni 2008 |[[Partai Persatuan Pembangunan]] | bgcolor="{{Partai Golongan Karya/meta/color}}" | |[[Danny Setiawan]] |17 ([[Pemilihan Gubernur Jawa Barat 2003|2003]]) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/55065/dani-setiawan-numan-abdul-gubernur-dan-wagub-jabar|title=Dani Setiawan-Nu`man Abdul, Gubernur dan Wagub Jabar|date=22 Mei 2003|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Liputan6.com|first=|last=ORS|first2=Patria|last2=Hidayat|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://bisnis.tempo.co/read/18286/honda-resmikan-pabrik-transmisi-otomatis|title=Honda Resmikan Pabrik Transmisi Otomatis|date=25 September 2003|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Tempo.co|first=Poernomo Gontha|last=Ridho|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://perpustakaan.bappenas.go.id/lontar/file?file=digital/160139-[_Konten_]-Mochamad_Ade_Afriandi.pdf|title=Thesis UGM: Konformitas Kebijakan Pemerintah Kota Bandung Terhadap Karakteristik Sp Asial Pedagang Kaki Lima|date=4 September 2003|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Universitas Gadjah Mada & Badan Pembangunan Nasional|first=Mochamad|last=Ade Afriandi|editor-first=|editor-last=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306133257/https://perpustakaan.bappenas.go.id/lontar/file?file=digital%2F160139-%5B_Konten_%5D-Mochamad_Ade_Afriandi.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Partai Amanat Nasional/meta/color}}" |{{white|'''7'''}} |[[Gambar:Dede_Yusuf.jpg|118x118px]] |'''[[Dede Yusuf]]''' |13 Juni 2008 |13 Juni 2013 |[[Partai Amanat Nasional]] | rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{Partai Keadilan Sejahtera/meta/color}}" | | rowspan="2" |[[Ahmad Heryawan]] |18 ([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur Jawa Barat 2008|2008]]) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.okezone.com/read/2008/06/13/1/118421/inilah-janji-hade-saat-kampanye|title=Inilah Janji Hade Saat Kampanye|date=13 Juni 2008|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Okezone.com|first=TB Ardi|last=Januar|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.merdeka.com/politik/hade-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dan-wagub-jabar-terpilih-2hh3euk.html|title=Hade Resmi Jadi Gubernur dan Wagub Jabar Terpilih|date=22 April 2008|access-date=3 Juni 2018|newspaper=Merdeka.com|first=|last=|editor-first=|editor-last=KPL|editor-last2=RIF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084628/https://www.merdeka.com/politik/hade-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dan-wagub-jabar-terpilih-2hh3euk.html|archive-date=13 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/04/23/01474559/heryawan.terpilih.sebagai.gubernur.jawa.barat|title=Heryawan Terpilih sebagai Gubernur Jawa Barat|date=23 April 2008|access-date=3 Juni 2018|newspaper=Kompas.com|first=|last=A15|last2=MHF|last3=BAY|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref> |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Partai Demokrat/meta/color}}" |{{white|'''8'''}} |[[Gambar:Wagub_Dedy_Mizwar.jpg|pra=Special:FilePath/Wagub_Dedy_Mizwar.jpg]] |'''[[Deddy Mizwar]]''' |13 Juni 2013 |13 Juni 2018 |[[Partai Demokrat]] |19 ([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur Jawa Barat 2013|2013]]) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://regional.kompas.com/read/2013/06/13/14034115/Heryawan.Resmi.Dilantik.sebagai.Gubernur.Jabar|title=Heryawan Resmi Dilantik sebagai Gubernur Jabar|date=13 Juni 2013|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Kompas.com|first=Rio|last=Kuswandi|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.depok.go.id/13/06/2013/berita-foto/ahmad-heryawan-dan-deddy-mizwar-resmi-dilantik-sebagai-gubernur-dan-wakil-gubernur-jawa-barat|title=Ahmad Heryawan dan Deddy Mizwar Resmi Dilantik Sebagai Gubernur dan Wakil Gubernur Jawa Barat|date=13 Juni 2013|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Berita Depok, Pemerintah Kota Depok|first=|last=Pemkot Depok|editor-first=|editor-last=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613040859/https://www.depok.go.id/13/06/2013/berita-foto/ahmad-heryawan-dan-deddy-mizwar-resmi-dilantik-sebagai-gubernur-dan-wakil-gubernur-jawa-barat|archive-date=2018-06-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-barat/2272392/ahmad-heryawan-deddy-mizwar-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dan-wagub-jabar|title=Ahmad Heryawan-Deddy Mizwar Resmi Jadi Gubernur dan Wagub Jabar|date=13 Juni 2013|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=detikNews|first=|last=TYA|last2=AVI|editor-first=|editor-last=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613050834/https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-barat/2272392/ahmad-heryawan-deddy-mizwar-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dan-wagub-jabar|archive-date=2018-06-13}}</ref>{{refn|Cuti kampanye dari 14 Februari hingga 13 Juni 2018 (akhir Masa Ngajabat)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.viva.co.id/berita/politik/996184-deddy-mizwar-akan-lepas-status-wagub-jabar-14-februari |title=Deddy Mizwar Akan Lepas Status Wagub Jabar 14 Februari |date=12 Januari 2018 |access-date=13 Juni 2018 |newspaper=Viva.co.id| first= |last=MUS |editor-first= |editor-last=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.okezone.com/read/2018/02/14/525/1859478/deddy-mizwar-resmi-tinggalkan-rumah-dinas |title=Deddy Mizwar Resmi Tinggalkan Rumah Dinas |date=14 Februari 2018 |access-date=13 Juni 2018 |newspaper=Okezone.com| first=Oris |last=Riswan |editor-first= |editor-last=Ari}}</ref>|group=ket.}} |- align="center" | colspan="3" rowspan="2" |'''''Lowong''''' | rowspan="2" |13 Juni 2018 | rowspan="2" |5 September 2018 | rowspan="2" |— | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" | |[[Iwa Karniwa]] {{small|(''Pelaksana Harian'')}} | rowspan="2" |— | rowspan="2" | |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" | |[[Mochammad Iriawan]] {{small|(''Penjabat'')}} |- align="center" bgcolor="#EEEEEE" | bgcolor="{{Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/meta/color}}" |{{white|'''9'''}} |[[Gambar:Deputy_Governor_of_West_Java_Uu_Ruzhanul_Ulum.png|150x150px]] |'''[[Uu Ruzhanul Ulum]]''' |5 September 2018 |''Petahana'' |[[Partai Persatuan Pembangunan]] | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" | |[[Ridwan Kamil]] |20 ([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur Jawa Barat 2018|2018]]) | |- align="center" |} <div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:3; column-count:3; text-align:left; padding:0.2em;"> {{legend|{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}|Non-partisan / Penugasan Pemerintah|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|{{Partai Golongan Karya/meta/color}}|[[Golongan Karya]] (Golkar) / [[Partai Golkar]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#a5682a|[[Partai Indonesia Raya]] (PIR)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#660000|[[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#7B8738|[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia]] (ABRI)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#ff6666|[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] (PKI)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|{{Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/meta/color}}|[[Partai Persatuan Pembangunan]] (PPP)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|{{Partai Amanat Nasional/meta/color}}|[[Partai Amanat Nasional]] (PAN)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|{{Partai Demokrat/meta/color}}|[[Partai Demokrat]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|{{Partai Keadilan Sejahtera/meta/color}}|[[Partai Keadilan Sejahtera]] (PKS)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} </div> === 1985–2003 === ==== Bidang Pemerintahan dan Kesejahteraan Rakyat ==== {| class="wikitable " |- style="background-color:#258B18; color:#FFF200;" | align="center" |'''No''' | align="center" |'''Potret resmi''' | align="center" |'''Nama''' | colspan="2" align="center" |'''Masa Ngajabat''' | align="center" |'''Partai politik''' | colspan="2" align="center" |'''Gubernur''' | align="center" |'''Période''' | align="center" |'''Katerangan''' |- align="center" | bgcolor="#7B8738" |{{white|'''1'''}} |[[Gambar:Aboeng_Koesman_Somawidjaja.jpg|pra=Special:FilePath/Aboeng_Koesman_Somawidjaja.jpg]] |'''[[Aboeng Koesman|Aboeng Koesman Somawidjaja]]''' |19 Mei 1980 |22 Mei 1985 |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | bgcolor="#7B8738" | |[[Aang Kunaefi]] |13 (1980) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-barat/d-3513261/sosok-mantan-wagub-jabar-almarhum-aboeng-koesman-di-mata-pns|title=Sosok Mantan Wagub Jabar Almarhum Aboeng Koesman di Mata PNS|date=28 Mei 2017|access-date=5 November 2017|newspaper=Detik.com|first=|last=|editor-first=|editor-last=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024617/https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-barat/d-3513261/sosok-mantan-wagub-jabar-almarhum-aboeng-koesman-di-mata-pns|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> |- align="center" | bgcolor="#7B8738" |{{white|'''2'''}} | |'''Suryatna Subrata''' |22 Mei 1985 |17 Maret 1993 |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | bgcolor="#7B8738" | |[[Yogie Suardi Memet]] |14 (1985) | |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''3''' |[[Gambar:Deputy_Governor_of_West_Java_Ukman_Sutaryan.jpg|168x168px]] |'''[[Ukman Sutaryan]]''' |1994 |1999 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' | rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{Golongan Karya/meta/color}}" | | rowspan="3" |[[Nana Nuriana]] |15 (1993) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.detik.com/news/berita-jawa-barat/d-4937314/mantan-wagub-jabar-ukman-sutaryan-tutup-usia|title=Mantan Wagub Jabar Ukman Sutaryan Tutup Usia|date=13 Maret 2020|access-date=14 Juni 2020|newspaper=Detik.com|first=Yudha|last=Maulana|editor-first=|editor-last=}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.detik.com/news/berita-jawa-barat/d-4937743/eks-wagub-jabar-ukman-sutaryan-wafat-rk-kita-kehilangan-sosok-teladan|title=Eks Wagub Jabar Ukman Sutaryan Wafat, RK: Kita Kehilangan Sosok Teladan|date=13 Maret 2020|access-date=14 Juni 2020|newspaper=Detik.com|first=Yudha|last=Maulana|editor-first=|editor-last=}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |- align="center" | rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''4''' |[[Gambar:Husein_Jachjasaputra_Wagub_Jabar.jpg|tepi|pus|jmpl|143x143px]] |[[Husein Jachjasaputra|'''Husein Jachjasaputra''']] [[Husein Jachjasaputra|{{small|Bidang Pemerintahan}}]] |13 Juni 1998 |13 Juni 2003 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' | rowspan="2" |16 (1998) | |- align="center" |[[Gambar:Regent_Ciamis_Dedem_Ruchlia.jpg|139x139px]] |'''[[Dedem Ruchlia]]''' {{small|Bidang Kesejahteraan Rakyat}} |13 Juni 1998 |13 Juni 2003 |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | |- align="center" |} ==== Bidang Ekonomi dan Pembangunan ==== {| class="wikitable " |- style="background-color:#258B18; color:#FFF200;" | align="center" |'''No''' | align="center" |'''Potret resmi''' | align="center" |'''Nama''' | colspan="2" align="center" |'''Masa Ngajabat''' | align="center" |'''Partai politik''' | colspan="2" align="center" |'''Gubernur''' | align="center" |'''Période''' | align="center" |'''Katerangan''' |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''1''' |[[Gambar:Soehoed_Warnaen_Poeraatmadja,_Mimbar_Departemen_Dalam_Negeri,_p10.png|145x145px]] |'''[[Soehoed Warnaen]]''' |19 Mei 1980 |22 Mei 1985 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' | bgcolor="#7B8738" | |[[Aang Kunaefi]] |13 (1980) | |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''2''' | |'''Karna Suwanda''' |22 Mei 1985 |1994 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' | bgcolor="#7B8738" | |[[Yogie Suardi Memet]] |14 (1985) |<ref>{{cite news|url=http://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/news/6950/2013/08/03/Heryawan-Turut-Berduka-Atas-Wafatnya-Mantan-Wagub-Karna-Suwanda|title=Heryawan Turut Berduka Atas Wafatnya Mantan Wagub Karna Suwanda|date=3 Agustus 2013|access-date=5 November 2017|newspaper=Website Resmi Pemerintah Provinsi Jawa Barat|first=|last=|editor-first=|editor-last=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717223447/https://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/news/6950/2013/08/03/Heryawan-Turut-Berduka-Atas-Wafatnya-Mantan-Wagub-Karna-Suwanda|archive-date=17 July 2019}}</ref> |- align="center" | bgcolor="#7B8738" |{{white|'''3'''}} |[[Gambar:Regent_Serang_M._A._Sampurna.jpg|131x131px]] |'''M. A. Sampurna''' |17 Maret 1993 |13 Juni 1998 |[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{Golongan Karya/meta/color}}" | | rowspan="2" |[[Nana Nuriana]] |15 (1993) | |- align="center" | bgcolor="{{Independen (politikus)/meta/color}}" |'''4''' |[[Gambar:Mayor_of_Cimahi_Administration_Soedarna_TM.jpg|127x127px]] |'''Soedarna T. M.''' |13 Juni 1998 |13 Juni 2003 |'''''Nonpartisan''''' |16 (1998) |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.liputan6.com/news/read/41431/penangkapan-anak-wagub-jabar-dibantah-bermuatan-politis|title=Penangkapan Anak Wagub Jabar Dibantah Bermuatan Politis|date=14 September 2002|access-date=13 Juni 2018|newspaper=Liputan6.com|first=|last=|editor-first=|editor-last=}}</ref> |- align="center" |} ; Catatan {{reflist|group="ket."|}}</onlyinclude> == Rujukan == <references /> sjwf9grhcv58636o2h3ptz0w6zlhbuj Tari Tumbu Tanah 0 100438 732178 704739 2026-11-11T03:22:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732178 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Tari Tumbu Tanah (1).jpg|jmpl|280x280px|Tari Tumbu Tanah.]] [[Gambar:Tari Tumbu Tanah (2).jpg|jmpl|280x280px|Tari Tumbu Tanah.]] [[Gambar:Tari Tumbu Tanah (3).jpg|jmpl|280x280px|Tari Tumbu Tanah.]] '''Tari Tumbu Tanah''' atawa disebut '''Dansa Tumbu Tana''' nyaéta salah sahiji seni tari tradisional anu asalna ti 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Budi|title=Gereja-Gereja di Papua: Menjadi Nabi di Tanah Sendiri?|date=2002|degree=|publisher=Sekretariat Keadilan dan Perdamaian Keuskupan Jayapura|url=http://papuaweb.org/dlib/jr/ipenburg/2002c.pdf|doi=|type=Makalah Seminar|ref={{sfnref|Hernawan|2002}}}} {{Cite web |url=http://papuaweb.org/dlib/jr/ipenburg/2002c.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2022-01-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417062603/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/jr/ipenburg/2002c.pdf |archivedate=2018-04-17}} {{refend}} {{commons category|Tari Tumbu Tanah}} [[Kategori:Budaya]] [[Kategori:Papua Kulon]] o4hd52l162kdwb6414xr518o4q8aas7 Ki pahang 0 100610 732133 710580 2026-11-10T22:40:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732133 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |name = Ki pahang |image = Pongam_pinnat_110716-15926_sntong.JPG |image_width = 240px |image_caption = Polong malapari, ''Pongamia pinnata''<br />di pantai [[Rempek, Gangga, Lombok Utara|Rempek]], [[Gangga, Lombok Utara|Gangga]], [[Lombok Utara]] |regnum = [[Plantae]] |unranked_divisio = [[Angiospermae]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Fabales]] |familia = [[Fabaceae]] |genus = ''[[Pongamia]]'' |species = '''''P. pinnata''''' |binomial = ''Pongamia pinnata''<ref name=ildis>{{cite web |url=http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?genus=Pongamia&species=pinnata |title=''Pongamia pinnata'' (L.) Pierre |work= ILDIS|publisher=ILDIS |date=2010-07-14 |accessdate=2015-08-24}}</ref> |binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]]<ref>{{aut|[[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre, JBL.]]}} 1899. ''Flore Forestiére de la Cochinchine'' [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/126276#page/200/mode/1up '''3'''(25): sub pl. 385.] Paris :O. Doin, 1880-1907.</ref> |synonyms = {{collapsible list | {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | * ''[[Cytisus]] pinnatus'' <small>L.</small><ref>{{aut|[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linne, C. von]] & L. Salvius}}. 1753. ''Species plantarum :exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, ...'' [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358762#page/183/mode/1up vol. '''2''': 741.] Holmiae :Impensis Laurentii Salvii, [1 May 1753].</ref> {{small|(''basionym'')}} * ''Dalbergia arborea'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''Galedupa indica'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''Galedupa pungum'' <small>J.G.Gmel.</small> * ''Millettia novo-guineensis'' <small>Kanéh. & Hatus.</small> * ''[[Pongamia]] glabra'' <small>Vent.</small> * ''Pongamia xerocarpa'' <small>Hassk.</small> * ''Pterocarpus flavus'' <small>Lour.</small> * ''Robinia mitis'' <small>L.</small> * ''Millettia pinnata'' <small>(L.) Panigrahi</small> <small><u>Sinonim selengkapnya:</u> ''The Plant List''</small><ref name=TPL11>{{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-4759 |title=''Pongamia pinnata'' (L.) Pierre |work=ILDIS |publisher=The Plant List |date=2010-07-14 |accessdate=2015-08-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410123544/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-4759 |date=2023-04-10 }}</ref> }} }} |}} '''Ki pahang'''; ki pahang laut; bangkongan; {{id}} '''malapari'''<ref name=argent/> ('''''Pongamia pinnata''''') nyaéta hiji tangkal anu asalna tina kulawarga [[familia|suku]] [[Fabaceae]] (''Leguminosae''). Ki pahang dipiwanoh ku ngaran daérahna ''kacang kayu laut'' {{Ms}} ; ''mabai'' ([[Bangka|Bk.]]); kepik'' ([[bahasa Jawa|Jw.]]); ''kranji'' ([[bahasa Madura|Md.]]); ''butis, sikam'' ([[Timor|Tim.]]); ''berah'' ([[Alor]]); ''asawali, sawali, awakal, wawakal'' ([[bahasa Ambon|Amb.]]); ''liada'' ([[Seram]]); ''hate hira'' ([[Ternate]]); ''maho'' ([[Galela]]); ''marauwen'' ([[Minahasa|Minh.]]) <ref name=heyne>{{aut|[[Karel Heyne|Heyne, K.]]}} 1987. ''Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia'' '''2''': 1005. Jakarta: Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Departemen Kehutanan. (versi berbahasa [[Belanda]] [http://archive.org/stream/denuttigeplanten02heyn#page/306/mode/2up -1916- '''II''': 306,] sebagai ''Pongamia glabra''.).</ref> Dina basa [[Inggris]] ki pahang dipiwanoh ngaranna ''Indian beech'', ki pahang loba kapanggih hirup ti mimiti [[India]], [[Tiongkok]], [[Jepang]], wewengkon [[Malaysia]], nepika [[Australia]] jeung [[Pasifik]].<ref name=GRIN>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?418408 |title=''Millettia pinnata'' (L.) Panigrahi |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2006-01-31 |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref name=USDA>{{cite web |url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=mipi9 |title=Plants profile for ''Millettia pinnata'' (pongame oiltree) |work=PLANTS Profile |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date= |accessdate=2012-03-30 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606173152/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=MIPI9 |date=2012-06-06 }}</ref><ref>{{aut|Hyland, BPM.; T. Whiffin; FA. Zich}}, et al. 2010. [http://keys.trin.org.au:8080/key-server/data/0e0f0504-0103-430d-8004-060d07080d04/media/Html/taxon/Millettia_pinnata.htm "Factsheet – ''Millettia pinnata''"]. Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants. Edition 6.1, online version [RFK 6.1]. Cairns, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), through its Division of Plant Industry; the Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research; the Australian Tropical Herbarium, James Cook University. Retrieved 14 Mar 2013.</ref> Dina basa India, ki pahang sok disebut ogé: ''poongam'', ''pungai'', ''karanj'', ''honge'', jeung réa-réa deui. == Ciri mandiri == [[file:Pongamia pinnata Blanco2.417.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Pelat botani numutkeun Blanco]] [[file:Pongam_pinnat_110716-15930_sntong.JPG|thumb|left|180px|Tumbuh di tepi pantai. Penutup tanah adalah [[katang-katang]] (''Ipomoea pes-caprae'')]] [[file:Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) trunk in Hyderabad, AP W IMG 6660.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Batang]] [[file :Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) near Hyderabad W IMG_7633.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Tandan bunga]] [[file:Starr 080530-4646 Milletia pinnata.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Siki buah jeung cangkang]] [[Tangkal]] ukurannya sedeng, jangkung bisa nepi ka 25 [[meter|m]] sarta buleudan tangkalna 25 [[sentimeter|cm]].<ref name=argent/><ref name=whitmore>{{aut|Whitmore, TC.}} 1972. "Leguminosae". <u>In:</u> TC. Whitmore (Ed.) ''Tree Flora of Malaya'' vol. '''1''': 303. Kuala Lumpur :Longman.</ref> [[Daun]] ''majemuk'' ''nyirip'' gasal mibanda anak daun 5, panjang 15-30 cm. Anak daun ipis kawas kertas, wanguna rubak aya ogé anu lonyod, 8 × 5 cm, kalawan lk. 6 pasang tulang daun ''sekunder''; cupat daun pondok, semu buleud. [[Kembang]] di jero [[tandan]]; rantuy, panjang nepika 20 cm. Kuntum; Florét [[kembang]] panjang lk. 1 cm; kalawan kelopak ngawujud mangkok, kelir beureum jambu aya ogé anu beureum kolot; [[mahkota kembang]] aya anu beureum aya ogé anu bodas. Ki pahang bijil kembangna henteu aya usumna, atawa kembangan sapanjang taun. <ref name=giesen>{{aut|Giesen, W., S. Wulffraat, M. Zierenand & L. Scholten}}. 2007. [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e00.pdf ''Mangrove Guidebook for Southeast Asia'']{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}: 198-9. Bangkok :FAO and Wetlands International. ISBN 974-7946-85-8</ref> [[Buah]] lonyod melengkung katungtung, lk. 4-7 cm, gundul, kelir coklat ngora, ungal polong ; dieusianh siki hiji.<ref name=argent>{{aut|Argent, G., A. Saridan, EJF. Campbell, & P. Wilkie}}. ''t.t.'' "Leguminosae". ''Manual of The Larger and More Important Non-Dipterocarp Trees of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.'' :366. Samarinda: Forest Research Institute.</ref> ==Tempat asal== Ki pahang ditaksir kawasna asli ti [[Asia]] daratan, tuluy nyebar ka daérah [[tropika]] jeung [[subtropika]] di [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Burma]], sarta [[Thailand]]; di sapajang [[susukan]] jeung basisir.<ref name=WorldAgro/><ref name="Winrock"/> Nya tidieu pisan, ki pahang tuluy waé nyebar ka nagara-[[nagara]] sabudeureun malahan aya anu nepika jauh ti tempat asalna, saperti aya di :[[Pakistan]], [[Srilanka]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Filipina]], [[Papua Nugini]], [[Australia]], [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], [[Fiji]], [[Kepulauan Solomon]], [[Selandia Baru]], [[Tiongkok]], [[Jepang]], [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Mauritius]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sudan]], jeung [[Mesir]].<ref name=WorldAgro/> Di [[Nusantara]], ki pahang ilaharna kapanggih hirup di [[leuweung]] nu perenahna di sisi [[basisir]] kalawan [[taneuh]] na taringul ku karang,<ref name=whitmore/> ogé katempo hirup deukeut jeung [[leuweung]] [[babakoan]] palebah taneuh nu garingna.<ref name=giesen/>. Aya hiji [[varietas]], tayalian var. ''xerocarpa'' (Prain) Thoth., nyebar lewih jauh ti basisir, di sabudeureun sisi susukan. [[Varietas]] ieu dibédakeun alatan mibanda daun 3 pasang + salambar anak daun; wujudna lambaran anu mencos.<ref name=argent/><ref name=whitmore/> == Mangpaat jeung kagunaan == [[Kulit]] tangkal ki pahang bisa dimangpaatekun pikeun ngubaran nyeri alatan dipatil lauk, dicong-cong [[gegeremet]], jeung sajabana. Kulit tangkalna digodog bareng jeung [[kacang héjo]], [[Bawang bodas]], [[mesoyi]] tambah [[cengkéh]], dipaké ku urang [[Kabupaten Seram Bagian Timur|Seram wetan]] jeung [[Kepulauan Banda|Banda]] ngubaran kasakit [[beri-beri]].<ref name=rumpf>{{aut|[[Rumphius|Rumpf, G.E.]]}} 1743. ''Herbarium Amboinense: plurimas conplectens arbores, frutices, ...'' [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10353#page/301/mode/1up Pars '''III''': 183,] [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10353#page/303/mode/1up Tab. cxvii]. Amstelaedami :apud Franciscum Changuion, Joannem Catuffe, Hermannum Uttwerf. MDCCXLIII.</ref>. Kulit berbau tak enak ini di [[Grajagan, Purwoharjo, Banyuwangi|Grajagan]], [[Banyuwangi]], dipakai untuk mengatasi [[kudis]].<ref name=KV>{{aut|[[Sijfert Hendrik Koorders|Koorders, SH.]] & Th. Valeton}}. 1895. ''Bijdrage tot de kennis der Boomsorten op Java.'' [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/181291#page/201/mode/1up no. '''2''': 93.] Meded. uit 's Lands Plantentuin no. XIV. Batavia: G. Kollf & co. (sebagai ''Pongamia glabra''.)</ref> Siki buah ki pahang matak weureu; ngandung racun, nya sok dipaké pikeun ngaracun lauk .<ref name=KV/> Minyak tina sikina bisa dipakai pikeun ngubaran penyakit kulit, minyak lampu, bahan pikeun nyieun [[sabun]], malahan kiwari geus mimiti dimangpaatekun pikeun bahan [[biodiesel]].<ref>{{aut|Duke, JA.}} 1983. ''Handbook of Energy Crops'': [https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pongamia_pinnata.html ''Pongamia pinnata'' (L.) Pierre]</ref><ref>{{aut|Sangwan, S., DV.Rao & RA. Sharma}}. 2010. "A review on ''Pongamia pinnata'' (L.) Pierre: a great versatile leguminous plant". [http://www.sciencepub.net/nature/ns0811/19_3880ns0811_130_139.pdf ''Nature and Science'' '''8'''(11): 130-9.]</ref> Ki pahang ogé ngahaja dipelak dimangpaatekun pikeun pangiuh-iuh jalan, wates susukan [[irigasi]], pepelakan hias, panahan [[angin]], sarta nyuburkeun taneuh.<ref name=WorldAgro>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Pongamia_pinnata.PDF |title=Pongamia pinnata; Fabaceae - Papilionoideae; (L.) Pierre; pongam, karanj, karanga, kanji |author1=Orwa C. |author2=Mutua A. |author3=Kindt R. |author4=Jamnadass R. |author5=Simons A. |publisher=Agroforestry Database version 4.0 |year=2009 |accessdate=2013-11-27}}</ref><ref name="Winrock">Winrock FactSheet: [http://factnet.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/P_pinnata.html ''Pongamia pinnata'' - a nitrogen fixing tree for oilseed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117130917/http://factnet.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/P_pinnata.html |date=2016-01-17 }}</ref>[[Kai]] tangkal ki pahang kawilang alus tur kuat bisa dimangpaat keun pikeun rupa-rupa kabutuhan kayaning: [[lomari]], korsi, [[pakakas]] tatanén, [[aseuk]], pager, gagang [[parabot]], jeung sajabana. <ref name=WorldAgro/> Malahan ku kandungan kalori anu luhur (4600 kkal) unggal kilona alus dimangpaatekun pikeu suluh.<ref name="Winrock"/> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2|45em}} == Pranala luar == {{wikispecies|Pongamia pinnata}} {{Commons category|Pongamia pinnata}} * Plant Illustrations: [https://web.archive.org/web/20230410123548/http://plantillustrations.org/species.php?id_species=830275 ''Pongamia pinnata'' (L.) Pierre] (gambar-gambar ilustrasi) * Prohati: [http://www.proseanet.org/prohati2/browser.php?docsid=200 ''Millettia pinnata'' (L.) G. Panigrahi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924082432/http://www.proseanet.org/prohati2/browser.php?docsid=200 |date=2015-09-24 }} * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=QTIKqw5aNGIC&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false Malapari (''Pongamia pinnata''/''glabra'', ''Derris indica'')] dalam {{aut|Prihandana, R. & R. Hendroko}}. 2008. ''Energi hijau: pilihan bijak menuju negeri mandiri energi''. Jakarta :Penebar Swadaya. * [http://www.jatrophabiodiesel.org/derrisindica.php Pongamia Pinnata: The Prospects For Profitable Sustainability] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617034425/http://www.jatrophabiodiesel.org/derrisindica.php |date=2017-06-17 }} * [http://beahrselp.berkeley.edu/reports/03indiaprop.html The Rural Oil Well] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623093752/http://beahrselp.berkeley.edu/reports/03indiaprop.html |date=2010-06-23 }} * [http://www.himalayaninstitute.org/pdf/SeedsofHope.pdf '''Seeds of Hope'''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726151654/http://www.himalayaninstitute.org/pdf/SeedsofHope.pdf |date=2011-07-26 }} * {{cite journal|doi=10.1046/j.1440-6055.1999.00119.x|title=A host list for Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in Australia|year=1999|last1=Lambkin|first1=Trevor A|journal=Australian Journal of Entomology|volume=38|issue=4|page=373}} * [http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,23046031-3122,00.html First commercial research program for Pongamia in Australia]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100220015047/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,23046031-3122,00.html |date=2010-02-20 }} * [http://www.millettiaplantations.com Information on Millettia pinnata (pongamia) as a biofuel crop] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227215637/http://www.millettiaplantations.com/ |date=2014-12-27 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori: Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori: Ubar]] [[Kategori: Tutuwuhan Ubar]] [[Kategori:Fabaceae]] [[Kategori:tutuwuhan]] 3cfi2thd6epw86xh0e29r117flcmnr6 Hantap 0 100697 732121 707514 2026-11-10T21:17:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732121 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox | name = Hantap | image = Pterocy tinctori 090911-13069 hurn.JPG | image_width = 220px | image_caption = Hantap, ''Pterocymbium tinctorium''<br />yi [[Hurun, Padang Cermin, Pesawaran|Hurun]], [[Padang Cermin, Pesawaran|Padang Cermin]], [[Pesawaran]] | regnum = [[Plantae]] | unranked_divisio = [[Angiospermae]] | unranked_classis = [[Eudikotil]] | unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] | ordo = [[Malvales]] | familia = [[Malvaceae]] | tribus = [[Sterculioideae]] | genus = '''''[[Pterocymbium]]''''' | species = '''''P. tinctorium''''' | binomial = ''Pterocymbium tinctorium'' | binomial_authority = ([[Francisco Manuel Blanco|Blanco]]) [[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]], 1905<ref>{{aut|[[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merril, ED.]]}} 1905. "A review of the identifications of the species described in Blanco's Flora de Filipinas". ''Publications of the Bureau of Science Government Laboratories'' [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38859780#page/30/mode/1up '''27''': 24.] Manila: Bureau of Public Printing. (Apr 1905)</ref> | synonyms = *''Heritiera tinctoria'' <small>[[Francisco Manuel Blanco|Blanco]], 1837</small><ref>{{aut|[[Francisco Manuel Blanco|Blanco, FM.]]}} 1837. [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Aw4oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA653&hl=id#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Flora de Filipinas: Segun el sistema sexual de Linneo'': 653.] Manila: En la imprenta de Sto. Thomas por D. Candido Lopez.</ref> ({{small|''basionym''}}) *''Pterocymbium nicobaricum'' <small>[[Ferdinand Didrichsen|Didr.]], 1855</small> *''Pterocymbium macrocrater'' <small>[[Otto Warburg botaniker|Warb.]], 1904</small> *''Pterocymbium columnare'' <small>[[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]], 1889</small> *''Pterocymbium javanicum'' <small>[[Robert Brown|R.Br.]], 1844</small> *''Sterculia campanulata'' <small>[[Nathaniel Wallich|Wall.]] ex [[Maxwell Tylden Masters|Mast.]], 1874</small> *''Clompanus javanica'' <small>[[Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]], 1891</small> |}} '''Hantap'''; '''Tongtolok''' ('''''Pterocymbium tinctorium''''') nyaéta hiji tangkal [[kai]] anu asalna tina kulawargga ''[[Malvaceae]]'', masih kénéh barayana ''[[Sterculioideae]]'' (méméhna, suku Sterculiaceae). Tangkal hantap kasohor ngahasilkeun [[kai]] anu hadé, hirup nyebar di [[Asia Tenggara]] jeung [[Kapuloan Nusantara]] beulah kulon.<ref name="pros52"/> Garan-ngaran daérahna, saperti: ''gelumbah'' ([[Sumatra|Sum.]]);<ref name="pros52"/> ''tongtolok, beurih, hantap heulang'' ([[bahasa Sunda|Sd.]]); ''tolok, winĕng, wining, wunung, munung, sriwil'' ([[bahasa Jawa|Jw.]]); ''barih, binéng'' ([[bahasa Madura|Md.]]);<ref name=heyne>{{aut|[[Karel Heyne|Heyne, K.]]}} 1987. ''Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia'' '''3''': 1353 (sebagai ''Sterculia campanulata'' {{small|Wall.}}) Jakarta: Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Departemen Kehutanan. (versi berbahasa [[Belanda]] [http://archive.org/stream/denuttigeplanten03heyn#page/238/mode/2up -1917- '''III''': 238]).</ref> ''tolutu'' ([[Sulawesi|Sulw.]]); ''taluto'' ([[bahasa Filipino|Fil.]]); ''teluto'' ([[Sabah]]), jeung sajabana.<ref name="pros52"/> == Pedaran== [[File :Pterocymbium tinctorium 06.JPG|jmpl|kiri|180px|Tangkalna gedé]] [[File :Pterocymbium tinctorium 033.JPG|jmpl|kiri|180px|Ngarangrangan mangsa usum kembangan jeung buahan]] [[File :Pterocy tinctori 090911-13076 hurn.JPG|jmpl|kiri|180px|Buahna kawas parahu]] [[Tangkal]] mibanda ukuranna gedé nepi ka sedeng; jangkung nepika 40(-50) [[meter|m]], tangkalna leceng ka luhur 30 m buleudan tangkalna bisa nepika 90 [[sentimeter|cm]].<ref name="pros52"/> [[Kulit]] palebah luar kulawu pias nepika rada oranyeu, lemes, dibarung ayana anu ngajarendil kawas kutil, kelirna poék kalawan sumebar rata;<ref>{{aut|Argent, G.}} <u>et</u> <u>al.</u>. t.t. ''Manual of the Larger and More Important Non-Dipterocarp Trees of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia''. '''2''': 609. Samarinda:Forest Research Institute.</ref> kulitna karadak.<ref name="pros52"/> kulit jerona hipu, beureum daging gugururatan bodas, geutah semu konéng.<ref name="pros52"/><ref name=tfom>{{aut|Kochummen, K.M.}} 1972. Sterculiaceae. <u>In:</u> T.C. Whitmore (Ed.) ''Tree Flora of Malaya'' '''2''': 366-7 (as ''Pterocymbium javanicum''). Kuala Lumpur: Longman.</ref> [[Daun]] ngentep dina régang, ngurilingan, gagangna anu panjang. Rubak daun ngawujud [[écéng]] aya ogé anu kawas [[endog]] , méncos ka tungtung, palebah luhurna lemes, palebah handapna buluan lemes, dina puhuna mibanda 5-7 tulang daun ngaramo. [[Kembang]] wujudna ngaranggeuy;''[[malai]]'' bijil tina kélék daun atawa tungtung dahan, ngagantung saeutik. [[kembang]] ''berkelamin'' tunggal, bilangan-5; kelopakna ngawujud [[locéng]], tungtungna buluan, panjang ''taju'' sahenteun setengah tina panjang buleudan kelopak kembangna, semu héjo nepika wungu atawa beureum, henteu coplok nepikeun ka jadi buah; mahkota teu aya. [[Buah]] 4-5 di jero hiji gagang ''(kelopak)'', pipinding na ipis kawas [[kertas]], muka hiji sisina saméméh asak, wujud [[parahu]] nangkub congona ngajendul bari nikel; siki sahiji di puhuma, buleud henteu jangjangan.<ref name="pros52"/> ==Agihan jeung ékologi== Hantap loba kapanggih hirup ti mimiti [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], [[Indocina]], [[Semenanjung Malaya]], [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Jawa]], [[Nusa Tenggara]], [[Sulawesi]], dan [[Filipina]].<ref name="pros52">{{aut|Phengklai, C., SI. Wiselius, S. Sudo, & MSM. Sosef.}} 1995. "''Pterocymbium'' R.Br." in RHMJ. Lemmens, I. Soerianegara and WC. Wong (eds.). ''Timber Trees: Minor commercial timber''. Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) '''5'''(2): 405-9.</ref> Ieu tangkal ilahar kapanggih hirup di daérah ''[[aluvial]]'';<ref name=tfom/> ogé kapanggih hirup di [[leuweung]]-leuweung anu héjo, leuweung anu sok ngarangrangan, ogé di leuweung anu caang, di daérah anu sakapeung sok kahalodoan, taneuh luhur anu tonghona di palebah 1.000 m dpl.<ref name="pros52"/> Hantap kagolong tangkal anu rangsog atawa gancang ngagedéan. Di hiji leuweung anu aya di nagara [[Pilipina]] tangkal hantap anu umurna 11 taun, rata-rata jangkungna 25,4 m, dahanna 17,6 m, kalayan buleudana 35,2&nbsp;cm. Dilaporkeun ogé cenah diaméter rata-rata 2&nbsp;cm sataun dina waktu 30 taun.<ref name="pros52"/> == Manfaat == Hantap ngahasilkeun kai anu kawilang hampang (beurat jinisna 0,25-0,41, rata-rata 0,31 [[gram|g]]/cm³)<ref>ICRAF Database of Wood Density: [http://db.worldagroforestry.org//wd/species/Pterocymbium_tinctorium ''Pterocymbium tinctorium'' (Blanco) Merr.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820121433/http://db.worldagroforestry.org//wd/species/Pterocymbium_tinctorium |date=2023-08-20 }}</ref>, dimangpaatekun pikeun nyieun korék api,<ref name=heyne/> papan cor (''begisting''), kukumbul [[jaring]], [[sampan]], peti-peti wadah, ''karajinan tangan'', jeung sajabana. Bisa dimangpaatekun pikeun nyieun [[venir]], tripleks, ogé bubur kertas [[pulp]]. Dina kagiatan balantik kai ieu dipiwanoh ku ngaran [[amberoi]].<ref name="pros52"/> Kulitna dimangpaatekun pikeun nambahan kelir hideung kana lawon [[katun]]. Kitu deui harambayna dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyieun [[tambang]] .<ref name="pros52"/> == Varietas == Bisa waé aya parobahan, sahenteuna kiwari aya tilu variétas ''Pterocymbium tinctorium'': * ''P. t.'' var. ''tinctorium'' * ''P. t.'' var. ''glabrifolium'' (=''Sterculia campanulata'' var. ''glabrifolia'' {{small|Kurz.}}) * ''P. t.'' var. ''javanicum'' (= ''Pterocymbium javanicum'' {{small|R.Br.}}) Dalah tikitu para ahli tacan sapuk sagemenglengna ngeunaan éta taksa.<ref name="pros52"/> sawaréhna boga pamanggih yén ''P. javanicum'' aya dina golongan [[spésiés]].<ref>The Plant List: [http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Malvaceae/Pterocymbium/ ''Pterocymbium'']</ref><ref>{{aut|Singh, B., D. Adhikari, SK. Barik, & A. Chettri}}. 2013. "''Pterocymbium tinctorium'' (Merrill, 1901) (Magnoliophyta: Malvales: Sterculiaceae: Sterculioideae): New record from mainland India and extension of geographic distribution". [http://www.checklist.org.br/getpdf?NGD098-11 ''Check List'' '''9'''(3): 622–5, 2013.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202644/http://www.checklist.org.br/getpdf?NGD098-11 |date=2015-09-23 }}</ref> Masih diperlukeun panalungtikan leuwih jero pikeun manggihan kacindekanna. ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Pterocymbium tinctorium}} * India Biodiversity: [http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/264052 ''Pterocymbium tinctorium javanicum'' (R. Br.) Kosterm.] * Plant Illustrations: [https://web.archive.org/web/20230820122942/http://plantillustrations.org/illustration.php?id_illustration=276498&mobile=0&code_category_taxon= ''Pterocymbium javanicum''] * Useful Tropical Plants: [http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pterocymbium+tinctorium ''Pterocymbium tinctorium''] * WoodWorkers Source: [http://www.woodworkerssource.com/online_show_wood.php?wood=Pterocymbium%20tinctorium ''Pterocymbium tinctorium''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103533/http://www.woodworkerssource.com/online_show_wood.php?wood=Pterocymbium%20tinctorium |date=2016-03-04 }} * Commercial Timbers: [http://delta-intkey.com/wood/en/www/stept-am.htm ''Pterocymbium'' spp. (amberoi)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121024639/http://delta-intkey.com/wood/en/www/stept-am.htm |date=2015-11-21 }}, identifikasi kayu [[Kategori:Malvaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan industri]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] 4a417xr77m0e2ba8y4kntd6nyzppfju Supa acung 0 103175 732173 712440 2026-11-11T03:07:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732173 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Supa acung | image = Phallus indusiatus from Kerala, India - 20090824.jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Phallus indusiatus | regnum = Fungi | divisio =Basidiomycota | classis = Agaricomycetes | ordo = Phallales | familia =Phallaceae | genus =Schizophyllum | species = Phallus indusiatus | binomial = | binomial_authority = | synonyms = {{Collapsible list | Dictyophora indusiata | Hymenophallus indusiatus }}}} '''''Supa acung '''''; Phallus indusiatus dina basa [[Inggris]] disebut ''bamboo mushrooms'', ''bamboo pith''; ''long net stinkhorn'', ''crinoline stinkhorn'' aya ogé ''veiled lady'', nyaéta supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Phallaceae]], atawa ''stinkhorns''. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =11|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/11/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 25 Mei 2021}}</ref> Ieu supa loba kapanggih hirup di daérah [[tropis]], kayaning di [[Asia Kidul]], [[Afrika]], [[Amérika]], sareng [[Australia]], di mana éta supa hirup di [[leuweung]] sareng [[kebon]] anu di jero taneuhna loba mibanda [[kai]] anu bobo tur geus buruk. ==Ciri mandiri == Ieu supa mibanda ciri anu mandiri tayalian tiungna anu ngawujud kawas [[locéng]] sarta bijil kulambu ''(indusium)'' kawas rok [[awéwé]] ngagantung tina handapeunana, ngagapuy ampir ngangsar kana [[taneuh]] . Ieu supa mimiti didadarkeun sacara ilmiah dina taun 1798 ku ahli ''[[botani]]'' urang [[Prancis]]; [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]], spésiésna remen disebut kana genus anu misah ''Dictyophora'' babarengan jeung anu séjén ''Phallus'' spésiés anu sarua nembongkeun ''indusium''. ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tiasa dibédakeun tina spésiés anu sami bédana dina tataran biologi, ukuran, kelir, sareng panjang ''indusium''. Supa anu geus déwasa jangkungna nepi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} kalayan rubak tiungna/topina anu kawas locéng/[[pileus]] {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} . Kedokna ditutupan ku spora semu héjo, ieu dipikaresep pisan ku [[laleur]] sarta [[gegeremet]] anu ngahakan spora. Ieu supa tiasa didahar, ngeunaan hal ieu tos diguar salaku bahan sayuran jeung kadaharan dina catetan bangsa [[Cina]] /''Chinese cuisine''. Tayalian diasakan kujalan digoréng atawa dicampur sareng sop [[hayam]]. Supa ieu, dipelak sacara komérsial sareng loba dijual di ''supermarket'' di Nagara-nagara "[[Asia]], ieu supa euyeub ku [[protéin]], [[karbohidrat]], jeung [[dietary fiber]]. Supa ieu ogé ngandung sagala rupa [[sanyawa bioaktif]], sareng gaduh pasipatan [[antioksidan]] jeung [[antimikroba]]. ''Phallus indusiatus'' ngabogaan sajarah anu kacatet kagunaan salaku ubar di Nagara Cina saméméh abad ka-7, Maséhi. ==Sajarah taksonomi== ''Phallus indusiatus'' mimitina diguar ku naturalis Perancis [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]] dina taun 1798,<ref name="Ventenat 1798"/> sareng nami anu sangsi kénéh ku [[Christiaan Hendrik Persoon]] dina 1801.<ref name="Persoon 1801"/> Saurang pangarang sacara ''anonim'' masihan kesan-kesan na ngeunaan pamanggih Ventenat dina publikasina taun 1800: <blockquote>Ieu spésiés supa anu éndah, mibanda ciri mandiri pikeun ngabédakeun unggal individu tina kelas anu sanés, hirup di Guyana Walanda, kurang leuwih 300 léngkah ti laut, sareng ampir dugi ka belah kénca walungan Surinam. Éta dikomunikasikeun ka kuring ku kokolot Vaillant,<ref group=N>Bapana Ventenat langkung kawéntar [[François Levaillant]], salaku anu resep ngalalana sareng ornithologist, ogé mangrupikeun sodagar Metz anu janten konsul Perancis di Guyana Belanda dugi ka 1763.</ref> Saha anu mendakanana di 1755 dina sababaraha taneuh anu tara kungsi kaséblok ku ombak anu luhur, sareng diwangun ku keusik bodas anu alus pisan, ditutupan ku lapisan taneuh anu ipis. Kuantitas anu luar biasa pikeun jalma ti spésiés ieu anu tumuh dina waktos anu sami, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi aranjeunna, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi sumbangan, némbongkeun prospék anu saé pisan.<ref name="Anonymous 1800"/></blockquote> Ieu supa teras disimpen dina genus énggal, ''Dictyophora'', dina taun 1809 ku [[Nicaise Auguste Desvaux]];<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/> éta teras dipiwanoh mangtaun-taun salaku ''Dictyophora indusiata''.<ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck]] disimpen spésiésna di ''Hymenophallus'' dina 1817, salaku ''H.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Nees 1817"/> Duanana antukna dipulangkeun ka [[sinonim (taksonomi) | sinonim]] '' [[ Phallus]] '' sareng spésiésna ayeuna dipiwanoh deui ku nami aslina.<ref name="urlMycoBank: Hymenophallus indusiatus"/><ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Curtis Gates Lloyd]] dijelaskeun dina [[variety (botany)|variety]] '' rochesterensis '' taun 1909, asalna salaku spésiés énggal, ''Phallus rochesterensis''. Éta aya di [[Kew, Victoria | Kew]], Australia.<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/>Kalayan [[Wangun (botani) | wujud]] indusium mibanda kelir kayas dilaporkeun ku [[Vincenzo de Cesati]] dina 1879 salaku ''Hymenophallus roseus'', sareng teras disebat ''Dictyophora indusiata'' f.&nbsp;''rosea'' Ku [[Yosio Kobayasi]] dina taun 1965;<ref name="urlMycoBank: Dictyophora indusiata f. rosea"/> éta sinonim sareng '' [[Phallus cinnabarinus]] ''.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> Hiji takson dijelaskeun dina 1936 salaku ''Dictyophora lutea''<ref name="Liou 1936"/> sarta dipiwanoh sababaraha taun salaku '' Dictyophora indusiata '' f. '' lutea '', '' D. indusiata '' f. '' aurantiaca '', atanapi '' Phallus indusiatus '' f. '' citrinus '', sacara formal dipindahkeun ka '' Phallus '' di 2008 salaku spésiés anu béda, ''[[Phallus luteus]]''.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> Nami botani asalna tina kecap [[Latin]] ''indūsǐātus'', hartina "maké baju jero".<ref name="Simpson 1979"/> Tilas nami generik ''Dictyophora'' asalna tina kecap [[Yunani kuno]] [https://archive.is/20121215125021/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.17:6:14.LSJ {{lang|grc|δίκτυον}}] (''diktyon'', "net"), and [https://archive.is/20121215062110/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.79:3:158.LSJ {{lang|grc|φέρω}}] (''pherō'', "to bear"), hence "bearing a net".<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/><ref name="Liddell 1940"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' mibanda loba ngaran, aya anu dumasar kana rupana, kaasup panjangna kulambu/stinkhorn, ''crinoline'' ''stinkhorn'',<ref name="Hall p.19">Hall (2003), p. 19.</ref> karinjang stinkhorn,<ref name="Arora 1986"/> supa tiung panganten,<ref name="Habtemariam 2019"/> sareng jilbab/tiung awéwé. Dina basa Jepang ngaranna {{Nihongo||衣笠茸 or キヌガサタケ|Kinugasatake}}, asalna tina kecap ''kinugasa'', nunjul kana topi lega-''brimmed'' anu katempo kawas tiung [[sutra]] ngagantung pikeun nyumput sareng nyibuatan anu makéna.<ref name="Inoki 2006"/> Dina basa [[Cinangsi, Cisitu, Sumedang|Cina]] ngaran umum ieu supa nunjul kana habitatna: "bamboo mushroom" ({{zh|s=竹荪|t=竹蓀|p=zhúsūn}}).<ref name="Ying 1987"/> ==Ciri anu mandiri== [[File:Dictyophora indusiata. Cooktown, Australia. 2010.JPG|thumb|left|''Dictyophora indusiata'' kapanggih dina [[Cooktown, Australia]]. Indisium téh "rok" anu ngagapuy handapeun tutupna]]. Supa anu ngora kénéh ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' mimitina wujudna kawas [[endog]] dugi ka buleud, anu tayalian ieu téh [[peridium]] atawa bungkus spora/pibiniheun. Kelirna bodas, sakapeung aya ogé anu semu beureum. Gedé buleudan/ diaméterna {{convert|6|cm|in|abbr=on}}, sareng biasana ngagaduhan [[mycelial cord]] kandel anu napel dina handapeunna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Nalika supa parantos asak/kolot, tekenan anu disababkeun ku struktur internal anu ngagedéan nyababkeun peridium nepi ka luhur sareng awak buah/tangkal gancang bijil tina "endog". Supa anu geus asak/kolot mibanda ukuran dugi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkungna, kalawan mibanda lamad [[indusium]] (kawas rok) anu ngagantung tina handapeun tiung/congcotna. Bukaan netlike tina indusium tiasa ngawujud poligonal atanapi ngawujud buleud.<ref name="Chang p.344"/> Spesimen anu dikembangkeun kalayan saé ngagaduhan indusium anu dugi ka [[Volva (mycology)|volva]] sareng suar sakedik sateuacan lesot dina gagang.<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Rubak tutup atawa tiung {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}, sarta mibanda zat anu kaangseu na bau. Luhureun tutup aya liang leutik.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Panjang gagangan {{convert|7|–|25|cm|in|abbr=on}},<ref name="Chang p.344">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 344.</ref> sarta kandelna {{convert|1.5|–|3|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Tangkalna bodas, rubakna kurang leuwih sarua jeung panjangna, sakapeung melengkung, hampos kawas busa. Ieu peridium baris lalesotan tina tangkalna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Awak buah ngembang/ngagedéan nalika wengi,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> waktu anu dibutuhkeun pikeun mangkak kurang leuwih 10–15 jam, saatos bijil tina peridium.<ref>Chang & Miles (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=XO4EGzpp1M0C&pg=PA348 p. 348.]</ref> Hirupna teu lila paling ngan sababaraha poé.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/>. us), sareng ukuran 2-3 ku 1–1.5&nbsp;μm.<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> ===Spésiés anu sami=== {{multiple image | header = Compared to ''Phallus indusiatus'' ... | align = right | image1 = 2012-07-24 Phallus multicolor crop.jpg | width1 = {{#expr: (200 * 574 / 715) round 0}} | caption1 = ... ''P. multicolor'' is smaller and more brightly coloured | image2 = Phallus luteus.jpg | width2 = {{#expr: (200 * 4000 / 6000) round 0}} | caption2 = ... ''P. luteus'' is bright yellow }} ''[[Phallus multicolor]]'' saliwat mah katempo sarimbag, pédah mibanda tiung anu katempona leuwih béngras, ukuran indusiumn ilaharna langkung leutik. Éta aya di Australia, [[Guam]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Zaire]], jeung [[Tobago]] <ref name="Burk 1978"/> ogé [[Hawaii]]. Topi spésiés Indo-Pasipik ''[[Phallus merulinus|P.&nbsp;merulinus]]'' katempo leueur nalika ditutupan gleba, sareng pias tur karijut saatosna gleba pareum. Sabalikna, tutup liar tina mah ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ngagaduhan réklikasi anu jelas anu tetep katingali jelas handapeun gleba. Ogé, indusium tina ''P.&nbsp;merulinus'' langkung lemes sareng langkung pondok tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', anu matak moal matak runtuh alatan kabeuratan.<ref name="Reid 1977"/> Biasa di Amérika Kalér wétan sareng Jepang, ogé kapanggih hirup.<ref name="Kibby 2012"/> Spésiésna ''[[Phallus duplicatus|P.&nbsp;duplicatus]]'' ngagaduhan indusium anu ngagantung langkung alit {{convert|3|–|6|cm|in|abbr=on}} ti handapeun tutupna, sareng sakapeung lésot tina gagangna.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus duplicatus"/> Kapendak di Asia, Australia, Hawaii, kidul Mexico, sareng Amérika Tengah sareng Amérika Kidul,<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> ''P.&nbsp;cinnabarinus'' grows to {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkung, sareng ngagaduhan bau anu langkung nyereng tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''. Éta bauna ngondang laleur tina genus ''[[Lucilia]]'' (kulawarga [[Calliphoridae]]), aya ogé lalay tina genus ''[[Musca]]'' sok ngadeukeutan éta supa ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Lee 1957"/> ''[[Phallus echinovolvatus|P.&nbsp;echinovolvatus]]'', geus diguar di nagara Cina dina taun 1988, raket patalina sareng ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', tapi tiasa dibédakeun ku volvana anu spiky/mancung ([[wikt:echinulate|echinulate]]) , suhu tempat hirup anu pikaresep langkung luhur tina {{convert|30|to|35|C|F}}.<ref name="Zeng 1988"/> ''P.&nbsp;luteus'', asalna dianggap salaku ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', boga cap retikulasi konéng, indusium konéng, sareng kayas janten peridium ungu beureum sareng rhizomorphs. Éta aya di Asia sareng Mexico.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> ==Ékologi sareng tempat hirup== ''Phallus indusiatus'' loba kapanggih hirup di wewengkon [[tropical]], kaasup Afrika (Congo,<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Nigeria,<ref name="Oso 1976"/> Uganda,<ref name="Maitland 1917"/> sareng Zaire<ref name="Demoulin 1975"/>) Amerika kalér (Brazil<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> Guyana,<ref name="Wakefield 1934"/> sareng Venezuela<ref name="Dennis 1960"/>), America tengah (Costa Rica),<ref name="Saenz 1982"/> and Tobago.<ref name="Dennis 1953"/> Di Amérika Kalér, kisaranana dugi ka Mexico.<ref name="Guzman 1973"/> Lokalitas Asia kalebet Indonésia, Nepal, Malaysia,<ref name="Oldridge 1986"/> India,<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/> Cina Kidul, Jepang,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> sareng Taiwan.<ref name="Chang 2000"/> Éta ogé parantos dikumpulkeun di Australia.<ref name="Smith 2005"/> Sarua jeung spésiés ''Phallus'' lianna, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' nyaéta [[saprobik]] - nurunkeun nutrisi tina ngarobog kai sareng melak zat organik. Tangkalna sakapeung hirup nyorangan sanajan kitu aya ogé dina wujud dapuran, dina taneuh anu mibanda potongan kai di jerona. Di Asia, éta tuwuh dina leuweung [[awj]], jeung ilaharna jaradi saatos hujan ageung.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/><ref>Hall (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yqHA_M7BVRcC&pg=PA247 p. 247].</ref> Cara réproduksi pikeun stinkhorn, kalebet ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', bénten sareng anu sanésna [[agaric]] supa, anu mana sorana haliber /forcibly eject. Stinkhorn malah ngahasilkeun jisim spora anu napel dina awakna, ngahasilkeun sickly-sweet bau tina [[carrion]].<ref name="Chang p.346">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 346.</ref> Seungitna tina spora anu asak - tiasa kaangseu tina jarak anu jauh - matak pikaresepeun pikeun [[gegeremet]] anu sok ngakuan sporana.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Spésiés anu kacatet kalebet kana [[stingless bees]] tina genus ''[[Trigona]]'',<ref name="Oliveria 2000"/> sareng lalay tina kulawarga [[Drosophilidae]] jeung [[Muscidae]]. Gegeremet ngabantosan ngaliarkeun spora ku nyéépkeun gleba sareng nyimpen kotoran anu ngandung spora [[germination|germinate]] di tempat séjén.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Sanaos kagunaan tina indusium henteu dipikaterang sacara pasti, éta sacara visual tiasa ngadatangkeun gegeremet anu kataji ku bauna, sareng tiasa jadi [[tarajé]] pikeun gegeremet ngarayap Nepi ka gleba/luhur.<ref name="Kibby 1994"/> ==Kuliner sareng budidaya== [[File:Bamboo pith mushroom.jpg|thumb|left|Supa anu dijual garing sareng biasana dikeueum/rehidrasi sateuacan asak]] [[File:Tom yuea phai.jpg|thumb|left|''Tom yuea phai'' tayalian olahan has [[Thailand]] didamel ku ieu supa]] Di Asia wétan, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' dianggap ngeunah sareng hiji [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name="Roberts 2011"/> Saméméhna ngan ukur ngala/ngumpulkeun ti alam liar, di mana henteu tiasa seueur, éta sesah pikeun dipulut. Kurangna supa hartosna éta biasana disimpen kanggo acara-acara khusus. Dina jaman [[Cina]] [[Dinasti Qing]], spésiésna dikumpulkeun di provinsi [[Yunnan]] sareng dikirim ka Kota Larang/Istana Kaisar pikeun nyugemakeun tuangeun [[Permaisuri Dowager Cixi]], anu resep pisan nuang rupa-rupa supa anu tiasa didahar.<ref>Hu (2005), pp. 94–5.</ref> Éta mangrupikeun salah sahiji tina dalapan bahan anu diulas tina "Sarang Burung Kadalapan Dalapan Kalanggengan" dilayanan dina pésta pikeun ngarayakeun ulang taun ka 60 na. Piring ieu, dilayanan ku katurunan ti [[Tangkal kulawarga Confucius dina garis katurunan utama | Kulawarga Confucius]] dina hajatan sareng pésta umur panjang, ngandung bahan-bahan anu "sadaya tuangeun anu mahal, ngeunah ti darat sareng laut, seger, lembut, sareng garing, pantes amis sareng asin".<ref>Hu (2005), p. 96.</ref> Pamakéan anu kasohor anu séjén nyaéta jamuan nagara anu diayakeun pikeun diplomat Amérika [[Henry Kissinger]] dina [[1972 kunjungan Nixon ka Cina | kunjungan ka Cina]] pikeun ngawangun deui [[hubungan Sino-Amérika | hubungan diplomatik]] dina awal taun 1970an.<ref name="Chang 04">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 343.</ref> Hiji sumber nyerat: "Éta supa ngagaduhan tékstur anu hipu sareng leuleus, seungit sareng pikaresepeun, wujudna seger, sareng karaos garing."<ref>Hu (2005), p. 110.</ref> Supa anu garing, biasa dijual di supermarket jeung pasar di [[Asia]], diolah ku jalan ngahidrasi atawa dikeueuman heula atanapi dibaseuhan dina cai dugi ka leuleus deui.<ref name="Halpern 2007"/> Sakapeung diasakan kujalan digoréng, remen dimangpaatkeun salaku campuran sop hayam.<ref name="Dunlop 2003"/> .<ref name="Newman 1999"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' parantos [[Fungiculture|cultivated]] dina skala komérsial di Cina ti saprak 1979.<ref name="Chang 04" /> Di [[Provinsi Fujian]] Cina - dipikaterang ku industri supa anu maju dugi ka ngokolakeun 45 spésiés supa anu tiasa didahar - "P. indusiatus '' dihasilkeun di [[County (Républik Rahayat Cina) | kabupatén]] [[Fuan]], [[Jianou]], sareng [[Ningde]].<ref name="Hu 2004"/> Kamajuan dina widang budidaya ieu parantos ngajantenkeun harga supa langkung mirah sareng hasil panén langkung seueur; taun 1998, kurang leuwih {{convert|1100|MT}} anu dihasilkeun ti Nagara China.<ref name="Hall p.19"/> Harga di Hong Kong sakilo sup garing ngahontal US&nbsp;$770 in 1982, tapi parantos turun ka US&nbsp;$100–200 by 1988. Ku majuna téhnologi nyababkeun éta harga ragrag langkung jauh ka US&nbsp;$10–20 by 2000.<ref name="Chang 04"/> Supa dipelak dina limbah tatanén — runtah-awi anu ditutupan ku lapisan ipis tina taneuh anu henteu disterilkeun. Suhu optimal pikeun tumuh supa [[spawn]] jeung awak buah kurang leuwih {{convert|24|C|F}}, kalayan kaayaan beueus/lembab/ [[humidity]] dina 90–95%.<ref name="Yang 1987"/> [[Substrat]] (biologi) anu tiasa dianggo pikeun ngokolakeun jamur kalebet daun awi sareng régangna, cangkang atanapi tangkal kadelé, tangkal jagong, sareng daun [[willow]].<ref name="Zhou 1989"/> Analisis gizi '' P. indusiatus '' nunjukkeun yén awak buah mibanda langkung ti 90% [[cai]], sakitar 6% fiber, 4,8% protéin, 4,7% fat/gajih, sareng sababaraha unsur [[mineral]], kalebet [[kalsium]], sanajan kitu komposisi [[mineral]] anu dipibanda tiasa gumantung kana konséntrasi anu pakait dina substrat mangsa hirupna.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sitinjak RR. |title=The Nutritional Content of the Mushroom ''Phallus indusiatus Vent.'', which Grows in the Cocoa Plantation, Gaperta-Ujung, Medan |journal=Der Pharma Chemica |year=2017 |volume=9 |issue=15 |pages=44–47 |url=https://www.derpharmachemica.com/pharma-chemica/the-nutritional-content-of-the-mushroom-phallus-indusiatus-vent-which-grows-in-the-cocoa-plantation-gapertaujung-medan.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Carita rakyat== Numutkeun ka étnomikologis [[R. Gordon Wasson]], ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ieu supa tos ilahar dikonsumsi di Méksiko [[divinatory]] dina hiji upacara alatan wujudna anu sugestif. Di nagara séjén, [[New Guinea]] pribumina nganggap ieu supa suci.<ref name="Spooner 1994"/> Di Nigeria, supa mangrupikeun salah sahiji sababaraha bau anu dibéré nami ''Akufodewa'' ku Urang Yoruba. Ngaranna diturunkeun tina gabungan basa [[Yoruba]] tina kecap ''ku'' ("die"), ''fun'' ("for"), ''ode'' ("tukang moro"), jeung ''wa'' ("milarian"), alatan tukang moro mangsa harita sok salah ngangseu bau- bau supa éta kawas bau sato udagan anu geus paéh.<ref name="Oso 1975"/> Yoruba parantos dilaporkeun nganggona ieu supa salaku hiji sarat pikeun [[Jampé]] sangkan mangsana moro henteu pinanggih jeung bahaya. Di bagian sanés Nigeria, aranjeunna parantos dianggo dina nyiapkeun pesona anu ngabahayakeun ku kelompok etnis sapertos urang Urhobo jeung [[Ibibio urang]]. [[Urang Igbo]] beulah wétan-tengah Nigeria disebut stinkhorn ''éró ḿma'', tina [[basa Igbo | Igbo]] kecap pikeun "supa" sareng "kageulisan".<ref name="Oso 1976"/> ==Pasipatan biologis== Sipat ubar parantos dipasihkeun ''Phallus indusiatus'' ti jaman [[Dynasty Tang]] di Cina, nalika éta dijelaskeun dina [[pharmacopoeia]]. Supa dianggo pikeun ngubaran seueur [[inflammation|peradangan | radang]], [[nyeri beuteung]], jeung [[neurological/ saraf. Tiongkok Kidul [[Urang Miao]] ngamangoaatkeun sacara tradisional pikeun sababaraha kasakit, kaasup raheut, [[batuk]], [[disentri]], [[enteritis]], [[leukemia]], kalawan parantos diresépkeun sacara klinis salaku ubar pikeun [[laringitis]], [[leucorrhea]], [[muriang]], sareng [[oliguria]] (hésé kahampangan), [[diare]], [[hipertensi]], batuk , [[hyperlipidemia]], sareng dina terapi antikanker.<ref name="Ker 2011"/> Élmu modéren parantos niténan ​​dasar biokimia tina kauntungan ubar putative ieu. Awak buah tina jamur ngandung [[kagiatan biologis | aktip sacara biologis]] [[polysaccharide]]s. A [[beta-glucan|β-<small>D</small>-glucan]] called T-5-N and prepared from [[alkaline]] extracts<ref name="Ukai 1982"/> has been shown to have [[anti-inflammatory]] properties.<ref name="Hara 1982"/> Struktur kimia na mangrupikeun ranté tulang tonggong anu linier anu seueur didamelna α-1→3 linked <small>D</small>-[[Mannose|mannopyranosyl]] residues, kalayan ngambah tina 1→6 linked <small>D</small>-mannopyrosyl residues.<ref name="Ukai 1980"/> Polisakarida ngagaduhan aktivitas penekanan ngalawan tumor (subcutaneously) implanted [[sarcoma]]&nbsp;180 (a transplantable, [[metastasis|non-metastasizing]] jaringan konéktif [[tumor]] sering dianggo dina panilitian) dina beurit.<ref name="Hara 1982"/><ref name="Ukai 1983"/> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural.png | alt1 = Chemical structure of Hydroxymethylfurfural | caption1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural inhibits the enzyme tyrosinase. | image2 = Albaflavenone.png | alt2 = Chemical structure of Albaflavenone | caption2 = Albaflavenone has antibiotic properties. }} Bahan kimia sanés dipikaresep ogé kapendak ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tayalian [[hydroxymethylfurfural]],<ref name="Sharma 2004"/> anu parantos narik perhatian salaku [[tyrosinase]] panghambat. Tyrosinase catalyzes léngkah awal tina [[melanogenesis]] dina mamalia, <ref name="Chang 2009"/><ref name="Sharma 2004"/> ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ogé ngandung [[ribonuclease]] unik (hiji [[énzim]] anu ngepak [[RNA]] kana komponén anu langkung alit) ngagaduhan sababaraha ciri biokimia anu ngabédakeun tina ribonuklease supa anu dipikaterang.<ref name="Wang 2003"/> Dua novel [[sesquiterpene]] s, [[dictyophorine]] A sareng B, parantos dikenalkeun tina awak buah jamur. Sanyawa ieu, dumasar kana kerangka eudesmane (struktur umum anu aya dina rasa tur parfum anu diturunkeun ku pepelakan), anu mimiti eudesmane [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] diisolasi tina jamur sareng dipendakan pikeun ngamajukeun sintésis [[faktor pertumbuhan saraf]] dina [[sél astroglial]] s.<ref name="Kawagishi 1997"/> Senyawa anu aya hubunganana anu diisolasi sareng diidentifikasi tina jamur kalebet tilu turunan [[quinazoline]] (kelas sanyawa anu jarang di alam), dictyoquinazol A, B, sareng C.<ref name="Lee 2002"/> Bahan kimia ieu ditingalikeun dina tés laboratorium ngagaduhan pangaruh pelindung kana [[sél budaya | berbudaya]] beurit [[neuron]] s anu parantos kakeunaan [[neurotoxin]] s.<ref name="Liu 2005"/>[[Total sintésis]] pikeun dictyoquinazols dilaporkeun dina 2007.<ref name="Oh 2007"/> Jamur parantos lami dipikaterang ngagaduhan sipat [[antibakteri]]: nambahkeun supa kana kuah sop dipikaterang pikeun nyegah sangkan teu ruksak sahenteuna pikeun sababaraha dinten.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Salah sahiji antibiotik anu tanggung jawab, [[albaflavenone]], diisolasi dina 2011. Éta mangrupikeun [[sesquiterpenoid]] anu parantos dipikaterang tina baktéri taneuh '[[Streptomyces albidoflavus]]''.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Ékspérimén nunjukkeun yén ekstrak 'P. indusiatus '' ngagaduhan [[antioksidan]] salian ti sipat [[antimikrobial]].<ref name="Mau 2002"/> Publikasi dina taun 2001 ''[[International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms]]'' diusahakeun pikeun nangtoskeun khasiatna salaku [[aphrodisiac]]. Dina parcobaan ngalibetkeun genep belas awéwé, genep urang ngalaporkeun cenah pangalaman tina syahwat hampang bari ngambeu awak buah, sareng sapuluh anu sanés, anu nampi dosis anu langkung alit, dilaporkeun diri ayana ngaronjat haté karasa leuwih janglar. Sadayana dua puluh lalaki anu diuji dianggap bau anu teu raoseun. Panilitianana ngagunakeun awak buah anu aya di Hawaii, sanés ragam anu tiasa didahar anu dibudidayakan di Cina.<ref name="Holliday 2001"/> Panilitian parantos nampi kritik. Hiji cara pikeun ngahontal orgasme instan bakal dipiharep bakal langkung perhatian sareng seueur usaha pikeun baranahan pangaruhna, tapi teu aya anu hasil. Teu aya jurnal ilmiah utama anu nerbitkeun panilitian, sareng teu aya panilitian anu hasilna parantos diréproduksi.<ref>[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ Expedition Ecstasy: Sniffing Out The Truth About Hawai‘i’s Orgasm-Inducing Mushroom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025222119/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ |date=2019-10-25 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencealert.com/can-a-rare-hawaiian-mushroom-really-give-women-a-spontaneous-orgasm Can a Rare Hawaiian Mushroom Really Give Women a "Spontaneous Orgasm"?]</ref> ==Dicutat tina== ===Catetan=== {{Reflist|group=N}} ===Béréndélan cutatan=== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="Anonymous 1800">{{cite journal |title=XXVII. A dissertation on the genus ''Phallus'', by M. 