Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6225 124077 123471 2026-11-08T18:19:06Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 33 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261108) #IABot (v2.0.9.7) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]) 124077 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dango''' ni malango agho ghakupangika na kulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ulongozgi panji gha ŵanthu kuti ghalongozge nkhalo, ndipo ng'anamulo yake yakwenelera yaŵa nkhani ya kususkana kwa nyengo yitali. Ŵanyake ŵakulilongosola nga ni kasandiro, ndipo ŵanyake nga ni luso la ulunji. Malango agho caro cikulondezgeska ghangapangika na mphala, ndipo ghakuŵa malango gha mphala; na cigaŵa cakufiska malango kwizira mu vilangulo na malongozgero; panji na viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi, ivyo vikuŵa viweruzgo vyakulongozgera mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo. Wakuwusa payekha wangacita milimo iyi yose mu ufumu wake. Kupangika kwa malango ghene kungakhwaskika na Dango Likulu, lakulembeka panji lambura kulembeka, kweniso wanangwa uwo walembeka mu ilo. Dango likukhwaska ndyali, cuma, mbiri na ŵanthu mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo likuteŵetera so nga ni nkhoswe pa ubwezi wa ŵanthu. Ndondomeko za dango zikupambana kuyana na dera la mazaza, ndipo kupambana kwake kukusandika mu kasandiro ka kuyaniska malango. Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba, mphala panji wupu unyake wapakati ukulemba malango ghose mu malemba ghamoza na kughawunjika pamoza. Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, ŵeruzgi ŵangapanga malango gha viweruzgo agho ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kughalondezga kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, nangauli nyengo zinyake malango agha ghangang'anamulika na mphara yapacanya panji mphala. Dango la cisopa likugwira ntchito mu magulu ghanyake gha visopa na mu vyaro vinyake, ndipo kale lakakhwaska dango lambura cisopa. Dango lingagawika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: dango la ŵanthu wose likukhwaskana na ulongozgi na ŵanthu, kusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango; dango la ŵanthu paŵekha likukhwaskana na mphindano za dango pakati pa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa nga ni maphangano, cuma, kunanga ŵanyake, na dango la malonda. Kupambana uku nkhwakuwoneka comene mu vyaro vya Dango la Malemba, comenecomene ivyo vili na ndondomeko yapadera ya mphara za ulongozgi; kweni mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, kupatulana kwa dango la ŵanthu wose na la ŵanthu paŵekha kukuwoneka comene yayi. Dango likupeleka nkhani za kusanda kwa ŵasambiri mu mbiri ya dango, kasandiro ka vinjeru, kusanda cuma, na kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu. Dango likwiziska so nkhani zakuzirwa na zakusuzga zakukhwaskana na kuyana kwa ŵanthu, kweruzga kwambura kutora lwande, na ulunji. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''law'', ilo likusangika mu Cingelezi ca Kale nga ni ''lagu'', likufuma ku lizgu la Cinorse ca Kale lakuti ''lǫg''. Mu umoza wake, ''lag'' likang'anamulanga "cinthu cakuŵikika panji cakukhazikika", kweni mu unandi wake likang'anamulanga "dango". == Kasandiro ka Vinjeru ka Dango == Kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango kakumanyikwa comene kuti kasandiro ka malango. Kasandiro ka malango ka vyakwenelera kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango likwenera kuŵa wuli?", apo kasandiro ka malango kakusanda kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" === Kasandiro ka Malango Kakusanda === Pali kuyezgayezga kunandi kwa kupanga "ng'anamulo ya dango iyo yingazomerezgeka na ŵanthu wose pa caro cose". Mu 1972, Baron Hampstead wakasacizga kuti ng'anamulo nga iyi yingapangika yayi. McCoubrey na White ŵakayowoya kuti fumbo lakuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" lilije zgoro lambura kusuzga. Glanville Williams wakayowoya kuti ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" yikuyana na malo agho lizgu ili likugwiliskirika ntchito. Wakayowoya kuti, mwaciyelezgero, "dango la mdawuko la kale" na "dango la msumba" ni malo agho lizgu lakuti "dango" lili na ng'anamulo ziŵiri zakupambana izo zingagumanyika yayi. Thurman Arnold wakayowoya kuti nkhwakuwonekera kuti nchambura kucitikiska kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango", ndipo nkhwakuwonekera so kuti kuyezgayezga kupeleka ng'anamulo yake kukwenera kulekeka yayi nyengo yose. Munthu wangaghanaghana kuti palije cifukwa ca kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" (mwaciyelezgero, "tiluwe nkhani za pacanya-pacanya, tiye ku milandu yeneyene"). Ng'anamulo yimoza njakuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango na malongozgero agho ghakulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ŵanthu kuti ghawuse nkhalo. Mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', H. L. A. Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni "ndondomeko ya malango"; John Austin wakayowoya kuti dango ni "cilangulo ca wakuwusa wapacanya, cakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa cilango"; Ronald Dworkin, mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', wakulongosola dango nga ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" kuti ulunji ufiskike; ndipo Joseph Raz wakuti dango ni "mazaza" ghakuŵa nkhoswe pa vyakukhumba vya ŵanthu. Oliver Wendell Holmes wakapeleka ng'anamulo ya dango kuti ni "ucimi wa ivyo mphara zicitenge nadi, ndipo palije cinyake cakujikuzga kuluska ivi." Mu buku lake la ''Treatise on Law'', Thomas Aquinas wakuti dango ni kulongosola vinthu mwa vinjeru, vyakukhwaskana na uwemi wa ŵanthu wose, uko kukuthandazgika na yose uyo wapika udindo wa kupwelelera ŵanthu. Ng'anamulo iyi yili na vigaŵa vya dango lakuŵikika na vya dango la kawiro. === Dango, Nkhalo Yiwemi na Ulunji === Ng'anamulo za dango kanandi zikwiziska fumbo lakuti kasi dango likusazgamo nkhalo yiwemi mpaka pati. Zgoro la John Austin, la ghanoghano la candulo, likaŵa kuti dango ni "vilangulo, vyakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa vilango, vyakufuma kwa wakuwusa wapacanya, uyo ŵanthu ŵazgoŵera kumupulikira". Kweni ŵakukolera dango la kawiro, nga ni Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ŵakuti dango likulongola malango gha kawiro agho ni gha nkhalo yiwemi na ghambura kusintha. Ghanoghano la "dango la kawiro" likamba mu kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki ŵa kale pa nyengo yimoza na ghanoghano la ulunji, ndipo likawelera so mu ukhaliro wa Kumadazi kwizira mu malemba gha Thomas Aquinas, comenecomene buku lake la ''Treatise on Law''. Hugo Grotius, uyo wakambiska ndondomeko ya dango la kawiro yakuthemba pa vinjeru pera, wakayowoya kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la ŵanthu la kukhala pamoza, nga umo Aristotle wakalongolera, kweniso ku vinjeru. Immanuel Kant wakagomezga kuti cilangulo ca nkhalo yiwemi cikukhumba kuti malango "ghasankhike nga ni kuti ghakwenera kugwira ntchito nga ni malango gha kawiro gha pa caro cose". Jeremy Bentham na msambiri wake Austin, kulondezga David Hume, ŵakagomezga kuti ici cikasazganya suzgo la "ivyo viliko" na "ivyo vikwenera kuŵa". Bentham na Austin ŵakakolera dango lakuŵikika; kuti dango nadi ndakupatukana limoza na "nkhalo yiwemi". Kant wakasuskika so na Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakakana fundo ya kuyana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo wakagomezga kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo lingacemeka yayi kuti nda "nkhalo yiwemi" panji nda "nkhalo yiheni". Mu 1934, musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Austria, Hans Kelsen, wakalutilizga mdawuko wa dango lakuŵikika mu buku lake la ''Pure Theory of Law''. Kelsen wakagomezga kuti nangauli dango ndakupatukana na nkhalo yiwemi, lili na "ukwenelero", kung'anamula kuti tikwenera kulipulikira. Nangauli malango ni mazgo gha "ivyo viliko" (mwaciyelezgero, dipo la kwendeska galimoto kumanyuma pa msewu ukulu ni €500), malango ghakutiphalira ivyo "tikwenera" kucita. Ntheura, tingaghanaghana kuti ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango yili na "dango la muzu" (Cijeremani: ''Grundnorm'') ilo likutiphalira kupulikira. Mususki mukulu wa Kelsen, Carl Schmitt, wakakana dango lakuŵikika na ghanoghano la uwuso wa dango, cifukwa wakazomera yayi kuti fundo za vyakwenelera zambura kuwoneka ziŵe pa malo ghakwamba kuluska maghanoghano gha ndyali ghakuwoneka na visankho. Ntheura, Schmitt wakakolera kasandiro ka malango ka nyengo yapadera (nyengo ya suzgo likulu), ako kakakana kuti malango ghangafikapo pa vyose ivyo vikucitika mu ndyali. Kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, H. L. A. Hart, mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', wakasuska Austin cifukwa ca kupepuska vinthu, na Kelsen cifukwa ca vyakughanaghanira waka. Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango, ghakugawika mu malango ghakwamba (malango gha nkhalo) na malango ghaciŵiri (malango gha ŵamazaza, ghakuŵawovwira kufiska malango ghakwamba). Malango ghaciŵiri ghakugawika so mu malango gha kweruzga (kumazga mphindano za dango), malango gha kusintha (kusintha malango), na dango la kuzomerezga (kumanya kuti malango ni ghakwenelera). Ŵasambiri ŵaŵiri ŵa Hart ŵakalutilizga kususkana uku: Mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', Ronald Dworkin wakasuska Hart na ŵakukolera dango lakuŵikika cifukwa ca kukana kwawo kuwona dango nga ni nkhani ya nkhalo yiwemi. Dworkin wakuti dango ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" ilo likukhumba kuti ŵeruzgi ŵasange nthowa yakwenelera comene na ya ulunji comene ya kumazgira mphindano ya dango, kuyana na midawuko ya Dango Likulu ya Ŵangelezi na Ŵamerika. Kweni Joseph Raz wakavikilira ghanoghano la dango lakuŵikika, ndipo mu ''The Authority of Law'' wakasuska nthowa ya Hart ya "fundo ya ŵanthu yakupepuka". Raz wakuti dango ni mazaza, agho ghangamanyikwa kwizira mu malo ghakufumira mu ŵanthu pera, kwambura kukhwaska maghanoghano gha nkhalo yiwemi. Mu maghanoghano ghake, kugawa kulikose kwa malango kujumpha ntchito yawo nga ni vyakugwiriskira ntchito vya mazaza pa unkhoswe, kukwenera kusidikilika ku kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu, pa malo pa kasandiro ka malango. == Mbiri == Mbiri ya dango yikukolerana comene na kukura kwa ukhaliro wa ŵanthu. Dango la Ŵaegupto ŵa kale, ilo likamba mu 3000 pambere Khristu, likazengeka pa ghanoghano la ''Ma'at'', ndipo likamanyikwanga na mdawuko, luso la kuyowoya, kuyana kwa ŵanthu, na kwambura kutora lwande. Pofika mu vyaka vya m'ma 2100 pambere Khristu, wakuwusa wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, Ur-Nammu, wakaŵa wapanga buku lakwamba la malango, ilo likaŵa na mazgo gha "para … ntheura …". Cha m'ma 1760 pambere Khristu, Kalonga Hammurabi wakakuzga dango la Ŵababulo mwa kulilemba pamoza na kuligwala pa libwe. Hammurabi wakaŵika malibwe ghakwimika ghanandi gha buku lake la malango mu ufumu wose wa Babulo kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaghawone; ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Codex Hammurabi''. Libwe ilo likaŵa lambura kunangika comene likasangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵasiriya ŵa ku Britain, ndipo kufuma apo ilo lalembeka mu malembo ghanyake na kung'anamulika mu viyowoyero vinandi, kusazgapo Cingelezi, Ciitaliya, Cijeremani na Cifurenci. Phangano Lakale likufuma mu 1280 pambere Khristu, ndipo likupeleka vilangulo vya nkhalo yiwemi nga ni ulongozgi wa ŵanthu ŵawemi. Msumba-caro mucoko wa Ŵagiriki, Atene wa kale, kufuma cha m'ma vyaka vya 700 pambere Khristu, ukaŵa wupu wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzengeka pa kupokera ŵenecaro wose, kupatulapo ŵanakazi na ŵazga. Kweni Atene ukaŵavya kasandiro ka malango panji lizgu limoza la "dango"; ukathemba pa kupatula vinthu vitatu: dango la Ciuta (''thémis''), cilangulo ca ŵanthu (''nómos''), na mdawuko (''díkē''). Ndipouli, dango la Ŵagiriki ŵa kale likaŵa na vyakupangika viphya vikulu vya Dango Likulu pa kukura kwa uwuso wa ŵanthu. Dango la Ŵaroma likakhwaskika comene na kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki, kweni ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika ndiwo ŵakapanga malango ghake mwakufikapo, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene. Mu vyaka vinandi pakati pa kuwuka na kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, dango likasinthika kuti likolerane na umoyo wa ŵanthu wakusintha, ndipo likalembeka pamoza comene mu nyengo ya Theodosius II na Justinian I. Nangauli mabuku gha malango ghakasinthika na mdawuko na malango gha viweruzgo mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba, dango la Ŵaroma likasangika so cha m'ma vyaka vya 1000, apo ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵa nyengo ya pakati ŵakamba kusanda mabuku gha malango gha Ŵaroma na kukozgeska maghanoghano ghake ku dango la mpingo, ndipo ivi vikababa ''jus commune''. Mazgo gha vinjeru gha dango mu Cilatini (ghakucemeka ''brocards'') ghakawunjikika pamoza kuti ghalongozgenge. Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mphara za mafumu zikapanga viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vinandi, ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa Dango la Viweruzgo. Dango la Ŵamalonda likakhazikiskika mu Ulaya yose kuti ŵamalonda ŵacitenge malonda pa malongozgero ghakuyana, pa malo pa malango ghanandi ghakupambanapambana gha malo ghakupambana. Dango la Ŵamalonda, ilo likaŵa pambere dango la malonda la sono lindize, likakhomeleza wanangwa wa kupangana maphangano na wanangwa wa kupeleka cuma ku munthu munyake. Apo kutemwa caro kukakuranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na m'ma 1800, Dango la Ŵamalonda likasazgika mu malango gha vyaro mu mabuku ghaphya gha Dango la Malemba. Buku la Malango la Napoleon na Buku la Malango la Ŵajeremani ndigho ghakakhwaska comene kuluska ghanyake. Kupambana na Dango la Viweruzgo la Ŵangelezi, ilo lili na mabuku ghakulu comene gha malango gha viweruzgo, mabuku ghacoko gha malango ngakupepuka kutumizga ku vyaro vinyake, ndipo ngakupepuka kuti ŵeruzgi ŵaghagwiriske ntchito. Kweni sono pali vimanyikwiro vyakuti Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo vikuneng'enerana. Dango la Wupu wa Vyaro vya Ulaya lili kulembeka mu maphangano, kweni likukura kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera nadi ivyo vikuŵikika na Mphara ya Ulunji ya Ulaya. India na China ŵa kale ŵakulongola midawuko yakupambana ya dango, ndipo kale ŵakaŵa na mawupu ghawo gha fundo zakusacizga za dango na kagwiliskiro kake ka ntchito. ''Arthashastra'', ilo panji likawunjikika cha m'ma 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu (nangauli lili na vinthu vya kale kuluska apo), na ''Manusmriti'' (cha m'ma 100–300 mumuwilo wa Khristu) ghakaŵa mabuku gha muzu mu India, ndipo ghali na malemba agho ghakuwonekera kuŵa malongozgero gha dango ghakugomezgeka. Vinjeru vikulu vya Manu vikaŵa kuzizipizga ŵanyake na kuzomera kupambanapambana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo vikazunulikanga mu Asia yose ya Kumwera kwa Kumafumiro gha Dazi. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Ŵasilamu za kuthereska cigaŵa ca India, ''sharia'' likakhazikiskika na maufumu gha Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ''Fatawa-e-Alamgiri'' la Ufumu wa Mughal, ilo likawunjikika na Themba Aurangzeb pamoza na ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵa Cisilamu. Mu India, mdawuko wa dango wa Ŵahindu, pamoza na dango la Cisilamu, vikaŵikirikapo Dango la Viweruzgo pa malo ghawo apo India likaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain. Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore na Hong Kong nawo ŵakapokera ndondomeko ya Dango la Viweruzgo. Mdawuko wa dango wa Asia ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi ukulongola kusazganikana kwapadera kwa vyakukhwaska vyambura cisopa na vya cisopa. Japan ndico caro cakwamba kwamba kusintha ndondomeko yake ya dango kuŵa ya sono kulondezga Ŵakumadazi, mwa kutora vigaŵa vya Buku la Dango la Malemba la Ŵafurenci, kweni comene la Ŵajeremani. Ici cikalongolanga, pa cigaŵa cinyake, umo Germany likaŵira caro cakukura mu nkhongono kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mwakuyana waka, dango la mdawuko la China likapeleka malo ku kulondezga Ŵakumadazi mu vyaka vyaumaliro vya Ufumu wa Qing, mu mabuku ghankhondi na limoza gha dango la ŵanthu paŵekha, agho ghakazengeka comene pa ciyelezgero ca Ŵajapani ca dango la Ŵajeremani. Sono dango la Taiwan ndilo likuyana comene na malango ghakulembeka pamoza gha nyengo iyo, cifukwa ca kupatukana pakati pa ŵakutemwa caro ŵa Chiang Kai-shek, awo ŵakacimbilira kwenekuko, na ŵakukolera cuma ca wose ŵa Mao Zedong, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa caro cikulu mu 1949. Ndondomeko ya sono ya dango mu Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China yikakhwaskika comene na Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma la Soviet, ilo likuŵika dango la ulongozgi pa malo ghakwamba kuluska wanangwa wa dango la ŵanthu paŵekha. Cifukwa ca kukura luŵiro kwa vyakupanga mu nyumba za vyakupangira, sono China yikusintha, comenecomene pa wanangwa wa cuma, nangauli ni pa wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali yayi. Buku liphya la malango gha maphangano ilo likambika mu 1999 likalongola kusintha kufuma ku kuwusika na ulongozgi pera. Kweniso, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa vyaka khumi na vinkhondi, mu 2001 China yikanjila mu Wupu wa Malonda wa Caro Cose. == Ndondomeko za Dango == Kanandi, ndondomeko za dango zingagawika pakati pa Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo. Ŵamanyi ŵa sono ŵakuti kuzirwa kwa kupambana uku kwacepa pacokopacoko. Kutora malango kufuma ku vyaro vinyake kunandi, uko nkhwakuzgoŵereka mu dango la sono, kukupangiska kuti vimanyikwiro vinandi ivyo kale vikamanyikwanga kuŵa vya Dango la Viweruzgo panji vya Dango la Malemba visangike mu vyose viŵiri. Mtundu wacitatu wa ndondomeko ya dango ni dango la cisopa, ilo lazengeka pa malemba gha cisopa. Ndondomeko iyo caro cikuwusikira nayo kanandi yikusankhika na mbiri yake, ubwezi wake na vyaro vinyake, panji kupulikira kwake malongozgero gha pakati pa vyaro. Malo agho madera gha mazaza ghakupokera nga ni ghakuŵa na mazaza gha kukakizga ŵanthu ndigho ghakupambaniska ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango. === Dango la Malemba === Dango la Malemba ni ndondomeko ya dango iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vinandi pa caro cose mazuŵa ghano. Mu Dango la Malemba, malo agho ghakuzomerezgeka kuŵa na mazaza ni, comene, malango gha mphala (comenecomene malango ghakulembeka pamoza mu Malango Ghakulu panji malango gha mphala agho ulongozgi wazomerezga) na mdawuko. Kulemba malango pamoza kukamba vyaka vinandi comene ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ciyelezgero cimoza ca kale ni ''Codex Hammurabi'' ca Ŵababulo. Ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba zikufuma comene ku mabuku gha malango agho Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakapeleka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500, agho ghakasangika so mu Italy mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000. Dango la Ŵaroma mu nyengo ya Caro Cambura Fumu ca Ŵaroma na ya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma likathembanga comene pa ndondomeko za milandu, ndipo likaŵavya gulu la ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika. M'malo mwake, mweruzgi wambura kusambira dango, ''iudex'', wakasankhikanga kuti weruzge. Viweruzgo vikathandazgikanga mwandondomeko yayi, ntheura malango gha viweruzgo ghose agho ghakakuranga ghakabisikanga ndipo ghakamanyikwanga cara. Mulandu uliwose ukeruzgikanga kwambira pasi kufuma mu malango gha caro, ico cikuyana na kuleka kuzirwa (mu fundo yakusacizga) kwa viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi pa milandu ya kunthazi mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba mazuŵa ghano. Kufuma mu 529 kufika mu 534 mumuwilo wa Khristu, Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakalemba pamoza na kuwunjika dango lose la Ŵaroma mpaka nyengo iyo, mwakuti ivyo vikakhalako vikaŵa cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa 20 vya malemba ghose gha dango agho ghakaŵapo kale. Ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Corpus Juris Civilis''. Nga umo mulembi yumoza wa mbiri ya dango wakalembera, "Justinian wakawona dala kumanyuma ku nyengo ya golide ya dango la Ŵaroma, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuliwezgera pa msonga uwo likaŵa kuti lafikapo vyaka 300 pambere." Buku la Malango la Justinian likalutilira kugwira ntchito ku Kumafumiro gha Dazi mpaka kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Byzantium. Pa nyengo iyo, Ulaya wa Kumadazi ukathembanga pa kusazganikana kwa Buku la Malango la Theodosius na malango gha mdawuko gha Ŵajeremani ŵa kale, mpaka Buku la Malango la Justinian likasangika so mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ilo ŵamanyi ŵa ku Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Bologna ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito kung'anamula malango ghawo. Malango gha Dango la Malemba ghakulembeka pamoza, agho ghakazengeka comene pa dango la Ŵaroma na kukhwaskika na malango gha cisopa nga ni dango la mpingo, ghakalutilira kuthandazgika mu Ulaya yose mpaka ku Nyengo ya Kungweluskika. Ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, France, na ''Code Civil'', na Germany, na ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'', vikasintha mabuku ghawo gha malango kuŵa gha sono. Mabuku agha ghaŵiri ghakakhwaska comene, kuleka waka ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vya Ulaya wa pa mtunda, kweni so midawuko ya dango ya Ŵajapani na Ŵakoreya. Fundo yakugomezgeka yikulu mu maghanoghano gha dango gha Ulaya wa pa mtunda, iyo yikafuma mu kasandiro ka malango ka Ŵajeremani, ni ghanoghano la ''Rechtsstaat'', ilo likung'anamula kuti waliyose wali pasi pa dango, comenecomene maulongozgi. Mazuŵa ghano, vyaro ivyo vili na ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba vikwamba ku Russia na Turkey kufika ku vyaro vinandi vya Amerika ya Pakati na Amerika ya Cilatini. === Dango la Viweruzgo na Dango la Kwenelera === Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, viweruzgo vya mphara vikuzomerezgeka pakweru kuŵa dango, mwakuyana na malango gha mphala na malongozgero gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Fundo yakugomezgeka ya viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, panji ''stare decisis'' (mu Cilatini, "kwimilira pa viweruzgo"), yikung'anamula kuti viweruzgo vya mphara zapacanya vikukakizga mphara zapasi, kuti milandu yakuyana yiŵe na viweruzgo vyakuyana. Kweni mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, malango gha mphala kanandi ngakufikapo comene. Viweruzgo vya mphara ni vyafupi ndipo vyakufikapo comene yayi, cifukwa mweruzgi wakulemba kuti weruzge mulandu umoza pera, kuleka kuti waŵike maghanoghano agho ghazamulongozga mphara za kunthazi. Dango la Viweruzgo likafuma ku Ungelezi, ndipo lahalika na pafupifupi caro ciliconse ico kale cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain (kupatulapo Malta, Scotland, cigaŵa ca Louisiana mu United States, na cigaŵa ca Quebec mu Canada). Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mu nyengo ya Kuthereska kwa Ŵanoromani, dango likapambananga kufuma ku cigaŵa kuya ku cigaŵa, kulongola midawuko yakupambanapambana ya mitundu. Ghanoghano la dango lakuyana mu caro cose likakura mu uwuso wa Henry II kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, apo Henry wakasankha ŵeruzgi awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza gha kupanga ndondomeko ya dango yimoza yakukhazikika, iyo yikaŵa ya caro cose. Mbondolo yikulu yakulondezgapo pa kukura kwa Dango la Viweruzgo yikiza apo Kalonga John wakakakizgika na mafumu ghake ghacoko kuzomera cikalata ico cikacepeska mazaza ghake gha kupanga malango. ''Magina Karita'' ya 1215 yikakhumba so kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakulondezga Kalonga ŵacitirenge mphara na viweruzgo vyawo pa "malo ghamoza ghakumanyikwa", kuleka kweruzga mwakujiwusira pa malo ghambura kumanyikwa mu caro cose. Gulu licoko la ŵeruzgi ŵakusankhika likaŵa na mazaza ghakulu pa kupanga malango mu ndondomeko iyi, ndipo kuyaniska na ivyo vikaŵa mu Ulaya, cigaŵa ca kweruzga ca Ungelezi cikaŵa pa malo ghamoza comene. Mwaciyelezgero, mu 1297, apo mphara yapacanya comene mu France yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi 51, ''Court of Common Pleas'' ya Ungelezi yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi ŵankhondi pera. Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ici, ico cikaŵa na nkhongono na kukolerana comene, cikababa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kukuzgira Dango la Viweruzgo. Apo nyengo yikajumphanga, ŵanandi ŵakawona kuti Dango la Viweruzgo likaŵa lakukhazikika comene na lambura kupindika, ndipo ŵenecaro ŵanandi comene ŵakapempha Kalonga kuti walijumphe. Pa malo pa Kalonga, ''Lord Chancellor'' wakamba kupeleka viweruzgo kuti cakwenelera cicitike pa mulandu. Kufuma mu nyengo ya Sir Thomas More, mwimiliri wa milandu wakwamba kusankhika kuŵa ''Lord Chancellor'', Dango la Kwenelera lakukhazikika likakura pamoza na Dango la Viweruzgo lambura kupindika, ndipo likaŵa na mphara yake, ''Court of Chancery''. Pakwamba, Dango la Kwenelera likasuskikanga kanandi cifukwa ca kwendera kwambura ndondomeko. Pacokopacoko, mphara za Dango la Kwenelera zikapanga fundo zakukhora, comenecomene mu nyengo ya Lord Eldon. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 mu Ungelezi, na mu 1937 mu United States, ndondomeko izi ziŵiri zikalumikizgika. Pa kukuzga Dango la Viweruzgo, malemba gha ŵamanyi ghaŵa na ntchito yakuzirwa nyengo zose, pa kuwunjika fundo zikulu kufuma mu malango gha viweruzgo ghakuthandazgika, na pa kukhumbira kusintha. William Blackstone, kufuma cha m'ma 1760, ndiyo wakaŵa mumanyi wakwamba kuwunjika, kulongosola, na kusambizga Dango la Viweruzgo. Kweni pa kulongosola pera, ŵamanyi awo ŵakapenjanga malongosoro na ndondomeko za mukati pacokopacoko ŵakasintha umo dango likagwiliranga ntchito nadi. === Dango la Cisopa === Dango la cisopa lazengeka pakweru pa fundo za cisopa. Viyelezgero ni ''Halakha'' ya Ŵayuda na ''Sharia'' ya Cisilamu, ndipo ng'anamulo ya vyose viŵiri ni "nthowa ya kulondezga". Dango la mpingo la Ŵakhristu nalo likucali kugwira ntchito mu mipingo yinyake. Kanandi, cisopa cikung'anamula kuti dango lingasintha yayi, cifukwa Mazgo gha Ciuta ghangasinthika panji kususkika na malango gha ŵeruzgi panji gha maulongozgi yayi. Ndipouli, madera ghanandi gha mazaza gha cisopa ghakuthemba pa malongosoro ghanyake gha ŵanthu kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko za dango zakufikapo. Mwaciyelezgero, Kurani lili na malango ghanyake, ndipo likuŵa cisimi ca malango ghanyake kwizira mu kung'anamula, ''Qiyas'' (kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska), ''Ijma'' (kupulikana kwa wose), na viweruzgo vyakulongozgera. Ivi vili comene mu malango na kasandiro ka malango ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti ''Sharia'' na ''Fiqh'', mwakulondezgana. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni ''Torah'' panji Phangano Lakale, mu Mabuku Ghankhondi gha Mozesi. Ili lili na malango gha muzu gha dango la Ŵayuda, agho magulu ghanyake gha Ŵaisrayeli ghakusankha kugwiliskira ntchito. ''Halakha'' ni buku la malango la Ŵayuda ilo likupatawula mwakufupikiska ng'anamulo zinyake za ''Talmud''. Vyaro vinandi ni madera gha mazaza gha ''Sharia''. Dango la Israeli likuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa pa mulandu kugwiliskira ntchito malango gha cisopa pera para ŵasankha. Dango la mpingo likugwiliskirika ntchito pera na ŵanthu ŵa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, na Mipingo ya Angilikani. ==== Dango la Mpingo ==== Dango la mpingo (Cigiriki ca Kale: κανών, ''kanon'', kung'anamula kuti "nthonga yakugoloka yakupimira") ni vilangulo na malongozgero agho ghakupangika na mazaza gha mpingo, kuti ghawuse wupu wa Ŵakhristu panji mpingo na ŵanthu ŵake. Ni dango la mukati la mpingo ilo likuwusa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro, na mipingo ya caro ciliconse mu Mipingo ya Angilikani. Umo dango la mpingo ili likupangikira, kung'anamulikira, na nyengo zinyake kweruzgikira, vikupambana comene pakati pa magulu agha ghatatu gha mipingo. Mu midawuko yose yitatu, ''canon'' pakwamba likaŵa dango ilo wungano wa mpingo wazomerezga; malango agha ndigho ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la mpingo. Mpingo wa Katolika uli na ndondomeko ya dango ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito kwambura kuleka mu caro ca Kumadazi, ndipo yikambapo pambere ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo za Ulaya zindakure. Buku la Dango la Mpingo la 1983 likuwusa Mpingo wa Cilatini ''sui juris''. Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi, iyo yikapanga malango na midawuko yakupambana, yikuwusika na Buku la Malango la Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi. Dango la mpingo la Mpingo wa Katolika likakhwaska Dango la Viweruzgo mu nyengo ya pakati kwizira mu kusunga fundo zakugomezgeka za dango la Ŵaroma, nga ni fundo ya kumuwona munthu kuŵa wambura mlandu mpaka wasimikizgike. Dango la mpingo la Katolika ni ndondomeko ya dango yakukura comene, iyo yili na vyose vyakukhumbikwa: mphara, ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, ŵeruzgi, buku la malango lakulongosoleka makora, fundo za kung'anamula dango, na vilango vyakukakizga, nangauli lilije nkhongono ya kukakizga ŵanthu mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza ghambura cisopa. ==== Dango la Sharia ==== Mpaka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, dango la ''Sharia'' likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu vyaro vyose vya Ŵasilamu kwambura kulembeka pamoza, ndipo buku la malango la ''Mecelle'' la Ufumu wa Ŵaottomani mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 likaŵa kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kulemba pamoza vigaŵa vya dango la ''Sharia''. Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1940, vyaro vinandi, cimoza pamanyuma pa cinyake, vyayezgayezga kuti dango la ''Sharia'' likolerane comene na umoyo na maghanoghano gha sono. Mazuŵa ghano, ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu zikutora ku midawuko ya Dango la Malemba na ya Dango la Viweruzgo, kweniso ku dango la Cisilamu na mdawuko. Malango Ghakulu gha vyaro vinyake vya Ŵasilamu, nga ni Egupto na Afghanistan, ghakuzomerezga Cisilamu kuŵa cisopa ca caro, ndipo ghakukakizga mphala kulondezga ''Sharia''. Saudi Arabia likuzomerezga Kurani kuŵa Dango Likulu lake, ndipo likuwusika kuyana na dango la Cisilamu. Iran nalo lawona dango la Cisilamu likuwelera so mu ndondomeko yake ya dango pamanyuma pa 1979. Mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha, cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vikulu vya wupu wa kuwuska so Cisilamu caŵa kucema kuti ''Sharia'' liwezgeke, ico capangiska malemba ghanandi comene na kukhwaska ndyali ya pa caro cose. === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma ni ndondomeko ya dango mu vyaro vya cuma ca wose nga ni Soviet Union ya kale na Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China. Ŵamanyi ŵakupambana maghanoghano pa kuti kasi ni ndondomeko yapadera kufuma ku Dango la Malemba, cifukwa ca kupambana kukulu na Dango la Malemba uko kukufuma mu cigomezgo ca Marx na Lenin, nga ni kuŵika cigaŵa ca kweruzga pasi pa wupu wa ndyali wakuwusa. == Nthowa za Dango == Pali nthowa zakupambana za kughanaghana kwa dango (kugwiliskira ntchito dango) na nthowa za kung'anamula dango. Nthowa zakwamba ni kughanaghana kwa vigaŵa vitatu, uko kukuwusa mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba; kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska, uko kukusangika mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, comenecomene mu United States; na fundo zakusacizga za kususkana, izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri. Nthowa zaciŵiri ni malango ghakupambana gha kung'anamula dango, nga ni kung'anamula mwa ciyowoyero, kung'anamula mwa candulo, na kung'anamula mwa ndondomeko, kweniso malango ghapadera, mwaciyelezgero, Dango la Golide panji dango la suzgo. Paliso maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi na malango gha kung'anamulira, agho pamoza ghakupangiska kuti kung'anamula malango gha mphala kucitike. Msambizgi mukulu wa dango, kweniso Mwimiliri Mukulu wa Ulongozgi wa United States wa kale, Edward H. Levi, wakawona kuti "ciyelezgero ca muzu ca kughanaghana kwa dango ni kughanaghana mwa viyelezgero", kung'anamula kuti kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska ivyo vikafumamo mu milandu iyo yikamazga mafumbo gha dango ghakuyana. Mu mulandu wa Mphara Yilala ya United States, wakukhwaskana na ndondomeko izo wupu wa malonda wakulozga vikwerete ukacita kuti ukhweŵe vyakubudiska, Mweruzgi Sotomayor wakacenjezga kuti "kughanaghana kwa dango nkhwambura kucitika waka nga ni makina, panji kwa mzere umoza pera". Malango nyengo zinyake ghangababa vyakufumamo vyambura kukhumbika, vyakukokera ŵanthu ku vyakuheni, panji vyakunanga ico ghakakhumbanga kufiska. Masamu gha Dango ni kugwiliskira ntchito mwandondomeko nthowa za kupima unandi, comenecomene fundo ya mayero na Kusanthura-Maŵiro, pa mafumbo gha dango. Kuzirwa kwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro mu milandu ya mphara na mu nkhani za magazini gha dango kwakura comene mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha. == Mawupu gha Dango == Mawupu ghakulu gha dango mu vyaro ivyo vyakura mu vyakupanga ni mphara zakujiwusa, mphala za ŵathenga, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cakuzgolera ku ŵanthu, ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, uteŵeti wa ulongozgi, ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, na mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghene. John Locke, mu buku lake la ''Two Treatises of Government'', na Baroni de Montesquieu, mu ''The Spirit of the Laws'', ŵakakolera kupatulana kwa mazaza pakati pa mawupu gha ndyali, gha mphala, na gha kufiska malango. Fundo yawo yikaŵa yakuti palije munthu uyo wakwenera kujitolera mazaza ghose gha caro, kupambana na fundo yakusacizga ya mazaza ghose kwa wakuwusa yumoza iyo Thomas Hobbes wakalemba mu ''Leviathan''. Dango Likulu la Mazaza Ghankhondi la Sun Yat-sen, ilo likaŵa la Caro Cambura Fumu ca China, likalutilizga kupatulana kwa mazaza mwa kusazgapo vigaŵa viŵiri vinyake vya ulongozgi: ''Control Yuan'', ya kupenda ndalama na kulaŵilira, na ''Examination Yuan'', ya kusankha ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi. Max Weber na ŵanyake ŵakasintha maghanoghano pa kukura kwa mazaza gha caro. Mazaza gha sono gha ŵankhondo, gha ŵapolisi na gha uteŵeti wa ulongozgi pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa wa ŵenecaro ŵaŵaka vikwiziska masuzgo ghapadera pa kuzgolera, agho ŵalembi ŵa kale nga ni Locke panji Montesquieu ŵakatenge ŵaghawone pambere yayi. Midawuko na kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kufika kwa ŵanthu ku ulunji, apo mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghakung'anamula mawupu gha ŵanthu, magulu, na ubwezi uwo ukupanga maziko gha dango mu ndyali. === Cigaŵa ca Kweruzga === Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ni ndondomeko ya mphara iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito dango na maphangano. Kuyana na fundo yakugomezgeka ya kupatulana kwa mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga kanandi cikupanga malango gha mphala yayi (uwo ni udindo wa mphala), panji kulondezgeska dango yayi (uwo ni udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango); kweni cikung'anamula, kuvikilira, na kugwiliskira ntchito dango pa vyaunenesko vya mulandu uliwose. Kweni mu vyaro vinyake, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cikupanga Dango la Viweruzgo nadi. Mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cili na mazaza gha kung'anamula malango, kupenda malango, na kupenda pa Dango Likulu. Mphara izo zili na mazaza gha kupenda malango zingamazga malango na malongozgero gha caro para zasanga kuti ghakupambana na malango ghanyake, nga ni malango ghakwamba gha mphala, Dango Likulu, maphangano, panji dango la pakati pa vyaro. Cigaŵa ca kweruzga cingawoneka so nga ni nthowa ya mtende ya kumazgira mphindano. Kutora lwande mu ndyali, kupambana kwa vilango ivyo ŵeruzgi ŵakupeleka, na lusungu lukulu kuluska ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhumba, vikucepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa cigaŵa ca kweruzga mu ndyali. Kugomezga kwa ŵanthu pa cigaŵa ca kweruzga kukupambana kuyana na caro, nga umo kufumba maghanoghano gha ŵanthu kukulongolera. === Mphala === Viyelezgero vyakumanyikwa vya mphala ni Nyumba za Mphala mu London, Kongiresi mu Washington, D.C., Bundesitagi mu Berlin, Duma mu Moscow, Palamento Italiyano mu Roma, na Asembule Nasiyonale mu Paris. Kuyana na fundo ya ulongozgi wa ŵathenga, ŵanthu ŵakusola ŵandyali kuti ŵafiske vyakukhumba vyawo. Nangauli vyaro nga ni Israeli, Girisi, Sweden na China vili na mphala ya nyumba yimoza, vyaro vinandi vili na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri, kung'anamula kuti vili na nyumba ziŵiri za mphala izo zikusankhika paŵekha-paŵekha. Mu "nyumba yapasi", ŵandyali ŵakusoleka kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa vya visola vicoko. "Nyumba yapacanya" kanandi yikusoleka kuti yimilire vigaŵa mu ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakulumikizgika (nga ni mu Australia, Germany, panji United States), panji ndondomeko yinyake ya kusolera mu caro ca ulongozgi umoza (nga ni mu France). Mu Ufumu Ubanyi, nyumba yapacanya yikusankhika na ulongozgi nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Kususka kumoza kwa ndondomeko za mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri izo zose zikusoleka na ŵanthu nkhwakuti nyumba yapacanya na yapasi zingayana waka. Cifukwa ca kale ca kuŵa na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri nchakuti nyumba yapacanya yikugwira ntchito nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Ici cingacepeska kucita mwakujiwusira na kwambura ulunji mu vyakucita vya ulongozgi. Kuti dango lizomerezgeke, ŵanandi mwa ŵathenga ŵa mphala ŵakwenera kusola dango lakusacizgika mu nyumba yiliyose. Kanandi, pakuŵa kuŵazga kunandi na kusintha uko magulu ghakupambana gha ndyali ghakusacizga. Para caro cili na Dango Likulu lakukhazikika comene, unandi wapadera ungakhumbikwa pa kusintha Dango Likulu, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusintha dango kuŵa kwakusuzga comene. Ulongozgi kanandi ndiwo ukulongozga ndondomeko iyi, ndipo ukupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala (mwaciyelezgero, mu Ufumu Ubanyi panji Germany). Kweni mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, ulongozgi kanandi ukupangika na cigaŵa cakufiska malango na Wupu wa ŵaNduna uwo wasankha (mwaciyelezgero, United States panji Brazil). === Cigaŵa cakufiska Malango === Cigaŵa cakufiska malango mu ndondomeko ya dango ndico nchikaya ca mazaza gha ndyali gha caro. Mu ndondomeko ya ulongozgi wa mphala, nga ni mu Ufumu Ubanyi, Itale, Germany, India na Japani, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikuchemeka Wupu wa ŵaNduna, ndipo cikupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala. Cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikulongozgeka na mulara wa ulongozgi, uyo wakuŵa na mazaza para mphala yikumugomezga. Cifukwa visola vya ŵanthu wose ndivyo vikusola mawupu gha ndyali kuti ghawuse, mulongozgi wa wupu wa ndyali wangasintha pakati pa visola. Mulara wa caro ngwakupatukana na cigaŵa cakufiska malango, wakuzomerezga malango mwacimanyikwiro, ndipo ni mthenga wa caro. Viyelezgero ni Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Germany (uyo wakusankhika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala ya caro cose na ya vigaŵa), Fumukazi ya Ufumu Ubanyi (udindo wakuhara), na Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Austria (uyo wakusoleka na ŵanthu wose). Ndondomeko yinyake yakuzirwa ni ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, iyo yikusangika mu United States na Brazil. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ndico mulara wa caro na mulara wa ulongozgi, ndipo cili na mazaza gha kusankha Wupu wa ŵaNduna wambura kusoleka. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ncakupatukana na mphala, ndipo cikuzgolera ku mphala yayi. Nangauli udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango ukupambana kuyana na caro, kanandi ndico cikusacizga malango ghanandi na kuŵika vyakulondezga vya ulongozgi. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango kanandi cili na mazaza gha kukanizga dango. Vigaŵa vinandi vyakufiska malango mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri vili na udindo pa ubale na vyaro vyakuwaro, kulondezgeska dango, na uteŵeti wa ulongozgi. ŵaNduna panji ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵakulongozga maofesi gha ulongozgi, nga ni Unduna wa Vyaro vyakuWaro panji Unduna wa Civikiliro. Ntheura, kusola cigaŵa cakufiska malango cinyake kungasinthiratu umo caro cose cikulongozgekera. === Kulondezgeska Dango === Max Weber wakamanyikwa comene pakuti wakayowoya kuti caro ndico cili na mazaza gheneco gha kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono mwakuzomerezgeka. Ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi ndiwo ŵakulondezgeska dango para ulongozgi panji mphara zaŵapempha. Lizgu lakuti caro ico catondeka likung'anamula vyaro ivyo vikutondeka kufiska panji kulondezgeska ndondomeko za ulongozgi. Ŵapolisi na ŵankhondo ŵawo ŵakulaŵiliraso civikiliro na cimango yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu caro cambura ulongozgi, ndiko kuti kwambura ulongozgi. Nangauli mawupu gha ŵankhondo ghaŵako kwamba umo ulongozgi wakambira, maghanoghano gha kuŵa na ŵapolisi ŵanyengo zose ngaphya cifukwa ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, mu nyengo yapakati, Ungelezi ukaŵa na mphara za ukana-malango izo zikendanga malo na malo. Mphara izi zikachitanga milandu pamaso pa ŵanthu na kukoma ŵanthu pamaso pa ŵanthu wose kuti ŵanthu ŵopenge na kuti ulongozgi ulaŵilire. Ŵapolisi ŵakwamba ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakaŵa pamoza ŵa mu Paris mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, mu nyumba ya ufumu ya Kalonga Louis XIV. Kweni Wofesi Yikulu ya Ŵapolisi ya Paris yikuti ŵapolisi ŵake ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba pa caro cose capasi kuvwala malaya ghakuyana. === Uteŵeti wa Ulongozgi === Muzu wa lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''bureaucracy'' ukufuma ku lizgu la Cifurenci la wofesi (''bureau'') na lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale la mazaza (''kratos''). Nga ni ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi na mawupu agho ghakupanga uteŵeti wa ulongozgi ŵakufiska malangulo gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Umoza mwa ŵakwamba kuyowoyapo za maghanoghano agha ni Baroni de Grimm, mulembi wa ku Germany uyo wakakhalanga ku France. Mu 1765, wakalemba kuti: {{quote|Mzimu nadi wa malango mu France ni uteŵeti wa ulongozgi uwo ŵacipondi Bwana de Gournay ŵakadandawulanga nawo comene. Kuno maofesi, ŵalembi ŵa maofesi, ŵasunga-vikalata, ŵapenduzgi, na ŵalaŵiliri ŵakusankhika kuti ŵawovwire uwemi wa ŵanthu wose yayi. Nadi, kukuwoneka kuti uwemi wa ŵanthu wose ukaŵikika kuti maofesi ghaŵeko.}} Kuleka kugomezga "vya maofesi" kucalipo comene, ndipo ntchito za ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi kanandi zikuyaniskika na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha agho ghakulondezga candulo. Nadi, makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha, comene comene ghakulu, nagho ghali na uteŵeti wa maofesi. Kuleka maghanoghano ghaheni pa "ndondomeko zakusuzga za maofesi", uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose nga ni masambiro, kupwelelera umoyo, ulaŵiliri wa ŵapolisi, na mayendero gha ŵanthu wose ukuwoneka nga ni ntchito zakuzirwa comene za caro. Ici cikupangiska vyakucita vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi kuŵa nchikaya ca mazaza gha ulongozgi. Pakulemba kumwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Max Weber wakagomezganga kuti cimanyikwiro cikulu ca caro icho catukuka cikaŵa uteŵeti wake wa ulongozgi. Weber wakalemba kuti vimanyikwiro vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi wa mazuŵa ghano ni ivi: ŵalongozgi ndiwo ŵakuŵika cilato cake; ntchito yikukhazgika na malamulo; ndipo ŵakulaŵilira ni ŵaluso ŵa ntchito yawo awo ŵakulongozga kufuma pacanya kuya pasi, ŵakuyowoyerana mwakulemba, na kukhazga wanangwa wa ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi wa kujisankhira na malamulo. === Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu === Cakulondezgapo ca muwuso wa dango ni kuŵapo kwa ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu iyo yili na wanangwa wakukwana kuti yingapempha mazaza gha cigaŵa ca kweruzga cakujiwusa; wanangwa wa kovwirika na mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara ukufuma pa ici. Mu Ungelezi, ntchito ya mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara yikupambana na ya mupangizgi wa malango. Nga umo Mphara ya Ulaya ya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu yikayowoyera, dango likwenera kufikirika na waliyose, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kumanyiratu umo dango likuŵakhwaskira. Kuti ntchito yicitike mwaluso, ntchito ya malango kanandi yikulaŵiliriska na ulongozgi panji wupu wakulaŵilira wakujiwusa, nga ni wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, wupu ukulu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, panji wupu wa malango. Ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuŵa na umanyikwiro wapadera wa ntchito yawo kwizira mu ndondomeko zakuŵikika za dango (mwaciyelezgero, kutonda mayeso ghakuzomerezgera). Dango likukhumba kuti ŵaŵe na cipaso capadera (masambiro gha dango agho ghakupeleka ku msambiri Digri Yakwamba ya Malango, Digri Yakwamba ya Dango la Malemba, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Ntchito ya Dango). Ŵangalondezga so madigri gha masambiro ghapacanya. Viyelezgero ni Digri Yaciŵiri ya Malango, Digri Yaciŵiri ya Masambiro gha Dango, Masambiro gha Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu mu Mphara, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Malango. Ŵakunjizgika mu udindo wawo kwizira mu nthowa za dango za kusankhira (kuzomerezgeka kunjira mu wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu). Pali mazina ghacoko gha ucindami agho ghakulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakumanyikwa, nga ni Esikwaya, kulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu mu mphara ŵa ucindami ukulu, na Dokotala wa Malango, kulongora munthu uyo wali na digri ya Dokotala mu Malango. Vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu vyapanga malamulo ghakuyana agho ghakulongozga masambiro gha dango na ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, kweni vinyake vicazomerezga ŵimiliri ŵa milandu awo ŵakasambira dango la mdawuko la Cisilamu kugwira ntchito mu mphara za umoyo wa munthu paŵekha. Mu China na mu vyaro vinyake ivyo vikutukuka, palije ŵanthu ŵakukwana ŵakusambizgika ntchito iyi kuti ŵagwire ntchito mu ndondomeko za kweruzga izo zilipo, ntheura malamulo ghakuŵikika ngakufwasa comene. Para wazomerezgeka, mwimiliri wa milandu kanandi wakugwira ntchito mu kampani ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, mu wofesi yake yekha, mu udindo wa ulongozgi, panji mu kampani ya ŵanthu paŵekha nga ni mupangizgi wa malango wa mukati. Kusazgirapo, mwimiliri wa milandu wangaŵa musandi wa malango uyo wakusanda malango para ŵamupempha, kwizira mu nyumba ya mabuku, uteŵeti wa malonda, panji ntchito yakujigwilira yekha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambira malango ŵakugwiliskira ntchito luso lawo kuwaro kwa ntchito ya malango. Cakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango mu mdawuko wa Dango la Viweruzgo ni kusanda malango kuti ŵamanye umo dango lilili sono. Ici kanandi cikukhumba kuŵazga mabuku gha viweruzgo vya mphara, magazini gha malango, na malango gha mphala. Ntchito ya malango yikusazgapo so kulemba vikalata nga ni vyakuyowoya vya mulandu ku mphara, vikalata vyakunyengelera, maphangano, panji vikalata vya vyakuhara na vya usungi wa cuma. Luso la kudumba na kumazga mphindano (kusazgapo nthowa za kumazgira mphindano kwambura kuya ku mphara) nalo ndakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango, kuyana na cigaŵa. === Mawupu gha Ŵenecaro === Ghanoghano la "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" la ŵakukolera caro cambura fumu ŵa kale likufuma kwa Hobbes na Locke. Locke wakawonanga mawupu gha ŵenecaro nga ni ŵanthu awo ŵali na "dango limoza lakukhazikika na mphara izo ŵangadandawulirako, izo zili na mazaza gha kumazga mphindano pakati pawo." Musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wakapatula "caro" na "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" (mu Cijeremani: ''bürgerliche Gesellschaft'') mu buku lake la ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right''. Hegel wakagomezganga kuti mawupu gha ŵenecaro na caro vikaŵa vyakususkana, mu fundo yake yakusacizga ya mbiri iyo yikuzengeka pa kususkana kwa maghanoghano. Kupatulana kwa mazuŵa ghano pakati pa caro na mawupu gha ŵenecaro kukawonekaso mu fundo zakusacizga za Alexis de Tocqueville na Karl Marx. Mu fundo zakusacizga za mazuŵa ghano comene, mawupu gha ŵenecaro ni malo agho dango likufumira, cifukwa ndimo ŵanthu ŵakupangira maghanoghano ghawo na kunyengelera ŵalongozgi pa ivyo ŵakughanaghana kuti dango likwenera kuŵa. Nga umo mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara na mulembi wa ku Australia, Geoffrey Robertson QC, wakalembera za dango la pakati pa vyaro, "umoza mwa malo ghakulu agho dango ili likufumira mazuŵa ghano ni umo ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵawanthu waka, na mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi agho ŵanandi ŵakughakolera, ŵakucitira pa kuphwanyika kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu uko ŵakuwona pa wayilesi ya kanema mu nyumba zawo." Wanangwa wa kuyowoya, wanangwa wa kuwungana mu mawupu, na wanangwa unyake wa munthu waliyose vikuzomerezga ŵanthu kuwungana, kudumbiskana, kususka, na kupangiska maulongozgi ghawo kuzgolera, ndipo apa ndipo maziko gha uwuso wa ŵanthu wa kudumbiskana ghakufumira. Apo ŵanthu ŵakunjilirapo comene, ŵakupwelelera comene, na kuŵa na nkhongono zakusintha umo mazaza gha ndyali ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa umoyo wawo, ndipo dango likuŵa lakupokelereka na lakuzomerezgeka comene kwa ŵanthu. Mawupu ghakumanyikwa comene gha ŵenecaro ni misika ya malonda, makampani agho ghakulondezga candulo, mabanja, mawupu gha ŵantchito, vipatala, makwamasambiro ghakulu, makwamasambiro, mawupu gha lusungu, mawupu gha kususkana mu mazgo, mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi, ŵazengezgani, mipingo, na mawupu gha visopa. Palije ng'anamulo yakuwoneka ya dango ya mawupu gha ŵenecaro, panji ya mawupu agho ghakusazgikamo. Mawupu ghanandi agho ghakulemba mindandanda ya mawupu (nga ni Wupu wa Ulaya wa Vyacuma na Vya Ŵanthu) ghakusazgamo mawupu gha ndyali yayi. == Vigaŵa vya Dango == Ndondomeko zose za dango zikuwona nkhani zakwamba zakuyana, kweni madera gha mazaza ghakugaŵa na kumanya nkhani zawo za dango mwakupambana. Kupatulana kwakumanyikwa ni pakati pa "dango la ŵanthu wose" (lizgu lakukhwaskana comene na caro, ilo likusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango), na "dango la ŵanthu paŵekha" (ilo likusazgapo maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, na cuma). Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake vikunjira mu dango likulu la vyakukakizgika, apo dango la usungi wa cuma likulongozgeka na malango gha mphala panji maphangano gha pakati pa vyaro. Nangauli pali kupambana kucoko pakati pa madera gha mazaza, vigaŵa vya dango ivyo kanandi vikuwoneka kuŵa vyakwamba ni dango la pakati pa vyaro, dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, dango la ukana-malango, maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, dango la cuma, Dango la Kwenelera na usungi wa cuma, dango la makampani, na dango la ukaboni. === Dango la Pakati pa Vyaro === Dango la pakati pa vyaro, ilo likuchemekaso dango la ŵanthu wose la pakati pa vyaro panji dango la mitundu, ni malamulo, mikhaliro yakwenelera, midawuko ya dango, na vyakwenelera ivyo vyaro na ŵanyake ŵakujiwona kuti ŵakwenera kulondezga pa ubale wawo, ndipo kanandi ŵakulondezga nadi. Mu ubale wa pakati pa vyaro, ŵakucita ni ŵanthu paŵekha na mawupu, nga ni vyaro, mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro, na magulu ghambura kuŵa vyaro, agho ghangasankha vyakucita, vyakulondezga dango panji vyakuphwanya dango. Malamulo ni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulembeka ivyo vikulongosora nkhalo yakukhumbikwa, apo mikhaliro yakwenelera ni malongozgero ghambura kulembeka gha nkhalo yakwenelera agho ghakupangika na midawuko na kacitiro ka ŵanthu. Dango ili likuŵika mikhaliro yakwenelera ku vyaro mu vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo na kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, ubale wa vyacuma, na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lizgu ili likung'anamula dango ilo likulongozga nkhalo na ubale wa pakati pa vyaro pera yayi, kweniso wa mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro na ubale wawo na vyaro. Dango la pakati pa vyaro likupambana na ndondomeko za dango za mukati mwa caro cifukwa kanandi likugwira ntchito kwizira mu kuzomerezgana, pakuti palije mazaza agho ghakuzomerezgeka na wose kuti ghalondezgeske dango ili pa vyaro vyakujiwusa. Vyaro na ŵanyake ŵambura kuŵa vyaro ŵangasankha kuleka kulondezga dango la pakati pa vyaro, panji kuphwanya phangano, kweni kuphwanya uku, comene kwa mikhaliro yakwenelera yambura kusinthika, kungasuskika na ŵanyake, ndipo nyengo zinyake kungawovwirika na vyakukakizga, nga ni kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, vilango vya vyacuma, na nkhondo. Kusoŵa kwa mazaza ghaumaliro mu dango la pakati pa vyaro kungiziska so kupambana kukulu. Ici cikucitika cifukwa vyaro vingang'anamula dango la pakati pa vyaro umo vikukhumbira, ndipo ici cingiziska maghanoghano ghakusuzga agho ghakuŵa na vyakufumapo vikulu mu malo ghawo. === Dango la Dango Likulu na Dango la Ulongozgi === Dango la Dango Likulu na dango la ulongozgi vikulongozga vya caro. Dango la Dango Likulu likukhwaskana na ubale pakati pa cigaŵa cakufiska malango, mphala, na cigaŵa ca kweruzga, kweniso na wanangwa wa ŵanthu panji wanangwa wa ŵenecaro pamaso pa caro. Madera ghanandi gha mazaza, nga ni United States na France, ghali na Dango Likulu limoza lakulembeka pamoza ilo lili na mndandanda wa wanangwa. Ghacoko, nga ni Ufumu Ubanyi, ghalije cikalata ici. "Dango Likulu" ni malango agho ghakupanga caro nga ni wupu wa ndyali, kufuma mu malango gha mphala, malango gha viweruzgo, na midawuko ya ulongozgi. Fundo yikulu ya Dango Likulu, iyo yikafuma kwa John Locke, yikuti munthu wangacita cilicose kupatula ico dango lakanizga; kweni caro cingacita kanthu yayi kupatula ico dango lazomerezga. Dango la ulongozgi ndiyo nthowa yikulu iyo ŵanthu ŵakupangiska mawupu gha caro kuzgolera. Ŵanthu (kuli uko kwazomerezgeka) ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kususka mwakwenelera dango (panji kumanga mulandu) wupu wa ulongozgi, wupu wa ulongozgi wa mu cigaŵa, uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose, panji unduna wa ulongozgi, kuti mphara yipende cilangulo ico cakwiziska suzgo (dango, malango gha cigaŵa, panji ndondomeko ya ulongozgi). Kususka uku kukupenda usange wupu wa ulongozgi uli na mazaza gha dango gha kucita ivyo wacita, na usange ukalondezga ndondomeko iyo yikukhumbikwa. Mphara yakwamba ya dango la ulongozgi yikaŵa Konseyi Deta, iyo yikajalikiska mu 1799, apo Napoleon wakatora mazaza mu France. Cigaŵa cimoza ca dango la Dango Likulu ni dango la visola. Pamoza na mawupu gha visola, dango ili likuwona ndondomeko za ulongozgi na ndondomeko izo zikovwira kuti visola vicitike. Malamulo agha ghakumazga mphindano panji kuzomerezga kuti khumbo la ŵanthu lisandulike kuŵa uwuso wa ŵanthu uwo ukugwira ntchito. Dango la visola likuwona nkhani nga ni nkhu njani uyo wali na wanangwa wa kusola, kulembeska ŵakusola, wanangwa wa kuŵa pa mapepala gha visola, ndalama za kunyengelera ŵakusola na za mawupu gha ndyali, kugaŵaso vigaŵa vya visola, kugaŵa mipando ya mphala, kusola pa makina gha magesi na makina gha kusolera, kufikirika kwa visola, ndondomeko za visola, kupenda vyakusola, mphindano za visola, cisola ca ŵanthu wose pa nkhani yimoza, na nkhani nga ni upusikizgi mu visola na kukhala cete pambere visola vindacitike. === Dango la Ukana-malango === Dango la ukana-malango, ilo likuchemekaso dango la vilango, likukhwaskana na milandu na vilango. Ntheura likulongosora ng'anamulo na vilango vya milandu iyo yasangika kuti yikunanga comene ŵanthu, kweni lene likweruzga yayi nkhalo ya wakunanga, panji kuŵika vikanizgo ku ŵanthu ivyo vingaŵakanizga kucita mlandu pakwamba. Kupenduzga, kukora, kumanga mulandu, na kweruzga ŵanthu awo ŵakukayikirika kuti ŵacita mlandu kukulongozgeka na dango la ndondomeko ya milandu ya ukana-malango. Ciyelezgero cikulu ca mlandu ni ukaboni, kwambura kukayika kulikose kwakwenelera, wakuti munthu wali na mlandu pa vinthu viŵiri. Cakwamba, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa kuti wacita cinthu ico ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni mlandu, panji ''actus reus'' (cakucita ca mlandu). Caciŵiri, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa na khumbo liheni ilo likukhumbikwa kuti wacite mlandu, panji ''mens rea'' (mtima wa mlandu). Kweni pa milandu ya "udindo wambura kufumbira khumbo", ''actus reus'' pera ndiyo yikukwana. Ndondomeko za ukana-malango za mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba zikupatula khumbo mu ng'anamulo yikulu (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na kuleka kupwelelera. Kuleka kupwelelera kukwiziska udindo wa mlandu yayi kupatula para dango la mlandu unyake likuŵikapo cilango cake. Viyelezgero vya milandu ni kukoma munthu, kumenya, upusikizgi, na kwiba. Mu vyakucitika vyapadera, vyakujivikilira vingagwira ntchito pa vyakucita vinyake, nga ni kukoma pakujivikilira panji kuyowoya kuti wakaŵa na ufunthi. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni mulandu wa mu Ungelezi wa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 wa ''R v Dudley and Stephens'', uwo ukapenda usange cifukwa ca "kusoŵa nthowa yinyake" cingazomerezga kukoma munthu na kurya nyama ya munthu kuti ŵapone pa ngozi ya ngalawa pa nyanja. Milandu ya ukana-malango yikuwoneka kuŵa yakunanga ŵakupwetekeka pera yayi, kweniso wupu wose wa ŵanthu. Caro, kanandi na wovwiri wa ŵapolisi, ndico cikulongozga kusumira, ndico cifukwa mu vyaro vya Dango la Viweruzgo milandu yikulembeka kuti "Ŵanthu v ..." panji "R (ya ''Rex'' panji ''Regina'') v ...". Kweniso, mawupu gha ŵakweruzga kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ghasimikizge usange ŵakusumirika ŵali na mlandu pa nkhani za unenesko; mawupu agha ghangasintha malango gha dango yayi. Vyaro vinyake ivyo vyatukuka vicazomerezga cilango ca nyifwa pa milandu yinyake. Kweni vilango ivyo vikupelekeka kanandi pa mlandu ni kuŵikika mu gadi, kulipiska ndalama, kulaŵiliriska na caro (nga ni kufwatulika kwakulaŵiliriska), panji kuteŵetera wupu wa ŵanthu. Dango la ukana-malango la mazuŵa ghano lakhwaskika comene na tusandiro twa ŵanthu, comene pa kupeleka vilango, kusanda malango, kupanga malango, na kuwezgera ŵakunanga ku umoyo uwemi. Pa caro cose capasi, vyaro 125 vili mu Mphara ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Ukana-malango, iyo yikajalikiska kuti yiweruzge ŵanthu pa milandu yakunanga ŵanthu wose. === Dango la Maphangano === Dango la maphangano likukhwaskana na malayizgo agho ghangalondezgeskeka, ndipo lingafupikiskika mu mazgo gha Cilatini ''pacta sunt servanda'' (maphangano ghakwenera kusungika). Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, vinthu vitatu vyakuzirwa vikukhumbikwa kuti phangano lipangike: kusacizga na kuzomera, cakusinthana, na khumbo la kupanga ubale wa dango. Cakusinthana cikulongora kuti ŵose awo ŵali mu phangano ŵasinthana cinthu cakuzirwa. Ndondomeko zinyake za Dango la Viweruzgo, kusazgapo ya Australia, zikuleka kukhumba cakusinthana. Ghanoghano la ''estoppel'' panji ''culpa in contrahendo'' lingagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakukakizgika pa nyengo ya kudumba pambere phangano lindapangike. Madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba ghakuwona maphangano mwakupambana mu nthowa zinyake, ndipo caro cikunjilirapo comene pa kupanga na kulondezgeska maphangano. Para tayaniska na madera gha Dango la Viweruzgo, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zikusazgamo vigaŵa vinandi vyakukakizgika mu maphangano, zikupeleka wanangwa ukulu ku mphara wa kung'anamula na kusintha vigaŵa vya phangano, na kukakizga comene udindo wa kucita mwakugomezgeka; kweni so zikulondezgeska comene vigaŵa vya vilango na kufiska nadi ivyo phangano likuyowoya. Kweniso zikukhumba cakusinthana yayi kuti phangano likakizge. Mu France, phangano lakawiro likuyowoyeka kuti likupangika pa "kuyana kwa maghanoghano" panji "kuyana kwa makhumbo". Germany yili na nthowa yapadera ya maphangano iyo yikukolerana comene na dango la cuma. "Fundo ya kupatula" (''Abstraktionsprinzip'') yikung'anamula kuti cakukakizgika ca munthu ca phangano cikupangika paŵekha na uweneco wa cuma ico cikupelekeka. Para phangano lamazgika pa cifukwa cinyake (mwaciyelezgero, wakugula galimoto wakuloŵera comene mwakuti walije wanangwa wa dango wa kupanga phangano), cakukakizgika ca phangano ca kulipira cingamazgika paŵekha na uweneco wa galimoto. Dango la kusambazgika mwambura ulunji, m'malo mwa dango la maphangano, likugwiliskirika ntchito kuwezgera uweneco ku mwenecho wakwenelera. === Kunanga Ŵanyake === Viheni vinyake vya pakati pa ŵanthu paŵekha vikuwunjikika pamoza nga ni "kunanga ŵanyake" mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, na nga ni ''delicts'' mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba. Kuti munthu waŵe kuti wananga munyake, wakwenera kuŵa kuti waphwanya udindo wake kwa munthu munyake, panji waphwanya wanangwa wa dango uwo ukaŵako kale. Ciyelezgero cipepuka cingaŵa kutimba munthu na mpira kwambura kukhumba. Mu dango la kuleka kupwelelera, ilo ndilo kunanga ŵanyake kwakucitika comene, wakupwetekeka wangapempha malipiro gha vilonda vyake kwa uyo wali na mlandu. Fundo za kuleka kupwelelera zikulongoreka mu mulandu wa ''Donoghue v Stevenson''. Mubwezi wa Donoghue wakagula botolo ilo mukati mwake mukawonekanga yayi la cakumwa ca jinja (ca Donoghue kuti wamwe) mu nyumba ya vyakulya mu Paisley. Pamanyuma pakumwa cigaŵa cimoza, Donoghue wakathira ivyo vikakhalako mu kapu. Mutumbu wa nkhono uwo ukavunda ukatuluka. Wakayowoya kuti wakazizwa comene, wakalwara nthenda ya matumbo, ndipo wakamanga mulandu wakupanga cakumwa cifukwa ca kuleka kupwelelera mwakuti cakumwa cikanangika. Nyumba ya ŵaLodi yikeruzga kuti wakupanga ndiyo wakaŵa na mlandu pa ulwari wa Mama Donoghue. Lodi Atkin wakatora nthowa ya nkhalo yiwemi ndipo wakayowoya kuti: {{quote|Udindo pa kuleka kupwelelera [...] kwambura kukayika ukuzengeka pa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu wose gha ubudi wa nkhalo, uwo wakunanga wakwenera kulipira. [...] Lamulo lakuti ukwenera kutemwa muzengezgani wako likusanduka mu dango kuti, ukwenera kupweteka muzengezgani wako yayi; ndipo fumbo la mwimiliri wa milandu, ''Muzengezgani wane njani?'' likupokera zgoro lakupimika. Ukwenera kupwelelera mwakwenelera kuti ulekere vyakucita panji vyakuleka kucita ivyo ukumanyiratu mwakwenelera kuti vingapweteka muzengezgani wako.}} Ici cikaŵa maziko gha fundo zinayi za kuleka kupwelelera, izo ni: * Stevenson wakaŵa na udindo wa kupwelelera Donoghue mwa kupeleka vyakumwa vyambura ngozi; * wakaphwanya udindo wake wa kupwelelera; * ulwari ukatenge uleke kucitika para wangaleka kuphwanya udindo wake; ndipo * cakucita cake ndico cikaŵa cifukwa cakufupi ca ulwari wake. Ciyelezgero cinyake ca kunanga ŵanyake cingaŵa muzengezgani uyo wakupanga congo cikulu na makina pa malo ghake. Pa mulandu wa kusuzga ŵazengezgani, congo ici cingamazgika. Kunanga ŵanyake kungasazgapo so vyakucita vyakukhumba nga ni kofya kumenya, kumenya, panji kunjira pa malo gha munyake kwambura wanangwa. Kunanga ŵanyake kwakumanyikwa comene ni kunanga mbiri ya munthu, uko kukucitika, mwaciyelezgero, para kalata ya makani yayowoya vyambura ukaboni ivyo vyananga mbiri ya mundyali. Vyakumanyikwa uheni comene ni kunanga ŵanyake pa vyacuma, uko nkhu maziko gha dango la ŵantchito mu vyaro vinyake, mwa kupangiska mawupu gha ŵantchito kuŵa na mlandu pa kunyanyala ntchito, para malango gha mphala ghakuŵavikilira yayi. === Dango la Cuma === Dango la cuma likulongozga uweneco na kuŵa naco. Cuma cambura kusamika, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "malo na nyumba", cikung'anamula uweneco wa malo na vinthu ivyo vyakhoma pa malo agho. Cuma ca munthu cikung'anamula vinthu vinyake vyose: vinthu ivyo vingasamika, nga ni mirangura, magalimoto, vyakujikongoleska, panji wanangwa wambura kukhwaskika, nga ni magawo gha makampani. Wanangwa ''in rem'' ni wanangwa pa cuma cinyake capadera, kupambana na wanangwa ''in personam'', uwo ukuzomerezga malipiro pa cakutayika kweni pa cinthu capadera yayi. Dango la malo ndilo maziko gha mitundu yinandi ya dango la cuma ndipo ndakusuzga comene. Likukhwaskana na ngongole za malo, maphangano gha kubwereka, vyakuzomerezgera, malayizgo gha pa malo, wanangwa wa kuporota pa malo gha munyake, na ndondomeko za malango gha kulembeska malo. Malongozgero gha kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka cuma ca munthu ghakunjira mu cuma ca maghanoghano, dango la makampani, usungi wa cuma, na dango la malonda. Ciyelezgero cakwimilira ca dango la cuma ni mulandu wa 1722 wa ''Armory v Delamirie'', uwo ukagwiliskira ntchito dango la Ungelezi. Mwana wakapokeka malibwe gha mtengo wapacanya agho ghakaŵa mu cakujikongoleska, na muguliski uyo wakapika cakujikongoleska ici kuti wapime mtengo wake. Mphara yikeruzga kuti, kuyana na umo Dango la Viweruzgo likuwonera cuma, munthu uyo wangalongora cifukwa ciwemi comene ca kuŵa na cuma, kuluska waliyose wakususka, ndiyo mwenecho. Kweni nthowa ya kale ya Dango la Malemba pa cuma, iyo yikasacizgika na Friedrich Carl von Savigny, njakuti cuma ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kuwuzomera. Vyakukakizgika, nga ni ivyo vikufuma ku maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake, vikuwoneka nga ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu paŵekha ŵakwenera kupeleka. Ghanoghano la cuma likwiziska nkhani zinyake zinandi za kasandiro ka vinjeru na za ndyali. Locke wakayowoya kuti "umoyo, wanangwa, na vyuma" vyithu ni cuma cithu cifukwa tili ŵeneco ŵa mathupi ghithu ndipo tikusazga ntchito yithu na ivyo vyatizunguliya. === Dango la Kwenelera na Usungi wa Cuma === Mu dango la Ungelezi la kale, Dango la Viweruzgo likazomerezganga yayi kupatula uweneco na ulaŵiliri wa cuma cimoza, kweni Dango la Kwenelera likazomerezganga ici kwizira mu ndondomeko yakuchemeka usungi wa cuma. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ndiwo ŵakulaŵilira cuma, apo uweneco wa candulo, panji wakwenelera, wa cuma ca usungi uli kwa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka ŵakupindura. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ŵali na udindo kwa ŵakupindura ŵawo wa kupwelelera makola cuma ico ŵapika. Ciyelezgero cinyake ca udindo wa musungi wa cuma cingaŵa kuŵika cuma mu vyandulo mwavinjeru panji kuciguliska. Ici nchakuwoneka comene pa ndalama za ucekuru, uwo ni mtundu wakuzirwa comene wa usungi wa cuma, apo ŵakuŵika ndalama ŵakuŵa ŵasungi ŵa ndalama za ŵanthu mpaka ŵapumule ntchito. Kweni usungi wa cuma ungajalikiskika so pa vilato vya lusungu. Ndondomeko zinyake za pakati pa vyaro za kapangiro na malongozgero gha usungi wa cuma zili mu Phangano la Hague la Usungi wa Cuma la mu 1985. === Dango la Makampani === Dango la makampani ni malango agho ghakulongozga kujalikiska, kulongozga, kagwiliskiro ka ntchito, na kumazgika kwa makampani agho ghalembeskeka. Likulongozga wanangwa na maudindo gha ŵeneco ŵa magawo, ŵalongozgi, ŵateŵeti ŵakulu, na ŵanyake awo ŵakukhwaskika. === Dango la Ukaboni === Dango la ukaboni likusazgapo malamulo na fundo za dango izo zikulongozga kusimikizga unenesko mu milandu ya dango. Malamulo agha ghakusimikizga ukaboni uwo wangaghanaghanirika panji yayi na wakweruzga, nga ni mweruzgi panji wupu wa ŵakweruzga. == Kukolerana na Vigaŵa Vinyake == === Kusanda Cuma === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, Adam Smith wakapeleka maziko gha kasandiro ka vinjeru gha kulongosora ubale wa dango na kusanda cuma. Kasandiro aka kakafuma cigaŵa cinyake ku kususka mawupu gha ŵantchito na dango la United States lakukanizga kampani yimoza kuwusa msika. Musandi wakumanyikwa comene wa dango pa vyacuma ni Ronald Coase, uyo nkhani yake yikulu yakwamba, ''The Nature of the Firm'' (1937), yikayowoya kuti cifukwa ico makampani (makampani, mawupu gha ŵanthu ŵakugwira pamoza, na vinyake) ghaliko ni ndalama za kugulana. Ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakugulana kwizira mu maphangano gha ŵanthu ŵaŵiri mu misika yakujura, mpaka ndalama za kugulana zapangiska kuti kugwiliskira ntchito makampani pa kupanga vinthu kuŵe kwakusunga ndalama comene. Nkhani yake yaciŵiri yikulu, ''The Problem of Social Cost'' (1960), yikayowoya kuti para tingakhala mu caro cambura ndalama za kugulana, ŵanthu ŵangadumbana na kufika pa kugaŵa kwakuyana kwa vyuma, kwambura kuwona umo mphara yingeruzgira pa mphindano za cuma. Wakayowoya kuti dango likwenera kuŵa lakwamba kucita, na kulongozgeka na nthowa yakwenelera comene. Ŵanandi mwa ŵakuchemeka Sukulu ya Chicago ŵakukolera kuwuskapo malongozgero na kupeleka vyuma vya caro ku ŵanthu paŵekha, ndipo ŵakususka malongozgero gha caro panji ivyo ŵakuwona kuti ni vikanizgo pa misika ya wanangwa. === Kasandiro ka Wupu wa Ŵanthu === Kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kakusanda kukolerana kwa dango na wupu wa ŵanthu, ndipo kakunjilirana na kasandiro ka malango, kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango, fundo zakusacizga za wupu wa ŵanthu, na tusandiro tunyake twapadera nga ni kasandiro ka milandu. Ni kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi ako kakulaŵiska pa kupanga fundo zakusacizga na kusanda mwakupenda kacitiro na vyakucitikira vya dango nga ni vyakucitika vya wupu wa ŵanthu. Kapangikiro ka maghanoghano mu wupu wa ŵanthu, mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu, kumazga mphindano, na mdawuko wa dango ni vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya kusanda mu kasandiro aka. Mu United States, kasandiro aka kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka dango na wupu wa ŵanthu; mu Ulaya, kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu na dango. Pakwamba, ŵamanyi ŵa dango na ŵasandi ŵa vinjeru ŵa dango ŵakakayikiranga kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango. Kelsen wakasuska umoza mwa ŵakwambiska kasandiro aka, Eugen Ehrlich, uyo wakakhumbanga kulongosora kupambana na kukolerana pakati pa dango lakuŵikika, ilo ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakusambira na kugwiliskira ntchito, na mitundu yinyake ya "dango" panji mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu iyo yikulongozga umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo yikukanizga mphindano kufika ku ŵimiliri ŵa milandu na ku mphara. Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kukulaŵiska umo dango likukulira kuwaro kwa madera gha mazaza gha caro, kupangika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa ŵanthu mu malo gha wupu wa ŵanthu, na kusanga malo ghanandi gha mazaza mu vigaŵa vya ŵanthu vya mu caro na vya pakati pa vyaro. Kufupi na 1900, Max Weber wakalongosora nthowa yake ya "kasandiro" ya dango, ndipo wakawona "kawiro ka dango ka vinjeru" nga ni mtundu wa kuwusa, uko kukufuma ku mazaza gha munthu yayi kweni ku mazaza gha mikhaliro yakwenelera ya mu maghanoghano. Vinjeru vya dango lakulembeka ndilo lizgu lake la cimanyikwiro cikulu ca dango lakukolerana na lakupimika, ilo likaŵa lakukhumbikwa pambere ndyali ya mazuŵa ghano na caro ca mazuŵa ghano ca uteŵeti wa ulongozgi vindakure. Weber wakawona kuti dango ili likakura pamoza na kukura kwa ndondomeko ya cuma ca ŵanthu paŵekha. Musandi munyake wa wupu wa ŵanthu, Émile Durkheim, wakalemba mu buku lake lakumanyikwa la ''The Division of Labour in Society'' kuti apo wupu wa ŵanthu ukusuzga comene, malango ghambura kuŵa gha ukana-malango agho ghakukhwaskana comene na kuwezgera na malipiro ghakusazgikira, ndipo malango gha ukana-malango na vilango ghakucepa. 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'ubwezi' mu [[Ciswahili]]) ukaŵa wupu wa socialist uwo ukaŵa wakwendeskera fundo za J[[ulius Nyerere]] za chitukuko cha umoyo na chuma mu [[Tanzania]] pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chajiyimira pawekha kufuma ku [[Britain]] mu 1961.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Delehanty|first=Sean|title=From Modernization to Villagization: The World Bank and Ujamaa|journal=Diplomatic History|language=en|doi=10.1093/dh/dhz074|year=2020|volume=44|issue=2|pages=289–314}}</ref>{{History of Tanzania}}Mu ciyowoyero cinyake, lizgu lakuti ujamaa likung'anamura kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici ŵakukolerana kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo", panji "kuzenga na kusunga malo ghithu ghakusungiramo vinthu, na vyamalonda vinyake na kusangapo chandulo pamoza".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005 |title=Julius Nyerere, African socialist |url=https://libcom.org/library/julius-nyerere-marxist-humanism |url-status=live}}</ref> == Maghanoghano na vyakucita == Nyerere wakagwiliskira nchito Ujamaa pakuzenga pulogiramu ya caru cose. Iyo wakang'anamura fundo ya Ujamaa kuŵa fundo yakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakuyana pa vinthu vya umoyo, vyachuma, na ndyali. Ulongozgi wa Julius Nyerere mu Tanzania ukakondweska ŵanthu pa caru cose ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamuchindikanga cifukwa cakuti wakalutilira kudidimizga fundo za makhaliro ghawemi. Pa nyengo ya muwuso wa Nyerere, caru ca Tanzania cikanjira panthazi comene pa vinthu vyakuzirwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu: unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakafwanga ukakhira kufuma pa 138 pa ŵanthu 1000 awo ŵakababika mu 1965 kufika pa 110 mu 1985; unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwanga mu 1960 ukakwera kufuma pa 37 kufika pa 52 mu 1984; unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakasambiranga sukulu za pulayimare ukakwera kufuma pa 25% mu 1960 kufika pa 72% mu 1985 (panji kuti unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwanga ukaŵa ukuru comene). Ndipouli, Ujamaa wakadumulizga vyakupangira, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakayikenge usange nchito iyi yingawovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Pakati pajumpha chaka chimoza kufuma apo boma la Nyerere likapokera wanangwa wake, likapeleka dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵakakike kwambura mulandu. Mu 1967, boma likaŵa na nchito yikuru comene mu caru ici cifukwa ca kucitiska kuti caru cose ciŵe cawo. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku World Bank ŵakayowoya kuti misonkho yikuru na maburokocrasi vikapangiska kuti ŵamalonda ŵaleke kuguliska ndalama. Mu 1973, boma likamba kukakamiza ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge mu vikaya vyawo.<ref>Lange, Siri. (2008) ''[http://www.cmi.no/publications/publication/?3008=land-tenure-and-mining-in-tanzania Land Tenure and Mining In Tanzania]''. Bergen: Chr. Michelson Institute, p. 2.</ref> == Ndondomeko za ndyali mu Tanzania == Ndondomeko ya ndyali ya Tanzania iyo yikapangika pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1961 yikaŵa zgoro lakuzirwa ku vinthu vya ukoloni. Ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Tanzania cifukwa ca mphambano izo zikaŵapo pakati pa caru ca East Africa na caru ca Tanzania mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Boma ili likapangika mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain nga ni Tanganyika Territory. Mu 1960, mawupu ghanandi agho ghakalongozganga ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ghakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya boma. Magulu agha ghakaŵako mu vikaya vichoko kuti ghaŵe na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵakoloni. Maufumu agha ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu mizi. Nakuti pa nyengo iyi, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakwiza ku maungano gha mwezi uliwose chikakwera kufika pa 75%.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/189|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=189|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> Pa Disembala 9, 1961, boma la Tanzania likati lapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Britain, likakhumbikwiranga ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali. Pa nyengo iyo ufumu wa Britain ukaparanyikiranga, gulu la Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. TANU yikapanga ndondomeko ya ndyali iyo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ŵayimilire. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na TANU chikure kufuma pa 100,000 kufika pa 1,000,000,000 mu vilimika vinkhondi pera.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/186|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=186|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> TANU yikakwaniska kunjizga mabungwe ghakupambanapambana gha ŵantchito na vyakurya mu chipani cawo kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu caru ici ŵimilire. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ŵakakumananga na ŵalongozgi ŵa mu muzi (kanandi ŵalara ŵa mu muzi) mwa kwenda maulendo ghakucemeka "Safari" na kudumbiskana nkhani za mu muzi. Para mphaka za chigaŵa ichi zaŵa zakukhora, ŵanthu ŵakasankhikanga kuti ŵimilire chigaŵa. Nga ni umo Gerrit Huizer wakayowoyera, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakacemekanga "Cell Boundary Commissions".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/187|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=187|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> == Ivyo Vikacitika ku Arusha == === Kulemba na kufiska fundo za Ujamaa === TANU yikugomezga kuti ni mulimo wa boma kunjilirapo comene mu umoyo wa ndyali wa caru kuti ŵanthu wose ŵakondwenge, kuti munthu munyake panji gulu linyake lileke kumugwiriska nchito, ndiposo kuti munthu waleke kuŵa na usambazi unandi comene.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |year=1967 |title=Arusha Declaration |url=http://library.fes.de/fulltext/bibliothek/2-tanzania-s0019634.pdf |access-date= |publisher=TANU |page=1 |via=library.fes.de |place=Dar es Salaam}}</ref> === Ideology of self-reliance and the Five Year Plan === Ndalama zinandi izo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito zikapelekeka mu ndondomeko ya Arusha. Ndondomeko izi zikayowoyerathu kuti vyakurya na vyakupangira vyakurya vizamuŵa vinandi, comenecomene ku mizi. Nthowa yakumazgira suzgo ili yikaŵa ya kupanga "Midzi ya Ujamaa". Nangauli chikaŵa chakukhumbikwa kuti charu cha Tanzania chiŵe na chuma chakujiyimira paŵekha, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Ujamaa ŵakagomezganga chomene ŵanthu. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Ujamaa, cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca ŵanthu nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu cikaya. Munthu uyu wakaŵa waciŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Julius Nyerere {{!}} Biography, Philosophy, & Achievements {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julius-Nyerere |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Kweniso, fundo ya Ujamaa yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge pamoza na kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya vyakurya. Ujamaa yikaŵa nchito ya mu caru pera yayi, kweni ukaŵa ukaboni ku caru cose kuti cisopa ca ku Africa cingafiskika na kuzakasanga candulo na kupanga cuma cakujiyimira. == Misumba ya Ujamaa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania == Fundo ya Ujamaa iyo yikayowoyeka mu ndondomeko ya Arusha iyo yikayowoyeka na TANU, kweniso iyo yikayowoyeka na Pulezidenti Nyerere, yikakhwaska comene ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya vyaka vinkhondi yakwamba. Cigaŵa ca Ruvuma, mu cigaŵa ca Songea, ku Tanzania, ndico cikaŵa cakwamba kwa ciyezgo ici. Ungano wa Litowa ukathandazgika makora ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku malo agha. Munthu munyake wakusanda ŵanthu, zina lake John Shaw, wakati: "Mwakuyana na ivyo wakayowoya Pulezidenti Julius Nyerere, kwamba mu Seputembala 1973 m'paka Juni 1975, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7 miliyoni ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake, ndipo kufuma mu Juni 1975 m'paka kuumaliro wa 1976, ŵanthu ŵanyake 4 miliyoni ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Shao|first=John|date=1986|title=The Villagization Program and the Disruption of the Ecological Balance in Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/canadian-journal-of-african-studies_1986_20_2/page/219|journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies|volume=20|issue=2|pages=219–239|doi=10.2307/484871|jstor=484871|issn=0008-3968}}</ref> === Kavwaliro ka muzi wa Ujamaa === Ŵakazenga mizi ya Ujamaa mu nthowa yakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi iyi ŵajikorenge. Mu muzi uwu mukaŵa nyumba zakupambanapambana mu msumba uwu. Midzi iyi yikazingilizgika na minda yikuruyikuru. Mbumba yiliyose yikapika malo ghakukwana ekara limoza kuti yikolere vyakurya vyawo. Kweni minda iyo yikazingilizga yikaŵa yakukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama. Mu muzi wa Ujamaa, vinthu vikasinthanga kuyana na umo muzi uliri. Mu mizi iyo muli vyakurya vichoko na ŵanthu ŵachoko, ŵanthu ŵakugaŵikana chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kulima na kulima vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na kugaŵikana kwa ntchito. Apo vikaya vikuruvikuru vya Ujamaa vikakuranga, pakaŵaso suzgo la vyakurya pera yayi, kweniso ntchito. Apo mizi ya Ujamaa yikakuranga, ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito zinandi yayi ndipo kanandi ŵakakanizgikanga kugwira maora ghanandi. Gulu ili likawovwira comene ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa. TANU yikapeleka ndalama zinandi, nga ni maji ghawemi, vyakuzenga, na vyakukhumbikwa vinyake. Kweniso, TANU yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici mwa kupanga maungano gha vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/195|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=195|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> === Ntchito ya Vijiji === Ntchito ya Vijiji yikaŵa ya Ujamaa, iyo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora mu vikaya. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa pa projekiti iyi ŵakawoneseska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa ŵafike pa mbumba zakukwana 250, ndipo viŵaro vya ulimi vikagaŵikana mu viŵaro 10 ivyo vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge pamoza. Mulimo wa Vijiji ukapangiska misumba kuŵa na maghanoghano gha mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusambira ŵasambira vya Vijiji Project ku Tanzania. Priya Lal wakalongosora kuti mizi iyi yikaŵa na nyumba izo zikaŵa pafupi na msewu uwo ukalutanga ku msumba. Nangauli ivi vingawoneka nga ni vyacilendo yayi, kweni ni kusintha kukuru uko kukacitika mu vyaru vya ku mizi. Ntheura, ndondomeko ya Ujamaa yikagwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya Vijiji mu ndondomeko ya vilimika vinkhondi kuŵa ciyerezgero kuti yilongore kuti vyakurya vikupambika makora mukati mwa umoyo wa cikaya. Chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru ivyo vikapangiska kuti Vijiji Project yileke kwenda makora chikaŵa kupuluska ŵanthu. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa TANU kanandi ŵakalembanga vikaya vya Ujamaa ivyo vikaŵako kale kuŵa vikaya viphya kuti ŵasazgireko unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafiska.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LAL|first=PRIYA|title=Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_1/page/3|date=March 2010|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=51|issue=1|pages=3|doi=10.1017/s0021853710000010|s2cid=154960614|issn=0021-8537}}</ref> == Ujamaa na wanakazi na wanalume == Gulu la Ujamaa likasintha vinthu vinandi mu Tanzania kweniso likasintha umo mbumba zikenderanga mu charu ichi. Mulimo wa Ujamaa ukakhozgera fundo ya mbumba ya nyukiliya. Mbumba yikuru mukati mwa vikaya ivyo vikamba kuwoneka pamanyuma, yikadodoliska comene pa mbumba m'malo mwa ubwezi na ubwezi wa cikaya, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa maghanoghano gha Ujamaa. Nakuti pamasinda, ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore mazaza. Ndipouli, chipani cha TANU chikapanga chigaŵa chose cha boma icho chikimiranga wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na kuyana kwa ŵanthu. Dipatimenti iyi yikacemekanga Umoja wa Wanawke wa Tanganyika (UWT). UWT, nga umo Priya wakulongosolera, yikapangika kuti yiwonenge nkhani zakukhwaskana na kunjizga ŵanakazi mu chalo cha socialist; kweni vikawoneka kuti ŵantchito ŵa dipatimenti iyi ŵakaŵa ŵawoli ŵa ŵantchito ŵakuzirwa ŵa TANU ndipo ŵakakhozgeranga fundo za ŵafumu. Wupu wa UWT ukacitanga vinthu vinandi kuti ŵanakazi ŵa Tanzania ŵamanye kuŵazga na kulemba. Ndipouli, masukulu agha ghakasambizganga ŵanakazi umo ŵangaŵira "awoli ŵawemi" na kovwira ŵanthu. Mwaciyelezgero, Lal wakupeleka ciyelezgero cakuti masambiro nga ni "Kupwelelera Ŵana + Vyakurya na Masuzgo gha Umoyo mu Msumba" ghakasambizgika mu masukulu agha. Nangauli pamasinda UWT yikamba kusambizga ŵanakazi fundo zakukhwaskana na vinthu vya mu nyumba, kweni ŵakasambizgikanga vya ndalama. Ndipouli, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi mu vyaru vya ku mizi vya ku Tanzania ŵakalutilira kulima minda yawo kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyakukhumbikwa na ndalama zakovwilira mbumba zawo ("makamaka minda yawo ya cashew".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LAL|first=PRIYA|title=Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_1/page/11|date=March 2010|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=51|issue=1|pages=11|doi=10.1017/s0021853710000010|s2cid=154960614|issn=0021-8537}}</ref>). == Vinthu vyakuthupi == Mu nyengo ya projekiti ya Ujamaa, kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikakhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ŵasayansi nga ni John Shao ŵakulongora kuti vinthu vikususkana chomene na ivyo Ujamaa wakachitanga pa nkhani za ndyali na vyendende. Vula yikuŵa yakuzirwa comene pa ulimi. Mu projekiti ya Ujamaa, Shao wakalemba kuti "Charu icho chili na masentimita 20 panji kuchepera apa... nchambura kwenelera kulima ndipo kanandi chikuŵa chakuliskako viŵeto". Ndipouli, malo agho ghakaŵanga na vula zinandi pa chaka, ŵakaghagwiliskiranga nchito kulima vyakurya vikuruvikuru na vyakurya vinyake nga ni katoni. Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasuzga chomene mu Tanzania chifukwa cha boma la TANU na pulezidenti Nyerere. Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, TANU yikapelekanga wovwiri wa vyakurya mwakupambanapambana uku yikukanizga vyakurya. Caru cikagwiriskirika nchito yayi mwakukwana, ntheura vyakurya vikaŵa vyambura kupambika makora, kweniso vyamoyo vinandi vikaŵa vyambura kupambika makora.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tanzania - Independence {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tanzania/Independence |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> == Kupereŵera na umaliro wa Ujamaa Project == Pakaŵaso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti ndondomeko ya Ujamaa yileke kwenda makora. Cakwamba, ŵanthu ŵakakana. Mu m'ma 1970, ŵalimi ŵakakana kuleka minda yawo na kwamba kukhala mu vikaya vyawo chifukwa cha kusoŵerwa kwa ndalama. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Pulezidenti Nyerere waŵape dango lakuti ŵafumemo mu vikaya vya Ujamaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ergas|first=Zaki|date=1980|title=Why Did the Ujamaa Village Policy Fail? - Towards a Global Analysis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/160361|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=18|issue=3|pages=387–410|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00011575|jstor=160361|s2cid=154537221|issn=0022-278X}}</ref> == Mu mitheto == Chigaŵa cha hip-hop mu Tanzania chikakhwaskika chomene na fundo na fundo za Ujamaa. Paumaliro wa vilimika ivi, fundo za Ujamaa zikawuskika kwizira mu "ŵalendo ŵambura kwenelera: ŵakwimba rap na ŵanthu ŵakwimba nyimbo za hip hop mu misewu ya mu Tanzania". Pakuzgora kwa vyaka vinandi vya ŵalongozgi ŵa boma na banthu ŵa ndyali ŵaheni pamanyuma pa Nyerere, mitu ya kukolerana na mbumba na wenenawene yikaŵa mauthenga agho ghakapulikikwa mu sumu zinandi izo zikapangika. Ici cikaŵa cimoza na kuyuzgika kwa ŵantchito ndipo mu nthowa yinyake cikaŵa mtundu unyake wa kukana. Fundo za kugwilira lumoza ntchito zaumoyo - "ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha ŵakukolerana kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo" - zikuwoneka mu mazgu gha ŵakwimba ŵanandi ŵa ku Tanzania. Ujamaa ni zina la nyumba ziŵiri za ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Africa ku Cornell University na Stanford University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ujamaa &#124; Residential Education |url=https://resed.stanford.edu/house-profiles/theme-houses/ethnic/ujamaa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311030244/https://resed.stanford.edu/house-profiles/theme-houses/ethnic/ujamaa |archive-date=2018-03-11 |access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa|Tanzania}} * [[:en:Distributism|Distributism]] * [[:en:Harambee|Harambee]] * [[:en:Ubuntu_(ideology)|Ubuntu (ideology)]] * [[:en:African_socialism|African socialism]] * [[:en:Uhuru_Movement|Uhuru Movement]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vyakulemba vinyake == * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74151368 A collection of essays on Ujamaa villages]'', by Kayombo, E. O. [and others] University of Dar es Salaam. [Dar es Salaam] 1971. * [[:en:Paul_Collier|Paul Collier]]: ''Labour and Poverty in Rural Tanzania. Ujamaa and Rural Development in the [[:en:United_Republic_of_Tanzania|United Republic of Tanzania]]''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, {{ISBN|0198285310}} * [[:en:Julius_Nyerere|Nyerere, Julius K]]. ''Ujamaa. English Ujamaa--essays on socialism''. Dar es Salaam, Oxford University Press, 1968. * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74983083 Building Ujamaa villages in Tanzania]''. Edited by J. H. Proctor. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Pub. House, 1971. * Huizer, Gerrit. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74162524 The Ujamaa village programme in Tanzania: new forms of rural development]''. [[:en:The_Hague|The Hague]], Institute of Social Studies, 1971. * {{Cite book|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520039971|last=Hydén|first=Göran|author-link=Göran Hydén|title=Beyond ujamaa in Tanzania: underdevelopment and an uncaptured peasantry|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondujamaainta0000hyde_b2d3|location=Berkeley|date=1980}} * Kijanga, Peter A. S. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/89150423 Ujamaa and the role of the church in Tanzania]''. Arusha, Tanzania : Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania, c1978. * Jennings, Michael. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/2007026289 Surrogates of the state : NGOs, development, and Ujamaa in Tanzania]'' Bloomfield, CT : Kumarian Press, 2008. * {{Cite book|publisher=Institute of International Studies, University of California|isbn=0877251398|last=McHenry|first=Dean E.|title=Tanzania's ujamaa villages: the implementation of a rural development strategy|location=Berkeley|series=Research series - Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley ; no. 39|date=1979|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/tanzaniasujamaav0000mche}} * Putterman, Louis G. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/86002915 Peasants, collectives, and choice : economic theory and Tanzania's villages]''. Greenwich, Conn. : JAI Press, c1986. * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/79113296 Ujamaa villages : a collection of original manuscripts, 1969-70]''. Dar es Salaam : [s.n.], 1970. * Vail, David J. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74025876 Technology for Ujamaa Village development in Tanzania]'' Syracuse, N. Y. : Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, 1975. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [[:en:Bonny_Ibhawoh|Ibhawoh]], Bonny and J.I. Dibua, {{cite web |title=Deconstructing Ujamaa: The Legacy of Julius Nyerere in the Quest for Social and Economic Development |url=http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/political%20science/volume8n1/ajps008001004.pdf}}&nbsp;{{small|(1.30&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} in ''African Journal of Political Science'', Vol. 8, No. 1, 2003: pp.&nbsp;59–83. * Lawrence Cockcroft and Gerald Belkin, Ralph Ibbott: "Who conceived/led the way to Ujamaa?" in [http://www.tzaffairs.org/?p=583 ''Tanzanian Affairs''] Issue 92, January 2009. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150516032213/http://crossroadsbooksonline.net/product/ujamaa-the-hidden-story-of-tanzanias-socialist-villages/ Ujamaa: the hidden story of Tanzania's socialist villages] Ralph Ibbott, participant, December 2014 {{Tanzania topics}}{{Economy of Tanzania}}{{Chama Cha Mapinduzi|state=collapsed}}{{Italic title}} {{Authority control}} c2gugozyaagugxi1aex9im22gkjydxw 0 35996 124074 123338 2026-11-08T18:08:43Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 40 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261108) #IABot (v2.0.9.7) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]) 124074 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kasandiro''' (''science'') ni sambiro lakukhazikika ilo likuzenga na kunozga umanyi mu nthowa ya vyakulongosora vyakuyezgeka vya kawiro (''nature'') na ŵanthu (''society'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{rp|pp=49–71}}<ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_q5e5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Kasandiro kakulongozgeka na ''nthowa ya kasandiro'' (''scientific method''): cizungulizo cha ukaboni (''empirical cycle'') uwo kanandi ukusazgapo kuwona vinthu, kupanga ''hypotheses'', kuviyezga na ukaboni, na kufika pa vyakumalizira. Kasandiro kakukhwaska nthowa iyi na thupi la umanyi ilo kakupanga, ilo ŵasandi (''scientists'') ŵakuyezga, kukhozgera, na kunozga nyengo zose. Kanandi kasandiro ka sono kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> tusandiro twa kawiro (''natural sciences''), utwu tukusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka, na tusandiro twa ŵanthu (''social sciences''), utwu tukusanda ŵanthu paŵekha na magulu gha ŵanthu (''individuals'' na ''societies'').<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli masamu, ''logic'', na ''theoretical computer science'' vikucemeka tusandiro twa dango (''formal sciences''), kanandi vikuwonekera kuti ni vyakupatuka cifukwa vikuthemba pa kughanaghana kwakufumira pa vyakukwana (''deductive reasoning'') m'malo mwa nthowa ya kasandiro nga ni nthowa yawo yikuru.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyi, tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito (''applied sciences'') ni vigaŵa ivyo vikugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro pa vyakukhumbikwa vya zuŵa na zuŵa, nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> Mbiri ya kasandiro yikukwata nyengo yitali ya mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakwamba kumanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵako pambere kasandiro ka sono kandazengeke ŵakaŵako mu Nyengo ya Mkuŵa (''Bronze Age'') ku Egypt na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Ivyo ŵakapereka pa masamu, vya kuthambo (''astronomy''), na munkhwala vikanjira mu ukaghanaghani wa Ŵagiriki wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') wa nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity'') na pamanyuma mu masambiro gha nyengo ya pakati (''medieval scholarship''), apo ŵakayezgayezga mwakukhazikika kupereka vyakulongosora vya ivyo vikucitika mu caro cakuwoneka kwizira mu vifukwa vya kawiro; kupita panthazi kwinaku, kusazgapo kwamba kwa nthowa ya manambala gha Ŵahindu na Ŵarabu (''Hindu–Arabic numeral system''), kukacitika mu Nyengo ya Golide ya India (''Golden Age of India'') na mu Nyengo ya Golide ya Ŵaislamu (''Islamic Golden Age'').<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_h6a5 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|p=12}}<ref name="Grant2007a">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref>{{rp|pp=1–26}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} Kubwezgera na kutora ntchito za Ŵagiriki na ivyo ŵaislamu ŵakasanda ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi (''Western Europe'') mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' kukawuskapo ukaghanaghani wa kawiro,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</ref> uwo pamanyuma ukasinthika na Kusintha kwa Kasandiro (''Scientific Revolution'') kuko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 16<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin/page/1 1]–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na vyakusanga vyapya vikapatuka na vyakughanaghana na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=357–368}}<ref name="Grant2007a" />{{rp|pp=274–322}} Nthowa ya kasandiro yikamba kugwira ntchito yikuru mu kusanga umanyi, ndipo mu zana la myaka la 19, vinandi vya vyakukhazikika vya mabungwe na ntchito vya kasandiro vikamba kuwonekera,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> ndipo "ukaghanaghani wa kawiro" (''natural philosophy'') ukasintha kuŵa "kasandiro ka kawiro" (''natural science'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Umanyi wapya mu kasandiro ukuluta panthazi cifukwa ca kafukufuku wa ŵasandi awo ŵakusuzgika na kukhumba kumanya caro na khumbo la kuthana masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa sono kanandi wakukolerana comene ndipo kanandi wakucitika na magulu mu mabungwe gha masambiro na kafukufuku (''research institutions''),<ref>{{cite book |last=de Ridder |first=Jeroen |url=https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |title=What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-57016-0 |editor-last1=McCain |editor-first1=Kevin |location=New York |pages=3–17 |chapter=How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? |access-date=5 May 2021 |editor-last2=Kampourakis |editor-first2=Kostas |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |url-status=live}}</ref> mabungwe gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} na ma kampani.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, vinthu vinandi vikuru ivyo vyacitika—comene mu kasandiro ka muzu (''fundamental science'')—vyafuma kwa ŵasandi paŵekha ndipo vikumanyikwa comene kwizira mu mphoto zikuru za pa caro cose nga ni Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''). Ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca ntchito ya kasandiro vyapangiska kuti paŵe ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policies'') izo zikukhumba kuŵika pakwamba kupanga vinthu vya malonda mwakwenelera, kusunga umoyo wa ŵanthu, kuzenga vinthu vya boma, kuvikilira kawiro, na kujivikilira. == Kufuma kwa lizgu == Lizgu ''science'' lagwiriskika ntchito mu Cingelezi kufuma mu zana la myaka la 14 (Cingelezi ca Pakati) mu ng'anamuro la "mkhaliro wa kumanya". Lizgu ili likabwereka kufuma ku Anglo-Norman nga ni suffix ''-cience'', iyo yikabwereka kufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''scientia'', ilo likung'anamura "umanyi, kumanya, kupulikiska", dazina lakufuma ku ''sciens'' ilo likung'anamura "kumanya", ilo mwene lizgu ilo likugwira ntchito sono la ''sciō'' "kumanya".<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pali vigomezgo vinandi vyakuti lizgu ''science'' likafuma kwakwamba. Kuyana na Michiel de Vaan, msambiri wa viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands, ''sciō'' yingaŵa kuti yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Proto-Italic nga ni ''*skije-'' panji ''*skijo-'' icho chikung'anamura "kumanya", icho chingaŵa kuti chikafuma ku Proto-Indo-European nga ni ''skh₁-ie'', ''skh₁-io'' icho chikung'anamura "kucheka". Buku la ''Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben'' likuyowoya kuti ''sciō'' ni lizgu lakupangika kufuma ku ''nescīre'', ilo likung'anamura "kuleka kumanya, kuŵa wambula kumanyikwa na", ilo lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''sekH-'' mu Cilatini ''secāre'', panji ''skh₂-'' kufuma ku ''sḱʰeh2(i)-'' ilo likung'anamura "kucheka".<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Kale, kasandiro kakaŵa lizgu lakuyana waka na "umanyi" panji "kusambira", mwakukolerana na chiyambi chake cha Cilatini. Munthu uyo wakacitanga kafukufuku wa kasandiro wakacemekanga "msambiri wa kawiro" (''natural philosopher'') panji "munthu wa kasandiro".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse/page/3 3]–15}}</ref> Mu 1834, William Whewell wakayambiska lizgu ''scientist'' (msandi) apo wakawoneseskanga buku la Mary Somerville ''On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo wakayowoya kuti lizgu ili likalembeka na "munthu munyake wavinjeru" (panji iyo mwekha).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Mbiri ya kwamba<span class="anchor" id="Earliest roots"></span> === [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Mabwe ghakuru ghakufuma ku Nabta Playa, ghakapangika na ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic kuti ŵalongozge vyakuwonera vya mu mlengalenga. Ghali ku Aswan, ku Egypt wa Kumpoto.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Chiphapha cha dongo cha Plimpton 322 icho Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba chikulembapo ''Pythagorean triples'', chakulembeka c. 1800 BCE|alt=Chiphapha cha dongo chinalembeka, mizati yitatu ya manambala na umoza wa manambala gha mu nyengo]] Kasandiro kalije na chiyambi chimoza chekha. M'malo mwake, kughanaghana kwa kasandiro kukawoneka pang'ono-pang'ono mu myaka yakukwana vikwi vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |chapter=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |title=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> kukaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana pa caro cose, ndipo ni vichoko waka ivyo vikumanyikwa pa ivyo vikacitika pakwamba comene. Ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kuti ŵakawovwiranga comene pa kasandiro ka nyengo ya pambere kulemba,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=[https://archive.org/details/dawnofeverything0000grae/page/248 248]}}</ref> nga umo vikaŵira na mitheto ya cisopo.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakugwiriskira ntchito lizgu "''protoscience''" kulemba milimo yakale iyo yikuyana na kasandiro ka sono mu vinyake kweni vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni lizgu ili lasuskikaso kuti likuyuyura,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Scott |first=Colin |encyclopedia=The Postcolonial Science and Technology Studies Reader |title=Science for the West, Myth for the Rest? |chapter=The Case of James Bay Cree Knowledge Construction |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, NC |editor-last=Harding |editor-first=Sandra |isbn=978-0-8223-4936-5 |year=2011 |pages=175–197 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv11g96cc.16 |jstor=j.ctv11g96cc.16}}</ref> panji kuti likulongora comene ''presentism'', kughanaghana vya milimo yila pakukhwaskana na vigaŵa vya sono pera.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakuwonekera wa nthowa za kasandiro ukuŵa wakukhazikika na kufika kwa nthowa zakulembera (''writing systems'') mu vikolo vya Nyengo ya Mkuŵa ku Egypt wakale na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe mabuku ghakwamba ghakulembeka mu mbiri ya kasandiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=12–15}}<ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kasandiro" na "kawiro" ghakaŵa mbali ya maghanoghano yayi pa nyengo yila, Ŵaegypt ŵakale na Ŵamesopotamia ŵakapereka vyawanangwa ivyo pamanyuma vikasanga malo mu kasandiro ka Ŵagiriki na ka nyengo ya pakati: masamu, vya kuthambo, na munkhwala.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/9 9] |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=12}} Kufuma mu vikwi viwiri BCE, Ŵaegypt ŵakale ŵakapanga nthowa ya kuŵerenga manambala ya khumi yambula malo (''non-positional decimal numbering system''),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4/page/127 127]}}</ref> ŵakamazga masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa mwakugwiriskira ntchito ''geometry'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga kalendara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo zakuchizgira zikaŵa zakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuzweteska na vinthu vya kutali na kuwoneka, nga ni mapemphero, malurombo, na mitheto.