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Fungi collected in British Guiana, chiefly by the Oxford University Expedition, 1929 |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Gardens, Kew) |volume=1934 |issue=6 |year=1934 |author=Wakefield E. |pages=238–58 |jstor=4115405 |doi=10.2307/4115405}}</ref> <ref name="Wang 2003">{{cite journal |title=A novel ribonuclease from the veiled lady mushroom ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biochemistry-and-cell-biology_2003-12_81_6/page/373 |journal=Biochemistry and Cell Biology |year=2003 |volume=81 |issue=6 |vauthors=Wang H, Ng TB |pages=373–7 |doi=10.1139/O03-067 |pmid=14663503}}</ref> <ref name="Yang 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Yang QY, Jong SC |year=1987 |chapter=Artificial cultivation of the veiled lady mushroom, ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |veditors=Wuest PJ, Royse DJ, Beelman RB |title=Cultivating Edible Fungi: International Symposium on Scientific and Technical Aspects of Cultivating Edible Fungi (IMS 86), July 15–17, 1986 |publisher=Elsevier Science Publishers |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |series=Developments in Crop Science, '''10''' |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 437–42] |isbn=0-444-42747-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 }}</ref> <ref name="Ying 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Ying J, Mao X, Ma Q, Zong Y, Wen H |title=Icones of Medicinal Fungi from China |year=1987 |publisher=Science Press |location=Beijing, China |page=471}}</ref> <ref name="Zeng 1988">{{cite journal |title=A thermophilic delicious 'veiled lady'&nbsp;– ''Dictyophora echino-volvata'' Zang, Zheng & Hu [Abstract] |journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1988 |volume=4 |pages=5–6 |vauthors=Zeng DR, Hu ZX, Zhou CL |language=zh}}</ref> <ref name="Zhou 1989">{{cite journal |title=Initial research on the rapid cultivation of ''Dictyophora indusiata'' [Abstract] | journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1989 |volume=1 |vauthors=Zhou FL, Qiao CS |pages=17–8 |language=zh}}</ref> }} ===Baca ogé === *{{cite book |vauthors=((Chang S-T)), Miles PG |chapter=''Dictyophora'', formerly for the few |title=Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile |url-access=limited |edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-1043-1 |doi=10.1201/9780203492086.ch18 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile/page/n367 343]–56}} *{{cite book |author=Hall IR. |title=Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/ediblepoisonousm0000unse |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |year=2003 |isbn=0-88192-586-1}} *{{cite report |title=Chinese food culture and mushroom |author=Hu D. |year=2005 |publisher=[[Wageningen University and Research Centre]], Agricultural Economics Research Institute, LEI BV |location=Wageningen, Netherlands |url=http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314155240/http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf |date=2012-03-14 }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category|Phallus indusiatus}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50xqP38f36U YouTube] Time-lapse video of ''P. indusiatus'' growth {{featured article}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q2701671}} [[Kategori :Sayuran]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori :suung]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan sup]] 08bj1x66x5ymw48oiat12qts6uresfd World Trade Organization 0 104192 732186 708624 2026-11-11T04:05:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info organisasi |name = {{nowrap|World Trade Organization <small>{{en icon}}</small><br />Organisation mondiale du commerce <small>{{fr icon}}</small><br />Organización Mundial del Comercio <small>{{es icon}}<br/>Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia <small>{{id icon}}</small>}} |image = World Trade Organization (logo and wordmark).svg |caption = Logo resmi WTO |map = WTO members and observers.svg |mcaption = <div style="text-align:left;">{{legend|#008000|Anggota}} {{legend|#0174DF|Anggota WTO sekaligus anggota Uni Eropa}} {{legend|#eeee00|Pengamat}} {{legend|#ff1111|Bukan anggota}}</div> ---- |type = [[Organisasi internasional]] |abbreviation = WTO, OMC |purpose = Ngurangan ''tarif'' jeung hambatan dagangan lianna |headquarters = [[Centre William Rappard]], [[Jenewa]], [[Swiss]] |membership = 164 anggota (2016){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=113}} |language = [[Bahasa Inggris|Inggris]], [[Bahasa Prancis|Prancis]], [[Bahasa Spanyol|Spanyol]]{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=281}} |leader_title = [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] |leader_name = [[Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala]] |formation = {{start date and age|1995|01|01|df=y}} |budget = 197 juta [[franc Swiss]] (2016){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=157}} |website = {{url|http://www.wto.org/}} }} '''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia''' ({{lang-en|World Trade Organization}}, disingkét '''WTO''') nyaéta hiji [[organisasi internasional]] anu mayungan usaha pikeun ngaliberalisasi usaha dagang. Organisasi ieu nyadiakeun aturan-aturan dasar dina enggoning ngalaksanakeun hubungan [[dagang]] internasional, jadi wadah padungdengan konsési jeung ''komitmen'' dagang pikeun anggotana, ogé méré bantuan ka anggota-anggotana dina ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan dagang ngaliwatan hiji mékanisme anu ngabeungkeut sacara hukum. Organisasi ieu diadegkeun kaping [[1 Januari]] [[1995]] kalawan mibanda tujuan pikeun nurunkeun ''tarif'' jeung halangan dagangan séjén, anu dipiharep baris majukeun ékonomi jeung ngaronjatkeun kahirupan masarakat. Saméméh ngadegna ''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia'' ieu aya hiji anu disebut ''Perjanjian Umum Tarif dan Perdagangan'' anu ditetepkeun dina taun 1947. Saméméhna usaha pikeun ngadegkeun hiji ''[[Organisasi Perdagangan Internasional]] '' teu tulus ku ayana panampik ti [[Kongres Amérika Serikat]] pikeun ngaratifikasi [[Piagam Havana]], kasaluyuan éta jadi mangrupa hiji lembaga ''[[ad hoc]]'' kalayan dipaké "saheulaanan" salila 47 taun. ''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia'' ngaganti ieu kasaluyuan sabada dilarapkeunna ''[[Persetujuan Marrakesh]]'' anu ogé nambahkeun kasaluyuan-kasaluyuan utama anu ngatur hubungan dagangan internasional, kaasup kasaluyuan umum ''tarif'' jeung hubungan dagang 1994 anu ngagantikeun kasaluyuan tahun 1947. Kitu. WTO markasna di [[Jenéwa]], [[Swiss]]. Dina taun 2016, organisasi ieu mibanda 164 nagara anggota jeung [[wilayah kapabéanan]] anu ngaréksa 99,5% populasi dunya ogé 98% dagangan di dunya. Sakabéh anggota WTO diwajibkeun milu kana aturan-aturan dasar anu geus ditetepkeun dina kasaluyuan ''Persetujuan Marrakesh''. Salah sahiji aturan éta tayalian "[[hiji perlakuan anu sami pikeun sadaya anggota]]", anu hartosna dimana aya kaistiméwaan anu dibikeun ku hiji anggota WTO ka anggota WTO séjén ieu téh kudu dibikeun ogé ka sakabéh anggota WTO. Selian ti kitu, dumasar aturan "''perlakuan nasional''", anggota WTO kudu méré aturan anu sarua ka produk asing anu geus aya dina pasar doméstikna sakumahakana barang anu sarua hasil produksi nagarana diperlakukeun di nagarana. Samentawis kitu, dua badan anu boga wewenang ngaluarkeun putusan utama di WTO tayalian Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum. Sakur anggota WTO nyokot kaputusan dumasar kana konsénsus, tapi umpama konsénsus henteu kapanggih, kaputusan baris dicokot ngaliwatan Mékanisme pangumpulan sora. Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia ogé mibanda ''sistem'' dina ngaréngsékeun hiji perkara atawa pacéngkadan anu ngabeungkeut sacara hukum. Perkara dagang anu dirandapan ku hiji anggota jeung anggota liangna mimitina dibawa heula ka ''panel'' anu dijieun husus pikeun ngaréngsékeun éta perkara. Pihak anu henteu sapagodos jeung kaputusan Panél bisa mawa perkarana ka [[Badan Banding]]. Ku ayana ieu WTO geus hasil ngurangan tarif jeung halangan dina hubungan dagang séjénna, jeung ieu kaberhasilan disebutkeun tos ngaronjatkeun kamekaran ékonomi, nurunkeun angka kamiskinan, katut nurunkeun harga. Ngan, ieu organisasi ogé menang kiritikan alatan dianggap kurang maliré kapentingan-kapentingan masyarakat lianna, ieu ogé dicap henteu démokratis, utamana balukar kurangna ngalibetkeun ''[[lembaga swadaya masyarakat]]'' jeung katimpangan kakuatan antawis nagara maju sareng nagara berkembang. == Sajarah == Diadegkeunna sistem dagang modérn ieu didadasaran ku pangalaman mangsa [[perang]], nalika nagara-nagara néangan cara geusan ngoméan kaayaan ékonomi maranéhna kujalan ngalarapkeun hiji kawijakan anu engkéna baris ngabalukarkeun goréng pikeun nagara séjén, saperti [[protéktionisme]], [[dévaluasi]] ''mata uang'', jeung kadali modal. Contona saperti [[Undang-Undang Smoot-Hawley]] taun 1930 di [[Amérika Sérikat]] anu naékuen tarif ti 38% ngajadi 52%. Balukar tina ditetepkeun undang-undang ini, mitra-mitra dagang Amérika Serikat ogé nyokot tindakan balesan. Saterusna nimbulkeun [[éfék domino]] sabada widang dagang ieu mimiti ngagésér ka pasar lian, antukna nagara anu jadi pasar anyar ieu ogé tuluy nyokot tindakan proteksionisme, anu tungtungna mah kalahka silih bales. Sabada réngséna [[Perang Dunia II]], loba nagara-nagara miharep sangkan kejadian seperti ieu henteu ka sorang deui, nya ku hal ieu maranéhna ngupayakeun ngadegkeun organisasi-organisasi internasional anu bisa jadi pameuntasan tur jalan kaluar tina masalah tadi.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Kukituna digelar waé [[Konférénsi Bretton Woods]] dina [[Juli]] 1944 anu jadi dadasar diadegkeun [[Dana Monétér Internasional]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]], [[Konférénsi Dumbarton Oaks]] dina [[Agustus]] -[[Oktober]] 1944 anu akhirna diadegkeun ''[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]'', sarta [[Konférénsi Havana]] ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Kesempetan ''Kerja'' dina [[Novémber]] 1947-[[Maret]] 1948 anu ngahasilkeun [[Piagam Havana]].{{sfn|VanGrasstek|2013|pp=43}} Ieu Piagam mangrupakeun rarancang hukum pikeun hiji lembaga internasional anu bisa ngurus widang dagang unggal nagara, tayalian ''[[Organisasi Perdagangan Internasional]]'' ({{lang-en|International Trade Organization}}, disingkét ITO).{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}}Ieu Piagam ngatur rupa-rupa hal, saperti netepkeun asas ''[[perlakuan yang sama untuk semua anggota]]'' ({{lang-en|most favoured nation}}, disingket MFN) teu aya syarat ka sakabéh nagara anggota sarta nyieun prosedur pikeun ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan.{{sfn|VanGrasstek|2013|pp=44}} Kalayan ieu, para pangadegna miharep bisa ngurangan halangan kana widang dagang baris ngaronjatkeun hasil jeung beubeunangan ogé ngaleupaskeun ''konflik'' pulitik atawa pacéngkadan dagang anu dipikasieun bisa ngabalukarkeun nyeungeut deui ''konflik'' anyar anu leuwih gedé.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Sawatara éta , di ''[[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]]'', [[New York]], dina awal taun 1947, ditetepkeun ''[[Perjanjian Umum Tarif dan Perdagangan]]'' ({{lang-en|General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade}}, disingket GATT) anu mangrupikeun hasil tina babalagempagan ti 23 nagara (12 nagara maju jeung 11 nagara ''berkembang'').{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Kasapukan ieu mimiti lumaku dina tanggal 1 [[Januari]] 1948 pikeun sawatara waktu bari nungguan diresmikeunna Piagam Havana.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=8}} Ngan, [[Kongrés Amérika Serikat]] nolak ngaratifikasi Piagam Havana alatan maranéhna ngarasa ITO baris ngawatesan kadaulatan Amérika Serikat.{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=9}} salaku hasilna, dina kaping 6 Désémber 1950, Presidén [[Harry Truman]] nembrakeun yén pamaréntah Amérika Serikat moal ngaratifikasi Piagam Havana,{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=9}} padahalmah aubna Amérika Serikat dijero pibakaleun organisasi ieu diréken kacida perlukeunna pikeun kalumangsungan organisasi ieu.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=2}} Kukituna upaya pikeun ngadegkeun ITO tinemu jalan buntu, jeung alhasil GATT mibanda sajarah anu unik alatan kasapukan dilakukeun "sawatara waktu" salila 47 tahun. Sanajan GATT tayalian janji anu sipatna paheut tur ''substansif'' katut henteu aya urusan jeung ngadegna hiji lambaga husus, lalaunan GATT mimiti mekar ngajadi hiji lembaga internasionaln anu mandiri. Nagara-nagara anu jadi anggotana satékah polah ngajawab sagala rupa-rupa masalah ''institusional'' anu aya kalawan ngaréngsékeun maké cara ''[[ad hoc]]'', kaasup nalika nyokot hiji putusan dumasar kana [[konsénsus]]. Alhasil, sanajan GATT sacara resmi henteu ngadegkeun hiji organisasi dagang internasional, nagara-nagara anu geus ngaratifikasi parjangjian ieu lumaku saperti maranéhna kabeungkeut kajero hiji lembaga internasional.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=8}} GATT ogé jadi tatapakan pikeun ngayakeun dalapan kali padungdengan ngeunaan usaha dina widang dagang ''multilateral'' anu diayakeun dina waktu anu geus ditangtukeun pikeun ngurangan ''tarif'' jeung halangan dina usaha dagang lianna. Padungdengan/putaran ngalimpudan [[''Putaran'' Jenéwa 1947]], [[Putaran Annecy]] 1949, [[''Putaran'' Torquay]] 1950, [[Putaran Jenéwa 1956]], [[''Putaran'' Dillon]] 1960–61, [[Putaran Kennedy]] 1962–67, [[''Putaran'' Tokyo]] 1973–79, jeung [[Putaran Uruguay]] taun 1986–94.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=9}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Putaran GATT !! Tahun !! Jumlah nagara anu milu |- | [[Jenéwa]] | 1947 | 19 |- | [[Annecy]] | 1949 | 27 |- | [[Torquay]] | 1950 | 33 |- | [[Jenéwa]] | 1956 | 36 |- | [[Dillon]] | 1960–61 | 43 |- | [[Kennedy]] | 1962–67 | 74 |- | [[Tokyo]] | 1973–79 | 85 |- | [[Uruguay]] | 1986–94 | 128 |- | colspan = "3" | Sumber: {{harvnb|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007}}{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=9}} |} [[File:Marrakesh Agreement April 1994 (9305978663).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Panandatanganan Parsatujuan Marrakesh dina kaping 15 April 1994.]] [[File :20110418sgd03-51 (11201047646).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri ka salapan di Bali, Indonesia, dina taun 2013.]] Sateuacan Putaran Kennedy, Nagara-nagara museurkeun perhatianna kana upaya ngurangan halangan dina widang dagang salah sahijna ''tarif''. Ngan, tisaprak ''putaran'' ieu, maranéhna ogé mitembeyan dipagunemkeun ngeunaan ngurangan halangan séjén/''[[hambatan non-tarif]]'', contona tayalian parundingan pasatujuan dina ngurangan halangan Téknis dina dagang dina Putaran Tokyo jeung paguneman ngeunaan kasapukan ieu jeung parundingan [[Perjanjian tentang Penerapan Tindakan Sanitari dan Fitosanitari]] dina Putaran Uruguay. Sagigireun éta, dina ''Putaran Uruguay'', ''isu'' ngeunaan [[kekayaan intelektual]] jeung [[jasa|dagangan jasa]] ogé jadi bahan paguneman.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=12}} Ti kawit dikawitanna Putaran Uruguay, sakumna anu ngayakeun padungdengan téh geus nepi kana hiji kasadaran yén maranéhna mikabutuh hiji mékanisme kalembagaan jeung sistem pikeun ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan anu lewih hadé. Salah sahiji pokok anu dipadungdengkeun salila Putaran ieu tayalian "berfungsinya sistem GATT" ({{lang-en|functioning of the GATT system}}, disingkat FOGS). Loba nagara anu hayang nyingkahan masalah anu tumiba salila Putaran Tokyo, kayaning bijilna "kasapukan - kasapukan anu teu di agéndakeun"{{efn|Contona adalah Perjanjian tentang Hambatan Teknis Perdagangan hasil perundingan Putaran Tokyo. Awalnya perjanjian ini bersifat "plurilateral", atau dalam kata lain, negara dapat memilih untuk ikut dengan perjanjian ini atau tidak. Ngan, tisaprak kaberhasilan Putaran Uruguay, kasapukan ieu kiwari geus jadi hiji kasapukan multilateral. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, lihat {{harvnb|Macrory, Appleton & Plummer|2005|pp=376}}.}} anu ngan ngawengku pikeun nagara anggota GATT anu sadia milu kana kasapukan éta ''(permasalahan ini disebut "''GATT [[à la carte]]''").'' Ku alatan éta pisan, sakumna anu babalagempagan di GATT sadia ngajadikeun aguneman FOGS dina Putaran Uruguay salaku kasempatan pikeun ngadegkeun hiji organisasi dagang di tingkat global.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=9-10}} Salajengna, dina enggoning rarancang katetepan akhir Putaran Uruguay anu dikaluarkeun dina taun 1991, mibanda hiji usulan pikeun ngadegkeun "Organisasi Dagang Multilateral". Ngaran anu diusulkeun satuluyna dirobah jadi "''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia''". Kasapukan-kasapukan tina hasil Putaran Uruguay lajeng dihijikeun ka jero hiji kasapukan anu ngajadi rangkai pibakaleun ieu lembaga, tayalian [[Persetujuan Marrakesh]] (ogé disebut "''Perjanjian WTO''"), kaasup di jerona téh Perjanjian GATT 1994 anu ngagantikeun GATT 1947 sarta Kasapukan-kasapukan tambahan anu geus dipadungdengkeun saméméhna. Parjangjian WTO geus bisa ditandatangani dina kaping 15 April 1994. Kasapukan ieu sorangan mimiti lumaku dina kaping 1 Januari 1995, antukna ieu tanggal disebut tanggal resmi ngadegna Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=10-11}} Dina Novémber 2001, anggota-anggota WTO anu gempungan salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kaompat di [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], mutuskeun pikeun ngamimitian puteran paguneman anyar anu disebut ''[[Putaran Pembangunan Doha]].'' Pokok bahasan tina ieu paguneman aya rupa-rupa, saperti tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk anu lain ti tatanén, ''fasilitasi perdagangan'', ''revisi'' aturan WTO, jeung ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan. Sagigireun éta, putaran pembangunan ieu ogé kacida gedé tinimbangna kana pangabutuh nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar jeung kauntungan anu bisa kapibanda ku maranéhna tina ieu usaha dagang.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Ngan baé, sakumna anggota henteu bisa manggihan hiji kasapukan ngeunaan dina rupa-rupa hal ieu. Salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kalima di [[Cancún]], [[Meksiko]], dina taun 2003, ngaliwatan babalagempagan nagara-nagara berkembang nolak ngeunaan "''isu-isu'' Singapura", tayalian ''isu-isu'' anu aya patalina jeung kawijakan ''kompetisi'', ''invéstasi'', ''transparansi'' sajeroeun proyék ''pengadaan pamarentah'', jeung ''fasilitasi'' dagang.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=5}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Dina waktu nu sarua, nagara-nagara maju ogé nampik kana pamotongan subsidi tatanén, padahal nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' ngarasa kacida dirugikeun ku ayana subsidi ieu alatan ngaruksak ''daya saing'' produk maranéhna. Pacéngkadan ieu ngabalukarkeun Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Cancún teuaya kasapukan jeung pinanggih jalan buntu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=94-95}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Ieu jalan buntu lumangsung saheulaanan nepika pertengahan taun 2004 sabada Program Kerja Doha anu anyar ditetepkeun ku Déwan Umum WTO dina kaping 1 Agustus 2004, tur salah, sahiji kaputusan pangpentingna anu geus dicokot ku dewan ieu tayalian kaputusan pikeun henteu nyoba mitembeyan parundingan ngeunaan ''isu-isu'' Singapura. Salajengna, dina Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri kagenep di [[Hong Kong]] dina Désémber 2005, anggota WTO sapuk pikeun mupus subsidi ékspor tatanén saméméh taun 2013. Ngan, anggota WTO sama sakali henteu bisa ngaréngsékeun rupi-rupi masalah séjén, saperti aksés pasar pikeun produk tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk non-tatanén, jeung liberalisasi widang dagang jasa. Antukna, dina akhir [[Juli]] 2006, [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] WTO mangsa éta, [[Pascal Lamy]], mutuskeun pikeun nunda saheulaanan Putaran Perundingan Doha.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=95}} Sabada éta, loba padungdengan anu dilakukepikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu leuwih leutik ogé henteu ngabuahkeun hasil,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=97}} antukna Pascal Lamy ngabiantarakeun dina tanggal 31 Méi 2011 yen Putaran Pembangunan Doha geus "pareum".{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Samajan kitu, salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kasalapan di [[Bali]], [[Indonésia]], dina Désémber 2013, anggota-anggota WTO hasil meunang kasapukan anu katélah "[[Paket Bali]]", jeung parjanjian anu paling penting anun ngajadi bagéan tuna "paket" ieu tayalian [[Perjanjian Fasilitasi Perdagangan]] anu dimaksudkeun pikeun nyederhanakeun prosedur pabéan, ngaronjatkeun kaéfisiénan jeung prosedur anu leuwih gancang, sarta ngurangan biaya ikeun ''prosedur'' kapabéanan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=27}} Rupa-rupa, saperti tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk anu lain ti tatanén, ''fasilitasi perdagangan'', ''revisi'' aturan WTO, jeung ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan. Sagigireun éta, putaran pembangunan ieu ogé kacida gedé tinimbangna kana pangabutuh nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar jeung kauntungan anu bisa kapibanda ku maranéhna tina ieu usaha dagang.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Ngan baé, sakumna anggota henteu bisa manggihan hiji kasapukan ngeunaan dina rupa-rupa hal ieu. Salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kalima di [[Cancún]], [[Meksiko]], dina taun 2003, ngaliwatan babalagempagan nagara-nagara berkembang nolak ngeunaan "''isu-isu'' Singapura", tayalian ''isu-isu'' anu aya patalina jeung kawijakan ''kompetisi'', ''invéstasi'', ''transparansi'' sajeroeun proyék ''pengadaan pamarentah'', jeung ''fasilitasi'' dagang.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=5}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Dina waktu nu sarua, nagara-nagara maju ogé nampik kana pamotongan subsidi tatanén, padahal nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' ngarasa kacida dirugikeun ku ayana subsidi ieu alatan ngaruksak ''daya saing'' produk maranéhna. Pacéngkadan ieu ngabalukarkeun Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Cancún teuaya kasapukan jeung pinanggih jalan buntu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=94-95}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Ieu jalan buntu lumangsung saheulaanan nepika pertengahan taun 2004 sabada Program Kerja Doha anu anyar ditetepkeun ku Déwan Umum WTO dina kaping 1 Agustus 2004, tur salah, sahiji kaputusan pangpentingna anu geus dicokot ku dewan ieu tayalian kaputusan pikeun henteu nyoba mitembeyan parundingan ngeunaan ''isu-isu'' Singapura. Salajengna, dina Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri kagenep di [[Hong Kong]] dina Désémber 2005, anggota WTO sapuk pikeun mupus subsidi ékspor tatanén saméméh taun 2013. Ngan, anggota WTO sama sakali henteu bisa ngaréngsékeun rupi-rupi masalah séjén, saperti aksés pasar pikeun produk tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk non-tatanén, jeung liberalisasi widang dagang jasa. Antukna, dina akhir [[Juli]] 2006, [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] WTO mangsa éta, [[Pascal Lamy]], mutuskeun pikeun nunda saheulaanan Putaran Perundingan Doha.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=95}} Sabada éta, loba padungdengan anu dilakukepikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu leuwih leutik ogé henteu ngabuahkeun hasil,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=97}} antukna Pascal Lamy ngabiantarakeun dina tanggal 31 Méi 2011 yen Putaran Pembangunan Doha geus "pareum".{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Samajan kitu, salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kasalapan di [[Bali]], [[Indonésia]], dina Désémber 2013, anggota-anggota WTO hasil meunang kasapukan anu katélah "[[Paket Bali]]", jeung parjanjian anu paling penting anun ngajadi bagéan tuna "paket" ieu tayalian [[Perjanjian Fasilitasi Perdagangan]] anu dimaksudkeun pikeun nyederhanakeun prosedur pabéan, ngaronjatkeun kaéfisiénan jeung prosedur anu leuwih gancang, sarta ngurangan biaya ikeun ''prosedur'' kapabéanan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=27}} == Logika ékonomi ==<!-- [[File:Ricardo example of comparative advantage.svg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Grafik anu ngagambarkan konsép kaunggulan komparatif. Dina skénario I (wajik), unggal nagara méakeun 3.600 jam pikeun nyieun pakéan jeung anggur. Dina skénario I (persegi), setiap negara berfokus pada keunggulan komparatifnya, sehingga jumlah barang yang dihasilkan lebih besar.]]--> {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote="Tukang ngaput henteu nyieun sapatuna sorangan, tapi meuli ti tukang nyieun sapatu. Tukang nyieun sapatu ogé henteu nyoba nyieun bajuna sorangan, sabalikna ngandelkeun tukang ngaput. Kitu deui patani henteu nyieun duanana, tapi ngamangpaatkeun hasil gawé kaduanana."|salign=right |source=— Ekonom [[Skotlandia]] [[Adam Smith]].{{sfn|Lowenfeld|2008|p=4}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=19-20}}}} WTO dina pada dasarna diadegkeun kalawan logika ékonomi yén ''[[perdagangan bebas]]'' baris nguatkeun ékonomi tur nguntungkeun masyarakat kujalan ngamangpaatkeun kaunggulan ''komparatif'' ti nagara séwang-séwangan. Inohong anu paling kawéntar salaku anu miboga téori kaunggulan komparatif ieu tayalian [[David Ricardo]]. Salaku conto, umpama nagara A téh ngahasilkeun béas panghadéna kitu deui nagara B salaku produsén laptop anu pang alusna, jelas didieu duana baris leuwih untung umpama A ngahususkeun manéh kana béas, B ngahususkeun manéh nyieun laptop, anu salajengna duanana tiasa silih jual beuli, tinimbang A ngaluarkeun sumber dayana kanggo ngaproduksi laptop sakalian béas secara mandiri, padahal éta nagara henteu bisaeun nyieun laptop sacara éfisién. Ngan, masalahna baris kapanggih dimana ieu nagara A leuewih hébat dina nyieun sagala rupana tibatan nagara B. Sanajan kitu, Ricardo maké conto anu sederhana pikeun némbongkeun yén dina kaayaan kawas kitu, usaha dagang bébas masih angger bisa ngadatangkeun kauntungan ka kadua pihak. Bayangkeun [[Karajaan Britania Raya]] téh nagara anu bisa ngaproduksi botol [[wine|anggur]] anu dipigawé ku 120 orang, sawatara éta [[Kerajaan Portugal]] bisa ngaproduksi jumlah anu sarua kalayan dipigawé ngan ku 80 urang pagawé. Dina waktu anu sarua, Britania Raya bisa ngahasilkeun pakaian dina jumlah anu tangtu ku 100 urang pagawé, sawatara éta dina jumlah anu sarua, Portugal mikabutuh 90 pagawé.{{sfn|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012|p=3}} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" | Pagawé anu dipikabutuh|- ! {{diagonal split header|Negara|Barang}} ! scope="col" | Pakaian ! scope="col" | Anggur |- ! scope="row" | Britania Raya |100 |120 |- ! scope="row" | Portugal |90 |80 |} Sanajan Portugal mibanda kaunggulan mutlak Ti Britania Raya dina nyieun pakéan jeung botol anggur, numutkeun Ricardo, usaha dagang baris tetep nguntungkeun pikeun duanana. Lamun téa Britania Raya mutuskeun pikeun nyieun pakéan kalawan ngagunakeun pagawé 100 sarta nga ékspor ka Portugal pikeun meunang botol anggur anu dihasilkeun ku 80 patani Portugal, Britania Raya baris diuntungkeun alatan pikeun nyieun botol anggur sorangan, maranéhna mikabutuh 120 pagawé. Portugal ogé diuntungkeun, alatan lamun seug ngerahkeun 90 pagawé pikeun nyieun pakéan, maranehna bisa meuli ti Britania Raya anu ngan ngagawékeun 80 urang pikeun ngaproduksi botol anggur.{{sfn|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012|p=3}} Modél Ricardo ieu mangrupakeun hasil Ringkesan tina hiji ''asumsi'' yén biaya jeung harga lumaku tetep, tapi najan kitu sakumna ékonom modérn geus ngamutakhirkeu téori Ricardo jeung nyaluyukeun jeung kanyataan dina ékonomi modérn. Contona waé [[model Heckscher–Ohlin]] anu geus manggihan yén hiji nagara baris ngékspor barang anu mibanda ''faktor'' ''produksi'' murah jeung loba di nagarana tur ngimpor barang kalawan ''faktor produksi'' anu langka di nagarana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=20-21}}{{sfn|Lowenfeld|2008|pp=6-7}} Kukituna, dina enggoning dagang bébas dianggap penting pikeun kamajuan ékonomi, lantaran dimana nagara ngahususkeun manéh dina kaunggulan ''komparatif'', modal jeung tanaga pagawé bisa leuwih éfisién, jeung ''produktivitas'' ogé baris ngaronjat tur bisa ngarojong kana ngaronjatna [[pertumbuhan ekonomi]] .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=20-24}} Halangan dina widang usaha dagang kawas ''tarif'' jeung ''kuota'' bisa ngorotan kauntungan malahan bisa nepika teu kabagéan bati, kulantaran ieu anggota-anggota WTO ngayakeun usaha pikeun ngamajukeun ékonomi kujalan ngurangan panghalang-panghalang éta.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=23}} Salaku contoh, numutkeun laporan anu disusun ku Kantor Éksekutif Présidén Amérika Serikat, ngurangan tarif di Amérika Serikat tisaprak Perang Dunia II geus nambahan [[produk domestik bruto]] ka nagara 7,3% atawa kurang leuwih $1,3 triliun dina taun 2014.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=21}} Sagigireun éta, usaha dagang bébas dipercaya ogé baris ngurangan kamiskinan ogé nambahan lapangan pagawéan, utamana jeung dibukana pasar anyar pikeun ngajual barang jeung jasa ka luar negeri, jeung kauntungan lian tina paraturan dagang bebas tayalian harga anu leuwih murah jeung pilihan anu leuwih banyak pikeun konsumen alatan geus henteu aya deui tarip atawa halangan anu ngagokan barang anapon jasa ti luar negeri.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=22-23}} == Tujuan jeung kagunaan== Tujuan diadegkeunana WTO dijabarkeun dina mukadimah Kasapukan WTO, tayalian pikeun ngaronjatkeun taraf hirup, ngawujudkeun [[lapangan pagawéan]], nambahan [[pendapatan nyata]] jeung [[permintaan dan penawaran|permintaan]], katut ngaronjatkeun produksi jeung pardagangan barang jeung jasa. Mukadimah kasapukan ieu ogé nambahkeun yén sagala upaya pikeun ngawujudkeun harepan ieu kudu merhatikeun kana kalestarian lingkungan jeung kabutuhan nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=88}} Sagigireun éta, mukadimah ieu milu negeskeun pentingna [[pembangunan berkelanjutan]] (pangwangunan anu ogé mempertimbangkan aspék sosial jeung lingkungan hirup) sarta integrasi nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar utamana (terutama [[negara terbelakang|nagara-nagara anu katinggaleun]]) kalawan sistem dagang sadunya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=88-89}} Numutkeun pakar hukum dagang asal [[Belgia]], [[Peter Van den Bossche]], mukadimah ieu membantah kayakinan yén WTO ngan ngutamakeun kana ''liberalisasi'' widang dagang sarta henteu maliré kana isu kamiskinan, karusakan lingkungan, jeung pangwangunan anu ''berkelanjutan''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=89}} Dijero mukadimah anu sarua, disebutkeun yén tujuan-tujuan ieu bisa kahontal kujalan nurunkeun tarif jeung halangan dina widang dagang lianna sarta kujalan ngaleungitkeun sagala tindakan ''diskriminatif'' enggoning hubungan dagang internasional. Sawatara éta, sahubungan jeung résiko hukum tina prakna ngalaksanakeun tujuan WTO dijero mukadimah kasapukan WTO, ''[[Badan Banding]]'' dijero perkara ''US–Shrimp'' mertélakeun yén bahasa anu dipaké dina mukadimah ieu ngébréhkeun iktikad ti anu milu gempungan kasapukan WTO, matakna eusi mukadimah ieu milu "méré wanda" dina napsirkeum ieu si-eusi kasapukan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=89}} Sacara umum, WTO scara umum mibanda kagunaan kawas anu dijabarkeun dina Pasal II:1 Kasapukan WTO tayalian pikeun nyadiakeun "rarancang ''lembaga'' Babarengan " anu ngawadahan hubungan dagang unggal anggota WTO. Pasal III Kasapukan WTO satuluyna mertélakeun kagunaan-kagunaan husus, tayalian pikeun ngarojong prakna ngajalankeun kasapukan-kasapukan anu di lampirkeun jeroeun kasapukan WTO, pikeun nyadiakeun wadah parundingan kasapukan dagang anu anyar, pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[kasaluyuan ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan]] anu eusina ngeunaan ''prosedur'' cara ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan, pikeun ngalaksanakeun Mékanisme ''Peninjauan Kebijakan Perdagangan'', sarta pikeun gawé bareng jeung ''[[Dana Moneter Internasional]]'' katut [[Bank Dunia]] sangkan kawijakan ékonomi global bisa ngajadi leuwih ''kohéren''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=90}}{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=11-12}} == Parjangjian-parjangjian WTO == Parjangjian utama anu ngadadasaran lembaga WTO tayalian ''[[Persetujuan Marrakesh]]'' atawa ''"Perjanjian WTO"''. Parjangjian ieu sorangan sabenarna mangrupa parjangjian singket anu ngan dieusi ku 16 pasal, ngan waé mibanda kasapukan-kasapukan lian anu jéntré dilampirkeun jeroeun kasapukanieu. Dumasar Pasal II Kasapukan WTO, kasapukan-kasapukan jeung instrumén -instrumén hukum anu disebutkeun di jero Lampiran 1, 2, jeung 3 (disebut "Perjanjian Dagang Multilateral") mangrupakeun bagian anu teu bisa di pisahkeun tina Kasapukan WTO jeung meungkeut ka sakabéh anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=43}} Samentara éta, kasapukan-kasapukan jeung instrumén -instrumén hukum anu disebutkeun sajeroeun Lampiran 4 (disebut ''"Perjanjian Dagang Plurilateral"'') ogé mangrupakeun bagéan tina Parjangjian WTO jeung ngan lumaku pikeun anggota anu geus narima kasapukan éta.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44}} Lampiran 1A mibanda ''perjanjian-perjanjian multilateral'' anu ngatur widang dagang barang, tayalian:{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=45-48}} # [[Parjangjian Umum ''Tarif'' jeung Perdagangan]] 1994, kaasup dijerona tayalian GATT 1947 jeung instrumén-instrumén hukum anu lumaku luyu jeung GATT 1947 Saméméh lumaku na Parjanjian WTO (contona sértifikasi konsési ''tarif'') # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan tatanén]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan prakna Tindakan ''Sanitari'' jeung ''Fitosanitari'']] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tékstil jeung Pakéan ]] (geus lumaku ti kawit 1 Januari 2005){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=47}} # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan halangan Téknis widang dagang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tindakan-Tindakan Invéstasi anu aya patalina jeung dagang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katetepan Pasal VI Parjangjian Umum Tarif jeung Pardagangan 1994]] ''(Perjanjian Anti-[[Dumping]])'' # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katetepan Pasal VII Parjangjian Umum Tarif jeung Pardagangan 1994]] (Perjanjian Penilaian Pabean) # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan pamariksaan saméméh dikapalkeun Pra-Pengapalan]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katangtuan Asal Barang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan ''Prosedur'' Izin Impor]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Subsidi jeung Tindakan Imbalan]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tindakan ngajaga kaamanan]] # [[Parjangjian ''Fasilitas'' widang dagang]] anu dilebetkeun ka jero lampiran ieu ngaliwatan ''Protokol'' Amandemén anu ditetepkeun ku anggota WTO dina 27 Novémber 2014{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=48}} Lampiran 1B eusina [[Parjanjian Umum ngeunaan widang dagang Jasa]] ({{lang-en|General Agreement on Trade in Services}}, disingket GATS), jeung jero Lampiran 1C mibanda [[Perjanjian TRIPS|Parjanjian ngeunaan Aspék-Aspék Hak Kakayaan Inteléktual anu patalina sareng widang dagang]] ''("Perjanjian TRIPS")''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44}} Sawatara kitu, Lampiran 2 eusina [[Kasapukan Ngaréngsékeun Pacéngkadan}}, disingket DSU) anu ngatur prosedur ngaréngsékeun pacengkadan dina widang dagang,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44, 51-52}} jeung Lampiran 3 mibanda [[Mekanisme Peninjauan Kawijakan widang dagang]] anu ngajabarkeun ''prosedur'' ''peninjauan'' kawijakan dagang anggota-anggota WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44, 52}} Di Lampiran 4 sorangan mibanda dua [[parjanjian plurilateral]], nyaéta [[Parjanjian ngeunaan widang dagang ''Pesawat Sipil'']] (anu kasapukanna dina Puteran Tokyo taun 1979) jeung [[Parjanjian ngeunaan balanja Pamaréntah]] (luyu jeung hasil révisi taun 2014).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=53}} Saméméhna aya ogé parjanjian ''plurilateral'' anu disebut Parjanjian ''Peternakan Susu'' Internasional jeung ''Perjanjian'' Daging Sapi Internasional, tapi ieu kasapukan-kasapukan ''plurilateral'' geus teu lumaku deui tisaprak taun 1997.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=11}} Sagigireun ieu, dina kaping 13 Désémber 1996, ''[[Perjanjian Teknologi Informasi]]'' ({{lang-en|Information Technology Agreement}}, disingkat ITA) geus disaluyuan ku 29 anggota WTO ngaliwatan "Déklarasi Tingkat Menteri ngeunaan Pardagangan Produk Téknologi Informasi" anu dipedalkeun di [[Singapura]]. Kasapukan anu ogé sipatna ''plurilateral'' ieu ngaleungitkeun béa ''masuk'' pikeun rupa-rupa produk dina widang ''[[téknologi informasi]]'', saperti komputer, pakakas télékomunikasi, jeung [[semikonduktor]],{{sfn|Wunsch-Vincent|2005|pp=33-34}} ogé ngalimpudan aya kana 222 jinis barang. Saprak harita, jumlah anggota anu aub dina jero kasapukan ieu terus nambahan nepika lobana 67 nagara dina taun 2015. Satuluyna, dina tanggal 28 Juli 2015, sabada saméméhna rada kaganggu sababaraha taun, jumlah barang anu asup ka jero cakupan kasapukan ieu nambahan deui 201 jinis produk. Kasapukan anu geus dirobah ieu disebut "ITA II".{{sfn|Marx|2015|pp=346-347}} Dina kasapukan WTO, aya protokol-protokol aksési ti anggota-anggota WTO anu mimiti ngagabung sabada ditetepkeun ieu kasapukan, jeung protokol-protokol ieu dianggap salaku bagén anu henteu bisa dipisahkeun tina ieu kasapukan. Contona tayalian ''Protokol'' Aksési Tiongkok.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=53}} Salian éta, aya ogé "daftar komitmen" ({{lang-en|schedules of commitments}}) anu eusina komitmen sahiji anggota WTO kana produk atawa jasa anu tangtu, jeung daftar ieu ogé dianggap salaku bagéan anu teu papisah tina Parjanjian WTO.{{sfn|WTO, Legal Texts}} == Struktur == [[File :Cwr aerial 2001.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Markas gedé WTO di [[Centre William Rappard]] di Jenewa, Swiss.]] Organisasi widang dagang sa dunya tayalian hiji organisasi internasional anu mibanda kapasitas hukum jeung ogé dianggap salaku subjek [[hukum internasional]].{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Struktur ngeunaan kalembagaanna diatur ku Pasal IV Kasapukan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=128}} Mibanda dua badan anu nyokot kaputusan di WTO, tayalian Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum. Kakuasaan pangluhurna dicepeng ku Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' anu diwangun ku sakumna wawakil ti sakabéh anggota WTO. Wawakil-wawakil ieu ngayakeun rapat sahenteuna dua kali dina sataun.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sahandapeunna, Déwan Umum nyokot hiji kaputusan penting sakaligus ngarumuskeun kawijakan di antara waktu unggal Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri. Dewan Umum ieu diwangun ku sajumlah diplomat satingkat duta besar ti sakabéh anggota WTO anu ngayakeun kumpulan di [[Jenéwa]] sahenteun dua bulan sekali. Déwan ini dipimpin ku saurang ketua anu dipilih ku dewan sorangan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=132}} Dewan Umum boga ''peran'' dina netepkeun ''anggaran'' taunan jeung kawijakan kauangan organisasi,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=133}} sarta dina ngatur gawé bareng jeung organisasi internasional lianna atawa jeung ''[[lembaga swadaya masyarakat]]''.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Dina enggoning ngalaksanakeun pagawéan Dewan Umum dilengkepan ku dua badan lianna, tayalian ''[[Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa]]'' jeung ''[[Badan Peninjauan Kebijakan Perdagangan]].''{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sahandapeun Déwan Umum, aya déwan jeung komite husus anu diadegkeun dumasar Pasal IV:5 Kasapukan WTO, tayalian Déwan ''Perdagangan'' Barang, Dewan ''Perdagangan'' Jasa, jeung Dewan TRIPS. Déwan-déwan ieu ngalapor ka Déwan Umum WTO, jeung wewenang maranéhna kawates pisan tur teu meunang ngaleuwihan naon anu geus ditetepkeun dijero Parjanjian WTO, dina parjanjian dagang séwang-séwangan (contona GATS pikeun Déwan widang dagang Jasa), jeung ku kaputusan ti Déwan Umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=134}} Déwan-déwan ieu diwenangkeun ngadegkeun komite-komite atawa badan ''subsider'' luyu jeung kabutuhan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sagigireun éta, ogé mibanda rupa-rupa komite jeung tim gawé anu mantuan gawé Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum, saperti Komite ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Lingkungan anu diadegkeun di Marrakesh dina kaping 14 April 1994 dumasar kana kaputusan Tingkat Menteri ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Lingkungan, Komite ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Pangwangunan anu ditetepkeun ku Pasal IV:7 Parjanjian WTO jeung dijieun ku Dewan Umum dina taun 1995, atawa Komite ngeunaan kasapukan Dagang Régional anu ogé diadegkeun ku Dewan Umum dina taun salajengna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=135}} ''Organisasi'' ''Perdagangan Dunia'' ogé dilengkepan ku ''Sekretariat'' anu tugasna nyadiakeun bantuan téknis, profésional, jeung kapagawéan ka badan-badan WTO, nyadiakeun bantuan téknis ka anggota anu masih kénéh kagolongkeun nagara ''berkembang'', ngaroris tur ngimeutan widang dagang sadunya, méré naséhat ka nagara anu hayang aub jeung WTO, sarta nyadiakeun informasi ka masyarakat.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=142-143}} ''Sekretariat'' WTO dipupuhuan ku saurang [[Diréktur Jénderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Diréktur Jénderal]]. Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri bisa milih Diréktur Jénderal sarta netepkeun wewenang tur ''masa'' jabatanna. Diréktur Jénderal kudu lumaku indepénden ti pamerintahan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Diréktur Jénderal anu boga wewenang ngangkat pagawé-pagawé, jeung maranéhna digawé salaku pagawé nageri internasional.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=144}} Pagawé-pagawé ieu kalolobaan boga kasang tukang ahli hukum jeung ékonom .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=144}} === Anggaran === Aturan ngeunaan anggaran WTO dijabarkeun dina Pasal VII kasapukan WTO. ''Anggaran'' taunan diusulkeun ku Diréktur Jénderal WTO ka Komite anu ngurus ''Anggaran'', ''Keuangan'', jeung Tata Usaha. Nya ieu Komite anu salajengna mariksa ieu usulan sarta méré rékomendasi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=157}} Anggaran ieu teras disahkeun ku Déwan Umum sabada meunang kasaluyuan ti sakurangna 2/3 anggota, sanajan dina kanyataana ieu kaputusan dipibanda ku ngaliwatan konsénsus. Patali sareng sumber dana, Régulasi ''Keuangan'' WTO mertélakeun ''kontribusi pendanaan'' ti unggal anggota. Jumlah kontribusi unggal anggota disaluyukeun jeung gedéna perséntase dagang ieu anggota (impor ditambah ekspor) umpama dibandingkeun jeung sakabéh anggota WTO. Salaku contoh, dina taun 2016, Amérika Serikat nyumbang 11,2% anggaran, Tiongkok 9,1%, Singapura 2,4%, [[Malaysia]] 1,1%, Indonesia 0,9%, jeung [[Norwegia]] 0,8%. Uni Eropa teu mayar iuran anggaran, tapi nagara-nagara anggotanamah tetep kudu mayar. Pikeun anggota anu mibanda perséntase dagangan sahandapeun 0,015%, kontribusi anggarannya mah tetep kudu dibayar 0,015%. Salian anggaran, WTO ogé mibanda sababaraha [[dana perwalian]] anu pendanaanna ogé sarua sumberna ti anggota. Tujuan tina ieu dana perwalian tayalian pikeun méré bantuan kagiatan anu méré bantuan téknis sarta palatihan pikeun nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' jeung ''terbelakang''. Contohna téh Dana Perwalian Global Agenda Pembangunan Doha ({{lang-en|Doha Development Agenda Global Trust Fund}}).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=158}} == Anggota == {{main|Daftar anggota Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia}} [[File :Accession of the Republic of Seychelles to the WTO (15850067969).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Upacara panandatanganan aksési [[Seychelles|Republik Seychelles]] ka jero WTO dina kaping 10 Désémber 2014.]] Dina taun 2016, WTO mibanda 164 anggota anu ngawakilan 99,5% ''populasi'' dunya jeung 98% dagangan dunya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=113}} Sakumna anggota henteu wungkul ti nagara-nagara mibanda kadaulatan, tapi ogé ngalimpudan [[wilayah kapabéanan]], tayalian daérah anu bébas ngatur hubungan dagang maranéhna sorangan. Conto wilayah kapabéanan anu jadi anggota WTO teh "[[Hong Kong|Hong Kong, Tiongkok]]", "[[Makau|Makau, Tiongkok]]", jeung "[[Tionghoa Taipei]]" (dina basa sapopoé "Taiwan").{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=114}} Sagigireun ieu, WTO ogé mibanda kahususan sorangan ku narima [[Uni Éropa]] salaku anggota. Dina waktu anu sarua, nagara anggota Uni Eropa ogé jadi angota WTO, Kukituna unggal nagara ieu kawas mibanda kaanggotaan ganda. Sanajan kitu, dina kanyataanna nya [[Komisi Éropa]] anu jadi salaku cukang lantaran Uni Éropa skaligus sakabéh nagara anggotanna dina rapat jeung babalagempagan anu diayakeun ku WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=115-116}} Aya dua cara pikeun hiji nagara anu hayang aub jeung jadi anggota WTO. Cara ka hiji anu disebut ''"keanggotaan awal"'' ({{lang-en|original membership}}) ngan bisa digunakeun ku nagara anu kungsi ngagabung jeung GATT 1947 jeung [[Komunitas Éropa]]. Dumasar kana Pasal XI:1 Parjanjian WTO, nagara-nagara ieu bisa ditarima salaku anggota WTO lamun maranéhna narima sakabéh katangtuan kasapukan WTO jeung parjanjian-parjanjian ''multilateral'' anu aya sahandapeunna, jeung dimana méré konsési jeung nyieun komitmen dina widang dagangan barang jeung jasa anu satuluyna dicatet dina daptar séwang-séwangan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118}} Cara kadua nyaéta ngaliwatan ''prosedur'' aksési saperti anu ditetepkeun jeroeun Pasal XII Parjanjian WTO. Nagara atawa wilayah kapabéanan anu hayang ngagabung kudu narima sakabéh katangtuan Parjangjian WTO jeung parjangjian-parjangjian multilateral anu aya di sahandapeunna, ogé tuluy maranéhna kudu ngalakukeun babadamian aksési anu nyoba nangtukeun kasaluyuan undang-undang jeung prakték dagang pianggotaeun jeung aturan WTO jeung léngkah anu bisa dicokot pikeun nyaluyukeunna, sarta konsési aksés pasar pikeun widang dagang barang jeung komitmen widang dagangan jasa anu baris dicokot ku ieu pianggotaeun.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118-119}} Tahapanna sacara umum bisa dibagi jadi opat, tayalian: # Tahap "wawanohan": calon anggota ngalaporkeun sakabéh kawijakan dagang jeung ékonomi anu aya patalina jeung kawajiban-kawajiban anggota WTO sarta ngirim mémorandum anu patali jeung ieu hal. Mémorandum ieu baris dipariksa ku ''kelompok kerja'' WTO anu ngahaja diadegkeun pikeun kaperluan ieu, pikeun niténan naha undang-undang jeung prakték calon anggota sajalan jeung aturan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119}} # Tahap sawala ''bilateral'' ngeunaan konsési aksés pasar jeung ''komitmen'' anu baris dicokot, najan kitu pamustungann hasil sawala ''bilateral'' ieu kudu lumaku sacara ''multilateral'' ka sakabéh anggota WTO luyu jeung asas MFN.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119}} # Tahap ngarumuskeun katangtuan kaanggotaan: ''kelompok kerja'' WTO baris ngarumuskeun katangtuan aksési anu dijabarkeun jeroeun laporan kelompok kerja, rarancang ''protokol'' aksési, jeung rarancang "daptar barang" jeung "daptar jasa" anu eusina sakabéh konsési aksés pasar jeung ''komitmen'' calon anggota. Sakabéh dokumén ieu baris dikirimkeun ka Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' atawa Dewan Umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119-120}} # Tahap nyokot kaputusan: Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' atawa Dewan Umum baris mutuskeun dumasar kana konsénsus naha maranéhna baris narima ieu calon anggota atawa henteu. Dimana lamaran pikeun ngagabung ditarima, pianggotaeun anggota sacara resmi baris ngagabung jeung WTO dina jero waktu tilu puluh poé sabada maranéhna ngirimkeun instrumén ''ratifikasi protokol'' aksési.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=120}} Jeroeun sajarahna, prosés aksési ka jero WTO ilaharna méakeun waktu anu lila; sanajan [[Kirgizstan]] mangrupakeun nagara panggancangna anu ngagabung jeung WTO (ngan mikabutuh waktu 2 tahun 10 bulan), parundingan aksési jeung [[Aljazair]] masih tacan réngsé ti taun 1987.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=120}} [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] sorangan ngabutuhkeun leuwih ti opat belas taun pikeun ngaréngsékeun prosés aksési, jeung maranéhna sacara resmi ngagabung dina Novémber 2001.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=13}} Salian anggota, WTO ogé mibanda sajumlah "panilik". Nagara-nagara anu anyar kénéh meunang ''status'' penilik kudu ngamimitian badami pikeun ngagabung jeung WTO dina jero waktu lima taun. Ieu kawijakan henteu lumaku pikeun [[Vatikan]] anu mibanda kadudukan panilik di WTO. Sagigireun éta, sajumlah organisasi internasional ogé mibanda status panilik permanén, saperti ''[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], [[Dana Monétér Internasional]], [[Bank Dunia]], [[Organisasi Pangan jeung Pertanian]], [[Konferensie PBB ngeunaan dagangan jeung Pangwangunan]], [[Organisasi Hak pikeun Kakayaan Intelektual Dunya]],'' jeung ''[[Organisasi pikeun gawé bareng jeung Pangwangunan Ékonomi]]''. Aya ogé organisasi-organisasi internasional anu ngan mibanda status panilik dijero badan WTO anu tangtu luyu jeunh mandat maranéhna, contona téh [[Codex Alimentarius|Komisi Codex Alimentarius]] (lembaga gabungan Organisasi Pangan jeung Partanian jeung [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya]]) anu mibanda status panilik di Komite Tindakan ''Sanitari'' jeung ''Fitosanitari'' WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118}} == Nyandak kaputusan == [[File:Doha Ministerial Conference 9-13 November 2001 (9308714762).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri di [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], dina kaping 9-13 Novémber 2001.]] [[File :Singapore Ministerial Conference 9-13 December 1996 (9306028171).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri di [[Singapura]] dina kaping 9-13 Désémber 1996.]] Dumasar Pasal IX:1 Parjanjian WTO, Organisasi widang dagangan Dunya nuluykeun praktek nyandak kaputusan jeroeun GATT 1947 anu nganggo ''sistem'' konsénsus. ''Prosedur standar'' ieu baris dijalankeun dimana teu aya anggota anu terang-terangan nolak katangtuan hiji putusan. Dimana konsénsus teu pinanggih jeung kasapukan, kaputusan baris dicokot ngaliwatan pangumpulan soara kalawan maké ''sistem'' [[Mayoritas|''mayoritas'' sederhana]]. Unggal anggota mibanda hiji sora; anu dibedakeun téh ngan Uni Éropa anu jumlah sorana sarua jeung jumlah anggotana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=146-147}} Sagigireun éta, WTO ogé mibanda ''prosedur-prosedur'' husus. Salaku conto, Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri jeung Déwan Umum boga wewenang napsirkeun anu sipatna ''otoritatif'' kana parjanjian-parjanjian WTO, jeung kaputusan pikeun netepkeun tapsiran saperti ieu kudu meunang kasaluyuan ti sakurangna 3/4 anggota. Contoh lain anu pakait jeung panarimaan anggota anyar. Pasal XII:2 Parjanjian WTO ngatur yén kaputusan anu ngeunaan ieu hal dicokot ku Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' kalawan dukungan ti sakurangnya 2/3 anggota. Ngan baé, Déwan Umum boga kasapukan dina tanggal 15 Novémber 1995 pikeun nyoba nyokot kaputusan ngaliwatan heula konsensus, kukituna ngumpulkeun sora pikeun narima anggota anyar baris dilaksanakeun saupama konsénsus henteu ngabuahkeun hasil.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=148-149}} Dina prakna, konsénsus sok diheulakeun jeung kaputusan kacida arangna ngaliwatan pangumpulan soara. Sanajan sistem konsénsus dianggap lewih ngalégitimasi kaputusan anu geus ditetepkeun, [[Laporan Sutherland]] taun 2004 nepikeun kahariwang ngeunaan jumlah anggota WTO anu sakitu lobana baris ngahalangan upaya pikeun netepkeun kawijakan anyar. Panampik ti hiji anggota waé bisa ngagagalkeun upaya pikeun konsénsus sanajan kawijakan anu diusulkeun didukung ku loba anggota, kukituna sistem konsénsus dianggap bisa ngalumpuhkeun prosés nyokot kaputusan di WTO. Laporan Sutherland sorangan menyarankan sangkan anggota anu hayang ngavéto hiji kaputusan kudu bisa nembrakkeun dina hiji tulisan kalawan nambahkeun alesan anu diajengkeun ngébréhkeun yén ieu hal aya patalina jeung kapentingan nasional anu kacida pentingna pikeun éta anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=151-152}} Dina palebah partisipasi, WTO mikahayang ngalibatkeun sakabéh anggotana, tapi dina prakna pikeun ngalibatkeun 164 anggota WTO ieu lain pagawéan énténg. Ku alatan kitu, muncul hiji mékanisme anu dimaksudkeun pikeun ngagancangkeun lumangsungna babadamian tur nyokot hiji kaputusan, contona tayalian mékanisme "pertemuan ruang hijau" anu ngumpulkeun anggota-anggota gedé di WTO (saperti Uni Éropa, Amérika Serikat, jeung Tiongkok) sarta hiji anggota Lian anu jadi salaku koordinator atawa wawakil kelompok anggota lianna (conto salaku wawakil nagara tinggaleun) atawa anu mibanda kapentingan kana babadamian anu baris dilaksanakeun. Dina kumpulan kawas kieu, unggal pajabat atawa wawakil ti kurang leuwih dua puluh anggota diulem pikeun ngabadamikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu utama. Kumpulan ieu dipupuhuan ku saurang Diréktur Jénderal WTO atawa ku katua salah sahiji déwan atawa komite WTO. Tina ieu rapat baris dihasilkeun draf parjangjian anu saterusna baris ditempokeun ka anggota WTO lianna pikeun saterusna ditetepkeun.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=153}} Usaha pikeun nyaluyukeun prosés-nyieun kaputusan di WTO sorangan ieu henteu gampang, sabab organisasi ieu kudu ngajaga kasaimbangan antara inklusivitas, transparansi, jeung efisiensi. Dina waktos ayeuna, kalawan ngaronjatna ka guyuban nagara berkembang dina mékanisme ruang héjo, prosés nyieun kaputusan jadi beuki hésé sabab nagara ieu ogé boga kapentingan anu rupa-rupa.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=155-156}} == Aturan-aturan dasar == WTO ngabogaan loba aturan anu kompléks ngeunaan perdagangan barang jeung jasa sarta perlindungan pikeun hak cipta inteléktual.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} Aspék-aspék dagang anu aya dina lingkup hukum WTO sorangan rupa-rupa, contona, tarif, kuota, peraturan di tingkat nasional, ukuran dicokot pikeun kaamanan nasional, syarat adat.,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} subsidi,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=769}} jeung [[dumping]] (prakték nurunkeun harga barang ékspor handappeun harga normal di nagara ékspor).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=696}} Sacara umum, aya opat rupa aturan dasar anu substantif dina hukum WTO, nyaéta aturan anu ngalarang diskriminasi, aturan ngagunakeun aksés pasar, aturan ngeunaan prakték dagang teu adil, jeung aturan ngeunaan pangecualian..{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} === Non-diskriminasi === Dina jeroeun hukum WTO, aya dua aturan utama anu ngalarang tindakan diskriminasi/ngawilah-wilah, tayalian "[[perlakuan yang sama untuk semua anggota]]" (MFN) jeung "[[perlakuan nasional]]". Dumasar aturan MFN, umpama hiji anggota WTO mutuskeun pikeun masihan hiji perlakuan anu nguntungkeun atawa hak husus ka salah sahiji anggota, kauntungan atawa hak husus éta ogé kudu dibikeun ka sadayana anggota WTO tanpa iwal atawa pengecualian. Tah ku kituna, anggota WTO teu bisa milih-milih dina méré konsési dagang ka salah sahiji anggota lianna. Salaku contoh, dimana salah sahiji anggota WTO mutuskan pikeun ngurangan tarif impor béas ti salah saurang anggotana, Panguragan ieu tarif béas téh ogé 1|pp=39}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=13}} Samentara éta, aturan "perlakuan nasional" nitahkan yén anggota WTO kudu lumakukeun produk impor sakumaha anggota éta ngalumakukeun [[barang sejenis|produk sarupa]] di nagarana. Istilah sanésna, anggota WTO teu bisa ngabentenkeun produk asing sanggeus produk masuk kana pasar doméstik. Salaku conto, lamun aya anggota WTO mutuskeun pikeun mupus pajeg roko buatan doméstik, mupus ieu pajeg ogé kudu lumaku pikeun udud-udud impor anu geus asup ka pasar jero negeri. Upami aranjeunna ngan ngumpulkeun pajeg pikeun roko impor, maranéhna geus ngalanggar aturan nasional anu lumaku.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=13-14}} Kadua aturan ieu dipibanda jeroeun GATS anu aya patalina kana barang jeung jasa. Sanajan kitu, dua pasatujuan aya bédana utama dina watesan wengkuan dina prakna ngalaksanakeun. Aturan MFN dina GATS lumaku pikeun sakabéh jasa sacara umum, sanajan anggota bisa nyieun sababaraha iwal nu diwatesan dina wengkuan. Sanajan kitu, aturan ngeunaan perlakuan nasional ngan lumaku pikeun anggota anu geus nyieun komitmen husus ka séktor jasa anu tangtu atawa ka salah sahiji (kiriman meuntas wates, konsumsi luar negeri, ayana komérsial, Jeung kahadiran manusia alamiah atawa ''natural person''). Komitmen-komitmen ieu diasupkeun kana kana daptar komitmen jasa pikeun tiap anggota. Ku kituna, enggoning dina maca aturan di jero GATS, daptar komitmen jasa ti salah sahiji anggotana keur ditalungtik ogé kudu diperhatikeun, sareng aranjeunna henteu kedah nerapkeun aturan perlakuan nasional pikeun séktor jasa atawa kumaha suplai nu teu acan liberalisasikeun. Samentara éta, aturan perlakuan nasional dina GATT lumaku sacara umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}}{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|pp=390}} === Aturan ngeunaan aksés pasar === [[File :MSC Home Terminal.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Terminal peti kemas di [[Pelabuhan Antwerpen]]. Ngumpulkeun bea impor tina barang impor dasarnamah teu dilarang ku WTO, tapi nagara anggota dirojong pikeun saeutik demi saeutik ngurangan tarif nu ditagihkeun.]] Nagara-nagara mikabutuh aksés pasar sangkan ieu widang dagang barang jeung jasa bisa lumangsung lancar, tapi aksés pasar ka hiji nagara mindeng dihalangan ku rupa-rupa cara, naha ku tarif atawa non-tarif.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=49}} Sacara umum, aya opat jinis aturan WTO anu pakait sareng aksés pasar, nyaéta aturan ngeunaan béa impor, paraturan ngeunaan béa jeung pungutan-pungutan biaya séjén, paraturan ngeunaan watesan sacara kuantitatif, sarta paraturan ngeunaan [[halangan non-tarif]] lianna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}} Dina dasarna, ngumpulkeun béa téh impor teu dilarang, kumaha ogé, tarif nu ditagihkeun ku nagara ieu teu bisa ngaleuwihan wates pangluhurna tina anu geus diatur dina daptar konsési masing-masing.{{efn|Menurut Pasal II:7 GATT 1994, daptar konsési anggota mangrupakeun bagian anu teu bisa dipisahkeun tina Parjangjian WTO}}. Daptar konsési kudu sajalan jeung aturan dasar GATT jeung henteu bisa ngurangan kana kawajiban anggota. Sabagian gedé daptar konsési dijieun kujalan nurutkeun ''[[Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System]]''(disingkét "Harmonized System"). Strukturna sorangan sacara umum diwangun ku Bab I anu eusina konsési konsési tarif pikeun produk pertanian jeung salian ti pertanian, Bagian II ngeunaan konsési préferensial, Bagian III ngeunaan konsési ngeunaan tindakan lian ti tarif, sarta Bagian IV ngeunaan komitmen husus ngeunaan bantuan doméstik jeung subsidi ékspor pikeun produk pertanian. Pikeun katerangan leuwih lengkep, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=437-440}}. Sawatara kitu, anggota anu hayang ngarobah atawa narik daptar konsésina kudu ngaliwatan hiji prosedur dina Pasal XXVIII:1 GATT. Dina dasarnya, ieu anggota kudu ngalaksanakeun babadamian jeung anggota lian anu dianggap mibanda kapentingan anu gedé ku ayana parobahan anu baris dilakukeun. Ganti rugi dina wujud konsési anyar biasana perlu dibikeun. Ngan, umpamana babadamian henteu tinemu jalan kaluar, anggota anu hayang robah atawa nyabut daptar konsési aranjeunna bébas ngalakukeun éta luyu jeung Pasal XXVIII:3(a) GATT. Pikeun leuwih jéntré, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=447-449}}.}} unggal anggota WTO gaduh daptar konsésina nyalira iwal pikeun anggota nu jadi bagian tina hiji [[sarikat pabéan]] (contona nyaéta nagara anggota [[Uni Éropa]] anu teu boga daptar konsési sorangan, tapi maranéhna nuturkeun daptar konsési nu disusun ku Uni Éropa). daptar ieu mibanda "konsési dagang", nyaéta komitmen anu geus dicandak ku hiji anggota Pikeun henteu ngangkat tarif aranjeunna di luhur angka anu geus sapuk, atawa dina basa séjén, aranjeunna geus "meungkeut" tarif aranjeunna dina angka éta.{{efn|Komitmen tarif unggal nagara Nyaliara béda-béda jeung gumantung kana hasil rundingan jeung anggota-anggota lian; dina taun 2017, [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Amérika Serikat]] geus sapuk leuwih ti 95% tarif aranjeunna, samentara [[Kamerun]] ngan 13,3%. Tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=436}}.}} Hukum WTO Nyaliara mengajak anggotana Pikeun terus ngarempugkeun geusan ngurangan tarif anu nguntungkeun sadaya pihak, jeung hasil tina rundingan ieu ogé bakal diasupkeun kana daptar konsési anggota anu aya patalina.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=40}} Sanajan daptar konsési netepkeun tarif maksimal, batas tarif Pikeun rupa-rupa produk mindeng pisan leuwih luhur tibatan béa masuk anu saleresna ditetepkeun; dina hal ieu, Badan Banding dina perkara ''Argéntina –Textiles jeung pakéan (1998)'' ngécéskeun yén anggota diidinan maké béa anu leuwih handap tibatan tarif maksimum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=446-447}} Patali jeung "bea Jeung pungutan-pungutan séjén", Badan Banding dina perkara ''India–Additional Import Duties'' geus ngartikeun istilah ieu salaku "bea Jeung pungutan anu sanés béa impor biasa".{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=462}} Salaku conto, Panél dina perkara ''Dominican Republic–Safeguard Measures'' manggihan éta "tindakan kaamanan" anu dilaksanakeun ku pajabat béa cukai [[Republik Dominika]] merupakeun "béa jeung pungutan séjén", Sabab kawijakan ieu henteu kaasup "bea masuk biasa".{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=463}} "Tindakan ngamankeun" (dumasarkeun kana Pasal XIX GATT) mangrupa gantungan konsési dagang pikeun waktu nu tangtu lamun aya kanaékan impor anu teu ka duga tianggalna malah nepi ka ngancam bakal ngakibatkeun karugian parna ka produsén jero negeri,{{sfn|Bown & Wu|2014|pp=180-181}} Jeung tindakan ngamankeun nu dibadamikeun dina perkara éta nyaéta netepkeun béa masuk samentara anu gedéna 38% pikeun impor kantong [[palastik]] [[polipropilena]].{{sfn|Bown & Wu|2014|pp=186}} Conto lian nu bisa kapanggih dina perkara-perkara di Panel jeung Badan Banding nyaéta béa tambahan pikeun hiji barang anu geus kaancikan béa masuk, deposit anu geus dibayar pikeun kaamanan ngimpor barang, atawa biaya pabéan euweuh wates maksimum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=464}} Pasal II:1(b) GATT sorangan maréntahkeun yén jinis béa ieu teu meunang ngaleuwihan béa nu geus dilarapkeun ka "tanggal parjangjian ieu" atawa béa anu dikuatkeun dijero undang-undang nu lumaku pikeun tanggal éta. Kusabab istilah anu teu jelas "tanggal parjangjian Ieu", sakumna anggota WTO geus sapuk di sapamahaman ngeunaan tapsiran tina Pasal II:1(b) GATT 1994 ({{lang-en|Understanding on the Interpretation of Article II:1(b) of the GATT 1994}}) yén unggal anggota dina hal ieu wajib pikeun nyatet tarif anu meungkeut pangluhurna nu bakal tumiba kana unggal béa atawa pungutan lianna dina daptar konsési aranjeunna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=465}} Hukum WTO sorangan teu ngijinan ngawatesan kana kuantitatif barang. Kusabab ieu, sacara umum anggota WTO teu dimeunangkeun ngalarang ngimpor atawa ngékspor barang anu geus tangtu, jeung maranéhna ogé teu bisa nerapkeun kuota kana barang. Pikeun dagangan jasa, aturan Ieu ngan lumaku pikeun séktor jasa anu geus diliberalisasi ku ieu anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=40}} Samentara éta, aturan nu kaopat mangrupa hiji kategori kalawan cakupan anu lega, contona nyaéta kirang transparansina hukum dagang, prakték dagang éta teu adil, prosedur pabéan, panyalindungan hak kakayaan intelektual goréng, tindakan sanitari jeung fitosanitari, atawa ayana halangan teknis.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39-40}} Aturan ngeunaan panyalindungan hak cipta intelektual, tindakan sanitari Jeung fitosanitari, Jeung hambatan teknis diatur ku parjangjian Nyaliara.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=883, 935, 993}} Salaku conto, régulasi téknis anu dilarapkeun ku hiji nagara kudu saluyu jeung prinsip MFN, Jeung anggota anu ngalarapkeun régulasi Ieu kudu mastikeun supados henteu nimbulkeun halangan dagang anu teu perlu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=899, 912}} === Aturan ngeunaan prakték dagangan anu teu adil === Hukum WTO mibanda aturan-aturan husus ngeunaan prakték-prakték dagangan anu tangtu anu dianggap teu adil, tayalian subsidi jeung dumping. Subsidi diatur ku Pasal XVI GATT jeung ogé [[Parjangjian ngeunaan subsidi jeung tindakan imbalan]] ({{lang-en|Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures}}, disingket Parjangjian SCM).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=41}} Numutkeun Parjangjian SCM, subsidi tayalian kontribusi keuangan ti pamaréntah atawa [[Badan Publik|badan publik]], atawa bantuan beubeunangan atawa harga dina wujud naon waé luyu jeung Pasal XVI GATT, anu méré kauntungan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=775}} Hukum WTO ngalarang sababaraha jinis subsidi, tayalian subsidi ékspor jeung [[substitusi impor]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=802-811}} Sabagéan gedé ti jinis subsidi lianna henteu dilarang, tapi subsidi-subsidi ieu kagolong salaku "subsidi nu bisa ditindak" (''actionable''), kayaning subsidi anu bisa ditolak ku anggota WTO dimana subsidi ieu bisa nimbulkan "akibat-akibat ngarugikeun" (''adverse effects'') kana kapentingan éta anggota. Subsidi-subsidi ieu ngalimpudan subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun karugian pikeun industri doméstik nagara lian anu ngahasilkeun produk sarupa, subsidi anu bisa ngabalukarkeun mupus atawa ngurangan kana kauntungan anu katarima sacara langsung anapon henteu langsung tina GATT 1994, sarta subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun karugian parna.{{efn|Menurut Pasal 6.3 Perjanjian SCM, "kerugian serius" bisa mangrupa: "subsidi anu ngagantian atawa ngahalangan impor produk sajinis ti anggota lian ka pasar anggota anu méré subsidi", "subsidi anu ngaganti atawa ngahalangan ékspor produk sarupa ti anggota séjén ka pasar nagara katilu", "subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun pamotongan harga anu jauh leuwih handap tina produk anu disubsidi dibandingkeun jeung harga produk sarupa ti anggota séjén dijero pasar anu sarua atawa neken hargga, nurunna harga atawa kaleungitan kamampuan ngajual anu cukup gedé dina pasar anu sarua", atawa "subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun ngaronjatna pangsa pasar nagara anu méré subsidi produk atawa barang dagangan primer umpama dibandingkeun jeung pangsa pasar rata-rata yang anu dipibandana tilu taun saméméhna ". Tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=818}}.}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=811-818}} Lamun anggota anu masihan subsidi samodél ieu nampik pikeun nyabut atawa teu daék nyokot léngkah pikeun ngaleungitkeun balukarna anu ngarugikeun, anggota séjén anu ngarasa dirugikeun bisa nyokot tindakan balasan anu sarua jeung akibat tina éta subsidi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=41}} Di Parjangjian SCM sorangan sabenerna masih aya jinis subsidi katilu, tayalian subsidi anu henteu bisa ditindak. Numutkeun pasal 8.2 Parjangjian SCM, subsidi-subsidi ieu ngalimpudan subsidi lingkungan hidup, subsidi panalungtikan, jeung subsidi pikeun pangwangunan daérah anu tinggaleun. Ngan, luyu jeung Pasal 31 Parjangjian SCM, subsidi ieu ngan lumaku lima tahun sabada parjangjian WTO sakabéhna mimiti dilarapkeun. Balukarna,aturan ngeunaan subsidi anu teu bisa ditindak ngan lumaku nepika tanggal 31 Désémber 1999, nya tisaprak harita subsidi-subsidi ieu kagolongkeun salaku subsidi anu bisa ditindak.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=846}} Samentawis éta, dumping tayalian prakték ngajual produk di pasar nagara séjén kalawan harga leuwih handap tibatan harga anu lumaku di jero negeri. Saracara umum , dumping heteu dilarang u hukum WTO, tapi Pasal VI GATT jeung parjangjian Anti-Dumping méré izin anggota WTO pikeun nyokot béa anti-dumping lamun seug prakték dumping ieu ngabalukarkeun atau ngancam baris ngadatangkeun karugain material kana produk anu diproduksi ku éta anggota .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=699-701}} === Pengecualian === Upaya ngaliberalisasikeun dagangan bisa ngabalukarkeun pacéngkadan jeung kapentingan masarakat, contohna tayalian pelestarian lingkungan hidup atawa kapentingan ékonomi linna. Tah ku kituna, hukum WTO mibanda pasal-pasal "mahiwal" nu ngabenerkeun simpangan ti aturan-aturan dasar WTO dina kaayaan nu tangtu pikeun kapentingan masyarakat. Kajaba dina Pasal XX GATT jeung XIV GATS, contona panyalindungan moral masyarakat atawa panyalindungan kahirupan manusa, sasatoan, atawa tatangkalan. Kapentingan pikeun ngajaga kaamanan nasional ogé bisa kapanggih di Pasal XXI GATT Jeung Pasal XIV ''bis'' GATS. Samentara éta, Pasal XII Jeung XIX GATT sakumaha ogé Pasal X Jeung XII GATS ngawengku kapentingan-kapentingan ékonomi, salaku conto panyalindungan industri doméstik tina karugian parna disababkeun ku ngaronjatna impor pohara gancang tur ngadadak henteu dinyana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=42}} Dina hubungan kalawan iwal (pangacualian) anu umum dikandung dina GATT Jeung GATS, anggota WTO biasana tiasa ngaliwat Léngkah munggaran pikeun menerkeun ieu kawijakan, nyaéta bukti kawijakan éta bener dimaksudkeun pikeun jadi pangjaga kapentingan anu patali. Salaku conto, patalina jeung Pasal XIV GATS, Panél dina perkara ''US–Gambling'' narima argumén ti Amérika Serikat kawijakan éta ngawatesan [[judi]] bisa dibenerkeun pikeun ngajaga moral masyarakat, jeung "moral masyarakat" ieu didéfinisikeun ku Panel salaku "standar tindakan bener jeung salah anu dipiara ku atawa dina perantara hiji komunitas atawa bangsa." Badan Banding sapuk jeung ieu kaputusan .{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=108}}{{sfn|Gaines & Olsen|2012|pp=216-217}} Ngan, upaya pikeun ngagunakeun Pasal XX GATT jeung Pasal XIV GATS mindeng teu buleud/ gembleng alatan ayana ''chapeau'' (mukadimah) dijero kadua pasal éta. ''Chapeau'' ieu mertélakeun yén tindakan dilaksanakeun ku anggota WTO pikeun ngajaga kapentingan anu tangtu teu diwenangkeun nalika tindakan éta kaasup salaku diskriminasi anu samarangan atawa henteu bisa dibenerkeun, atawa umpama tindakan ieu mung sakadar kedok pikeun ngawatesan dagangan internasional. Kagunaan tina ''chapeau'' ieu tayalian pikeun nyingkahan panyalahgunaan, dina kanyataana ''chapeau'' ieu malah ngahalangan tur ngabatalkeun loba upaya pikeun ngabenerkeun tindakan panyalindungan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=115}}{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=55, 76}} Contona, dina perkara ''US–Gambling'', pamustunganana Amérika Serikat dipeunteun geus ngalanggar hukum WTO sabab maranéhna ngidinan jasa [[taruhan olahraga|tarohan balap kuda]] Anu disadiakeun ku sababaraha pausahaan Amérika Serikat, jadina Amérika Serikat dianggap geus lumaku tindakan diskriminatif. Sawatara éta, dina perkara ''US–Shrimp'', tindakan panyalindungan ka [[penyu]] salaku sumber daya alam nu bisa béak (saluyu sareng Pasal XX(g) GATT){{efn|saméméhna, Amérika Serikat nyoba ngalebetkeun argumén yén "sumber daya alam nu bisa béak" ukur ngarujuk ka sumber daya Anu teu hirup kawas [[emas]] atawa [[pérak]]. Sanajan kitu, Badan Banding Nyaéta éta sumber daya hirup ogé bisa béak atawa malah punah/tumpur, jeung numutkeun kana aranjeunna gagasan modern jeung "evolusioner" ngeunaan ngalestarikeun lingkungan bisa méré ilham pikeun upaya nafsirkeun kana GATT anu lumaku dina taun 1998. Pikeun katerangan saterasna, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=573-578}}.}} ogé ditolak alatan dipeunteun mibanda sikep diskriminatif.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=115}} Hukum WTO ogé nyayagikeun iwal (pangacualian) dina wujud parjangjian dagang régional, tayalian parjangjian anu diatur ku nagara-nagara nutangtu pikeun leuwih nguatkeun usaha integrasi ékonomi. Contona saperti [[Kawasan Perdagangan Bébas Perbara]], [[Parjangjian Perdagangan Bébas Éropa Tengah]], jeung [[Mercosur]] di [[Amérika Kidul]]. Dina ranah WTO, "parjangjian dagang régional" ogé bisa mibanda sipat bilateral, contona tayalian [[Parjangian Pardagangan Bébas Amérika Serikat-Kolombia]] atawa [[Parjangjian Pardagangan Bébas Uni Éropa Koréa Kalér ) ]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=671-673}} Dina dasarna parjangjian-parjanjian sarupa ieu ngajadi pengecualian/ngiwalkeun pikeun asas MFN, alatan nagara anu kagabung dina parjangjian pardagangan bébas kawas Kieu méré sababaraha kauntungan anu katarima ku mitra dagangna, ngan henteu ka anggota WTO anu lian.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=507}} Pasal XXIV GATT jeung Pasal V GATS sarua ogé mengizinkan netepkeun parjangjian dagang régional anu ngadegkeun [[sarikat pabéan]] atawa [[kawasan prrdagangan bébas]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=674, 679, 688}} Salian kitu, dina tanggal 28 Novémber 1979, nagara anggota GATT ngaluarkeun hiji kaputusan ngeunaan ''[[Enabling Clause]]'' anu ngidinan Parlakuan husus jeung béda (''Special and Differential Treatment'') pikeun nagara sumedeng mekar. ''Enabling Clause'' ieu ayeuna bagian tina GATT 1994.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=687-688}} Salah sahiji contona tayalian perlakuan anu leuwih nguntungkeun pikeun nagara berkembang sajan hal ieu papalingpang tina asas MFN, nyadiakeun dasar hukum ka nagara berkembang pikeun ngabentuk "parjangjian dagang preferensial" nyaliara, sarta méré preferensi dagang tambahan ka [[nagara anu tinggaleun]].{{efn|Dina hukum WTO, euweuh harti "negara berkembang" atawa "nagara maju". Dina prakna, nagara bébas pikeun nyatakeun dirina nagara "maju" atawa "berkembang", tapi anggota lianna bisa ngalawan usaha anggota pikeun ngagunakeun pasal-pasal nu ngan lumaku pikeun nagara berkembang. Samentara éta, pikeun konsep "nagara tinggaleun", WTO ngagunakeun daptar dikaluarkeun ku [[Parsarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Pikeun leuwih jéntré, tempo {{harvnb|WTO, Least-developed Countries}} jeung {{harvnb|WTO, Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?}}.}}{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=701}} Dina kanyataanana, ayeuna aya seueur parjangjian dagang di tingkat régional, Dugi ka [[Laporan Sutherland]] dina taun 2004 nyebatkeun: {{cquote2|[H]ampir lima dasawarsa sanggeus ngadegna GATT, MFN teu deui jadi aturan, tapi ampir ngan jadi pangiwal/pangacualian . Tentu saja sebagian besar perdagangan antara ekonomi-ekonomis besar saat ini masih dilakukan berdasarkan MFN. Namun, [keberadaan] suatu hal yang telah disebut "[[Efek mangkuk spageti|mangkuk spageti]]" [yang terdiri] dari serikat pabean, pasar bersama, kawasan perdagangan regional dane bilateral, preferensi, dan sekumpulan kesepakatan dagang lain-lain yang tiada hentinya ini telah hampir mencapai titik ketika perlakuan MFN merupakan pengecualian.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=308}}}} Walaupun begitu, MFN masih Z qawa'id sdg tetap menjadi kewajiban yang harus dijalankan oleh semua anggota WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=308}} == Penyelesaiand sengketa == {{Quotewbox|🐮width=25em|align=right|quote="Sistem penyelesaian sengketa WTO merupakan unsur utama yang memberikan keamanan dan prediktabilitas bagi sistem perdagangan multilateral. Para anggota mengakui bahwa fungsinya adalah untuk memelihara hak dan kewajiban anggota menurut perjanjian-perjanjian yang masuk cakupan, dan untuk memperjelas ketentuan-ketentuan yang terkandung dalam perjanjian-perjanjian tersebut sesuai dengan aturan hukum kebiasaan internasional mengenai penafsiran. Rekomendasi dan putusan Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa tidak boleh menambah ataupun mengurangi hak dan kewajiban yang tercantum dalam perjanjian-perjanjian yang masuk cakupan."|salign=right |source=— Pasal 3 .2 Kesepahaman Penyelesaian Sengketa.{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|p=139}}}} WTO memiliki sistem penyelesaian sengketa yang bertindak layaknya pengadilan dagang internasional.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=83}} Sistem penyelesaian sengketa ini memiliki yurisdiksi wajib (''compulsory jurisdiction''), atau dalam kata lain anggota WTO harus menerima yurisdiksi sistem tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=168}} Yurisdiksinya juga bersifat eksklusif dalam artian anggota yang ingin menuntut pelanggaran kewajiban hukum WTO yang dilakukan anggota lain harus membawa perkara ini ke sistem penyelesaian sengketa di WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=169}} Selain itu, putusan yang dikeluarkan oleh sistem penyelesaian sengketa ini mengikat secara hukum.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=83}} Tujuan dari sistem ini sendiri ditetapkan oleh Pasal 3.2 DSU, yaitu untuk "memberikan kepastian dan prediktabilitas" terhadap sistem perdagangan multilateral, sehingga badan yang menyelesaikan sengketa akan mengeluarkan putusan yang sama untuk isu hukum yang sama kecuali jika ada alasan yang kuat.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=185}} Selain itu, sistem ini juga didirikan untuk mempertahankan hak dan kewajiban anggota sesuai dengan yang ditetapkan oleh perjanjian-perjanjian WTO. Maka dari itu, seperti yang tertulis secara gamblang dalam Pasal 3.2 DSU, badan yang menyelesaikan sengketa tidak boleh mengeluarkan putusan yang menambah ataupun mengurangi hak dan kewajiban anggota. Salah satu dampaknya adalah penolakan penggunaan perjanjian di luar WTO sebagai landasan hukum, karena tindakan seperti itu akan "menambah atau mengurangi" hak dan kewajiban anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=68}} Sistem ini sendiri memiliki dua macam lembaga, yaitu lembaga politik berupa [[Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa]] dan lembaga kehakiman seperti Panel dan [[Badan Banding]] ({{lang-en|Appellate Body}}). Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa pada dasarnya adalah sesi khusus di Dewan Umum WTO. Badan ini terdiri dari para diplomat yang mewakili semua anggota WTO, dan Pasal 2.1 DSU menyatakan bahwa fungsi dari badan ini adalah untuk menjalankan sistem penyelesaian sengketa, termasuk dengan mendirikan panel, mengesahkan laporan panel dan Badan Banding, mengawasi pemberlakuan isi putusan, serta mengizinkan pengambilan tindakan balasan terhadap anggota yang terbukti melanggar hukum WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=209}} Badan ini juga dapat mengangkat anggota Badan Banding dan menetapkan aturan perilaku dalam sistem penyelesaian sengketa. Dalam mengambil beberapa keputusan penting (seperti pembentukan Panel, penetapan laporan Panel dan Badan Banding, dan pemberian izin untuk menangguhkan konsesi dagang), Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa memiliki sistem "konsensus terbalik": keputusan akan diambil kecuali jika para anggota WTO telah mencapai konsensus untuk tidak mengambil keputusan tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=210}} Untuk lembaga kehakimannya, Panel berperan seperti pengadilan tingkat pertama. Namun, lembaga ini bukanlah sebuah pengadilan permanen, tetapi merupakan sebuah lembaga ''[[ad hoc]]'' yang dibentuk oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa untuk sengketa tertentu. Panel akan dibubarkan setelah sengketanya selesai.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=212}} Untuk memulai perkara di sistem penyelesaian sengketa WTO, anggota yang menuntut harus meminta konsultasi dengan anggota lain terlebih dahulu. Anggota terkait harus membalas permintaan ini dalam waktu sepuluh hari dan juga harus berunding dengan iktikad baik dalam waktu tiga puluh hari setelah permintaan tersebut resmi dilayangkan. Setelah itu, pihak yang menuntut baru dapat melayangkan permintaan resmi untuk mendirikan sebuah Panel kepada Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=90}} Permintaan ini berfungsi untuk menentukan cakupan sengketa dan yurisdiksi panel, serta untuk memberitahu anggota yang dipermasalahkan dan anggota lain mengenai perkara tersebut. Permintaan ini harus disampaikan dalam bentuk tulisan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=212}} Panel biasanya terdiri dari tiga orang, tetapi pihak yang bersengketa dapat memutuskan dalam waktu sepuluh hari setelah pembentukan Panel agar jumlah anggotanya ditambah menjadi lima.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=217}} Sekretariat WTO mengajukan nama-nama orang yang akan menjadi anggota Panel, dan pihak yang bertikai tidak dapat menentang pencalonan mereka kecuali jika ada "alasan yang mendesak" (sesuai dengan Pasal 8.6 DSU).{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|p=136}} Pada praktiknya, proses pengangkatan anggota Panel merupakan proses yang panjang dan sulit, dan jika tidak tercapai kesepakatan dalam dua puluh hari, salah satu pihak dapat meminta kepada Direktur Jenderal WTO untuk menentukan anggota Panel. Dalam kenyataanya, Panel yang anggotanya ditunjuk oleh Direktur Jenderal WTO mencapai 92% dari seluruh Panel pada 2014, dan 62,5% pada 2015.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=218, catatan kaki #305}} Berdasarkan Pasal 11 DSU, tugas Panel adalah untuk meninjau perkara secara objektif.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=98}} Setelah Panel mengeluarkan putusan, laporannya akan disahkan oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dalam waktu 60 hari setelah laporan tersebut dibagikan kepada semua anggota. Keputusan untuk mengesahkan laporan diambil berdasarkan sistem konsensus terbalik.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=278}} Apabila salah satu pihak dalam suatu perkara merasa tidak puas dengan putusan Panel, mereka dapat memohon peninjauan dari Badan Banding. Tidak seperti Panel, Badan Banding merupakan sebuah lembaga yang terus berdiri, dan lembaga ini sendiri dibentuk pada Februari 1995.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=233}} Lembaga ini terdiri dari tujuh anggota yang merupakan pakar hukum, perdagangan internasional, dan subjek yang dibahas dalam perjanjian-perjanjian WTO. Mereka bertindak secara independen dari pemerintah negaranya masing-masing, dan Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dapat mengangkat anggota Badan Banding untuk masa jabatan selama empat tahun. Masing-masing boleh diangkat satu kali lagi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=234-235}} Menurut Pasal 17.12 DSU, tugas Badan Banding adalah untuk mempertimbangkan permasalahan yang dibawakan selama prosedur banding, dan Pasal 17.13 DSU juga menegaskan bahwa Badan Banding berwenang mengubah, menegakkan, atau membatalkan putusan Panel.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=243}} Setelah Badan Banding mengeluarkan putusannya, laporannya juga harus disahkan oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dalam waktu 30 hari setelah laporan tersebut dibagikan kepada anggota WTO. Pengambilan keputusan ini juga memakai sistem konsensus terbalik.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=284}} Setelah itu, sengketa terkait akan memasuki tahap implementasi dan penegakan. Dalam waktu 30 hari setelah laporan Panel atau Badan Banding disahkan, pihak yang didapati telah melanggar hukum WTO harus memberitahukan kepada Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa bagaimana mereka akan mengimplementasikan putusan badan tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=285}} Jika anggota terkait tidak dapat langsung mematuhi putusan Panel atau Badan Banding, mereka diberi tenggat waktu yang "masuk akal" untuk mengimplementasikan putusan tersebut. Menurut Pasal 21.3 DSU, "tenggat waktu yang masuk akal" adalah tenggat waktu yang diusulkan oleh anggota terkait yang disetujui oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa, atau tenggat waktu yang disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak dalam sengketa dalam waktu 45 hari setelah putusan Panel atau Badan Banding disahkan, atau tenggat waktu yang ditentukan melalui prosedur [[arbitrase]] dalam waktu 90 hari setelah penetapan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=285-286}} Sebelum tenggat waktu ini habis, pihak yang bersengketa mungkin saja akan berselisih pandang mengenai tindakan implementasi yang patut diambil atau yang sejalan dengan hukum WTO, sehingga Pasal 21.5 DSU menyediakan prosedur khusus untuk menyelesaikan perselisihan ini dengan meminta peninjauan dari Panel yang dibentuk pada permulaan sengketa.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=287}} Jika pihak yang telah melanggar hukum WTO menolak untuk mengimplementasikan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding atau tidak mengimplementasikannya dengan benar dalam tenggat waktu yang dianggap masuk akal, pihak yang dirugikan dapat berunding dengan pihak yang melanggar untuk mendapatkan kompensasi. Jika kompensasi tidak dapat diperoleh, pihak yang dirugikan dapat meminta izin dari Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa untuk mengambil tindakan balasan, contohnya dengan menangguhkan konsesi dari pihak yang dirugikan kepada pihak yang merugikan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=289}} == Kritik == [[File :Women at farmers rally against WTO, Bhopal, M.P., India, Nov 2005.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Para patani wanita di [[Bhopal]], [[India]], anu ngadon demo nolak WTO pada November 2005.]] [[File :WTO protesters on 7th Avenue, 1999 (37326739756).jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Demonstrasi yang menolak WTO di [[Seattle]], [[Amerika Serikat]], pada tahun 1999.]] Berkat GATT dan WTO, tarif dan hambatan-hambatan perdagangan lainnya telah dikurangi secara signifikan. Namun, janji bahwa perdagangan bébas akan melejitkan pertumbuhan ekonomi, mengurangi kemiskinan, dan meningkatkan pendapatan rakyat telah dipertanyakan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=164}} Sebagai contoh, [[El Salvador]] pada awal dasawarsa 1990-an menghapuskan semua hambatan kuantitatif terhadap impor dan juga memotong tarifnya. Namun, pertumbuhan ekonomi negara ini masih tetap lemah. Sementara itu, Vietnam baru mulai mereformasi ekonominya pada akhir dasawarsa 1980-an dan negara ini tidak terburu-buru untuk bergabung dengan WTO, tetapi malah memutuskan untuk mengikuti model [[reformasi ekonomi Tiongkok]] dengan melakukan liberalisasi secara perlahan. Walaupun ada faktor lain yang memengaruhi performa ekonomi kedua negara ini, Vietnam malah berhasil melejitkan pertumbuhan ekonominya dan menekan angka kemiskinan tanpa langsung menghapuskan hambatan perdagangan secara substansial.{{sfn|Rodrik|2007|pp=14}}{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=164-165}} Ekonom [[Ha-Joon Chang]] sendiri berpendapat bahwa terdapat sebuah "paradoks" dalam keyakinan [[neoliberalisme|neoliberal]] mengenai perdagangan bebas, karena pertumbuhan ekonomi negara berkembang lebih tinggi pada periode 1960-1980 dibandingkan dengan periode 1980-2000 meskipun kebijakan dagangnya jauh lebih liberal daripada sebelumnya. Selain itu, terdapat pula hasil penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa negara baru akan aktif mengurangi hambatan perdagangan setelah menjadi negara kaya. Dari hasil penelitian ini, para pengkritik WTO berpendapat bahwa liberalisasi perdagangan tidak menjamin pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pengentasan kemiskinan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=165}} Para pengkritik WTO juga mengemukakan pandangan bahwa keuntungan yang diperoleh dari perdagangan bebas tidak terbagi secara merata. Kritik ini biasanya ditopang dengan data yang menunjukkan bahwa jurang antara yang kaya dan miskin terus melebar, terutama di [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] dan [[India]] yang semakin bertambah ketimpangan ekonominya meskipun pertumbuhan ekonominya sangat tinggi.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=166-167}} Selain itu, pendekatan WTO yang ingin mengurangi hambatan perdagangan dapat merugikan negara berkembang. Dengan dihapuskannya tarif, suatu negara akan kehilangan salah satu sumber pendapatannya.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=170}} Liberalisasi perdagangan yang terlalu dini juga ditakutkan akan memerangkap negara berkembang di sektor primer yang tidak membutuhkan tenaga kerja yang terampil.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=171}} Saat negara berkembang ingin memajukan ekonominya dengan cara [[industrialisasi]], industri yang baru lahir tidak bisa serta merta langsung meroket begitu saja, sehingga sulit bersaing dengan negara lain yang industrinya lebih maju. Konon ekonom terkemuka [[Adam Smith]] pernah memberikan nasihat kepada pemerintah Amerika Serikat yang baru merdeka saat itu agar mereka fokus pada sektor pertanian daripada mencoba menyaingi Eropa yang industrinya lebih maju, tetapi Amerika Serikat tidak menggubrisnya dan malah memasang tarif yang tinggi untuk melindungi produsen Amerika. Setelah itu barulah Amerika Serikat menjadi salah satu negara dengan industri terkuat di dunia.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=173}} Hal yang sama juga berlaku untuk [[Macan Asia Timur]], dan bahkan muncul dugaan bahwa jika [[Korea Selatan]] menghapuskan tarifnya sebelum ekonomi mereka tumbuh pesat, kemungkinan besar saat ini negara tersebut hanya akan menjadi negara miskin penghasil beras.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=174}} WTO turut digempur kritikan bahwa lembaga tersebut tidak demokratis. Pertama-tama, aturan WTO membatasi kemampuan negara untuk mengatur ekonominya, dan hal ini menyulitkan upaya negara untuk menegakkan keinginan rakyat. Selain itu, proses pengambilan keputusan di lembaga WTO dianggap kurang melibatkan lembaga swadaya masyarakat, padahal keputusan yang diambil di lembaga tersebut akan berdampak terhadap penghidupan banyak orang.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=56-57}} Ditambah lagi proses perundingan di WTO sering kali dilakukan secara rahasia oleh kelompok-kelompok dengan kepentingan ekonomi tertentu, dan rakyat sendiri kurang diinformasikan soal kesepakatan-kesepakatan tersebut.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=58}} Akibatnya, aturan-aturan WTO pun didominasi oleh kepentingan dagang, dan kepentingan lainnya (seperti [[hak asasi manusia]], [[hak-hak buruh|hak buruh]], dan pelestarian lingkungan hidup) cenderung dikesampingkan dan juga tidak terwakilkan dalam proses pengambilan keputusannya.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=58-59}} Selain itu, negara-negara maju memiliki kekuatan untuk mendominasi proses perundingan di WTO. Walaupun keputusan diambil lewat konsensus, negara-negara kecil sulit dalam menantang negara-negara maju apabila terdapat ketidaksetujuan. Oleh sebab itu, negara-negara kecil pun sulit untuk mendapatkan perjanjian yang adil untuk kepentingan mereka.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=62-63}} Hal ini semakin diperparah dengan kebiasaan perundingan di GATT yang tidak selalu melibatkan semuanya, contohnya keberadaan "ruang hijau" yang hanya melibatkan anggota-anggota yang diundang,{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=63}} walaupun pakar hukum WTO Peter Van den Bossche membantah kritikan bahwa WTO adalah "klub orang-orang kaya" karena saat ini negara-negara berkembang menjadi semakin terlibat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan dan persetujuan dari mereka sangat diperlukan demi kemulusan prosesnya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=155}} Selain itu, dalam proses penyelesaian sengketa, negara maju lebih unggul daripada negara miskin dalam memulai sengketa dan juga dalam menegakkan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding. Sengketa di WTO memakan biaya yang besar dan membutuhkan tenaga-tenaga ahli. Kalaupun ada negara kecil yang berhasil memenangkan sengketa, tindakan balasan yang dapat mereka ambil tidak akan terlalu berdampak terhadap negara maju yang ekonominya jauh lebih besar, dan kadang negara maju bahkan dapat mengabaikan putusan yang tidak mereka sukai.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=67}} Katimpangan antara nagara maju jeung nagara berkembang katempo pisan dina daptar séktor tatanén. Hukum WTO metik kritik kasar sabab [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tatanén]] diwenangkeun nagara maju pikeun tetep ngajaga subsidi tatanénna sok padahal ieu téh kalintang ngarugikeun nagara-nagara berkembang (contona téh [[Kawijakan Tatanén Bareng]] di Uni Éropa). Balukar tina subsidi éta, nagara-nagara ieu bisa ngajual hasil anu leuwih ka pasar dunya kalawan harga anu jauh leuwih handap, jeung dina waktos anu sami aranjeunna boga paménta éta nagara-nagara berkembang muka pasar keur maranéhanana. Balukarna para patani di nagara berkembang teu bisa bersaing jeung produk tatanén ti nagara maju.{{sfn|Gonzalez|2002|pp=438}} Sanajan anggota WTO geus sapuk pikeun mupuskeun subsidi ékspor tatanén, nagara maju masih mertahankeun ngasubsidi sarta ngajaga sektor tatanén maranéhanana jeung halangan-halangan dagang, jeung prakték ieu ngahalangan pangwangunan industri tatanén di nagara berkembang. Dina waktos anu sasarengan, lamun sagala subsidi tatanén langsung dileungitkeun, harga dahareun bisa ngaronjat sarta ieu ogé bakal ngarugikeun rakyat jeung ngancem kasadiaan pangan. Tah ku kituna, ahli hukum kritis ka WTO ti sudut pandang HAM, Sarah Joseph, ngusulkeun yén subsidi ieu dileungitkeun lalaunan ku kituna pasar bisa nyaluyukeun jeung parobahan anu lumangsung.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=211-213}} == Tempo ogé == * [[Legalisme agresif]] == Catetan tambihan == <references group="lower-alpha"/> == Cutatan == {{reflist|20em}} == Daptar pustaka == === Buku === * {{cite book|last1=De Schutter|first1=Olivier|authorlink=Olivier De Schutter|title= Trade in the Service of Sustainable Development: Linking Trade to Labour Rights and Environmental Standards|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=[[Oxford]] & [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]|year=2015|isbn=9781782257134|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=z_5kCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=6+december+1950+ITO+ratification&source=bl&ots=fMUrW2QhGz&sig=ACfU3U0beG8HT5SdxkXr8vqSK0KbcP5uhA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7icPc_5zhAhVC63MBHX8NB8IQ6AEwDnoECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=6%20december%201950%20ITO%20ratification&f=false|ref={{sfnref|De Schutter|2015}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Gaines|first1=Sanford E.|last2=Olsen|first2=Birgitte Egelund|editor-last1=Gaines|editor-first1=Sanford E.|editor-last2=Olsen|editor-first2=Birgitte Egelund|editor-last3=Sørensen|editor-first3=Karsten Engsig |title=Liberalising Trade in the EU and the WTO|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2012|chapter=Trade and Social Objectives|isbn=9781107012752|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=tepCnmk-_isC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Gaines & Olsen|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Hoekman|first1=Bernard M.|last2=Mavroidis|first2=Petros C.|title=The World Organization: Law, Economics, and Politics|publisher=Routledge|location=[[London]] & [[New York City|New York]]|year=2007|isbn=9780415414586|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/The_World_Trade_Organization.html?id=3yIke0Yp4EoC&redir_esc=y|ref={{sfnref|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007}}}} * {{cite book|last=Joseph|first=Sarah|title=Blame it on the WTO?: A Human Rights Critique|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2011|isbn=9780199565894|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=-U_1KMg6GkgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Joseph|2011}}}} * {{cite book|last=Lowenfeld|first=Andreas F.|title=International Economic Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|edition=2|year=2008|isbn=9780199226931|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=kz9M4JKgm78C&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Lowenfeld|2008}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Macrory|first1=Patrick F.J.|last2=Appleton|first2=Arthur E.|last3=Plummer|first3=Michael G.|title=The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis Volume I|publisher=Springer|location=New York City|year=2005|isbn=9780387226880|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=96x7IwWDJUQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Macrory, Appleton & Plummer|2005}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Matsushita|first1=Mitsuo|last2=Schoenbaum|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Mavroidis|first3=Petros C.|last4=Hahn|first4=Michael|title=The World Trade Organization: Law, Practice, and Policy|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|edition=3|year=2015|isbn=9780199571857|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-world-trade-organization-9780199571857?cc=at&lang=en&|ref={{sfnref|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Trebilcock|first1=Michael J.|last2=Howse|first2=Robert|title=The Regulation of International Trade|publisher=Routledge|location=London & New York|year=2005|edition=3|isbn=9780415700337|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/The_Regulation_of_International_Trade.html?id=Imhr2fprSTQC&redir_esc=y|ref={{sfnref|Trebilcock & Howse|2005}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Trebilcock|first1=Michael J.|last2=Howse|first2=Robert|last3=Eliason|first3=Antonia |title=The Regulation of International Trade|publisher=Routledge|location=London & New York|year=2012|edition=4|isbn=9780415610896|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=mOz2UDO1W3oC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Van den Bossche|first1=Peter|authorlink1=Peter Van den Bossche|last2=Zdouc|first2=Werner|title=The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]]|year=2017|edition=4|isbn=9781316662496|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=ARkuDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Van den Bossche|first1=Peter|last2=Prévost|first2=Denise|title=Essentials of WTO Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]]|year=2016|isbn=9781316571545|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=FXQ_jgEACAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016}}}} * {{cite book|last=VanGrasstek|first=Craig|title=The History and Future of the World Trade Organization|publisher=World Trade Organization|location=[[Jenewa]]|year=2013|isbn=9789287038715|url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/historywto_e.pdf|ref={{sfnref|VanGrasstek|2013}}}} * {{cite book|last=Wunsch-Vincent|first=Sacha|title=WTO, E-commerce and Information Technologies: From the Uruguay Round through the Doha Development Agenda |publisher=The United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force|location=[[New York City]]|year=2005|ref={{sfnref|Wunsch-Vincent|2005}}}} === Jurnal === * {{Cite journal|last=Bown|first=Chad P.|last2=Wu|first2=Mark|year=2014|title=Safeguards and the Perils of Preferential Trade Agreements: ''Dominican Republic–Safeguard Measures''|url=http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1474745614000111|journal=World Trade Review|volume=13|pages=179–227|ref={{sfnref|Bown & Wu|2014}}}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal |last=Gonzalez|first=Carmen G.|title=Institutionalizing Inequality: The WTO Agreement on Agriculture, Food Security, and Developing Countries|journal=Columbia Journal of Environmental Law|volume=27|year=2002|page=433-490|url=https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1415&context=faculty|ref={{sfnref|Gonzalez|2002}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Marx|first=Aaron|title=The ITA II: Successful Trade Liberalization|journal=Global Trade and Customs Journal|volume=10|year=2015|page=346-354|url=https://www.kluwerlawonline.com/abstract.php?area=Journals&id=GTCJ2015042|ref={{sfnref|Marx|2015}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211021820/https://kluwerlawonline.com/abstract.php?id=GTCJ2015042&area=Journals|archive-date=2025-02-11|accessdate=2023-03-07}} * {{cite journal|last=Rodrik|first=Dani|title=How to Save Globalization from its Cheerleaders|journal=The Journal of International Trade and Diplomacy|volume=1|year=2007|page=1-33|url=http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf|ref={{sfnref|Rodrik|2007}}|access-date=2019-03-26|archive-date=2016-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208100820/http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf|dead-url=unfit}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208100820/http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf |date=2016-02-08 }} === Sumber onlén === * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org7_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/77ACJRBlF?url=https://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org7_e.htm|archivedate=2019-03-26|title=Least-developed Countries|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=26 Maret 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Least-developed Countries}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/English/Tratop_E/devel_e/d1who_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/77ACGaMwp?url=https://www.wto.org/English/Tratop_E/devel_e/d1who_e.htm|archivedate=2019-03-26|title=Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=26 Maret 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/75lVbgUkY?url=https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm|archivedate=2019-01-28|title=WTO Legal Texts|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=28 Januari 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Legal Texts}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/wto-talks-collapse-in-cancun/a-970989|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/75lFDUDzv?url=https://www.dw.com/en/wto-talks-collapse-in-cancun/a-970989|archivedate=2019-01-28|title=WTO Talks Collapse in Cancun|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=15 September 2003|accessdate=28 Januari 2019|ref={{sfnref|Deutsche Welle|2003}}|dead-url=no}} == Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category|World Trade Organization}} * {{en}} {{resmi|http://www.wto.int/}} {{WTO}} [[Kategori:Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia| ]] [[Kategori:Organisasi internasional]] bwa45psy4x8th1yvyzqtg8fcucq4hdd Gedong De Vries 0 104806 732118 728763 2026-11-10T21:04:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732118 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Warenhuis de vries (26754467974).jpg|jmpl|Gedong De Vries]] '''Gedong De Vries''' atawa Warenhuis De Vries mangrupakeun wangunan anu ayana di [[Jalan Asia Afrika]], sabalikna [[Gedung Merdeka|Gedong Merdéka]] jeung [[Musieum Konferensi Asia Afrika]]. Baheula, wangunan ieu asalna milik urang [[Walanda]] ngaranna [[Andreas de Vries]]. [[Walanda]] anjog ka [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] dina taun 1899 sarta jadi padumuk Éropa ka-1.500 di dayeuh [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]]. Nalika mimiti datang, [[Andreas de Vries]] muka toko sembako leutik di sisi [[Jalan Raya Pos|Jalan Raya Post]] ''(Grote Postweg)'', tepatna di kaléreun Alun-Alun (ayeuna Gedong BRI). Satuluyna manéhna nyéwa wangunan kuloneun [[Hotél Savoy Homann]] sarta dipindahkeun bisnis na. toko De Vries jadi pusat babalanja munggaran di [[Kota Bandung]] sarta dipikawanoh di sakuliah kota.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bandung.go.id/features/detail/4/gedung-de-vries-bandung|title=GEDUNG DE VRIES BANDUNG|last=Bandung|first=Website Resmi Kota|website=https://www.bandung.go.id|language=id|accessdate=2023-11-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124110605/https://www.bandung.go.id/features/detail/4/gedung-de-vries-bandung|archivedate=2023-11-24}}</ref> == Sajarah == Saméméhna, wangunan ieu mangrupa paranti babalanja milik urang [[Walanda]] ngaranna [[Andreas de Vries]]. [[Andreas de Vries]] anjog ka Bandung dina taun 1899 sarta kacatet salaku salah sahiji warga [[Éropa]]. Taun 2005, gedong ieu ngalihkeun kapamilikan ka [[OCBC NISP]]. Nepi ka 2008, Gedong De Vries ditinggalkeun kosong. Ngan dina taun 2010, [[OCBC NISP]] ngalaksanakeun rénovasi tanpa ngarobah bentuk aslina tina wangunan [[cagar budaya]], sarta dina taun 2011, wangunan ieu mimiti dipaké.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://direktoripariwisata.id/unit/8522|title=Gedung De Vries,|website=direktoripariwisata.id|accessdate=2023-11-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124112034/https://direktoripariwisata.id/unit/8522|archivedate=2023-11-24}}</ref> [[Gambar:Warenhuis de vries (27086503680).jpg|jmpl|Gedong Warenhuis De Vries]] Gedong De Vries perenahna ngan kuloneun [[Hotél Savoy Homann]] di tungtung sabalikna ti [[Jalan Braga]] (arah kidul). [[Andreas de Vries]], basa mimiti datang, muka toko sembako leutik di sisi [[Jalan Raya Pos]] ''(Grote Postweg)'', kalereun Taman [[Alun-alun Bandung|Alun-Alun Bandung]] anu ayeuna jadi [[Gedong BRI Tower]]. Manéhna tuluy mindahkeun tokona anu ayeuna jadi gedong [[OCBC NISP Tbk]] Kanyaho De Vries, toko anu munggaran di [[Kota Bandung]], geus kakoncara di sakuliah kota. Mimitina, toko ieu mangrupa imah Walanda kalawan gaya [[arsitéktur Indis]], ngabogaan sababaraha pilar di hareup wangunan. Dina 1879, Gedong De Vries dipaké ku ''[[Societeit Concordia]]''. Wangunan ieu ogé jadi tempat pasamoan para [[Preangerplanter]], pangusaha perkebunan di [[Parahiyangan|Priangan]], jeung kelompok elit di [[Kota Bandung]] anu mindeng ngayakeun hiburan saperti tari-tarian tradisional.<ref name=":0" /> Taun 1895, [[Societeit Concordia|''Societeit Concordia'']] pindah ka gedong peuntaseun jalan anu ayeuna katelah [[Gedung Merdeka|Gedong Merdéka]]. Samentara éta, toko nu dikokolakeun ku [[Andreas de Vries]] terus dipikawanoh minangka hiji-hijina toko nu nyadiakeun sagala rupa kaperluan, mimitian ti kadaharan, kaen, sapatu, obat-obatan, curutu, buku, kertas, alat-alat tatanén, gelas, parabot jeung sagala rupa kaperluan lianna. Toko De Vries bisa dijadikeun cikal bakal mol munggaran di [[Kota Bandung|Bandung.]] Gedong toko De Vries kungsi diséwakeun ka toko pakean, toko jagal jeung toko mobil.<ref name=":0" /> == Pamugaran == Gedong De Vries ngalaman rénovasi dina 1909 sareng 1920, dimana desain gedong dibikeun ka firma arsitéktur [[Edward Cuypers Hulswit]]. Di sisi wétan, munara diwangun sarta masih bisa ditempo kiwari. Tapi, nalika asupna dékade mimiti abad ka-20, kamulyaan toko ieu mimiti luntur ku mecenghulna toko-toko anyar anu leuwih gedé jeung leuwih kompréhénsif, salah sahijina nyaéta [[Toko Onderling Belang]] di [[Jalan Braga]] taun 1913.<ref name=":1" /> [[Gambar:Warenhuis de vries (27291444521).jpg|jmpl|Gedong De Vries]] Sanggeus merdéka, urut gedong Toko De Vries dijadikeun [[Goodland Photo Studio]], tuluy dirobah jadi [[Réstoran Pepping]] jeung Réstoran Padang. Dina taun 1990-an, wangunan ieu teu dipaké jeung ditinggalkeun. Dina 2005, kapamilikan wangunan ieu dibikeun ka [[OCBC NISP]]. Nepi ka taun 2008, Gedong De Vries masih katémbong ditinggalkeun. Ngan dina taun 2010, [[OCBC NISP]] meunang persetujuan ti pamaréntah pikeun ngarénovasi wangunan ieu tanpa ngarobah wangun aslina salaku wangunan cagar budaya.<ref name=":1" /> Tanggal 29 April 2011, Gedong De Vries diresmikeun minangka kantor OCBC NISP Tbk. Sanaos henteu sakabéh kamar dipaké salaku operasi bank, lantai dasar Gedong De Vries dirobah jadi musieum leutik anu nampilkeun barang-barang antik, kaasup alat-alat perbankan ti jaman baheula. Ayeuna, kamungkinan pikeun muka musium ka umum nuju dipertimbangkeun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://prfmnews.pikiran-rakyat.com/bandung-raya/pr-133514221/kini-jadi-gedung-bank-gedung-de-vries-ternyata-toko-serbaada-pertama-di-kota-bandung?page=3|title=Kini Jadi Gedung Bank, Gedung De Vries Ternyata Tojo Serbaada Pertama di Kota Bandung}}</ref> bjf53v6m8wp0rocrbp6omp2lj4pjxr7 CBS 0 105034 732104 730351 2026-11-10T20:23:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732104 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:CBS logo (2020).svg|thumbnail]] '''CBS Broadcasting Inc.''', biasa disingget jadi '''CBS''' (singketan tina urut ngaran hukum '''Columbia Broadcasting System''') nyaéta jaringan televisi sareng radio komérsial [[Amérika Sarikat]] anu dipiboga ku CBS Entertainment Group, divisi tina [[Paramount Global]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CBS Entertainment|url=https://www.paramount.com/brand/cbs-entertainment|website=paramount.com|accessdate=2023-05-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528090243/https://www.paramount.com/brand/cbs-entertainment|archivedate=2023-05-28}}</ref> Diadegkeun dina 18 September 1927 ku [[Arthur Judson]] jeung [[William S. Paley]]. Stasion ieu kantor pusatna di CBS Building di [[Kota New York]] sareng janten bagian tina jaringan televisi "Tilu Besar". == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu éksternal == * {{Official website|https://www.cbs.com/}} [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Amérika Sarikat]] 0k8uwmhdk6g2x52z2uz7o4po6bhq3cj Cilamaya 0 105085 732109 728581 2026-11-10T20:31:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732109 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; border-spacing:2px; background-color:#f8f9fa; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;" |+ style="font-size:1.25em; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.2em;" | Curug Cilamaya |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.2em;" | [[File:Air terjun Curug Cilamaya, Subang, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Éndahna Curug Cilamaya di wewengkon Subang.]] |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#e2e2e2;" | Perenah | [[Kabupatén Subang|Subang]], [[Jawa Kulon]] |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Aliran Walungan | Cilamaya |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#e2e2e2;" | Jangkungna | ''Data teu acan aya'' |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Jinis Curug | Plunge / Terjun |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#e2e2e2;" | Nagara | [[Indonésia]] |} '''Walungan Cilamaya''' nyaéta walungan nu panjangna kira-kira 97 km di propinsi Jawa Barat ngawengku [[Kabupatén Karawang]], [[Kabupatén Subang]], jeung [[Kabupatén Purwakarta]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jpnn.com/news/sungai-cilamaya-menghitam-dan-berbau-muslim-hafidz-gubernur-jabar-tidak-serius|title=}}</ref>. Walungan Cilamaya aya di belah wétan Karawang nu mangrupa wates kecamatan Karawang jeung Kabupatén Subang. Daérah wétan walungan cilamaya kaasup kana wewengkon Kabupatén Subang, anapon daérah kulon sungai cilamaya mangrupa bagéan ti wewengkon Kabupatén Karawang<ref>{{Cite journal|date=|title=|url=https://download.garuda.kemdikbud.go.id/article.php?article=1621021&val=11259&title=The%20Karawang%20Dutch%20Indies%20Waterworks%20in%20The%20Agriculture%20Context%20BANGUNAN-BANGUNAN%20AIR%20MASA%20HINDIA%20BELANDA%20DI%20WILAYAH%20KARAWANG%20DALAM%20KONTEKS%20PERTANIAN%20PADI|journal=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330103334/https://download.garuda.kemdikbud.go.id/article.php?article=1621021&val=11259&title=The%20Karawang%20Dutch%20Indies%20Waterworks%20in%20The%20Agriculture%20Context%20BANGUNAN-BANGUNAN%20AIR%20MASA%20HINDIA%20BELANDA%20DI%20WILAYAH%20KARAWANG%20DALAM%20KONTEKS%20PERTANIAN%20PADI|archive-date=2024-03-30|accessdate=2024-03-30}}</ref>. Walungan Cilamaya ngalir ti kidul ka kalér jeung huluna di Gunung Sunda atawa Gunung Tangkuban Parahu sarta dialirkeun ka Laut Jawa. Mata air ieu walungan aya di Curug Cilamaya, Désa Parakaneuri, Kiarapedes, Kabupatén Purwakarta. == Géografis jeung Kaayaan Alam == Wewengkon Kacamatan Cilamaya Wétan kaasup kana dataran rendah, ngabogaan lamping kurang leuwih 5 nepi ka 10 derajat<ref>{{Cite journal|date=|title=|url=https://www.karawangkab.go.id/sites/default/files/pdf/Cilamaya%20Wetan.pdf|journal=}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>. Kaayaan Alam Kacamatan Cilamaya Wétan mangrupa wewengkon anu masih kénéh rawan banjir nalika usum hujan jeung halodo nalika usum halodo. Daerah Aliran Sungai Cilamaya (DAS) legana 390,01 km2 ngawengku kabupatén Karawang, Purwakarta, Subang jeung sabagian wewengkon Kabupatén Bandung. Bagian hulu walungan ayana di wates propinsi Subang jeung Purwakarta, sarta muara walungan ayana di deukeut Cilamaya Wétan di propinsi Karawang. Anak sungai panggedéna di antarana [[Walungan Citarum|walungan Ciwaru]], [[walungan Cilandak]], [[Walungan Cibuni|walungan Cihuni]], [[walungan Cikeruh]], [[walungan Cijengkol]], [[walungan Cihalang,]] [[walungan Cijalu]], jeung [[walungan Cilemper]]. Kaayaan Walungan Cilamaya ayeuna kacida kotorna sarta dianggap salah sahiji kajahatan lingkungan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rmoljabar.id/kejahatan-lingkungan-dprd-jabar-desak-pabrik-pencemar-sungai-cilamaya-ditindak-tegas|title=Kejahatan Lingkungan, DPRD Jabar Desak Pabrik Pencemar Sungai Cilamaya Ditindak Tegas|last=rmolnetwork|website=RMOLJABAR|language=id|accessdate=2024-03-30}}</ref>. Walungan Cilamaya mindeng hideung, buih jeung bau, utamana dina [[usum halodo]]. Ku polusi ieu, para peternak sareng patani di sapanjang Walungan Cimalaya sesah milarian sumber cai. Pencemaran lingkungan di sabudeureun walungan Cilamaya ogé beuki mangaruhan kana kahirupan masarakat. Masarakat curiga yén sababaraha industri sapanjang walungan ieu ngaluarkeun runtah industri ka walungan tanpa idin. Penanganan dugaan pencemaran lingkungan dihambat ku wewenang anu kawates sarta ayana wates administratif anu teu ngidinan harmonisasi penanganan pencemaran lingkungan<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Ci_Lamaya|title=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401130616/https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Ci_Lamaya|archive-date=2024-04-01|access-date=2024-04-01}}</ref>. == Ruwatan == Seniman anu jadi anggota Teater Jero ngalaksanakeun prosesi Tradisi Ruwatan Walungan Cilamaya di [[Bendungan Barugbug]], Jatisari, Karawang, Jawa Barat. Kagiatan ieu diayakeun ku Forum Daerah Walungan Cilamaya Berbunga (Fordas) minangka wujud rasa sukur jeung berkah anu dipaparinkeun ku Gusti Alloh kana cai anu ngalir ti walungan Cilamaya ngaliwatan Kabupaten Purwakarta, Subang jeung Karawang pikeun kahirupan masarakat<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://jabar.antaranews.com/foto/315173/tradisi-ruwatan-sungai-cilamaya-di-karawang|title=}}</ref>. == Transportasi == Saméméhna aya jalur karéta api [[Cikampék, Karawang|Cikampek]]-Cilamaya anu nyambungkeun Stasion Cikampek jeung Stasion Cilamaya. Jalur ieu mangrupa jalur [[trem uap]], tapi ti saprak 1970 jalur ieu dinonaktipkeun ku [[Kereta Api Indonesia|PT. KAI]]. Ayeuna aya angkutan ka Cilamaya kalebet jalur Cilamaya-Cikampek jeung [[Ciasem, Subang|Ciasem]]-Cilamaya (via Blanakan), jeung titik akhir di pasar Cilamaya<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Cilamaya_Wetan,_Karawang|title=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401130618/https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Cilamaya_Wetan,_Karawang|archive-date=2024-04-01|access-date=2024-04-01}}</ref>. == Kabudayaan == Watak Duryodana dina [[wayang kulit]] [[Kota Cirebon|Cirebon]] gaya Cilamaya karya Ki Ardi, diciptakeun deui ku Ki Enang Sutria sarta didamel deui ku Arie Nugraha. Nurutkeun peta kabudayaan propinsi [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa Barat]] taun 2011, wewengkon Cilamaya (Cilamaya Wetan jeung Cilamaya Kulon) mangrupa wewengkon budaya jeung linguistik Cirebon, ku kituna kosa kecap basa Cirebon gampang kapanggih di wewengkon ieu. Salian ti sasaruaan basa daerah anu digunakeun, kasenian di ieu wewengkon ogé aya sasaruaan jeung anu aya di wewengkon Cirebon, saperti kasenian wayang kulit. Kasenian wayang kulit di ieu wewengkon mangrupa bagéan tina sumebarna kasenian wayang kulit anu mangrupa ragam has wayang kulit Cirebon. Di Cilamaya Kulon ogé aya warisan budaya anu mangrupa makam Bupati Karawang<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Cilamaya_Kulon,_Karawang|title=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401130619/https://p2k.stekom.ac.id/ensiklopedia/Cilamaya_Kulon,_Karawang|archive-date=2024-04-01|access-date=2024-04-01}}</ref>. == Référési == [[Kategori:Wikilatih UPI 2024]] [[Kategori:Alam]] [[Kategori:Walungan di Indonésia]] 3jelpqletlly6ezk6n4brblqpywd7hj Zakiah Daradjat 0 105188 732187 729359 2026-11-11T04:14:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732187 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zakiah Daradjat''' atawa Pof. Dr. H. Zakiah Daradjat mangrupakeun inohong dina widang [[psikologi Islam]] di [[Indonésia]] anu kakoncara. Salian ti fokus kana [[psikologi Islam]], manéhna oge giat dina widang [[pangatikan Islam]]. Kulantaran aya dua widang anu dipikawanoh ku manéhna jadi miboga ciri has kana widang pangatikan jiwa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/zakiah-daradjat-pelopor-pendidikan-agama-di-sekolah-umum-cKpV|title=Zakiah Daradjat, Pelopor Pendidikan Agama di Sekolah Umum|last=Putri|first=Aditya Widya|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2024-05-04}}</ref> == Awal kahirupan == Zakiah Daradjat dibabarkeun ping 6 Nopémber 1929 di [[Jorong Koto Marapak]], [[Nagari Lambah]], [[Ampek Angkek]], [[Agam]]. Bapana, Husain Daradjat Husain, aktip dina gerakan [[Muhammadiyah]], sedengkeun indungna, Rafiah, anggota [[Sarékat Islam]]. Embah bapana, Husin Dt. Marajo, nyaéta Kapala Nagari Lambah. Zakiah téh pangkolotna ti 11 anak, lima di antarana ti indung anu béda. Sanajan kolotna lain kasang tukang ulama, Zakiah jeung dulur-dulurna dididik ku atikan agama anu kuat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laduni.id/post/read/517722/biografi-prof-dr-hj-zakiah-daradjat-ulama-perempuan-pelopor-pendidikan-agama-di-sekolah-umum.html|title=Biografi Prof. Dr. Hj. Zakiah Daradjat: Ulama Perempuan Pelopor Pendidikan Agama di Sekolah Umum|last=DIA|first=Yayasan|website=Biografi Prof. Dr. Hj. Zakiah Daradjat: Ulama Perempuan Pelopor Pendidikan Agama di Sekolah Umum|language=en|accessdate=2024-05-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240504221716/https://www.laduni.id/post/read/517722/biografi-prof-dr-hj-zakiah-daradjat-ulama-perempuan-pelopor-pendidikan-agama-di-sekolah-umum.html|archivedate=2024-05-04}}</ref> Nalika nincak umur tujuh taun, Zakiah mimiti sakola. Isuk-isuk diajar di Sakola Standar Muhammadiyah jeung di Sakola Diniyah sore. Salila sakola, manéhna némbongkeun minat anu hadé kana sains jeung agama. Nalika masih kelas opat SD, manéhna nyieun biantara munggaran di hareupeun guru jeung séniorna. Guruna waktu harita méré pancén pikeun biantara dina acara perpisahan sakola. Sanggeus lulus taun 1941, Zakiah nuluykeun atikanana di SMP di [[Padang Panjang, Susoh, Aceh Barat Daya|Padang Panjang]] bari di sakola agama di ''[[Kulliyatul Muballighat]]'', kursus pikeun calon ''mubaligh''. Pangaweruh anu dimeunangkeun ku ''[[Kulliyatul Muballighat]]'' mantuan ngamekarkeun minatna pikeun jadi tukang dakwah.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ulama perempuan Indonesia|url=https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Ulama_Perempuan_Indonesia.html?id=KL8MEwzjSBoC&redir_esc=y&hl=su|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|date=2002|isbn=978-979-686-644-1|language=id|first=Jajat|last=Burhanuddin}}</ref> Taun 1951, Zakiah nganggeuskeun atikan SMA di [[Bukit Tinggi, Pegagan Hilir, Dairi|Bukittinggi]]. Saméméhna, manéhna kungsi diajar di Sakola Asisten Apotéker, tapi teu nuluykeun alatan [[Agrési Militér Walanda I|Agrési Militer Walanda II]] anu ngabalukarkeun akrusakan di daérah [[Bukit Tinggi, Pegagan Hilir, Dairi|Bukittinggi]]. Sanggeus éta, manéhna ninggalkeun lemah cai pikeun nuluykeun atikan luhur di [[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]]. Manéhna asup jeung lulus di dua paguron luhur anu béda fakultas, nya éta Fakultas Tarbiyah [[Perguruan Tinggi Islam Negeri Yogyakarta (PTAIN)]] jeung Fakultas Hukum [[Universitas Islam Indonesia|Universitas Islam Indonésia]] (UII). Sanajan kitu, sanggeus taun katilu, manéhna ninggalkeun kuliah di UII kualatan kolotna nitah atawa mere peupeujeuh manéhna kudu fokus kana hiji jurusan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rahima.or.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1094:zakiah-daradjat-perempuan-suci-berilmu-tinggi&catid=38:fikrah&Itemid=271|title=Zakiah Daradjat : Perempuan Suci Berilmu Tinggi : Fikrah Edisi 42|website=web.archive.org|accessdate=2024-05-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714223120/http://www.rahima.or.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1094:zakiah-daradjat-perempuan-suci-berilmu-tinggi&catid=38:fikrah&Itemid=271|archivedate=2014-07-14}}</ref> == Pangatikan di Mesir == Dina taun 1956, sataun sanggeus [[Konférénsi Asia Afrika|Konférénsi Asia–Afrika]] di [[Indonésia]], Zakiah narima tawaran béasiswa ikatan jasa ti [[Departemen Agama]] pikeun diajar di [[Mesir]], berkat gawé babarengan tur réréongan antara pamaréntah [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Mesir]]. Manéhna ditarima di Fakultas Pendidikan di [[Universitas Ain Shams]], [[Kairo]] anau teu kudu ngaliwatan tés keur abus kana program Master. Salaku hiji-hijina awéwé ti Indonésia, kaputusan Zakiah jeung widi kolotna dianggap léngkah révolusionér. Tugas akhir anu dijieun nalika kuliah, manéhna nulis ngeunaan masalah rumaja di [[Indonésia]] meunangkeun gelar magister dina taun 1959, sanggeus saacanna meunangkeun diploma pascasarjana kalawan spésialisasi dina atikan taun saméméhna. Ieu skripsi meunang perhatian ti kalangan akademisi di [[Kairo]], dijadikeun rujukan jeung bahan warta. Nalika Zakiah keur diajar, psikologi teu pati populér atawa kurang dipikawanoh di sakuliah mahasiswa Muslim. Élmu psikologi didominasi ku psikoanalisis Sigmund Freud, anu nempatkeun alam bawah sadar salaku faktor konci dina kapribadian manusa. Zakiah ngenalkeun metode non-diréktif ti Carl Rogers, anu dina waktu harita kakara mimiti dikembangkeun jeung diwanohkeun ku paguron luhur. Manéhna dijadikeun utusan disertasi dina model non-diréktif Psikotérapi ku fokus kana Psikotérapi pikeun barudak miboga masalah psikis, sarta proposal na disatujuan ku pihak universitas. Nalika anggeus kuliah doktor di universitas anu sarua, Zakiah mimiti muka prakték konsultasi psikiatri di almamater na. Manéhna ogé ngajar [[basa Indonésia]] di [[Kairo]] jeung jadi Kepala Jurusan Bahasa Indonésia di Sekolah Tinggi Bahasa. Tina panghasilanana ngajar basa salila tilu taun, manéhna bisa mawa kolotna ka [[Mesir]] salila tujuh bulan sarta ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji di [[Mekah]]. Taun 1964, kalayan disertasi ngeunaan perawatan jiwa anak, Manéhna junun meunangkeun gelar doktor psikologi kalayan spésialisasi psikotérapi ti [[Universitas Ain Shams]]. Panalungtikan disertasina meunang pangajén ti Présidén [[Jamal Abdul Nasir|Gamal Abdul Nasir]], nya éta “Medal Ilmu” anu dipabikeun dina miéling [[Poé Élmu Mesir]] taun 1965. == Kagiatan jeung pakasaban == === Widang atikan === Sanggeus balik deui ka [[Indonésia]] dina taun 1964, Zakiah ngamimitian karirna di Jurusan Agama salaku pagawé di Biro Pendidikan Tinggi bari jadi dosén keliling paguron luhur agama Islam di [[Indonésia]]. Taun 1967, Menteri Agama [[Saifuddin Zuhri]] ngangkat Zakiah jadi Kepala Dinas Riset Pendidikan Tinggi jeung Kurikulum di Biro Pendidikan Tinggi, Departemen Agama. Dimimitian taun 1972, manéhna jadi Diréktur Pendidikan Agama nepi ka taun 1977. Taun 1977, Zakiah naék pangkat jadi Diréktur Pembinaan Pendidikan Tinggi Agama Islam nepi ka Maret 1984. Bareng jeung réformasi internal Departemen Agama anu dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah Orde Baru, Zakiah mingpin pangwangunan jeung réformasi dina widang atikan Islam. Salasahiji kontribusina nya éta kawijakan réformasi madrasah dina Surat Keputusan Bersama (SKB) Tilu Mentri taun 1975, anu jadi solusi kana konflik antara Depdiknas jeung Depdiknas ngeunaan pendidikan ''one-stop''. Manéhna ogé narékahan pikeun ngaronjatkeun kualitas manajemen madrasah jeung akademisi ngaliwatan modél madrasah. Zakiah ogé berjuang pikeun ngangeuskeun pasualan Ujian Guru Agama jeung ngalaksanakeun program percepatan pikeun meunangkeun guru agama anu dibutuhkeun ku madrasah di sakuliah [[Indonésia]]. Tapi, masalah jumlah guru anu nyukupan ngabalukarkeun prak-prakan jual beli SK pasini, anu matak ngarugikeun nagara jeung ngurangan kualitas madrasah. Sanggeus éta, Zakiah resmi jadi dékan Fakultas Pascasarjana [[IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta]]. Salila karirna di birokrasi pamaréntah, Zakiah mindeng dipenta pikeun jadi penerjemah basa Arab nalika Présidén [[Suharto|Soeharto]] ngadatangan sababaraha nagara Wétan Tengah. Kaahlian ieu nyababkeun manéhna nampa "Orde Kelas Kaopat Kuwait" ti Karajaan Kuwait taun 1977 jeung panghargaan anu sarua ti Mesir "Kelas Kaopat Orde Mesir" ti Présidén [[Anwar Sadat]]. Sabagé Diréktur Diréktur Pendidikan Tinggi Agama, Zakiah loba méré kontribusina pikeun mekarkeun paguron luhur agama Islam, saperti muka jurusan tadris di IAIN jeung nyusun rarancang pangwangunan paguron luhur agama Islam anu jadi acuan IAIN sapanjangna di Indonésia. Sanajan geus mancén ti tugas resmi, Zakiah tetep aktip ngajar di [[UIN Syarif Hidayatullah]] jeung paguron luhur lianna sarta méré ceramah agama pikeun stasiun puseur RRI jeung [[TVRI]]. Salian ti éta, Zakiah ngadegkeun [[Yayasan Pendidikan Islam Ruhama]] di [[Kota Sukabumi]], anu ngawengku TK nepi ka SMK, minangka wujud gagasan dirina dina widang atikan jeung [[kaséhatan méntal]]. === Widang psikolog === Zakiah Daradjat ngamimitian ngalaksanakeun [[konsultasi psikologi]] nalika macén pagawéan di Jurusan Agama. Mimitina, manéhna ngan muka latihan dua kali saminggu. Tapi, dina taun 1965, ku ngaronjatna pasén atawa nau butuh konsultasi, manéhna mutuskeun pikeun muka prakték di imahna di Wisma Sejahtera, Jalan Fatmawati, Cipete, [[Kota Jakarta Kidul|Jakarta Kidul]]. Unggal poé gawé, manéhna nampa rata-rata lima anu konsultasi. Zakiah yakin yén gangguan jiwa anu mangaruhan kaayaan fisik hiji jalma bisa dilacak ngaliwatan studi psikologi jeung pangubaran bisa nuturkeun [[ajaran Islam]]. Eukeur manéhna, psikologi pohara kapaké pikeun nalungtik paripolah kaagamaan hiji jalma sarta pangaruhna kana paripolah jeung kahirupanana. Ku cara ngumpulkeun informasi ngeunaan kahirupan sapopoé jeung kahirupan kaagamaan hiji jalma, Zakiah ngolahna jadi cara nyageurkeun. Dina sidang jeung [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Républik Indonésia|DPR]] taun 2004, Zakiah ngritik lobana program télévisi anu teu luyu jeung ajén-inajén agama jeung étika moral masarakat. Nurutkeun manéhna, siaran télévisi anu eusina kekerasan, seks jeung hal mistis bisa ngaruksak akal jeung logika panongton. Zakiah nétélakeun yén sacara psikologis, acara-acara télévisi miboga pangaruh anu kuat sarta lila-lila dina pikiran nu lalajona. == Hasil pamikiran == Dina bukuna “Pendidikan Islam di Keluarga dan Sekolah,” Zakiah ngébréhkeun prinsip-prinsip [[atikan Islam]] jeung larapna dina pangajaran budak di lingkungan kulawarga jeung sakola. Nurutkeun Zakiah, atikan kudu ngawengku tujuh diménsi manusa, nya éta jasmani, intéléktual, iman, moral, spiritual, kaéndahan jeung sosial. Tujuan atikan nya éta pikeun ngabentuk individu anu kuat, sehat sarta mampuh ngalaksanakeun kalungguhanana kalawan hadé. Ieu ngawengku ngokolakeun fisik séhat pikeun nyiptakeun kapribadian saimbang jeung harmonis dina bakti ka Allah SWT. Salian ti éta, atikan ogé kudu numuwuhkeun sikep anu pinuji saperti [[toléransi]], sportif jeung gawé babarengan ngaliwatan latihan jasmani anu kuat. == Ninggalkeun dunya == Zakiah Daradjat maot di [[Jakarta]] dina umur 83 taun tanggal 15 Januari 2013 kira-kira jam 09.00 WIB. Layonna dimakamkeun di Komplék UIN Ciputat dina poé anu sarua saenggeus solat. Sanajan geus deukeut tungtung hirupna, manéhna tetep aktip dina ngajar, méré ceramah jeung nyadiakeun konsultasi psikologi. Saméméh ninggaleul dunya manéhna dirawat di RS Hermina, Jakarta Kidul dina pertengahan Désémber 2012.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://republika.co.id/|title=Republika Online|website=Republika Online|language=id|accessdate=2024-05-04}}</ref> Kalungguhanana diantarana ngahasilkeun SK Tilu Menteri pikeun ngaronjatkeun mutu pendidikan agama Islam jeung ngaintegrasikeun kana sistem pangatikan nasional, nyieun Modél Madrasah Tsanawiyah pikeun ngaronjatkeun kualitas madrasah, ngangeuskuen perkara Ujian Guru Agama pikeun ngaronjatkeun kualitas guru agama, ogé nyiapkeun Rencana Induk Pangwangunan IAIN pikeun 25 taun ka hareup.<ref name=":0" /> Salaku psikolog, dosén, pendakwah jeung tokoh masarakat, Zakiah Daradjat geus dipikawanoh lega. Réktor UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, [[Komaruddin Hidayat]], nyebutkeun yén manéhna pelopor [[psikologi Islam di Indonesia]]. Wakil Menteri Agama, [[Nasaruddin Umar]], negeskeun yén Zakiah téh tokoh anu ditarima ku sakumna golongan, nyaruakeun tokohna jeung Hamka vérsi Muslimah.<ref name=":0" /> == Daftar pustaka == [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1929]] 946x2cx9c4ha5weec4qzhynw8qpismy Taksonomi (biologi) 0 105331 732175 732000 2026-11-11T03:14:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732175 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaa; padding: 0.2em; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background: #ccf;" | Taksonomi |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip nij.svg|220px]]<br /><small>Hierarki klasifikasi biologis.</small> |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Widang élmu | [[Biologi]], [[Sistematika]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Objék | Organisme (Hirup & Fosil) |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Konsep konci | [[Takson]], [[Klasifikasi ilmiah]], [[Nomenklatur]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Inohong | [[Carl Linnaeus]], [[A.P. de Candolle]] |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: #ccf;" | Tingkatan Takson |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | * [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] * [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]] * [[Filum]] / [[Divisi (biologi)|Divisi]] * [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]] * [[Ordo (biologi)|Ordo]] * [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]] * [[Marga (biologi)|Marga]] * [[Spésiés]] |} '''Taksonomi (biologi)''' nyaéta élmu pangaweruh anu maluruh ngeunaan tata ngaran papasingan (klasifikasi), sarta idéntifikasi [[organismeu]] dumasar kana kasarimbagan ciri-cirina. Dina sistem ieu, organismeu digolongkeun kana sababaraha tingkatan anu disebut [[taksa]] (tunggal: [[takson]]). Organismeu disusun sacara ngaruntuy (hirarki) ti mimiti tingkatan anu paling umum nepi ka anu paling spésifik. Ku ayana ieu hirarki, unggal golongan taksonomi; grup tina pangkat nu tangtu bisa dikumpulkeun pikeun ngabentuk grup anu undakanna leuwih luhur sarta ''inklusif'', sahingga nyiptakeun rundayan/''hirarki'' taksonomi. Rundayan poko dina pamakéan modérn nyaéta: * ''[[Domain]]'' * [[Karajaan]] * ''[[Filum]]'' (pikeun sato) atawa [[Divisi]] (pikeun tutuwuhan), * [[Kelas]], * ''[[Ordo]]'' * [[Kulawarga]] * ''[[Génus]]'' * [[Spésiés]] Ahli botani ti [[Swédia]], [[Carl Linnaeus]] dianggap salaku anu mitembeyan dina ngadegkeun sistem taksonomi nu aya kiwari, sakumaha anjeunna ngembangkeun sistem réngking nu katelah ''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'' pikeun ngategorikeun organismeu, sarta sistem tata ngaran [[binomial nomenklatur]] pikeun méré ngaran ilmiah ka mahluk hirup. Balukarna ayana kamajuan dina téori, data, sareng téknologi ''analitik sistematika biologis'', sistem Linnaéan téh kiwari geus mekar jadi ''sistem klasifikasi biologis'' modérn, Ieu sistem anyar miboga tujuan pikeun nembongkeun hubungan [[évolusi]] di antara rupa-rupa organismeu, boh nu masih hirup boh anu geus tumpur. Wangenan (définisi) ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama, nyaéta: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] (klasifikasi) golongan organismeu. == Harti taksonomi == Wangenan définisi ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] ngaklasifikasikeun golongan organismeu.<ref name="Wilkins2011">{{Cite web |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |date=5 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 |access-date=21 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Salaku bahan babandingan, ieu di handap aya sababaraha wangenan panganyarna ngeunaan taksonom taksonomi saperti handap ieu: # Téori sarta prakték dina ngagolongkeun individu kana tingkatan spésiés, nu tuluy disusun jadi kelompok anu leuwih gedé, sarta dibéré ngaran éta grup, sahingga ngahasilkeun klasifikasi anu jéntré.<ref name="Judd">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach |last1=Judd |first1=W. S. |last2=Campbell |first2=C. S. |last3=Kellogg |first3=E. A. |last4=Stevens |first4=P. F. |last5=Donoghue |first5=M. J. |date=2007 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland |chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> # Hiji widang élmu (sarta komponén utama [[sistematika]]) anu ngawengku katerangan, idéntifikasi, [[tata ngaran]], jeung klasifikasi<ref name="Simpson">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp |last=Simpson |first=Michael G. |date=2010 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780123743800 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview}}</ref> # Élmu klasifikasi, dina susunan organismeu biologi kana hiji klasifikasi.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kirk |editor-first1=P. M. |editor-last2=Cannon |editor-first2=P. F. |editor-last3=Minter |editor-first3=D. W. |editor-last4=Stalpers |editor-first4=J. A. |date=2008 |chapter=Taxonomy |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |edition=10th |publisher=CABI}}</ref> # "Élmu klasifikasi sakumaha dilarapkeun ka organismeu hirup, kaasup élmu ngeunaan cara ''formasi'' spésiés, jsb."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology |date=1988 |publisher=W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=P. M. B.}}</ref> # "Analisis karakteristik hiji organismeu pikeun tujuan klasifikasi"<ref name="Henderson">{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-PLgy6DWe0wC |title=Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology |last=Lawrence |first=E. |date=2005 |publisher=Pearson/Prentice Hall |isbn=9780131273849}}</ref> # "Studi sistimatika [[filogéni]] pikeun nyadiakeun pola nu bisa ditarjamahkeun kana klasifikasi jeung ngaran widang taksonomi nu leuwih inklusif" (didaptarkeun salaku harti nu dipikahoyong tapi teu ilahar)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin D. |title=Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny |date=2004 |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |editor1-first=H. C. J. |editor1-last=Godfray |editor2-first=S. |editor2-last=Knapp |volume=359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century |pages=571–583 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2003.1452 |pmc=1693342 |pmid=15253345 |author-link=Quentin D. Wheeler |issue=1444}}</ref> Watesan anu rupa-rupa boh nempatkeun taksonomi salaku sub-wewengkon sistematika (harti 2), balikkeun éta hubungan (harti 6), atawa sigana nganggap dua istilah sinonim. Aya sababaraha kaayaan teu satuju naha ''[[nomenclature biologis]]'' dianggap bagian tina taksonomi (definisi 1 jeung 2), atawa bagian tina sistematika luar taksonomi.<ref name="Herbarium">{{Cite web |title=Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy |url= http://herbarium.usu.edu:80/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |date=2005 |website=Intermountain Herbarium |publisher=Utah State University |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161123030604/http://herbarium.usu.edu/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent">{{cite book |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |title=The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature |date=3 August 2023 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=9781003092827 |pages=xv + 209 |doi=10.1201/9781003092827 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905140719/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |url-status=live }}</ref> Salaku conto, harti 6 dipasangkeun jeung harti sistematika handap nu nempatkeun tata ngaran luar taksonomi:<ref name="Henderson" /> * ''Sistimétika'': "Ulikan ngeunaan idéntifikasi, taksonomi, jeung tata ngaran organisme, kaasup klasifikasi mahluk hirup nu patali jeung hubungan alam maranéhanana sarta ulikan ngeunaan variasi jeung évolusi taksa". Dina taun 1970, Michener '' jeung nu lian.'' ngadéfinisikeun "biologi sistimatis" jeung "taksonomi" (istilah anu mindeng bingung tur dipaké silih tukeur) patalina jeung nu séjénna saperti ieu di handap:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michener |first1=Charles D. |first2=John O. |last2=Corliss |first3=Richard S. |last3=Cowan |first4=Peter H. |last4=Raven |first5=Curtis W. |last5=Sabrosky |first6=Donald S. |last6=Squires |first7=G. W. |last7=Wharton |date=1970 |title=Systematics In Support of Biological Research |publisher=Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> <blockquote> sistimatis biologi (engkéna disebut saukur sistematika) nyaéta widang anu: (a) nyadiakeun ngaran ilmiah pikeun organismeu, (b) ngajelaskeun aranjeunna, (c) ngawétkeun koléksi aranjeunna, (d) nyadiakeun klasifikasi pikeun organismeu, konci pikeun idéntifikasi maranéhanana, sarta data ngeunaan sebaran maranéhanana, (é) nalungtik sajarah évolusionér maranéhna, jeung (f) tinimbangan adaptasi lingkungan maranéhanana. Ieu mangrupikeun kaayaan anu gaduh sajarah panjang anu dina taun-taun ayeuna parantos ngalaman ronjotan anu kasohor, utamana ngeunaan eusi téoritis. Bagian tina bahan téoritis aya hubunganana sareng daérah évolusionér (jéjér é sareng f di luhur), sésana patali utamana jeung masalah klasifikasi. Taksonomi nyaéta bagian tina Sistematika anu patali jeung jejer (a) nepi ka (d) di luhur. </blockquote> Sakabeh sét istilah kaasup taksonomi, biologi sistimatis, [[sistematika]], klasifikasi ilmiah, klasifikasi biologis, jeung [[filogenetik]] sakapeung mibanda maksud anu papalimpang– sakapeung sarua, sakapeung beda saeutik, ngan sok pacorok.<ref name="Wilkins2011" /><ref name="Small1989">{{Cite journal |last=Small |first=Ernest |date=1989 |title=Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy) |journal=Taxon |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=335–356 |doi=10.2307/1222265 |jstor=1222265}}</ref> Harti anupang legana "taksonomi" dipaké didieu. Istilah ieu di tepangkeun dina taun 1813 ku [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|de Candolle]], dina milikna ''[[Théorie élémentaire de la botanique]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA20 |title=Plant systematics: An integrated approach |last=Singh |first=Gurcharan |date=2004 |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=9781578083510 |page=20 |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[John Lindley]] disadiakeun définisi awal sistematika dina taun 1830, sanajan manéhna nulis ngeunaan "sistematis botani" tinimbang ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika".<ref>{{cite web |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |work=EvolvingThoughts.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Urang Éropa resep ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika" jeung "biosistematika" pikeun ulikan ngeunaan ''biodiversity'' sacara gembleng, sedengkeun Amérika Kalér leuwih remen ngagunakeun "taksonomi".