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=9}} Ŵanubia ŵakale ŵakambiska munkhwala wakukoma tuvilombo (''antibiotics'') ndipo ŵakakhazikiska ndondomeko ya malango gha ''geometry'' agho ghakaŵa muzu wa mawotchi ghakwamba gha zuŵa (''sundials''). Ŵanubia nawo ŵakagwiriskiranga ntchito nthowa ya ''trigonometry'' yakuyana waka na ya Ŵaegypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakale ŵakagwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa vikaŵa vya vinthu vya kawiro kuti ŵapange viŵiya vya dongo, ''faience'', galasi, sopo, vyuma, ''lime plaster'', na vyakuvikilira maji.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasanda umoyo wa vinyama, thupi lawo, nkharo yawo, na nyenyezi (''astrology'') kuti ŵalote.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakatemwanga comene munkhwala, ndipo malembo ghakwamba gha munkhwala ghakawoneka mu Cisumeri (''Sumerian'') mu nyengo ya ''Third Dynasty of Ur''.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikuwoneka kuti ŵakasanda vyakukhwaskana na kasandiro ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito panji vya cisopo, ndipo ŵakaŵa na kukhumba kuchoko kwa kukhorweska khumbo la kumanya vinandi.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma === [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|thumb|Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' cha Plato's Academy, chakupangika pakati pa 100 BCE na 79 CE, chikulongora ŵakaghanaghani na ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵa Ŵagiriki.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' chakuzingilizgika na chimiti, cha ŵakaghanaghani ŵakugumana na kukambirana]] Mu nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity''), kukaŵavya munthu uyo wakayana na msandi wa sono. M'malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakasambira makora, kanandi ŵapachanya, na pafupifupi ŵanalume wose, ŵakacitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana wakukhwaskana na kawiro nyengo yiliyose para ŵangakwaniska.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/39 39] |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere ukaghanaghani wa ''phusis'' panji kawiro uyo yindapangike panji kusangika na ŵakaghanaghani ŵa pambere Socrates (''pre-Socratic philosophers''), mazgu ghamoza agha ghakatemwa kugwiriskika ntchito kulongosora "nthowa" ya kawiro iyo mbuto yikukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> na "nthowa" iyo, mwachiyelezgero, fuko linyake likusopa ciuta munyake. Pa chifukwa ichi, ŵakuti ŵanalume aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwamba mu ng'anamuro lakukhora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kupambaniska makora "kawiro" na "mwambo".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira ŵa Ŵagiriki ŵa sukulu ya Miletus, iyo yikakhazikiska Thales wa ku Miletus ndipo pamanyuma yikalutilira na awo ŵakamulondezga Anaximander na Anaximenes, ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora vinthu vya kawiro kwambura kuthemba pa vinthu vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵapythagoras (''Pythagoreans'') ŵakapanga ukaghanaghani wa manambala ghakusuzga<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira comene pa kukura kwa kasandiro ka masamu.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''atoms'' ukapangika na msambiri wa Chigiriki Leucippus na ndiyo wake Democritus.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, Epicurus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakukwana wa caro cose wakuthemba pa ''atomism'', ndipo wakazomera "canon" (muyezo) uwo wakakhazikiska vyakuwoneka panji vipimo vya unenesko wa kasandiro.<ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century&nbsp;BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}.</ref> Ng'anga ya Chigiriki Hippocrates wakakhazikiska mwambo wa kasandiro ka munkhwala kakukhazikika<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "Adada wa Munkhwala" (''The Father of Medicine'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Chinthu chinyake icho chikasintha comene mbiri ya kasandiro ka ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira chikaŵa chiyelezgero cha Socrates cha kugwiriskira ntchito ukaghanaghani pa kusambira vinthu vya ŵanthu, kusazgapo kawiro ka munthu, kawiro ka magulu gha boma, na umanyi wa ŵanthu wekha. Nthowa ya Socrates (''Socratic method'') nga umo yikulembekera mu mazgu gha Plato ni nthowa ya ''dialectic'' yakuwuskapo ''hypothesis'': ''hypotheses'' zawemi zikusangika mwakuzumbulira na kuwuskapo izo zikutigira ku kususkana. Nthowa ya Socrates yikupenja unenesko wakukolerana uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga, uwo ukupangiska vigomezgo, na kuviwoneseska kuti viŵe vyakuyana waka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska mtundu wakale wa kusambira ''physics'' kuti ukaŵa wakughanaghana waka ndipo ukaŵavya kujisuska.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 4 BCE, Aristotle wakapanga ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya ukaghanaghani wa ''teleological''.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 3 BCE, msandi wa vya kuthambo wa Chigiriki Aristarchus wa Samos wakaŵa wakwamba kupanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati pa caro cose (''heliocentric model''), na mapulaneti ghose ghakuzunguliza ilo.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Aristarchus ukakanizgika comene cifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti ukuswa malango gha ''physics'',<ref name="McClellan2015" /> apo buku la ''Almagest'' la Ptolemy, ilo lili na ndondomeko yakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric'') ya Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa (''Solar System''), likazomerezgeka mpaka nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' yakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Mpanji na msambiri wa masamu Archimedes wa Syracuse wakawovwira comene pakwamba kwa ''calculus''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pliny the Elder wakaŵa mulembi wa ku Roma na msambiri wa vinandi uyo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''Natural History''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell M. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Nthowa ya kulemba manambala pa malo (''positional notation'') yikwenera kuti yikawoneka pakati pa zana la myaka la 3 na la 5 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku India. Nthowa iyi ya manambala yikapangiska kuŵerenga kuŵa kwamsanga, ndipo pamanyuma yikaŵa nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya masamu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0 |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0/page/72 72]–74}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Pakati === [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Peji lakwamba la ''Vienna Dioscurides'' likulongora ''peacock'', lakapangika mu zana la myaka la 6.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''peacock'' pa pepala lakale comene]] Cifukwa ca kugwa kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumadazi (''Western Roman Empire''), zana la myaka la 5 likawona kuchepa kwa umanyi, ndipo umanyi wa Ŵagiriki wa caro ukawola ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵalembi ŵa Cilatini ŵa nyengo iyo nga ni Isidore wa Seville ŵakasunga vinandi vya umanyi wakale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni, cifukwa Ufumu wa Byzantine ukakana kuukirika na ŵalwani, ŵakakwaniska kusunga na kunozga ivyo ŵakasambira kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} John Philoponus, msambiri wa Byzantine mu zana la myaka la 6, wakamba kukayika ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga vya ''physics'', ndipo wakambiska ''theory of impetus''.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususka kwake kukaŵa cipulikiro ku ŵasambiri ŵa nyengo ya pakati na ku Galileo Galilei, uyo wakalongora ntchito zake kwa nyengo yitali, vikwi vya myaka vimoza pamanyuma.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kumanyuma kwa ukale (''late antiquity'') na mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba (''Early Middle Ages''), vinthu vya kawiro vikasandika comene mu nthowa ya Aristotle. Nthowa iyi yikukhwaska vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle (''four causes''): chakuthupi, chakumanyikwa, chakugwira ntchito, na chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba ghanandi gha Chigiriki ghakale ghakasungika na Ufumu wa Byzantine, ndipo Ŵakhristu, comene Ŵanestorian na Ŵamiaphysite, ŵakaghamasulira mu Cirabu. Pasi pa ŵa Abbasid, ghamasuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukura na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62–67}} Mu zana la myaka la 6 na la 7, Ufumu wa Sasanian uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya munkhwala ya Gondishapur (''Academy of Gondishapur''), iyo yikawonekanga na ŵang'anga ŵa Ŵagiriki, Ŵasiriya, na Ŵapersia kuti ni malo gha munkhwala ghakuzirwa comene mu caro cakale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5 |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Masambiro gha Ŵaislamu gha Aristotle (''Aristotelianism'') ghakakura mu Nyumba ya Nzeru (''House of Wisdom'') iyo yikakhazikika mu msumba ukuru wa ŵa Abbasid, Baghdad, ku Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo ghakakura comene<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> mpaka apo Ŵamongol ŵakawukira mu zana la myaka la 13. Ibn al-Haytham, uyo wakumanyikwa comene kuti Alhazen, wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakuyezgayezga vyakulongozgeka pa kafukufuku wake wa vyakuwona (''optics'').{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Ibn al-Haytham's ''[[Book of Optics]]'' disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision: "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". See A. Mark Smith's translation from the Latin,<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref> Book I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Buku la ''The Canon of Medicine'' ilo Avicenna wakalemba, buku lakulongosora vya munkhwala, likuwonekera kuti ni linyake mwa mabuku ghakukhumbikwa comene mu munkhwala, ndipo likagwiriskika ntchito mpaka mu zana la myaka la 18.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 11, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka Ŵakhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, yunivesite ya Bologna (''University of Bologna'') yikawonekera kuŵa yunivesite yakwamba ku Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Perhaps even as early as 1088 (the date officially set for the founding of the University)}}</ref> Pakuti vikaŵa nthena, kukhumba kwa kumasulira mabuku gha kale na gha kasandiro mu Cilatini kukakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ico cikawovwira comene ku ''Renaissance'' ya zana la myaka la 12. Masambiro gha ''scholasticism'' ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi ghakakura, ndipo ŵakayezgayezga vinthu mwakuwona, kulongosora, na kugaŵa vinthu vya kawiro mu mitundu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 13, ŵasambizgi ŵa munkhwala na ŵasambiri ŵa ku Bologna ŵakamba kujura matupi gha ŵanthu, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba lakusambizga vya thupi la munthu (''anatomy'') ilo likapangika na Mondino de Luzzi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Renaissance === [[File:Printing towns incunabula.svg|thumb|alt=Mapu gha Ulaya na vimaŵara vikulongora misumba umo makina gha kusindikizga mabuku ghakakhazikiskika pakumalizira kwa zana la myaka la 15|Kuthandazgika kwa kusindikizga mabuku pakati pa 1440 na 1500.]] Kufuma pa sitoro yimoza yakusindikizgirako mabuku ku Mainz, Germany, pafupifupi mu 1440, makina ghakusindikizgirako mabuku ghakugwiriskira ntchito mazgu ghakusunkhunyika (''movable-type printing press'') ghakathandazgika mu misumba pafupifupi 270 ku Ulaya wa pakati, wa Kumadazi, na wa Kumaulo, ndipo ghakaŵa kuti ghasindikizga kale mabuku ghakujumpha 20 miliyoni kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 15.<ref name="Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean 1976 by Anderson, Benedict 1993, 58f.">Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). ''The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800''. London: New Left Books. Quoted in: Anderson, Benedict. ''Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo''. Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico, 1993. {{ISBN|978-968-16-3867-2}}. pp. 58f.</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukapangiska kuti mabuku gha ŵasambiri ghasangike comene, ndipo ŵasandi ŵakawonenge mabuku ghakale mwakufwatuka na kuyaniska ivyo iwo ŵakawona na ivyo ŵasambiri ŵanyawo ŵakawona.<ref>"Printing made it possible for [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]] to survey a wide range of publications (there were over a hundred on the [[Great Comet of 1577#Observations by Tycho Brahe|comet of 1577]], though many were merely astrological prognostications) and demonstrate that the four best observers had produced results compatible with his own. It also ensured that Brahe's new system was quickly known throughout Europe, so that his arguments could be tested against the [[Kepler's Supernova|nova of 1604]] and the [[C/1618 W1#Scientific evaluation|comets of 1618]]. Printing created a community of astronomers working on common problems with common methods and reaching agreed solutions." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). pp.197-198. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukamalizga mwambo wa malemba ghakulembeka na woko (''manuscript culture'') wa Nyengo ya Pakati, apo unenesko ukaŵa uchoko ndiposo wakupambana, ndipo kukasintha na mwambo wa kusindikizga apo unenesko wakugomezgeka na wakulembeka ukachuluka mwaluŵiro ndipo ukazgoka maziko ghakukhora gha umanyi wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |author-link=David Wootton (historian) |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/inventionofscien0000woot |publisher=Penguin |year=2015 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inventionofscien0000woot/page/282 282] |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |quote=...a manuscript culture, in which experience is unspecific, indirect, and amorphous...a print culture, in which experience is specific, direct, documented and retrievable...In comparison to the world of print, manuscript culture is one of rumour and gossip. The printing press represents an information revolution, and secure facts are its consequence.}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 16, Nicolaus Copernicus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati (''heliocentric model'') wa Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa, na zuŵa likaŵa pafupi na pakati pa caro cose,<ref>"The man who had deposed the earth from its proud position as the centre of the universe and had recognized it to be merely one of the planets, had yet felt compelled to give it quite an exceptional position in his new system. Though he had said 'in the midst of all stand the sun,' he had in his planetary theories assumed the centre of all movements to be the centre of the earth's orbit, where the sun was not." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...it was obvious to Copernicus...that the earth cannot move uniformly about a circle with the sun at the center. Thus Copernicus placed the sun not at the center of the earth's orbit, but at some distance away. The center of the solar system, and of the universe, in the system of Copernicus is thus not the sun at all, but rather a 'mean sun,' of the center of the earth's orbit. Hence, it is preferable to call the Copernican system a heliostatic system rather than a heliocentric system." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> lisunkhunyika yayi, na caro na mapulaneti ghanyake ghakuzunguliza mu mzere wakuzungulira,<ref>"All movement within it (outside of the immediate vicinity of the Earth) is determined by the fundamental principle that heavenly movement is circular and therefore unchanging. Ptolemy, Copernicus thought, had betrayed this principle not...by adding epicycles to deferents in order to explain why the planets sometimes appear to move backwards in the sky, but by introducing the [[equant]] in order to speed them up and slow them down." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakusinthika na ''epicycles'', ndipo ghakuyenda mwakuyana waka. Ukaghanaghani wa Copernicus ukasuska ukaghanaghani wakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric model'') wa Ptolemy, uwo wakaŵika caro pakati pa caro cose. Ŵasandi ŵa vya kuthambo ŵa zana la myaka la 16 ŵakagomezganga kuti kuwuskapo kwa ''equant'' na Copernicus ndiko kukaŵa kukwaniska kwake kukuru,<ref>"My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the [[equant]] was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p. 55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni ukaghanaghani wake ukasintha yayi ukaghanaghani wa Ptolemy, uwo wakangoleka kukondweka pamanyuma pa vyaka 70 kufuma apo Galileo wakawonera vinthu na telesikopu mu 1610.<ref>"It is easy to show that conventional Ptolemaic astronomy was thriving until 1610 [when Galileo observed the phases of Venus with a telescope] and went into crisis immediately afterwards...The evidence is clear: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic model|Ptolemaic astronomy]] was unaffected by Copernicus; it went into crisis briefly with the [[SN 1572|new star of 1572]], but by the end of the sixteenth century it had fully recovered. The telescope, on the other hand, brought about its immediate and irreversible collapse." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha kwa Kasandiro === Kuwonera kwa Tycho Brahe kwakuyanirana comene kwa vya kuthambo kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 16, na kuwonera kwa Galileo Galilei na telesikopu kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 17, vikasazganako ndipo vikapangiska kuti kasandiro ka vya kuthambo (''astronomy'') kaŵe kasandiro kakwamba ka sono. Kuwonera kwa Galileo kukamalizga vikwi vya myaka vya maghanoghano gha kale gha vya kuthambo, apo Johannes Kepler wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Brahe kuti wasange kuti mapulaneti ghali na nthowa zakuzungulira za ''elliptical'', zakuzungulira yayi, ndipo wakapanga malango gha kuyenda kwa mapulaneti (''laws of planetary motion'').<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article-pdf/64/9/50/9881314/50_1_online.pdf|title= The great Martian catastrophe and how Kepler fixed it |journal=Physics Today|date= 2011 |volume=64|issue=9|pages=50–54|doi=10.1063/PT.3.1259|access-date=27 July 2023 |last= Gingerich |first= Owen |author-link=Owen Gingerich |bibcode= 2011PhT....64i..50G }}</ref> Cifukwa ca Kepler, vinthu vya kuthambo vikamba kuwoneka kuti vikulongozgeka na malango gha kawiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Bernard|last2=Hon|first2=Giora|date=2005|title=Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496|journal=Perspectives on Science|volume=13|pages=74–111|doi=10.1162/1063614053714126 |s2cid=57559843 }}</ref> "Kasandiro Kapya" (''New Science'') ako kakawonekera kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 17 kakapatuka comene na ukaghanaghani wa kawiro uwo ukaŵapo kale,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | url= https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin | pages = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin/page/1 1]–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> kakapatuka na maghanoghano na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki,<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | url= https://archive.org/details/reappraisalsofsc0000unse | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = [https://archive.org/details/reappraisalsofsc0000unse/page/1 1]–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| url= https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_h6a5 | pages= [https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_h6a5/page/357 357]–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= 1 June 2018|archive-date= 11 December 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> kakaŵa ka makina comene mu kuwona caro ndipo kakasazgikira na masamu,<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book|author1-link=Ofer Gal | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofmoderns0000galo | pages = [https://archive.org/details/originsofmoderns0000galo/page/308 308]–349 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> ndipo kakatemwanga comene kusanga na kupulikiska ukaboni wapya.<ref>Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.136. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kuŵala === [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Peji la mutu wa buku lakwamba la 1687 la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Pakwamba kwa Nyengo ya Kuŵala (''Age of Enlightenment''), Isaac Newton wakakhazikiska maziko gha ''classical mechanics'' na buku lake la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', ico cikakhuŵilizga comene ŵasandi ŵa ''physics'' ŵa munthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |year=2002 |page=241 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century.}}</ref> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz wakasazgapo mazgu ghakufuma mu ''Aristotelian physics'', agho sono ghakugwiriskika ntchito mu nthowa yiphya yambura ''teleological''. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti ŵanthu ŵakasintha umo ŵakawoneranga vinthu: vinthu sono vikawonekanga kuti vilije vilato vyakubabikira. Leibniz wakaghanaghananga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu vyose vikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na malango ghakuyana waka gha kawiro, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vyakumanyikwa panji vyaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, cilato na kuzirwa kwa kasandiro ivyo vikapharazgika vikamba kupanga cuma na vyakupangika ivyo vingapangiska kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu uŵe uwemi, mu ng'anamuro la kutemwa vinthu vyakuthupi lakuti ŵaŵe na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwara, na vinthu vinyake. Mu mazgu gha Bacon, "cilato cenicenico na cakwenelera ca tusandiro '''ni kupereka ku umoyo wa munthu vyakupanga viphya na vyuma'''", ndipo wakakhuŵazga ŵasandi kuti ŵaleke kulondezga maghanoghano ghambura kuwoneka gha filosofi panji gha mzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira viŵi yayi ku cimwemwe ca munthu kuluska "utsi wa maghanoghano ghakuthukuka, ghakuzirwa panji ghakukondweska".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Kasandiro mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala kakalongozgeka na mabungwe gha kasandiro (''scientific societies'') na ma ''academy'',<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho ghakaŵa kuti ghanjira comene mu malo gha mayunivesite kuŵa malo ghakufufuzira na kukuzga kasandiro. Mabungwe na ma ''academy'' ghakaŵa mafupa gha kukhwima kwa ntchito ya kasandiro. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa kuthandazgika kwa kasandiro ku ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵa Nyengo ya Kuŵala ŵakazgokera kwa ŵasandi ŵachoko waka awo ŵakaŵako pambere—Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, na Newton comene—nga ni ŵalongozgi mu chigaŵa chilichose cha caro na cha ŵanthu cha nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 18, ŵanthu ŵakasintha comene pa munkhwala<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |url=https://archive.org/details/brockbiologyofmi0011madi |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na ''physics'';<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Carl Linnaeus wakapanga ''taxonomy'' ya vyamoyo;<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=C. H. |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> ŵakapulikiska vyapya pa ''magnetism'' na magetsi;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kemistri yikakhwima kuŵa cigaŵa ca kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano gha kawiro ka munthu, ŵanthu, na vya cuma ghakasintha mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala. Hume na ŵakaghanaghani ŵanyake ŵa ku Scotland ŵakapanga ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', ilo likalongosoreka mu mbiri mu ntchito za ŵalembi nga ni James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar na William Robertson, ŵose ŵakasazga pamoza kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa umo ŵanthu ŵakacitiranga mu mitheto yakale na yambula kukura na kumanya makora ivyo vikulongozga nyengo ya sono (''modernity'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> ''Sociology'' ya sono yikafuma comene mu gulu ili.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, Adam Smith wakalemba ''The Wealth of Nations'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuti ndilo buku lakwamba la cuma ca sono (''modern economics'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 19 === [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithunzi chakwamba cha mti wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolutionary tree'') icho Charles Darwin wakapanga mu 1837|alt=Chithunzi cha mapu chakulembeka na mazgu]] Mu zana la myaka la 19, vinthu vinandi vyakupambaniska vya kasandiro ka sono vikamba kuwoneka. Ivi vikaŵa kusintha kwa kasandiro ka vyamoyo na ka vinthu vyambura umoyo; kugwiriskira ntchito pafupipafupi vipangizo vyakupima makora; kuwoneka kwa mazgu nga ni "msandi wa vyamoyo" (''biologist''), "msandi wa ''physics''" (''physicist''), na "msandi" (''scientist''); kuŵa ŵakukhwima kwa awo ŵakusambira vya kawiro; ŵasandi kupokera ulemu wa miyambo pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kupanga mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kukura kwa mabuku gha kasandiro gha ŵanthu wose; na kuwoneka kwa magazini gha kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 19, ''psychology'' yikawoneka nga ni sambiro lakupambana na filosofi apo Wilhelm Wundt wakakhazikiska labotale yakwamba ya kafukufuku wa ''psychology'' mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom/page/219 219]–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa zana la myaka la 19, Charles Darwin na Alfred Russel Wallace ŵakayowoya paŵekha ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo na ''natural selection'' mu 1858, uwo ukalongosora umo mbuto na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikambira na kukura. Ukaghanaghani wawo ukalongosoreka mwakudumura mu buku la Darwin ''On the Origin of Species'', ilo likalembeka mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Padera, Gregor Mendel wakalongosora pepala lake "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha vyamoyo, ico cikaŵa maziko gha ''genetics'' ya sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 19, John Dalton wakayowoya ukaghanaghani wa sono wa ''atomic'' (''atomic theory''), uwo ukuthemba pa ukaghanaghani wakwamba wa Democritus wa vinthu vyambura kugaŵika vyakucemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha kusunga ''energy'', kusunga ''momentum'', na kusunga ''mass'' ghakalongora caro cakukhazikika comene apo pangaŵa kutaya kwa vinthu vichoko waka. Kweni, na kufika kwa injini ya ''steam'' na ''Industrial Revolution'', ŵanthu ŵakamba kupulikiska kuti ni mitundu yose yayi ya ''energy'' iyo yili na mikhaliro yakuyana waka, nchakusuzga yayi kusintha kuti yiŵe ntchito yakukhumbikwa panji ''energy'' yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kupulikiska uku kukapangiska kuti paŵe malango gha ''thermodynamics'', umo ''free energy'' ya caro cose yikuwoneka kuti yikuchepa nyengo zose: ''entropy'' ya caro cakujalika yikukura na nyengo.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Whether the universe is closed or open, or the [[shape of the universe]], is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> and the 3rd law of thermodynamics<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> imply the [[heat death of the universe]] if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''electromagnetic'' (''electromagnetic theory'') ukakhazikika mu zana la myaka la 19 na ntchito za Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, na Heinrich Hertz. Ukaghanaghani wapya uwu ukapangiska mafumbo agho ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kuzgora mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa ''X-rays'' kukapangiska kuti Henri Becquerel na Marie Curie ŵasange ''radioactivity'' mu 1896;<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul/page/12 12]}}</ref> Marie Curie wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu caka cakulondezgapo ŵakasanga cinthu cakwamba chichoko kuluska ''atom'', ico cikucemeka ''electron''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 20 === [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithunzi chikulongora ''ozone'' yichoko ku South Pole|thumb|Chithunzi cha pa ''computer'' cha ''ozone hole'' chakapangika mu 1987 mwakugwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika kufuma ku telesikopu ya mlengalenga]] Mu hafu yakwamba ya zana la myaka, kupangika kwa ''antibiotics'' na feteleza wakupangika na ŵanthu (''artificial fertilisers'') kukawovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha kawiro nga ni kuchepa kwa ''ozone'', kuŵa na asidi mu nyanja, ''eutrophication'', na kusintha kwa nyengo vikiza mu mtima wa ŵanthu ndipo vikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusambira vya kawiro (''environmental studies'').<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro kukaŵa kukuru comene mu unandi na ndalama.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kupanga vinthu vyapya kukuru kuko kukakhuŵilizgika na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro (''World War I''), Nkhondo ya Caro ya Wuŵiri (''World War II''), na Nkhondo Yakuzizira (''Cold War'') kukapangiska kulimbana pakati pa maboma ghakuru, nga ni Kulimbana kwa Kuthambo (''Space Race'') na kulimbana kwa vilwero vya ''nuclear''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingaboutunt0000kahn |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukolerana kukuru kwa vyaru vinyake nako kukacitika, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |url=https://archive.org/details/structuresofscie0000shru |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 20, kulemba ŵanakazi mwamwamphu na kuwuskapo kusankhana pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukapangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵanandi, kweni mphambano yikuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi yikalutilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross/page/7 7]}}</ref> Kusangika kwa ''cosmic microwave background'' mu 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakane ukaghanaghani wa caro cakukhazikika (''steady-state model'') ndipo ŵazomerezge ukaghanaghani wa ''Big Bang'' wa Georges Lemaître.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Zana la myaka ili likawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolution'') ukaŵa ukaghanaghani wakukolerana kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 20 apo ''modern synthesis'' yikaphatikizga ukaghanaghani wa Darwin na ''classical genetics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3 |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3/page/n26 3]–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Albert Einstein wa ''relativity'' na kukura kwa ''quantum mechanics'' vikovwira ''classical mechanics'' kulongosora ''physics'' mu utali wakukwana, nyengo, na ''gravity''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiriskira ntchito kwakuthandazgika kwa ''integrated circuits'' mu kotala yaumaliro ya zana la myaka la 20 pamoza na ''communications satellites'' kukapangiska kusintha kukuru mu tekinoloji ya uthenga (''information technology'') na kukwera kwa ''internet'' ya caro cose na ''mobile computing'', kusazgapo ma ''smartphone''. Kukhumbikwa kwa kuŵika mu ndondomeko vyakuphanana vyakutali na vyakukolerana na vyakusangika vinandi (''data'') kukapangiska kuti paŵe kukwera kwa vigaŵa vya ''systems theory'' na ''scientific modelling'' yakovwirika na ma ''computer''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |doi=10.2307/255139 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 21 === Ntchito ya ''Human Genome Project'' yikamalizgika mu 2003 pakusanga na kuŵika mapu gha ''genes'' zose za ''human genome''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha ŵanthu gha ''induced pluripotent stem cells'' ghakapangika mu 2006, ico cikapangiska kuti maselo gha ŵakukura ghasinthike kuŵa ''stem cells'' ndipo ghazgoke mtundu uliwose wa selo uwo ukusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Na kukhozgera kusangika kwa ''Higgs boson'' mu 2013, cinthu caumaliro ico ''Standard Model'' ya ''particle physics'' yikayowoya kale cikasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu 2015, ''gravitational waves'', izo ''general relativity'' yikayowoya kale vyaka zana limoza pambere, zikawonekera kwakwamba.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu 2019, ubungwe wa caro cose ''Event Horizon Telescope'' ukalongora chithunzi chakwamba chakuwoneka cha ''accretion disc'' ya ''black hole''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Vigaŵa == Kasandiro ka sono kanandi kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: kasandiro ka kawiro (''natural science''), kasandiro ka ŵanthu (''social science''), na kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'').<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Cigaŵa chiliconse cha ivi chili na vigaŵa vinandi vya kasandiro vyakupambana kweni vyakukhwaskana, ivyo kanandi vikuŵa na mazgu na umanyi wawo.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu twose ni tusandiro twa ukaboni (''empirical sciences''),<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/24 24]}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo ukuthemba pa ivyo vikuwoneka, ndipo ŵafukufuku ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu nyengo yakuyana ŵangayeza usange ni wa unenesko.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3–26}} === Tusandiro twa kawiro === Kasandiro ka kawiro ni kusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka. Kangagaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru: kasandiro ka vyamoyo (''life science'') na kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo (''physical science''). Vigaŵa ivi viŵiri vingagaŵikaso mu vigaŵa vichoko vyapadera. Mwachiyelezgero, kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo kangagaŵika mu ''physics'', kemistri, ''astronomy'', na kasandiro ka caro (''earth science''). Kasandiro ka kawiro ka sono ni uyo wakulondezga ukaghanaghani wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') uwo wakamba ku Girisi wakale. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, na Newton ŵakakangana za uwemi wa kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa izo zikaŵa za masamu comene na zakuyezgayezga comene mu nthowa yakukhazikika. Kweni, maghanoghano gha filosofi, ukaghanaghani, na vyakuyamba kutorekwa kuti ni vyanenesko, ivyo kanandi vikuyeghekeka, vikulutilira kukhumbikwa mu kasandiro ka kawiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kutora vyakusangika mu nthowa yakukhazikika, kusazgapo ''discovery science'', kukalondezga ''natural history'', iyo yikawoneka mu zana la myaka la 16 mwakulongosora na kugaŵa mbuto, vinyama, malibwe, na vyamoyo vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil/page/1 1]–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Sono, "''natural history''" likulongosora vyakuwonera vyakulembeka ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Mzere wa ''supply'' na ''demand'' mu ''economics'', wakukumana pa malo ghawemi ghakuyana|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yikukumana pa malo ghamoza, yikupanga chimanyisko cha X]] Kasandiro ka ŵanthu ni kusanda nkharo za ŵanthu na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira pamoza.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Kali na vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni ''anthropology'', ''economics'', mbiri, ''human geography'', ''political science'', ''psychology'', na ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakukangana, ndipo ghanandi ghakukuzgika kwizira mu mapulogiramu gha kafukufuku ghakukangana, nga ni ''functionalists'', ''conflict theorists'', na ''interactionists'' mu ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Cifukwa ca masuzgo gha kucita ma ''experiment'' ghakulongozgeka pa magulu ghakuru gha ŵanthu panji pa vinthu vyakusuzga, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangagwiriskira ntchito nthowa zinyake za kafukufuku nga ni nthowa ya mbiri (''historical method''), ''case studies'', na ''cross-cultural studies''. Kweniso usange manambala ghalipo, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangathemba pa ''statistics'' kuti ŵapulikiske makora ubwezi na nthowa za ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Tusandiro twa dango === Kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'') ni chigaŵa cha kusanda icho chikupanga umanyi mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko zakukhazikika (''formal systems'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Formal system'' ni chikaghanaghaniro chambura kuwoneka icho chikugwiriskika ntchito kufumiska vyakumalizira (''theorems'') kufuma pa vyakwamba (''axioms'') kuyana na dango.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Formal system |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-system |access-date=30 May 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=29 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429174130/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034889/formal-system |url-status=live}}</ref> Chikukhwaska masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> ''systems theory'', na ''theoretical computer science''. Tusandiro twa dango tukuyana na vigaŵa vinyake viŵiri pakuthemba pa kusanda kwakukwana, kwa makora, na kwakukhazikika kwa chigaŵa cha umanyi. Kweni tukupambana na tusandiro twa ukaboni cifukwa tukuthemba kughanaghana kwa ''deductive'' pera, kwambura kukhumbikwira ukaboni, kuti tuyeze maghanoghano ghawo ghambura kuwoneka.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Tusandiro twa dango, ntheura, ni vigaŵa vya ''a priori'', ndipo cifukwa ca ici, pali kukangana usange vikuŵa kasandiro.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, tusandiro twa dango tukuseŵera chigaŵa chikuru mu tusandiro twa ukaboni. ''Calculus'', mwachiyelezgero, yikapangika pakwamba kuti ŵamanye umo vinthu vikwendera mu ''physics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse/page/201 201]–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu utwu tukuthemba comene pa masamu tukusazgapo ''mathematical physics'',<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> kemistri,<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> ''biology'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> ''finance'',<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''economics''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito === Kasandiro ka kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied science'') ni kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro na umanyi kuti ŵasange vilato vya zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo kakukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> ''Engineering'' ni kugwiriskira ntchito mazgu gha kasandiro kupanga, kukonda, na kuzenga makina, vyakuzengeka, na tekinoloji.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Kasandiro kangawovwira kupanga tekinoloji zapya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni nthowa yakusamalira ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kubwezgera umoyo wawemi kwizira mu kugega, kusanda nthenda, na kuchizga vilonda panji nthenda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa muzu === Kanandi tusandiro twa kugwiriskira ntchito tukuyezgeka na tusandiro twa muzu (''basic sciences''), utwu tukulingalira kukuzga ukaghanaghani na dango za kasandiro izo zikulongosora na kuvikira ivyo vikucitika mu kawiro.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka ''blue skies'' === Kafukufuku wa ''blue skies'' (''blue skies research''), uyo wakucemekaso ''blue sky science'', ni kafukufuku wa kasandiro mu vigaŵa umo kugwiriskika kwa "caro cenicenico" kukuwonekera yayi pa nyengo yeneyiyo. === Kasandiro ka kompyuta === Kasandiro ka kompyuta (''computational science'') kakugwiriskira ntchito ''computer simulations'' mu kasandiro, ico cikovwira kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha kasandiro kuluska umo masamu ghekha ghangacitira. Kugwiriskira ntchito ''machine learning'' na ''artificial intelligence'' kukuzgoka chinthu chikuru mu uwovwiri wa kompyuta ku kasandiro, mwachiyelezgero mu ''agent-based computational economics'', ''random forests'', ''topic modelling'', na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kuvikira (''prediction''). Kweni, makina ghekha ghakukuzga umanyi kachoko pera cifukwa ghakukhumba ulongozgi wa ŵanthu na luso lwa kughanaghana; ndipo ghangapangiska kuti magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasankhikwe panji nyengo zinyake ghangacita makora yayi kuluska ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=https://osf.io/adxb3/download |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi (''interdisciplinary science'') kakukhwaska kuphatikiza vigaŵa viŵiri panji vinandi kuŵa chimoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working Definition of Interdisciplinarity |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |doi-access=free|jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni ''bioinformatics'' (kuphatikiza ''biology'' na ''computer science'')<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> na ''cognitive sciences''. Maghanoghano agha ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki ŵakale, ndipo ghakamba kukondweka kaso mu zana la myaka la 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/becominginterdis0000augs |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wangalembeka kuti ni wa muzu panji wa kugwiriskira ntchito. Kafukufuku wa muzu (''basic research'') ni kusaka umanyi, ndipo kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied research'') ni kusaka nthowa zakuthana masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa pakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska kunandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wa muzu, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito wakulingalira masuzgo ghenipo. Ici cikupangiska kuti paŵe tekinoloji zapya izo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga yayi pakwamba.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa ya kasandiro === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Chithunzi cha nthowa ya kasandiro icho chikulongosoreka nga ni mzere wakulutilira|alt=Masitepu 6 gha nthowa ya kasandiro mu chizunguzunguzu]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro, iyo yikusaka kulongosora mwakwenenesko vyakucitika mu kawiro mu nthowa iyo yingabwerezgeka.<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |url=https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora/page/1 1]–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Kanandi ŵasandi ŵakutora kuti ghanyake gha maghanoghano ghakwamba ni ghanenesko, agho ghakukhumbikwa kuti nthowa ya kasandiro yiŵe yakukhazikika: kuli caro chenichenicho icho ŵakuwona wose ŵakughanaghana makora ŵakugabana; caro ichi chenichenicho chikulongozgeka na dango za kawiro; dango izi zikasangika kwizira mu kuwona na kuyezgayezga mu nthowa yakukhazikika.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ghakukhumbikwa comene mu kupanga ''hypotheses'', ukaghanaghani, na dango, cifukwa ghakugwiriskika comene mu kupanga ''quantitative models'', kuwona, na kutora vyakupimika.<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3–26}} ''Statistics'' yikugwiriskika kuphatikiza na kusanda manambala, ico cikovwira ŵasandi kupima kuti vyakuyezgeka vikwenere kugomezgeka.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa ya kasandiro, ''thought experiment'' panji ''hypothesis'' yakulongosora yikuŵikika nga ni chikaghanaghaniro pakugwiriskira ntchito ''parsimony principles'', ndipo yikukhumbikwa kusaka ''consilience''—kuyanirana na vyanenesko vinyake vyasikizgika vyakukhwaskana na chakuwonekapo panji fumbo la kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity0000wils |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Chikaghanaghaniro ichi chakwamba chikugwiriskika kupanga vyakuvikira (''predictions'') vyakuti vingapusikizgika, ivyo kanandi ŵakulemba kwambere kuyezgayezga. Kupusikizga chakuvikira ni ukaboni wa kukhwima.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga ni kwakukhumbikwa comene mu kasandiro kuti kuwovwire kupanga ubwezi wa chifukwa na chakucitika (''causal relationships'') kuti ŵaleke kugwa mu ''correlation fallacy'', kweni mu tusandiro tunyake nga ni ''astronomy'' panji ''geology'', chakuwonekapo chakuvikilika chingaŵa chawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange ''hypothesis'' yikulephera, ŵakuyisintha panji kuyiwusa. Usange yikuyimilira pa kuyezgayezga, yingatolekwa mu ndondomeko ya ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro (''scientific theory''), ''model'' yakughanaghanika makora, yakuyana yekha, panji ndondomeko yakulongosora makhaliro gha vyakucitika vinyake vya kawiro. Ukaghanaghani (''theory'') kanandi ukulongosora makhaliro gha vyakuwoneka vyanandi kuluska ''hypothesis''; kanandi, ''hypotheses'' zinandi zingaphatikizgika na ukaghanaghani umoza. Ntheura, ukaghanaghani ni ''hypothesis'' yikulongosora ''hypotheses'' zinyake zinandi. Mu nthowa iyi, ukaghanaghani ukupangika kuyana na mazgu gha kasandiro ghakuyana na gha ''hypotheses''. Ŵasandi ŵangapanga ''model'', chikaghanaghaniro cha kulongosora panji kulongora chakuwoneka mu nthowa ya ''logical'', ya ''physical'', panji ya masamu, na kupanga ''hypotheses'' zapya izo zingayezgeka pakuyezgayezga.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Apo ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵayeze ''hypotheses'', ŵasandi ŵangakondwa na chakuyezgeka chimoza kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo ukondelero uwu kungacitika kwizira mu kuwonekera (''transparency''), kupanga makora kuyezgayezga, na kupimiskika makora kwa vyakuyezgeka na vyakumalizira na ŵasandi ŵanyake (''peer review'').<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Shatz |year=2004 |title=Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry |url=https://archive.org/details/peerreviewcritic0000shat |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1434-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Sheldon |last=Krimsky |year=2003 |title=Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1479-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceinprivate0000krim}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti vyakuyezgeka vyatenderezgeka panji vyalembeka, ni chikozgero chawemi kuti ŵafukufuku ŵakujiyimirira ŵapime kuti kafukufuku wacitikira wuli, ndipo ŵalondezge na kucita ma ''experiments'' ghakuyana kuti ŵamanye kuti vyakuyezgeka vingagomezgeka wuli.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Para nthowa ya kasandiro yagwiriskika yose, yikuzomerezga kuthana masuzgo mwaluso comene uku yikucepeska ukondelero wa munthu yekha na ukondelero wa kukhozgera ivyo wali kale kugomezga (''confirmation bias'').<ref>{{cite web |last=Backer |first=Patricia Ryaby |date=29 October 2004 |url=http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |title=What is the scientific method? |publisher=San Jose State University |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408082917/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref> ''Intersubjective verifiability'', luso lakufika pa kuzomerezgana na kubwerezga vyakuyezgeka, ni lakukhumbikwa comene pakupanga umanyi wose wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Vyakulembeka === [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chikuto cha buku lakwamba la ''Nature'', 4 November 1869|alt=Mutu wa "NATURE" wakukometa, na malemba gha kasandiro pasi]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukutenderezgeka mu vyakulembeka vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro (''scientific journals'') ghakumanyisha na kulemba vyakuyezgeka vya kafukufuku uwo ukucitika mu mayunivesite na malo ghanyake ghakufufuzira, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito nga ni vyakusunga vya mbiri ya kasandiro. Ma ''journal'' ghakwamba gha kasandiro, ''Journal des sçavans'' na pamanyuma ''Philosophical Transactions'', ghakamba kutenderezgeka mu 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, ciŵerengero cose ca ma ''periodical'' ghakugwira ntchito cikukura nyengo zose. Mu 1981, cilingo cimoza ca ciŵerengero ca ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro na gha tekinoloji ghakutenderezgeka cikaŵa 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' ghanandi gha kasandiro ghakukwata chigaŵa chimoza cha kasandiro ndipo ghakutenderezga kafukufuku wa mu chigaŵa ichi; kafukufuku uyu kanandi ukulembeka mu nkhani ya kasandiro (''scientific article''). Kasandiro kathandazgika comene mu caro cha sono mwakuti kukukhumbikwa kumanyisha ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo ŵasandi ŵafikapo, nkhani, na ivyo ŵakukhumba.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Filosofi == [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Kwa Kuhn, kusazgapo kwa ''epicycles'' mu ''Ptolemaic astronomy'' kukaŵa "kasandiro kakawaleza" (''normal science'') mukati mwa ''paradigm'', apo ''Copernican Revolution'' yikaŵa kusintha kwa ''paradigm''.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''epicycles'', apo pulaneti likuzunguliza mu mzunguliro mukuru]] Pali masukulu ghakupambanapambana gha maghanoghano mu filosofi ya kasandiro (''philosophy of science''). Maghanoghano ghakukondwa comene ni ''empiricism'', agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu nthowa yakukhwaska kuwona; ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ukugaŵa ivyo ŵakuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39–56}} ''Empiricism'' kanandi yikukhwaska ''inductivism'', maghanoghano ghakulongosora umo ukaghanaghani wakuru ungapangikira kufuma ku ukaboni wacoko uwo ulipo. Mitundu yinandi ya ''empiricism'' yilipo, ndipo iyo yikumanyikwa comene ni ''Bayesianism'' na ''hypothetico-deductive method''.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219–232}} ''Empiricism'' yikaŵa yakukangana na ''rationalism'', maghanoghano agho pakwamba ghakaŵa ghakukhwaskana na Descartes, agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika na mano gha munthu, m'malo mwa kuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19–38}} ''Critical rationalism'' ni nthowa yakukangana ya zana la myaka la 20 pa kasandiro, iyo yikalongosoreka pakwamba na msambiri wa ku Austria na Britain, Karl Popper. Popper wakakana umo ''empiricism'' yikulongosolera ubwezi pakati pa ukaghanaghani na kuwona. Wakati ukaghanaghani ukupangika na kuwona yayi, kweni kuti kuwona kukupangika mwakuyana na ukaghanaghani, ndipo nthowa yimoza pera iyo ukaghanaghani A ungakhwaskikira na kuwona ni para ukaghanaghani A wasuskana na kuwona, kweni ukaghanaghani B wapona pa ivyo vikuwoneka.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57–74}} Popper wakalongosora kuti ''falsifiability'' iŵikike m'malo mwa ''verifiability'' nga ni chimanyikwiro cha ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro, na ''falsification'' m'malo mwa ''induction'' nga ni nthowa ya ukaboni.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} Popper wakasazgirapo kuti pali nadi nthowa yimoza pera ya caro cose, iyo yikukhwaskana na kasandiro yayi: nthowa ya kukanira, kuyezga na kuphonya (''trial and error''),<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} iyo yikukhwaska vyose ivyo vikufuma mu mano gha munthu, kusazgapo kasandiro, masamu, filosofi, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/objectiveknowled0000karl_g4p7 |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, ''instrumentalism'', yikudidimizga phindu la ukaghanaghani nga ni vipangizo vyakulongosolera na kuvikira vyakuwoneka. Yikuwona ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro nga ni mabokosi ghafipa, ndipo ivyo vikunjilirapo pera (mikhaliro yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (vyakuvikira) ndivyo vikukhumbikwa. Vyakumalizira, vinthu vya ukaghanaghani, na ukhazikiko wa maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na ''instrumentalism'' pali ''constructive empiricism'', iyo yikuti chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ni usange ivyo ukuyowoya pa vinthu vyakuwoneka ni vyanenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> Thomas Kuhn wakayowoya kuti nthowa ya kuwona na kupima yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', "chithunzi" cha caro icho chikuyana na ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma mu chikopa chake. Wakalongosora ''normal science'' nga ni nthowa ya kuwona na "kuthana masuzgo gha ''puzzle''" iyo yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', apo ''revolutionary science'' yikucitika para ''paradigm'' yimoza yikupambana yinyake mu ''paradigm shift''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> ''Paradigm'' iliyose yili na mafumbo, vilato, na ng'anamuro ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ma ''paradigm'' kukukhwaska kuŵika "vithunzi" viŵiri panji vinandi pa caro na kusankha kuti ni cithunzi wuli icho chikuyana comene. ''Paradigm shift'' yikucitika para vinthu vinandi vya kuwona vyambura kuyana vikusangika mu ''paradigm'' yakale, ndipo ''paradigm'' yapya yikuvilongosora. Ntheura, kusankha ''paradigm'' yapya kukuthemba pa kuwona, nangauli kuwona uku kukucitika mu ukhaliro wa ''paradigm'' yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kuzomera panji kukana ''paradigm'' ni nthowa ya ŵanthu nga umo vikuŵira na nthowa ya maghanoghano. Kweni, maghanoghano gha Kuhn ghali ''relativism'' yayi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo kanandi yikuyowoyeka mu kukangana kwa kuwona kwa kasandiro (''scientific scepticism'') kuwukira magulu ghakukangana nga ni "''creation science''" ni ''methodological naturalism''. Ŵanaturalisti ŵakuti kupambana kukwenera kupangika pakati pa cakawiro na cakuzuwa, ndipo kasandiro kakwenera kuŵa na vyakulongosora vya kawiro pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149–162}} ''Methodological naturalism'' yikuti kasandiro kakukhumba kuyimilira makora pa kusanda kwa ukaboni na kukhozgeka kwakujiyimirira.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> Fumbo limoza la filosofi ya kasandiro ni umo ukaboni na ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ungalongozgera ku visankho. Nga umo ''is-ought problem'' yikulongosolera, vyanenesko vyekha vingasankha yayi ivyo vikwenera kuŵa. Ici cikukhwaska maghanoghano gha ''value-ladenness'': umo visankho ivyo vikupangika pa ivyo kasandiro kasanga vikuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ward |first=Zina B. |chapter=What Does it Mean to say That Science is Value-Laden? |date=2026-03-10 |title=The Routledge Handbook of Values and Science |pages=74–83 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003469100/chapters/10.4324/9781003469100-8 |access-date=2026-03-23 |edition= |place=New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003469100-8 |isbn=978-1-003-46910-0}}</ref> == Gulu la ŵasandi == Gulu la ŵasandi (''scientific community'') ni mtolo wa ŵasandi awo ŵakukolerana ndipo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachokoghachoko agho ghakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Kwizira mu ''peer review'', kukambirana na kukangana mu ma ''journal'' na mu ma ''conference'', ŵasandi ŵakusunga ukwenere wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuŵa ŵambura kupendelera para ŵakulongosora vyakuyezgeka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasandi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Marie Curie wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel: ''Physics'' mu 1903 na kemistri mu 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithunzi cha mwanakazi wa vyaka vyapakati]] Ŵasandi (''scientists'') ni ŵanthu awo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro kuti ŵakuzge umanyi mu chigaŵa icho ŵakukhumba.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵangalongora kukhumba comene kumanya caro chenichenicho na khumbo lakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro ku phindu la umoyo wa ŵanthu, fuko, kawiro, panji ma fakitale; vyakukhumba vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasandi ŵanyawo na ulemu.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo za sono, ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakusambira mu vigaŵa vyapadera vya kasandiro mu malo gha masambiro, kanandi ŵakupokera ma ''degree'' gha pachanya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakulondezga ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni masambiro, mafakitale, boma, na mabungwe ghambura kusanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W |archive-date=13 June 2024 |access-date=27 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613002615/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Kasandiro kali na mbiri yakuŵa ka ŵanalume comene, kweni pali ŵakuwonekera. Ŵanakazi ŵasuzgika comene mu kasandiro kufuma kale. Mwachiyelezgero, kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakajumphikanga pa mwaŵi wa ntchito ndipo ŵakakanizgika ulemu wa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |url=https://archive.org/details/womenshistoryass0000whal |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo ŵanakazi ŵasanga mu kasandiro vikulongosoreka nga ni kukana ntchito yawo yakale ya kuŵa ŵantchito mu nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/impartialscience0000span |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> Sonosono apa kusankhana ŵanalume kwawonekeka mu vigaŵa vinyake vya gulu la ŵasandi.<ref name="l841">{{cite journal | last=Desposato | first=Scott W. | title=Where You Go, What You Do, Who You Are: Predictors of Political Science Job-Market Outcomes, 2023–2024 | journal=PS: Political Science & Politics | volume=59 | issue=4 | date=2026 | issn=1049-0965 | doi=10.1017/S1049096526102182 | pages=667–683 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1049096526102182/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-09-15}}</ref><ref name="m735">{{cite journal | last1=Gërxhani | first1=Klarita | last2=Kulic | first2=Nevena | last3=Rusconi | first3=Alessandra | last4=Solga | first4=Heike | title=Gender bias in evaluating assistant professorship applicants? Evidence from harmonized survey experiments in Germany and Italy | journal=Social Science Research | volume=126 | date=2025 | doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103113 | doi-access=free | article-number=103113 | pmid=39909620 | hdl=1871.1/50358537-4ba1-49ee-aab3-29cef8e950ce | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasandi pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 200 vya ''Prussian Academy of Sciences'', 1900]] Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri (''learned societies'') gha kumanyisha na kukuzga maghanoghano na kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵali mu bungwe la ŵasambiri ilo likukuzga chigaŵa chawo cha kasandiro, ntchito, panji gulu la vigaŵa vyakukhwaskana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Umembala ungaŵa wakujulika kwa wose, kukhumbikwira ma ''credential'' gha kasandiro, panji kupelekeka kwizira mu kusankhika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mabungwe ghanandi gha kasandiro ghambura kusanga phindu,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni mabungwe gha ŵantchito. Ntchito zawo kanandi zikukhwaska kucita ma ''conference'' ghakuyendera nyengo kuti ŵalongosore na kukambirana vyakuyezgeka vyapya vya kafukufuku, na kutenderezga panji kuwovwira ma ''academic journal'' mu chigaŵa chawo. Mabungwe ghanyake ghakugwira nga ni mathupi gha ŵantchito, ghakulongolera ntchito za ŵembala ŵawo ku phindu la ŵanthu wose, panji phindu la ŵembala wose. Kuŵa kwa kasandiro nga ni ntchito yakukhazikika, uko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 19, kukawovwirika na kupangika kwa ma ''academy'' gha fuko gha kasandiro, nga ni ''Accademia dei Lincei'' ya ku Italy mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> ''Royal Society'' ya ku Britain mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> ''French Academy of Sciences'' mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> ''National Academy of Sciences'' ya ku America mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Kaiser Wilhelm Society'' ya ku Germany mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''Chinese Academy of Sciences'' mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mabungwe gha caro cose gha kasandiro, nga ni ''International Science Council'', ghakujipeleka ku kugwirizgana pakati pa vyaru kuti kasandiro kakule.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mphoto === Mphoto za kasandiro kanandi zikupelekeka ku ŵanthu panji mabungwe agho ghawovwira comene pa chigaŵa chinyake. Kanandi zikupelekeka na mabungwe ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, kupokera mphoto kukuwonekwa nga ni ulemu ukuru comene ku msandi. Kufuma kwambere kwa ''Renaissance'', ŵasandi kanandi ŵakapokera ma ''medal'', ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''), iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti njakuzirwa comene, yikupelekeka chaka chiliconse ku awo ŵafika pa kukula kwa kasandiro mu munkhwala, ''physics'', na kemistri.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Kasandiro na ŵanthu == === Ndalama na ndondomeko === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1.4|Ndalama za NASA nga ni cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma la United States, zikufika pa 4.4% mu 1966, ndipo zikuchepa pang'ono-pang'ono kufuma apo|alt=wonani mazgu gha chithunzi]] Kuwovwira kasandiro na ndalama kanandi kukucitika mu nthowa yakukangana, apo mapulani gha kafukufuku ghakuyezgeka ndipo agho ghali na ukaboni wawemi pera ghakupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, ma kampani, panji ma ''foundation'', zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko. Ndalama zose za kafukufuku mu vyaru vinandi vyakukula zili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya ''GDP''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators&nbsp;– 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu ''OECD'', pafupifupi magaŵa ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha kafukufuku na kukuzga mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro na tekinoloji ghakucitika na ma fakitale, ndipo 20% na 10%, mwakuyana, ghakucitika na yunivesite na boma. Cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ni chikuru, ndipo boma lili na ulongozgi wa kafukufuku wa tusandiro twa ŵanthu na vya cikolo (''humanities''). Mu vyaru vyambura kukula, boma likupereka ndalama zinandi za kafukufuku wawo wa muzu wa kasandiro.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mabungwe ghakuwovwira kafukufuku wa kasandiro, nga ni ''National Science Foundation'' ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> ''National Scientific and Technical Research Council'' ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation'' ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> ''National Centre for Scientific Research'' ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Max Planck Society'' ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''National Research Council'' ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=EL MUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu kafukufuku na kukuzga wa ma kampani, ma kampani ghose kweka agho ghakulingalira comene kafukufuku ghakulingalira comene nthowa zakusanga phindu la pafupi kuluska kafukufuku uwo ukulongozgeka na kukhumba kumanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policy'') zikukwata ndondomeko izo zikukhwima kucitika kwa ntchito ya kasandiro, kusazgapo ndalama za kafukufuku, kanandi kuti zifikire vilato vinyake vya fuko nga ni kupanga vinthu vyapya vya tekinoloji kuti ziwovwire kupanga vinthu vya malonda, kupanga vilwero, umoyo, na kusunga kawiro. Nyengo zinyake ndondomeko za kasandiro zikung'anamura kugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro na kuyanirana mu kupanga ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose. Pakuti ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zikulingalira umoyo wawemi wa ŵanthu ŵa fuko, cilato ca ndondomeko za kasandiro ni kuwona umo kasandiro na tekinoloji zingawovwirira ŵanthu mwawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencepolicyupc0000marb |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zingakhwaska mwakuwonekera ndalama za vipangizo na vyakuzenga vya maghanoghano vya kafukufuku wa ma fakitale mwakupereka vyakuvwira vya msonkho ku mabungwe agho ghakuwovwira kafukufuku.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Chisambizo na kumanya === [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chakulongora cha ''dinosaur'' mu ''Houston Museum of Natural Science'']] Chisambizo cha kasandiro cha ŵanthu wose chili mu ''curriculum'' ya vikolo, ndipo chikuwovwirika na vyakusambizga vya pa intaneti (nga ni YouTube na Khan Academy), malo gha vyakale (museums), na magazini na ma ''blog'' gha kasandiro. Mabungwe ghakuru gha ŵasandi nga ni ''American Association for the Advancement of Science'' (AAAS) ghakuwona tusandiro nga ni chigaŵa cha ''liberal arts'' ya kusambira, pamoza na filosofi na mbiri.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya kasandiro (''scientific literacy'') kukukhwaska comene kumanya nthowa ya kasandiro, ma ''unit'' na nthowa za kupima, ''empiricism'', kumanya kwa muzu kwa ''statistics'' (''correlations'', kuwona kwa ''qualitative'' na ''quantitative'', ''aggregate statistics''), na kumanya kwa muzu kwa vigaŵa vikuru vya kasandiro nga ni ''physics'', kemistri, ''biology'', ''ecology'', ''geology'', na kompyuta. Apo msambiri wakukura pa magawo gha pachanya gha chisambizo, ''curriculum'' yikuŵa yakuzamirika. Vyakusambira vyakale vyakukhwimika mu ''curriculum'' ni tusandiro twa kawiro na twa dango, nangauli kusintha kwa sono kukukhwaska tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa kugwiriskira ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Ma ''mass media'' ghali na masuzgo agho ghangaleka kulongora makora vyakukangana vya kasandiro mu ukaboni wawo mu gulu lose la ŵasandi. Kusankha kuti ni kuzito wuli wakupereka ku mbali zakupambana pa kukangana kwa kasandiro kungakhumba umanyi wanandi pa nkhani yeniyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Ŵalemba nkhani ŵachoko ŵali na umanyi wanenesko wa kasandiro, ndipo ŵalemba nkhani awo ŵakumanya makora vya nkhani zinyake za kasandiro ŵangaŵa ŵambura kumanya nkhani zinyake izo ŵakukhumbikwa kulemba mwaluŵiro.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> Magazini gha kasandiro nga ni ''New Scientist'', ''Science & Vie'', na ''Scientific American'' ghakwenerana na ŵawerengi ŵanandi comene ndipo ghakupereka ucidule wambula mazgu gha ukatswiri gha vigaŵa vya kafukufuku vyakukondweka, kusazgapo vyakusangika na kukula mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mtundu wa ''science fiction'', comene ''speculative fiction'', ungatumizga maghanoghano na nthowa za kasandiro ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Ntchito za sono gha kukuzga ubwezi pakati pa kasandiro na vigaŵa vyambura kuŵa kasandiro, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, ghakukhwaska ''Creative Writing Science'' iyo yikapangika kwizira mu ''Royal Literary Fund''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing&nbsp;– Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro === Nangauli nthowa ya kasandiro yikuzomerezgeka comene mu gulu la ŵasandi, magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghakukana vyakusankha vinyake vya kasandiro panji ghakukayikiska kasandiro. Nga ni, maghanoghano ghakuti COVID-19 yili kuopsa kukuru yayi ku umoyo ku US (ghakuŵa na 39% ya ŵaAmerica mu August 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji cikhulupiro cakuti kusintha kwa nyengo (''climate change'') kuli kuopsa kukuru yayi ku US (cikuŵaso na 40% ya ŵaAmerica, pakumaliza kwa 2019 na kwamba kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵa ''psychology'' ŵalongora vifukwa vinandi vikupangiska kukana vyakuyezgeka vya kasandiro:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> * Ŵalongozgi ŵa kasandiro nyengo zinyake ŵakuwonekwa nga ni ŵambura umanyi, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji ŵakupendelera. * Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasuzgika ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro, mu mbali cifukwa magulu agha kaŵiri ghakagwiriskika mu kuyezgayezga kwambura ukwenere.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> * Mauthenga gha ŵasandi ghangakangana na vikhulupiro panji milandu yakuŵika makora. Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakupangika na mantha gha kukanikwa mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Mwachiyelezgero, kusintha kwa nyengo kukuwonekwa nga ni kuopsa na 22% pera ya ŵaAmerica ŵa mbali ya kumalyero ya ndale, kweni na 85% ya ŵa mbali ya kumazere.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ntheura, usange munthu wa kumazere wakuwona kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kuli kuopsa yayi, munthu uyu wangasuzgika na kunyozgeka na kukanikwa mu gulu ilo. Cenicenico, ŵanthu ŵangakana cinenesko ico kasandiro kasikizga kuluska kuluza panji kuvuska cikhazikiko cawo mu gulu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |url=https://archive.org/details/howmindschangesu0000davi |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Ndale === [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Zakuyezgeka za mafumbo ghaŵiri ("Kodi kutentha kwa caro kukucitika?" na "Kodi ma kampani gha mafuta/gasi ghali na mulandu?"), zikulongora kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵa Democrat na ŵa Republican ŵa America|thumb|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kutentha kwa caro ku United States kuyana na chipani cha ndale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kasandiro kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano na vyakukhumba vya ndale. Boma, ŵamalonda, na magulu ghakuwovwira ghaziŵika kugwiriskira ntchito kukakamizga kwa dango na ndalama kuti ghasinthe ŵafukufuku ŵa kasandiro. Vifukwa vinandi vingaŵa nga ni mbali za kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale, nga ni kukana ŵasambiri (''anti-intellectualism''), kuopa kuti vikhulupiro vya cisopo vingapusikizgika, na mantha gha phindu la ma kampani.