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brusca |first1=R. C. |last2=Brusca |first2=G. J. |date=2003 |title=Invertebrates |url=https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus |edition=2nd |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |publisher=Sinauer Associates |page=[https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus/page/27 27]}}</ref> Tapi, taksonomi, sareng hususna ''[[taksonomi alfa]]'', langkung spésifikna idéntifikasi, déskripsi, sareng nami (nyaéta, nomenklatur/tata ngaran) organismeu.<ref name="Fortey">{{Cite book |last=Fortey |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Fortey |date=2008 |title=Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum |url=https://archive.org/details/drystoreroomno1s0000fort |location=London |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=9780007209897}}</ref> Sedengkeun "klasifikasi" museurkeun kana nempatkeun organismeu dina grup hirarki anu némbongkeun hubungan maranéhanana jeung organismeu séjén. === Monograf jeung révisi taksonomi === Hiji '''révisi taksonomi''' atawa '''résénsi taksonomi''' mangrupa pedaran analisis ngeunaan pola variasi dina [[takson]] anu tinangtu. Analisis ieu tiasa dilaksanakeun dumasar kana kombinasi naon waé tina sababaraha jinis karakter anu sayogi, sapertos [[morfologis]], [[anatomi]], [[palinologis]], [[biokimia]] sareng [[génetik]]. [[monograf]] atanapi révisi lengkep nyaéta révisi anu kompréhénsif keur takson pikeun inpormasi anu dipasihkeun dina waktos anu tangtu, sareng pikeun sakuliah dunya. Révisi séjén (parsial) bisa diwatesan dina harti yén maranéhna ngan bisa ngagunakeun sababaraha sét karakter sadia atawa boga wates wengkuan husus. Révisi ngahasilkeun konformasi atanapi wawasan anyar dina hubungan antara subtaksa dina takson anu ditalungtik, nu bisa ngakibatkeun parobahan dina klasifikasi subtaxa ieu, idéntifikasi subtaxa anyar, atawa ngahiji tina subtaxa saméméhna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maxted |first=Nigel |date=1992 |title=Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology |url=https://archive.org/details/taxon_1992-11_41_4/page/653 |journal=Taxon |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=653–660 |doi=10.2307/1222391 |jstor=1222391}}</ref> === Aksara taksonomi === Karakter taksonomi nyaéta mangrupa ''atribut taksonomi'' anu bisa dipaké pikeun méré bukti di mana hubungan ([[filogéni]]) antara taksa dipuguhkeun.<ref name="Hennig 1965">{{cite journal |last1=Hennig |first1=Willi |title=Phylogenetic Systematics |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 1965 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=97–116 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |issn=0066-4170 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101423/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1991 |title=Principles of Systematic Zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3/page/159 159]}}</ref> Jinis karakter taksonomi ngawengku:<ref>Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162.</ref> {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] Karakter; ciri mandiri ** Umum éksternal [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] ** Struktur husus (misalna., [[alat sanggama]]) ** Morfologi internal ([[anatomi]]) ** [[Émbriologi]] ** [[Karyologi]] jeung lianna ''[[cytological]]'' ''faktor'' * [[Fisiologis]] karakter ** [[paktor métabolik]] ** sékrési awak ** ''Faktor'' sterility gén * [[Molekul]] karakter ** Jarak imunologis ** Béda éléktroforétik ** Runtuyan protéin asam amino ** DNA ''hibridisasi'' ** Runtuyan DNA jeung RNA ** Watesan ''endonuclease'' nganalisa ** Bédana molekular séjén * ''[[Behavioral]]'' karakter ** Tatacara jeung mékanismeu isolasi ''ethological'' séjén ** Pola kabiasaan séjén * ''[[Ecological]]'' karakter ** Kabiasaan jeung habitat ** Kadaharan ** Robahna usum-usuman ** Sabangsaning parasit * [[Géografis]] karakter ** Umum ''[[biogeographic distribution]]'' pola ** hubungan populasi [[Simpatric]]-[[allopatric]] {{div col end}} === Alfa jeung béta taksonomi === {{distinguish|Alpha diversity}} Syaratna "'''taksonomi alfa'''" utamana dipaké pikeun ngarujuk kana disiplin tatacarana manggihan, ngajéntrékeun, jeung ngaranan [[taxa]]na, spésiés utamana .<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Dina litelatur saméméhna, istilah éta miboga harti anu béda, jeung produk panalungtikan nepi ka ahir abad ka-19.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosselló-Mora |first1=Ramon |last2=Amann |first2=Rudolf |date=1 January 2001 |title=The species concept for prokaryotes |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=39–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x |issn=1574-6976 |pmid=11152940|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[William Bertram Turrill]] ngawanohkeun istilah "taksonomi alfa" dina runtuyan makalah anu medal dina taun 1935 ogé 1937 di mana anjeunna ngaguar filsafat jeung nyawang disiplin taksonomi dina mangsa nu baris datang. {{sfn|Turrill|1938}}<blockquote> ... Aya kahayang anu beuki gedé diantara para ahli taksonomi pikeun nganggap masalahna dina panempo anu langkung lega, pikeun nalungtik kemungkinan gawé babarengan leuwih deukeut jeung cytological maranéhanana, koléga ékologis jeung genetika sarta pikeun ngaku yén sababaraha révisi atawa ékspansi, meureun alam drastis, tujuan jeung métode maranéhanana, bisa jadi desirable ... Turrill (1935) geus ngusulkeun yén bari narima taksonomi invaluable heubeul, dumasar kana struktur, jeung merenah ditunjuk "alfa", kasebut nyaéta dimungkinkeun pikeun sawangan urang anu jauh taxonomy diwangun dina salega dasar fakta morfologis jeung fisiologis jéntré, jeung hiji nu "tempat kapanggih pikeun sakabéh data observasi jeung ékspérimén patali, sanajan teu langsung, kana konstitusi, kana konstitusi, asal, jeung kabiasaan spésiés jeung grup taksonomi séjén". Cita-cita tiasa, bisa disebutkeun, pernah jadi sagemblengna sadar. Aranjeunna ngagaduhan, anu mana, niléy hébat akting salaku stimulan permanén, jeung lamun urang boga sababaraha, malah samar, idéal hiji "omega" taksonomi urang bisa maju saeutik handap alfabét Yunani. Sababaraha urang nyenangkeun diri sorangan ku mikir urang ayeuna groping dina taksonomi "béta".{{sfn|Turrill|1938}}</blockquote> Turrill antukna sacara éksplisit ngaluarkeun tina alfa taksonomi sagala rupa wewengkon tina ulikan yén anjeunna kaasup kana taksonomi sakabéhna, kayaning ékologi, fisiologi, génétika, jeung sitologi. Anjeunna salajengna ngaluarkeun rekonstruksi filogenetik tina taksonomi alfa.{{sfn|Turrill|1938|pp=365–366}} Engké pangarang geus dipaké istilah dina hiji béda rasa, hartina wates spésiés (sanés subspésiés atawa taksa tina jajaran séjén), ngagunakeun naon waé téhnik investigative sadia, jeung kaasup téhnik komputasi atawa laboratorium canggih.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steyskal |first=G. C. |date=1965 |title=Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1965-08-20_149_3686/page/880 |journal=Science |volume=149 |issue=3686 |pages= 880–882 |bibcode=1965Sci...149..880S |doi=10.1126/science.149.3686.880 |pmid=17737388|s2cid=36277653}}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Ku kituna, [[Ernst Mayr]] dina taun 1968 didefinisikeun "'''beta taxonomy'''" salaku klasifikasi pangkat leuwih luhur ti spésiés (jenis).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |title=The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1968-02-09_159_3815/page/595 |date=9 February 1968 |journal=Science |volume=159 |issue=3815 |pages=595–599 |bibcode=1968Sci...159..595M |doi=10.1126/science.159.3815.595 |pmid=4886900 |author-link=Ernst Mayr}}</ref><blockquote>Hiji pamahaman biologis hartina tina variasi jeung tina nu évolusionér asal grup spésiés patali malah leuwih penting pikeun tahap kadua aktivitas taksonomi, diurutkeun spésiés kana grup baraya ("taxa") jeung susunan maranéhanana dina hirarki kategori luhur. Kagiatan ieu anu dimaksud klasifikasi istilah; Éta ogé disebut "taksonomi béta".</blockquote> === Mikrotaksonomi jeung makrotaksonomi === {{Main|Species problem}} Kumaha spésiés kudu dihartikeun dina hiji grup husus organisme méré naék kana masalah praktis jeung téoritis anu disebut salaku [[masalah spésiés]]. Karya ilmiah mutuskeun kumaha nangtukeun spésiés geus disebut microtaxonomy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674364462 |chapter=Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703072557/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |title=Result of Your Query |website=biological-concepts.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |title=Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role |date=27 May 2016 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref> Ku éksténsi, makrotaksonomi nyaéta ulikan ngeunaan grup dina subgenus [[pangkat taksonomi]] nu leuwih luhur.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> atawa ngan saukur dina clades nu ngawengku leuwih ti hiji takson dianggap specie as, dinyatakeun dina istilah [[nomenklatur filogenetik]].<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020">{{cite book |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Queiroz |first2=Kevin |title=International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0429821356 |pages=xl + 149 |url=https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014042402/https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Sajarah == Sedengkeun sawatara pedaran ngeunaan taksonomi sajarah nyoba tanggal taksonomi ka peradaban kuna, usaha sabenerna ilmiah pikeun ngaklasifikasikeun organismeu teu lumangsung nepi ka abad ka-18, iwal mungkin Aristoteles, nu karya pituduh di taksonomi. <ref name="Voultsiadou & Vafidis 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Vafidis |first2=Dimitris |title=Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology |journal=Contributions to Zoology |date=1 January 2007 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=103–120 |doi=10.1163/18759866-07602004 |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004 |issn=1875-9866 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425063507/https://brill.com/view/journals/ctoz/76/2/article-p103_4.xml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Voultsiadou et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Gerovasileiou |first2=Vasilis |last3=Vandepitte |first3=Leen |last4=Ganias |first4=Kostas |last5=Arvanitidis |first5=Christos |title=Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms |journal=Mediterranean Marine Science |date=2017 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=468–478 |doi=10.12681/mms.13874 |issn=1791-6763 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Karya-karya saméméhna utamana déskriptif sarta museur kana tatangkalan anu mangpaat dina tatanén atawa ubar. Aya sababaraha tahap dina pamikiran ilmiah ieu. Taksonomi mimiti dumasar kana kritéria saayana, nu disebut "sistem jieunan", kaasup [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]'s Sistim klasifikasi seksual pikeun tutuwuhan (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled "[[Sistema Alam]]" ("the System of Nature"), implying yén manéhna, sahenteuna, percaya yén éta leuwih ti hiji "sistem jieunan"). Kadieunakeun sumping sistem dumasar kana tinimbangan leuwih lengkep tina ciri taksa, disebut salaku "sistem alam", kayaning tina pamadegan [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|de Jussieu]] (1789), de Candolle (1813) sarta [[Bentham and Hooker]] (1862–1863). Klasifikasi ieu ngajelaskeun pola émpiris sareng pra-[[évolusi]] dina pamikiran. Publikasi tina [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859) ngabalukarkeun katerangan anyar pikeun klasifikasi, dumasar kana hubungan évolusionér. Ieu konsép [[filotik]] sistem, ti 1883 saterusna. Ieu dumasar pamadegan [[August Eichler|Eichler]] (1883) sarta [[Adolf Engler|Engler]] (1886–1892). Datangna tina [[cladistic]] metodologi dina 1970an ngarah kana klasifikasi dumasar kana hiji-hijina kritéria [[monofil]], dirojong ku ayana [[synapomorphies]]. Ti saprak éta, dasar evidentiary geus dimekarkeun kalawan data ti [[genetik molekular]] nu keur sabagian complements tradisional [[Morfologi]].{{sfn|Datta|1988}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stace|1989}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stuessy|2009}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}} === Saméméh-Linnaean === ==== Ahli taksonomi mimiti ==== Ngaran jeung klasifikasi lingkungan manusa kawasnamah dimimitian ku awal basa. Ngabédakeun tutuwuhan kana pepelakan matak weureu sareng anu tiasa didahar tayalian integral pikeun kalumangsungan hirup tina masarakat manusa. Ilustrasi tutuwuhan ubar muncul dina lukisan témbok Mesir ti {{Circa|1500 BC}}, nunjukkeun yén pamakéan spésiés béda anu dipikaharti sarta yén hiji taksonomi dasar aya dina tempat.<ref name="Manktelow">{{cite web |last=Manktelow |first=M. |date=2010 |url=http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |title=History of Taxonomy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=Dept. of Systematic Biology, [[Uppsala University]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |date=29 May 2015 }}</ref> ==== Jaman Baheula ==== {{further|Aristotle's biology#Classification}} [[File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|''Gambaran tina sato langka'' (写生珍禽图), ti [[Song dinasti]] digambar ku [[Huang Quan (painter)|Huang Quan]] (903–965)]] Organismeu munggaran digolongkeun ku [[Aristoteles]] ([[Yunani]], 384–322 BC) salila anjeunna maneuh di [[Lesbos|Pulo Lesbos]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1982 |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref><ref name="Palaeos">{{Cite web |url= http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |title= History of Taxonomy |website= Palaeos |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |archive-date= 31 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |date=31 March 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Anjeunna ngagolongkeun mahluk dumasar bagian maranéhanana, atawa dina istilah modern ''atribut'', kayaning hirup tina anakan, ngabogaan opat suku, [[endog]], [[getih]] atawa panas awaka.[38] Anjeunna ngabagi sakabeh mahluk hirup kana dua golongan: tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan..<ref name="Roanoke">{{Cite web |url= http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |title=Biology 101, Ch 20 |date=23 March 1998 |website=cbs.dtu.dk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628023508/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |archive-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> He divided all living things into two groups: [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Sawatara kelompokna sato, sapertos ''Anhaima'' (sato henteu mibanda getih, ditarjamahkeun salaku [[invertebrata]]) sarta ''Enhaima'' (sasatoan anu mibanda [[getih]], kasarna téh sabangsaning [[vertebrata]]), sakumaha ogé kawas grup sabangsaning [[hiu]] jeung [[cetacean]], anu ilahar dipaké.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |date=2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9781408836224 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lagoonhowaristot0000lero_m5a9/page/384 384]–395 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi}}</ref><ref name="von Lieven & Humar 2008">{{cite journal |last1=von Lieven |first1=Alexander Fürst |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium" |journal=History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences |date=2008 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=227–262 |jstor=23334371 |pmid=19203017 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |issn=0391-9714 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127081940/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Laurin & Humar 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |date=2022 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1 |language=fr |doi-access=free }}</ref> muridna [[Theophrastus]] (Yunani, 370–285 BC) ngalaksanakeun tradisi ieu, mentioning sababaraha 500 tutuwuhan jeung kagunaan maranéhanana di na ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]''. Sababaraha tutuwuhan [[Genus|genera]] bisa disusud deui ka Theophrastus, sapertos ''[[Cornus (genus)|Cornus]]'', ''[[Crocus]]'', sarta ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]''.<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Abad Pertengahan==== Taksonomi dina [[Abad Pertengahan]] ieu sakitu legana dumasar kana[[Sistim Aristoteles]],<ref name="Roanoke" /> kalawan tambahan ngeunaan tatanan filosofis jeung ''existential'' mahluk. Ieu kalebet konsép sapertos éta [[ranté sasatoan anu ageung]] tradisi ​​di Kulon ''[[skolastik]]'',<ref name="Roanoke" /> deui deriving pamustunganana ti Aristoteles. Sistim Aristotelian teu ngaklasifikasikeun tutuwuhan anapon sabangsaning [[supa]], alatan kurangna mikroskop dina waktos éta.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> sakumaha gagasan na dumasar kana nyusun dunya lengkep dina hiji kontinum tunggal, sapertos 'scala naturae'' (tangga alam).<ref name="Palaeos" /> Ieu, ogé, dibawa kana tinimbangan dina ranté gedé sasatoan.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Kamajuan anu dilakukeun ku élmuwan sapertos [[Procopius]], [[Timotheus of Gaza]], [[Demetrios Pepagomenos]], ogé [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Pamikir abad ''pertengahan'' ngagunakeun ''categorizations filosofis'' jeung ''logis abstrak'' leuwih cocog kana filsafat abstrak batan taksonomi pragmatis..<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Renaissance jeung mimiti modern ==== Dina mangsa [[Renaissance]] atawa ''[[Jaman Pencerahan]],'' categorizing organismeu janten langkung umum,<ref name="Palaeos" /> jeung karya taksonomi jadi cukup ambisius pikeun ngaganti téks kuna. Ieu dipangaruhan ku ayana ngembangkeun lénsa optik canggih, nu ngidinan morfologi organismeu bisa diulik leuwih jéntré. Salah sahiji pangarang pangheubeulna pikeun ngamangpaatkeun ieu téhnologi éta dokter ti Italia [[Andrea Cesalpino]] (1519–1603), anu disebut "the first taxonomist".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu hasil gawé anu onjoy ''De Plantis'' diguar di taun 1583, sarta digambarkeun leuwih ti 1500 spésiés tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/deplantislibrixv00cesa |title=De plantis libri XVI |last1=Cesalpino |first1=Andrea |last2=Marescotti |first2=Giorgio |date=1583 |publisher=Apud Georgium Marescottum |location=Florence |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>Dua kulawarga pepelakan ageung anu kiwari mimiti dikenal sarta dianggo nepi ka ayeuna : [[Asteraceae]] jeung [[Brassicaceae]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding) |last=Jaime |first=Prohens |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441924742}}</ref> Dina abad ka 17 [[John Ray]] ([[Inggris]], 1627–1705) nulis loba karya taksonomi penting.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |title=taxonomy {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075451/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Bisa disebut hasil gawé anu pang gedéna tayalian ''Methodus Plantarum Nova'' (1682),<ref>{{Cite book |last=John |first=Ray |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |title=Methodus plantarum nova |publisher=impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli |date=1682 |language=la |trans-title=New Method of Plants |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170929060003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=29 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> dimana anjeuna ngaguar lewih ti 18,000 spésiés tutuwuhan. Dina waktos éta, meureun moal aya deui hasil ti ahli taksonomi anu pang rumitna, nalika anjeuna ngagolongkeun taksana dina loba karakter gabungan. Karya taksonomi séjén anu henteu éléh kasohor dijieun ku [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] (France, 1656–1708).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |title=Joseph Pitton de Tournefort {{!}} French botanist and physician |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075951/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu karyana taun 1700, ''Institutiones Rei Herbariae'', kaasup leuwih ti 9000 spésiés 698 genera, nu langsung mangaruhan Linnaeus, sakumaha éta téks anjeunna dipaké salaku murid ngora.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Mangsa Linnaean === {{Main|Linnaean taxonomy}} [[File:Linné-Systema Naturae 1735.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', Leiden, 1735]] Ahli botani Swedia [[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707–1778)<ref name="Roanoke" /> ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' 1st Edition in 1735,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1735 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> ''[[Spésiés Plantarum]]'' dina taun 1753,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1753 |title=Species Plantarum |language=la |location=Stockholm}}</ref> and [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|''Systema Naturae'' 10th Edition]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1758 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |edition=10th |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> anjeunna ngarévolusi taksonomi modern. Karya-karyana ngalaksanakeun sistem tata ngaran binomial standar pikeun spésiés sato jeung tutuwuhan,<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |title=taxonomy – The Linnaean system {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074215/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> anu geus kabukti ngajadi solusi ampuh pikeun literatur taksonomi anu kacau jeung henteu puguh éntép sureuhna. Anjeunna henteu ngan nepangkeun standar kelas, order, genus, and&nbsp;spésiés, tapi ogé ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngaidentipikasi pepelakan sareng sasatoan tina bukuna, kalayan ngagunakeun sabagean leutik tina kembang (dipikawanoh salaku [[Linnaean system]]).<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean" /> ''Taxonomists'' tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan regard Linnaeus' dianggo salaku "titik mimiti" pikeun ngaran anu loyog (at 1753 and 1758 respectively).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Donk |first=M. A. |date=December 1957 |title=Typification and later starting-points |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Taxon |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.2307/1217493 |jstor=1217493 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091529/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> Ngaran anu diterbitkeun sateuacan tanggal ieu disebut "pra-Linnaean", tur teu dianggap ''valid'' (iwal spiders diterbitkeun dina ''[[Svenska Spindlar]]''. <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carl |first1=Clerck |last2=Carl |first2=Bergquist |last3=Eric |first3=Borg |last4=L. |first4=Gottman |last5=Lars |first5=Salvius |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |title=Svenska spindlar |publisher=Literis Laur. Salvii |date=1757 |language=sv |trans-title=Swedish Spiders |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171201181959/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>). Malah ngaran taksonomi dipedalkeun ku Linnaeus sorangan saméméh tanggal ieu dianggap ''pra-Linnaean''.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Jaman taksonomi digital=== Taksonomi modern dipangaruhan pisan ku téknologi sapertos [[DNA sequencing]], [[bioinformatics]], [[Biological database|databases]], sareng [[imaging]]. == Sistem klasifikasi modern == {{Main|Evolutionary taxonomy|Phylogenetic nomenclature}} [[File:Spindle diagram.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Evolution of the [[vertebrates]] at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for [[evolutionary taxonomy]].]] [[File:Cladogram vertebrata.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Hubungan anu sarua, ditepikeun salaku hiji [[cladogram]] has pikeun [[cladistics]]]] Hiji pola pikeun golongan anu nyayang sajeroning golongan anu geus ditangtukeun ku Linnaeus' klasifikasi tina tutuwukan tur sasatoan, sarta pola ieu mimiti jadi salaku gambaran [[dendrograms]] pikeun sasatoan sarta tutuwuhan [[Kingdom (biology)|karanaa]] lajeng dugi ka ahir abad ka 18, ogé saméméh Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' dipedalkeun.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Hiji pola "Natural System" teu merlukeun prosés generating , saperti dina evolusi, tapi bisa waé geus kasawang, mereun pamikir transmutationist. Diantara karya mimiti neuleuman tina pamikiran [[transmutation of species]] anu tayalian ''[[Zoonomia]]'' dina taun 1796 ku [[Erasmus Darwin]] ( akina Charles Darwin's), jeung [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]'s ''[[Philosophie zoologique]]'' dina taun 1809.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hiji ideu anu geus dipopulerkeun dina dunya Anglophone sanajan loba anu sipatna spekulatif tapi loba ogé anu maraca ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'', dipedalkeun sacara anonim ku [[Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)|Robert Chambers]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |title=Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation |last=Secord |first=James A. |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226744100 |author-link=James A. Secord |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |archive-date=16 May 2008 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |date=16 May 2008 }}</ref> Ayana téori Darwin, hiji anu disaluyuan kalawan gancang ditarima tayalian hiji klasifikasi kudu numutkeun kana prinsip Darwinian [[katangtuan umum]].<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |title=taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075916/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[Tangkal kahirupan]] élmu pangaweruh Répréséntasi jadi populér dina karya ilmiah, kalawan grup fosil dipikawanoh diasupkeun. Salah sahiji grup modéren munggaran anu dihijikeun ka karuhun fosil nyaéta manuk.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Black |first=Riley |date=7 December 2010 |title=Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=10 November 2023 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110094503/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngagunakeun fosil lajeng anyar kapanggih tina ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' jeung ''[[Hesperornis]]'', [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] Nyebutkeun yén maranéhna geus mekar tina dinosaurus, hiji group resmi anu dingaranan ku [[Richard Owen]] taun 1842.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Thomas Henry Huxley |last=Huxley |first=Thomas Henry |date=1876 |chapter=Lectures on Evolution |title=Collected Essays |volume=IV |pages=46–138 |url= http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628224543/http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-date=28 June 2011}} Original text w/ figures. First published as ''New York Tribune'', Extra no. 36.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |title=Thomas Henry Huxley {{!}} British biologist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114405/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |archive-date=6 February 2018 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Pedaran anu dihasilkeun, éta dinosaurus "nimbulkeun" atawa mahluk "karuhun ti" manuk, mangrupa ciri penting tina pamikiran [[taksonomi évolusionér]]. Beuki loba grup fosil anu kapanggih sarta bisa dipikanyaho sahenteuna dina akhir abad ka 19 jeung mimiti abad 20, [[palaeontologists]] digawé pikeun mikanyaho sajarahna sasatoan ngaliwatan umur ku cara ngaitkeun babarengan jeung grup anu geus dipikawanoh.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NuYXr8BszwC&pg=PA24 |last=Rudwick |first=M. J. S. |date=1985 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226731032 |page=24}}</ref> kitu deui [[sintésis évolusionér modern]] ti mimiti 1940-an, dasarna pamahaman modérn ngeunaan évolusi tina grup utama di éta tempat. Salaku taksonomi évolusionér dumasar kana jajaran taksonomi Linnaean, dua istilah anu sakitu legana ditukeurkeun dina pamakéan modern.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paterlini |first=Marta |date=September 2007 |title=There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular biology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=814–816 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7401061 |doi-access=free |pmc=1973966 |pmid=17767191}}</ref> Métode [[kladistik]] muncul ti taun 1960-an.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Dina taun 1958, [[Julian Huxley]] ngagunakeun istilah ''clade''.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Engké, dina 1960, Cain jeung Harrison ngawanohkeun istilah "cladistic".<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Fitur anu penting nyaéta nyusun taksa dina hirarki [[tangkal évolusionér]], kalawan desideratum yén sakabéh taksa ngaranna téh monophyletic.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Hiji takson disebut monophyletic lamun ngawengku sakabéh turunan tina wangun karuhun.<ref name="Mike Taylor">{{Cite web |url= http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |date=17 July 2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |last=Taylor |first=Mike |website=miketaylor.org.uk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072310/http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |archive-date=1 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="NCSE">{{Cite web |url= https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |title=Polyphyletic vs. Monophyletic |website=National Center for Science Education |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170039/https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |archive-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Grup anu ngagaduhan grup turunan dikaluarkeun tina aranjeunna disebut [[paraphyletic]],<ref name="Mike Taylor" /> sedengkeun grup nu ngawakilan leuwih ti hiji cabang tina tangkal kahirupan disebut [[polyphyletic]].<ref name="Mike Taylor" /><ref name="NCSE" /> Grup monophyletic dipikawanoh tur didiagnosis dumasar kana [[synapomorphies]], kaayaan karakter turunan dibagikeun.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brower |first1=Andrew V. Z. |first2=Randall T. |last2=Schuh |date=2021 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=3rd |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, New York |page=13}}</ref> Klasifikasi kladistik taksonomi Linnean cocog sareng Kodeu tradisional ‘’ [[Nomenklatur Zoologis]] ‘’ jeung [[nomenklatur botani]], ka extent tangtu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schuh |first=Randall T. |title=The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_botanical-review_january-march-2003_69_1/page/59 |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=69 |issue=1 |date=2003 |page=59|doi=10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> Sistem tata ngaran alternatip, nyaéta PhyloCod/ ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Filogénétik]]'' atawa ''PhyloCode'' geus diajukeun, nu ngatur ngaran formal klad.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |title=The PhyloCode |last1=Queiroz |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Cantino |first2=Kevin |website=Ohio.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160510200022/https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |archive-date=10 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> Jajaran Linnaean téh pilihan jeung teu boga status resmi dina ''PhyloCode'', nu dimaksudkeun pikeun hirup babarengan jeung kode ayeuna, dumasar-rank..<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /> Samentara popularitas nomenklatur filogenetik parantos ningkat sacara stabil dina sababaraha dekade katukang, <ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> tetep katingalna seuseueurna ahli sistematis antukna ngadopsi ''PhyloCode'' atanapi neraskeun ngagunakeun sistem tatangaran kiwari anu parantos dianggo (sareng dirobih, tapi panginten henteu sakumaha anu dipikahoyong ku sababaraha sistematis)<ref name="Dubois 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |title=Naming taxa from cladograms: A cautionary tale |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=1 February 2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |pmid=16949307 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |issn=1055-7903 |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101502/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790306002375?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dubois et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |last2=Bauer |first2=Aaron M. |last3=Ceríaco |first3=Luis M. P. |last4=Dusoulier |first4=François |last5=Frétey |first5=Thierry |last6=Löbl |first6=Ivan |last7=Lorvelec |first7=Olivier |last8=Ohler |first8=Annemarie |last9=Stopiglia |first9=Renata |last10=Aescht |first10=Erna |title=The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019) |journal=Bionomina |date=17 December 2019 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–111 |doi=10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> sahenteuna leuwih 250 taun. === Karajaan jeung domain === [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip.svg|thumb|upright|Skéma dasar klasifikasi modérn. Seueur tingkatan anu sanés tiasa dianggo; domain, tingkat pangluhurna dina kahirupan, duanana anyar jeung dibantah.]] {{Main|Kingdom (biology)|Domain (biology)}} Sateuacan kapanggihna Carl Linnaeus (Botanist) tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan dianggap Karajaan anu misah.<ref name="Kingdom classification">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |title=Kingdom Classification of Living Organism |date=2 December 2014 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2017}} Linnaeus ngagunakeun ieu salaku pangkat luhur, ngabagi dunya fisik kana sayur, karajaan sato jeung mineral. Salaku kamajuan dina mikroskop ngajadikeun klasifikasi mikroorganismeu, jumlah karajaan ngaronjat, sistem lima jeung genep karajaan anu paling umum. [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] mangrupa grup nu kawilang anyar. Mimiti diajukeun dina 1977, [[Carl Woese]] [[sistem tilu domain]] sacara umum teu ditarima nepi ka engké.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |title=Carl Woese {{!}} Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology |website=www.igb.Illinois.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |archive-date=28 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |date=28 April 2017 }}</ref>Salah sahiji ciri utama metode tilu domain nyaéta pamisahan [[Archaea]] sareng [[Baktéri]], anu sateuacana dikelompokkeun kana karajaan tunggal Baktéri (hiji karajaan anu sok disebut [[Monera]]),<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> kalawan [[Eukariota]] pikeun sakabéh organisme anu sélna ngandung [[Inti (biologi)|inti]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-link=Joel Cracraft |editor1-last=Cracraft |editor1-first=Joel |editor2-last=Donaghue |editor2-first=Michael J. |date=2004 |title=Assembling the Tree of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195172345 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse/page/45 45], 78, 555}}</ref> Sajumlah leutik élmuwan kalebet karajaan kagenep, Archaea, tapi henteu nampi metode domain.<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]], anu dipedalkeun sacara éksténsif ngeunaan klasifikasi [[protista]], taun 2002<ref name="pmid11931142">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=T. |title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=52 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=297–354 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11931142 |doi=10.1099/00207713-52-2-297 |url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142 |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |date=29 July 2017 }}</ref> ngusulkeun yén [[Neomura]], clade anu ngahijikeun Archaea jeung [[Eukariota|Eucarya]]<!--yeah, Woese used a 'c' here-->, bakal mekar tina Baktéri, langkung tepatna tina [[Actinomycetota]]. Klasifikasi na 2004 nganggap [[archaeobacteria]] salaku bagian tina subkingdom karajaan Baktéri, nyaéta, anjeunna nampik sistem tilu domain sagemblengna.<ref name="CavalierSmith2004" /> Stefan Luketa di 2012 ngusulkeun lima sistem "dominion", nambahan [[Prion]]obiota ([[kahirupan non-sélular|asélular]] jeung tanpa [[asam nukléat]]) jeung [[Virus]]obiota (asélular tapi ' 'kalayan'' asam nukléat) kana tilu domain tradisional.<ref name="Luketa2012">{{Cite journal |last=Luketa |first=S. |date=2012 |title=New views on the megaclassification of life |url= http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Protistology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=218–237 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150257/http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> {{center|{{Biological systems}}}} === Klasifikasi komprehensif panganyarna === Klasifikasi lengkep; parsial aya pikeun loba grup individu organismeu sarta dirévisi jeung diganti sakumaha informasi anyar anu sadia; kumaha ogé, kompréhénsif, diterbitkeun lumaku sawaréh atawa sagemblengna; conto panganyarna nyaéta jeung sajabana., 2012 jeung 2019,<ref name="Adl-et-al-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Simpson |first2=A. G. B. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Bass |first5=D. |last6=Bowser |first6=S. S. |display-authors=etal |date=December 2015 |title=The revised classification of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x |pmc=3483872 |pmid=23020233}}</ref><ref name="Adl-et-al-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Bass |first2=D. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Schoch |first5=C. L. |last6=Smirnov |first6=A. |display-authors=etal |date=2019 |title=Revisions to the classification, nomenclature, and diversity of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=4–119 |doi=10.1111/jeu.12691 |pmc= 6492006|pmid=30257078|doi-access=free}}</ref> nu ngawengku eukariot wungkul kalawan tekenan kana protista, sarta Ruggiero jeung sajabana. taun 2015,<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Ruggiero |first1=Michael A. |last2=Gordon |first2=D. P. |last3=Orrell |first3=T. M. |last4=Bailly |first4=N. |last5=Bourgoin |first5=T. |last6=Brusca |first6=R. C. |display-authors=etal |date=2015 |title=A higher level classification of all living organisms |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119248 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019248R |bibcode-access=free |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119248 |pmc=4418965 |pmid=25923521|doi-access=free}}</ref> ngawengku boh eukariot jeung [[prokariot]]s kana pangkat Orde, sanajan duanana ngaluarkeun wawakil fosil.<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015" /> Kompilasi anu misah (Ruggiero, 2014)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Döring |first=Markus |title=Families of Living Organisms (FALO) |url=https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |website=GBIF |date=August 13, 2015 |doi=10.15468/tfp6yv |access-date=11 March 2020 |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302232032/https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |url-status=live }}</ref> nambahkeun taksa anu masih aya pikeun pangkat Kulawarga. Lain, Pangobatan dumasar basis data kalebet [[Ensiklopedia Kahirupan]], éta [[Fasilitas Émbaran Keanekaragaman Hayati Global]], [[database taksonomi NCBI]], [[Pendaptaran Interim Genera Kelautan sareng Nonmarine]], éta [[Buka Tangkal Kahirupan]], jeung [[Katalog Kahirupan]]. [[Database Paleobiologi]] mangrupa sumber pikeun fosil. == Aplikasi== Taksonomi biologis mangrupa sub-disiplin [[biologi]], sareng umumna dipraktékkeun ku ahli biologi anu katelah "ahli taksonomi", sanajan antusias [[Sajarah alam|naturalis]] ogé sering kalibet dina publikasi taksa anyar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |first1=Benjamin |last1=Jones |date=September 7, 2017 |title=A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy |website=Smithsonian |access-date=24 February 2019 |archive-date=8 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208041357/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusabab taksonomi boga tujuan pikeun ngajelaskeun tur ngatur [[kahirupan]], karya anu dilakukeun ku ahli taksonomi penting pisan pikeun ulikan ngeunaan [[biodiversitas]] jeung hasil widang [[biologi konservasi]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |title=What is taxonomy? |publisher=Natural History Museum |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131001152618/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |archive-date=1 October 2013 |access-date=23 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McNeely |first=Jeffrey A. |date=2002 |title=The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal for Nature Conservation |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=145–153 |doi=10.1078/1617-1381-00015 |bibcode=2002JNatC..10..145M |s2cid=16953722 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2017 |via=Semantic Scholar }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |date=24 December 2017 }}</ref> === Klasifikasi organismeu === {{Main|Taxonomic rank}} Klasifikasi biologis mangrupakeun komponén kritis prosés taksonomi. Hasilna, éta informs pamaké sakumaha naon baraya tina takson nu dihipotesiskeun. Klasifikasi biologis ngagunakeun pangkat taksonomi, kaasup antara séjén (urutan ti paling inklusif ka nu henteu inklusif): [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]], [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]], [[Filum]], [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]], [[Urutan (biologi)|Urutan]], [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]], [[Genus]], [[Spésiés]], jeung [[Galur (biologi)|Galur]].<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |title=Mnemonic taxonomy / biology: Kingdom Phylum Class Order... |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170606171902/https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>{{NoteTag|This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"}} === Katerangan taksonomi === {{See also|Species description}} [[File:Nepenthes smilesii type specimen.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tipe]] spécimén tina ''[[Nepenthes smilesii]]'', hiji tutuwuhan lokal sok disebut [[kantong semar]] [[pitcher plant]]]] Pedaran takson ieu di encapsulated ku déskripsi atawa diagnosis na atawa gabungan ku duanana. Henteu aya aturan anu diatur anu ngatur definisi taksa, tapi ngaran jeung publikasi taksa anyar diatur ku susunan aturan.<ref name="Herbarium" /> Dina [[zoologi]], [[nomenklatur]] pikeun jajaran anu leuwih ilahar dipaké ([[Superfamili (taksonomi)|superfamili]] nepi ka [[subspésiés]]), diatur ku ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Zoologis]]'' (''Kode ICZN'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |title=ICZN Code |website=animalbase.uni-goettingen.de |access-date=8 April 2017 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |date=3 October 2022 }}</ref> Dina widang [[phycology]], [[mycology]], jeung [[botani]], ngaran taksa diatur ku ''[[Kode Nomenklatur Internasional pikeun ganggang, fungi, jeung tutuwuhan]]'' (''ICN'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |work=IAPT-Taxon.org |publisher=[[International Association for Plant Taxonomy]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130111104255/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref> Katerangan awal hiji takson ngalibatkeun lima sarat utama:<ref>{{Cite web |title=How can I describe new species? |url= http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |work=ICZN.org |publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306133052/http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |archive-date=6 March 2012 |access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> # Taksonna kudu dibéré ngaran dumasar kana 26 hurup alfabét Latin ([[binomial nomenclature|binomial]] pikeun spésiés anyar, atawa uninomial pikeun jajaran séjén). # Ngaranna kudu unik (nyaéta lain [[homonim (biologi)|homonim]]). # Katerangan kudu dumasar kana sakurang-kurangna hiji [[Spésiés Tipe|spésimén]]. #Éta kedah kalebet pernyataan ngeunaan atribut anu cocog pikeun ngajelaskeun (ngahartikeun) takson atanapi ngabédakeun tina takson anu sanés. (diagnosis, ''Kode ICZN'', Pasal 13.1.1, ''ICN'', Pasal 38, anu tiasa atanapi henteu dumasar kana morfologi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lawley |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Gamero-Mora |first2=Edgar |last3=Maronna |first3=Maximiliano M. |last4=Chiaverano |first4=Luciano M. |last5=Stampar |first5=Sérgio N. |last6=Hopcroft |first6=Russell R. |last7=Collins |first7=Allen G. |last8=Morandini |first8=André C. |date=19 September 2022 |title=Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590) |url=https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=118 |issue=9/10 |doi=10.17159/sajs.2022/14495 |s2cid=252562185 |issn=1996-7489 |doi-access=free |access-date=20 October 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020063714/https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |url-status=live }}</ref>). Kadua kodeu ngahaja misahkeun nangtukeun eusi takson ([[circumscription (taksonomi)|circumscription]]) tina nangtukeun ngaranna. # Opat sarat munggaran ieu kedah dipedalkeun dina karya anu tiasa dicandak dina sababaraha salinan anu sami, salaku catetan ilmiah anu permanén. Nanging, sering langkung seueur inpormasi anu kalebet, sapertos rentang geografis takson, catetan ékologis, kimia, kabiasaan, jsb Kumaha panaluntik anjog di taksa maranéhna béda-béda: gumantung kana data anu sadia, jeung sumber, métode béda ti basajan [[Sipat kuantitatif|kuantitatif]] atawa [[Sipat kualitatif|kualitatif]] babandingan fitur-fitur anu aya, pikeun ngajéntrékeun analisa komputer tina jumlah badag data [[DNA]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190422143927/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |archive-date=22 April 2019 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> === Cutatan pangarang === {{Main|Author citation (botany)|Author citation (zoology)}} "Otoritas" tiasa ditempatkeun saatos nami ilmiah.<ref name="AJE">{{Cite web |url= http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |title=Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species |publisher=American Journal Experts, Research Square Company |website=AJE.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021714/http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Wewenang nyaéta ngaran élmuwan atawa élmuwan anu mimiti sah medalkeun ngaran éta.<ref name="AJE" /> Contona, dina taun 1758 Linnaeus méré ngaran ilmiahna [[gajah Asia]]; ''Elephas maximus'', jadi ngaran ieu sakapeung ditulis jadi "''Elephas maximus'' Linnaeus, 1758".<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |title=Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript |website=Study.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021600/http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Ngaran pangarang mindeng disingget: singketan ''L.'', keur ''Linnaeus,'' ilahar dipaké. Dina botani, kanyataanna, aya daptar singketan standar anu diatur (tingali [[daptar ahli botani dumasar singgetan pangarang]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |title=Biological Classification |last=Biocyclopedia.com |website=biocyclopedia.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |archive-date=14 May 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |date=14 May 2017 }}</ref> Sistem pikeun nangtukeun otoritas rada béda antara [[Kutipan pangarang (botani)|botani]] jeung [[Kutipan pangarang (zoologi)|zoologi]].<ref name="Herbarium" /> Sanajan kitu, éta standar yén lamun genus spésiés geus robah ti déskripsi aslina, ngaran otoritas aslina urang disimpen dina kurung.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |title=Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors |website=Annelida.net |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |archive-date=16 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |date=16 March 2017 }}</ref> == Pénétika == [[File:Phylogenetics.svg|thumb|300px|A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts]] {{Main|Phenetics}} Dina phenetics, ogé katelah taximetrics, atawa taksonomi numerik, organismeu digolongkeun dumasar kana kasaruaan sakabéh, paduli filogeni atawa hubungan évolusionér maranéhanana.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hasilna dina ukuran hypergeometric "jarak" antara taksa. Métode fénétik geus kawilang jarang di jaman modéren, lolobana diganti ku analisis [[Kladistik|kladistik]], sabab métode fénétik teu ngabédakeun sipat karuhun (atawa [[plesiomorph]] ic) tina turunan babarengan (atawa [[apomorphic]]). ) ciri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classification |url= https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163250/https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |archive-date=14 April 2017 |access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, métode phenetic tangtu, kayaning [[tatangga gabung]], tetep, salaku estimators gancang tina hubungan lamun métode leuwih canggih (saperti [[Bayesian inferensi]]) teuing komputasi mahal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molecular Marker Glossary |url= http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/mcdgloss.html |last=McDonald |first=David |date=Fall 2008 |publisher=[[University of Wyoming]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070610123503/http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/McDGloss.html |archive-date=10 June 2007}}</ref> == Basis data == {{Main|Taxonomic database}} Taksonomi modern ngagunakeun téknologi database pikeun milarian sareng katalog ''klasifikasi'' sareng dokuméntasina.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Dylan |last2=King |first2=Margaret |last3=Landis |first3=Drew |last4=Courtney |first4=William |last5=Wang |first5=Runtang |last6=Kelly |first6=Ross |last7=Turner |first7=Jessica A. |last8=Calhoun |first8=Vince D. |date=26 August 2014 |title=Harnessing modern web application technology to create intuitive and efficient data visualization and sharing tools |journal=Frontiers in Neuroinformatics |volume=8 |pages=71 |doi=10.3389/fninf.2014.00071 |issn=1662-5196 |pmc=4144441 |pmid=25206330|doi-access=free}}</ref> Bari euweuh database ilahar dipaké, aya pangkalan data anu ''komprehensif'' sapertos ''[[Katalog Kahirupan]]'', nu tos nyoba ngadaptar unggal spésiés.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |title= About – The Plant List |website= theplantlist.org |access-date= 8 April 2017 |archive-date= 21 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170621190909/http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Katalog didaptarkeun 1,64&nbsp;juta spésiés pikeun sadaya karajaan {{as of|2016|4|lc=on}}, ngaku liputan leuwih ti tilu-suku tina estimasi spésiés dipikawanoh pikeun élmu modern.<ref name="About the Catalogue of Life">{{Cite web |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |title=About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist |website=Catalogue of Life |publisher=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] (ITIS) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |archive-date=15 May 2016 |access-date=22 May 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |date=15 May 2016 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé== {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Automated species identification]] * [[Bacterial taxonomy]] * [[Cluster analysis]] * [[Consortium for the Barcode of Life]] * [[Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities]] * [[Genetypes]] * [[Glossary of scientific naming]] * [[Identification (biology)]] * ''[[Incertae sedis]]'' * [[Open Tree of Life]] * [[Parataxonomy]] * [[Phenogram]] * [[Set theory]] * [[Taxonomy]] (general) * [[Virus classification]] {{div col end}} == Dicutat tina== {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |title=Systematic Botany |last=Datta |first=Subhash Chandra |date=1988 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=9788122400137 |edition=4 |location=New Delhi |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101351/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |title=Plant taxonomy and biosystematics |last=Stace |first=Clive A. |date=1989 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521427852 |edition=2nd. |location=Cambridge |author-link=Clive A. Stace |access-date=19 April 2015 |orig-year=1980 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113180249/https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |title=Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data |last=Stuessy |first=Tod F. |date=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231147125 |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101356/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |url-status=live }} *{{Cite journal |last=Turrill |first=W. B. |date=1938 |title=The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=342–373 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x|s2cid=84905335}} * {{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=Edward O. |first2=Bruce S. |last2=Lieberman |date=2011 |title=Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470905968 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=2nd |isbn=9780470905968}} {{refend}} == Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html What is taxonomy?] at the [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/ ''Natural History Museum London''] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ NCBI] the ''National Center for Biotechnology Information'' * [https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.uniprot.org/ UniProt] the ''Universal Protein Resource'' * [https://www.itis.gov/ ITIS] the ''Integrated Taxonomic Information System'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210227220448/https://cetaf.org/ CETaF] the ''Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities'' * [http://species.wikimedia.org/ Wikispecies] ''free species directory'' * [https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html Biological classification.] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200813180358/https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html |date=13 August 2020}} {{Branches of biology}} {{Subject bar |wikt = yes |wikt-search = taxonomy |commons = yes |q = yes |s = yes |v = yes |d = yes |portal1 = Biology }} [[Kategori:biologi ]] [[Kategori :Élmu]] [[Kategori :Élmu Alam]] guoemhgytwwbi4olhhnjgod0mnx08ne Azadirachta excelsa 0 106235 732102 676685 2026-11-10T19:46:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732102 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{taxobox | name = ''Azadirachta excelsa'' | image = Azadirachta excelsa-pohon-A2613.jpg | image_caption = Ki bawang | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Sapindales]] | familia = [[Meliaceae]] | genus = ''Azadirachta'' | species = '''''A. excelsa''''' | binomial = ''Azadirachta excelsa'' | binomial_authority = (Jack) Jacobs }}'''Ki bawang''' (''Azadiracta excelsa'' (Jack) Jacobs) (kahadé pahili jeung ''[[Ki bawang|Dysoxylum alliaceum]]'') nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu sumebar di [[Asia Tenggara]]. Ieu tangkal téh pituin ti [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Viétnam]], [[Malaysia]], [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Pilipina]], [[Maluku]], sarta [[Papua]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:577602-1|title=Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacobs {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science|website=Plants of the World Online|language=en|accessdate=2025-02-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219150142/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:577602-1|archivedate=2024-12-19}}</ref> [[Gambar:Azadirachta excelsa-batang-A2613.jpg|jmpl|Batang ki bawang|kiri]] == Ciri mandiri == Ieu tutuwuhan téh boga wangun tangkal anu gedé, anu jangkungna bisa kira-kira 45-60 méter. Kulit batangna halus sarta retak di tangkal anu geus kolot.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2737|title=NParks {{!}} Azadirachta excelsa|website=www.nparks.gov.sg|accessdate=2025-02-15}}</ref> [[Daun|Daunna]] héjo, filotaksisna alternate, panjangna nepi ka 30-60 cm. Ieu daun miboga 7-11 pasang anak daun anu panjangna 12,5 cm sarta lébarna 3,5 cm.<ref name=":0" /> [[Buah|Buahna]] kaasup kana tipeu drupa, warnana héjo nalika atah sarta robah jadi konéng pas asak. Dina hiji buah mibanda hiji [[siki]].<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Artikel WikiTutuwuhan-A2613]] ns7hq0g9kx0tomqjp36xz11cphucm53 Cengal pasir 0 106244 732108 708377 2026-11-10T20:26:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732108 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Cengal pasir | image = Hopea odorata-pohon-A2613.jpg | image_caption = Cengal pasir di Taman Hutan Raya Ir. H. Djuanda Bandung | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Malvales]] | familia = [[Dipterocarpaceae]] | genus = ''[[Hopea]]'' | species = '''''H. odorata''''' | binomial = ''Hopea odorata'' | binomial_authority = Roxb. | synonyms = }} [[Gambar:Hopea odorata-batang-A2613.jpg|jmpl|Kulit batang cengal pasir|kiri]] '''Cengal pasir''' (''Hopea odorata'' Roxb.) nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu kaasup kana kulawarga [[Dipterocarpaceae]]. Ieu spésiés pituin ti [[Bangladesh]] nepi ka [[Semenanjung Malaya]] sarta tumuwuh di bioma tropis baseuh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hopea odorata Roxb. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:320965-1|website=Plants of the World Online|language=en|access-date=2024-11-30|accessdate=2026-11-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219115921/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:320965-1|archivedate=2024-12-19}}</ref> == Ciri mandiri == Ieu tangkal biasana jangkungna 25-30 méter, ngan sakapeung bisa nepi ka 40 méter. [[Daun|Daunna]] héjo tuluy (''evergreen'') sarta tajukna ngawangun saperti jucung.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/9/2959|title=NParks {{!}} Hopea odorata|website=www.nparks.gov.sg|accessdate=2025-02-16}}</ref> Daunna boga filotaksis ''alternate'', bentukna ''oblong'' nepi ka ''ovate-lanceolate'', sisina datar, panjangna 7-14 cm sarta lébarna 3-7 méter. Permukaanna leucir, ranggeuyna 1,5-2 cm, sarta aya ''domatia'' dina kélék ranggeuy daun.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Artikel WikiTutuwuhan-A2613]] [[Kategori:Dipterocarpaceae]] 06qlfaxt88qnn7w59radb63cdu0wkhw Camellia japonica 0 106245 732106 676694 2026-11-10T20:24:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732106 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Camellia japonica'' | image = Camellia japonica-bunga-A2613.jpg | image_caption = Kembang ''Camellia japonica'' di Kebun Raya Cibodas | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Ericales]] | familia = [[Theaceae]] | genus = ''[[Camellia]]'' | species = '''''C. japonica''''' | binomial = ''Camellia japonica'' | binomial_authority = L. | synonyms = ''Camellia hozanensis'' (Hayata) Hayata }} [[Gambar:Camellia japonica-perdu-A2613.jpg|jmpl|Semak atawa perdu ''Camellia japonica''|kiri]] '''''Camellia japonica''''' atawa '''kayucu jepang''', '''kamélia jepang''' nyaéta hiji spésies tutuwuhan anu kaasup kana kulawarga Theaceae. Ieu tutuwuhan téh pituin ti [[Jepang|Jepang Kidul]], [[Taiwan (pulo)|Taiwan]], [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] (Shandong, Zhejiang Wétan), sarta [[Koréa]] (Pulo Jéju).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:828524-1|title=Camellia japonica L. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science|website=Plants of the World Online|language=en|accessdate=2025-02-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260825151754/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:828524-1|archivedate=2026-08-25}}</ref> == Ciri mandiri == Tutuwuhan ieu boga habitus semak atawa perdu. Daunna héjo tuluy (evergreen), warnana héjo kolot, leucir, sarta ujungna seukeut. Panjang daunna 7-10 cm. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/2845/camellia-japonica/details|title=Camellia japonica {{!}} common camellia Shrubs/RHS|website=www.rhs.org.uk|language=en-gb|accessdate=2025-02-16}}</ref> [[Kembang|Kembangna]] tunggal kalawan warna bodas semu kayas, diaméterna 6-10 cm. Kembangna tumuwuh dina ujung cagak nalika [[usum semi]].<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Asia]] [[Kategori:Artikel WikiTutuwuhan-A2613]] 19m3xbmaul788iqfgisovzrc3jb5ctm Tali Anjing 0 106345 732176 681176 2026-11-11T03:14:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732176 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Acalypha hispida | image = File:Acalypha hispida-batang-Lany pirna.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Batang tuwuhan Tali Anjing di Kebun Raya Cibodas, Cianjur. | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | classis = [[Equisetopsida]] | ordo = [[Malpighiales]] | familia = [[Euphorbiaceae]] | genus = ''[[Acalypha]]'' | species = '''''Acalypha hispida''''' | binomial = ''Melampodium divaricatum'' | binomial_authority = ([[Burm.f.]]) }} '''''Acalypha hispida''''', nu leuwih dipikawanoh salaku Tali Anjing atanapi Ékor Kucing, mangrupakeun tutuwuhan hias anu remen kapanggih di buruan imah atawa dipaké minangka tutuwuhan pager. Tutuwuhan ieu mibanda kembang nu jangkung ngajuntai kawas buntut ucing kalayan warna beureum mencorong.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://kebunraya.id/bogor/medicine-plant/efE3F30|title=Kebun Raya {{!}} Konservasi Bogor|website=kebunraya.id|accessdate=2025-03-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801171113/https://kebunraya.id/bogor/medicine-plant/efE3F30 |date=2024-08-01 }}</ref> Asalna ti Hindia Barat, tina Kapuloan Bismarck, tutuwuhan ieu geus sumebar ka sababaraha wewengkon di sakuliah dunya, di antarana Kapuloan Andaman, Bangladesh, Benin, Burundi, Kapuloan Caroline, Kapuloan Cayman, Komoro, Kapuloan Cook, Kuba, Républik Dominika, Ékuador, Guinea Khatulistiwa, Gambia, Kapuloan Gilbert, Kapuloan Teluk Guinea, Haiti, Kapuloan Leeward, Madagaskar, Kapuloan Marianas, Marquesas, Kapuloan Marshall, Kapuloan Nicobar, Puerto Rico, Kapuloan Society, Tanzania, Thailand, Trinidad-Tobago, Tuamotu, Kapuloan Tubuai, Vanuatu, jeung Kapuloan Antilles Venezuela.<ref name=":1" /> Tutuwuhan ieu kaasup rungkun tropis nu ngahasilkeun kembang beureum lemes berbulu, ngagantung tina kélék daun siga untaian benang atawa buntut ucing, panjangna nepi ka 45 cm. Tali Anjing bisa tumuwuh jadi rungkun badag, tapi bisa dijaga tetep leutik ku cara dipangkas sacara rutin. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:337478-1|title=Acalypha hispida Burm.f. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science|website=Plants of the World Online|language=en|accessdate=2025-03-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416214822/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:337478-1|archivedate=2025-04-16}}</ref> == Kagunaan == Tutuwuhan ieu cocog dipelak langsung di taneuh minangka hiasan taman atawa ditanam dina pot gantung pikeun memperindah lingkungan. Salian ti dijadikeun tutuwuhan hias, Tali Anjing ogé miboga mangpaat dina pengobatan tradisional. Bagéan tutuwuhan anu biasa dipaké nyaéta kembang jeung daunna. Kandungan kimia dina tutuwuhan ieu dipercaya bisa ngabantu ngubaran sababaraha panyakit, saperti utah getih, vitiligo, tatu getihan, disentri, radang peujit, jeung [[cacingan]].<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Artikel WikiTutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] <references /> [[Kategori:Artikel Kopdar WikiTutuwuhan]] pcix59hvp0mtky98xoi1y59xmb2z7be Monumén Pérs Nasional 0 106522 732144 679674 2026-11-10T23:49:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732144 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox museum|name=Monumén Pérs Nasional|image=National Press Monument, Solo (panorama) Diliff.jpg|imagesize=200|caption=Tampak hareup Monumén Pérs Nasional|alt=|map_type=|map_caption=|map_alt=|coordinates_type=|established={{start date|1978|02|09|df=yes}}|dissolved=|location=[[Surakarta]], Indonesia|type=[[Museum]] [[media massa]]|collection=|visitors=|director=|president=|curator=|publictransit=|car_park=|network=|website={{url|mpn.komdigi.go.id}}|embedded={{Infobox cagar budaya | Name = Monumen Pers Nasional|child=yes | Image = |caption = | Location = [[Surakarta]], [[Jawa Tengah]] | Type = Nasional | Criteria =Bangunan | ID =CB.44 | Region = | Year = 2010 & 2015 | Session = | ownership = {{INA}} | management = [[Kementerian Komunikasi jeung Informatika Républik Indonésia]] | Link = http://cagarbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/cagarbudaya/detail/PO2015121500015/monumen-pers-nasional }}}}'''Monumén Pérs Nasional''' nyaéta museum husus média massa (pérs) anu aya di [[Surakarta]], [[Jawa Tengah]]. Musieum ieu ngabogaan rupa-rupa koléksi anu pakait jeung sajarah pérs di Indonésia. Musieum ieu aya di Jalan Gajahmada No. 59, Surakarta, Jawa Tengah<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://radarjogja.jawapos.com/wisata/654576308/sejarah-monumen-pers-nasional-di-solo-jawa-tengah-yang-memiliki-bangunan-seperti-candi|title=Sejarah Monumen Pers Nasional di Solo, Jawa Tengah yang Memiliki Bangunan Seperti Candi - Radar Jogja|last=D|first=Salma Nabila Putri|website=Sejarah Monumen Pers Nasional di Solo, Jawa Tengah yang Memiliki Bangunan Seperti Candi - Radar Jogja|language=id|accessdate=2025-06-08}}</ref>. == Sajarah == Wangunan Monumén Pérs Nasional baheula boga ngaran Societeit Sasana Soeka anu diwangun dina taun 1918 dina prakarsa [[KGPAA Sri Mangkuenara VII]], anu didésain ku arsitek Wonosobo, Mas Aboekasan Atmodirono<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://mpn.komdigi.go.id/index.php/about/|title=About – Monumen Pers Nasional|language=en-US|accessdate=2025-06-08}}</ref>. Societeit Sasana Soeka awalna dipaké jadi balai pertemuan kulawargi Pura Mangkunegaran. Dina mangsa pamaréntahan Kolonial Jepang, gedung ieu difungsikeun jadi klinik ngarawat tentara<ref name=":0" />. Dina taun 1946, tempat ieu jadi saksi ngadegna Persatuan Wartawan Indonésia (PWI)<ref name=":0" />. [[Gambar:Peresmian Presiden Soeharto.jpg|al=Prasasti Peresmian Monumén Pérs Nasional anu ditandatanganan ku Présiden Soeharto|jmpl|Prasasti Peresmian Monumén Pérs Nasional]] Ngaran Monumén Pérs Nasional ditetapkeun dina kongrés PWI taun 1973 di [[Prigen, Pasuruan|Tretes]]. Awalna, wangunan ieu rék dingaranan Musieum Pérs Nasional. Dina usulan PWI Surakarta, ngaran ieu diganti jadi Monumén Pérs Nasional<ref name=":1" />. Monumén Pers Nasional diresmikeun ku Présiden [[Soeharto]] di tanggal 9 Pébruari 1978 anu dibuktikeun ku panandatanganan prasasti pangadegan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6556442/sejarah-monumen-pers-nasional-di-solo-beserta-serba-serbinya|title=Sejarah Monumen Pers Nasional di Solo beserta Serba-serbinya|last=Wibawana|first=Widhia Arum|website=detiknews|language=id-ID|accessdate=2025-06-08|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204070845/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6556442/sejarah-monumen-pers-nasional-di-solo-beserta-serba-serbinya|archivedate=2024-12-04}}</ref>. == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Musieum di Indonésia]] 6j4ko18pgm012sjdyfbanx51x6yqy3d Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon 0 106644 732150 705742 2026-11-11T01:28:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732150 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon''' mangrupa wangunan bersejarah di Kota Cirebon nu diwangun di masa kolonial [[Hindia-Walanda]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://direktoripariwisata.id/unit/2510|title=Pendopo Kabupaten Cirebon|website=direktoripariwisata.id|accessdate=2025-07-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251221092516/https://direktoripariwisata.id/unit/2510|archivedate=2025-12-21}}</ref>, sakaligus jadi salah sahiji wangunan cagar budaya nu aya di Kota [[Kota Cirebon|Cirebon]]. Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon pernahna aya di Kota Cirebon, propinsi [[Jawa Kulon]], alamatna aya di Jalan Jl. R. A Kartini No.7, Kejaksan, Kecamatan Kejaksan, Kota Cirebon, Jawa Kulon. Wangunan ieu ngalaman sababaraha kali pindah tempat, awalna di jalan Karanggetas Kota Cirebon nu ayeuna jadi pertokoan di éra Bupati R Sinuk. Tuluy bupati R Sinuk mindahkeun lokasi pendopo jeung ngawangun deui wangunan pendopo anyar di Taman Kebumen Kota Cirebon, nepi akhirna di éra bupati kalima nyaéta R.A.A Soeradiredja ngawangun komplék anyar sangkan jadi puseur pamaréntahan Kabupatén Cirebon di Kejaksan. Wangunan ieu jadi cikal bakal ayana Kota jeung Kabupatén Cirebon. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/jabar/budaya/d-7079378/perjalanan-panjang-pendopo-bupati-cirebon-hingga-jadi-cagar-budaya|title=Perjalanan Panjang Pendopo Bupati Cirebon hingga Jadi Cagar Budaya|last=Mahardika|first=Devteo|website=detikjabar|language=id-ID|accessdate=2025-07-26}}</ref> == Sajarah == Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon diwangun dina taun 1986 ku Bupati Cirebon kalima nyaéta R.A.A. Soeradiredja, tuluy diresmikeun dina taun 1900 sanggeus ngaliwatan prosés pangwangunan nu panjang salila 4 taun. Lokasi Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon di Kejaksan dipilih jadi puseur pamaréntahan lantaran baheulana ieu wewengkon téh mangrupa wewengkon kakawasaan Pangéran Kejaksan atawa nu katelahna Syékh Abdurrohim. Anjeunna kungsi ngatur sababaraha wewengkon di beulah kaléreun Walungan Sukalila nepi ka kawasan Stasiun Kejaksan. Nepi ka ayeuna wangunan ieu masih dipaké sangkan rumah dinas Bupati Cirebon awata kagiatan resmi jeung budaya di Cirebon. <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Dina taun 2023 Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati dijadikeun wangunan cagar budaya lantaran usina geus leuwih ti 100 taun. <ref name=":1" /> == Galéri == <gallery showfilename="yes"> Gambar:Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon 01.jpg|Kondisi Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon taun 2025 Gambar:Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon 02.jpg|Kondisi Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon taun 2025 Gambar:Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon 03.jpg|Kondisi Pendopo Rumah Dinas Bupati Cirebon taun 2025 </gallery> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Cagar Budaya 2.0]] 1m41pp1cvd039r7xmhmpo8otkeyp1fj RSUD Bayu Asih 0 106665 732156 708828 2026-11-11T01:59:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732156 wikitext text/x-wiki '''RSUD Bayu Asih''' nyaéta rumah sakit diadegkeun taun 1925 dina waktos akhir pamaréntahan Bupati [[Kabupatén Karawang|Karawang]] di Purwakarta, [[R.T.A. Gandanegara]] jeung mimiti pamaréntahan Bupati Karawang di Purwakarta saanggeusna, [[R.A.A. Soeriamihardja]]. Dibere ngaran Bayu Asih anu miboga harti “ngamumule dina kakuatan pangasihan.”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://disipusda.purwakartakab.go.id/sejarah-rumah-sakit-umum-daerah-bayu-asih-purwakarta/|title=Sejarah Rumah Sakit Umum Daerah Bayu Asih Purwakarta|website=Dinas Arsip dan Perpustakaan Kabupaten Purwakarta|language=en-US|accessdate=2025-08-01}}</ref> Rumah sakit ieu kaasup rumah sakit pangkolotna di wilayah [[Kabupatén Purwakarta|Purwakarta]], Karawang, [[Kabupatén Subang|Subang]], jeung [[Bekasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.purwakartaonline.com/ragam/pr-4254755763/sejarah-rumah-sakit-bayu-asih-sejak-1930|title=Sejarah Rumah Sakit Bayu Asih Sejak 1930! - Purwakarta Online|last=Sugianto|first=Enjang|website=Sejarah Rumah Sakit Bayu Asih Sejak 1930! - Purwakarta Online|language=id|accessdate=2025-08-01}}</ref> == Sajarah == Dina waktos taun 1927, ieu rumah sakit kaduruk, ku sabab éta diwangun deui rumah sakit dina lokasi nu séjén di Jalan Raya Véteran (baheula ngaranna Jalan Raya Purwakarta Utara teras dirobah deui janten Jalan Raya Jénderal Sudirman). Wangunan rumah sakit nu baheulana janten wangunan sakola Sekolah Kejuruan Kepandaian Putri (SKKP) Negeri, Sekolah Kesejahteraan Keluarga Atas (SKKA), Sekolah Menengah Kesejahteraan Keluarga (SMKK), ayeunna wangunan Sekolah Kejuruan Kepandaian Putri (SKKP) Negeri, Sekolah Kesejahteraan Keluarga Atas (SKKA), Sekolah Menengah Kesejahteraan Keluarga (SMKK), ayeuna Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri (SMPN) 4 Purwakarta.<ref name=":0" /> Kaping 18 Oktober taun 1930, ieu rumah sakit diresmikeun ku Gubernur Jenderal Jhr. Mr. Dr. Andries Cornelis Dirk van de Graeff jeung Residen Hr. A. Sangster, Bupati Karawang di Purwakarta R.A.A. Soeriamihardja, Hr. Slotemaker de Bruine, Pendeta O.E. van der Brug, dr. W.J.L. Bake, dr. Wimmel dan dr. F.J. Bosman (Zend.Arts) jeung pingpinan suster Zr. H. Hazewindus.<ref name=":0" /> == Wangunan == Wangunan rumah sakit jeung arsitékturna digagas ku ''Annemer'' Lie Djien Tiong, dibantosan ku R. Moehammad Asik jeung R. Ahmad Soeta.<ref name=":0" /> Anggaran pikeun ngawangun ieu rumah sakit nyaéta Nf 280.000 (dua ratus salapan puluh rubu dina mata uang Walanda) anu meunang ti dana masarakat, kantor Pamanoekan jeung Tjiasem Landen, jeung pamaréntah kolonial Walanda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merdeka.com/jabar/cerita-masa-lalu-rumah-sakit-tertua-di-purwakarta-pernah-alami-kebakaran-sampai-harus-pindah-lokasi-184483-mvk.html|title=Cerita Masa Lalu Rumah Sakit Tertua di Purwakarta, Pernah Alami Kebakaran Sampai Harus Pindah Lokasi|website=merdeka.com|language=en|accessdate=2025-08-01}}</ref> == Palayanan jeung pengelolaan == Rumah sakit ieu miboga luas taneuh lima hektar jeung luas wangunanana 5.000 m. Unit anu aya dina rumah sakit ieu nyaéta unit rawat jalan, unit rawat inap, bangsal, apotek, sakola kajuruan jeung asrama.<ref name=":0" /> Mimitina, ieu rumah sakit diurus ku Yayasan Gereja Kristen Pasundan (GKP), teras ku pamaréntah daérah Purwakarta dina taun 1976.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jaditau.id/ragam/pr-8707144675/sejarah-singkat-rsud-bayu-asih-purwakarta|title=Sejarah Singkat RSUD Bayu Asih Purwakarta - Jadi Tau|last=Hanipah|first=Ipah|website=Sejarah Singkat RSUD Bayu Asih Purwakarta - Jadi Tau|language=id|accessdate=2025-08-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328000704/https://www.jaditau.id/ragam/pr-8707144675/sejarah-singkat-rsud-bayu-asih-purwakarta|archivedate=2023-03-28}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Cagar Budaya 2.0]] bbr9piuob522oz4et9n78m4umqzo5rz ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ 0 106989 732188 697920 2026-11-11T04:23:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732188 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Rapikan}} {{Dwiaksara Sunda ka Latén|Indonésia}} {{Indonesia infobox}}{{geulis}} '''ᮛᮦᮕᮥᮘᮣᮤᮊ᮪ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ''' (ᮃᮊ᮪ᮞᮛ ᮜᮒᮦᮔ᮪: Républik Indonésia) ᮑᮆᮒ ᮠᮤᮏᮤ ᮔᮌᮛ ᮓᮤ [[ᮃᮞᮤᮃ ᮒᮨᮀᮌᮛ]], ᮔᮥ ᮓᮤᮜᮤᮝᮒᮔ᮪ ᮊᮥ ᮌᮥᮛᮒ᮪ [[ᮊᮒᮥᮜᮤᮞ᮪ᮒᮤᮝ]] ᮏᮩᮀ ᮃᮚ ᮓᮤ ᮃᮔ᮪ᮒᮛ ᮘᮥᮃᮔ [[ᮃᮞᮤᮃ]] ᮏᮩᮀ [[ᮃᮅᮞ᮪ᮒᮢᮜᮤᮃ]] ᮞᮁᮒ ᮃᮔ᮪ᮒᮛ [[ᮞᮙᮥᮓᮢ ᮕᮞᮤᮖᮤᮊ᮪]] ᮏᮩᮀ [[ᮞᮙᮥᮓᮢ ᮠᮤᮔ᮪ᮓᮤᮃ]]. ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮙᮀᮛᮥᮕ ᮔᮌᮛ [[ᮊᮕᮥᮜᮧᮃᮔ᮪]] ᮔᮥ ᮕᮀᮌᮨᮌᮦᮔ ᮞᮓᮥᮑ, ᮓᮤᮍᮥᮔ᮪ ᮊᮥ |᮱᮳.᮴᮸᮷| ᮕᮥᮜᮧ,<ref>[http://nasional.vivanews.com/news/read/260537-indonesia-daftarkan-13-487-pulau-ke-pbb Indonesia Daftarkan 13.487 Pulau ke PBB]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands "Indonesia has completed surveys on its 13,000 islands", ][[Antara|ANTARA News Agency]]<span>, 18 August 2010</span> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318145945/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands|date=18 March 2015}}</ref> ᮊᮥ ᮊᮤᮒᮥᮔ ᮓᮤᮞᮨᮘᮥᮒ᮪ ᮇᮌᮦ ᮔᮥᮞᮔ᮪ᮒᮛ ("ᮕᮥᮜᮧ ᮜᮥᮃᮁ", ᮏᮝ ᮓᮤᮃᮀᮌᮕ᮪ ᮞᮜᮊᮥ ᮕᮥᮞᮩᮁᮔ).<ref name=Kroef>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410201834/http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |date=2020-04-10 }}</ref> ᮊᮜᮝᮔ᮪ ᮕᮧᮕᮥᮜᮞᮤ ᮓᮤᮞᮝᮀ |᮲᮷᮰| ᮚᮥᮒ ᮏᮤᮝ ᮓᮤᮔ ᮒᮅᮔ᮪ |᮲᮰᮲᮰|,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=[[1 September]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]] }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |title=Arsip salinan |accessdate=2026-09-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927070525/http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |archivedate=2006-09-27}}</ref> ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮙᮤᮔᮀᮊ ᮔᮌᮛ ᮔᮥ ᮕᮧᮕᮥᮜᮞᮤᮔ ᮕᮀᮜᮧᮘᮔ ᮊᮇᮕᮒ᮪ ᮞᮓᮥᮑ ᮞᮁᮒ ᮔᮌᮛ ᮕᮧᮕᮥᮜᮞᮤ ᮕᮍᮌᮨᮙ᮪ ᮄᮞ᮪ᮜᮙ᮪ ᮔᮥ ᮕᮀᮜᮧᮘᮔ ᮞᮓᮥᮑ, ᮞᮔᮏᮔ᮪ ᮞᮎᮛ ᮛᮨᮞ᮪ᮙᮤ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮜᮄᮔ᮪ [[ᮔᮌᮛ ᮄᮞᮣᮙ᮪]]. ᮝᮍᮥᮔ᮪ ᮕᮙᮛᮦᮔ᮪ᮒᮠᮔ᮪ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮑᮆᮒ ᮛᮦᮕᮥᮘᮣᮤᮊ᮪, ᮊᮜᮝᮔ᮪ [[ᮓᮦᮝᮔ᮪ ᮕᮨᮁᮝᮊᮤᮜᮔ᮪ ᮛᮊᮡᮒ᮪]], [[ᮓᮦᮝᮔ᮪ ᮕᮨᮁᮝᮊᮤᮜᮔ᮪ ᮓᮆᮛᮂ]], ᮏᮩᮀ [[ᮕᮢᮦᮞᮤᮓᮦᮔ᮪]] ᮔᮥ ᮓᮤᮕᮤᮜᮤᮂ ᮜᮀᮞᮥᮀ ᮊᮥ ᮛᮠᮚᮒ᮪ᮔ. ᮕᮥᮞᮩᮁ ᮓᮚᮩᮂ ᮔᮌᮛ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮑᮆᮒ [[ᮏᮊᮁᮒ]]. ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮘᮧᮌ ᮝᮒᮨᮞ᮪ ᮝᮨᮝᮨᮀᮊᮧᮔ᮪ ᮏᮩᮀ [[ᮙᮜᮚ᮪ᮞᮤᮃ]] ᮓᮤ [[ᮕᮥᮜᮧ ᮊᮜᮤᮙᮔ᮪ᮒᮔ᮪]], [[ᮕᮕᮥᮃ ᮔᮥᮌᮤᮔᮤ]] ᮓᮤ [[ᮕᮥᮜᮧ ᮕᮕᮥᮃ]], ᮞᮁᮒ [[ᮒᮤᮙᮧᮁ ᮜᮦᮞ᮪ᮒᮦ]] ᮓᮤ [[ᮕᮥᮜᮧ ᮒᮤᮙᮧᮁ]]. ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮙᮀᮛᮥᮕ ᮃᮀᮌᮧᮒ [[PBB]] ᮞᮁᮒ ᮞᮠᮤᮏᮤ-ᮠᮤᮏᮤᮔ ᮃᮀᮌᮧᮒ PBB ᮔᮥ ᮊᮥᮀᮞᮤ ᮊᮜᮥᮃᮁ ᮒᮤ ᮇᮁᮌᮔᮤᮞᮞᮤ ᮆᮒ. ᮞᮜᮤᮃᮔ᮪ ᮆᮒ, ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ ᮇᮌᮦ ᮃᮀᮌᮧᮒ ᮒᮤ [[ASEAN]], [[APEC]], [[OSI]] ᮏᮩᮀ [[G-20]]. == ᮛᮥᮏᮥᮊᮔ᮪ == 9vctzitcn5gqe1m0pao3utj327gon8p Ratu Kalinyamat 0 107710 732161 708830 2026-11-11T02:03:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732161 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Ratu Kalinyamat | image = Ratu Kalinyamat karya Jatmiko.jpg | caption = Gambaran Ratu Kalinyamat (Ilustrasi). | birth_name = Retna Kencana | birth_date = Teu kanyahoan | death_date = [[1579]] | death_place = [[Jepara]], [[Jawa Tengah]] | death_cause = Sepuh | resting_place = Komplék Masjid Mantingan, Jepara | monuments = Patung Ratu Kalinyamat di Jepara | residence = Kalinyamat, Jepara | nationality = Jawa (Kasultanan Demak) | other_names = Rainha de Japara | occupation = Pangawasa Jepara, Tokoh Maritim | years_active = 1549–1579 | spouse = [[Pangéran Hadiri]] (Pangéran Kalinyamat) | parents = [[Sultan Trenggana]] (Rama) | relatives = [[Sunan Prawoto]] (Lanceuk), [[Ratu Mas Kencana]] (Adi) }} '''Ratu Kalinyamat''' (maot taun [[1579]]) nyaéta saurang pangawasa di [[Jepara]] anu kawéntar ku kawani sarta kakuatan maritimna di Nusantara dina abad ka-16.<ref name="Britannica"/> Anjeunna téh putri ti [[Sultan Trenggana]], raja katilu [[Kasultanan Demak]].<ref>https://setkab.go.id/presiden-jokowi-anugerahkan-gelar-pahlawan-nasional-kepada-enam-tokoh/</ref> Salaku inohong awéwé, anjeunna miboga peran kalintang penting dina peta politik sarta pertahanan laut di [[Semenanjung Melayu]] jeung [[Pulo Jawa]], utamana dina ngalawan ékspansi bangsa [[Portugis]]. <ref name="Britannica">[[The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica]]. (2023). "Jepara: Historical City". [https://www.britannica.com/place/Jepara Britannica.com]. Diaksés tanggal [[30 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ==Asal-usul sarta Kulawarga== Nami asli anjeunna téh [[Retna Kencana]]. Anjeunna nikah ka [[Pangéran Hadiri]], saurang inohong anu séké-sélérna dumasar carita rahayat mah ti [[Acéh]], nu satuluyna diistrénan jadi adipati di Jepara kalayan gelar Pangéran Kalinyamat. Saatos carogéna ditelasan ku utusan [[Arya Penangsang]] dina pacengkadan suksési Demak, Ratu Kalinyamat mingpin Jepara kalayan wijaksana sarta ngajantenkeun wilayahna salaku puseur kakuatan ékonomi jeung militer. <ref name="Babad">[[Olthof, W.L.]] (Terj). (2007). ''Babad Tanah Jawi: Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647''. Yogyakarta: Narasi. [https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl/ Leiden University Library]. Diaksés tanggal [[30 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ==Sumpah Tapa Wuda== Dina kapercayaan lokal sarta naskah-naskah babad, dicaritakeun yén saatos pupusna Pangéran Kalinyamat, Ratu Kalinyamat ngalaksanakeun tapa di Gunung Danaraja. Anjeunna sumpah moal liren tapa sarta moal nganggo papakéan anu pantes (''tapa wuda sinjang rambut'') dugi ka Arya Penangsang tiwas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mardiyono|first=Peri|date=2020|title=Tuah Bumi Mataram: Dari Panembahan Senopati hingga Amangkurat II|publisher=Araska Publisher|isbn=9786237537793|pages=292|url-status=live}}</ref> Ieu sumpah téh mangrupakeun simbol tijinna haté sarta perlawanan anjeunna ka pihak anu geus ngarusak tatanan Kasultanan Demak. <ref name="Raffles">[[Raffles, T.S.]] (1817). ''The History of Java''. London: Black, Parbury, and Allen. [https://archive.org/details/historyjava01raffgoog Archive.org]. Diaksés tanggal [[30 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ==Perlawanan Maritim Ngalawan Portugis== Ratu Kalinyamat kakoncara salaku pangawasa anu gaduh armada laut anu tohaga. Dina taun [[1551]], anjeunna ngirimkeun 40 kapal kalayan 4.000 prajurit pikeun mantuan [[Kasultanan Johor]]. Satuluyna dina taun [[1574]], dumasar kana catetan Portugis, anjeunna ngirimkeun deui armada anu langkung badag, nyaéta 300 kapal (80 di antarana kapal jung badag) kalayan 15.000 prajurit pikeun ngabébaskeun Malaka. Kusabab pangaruhna anu kacida gedéna, urang Portugis méré landian "Rainha de Japara, senhora poderosa e rica" (Ratu Jepara, awéwé anu sakti tur beunghar). <ref name="Couto">[[Do Couto, Diogo]]. (1778). ''Da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista dos mares, e terras do Oriente''. Lisbon: Régia Officina Typografica. [https://archive.org/details/daasiadosfeitosq08coutuoft Archive.org]. Diaksés tanggal [[30 Désémber 2025]].</ref> <ref name="JurnalSajarah">[[Hasan, M.]] (2021). "The Military Diplomacy of Ratu Kalinyamat in the 16th Century". ''Journal of Maritime Studies'', 5(2), 112-125. [https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/history ejournal.undip.ac.id]. Diaksés tanggal [[30 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ==Pupusna Pangéran Kalinyamat== ​Dina taun [[1549]], [[Sunan Prawata]], raja kaopat Demak, tiwas ditiwasan ku utusan [[Arya Penangsang]], misanana anu janten Adipati Jipang. Ratu Kalinyamat mendakan keris Kyai Betok kagungan [[Sunan Kudus]] nanceb dina jasad lanceukna éta. Ku kituna, Pangéran sarta Ratu Kalinyamat angkat ka [[Kudus]] kanggo nyuhunkeun katerangan. <ref name="Graaf1985">[[De Graaf, H.J.]] & [[Pigeaud, Th.G.Th.]] (1985). ''Kerajaan-Kerajaan Islam di Jawa: Peralihan dari Majapahit ke Mataram''. Jakarta: Grafitipers. ISBN 979-444-000-0. Diaksés tanggal [[31 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ​[[Sunan Kudus]] mangrupakeun pangrojong Arya Penangsang dina pacéngkadan parebutan tahta saatos pupusna Raja [[Trenggana]] ([[1546]]). Ratu Kalinyamat sumping nungtut kaadilan alatan pupus lanceukna. Sunan Kudus ngajelaskeun yén nalika anom, [[Sunan Prawata]] kantos nelasan Pangéran Surowiyoto alias Sekar Seda Lepen, ramana [[Arya Penangsang]], janten wajar upami ayeuna anjeunna kenging walesan anu satimpal. <ref name="Ricklefs">[[Ricklefs, M.C.]] (2008). ''A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200''. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230546851. [https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00rick Archive.org]. Diaksés tanggal [[31 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ​Ratu Kalinyamat kuciwa kana sikep Sunan Kudus. Anjeunna sarta carogéna milih mulang ka [[Jepara]]. Di tengah jalan, maranéhna dikerepuk ku balad Arya Penangsang. Pangéran Kalinyamat tiwas. Kacaritakeun, anjeunna kantos ngarayap dina taneuh ku sésa-sésa tanagana, sahingga ku pangeusi sakitar, daérah tempat pupusna Pangéran Kalinyamat disebut désa [[Prambatan]]. <ref name="Babad2007">[[Olthof, W.L.]] (Terj). (2007). ''Babad Tanah Jawi: Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647''. Yogyakarta: Narasi. ISBN 979-168-047-7. Diaksés tanggal [[31 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ​Dumasar carita, salajengna bari nyandak layon Pangéran Kalinyamat, Ratu Kalinyamat neraskeun lalampahan dugi ka hiji walungan. Getih anu kaluar tina layon Pangéran Kalinyamat ngajantenkeun cai walungan warnana wungu, anu satuluyna éta daérah katelah ku nami [[Kaliwungu]]. Beuki ka kulon, dina kaayaan lungsé, anjeunna ngalangkungan [[Pringtulis, Nalumsari, Jepara|Pringtulis]]. Kusabab tina bakating ku lungsé leumpangna dugi ka sosolontodan; ''moyang-moyong; (sempoyongan)'', tempat éta ayeuna katelah ku nami [[Mayong, Jepara|Mayong]]. Satepina di [[Purwogondo, Kalinyamatan, Jepara|Purwogondo]], dingaranan kitu margi di tempat ieu mimiti kaluar bau (''gondo'') tina layon anu dicandak ku Ratu Kalinyamat, lajeng ngalangkungan [[Pecangaan, Jepara|Pecangaan]] dugi ka nepi di [[Mantingan, Tahunan, Jepara|Mantingan]]. <ref name="Sofiana">[[Sofiana, A.]] (2017). "Ratu Kalinyamat: Rainha de Japara". ''Journal of Historical Studies'', 1(1). [https://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/jhs Journal Unnes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260106073049/https://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/jhs |date=2026-01-06 }}. Diaksés tanggal [[31 Désémber 2025]].</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|}} [[Kategori:Pamingpin awéwé]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Jawa]] [[Kategori:Pahlawan Nasional Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Islam di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Jepara]] [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Inohong Jawa]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:Pulitik]] ec14nnresek9ty4e6gpixw8o8leq5nl Miss Universe 2025 0 108154 732143 729225 2026-11-10T23:45:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732143 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Miss Universe 2025''' mangrupa édisi ka-74 tina kontés [[Miss Universe]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[IMPACT Challenger Hall]], [[Muang Thong Thani]], [[Ban Mai]], [[Nonthaburi]], [[Thailand]] dina tanggal 21 Nopémber 2025. Dina ahir acara, [[Victoria Kjær Theilvig]], [[Miss Universe 2024]] ti [[Dénmark]], masrahkeun makuta ka [[Fátima Bosch]] ti [[Méksiko]] minangka panerusna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mitihoon.com/2025/03/27/532841/|title=IMPACT เผยอีเวนต์ใหญ่แน่น พร้อมต้อนรับ Miss Universe 2025 หนุนอุตสาหกรรมไมซ์ ดันซอฟต์พาวเวอร์ไทยสู่สายตานานาชาติ|last=มิติหุ้น|first=Donut|website=มิติหุ้น {{!}} ชี้ชัดทุกการลงทุน|language=th|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/teroka/miss-meksiko-fatima-bosch-terpilih-jadi-miss-universe-2025-2091780|title=Miss Meksiko Fatima Bosch Terpilih Jadi Miss Universe 2025|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Dilaksanakeun di tengah masa berkabung sanggeus pupusna ibu suri Thailand, [[Ratu Sirikit]], sababaraha runtuyan acara kontés geus disaluyukeun minangka bentuk simpati. Sanajan kitu, rupa-rupa kontrovérsi ogé ngiringan jalanna kontés, ti mimiti paripolah ketua panyelenggara kompetisi, sengketa hukum anu disanghareupan ku nu boga kontés, mundurna juri, nepi ka tuduhan kecurangan dina nangtukeun juara.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/11/29/style/miss-universe-pageant-controversy|title=This year’s Miss Universe debacle shows how beauty pageants turned ugly|last=Holland|first=Oscar|website=CNN|language=en|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rappler.com/entertainment/pageants/rundown-controversies-miss-universe-2025/|title=No end yet to Miss Universe 2025 controversies. Here’s a rundown of it all.|last=jreyes0314|website=RAPPLER|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Wakil Indonésia, [[Sanly Liu]], Miss Universe Indonesia 2025, teu hasil asup kana 30 besar, tapi hasil meunang pangajén Best Skin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wolipop.detik.com/foto-entertainment/d-8226660/7-potret-sanly-liu-raih-best-skin-di-miss-universe-2025-pamer-kulit-glowing|title=7 Potret Sanly Liu Raih Best Skin di Miss Universe 2025, Pamer Kulit Glowing|last=Hestianingsih|first=Hestianingsih|website=wolipop|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Latar tukang == === Lokasi jeung tanggal === Dina tanggal 16 Nopémber 2024, dina Miss Universe 2024, salah sahiji pamilik kontes kageulisan [[Raúl Rocha Cantú]] ngumumkeun yén kota tuan rumah anu kapilih pikeun kontes kageulisan édisi ka-74 nyaéta [[Argéntina]], [[Kosta Rika]], [[Républik Dominika]], [[Maroko]], [[India]], [[Afrika Kidul]], [[Spanyol]], jeung [[Thailand]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tvaztecaguate.com/miss-universo/2024/11/18/expectativa-global-donde-sera-miss-universe-2025/|title=Expectativa global: ¿Dónde será Miss Universe 2025?|last=Álvarez|first=Anaité|website=Tv Azteca Guatemala|language=es|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/fashion-and-beauty/2024/11/17/2400394/chelsea-manalo-wins-1st-miss-universe-asia-2025-hosts-teased|title=Chelsea Manalo wins 1st Miss Universe Asia; 2025 hosts teased|last=Purnell|first=Kristofer|website=Philstar.com|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> Organisasi [[Miss Universe]] ngumumkeun Thailand minangka nagara tuan rumah dina 7 Pébruari 2025, sarta nunjuk IMPACT Challenger di Pak Kret, Provinsi Nonthaburi, salaku tempat utama kalayan acara tambahan anu dijadwalkeun di [[Phuket]] jeung [[Pattaya]]. Ieu bakal jadi kalina kaopat Thailand jadi tuan rumah kontes kageulisan ieu, jeung kalina katilu acara ieu dilaksanakeun di tempat éta sanggeus Kontes 2005 jeung 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/596657/74th-miss-universe-pageant-finds-host-country-in-thailand|title=74th Miss Universe pageant finds host country in Thailand|last=Adina|first=Armin P.|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/596657/74th-miss-universe-pageant-finds-host-country-in-thailand|title=74th Miss Universe pageant finds host country in Thailand|last=Adina|first=Armin P.|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> === Seleksi pamilon === Di antara para délégasi, sawatara di antarana ditunjuk kana posisi éta sanggeus jadi ''runner-up'' dina kontes nasionalna, atawa dipilih ngaliwatan prosés ''casting'', sedengkeun opat séjén dipilih pikeun ngagantikeun juara aslina. Ti bulan Juni nepi ka Juli 2025, [[Telemundo]] nyiarkeun acara realitas ''Miss Universe Latina, el reality'' di [[Amérika Sarikat]], anu milih hiji délégasi tambahan pikeun ngawakilan warga Hispanik jeung Latina di nagara éta, kalayan gelar Miss Universe Latina. Panambahan ieu nandaan kahiji kalina kontes nampa pamilon anu henteu dikirim ku lisénsi resmi anu ngawakilan hiji nagara atawa wilayah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/620183/pageant-veteran-yamilex-hernandez-is-first-ever-miss-universe-latina|title=Pageant veteran Yamilex Hernandez is first-ever ‘Miss Universe Latina’|last=Adina|first=Armin P.|website=INQUIRER.net|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> ==== Panggantian ==== Na Zhao ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]] jeung Latifah Morris ti [[Trinidad jeung Tobago]] duanana ngarebut gelar nasionalna sanggeus juara aslina, Xuhe Hou jeung Sihlé Letren, mundur tina jabatanana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trinidadexpress.com/newsextra/miss-universe-t-t-steps-down-cites-ongoing-challenges/article_48c1bd34-6676-4491-b033-bdd8f3049206.html|title=Miss Universe T&T steps down, cites “ongoing challenges”|website=Trinidad Express Newspapers|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250911134000/https://trinidadexpress.com/newsextra/miss-universe-t-t-steps-down-cites-ongoing-challenges/article_48c1bd34-6676-4491-b033-bdd8f3049206.html|archivedate=2025-09-11}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/kalimantan/berita/d-7877792/pro-kontra-kontes-miss-universe-china-gelar-juara-dicopot-gegara-usia|title=Pro-Kontra Kontes Miss Universe China, Gelar Juara Dicopot gegara Usia|last=Oktaviani|first=Kiki|website=detikKalimantan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-04-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421133451/https://www.detik.com/kalimantan/berita/d-7877792/pro-kontra-kontes-miss-universe-china-gelar-juara-dicopot-gegara-usia|archivedate=2025-04-21}}</ref>''' Déborah Djema ti [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] digantikeun ku Dorcas Dienda sanggeus anjeunna nolak nandatangan kontrak anu diwajibkeun ku organisasi nasional.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pourelle.info/deborah-djema-elue-miss-univers-rdc-2025-representera-le-grand-congo-en-decembre-prochain-en-thailande/|title=Déborah DJEMA, élue Miss Univers RDC 2025, représentera le Grand Congo en décembre prochain en Thaïlande|last=Bakambana|first=Germaine|website=POURELLE.INFO|language=fr-FR|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref>Di [[Polandia]], Miss Polski 2025, Oliwia Mikulska, digantikeun ku Emily Reng salaku wawakil anyar ti Miss Polonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://plejada.pl/newsy/to-ona-zostala-miss-polski-2025-oliwia-mikulska-ma-na-swoim-koncie-spore-osiagniecia/jych0l5|title=To ona została Miss Polski 2025. Oliwia Mikulska ma na swoim koncie spore osiągnięcia|website=plejada.pl|language=pl|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> ==== Debut, balik deui, jeung mundur ==== Édisi ieu nandaan debut [[Tanjung Verdé|Tanjung Verde]], [[Mayotte]], [[Otoritas Nasional Paléstina|Palestina]], jeung [[Rwanda]]. Debut Palestina meunang perhatian média anu leuwih gedé lantaran waktuna pas jeung [[konflik Gaza]] anu keur lumangsung, anu narik perhatian internasional ti para ahli jeung organisasi HAM.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/08/18/style/miss-universe-palestine-scli-intl|title=Miss Palestine to compete in Miss Universe pageant for first time|last=Guy|first=Jack|website=CNN|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> Nagara anu balik deui dina édisi ieu di antarana [[Irak]] jeung [[Slovénia]] anu panungtung ilubiung dina 2017; [[Swédia]] dina 2021; [[Ghana]] jeung [[Haiti]] dina 2022; sarta [[Kosovo]], [[Panama]], jeung [[Afrika Kidul]] dina 2023. Organisasi nasional ti [[Bahrain]], [[Siprus]], [[Éritréa]], [[Fiji]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Kénya]], [[Maladéwa]], [[Mongolia]], [[Monténégro|Montenegro]], [[Samoa]], [[Somalia]], jeung [[Uzbékistan]] teu hasil nunjuk délégasi atawa ngayakeun kompetisi nasional.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/2025/11/06/miss-universe-2025-controversy-explained-walk-outs-tears-and-legal-threats/|title=Miss Universe 2025 controversy explained: Walk-outs, tears and legal threats|last=Tusing|first=David|website=The National|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> Saméméh kontes dimimitian, Sahar Biniaz ti [[Iran]] mundur tina kompetisi, alatan kahariwang kana kasalametan diréktur nasionalna sanggeus aya laporan ngeunaan panahanan diréktur éta di nagarana. Samentara éta, Josiane Golonga ti [[Kamerun]], Diana Fast ti [[Jérman]], Zoulahatou Amadou ti [[Niger]], Iman Totic ti [[Makédonia Kalér]], jeung Chiara Wijntuin ti Suriname teu datang ka nagara tuan rumah. Helena O'Connor ti Islandia mundur alatan gering, sedengkeun Gabrielle Henry ti [[Jamaika]] mundur alatan cilaka anu dialaman nalika babak awal. Sajaba ti éta, Flavia Harizaj ti [[Albania]] teu muncul dina kompetisi final.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/2025/11/21/miss-jamaica-universe-withdraws-pageant-suffering-head-injury-fall/|title=Miss Jamaica Universe withdraws from pageant after suffering head injury in fall - Jamaica Observer|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voxnews.al/english/lifestyle/skandal-ne-miss-universe-ne-tajlande-perfaqesuesja-nga-shqiperia-nuk-s-i104741|title=Scandal at Miss Universe in Thailand, the representative from Albania does not appear in the final|website=Vox News|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> ==== Kajadian dina babak awal ==== Miss [[Jamaika]], Gabrielle Henry, murag ka jero liang anu teu dijaga di lantai panggung nalika babak gaun wengi dina 19 Nopémber 2025 sarta ngalaman tatu anu serius. Anjeunna dirawat di ruang perawatan intensif di [[Bangkok]], anu maksa anjeunna mundur tina kompetisi. Organisasi Miss Universe nanggung jawab pinuh jeung langsung kana kajadian éta sarta nanggung sakabéh biaya médis jeung repatriasi anu patali.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/2025/11/21/miss-jamaica-universe-withdraws-pageant-suffering-head-injury-fall/|title=Miss Jamaica Universe withdraws from pageant after suffering head injury in fall - Jamaica Observer|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-25}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] asdwx5q1tt0m8keon3r85ntwp1wa9kc Cingcoang 0 108165 732110 707745 2026-11-10T20:32:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732110 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Anis Biru | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22708916/94185012 |title=Myiomela diana |publisher=IUCN Red List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> | image = Sunda Robin - Gunung Gede MG 4121 (29030343223).jpg | image_caption = Myiomela diana (jantan) di Gunung Gede, némbongkeun kelir biru poék sarta tarang anu hurung. | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Manuk|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Muscicapidae]] | genus = ''[[Myiomela]]'' | species = '''''M. diana''''' | binomial = ''Myiomela diana'' | binomial_authority = ([[Lesson]], 1831) | synonyms = * ''Cinclidium diana'' <small>Lesson, 1831</small> }} '''Cingcoang; Anis Biru'''; ''Myiomela diana''; (ᮃᮔᮤᮞ᮪ ᮘᮤᮛᮥ) atanapi dina basa Inggris dipikawanoh ku nami '''Sunda Robin''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés manuk éndemik tina kulawarga [[Muscicapidae]] (kulawarga sikatan). Ieu manuk dipikawanoh salaku pangeusi [[leuweung]] pagunungan luhur anu isinan sarta mindeng cicing dina sela-sela rungkun anu poék.<ref name="Ebira">{{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/sunrob1 |title=Sunda Robin |publisher=eBird |accessdate=2026-03-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229085148/https://ebird.org/species/sunrob1 |archivedate=2024-02-29 }}</ref> == Nami Lokal (Vérnakular) == Ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami: * '''Basa Sunda:''' [[Anis biru]], [[cingcoang biru]]. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' [[Cingcoang biru]]. * '''Basa Inggris:''' [[Sunda Robin]], [[Javan Blue Robin]].<ref name="IOC">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/chats/ |title=Chats, Old World flycatchers |publisher=IOC World Bird List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar beureum [[IUCN]], ''Myiomela diana'' asup kana kategori '''Least Concern (LC)''' atanapi "Resiko Handap". Sanajan wilayah panyebaranna kawates (éndemik), populasina di taman nasional saperti [[Gunung Gédé Pangrango]] masih kawilang stabil.<ref name="IUCN" /> == Panyebaran == Anis biru mangrupakeun manuk éndemik di Pulo [[Jawa]] sarta [[Sumatera]]. Habitat aslina nyaéta leuweung tropis pagunungan (''montane forest'') anu jemlék sarta loba lukutna, biasana dina luhurna 1.000 nepi ka 3.000 méter di luhur permukaan laut (mdpl).<ref name="Ebira" /> == Ciri Fisik == * '''Jalu:''' Sakujur awakna didominasi ku warna biru poék semu hideung (indigo). Ciri khasna nyaéta bagian tarang sarta luhureun panonna miboga kelir biru caang anu hurung (''iridescent''). * '''Bikang:''' Warnana béda pisan jeung jalu, didominasi ku warna coklat zaitun sarta beureum bata (rufous) dina bagian buntut sarta jangjangna. * '''Ukuran:''' Awakna leutik, panjangna kira-kira 15 cm.<ref name="IOC" /> == Baranahan == Ieu manuk nyieun [[sayang]] dina sela-sela dahan tatangkalan anu pendék atanapi dina sela-sela [[gawir]] anu ka tutup ku lukut. * '''Sayang:''' Bentukna kawas [[cangkir]] anu déét, dijieun tina [[lukut]], rambat halus, sarta akar-akaran leutik. * '''Endog:''' Biasana neundeun 2 endog warna bodas semu jambon kalayan totol-totol coklat beureum. * '''Sipat:''' Anis biru téh sato anu isinan sarta miboga sora anu kacida halimpu sarta [[mélankolis]], mindeng kadéngé nalika [[subuh]] atanapi [[burit]].<ref name="Ebira" /> == Sipat jeung Kadaharan == Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa [[gegeremet]] leutik, [[hileud]], sarta kéong [[leuweung]]. Maranéhna néangan mangsa bari luluncatan dina handapeun tatangkalan (''undergrowth'') sarta jarang hiber luhur.<ref name="IOC" /> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Muscicapidae]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Sato éndemik Indonésia]] 8ea2gcamrikfp7u06umtaoa6ghezli8 Iles-iles 0 108288 732124 708069 2026-11-10T21:35:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732124 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Iles-iles | image = Pohon Porang.jpg | image_caption = Tangkal Iles-iles (Porang) anu miboga ciri has bulbil atawa "katak" dina sela dahan daunna. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Monokotil]] | ordo = [[Alismatales]] | familia = [[Araceae]] | genus = [[Amorphophallus]] | species = '''''A. muelleri''''' | binomial = ''Amorphophallus muelleri'' | binomial_authority = Blume }} '''Iles-iles''' (''Amorphophallus muelleri''), anu ayeuna leuwih kawentar ku nami '''Porang''', nyaéta tutuwuhan beutian tina kulawarga lompong-lompongan ([[Araceae]]) anu miboga ajén ékonomi kacida luhurna<ref name="POWO">Plants of the World Online (POWO). "Amorphophallus muelleri Blume." [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:84373-1 Diaksés 9 April 2026].</ref>. Tutuwuhan ieu mangrupa sumber utama [[glukomannan]], serat alami anu dimangpaatkeun dina industri pangan modéren, kosmétik, sarta ubar-ubaran<ref name="PROSEA">PROSEA. "Amorphophallus muelleri (Porang)." [https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Amorphophallus_muelleri Diaksés 9 April 2026].</ref>. == Nami Vérnakular == Ieu tutuwuhan miboga rupa-rupa nami dumasar kana daérahna masing-masing<ref name="PROSEA" />: * '''Basa Sunda:''' Iles-iles, Porang. * '''Basa Jawa:''' Porang, iles-iles, coblok. * '''Basa Madura:''' Acung, kaladi kancil. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' Iles-iles, porang. * '''Basa Inggris:''' ''Elephant foot yam'' atawa ''Mueller's amorphophallus''<ref name="Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. "Amorphophallus muelleri." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 9 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>. * '''Basa Jepang:''' ''Konnyaku'' (nujul kana produk olahanana). == Morfologi == * '''Beuti (Umbi):''' Beuti iles-iles tumuwuh di jero taneuh, bentukna buleud datar, tur dagingna warnana semu konéng nepi ka oranyeu kolot<ref name="PROSEA" />. * '''Gagang Daun:''' Gagangna lemes tur leueur (teu aya cucukan), warnana héjo kalawan totol-totol bodas anu bentukna lonjong nangtung<ref name="POWO" />. * '''Bulbil (Katak):''' Ciri anu pangutamana nyaéta ayana ''bulbil'' atawa umbi leutik ("katak") anu tumuwuh dina sela-sela dahan daunna<ref name="PROSEA" />. Ieu bulbil mangrupa alat kembang biak alami sarta jadi ciri utama anu ngabédakeunana jeung suweg<ref name="POWO" />. == Kandungan Kimia sareng Nutrisi == Beuti iles-iles atanapi porang miboga kandungan kimia anu unik dibandingkeun sareng jinis beubeutian sanésna<ref name="PROSEA" />: * '''[[Glukomannan]]:''' Ieu mangrupa serat kadaharan anu leyur dina cai (''water-soluble dietary fiber'')<ref name="Kew" />. Glukomannan bisa ngabeukahan nepi ka sababaraha kali lipet tina ukuran asalna nalika kakeueum ku cai, sahingga hadé pisan pikeun bahan pangan diet<ref name="PROSEA" />. * '''Kalsium Oksalat:''' Iles-iles miboga kandungan kristal [[kalsium oksalat]] anu kawilang luhur<ref name="POWO" />. Zat ieu anu ngabalukarkeun rasa ateul upami teu diolah kalayan leres saacan didahar<ref name="PROSEA" />. * '''Nutrisi:''' Sajaba ti serat, porang ogé miboga kandungan pati, [[protéin]], sarta saeutik [[alkaloid]] pikeun pertahanan diri tutuwuhan<ref name="PROSEA" />. {| class="wikitable" |+ Ringkesan Kandungan Tipung Iles-iles (per 100g) |- ! Komponén !! Kandungan |- | [[Glukomannan]] || 45% - 65% |- | [[Karbohidrat]] (Pati) || 15% - 20% |- | [[Protéin]] || 2% - 5% |- | [[Serat Kasar]] || 2% - 5% |} == Mangfaat == Iles-iles loba dimangpaatkeun dina rupa-rupa widang, di antarana: # '''Pangan:''' Bahan baku utama pikeun nyieun tipung [[konyaku]], mi [[shirataki]], sarta rupa-rupa jéli diet<ref name="PROSEA" />. # '''Kasehatan:''' Ngabantu nurunkeun kadar koléstérol sarta ngajaga kadar gula darah sangkan tetep stabil<ref name="PROSEA" />. # '''Industri:''' Dipaké salaku bahan baku lém (perekat), campuran industri kertas, sarta tékstil<ref name="Kew" />. == Babandingan sareng Suweg == Sanaos katingalina sapertos [[suweg]], iles-iles miboga béda anu nyata dina fisikna<ref name="POWO" />. Gagang daun iles-iles mah lemes tur aya "katak"-an (bulbil), sedengkeun suweg mah gagangna kasar, aya cucukan leutik, sarta henteu miboga "katak" dina sela dahan daunna<ref name="PROSEA" />. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Araceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan beutian]] [[Kategori:Komoditas ékspor]] [[Kategori:Pangan lokal]] [[Kategori:Flora Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Beubeutian]] bam0kyzxl3xe1t3qgyzpokm09kdjzka Arales 0 108290 732100 708071 2026-11-10T19:39:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732100 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Arum maculatum | image = Arum maculatum Sturm63.jpg | image_caption = Ilustrasi botanis ''Arum maculatum'' tina karya Jacob Sturm (1796). | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Monokotil]] | ordo = [[Alismatales]] | familia = [[Araceae]] | genus = [[Arum]] | species = '''''A. maculatum''''' | binomial = ''Arum maculatum'' | binomial_authority = [[L.]] }} '''Arales''' nyaéta nami ordo tutuwuhan anu dina sistem klasifikasi modéren (saperti [[APG IV]]) parantos dilebetkeun kana ordo '''[[Alismatales]]'''<ref name="APG4">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification." [https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/181/1/1/2420454 Diaksés 9 April 2026].</ref>. Parobahan ieu dumasar kana tés DNA anu nuduhkeun yén kulawarga lompong-lompongan ([[Araceae]]) miboga hubungan genetik anu kuat jeung kelompok tutuwuhan cai lianna<ref name="POWO">POWO. "Alismatales." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 9 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>. == Naha Robah Jadi Alismatales? == Sangkan artikel ieu saluyu sareng kamekaran élmu pangaweruh modéren, aya sababaraha alesan kunaon Arales ayeuna dilebetkeun ka Alismatales: * '''Hubungan Évolusi:''' Panalungtikan molekular ngabuktikeun yén Arales henteu madeg mandiri, tapi mangrupa bagian tina silsilah evolusi anu sarua jeung tutuwuhan cai (hydrophytes)<ref name="POWO" />. * '''Sinkronisasi Internasional:''' Sakuliah dunya, kaasup proyék ''[[World Flora Online]]'', parantos ngagunakeun standar ieu pikeun ngagampangkeun data biologi sacara digital<ref name="WFO">World Flora Online. [http://www.worldfloraonline.org Diaksés 9 April 2026].</ref>. == Kulawarga Utama == Dina klasifikasi anu anyar, anggota anu tadina aya dina Arales ayeuna janten bagian penting dina Alismatales, di antarana: * [[Araceae]] (Lompong-lompongan, Suweg, Porang). * [[Lemnaceae]] (Kiambang, ayeuna dilebetkeun janten sub-familia dina Araceae). == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Botani]] [[Kategori:Klasifikasi tutuwuhan]] 2u78osvx4aeyu3nkk0mwqaah7b7j17x Acanthaceae 0 108293 732097 708077 2026-11-10T19:28:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732097 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Acanthaceae | image = Thunbergia erecta.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Thunbergia erecta]]'', salah sahiji spésiés kawentar tina kulawarga Acanthaceae. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Eudikotil]] | clade3 = [[Asterid]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = '''Acanthaceae''' | familia_authority = [[Juss.]] }} '''Acanthaceae''' nyaéta salah sahiji kulawarga tutuwuhan kembangan ([[familia]]) anu lebet kana ordo [[Lamiales]].<ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Acanthaceae'' Juss. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000618-2 |website=Plants of the World Online |access-date=22 July 2025 |language=en |accessdate=22 July 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110130234/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000618-2 |archivedate=10 January 2024}}</ref> Kulawarga ieu diwangun ku kira-kira 250 [[genus]] sarta ampir 4.000 [[spésiés]] anu kasebar di sakuliah dunya, utamana di wewengkon [[tropis]] sarta subtropis<ref name="Britannica" />. == Morfologi == Tutuwuhan dina kulawarga Acanthaceae miboga ciri has anu mandiri: * '''Wujud:''' Lolobana mangrupa tutuwuhan [[terna]] (herba), [[rungkun]], atawa sakapeung tutuwuhan merambat. Aya ogé sababaraha spésiés anu mangrupa tangkal leutik. * '''Daun:''' Daunna biasana tunggal, perenahna silih papasang (oposit), sarta miboga sisit leutik anu disebut ''cystoliths'' (katingali saperti garis-garis leutik dina beungeut daun handapeun [[mikroskop]]). * '''Kembang:''' Kembangna sering miboga bentuk simétri dua sisi ([[zigomorfik]]) sarta dibarengan ku [[daun panyalindung]] (braktea) anu warnana mindeng narik ati sarta mencolok. * '''Buah:''' Buahna mangrupa [[kapsul]] anu biasana bakal "beulah" kalayan tarik nalika geus asak pikeun ngalungkeun sikina ([[balistik]]). == Mangfaat == Loba anggota Acanthaceae anu miboga ajén ékonomi sarta éstétika: # '''Tutuwuhan Hias:''' Genus saperti ''[[Thunbergia]]'' (kembang corong), ''[[Justicia]]'', sarta ''[[Ruellia]]'' loba dipaké pikeun ngéndahkeun taman. # '''Ubar Tradisional:''' Sababaraha spésiés dipaké salaku ubar, contona mah tangkal [[beluntas]] atawa sababaraha jinis ''[[Andrographis]]'' ([[sambiloto]]) anu kawentar ku rasa paitna pikeun ngubaran rupa-rupa panyakit. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Acanthaceae]] [[Kategori:Lamiales]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan hias]] [[Kategori:Flora Indonésia]] b9zxauacfmxn4lyci4re2eeuwfoypyh Lamiales 0 108296 732138 708080 2026-11-10T23:06:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732138 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Lamiales | image = Lamium album4 ies.jpg | image_caption = ''Digitalis purpurea'' (Foxglove), salah sahiji conto tutuwuhan tina ordo Lamiales. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Eudikotil]] | clade3 = [[Asterid]] | ordo = '''Lamiales''' | ordo_authority = [[Bromhead]] }} '''Lamiales''' nyaéta salah sahiji ordo tutuwuhan kembangan dina kelompok [[Asterid]] ([[Eudikotil]])<ref name="APG4">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification." [https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/181/1/1/2420454 Diaksés 10 April 2026].</ref>. Ordo ieu ngawengku kira-kira 24 [[familia]] (kulawarga), leuwih ti 1.000 [[genus]], sarta ampir 24.000 [[spésiés]]<ref name="Britannica">Britannica. "Lamiales: Plant Order." [https://www.britannica.com/plant/Lamiales Diaksés 10 April 2026].</ref>. Sababaraha anggota anu paling kawentar di antarana nyaéta lavender, jati, wijén, sarta rupa-rupa tutuwuhan ubar. == Karakteristik == Sanaos anggota ordo ieu rupa-rupa pisan, aya sababaraha ciri umum anu mindeng kapanggih dina tutuwuhan Lamiales<ref name="POWO">Plants of the World Online (POWO). "Ordo Lamiales." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 10 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>: * '''Kembang:''' Kembangna biasana miboga simétri dua sisi ([[zigomorfik]]) sarta miboga makuta kembang anu ngahiji (simpetal), mindeng ngabentuk dua lambé (bilabiate). * '''Ovarium:''' Miboga ovarium anu perenahna di luhur (superior), diwangun ku dua karpél anu ngahiji. * '''Batang sarta Daun:''' Loba anggotana anu miboga batang bentukna pasagi (opat juru) sarta daun anu perenahna silih papasang (oposit). == Kulawarga Utama == Dina sistem klasifikasi modéren (saperti [[APG IV]]), sababaraha kulawarga anu lebet kana Lamiales nyaéta<ref name="APG4" />: * [[Acanthaceae]]: Kulawarga kembang corong sarta sambiloto. * [[Bignoniaceae]]: Kulawarga tangkal hias kembangan kawas jacaranda. * [[Lamiaceae]]: Kulawarga mint, lavender, sarta jati. * [[Oleaceae]]: Kulawarga zaitun, melati, sarta séréh leuweung. * [[Scrophulariaceae]]: Kulawarga kembang foxglove. == Mangfaat Ékonomi == Ordo Lamiales miboga ajén ékonomi anu luhur pisan: # '''Kai:''' Tangkal jati (''Tectona grandis'') mangrupa sumber kai pangalusna pikeun jati diri sarta konstruksi. # '''Minyak Atsiri:''' Loba dipaké dina industri parfum sarta kosmétik tina lavender, mint, sarta rosemary. # '''Pangan:''' Wijén (''Sesamum indicum'') mangrupa sumber minyak nabati sarta siki-sikian anu penting. # '''Hiasan:''' Melati (''Jasminum'') sarta kembang hias séjénna loba dipaké pikeun taman. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Lamiales]] [[Kategori:Ordo tutuwuhan]] sn19kig9bzdkky0zo971gpxdnlrcuuo Thomandersiaceae 0 108302 732179 708092 2026-11-11T03:29:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Thomandersiaceae | image = Thomandersia hensii 239825634 (cropped).jpg | image_caption = Daun sarta kembang ''[[Thomandersia hensii]]'', salah sahiji spésiés utama dina kulawarga Thomandersiaceae. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Eudikotil]] | clade3 = [[Asterid]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = '''Thomandersiaceae''' | familia_authority = [[Sreem.]] | genus = ''[[Thomandersia]]'' | genus_authority = [[Baill.]] }} '''Thomandersiaceae''' nyaéta salah sahiji familia tutuwuhan kembangan anu ngan miboga hiji genus hungkul, nyaéta ''[[Thomandersia]]''<ref name="POWO">Plants of the World Online (POWO). "Thomandersiaceae Sreem." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 10 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>. Tutuwuhan ieu mangrupa tutuwuhan asli ti wilayah tropis [[Afrika]] bagian kulon sarta tengah, sumebar ti Nigeria nepi ka Angola<ref name="Britannica">Britannica. "Lamiales: Thomandersiaceae." [https://www.britannica.com/plant/Lamiales Diaksés 10 April 2026].</ref>. == Morfologi == Tutuwuhan dina familia Thomandersiaceae miboga ciri ''morfologi'' anu ngabédakeunana jeung [[Acanthaceae]]: * '''Wujud:''' Umumna mangrupa rungkun ''shrubs'' atanapi tangkal leutik anu bisa tumuwuh nepi ka sababaraha méter<ref name="POWO" />. * '''Daun:''' Daunna miboga kelenjar leutik dina bagian handapna, hiji ciri anu jarang kapanggih dina baraya deukeutna dina ordo [[Lamiales]]. * '''Kembang:''' Kembangna miboga struktur anu unik dina bagian ''calyx'' kelopak kembang anu leuwih kandel sarta miboga susunan anu béda jeung familia séjénna<ref name="Britannica" />. * '''Buah:''' Ngahasilkeun buah kapsul anu di jerona aya siki-siki leutik, nanging teu miboga mékanisme luncat ''jaculator'' sakumaha anu aya dina [[Acanthaceae]]. == Klasifikasi == Tadina genus ''[[Thomandersia]]'' diasupkeun kana familia [[Acanthaceae]]. Nanging, panalungtikan DNA nunjukkeun yén ieu tutuwuhan leuwih merenah dipisahkeun janten familia mandiri dina ordo [[Lamiales]] kusabab bédana struktur fisik sarta genetikna<ref name="APG">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. "An update of the APG classification." Diaksés 10 April 2026.</ref>. == Mangfaat == === Tutuwuhan Kai === * Sanajan ukuranna teu sabadag jati, kai tina sababaraha spésiés ''[[Thomandersia]]'' dipaké ku masarakat lokal di Afrika pikeun bahan wangunan leutik sarta pakakas rumah tangga kusabab kaina anu cukup kuat sarta awét<ref name="POWO" />. === Tutuwuhan Ubar === * Di wilayah asalna, daun sarta akar tina tutuwuhan ieu sering dipaké dina ubar tradisional pikeun ngubaran raheut atanapi masalah kulit, sanajan sacara ilmiah panalungtikanana masih kawates pisan. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Thomandersiaceae]] [[Kategori:Lamiales]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] cti4r8aj9berpkk2hcce51neokrnr9a Schlegeliaceae 0 108303 732165 708093 2026-11-11T02:31:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732165 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Schlegeliaceae | image = Schlegelia parasitica 3zz.jpg | image_caption = Kembang ''[[Schlegelia parasitica]]'', salah sahiji spésiés unik anu tumuwuhna numpang (épifit). | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Eudikotil]] | clade3 = [[Asterid]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = '''Schlegeliaceae''' | familia_authority = [[A.H.Gentry]] ex [[Reveal]] }} '''Schlegeliaceae''' nyaéta salah sahiji familia tutuwuhan kembangan dina ordo [[Lamiales]] anu diwangun ku opat [[genus]], nyaéta ''[[Schlegelia]]'', ''[[Exarata]]'', ''[[Gibsoniothamnus]]'', sarta ''[[Synapsis]]''<ref name="POWO">Plants of the World Online (POWO). "Schlegeliaceae Reveal." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 10 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>. Tutuwuhan ieu mangrupa pituin ti wewengkon tropis Amérika, mimiti ti Méksiko nepi ka wewengkon Amazon di [[Brasil]]<ref name="Britannica">Britannica. "Lamiales: Schlegeliaceae." [https://www.britannica.com/plant/Lamiales Diaksés 10 April 2026].</ref>. == Morfologi == Tutuwuhan Schlegeliaceae miboga ciri has anu ngabédakeunana jeung kulawarga [[Bignoniaceae]] atawa [[Scrophulariaceae]]: * '''Wujud:''' Kalolobaanana mangrupa rungkun liana atawa tangkal leutik anu mindeng tumuwuh sacara [[épifit]] ''epiphytic'' (numpang dina tangkal séjén tapi teu nyeuseup sari kadaharanana)<ref name="POWO" />. * '''Daun:''' Daunna miboga tékstur anu kandel kawas kulit ''coriaceous'' sarta perenahna papasangan ''opposite''<ref name="Britannica" />. * '''Kembang:''' Kembangna miboga bentuk corong atawa trompét anu éndah, miboga simétri dua sisi ([[zigomorfik]]), sarta dironjatkeun ku kelopak kembang anu ngahiji. * '''Buah:''' Teu saperti ''Bignoniaceae'' anu buahna mangrupa kapsul garing, buah Schlegeliaceae mangrupa buah buni ''berry'' anu miboga daging sarta siki anu loba di jerona<ref name="POWO" />. == Klasifikasi == Tadina, genus-genus dina ''familia'' ieu diasupkeun kana kulawarga [[Bignoniaceae]] atawa [[Scrophulariaceae]]. Nanging, dumasar kana tés [[DNA]] sarta struktur buahna anu béda (mangrupa buah buni, sanés kapsul), para ahli botani ayeuna parantos misahkeunana janten [[familia]] mandiri dina [[ordo]] [[Lamiales]]<ref name="APG">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. "An update of the APG classification." Diaksés 10 April 2026.</ref>. == Mangfaat == === Tutuwuhan Hias === * Sababaraha spésiés saperti ''[[Schlegelia parasitica]]'' mimiti ditalungtik sarta dipelak salaku tutuwuhan hias kusabab kembangna anu warnana cékas sarta wujudna anu unik nalika numpang dina tangkal séjén. === Peran Ékoloji === * Di leuweung tropis Amérika, tutuwuhan ieu miboga peran penting pikeun nyadiakeun kadaharan (buah buni) pikeun rupa-rupa manuk sarta mamalia leutik. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Schlegeliaceae]] [[Kategori:Lamiales]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan hias]] 7wiwhk96ljx2ywqpt803ixmau3h9bo9 Lentibulariaceae 0 108304 732139 708094 2026-11-10T23:10:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Lentibulariaceae | image = Utricularia striatula 5.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Utricularia striatula]]'', salah sahiji spésiés unik tina kulawarga Lentibulariaceae anu miboga kembang éndah sarta miboga sipat karnivora. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | clade = [[Angiospermae]] | clade2 = [[Eudikotil]] | clade3 = [[Asterid]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = '''Lentibulariaceae''' | familia_authority = [[Richard]] in [[Louis-Claude Marie Richard|L.C.M. Richard]] }} '''Lentibulariaceae''' nyaéta salah sahiji familia tutuwuhan kembangan dina ordo [[Lamiales]] anu kawentar kusabab sipatna anu [[karnivora]]<ref name="POWO">Plants of the World Online (POWO). "Lentibulariaceae Rich." [https://powo.science.kew.org/ Diaksés 10 April 2026] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415061345/http://powo.science.kew.org/ |date=15 April 2020 }}.</ref>. Ieu familia diwangun ku tilu [[genus]] utama, nyaéta ''[[Utricularia]]'', ''[[Pinguicula]]'', sarta ''[[Genlisea]]'', anu sumebar ampir di sakuliah dunya iwal ti wilayah [[Antartika]]<ref name="Britannica">Britannica. "Lentibulariaceae: Plant Family." [https://www.britannica.com/plant/Lentibulariaceae Diaksés 10 April 2026].</ref>. == Morfologi sarta Mékanisme Karnivora == Tutuwuhan Lentibulariaceae miboga ciri fisik sarta cara hirup anu unik pisan pikeun nangkep sato leutik: * '''Wujud:''' Umumna mangrupa tutuwuhan [[terna]] ''herba'' sausum atanapi permanén anu hirupna di cai ''aquatic'' atanapi di taneuh anu kacida jemlékna ''terrestrial''<ref name="POWO" />. * '''Kembang:''' Kembangna éndah pisan, miboga simétri dua sisi ([[zigomorfik]]), sarta dironjatkeun ku struktur kawas taji ''spur'' anu ngandung madu pikeun mikat serangga panyerbuk. * '''Mékanisme Perangkap:''' Unggal genus miboga cara nangkep mangsa anu béda-béda: ** ''[[Utricularia]]'': Ngagunakeun kantong leutik ''bladders'' anu miboga klep otomatis pikeun nyeuseup sato cai leutik kalayan gancang pisan (perangkap nyeuseup/''suction trap''). ** ''[[Pinguicula]]'': Daunna miboga kelenjar caket kawas lém pikeun nangkep serangga (perangkap lém/''flypaper trap''). ** ''[[Genlisea]]'': Miboga akar husus anu bentukna kawas spiral pikeun nangkep sato leutik dina jero taneuh (perangkap corkscrew/''lobster-pot trap'')<ref name="Britannica" />. == Klasifikasi sarta Genus == Dina sistem [[APG IV]], Lentibulariaceae ditempatkeun dina ordo [[Lamiales]] sabab miboga struktur kembang anu sarimbag jeung [[Scrophulariaceae]] atawa [[Bignoniaceae]], sanajan cara hirupna béda jauh. === Genus Utama === * ''[[Utricularia]]'': Genus panggedéna anu di urang sok disebut ogé "lukut cai" karnivora, sumebar ti daratan nepi ka balong-balong cai tawar<ref name="POWO" />. * ''[[Pinguicula]]'': Kawentar ku daunna anu éndah kawas kembang ros sarta fungsina pikeun néwak [[gegeremet]]. * ''[[Genlisea]]'': Genus anu unik sabab tumuwuhna di wewengkon [[rawa]] sarta nangkep mangsa dina jero [[Cai|cai]] atawa jero [[taneuh]]. == Mangfaat == === Tutuwuhan Hias === * Sababaraha spésiés saperti ''[[Utricularia striatula]]'' sarta rupa-rupa ''[[Pinguicula]]'' loba dipelak ku para koléktor tutuwuhan hias ''karnivora'' kusabab bentuk kembangna anu éstétis sarta cara hirupna anu unik. === Kaséhatan Lingkungan === * Tutuwuhan ieu miboga peran penting dina ngadalikeun populasi jentut reungit sarta mikroorganisme séjénna dina ékosistem cai anta. == Réferénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Lentibulariaceae]] [[Kategori:Lamiales]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan hias]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan karnivora]] b0gotmjvib2iwtxcmonl4iu6p778hd6 Krécék 0 108520 732137 730321 2026-11-10T22:58:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732137 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Krecek.jpg|jmpl|Krecek ti Banjarnegara]] '''Krecek''' atawa ceuk Basa Sunda mah kerecek, atawa kerecek (basa Jawa: ꦏꦿꦺꦕꦺꦏ꧀, translit. Krècèk) mangrupa bahan kadaharan nu dijieun tina kulit sapi nu digaringkeun tuluy digoréng nepi ka ngembang jadi kerupuk kulit.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Arti kata krecek - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Online|url=https://kbbi.web.id/krecek|website=kbbi.web.id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> Ieu bahan dipaké dina rupa-rupa masakan tradisional di Indonésia, utamana di wewengkon Jawa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2025-03-31|title=Krecek Rebung, Kuliner Lumajang yang Jadi Warisan Budaya Tak Benda|url=https://www.kompas.com/food/read/2025/03/31/182243775/krecek-rebung-kuliner-lumajang-yang-jadi-warisan-budaya-tak-benda|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> Dina pamakéan sapopoé, istilah krecek bisa ngarujuk kana kerupuk kulit minangka bahan kadaharan atawa kana hidangan nu ngagunakeun éta bahan.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Resep sambal goreng krecek pedas gurih dan berkuah santan|url=https://cookpad.com/id/cari/sambal%20goreng%20krecek|website=Cookpad|language=id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> == Depinisi jeung pamakéan == Krecek dipikawanoh minangka salah sahiji bahan pelengkap dina masakan nu boga kuah atawa nu ngagunakeun cipati.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2022-10-27|title=Resep Sambal Goreng Krecek Kuah Santan, Tambah Petai Lebih Harum|url=https://www.kompas.com/food/read/2022/10/27/103600075/resep-sambal-goreng-krecek-kuah-santan-tambah-petai-lebih-harum|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> Di sababaraha daérah, hususna di Jawa Tengah jeung Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta, istilah krecek remen ngarujuk kana hidangan sambel goréng krecek, nyaéta masakan berbumbu cabé kalayan kuah santan nu leuwih loba dibanding sambel goréng dina umumna.<ref name=":1" /> Ieu hidangan biasana dihidangkeun jeung sangu bodas sarta rupa-rupa deungeun séjén.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Tim Ikan Sambal Ijo dan Krecek Urat Sapi Hangatkan Iftar Ramadan di Jaksel|url=https://lifestyle.sindonews.com/read/1677309/156/tim-ikan-sambal-ijo-dan-krecek-urat-sapi-hangatkan-iftar-ramadan-di-jaksel-1771120944|website=SINDOnews Lifestyle|language=id-ID|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> Dina sababaraha rupa resep, krecek sok diasak babarengan jeung bahan tambahan saperti témpé, tahu, atawa kacang tolo. Campuran éta ngahasilkeun rasa gurih, lada, jeung rada amis nu jadi ciri has kuliner Jawa.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wati|first=Leni Setya|title=Sambal Goreng Krecek Kacang Tolo Khas Jawa Tengah, Menu Masakan Medok Gurih yang Cocok untuk Makan-makan di Akhir Tahun - Jawa Pos|url=https://www.jawapos.com/kuliner/016965553/sambal-goreng-krecek-kacang-tolo-khas-jawa-tengah-menu-masakan-medok-gurih-yang-cocok-untuk-makan-makan-di-akhir-tahun|website=Sambal Goreng Krecek Kacang Tolo Khas Jawa Tengah, Menu Masakan Medok Gurih yang Cocok untuk Makan-makan di Akhir Tahun - Jawa Pos|language=id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> == Bahan jeung prosés nyieun == Krecek dijieun tina kulit sapi nu diolah ngaliwatan sababaraha tahapan. Kulit sapi mimitina diberesihan tina kokotor jeung sésa gajih, tuluy dipotong leutik-leutik. Sanggeus éta, bahan kasebut direbus atawa diolah pikeun ngaleungitkeun bau sarta ngajaga kabersihanana, tuluy dijemur nepi ka garing.<ref name=":4" /> Kulit nu geus garing tuluy digoréng dina minyak panas nepi ka ngembang sarta robah téksturna jadi renyah siga kerupuk. Dina wangun ieu, krecek bisa disimpen cukup lila saméméh dipaké minangka bahan masakan. Nalika diasak deui, kerupuk kulit éta bakal nyerep bumbu jeung kuah nepi ka téksturna jadi leuwih lemes.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2025-03-31|title=Krecek Rebung, Kuliner Lumajang yang Jadi Warisan Budaya Tak Benda|url=https://www.kompas.com/food/read/2025/03/31/182243775/krecek-rebung-kuliner-lumajang-yang-jadi-warisan-budaya-tak-benda|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> == Peran dina kuliner Jawa == Dina tradisi kuliner Jawa, krecek remen dipaké minangka bagian tina hidangan panglengkep sangu. Sambel goréng krecek ilahar dihidangkeun dina rupa-rupa kasempetan, boh dina kadaharan sapopoé boh dina hidangan nu leuwih lengkep dina acara-acara nu tangtu. Sajaba ti diasak jadi deungeun, kerupuk kulit krecek ogé bisa didahar langsung minangka kadaharan hampang atawa pelengkap hidangan.<ref>{{Cite web|title=MSN|url=https://www.msn.com/id-id/berita/other/sambal-goreng-krecek-kacang-tolo-khas-jawa-tengah-menu-masakan-medok-gurih-yang-cocok-untuk-makan-makan-di-akhir-tahun/ar-AA1SuLt2?apiversion=v2&domshim=1&noservercache=1&noservertelemetry=1&batchservertelemetry=1&renderwebcomponents=1&wcseo=1|website=www.msn.com|access-date=2026-02-23}}</ref> Pamakéan krecek nuduhkeun salah sahiji wangun ngolah bahan pangan tina hasil samping peternakan nu diolah deui jadi produk kadaharan nu miboga nilai tambah. Prakték ieu geus lila dipikawanoh dina rupa-rupa tradisi kuliner di Indonésia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=WS|first=Odilia|title=Resep Sambal Goreng Krecek Khas Yogya yang Pedas Mlekoh|url=https://food.detik.com/daging/d-5298586/resep-sambal-goreng-krecek-khas-yogya-yang-pedas-mlekoh|website=detikfood|language=id-ID|access-date=2026-02-23|accessdate=2026-02-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260517113939/https://food.detik.com/daging/d-5298586/resep-sambal-goreng-krecek-khas-yogya-yang-pedas-mlekoh|archivedate=2026-05-17}}</ref> == Rupa-rupa hidangan == Salian sambel goréng krecek nu ilahar dipikawanoh di Jawa Tengah jeung Yogyakarta, krecek ogé bisa diolah dina rupa-rupa wangun masakan séjén.[9] Sababaraha di antarana nyaéta krecek nu diasak maké bumbu lada tanpa santan, krecek nu dicampur jeung sayuran tangtu, atawa krecek nu dijadikeun pelengkap dina hidangan khas daérah.<ref name=":5" /> Beberapa di antaranya adalah krecek yang dimasak dengan bumbu pedas tanpa santan, krecek yang dicampur dengan sayuran tertentu, serta krecek yang digunakan sebagai pelengkap dalam hidangan khas daerah.<ref name=":3" /> Béda dina pamakéan bumbu, tingkat kaladana, jeung bahan tambahan ngajadikeun variasi masakan krecek béda-béda di unggal daérah jeung rumah tangga.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> == Galeri == <gallery class="center" widths="200" heights="200"> File:Nasi kotak gudeg Wijilan.JPG|Krecek bagéan tina nasi [[gudeg]] File:Nasi Uduk Jengkol Daging Krecek.JPG|Krecek bagéan tina [[nasi uduk]] File:Krecek.jpg|Krecek Cipati Pedes File:Gudeg telur krecek Wijilan.jpg|Gudeg telur krecek </gallery> == Rujukan == [[Category:WikiMaknyus Banjarnegara]] [[Category:WikiMaknyus]] 9auq922s5zss2ev5byhui55do8i9pfm Sungai Citanduy 0 108548 732172 729809 2026-11-11T03:00:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732172 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sungai Citanduy''' nyaéta walungan pangpanjangna di Priangan Wétan, ngalir ngawatesan Propinsi Jawa Barat jeung Jawa Tengah. Walungan ieu mangrupa salah sahiji DAS utama di Jawa Kulon. == Géografi == Sungai Citanduy ngalir ti hulu di pagunungan Priangan Wétan, ngaliwatan Kabupatén Ciamis, Kota Banjar, jeung Kabupatén Cilacap. Walungan ieu ahirna bermuara di Samudra Hindia. [[File:Pesisir Sungai Citanduy dengan pantulan Gunung di Banjar Jawa Barat.jpg|thumb|Pasisir Walungan Citanduy di Banjar, Jawa Barat. Katingali pantulan gunung, mega, jeung tangkal di beungeut cai walungan pangpanjangna di Jawa Barat.]] Kota Banjar jeung situs cagar budaya Kokoplak ayana henteu jauh ti aliran walungan ieu. == Fungsi == Sungai Citanduy boga peran penting pikeun: * '''Irigasi''': Ngairigan sawah-sawah di wewengkon Ciamis, Banjar, jeung Cilacap. * '''Transportasi''': Dina jaman baheula, walungan ieu dipaké pikeun ngangkut hasil bumi. * '''Ekonomi''': Sumber lauk, pasir, jeung cai pikeun masarakat sapanjang aliran. == Sajarah == Walungan Citanduy disebut '''Tjitanduj''' dina naskah [[Kidung Lakbok]] taun 1956.<ref name="kidung">Prawiraatmadja, M. Karso. ''Wawatjan Kidung Lakbok''. Banjar: 31 Agustus 1956.</ref> Dina naskah éta (Pupuh 10), dicaritakeun perang antara Ratu Ineung Buana jeung [[Ratu Agung Tambakbaja]], nalika pasukan anu kalodoh "mundur ngukuj ka Tjitanduj".<ref name="wikisource">{{cite web | title = Kidung Lakbok | website = Wikisource Basa Sunda | url = https://su.wikisource.org/wiki/Kidung_Lakbok | access-date = 29 Méi 2026}}</ref> === Reklamasi Rawa Lakbok (1924) === Taun 1924, Pamaréntah Hindia Walanda ngamimitian proyék reklamasi Rawa Lakbok ku cara ngaluriskeun aliran Citanduy pikeun ngaringkeun rawa gambut anu lega 3.000 héktar.<ref name="sukanagara">{{cite web | title = Sejarah Desa Sukanagara | website = Desa Sukanagara Lakbok | url = https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa | access-date = 29 Méi 2026 | accessdate = 2026-05-29 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20260219033122/https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa | archivedate = 2026-02-19}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite web | title = Rawa Lakbok, Lahan Gambut yang Tersisa di Jawa | website = National Geographic Indonesia | url = https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13283642/rawa-lakbok-lahan-gambut-yang-tersisa-di-jawa | access-date = 29 Méi 2026}}</ref> Proyék ieu digulirkeun ku Bupati Ciamis R.A.A. Wiratanuningrat (1926), anu ngaluarkeun kawijakan Hak Milik Tanah pikeun patani.<ref name="sukanagara"/> Ieu nyababkeun migrasi patani ti [[Banyumas]] jeung Ciamis, anu ngajadikeun masarakat Lakbok [[bilingual]] (Sunda Ciamis–Jawa Banyumasan).<ref name="sukanagara"/> === Ramalan "Bandjar Bakal Bandjir" === Dina bagian prosa Kidung Lakbok aya ramalan "Bandjar bakal bandjir".<ref name="kidung"/> Para panalungtik lokal niténan yén Kota Banjar perenahna di cekungan Citanduy. Nalika Citanduy diluriskeun (1924), résiko banjir di hilir ningkat. Sastra kuno nangkep ancaman bencana ieu jeung ngaramalkeun dina wangun mantra.<ref name="kidung"/> === Angkutan Sédimén jeung Morfologi === Numutkeun tesis [[Institut Teknologi Bandung]] taun 2023, Citanduy Hilir ngalaman paningkatan sédiméntasi jeung parobahan morfologi anu signifikan.<ref name="itb2023">Putranda, Jovan. (2023). ''Kajian Angkutan Sedimen dan Morfologi Sungai Citanduy Hilir''. Tesis Magister Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air, Institut Teknologi Bandung.</ref> Panalungtikan ieu ngagunakeun aplikasi HEC-RAS 6.1 pikeun simulasi angkutan sédimén. Hasilna némbongkeun:<ref name="itb2023"/> * Dina usum hujan, beban sédimén leuwih luhur alatan ngaronjatna aliran cai jeung erosi di hulu. * Sampel sédimén dasar némbongkeun dominasi pasir jeung ''silt''. * Citanduy Hilir ngalaman erosi jeung sédiméntasi, utamana di bagian anu ngalengkung (''meandering''). == Tingali ogé == * [[Kota Banjar]] * [[Kabupatén Ciamis]] * [[Kabupatén Cilacap]] * [[Kokoplak]] == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Barat]] [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Tengah]] [[Kategori:Géografi Priangan]] 1uleycszz5lnr27wjkuin5c4ur5qw6s Désa Sukanagara 0 108554 732115 730001 2026-11-10T20:48:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732115 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox désa | ngaran = Sukanagara | aksara_sunda = ᮞᮥᮊᮔᮌᮛ | propinsi = [[Jawa Barat]] | kabupatén = [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]] | kacamatan = [[Lakbok]] | jenis = Désa | jimbar = 5,18 km²<ref name="BPS2024"/> | cacah_jiwa = ... jiwa (2023)<ref name="BPS2024"/> | kapadetan = ... /km² | koordinat = {{coord|7|24|15|S|108|40|30|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Sukanagara''' (ᮞᮥᮊᮔᮌᮛ) nyaéta hiji désa di [[Kacamatan Lakbok]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Jawa Barat]]. Désa ieu mangrupikeun pusat pamaréntahan Kacamatan Lakbok, sabab Kantor Kecamatan Lakbok aya di dieu. == Géografi == Désa Sukanagara boga lega 5,18 km² (518,47 Héktar).<ref name="BPS2024">BPS Kabupatén Ciamis, 2024. ''Kacamatan Lakbok dina Angka''.</ref> Désa ieu dilalui ku jalan kabupaten sapanjang 1 km. === Wates wewengkon === Numutkeun sumber resmi Désa Sukanagara:<ref name="desa"/> * Kalér: Désa Kalapasawit * Kidul: Désa Kertajaya * Kulon: Désa Sukamulya * Wétan: Désa Baregbeg Désa ieu kabagi kana 2 dusun (Adimulya jeung Sukanagara), 4 RW, jeung 24 RT. == Sajarah == Numutkeun sumber resmi Désa Sukanagara, nami "Lakbok" asalna tina ''"Melak Teu Kalebok"'' (melak tapi teu ngahasilkeun/dipanén), luyu sareng kaayaan rawa-rawa baheula.<ref name="desa">[https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa Sejarah Desa Sukanagara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219033122/https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa |date=2026-02-19 }}. Situs Resmi Désa Sukanagara.</ref> Dina [[Kidung Lakbok|naskah kuno Kidung Lakbok]] (1956), wewengkon ieu disebut aya di deukeut '''Pulo Erang''' (ayeuna Désa Puloerang). Désa Sukanagara resmi ngadeg dina taun '''1984''' salaku hasil pemekaran tina Désa Lakbok. Nami "Sukanagara" dicandak tina '''Lapang Sukanagara''', anu ngandung haraosan sangkan masarakat ''suka'' (cinta) deui ka ''nagara'' (desa) saatos kantos sering gagal panen. === Hubungan jeung Karajaan Sunda === Wewengkon Sukanagara kaasup kana wewengkon pangaruh Karajaan Galuh. Tingali ogé [[Karajaan Sunda]]. == Démografi == Dumasar data BPS Kacamatan Lakbok dina Angka taun 2024, Désa Sukanagara boga ... jiwa (2023).<ref name="BPS2024"/> Seuseueurna padumuk damel salaku patani sareng paternak. == Tatanén == Tatanén mangrupa mata pencaharian utama masarakat Sukanagara. Désa ieu katelah salaku ''"Lumbung Padi"'' Kabupatén Ciamis.<ref name="desa"/> Lahan sawah di Sukanagara legana 377,96 Ha, anu tiasa ngahasilkeun '''kurang leuwih 3.025 ton padi per taun'''. Hasil tatanén ieu dijual ka luar daérah sapertos Kota Banjar, Ciamis, Bandung, bahkan Jakarta. == Atikan == Sakola nu aya di Désa Sukanagara:<ref name="desa"/> * SMP Negeri 1 Lakbok * MTs Negeri Lakbok * MI (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah) * (SD/MI sanésna peryogi data) == Tempat Penting == Salaku pusat Kacamatan Lakbok, di Désa Sukanagara aya sababaraha fasilitas umum:<ref name="desa"/> * Kantor Kecamatan Lakbok * Polsek Lakbok * Koramil Lakbok * Puskesmas Lakbok * Masjid Agung Lakbok * Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA) Lakbok * SPBU Lakbok * Indomaret == Tempo ogé == * [[Kidung Lakbok]] * [[Kacamatan Lakbok]] * [[Désa Sidaharja]] * [[Désa Cintaratu]] * [[Désa Tambakreja]] * [[Désa Puloerang]] * [[Karajaan Sunda]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pranala luar == * [https://lakbok.ciamiskab.go.id/ Situs Resmi Kacamatan Lakbok]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/ Situs Resmi Désa Sukanagara] * [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kidung_Lakbok_-_Buku_Lengkap.pdf Kidung Lakbok - Buku Lengkap] [[Kategori:Désa di Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan Lakbok]] aizqq7i98j5ybenovdnb5b9dw65pdjz Endog gulung 0 108583 732116 709644 2026-11-10T20:50:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 732116 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sate telur gulung di alun-alun Nganjuk.jpg|jmpl|Endog gulung]] Endog gulung nyaéta kadaharan tradisional sarta mangrupa variasi tina endog goréng, nyaéta hiji endog digoréng tuluy digulung maké tusukan anu biasana dijieun tina kai awi. Ieu kadaharan remen dihidangkeun jeung dijual di sakola, utamana di tingkat sakola dasar (SD).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.idntimes.com/food/recipe/iefa-pooh/resep-telur-gulung-c1c2|title=Resep dan Cara Membuat Telur Gulung untuk Camilan Anak|last=Iefa_Pooh|last2=iefa_pooh|work=[[IDN Times]]|language=id|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> Jajanan ieu kaasup jajanan legendaris lantaran geus aya ti taun 1990-an.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mustinda|first=Lusiana|title=Telur Gulung, Jajanan Tahun 90'an yang Populer Lagi|url=https://food.detik.com/info-kuliner/d-4364116/telur-gulung-jajanan-tahun-90an-yang-populer-lagi|website=detikfood|language=id-ID|access-date=2022-12-07|accessdate=2022-12-07|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207045102/https://food.detik.com/info-kuliner/d-4364116/telur-gulung-jajanan-tahun-90an-yang-populer-lagi|archivedate=2022-12-07}}</ref> Numutkeun sababaraha sumber, endog gulung mimiti populér deui minangka jajanan kaki lima kira-kira ti taun 2017.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Kompasiana.com|date=2022-12-14|title=Manajemen Bisnis Telur Gulung|url=https://www.kompasiana.com/sitienjelnuraeni9565/6399785d9557ec01f24529b2/manajemen-bisnis-telur-gulung|website=KOMPASIANA|language=id|access-date=2026-05-15}}</ref> Lamun saméméhna ieu kadaharan umumna dijual kira-kira Rp500 per tusuk, dina kamekaranana harga endog gulung jadi aya dina kisaran Rp1.000 nepi ka Rp2.000 atawa leuwih, gumantung kana variasi jeung bahan tambahan anu dipaké. Sababaraha padagang tuluy nyieun inovasi ku nambahan rupa-rupa eusian, saperti bihun, kornét, ''fish roll'', ''crab stick'', baso, jeung sosis.<ref name=":0" /> == Cara nyieun == Cara nyieun endog gulung kawilang gampang lantaran ampir sarua jeung nyieun endog dadar biasa. Nu mindeng ngajadikeun ieu kadaharan gagal dijieun nyaéta téhnik nyebarkeun endog dina minyak panas jeung téhnik ngagulungna kalayan bener, sabab dua hal éta nu ngajadikeun endog gulung jarang dijieun ku loba jalma. Bahan-bahan anu diperlukeun pikeun nyieun ieu kadaharan cukup basajan lantaran ampir sarua jeung bahan pikeun nyieun endog dadar. Pikeun nyieunna diperlukeun hiji butir endog jeung saparapat séndok téh uyah. Sanggeus bahan geus siap, peupeuskeun endog kana wadah tuluy taburkeun uyah di luhurna, sanggeus éta kocok nepi ka rata. Ulah poho, panaskeun minyak dina penggoréngan. Minyakna kudu loba sabab éta minyak nu bakal ngabantu endog sumebar. Sanggeus minyak panas, candak dua atawa tilu séndok makan adonan endog tina wadah tuluy sebarkeun rata kana sakabéh minyak panas dina wajajan. Sanggeus endog asak, candak tusukan tuluy gulung endog nepi ka rapet kana sisi tusukan. Endog gulung ogé geus siap dihidangkeun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanfood/resep-masakan-cara-membuat-telur-gulung-anti-gagal-1533814983435184980|title=Resep Masakan: Cara Membuat Telur Gulung Anti Gagal|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> == Téhnik ngagulung endog == Sanajan saulas katingalina gampang, nyieun endog gulung merlukeun téhnik husus, utamana dina tahap ngagoréng jeung ngagulungna. Dina prosésna, endog dikocok nepi ka ngabusa sarta téksturna jadi leuwih éncér, tuluy dituang kana minyak panas anu jumlahna cukup loba. Sanggeus sababaraha waktu, endog digulung maké batang lidi nalika masih aya dina minyak.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2023-01-31|title=Telur Gulung Makanan Tradisional Legendaris, Ini Asal-usulnya|url=https://suarabaru.id/2023/01/31/telur-gulung-makanan-tradisional-legendaris-ini-asal-usulnya|website=SuaraBaru.id|language=id-ID|access-date=2026-05-15}}</ref> Dina prosés nyieunna, diperlukeun minyak anu suhuna cukup panas supaya endog asak sacara rata sarta ngabentuk tékstur anu luyu.<ref>{{Cite web|last=palpos.co|title=Telur Gulung : Camilan Tradisional yang Terus Mendapatkan Tempat di Hati Masyarakat|url=https://palpos.disway.id/kuliner/read/700219/telur-gulung-camilan-tradisional-yang-terus-mendapatkan-tempat-di-hati-masyarakat|website=palpos.co|language=id|access-date=2026-05-15}}</ref> Tahap ngagulung dilakukeun kalayan gancang supaya lapisan endog bisa napel sarta ngabentuk gulungan kalayan sampurna. Sababaraha padagang endog gulung ogé nambahan tipung sagu kana adonan supaya téksturna jadi leuwih lemes.<ref name=":1"/> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:WikiMaknyus Jakarta]] fwjawhmc871tih2ub77n037yw804sn7 Kartijah 0 109570 732189 732053 2026-11-11T04:45:52Z Hayati Mayang Arum 12262 732189 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kartini Gajah''' ('''Kartijah''') mangrupa ngaran salah sahiji [[Gajah sumatra|gajah sumatra]] legéndaris atawa gajah indungna anu aya di [[Pusat Latihan Gajah]] (PLG) di [[Taman Nasional Way Kambas]] (TNWK).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/label/kartijah-atau-kartini-gajah|title=kartijah atau kartini gajah|last=Nusantara|first=PT Kompas Media|website=kompas.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-09}}</ref> Kartijah disebut "Kartinina Gajah" lantaran inyana mindeng jadi [[indung]] pulung pikeun ngasuh anak-anak gajah anu kaleungitan indungna di TNWK. Kartijah ngabogaan karakter anu bageur, piindung, lemah lembut, tur deudeuhan. Teu héran upama anak-anak gajah ngarasa betah tur daék diasuh ku Kartijah. Boh éta anak gajah anu indungna maot, boh anak gajah liar anu ditinggalkeun ku indungna atawa dianiaya ku jelema. Salah sahiji anak gajah anu diasuhna nyaéta aya [[Érin (gajah)|Érin]] (anak gajah ''rescue)'' jeung [[Yongki (gajah)|Yongki]] (anak gajah [[Suli (gajah)|Suli]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/artikel/kartijah-induk-angkat-gajah-sumatera-di-way-kambas-lampung|title=Kartijah, Induk Angkat Gajah Sumatera di Way Kambas, Lampung|last=Oktavia|first=Vina|website=Kompas.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-09}}</ref> == Riwayat hirup == [[Gambar:Gajah TNWK Gajah Kartijah mengasuh Gajah Yongki.jpg|jmpl|Kartijah keur ngasuh Yongki (anak Suli). ]] Kartijah mangrupa gajah senior anu dipikareueus di TNWK, sarta mangrupa gajah munggaran anu nyicingan PLG [[Way Kambas]]. Sapanjang hirupna, Kartijah hampir teu ngabogaan riwayat kaséhatan anu parah. Kartijah kaitung kana gajah anu séhat tur awakna wedel. Bobot awakna leuwih ti tilu ton. <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://lampung.antaranews.com/berita/305617/gajah-jinak-agam-kartijah-semarakkan-kirab-asian-games|title=Gajah jinak Agam-Kartijah Semarakkan Kirab Asian Games|last=Agency|first=ANTARA News|website=Antara News Lampung|language=id|accessdate=2026-11-10}}</ref> Kartijah mimitina mangrupa gajah liar, tur kapanggih sarta dilatih ti bubudak kénéh.<ref name=":2" /> Kaunikan Kartijah katitén ku mahout-mahoutna, di antarana nyaéta ngabogaan karakter anu bageur, sarta jadi panutan jeung tempat panyalindungan pikeun gajah-gajah séjénna. Dina taun 2026, Kartijah geus nicak umur ka 45 taun.<ref name=":1" /> Dina taun 2018, Kartijah kungsi dipilih ku balai TNWK pikeun mapag ''Kirab Api Obor [[Asian Games]]'' ka-18 di kota [[Kota Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]], babarengan jeung gajah [[Agam (gajah)|Agam]].<ref name=":2" /> Kartijah kungsi ngabogaan anak, anu kahiji ngaranna [[Adi]], kadua [[Gusti]] (paéh teu lila ti sabada gubrag ka dunya), anu katilu ngaranna [[Joni]]. Kahirupan Kartijah anu geus cukup umur, teu ujug-ujug bisa hirup lugina. Inyana kungsi ngalaman jadi [[gajah atraksi]] jeung [[gajah tunggang]]. Malah dina taun 2018, nalika Kartijah keur reuneuh gedé ogé masih ngajalankeun kahirupanna salaku gajah atraksi jeung gajah tunggang.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Dua Gajah Bernama Kartijah dan Bunga di Taman Nasional Way Kambas Sedang Bunting|url=https://lampung.tribunnews.com/2018/11/15/dua-gajah-bernama-kartijah-dan-bunga-di-taman-nasional-way-kambas-sedang-bunting|newspaper=Tribun Lampung|access-date=2026-11-10|language=id-ID|editor-last=Sulis|editor-first=Heribertus|date=15 November 2018}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Individu gajah di Indonésia]] mrgvgflqd23lem610b0z4k1gipflnvb Citakan:Chart/styles.css 10 109583 732080 2026-11-10T17:15:19Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Nyieun kaca anyar .suwiki-chart { padding: 5px; background: var(--background-color-base); box-sizing: border-box; overflow: clip; } 732080 sanitized-css text/css .suwiki-chart { padding: 5px; background: var(--background-color-base); box-sizing: border-box; overflow: clip; } ntiqiy8fcrtlti7wquunvzgh57owxog Citakan:Tree chart 10 109584 732082 2026-11-10T17:26:53Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Citakan anyar 732082 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly>{{#invoke:Tree chart|main}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{Dokuméntasi}} </noinclude> si3mrrxms3kiwuo9h6c5zzdwvud6ari Citakan:Chart/start 10 109585 732085 2026-11-10T17:33:08Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:Chart/start]] ka [[Citakan:Tree chart/start]] 732085 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Citakan:Tree chart/start]] iq51rblmfmev0pz38la4ay2oq7o12p5 Citakan:Chart/end 10 109586 732087 2026-11-10T17:38:46Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Rafka Aditia mindahkeun kaca [[Citakan:Chart/end]] ka [[Citakan:Tree chart/end]] 732087 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Citakan:Tree chart/end]] sqmt41gm6424e5r0z9cyz6yx7g6o5h2 Modul:Tree chart 828 109587 732088 2026-11-10T17:44:56Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Modul anyar 732088 Scribunto text/plain require('strict') local p = {} local cells = mw.loadData('Module:Tree chart/data') function p._main(cell_args) local ret = mw.html.create() local top = ret:tag('tr') :css{ height = '1px', ['text-align'] = 'center' } local bottom = ret:tag('tr') :css{ height = '1px', ['text-align'] = 'center' } for _, v in ipairs(cell_args) do if type(v) == 'string' then top:wikitext(cells[v].t) bottom:wikitext(cells[v].b) else top:tag('td') :attr{ colspan = v.colspan or cell_args.colspan or 6, rowspan = v.rowspan or cell_args.rowspan or 2 } :css{ padding = '0.2em', border = (v.border or cell_args.border or '2') .. 'px solid' } :cssText(v.boxstyle or cell_args.boxstyle) :wikitext(v.text) end end return tostring(ret) end function p.main(frame) local args = require('Module:Arguments').getArgs(frame, {wrappers = 'Template:Tree chart', trim = false, removeBlanks = false}) local cell_args = { colspan = args.colspan, rowspan = args.rowspan, border = args.border, boxstyle = args.boxstyle } for _, val in ipairs(args) do local trimmedVal = val:match('^%s*(.-)%s*$') if trimmedVal == '' then trimmedVal = '$' end if cells[trimmedVal] then table.insert(cell_args, trimmedVal) else -- Unnamed params behave weirdly -- white space at the front counts for param_{{{1}}}, but not whitespace at the end, so remove it local rightTrimmedVal = val:gsub('%s+$','') table.insert(cell_args, { text = args[trimmedVal] or ('{{{'..trimmedVal..'}}}'), colspan = args['colspan_'..rightTrimmedVal], rowspan = args['rowspan_'..rightTrimmedVal], border = args['border_'..rightTrimmedVal], boxstyle = args['boxstyle_'..rightTrimmedVal] }) end end return p._main(cell_args) end return p e73icedqvymkhbbzm4rrh23qebo72u6 Modul:Tree chart/data 828 109588 732089 2026-11-10T17:45:50Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Modul anyar 732089 Scribunto text/plain local SLD = '1px solid' local DSH = '1px dashed' local DOT = '1px dotted' local data = { ['!'] = { t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['%'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ["'"] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['('] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, [')'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['*'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['+'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, [','] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['-'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['.'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['7'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, [':'] = { t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['A'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['C'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['D'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['E'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['F'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['G'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['G2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['H'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['J'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['K'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['L'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['M'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['P'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['Q'] = { t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['R'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['S'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['T3'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['T2'] = { b = { { style ={ ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['T'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['U'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['V'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['W'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['X'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['X2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['Y'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['Z'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['^'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['$'] = { t = { { attr = { colspan = '2', rowspan = '2'}, style = { width = '2em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['`'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['a2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dashed #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['a'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['b2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dotted #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['b3'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['b'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['c'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['d'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['di'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['dj'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['e'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['f'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['fh'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] =DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['fy'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['h'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['he'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['i'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['ic'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['j'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['jc'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['k2'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['k3'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['k'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['kq'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['kr'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['kq2'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['kr2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['l2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dashed #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['l3'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['l4'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['l'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['m2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['m'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['mp'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['mp2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['n2'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dotted #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['n'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['np'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['np2'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['o2'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['o'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '2em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['om'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['om2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['on'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['on2'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['p2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DSH, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dotted #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['p'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['q2'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = '1px dashed #000001', width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['q'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['ql'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['ql2'] = { b = { { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, ['border-bottom'] =DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['r2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['r'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['rl'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['rl2'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = DOT, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['t'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['v'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = SLD, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['x'] = {}, ['y'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { style = { width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } }, ['ye'] = { b = { { style = { ['border-right'] = SLD, width = '1em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '1em', height = '1em' } }, { attr = { rowspan = '2' }, style = { width = '1em', height = '2em' } } } }, ['~'] = { b = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { width = '2em', height = '1em' } } }, t = { { attr = { colspan = '2' }, style = { ['border-bottom'] = DSH, width = '2em', height = '1em' } } } } } local retval = {} for k,v in pairs(data) do retval[k] = {} for k2,v2 in pairs(v) do local renderedCells = mw.html.create() for k3,v3 in ipairs(v2) do renderedCells:tag('td'):css(v3.style or {}):attr(v3.attr or {}) end retval[k][k2] = tostring(renderedCells) end end return retval g6bakgq1oihq77zx8jbsli7b8wpd6mc Modul:Unicode data/scripts/doc 828 109589 732091 2026-11-10T18:11:55Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Subkaca dokuméntasi anyar 732091 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Please place categories where indicated at the bottom of this page and interwikis at Wikidata (see [[Wikipedia:Wikidata]]) --> {{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|kotrétan||{{High-use}}}} {{lua|Modul:Lang/data}} Modul ieu ngandung data anu dianggo ku [[Modul:Unicode data]] pikeun nangtukeun kode aksara Unicode pikeun titik kode sareng pikeun nangtukeun naha aksara Unicode ditulis ti katuhu ka kénca. Data akasara ti katuhu ka kénca asalna tina [[Modul:Lang/data]]. Tabél utama dina modul ieu dihasilkeun ku [[Modul:Unicode data/scripts/make]] tina [https://www.unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/Scripts.txt Scripts.txt] jeung [https://www.unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/PropertyValueAliases.txt PropertyValueAliases.txt] dina Pangkalan Data Karakter Unicode (vérsi 17.0). <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|kotrétan | | <!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> [[Kategori:Modul data Unicode|scripts]] }}</includeonly> nyfu3qvdlng3gyvlb1sxj4l8t7alyer Modul:Unicode data/scripts/make 828 109590 732092 2026-11-10T18:12:33Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Modul anyar 732092 Scribunto text/plain local p = {} local Array = require 'Module:Array' local function pattern_escape(str) return (str:gsub('%p', '%%%1')) end function p.make_script_name_to_code(page_name) local property_value_aliases = assert(assert(mw.title.new(page_name)):getContent()) local script_aliases = property_value_aliases:match( pattern_escape '# Script (sc)' .. '%s+(.-)%s+' .. pattern_escape '# Script_Extensions (scx)') local script_name_to_code = {} for code, name in script_aliases:gmatch 'sc%s+;%s+(%a+)%s+;%s+([%a_]+)' do script_name_to_code[name] = code end return script_name_to_code end function p.make_script_data(scripts_txt, property_value_aliases_txt) local script_data = assert(assert(mw.title.new(scripts_txt)):getContent()) local script_name_to_code = p.make_script_name_to_code(property_value_aliases_txt) setmetatable(script_name_to_code, { __index = function (self, k) error(('No code for "%s"'):format(k)) end }) local script_ranges = Array() local prev_codepoint, prev_script_name, prev_script_range for codepoint1, codepoint2, script_name in script_data:gmatch '%f[^\n%z](%x+)%.?%.?(%x*)%s+;%s*([%w_]+)' do codepoint1, codepoint2 = tonumber(codepoint1, 16), tonumber(codepoint2, 16) local script_range if prev_script_range and script_name == prev_script_name and codepoint1 - prev_codepoint == 1 then prev_script_range[2] = codepoint2 or codepoint1 else script_range = { codepoint1, codepoint2 or codepoint1, script_name_to_code[script_name] } script_ranges:insert(script_range) end prev_codepoint, prev_script_name, prev_script_range = codepoint2 or codepoint1, script_name, script_range or prev_script_range end local singles = {} local i = 1 while script_ranges[i] do local low, high, script_code = unpack(script_ranges[i]) if low == high then singles[low] = script_code script_ranges:remove(i) else i = i + 1 end end script_ranges:sort( function (range1, range2) return range1[1] < range2[1] end) local template = [[ local data = { singles = { ... }, ranges = { ... }, -- Scripts.txt gives full names; here we consider them aliases to save space. aliases = { ... }, } ]] local printed_ranges = Array() for _, range in ipairs(script_ranges) do local low, high, script_code = unpack(range) printed_ranges:insert(('\t\t{ 0x%05X, 0x%05X, "%s" },'):format(low, high, script_code)) end local printed_singles = Array() for codepoint, script_code in require 'Module:TableTools'.sortedPairs(singles) do printed_singles:insert(('\t\t[0x%05X] = "%s",'):format(codepoint, script_code)) end local printed_script_name_to_code = Array() for name, code in require 'Module:TableTools'.sortedPairs(script_name_to_code, function(name1, name2) return script_name_to_code[name1] < script_name_to_code[name2] end) do printed_script_name_to_code:insert(('\t\t%s = "%s",'):format(code, name:gsub('_', ' '))) end local data = template :gsub('%.%.%.', printed_singles:concat('\n'), 1) :gsub('%.%.%.', printed_ranges:concat('\n'), 1) :gsub('%.%.%.', printed_script_name_to_code:concat('\n'), 1) return data end function p.highlight(lua_code) return mw.getCurrentFrame():extensionTag{ name = "syntaxhighlight", content = lua_code, args = { lang = "lua" } } end function p.main(frame) local dir = 'User:Erutuon/Unicode' local scripts_txt = dir .. '/Scripts.txt' local property_value_aliases_txt = dir ..'/PropertyValueAliases.txt' return p.highlight(p.make_script_data(scripts_txt, property_value_aliases_txt)) end return p fy6ayg2lccnno8zmlcqrn86e3xjxtr4 Modul:Unicode data/scripts/make/doc 828 109591 732093 2026-11-10T18:13:42Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Subkaca dokuméntasi anyar 732093 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Please place categories where indicated at the bottom of this page and interwikis at Wikidata (see [[Wikipedia:Wikidata]]) --> Pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Modul:Unicode data/scripts]]. {{#invoke:Unicode data/scripts/make|main}} <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|kotrétan | | <!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> }}</includeonly> 0sbsl3baz3xtllcucjtxyxg2wdrqidk Modul:Array 828 109592 732094 2026-11-10T18:17:29Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Modul anyar 732094 Scribunto text/plain local Array = {} local array_constructor local function load_table_module() return require "Module:TableTools" end -- Copy table library so as not to unexpectedly change the behavior of code that -- uses it. local array_methods = mw.clone(table) -- Create version of table.sort that returns the table. array_methods.sort = function (t, comp) table.sort(t, comp) return t end -- ipairs and unpack operate on arrays. array_methods.ipairs = ipairs array_methods.unpack = unpack function array_methods:type() local mt = getmetatable(self) return type(mt) == "table" and mt.__type or nil end function array_methods:adjustIndex(index) index = math.floor(index) if index < 0 then index = #self + index + 1 end return index end -- string.sub-style slicing. function array_methods:slice(i, j) if i == nil then i = 1 elseif type(i) == "number" then i = self:adjust_index(i) else error("Expected number, got " .. type(i)) end if j == nil or type(j) == "number" then j = self:adjust_index(j or -1) else error("Expected number, got " .. type(j)) end local new_arr = array_constructor() local k = 0 for index = i, j do k = k + 1 new_arr[k] = self[index] end return new_arr end -- A function to convert string key-table modules such -- as [[Module:languages/data2]] into arrays. -- "from" is a bad name. -- field_for_key supplies the field name in which the -- key will be stored. local function to_array(map, field_for_key) m_table = m_table or load_table_module() local arr = {} local i = 0 for key, val in pairs(map) do i = i + 1 local new_val = m_table.shallowcopy(val) if field_for_key then new_val[field_for_key] = key end arr[i] = new_val end return array_constructor(arr) end -- Functions from [[Module:TableTools]] that operate on arrays or sparse arrays. -- List copied from [[Module:TableTools/documentation]]. local operate_on_array = { -- non-sparse "removeDuplicates", "length", "contains", "serialCommaJoin", "reverseIpairs", "reverse", "invert", "listToSet", "isArray", -- sparse "numKeys", "maxIndex", "compressSparseArray", "sparseIpairs", -- tables in general "shallowcopy", "deepcopy", } -- Not all of these operate on arrays. local create_new_array = { -- Functions from [[Module:TableTools]] that create an array. -- List copied from [[Module:TableTools/documentation]]. "removeDuplicates", "numKeys", "affixNums", "compressSparseArray", "keysToList", "reverse", -- Functions from [[Module:TableTools]] that create an table. "shallowcopy", "deepcopy", -- Functions from [[Module:fun]] that create an array. "map", "filter", } -- Functions from [[Module:fun]] that take an array in the second argument. -- They just have to have the argument order reversed to work as methods of the -- array object. local second_argument_is_array = { "map", "some", "all", "filter" } -- Add aliases for the functions from [[Module:TableTools]] whose names -- contain "array" or "list", which is redundant, and whose names don't conform -- to the usual camel case. -- The key redirects to the value. local alias_of = { compress = "compressSparseArray", keys = "keysToList", toSet = "listToSet", deepCopy = "deepcopy", shallowCopy = "shallowcopy", } local function get_module_function(key, module, module_name) return module[key] or error("No function named " .. tostring(key) .. " in Module:" .. module_name) end local function wrap_in_array_constructor(func) return function (...) return array_constructor(func(...)) end end local function create_array_generating_func(key, module, module_name) return wrap_in_array_constructor(get_module_function(key, module, module_name)) end local function reverse_arguments(func) return function (a, b) return func(b, a, true) end end local function underscore_to_camel_case(str) if type(str) ~= "string" then return str end str = str:gsub("_(.)", string.upper) return str end local m_table, m_fun local Array = {} Array.__type = "array" function Array:__index(key) if type(key) ~= "string" then return nil end -- Convert underscores to camel case: num_keys -> numKeys. key = underscore_to_camel_case(key) local val = array_methods[key] if val then return val end key = alias_of[key] or key local func m_table = m_table or load_table_module() if m_table.contains(operate_on_array, key) then if m_table.contains(create_new_array, key) then func = create_array_generating_func(key, m_table, "table") else func = m_table[key] end elseif m_table.contains(second_argument_is_array, key) then m_fun = m_fun or require "Module:fun" local raw_func = reverse_arguments(get_module_function(key, m_fun, "fun")) if m_table.contains(create_new_array, key) then func = wrap_in_array_constructor(raw_func) else func = raw_func end end if func then array_methods[key] = func return func end end function Array.__add(a, b) if type(a) == 'table' and type(b) == 'table' then m_table = m_table or load_table_module() local new_arr = array_constructor(m_table.shallowcopy(a)) for _, val in ipairs(b) do new_arr:insert(val) end return new_arr end end function Array:new(...) local arr if select("#", ...) == 1 and type((...)) == "table" then arr = ... local mt = getmetatable(arr) -- If table has been loaded with mw.loadData, copy it to avoid the -- limitations of it being a virtual table. if mt and mt.mw_loadData then m_table = m_table or load_table_module() arr = m_table.shallowcopy(arr) end else arr = { ... } end return setmetatable(arr, self) end -- Declared as local above. function array_constructor(...) return Array:new(...) end local array_generating_funcs = { from = to_array } local Array_library_mt = { __call = Array.new, __index = array_generating_funcs } setmetatable(Array, Array_library_mt) function Array_library_mt:__index(key) key = underscore_to_camel_case(key) key = alias_of[key] or key if array_generating_funcs[key] then return array_generating_funcs[key] end m_table = m_table or load_table_module() if m_table.contains(create_new_array, key) then local func = create_array_generating_func(key, m_table, "table") array_generating_funcs[key] = func return func end end return Array 6uk6poddb11pklvvpqs8avhncr5nygu Abdoel Moeis Hassan 0 109593 732190 2026-11-11T05:50:57Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Kenging narjamahkeun 732190 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" style="float: right; clear: right; width: 320px; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; padding: 4px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 110%; padding: 6px;" | Abdoel Moeis Hassan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:03-Gubernur-03 A Moes Hasan.jpg|250px|Abdoel Moeis Hassan]]<br /><small>Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan (1962–1966)</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | [[Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 10 Agustus 1962 – 14 September 1966 |- | '''Kalungguhan''' || Ka-2 |- | '''Saméméhna''' || [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |- | '''Anu ngganti''' || [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 25 Juni 1960 – 28 September 1963<br><small>(non-aktif ti saprak 30 Juni 1962)</small> |- | '''Présidén''' || [[Sukarno]] |- | '''Fraksi''' || Karya Petani |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 29 April 1968 – 28 Oktober 1971 |- | '''Fraksi''' || [[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 105%; padding: 4px;" | Inpormasi pribadi |- | '''Gumelar''' || 2 Juni 1924<br>[[Samarinda]], [[Hindia Walanda]] |- | ''' pupus''' || 21 Nopémber 2005 (umur 81)<br>[[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] |- | '''Partai politik''' || [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] (1946–1950)<br>[[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] (1950–1970) |- | '''Profési''' || [[Politikus]] +++ | '''Pasangan''' || Fatimah |- | '''Anak''' || Zulchadriansyah<br>Julian Anwarie<br>Taufik Siradjudin<br>Chaidir Aulia<br>Farid Hamdi<br>Olvia Afiaty<br>Johny Janwarie |- | '''Kolot''' || Mohammad Hassan (bapa)<br>Asiah (indung) |- | '''Kulawarga''' || Mohammad Saleh (aki)<br>[[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] (adi) |} '''Abdoel Moeis Hassan''' ([[Ejaan yang Disempurnakan|EYD]]: Abdul Muis Hassan, {{lahirmati|[[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]|2|6|1924|[[Jakarta]]|21|11|2005}}) nyaéta saurang tokoh pamuda pergerakan kabangsaan di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] dina mangsa 1940–1945 sarta pamingpin perjuangan diplomasi politik pikeun kamerdékaan Républik [[Indonésia]] di wewengkon [[Kalimantan Wétan]] dina mangsa 1945–1949. Ti saprak rumaja, manéhna milu aub dina kagiatan pergerakan kabangsaan di Samarinda tur diajar masalah politik ka [[A.M. Sangadji]]. Dina taun 1940, manéhna ngadegkeun Roekoen Pemoeda Indonesia (Roepindo) sarta jadi katua na. Bareng jeung [[Abdoel Moethalib Sangadji|A.M. Sangadji]], manéhna ngadegkeun lembaga atikan ngaranna Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Ra'jat dina taun 1942. Manéhna ngagabung dina Panitia Persiapan Penyambutan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia (P3KRI) pikeun mewujudkeun Proklamasi Nagara Indonésia di Samarinda taun 1945 sarta ngadegkeun [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) Cabang Samarinda anu boga tujuan nolak pangeboman atawa panjajahan Walanda di Samarinda sataun ti harita. Taun 1947 manéhna jadi katua Front Nasional salaku koalisi organisasi anu ngarojong RI jeung nolak fénoména féderasi anu dibentuk ku [[Walanda]]. Dina ahir taun 1949, bareng jeung [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]], manéhna nungtut ka pamaréntah lokal pikeun kaluar tina [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] (RIS) jeung ngabungkus diri ka RI-Yogya. Tuntutanna kacumponan kalawan ngahijina [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]] ka wilayah RI dina tanggal 10 April 1950. Manéhna ngadadakan Kongrés Rahayat Kaltim dina taun 1954 pikeun nungtut dijieun Provinsi Kalimantan Timur sangkan pangwangunan bisa leuwih maju. Taun 1956, tuntutan éta diwujudkeun tur tanggal 9 Januari 1957 Kaltim resmi ngadeg salaku provinsi. Taun 1960, manéhna jadi Katua Komisi Gabungan di [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] anu boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria. Taun 1962, manéhna jadi [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] kadua. Dina taun 1964, manéhna nyegah usaha duruk keraton Kutai ku massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima [[Komando Daerah Militer VI/Mulawarman|Kodam IX Mulawarman]]. Taun 1966, manéhna eureun salaku Gubernur tur jadi pagawé di Departemén Dalam Négri di Jakarta. Taun 1968 nepi ka 1970, manéhna kapilih deui jadi anggota DPR RI ngawakilan PNI. Taun 1976, manéhna pénsiun tina PNS tur ancrub di widang sosial masarakat sarta nulis rupa-rupa artikel jeung buku nepi ka taun 2004, tuluy pupus dina taun 2005 dina yuswa 81 taun. Taun 2018, hiji kelompok pamilon sajarah anu independen ngasongkeun usulan calon Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka Wali kota Samarinda. Para sajarawan akademis dina Séminar Nasional 2019 netepkeun yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan layak diusulkeun ka pamaréntah pusat salaku Pahlawan Nasional. == Kulawarga jeung Atikan == Abdoel Moeis Hassan téh saurang pituin étnis [[Suku Banjar|Banjar]]. Manéhna mangrupa putra kalima ti Mohammad Hassan, nyaéta saurang tokoh [[Syarikat Islam]] di Samarinda dina mangsa pergerakan kabangsaan. Akina ti pihak bapa ngaran H. Mohammad Saleh anu asalna ti [[Amuntai]], [[Kalimantan Kidul]]. Sedengkeun aki jeung nini ti pihak indungna asalna ti [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 191.</ref> Dina yuswa 5 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan sakola di ''Meisje School'' anu didirikan ku [[Aminah Sjoekoer]] bareng salakina, Mohammad Jacob. Manéhna meunang ijazah [[MULO]] ti ''Instituut Het Zonnig Land''. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé ngagaduhan ijazah ''Boekhouding'' A jeung B sarta nęmatkeun [[Hollandsch-Inlandsche School]] (HIS) di [[Sungai Pinang, Samarinda|Sungai Pinang]], Samarinda. Atikan politikna didapatkeun ti [[A.M. Sangadji]], saurang tokoh [[Pergerakan Penyadar]] éks PSII bareng H. [[Agus Salim]] dina mangsa [[Hindia Walanda|panjajahan Walanda]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 192.</ref> Dina taun 1944, dina yuswa 20 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan nikah jeung Fatimah, anu umurna leuwih anom opat taun ti manéhna.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 19.</ref> Manéhna jeung Fatimah dikarunian genep putra jeung hiji putri.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 91.</ref> Manéhna miboga adi kandung ngaranna [[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] anu kungsi jadi Katua Umum Pangurus Besar Persatuan Dokter Gigi Indonesia (PDGI) période 1982–1988 sarta Katua Majelis Kehormatan jeung Penasihat PB PDGI période 1988–2003.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 360.</ref> Kusabab hirup sezaman jeung [[Inche Abdoel Moeis]] sarta pikeun ngabédakeun duanana, masarakat satempat méré jujuluk ka Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku "Moeis Leutik" sedengkeun I.A. Moeis salaku "Moeis Luhur". Hal ieu dumasar kana bédana postur tubuh antara duanana.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Historiografi Samarinda''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 146.</ref> == Kiprah == === Perjuangan jeung Politik === [[File:Abdoel Moeis Hassan circa 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Abdoel Moeis Hassan dina 17 Agustus 1949.]] [[File:Konferensi INI ke-3 di Samarinda 7–8 Desember 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan (diuk di hareup, katilu ti katuhu) dina raraga Konferensi [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] ka-3 di Samarinda tanggal 7–8 Désémber 1949.]] [[File:Peletakan Batu Pertama Tugu 40 Tahun Kebangunan Nasional 20 Mei 1948.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan nalika peletakan batu pertama Tugu 40 Taun Kabangsaan Nasional tanggal 20 Méi 1948.]] Dina Méi 1940, Abdoel Moeis Hassan ngagagas dijieun organisasi kapemudaan anu boga haluan kabangsaan ngaranna Roepindo (Roekoen Pemuda Indonesia).<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 14.</ref> Nalika umurna nincak 18 taun, manéhna bareng A.M. Sangadji ngaktipkeun deui ''Neutrale School'' jadi Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Rajat (BPPR) dina taun 1942.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 51.</ref> Saenggeus Républik Indonésia memproklamirkeun kamerdékaan tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, sedengkeun [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] jeung Kalimantan Wétan harita tacan ngabungkus diri ka Républik Indonésia, manéhna ngagabung dina Gerakan Dr. Soewadji anu ngarencanakeun proklamasi kamerdékaan di Samarinda.<ref>Sanusie, Ahmad (1984). ''Sejarah Perjuangan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 44.</ref> Satuluyna, manéhna berjuang ngaliwatan jalur pergerakan diplomasi dina wadah partéy politik lokal ngaranna [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) jeung koalisi organisasi ngaranna [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]]. Taun 1946 manéhna ngadegkeun INI cabang Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 221.</ref> Dina taun 1947, manéhna ditunjuk ku INI jadi katua Front Nasional. Duanana organisasi anu boga markas di Gedong Nasional Samarinda éta mertahankeun sikep ngarojong Nagara Républik Indonésia tur nolak panjajahan Walanda di Indonésia.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 222.</ref> Sikep ieu patukeur pisan jeung opat kasultanan anu aya di [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]], anu leuwih milih ngagabung dina Pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jieunan [[Gubernur Jéndral Hindia Walanda]], [[Hubertus Johannes van Mook]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 114.</ref> Féderasi Kalimantan Timur kungsi nawarkeun kalungguhan salaku délégasi dina Bandung Federale Conferentie (BFC), nyaéta [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Federal|Konférénsi Féderal Bandung]] anu digagas ku Van Mook. Tapi, manéhna nolak éta tawaran sabab konsekuen kana sikep politik organisasi perjuanganna anu nonkoopératif atawa embung gawé bareng jeung Walanda katut para pangikutna.<ref>Tribun Kaltim (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan sebagai Pahlawan Nasional''. Diakses 2020.</ref> Hasil [[Konférénsi Méja Bundar]] 1949 anu ngawangun [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]] nyieun Kalimantan Wétan kagabung dina [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]]. Kaayaan ieu henteu nyugemakeun Front Nasional jeung golongan Républikén. Ku kituna, manéhna mangrupa palopor panyeratan tuntutan supaya Kalimantan Wétan kaluar tina RIS jeung ngahiji deui ka Nagara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia. Tuntutan éta dicumponan ku pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jeung pamaréntah pusat, antukna dina tanggal 10 April 1950 Kalimantan Wétan resmi ngagabung ka Républik Indonésia.<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 123.</ref> Bareng jeung tuntutan ngahijina Kalimantan Wétan ka RI, Moeis Hassan salaku Katua Front Nasional gencar ngampanyekeun gagasan panyabutan [[swapraja]] (kasultanan) sabab ceuk manéhna sistem [[feodalisme]] geus teu saluyu deui jeung kamekaran jaman anu démokratis. Manéhna kungsi nepikeun hal ieu sacara langsung ka Sultan Kutai Kertanegara anu ogé disaksian ku masarakat nalika Sultan [[Aji Muhammad Parikesit]] netepkeun proklamasi pasini Karajaan Kutai Kertanegara hayang ngagabung ka NKRI ping 23 Januari 1950.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Mengubur Lokasi''.</ref> Gagasan ieu boga tujuan sangkan unggal masarakat boga kasempetan jeung hak anu sarua dina ngeusian posisi di birokrasi dumasar kana kamampuanna séwang-séwangan tanpa aya diskriminasi dumasar kana status kabangsawanan.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 226.</ref> Ide ieu antukna wujud kalawan disahkeunana Undang-Undang Nomer 27 taun 1959 anu mupus status Daérah Istiméwa pikeun [[Kesultanan Kutai Kartanegara ing Martadipura|Kasultanan Kutai Kertanegara]], [[Kesultanan Berau]], jeung [[Kesultanan Bulungan]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 134.</ref> Dina mimiti taun 1950, INI Kalimantan Wétan ngahiji kana [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI). Abdoel Moeis Hassan kapilih jadi Katua Déwan Pimpinan Daérah Partéy Nasional Indonésia Cabang Kalimantan Wétan dina Pébruari 1950. PNI sorangan mangrupa partéy politik anu boga haluan nasionalis panggedéna dina jaman [[Orde Lama]]. Manéhna nyekel kalungguhan pangluhurna di PNI Kaltim salila salapan taun ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1959. Sanggeus éta, Déwan Pimpinan Pusat PNI milih manéhna jadi anggota Déwan Partéy PNI.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 424.</ref> Dina taun 1954 manéhna ngagerakkeun massa PNI jeung masarakat pikeun ngayakeun Kongrés Rahayat Kalimantan Wétan. Kongrés ieu nyuarakeun tuntutanikeun status provinsi pikeun Kalimantan Wétan anu harita mah masih kénéh boga status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan anu ibu kotana di [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 229.</ref> Perjuanganna hasil kalawan medalna Undang-Undang Nomer 25 taun 1956 anu meulah Kalimantan jadi tilu provinsi, di antarana nyaéta Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan. [[Kalimantan Timur]] diresmikeun salaku provinsi anyar dina tanggal 9 Januari 1957.<ref>Wirakusumah, M. Ruchiat (1986). ''Sejarah Singkat Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 80.</ref> === Birokrat === Saenggeus ngagabung jeung RI tanggal 10 April 1950, wilayah Kalimantan Wétan tetep nyekel status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan. Dina tanggal 2 Méi 1950 Pamaréntah RI nangtukeun pancén ka Moeis Hassan pikeun ngurus widang sosial. Kalungguhan munggaran anu diembanna nyaéta Kepala Kantor Sosial RI Keresidenan Kaltim ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1955. Lajeng, dina taun 1955 nepi ka 1957 manéhna ngajabat Koordinator Sosial<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 50.</ref> sarta dina taun 1957 nepi ka 1960, manéhna ngajabat salaku Kepala Kantor Inspeksi Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 52.</ref> Dina taun 1960, manéhna ditugaskeun ku pamaréntah pusat ka ibu kota Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, Banjarmasin. Manéhna dibéréamanat pikeun ngajabat Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul. Ieu kalungguhan diembanna salila sataun ti mimiti Pébruari 1960 nepi ka 1961.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53.</ref> === Jadi Anggota DPR === Dina waktu anu bareng jeung kalungguhanna salaku Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, dina Maret 1960 Moeis Hassan diutus ku PNI pikeun ngawakilan Kaltim di gedong parlemén pusat. Harita memang euweuh aturan anu ngalarang [[pegawai negeri|pagawé nagri]] jadi anggota atawa aub dina [[partai politik]]. Dina mangsa Démokrasi Terpimpin éta, manéhna dipilih jadi anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 1959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] période 1960–1963. Kalungguhanna nyaéta Katua Komisi D anu mibanda widang Pertanian jeung Agraria, PU, Perindustrian Dasar jeung Pertambangan (Perdatam), Perindustrian Ringan jeung Distribusi. Kapasitas kapamingpinan Moeis Hassan di parlemén pusat ogé kabuktian ku dipercayana kalungguhan Katua Gabungan Komisi ka manéhna. Komisi Gabungan éta boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria nepi ka disahkeun jadi UU. Kiprahna salaku anggota DPR RI Orde Lama ngan lumangsung dua taun lantaran dina pertengahan taun 1962 Pamaréntah Pusat nugas1keun manéhna salaku Gubernur Kaltim.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53–54.</ref> === Jadi Gubernur Kaltim === [[Berkas:Pelantikan Moeis Hassan sebagai Gubernur Kaltim, 10 Agustus 1962.JPG|jmpl|ka|Pelantikan Moeis Hassan salaku Gubernur Kaltim tanggal 10 Agustus 1962.]] Dina tanggal 30 Juni 1962 Présidén [[Soekarno|Sukarno]] netepkeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur]] kalawan Kaputusan Présidén Nomer 260/M taun 1962. Lajeng Mentri Dalam Négri [[Ipik Gandamana]] melantik manéhna dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1962 dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD Kalimantan Timur. Program munggaran anu dipidamelna nyaéta ngadegna Universitas Kalimantan Timur tanggal 27 Séptémber 1962 anu tuluy robih jadi [[Universitas Mulawarman]] di Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 234.</ref> Dina taun 1965, sanajan manéhna sorangan anu ngagas panyabutan sistem kasultanan, tapi manéhna henteu ngantep ayana gerakan radikal anu rék ngancurkeun karaton titinggalan [[Kesultanan Kutai]] di Tenggarong. Manéhna maréntahkeun Kepala Kejaksaan Negeri Samarinda pikeun ngamankeun wangunan karaton éta.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 231.</ref> Manéhna ogé ngirimkeun pulisi, anu lolobana étnis Banjar, ka [[Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara|Tenggarong]] pikeun nyegah massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima Kodam IX Mulawarman Mayjen [[Soehario Padmodiwirio]] anu rék ngaduruk karaton Kutai.<ref>Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, kc. 62.</ref> Dina taun 1966 sakelompok massa ngunjuk rasa nuntut Abdoel Moeis Hassan mundur tina jabatan Gubernur Kalimantan Timur. Massa nuduh manéhna salaku pangurus Partai Nasional Indonesia anu pro-[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] (PKI), anu dituding salaku palaku [[Gerakan 30 September]]. Tuduhan ieu taya buktina sarta [[Daftar Menteri Dalam Negeri Indonesia|Mentri Dalam Négri]] [[Basuki Rahmat]] ménta manéhna tetep nyekel jabatan Gubernur nepi ka tamat periodena dina taun hareup, nyaéta 1967. Nanging, manéhna tetep netepkeun eureun salaku Gubernur dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD [[Kalimantan Timur]] tanggal 14 Séptémber 1966.<ref>Arifin, Samsul (2011). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Badan Arsip Daerah, kc. 43.</ref> Manéhna nyerahkeun kalungguhan gubernur Kaltim ka Mendagri. Saenggeus mundur, Mendagri nugasikeun manéhna salaku pagawé Departemén Dalam Négri di ibu kota nagara, tapi dina posisi nonjob atawa teu boga kalungguhan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 83.</ref> === Jadi Anggota MPR jeung Pénsiun === Dina taun munggaran Soeharto resmi ngajabat Présidén RI ngagentoskeun Sukarno taun 1968, Moeis Hassan diangkat jadi anggota [[MPR]] ngawakilan PNI. Kalungguhanna di MPR Orde Baru saolah negeskeun yén salila jadi Gubernur Kaltim manéhna memang henteu aub dina kagiatan politik anu pro-PKI. Dina hal ieu, résim Orde Baru pohara ketatna dina ngabersihkeun jalma-jalma anu dituduh PKI ku hukuman pidana penjara atawa éksekusi mati. Manéhna digawé di Gedong Sayan éta salila dua taun nepi ka taun 1970. Salajengna, manéhna ditempatkeun salaku Pagawé Luhur anu diperbantukeun ka Lembaga Penyelenggaraan Kesejahteraan Pegawai Republik Indonesia 1971–1976 tuluy milu kana mangsa persiapan pénsiun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 85.</ref> Abdoel Moeis Hassan kungsi meunang tawaran pikeun kalungguhan [[duta besar]] di salah sahiji nagara di [[Amerika Selatan|Amerika Latin]] tapi ditolak ku manéhna.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Lepas Jabatan''.</ref> == Kagiatan Séjén == Sabada pénsiun salaku pagawé nagri dina taun 1977, Abdoel Moeis Hassan aktif dina widang sosial ku cara ngadegkeun Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. Ieu yayasan téh ngayakeun atikan jeung palatihan sarta méré beasiswa pikeun para palajar. Manéhna ogé jadi Katua Kerukunan Keluarga Kalimantan (K3) di [[Jakarta]]. Paguyuban warga Kalimantan di ibu kota nagara ieu sababaraha pangurus intina di antarana nyaéta manten Katua [[PBNU]] [[Idham Chalid]] jeung manten Katua [[MUI]] [[Hasan Basri (MUI)|Hasan Basri]].<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 86–88.</ref> Manéhna ogé jadi panasihat pikeun pangusaha [[Gozali Katianda]] dina ngadegkeun perusahaan panyelenggara umrah jeung haji ONH Plus munggaran di Indonésia.<ref>Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Perjalanan Hidup dan Pengalaman Gozali Katianda''. Jakarta: Pustaka Alvabet, kc. 83 & 88.</ref> == Pupus == Dina tanggal 19 Nopémber 2005, Moeis Hassan bareng pamajikanana ngadatangan acara halalbihalal masarakat Kaltim anu dumuk di Jakarta anu dilaksanakeun di Gedong Serbaguna Déplu. Manéhna sempatungeluh kasusah [[buang air kecil|kahampangan]] tur ménta ka anakna, Taufik Siradjuddin, pikeun gancang mawa manéhna mulang. Taufik boga inisiatif mawa bapana ka [[Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Persahabatan]] di [[Rawamangun, Pulo Gadung, Jakarta Timur]] tempat manéhna digawé. Di instalasi gawat darurat (IGD), Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan medis sangkan Moeis Hassan bisa kahampangan deui. Dina tanggal 21 Nopémber 2005, gangguan kahampangan kambuh deui. Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan leutik sarta Moeis Hassan ngarasa betah tur leler deui. Taufik tuluy mulang ka imahna. Tengah peuting, Taufik ditelpon ku adina awéwé anu tetepicing di imah Gudang Peluru. Béjana, sang bapa teu sadar diri sanggeus tikusruk di kamar mandi. Taufik gancang datang. Nanging, Moeis Hassan tos teu ambekan deui tur pupus dina yuswa 81 taun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 88–89.</ref> == Diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional == {{also|Daftar tokoh yang diusulkan menjadi pahlawan nasional Indonesia}} [[File:Kegiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Timur untuk pengusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024.jpg|jmpl|Nanda Puspita Sheilla jeung Muhammad Sarip dina kagiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Wétan pikeun pangusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024]] Kusamba jasa jeung pangabdianna, masarakat Kalimantan Wétan anu diwujudkeun ku Lembaga Studi Sejarah Lokal Komunitas Samarinda Bahari (Lasaloka-KSB) ngusulkeun ka pamaréntah pikeun méré gelar [[Daftar pahlawan nasional Indonesia|Pahlawan Nasional]] pikeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Ieu usulan dilakukeun sabada Séminar jeung Bedah Buku "Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur" tanggal 2 Juni 2018 di Gedong Dinas Perpustakaan dan Kearsipan Daerah Provinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]] ngahasilkeun kacindekan yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan nyumponan sarat salaku calon Pahlawan Nasional. Naskah Déklarasi Usulan Calon Pahlawan Nasional dijieun sarta ditandatanganan ku opat déklarator nyaéta Muhammad Sarip salaku Koordinator Déklarator, sarta Fajar Alam, Arief Rahman, jeung Nabila Nandini, anu masing-masing salaku anggota déklarator. Wali kota Samarinda [[Syaharie Jaang]] nampi éta usulan dina audiénsi antara tim Lasaloka-KSB jeung Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda di Rumah Jabatan Wali kota Samarinda tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. Wali Kota Samarinda anu didampingi ku Sékrétaris Daérah Sugeng Chairuddin, staf Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Kota Samarinda Masrullah, jeung staf Dinas Sosial bakal numutkeun tur nindaklanjuti éta usulan saluyu jeung peraturan jeung perundang-undangan anu berlaku. Hal ieu katulis dina warta acara anu ditandatanganan ku Wali Kota Samarinda jeung Koordinator Déklarator.<ref>Pardede (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan''.</ref> Dina tanggal 25 Juni 2019 Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda ngaselangkeun Séminar Nasional Kapahlawanan Abdoel Moeis Hassan di Aula BPD Kaltimtara Samarinda.<ref>Diskominfo (2019). ''Sudah Sepantasnya''.</ref> Dina ieu acara Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda didukung ku [[Bank Indonesia]], Bankaltimtara, jeung Lasaloka-KSB. Opat narasumberna nyaéta Kasubdit Direktorat Kepahlawanan Keperintisan Kesetiakawanan dan Restorasi Sosial Kementerian Sosial RI, Afni; Dosen Ilmu Sejarah sarta Wakil Dékan Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gajah Mada, Agus Suwignyo; Sajarawan Kalimantan, Wajidi; jeung Dosen Pendidikan Sejarah FKIP Unmul, Slamet Diyono. Tilu sajarawan akademis jeung hiji pajabat Kementerian Sosial RI anu dihadirkeun netepkeun kalayakan tokoh Abdoel Moeis Hassan diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional.<ref>Rahmi (2019). ''Kesederhanaan''.</ref> Pihak nu ngusulkeun dipenta pikeun ngalengkepan sakabéh sarat administrasi pikeun diteruskeun ka pamaréntah pusat dina taun 2020.<ref>Chalimah (2019). ''Tokoh Pertama Kaltim''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan ngaliwatan Dinas Sosial ngalaksanakeun sosialisasi ngeunaan prosés usulan gelar pahlawan nasional tanggal 9 Januari 2024. Sosialisasi dikemas dina wangun ''talk show'' di Lapangan Parkir Gelora Kadrie Oening Sempaja, Samarinda. Tampil salaku narasumber nyaéta [[sejarawan publik|sajarawan publik]] [[Daftar tokoh Kalimantan Timur|Muhammad Sarip]] jeung pegiat literasi [[Daftar Tokoh Samarinda|Nanda Puspita Sheilla]].<ref>Dinsos (2024). ''Proses Pengusulan Gelar''.</ref> Sarip medarkeun prosés usulan gelar Pahlawan Nasional ti Kaltim salila opat dékade pamungkas. Sedengkeun Nanda nétélakeun ngeunaan sajarah perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan ti jaman Walanda nepi ka era Révolusi Kamardékaan sarta kiprahna salaku Gubernur Kaltim période 1962–1966. Sarip jeung Nanda dirkrut salaku anggota dina kagiatan [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|TP2GD]].<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kaltim nyerahkeun dokumen usulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka [[Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia|Kementerian Sosial RI]] di Jakarta tanggal 22 Pébruari 2024. Pemprov Kaltim diwakilan ku Kepala Bidang Pemberdayaan Sosial Dinas Sosial Kaltim, Ardiansyah jeung Plt. Kasi Kepahlawanan, Rully Erfian, mawa 18 rangkap dokumen fisik. Dokumen éta ditarima ku Diréktur Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Direktorat Jenderal Pemberdayaan Sosial Kemensos, Radik Karsadiguna. Dokumen usulan diwangun tina rupa-rupa jinis, di antarana Rékomendasi [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kaltim]] ngeunaan Pangusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan anu ditandatanganan ku Penjabat Gubernur [[Akmal Malik]]. Aya ogé hasil sidang [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah (TP2GD)]] anu netepkeun kalayakan usulan. Dokumen penting séjénna nyaéta biografi Abdoel Moeis Hassan kalawan format naskah akademik. Kitu deui pandangan para tokoh masarakat ngeunaan figur anu diusung salaku calon pahlawan nasional. Pernyataan pangrojong datang di antarana ti anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|DPD]] jeung MPR RI daérah pamilihan Kaltim, [[Aji Mirni Mawarni]]. Turut dilampirkeun kalengkapan dokumen usulan Pahlawan Nasional di antarana buku ''[[Historipedia Kalimantan Timur]]'' karya Muhammad Sarip jeung Nanda Puspita Sheilla anu ngamuat profil perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan.<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan ogé diusulkeun salaku gaganti nami [[Jembatan Mahakam Ulu]] di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]. Wali kota Samarinda nyatujuan ieu usulan, tapi kaputusan resmina mangrupa kawenangan Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sapos (2018). ''Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan''.</ref> Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan nyatujuan panamaan Jembatan Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Dina tanggal 4 Séptémber 2020 nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan di jadikeun nami Jembatan Mahulu kalawan Kaputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomer 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020.<ref>Samarinda (2020). ''Keputusan Wali Kota''.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Sanusie, M. Djunaid, dkk. (1984). ''Secercah Perjuangan BPRI Bn. VIII Brig. “S” Div. VI (NAROTAMA) di Samarinda''. Samarinda: Pemda Kalimantan Timur. * Wirakusumah, R. Sambas, dkk. (1986). ''Sejarah Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah 1976/1977. * Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project. ISBN 0-87763-036-4. * Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur dari Masa ke Masa''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur. {{refend}} * Hassan, A. Moeis (1994). ''Ikut Mengukir Sejarah''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. * Hassan, A. Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. ISBN 979-9222-88-5. * Arifin, Samsul & Suyatni Priasmoro (2011). ''Sejarah DPRD Kaltim dalam Perkembangan Pemerintahan Daerah 1957–2011''. Samarinda: Sekretariat DPRD Provinsi Kaltim. * Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Anak Kampung yang Keliling Dunia''. Jakarta: Kakilangit Kencana. ISBN 978-602-8556-32-3. * Pro Kaltim (8 Désémber 2017). "Mengubur Lokasi Bersejarah Selamatkan Lapangan Kinibalu, Saksi Perjuangan Kaum Republiken". Diaksés tanggal 18 Agustus 2018. * Pro Kaltim (30 Nopémber 2015). "Lepas Jabatan Jualan Sampo, Anggota DPR Bermobil Butut Mengenang 10 Tahun Meninggalnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan (2)". Diaksés tanggal 10 Agustus 2018. * Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Samarinda Tempo Doeloe Sejarah Lokal 1200–1999''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-60453-4-8. * Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-5431-22-7. * Pardede, Doan E. (4 Agustus 2018). "AM Hassan Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan Nasional dari Kaltim, Ini Sosok dan Perjuangannya" (Editor: Januar Alamijaya). [[Tribun Kaltim]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 8 Agustus 2018. * Samarinda Pos (1 Agustus 2018). "Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Revolusi Kaltim, Pergantian Nama Jembatan Mahulu". [[Samarinda Pos]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. * Afdani (25 Juni 2019). "Sugeng: Sudah Sepantasnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan Dapat Gelar Pahlawan" (Editor: Doni). Diskominfo Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 25 Juni 2019. * Chalimah, Nofiyatul (26 Juni 2019). "Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Pertama Kaltim yang Bakal Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan". [[Kaltim Post]]. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Dinsos Humas (10 Januari 2024). "Proses Pengusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional: Diskusi Spesial di Pesta Rakyat Kaltim". Dinas Sosial Kalimantan Timur. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * GM, Fel (23 Pébruari 2024). "Kaltim Serahkan Usulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional kepada Kemensos". Kaltimkece.id. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * Rahmi, Ika Prida (26 Juni 2019). "Kesederhanaan Abdoel Moies Hassan dan Kepantasannya Menjadi Pahlawan Nasional" (Editor: Bobby Lolowang). Kaltim Kece. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Pemerintah Kota Samarinda (4 Séptémber 2020). "Keputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomor 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020". Pemerintah Kota Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 16 Pébruari 2024. {{refend}} {{S-start}} {{S-off}} {{Succession box |before = [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |title = [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] |years = 1962–1966 |after = [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] }} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Banjar]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Angkatan 45]] [[Kategori:Politikus Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Politikus Partai Nasional Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] hnfhr1gpe3wg4fey2cvswt4jebtizk7 732199 732190 2026-11-11T07:38:42Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 732199 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" style="float: right; clear: right; width: 320px; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; padding: 4px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 110%; padding: 6px;" | Abdoel Moeis Hassan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:03-Gubernur-03 A Moes Hasan.jpg|250px|Abdoel Moeis Hassan]]<br /><small>Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan (1962–1966)</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | [[Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 10 Agustus 1962 – 14 September 1966 |- | '''Kalungguhan''' || Ka-2 |- | '''Saméméhna''' || [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |- | '''Anu ngganti''' || [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 25 Juni 1960 – 28 September 1963<br><small>(non-aktif ti saprak 30 Juni 1962)</small> |- | '''Présidén''' || [[Sukarno]] |- | '''Fraksi''' || Karya Petani |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 29 April 1968 – 28 Oktober 1971 |- | '''Fraksi''' || [[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 105%; padding: 4px;" | Inpormasi pribadi |- | '''Gumelar''' || 2 Juni 1924<br>[[Samarinda]], [[Hindia Walanda]] |- | ''' pupus''' || 21 Nopémber 2005 (umur 81)<br>[[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] |- | '''Partai politik''' || [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] (1946–1950)<br>[[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] (1950–1970) |- | '''Profési''' || [[Politikus]] +++ | '''Pasangan''' || Fatimah |- | '''Anak''' || Zulchadriansyah<br>Julian Anwarie<br>Taufik Siradjudin<br>Chaidir Aulia<br>Farid Hamdi<br>Olvia Afiaty<br>Johny Janwarie |- | '''Kolot''' || Mohammad Hassan (bapa)<br>Asiah (indung) |- | '''Kulawarga''' || Mohammad Saleh (aki)<br>[[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] (adi) |} '''Abdoel Moeis Hassan''' ([[Ejaan yang Disempurnakan|EYD]]: Abdul Muis Hassan, {{lahirmati|[[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]|2|6|1924|[[Jakarta]]|21|11|2005}}) nyaéta saurang tokoh pamuda pergerakan kabangsaan di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] dina mangsa 1940–1945 sarta pamingpin perjuangan diplomasi politik pikeun kamerdékaan Républik [[Indonésia]] di wewengkon [[Kalimantan Wétan]] dina mangsa 1945–1949. Ti saprak rumaja, manéhna milu aub dina kagiatan pergerakan kabangsaan di Samarinda tur diajar masalah politik ka [[A.M. Sangadji]]. Dina taun 1940, manéhna ngadegkeun Roekoen Pemoeda Indonesia (Roepindo) sarta jadi katua na. Bareng jeung [[Abdoel Moethalib Sangadji|A.M. Sangadji]], manéhna ngadegkeun lembaga atikan ngaranna Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Ra'jat dina taun 1942. Manéhna ngagabung dina Panitia Persiapan Penyambutan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia (P3KRI) pikeun mewujudkeun Proklamasi Nagara Indonésia di Samarinda taun 1945 sarta ngadegkeun [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) Cabang Samarinda anu boga tujuan nolak pangeboman atawa panjajahan Walanda di Samarinda sataun ti harita. Taun 1947 manéhna jadi katua Front Nasional salaku koalisi organisasi anu ngarojong RI jeung nolak fénoména féderasi anu dibentuk ku [[Walanda]]. Dina ahir taun 1949, bareng jeung [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]], manéhna nungtut ka pamaréntah lokal pikeun kaluar tina [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] (RIS) jeung ngabungkus diri ka RI-Yogya. Tuntutanna kacumponan kalawan ngahijina [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]] ka wilayah RI dina tanggal 10 April 1950. Manéhna ngadadakan Kongrés Rahayat Kaltim dina taun 1954 pikeun nungtut dijieun Provinsi Kalimantan Timur sangkan pangwangunan bisa leuwih maju. Taun 1956, tuntutan éta diwujudkeun tur tanggal 9 Januari 1957 Kaltim resmi ngadeg salaku provinsi. Taun 1960, manéhna jadi Katua Komisi Gabungan di [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] anu boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria. Taun 1962, manéhna jadi [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] kadua. Dina taun 1964, manéhna nyegah usaha duruk keraton Kutai ku massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima [[Komando Daerah Militer VI/Mulawarman|Kodam IX Mulawarman]]. Taun 1966, manéhna eureun salaku Gubernur tur jadi pagawé di Departemén Dalam Négri di Jakarta. Taun 1968 nepi ka 1970, manéhna kapilih deui jadi anggota DPR RI ngawakilan PNI. Taun 1976, manéhna pénsiun tina PNS tur ancrub di widang sosial masarakat sarta nulis rupa-rupa artikel jeung buku nepi ka taun 2004, tuluy pupus dina taun 2005 dina yuswa 81 taun. Taun 2018, hiji kelompok pamilon sajarah anu independen ngasongkeun usulan calon Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka Wali kota Samarinda. Para sajarawan akademis dina Séminar Nasional 2019 netepkeun yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan layak diusulkeun ka pamaréntah pusat salaku Pahlawan Nasional. == Kulawarga jeung Atikan == Abdoel Moeis Hassan téh saurang pituin étnis [[Suku Banjar|Banjar]]. Manéhna mangrupa putra kalima ti Mohammad Hassan, nyaéta saurang tokoh [[Syarikat Islam]] di Samarinda dina mangsa pergerakan kabangsaan. Akina ti pihak bapa ngaran H. Mohammad Saleh anu asalna ti [[Amuntai]], [[Kalimantan Kidul]]. Sedengkeun aki jeung nini ti pihak indungna asalna ti [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 191.</ref> Dina yuswa 5 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan sakola di ''Meisje School'' anu didirikan ku [[Aminah Sjoekoer]] bareng salakina, Mohammad Jacob. Manéhna meunang ijazah [[MULO]] ti ''Instituut Het Zonnig Land''. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé ngagaduhan ijazah ''Boekhouding'' A jeung B sarta nęmatkeun [[Hollandsch-Inlandsche School]] (HIS) di [[Sungai Pinang, Samarinda|Sungai Pinang]], Samarinda. Atikan politikna didapatkeun ti [[A.M. Sangadji]], saurang tokoh [[Pergerakan Penyadar]] éks PSII bareng H. [[Agus Salim]] dina mangsa [[Hindia Walanda|panjajahan Walanda]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 192.</ref> Dina taun 1944, dina yuswa 20 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan nikah jeung Fatimah, anu umurna leuwih anom opat taun ti manéhna.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 19.</ref> Manéhna jeung Fatimah dikarunian genep putra jeung hiji putri.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 91.</ref> Manéhna miboga adi kandung ngaranna [[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] anu kungsi jadi Katua Umum Pangurus Besar Persatuan Dokter Gigi Indonesia (PDGI) période 1982–1988 sarta Katua Majelis Kehormatan jeung Penasihat PB PDGI période 1988–2003.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 360.</ref> Kusabab hirup sezaman jeung [[Inche Abdoel Moeis]] sarta pikeun ngabédakeun duanana, masarakat satempat méré jujuluk ka Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku "Moeis Leutik" sedengkeun I.A. Moeis salaku "Moeis Luhur". Hal ieu dumasar kana bédana postur tubuh antara duanana.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Historiografi Samarinda''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 146.</ref> == Kiprah == === Perjuangan jeung Politik === [[File:Abdoel Moeis Hassan circa 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Abdoel Moeis Hassan dina 17 Agustus 1949.]] [[File:Konferensi INI ke-3 di Samarinda 7–8 Desember 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan (diuk di hareup, katilu ti katuhu) dina raraga Konferensi [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] ka-3 di Samarinda tanggal 7–8 Désémber 1949.]] [[File:Peletakan Batu Pertama Tugu 40 Tahun Kebangunan Nasional 20 Mei 1948.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan nalika peletakan batu pertama Tugu 40 Taun Kabangsaan Nasional tanggal 20 Méi 1948.]] Dina Méi 1940, Abdoel Moeis Hassan ngagagas dijieun organisasi kapemudaan anu boga haluan kabangsaan ngaranna Roepindo (Roekoen Pemuda Indonesia).<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 14.</ref> Nalika umurna nincak 18 taun, manéhna bareng A.M. Sangadji ngaktipkeun deui ''Neutrale School'' jadi Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Rajat (BPPR) dina taun 1942.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 51.</ref> Saenggeus Républik Indonésia memproklamirkeun kamerdékaan tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, sedengkeun [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] jeung Kalimantan Wétan harita tacan ngabungkus diri ka Républik Indonésia, manéhna ngagabung dina Gerakan Dr. Soewadji anu ngarencanakeun proklamasi kamerdékaan di Samarinda.<ref>Sanusie, Ahmad (1984). ''Sejarah Perjuangan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 44.</ref> Satuluyna, manéhna berjuang ngaliwatan jalur pergerakan diplomasi dina wadah partéy politik lokal ngaranna [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) jeung koalisi organisasi ngaranna [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]]. Taun 1946 manéhna ngadegkeun INI cabang Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 221.</ref> Dina taun 1947, manéhna ditunjuk ku INI jadi katua Front Nasional. Duanana organisasi anu boga markas di Gedong Nasional Samarinda éta mertahankeun sikep ngarojong Nagara Républik Indonésia tur nolak panjajahan Walanda di Indonésia.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 222.</ref> Sikep ieu patukeur pisan jeung opat kasultanan anu aya di [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]], anu leuwih milih ngagabung dina Pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jieunan [[Gubernur Jéndral Hindia Walanda]], [[Hubertus Johannes van Mook]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 114.</ref> Féderasi Kalimantan Timur kungsi nawarkeun kalungguhan salaku délégasi dina Bandung Federale Conferentie (BFC), nyaéta [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Federal|Konférénsi Féderal Bandung]] anu digagas ku Van Mook. Tapi, manéhna nolak éta tawaran sabab konsekuen kana sikep politik organisasi perjuanganna anu nonkoopératif atawa embung gawé bareng jeung Walanda katut para pangikutna.<ref>Tribun Kaltim (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan sebagai Pahlawan Nasional''. Diakses 2020.</ref> Hasil [[Konférénsi Méja Bundar]] 1949 anu ngawangun [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]] nyieun Kalimantan Wétan kagabung dina [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]]. Kaayaan ieu henteu nyugemakeun Front Nasional jeung golongan Républikén. Ku kituna, manéhna mangrupa palopor panyeratan tuntutan supaya Kalimantan Wétan kaluar tina RIS jeung ngahiji deui ka Nagara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia. Tuntutan éta dicumponan ku pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jeung pamaréntah pusat, antukna dina tanggal 10 April 1950 Kalimantan Wétan resmi ngagabung ka Républik Indonésia.<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 123.</ref> Bareng jeung tuntutan ngahijina Kalimantan Wétan ka RI, Moeis Hassan salaku Katua Front Nasional gencar ngampanyekeun gagasan panyabutan [[swapraja]] (kasultanan) sabab ceuk manéhna sistem [[feodalisme]] geus teu saluyu deui jeung kamekaran jaman anu démokratis. Manéhna kungsi nepikeun hal ieu sacara langsung ka Sultan Kutai Kertanegara anu ogé disaksian ku masarakat nalika Sultan [[Aji Muhammad Parikesit]] netepkeun proklamasi pasini Karajaan Kutai Kertanegara hayang ngagabung ka NKRI ping 23 Januari 1950.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Mengubur Lokasi''.</ref> Gagasan ieu boga tujuan sangkan unggal masarakat boga kasempetan jeung hak anu sarua dina ngeusian posisi di birokrasi dumasar kana kamampuanna séwang-séwangan tanpa aya diskriminasi dumasar kana status kabangsawanan.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 226.</ref> Ide ieu antukna wujud kalawan disahkeunana Undang-Undang Nomer 27 taun 1959 anu mupus status Daérah Istiméwa pikeun [[Kesultanan Kutai Kartanegara ing Martadipura|Kasultanan Kutai Kertanegara]], [[Kesultanan Berau]], jeung [[Kesultanan Bulungan]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 134.</ref> Dina mimiti taun 1950, INI Kalimantan Wétan ngahiji kana [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI). Abdoel Moeis Hassan kapilih jadi Katua Déwan Pimpinan Daérah Partéy Nasional Indonésia Cabang Kalimantan Wétan dina Pébruari 1950. PNI sorangan mangrupa partéy politik anu boga haluan nasionalis panggedéna dina jaman [[Orde Lama]]. Manéhna nyekel kalungguhan pangluhurna di PNI Kaltim salila salapan taun ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1959. Sanggeus éta, Déwan Pimpinan Pusat PNI milih manéhna jadi anggota Déwan Partéy PNI.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 424.</ref> Dina taun 1954 manéhna ngagerakkeun massa PNI jeung masarakat pikeun ngayakeun Kongrés Rahayat Kalimantan Wétan. Kongrés ieu nyuarakeun tuntutanikeun status provinsi pikeun Kalimantan Wétan anu harita mah masih kénéh boga status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan anu ibu kotana di [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 229.</ref> Perjuanganna hasil kalawan medalna Undang-Undang Nomer 25 taun 1956 anu meulah Kalimantan jadi tilu provinsi, di antarana nyaéta Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan. [[Kalimantan Timur]] diresmikeun salaku provinsi anyar dina tanggal 9 Januari 1957.<ref>Wirakusumah, M. Ruchiat (1986). ''Sejarah Singkat Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 80.</ref> === Birokrat === Saenggeus ngagabung jeung RI tanggal 10 April 1950, wilayah Kalimantan Wétan tetep nyekel status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan. Dina tanggal 2 Méi 1950 Pamaréntah RI nangtukeun pancén ka Moeis Hassan pikeun ngurus widang sosial. Kalungguhan munggaran anu diembanna nyaéta Kepala Kantor Sosial RI Keresidenan Kaltim ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1955. Lajeng, dina taun 1955 nepi ka 1957 manéhna ngajabat Koordinator Sosial<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 50.</ref> sarta dina taun 1957 nepi ka 1960, manéhna ngajabat salaku Kepala Kantor Inspeksi Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 52.</ref> Dina taun 1960, manéhna ditugaskeun ku pamaréntah pusat ka ibu kota Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, Banjarmasin. Manéhna dibéréamanat pikeun ngajabat Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul. Ieu kalungguhan diembanna salila sataun ti mimiti Pébruari 1960 nepi ka 1961.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53.</ref> === Jadi Anggota DPR === Dina waktu anu bareng jeung kalungguhanna salaku Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, dina Maret 1960 Moeis Hassan diutus ku PNI pikeun ngawakilan Kaltim di gedong parlemén pusat. Harita memang euweuh aturan anu ngalarang [[pegawai negeri|pagawé nagri]] jadi anggota atawa aub dina [[partai politik]]. Dina mangsa Démokrasi Terpimpin éta, manéhna dipilih jadi anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 1959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] période 1960–1963. Kalungguhanna nyaéta Katua Komisi D anu mibanda widang Pertanian jeung Agraria, PU, Perindustrian Dasar jeung Pertambangan (Perdatam), Perindustrian Ringan jeung Distribusi. Kapasitas kapamingpinan Moeis Hassan di parlemén pusat ogé kabuktian ku dipercayana kalungguhan Katua Gabungan Komisi ka manéhna. Komisi Gabungan éta boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria nepi ka disahkeun jadi UU. Kiprahna salaku anggota DPR RI Orde Lama ngan lumangsung dua taun lantaran dina pertengahan taun 1962 Pamaréntah Pusat nugas1keun manéhna salaku Gubernur Kaltim.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53–54.</ref> === Jadi Gubernur Kaltim === [[Berkas:Pelantikan Moeis Hassan sebagai Gubernur Kaltim, 10 Agustus 1962.JPG|jmpl|ka|Pelantikan Moeis Hassan salaku Gubernur Kaltim tanggal 10 Agustus 1962.]] Dina tanggal 30 Juni 1962 Présidén [[Soekarno|Sukarno]] netepkeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur]] kalawan Kaputusan Présidén Nomer 260/M taun 1962. Lajeng Mentri Dalam Négri [[Ipik Gandamana]] melantik manéhna dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1962 dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD Kalimantan Timur. Program munggaran anu dipidamelna nyaéta ngadegna Universitas Kalimantan Timur tanggal 27 Séptémber 1962 anu tuluy robih jadi [[Universitas Mulawarman]] di Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 234.</ref> Dina taun 1965, sanajan manéhna sorangan anu ngagas panyabutan sistem kasultanan, tapi manéhna henteu ngantep ayana gerakan radikal anu rék ngancurkeun karaton titinggalan [[Kesultanan Kutai]] di Tenggarong. Manéhna maréntahkeun Kepala Kejaksaan Negeri Samarinda pikeun ngamankeun wangunan karaton éta.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 231.</ref> Manéhna ogé ngirimkeun pulisi, anu lolobana étnis Banjar, ka [[Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara|Tenggarong]] pikeun nyegah massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima Kodam IX Mulawarman Mayjen [[Soehario Padmodiwirio]] anu rék ngaduruk karaton Kutai.<ref>Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, kc. 62.</ref> Dina taun 1966 sakelompok massa ngunjuk rasa nuntut Abdoel Moeis Hassan mundur tina jabatan Gubernur Kalimantan Timur. Massa nuduh manéhna salaku pangurus Partai Nasional Indonesia anu pro-[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] (PKI), anu dituding salaku palaku [[Gerakan 30 September]]. Tuduhan ieu taya buktina sarta [[Daftar Menteri Dalam Negeri Indonesia|Mentri Dalam Négri]] [[Basuki Rahmat]] ménta manéhna tetep nyekel jabatan Gubernur nepi ka tamat periodena dina taun hareup, nyaéta 1967. Nanging, manéhna tetep netepkeun eureun salaku Gubernur dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD [[Kalimantan Timur]] tanggal 14 Séptémber 1966.<ref>Arifin, Samsul (2011). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Badan Arsip Daerah, kc. 43.</ref> Manéhna nyerahkeun kalungguhan gubernur Kaltim ka Mendagri. Saenggeus mundur, Mendagri nugasikeun manéhna salaku pagawé Departemén Dalam Négri di ibu kota nagara, tapi dina posisi nonjob atawa teu boga kalungguhan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 83.</ref> === Jadi Anggota MPR jeung Pénsiun === Dina taun munggaran Soeharto resmi ngajabat Présidén RI ngagentoskeun Sukarno taun 1968, Moeis Hassan diangkat jadi anggota [[MPR]] ngawakilan PNI. Kalungguhanna di MPR Orde Baru saolah negeskeun yén salila jadi Gubernur Kaltim manéhna memang henteu aub dina kagiatan politik anu pro-PKI. Dina hal ieu, résim Orde Baru pohara ketatna dina ngabersihkeun jalma-jalma anu dituduh PKI ku hukuman pidana penjara atawa éksekusi mati. Manéhna digawé di Gedong Sayan éta salila dua taun nepi ka taun 1970. Salajengna, manéhna ditempatkeun salaku Pagawé Luhur anu diperbantukeun ka Lembaga Penyelenggaraan Kesejahteraan Pegawai Republik Indonesia 1971–1976 tuluy milu kana mangsa persiapan pénsiun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 85.</ref> Abdoel Moeis Hassan kungsi meunang tawaran pikeun kalungguhan [[duta besar]] di salah sahiji nagara di [[Amerika Selatan|Amerika Latin]] tapi ditolak ku manéhna.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Lepas Jabatan''.</ref> == Kagiatan Séjén == Sabada pénsiun salaku pagawé nagri dina taun 1977, Abdoel Moeis Hassan aktif dina widang sosial ku cara ngadegkeun Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. Ieu yayasan téh ngayakeun atikan jeung palatihan sarta méré beasiswa pikeun para palajar. Manéhna ogé jadi Katua Kerukunan Keluarga Kalimantan (K3) di [[Jakarta]]. Paguyuban warga Kalimantan di ibu kota nagara ieu sababaraha pangurus intina di antarana nyaéta manten Katua [[PBNU]] [[Idham Chalid]] jeung manten Katua [[MUI]] [[Hasan Basri (MUI)|Hasan Basri]].<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 86–88.</ref> Manéhna ogé jadi panasihat pikeun pangusaha [[Gozali Katianda]] dina ngadegkeun perusahaan panyelenggara umrah jeung haji ONH Plus munggaran di Indonésia.<ref>Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Perjalanan Hidup dan Pengalaman Gozali Katianda''. Jakarta: Pustaka Alvabet, kc. 83 & 88.</ref> == Pupus == Dina tanggal 19 Nopémber 2005, Moeis Hassan bareng pamajikanana ngadatangan acara halalbihalal masarakat Kaltim anu dumuk di Jakarta anu dilaksanakeun di Gedong Serbaguna Déplu. Manéhna sempatungeluh kasusah [[buang air kecil|kahampangan]] tur ménta ka anakna, Taufik Siradjuddin, pikeun gancang mawa manéhna mulang. Taufik boga inisiatif mawa bapana ka [[Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Persahabatan]] di [[Rawamangun, Pulo Gadung, Jakarta Timur]] tempat manéhna digawé. Di instalasi gawat darurat (IGD), Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan medis sangkan Moeis Hassan bisa kahampangan deui. Dina tanggal 21 Nopémber 2005, gangguan kahampangan kambuh deui. Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan leutik sarta Moeis Hassan ngarasa betah tur leler deui. Taufik tuluy mulang ka imahna. Tengah peuting, Taufik ditelpon ku adina awéwé anu tetepicing di imah Gudang Peluru. Béjana, sang bapa teu sadar diri sanggeus tikusruk di kamar mandi. Taufik gancang datang. Nanging, Moeis Hassan tos teu ambekan deui tur pupus dina yuswa 81 taun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 88–89.</ref> == Diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional == {{also|Daftar tokoh yang diusulkan menjadi pahlawan nasional Indonesia}} [[File:Kegiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Timur untuk pengusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024.jpg|jmpl|Nanda Puspita Sheilla jeung Muhammad Sarip dina kagiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Wétan pikeun pangusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024]] Kusamba jasa jeung pangabdianna, masarakat Kalimantan Wétan anu diwujudkeun ku Lembaga Studi Sejarah Lokal Komunitas Samarinda Bahari (Lasaloka-KSB) ngusulkeun ka pamaréntah pikeun méré gelar [[Daftar pahlawan nasional Indonesia|Pahlawan Nasional]] pikeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Ieu usulan dilakukeun sabada Séminar jeung Bedah Buku "Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur" tanggal 2 Juni 2018 di Gedong Dinas Perpustakaan dan Kearsipan Daerah Provinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]] ngahasilkeun kacindekan yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan nyumponan sarat salaku calon Pahlawan Nasional. Naskah Déklarasi Usulan Calon Pahlawan Nasional dijieun sarta ditandatanganan ku opat déklarator nyaéta Muhammad Sarip salaku Koordinator Déklarator, sarta Fajar Alam, Arief Rahman, jeung Nabila Nandini, anu masing-masing salaku anggota déklarator. Wali kota Samarinda [[Syaharie Jaang]] nampi éta usulan dina audiénsi antara tim Lasaloka-KSB jeung Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda di Rumah Jabatan Wali kota Samarinda tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. Wali Kota Samarinda anu didampingi ku Sékrétaris Daérah Sugeng Chairuddin, staf Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Kota Samarinda Masrullah, jeung staf Dinas Sosial bakal numutkeun tur nindaklanjuti éta usulan saluyu jeung peraturan jeung perundang-undangan anu berlaku. Hal ieu katulis dina warta acara anu ditandatanganan ku Wali Kota Samarinda jeung Koordinator Déklarator.<ref>Pardede (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan''.</ref> Dina tanggal 25 Juni 2019 Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda ngaselangkeun Séminar Nasional Kapahlawanan Abdoel Moeis Hassan di Aula BPD Kaltimtara Samarinda.<ref>Diskominfo (2019). ''Sudah Sepantasnya''.</ref> Dina ieu acara Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda didukung ku [[Bank Indonesia]], Bankaltimtara, jeung Lasaloka-KSB. Opat narasumberna nyaéta Kasubdit Direktorat Kepahlawanan Keperintisan Kesetiakawanan dan Restorasi Sosial Kementerian Sosial RI, Afni; Dosen Ilmu Sejarah sarta Wakil Dékan Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gajah Mada, Agus Suwignyo; Sajarawan Kalimantan, Wajidi; jeung Dosen Pendidikan Sejarah FKIP Unmul, Slamet Diyono. Tilu sajarawan akademis jeung hiji pajabat Kementerian Sosial RI anu dihadirkeun netepkeun kalayakan tokoh Abdoel Moeis Hassan diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional.<ref>Rahmi (2019). ''Kesederhanaan''.</ref> Pihak nu ngusulkeun dipenta pikeun ngalengkepan sakabéh sarat administrasi pikeun diteruskeun ka pamaréntah pusat dina taun 2020.<ref>Chalimah (2019). ''Tokoh Pertama Kaltim''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan ngaliwatan Dinas Sosial ngalaksanakeun sosialisasi ngeunaan prosés usulan gelar pahlawan nasional tanggal 9 Januari 2024. Sosialisasi dikemas dina wangun ''talk show'' di Lapangan Parkir Gelora Kadrie Oening Sempaja, Samarinda. Tampil salaku narasumber nyaéta [[sejarawan publik|sajarawan publik]] [[Daftar tokoh Kalimantan Timur|Muhammad Sarip]] jeung pegiat literasi [[Daftar Tokoh Samarinda|Nanda Puspita Sheilla]].<ref>Dinsos (2024). ''Proses Pengusulan Gelar''.</ref> Sarip medarkeun prosés usulan gelar Pahlawan Nasional ti Kaltim salila opat dékade pamungkas. Sedengkeun Nanda nétélakeun ngeunaan sajarah perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan ti jaman Walanda nepi ka era Révolusi Kamardékaan sarta kiprahna salaku Gubernur Kaltim période 1962–1966. Sarip jeung Nanda dirkrut salaku anggota dina kagiatan [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|TP2GD]].<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kaltim nyerahkeun dokumen usulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka [[Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia|Kementerian Sosial RI]] di Jakarta tanggal 22 Pébruari 2024. Pemprov Kaltim diwakilan ku Kepala Bidang Pemberdayaan Sosial Dinas Sosial Kaltim, Ardiansyah jeung Plt. Kasi Kepahlawanan, Rully Erfian, mawa 18 rangkap dokumen fisik. Dokumen éta ditarima ku Diréktur Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Direktorat Jenderal Pemberdayaan Sosial Kemensos, Radik Karsadiguna. Dokumen usulan diwangun tina rupa-rupa jinis, di antarana Rékomendasi [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kaltim]] ngeunaan Pangusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan anu ditandatanganan ku Penjabat Gubernur [[Akmal Malik]]. Aya ogé hasil sidang [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah (TP2GD)]] anu netepkeun kalayakan usulan. Dokumen penting séjénna nyaéta biografi Abdoel Moeis Hassan kalawan format naskah akademik. Kitu deui pandangan para tokoh masarakat ngeunaan figur anu diusung salaku calon pahlawan nasional. Pernyataan pangrojong datang di antarana ti anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|DPD]] jeung MPR RI daérah pamilihan Kaltim, [[Aji Mirni Mawarni]]. Turut dilampirkeun kalengkapan dokumen usulan Pahlawan Nasional di antarana buku ''[[Historipedia Kalimantan Timur]]'' karya Muhammad Sarip jeung Nanda Puspita Sheilla anu ngamuat profil perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan.<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan ogé diusulkeun salaku gaganti nami [[Jembatan Mahakam Ulu]] di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]. Wali kota Samarinda nyatujuan ieu usulan, tapi kaputusan resmina mangrupa kawenangan Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sapos (2018). ''Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan''.</ref> Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan nyatujuan panamaan Jembatan Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Dina tanggal 4 Séptémber 2020 nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan di jadikeun nami Jembatan Mahulu kalawan Kaputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomer 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020.<ref>Samarinda (2020). ''Keputusan Wali Kota''.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Sanusie, M. Djunaid, dkk. (1984). ''Secercah Perjuangan BPRI Bn. VIII Brig. “S” Div. VI (NAROTAMA) di Samarinda''. Samarinda: Pemda Kalimantan Timur. * Wirakusumah, R. Sambas, dkk. (1986). ''Sejarah Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah 1976/1977. * Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project. ISBN 0-87763-036-4. * Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur dari Masa ke Masa''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur. {{refend}} * Hassan, A. Moeis (1994). ''Ikut Mengukir Sejarah''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. * Hassan, A. Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. ISBN 979-9222-88-5. * Arifin, Samsul & Suyatni Priasmoro (2011). ''Sejarah DPRD Kaltim dalam Perkembangan Pemerintahan Daerah 1957–2011''. Samarinda: Sekretariat DPRD Provinsi Kaltim. * Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Anak Kampung yang Keliling Dunia''. Jakarta: Kakilangit Kencana. ISBN 978-602-8556-32-3. * Pro Kaltim (8 Désémber 2017). "Mengubur Lokasi Bersejarah Selamatkan Lapangan Kinibalu, Saksi Perjuangan Kaum Republiken". Diaksés tanggal 18 Agustus 2018. * Pro Kaltim (30 Nopémber 2015). "Lepas Jabatan Jualan Sampo, Anggota DPR Bermobil Butut Mengenang 10 Tahun Meninggalnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan (2)". Diaksés tanggal 10 Agustus 2018. * Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Samarinda Tempo Doeloe Sejarah Lokal 1200–1999''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-60453-4-8. * Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-5431-22-7. * Pardede, Doan E. (4 Agustus 2018). "AM Hassan Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan Nasional dari Kaltim, Ini Sosok dan Perjuangannya" (Editor: Januar Alamijaya). [[Tribun Kaltim]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 8 Agustus 2018. * Samarinda Pos (1 Agustus 2018). "Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Revolusi Kaltim, Pergantian Nama Jembatan Mahulu". [[Samarinda Pos]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. * Afdani (25 Juni 2019). "Sugeng: Sudah Sepantasnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan Dapat Gelar Pahlawan" (Editor: Doni). Diskominfo Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 25 Juni 2019. * Chalimah, Nofiyatul (26 Juni 2019). "Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Pertama Kaltim yang Bakal Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan". [[Kaltim Post]]. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Dinsos Humas (10 Januari 2024). "Proses Pengusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional: Diskusi Spesial di Pesta Rakyat Kaltim". Dinas Sosial Kalimantan Timur. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * GM, Fel (23 Pébruari 2024). "Kaltim Serahkan Usulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional kepada Kemensos". Kaltimkece.id. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * Rahmi, Ika Prida (26 Juni 2019). "Kesederhanaan Abdoel Moies Hassan dan Kepantasannya Menjadi Pahlawan Nasional" (Editor: Bobby Lolowang). Kaltim Kece. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Pemerintah Kota Samarinda (4 Séptémber 2020). "Keputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomor 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020". Pemerintah Kota Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 16 Pébruari 2024. {{refend}} {{S-start}} {{S-off}} {{Succession box |before = [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |title = [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] |years = 1962–1966 |after = [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] }} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Banjar]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Angkatan 45]] [[Kategori:Politikus Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Politikus Partai Nasional Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Kapala wilayah administratif di Indonésia]] kajzxg48kicp16mx4gcpfnts7q0v58h 732200 732199 2026-11-11T07:39:06Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Jadi Gubernur Kaltim */ 732200 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" style="float: right; clear: right; width: 320px; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; padding: 4px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 110%; padding: 6px;" | Abdoel Moeis Hassan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:03-Gubernur-03 A Moes Hasan.jpg|250px|Abdoel Moeis Hassan]]<br /><small>Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan (1962–1966)</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | [[Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 10 Agustus 1962 – 14 September 1966 |- | '''Kalungguhan''' || Ka-2 |- | '''Saméméhna''' || [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |- | '''Anu ngganti''' || [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 25 Juni 1960 – 28 September 1963<br><small>(non-aktif ti saprak 30 Juni 1962)</small> |- | '''Présidén''' || [[Sukarno]] |- | '''Fraksi''' || Karya Petani |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 29 April 1968 – 28 Oktober 1971 |- | '''Fraksi''' || [[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 105%; padding: 4px;" | Inpormasi pribadi |- | '''Gumelar''' || 2 Juni 1924<br>[[Samarinda]], [[Hindia Walanda]] |- | ''' pupus''' || 21 Nopémber 2005 (umur 81)<br>[[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] |- | '''Partai politik''' || [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] (1946–1950)<br>[[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] (1950–1970) |- | '''Profési''' || [[Politikus]] +++ | '''Pasangan''' || Fatimah |- | '''Anak''' || Zulchadriansyah<br>Julian Anwarie<br>Taufik Siradjudin<br>Chaidir Aulia<br>Farid Hamdi<br>Olvia Afiaty<br>Johny Janwarie |- | '''Kolot''' || Mohammad Hassan (bapa)<br>Asiah (indung) |- | '''Kulawarga''' || Mohammad Saleh (aki)<br>[[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] (adi) |} '''Abdoel Moeis Hassan''' ([[Ejaan yang Disempurnakan|EYD]]: Abdul Muis Hassan, {{lahirmati|[[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]|2|6|1924|[[Jakarta]]|21|11|2005}}) nyaéta saurang tokoh pamuda pergerakan kabangsaan di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] dina mangsa 1940–1945 sarta pamingpin perjuangan diplomasi politik pikeun kamerdékaan Républik [[Indonésia]] di wewengkon [[Kalimantan Wétan]] dina mangsa 1945–1949. Ti saprak rumaja, manéhna milu aub dina kagiatan pergerakan kabangsaan di Samarinda tur diajar masalah politik ka [[A.M. Sangadji]]. Dina taun 1940, manéhna ngadegkeun Roekoen Pemoeda Indonesia (Roepindo) sarta jadi katua na. Bareng jeung [[Abdoel Moethalib Sangadji|A.M. Sangadji]], manéhna ngadegkeun lembaga atikan ngaranna Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Ra'jat dina taun 1942. Manéhna ngagabung dina Panitia Persiapan Penyambutan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia (P3KRI) pikeun mewujudkeun Proklamasi Nagara Indonésia di Samarinda taun 1945 sarta ngadegkeun [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) Cabang Samarinda anu boga tujuan nolak pangeboman atawa panjajahan Walanda di Samarinda sataun ti harita. Taun 1947 manéhna jadi katua Front Nasional salaku koalisi organisasi anu ngarojong RI jeung nolak fénoména féderasi anu dibentuk ku [[Walanda]]. Dina ahir taun 1949, bareng jeung [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]], manéhna nungtut ka pamaréntah lokal pikeun kaluar tina [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] (RIS) jeung ngabungkus diri ka RI-Yogya. Tuntutanna kacumponan kalawan ngahijina [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]] ka wilayah RI dina tanggal 10 April 1950. Manéhna ngadadakan Kongrés Rahayat Kaltim dina taun 1954 pikeun nungtut dijieun Provinsi Kalimantan Timur sangkan pangwangunan bisa leuwih maju. Taun 1956, tuntutan éta diwujudkeun tur tanggal 9 Januari 1957 Kaltim resmi ngadeg salaku provinsi. Taun 1960, manéhna jadi Katua Komisi Gabungan di [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] anu boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria. Taun 1962, manéhna jadi [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] kadua. Dina taun 1964, manéhna nyegah usaha duruk keraton Kutai ku massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima [[Komando Daerah Militer VI/Mulawarman|Kodam IX Mulawarman]]. Taun 1966, manéhna eureun salaku Gubernur tur jadi pagawé di Departemén Dalam Négri di Jakarta. Taun 1968 nepi ka 1970, manéhna kapilih deui jadi anggota DPR RI ngawakilan PNI. Taun 1976, manéhna pénsiun tina PNS tur ancrub di widang sosial masarakat sarta nulis rupa-rupa artikel jeung buku nepi ka taun 2004, tuluy pupus dina taun 2005 dina yuswa 81 taun. Taun 2018, hiji kelompok pamilon sajarah anu independen ngasongkeun usulan calon Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka Wali kota Samarinda. Para sajarawan akademis dina Séminar Nasional 2019 netepkeun yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan layak diusulkeun ka pamaréntah pusat salaku Pahlawan Nasional. == Kulawarga jeung Atikan == Abdoel Moeis Hassan téh saurang pituin étnis [[Suku Banjar|Banjar]]. Manéhna mangrupa putra kalima ti Mohammad Hassan, nyaéta saurang tokoh [[Syarikat Islam]] di Samarinda dina mangsa pergerakan kabangsaan. Akina ti pihak bapa ngaran H. Mohammad Saleh anu asalna ti [[Amuntai]], [[Kalimantan Kidul]]. Sedengkeun aki jeung nini ti pihak indungna asalna ti [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 191.</ref> Dina yuswa 5 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan sakola di ''Meisje School'' anu didirikan ku [[Aminah Sjoekoer]] bareng salakina, Mohammad Jacob. Manéhna meunang ijazah [[MULO]] ti ''Instituut Het Zonnig Land''. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé ngagaduhan ijazah ''Boekhouding'' A jeung B sarta nęmatkeun [[Hollandsch-Inlandsche School]] (HIS) di [[Sungai Pinang, Samarinda|Sungai Pinang]], Samarinda. Atikan politikna didapatkeun ti [[A.M. Sangadji]], saurang tokoh [[Pergerakan Penyadar]] éks PSII bareng H. [[Agus Salim]] dina mangsa [[Hindia Walanda|panjajahan Walanda]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 192.</ref> Dina taun 1944, dina yuswa 20 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan nikah jeung Fatimah, anu umurna leuwih anom opat taun ti manéhna.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 19.</ref> Manéhna jeung Fatimah dikarunian genep putra jeung hiji putri.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 91.</ref> Manéhna miboga adi kandung ngaranna [[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] anu kungsi jadi Katua Umum Pangurus Besar Persatuan Dokter Gigi Indonesia (PDGI) période 1982–1988 sarta Katua Majelis Kehormatan jeung Penasihat PB PDGI période 1988–2003.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 360.</ref> Kusabab hirup sezaman jeung [[Inche Abdoel Moeis]] sarta pikeun ngabédakeun duanana, masarakat satempat méré jujuluk ka Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku "Moeis Leutik" sedengkeun I.A. Moeis salaku "Moeis Luhur". Hal ieu dumasar kana bédana postur tubuh antara duanana.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Historiografi Samarinda''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 146.</ref> == Kiprah == === Perjuangan jeung Politik === [[File:Abdoel Moeis Hassan circa 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Abdoel Moeis Hassan dina 17 Agustus 1949.]] [[File:Konferensi INI ke-3 di Samarinda 7–8 Desember 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan (diuk di hareup, katilu ti katuhu) dina raraga Konferensi [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] ka-3 di Samarinda tanggal 7–8 Désémber 1949.]] [[File:Peletakan Batu Pertama Tugu 40 Tahun Kebangunan Nasional 20 Mei 1948.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan nalika peletakan batu pertama Tugu 40 Taun Kabangsaan Nasional tanggal 20 Méi 1948.]] Dina Méi 1940, Abdoel Moeis Hassan ngagagas dijieun organisasi kapemudaan anu boga haluan kabangsaan ngaranna Roepindo (Roekoen Pemuda Indonesia).<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 14.</ref> Nalika umurna nincak 18 taun, manéhna bareng A.M. Sangadji ngaktipkeun deui ''Neutrale School'' jadi Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Rajat (BPPR) dina taun 1942.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 51.</ref> Saenggeus Républik Indonésia memproklamirkeun kamerdékaan tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, sedengkeun [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] jeung Kalimantan Wétan harita tacan ngabungkus diri ka Républik Indonésia, manéhna ngagabung dina Gerakan Dr. Soewadji anu ngarencanakeun proklamasi kamerdékaan di Samarinda.<ref>Sanusie, Ahmad (1984). ''Sejarah Perjuangan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 44.</ref> Satuluyna, manéhna berjuang ngaliwatan jalur pergerakan diplomasi dina wadah partéy politik lokal ngaranna [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) jeung koalisi organisasi ngaranna [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]]. Taun 1946 manéhna ngadegkeun INI cabang Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 221.</ref> Dina taun 1947, manéhna ditunjuk ku INI jadi katua Front Nasional. Duanana organisasi anu boga markas di Gedong Nasional Samarinda éta mertahankeun sikep ngarojong Nagara Républik Indonésia tur nolak panjajahan Walanda di Indonésia.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 222.</ref> Sikep ieu patukeur pisan jeung opat kasultanan anu aya di [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]], anu leuwih milih ngagabung dina Pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jieunan [[Gubernur Jéndral Hindia Walanda]], [[Hubertus Johannes van Mook]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 114.</ref> Féderasi Kalimantan Timur kungsi nawarkeun kalungguhan salaku délégasi dina Bandung Federale Conferentie (BFC), nyaéta [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Federal|Konférénsi Féderal Bandung]] anu digagas ku Van Mook. Tapi, manéhna nolak éta tawaran sabab konsekuen kana sikep politik organisasi perjuanganna anu nonkoopératif atawa embung gawé bareng jeung Walanda katut para pangikutna.<ref>Tribun Kaltim (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan sebagai Pahlawan Nasional''. Diakses 2020.</ref> Hasil [[Konférénsi Méja Bundar]] 1949 anu ngawangun [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]] nyieun Kalimantan Wétan kagabung dina [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]]. Kaayaan ieu henteu nyugemakeun Front Nasional jeung golongan Républikén. Ku kituna, manéhna mangrupa palopor panyeratan tuntutan supaya Kalimantan Wétan kaluar tina RIS jeung ngahiji deui ka Nagara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia. Tuntutan éta dicumponan ku pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jeung pamaréntah pusat, antukna dina tanggal 10 April 1950 Kalimantan Wétan resmi ngagabung ka Républik Indonésia.<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 123.</ref> Bareng jeung tuntutan ngahijina Kalimantan Wétan ka RI, Moeis Hassan salaku Katua Front Nasional gencar ngampanyekeun gagasan panyabutan [[swapraja]] (kasultanan) sabab ceuk manéhna sistem [[feodalisme]] geus teu saluyu deui jeung kamekaran jaman anu démokratis. Manéhna kungsi nepikeun hal ieu sacara langsung ka Sultan Kutai Kertanegara anu ogé disaksian ku masarakat nalika Sultan [[Aji Muhammad Parikesit]] netepkeun proklamasi pasini Karajaan Kutai Kertanegara hayang ngagabung ka NKRI ping 23 Januari 1950.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Mengubur Lokasi''.</ref> Gagasan ieu boga tujuan sangkan unggal masarakat boga kasempetan jeung hak anu sarua dina ngeusian posisi di birokrasi dumasar kana kamampuanna séwang-séwangan tanpa aya diskriminasi dumasar kana status kabangsawanan.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 226.</ref> Ide ieu antukna wujud kalawan disahkeunana Undang-Undang Nomer 27 taun 1959 anu mupus status Daérah Istiméwa pikeun [[Kesultanan Kutai Kartanegara ing Martadipura|Kasultanan Kutai Kertanegara]], [[Kesultanan Berau]], jeung [[Kesultanan Bulungan]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 134.</ref> Dina mimiti taun 1950, INI Kalimantan Wétan ngahiji kana [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI). Abdoel Moeis Hassan kapilih jadi Katua Déwan Pimpinan Daérah Partéy Nasional Indonésia Cabang Kalimantan Wétan dina Pébruari 1950. PNI sorangan mangrupa partéy politik anu boga haluan nasionalis panggedéna dina jaman [[Orde Lama]]. Manéhna nyekel kalungguhan pangluhurna di PNI Kaltim salila salapan taun ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1959. Sanggeus éta, Déwan Pimpinan Pusat PNI milih manéhna jadi anggota Déwan Partéy PNI.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 424.</ref> Dina taun 1954 manéhna ngagerakkeun massa PNI jeung masarakat pikeun ngayakeun Kongrés Rahayat Kalimantan Wétan. Kongrés ieu nyuarakeun tuntutanikeun status provinsi pikeun Kalimantan Wétan anu harita mah masih kénéh boga status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan anu ibu kotana di [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 229.</ref> Perjuanganna hasil kalawan medalna Undang-Undang Nomer 25 taun 1956 anu meulah Kalimantan jadi tilu provinsi, di antarana nyaéta Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan. [[Kalimantan Timur]] diresmikeun salaku provinsi anyar dina tanggal 9 Januari 1957.<ref>Wirakusumah, M. Ruchiat (1986). ''Sejarah Singkat Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 80.</ref> === Birokrat === Saenggeus ngagabung jeung RI tanggal 10 April 1950, wilayah Kalimantan Wétan tetep nyekel status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan. Dina tanggal 2 Méi 1950 Pamaréntah RI nangtukeun pancén ka Moeis Hassan pikeun ngurus widang sosial. Kalungguhan munggaran anu diembanna nyaéta Kepala Kantor Sosial RI Keresidenan Kaltim ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1955. Lajeng, dina taun 1955 nepi ka 1957 manéhna ngajabat Koordinator Sosial<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 50.</ref> sarta dina taun 1957 nepi ka 1960, manéhna ngajabat salaku Kepala Kantor Inspeksi Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 52.</ref> Dina taun 1960, manéhna ditugaskeun ku pamaréntah pusat ka ibu kota Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, Banjarmasin. Manéhna dibéréamanat pikeun ngajabat Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul. Ieu kalungguhan diembanna salila sataun ti mimiti Pébruari 1960 nepi ka 1961.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53.</ref> === Jadi Anggota DPR === Dina waktu anu bareng jeung kalungguhanna salaku Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, dina Maret 1960 Moeis Hassan diutus ku PNI pikeun ngawakilan Kaltim di gedong parlemén pusat. Harita memang euweuh aturan anu ngalarang [[pegawai negeri|pagawé nagri]] jadi anggota atawa aub dina [[partai politik]]. Dina mangsa Démokrasi Terpimpin éta, manéhna dipilih jadi anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 1959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] période 1960–1963. Kalungguhanna nyaéta Katua Komisi D anu mibanda widang Pertanian jeung Agraria, PU, Perindustrian Dasar jeung Pertambangan (Perdatam), Perindustrian Ringan jeung Distribusi. Kapasitas kapamingpinan Moeis Hassan di parlemén pusat ogé kabuktian ku dipercayana kalungguhan Katua Gabungan Komisi ka manéhna. Komisi Gabungan éta boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria nepi ka disahkeun jadi UU. Kiprahna salaku anggota DPR RI Orde Lama ngan lumangsung dua taun lantaran dina pertengahan taun 1962 Pamaréntah Pusat nugas1keun manéhna salaku Gubernur Kaltim.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53–54.</ref> === Jadi Gubernur Kaltim === [[Filr:Pelantikan Moeis Hassan sebagai Gubernur Kaltim, 10 Agustus 1962.JPG|jmpl|ka|Pelantikan Moeis Hassan salaku Gubernur Kaltim tanggal 10 Agustus 1962.]] Dina tanggal 30 Juni 1962 Présidén [[Soekarno|Sukarno]] netepkeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur]] kalawan Kaputusan Présidén Nomer 260/M taun 1962. Lajeng Mentri Dalam Négri [[Ipik Gandamana]] melantik manéhna dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1962 dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD Kalimantan Timur. Program munggaran anu dipidamelna nyaéta ngadegna Universitas Kalimantan Timur tanggal 27 Séptémber 1962 anu tuluy robih jadi [[Universitas Mulawarman]] di Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 234.</ref> Dina taun 1965, sanajan manéhna sorangan anu ngagas panyabutan sistem kasultanan, tapi manéhna henteu ngantep ayana gerakan radikal anu rék ngancurkeun karaton titinggalan [[Kesultanan Kutai]] di Tenggarong. Manéhna maréntahkeun Kepala Kejaksaan Negeri Samarinda pikeun ngamankeun wangunan karaton éta.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 231.</ref> Manéhna ogé ngirimkeun pulisi, anu lolobana étnis Banjar, ka [[Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara|Tenggarong]] pikeun nyegah massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima Kodam IX Mulawarman Mayjen [[Soehario Padmodiwirio]] anu rék ngaduruk karaton Kutai.<ref>Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, kc. 62.</ref> Dina taun 1966 sakelompok massa ngunjuk rasa nuntut Abdoel Moeis Hassan mundur tina jabatan Gubernur Kalimantan Timur. Massa nuduh manéhna salaku pangurus Partai Nasional Indonesia anu pro-[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] (PKI), anu dituding salaku palaku [[Gerakan 30 September]]. Tuduhan ieu taya buktina sarta [[Daftar Menteri Dalam Negeri Indonesia|Mentri Dalam Négri]] [[Basuki Rahmat]] ménta manéhna tetep nyekel jabatan Gubernur nepi ka tamat periodena dina taun hareup, nyaéta 1967. Nanging, manéhna tetep netepkeun eureun salaku Gubernur dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD [[Kalimantan Timur]] tanggal 14 Séptémber 1966.<ref>Arifin, Samsul (2011). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Badan Arsip Daerah, kc. 43.</ref> Manéhna nyerahkeun kalungguhan gubernur Kaltim ka Mendagri. Saenggeus mundur, Mendagri nugasikeun manéhna salaku pagawé Departemén Dalam Négri di ibu kota nagara, tapi dina posisi nonjob atawa teu boga kalungguhan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 83.</ref> === Jadi Anggota MPR jeung Pénsiun === Dina taun munggaran Soeharto resmi ngajabat Présidén RI ngagentoskeun Sukarno taun 1968, Moeis Hassan diangkat jadi anggota [[MPR]] ngawakilan PNI. Kalungguhanna di MPR Orde Baru saolah negeskeun yén salila jadi Gubernur Kaltim manéhna memang henteu aub dina kagiatan politik anu pro-PKI. Dina hal ieu, résim Orde Baru pohara ketatna dina ngabersihkeun jalma-jalma anu dituduh PKI ku hukuman pidana penjara atawa éksekusi mati. Manéhna digawé di Gedong Sayan éta salila dua taun nepi ka taun 1970. Salajengna, manéhna ditempatkeun salaku Pagawé Luhur anu diperbantukeun ka Lembaga Penyelenggaraan Kesejahteraan Pegawai Republik Indonesia 1971–1976 tuluy milu kana mangsa persiapan pénsiun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 85.</ref> Abdoel Moeis Hassan kungsi meunang tawaran pikeun kalungguhan [[duta besar]] di salah sahiji nagara di [[Amerika Selatan|Amerika Latin]] tapi ditolak ku manéhna.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Lepas Jabatan''.</ref> == Kagiatan Séjén == Sabada pénsiun salaku pagawé nagri dina taun 1977, Abdoel Moeis Hassan aktif dina widang sosial ku cara ngadegkeun Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. Ieu yayasan téh ngayakeun atikan jeung palatihan sarta méré beasiswa pikeun para palajar. Manéhna ogé jadi Katua Kerukunan Keluarga Kalimantan (K3) di [[Jakarta]]. Paguyuban warga Kalimantan di ibu kota nagara ieu sababaraha pangurus intina di antarana nyaéta manten Katua [[PBNU]] [[Idham Chalid]] jeung manten Katua [[MUI]] [[Hasan Basri (MUI)|Hasan Basri]].<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 86–88.</ref> Manéhna ogé jadi panasihat pikeun pangusaha [[Gozali Katianda]] dina ngadegkeun perusahaan panyelenggara umrah jeung haji ONH Plus munggaran di Indonésia.<ref>Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Perjalanan Hidup dan Pengalaman Gozali Katianda''. Jakarta: Pustaka Alvabet, kc. 83 & 88.</ref> == Pupus == Dina tanggal 19 Nopémber 2005, Moeis Hassan bareng pamajikanana ngadatangan acara halalbihalal masarakat Kaltim anu dumuk di Jakarta anu dilaksanakeun di Gedong Serbaguna Déplu. Manéhna sempatungeluh kasusah [[buang air kecil|kahampangan]] tur ménta ka anakna, Taufik Siradjuddin, pikeun gancang mawa manéhna mulang. Taufik boga inisiatif mawa bapana ka [[Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Persahabatan]] di [[Rawamangun, Pulo Gadung, Jakarta Timur]] tempat manéhna digawé. Di instalasi gawat darurat (IGD), Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan medis sangkan Moeis Hassan bisa kahampangan deui. Dina tanggal 21 Nopémber 2005, gangguan kahampangan kambuh deui. Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan leutik sarta Moeis Hassan ngarasa betah tur leler deui. Taufik tuluy mulang ka imahna. Tengah peuting, Taufik ditelpon ku adina awéwé anu tetepicing di imah Gudang Peluru. Béjana, sang bapa teu sadar diri sanggeus tikusruk di kamar mandi. Taufik gancang datang. Nanging, Moeis Hassan tos teu ambekan deui tur pupus dina yuswa 81 taun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 88–89.</ref> == Diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional == {{also|Daftar tokoh yang diusulkan menjadi pahlawan nasional Indonesia}} [[File:Kegiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Timur untuk pengusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024.jpg|jmpl|Nanda Puspita Sheilla jeung Muhammad Sarip dina kagiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Wétan pikeun pangusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024]] Kusamba jasa jeung pangabdianna, masarakat Kalimantan Wétan anu diwujudkeun ku Lembaga Studi Sejarah Lokal Komunitas Samarinda Bahari (Lasaloka-KSB) ngusulkeun ka pamaréntah pikeun méré gelar [[Daftar pahlawan nasional Indonesia|Pahlawan Nasional]] pikeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Ieu usulan dilakukeun sabada Séminar jeung Bedah Buku "Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur" tanggal 2 Juni 2018 di Gedong Dinas Perpustakaan dan Kearsipan Daerah Provinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]] ngahasilkeun kacindekan yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan nyumponan sarat salaku calon Pahlawan Nasional. Naskah Déklarasi Usulan Calon Pahlawan Nasional dijieun sarta ditandatanganan ku opat déklarator nyaéta Muhammad Sarip salaku Koordinator Déklarator, sarta Fajar Alam, Arief Rahman, jeung Nabila Nandini, anu masing-masing salaku anggota déklarator. Wali kota Samarinda [[Syaharie Jaang]] nampi éta usulan dina audiénsi antara tim Lasaloka-KSB jeung Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda di Rumah Jabatan Wali kota Samarinda tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. Wali Kota Samarinda anu didampingi ku Sékrétaris Daérah Sugeng Chairuddin, staf Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Kota Samarinda Masrullah, jeung staf Dinas Sosial bakal numutkeun tur nindaklanjuti éta usulan saluyu jeung peraturan jeung perundang-undangan anu berlaku. Hal ieu katulis dina warta acara anu ditandatanganan ku Wali Kota Samarinda jeung Koordinator Déklarator.<ref>Pardede (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan''.</ref> Dina tanggal 25 Juni 2019 Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda ngaselangkeun Séminar Nasional Kapahlawanan Abdoel Moeis Hassan di Aula BPD Kaltimtara Samarinda.<ref>Diskominfo (2019). ''Sudah Sepantasnya''.</ref> Dina ieu acara Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda didukung ku [[Bank Indonesia]], Bankaltimtara, jeung Lasaloka-KSB. Opat narasumberna nyaéta Kasubdit Direktorat Kepahlawanan Keperintisan Kesetiakawanan dan Restorasi Sosial Kementerian Sosial RI, Afni; Dosen Ilmu Sejarah sarta Wakil Dékan Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gajah Mada, Agus Suwignyo; Sajarawan Kalimantan, Wajidi; jeung Dosen Pendidikan Sejarah FKIP Unmul, Slamet Diyono. Tilu sajarawan akademis jeung hiji pajabat Kementerian Sosial RI anu dihadirkeun netepkeun kalayakan tokoh Abdoel Moeis Hassan diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional.<ref>Rahmi (2019). ''Kesederhanaan''.</ref> Pihak nu ngusulkeun dipenta pikeun ngalengkepan sakabéh sarat administrasi pikeun diteruskeun ka pamaréntah pusat dina taun 2020.<ref>Chalimah (2019). ''Tokoh Pertama Kaltim''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan ngaliwatan Dinas Sosial ngalaksanakeun sosialisasi ngeunaan prosés usulan gelar pahlawan nasional tanggal 9 Januari 2024. Sosialisasi dikemas dina wangun ''talk show'' di Lapangan Parkir Gelora Kadrie Oening Sempaja, Samarinda. Tampil salaku narasumber nyaéta [[sejarawan publik|sajarawan publik]] [[Daftar tokoh Kalimantan Timur|Muhammad Sarip]] jeung pegiat literasi [[Daftar Tokoh Samarinda|Nanda Puspita Sheilla]].<ref>Dinsos (2024). ''Proses Pengusulan Gelar''.</ref> Sarip medarkeun prosés usulan gelar Pahlawan Nasional ti Kaltim salila opat dékade pamungkas. Sedengkeun Nanda nétélakeun ngeunaan sajarah perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan ti jaman Walanda nepi ka era Révolusi Kamardékaan sarta kiprahna salaku Gubernur Kaltim période 1962–1966. Sarip jeung Nanda dirkrut salaku anggota dina kagiatan [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|TP2GD]].<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kaltim nyerahkeun dokumen usulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka [[Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia|Kementerian Sosial RI]] di Jakarta tanggal 22 Pébruari 2024. Pemprov Kaltim diwakilan ku Kepala Bidang Pemberdayaan Sosial Dinas Sosial Kaltim, Ardiansyah jeung Plt. Kasi Kepahlawanan, Rully Erfian, mawa 18 rangkap dokumen fisik. Dokumen éta ditarima ku Diréktur Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Direktorat Jenderal Pemberdayaan Sosial Kemensos, Radik Karsadiguna. Dokumen usulan diwangun tina rupa-rupa jinis, di antarana Rékomendasi [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kaltim]] ngeunaan Pangusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan anu ditandatanganan ku Penjabat Gubernur [[Akmal Malik]]. Aya ogé hasil sidang [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah (TP2GD)]] anu netepkeun kalayakan usulan. Dokumen penting séjénna nyaéta biografi Abdoel Moeis Hassan kalawan format naskah akademik. Kitu deui pandangan para tokoh masarakat ngeunaan figur anu diusung salaku calon pahlawan nasional. Pernyataan pangrojong datang di antarana ti anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|DPD]] jeung MPR RI daérah pamilihan Kaltim, [[Aji Mirni Mawarni]]. Turut dilampirkeun kalengkapan dokumen usulan Pahlawan Nasional di antarana buku ''[[Historipedia Kalimantan Timur]]'' karya Muhammad Sarip jeung Nanda Puspita Sheilla anu ngamuat profil perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan.<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan ogé diusulkeun salaku gaganti nami [[Jembatan Mahakam Ulu]] di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]. Wali kota Samarinda nyatujuan ieu usulan, tapi kaputusan resmina mangrupa kawenangan Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sapos (2018). ''Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan''.</ref> Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan nyatujuan panamaan Jembatan Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Dina tanggal 4 Séptémber 2020 nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan di jadikeun nami Jembatan Mahulu kalawan Kaputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomer 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020.<ref>Samarinda (2020). ''Keputusan Wali Kota''.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Sanusie, M. Djunaid, dkk. (1984). ''Secercah Perjuangan BPRI Bn. VIII Brig. “S” Div. VI (NAROTAMA) di Samarinda''. Samarinda: Pemda Kalimantan Timur. * Wirakusumah, R. Sambas, dkk. (1986). ''Sejarah Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah 1976/1977. * Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project. ISBN 0-87763-036-4. * Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur dari Masa ke Masa''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur. {{refend}} * Hassan, A. Moeis (1994). ''Ikut Mengukir Sejarah''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. * Hassan, A. Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. ISBN 979-9222-88-5. * Arifin, Samsul & Suyatni Priasmoro (2011). ''Sejarah DPRD Kaltim dalam Perkembangan Pemerintahan Daerah 1957–2011''. Samarinda: Sekretariat DPRD Provinsi Kaltim. * Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Anak Kampung yang Keliling Dunia''. Jakarta: Kakilangit Kencana. ISBN 978-602-8556-32-3. * Pro Kaltim (8 Désémber 2017). "Mengubur Lokasi Bersejarah Selamatkan Lapangan Kinibalu, Saksi Perjuangan Kaum Republiken". Diaksés tanggal 18 Agustus 2018. * Pro Kaltim (30 Nopémber 2015). "Lepas Jabatan Jualan Sampo, Anggota DPR Bermobil Butut Mengenang 10 Tahun Meninggalnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan (2)". Diaksés tanggal 10 Agustus 2018. * Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Samarinda Tempo Doeloe Sejarah Lokal 1200–1999''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-60453-4-8. * Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-5431-22-7. * Pardede, Doan E. (4 Agustus 2018). "AM Hassan Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan Nasional dari Kaltim, Ini Sosok dan Perjuangannya" (Editor: Januar Alamijaya). [[Tribun Kaltim]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 8 Agustus 2018. * Samarinda Pos (1 Agustus 2018). "Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Revolusi Kaltim, Pergantian Nama Jembatan Mahulu". [[Samarinda Pos]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. * Afdani (25 Juni 2019). "Sugeng: Sudah Sepantasnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan Dapat Gelar Pahlawan" (Editor: Doni). Diskominfo Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 25 Juni 2019. * Chalimah, Nofiyatul (26 Juni 2019). "Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Pertama Kaltim yang Bakal Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan". [[Kaltim Post]]. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Dinsos Humas (10 Januari 2024). "Proses Pengusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional: Diskusi Spesial di Pesta Rakyat Kaltim". Dinas Sosial Kalimantan Timur. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * GM, Fel (23 Pébruari 2024). "Kaltim Serahkan Usulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional kepada Kemensos". Kaltimkece.id. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * Rahmi, Ika Prida (26 Juni 2019). "Kesederhanaan Abdoel Moies Hassan dan Kepantasannya Menjadi Pahlawan Nasional" (Editor: Bobby Lolowang). Kaltim Kece. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Pemerintah Kota Samarinda (4 Séptémber 2020). "Keputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomor 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020". Pemerintah Kota Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 16 Pébruari 2024. {{refend}} {{S-start}} {{S-off}} {{Succession box |before = [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |title = [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] |years = 1962–1966 |after = [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] }} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Banjar]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Angkatan 45]] [[Kategori:Politikus Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Politikus Partai Nasional Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Kapala wilayah administratif di Indonésia]] syiry0o1s62lllpmuqcysntoqep8og8 732201 732200 2026-11-11T07:39:25Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Jadi Gubernur Kaltim */ 732201 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" style="float: right; clear: right; width: 320px; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; padding: 4px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 110%; padding: 6px;" | Abdoel Moeis Hassan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:03-Gubernur-03 A Moes Hasan.jpg|250px|Abdoel Moeis Hassan]]<br /><small>Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan (1962–1966)</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | [[Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 10 Agustus 1962 – 14 September 1966 |- | '''Kalungguhan''' || Ka-2 |- | '''Saméméhna''' || [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |- | '''Anu ngganti''' || [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 25 Juni 1960 – 28 September 1963<br><small>(non-aktif ti saprak 30 Juni 1962)</small> |- | '''Présidén''' || [[Sukarno]] |- | '''Fraksi''' || Karya Petani |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; padding: 4px;" | Anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]] |- | '''Masa jabatan''' || 29 April 1968 – 28 Oktober 1971 |- | '''Fraksi''' || [[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #eaecf0; text-align: center; font-size: 105%; padding: 4px;" | Inpormasi pribadi |- | '''Gumelar''' || 2 Juni 1924<br>[[Samarinda]], [[Hindia Walanda]] |- | ''' pupus''' || 21 Nopémber 2005 (umur 81)<br>[[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]] |- | '''Partai politik''' || [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] (1946–1950)<br>[[Partai Nasional Indonesia|PNI]] (1950–1970) |- | '''Profési''' || [[Politikus]] +++ | '''Pasangan''' || Fatimah |- | '''Anak''' || Zulchadriansyah<br>Julian Anwarie<br>Taufik Siradjudin<br>Chaidir Aulia<br>Farid Hamdi<br>Olvia Afiaty<br>Johny Janwarie |- | '''Kolot''' || Mohammad Hassan (bapa)<br>Asiah (indung) |- | '''Kulawarga''' || Mohammad Saleh (aki)<br>[[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] (adi) |} '''Abdoel Moeis Hassan''' ([[Ejaan yang Disempurnakan|EYD]]: Abdul Muis Hassan, {{lahirmati|[[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]|2|6|1924|[[Jakarta]]|21|11|2005}}) nyaéta saurang tokoh pamuda pergerakan kabangsaan di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] dina mangsa 1940–1945 sarta pamingpin perjuangan diplomasi politik pikeun kamerdékaan Républik [[Indonésia]] di wewengkon [[Kalimantan Wétan]] dina mangsa 1945–1949. Ti saprak rumaja, manéhna milu aub dina kagiatan pergerakan kabangsaan di Samarinda tur diajar masalah politik ka [[A.M. Sangadji]]. Dina taun 1940, manéhna ngadegkeun Roekoen Pemoeda Indonesia (Roepindo) sarta jadi katua na. Bareng jeung [[Abdoel Moethalib Sangadji|A.M. Sangadji]], manéhna ngadegkeun lembaga atikan ngaranna Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Ra'jat dina taun 1942. Manéhna ngagabung dina Panitia Persiapan Penyambutan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia (P3KRI) pikeun mewujudkeun Proklamasi Nagara Indonésia di Samarinda taun 1945 sarta ngadegkeun [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) Cabang Samarinda anu boga tujuan nolak pangeboman atawa panjajahan Walanda di Samarinda sataun ti harita. Taun 1947 manéhna jadi katua Front Nasional salaku koalisi organisasi anu ngarojong RI jeung nolak fénoména féderasi anu dibentuk ku [[Walanda]]. Dina ahir taun 1949, bareng jeung [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]], manéhna nungtut ka pamaréntah lokal pikeun kaluar tina [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] (RIS) jeung ngabungkus diri ka RI-Yogya. Tuntutanna kacumponan kalawan ngahijina [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]] ka wilayah RI dina tanggal 10 April 1950. Manéhna ngadadakan Kongrés Rahayat Kaltim dina taun 1954 pikeun nungtut dijieun Provinsi Kalimantan Timur sangkan pangwangunan bisa leuwih maju. Taun 1956, tuntutan éta diwujudkeun tur tanggal 9 Januari 1957 Kaltim resmi ngadeg salaku provinsi. Taun 1960, manéhna jadi Katua Komisi Gabungan di [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] anu boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria. Taun 1962, manéhna jadi [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] kadua. Dina taun 1964, manéhna nyegah usaha duruk keraton Kutai ku massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima [[Komando Daerah Militer VI/Mulawarman|Kodam IX Mulawarman]]. Taun 1966, manéhna eureun salaku Gubernur tur jadi pagawé di Departemén Dalam Négri di Jakarta. Taun 1968 nepi ka 1970, manéhna kapilih deui jadi anggota DPR RI ngawakilan PNI. Taun 1976, manéhna pénsiun tina PNS tur ancrub di widang sosial masarakat sarta nulis rupa-rupa artikel jeung buku nepi ka taun 2004, tuluy pupus dina taun 2005 dina yuswa 81 taun. Taun 2018, hiji kelompok pamilon sajarah anu independen ngasongkeun usulan calon Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka Wali kota Samarinda. Para sajarawan akademis dina Séminar Nasional 2019 netepkeun yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan layak diusulkeun ka pamaréntah pusat salaku Pahlawan Nasional. == Kulawarga jeung Atikan == Abdoel Moeis Hassan téh saurang pituin étnis [[Suku Banjar|Banjar]]. Manéhna mangrupa putra kalima ti Mohammad Hassan, nyaéta saurang tokoh [[Syarikat Islam]] di Samarinda dina mangsa pergerakan kabangsaan. Akina ti pihak bapa ngaran H. Mohammad Saleh anu asalna ti [[Amuntai]], [[Kalimantan Kidul]]. Sedengkeun aki jeung nini ti pihak indungna asalna ti [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 191.</ref> Dina yuswa 5 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan sakola di ''Meisje School'' anu didirikan ku [[Aminah Sjoekoer]] bareng salakina, Mohammad Jacob. Manéhna meunang ijazah [[MULO]] ti ''Instituut Het Zonnig Land''. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé ngagaduhan ijazah ''Boekhouding'' A jeung B sarta nęmatkeun [[Hollandsch-Inlandsche School]] (HIS) di [[Sungai Pinang, Samarinda|Sungai Pinang]], Samarinda. Atikan politikna didapatkeun ti [[A.M. Sangadji]], saurang tokoh [[Pergerakan Penyadar]] éks PSII bareng H. [[Agus Salim]] dina mangsa [[Hindia Walanda|panjajahan Walanda]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 192.</ref> Dina taun 1944, dina yuswa 20 taun, Abdoel Moeis Hassan nikah jeung Fatimah, anu umurna leuwih anom opat taun ti manéhna.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 19.</ref> Manéhna jeung Fatimah dikarunian genep putra jeung hiji putri.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 91.</ref> Manéhna miboga adi kandung ngaranna [[Muhammad Syarkawie Hassan]] anu kungsi jadi Katua Umum Pangurus Besar Persatuan Dokter Gigi Indonesia (PDGI) période 1982–1988 sarta Katua Majelis Kehormatan jeung Penasihat PB PDGI période 1988–2003.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 360.</ref> Kusabab hirup sezaman jeung [[Inche Abdoel Moeis]] sarta pikeun ngabédakeun duanana, masarakat satempat méré jujuluk ka Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku "Moeis Leutik" sedengkeun I.A. Moeis salaku "Moeis Luhur". Hal ieu dumasar kana bédana postur tubuh antara duanana.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Historiografi Samarinda''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 146.</ref> == Kiprah == === Perjuangan jeung Politik === [[File:Abdoel Moeis Hassan circa 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Abdoel Moeis Hassan dina 17 Agustus 1949.]] [[File:Konferensi INI ke-3 di Samarinda 7–8 Desember 1949.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan (diuk di hareup, katilu ti katuhu) dina raraga Konferensi [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia|INI]] ka-3 di Samarinda tanggal 7–8 Désémber 1949.]] [[File:Peletakan Batu Pertama Tugu 40 Tahun Kebangunan Nasional 20 Mei 1948.jpg|jmpl|ka|Moeis Hassan nalika peletakan batu pertama Tugu 40 Taun Kabangsaan Nasional tanggal 20 Méi 1948.]] Dina Méi 1940, Abdoel Moeis Hassan ngagagas dijieun organisasi kapemudaan anu boga haluan kabangsaan ngaranna Roepindo (Roekoen Pemuda Indonesia).<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 14.</ref> Nalika umurna nincak 18 taun, manéhna bareng A.M. Sangadji ngaktipkeun deui ''Neutrale School'' jadi Balai Pengadjaran dan Pendidikan Rajat (BPPR) dina taun 1942.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 51.</ref> Saenggeus Républik Indonésia memproklamirkeun kamerdékaan tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, sedengkeun [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] jeung Kalimantan Wétan harita tacan ngabungkus diri ka Républik Indonésia, manéhna ngagabung dina Gerakan Dr. Soewadji anu ngarencanakeun proklamasi kamerdékaan di Samarinda.<ref>Sanusie, Ahmad (1984). ''Sejarah Perjuangan Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 44.</ref> Satuluyna, manéhna berjuang ngaliwatan jalur pergerakan diplomasi dina wadah partéy politik lokal ngaranna [[Ikatan Nasional Indonesia]] (INI) jeung koalisi organisasi ngaranna [[Front Nasional (Orde Lama)|Front Nasional]]. Taun 1946 manéhna ngadegkeun INI cabang Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 221.</ref> Dina taun 1947, manéhna ditunjuk ku INI jadi katua Front Nasional. Duanana organisasi anu boga markas di Gedong Nasional Samarinda éta mertahankeun sikep ngarojong Nagara Républik Indonésia tur nolak panjajahan Walanda di Indonésia.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 222.</ref> Sikep ieu patukeur pisan jeung opat kasultanan anu aya di [[Negara Kalimantan Timur|Keresidenan Kalimantan Timur]], anu leuwih milih ngagabung dina Pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jieunan [[Gubernur Jéndral Hindia Walanda]], [[Hubertus Johannes van Mook]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 114.</ref> Féderasi Kalimantan Timur kungsi nawarkeun kalungguhan salaku délégasi dina Bandung Federale Conferentie (BFC), nyaéta [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Federal|Konférénsi Féderal Bandung]] anu digagas ku Van Mook. Tapi, manéhna nolak éta tawaran sabab konsekuen kana sikep politik organisasi perjuanganna anu nonkoopératif atawa embung gawé bareng jeung Walanda katut para pangikutna.<ref>Tribun Kaltim (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan sebagai Pahlawan Nasional''. Diakses 2020.</ref> Hasil [[Konférénsi Méja Bundar]] 1949 anu ngawangun [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]] nyieun Kalimantan Wétan kagabung dina [[Republik Indonésia Serikat]]. Kaayaan ieu henteu nyugemakeun Front Nasional jeung golongan Républikén. Ku kituna, manéhna mangrupa palopor panyeratan tuntutan supaya Kalimantan Wétan kaluar tina RIS jeung ngahiji deui ka Nagara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia. Tuntutan éta dicumponan ku pamaréntah Féderasi Kalimantan Timur jeung pamaréntah pusat, antukna dina tanggal 10 April 1950 Kalimantan Wétan resmi ngagabung ka Républik Indonésia.<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 123.</ref> Bareng jeung tuntutan ngahijina Kalimantan Wétan ka RI, Moeis Hassan salaku Katua Front Nasional gencar ngampanyekeun gagasan panyabutan [[swapraja]] (kasultanan) sabab ceuk manéhna sistem [[feodalisme]] geus teu saluyu deui jeung kamekaran jaman anu démokratis. Manéhna kungsi nepikeun hal ieu sacara langsung ka Sultan Kutai Kertanegara anu ogé disaksian ku masarakat nalika Sultan [[Aji Muhammad Parikesit]] netepkeun proklamasi pasini Karajaan Kutai Kertanegara hayang ngagabung ka NKRI ping 23 Januari 1950.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Mengubur Lokasi''.</ref> Gagasan ieu boga tujuan sangkan unggal masarakat boga kasempetan jeung hak anu sarua dina ngeusian posisi di birokrasi dumasar kana kamampuanna séwang-séwangan tanpa aya diskriminasi dumasar kana status kabangsawanan.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 226.</ref> Ide ieu antukna wujud kalawan disahkeunana Undang-Undang Nomer 27 taun 1959 anu mupus status Daérah Istiméwa pikeun [[Kesultanan Kutai Kartanegara ing Martadipura|Kasultanan Kutai Kertanegara]], [[Kesultanan Berau]], jeung [[Kesultanan Bulungan]].<ref>Penyusun (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan Daerah di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur, kc. 134.</ref> Dina mimiti taun 1950, INI Kalimantan Wétan ngahiji kana [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI). Abdoel Moeis Hassan kapilih jadi Katua Déwan Pimpinan Daérah Partéy Nasional Indonésia Cabang Kalimantan Wétan dina Pébruari 1950. PNI sorangan mangrupa partéy politik anu boga haluan nasionalis panggedéna dina jaman [[Orde Lama]]. Manéhna nyekel kalungguhan pangluhurna di PNI Kaltim salila salapan taun ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1959. Sanggeus éta, Déwan Pimpinan Pusat PNI milih manéhna jadi anggota Déwan Partéy PNI.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur Menggugat: Perjuangan Otonomi Daerah, 1950–1957''. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, kc. 424.</ref> Dina taun 1954 manéhna ngagerakkeun massa PNI jeung masarakat pikeun ngayakeun Kongrés Rahayat Kalimantan Wétan. Kongrés ieu nyuarakeun tuntutanikeun status provinsi pikeun Kalimantan Wétan anu harita mah masih kénéh boga status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan anu ibu kotana di [[Banjarmasin]].<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 229.</ref> Perjuanganna hasil kalawan medalna Undang-Undang Nomer 25 taun 1956 anu meulah Kalimantan jadi tilu provinsi, di antarana nyaéta Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan. [[Kalimantan Timur]] diresmikeun salaku provinsi anyar dina tanggal 9 Januari 1957.<ref>Wirakusumah, M. Ruchiat (1986). ''Sejarah Singkat Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, kc. 80.</ref> === Birokrat === Saenggeus ngagabung jeung RI tanggal 10 April 1950, wilayah Kalimantan Wétan tetep nyekel status keresidenan di handapeun Provinsi Kalimantan. Dina tanggal 2 Méi 1950 Pamaréntah RI nangtukeun pancén ka Moeis Hassan pikeun ngurus widang sosial. Kalungguhan munggaran anu diembanna nyaéta Kepala Kantor Sosial RI Keresidenan Kaltim ti taun 1950 nepi ka 1955. Lajeng, dina taun 1955 nepi ka 1957 manéhna ngajabat Koordinator Sosial<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 50.</ref> sarta dina taun 1957 nepi ka 1960, manéhna ngajabat salaku Kepala Kantor Inspeksi Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 52.</ref> Dina taun 1960, manéhna ditugaskeun ku pamaréntah pusat ka ibu kota Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, Banjarmasin. Manéhna dibéréamanat pikeun ngajabat Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul. Ieu kalungguhan diembanna salila sataun ti mimiti Pébruari 1960 nepi ka 1961.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53.</ref> === Jadi Anggota DPR === Dina waktu anu bareng jeung kalungguhanna salaku Kepala Perwakilan Departemén Sosial Provinsi Kalimantan Kidul, dina Maret 1960 Moeis Hassan diutus ku PNI pikeun ngawakilan Kaltim di gedong parlemén pusat. Harita memang euweuh aturan anu ngalarang [[pegawai negeri|pagawé nagri]] jadi anggota atawa aub dina [[partai politik]]. Dina mangsa Démokrasi Terpimpin éta, manéhna dipilih jadi anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia#Masa DPR hasil Dekret Presiden 1959 berdasarkan UUD 1945 (1959–1965)|DPR Gotong Royong]] période 1960–1963. Kalungguhanna nyaéta Katua Komisi D anu mibanda widang Pertanian jeung Agraria, PU, Perindustrian Dasar jeung Pertambangan (Perdatam), Perindustrian Ringan jeung Distribusi. Kapasitas kapamingpinan Moeis Hassan di parlemén pusat ogé kabuktian ku dipercayana kalungguhan Katua Gabungan Komisi ka manéhna. Komisi Gabungan éta boga tugas ngaréngsékeun RUU Pokok Pamaréntahan Daérah jeung RUU Pokok Agraria nepi ka disahkeun jadi UU. Kiprahna salaku anggota DPR RI Orde Lama ngan lumangsung dua taun lantaran dina pertengahan taun 1962 Pamaréntah Pusat nugas1keun manéhna salaku Gubernur Kaltim.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 53–54.</ref> === Jadi Gubernur Kaltim === [[File:Pelantikan Moeis Hassan sebagai Gubernur Kaltim, 10 Agustus 1962.JPG|jmpl|ka|Pelantikan Moeis Hassan salaku Gubernur Kaltim tanggal 10 Agustus 1962.]] Dina tanggal 30 Juni 1962 Présidén [[Soekarno|Sukarno]] netepkeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan salaku [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur]] kalawan Kaputusan Présidén Nomer 260/M taun 1962. Lajeng Mentri Dalam Négri [[Ipik Gandamana]] melantik manéhna dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1962 dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD Kalimantan Timur. Program munggaran anu dipidamelna nyaéta ngadegna Universitas Kalimantan Timur tanggal 27 Séptémber 1962 anu tuluy robih jadi [[Universitas Mulawarman]] di Samarinda.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 234.</ref> Dina taun 1965, sanajan manéhna sorangan anu ngagas panyabutan sistem kasultanan, tapi manéhna henteu ngantep ayana gerakan radikal anu rék ngancurkeun karaton titinggalan [[Kesultanan Kutai]] di Tenggarong. Manéhna maréntahkeun Kepala Kejaksaan Negeri Samarinda pikeun ngamankeun wangunan karaton éta.<ref>Hassan, Abdoel Moeis (1994). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa, dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu, kc. 231.</ref> Manéhna ogé ngirimkeun pulisi, anu lolobana étnis Banjar, ka [[Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara|Tenggarong]] pikeun nyegah massa jeung tentara suruhan Panglima Kodam IX Mulawarman Mayjen [[Soehario Padmodiwirio]] anu rék ngaduruk karaton Kutai.<ref>Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, kc. 62.</ref> Dina taun 1966 sakelompok massa ngunjuk rasa nuntut Abdoel Moeis Hassan mundur tina jabatan Gubernur Kalimantan Timur. Massa nuduh manéhna salaku pangurus Partai Nasional Indonesia anu pro-[[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] (PKI), anu dituding salaku palaku [[Gerakan 30 September]]. Tuduhan ieu taya buktina sarta [[Daftar Menteri Dalam Negeri Indonesia|Mentri Dalam Négri]] [[Basuki Rahmat]] ménta manéhna tetep nyekel jabatan Gubernur nepi ka tamat periodena dina taun hareup, nyaéta 1967. Nanging, manéhna tetep netepkeun eureun salaku Gubernur dina Sidang Istimewa DPRD [[Kalimantan Timur]] tanggal 14 Séptémber 1966.<ref>Arifin, Samsul (2011). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: Badan Arsip Daerah, kc. 43.</ref> Manéhna nyerahkeun kalungguhan gubernur Kaltim ka Mendagri. Saenggeus mundur, Mendagri nugasikeun manéhna salaku pagawé Departemén Dalam Négri di ibu kota nagara, tapi dina posisi nonjob atawa teu boga kalungguhan.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 83.</ref> === Jadi Anggota MPR jeung Pénsiun === Dina taun munggaran Soeharto resmi ngajabat Présidén RI ngagentoskeun Sukarno taun 1968, Moeis Hassan diangkat jadi anggota [[MPR]] ngawakilan PNI. Kalungguhanna di MPR Orde Baru saolah negeskeun yén salila jadi Gubernur Kaltim manéhna memang henteu aub dina kagiatan politik anu pro-PKI. Dina hal ieu, résim Orde Baru pohara ketatna dina ngabersihkeun jalma-jalma anu dituduh PKI ku hukuman pidana penjara atawa éksekusi mati. Manéhna digawé di Gedong Sayan éta salila dua taun nepi ka taun 1970. Salajengna, manéhna ditempatkeun salaku Pagawé Luhur anu diperbantukeun ka Lembaga Penyelenggaraan Kesejahteraan Pegawai Republik Indonesia 1971–1976 tuluy milu kana mangsa persiapan pénsiun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 85.</ref> Abdoel Moeis Hassan kungsi meunang tawaran pikeun kalungguhan [[duta besar]] di salah sahiji nagara di [[Amerika Selatan|Amerika Latin]] tapi ditolak ku manéhna.<ref>Pro (2018). ''Lepas Jabatan''.</ref> == Kagiatan Séjén == Sabada pénsiun salaku pagawé nagri dina taun 1977, Abdoel Moeis Hassan aktif dina widang sosial ku cara ngadegkeun Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. Ieu yayasan téh ngayakeun atikan jeung palatihan sarta méré beasiswa pikeun para palajar. Manéhna ogé jadi Katua Kerukunan Keluarga Kalimantan (K3) di [[Jakarta]]. Paguyuban warga Kalimantan di ibu kota nagara ieu sababaraha pangurus intina di antarana nyaéta manten Katua [[PBNU]] [[Idham Chalid]] jeung manten Katua [[MUI]] [[Hasan Basri (MUI)|Hasan Basri]].<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 86–88.</ref> Manéhna ogé jadi panasihat pikeun pangusaha [[Gozali Katianda]] dina ngadegkeun perusahaan panyelenggara umrah jeung haji ONH Plus munggaran di Indonésia.<ref>Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Perjalanan Hidup dan Pengalaman Gozali Katianda''. Jakarta: Pustaka Alvabet, kc. 83 & 88.</ref> == Pupus == Dina tanggal 19 Nopémber 2005, Moeis Hassan bareng pamajikanana ngadatangan acara halalbihalal masarakat Kaltim anu dumuk di Jakarta anu dilaksanakeun di Gedong Serbaguna Déplu. Manéhna sempatungeluh kasusah [[buang air kecil|kahampangan]] tur ménta ka anakna, Taufik Siradjuddin, pikeun gancang mawa manéhna mulang. Taufik boga inisiatif mawa bapana ka [[Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Persahabatan]] di [[Rawamangun, Pulo Gadung, Jakarta Timur]] tempat manéhna digawé. Di instalasi gawat darurat (IGD), Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan medis sangkan Moeis Hassan bisa kahampangan deui. Dina tanggal 21 Nopémber 2005, gangguan kahampangan kambuh deui. Taufik ngalakukeun tindakan leutik sarta Moeis Hassan ngarasa betah tur leler deui. Taufik tuluy mulang ka imahna. Tengah peuting, Taufik ditelpon ku adina awéwé anu tetepicing di imah Gudang Peluru. Béjana, sang bapa teu sadar diri sanggeus tikusruk di kamar mandi. Taufik gancang datang. Nanging, Moeis Hassan tos teu ambekan deui tur pupus dina yuswa 81 taun.<ref>Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Abdoel Moeis Hassan: Biografi Politis Perintis Kemerdekaan dan Gubernur Kaltim Pertama''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon, kc. 88–89.</ref> == Diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional == {{also|Daftar tokoh yang diusulkan menjadi pahlawan nasional Indonesia}} [[File:Kegiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Timur untuk pengusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024.jpg|jmpl|Nanda Puspita Sheilla jeung Muhammad Sarip dina kagiatan TP2GD Kalimantan Wétan pikeun pangusulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan, 9 Januari 2024]] Kusamba jasa jeung pangabdianna, masarakat Kalimantan Wétan anu diwujudkeun ku Lembaga Studi Sejarah Lokal Komunitas Samarinda Bahari (Lasaloka-KSB) ngusulkeun ka pamaréntah pikeun méré gelar [[Daftar pahlawan nasional Indonesia|Pahlawan Nasional]] pikeun Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Ieu usulan dilakukeun sabada Séminar jeung Bedah Buku "Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur" tanggal 2 Juni 2018 di Gedong Dinas Perpustakaan dan Kearsipan Daerah Provinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]] ngahasilkeun kacindekan yén Abdoel Moeis Hassan nyumponan sarat salaku calon Pahlawan Nasional. Naskah Déklarasi Usulan Calon Pahlawan Nasional dijieun sarta ditandatanganan ku opat déklarator nyaéta Muhammad Sarip salaku Koordinator Déklarator, sarta Fajar Alam, Arief Rahman, jeung Nabila Nandini, anu masing-masing salaku anggota déklarator. Wali kota Samarinda [[Syaharie Jaang]] nampi éta usulan dina audiénsi antara tim Lasaloka-KSB jeung Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda di Rumah Jabatan Wali kota Samarinda tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. Wali Kota Samarinda anu didampingi ku Sékrétaris Daérah Sugeng Chairuddin, staf Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Kota Samarinda Masrullah, jeung staf Dinas Sosial bakal numutkeun tur nindaklanjuti éta usulan saluyu jeung peraturan jeung perundang-undangan anu berlaku. Hal ieu katulis dina warta acara anu ditandatanganan ku Wali Kota Samarinda jeung Koordinator Déklarator.<ref>Pardede (2018). ''AM Hassan Diusulkan''.</ref> Dina tanggal 25 Juni 2019 Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda ngaselangkeun Séminar Nasional Kapahlawanan Abdoel Moeis Hassan di Aula BPD Kaltimtara Samarinda.<ref>Diskominfo (2019). ''Sudah Sepantasnya''.</ref> Dina ieu acara Pamaréntah Kota Samarinda didukung ku [[Bank Indonesia]], Bankaltimtara, jeung Lasaloka-KSB. Opat narasumberna nyaéta Kasubdit Direktorat Kepahlawanan Keperintisan Kesetiakawanan dan Restorasi Sosial Kementerian Sosial RI, Afni; Dosen Ilmu Sejarah sarta Wakil Dékan Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gajah Mada, Agus Suwignyo; Sajarawan Kalimantan, Wajidi; jeung Dosen Pendidikan Sejarah FKIP Unmul, Slamet Diyono. Tilu sajarawan akademis jeung hiji pajabat Kementerian Sosial RI anu dihadirkeun netepkeun kalayakan tokoh Abdoel Moeis Hassan diusulkeun salaku Pahlawan Nasional.<ref>Rahmi (2019). ''Kesederhanaan''.</ref> Pihak nu ngusulkeun dipenta pikeun ngalengkepan sakabéh sarat administrasi pikeun diteruskeun ka pamaréntah pusat dina taun 2020.<ref>Chalimah (2019). ''Tokoh Pertama Kaltim''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan ngaliwatan Dinas Sosial ngalaksanakeun sosialisasi ngeunaan prosés usulan gelar pahlawan nasional tanggal 9 Januari 2024. Sosialisasi dikemas dina wangun ''talk show'' di Lapangan Parkir Gelora Kadrie Oening Sempaja, Samarinda. Tampil salaku narasumber nyaéta [[sejarawan publik|sajarawan publik]] [[Daftar tokoh Kalimantan Timur|Muhammad Sarip]] jeung pegiat literasi [[Daftar Tokoh Samarinda|Nanda Puspita Sheilla]].<ref>Dinsos (2024). ''Proses Pengusulan Gelar''.</ref> Sarip medarkeun prosés usulan gelar Pahlawan Nasional ti Kaltim salila opat dékade pamungkas. Sedengkeun Nanda nétélakeun ngeunaan sajarah perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan ti jaman Walanda nepi ka era Révolusi Kamardékaan sarta kiprahna salaku Gubernur Kaltim période 1962–1966. Sarip jeung Nanda dirkrut salaku anggota dina kagiatan [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|TP2GD]].<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Pamaréntah Provinsi Kaltim nyerahkeun dokumen usulan gelar pahlawan nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan ka [[Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia|Kementerian Sosial RI]] di Jakarta tanggal 22 Pébruari 2024. Pemprov Kaltim diwakilan ku Kepala Bidang Pemberdayaan Sosial Dinas Sosial Kaltim, Ardiansyah jeung Plt. Kasi Kepahlawanan, Rully Erfian, mawa 18 rangkap dokumen fisik. Dokumen éta ditarima ku Diréktur Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Direktorat Jenderal Pemberdayaan Sosial Kemensos, Radik Karsadiguna. Dokumen usulan diwangun tina rupa-rupa jinis, di antarana Rékomendasi [[Daftar Gubernur Kalimantan Timur|Gubernur Kaltim]] ngeunaan Pangusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Abdoel Moeis Hassan anu ditandatanganan ku Penjabat Gubernur [[Akmal Malik]]. Aya ogé hasil sidang [[Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah|Tim Peneliti dan Pengkaji Gelar Daerah (TP2GD)]] anu netepkeun kalayakan usulan. Dokumen penting séjénna nyaéta biografi Abdoel Moeis Hassan kalawan format naskah akademik. Kitu deui pandangan para tokoh masarakat ngeunaan figur anu diusung salaku calon pahlawan nasional. Pernyataan pangrojong datang di antarana ti anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|DPD]] jeung MPR RI daérah pamilihan Kaltim, [[Aji Mirni Mawarni]]. Turut dilampirkeun kalengkapan dokumen usulan Pahlawan Nasional di antarana buku ''[[Historipedia Kalimantan Timur]]'' karya Muhammad Sarip jeung Nanda Puspita Sheilla anu ngamuat profil perjuangan Abdoel Moeis Hassan.<ref>GM (2024). ''Kaltim Serahkan Usulan''.</ref> Nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan ogé diusulkeun salaku gaganti nami [[Jembatan Mahakam Ulu]] di [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]]. Wali kota Samarinda nyatujuan ieu usulan, tapi kaputusan resmina mangrupa kawenangan Pamaréntah Provinsi Kalimantan Wétan.<ref>Sapos (2018). ''Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan''.</ref> Gubernur Kalimantan Wétan nyatujuan panamaan Jembatan Abdoel Moeis Hassan. Dina tanggal 4 Séptémber 2020 nami Abdoel Moeis Hassan di jadikeun nami Jembatan Mahulu kalawan Kaputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomer 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020.<ref>Samarinda (2020). ''Keputusan Wali Kota''.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Sanusie, M. Djunaid, dkk. (1984). ''Secercah Perjuangan BPRI Bn. VIII Brig. “S” Div. VI (NAROTAMA) di Samarinda''. Samarinda: Pemda Kalimantan Timur. * Wirakusumah, R. Sambas, dkk. (1986). ''Sejarah Daerah Kalimantan Timur''. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah 1976/1977. * Magenda, Burhan Djabier (1991). ''East Kalimantan: The Decline of a Commercial Aristocracy''. New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project. ISBN 0-87763-036-4. * Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur (1992). ''Sejarah Pemerintahan di Kalimantan Timur dari Masa ke Masa''. Samarinda: Pemerintah Provinsi Daerah Tingkat I Kalimantan Timur. {{refend}} * Hassan, A. Moeis (1994). ''Ikut Mengukir Sejarah''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. * Hassan, A. Moeis (2004). ''Kalimantan Timur: Apa, Siapa dan Bagaimana''. Jakarta: Yayasan Bina Ruhui Rahayu. ISBN 979-9222-88-5. * Arifin, Samsul & Suyatni Priasmoro (2011). ''Sejarah DPRD Kaltim dalam Perkembangan Pemerintahan Daerah 1957–2011''. Samarinda: Sekretariat DPRD Provinsi Kaltim. * Katianda, Gozali (2012). ''Anak Kampung yang Keliling Dunia''. Jakarta: Kakilangit Kencana. ISBN 978-602-8556-32-3. * Pro Kaltim (8 Désémber 2017). "Mengubur Lokasi Bersejarah Selamatkan Lapangan Kinibalu, Saksi Perjuangan Kaum Republiken". Diaksés tanggal 18 Agustus 2018. * Pro Kaltim (30 Nopémber 2015). "Lepas Jabatan Jualan Sampo, Anggota DPR Bermobil Butut Mengenang 10 Tahun Meninggalnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan (2)". Diaksés tanggal 10 Agustus 2018. * Sarip, Muhammad (2017). ''Samarinda Tempo Doeloe Sejarah Lokal 1200–1999''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-60453-4-8. * Sarip, Muhammad (2018). ''Moeis Hassan dalam Sejarah Perjuangan dan Revolusi di Kalimantan Timur''. Samarinda: RV Pustaka Horizon. ISBN 978-602-5431-22-7. * Pardede, Doan E. (4 Agustus 2018). "AM Hassan Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan Nasional dari Kaltim, Ini Sosok dan Perjuangannya" (Editor: Januar Alamijaya). [[Tribun Kaltim]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 8 Agustus 2018. * Samarinda Pos (1 Agustus 2018). "Usulkan Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Revolusi Kaltim, Pergantian Nama Jembatan Mahulu". [[Samarinda Pos]] Online. Diaksés tanggal 3 Agustus 2018. * Afdani (25 Juni 2019). "Sugeng: Sudah Sepantasnya Abdoel Moeis Hassan Dapat Gelar Pahlawan" (Editor: Doni). Diskominfo Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 25 Juni 2019. * Chalimah, Nofiyatul (26 Juni 2019). "Abdoel Moeis Hassan, Tokoh Pertama Kaltim yang Bakal Diusulkan Jadi Pahlawan". [[Kaltim Post]]. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Dinsos Humas (10 Januari 2024). "Proses Pengusulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional: Diskusi Spesial di Pesta Rakyat Kaltim". Dinas Sosial Kalimantan Timur. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * GM, Fel (23 Pébruari 2024). "Kaltim Serahkan Usulan Gelar Pahlawan Nasional kepada Kemensos". Kaltimkece.id. Diaksés tanggal 4 Januari 2025. * Rahmi, Ika Prida (26 Juni 2019). "Kesederhanaan Abdoel Moies Hassan dan Kepantasannya Menjadi Pahlawan Nasional" (Editor: Bobby Lolowang). Kaltim Kece. Diaksés tanggal 26 Juni 2019. * Pemerintah Kota Samarinda (4 Séptémber 2020). "Keputusan Wali Kota Samarinda Nomor 620/304/HK-KS/IX/2020". Pemerintah Kota Samarinda. Diaksés tanggal 16 Pébruari 2024. {{refend}} {{S-start}} {{S-off}} {{Succession box |before = [[Pranoto|APT Pranoto]] |title = [[Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] |years = 1962–1966 |after = [[Soekadio]] (pj.)<br>[[Abdoel Wahab Sjahranie]] }} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Banjar]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Samarinda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Angkatan 45]] [[Kategori:Politikus Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Politikus Partai Nasional Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Kalimantan Timur]] [[Kategori:Kapala wilayah administratif di Indonésia]] oxkb7p7niyku1krrbed74wjl09ddnpz Fitogéografi 0 109594 732191 2026-11-11T07:07:01Z Pijri Paijar 27067 Nyieun kaca anyar '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedire... 732191 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> Fitogéografi mimiti meunang perhatian nu badag dina abad ka-19, mangsa para élmuwan kawas [[Adolf Engler]] ngamekarkeun sistem klasifikasi dumasar kana sebaran tutuwuhan. Ieu klasifikasi mantuan dina mikaharti prosés évolusi nu mangaruhan sebaran tutuwuhan, kawas kajadian géologis jeung adaptasi biologis. Wewengkon fitogéografis umurna leuwih kolot batan wewengkon zoogéografis lantaran tutuwuhan mah kurang mobilitasna (teu loba kaditu-kadieu), nu ngamungkinkeun asosiasina tetep awét sapanjang waktu. == Référénsi == l4waioapqn5dwwro1vzde4mrle7w2h8 732192 732191 2026-11-11T07:07:30Z Pijri Paijar 27067 732192 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> Fitogéografi mimiti meunang perhatian nu badag dina abad ka-19, mangsa para élmuwan kawas [[Adolf Engler]] ngamekarkeun sistem klasifikasi dumasar kana sebaran tutuwuhan. Ieu klasifikasi mantuan dina mikaharti prosés évolusi nu mangaruhan sebaran tutuwuhan, kawas kajadian géologis jeung adaptasi biologis. Wewengkon fitogéografis umurna leuwih kolot batan wewengkon zoogéografis lantaran tutuwuhan mah kurang mobilitasna (teu loba kaditu-kadieu), nu ngamungkinkeun asosiasina tetep awét sapanjang waktu. == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} sjtud40okbs8819kx00wjt07r2w5j4m 732193 732192 2026-11-11T07:07:49Z Pijri Paijar 27067 732193 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> Fitogéografi mimiti meunang perhatian nu badag dina abad ka-19, mangsa para élmuwan kawas [[Adolf Engler]] ngamekarkeun sistem klasifikasi dumasar kana sebaran tutuwuhan. Ieu klasifikasi mantuan dina mikaharti prosés évolusi nu mangaruhan sebaran tutuwuhan, kawas kajadian géologis jeung adaptasi biologis. Wewengkon fitogéografis umurna leuwih kolot batan wewengkon zoogéografis lantaran tutuwuhan mah kurang mobilitasna (teu loba kaditu-kadieu), nu ngamungkinkeun asosiasina tetep awét sapanjang waktu. == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] lkku1alikx6sjjt9of1i87b9r7k6nj4 732194 732193 2026-11-11T07:08:36Z Pijri Paijar 27067 732194 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> Fitogéografi mimiti meunang perhatian nu badag dina abad ka-19, mangsa para élmuwan kawas [[Adolf Engler]] ngamekarkeun sistem klasifikasi dumasar kana sebaran tutuwuhan. Ieu klasifikasi mantuan dina mikaharti prosés évolusi nu mangaruhan sebaran tutuwuhan, kawas kajadian géologis jeung adaptasi biologis. Wewengkon fitogéografis umurna leuwih kolot batan wewengkon zoogéografis lantaran tutuwuhan mah kurang mobilitasna (teu loba kaditu-kadieu), nu ngamungkinkeun asosiasina tetep awét sapanjang waktu. == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] lfoc4kkslcjpvj917iqwjuvlsnqc42x 732195 732194 2026-11-11T07:10:08Z Pijri Paijar 27067 732195 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:The Geographical Distribution of Plants. Outline of Botanical Geography, The Distribution of Plants in a Perpendicular (IA dr the-geographical-distribution-of-plants-outline-of-botanical-geography-th-12509080).jpg|jmpl|Sebaran tutuwuhan]] '''Fitogéografi''' mangrupakeun ulikan ngeunaan sebaran géografis [[tutuwuhan]]. Ieu élmu ogé dipikawanoh salaku [[botani géografis]]. Ieu widang mangrupa cabang tina [[biogéografi]], nu sacara lega ngulik sebaran [[sato]] katut tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography {{!}} botany {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytogeography|title=Phytogeography - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> Fitogéografi mimiti meunang perhatian nu badag dina abad ka-19, mangsa para élmuwan kawas [[Adolf Engler]] ngamekarkeun sistem klasifikasi dumasar kana sebaran tutuwuhan. Ieu klasifikasi mantuan dina mikaharti prosés évolusi nu mangaruhan sebaran tutuwuhan, kawas kajadian géologis jeung adaptasi biologis. Wewengkon fitogéografis umurna leuwih kolot batan wewengkon zoogéografis lantaran tutuwuhan mah kurang mobilitasna (teu loba kaditu-kadieu), nu ngamungkinkeun asosiasina tetep awét sapanjang waktu. == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] inr1xbajllx3mvts0ktv0vk1361oeyk Taksonomi tutuwuhan 0 109595 732196 2026-11-11T07:22:42Z Pijri Paijar 27067 Nyieun kaca anyar '''Taksonomi tutuwuhan''' mangrupakeun cabang [[Biologi|élmu biologi]] nu ngulik pangenalan (idéntifikasi), pamedaran (déskripsi), pangaranan (noménklatur), jeung pangolompokan (klasifikasi) tutuwuhan. Ieu élmu mangrupa bagian tina sistématika, nyaéta élmu nu nalungtik kumaha rupa-rupa organisme silih patali. Kiwari, aya leuwih ti 391.000 spésiés tutuwuhan nu geus dipikanyaho ku sains, jeung kira-kira 2.000 spésiés anyar terus kapanggih tur didéskripsikeun ung... 732196 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Taksonomi tutuwuhan''' mangrupakeun cabang [[Biologi|élmu biologi]] nu ngulik pangenalan (idéntifikasi), pamedaran (déskripsi), pangaranan (noménklatur), jeung pangolompokan (klasifikasi) tutuwuhan. Ieu élmu mangrupa bagian tina sistématika, nyaéta élmu nu nalungtik kumaha rupa-rupa organisme silih patali. Kiwari, aya leuwih ti 391.000 spésiés tutuwuhan nu geus dipikanyaho ku sains, jeung kira-kira 2.000 spésiés anyar terus kapanggih tur didéskripsikeun unggal taunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://botanicalsociety.org.za/the-science-of-names-an-introduction-to-plant-taxonomy/|title=An introduction to plant taxonomy: The science of names|website=botanicalsociety.org.za|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> == Référénsi == cwldrhbpidxxt3amurh5ey8cs7uox7j 732197 732196 2026-11-11T07:23:01Z Pijri Paijar 27067 732197 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Taksonomi tutuwuhan''' mangrupakeun cabang [[Biologi|élmu biologi]] nu ngulik pangenalan (idéntifikasi), pamedaran (déskripsi), pangaranan (noménklatur), jeung pangolompokan (klasifikasi) tutuwuhan. Ieu élmu mangrupa bagian tina sistématika, nyaéta élmu nu nalungtik kumaha rupa-rupa organisme silih patali. Kiwari, aya leuwih ti 391.000 spésiés tutuwuhan nu geus dipikanyaho ku sains, jeung kira-kira 2.000 spésiés anyar terus kapanggih tur didéskripsikeun unggal taunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://botanicalsociety.org.za/the-science-of-names-an-introduction-to-plant-taxonomy/|title=An introduction to plant taxonomy: The science of names|website=botanicalsociety.org.za|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} rvftal834ntmsyy9ufxr4efv85zieh6 732198 732197 2026-11-11T07:23:25Z Pijri Paijar 27067 added [[Category:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 732198 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Taksonomi tutuwuhan''' mangrupakeun cabang [[Biologi|élmu biologi]] nu ngulik pangenalan (idéntifikasi), pamedaran (déskripsi), pangaranan (noménklatur), jeung pangolompokan (klasifikasi) tutuwuhan. Ieu élmu mangrupa bagian tina sistématika, nyaéta élmu nu nalungtik kumaha rupa-rupa organisme silih patali. Kiwari, aya leuwih ti 391.000 spésiés tutuwuhan nu geus dipikanyaho ku sains, jeung kira-kira 2.000 spésiés anyar terus kapanggih tur didéskripsikeun unggal taunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://botanicalsociety.org.za/the-science-of-names-an-introduction-to-plant-taxonomy/|title=An introduction to plant taxonomy: The science of names|website=botanicalsociety.org.za|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-11-11}}</ref> == Référénsi == <references />{{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Artikel Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] 820njw8idnahc2g2t94c0cxs5l5xvb7 Lisa del Giocondo 0 109596 732202 2026-11-11T11:52:29Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Kenging narjamahkeun 732202 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Lisa del Giocondo | image = Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched (3x4 headcrop).jpg | alt = Sawawa tina lukisan anu némbongkeun beungeut Lisa | image_size = | caption = Dékorasi ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' (luhur)<br>ku [[Leonardo da Vinci]] | birth_name = Lisa Camilla di Antonmaria Gherardini | birth_date = {{Birth date|1479|06|15}} | birth_place = [[Florence|Firenze]], Italia | death_date = {{Death date and age|1542|07|14|1479|06|15}}<ref>Kemp & Pallanti (2017), kc. 57.</ref> | death_place = Biara Santo Orsola, Firenze, Italia | spouse = {{marriage|Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo|5 Maret 1495}} | children = 6 | family = [[Keluarga Gherardini]] | known_for = Subjek ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' }} '''Lisa del Giocondo''' ({{lahirmati|[[Florence|Firenze]], [[Italia]]|15|6|1479|Firenze, Italia|15|7|1542}} atawa sekitar [[1551]], dina yuswa 72 taun), ogé katelah kalawan nami '''Lisa Gherardini''', mangrupa salah saurang anggota kulawarga Gherardini di [[Florence|Firenze]] jeung [[Toskana]] di [[Italia]]. Namina dipaké pikeun ''[[Mona Lisa]]'', [[lukisan diri|lukisan manéhna]] anu dipesen ku salakina sarta dilukis ku [[Leonardo da Vinci]] dina mangsa [[Renaisans Italia]]. Saeutik anu kanyahoan ngeunaan kahirupan Lisa. Manéhna lahir di Firenze and nikah sateuacan yiswana ngahontal 20 taun jeung saurang lalaki anu boga profési salaku pangrajin sapatu sarta padagang [[kain]] jeung [[sutra]] anu tuluy jadi pajabat satempat. Tina pernikahanna, Lisa ngalahirkeun lima urang anak sarta dirina dianggap ngajalankeun kahirupan anu merenah salaku indung rumah tangga kulawarga kelas menengah anu basajan. Lisa hirup leuwih lila tibatan salakina, anu boga selisih yuswa cukup jauh ti manéhna. Mangabad-abad saenggeus pupusna Lisa, ''Mona Lisa'' jadi lukisan pang populérna di dunya<ref>Riding, Alan (6 April 2005). "In Louvre, New Room With View of 'Mona Lisa'". ''The New York Times''. Diaksés tanggal 7 Oktober 2007.</ref> sarta mibanda carita anu misah jeung kahirupan Lisa, model lukisanna. Spékulasi ku para pakar jeung nu resep kana karya seni ngajadikeun ieu lukisan salaku [[ikon]] dunya jeung objék komérsialisasi. Dina taun 2005, panaluntikan anu dilakukeun di Perpustakaan [[Universitas Ruprecht Karl Heidelberg]] ngaidentifikasi Lisa del Giocondo salaku subjek tina ''Mona Lisa''.<ref>"Mona Lisa – Heidelberger Fund klärt Identität". University Library Heidelberg. Diarsipkeun tina versi aslina tanggal 8 Mei 2011. Diaksés tanggal 15 Januari 2008.</ref> == Pernikahan jeung Kahirupan Salajengna == Nalika yuswana lima belas taun, tepatna tanggal 5 Maret 1495, Lisa Gherardini nikah jeung Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo, alias Francesco del Giocondo. Maskawin Antonmaria pikeun pernikahan anak awéwéna nyaéta sebidang lahan tatanén di deukeut imah reureuhna, ditambah duit sajumlah 170 [[koin florin Italia|florin]] emas. Maskawin sagedé kitu kawilang saeutik di kalangan masarakat menengah, pangpangna lamun dibandingkeun jeung perjanjian kauangan anu dijieun dina pernikahan-pernikahan séjénna. Ieu nunjukkeun yén kulawarga Gherardini teu sugih dina waktu éta sarta yén Lisa jeung salakina nikah dumasar kana silih nyaah. Francesco del Giocondo meureun geus ngahontal yuswa tilu puluh tujuh taun basa nikah pikeun katilu kalina ieu. Ampir sarua jeung mitohana, manéhna ogé ditinggal pupus ku dua pamajikanna sateuacan nikah jeung Lisa. Pamajikan pertamana, Camilla di Mariotto Rucellai, pupus nalika budak maranéhanana, Bartolomeo, kakara umurna sataun. Mendiang pamajikan pertamana téh dulur awéwé indung tiri Lisa, nyaéta pamajikan kadua bapana, anu ngaranna Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai. Rucellai mangrupa kulawarga terpandang dina mangsa harita. [[File:Del Giocondo-Gherardini-Firenze-map.jpg|jmpl|alt=Peta Firenze dengan titik warna dekat Ponte Vechhio|[[Florence|Firenze]] Tengah. Francesco jeung Lisa cicing di Via della Stufa (beureum), jarakna {{convert|1|km|mi|1}} ti kalér [[Sungai Arno]]. Kolot Lisa cicing di deukeut éta walungan, di kalér jeung ogé kidul (ungu).]] Francesco nyaéta warga terpandang di [[Florence|Firenze]], sanajan lain kaasup tokoh terkemuka dina pamaréntahan kota. Manéhna asalna tina kulawarga padagang [[tekstil|kain]] jeung [[sutra]] anu cukup berada, sedengkeun status ékonomi kulawarga Lisa rada saeutik di handapeun status ékonomi salakina. Dina budaya barat harita, béda kelas sosial jeung ékonomi antara pangantén awéwé jeung lalaki bukanlah hal anu luar biasa, kitu deui jeung yuswa salaki anu jauh leuwih kolot, ngingetkeun saméméhna manéhna geus kungsi nikah. Kalayan kitu, teu siga anu kanyahoan ku loba jalma, euweuh nu ganjil ngeunaan status Lisa atawa pernikahanna. Pasangan pangantén anyar ieu cicing bareng di imah kulawarga Gherardini di Firenze sarta ngajalankeun hirup tengtrem salaku warga kelas menengah. Kulawarga gedé ieu babagi sagala kaperluan rumah tangga, nepi ka ahirna Francesco sanggup meuli hiji imah dina taun 1503 di gigireun imah kolot kulawargana di Via della Stufa. Lisa jeung Francesco mibanda lima urang anak, nyaéta Piero, Camilla, Andrea, Giocondo, jeung Marietta, anu opat di antarana lahir antara taun 1496 jeung 1507.<ref>Johnston, Bruce (1 Januari 2004). "Riddle of Mona Lisa is finally solved: she was the mother of five". ''Telegraph.co.uk''. Diaksés tanggal 10 Juni 2007.</ref> Leonardo diperkirakeun ngalukis lukisan Lisa dina taun anu sarua.<ref>"Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo". Musée du Louvre. Diaksés tanggal 4 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref name=Z9>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 9.</ref> Camilla jeung Marietta jadi biarawati Katolik. Camilla ngarobah ngaranna jadi Suster Beatrice di biara San Domenico di Caffagio, tempat manéhna dididik jeung diasuh ku adi Antonmaria, Suster Albiera, jeung sadulur Lisa, Suster Camilla (anu dibebaskeun tina skandal dilongokna opat lalaki di biara) jeung Suster Alessandra.<ref name="Pallanti 61">Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira, kc. 61–62. ISBN 88-7624-659-2.</ref> Beatrice pupus dina yuswa 18 taun<ref name="Pallanti 61"/> sarta dimakamkeun di [[Basilika Santa Maria Novella]].<ref name=M154>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 154.</ref> Nami Marietta robah jadi suster Ludovica.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 63.</ref> Dumasar kana panaluntikan, Francesco pupus ku sabab kaserang wabah panyakit dina taun 1538, dina yuswa sekitar 80 taunan. Lisa anu pohara sedihna dibawa ku anak awéwéna, Suster Ludovica ka biara Sant' Orsola, sarta manéhna nyusul mendiang salakina opat taun ti harita dina yuswa 63 taun.<ref>Lorenzi, Rossella (19 Januari 2007). "Mona Lisa Grave Found, Claims Scholar". ''Discovery Channel News''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Lorenzi, Rossella (2 Mei 2007). "Mona Lisa's Identity Revealed?". ''Discovery Channel News''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref> Nanging, laporan séjén nyebutkeun yén Lisa meureun neruskeun hirup nepi ka ngahontal yuswa 71 atawa 72 taun, nu hartina manéhna pupus sekitar taun 1551.<ref name=Z4>Zöllner (1993), kc. 4.</ref> Dina bulan Juni 1537, dina surat wasiatna Francesco méré deui mahar perkawinanna ka Lisa, méré pakéan pribadi, perhiasan, sarta nyadiakeun kaperluan masa depanna. Francesco nulis dina wasiatna: "kalayan sakabéh rasa nyaah jeung cinta pewaris ka Mona Lisa, pamajikanna anu tercinta; mibanda pertimbangan kanyataan yén salila ieu Lisa geus némbongkeun jiwa mulia salaku pamajikan anu satia; miharep sangkan manéhna salawasna tercukupi kaperluanna..."<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 105.</ref> == Kahirupan Awal jeung Kulawarga == Lisa lahir di Via Maggio, [[Florence|Firenze]] dina tanggal 15 Juni 1479,<ref name="Pallanti-37" /> nanging salila sababaraha taun manéhna disangka lahir di salah sahiji kulawarga nu boga pasawahan Villa Vignamaggio di luareun Greve.<ref>Villa Vignamaggio. "History of Vignamaggio". Diarsipkeun tina versi aslina tanggal 12 Mei 2006. Diaksés tanggal 5 April 2008.</ref> Manéhna dibéré nami Lisa, saperti nami nini ti pihak bapana.<ref>Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira, kc. 40. ISBN 88-7624-659-2.</ref> Salaku anak panggedéna ti tujuh duduluran, Lisa mibanda tilu adi awéwé—salah sahijina ngaranna Ginevra—serta tilu adi lalaki anu ngaranna Giovangualberto, Fransesco, jeung Noldo.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 44.</ref> Kulawarga Lisa kaasup kulawarga bangsawan anu geus leungit pangaruhna.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 58.</ref> Maranéhanana tetep di [[Florence|Firenze]], mimitina di deukeut [[Santa Trinita]]. Sanajan teu sugih mBungkah, maranéhanana hirup waluya, kalawan panghasilan asalna tina lahan tatanén. Maranéhanana tuluy ngontrak tempat di deukeut [[Santo Spirito, Firenze|Santo Spirito]], disangka lantaran geus teu sanggup deui ngabiayaan perbaikan imahna basa aya karuksakan parah. Maranéhanana pindah ka kawasan anu ayeuna dingaranan Via dei Pepi, tuluy ka deukeut Santa Croce. Di tempat inilah maranéhanana hirup tatangga jeung Ser Piero da Vinci, bapa Leonardo.<ref name=Pallanti-45-46>Pallanti (2006), kc. 45–46.</ref> Harita maranéhanana ogé masih boga imah reureuh di St. Donato, désa Poggio, {{convert|32|km|mi|0}} di sebelah kidul kota.<ref name=Z4>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 4.</ref> Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini, bapa Lisa, geus nikah sababaraha kali. Dina taun 1476, manéhna nikah jeung Lucrezia del Caccia, anu engkéna ngalahirkeun Lisa. Dua pamajikan saméméhna—Lisa di Giovanni Filippo de’ Carducci anu dipigarwa taun 1465, jeung Caterina Rucellai anu dipigarwa taun 1473—pupus nalika ngalahirkeun.<ref name=Pallanti-37>Pallanti (2006), kc. 37.</ref> Gherardini dina hiji mangsa boga atawa ngontrak genep lahan tatanén di [[Chianti]], anu ngahasilkeun gandum, anggur, jeung minyak zaitun, sarta miara sasatoan tatanén.<ref name="Pallanti">Pallanti (2006), kc. 41–44.</ref> Noldo, aki Lisa, ngahaturkeun séba lahan tatanén di Chianti ka Rumah Sakit [[Santa Maria Nuova (komune)|Santa Maria Nuova]]. Gherardini ngontrakkeun lahan tatanén séjénna, tur sangkan manéhna bisa ngawaskeun panén gandum, kulawargana ngabébakan usum panas di dinya, di hiji imah nu ngaranna Ca’ di Pesa.<ref name="Pallanti" /> == ''Mona Lisa'' == {{utama|Mona Lisa}} [[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|jmpl|''[[Mona Lisa]]'' (''[[Basa Italia|Italia]]'': ''La Gioconda'', ''[[Basa Prancis|Prancis]]'': ''La Joconde'') karya [[Leonardo da Vinci]], disimpen di [[Louvre]].]] Sapertos warga Firenze séjénna dina hal keuangan, kulawarga Francesco mangrupa panyinta jeung panyalindungan barang seni. Anak lalakina, Bartolommeo, ménta ka Antonio di Donnino Mazzieri pikeun nyieun hiji lukisan di pajaratan kulawarga di [[Santissima Annunziata, Firenze|Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze]]. [[Andrea del Sarto]] ngalukis [[Madonna (karya seni)|Madonna]] pikeun anggota kulawarga séjénna.<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 154.</ref> Francesco ménta ka Leonardo pikeun ngalukis pamajikanna, jeung ka [[Domenico Puligo]] pikeun ngalukis [[Fransiskus dari Assisi|Santo Fransiskus dari Assisi]]. Manéhna diperkirakeun ménta lukisan Lisa pikeun ngalirkeun rasa bagja dina kalahiran Andrea jeung pameseran imah kulawarga.<ref name=Z9>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 9.</ref> ''Mona Lisa'' ngawakilan sosok awéwé bangsawan dina abad ka-15 jeung mimiti abad ka-16. Lisa digambarkeun salaku pamajikan anu satia ngaliwatan posisi leungeun katuhuna anu numpang di luhur leungeun kiwana. Ngaliwatan karyana, Leonardo ogé ngalukiskeun Lisa salaku awéwé modis jeung mapan, anu meureun leuwih hadé tibatan sosok Lisa anu sabenerna. Pakéan hideung jeung cadar hideungna dipangaruhan ku mode Spanyol anu berkelas; warna hideung ieu lain mangrupa ungkapan rasa sedih alatan maotna anak pertamana, sakumaha anu dikemukakeun ku para pakar saméméhna. Ieu lukisan ukuranana kacida galedéna; ukuranana sarua jeung lukisan milik patron seni anu leuwih sugih dina mangsa harita. Para pakar ngemukakeun yén hal ieu nandakeun bentuk aspirasi sosial Francesco jeung Lisa.<ref>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 12.</ref> [[File:Mona Lisa stolen-1911.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Pencurian ''Mona Lisa'' ti Louvre taun 1911 jeung lalakina ka [[Asia]] jeung [[Amerika Kalér]] salila taun 1960-an jeung 1970-an boga pangaruh kana [[ikon]]isasi jeung kakoncaraanna éta lukisan.<ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 14–16. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref>]] Leonardo teu mibanda sumber panghasilan salila usum semi 1503, anu di antarana disababkeun ku katertarikanna kana lukisan potrét pribadi.<ref>Masters, Roger D. (1998). ''Fortunes Made, Fortunes Lost: The Dubious History of the Art Market''. John Wiley & Sons.</ref><ref>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 7.</ref> Nanging, dina ahir taun éta, Leonardo kudu nunda pengerjaan ''Mona Lisa'' sanggeus manéhna nampi pamayaran pikeun ngamimitian ''[[Pertempuran Anghiari (lukisan)|Pertempuran Anghiari]]'', anu pamayaranna leuwih luhur tur manéhna dikontrak pikeun ngaréngsékeunana dina Pébruari 1505.<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 136.</ref> Dina taun 1506, Leonardo masih menganggap lukisan ''Mona Lisa'' tacan réngsé.<ref>Clark, Kenneth (1973). ''The Leonardo da Vinci Drawings at Windsor Castle''. Phaidon, kc. 144–151.</ref> Manéhna teu nampi pamayaran pikeun karyana éta tur teu ngirimkeunana ka klienna, Francesco.<ref>Zöllner (1993), kc. 6.</ref> Salila hirupna, Leonardo mawa ''Mona Lisa'' lalakonan bareng jeung dirina, sarta éta lukisan kakara réngsé sababaraha taun ti harita di Perancis,<ref>Kemp, Martin (2006). ''Leonardo da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man''. Oxford University Press, kc. 261–262.</ref> diperkirakeun dina taun 1516.<ref>"Mona Lisa 1503-16". University of the Arts, London. Diaksés tanggal 24 Oktober 2007.</ref> Judul dina éta lukisan taunna 1550. Salah saurang kenalan anggota kulawarga Francesco,<ref name=Z4>Zöllner (1993), kc. 4.</ref> [[Giorgio Vasari]], nulis: "Leonardo nyieun lukisan, pikeun Francesco del Giocondo, lukisan Mona Lisa, pamajikanna"<ref>Clark (1973), kc. 144–151.</ref> ({{Lang-it|Prese Lionardo a fare per Francesco del Giocondo il ritratto di mona Lisa sua moglie.}}).<ref>Vasari, Giorgio (1879). ''Le Vite de' piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori''. G. C. Sansoni, kc. 39.</ref> Judul éta lukisan dina basa Italia (''La Gioconda'') jeung Perancis (''La Joconde'') mangrupa nami pernikahan sarta panggero Lisa; dina basa Indonésia, padanan kecapna nyaéta "gembira" atawa "yang berbahagia".<ref>Kemp (2006), kc. 261–262.</ref> Spékulasi netepkeun yén nami Lisa sahanteuna aya dina opat lukisan béda<ref>Stites, Raymond S. (1936). "The ''Mona Lisa'' of Florence". ''Parnassus'', kc. 7–10, 22–23.</ref><ref>Littlefield, Walter (2000). ''The Two Mona Lisas''. Kessinger Publishing, kc. 364–366.</ref><ref>Wilson, Colin (2000). ''The Mammoth Book of Unsolved Mysteries''. Carroll & Graf, kc. 525.</ref> kalawan identitas sakurang-kurangna sapuluh jalma anu béda ogé.<ref>Debelle, Penelope (25 Juni 2004). "Behind That Secret Smile". ''The Age''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Johnston, Bruce (8 Januari 2004). "Riddle of Mona Lisa is Finally Solved: She Was the Mother of Five". ''Telegraph.co.uk''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Nicholl, Charles (28 Maret 2002). "The Myth of the Mona Lisa" (Ulasan tina ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting'' ku Donald Sassoon). ''London Review of Books''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Chaundy, Bob (29 Séptémber 2006). "Faces of the Week". ''BBC News''. Diaksés tanggal 5 Oktober 2007.</ref> Dina ahir abad ka-20, ieu lukisan jadi [[ikon]] global anu geus dipaké dina leuwih ti 300 lukisan séjénna jeung dina 2.000 iklan anu mucunghul hiji dina unggal mingguna.<ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 16. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref> [[File:Mona Lisa margin scribble.jpg|jmpl|ka|alt=Notasi Cutattan [[Agostino Vespucci]]]] Dina taun 2005, saurang ahli di perpustakaan [[Universitas Ruprecht Karl Heidelberg]] manggihan hiji catetan dina koléksi pustaka éta, anu ngécéskeun yén subjek lukisan Leonardo téh nyaéta Lisa. Éta catetan ditulis ku [[Agostino Vespucci]] dina taun 1503, anu nyebutkeun yén Leonardo keur ngerjakeun lukisan Lisa del Giocondo. ''Mona Lisa'' dipiboga ku Perancis ti saprak abad ka-16 sanggeus [[François I dari Prancis|François I]] meulina seharga 4.000 keping emas, and ku kituna, ieu lukisan jadi milik rahayat Perancis sanggeus [[Révolusi Perancis]].<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 158.</ref><ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 8. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref> Ayeuna, sekitar 6 juta jalma ngadatangan ''Mona Lisa'' unggal taun di [[Louvre]], [[Paris]], tempat éta lukisan jadi koléksi nasional Perancis.<ref>Canetti, Claudine. "The world's most famous painting has the Louvre all aflutter". ''Actualité en France'' via French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (diplomatie.gouv.fr). Diaksés tanggal 8 Oktober 2007.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|2}} * Clark, Kenneth (Maret 1973). "Mona Lisa" (Kutipan tarjamahan tina Vasari). ''The Burlington Magazine'', Vol. 115, No. 840, kc. 144–151. ISSN 0007-6287. JSTOR 877242. * Kemp, Martin (2006). ''Leonardo Da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature And Man''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280725-0. * Littlefield, Walter (1914). "The Two 'Mona Lisas'". ''The Century: A Popular Quarterly'', Vol. 87, kc. 525. * Masters, Roger D. (15 Juni 1998). ''Fortune is a River: Leonardo da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificant Dream of Changing the Course of Florentine History'' (Catetan online pikeun Bab 6). Free Press via Dartmouth College. ISBN 0-684-84452-4. * Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo Da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science'', Jilid 2, kc. 153–172. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. * Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira. ISBN 88-7624-659-2. * Sassoon, Donald (2001). "Mona Lisa: the Best-Known Girl in the Whole Wide World". ''History Workshop Journal'', No. 51, kc. 1–18. ISSN 1477-4569. * Stites, Raymond S. (Januari 1936). "Mona Lisa--Monna Bella". ''Parnassus'', Vol. 8, No. 1, kc. 7–10. doi:10.2307/771197. * Vasari, Giorgio (1879). ''Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori ed architettori'', Jilid IV (Diédit ku Gaetano Milanesi). Firenze: G.C. Sansoni. (Karya asli diterbitkeun taun 1550). * Wilson, Colin (2000). ''The Mammoth Encyclopedia of the Unsolved''. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-0793-3. * Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Mona Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', Vol. 121, kc. 115–138. ISSN 0016-5530. {{refend}} == Catetan == {{notelist|2}} ohyipwnubat54ud3fhaeifdmgq5hac5 732203 732202 2026-11-11T11:53:27Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 732203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Lisa del Giocondo | image = Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched (3x4 headcrop).jpg | alt = Sawawa tina lukisan anu némbongkeun beungeut Lisa | image_size = | caption = Dékorasi ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' (luhur)<br>ku [[Leonardo da Vinci]] | birth_name = Lisa Camilla di Antonmaria Gherardini | birth_date = {{Birth date|1479|06|15}} | birth_place = [[Florence|Firenze]], Italia | death_date = {{Death date and age|1542|07|14|1479|06|15}}<ref>Kemp & Pallanti (2017), kc. 57.</ref> | death_place = Biara Santo Orsola, Firenze, Italia | spouse = {{marriage|Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo|5 Maret 1495}} | children = 6 | family = [[Keluarga Gherardini]] | known_for = Subjek ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' }} '''Lisa del Giocondo''' ({{lahirmati|[[Florence|Firenze]], [[Italia]]|15|6|1479|Firenze, Italia|15|7|1542}} atawa sekitar [[1551]], dina yuswa 72 taun), ogé katelah kalawan nami '''Lisa Gherardini''', mangrupa salah saurang anggota kulawarga Gherardini di [[Florence|Firenze]] jeung [[Toskana]] di [[Italia]]. Namina dipaké pikeun ''[[Mona Lisa]]'', [[lukisan diri|lukisan manéhna]] anu dipesen ku salakina sarta dilukis ku [[Leonardo da Vinci]] dina mangsa [[Renaisans Italia]]. Saeutik anu kanyahoan ngeunaan kahirupan Lisa. Manéhna lahir di Firenze and nikah sateuacan yiswana ngahontal 20 taun jeung saurang lalaki anu boga profési salaku pangrajin sapatu sarta padagang [[kain]] jeung [[sutra]] anu tuluy jadi pajabat satempat. Tina pernikahanna, Lisa ngalahirkeun lima urang anak sarta dirina dianggap ngajalankeun kahirupan anu merenah salaku indung rumah tangga kulawarga kelas menengah anu basajan. Lisa hirup leuwih lila tibatan salakina, anu boga selisih yuswa cukup jauh ti manéhna. Mangabad-abad saenggeus pupusna Lisa, ''Mona Lisa'' jadi lukisan pang populérna di dunya<ref>Riding, Alan (6 April 2005). "In Louvre, New Room With View of 'Mona Lisa'". ''The New York Times''. Diaksés tanggal 7 Oktober 2007.</ref> sarta mibanda carita anu misah jeung kahirupan Lisa, model lukisanna. Spékulasi ku para pakar jeung nu resep kana karya seni ngajadikeun ieu lukisan salaku [[ikon]] dunya jeung objék komérsialisasi. Dina taun 2005, panaluntikan anu dilakukeun di Perpustakaan [[Universitas Ruprecht Karl Heidelberg]] ngaidentifikasi Lisa del Giocondo salaku subjek tina ''Mona Lisa''.<ref>"Mona Lisa – Heidelberger Fund klärt Identität". University Library Heidelberg. Diarsipkeun tina versi aslina tanggal 8 Mei 2011. Diaksés tanggal 15 Januari 2008.</ref> == Pernikahan jeung Kahirupan Salajengna == Nalika yuswana lima belas taun, tepatna tanggal 5 Maret 1495, Lisa Gherardini nikah jeung Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo, alias Francesco del Giocondo. Maskawin Antonmaria pikeun pernikahan anak awéwéna nyaéta sebidang lahan tatanén di deukeut imah reureuhna, ditambah duit sajumlah 170 [[koin florin Italia|florin]] emas. Maskawin sagedé kitu kawilang saeutik di kalangan masarakat menengah, pangpangna lamun dibandingkeun jeung perjanjian kauangan anu dijieun dina pernikahan-pernikahan séjénna. Ieu nunjukkeun yén kulawarga Gherardini teu sugih dina waktu éta sarta yén Lisa jeung salakina nikah dumasar kana silih nyaah. Francesco del Giocondo meureun geus ngahontal yuswa tilu puluh tujuh taun basa nikah pikeun katilu kalina ieu. Ampir sarua jeung mitohana, manéhna ogé ditinggal pupus ku dua pamajikanna sateuacan nikah jeung Lisa. Pamajikan pertamana, Camilla di Mariotto Rucellai, pupus nalika budak maranéhanana, Bartolomeo, kakara umurna sataun. Mendiang pamajikan pertamana téh dulur awéwé indung tiri Lisa, nyaéta pamajikan kadua bapana, anu ngaranna Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai. Rucellai mangrupa kulawarga terpandang dina mangsa harita. [[File:Del Giocondo-Gherardini-Firenze-map.jpg|jmpl|alt=Peta Firenze dengan titik warna dekat Ponte Vechhio|[[Florence|Firenze]] Tengah. Francesco jeung Lisa cicing di Via della Stufa (beureum), jarakna {{convert|1|km|mi|1}} ti kalér [[Sungai Arno]]. Kolot Lisa cicing di deukeut éta walungan, di kalér jeung ogé kidul (ungu).]] Francesco nyaéta warga terpandang di [[Florence|Firenze]], sanajan lain kaasup tokoh terkemuka dina pamaréntahan kota. Manéhna asalna tina kulawarga padagang [[tekstil|kain]] jeung [[sutra]] anu cukup berada, sedengkeun status ékonomi kulawarga Lisa rada saeutik di handapeun status ékonomi salakina. Dina budaya barat harita, béda kelas sosial jeung ékonomi antara pangantén awéwé jeung lalaki bukanlah hal anu luar biasa, kitu deui jeung yuswa salaki anu jauh leuwih kolot, ngingetkeun saméméhna manéhna geus kungsi nikah. Kalayan kitu, teu siga anu kanyahoan ku loba jalma, euweuh nu ganjil ngeunaan status Lisa atawa pernikahanna. Pasangan pangantén anyar ieu cicing bareng di imah kulawarga Gherardini di Firenze sarta ngajalankeun hirup tengtrem salaku warga kelas menengah. Kulawarga gedé ieu babagi sagala kaperluan rumah tangga, nepi ka ahirna Francesco sanggup meuli hiji imah dina taun 1503 di gigireun imah kolot kulawargana di Via della Stufa. Lisa jeung Francesco mibanda lima urang anak, nyaéta Piero, Camilla, Andrea, Giocondo, jeung Marietta, anu opat di antarana lahir antara taun 1496 jeung 1507.<ref>Johnston, Bruce (1 Januari 2004). "Riddle of Mona Lisa is finally solved: she was the mother of five". ''Telegraph.co.uk''. Diaksés tanggal 10 Juni 2007.</ref> Leonardo diperkirakeun ngalukis lukisan Lisa dina taun anu sarua.<ref>"Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo". Musée du Louvre. Diaksés tanggal 4 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref name=Z9>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 9.</ref> Camilla jeung Marietta jadi biarawati Katolik. Camilla ngarobah ngaranna jadi Suster Beatrice di biara San Domenico di Caffagio, tempat manéhna dididik jeung diasuh ku adi Antonmaria, Suster Albiera, jeung sadulur Lisa, Suster Camilla (anu dibebaskeun tina skandal dilongokna opat lalaki di biara) jeung Suster Alessandra.<ref name="Pallanti 61">Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira, kc. 61–62. ISBN 88-7624-659-2.</ref> Beatrice pupus dina yuswa 18 taun<ref name="Pallanti 61"/> sarta dimakamkeun di [[Basilika Santa Maria Novella]].<ref name=M154>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 154.</ref> Nami Marietta robah jadi suster Ludovica.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 63.</ref> Dumasar kana panaluntikan, Francesco pupus ku sabab kaserang wabah panyakit dina taun 1538, dina yuswa sekitar 80 taunan. Lisa anu pohara sedihna dibawa ku anak awéwéna, Suster Ludovica ka biara Sant' Orsola, sarta manéhna nyusul mendiang salakina opat taun ti harita dina yuswa 63 taun.<ref>Lorenzi, Rossella (19 Januari 2007). "Mona Lisa Grave Found, Claims Scholar". ''Discovery Channel News''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Lorenzi, Rossella (2 Mei 2007). "Mona Lisa's Identity Revealed?". ''Discovery Channel News''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref> Nanging, laporan séjén nyebutkeun yén Lisa meureun neruskeun hirup nepi ka ngahontal yuswa 71 atawa 72 taun, nu hartina manéhna pupus sekitar taun 1551.<ref name=Z4>Zöllner (1993), kc. 4.</ref> Dina bulan Juni 1537, dina surat wasiatna Francesco méré deui mahar perkawinanna ka Lisa, méré pakéan pribadi, perhiasan, sarta nyadiakeun kaperluan masa depanna. Francesco nulis dina wasiatna: "kalayan sakabéh rasa nyaah jeung cinta pewaris ka Mona Lisa, pamajikanna anu tercinta; mibanda pertimbangan kanyataan yén salila ieu Lisa geus némbongkeun jiwa mulia salaku pamajikan anu satia; miharep sangkan manéhna salawasna tercukupi kaperluanna..."<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 105.</ref> == Kahirupan Awal jeung Kulawarga == Lisa lahir di Via Maggio, [[Florence|Firenze]] dina tanggal 15 Juni 1479,<ref name="Pallanti-37" /> nanging salila sababaraha taun manéhna disangka lahir di salah sahiji kulawarga nu boga pasawahan Villa Vignamaggio di luareun Greve.<ref>Villa Vignamaggio. "History of Vignamaggio". Diarsipkeun tina versi aslina tanggal 12 Mei 2006. Diaksés tanggal 5 April 2008.</ref> Manéhna dibéré nami Lisa, saperti nami nini ti pihak bapana.<ref>Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira, kc. 40. ISBN 88-7624-659-2.</ref> Salaku anak panggedéna ti tujuh duduluran, Lisa mibanda tilu adi awéwé—salah sahijina ngaranna Ginevra—serta tilu adi lalaki anu ngaranna Giovangualberto, Fransesco, jeung Noldo.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 44.</ref> Kulawarga Lisa kaasup kulawarga bangsawan anu geus leungit pangaruhna.<ref>Pallanti (2006), kc. 58.</ref> Maranéhanana tetep di [[Florence|Firenze]], mimitina di deukeut [[Santa Trinita]]. Sanajan teu sugih mBungkah, maranéhanana hirup waluya, kalawan panghasilan asalna tina lahan tatanén. Maranéhanana tuluy ngontrak tempat di deukeut [[Santo Spirito, Firenze|Santo Spirito]], disangka lantaran geus teu sanggup deui ngabiayaan perbaikan imahna basa aya karuksakan parah. Maranéhanana pindah ka kawasan anu ayeuna dingaranan Via dei Pepi, tuluy ka deukeut Santa Croce. Di tempat inilah maranéhanana hirup tatangga jeung Ser Piero da Vinci, bapa Leonardo.<ref name=Pallanti-45-46>Pallanti (2006), kc. 45–46.</ref> Harita maranéhanana ogé masih boga imah reureuh di St. Donato, désa Poggio, {{convert|32|km|mi|0}} di sebelah kidul kota.<ref name=Z4>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 4.</ref> Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini, bapa Lisa, geus nikah sababaraha kali. Dina taun 1476, manéhna nikah jeung Lucrezia del Caccia, anu engkéna ngalahirkeun Lisa. Dua pamajikan saméméhna—Lisa di Giovanni Filippo de’ Carducci anu dipigarwa taun 1465, jeung Caterina Rucellai anu dipigarwa taun 1473—pupus nalika ngalahirkeun.<ref name=Pallanti-37>Pallanti (2006), kc. 37.</ref> Gherardini dina hiji mangsa boga atawa ngontrak genep lahan tatanén di [[Chianti]], anu ngahasilkeun gandum, anggur, jeung minyak zaitun, sarta miara sasatoan tatanén.<ref name="Pallanti">Pallanti (2006), kc. 41–44.</ref> Noldo, aki Lisa, ngahaturkeun séba lahan tatanén di Chianti ka Rumah Sakit [[Santa Maria Nuova (komune)|Santa Maria Nuova]]. Gherardini ngontrakkeun lahan tatanén séjénna, tur sangkan manéhna bisa ngawaskeun panén gandum, kulawargana ngabébakan usum panas di dinya, di hiji imah nu ngaranna Ca’ di Pesa.<ref name="Pallanti" /> == ''Mona Lisa'' == {{utama|Mona Lisa}} [[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|jmpl|''[[Mona Lisa]]'' (''[[Basa Italia|Italia]]'': ''La Gioconda'', ''[[Basa Prancis|Prancis]]'': ''La Joconde'') karya [[Leonardo da Vinci]], disimpen di [[Louvre]].]] Sapertos warga Firenze séjénna dina hal keuangan, kulawarga Francesco mangrupa panyinta jeung panyalindungan barang seni. Anak lalakina, Bartolommeo, ménta ka Antonio di Donnino Mazzieri pikeun nyieun hiji lukisan di pajaratan kulawarga di [[Santissima Annunziata, Firenze|Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze]]. [[Andrea del Sarto]] ngalukis [[Madonna (karya seni)|Madonna]] pikeun anggota kulawarga séjénna.<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 154.</ref> Francesco ménta ka Leonardo pikeun ngalukis pamajikanna, jeung ka [[Domenico Puligo]] pikeun ngalukis [[Fransiskus dari Assisi|Santo Fransiskus dari Assisi]]. Manéhna diperkirakeun ménta lukisan Lisa pikeun ngalirkeun rasa bagja dina kalahiran Andrea jeung pameseran imah kulawarga.<ref name=Z9>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 9.</ref> ''Mona Lisa'' ngawakilan sosok awéwé bangsawan dina abad ka-15 jeung mimiti abad ka-16. Lisa digambarkeun salaku pamajikan anu satia ngaliwatan posisi leungeun katuhuna anu numpang di luhur leungeun kiwana. Ngaliwatan karyana, Leonardo ogé ngalukiskeun Lisa salaku awéwé modis jeung mapan, anu meureun leuwih hadé tibatan sosok Lisa anu sabenerna. Pakéan hideung jeung cadar hideungna dipangaruhan ku mode Spanyol anu berkelas; warna hideung ieu lain mangrupa ungkapan rasa sedih alatan maotna anak pertamana, sakumaha anu dikemukakeun ku para pakar saméméhna. Ieu lukisan ukuranana kacida galedéna; ukuranana sarua jeung lukisan milik patron seni anu leuwih sugih dina mangsa harita. Para pakar ngemukakeun yén hal ieu nandakeun bentuk aspirasi sosial Francesco jeung Lisa.<ref>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 12.</ref> [[File:Mona Lisa stolen-1911.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Pencurian ''Mona Lisa'' ti Louvre taun 1911 jeung lalakina ka [[Asia]] jeung [[Amerika Kalér]] salila taun 1960-an jeung 1970-an boga pangaruh kana [[ikon]]isasi jeung kakoncaraanna éta lukisan.<ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 14–16. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref>]] Leonardo teu mibanda sumber panghasilan salila usum semi 1503, anu di antarana disababkeun ku katertarikanna kana lukisan potrét pribadi.<ref>Masters, Roger D. (1998). ''Fortunes Made, Fortunes Lost: The Dubious History of the Art Market''. John Wiley & Sons.</ref><ref>Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', kc. 7.</ref> Nanging, dina ahir taun éta, Leonardo kudu nunda pengerjaan ''Mona Lisa'' sanggeus manéhna nampi pamayaran pikeun ngamimitian ''[[Pertempuran Anghiari (lukisan)|Pertempuran Anghiari]]'', anu pamayaranna leuwih luhur tur manéhna dikontrak pikeun ngaréngsékeunana dina Pébruari 1505.<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 136.</ref> Dina taun 1506, Leonardo masih menganggap lukisan ''Mona Lisa'' tacan réngsé.<ref>Clark, Kenneth (1973). ''The Leonardo da Vinci Drawings at Windsor Castle''. Phaidon, kc. 144–151.</ref> Manéhna teu nampi pamayaran pikeun karyana éta tur teu ngirimkeunana ka klienna, Francesco.<ref>Zöllner (1993), kc. 6.</ref> Salila hirupna, Leonardo mawa ''Mona Lisa'' lalakonan bareng jeung dirina, sarta éta lukisan kakara réngsé sababaraha taun ti harita di Perancis,<ref>Kemp, Martin (2006). ''Leonardo da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man''. Oxford University Press, kc. 261–262.</ref> diperkirakeun dina taun 1516.<ref>"Mona Lisa 1503-16". University of the Arts, London. Diaksés tanggal 24 Oktober 2007.</ref> Judul dina éta lukisan taunna 1550. Salah saurang kenalan anggota kulawarga Francesco,<ref name=Z4>Zöllner (1993), kc. 4.</ref> [[Giorgio Vasari]], nulis: "Leonardo nyieun lukisan, pikeun Francesco del Giocondo, lukisan Mona Lisa, pamajikanna"<ref>Clark (1973), kc. 144–151.</ref> ({{Lang-it|Prese Lionardo a fare per Francesco del Giocondo il ritratto di mona Lisa sua moglie.}}).<ref>Vasari, Giorgio (1879). ''Le Vite de' piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori''. G. C. Sansoni, kc. 39.</ref> Judul éta lukisan dina basa Italia (''La Gioconda'') jeung Perancis (''La Joconde'') mangrupa nami pernikahan sarta panggero Lisa; dina basa Indonésia, padanan kecapna nyaéta "gembira" atawa "yang berbahagia".<ref>Kemp (2006), kc. 261–262.</ref> Spékulasi netepkeun yén nami Lisa sahanteuna aya dina opat lukisan béda<ref>Stites, Raymond S. (1936). "The ''Mona Lisa'' of Florence". ''Parnassus'', kc. 7–10, 22–23.</ref><ref>Littlefield, Walter (2000). ''The Two Mona Lisas''. Kessinger Publishing, kc. 364–366.</ref><ref>Wilson, Colin (2000). ''The Mammoth Book of Unsolved Mysteries''. Carroll & Graf, kc. 525.</ref> kalawan identitas sakurang-kurangna sapuluh jalma anu béda ogé.<ref>Debelle, Penelope (25 Juni 2004). "Behind That Secret Smile". ''The Age''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Johnston, Bruce (8 Januari 2004). "Riddle of Mona Lisa is Finally Solved: She Was the Mother of Five". ''Telegraph.co.uk''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Nicholl, Charles (28 Maret 2002). "The Myth of the Mona Lisa" (Ulasan tina ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting'' ku Donald Sassoon). ''London Review of Books''. Diaksés tanggal 6 Oktober 2007.</ref><ref>Chaundy, Bob (29 Séptémber 2006). "Faces of the Week". ''BBC News''. Diaksés tanggal 5 Oktober 2007.</ref> Dina ahir abad ka-20, ieu lukisan jadi [[ikon]] global anu geus dipaké dina leuwih ti 300 lukisan séjénna jeung dina 2.000 iklan anu mucunghul hiji dina unggal mingguna.<ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 16. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref> [[File:Mona Lisa margin scribble.jpg|jmpl|ka|alt=Notasi Cutattan [[Agostino Vespucci]]]] Dina taun 2005, saurang ahli di perpustakaan [[Universitas Ruprecht Karl Heidelberg]] manggihan hiji catetan dina koléksi pustaka éta, anu ngécéskeun yén subjek lukisan Leonardo téh nyaéta Lisa. Éta catetan ditulis ku [[Agostino Vespucci]] dina taun 1503, anu nyebutkeun yén Leonardo keur ngerjakeun lukisan Lisa del Giocondo. ''Mona Lisa'' dipiboga ku Perancis ti saprak abad ka-16 sanggeus [[François I dari Prancis|François I]] meulina seharga 4.000 keping emas, and ku kituna, ieu lukisan jadi milik rahayat Perancis sanggeus [[Révolusi Perancis]].<ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science''. London: William Heinemann, kc. 158.</ref><ref>Sassoon, Donald (2001). ''Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting''. HarperCollins, kc. 8. ISBN 0-00-257119-5.</ref> Ayeuna, sekitar 6 juta jalma ngadatangan ''Mona Lisa'' unggal taun di [[Louvre]], [[Paris]], tempat éta lukisan jadi koléksi nasional Perancis.<ref>Canetti, Claudine. "The world's most famous painting has the Louvre all aflutter". ''Actualité en France'' via French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (diplomatie.gouv.fr). Diaksés tanggal 8 Oktober 2007.</ref> == Daptar Pustaka == {{refbegin|2}} * Clark, Kenneth (Maret 1973). "Mona Lisa" (Kutipan tarjamahan tina Vasari). ''The Burlington Magazine'', Vol. 115, No. 840, kc. 144–151. ISSN 0007-6287. JSTOR 877242. * Kemp, Martin (2006). ''Leonardo Da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature And Man''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280725-0. * Littlefield, Walter (1914). "The Two 'Mona Lisas'". ''The Century: A Popular Quarterly'', Vol. 87, kc. 525. * Masters, Roger D. (15 Juni 1998). ''Fortune is a River: Leonardo da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificant Dream of Changing the Course of Florentine History'' (Catetan online pikeun Bab 6). Free Press via Dartmouth College. ISBN 0-684-84452-4. * Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''Leonardo Da Vinci, Artist, Thinker and Man of Science'', Jilid 2, kc. 153–172. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. * Pallanti, Giuseppe (2006). ''Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model''. Skira. ISBN 88-7624-659-2. * Sassoon, Donald (2001). "Mona Lisa: the Best-Known Girl in the Whole Wide World". ''History Workshop Journal'', No. 51, kc. 1–18. ISSN 1477-4569. * Stites, Raymond S. (Januari 1936). "Mona Lisa--Monna Bella". ''Parnassus'', Vol. 8, No. 1, kc. 7–10. doi:10.2307/771197. * Vasari, Giorgio (1879). ''Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori ed architettori'', Jilid IV (Diédit ku Gaetano Milanesi). Firenze: G.C. Sansoni. (Karya asli diterbitkeun taun 1550). * Wilson, Colin (2000). ''The Mammoth Encyclopedia of the Unsolved''. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-0793-3. * Zöllner, Frank (1993). "Leonardo's Portrait of Mona Lisa del Giocondo". ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', Vol. 121, kc. 115–138. ISSN 0016-5530. {{refend}} == Catetan == {{notelist|2}} [[Kategori: Lukisan]] 71g2radmvm9413wah7oogvpre1scstr