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale kanandi kukucitika apo mauthenga gha kasandiro ghakulongosoleka mu nthowa iyo yikugomezga kuti ukaboni wa kasandiro wali na kusasimikizgika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kukana kuvisikira vyanenesko, na kugwiriskira ntchito kukayika pa kuyanirana kwa ŵasandi zagwiriskika kuti ziwonjezge kutchera khutu ku maghanoghano agho ukaboni wa kasandiro wagakana.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakucitika ivyo vikukhwaska kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale vikukhwaska kukangana pa kutentha kwa caro, vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya mankhwala gha kupha tuvinyama, na vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya fodya.<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |doi-access=free |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === ''Replication crisis'' ni suzgo likuru ilo likuphatika mbali zinyake za kasandiro, apo vyakuyezgeka vya cigaŵa ca kafukufuku vyalongora kuti vyambura kubwerezgeka.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na mizu ya kale; lizgu ili likapangika kwamba kwa 2010 nga ni mbali ya kumanya suzgo ili kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kubwerezga wa 2026 wakasanga kuti kubwerezgeka kwa vyakuyezgeka kuli kwacoko mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa makhaliro (business, ''economics'', chisambizo, ''political science'', ''psychology'' na ''sociology'').<ref name="c901">{{cite journal | last1=Tyner | first1=Andrew H. | last2=Abatayo | first2=Anna Lou | last3=Daley | first3=Mason | last4=Field | first4=Samuel | last5=Fox | first5=Nicholas | title=Investigating the replicability of the social and behavioural sciences | journal=Nature | volume=652 | issue=8108 | date=2026-04-01 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-025-10078-y | pages=143–150 |display-authors=1 | pmid=41922700 | bibcode=2026Natur.652..143T | url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/1fa174e4-3f91-489f-aa67-c0cccf90c5ba }}</ref> ''Replication crisis'' yikuŵa chigaŵa chikuru cha kafukufuku mu ''metascience'', iyo yikulingalira kukuzga ukwenere na ukoma wa kafukufuku wa kasandiro na kucepeska kutaya ndalama na ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kubwerezgeka kwacoko kwa kasandiro kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwake.<ref name="f898">{{cite journal | last1=Peels | first1=Rik | last2=Bouter | first2=Lex | title=Replication and trustworthiness | journal=Accountability in Research | volume=30 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=0898-9621 | doi=10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | pages=77–87 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | access-date=2026-08-20}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti ''scientific misconduct'' ghakukwata nyengo apo ŵafukufuku ŵali kulongora mwakusankha vyakuyezgeka vyawo vyatenderezgeka mwakubudika panji kupereka ulemu wa cakupanga kwa munthu wakubudika mwakusankha.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock&nbsp;... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha kusanda panji kughanaghana icho chikuyeghesa kuŵa kasandiro kuti chisange ulemu uwo chingasange chambura ici, nyengo zinyake chikucemeka ''pseudoscience'', ''fringe science'', panji ''junk science''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Msandi wa ''physics'' Richard Feynman wakapanga lizgu "''cargo cult science''" ku vyakucitika apo ŵafukufuku ŵakukhulupira, ndipo pakuwona kwa cokha ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakucita kasandiro, kweni ŵambula uneneski wakuleka kuti vyakuyezgeka vyawo vipimike makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Mitundu yakupambanapambana ya malonda gha kutumizga, kufuma pa kudikizga kufikira pa vigeŵa, ingaŵa mu magulu agha. Kasandiro kali kulongosoleka nga ni "cipangizo cikuru comene" ca kupambanisha vyakulongosora vyanenesko na vyambura kuŵa vyanenesko.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/skepticsguidetou0000nove_p3p3/page/162 162] |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kafukufuku ungaŵa wa maghanoghano ghawemi kweni wakusuzga, wakale, wambura kukwana, panji wakulongosora kasandiro mwacoko comene. Ufulu wa cisambizo ungacepeskeka na kuletsa kasandiro kuyendera maboma, mabungwe, ŵasandi ŵanyake, panji kujizizika.<ref name="h812">{{cite journal | last1=Clark | first1=Cory J. | last2=Jussim | first2=Lee | last3=Frey | first3=Komi | last4=Stevens | first4=Sean T. | last5=al-Gharbi | first5=Musa | last6=Aquino | first6=Karl | last7=Bailey | first7=J. Michael | last8=Barbaro | first8=Nicole | last9=Baumeister | first9=Roy F. | last10=Bleske-Rechek | first10=April | last11=Buss | first11=David | last12=Ceci | first12=Stephen | last13=Del Giudice | first13=Marco | last14=Ditto | first14=Peter H. | last15=Forgas | first15=Joseph P. | last16=Geary | first16=David C. | last17=Geher | first17=Glenn | last18=Haider | first18=Sarah | last19=Honeycutt | first19=Nathan | last20=Joshi | first20=Hrishikesh | last21=Krylov | first21=Anna I. | last22=Loftus | first22=Elizabeth | last23=Loury | first23=Glenn | last24=Lu | first24=Louise | last25=Macy | first25=Michael | last26=Martin | first26=Chris C. | last27=McWhorter | first27=John | last28=Miller | first28=Geoffrey | last29=Paresky | first29=Pamela | last30=Pinker | first30=Steven | last31=Reilly | first31=Wilfred | last32=Salmon | first32=Catherine | last33=Stewart-Williams | first33=Steve | last34=Tetlock | first34=Philip E. | last35=Williams | first35=Wendy M. | last36=Wilson | first36=Anne E. | last37=Winegard | first37=Bo M. | last38=Yancey | first38=George | last39=von Hippel | first39=William | title=Prosocial motives underlie scientific censorship by scientists: A perspective and research agenda | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=120 | issue=48 | date=2023 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.2301642120 | article-number=e2301642120 | doi-access=free | pmid=37983511 | pmc=10691350 | bibcode=2023PNAS..12001642C }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵasangika kuti ŵakukhizga kuletsa kasandiro na kuleka kuvulaza.<ref name="h812"/> Kungaŵaso ukondelero wa ndale panji ukondelero wa maghanoghano mu kasandiro. Ŵasandi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na ukondelero mu kusankha vipani vya ndale kuluska ŵanthu wose.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | article-number=e130 | pmid=25036715 }}</ref> Ukondelero wa ndale wa chigaŵa cha kasandiro ungasintha ndipo ungalongosoleka na kukhwimana kwa chigaŵa na kawiro kake na ukondelero wa kujisankhira.<ref name="d253">{{cite journal | last=Manzi | first=James | title=The ideological orientation of academic social science research 1960–2024 | journal=Theory and Society | volume=55 | issue=2 | date=2026 | issn=0304-2421 | doi=10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | access-date=2026-07-01 | article-number=25 }}</ref> Kulimbikira kwa kasandiro uko kukuphatikizgika na kuwovwira ndale kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa kasandiro.<ref name="h639">{{cite journal | last1=Kallergi | first1=Amalia | last2=Landeweerd | first2=Laurens | title=Science, Activism, and Climate Action: Navigating Credibility, Responsibility, and Engagement | journal=[[Journal of Academic Ethics]] | volume=23 | issue=4 | date=2025 | issn=1570-1727 | doi=10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | pages=1759–1779 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | access-date=2026-06-24}}</ref> == Wonaninso == * ''List of scientific occupations'' * ''List of years in science'' == Zindikiro == {{notelist}} == Vyakusazgirapo == {{Reflist}} == Maulalo gha kunja == * Lizgu ''science'' mu Wiktionary [[Category:Kasandiro| ]] fzp2a0zfy81um7lw1lhe6suh28knv7r 0 39507 124073 122473 2026-11-08T17:26:39Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261108) #IABot (v2.0.9.7) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]) 124073 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Central Africa}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Burundi | native_name = {{ublist|item_style=font-size:88%;|{{native name|rn|Repuburika y’Uburundi}} |{{native name|fr|République du Burundi}}}} | common_name = Burundi | image_flag = Flag of Burundi.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Burundi.svg | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Burundi (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Burundi AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{unbulleted list |{{native phrase|rn|"Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere"|italics=off|nolink=on}} |{{native phrase|fr|"Unité, Travail, Progrès"|italics=off|nolink=on}} |{{native phrase|en|"Union, Work, Progress"|italics=off|nolink=on}} }} | national_anthem = {{native phrase|rn|[[Burundi Bwacu]]|nolink=yes}}<br />{{small|''Our Burundi''}}<br /> {{center|}} [[File:Burundi Bwacu.ogg]] | languages_type = Official languages | languages = {{unbulleted list|style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Kirundi]] | [[French language|French]] | [[English language|English]] }} | capital = [[Gitega]] (political) [[Bujumbura]] (economic){{efn|name=central_cities|While Gitega has been established as the political capital, Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital.}} | coordinates = {{Coord|3|30|S|30|00|E}} | largest_city = [[Bujumbura]] | demonym = [[Demographics of Burundi|Burundian]] | ethnic_groups = {{ublist |85% [[Hutu]] |14% [[Tutsi]] |1% [[Twa]] |~3,000 Europeans |{{nowrap|~2,000 South Asians}}}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2018<ref name="Central Intelligence Agency 2018">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook – Burundi |website=Central Intelligence Agency |date=7 August 2018 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ |access-date=13 August 2018 |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ |archive-date=22 January 2021 }}</ref> | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Burundi|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Évariste Ndayishimiye]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Burundi|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Prosper Bazombanza]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Burundi|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Gervais Ndirakobuca]] | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | legislature = [[Parliament of Burundi|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate (Burundi)|Senate]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly (Burundi)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Burundi|Establishment history]] | established_event1 = [[Kingdom of Burundi|Kingdom]]<ref name="auto"/> | established_date1 = 1680–1966 | established_event2 = Part of [[German East Africa]] | established_date2 = 1890–1916 | established_event3 = Part of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] | established_date3 = 1916–1962 | established_event4 = Independence from Belgium | established_date4 = 1 July 1962 | established_event5 = Republic | established_date5 = 28 November 1966 | established_event6 = [[Constitution of Burundi|Current constitution]] | established_date6 = 17 May 2018 | area_km2 = 27834 | area_rank = 142 | area_sq_mi = | area_footnote = <ref name=ISTEEBU>{{cite web |url=http://www.isteebu.bi/index.php/economie-en-bref |title=Quelques données pour le Burundi |language=fr |publisher=ISTEEBU |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728161954/http://isteebu.bi/index.php/economie-en-bref |archive-date=28 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | percent_water = 10<ref>{{Cite report |date=July 2015 |title=Annuaire statistique du Burundi |language=fr |url=http://www.isteebu.bi/images/annuaires/annuaire%202013%20pdf%20fin.pdf |publisher=ISTEEBU |page=105 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607125402/http://www.isteebu.bi/images/annuaires/annuaire%202013%20pdf%20fin.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | population_estimate =12,574,571 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isteebu.bi/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PROJECTIONS-COMMUNALES-020620-rapport-VF.pdf |title=Projections Demographiques au niveau communal 2010-2050|website=www.isteebu.bi|access-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428235555/https://www.isteebu.bi/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PROJECTIONS-COMMUNALES-020620-rapport-VF.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 77th | population_census = 8,053,574<ref name=ISTEEBU/> | population_census_year = 2008 | population_density_km2 = 451.8 | population_density_sq_mi = | population_density_rank = 31st | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$10.8 billion <ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_PPP_rank = 164th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $865 <ref name="imf.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 193rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$3.6 billion <ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 173rd | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$292<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 192nd | Gini_year = 2013 | Gini_change = Decrease | Gini = 39.2 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url= http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx |title= Gini Index, World Bank Estimate |work= World Development Indicators |publisher= The World Bank |access-date= 13 January 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150626193432/http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx |archive-date= 26 June 2015 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.426 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 187th | currency = [[Burundian franc]] (FBu) | currency_code = BIF | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | drives_on = right | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | calling_code = [[+257]] | cctld = [[.bi]] | footnote_a = | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |93.4% [[Christianity]] |—63.7% [[Catholic Church in Burundi|Roman Catholic]] |—25.2% [[Protestant]] |—4.5% Other [[Christian]] |4.3% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] |2.1% [[Islam in Burundi|Islam]] |0.2% [[Religion in Burundi|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=38c | title=National Profiles }}</ref> | today = }}<!-- {{Infobox ethnonym|'''Umu'''Rundi|'''Aba'''Rundi|[[Kirundi|'''IKi'''Rundi]]|'''Bu'''rundi}}--> '''Burundi''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Burundi-pronunciation.ogg|b|ə|ˈ|r|ʊ|n|d|i}}, {{IPAc-en|-|ˈ|r|ʌ|n|-}}),({{lang-rn|Repuburika y’Uburundi}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2018/07/03/6271/ | title=Constitution de la République du Burundi promulguée le 07 juin 2018 | access-date=21 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616022648/https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2018/07/03/6271/ | archive-date=16 June 2022 }}</ref> {{IPA-rw|u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi|}}; [[Swahili language|Swahili]]: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; [[French language|French]]: ''République du Burundi'' {{IPA-fr|buʁundi, byʁyndi|}}), ntcharu icho chili ku [[Great Rift Valley]], pakati pa [[Africa]] na [[East Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na charu cha [[Rwanda]] kumpoto, [[Tanzania]] kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Gitega]] na [[Bujumbura]].<ref name="capital-change">{{cite web|url=https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2019/02/13/loi-n104-du-04-fevrier-2019-portant-fixation-de-la-capitale-politique-et-de-la-capitale-economique-du-burundi/|title=Loi n°1/04 du 04 février 2019 portant Fixation de la Capitale Politique et de la Capitale Economique du Burundi|access-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225103031/https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2019/02/13/loi-n104-du-04-fevrier-2019-portant-fixation-de-la-capitale-politique-et-de-la-capitale-economique-du-burundi/|archive-date=25 February 2019}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Twa]], [[Hutu]], na [[Tutsi]] ŵakhala mu Burundi kwa vilimika pafupifupi 500. Kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 200, Burundi ukaŵa ufumu wakujiyimira wekha, m'paka mu ma 1900, apo ukaŵa pasi pa [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Helmut |last=Strizek |title=Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter deutscher Herrschaft |url=https://archive.org/details/geschenktekoloni0000stri |trans-title=Donated colonies: Rwanda and Burundi under German rule |location=Berlin |publisher=Ch. Links Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3861533900}}</ref> Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara ndipo caru ca [[Germany]] cikati calekeka, wupu wa [[League of Nations]] "ukapeleka" caru ici ku [[Belgium]]. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, malo agha ghakazgoka malo gha United Nations<ref name="EBArchived">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=German East Africa {{!}} former German dependency, Africa |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/German-East-Africa |access-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902012730/https://www.britannica.com/place/German-East-Africa |archive-date=2 September 2017 |quote=In archived text: German East Africa, German Deutsch-Ostafrika, former dependency of imperial Germany, corresponding to present-day Rwanda and Burundi, the continental portion of Tanzania, and a small section of Mozambique. Penetration of the area was begun in 1884 by German commercial agents, and German claims were recognized by the other European powers in the period 1885–94. In 1891 the German imperial government took over administration of the area from the German East Africa Company. Although its subjugation was not completed until 1907, the colony experienced considerable economic development before World War I. During the war it was occupied by the British, who received a mandate to administer the greater part of it (Tanganyika Territory) by the Treaty of Versailles (signed June 1919; enacted January 1920). A smaller portion (Ruanda-Urundi) was entrusted to Belgium. |url-status=live}}</ref>. Ŵachijeremani na ŵa ku [[Belgium]] ndiwo ŵakalongozganga charu cha Burundi na Rwanda. Ku Burundi na Rwanda kukaŵavya boma limoza m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakakhalira mu Africa.<ref name=EBArchived /> Charu cha Burundi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1962 ndipo pakwamba chikaŵa na muwuso wa ufumu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, boma likapoka mazaza, ndipo mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi. [[Nkhondo za mtundu]], [[nkhondo ziŵiri za pa cikaya]], na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu ma 1970, na mu 1990, vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi comene, ndipo chuma chikalutilira kuchepa.<ref name="xlix">[[#Eggers|Eggers]], p. xlix.</ref>Mu chaka cha 2015 mukaŵa nkhondo yikuru ya ndyali apo [[Pierre Nkurunziza]] wakasankha kuti wazakaŵepo pa manda ghacitatu, ndipo boma likayezga kuti liŵawukire. Ndondomeko ya ndyali ya Burundi njakuti munthu waliyose wakwimira munyake. Pulezidenti wa charu cha Burundi ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pasono mu Burundi muli vipani 21 ivyo vili kulembeka. Pa Malichi 13, 1992, Pierre Buyoya, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵatutsi, wakambiska ndondomeko ya ndyali. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, pa Juni 6, 1998, dango la boma likasintha, kusazgirako mipando ya Nyumba ya Malango na kuŵikapo ŵaŵiri ŵa pulezidenti. Cifukwa ca phangano la ku Arusha, mu 2000, Burundi likakhazikiska boma la nyengo yicoko waka. Mu Okutobala 2016, Burundi yikaphalira UN kuti yikukhumba kufumamo mu khoti ili. Charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kukhala ku mizi, ndipo mu 2019, ŵanthu 13.4% pera ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi chikukwana 315 pa kilomita yimoza. Pafupifupi 85% ya ŵanthu aŵa mba fuko la Chihutu, 15% mba Tutsi, ndipo ŵankhondi na yumoza pera ndiwo mba fuko la Twa. Viyowoyero vya boma mu Burundi ni Kirundi, Chifurenchi, na Chingelezi. Charu cha Burundi ntchimoza mwa vyaru vichoko chomene mu Africa, ndipo malo ghake ghanandi ghakuliskako viŵeto.<ref name="autogenerated4">Bermingham, Eldredge, Dick, Christopher W. and Moritz, Craig (2005). ''Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future''. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, p. 146. {{ISBN|0-226-04468-8}}</ref> Kuzakafika mu 2005, caru ici cikaŵa kuti caphyoka na makuni, ndipo malo ghambura kukwana 6% ghakaŵa na makuni. Charu cha Burundi nchikavu chomene pa charu chose, kuyana na GDP (Gross Domestic Product) pa munthu yumoza, na $292 mu 2022, ndipo ni chalo chambura kukura chomene, icho chikukumana na ukavu, vimbundi, kukhazikika yayi, mazaza, na kuleka kusambira. Mu Burundi muli ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵakusamira ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja nchito. Lipoti la 2018 la umo ŵanthu ŵaliri ŵakukondwa pa charu chose, likati charu ichi chili pa nambara 156.<ref name="auto1">{{cite news|newspaper=The Guardian|title=Finland is the happiest country in the world, says UN report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report|date=14 March 2018|last=Collinson|first=Patrick|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314234610/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report|archive-date=14 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>Charu cha Burundi chili mu wupu wa African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC) na Movement of Non-Aligned. ==Zina== Zina lakuti Burundi lili kufuma ku zina la [[Themba la Burundi]], ilo likawusa chigaŵa ichi kwamba mu ma 1500. Zina ili likwenera kuti likafuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ha awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehistorytalk.com/civil-war-top-war-countries/burundi/kingdom-of-burundi|title=Kingdom of Burundi – Discover your Country's Long History|website=www.thehistorytalk.com|access-date=1 April 2021|archive-date=17 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417112313/http://www.thehistorytalk.com/civil-war-top-war-countries/burundi/kingdom-of-burundi|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|History of Burundi|Ruanda-Urundi}} Burundi ni chalo chimoza mwa vyaru vichoko chomene mu sub-Saharan Africa, pamoza na caru ca Rwanda (nga ni Botswana, Lesotho, na Eswatini), ico cikulutilira na caru ca Africa ico cikaŵa pambere ufumu wandafike.<ref>Uvin, Peter. 1999. "Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence" in Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Apr. 1999), pp. 253–272 Published by: Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York. Page 254.</ref> Ndipouli, nchakuzirwa kumanya kuti mitheto na mafuko vikusintha nyengo zose. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakasamukira ku chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo zakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti pali mphambano pakati pa mitundu. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakakhalanga mwamtende. Nkhondo zakwamba pakati pa mafuko zikamba m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga comene. ===Ufumu wa Burundi=== {{Main|Kingdom of Burundi}} Ukaboni wakwamba wakuti charu cha Burundi chikaŵako ni wa kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, msumba uwu ukatandazgika na kusazgapo vyaru vinyake. Ufumu wa Burundi, panji kuti Urundi, uwo ukaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, ukaŵa ufumu uwo ukawusikanga na fumu yinyake. Themba ili likalongozganga gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa (ganwa) awo ŵakaŵa na malo ghanandi ndipo ŵakeneranga kupeleka msonkho ku ŵalimi (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu) na ŵaliska (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵakututsi). Ufumu wa Burundi ukaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali kweniso ndalama zinandi.<ref>VANDEGINSTE, S., Stones left unturned: law and transitional justice in Burundi, Antwerp-Oxford-Portland, Intersentia, 2010, p 17.</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ufumu wa Ŵatutsi ukakhozga mazaza ghake pa malo, kupanga, na kugaŵira ŵanthu vinthu. Pa nyengo iyi, nyumba ya ufumu yikaŵa ya Ŵatutsi na Ŵanyaruguru. Ŵakaŵa na udindo wapachanya kuluska ŵaliska ŵanyake nga ni Ŵatutsi na Ŵahima. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu, ndipo ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakaŵa ŵacigaŵa ca pasi comene. Kweni vinthu vikasintha. Ŵahutu ŵanyake ŵakaŵa ŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa ndipo ŵakayowoyangapo kanthu pa umo boma likenderanga.<ref>R. O. Collins & J. M. Burns. 2007. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, Cambridge University Press. Page 125.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na wa Tutsi ŵakasankhiranga kuyana na mtundu wawo yayi. Ŵakulima Ŵahutu awo ŵakasanga usambazi na viŵeto ŵakaŵanga na udindo wapachanya kuluska Ŵakututsi. Ŵanyake ŵakazgokanga ŵalongozgi ŵa Ŵaganwa. Kweni pali nkhani zinyake izo zikulongora kuti Ŵakututsi ŵakataya viŵeto vyawo vyose ndipo pamasinda ŵakamba kuchemeka Ŵahutu. Ntheura, mphambano pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi yikaŵa ya cikaya pera yayi. Kweniso pakaŵa nkhani zinandi za ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na Tutsi awo ŵakatorananga. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene kulimbana na ŵamazaza kuluska mtundu wawo.<ref name="weissman">WEISSMAN, S., Preventing genocide in Burundi: lessons from international diplomacy, Washington D.C., United States Institute of Peace Press, 1998, p5.</ref> === Boma la Germany na Belgium === {{Main|German East Africa|Ruanda-Urundi}} Kwambira mu 1884, kampani ya German East Africa Company yikagwiranga nchito mu vigaŵa vya mu Africa. Cifukwa ca kukhuŵara na mphindano za mphaka pakati pa German East Africa Company, British Empire na Sultanate of Zanzibar, Ufumu wa Germany ukaciskika kuti ulekeske kugaluka kwa Abushiri na kuvikilira vyakukhumba vya ufumu mu cigaŵa ici. Mu 1891, kampani ya German East Africa Company yikapeleka wanangwa wake ku ufumu wa Germany, ndipo mu nthowa iyi yikambiska ufumu wa German East Africa, uwo ukaŵa na vyaru nga ni Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), na Tanzania. Mu ma 1880, ufumu wa Germany ukaŵika ŵasilikari mu vyaru vya Rwanda na Burundi. Malo agho sono ni msumba wa Gitega ghakaŵa malo ghakulongozgera chigaŵa cha Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gitega|title=Gitega {{!}} Burundi|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=16 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902015516/https://www.britannica.com/place/Gitega|archive-date=2 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, nkhondo ya ku East Africa yikakhwaska comene cigaŵa ca Great Lakes. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Belgium na Britain ŵakamba kuwukira msumba uwu. Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany awo ŵakaŵa ku Burundi ŵakawelera chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Belgium. Pa Juni 17, 1916, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Burundi na Rwanda ŵakamba kuwukira charu ichi. Ŵasilikari ŵa Force Publique na British Lake Force ŵakamba kupoka tawuni ya Tabora, iyo yikaŵa pakati pa chigaŵa cha German East Africa. Nkhondo yikati yamara, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu phangano la Versailles, caru ca Germany cikacicizgika kupeleka ku caru ca Belgium cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa German East Africa. Pa Okutobala 20, 1924, charu cha Ruanda-Urundi, icho sono chikuchemeka Rwanda na Burundi, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Belgium. Mu vyaru vinyake, msumba uwu ukaŵa wa ufumu wa Belgian. Nangauli ku Burundi kukaŵa ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe, kweni ufumu uwu ukalutilira kuŵa na mazaza.<ref name="cia">[https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ CIA – The World Factbook – Burundi] [[CIA]]. Retrieved 8 June 2008.</ref><ref name="wein5">{{cite book |last = Weinstein|first = Warren |author2=Robert Schrere |title = Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies: A Case Study of Burundi|publisher=Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs |year = 1976|location = Syracuse University |isbn = 0-915984-20-2 |page=5}}</ref> Ndipouli, ŵa ku Belgium ŵakasungilira vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵa mu ufumu uwu. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, caru ca Ruanda-Urundi cikaŵa pasi pa boma la Belgium. M'ma 1940, boma likasintha vinthu vinyake mu charu. Pa Okutobala 4, 1943, boma la Burundi likagaŵikana pakati pa vigaŵa vya ŵalara na vigaŵa vyapasi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakalongozganga charu, ndipo pakaŵa vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵalara ŵa boma nawo ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Mu 1948, caru ca Belgium cikapeleka wanangwa ku vigaŵa ivi kuti viŵe na magulu gha ndyali. Vyaru ivi vikawovwira kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na wanangwa wakufumako ku Belgium pa Julayi 1, 1962. ===Kujiyimila=== [[File:Flag of Burundi (1962–1966).svg|thumb|alt=flag white saltire cross on green and red background with plant in centre white rondel|Flag of the [[Kingdom of Burundi]] (1962–1966).]] [[File:Plaza de la Independencia.JPG|thumb|alt=flag sign at flagpole and raised plaza|Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.]] Pa Janyuwale 20, 1959, Themba Mwami Mwambutsa IV likapempha kuti charu cha Burundi chijipature ku Belgium. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, magulu gha ndyali gha ku Burundi ghakamba kukhozgera kuti boma la Belgium lileke kulamulira charu ichi na kupatura charu cha Rwanda na Burundi. Gulu lakwamba na likuru comene pa magulu agha likaŵa la Union for National Progress (UPRONA). Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda ndiyo yikawovwira kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na wanangwa uwu. Cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi ŵakiza ku Burundi mu 1959 m'paka 1961.<ref name="people60">{{cite book|last = MacDonald|first = Fiona|title = Peoples of Africa|publisher = Marshall Cavendish|year = 2001|location = Tarrytown, New York|isbn = 0-7614-7158-8|page = [https://archive.org/details/peoplesofafrica0000mars/page/60 60]|display-authors = etal|url = https://archive.org/details/peoplesofafrica0000mars/page/60}}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm|work=BBC News|title=Timeline: Burundi|date=25 February 2010|access-date=27 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830225045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm|archive-date=30 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080626223814/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/sudan/timeline_rwanda.pdf Timeline: Rwanda] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626223814/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/sudan/timeline_rwanda.pdf |date=26 June 2008 }}. Amnesty International. Retrieved 12 July 2008.</ref> Pa Seputembala 8, 1961, kukaŵa mavoti ghakwamba mu Burundi ndipo chipani cha UPRONA, icho chikulongozgeka na Fumu Louis Rwagasore, chikapokera mavoti ghakujumpha 80 peresenti. Pa 13 Okutobala, Fumu Rwagasore, ya vilimika 29, yikakomeka pamanyuma pa mavoti, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Burundi ŵaleke kugomezgeka. Charu ichi chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa Julayi 1, 1962, ndipo chikasintha zina lake kufuma ku Ruanda-Urundi kuya ku Burundi. Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Burundi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa muwuso wa fumu. Pa Seputembala 18, 1962, charu cha Burundi chikapokelereka na wupu wa United Nations.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/org1469.doc.htm United Nations Member States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001135208/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/org1469.doc.htm |date=1 October 2014 }}. 3 July 2006. Retrieved 22 June 2008.</ref> Mu 1963, Fumu Mwambutsa yikimika Pierre Ngendandumwe, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ciHutu, kweni wakakomeka pa 15 Janyuwale 1965 na Mututsi wa ku Rwanda uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku ofesi ya wupu wa United States. Kupha uku kukacitika mu nyengo ya suzgo ya Congo apo vyaru vya ku Western ivyo vikususkana na boma la Communist vikalimbana na boma la Communist People's Republic of China apo likayezganga kupanga Burundi kuŵa malo ghakulondezgako awo ŵakususka boma la Communist. Pa maungano gha pa caru cose agho ghakacitika mu Meyi 1965, Ŵahutu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa mu nyumba ya malango, kweni Themba Mwambutsa likati lasankha Mututsi kuŵa nduna yikuru, Ŵahutu ŵanyake ŵakawona kuti ici nchambura urunji ndipo suzgo la mafuko likakura comene. Mu Okutobala 1965, ŵapolisi awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Ŵahutu ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweni ŵakatondeka. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Ŵatutsi, ilo likalongozgekanga na mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵatutsi, Kaputeni Michel Micombero, likawuskamo Ŵahutu mu gulu lawo ndipo likaŵawukira.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171115023627/http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/dpe/modern_conflicts/burundi.pdf Burundi (1993–2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115023627/http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/dpe/modern_conflicts/burundi.pdf |date=15 November 2017 }}. University of Massachusetts Amherst</ref> Themba Mwambutsa, ilo likacimbira mu caru ici pa nyengo ya kuwukira boma mu Okutobala 1965, likathereskeka na kuwukira boma mu Julayi 1966 ndipo mwana wake waciwukirano, Karonga Ntare V, wakapokera ufumu. Mu Novembala wa chaka chenechicho, nduna yikuru ya ŵa Tutsi, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa Capt. Michel Micombero, wakawuskapo Ntare pa udindo wake. Pakuŵa pulezidenti, Micombero wakavikilira chisopa cha ku Africa ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakamovwira. Wakakhazikiska dango na ndondomeko yiwemi, ndipo wakathereska nkhondo ya Ŵahutu. === Nkhondo za paŵene na kukoma ŵanthu === {{Further|Burundian genocide (1972)|Burundian genocide (1993)}} Kuumaliro wa Epulero 1972, vinthu viŵiri vikacitika ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi ŵakomeke. Pa Epulero 27, 1972, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakagaluka mu tawuni ya Rumonge na Nyanza-Lac. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasuzganga Ŵatutsi na Ŵahutu wose awo ŵakakana kunjilirapo. Mu nyengo yakwamba iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu ŵakukwana 800 m'paka 1200. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Themba Ntare V la ku Burundi likawerako ku wuzga, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu charu ichi muŵe masuzgo ghanandi. Pa Epulero 29, 1972, Ntare V, wa vyaka 24, wakakomeka. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, boma la Michel Micombero, ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi, likagwiliskira ntchito ŵasilikari kuti ŵarwe na ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanya yayi unandi wa awo ŵakafwa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 80,000 panji 210,000 ndiwo ŵakafwa. Mwakusazgirapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi Ŵahutu ŵakacimbira ku Zaire, Rwanda, na Tanzania.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikati yamara, Micombero wakamba kusuzgika maghanoghano. Mu 1976, Kolonele Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, Mututsi, wakalongozga boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Mu 1981, boma lake likalemba dango liphya ilo likakanizga kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na chipani chimoza. Mu Ogasiti 1984, Bagaza wakasankhika kuŵa mutu wa boma. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwake, Bagaza wakasuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ndyali na wanangwa wa kusopa.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Major Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) wakathereska Bagaza mu 1987, wakayimiska dango na kumazga vipani. Wakawezgerapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari mwa Wupu wa Wusilikari wa Chiponosko cha Charu (CSMN). Uthenga wakususkana na mtundu wa Tutsi uwo ukapharazgika na ŵasilikari ŵa UBU ŵa mu 1972, awo ŵakambaso kucemeka PALIPEHUTU mu 1981, ukapangiska kuti Ŵatutsi ŵakomeke mu mizi ya kumpoto kwa Ntega na Marangara mu Ogasiti 1988. Boma likati ŵanthu 5,000 ndiwo ŵakafwa, kweni mabungwe ghanyake ghambura vya boma ghakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafwa bweka yayi.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Boma liphya ili likapeleka yayi cilango cakusuzga nga umo vikaŵira mu 1972. Boma ili likathera apo likapeleka dango lakuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kukoma ŵanthu ŵaleke kukomeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti nyengo iyi ndiyo yikaŵa "nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga kwambura kulangika". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti "ntchindi zambura kulangika" zikamba mu 1965 na 1972, apo Ŵahutu ŵachoko waka ŵakakoma Ŵakututsi. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu aŵa, gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Hutu ŵakalembera kalata Pierre Buyoya, kumupempha kuti waŵawovwire. Ŵakakakika na kujalirika mu jele. Pakati pajumpha masabata ghacoko waka, Buyoya wakasora boma liphya, ilo likaŵa na ŵaliska ŵaŵiri ŵakuyana. Wakimika Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) kuŵa nduna yikuru. Buyoya wakapangaso komiti yakuwona vya umoza wa chalo. Mu 1992, boma likapanga dango liphya ilo likazomerezganga kuti maboma gha vipani vinandi ghaŵepo, kweni nkhondo yikamba.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Ŵanthu pafupifupi 250,000 ŵakafwa mu Burundi cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika pakati pa 1962 na 1993. Kufuma waka apo charu cha Burundi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1962, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakakomeka mu charu ichi: mu 1972, Ŵahutu ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵatutsi, ndipo mu 1993, Ŵahutu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na Ŵatutsi. Malipoti ghaumaliro gha wupu wa International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi agho ghakapelekeka ku wupu wa United Nations Security Council mu 2002, ghakati vyose ivi ni vigeŵenga.<ref name=ICIBFR-85-496> International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (2002). Paragraphs 85,496. </ref> === Ciyezgo cakwamba ca demokilase na nkhondo pakati pa Tutsi National Army na Hutu === Mu Juni 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, mulongozgi wa gulu la Hutu la Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), ndiyo wakathereska pa mavoti ghakwamba. Wakazgoka mulongozgi wakwamba wa mtundu wa Hutu, ndipo wakadangiliranga boma ilo likakolerananga na Ŵahutu. Nangauli wakayezga kuti wamazge mphindano za mafuko mu caru ici, kweni ivyo wakacita vikakwiyiska ŵasilikari ŵa gulu la ŵasilikari la Ŵatutsi. Nkhondo ya ku Burundi (1993~2005) yikaŵa na vivulupi pakati pa ŵakugaluka ŵa Hutu na ŵasilikari ŵa Tutsi. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 300,000, comenecomene ŵanthu bweka, ŵakakomeka mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm Country profile Burundi] BBC. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007175839/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm |date=7 October 2011 }}. (accessed on 29 October 2008)</ref> Kukwambilira kwa 1994, nyumba ya malango yikasora Cyprien Ntaryamira (Muhutu) kuŵa pulezidenti. Iyo na Juvénal Habyarimana, pulezidenti wa Rwanda, wose ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu, ndipo ŵakafwa pamoza apo ndege yawo yikawa mu Epulero 1994. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuchimbilira ku Rwanda. Mulara wa Nyumba ya Malango, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu), wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti mu Okutobala 1994. Boma la wupu wakulongozga likapangika na magulu 12 pa 13. Ŵakaleka kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kweni nkhaza zikamba. Ŵahutu ŵanandi awo ŵakacimbira ku Bujumbura, msumba ukuru wa caru ici, ŵakakomeka. Bungwe la Tutsi Union for National Progress likafumamo mu boma na mu nyumba ya malango. Mu 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) wakambaso kuwusa mwa kuwukira boma. Wakayimiska malango gha boma ndipo wakalapa kuŵa pulezidenti mu 1998. Iyi yikaŵa nyengo yaciŵiri iyo wakaŵira pulezidenti, pamanyuma pa nyengo yakwamba kufuma mu 1987 mpaka 1993. Pakuwona umo ŵakugaluka ŵakacitira, boma likapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasamire ku misasa ya ŵanthu ŵakucimbira kwawo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Buyoya, pakamba kudumbiskana vya mtende kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo South Africa ndiyo yikaŵa pakati pawo. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikalemba mapangano mu Arusha, Tanzania na Pretoria, South Africa, kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza mu Burundi. Pakakhumbikwanga vilimika vinayi kuti ŵanozge ivyo ŵakakolerana.[[File:Second Congo War Africa map en.svg|thumb|alt=color map of African countries showing Uganda Rwanda and Burundi backing rebels against Kabila|Belligerents of the [[Second Congo War]]. Burundi backed the rebels.]] Pa Ogasiti 28, 2000, boma lakwendera lumoza la Burundi likanozgeka nga ni cigaŵa ca Mapangano gha Mtende na Kuphemana. Boma lakwimira boma ili likaŵa pa nyengo yakuyezgelera kwa vilimika vinkhondi. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo ŵakawovwilirapo yayi kuti paŵe mtende, mu 2001 pakaŵa ndondomeko ya mtende ndipo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza. Mu 2003, boma la Burundi ilo likulongozgeka na ŵa Tutsi na gulu likuru chomene la ŵakugaluka la Ŵahutu, la CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy), ŵakadumura phangano lakuti ŵaleke kwambiska nkhondo. Mu 2003, mulongozgi wa FRODEBU Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Kukwambilira kwa 2005, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakasankhika pa maofesi gha boma la Burundi. Mu chaka ichi, pakaŵa maungano gha boma na gha pulezidenti. Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵakugaluka, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti mu 2005. Mu 2008, boma la Burundi likadumbiskana na gulu la Hutu lakucemeka Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF) kuti ŵize na mtende mu caru.<ref>Liang, Yin (4 June 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170125174002/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/04/content_8308846.htm "EU welcomes positive developments in Burundi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125174002/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/04/content_8308846.htm |date=25 January 2017 }}. ''China View''. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved on 29 June 2008.</ref> ===Kuzomelezgana mtendere=== Ŵalongozgi ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamba kudumbiskana vya mtende pakati pa vyaru ivyo vikwambana, pamanyuma pakuti Secretary General wa United Nations Boutros Boutros-Ghali waŵapempha kuti ŵanjirepo pa suzgo ili. Mu 1995, ŵakamba kudumbiskana na pulezidenti wa ku Tanzania, Julius Nyerere. Apo maungano agha ghakacitikanga, Pulezidenti wa South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, na wa United States, Bill Clinton, nawo ŵakayowoyapo. Maungano agha ghakaŵa gha mtundu wa Track I. Nthowa iyi ya kudumbiskirana yingayowoyeka kuti ni nthowa ya udumizgi iyo yikusazgapo ŵimiliri ŵa boma panji ŵimiliri ŵa boma, awo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito mbiri yawo yiwemi, kuphalirako ŵanyawo, panji nthowa ya "karoti na ndodo" kuti ŵafike pa chilato chinyake panji kuti ŵapangiske kuti chichitike, kanandi ŵakuchita vinthu nga ni "kuchezga" panji "kupambana na kutondeka".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ramsbotham, Oliver |author2=Woodhouse, Tom |author3=Miall, Hugh |title=Contemporary Conflict Resolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-IbuQE02-KkC&pg=PA24|year=2011|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-4974-0|pages=24–}}</ref> Cilato cikuru cikaŵa cakuti boma la Burundi na ŵasilikari ŵake ŵasinthe vinthu mwakuti paŵe mphambano pakati pa Ŵakututsi na Ŵahutu. Ukaŵa wa vigaŵa viŵiri. Cakwamba, boma lakwendera lumoza lizamunjira mu malo ghake, ndipo pulezidenti wazamulamulira vyaka vitatu. Cilato caciŵiri cikaŵa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵambeso kwendera ŵekha, ndipo magulu ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa ghakuyana. Nga ni umo vyalongosolera nyengo yitali iyo maungano gha mtende ghakacitikira, awo ŵakadumbiskana na awo ŵakadumbiskananga ŵakakumana na masuzgo ghanandi. Cakwamba, ŵalara ŵa boma la Burundi ŵakawona kuti vilato ivi ni "vyambura kwenelera" ndipo ŵakawona kuti phangano ili ndakubudika, ndakususkana, ndiposo ndakubudika. Caciŵiri, ndipo ico nchakuzirwa comene nchakuti, ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi ŵakagomezganga kuti phangano ili liŵenge lambura nchito usange palije kuleka kuwukira. Kuti ivi vicitike, pakukhumbikwira kudumbiskana mwakudunjika na magulu gha ŵakugaluka. Gulu likuru la Ŵahutu likaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera pa nkhani ya boma ilo likukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵagaŵane mazaza. Mu 2000, pulezidenti wa Burundi wakasazga phangano ili pamoza na magulu 13 pa magulu 19 gha Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi. Pakaŵa mphindano pa nkhani ya gulu ilo lizamulongozga boma liphya, ndiposo apo nkhondo yizamwambira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakapangiska kuti paleke kuŵa mtende ŵakaŵa gulu la Ŵatutsi na Ŵahutu awo ŵakakana kusayina phangano ili. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vitatu, pa ungano wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vya ku Africa uwo ukacitikira mu Tanzania, pulezidenti wa Burundi na gulu likuru la Ŵahutu ŵakakolerana kuti ŵamazge nkhondo. Ndipouli, magulu ghacoko waka gha Ŵahutu, nga ni gulu la Forces for National Liberation, ghakalutilira kugwira nchito. ===UN kunjililapo=== Pakati pa 1993 na 2003, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakadumbiskana vya mtende, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania, South Africa, na Uganda ndiwo ŵakadangiliranga. Pakwamba gulu la South African Protection Support Detachment likatumika kuvikilira ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Burundi awo ŵakawerako ku wuzga. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakazgoka cigaŵa ca African Union Mission ku Burundi, awo ŵakatumika kuti ŵawovwire kunozga boma lakwendera. Mu Juni 2004, wupu wa UN ukachitapo kanthu na kupokelera mulimo wa kusungiska mtende, kulongora kuti caru cose cikukhozgera ndondomeko ya mtende mu Burundi.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008">Howard, Lise Morje (2008). UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Ntchito ya Mission, pasi pa Mutu VII wa Charter ya United Nations, yili kuti yikulaŵilira kuwombora, kufumiska vilwero, kususka ŵasilikari na kuŵaso ŵankhondo, kovwira wovwiri wa ŵanthu, kuwelera ku ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na ku vyaru ivyo vyasuzgika, kovwira pa masankharo, kuvikilira ŵasilikare ŵa pa charu chose na ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi, kulaŵilira mphaka za Burundi, kusazgapo kulekeska viŵembu vya nkhondo, na kovwira pa kunozga vinthu vya mu ndyali, malango, ŵasilikara na ŵapolisi.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008"/> Suzgo likuru comene mu nyengo yakwambilira likaŵa lakuti gulu la ŵakugaluka la Ŵahutu likalutilira kulimbana na ndondomeko ya mtende. Gulu ili likalutilira kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa UN mu tawuni iyi. Kuzakafika mu Juni 2005, gulu ili likaleka kurwa nkhondo ndipo ŵimiliri ŵake ŵakaweleraso ku ndyali. Maphwando onse a ndale avomereza njira yogaŵanirana mphamvu pakati pa mafuko: palibe chipani cha ndale chomwe chingapeze malo mu maofesi a boma pokhapokha ngati chikugwirizana ndi mafuko ena.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008"/> Ntchito ya UN yikaŵa ya kuŵika ndondomeko ya kugaŵikana kwa mazaza mu dango la boma, mwakuti paŵe maungano gha boma. Ŵakaŵawuskamo vilwero, na kuŵawovwira kuti ŵambeso kusopa. Mu Febuluwale 2005, dango ili likapokelereka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 90%. Mu Meyi, Juni, na Ogasiti 2005, kukaŵaso maungano ghatatu ghakupambanapambana gha Nyumba ya Malamulo na gha pulezidenti. Nangauli pasono pali masuzgo ghanyake pa nkhani ya kuwelera kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakacimbira kwawo na kusanga vyakurya vyakukwana ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa mu nkhondo, kweni gulu ili likakhorwa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa nkhondo kweniso ŵanthu wose. Wakawovwirapo pa milimo yinandi yakuzenga masukulu, nyumba za ŵalanda, maofesi gha munkhwala, na kuzenga vinthu vinyake nga ni maji. ===2006 mpaka 2018=== [[File:BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg|thumb|alt=aerial view of highrise building and low rise red roofed buildings|View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.]] Ntchito yakuzenga ku Burundi yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2006. Wupu wa UN ukaleka mulimo wake wa kusungilira mtende na kwambaso kovwirapo pa mulimo wa kuzenga.<ref name="accessed on 29-10-08">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm Timeline Burundi] BBC. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830225045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm |date=30 August 2011 }}. (accessed on 29 October 2008)</ref> Kuti ŵanozgekere kunozgaso vyalo vyawo, caru ca Rwanda, D.R.Congo na Burundi, ŵakaŵaso na wupu wakucemeka Regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries. Kweniso mu 2007, charu cha Burundi pamoza na charu cha Rwanda, vikaŵa mu wupu wa East African Community. Ndipouli, mazgu gha Ceasefire ya Seputembala 2006 pakati pa boma na gulu lakwamba la ŵakususka, la FLN (Forces for National Liberation, lakucemekaso NLF panji FROLINA), ghakafiskika yayi, ndipo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa FLN ŵakafumamo mu gulu la awo ŵakulaŵilira nkhondo iyi, ŵakuti wanangwa wawo uli pangozi. Mu Seputembala 2007, magulu ghakwimikana gha FLN ghakalimbana mu msumba wa msumba uwu, ndipo ŵakukoma ŵanthu 20 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchimbira. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi, ŵakugaluka ŵakamba kuwukira. Ŵalwani ŵakakolerana yayi na boma pa nkhani ya kufumiska vilwero na kufwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali. Kuumaliro wa 2007 na kuuyambiro wa 2008, ŵakurwa nkhondo ŵa FLN ŵakawukira misasa yakuvikilirika na boma uko kukaŵa ŵakurwa nkhondo. Nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi nazo zikapokeka.<ref name="hrw.org">[https://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/29/burund18974.htm Burundi: Release Civilians Detained Without Charge |Human Rights Watch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602040602/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/29/burund18974.htm|date=2 June 2008}}. Hrw.org (29 May 2008). Retrieved on 24 November 2012.</ref> Lipoti la wupu wa Amnesty International la mu 2007 likulongora kuti pali vinandi ivyo vikukhumbikwa kunozgekera. Ŵasilikari ŵakusuzgika kanandi waka na nkhaza za FLN. Wachiŵiri uyu wakulemba ŵana ŵasilikari. Ŵanakazi ŵakusuzgika comene. Kanandi awo ŵakuchita viheni ŵakutondeka kweruzgika na boma. Pali kukhumbikwa kukuru kwa kusintha ndondomeko ya vyeruzgo. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kukomeka cifukwa ca kuswa malango, kuswa malango gha boma, na kuswa malango gha boma. Kuumaliro kwa Malichi 2008, gulu la FLN likapempha kuti nyumba ya malango yikhazikiske dango ilo likuŵaphalira kuti ŵaleke kukakika. Vinthu ivi vikukhwaska vigeŵenga vyambura kuzirwa, kweni vigeŵenga vikuru ivyo vikuswa malango gha caru cose nga ni nkhondo panji viheni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakucita yayi. Nangauli boma likapeleka wanangwa uwu ku ŵanthu kumanyuma, kweni FLN yikatondeka kusanga wanangwa uwu. Pa 17 Epulero 2008, FLN yikaponya mabomba pa Bujumbura. Ŵasilikari ŵa Burundi ŵakaŵawukira ndipo gulu la FLN likapwetekeka comene. Pa Meyi 26, 2008, pakalembeka phangano liphya la kuleka kuwukira. Mu Ogasiti 2008, Purezidenti Nkurunziza wakakumana na mulongozgi wa FLN Agathon Rwasa, pamoza na Charles Nqakula, Minister of Safety and Security wa South Africa. Uwu ukaŵa ungano wakwamba kufuma mu Juni 2007. Wose ŵakakolerana kuti ŵawunganenge kaŵiri pa sabata kuti ŵanozge mphindano izo zingaŵapo pa nyengo ya kuwezgerapo mtende. Wupu wa United Nations ukuyezgayezga kuwona umo vinthu vikukhwaskira ŵanthu awo ŵakuzenga mtende. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 2010, gulu la UN lakuvikilira mtende mu Burundi likayezga kupima umo ndondomeko yake ya kulekeska vilwero, kusunkhunyika na kuweleramo mu caru yikaŵira yiwemi mwa kupenda unandi wa vilwero ivyo vikatoleka cifukwa cakuti vilwero vikaŵa vinandi mu caru ici. Ndipouli, pa maungano agha pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapo pa nyengo iyi, awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi pakuwona umo vinthu vikuŵira para ŵanthu ŵakukhumba mtende. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2012, charu cha Burundi chikagwiranga nchito ya kusungilira mtende ya African Union, kusazgapo ntchito ya ku Somalia kwimikana na ŵasilikari ŵa Al-Shabaab. Mu 2014, Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana yikakhazikiskika, pakwamba kwa vilimika vinayi ndipo yikasazgikira vyaka vinayi mu 2018.<ref name=reuters2014>{{cite web | last=Nduwimana | first=Patrick | title=Burundi creates reconciliation body that divides public opinion | website=[[Reuters]] | date=18 April 2014 | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-burundi-politics-idUSBREA3H0E020140418 | access-date=12 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=justice2019>{{cite web | title=Burundi: the commission of divided truths |first=Ephrem |last=Rugiririz| website=JusticeInfo.net | date=25 November 2019 | url=https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/43042-burundi-the-commission-of-divided-truths.html | access-date=12 October 2021}}</ref> ====2015 unrest==== {{Main|Burundian unrest (2015–2018)}} Mu Epulero 2015 ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka boma chifukwa cha ivyo chipani icho chili na mazaza chikayowoya.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Après moi, moi|url = https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21650190-more-africans-are-resisting-presidential-efforts-flout-constitutional-term?zid=304&ah=e5690753dc78ce91909083042ad12e30|newspaper = The Economist|date = 2 May 2015|access-date = 14 May 2015|issn = 0013-0613|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091746/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21650190-more-africans-are-resisting-presidential-efforts-flout-constitutional-term?zid=304&ah=e5690753dc78ce91909083042ad12e30|archive-date = 18 May 2015|url-status = live|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Awo ŵakasuskanga ŵakatenge Nkurunziza wangasankhika yayi kuti wazakaŵepo kachitatu, kweni khoti la malango mu charu ichi likakolerana nayo (nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakachimbira mu charu ichi pa nyengo iyo ŵakavotera). Kuyezga kupoka boma pa 13 May kukatondeka kufumiska Nkurunziza. Wakawelera ku Burundi, wakayamba kuwuskamo ŵanthu mu boma lake, ndipo wakakora ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma awo ŵakagalukira boma.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/15/burundi-president-returns-to-divided-capital-after-failed-coup "Burundi's president returns to divided capital after failed coup"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020022341/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/15/burundi-president-returns-to-divided-capital-after-failed-coup |date=20 October 2017 }}. ''The Guardian'' (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32724083 "Burundi general declares coup against President Nkurunziza"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711123731/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32724083 |date=11 July 2018 }} BBC</ref><ref name=cnn01>[http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/15/africa/burundi-coup-leaders-arrested/index.html Burundi arrests leaders of attempted coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516061354/http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/15/africa/burundi-coup-leaders-arrested/index.html |date=16 May 2017 }}. CNN.com (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>Laing, Aislinn. (15 May 2015) [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/burundi/11607171/Burundi-coup-fails-as-president-returns-to-the-country.html "Burundi president hunts for coup leaders as he returns to the capital"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130091614/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/burundi/11607171/Burundi-coup-fails-as-president-returns-to-the-country.html |date=30 January 2018 }}. ''Daily Telegraph''. Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/president-burundi-army-coup-failed-150515002113225.html "President 'back in Burundi' after army says coup failed"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605235845/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/president-burundi-army-coup-failed-150515002113225.html |date=5 June 2017 }}. Al Jazeera English (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref> Kweni pamanyuma pa chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kususka ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100,000 ŵakachimbira mu charu ichi pa 20 May. Pali malipoti ghakuti ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu, kutambuzgika, kuzgeŵa, na kukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Nangauli wupu wa United Nations, African Union, United States, France, South Africa, Belgium, na maboma ghanyake ghakaŵachiska kuti ŵaleke kuwungana, kweni chipani icho chili na mazaza chikachita mavoti pa Juni 29, kweni ŵakususka. Pa 30 September 2016, wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council ukakhazikiska Commission of Inquiry on Burundi mwa resolution 33/24. Wupu uwu uli na mulimo wa "kusanda mwakudumura maubendezi gha wanangwa wa ŵanthu agho ghacitika mu Burundi kwambira mu Epulero 2015, kumanya awo ŵakughanaghana kuti ndiwo ŵakucita ivi na kupeleka ulongozgi". Pa Seputembala 29, 2017, wupu wakuwona vya Burundi ukachiska boma la Burundi kuti lileke kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Likayowoyaso kuti, "Boma la Burundi likukana kukolerana na Komiti ya Kupenjerezga, nangauli yikumuŵeyelera kanandi waka". Pa viheni ivyo wupu uwu ukalemba pali kukakika na kukakika mwambura kwenelera, kutambuzgika, nkhaza, nkhaza, kukomeka kwambura mulandu, kujowoleka, kukaka ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kwiza ku nyumba zawo, na mitundu yinyake ya nkhaza za kugonana".<ref name="ohchr.org">{{cite web |title=OHCHR – Commission calls on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22184&LangID=E |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021822/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22184&LangID=E |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=10 October 2017 |website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref> === 2018 mpaka pano === In a [[2018 Burundian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Moore|first=Jina|date=2018-05-17|title=In Tiny Burundi, a Huge Vote (Published 2018)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/17/world/africa/burundi-referendum-vote.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517214927/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/17/world/africa/burundi-referendum-vote.html |archive-date=2018-05-17 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2021-01-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Amendments to constitution of Burundi approved: electoral commission – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/22/c_137195886.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522112315/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/22/c_137195886.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 May 2018|access-date=2021-01-08|website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref>Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazizwa chomene apo Nkurunziza wakapharazga kuti walekenge kuwusa nyengo yinyake. Pa 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, uyo wakasankhika na chipani cha CNDD-FDD kuŵa mulondezgi wa Nkurunziza, wakathereska pa mavoti 71.45%. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, pa 9 Juni 2020, Nkurunziza wakafwa na nthenda ya mtima, wali na vilimika 55. Pakaŵa fundo yakuti nyifwa yake yikakhwaskana na COVID-19, nangauli fundo iyi yindazomerezgeke. <ref name=":03">{{Cite news|last=Dahir|first=Abdi Latif|date=2020-06-09|title=President of Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza, 55, Dies of Heart Attack|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/09/world/africa/burundi-president-pierre-nkurunziza-dead.html|access-date=2021-01-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/18/evariste-ndayishimiye-who-is-burundis-new-president |access-date=2021-01-08 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2021, moto ukuru wa mu jele ukakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu msumba wa Gitega. Mu Novembala 2022, mu masuzgo gha nthenda ya COVID-19 na kuwukira kwa Russia ku Ukraine, chiŵelengero cha chuma cha Burundi chikakwera pachoko waka kufika pa 3 peresenti, kuyana na kafukufuku wa International Monetary Fund. Pasono, charu cha Burundi nchimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi pamanyuma pa Haiti, ndipo pa munthu yumoza, munthu waliyose wakusangapo ndalama zakukwana madola 270.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Santosdiaz |first1=Richie |title=Burundi: Fintech Landscape and Potential In The World's Poorest Country |url=https://thefintechtimes.com/burundi-fintech-landscape-and-potential-in-the-worlds-poorest-country/ |website=The Fintech Times |date=19 August 2022 |access-date=21 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005221806/https://thefintechtimes.com/burundi-fintech-landscape-and-potential-in-the-worlds-poorest-country/ |archive-date=5 October 2022}}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Politics of Burundi}} [[File:Pierre Nkurunziza - World Economic Forum on Africa 2008.jpg|thumb|alt=Pierre Nkurunziza at World Economic Forum 2008 looking right|[[Pierre Nkurunziza]], President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020.]] Ndyali za ku Burundi ni za boma la demokilase ilo likulongozgeka na pulezidenti. Pulezidenti wa charu cha Burundi ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pasono mu Burundi muli vipani 21 ivyo vili kulembeka.<ref name="state">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2821.htm Background Note: Burundi]. [[United States Department of State]]. February 2008. Retrieved on 28 June 2008.</ref>Pa Malichi 13, 1992, Pierre Buyoya, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵatutsi, wakambiska ndondomeko ya ndyali. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, pa Juni 6, 1998, dango la boma likasintha, kusazgirako mipando ya wupu wakulongozga na kuŵikapo ŵaŵiri. Cifukwa ca phangano la ku Arusha, mu 2000, Burundi likakhazikiska boma la nyengo yicoko waka. Wupu wakulongozga mu Burundi ni wupu uwo uli na nyumba ziŵiri, uwo uli na Nyumba ya Malango ya Vyaru na Nyumba ya Malango ya Wupu Wakulongozga. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2004, Nyumba ya Malango ya Charu chose yikaŵa na mamembala 170, ndipo chipani cha Front for Democracy mu Burundi chikaŵa na vithuzithuzi 38%, ndipo 10% ya nyumba ya Malango yikaŵa mu mawoko gha UPRONA. Mavoti 52 ghakaŵa gha magulu ghanyake. Dango la Burundi likusambizga kuti mu wupu wa Transitional National Assembly muŵe Ŵahutu 60%, Ŵatutsi 40%, ŵanakazi 30%, kweniso ŵa Batwa ŵatatu. Ŵabali awo ŵali mu wupu uwu ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu wose ndipo ŵakukhala vyaka vinkhondi. Nyumba ya Malango ya Wupu Wakulongozga yili na mamembara 51, ndipo malo ghatatu ghali kupika ku ŵanthu awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi. Kuyana na dango la boma la Burundi, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakwenera kuŵa pa mavoti 30. Ŵabali ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu awo ŵakufuma mu vigaŵa vyose vya Burundi. Mu vigaŵa vyose 18 vya Burundi, muli munthu yumoza Muhutu na munyake Mututsi. Nyengo yimoza ya wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu. Wupu wakulongozga mu Burundi ndiwo ukusankha pulezidenti kuti wateŵetere vyaka vinkhondi. Pulezidenti wa Burundi wakwimika ŵamazaza mu wupu wake wa nduna. Kweniso pulezidenti wangasora ŵanthu 14 ŵa mu wupu wa Transitional Senate kuti ŵateŵetere mu wupu wa Council of Minister. Ŵabali awo ŵakuteŵetera mu wupu wa nduna ŵakwenera kuzomerezgeka na ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mu wupu wa nduna. Kweniso pulezidenti wakusankha ŵachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Kufumira waka mu 2015, Pierre Nkurunziza ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Burundi. Wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakaŵa Therence Sinunguruza, ndipo wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakaŵa Gervais Rufyikiri. Pa 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, uyo wakasankhika na chipani cha CNDD-FDD kuŵa mulondezgi wa Nkurunziza, wakathereska pa mavoti 71.45%. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, pa 9 Juni 2020, Nkurunziza wakafwa na nthenda ya mtima, wali na vilimika 55. Kuyana na dango la chalo, Pascal Nyabenda, mulongozgi wa chalo, ndiyo wakalongozga boma mpaka apo Ndayishimiye wakajura ofesi pa 18 June 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/09/world/africa/burundi-president-pierre-nkurunziza-dead.html|title=President of Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza, 55, Dies of Heart Attack|first=Abdi Latif|last=Dahir|newspaper=The New York Times|date=9 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/18/evariste-ndayishimiye-who-is-burundis-new-president|title=Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye?|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> Khoti Likuru la ku Burundi ni khoti likuru comene. Paliso makhoti ghatatu gha apilu agho ghali pasi pa Khoti Likuru Chomene. Makhoti gha Cigaŵa Cakwamba ghakugwira nchito nga ni makhoti gha mu vigaŵa vyose vya Burundi kweniso makhoti gha mu vigaŵa 123.<ref name="unburundi">{{cite journal|title=Republic of Burundi: Public Administration Country Profile|journal=United Nations' Division for Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM)|date=July 2004|pages=5–7|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023253.pdf|access-date=20 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001231041/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023253.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Embassy_of_Burundi_in_Brussels.jpg|thumb|Embassy of Burundi in Brussels]] === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{See also|Human rights in Burundi|LGBT rights in Burundi}} Boma la Burundi lakususkika kanandi waka na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu kusazgapo Human Rights Watch cifukwa ca kukora na kweruzga Jean-Claude Kavumbagu cifukwa ca nkhani izo wakalemba. Bungwe la Amnesty International (AI) likati ni kayidi wa njuŵi ndipo likukhumba kuti "wafwatulike mwaluŵiro". Mu Epulero 2009, boma la Burundi likasintha dango lakuti ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵagonanenge. Munthu uyo wazomerezgeka kugonana na mwanalume panji mwanakazi munyake, wangakakika vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu na kupelekeka cilango ca ndalama zakukwana 50,000 panji 100,000. Bungwe la Amnesty International likususka ivyo vikacitika, ndipo likuti ni kuswa malango gha caru cose na gha mu vyaru vinyake ghakukhwaskana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa Okutobala 27, 2017, charu cha Burundi chikafumamo mu khoti la International Criminal Court (ICC). Chinthu ichi chikachitika pamanyuma pakuti wupu wa United Nations walemba lipoti mu Seputembala 2017 ilo likati charu ichi chikuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa Novembala 9, 2017, khoti la ICC likati ŵanthu awo ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu charu cha Burundi ŵalutilirenge kweruzgika.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/09/world/africa/icc-burundi-nkurunziza.html|title=We're Not Done Yet, Hague Court Tells Burundi's Leaders|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|date=9 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 November 2017|last2=Simons|first2=Marlise|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110150241/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/09/world/africa/icc-burundi-nkurunziza.html|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/09/icc-new-burundi-investigation|title=ICC: New Burundi Investigation|date=9 November 2017|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121164937/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/09/icc-new-burundi-investigation|archive-date=21 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuga'''ŵanika''' === {{Main|Provinces of Burundi|Communes of Burundi|Collines of Burundi}} Charu cha Burundi chili na vigaŵa 18, vikaya 119, na tumapiri 2,638. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakwendera mphaka izi. Vigaŵa na vikaya vya Burundi vikapangika pa zuŵa la Khisimasi mu 1959 na dango la ku Belgium. Ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu 2000, cigaŵa ca Bujumbura cikagaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri, Bujumbura Rural na Bujumbura Mairie. Chigaŵa chiphya chomene, Rumonge, chikapangika pa 26 March 2015 kufuma ku vigaŵa vya Bujumbura Rural na Bururi. Mu Julayi 2022, boma la Burundi likapharazga kuti lizamunozga vyaru. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhumba kuti vigaŵa vichepeko kufuma pa 18 kufika pa 5, ndipo maboma gha vigaŵa vichepeko kufuma pa 119 kufika pa 42. Kusintha uku kukukhumbikwira kuzomerezgeka na pharalamende ya Burundi kuti kwambe kugwira ntchito.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=bdiagnews |date=2022-07-14 |title=Burundi : Proposition - 5 provinces au lieu de 18 et 42 communes au lieu de 119 |url=https://burundi-agnews.org/government/burundi-proposition-5-provinces-au-lieu-de-18-et-42-communes-au-lieu-de-119/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=Nouvelles du Burundi - Africa Generation News |language=en-US}}</ref> {{#section:Provinces of Burundi|table}} == Makhalilo gha charu == [[File:By-map.png|thumb|left|alt=tan colour map of Burundi with cities|Map of Burundi.]] [[file:Hippos in Burundi.png|thumb|Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi]] {{Main|Geography of Burundi|Climate of Burundi}} Charu cha Burundi ntchichoko chomene pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Charu cha Burundi chili ku chigaŵa cha Albertine Rift, icho chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa East African Rift. Charu ichi chili pakati pa Africa. Charu cha Burundi chili kumpoto na charu cha Rwanda, kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa Tanzania, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo. Chigaŵa ichi chili mu nkhorongo za Albertine Rift, Central Zambezian miombo, na Victoria Basin. Chigaŵa chapakati pa chigaŵa ichi chili pa mtunda wa mamita 1,707 (5,600 ft). Phiri la Heha ilo lili pachanya chomene lili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,685 ndipo lili kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba ukuru wa Bujumbura. Mlonga wa Nile ukufuma mu chigaŵa cha Bururi, ndipo ukufuma mu Nyanja ya Victoria na kunjira mu mlonga wa Ruvyironza. Nyanja ya Victoria nayo njakuzirwa comene, ndipo yikunjira mu mlonga wa Kagera. Nyanja yinyake yikuru ni Nyanja ya Tanganyika, iyo yili kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Burundi. Pali malo ghaŵiri ghakusungirako vyamoyo: Kibira National Park kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi (chigaŵa chichoko cha nkhorongo, icho chili pafupi na Nyungwe Forest National Park mu Rwanda), na Ruvubu National Park kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi (kuyana na Mlonga wa Rurubu, uwo ukuchemekaso Ruvubu panji Ruvuvu). Vyose viŵiri vikaŵako mu 1982 kuti vivikilire vyamoyo..<ref name="autogenerated5">East, Rob (1999). ''African Antelope Database 1998''. [[Gland, Switzerland]]: [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]], p. 74. {{ISBN|2-8317-0477-4}}.</ref> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Burundi}} == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Burundi}} {{See also|List of companies based in Burundi}} [[File:GDP per capita development of Burundi.svg|thumb|Historical development of GDP per capita]] Charu cha Burundi chili kutali na nyanja ndipo chili na vyakurya vinandi yayi. Chuma chake ndi ulimi, chomwe chimapanga 50% ya GDP mu 2017 ndipo chimagwira ntchito zoposa 90% za anthu. Vyakurya ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵajilamulire ŵekha vikupanga 90% ya vyakurya vyose.<ref name="autogenerated1">[[#Eggers|Eggers]], p. xlvii.</ref>Vinthu vikuru ivyo Burundi likuguliska ni khofi na tiyi, ivyo vikupanga ndalama zinandi pa caru cose. Vyakumera vinyake ni katoni, tiyi, mbuto, sorghum, mbatata, nthochi, manioc (tapioca); nyama ya ng'ombe, mkaka na vikumba. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuthemba chomene ulimi kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo, kweni ŵanandi ŵalije ndalama zakukwana. Ici nchifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakukura comene ndipo palije ndondomeko yakukolerana pa nkhani ya malo. Mu 2014, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga munda wakukwana ekala limoza. Charu cha Burundi nchimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi, cifukwa ca malo agho kulije maji, kusoŵa kwa masambiro, na kuthandazgika kwa HIV/AIDS. Pafupifupi 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi mbakavu. Mu Burundi mose mukaŵa njara na kusoŵa cakurya, comenecomene mu vilimika vya m'ma 1900, ndipo kuyana na Wupu wa vyakurya wa pa caru cose (World Food Programme), ŵana 56.8% awo ŵandakwaniske vyaka vinkhondi ŵakulwara nthenda ya kusoŵa cakurya. Ndalama izo charu cha Burundi chikupeleka ku vyakurya vinyake na ndalama izo chikupeleka ku vyakurya vinyake, vikuthemba pa nyengo iyo vinthu viliri pa charu chose kweniso mtengo wa khofi na tiyi.[[File:Tree map export 2009 Burundi.jpeg|thumb|alt=color chart of exports by value with percentages|Graphical depiction of Burundi's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories in 2009.]] Nkhongono zakugulira za ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi zanangika cifukwa cakuti malipiro ghakwera comene yayi. Chifukwa cha ukavu uwo ukuŵako, charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kuthemba wovwiri wa vyaru viŵiri na vinandi. Wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi. Charu cha Burundi chikapokelera ndalama zakukwana madola 700 miliyoni kufuma ku wupu wa East African Community mu 2009. Vimbundi ivyo vikucitika mu boma vikutondeska kuti makampani ghaŵe na nchito yiwemi cifukwa malango ghakwenda makora. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu chaka cha 2007 walongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi mbakukhorwa yayi na umoyo wawo.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>White, A. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20161025102648/http://data360.org/pdf/20071219073602.A%20Global%20Projection%20of%20Subjective%20Well-being.pdf A Global Projection of Subjective Well-being: A Challenge to Positive Psychology?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025102648/http://data360.org/pdf/20071219073602.A%20Global%20Projection%20of%20Subjective%20Well-being.pdf |date=25 October 2016 }} Psychtalk 56, 17–20. Retrieved 8 June 2008.</ref>[[File:Burundi - Lake Tanganyika fisheries.jpg|thumb|alt=two sitting in skiff on beach on lakeshore with mountains in bckround|Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika.]] Vinthu vinyake ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni uranium, nickel, cobalt, mkuwa, na platinamu. Padera pa vyakurya, vyaru vinyake ni ivi: Kupanga vinthu vyakufuma ku vyaru vinyake; kuzenga vinthu vya boma; kupanga vyakurya na vinthu vinyake vyakudura nga ni mabulangete, skapato na sopo. Pa nkhani ya umanyi, charu cha Burundi chili pa malo ghaciŵiri kufuma pa ghaumaliro mu index ya World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI). Mu 2014, charu cha Burundi chikaŵa pa nambara 147. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusoŵa ndalama, comenecomene ku mizi uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pera pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu mizi iyi ndiwo ŵali na maakaunti ku banki, ndipo ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene pa ŵanthu aŵa. Ndipouli, ndalama zichoko waka zikovwira comene, pakuti ŵanthu 4 pa ŵanthu 100 wose mu Burundi ŵali mu mawupu gha ndalama zichoko waka. Vyaru ivi vikuthemba comene yayi pa wovwiri wa awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri. Charu cha Burundi chili mu wupu wa East African Community (EAC) ndipo chingaŵa chigaŵa cha wupu wa East African Federation. Vinthu vikwenda makora mu charu ichi, kweni charu ichi chikulutilira kunangika.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161226084746/http://www.worlddiplomacy.org/Countries/Burundi/InfoBuru.html Burundi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226084746/http://www.worlddiplomacy.org/Countries/Burundi/InfoBuru.html |date=26 December 2016 }}. Worlddiplomacy.org. Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref> === Ndalama === {{Main|Burundian franc}} Ndalama ya ku Burundi ni franc (ISO 4217 code BIF). Ndalama izi zikaŵa 100 centimes, kweni mu Burundi mukaŵavya ndalama za centimes. Ndondomeko ya ndalama yikulongozgeka na banki yikuru, Bank of the Republic of Burundi.{{Exchange Rate|BIF}} === Mayendelo === {{Main|Transport in Burundi}} [[File:BujumburaAirport.jpg|thumb|[[Bujumbura International Airport]] terminal in Bujumbura]] [[File:Truck and bicylists near Gitega, Burundi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=two bicyclists hold on to back of truck descending a hill|Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi]] Mtundu wa kwendeska vinthu mu Burundi ngwakukwana yayi ndipo ulije nkhongono. Kuyana na lipoti la DHL Global Connectedness Index la 2012, charu cha Burundi ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa vyaru 140 ivyo vikalembeka. Malo gha ndege gha Bujumbura International Airport ndigho ghekha ghali na msewu wakwenda pa msewu ndipo kufuma mu Meyi 2017 ghakaŵa na ndege zinayi (Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways na RwandAir). Mzinda wa Kigali ndiwo uli na ndege zinandi zakuluta ku Bujumbura. Charu ichi chili na misewu yinandi, kweni mu 2005, misewu yinandi yayi mu charu ichi yikaŵa yakwenda pa msewu ndipo mu 2012, mabasi ghakwendera mabasi gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghakaŵa ghakwendeskeka na mabasi agho ghakalutanga ku Kigali. Bujumbura wakukolerana na boti la ŵanthu na katundu (la MV Mwongozo) na Kigoma mu Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldtravelguide.net/burundi/travel-by|title=Travel to Burundi|date=2017-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405013013/http://www.worldtravelguide.net/burundi/travel-by|access-date=2020-01-27|archive-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Pali pulani ya nyengo yitali ya kwendera njanji na kuluta ku Kigali na ku Kampala na Kenya. == Ŵanthu == {{Largest cities | country = Burundi | stat_ref = Source:<ref name=BURUNDICITIES>{{cite web |url=https://simplemaps.com/static/data/country-cities/bi/bi.xlsx|archive-date=2023-06-23|title=Burundi Cities by Population}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = | div_link = Provinces of Burundi{{!}}Province | city_1 = Bujumbura| div_1 = Bujumbura Mairie| pop_1 = 658,859| img_1 = BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg | city_2 = Gitega | div_2 = Gitega Province{{!}}Gitega | pop_2 = 135,467| img_2 = INSS_Gitega_n.jpg | city_3 = Ngozi, Burundi{{!}}Ngozi| div_3 = Ngozi Province{{!}}Ngozi| pop_3 = 39,884| img_3 =University of ngozi.jpg | city_4 = Rumonge | div_4 = Bururi Province{{!}}Bururi| pop_4 = 35,931 | img_4 = Météo de la ville.jpg | city_5 = Cibitoke | div_5 = Cibitoke Province{{!}}Cibitoke| pop_5 = 23,885 | city_6 = Kayanza| div_6 = Kayanza Province{{!}}Kayanza| pop_6 = 21,767 | city_7 = Bubanza| div_7 = Bubanza Province{{!}}Bubanza | pop_7 = 20,031 | city_8 = Karuzi| div_8 = Karuzi Province{{!}}Karuzi | pop_8 = 10,705 | city_9 = Kirundo| div_9 = Kirundo Province{{!}}Kirundo| pop_9 = 10,024 | city_10 = Muyinga| div_10 = Muyinga Province{{!}}Muyinga| pop_10 = 9,609 }} [[File:Burundi tradition.jpg|thumb|left|Men in colourful clothing with drums]] [[File:Children in Bujumbura.jpg|thumb|alt=three children looking directly at camera|Children in Bujumbura, Burundi]] {{Main|Demographics of Burundi|Languages of Burundi}} Kufumila mu Okutobala 2021, chalo cha Burundi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 12,346,893, apo mu 1950 ŵakaŵa 2,456,000. Ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira pa caru cose pa ciŵelengero ca 2.5 peresenti pa caka, ndipo ici nchiŵelengero ico nchiŵiri kuluska ca pa caru cose. Mu 2021, charu cha Burundi ndicho chikaŵa pa nambara 10 pa vyaru vyose pa nkhani ya kubaba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Burundi ŵali kusamira ku vyaru vinyake cifukwa ca nkhondo. Mu 2006, boma la United States likapokelera ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakufuma ku Burundi. Charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku mizi. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi chikukwana 315 pa kilomita yimoza. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 85 pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Hutu, 15 pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Tutsi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Twa. Viyowoyero vya boma mu Burundi ni Chikirundi, Cifurenci, na Cingelezi. Mu 2014, chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Cikirundi, ndipo pacoko waka 10 peresenti ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci.<ref>[https://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Rapport-La-langue-francaise-dans-le-monde_VF-2022.pdf La langue française dans le monde] (2022)</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Burundi}} Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya kuti Ŵakhristu ŵalipo 80 panji 90 peresenti. Ŵaprotesitanti na ŵa Anglican ndiwo ŵakukhalapo 15-25%. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakulondezga visambizgo vya chisopa. Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 2~5%, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Sunni ndipo ŵakukhala mu misumba.<ref name="cia"/><ref name="pew">[https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222921/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/burundi/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Burundi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222921/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/burundi/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010|date=4 December 2017}}. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref><ref name="state2010">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101123105533/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148667.htm Burundi] . U.S. Department of State. State.gov (17 November 2010). Retrieved on 24 November 2012.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Burundi}} Mu vyaru vyose 120 ivyo vili na njala pa caru cose, mu Burundi ndimo muli njara yikuru comene. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu 1962, yikatimbanizga nthowa za munkhwala mu caru ici. Mu 2015, ku Burundi kukaŵaso vivulupi vinandi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupokera wovwiri wa munkhwala. Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa, Burundi nayo wakugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, boma la Burundi likapempha Wupu wa United Nations Development Program kuti uŵawovwire kuti ŵanozge nthowa zakwendeskera ndopa na kwamba kafukufuku wa munkhwala wakufuma ku vyakumera. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, wupu wa Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners (ATRADIBU) ukapangika, uwo ukakolerana na wupu wa boma kuti uŵike wupu wa Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi (CRPMT).<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=Indigenous medicine and biomedical health care in fragile settings: insights from Burundi|last1=Falisse|first1=Jean-Benoit|last2=Masino|first2=Serena|last3=Ngenzebuhoro|first3=Raymond|s2cid=4917618|journal=Health Policy and Planning|year=2018|volume=33|issue=4|pages=483–493|doi=10.1093/heapol/czy002|pmid=29452365|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wovwiri wa vyaru vinandi wawovwira kuti vipatala viwovwire ŵanthu mu Burundi. Ndipouli, ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake ŵakukana kugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wa ku Burundi. Mu 2015, mwana yumoza pa ŵana 10 ŵaliwose ku Burundi wakafwanga pambere wandakwaniske vyaka 5 chifukwa cha matenda agho ŵanthu ŵangaghagwentha na kuchizga. Nkhondo iyo yikucitika sono mu Burundi yikutondeska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵasange munkhwala na vinthu vinyake vya mu cipatala. Ku Burundi, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 60.1 mu 2015. Mu 2013, caru ca Burundi cikagwiliskira nchito 8% ya GDP yawo pa vya cipatala. Nangauli mu Burundi mwanakazi waliyose wakubaba ŵana 6,1, kweni pa ŵanakazi 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵakufwa 61.9. Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose (WHO) ukuti ŵanthu mu caru ici ŵakukhala vyaka 58 panji 62. Matenda agho ghakuzara comene mu Burundi ni maleriya na typhoid fever.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Burundi |url=http://proxy.library.upenn.edu:2083/ps/i.do?p=SUIC&u=upenn_main&id=GALE&#124;CX3652100082&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon |website=Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> == Mwambo == [[File:Gitega drums.JPG|thumb|right|alt=four drums in courtyard|Drums from [[Gitega]].]] {{Main|Culture of Burundi|Tourism in Burundi|Music of Burundi}} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi ŵakutemwa mitheto ya uko ŵakukhala kweniso ŵakulondezga mitheto ya vyaru vinyake. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi ŵakutemwa kulima, chakurya chawo ni mbuto, mpunga, na phere. Cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi, nyama yikulyeka kamoza pera pa mwezi. Para ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Burundi ŵakukumana pa chiphikiro, ŵakumwa pamoza mpeke, panji moŵa, kufuma mu chiŵiya chikuru kuti ŵalongore umoza. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Burundi ni Mohammed Tchité uyo wakuseŵera bola na Jean-Pierre Nimbona, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Kidumu (uyo wakukhala ku Nairobi, Kenya). Ku Burundi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu vya mawoko. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakutemwa chomene kuluka viŵiya. Vinthu vinyake nga ni visalu, visalu, vithuzithuzi, na viŵiya vya dongo vikupangika mu Burundi. Kulizga tung'oma nkhwakuzirwa comene mu mitheto ya ŵanthu. Gulu la Royal Drummers of Burundi, ilo ndakumanyikwa pa caru cose, ndipo lakhala likucita maseŵero agha kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 40, likucemeka na sumu za karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso na ikiranya. Kaŵirikaŵiri kuvina kukulongozgana na kuvina kwa viŵiya, uko kukuwoneka kanandi pa viphikiro na pa maungano gha mbumba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi ŵakutemwa kuvina kwa abatimbo, uko kukucitikira pa viphikiro vya boma. Vyakwimbira vinyake ivyo vikumanyikwa ni vyakwimbira nga ni sefuleti, sitara, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga, na inyagara.<ref name="r1">{{cite web |title=Burundi Arts and Literature |url=http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/burundi/arts.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001220348/http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/burundi/arts.html |archive-date=1 October 2006 |access-date=21 July 2008}} Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved 30 June 2008.</ref>[[File:Le Match.jpg|thumb|left|alt=five men playing football one red and black striped jersey and four in yellow jersey|Football in Burundi]] Ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakutemwa comene kuyowoya nkhani za kale na kusambizga ŵanthu vinthu vyakuzirwa. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina na ivyivugo ni mabuku gha mu Burundi. Maseŵera gha basketball na track and field ngakumanyikwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero agha. Mu tawuni iyi muli magulu ghaŵiri ghakurughakuru gha maseŵero gha judo. Mu caru cose ici, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola. Maholide ghanandi gha Cikristu ghakukondwelereka, ndipo Khisimasi ndiyo yikuru comene. Zuŵa la wanangwa wa Burundi likukondwelereka chaka chilichose pa 1 Julayi. Mu 2005, boma la Burundi likati Eid al-Fitr, ni holide ya Chisilamu.<ref name="Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617204223/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm|date=17 June 2017}}. [[BBC]]. 3 November 2005. Retrieved on 30 June 2008.</ref> ===Media=== {{see also|Mass media in Burundi}} ===Masambilo=== {{Update section|date=June 2018}} [[File:Carolus Magnus Schule-Burundi.jpg|thumb|alt=group of children at school in white shirt and khaki shorts uniforms|Carolus Magnus School in Burundi. The school benefits from the campaign "Your Day for Africa" by Aktion Tagwerk.]] {{Main|Education in Burundi}} Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Burundi chikaŵa 67% (73% ŵanalume na 61% ŵanakazi), ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24 chikaŵa 77% na 76%. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero ichi chikakwera kufika pa 85.6% (88.2% ŵanalume na 83.1% ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org|access-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905185501/http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>Kufuma mu 2002, ŵanakazi ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵakukwera na 17%. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Burundi ntchichoko chomene chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusangika yayi ku sukulu. Kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Chikirundi ŵakusangika waka mu mabuku gha chiyowoyero ichi. Ŵanyamata 10 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Burundi ŵakuzomerezgeka kusambira masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ku Burundi kuli yunivesite yimoza ya boma, yunivesite ya Burundi. Mu misumba iyi muli malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale nga ni Burundi Geological Museum mu Bujumbura, Burundi National Museum, na Burundi Museum of Life mu Gitega. Mu 2010, ku Rwoga, Canada, kukajulika sukulu ya pulayimale iyo yikazengeka na ŵana ŵa ku Westwood High School. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2018, charu cha Burundi chikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakuyana na 5.1% ya GDP yake pa masambiro.<ref name="Kingiri & Onana 2021">{{cite book |author1=Njoki Kingiri |author2=Awono Onana |editor1-last=Schneegans |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Straza |editor2-first=T. |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-first=J. |title=Central and East Africa. In UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development. |date=11 June 2021 |publisher=UNESCO |location=Paris |isbn=978-92-3-100450-6 |pages=496–533 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377433}}</ref> ===Sayansi=== Ndondomeko ya ku Burundi ya sayansi, matekinoloje, kafukufuku na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake (2013) yikulongosora vya vyakurya; sayansi ya munkhwala; nkhongono, migodi na mendero; maji; kuzgoka mapopa; sayansi ya vyamoyo na ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake; sayansi ya vinthu; injiniya na mafakitale; ICT; sayansi ya mlengalenga; masamu; na sayansi ya umoyo wa ŵanthu. Pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vinthu, mabuku gha mu Burundi ghakajumphapo kaŵiri kufuma pa 0.6 kufika pa 1.2 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni pakati pa 2012 na 2019, ndipo charu ichi chili pakati pa vyaru 15 vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵasayansi ŵa vya munkhwala ndiwo ŵakwendeskanga chomene kafukufuku: mu 2018, ŵasayansi ŵa vya munkhwala ŵakaŵa na 4%, kweni pakati pa 2011 na 2019, ŵakalemba mabuku 41%. Ndondomeko ya sayansi, matekinoloje, kafukufuku na vyakusintha (2013) yikulaŵiska comene pa kupanga ndondomeko na vinthu vyakwendeskera vinthu, kukhozga kukolerana mu vyaru na vyaru vinyake, na kuŵika sayansi mu umoyo wa ŵanthu. Mu Okutobala 2014, ofesi ya EAC yikati National Institute of Public Health ni malo ghakutowa chomene. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Burundi ŵali kulembapo nkhani zinkhondi na ziŵiri pa nkhani ya HIV na matenda ghakututuka gha mu vyaru vya muhanya uno. Ndondomeko iyi yikulaŵiskaso comene pa kusambizga ŵasayansi. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakagwira ntchito iyi kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 55 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni pakati pa 2011 na 2018. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira ntchito pakusanda vinthu zikukwera kufuma pa $14,310 (kuyana na ivyo vikachitika mu 2005) kufika pa $22,480, pakuti kufuma mu 2012, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka pakusanda vinthu mu vyaru vinyake zikukwera kufuma pa 0.11% kufika pa 0.21% ya GDP. Kufuma mu 2011, caru ca Burundi cacita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya sayansi, kweni cakukwana yayi kufuma apo ŵakazomerezgera vilato vyawo mu 2015. Ku Burundi kuli mabuku gha sayansi 6 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni. Pafupifupi 97.5% ya zofalitsa zinaphatikizira olemba achilendo pakati pa 2017 ndi 2019, ndipo a Uganda ali pakati pa othandizira asanu.<ref name="Kingiri & Onana 2021"/> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Burundi}} * [[Outline of Burundi]] * [[Index of Burundi-related articles]] * [[Wildlife of Burundi]] * [[National Defence Force (Burundi)]] * <!-- [[Bibliography of Burundi]] --> * <!-- {{wikipedia books link|Burundi}} --> {{clear}} == Vinyake == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Mabuku == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Eggers|last = Eggers|first = Ellen K. |title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000egge|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year = 2006|location = Lanham, Maryland|isbn = 0-8108-5302-7|edition= 3rd}} *{{cite book|ref=Lemarchand1996|author=Lemarchand, Rene |title=Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3d_r13a3IgMC&pg=PR17|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56623-0}} {{Refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould ''Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy'' * {{cite book |author =Allen, J. A. |title=Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara |url =https://archive.org/details/africasouthofsah0000unse_y7v6 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group|year = 2003|location = New York, New York |isbn = 1-85743-183-9 |display-authors=etal}} * Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger ''An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi'' * Chrétien, Jean-Pierre ''The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History'' * [[Patricia Daley|Daley, Patricia]] ''Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region'' * {{cite book |last = Gates |first = Henry Lewis |author2 = Anthony Appiah |title = Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |publisher = Basic Civitas Books |year = 1999 |location = New York, New York |isbn = 0-465-00071-1 |url = https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi }} * Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer ''Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad'' * Jennings, Christian ''Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness'' * Kayoya, Michel ''My Father's Footsteps'' (''Sur les traces de mon père'') East African Publishing House, 1973 * Kayoya, Michel ''Entre deux mondes'' (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide. * Kidder, Tracy, ''Strength in What Remains'' (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US) * {{cite book |last =Krueger |first =Robert |author2=Kathleen Tobin Krueger |title=From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide |url =https://archive.org/details/frombloodshedtoh0000krue |publisher=University of Texas Press|year = 2007|location = Austin, Texas|isbn = 978-0-292-71486-1}} * Melady, Thomas Patrick ''Burundi: The Tragic Years'' * Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len ''Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi'' * Uvin, Peter ''Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi'' * Watt, Nigel '' Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country'' * {{cite book |last = Weinstein|first = Warren |title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi|url = https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000wein_e0d2|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year = 2006|location = Metuchen, New Jersey|isbn = 0-8108-0962-1}} 1st. edition. {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Burundi|Burundi}} {{Scholia|country}} * Records of [https://web.archive.org/web/20230808155412/https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-international-commission-of-inquiry-for-burundi-unicib-1995-1996 the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (UNICIB) (1995–1996)] at the United Nations Archives *{{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20180420053748/http://www.burundi.gov.bi/ Official Burundi government website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420053748/http://www.burundi.gov.bi/ |date=20 April 2018 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121204213713/http://justice.gov.bi/ Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110813050117/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/burundi.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ Burundi]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090523153822/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/burundi.htm Burundi] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Burundi}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13085064 Burundi] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Burundi}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BI Key Development Forecasts for Burundi] from [[International Futures]] {{Burundi topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Former German colonies}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|3|30|S|30|00|E|type:country_region:BI|display=title}} [[Category:Burundi| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:Swahili-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:1962 establishments in Burundi]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former monarchies]] k5n44q2pkowlp7yki9j05dr8tb1u7nt 828 43807 124078 123327 2026-11-08T21:14:03Z Grufo 8824 Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/mediawikiwiki/Q122696746|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]] 124078 Scribunto text/plain require[[strict]] --- --- --- PRIVATE ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Abstract utilities ]]-- ---------------------------- -- Helper function for `string.gsub()` (for managing zero-padded numbers) local function zero_padded (str) return ('%03d%s'):format(#str, str) end -- Helper function for `table.sort()` (for natural sorting) local function natural_sort (var1, var2) return var1:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) < var2:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) end -- Return a copy or a reference to a table local function copy_or_ref_table (src, refonly) if refonly then return src end local newtab = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do newtab[key] = val end return newtab end -- Copy at most N items (of all kinds) from `src` to `dest` and return `dest` local function copy_table_maxn (dest, src, len) local idx = 1 for key, val in pairs(src) do dest[key], idx = val, idx + 1 if idx > len then break end end return dest end -- Remove some numeric elements from a table, shifting everything to the left local function remove_numeric_keys (tbl, idx, len) local cache, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key >= idx then if key > tmp then cache[key - len] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Make a reduced copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_reduced (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = 1 - idx for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - tmp] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + len] = val end end end return ret end -- Make an expanded copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_expanded (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val else ret[key + len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = idx - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > 0 then ret[key + tmp] = val elseif key < 1 then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val else ret[key - len] = val end end end return ret end -- Given a table, create two new tables containing the sorted list of keys local function get_sorted_key_list (tbl, sort_fn) local nums, words, nn, nw = {}, {}, 1, 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then nums[nn], nn = key, nn + 1 else words[nw], nw = key, nw + 1 end end table.sort(nums) table.sort(words, sort_fn) return nums, words, nn - 1, nw - 1 end -- Parse a parameter name string and return it as a string or a number local function get_param_name (par_str) local ret = par_str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if ret ~= '0' and ret:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' == nil then return ret end return tonumber(ret) end -- Move a key from a table to another, but only if under a different name and -- always parsing numeric strings as numbers local function steal_if_renamed (val, src, skey, dest, dkey) local realkey = get_param_name(dkey) if skey ~= realkey then dest[realkey], src[skey] = val, nil end end --[[ Public strings ]]-- ------------------------ -- Special match keywords (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local mkeywords = { ['or'] = 0, pattern = 1, plain = 2, strict = 3 } -- Sort functions (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local sortfunctions = { alphabetically = false, naturally = natural_sort } -- Callback styles for the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of modifiers -- (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) --[[ Meanings of the columns: col[1] = Loop type (0-3) col[2] = Number of module arguments that the style requires (1-3) col[3] = Minimum number of sequential parameters passed to the callback col[4] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter name col[5] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter value col[6] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[4]` col[7] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[5]` A value of `-1` indicates that no meaningful value is stored (i.e. `nil`) ]]-- local mapping_styles = { names_and_values = { 3, 2, 2, 1, 2, -1, -1 }, values_and_names = { 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, -1, -1 }, values_only = { 1, 2, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1 }, names_only = { 2, 2, 1, 1, -1, -1, -1 }, names_and_values_as = { 3, 4, 0, -1, -1, 2, 3 }, names_only_as = { 2, 3, 0, -1, -1, 2, -1 }, values_only_as = { 1, 3, 0, -1, -1, -1, 2 }, blindly = { 0, 2, 0, -1, -1, -1, -1 } } -- Memory slots (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local memoryslots = { h = 'header', f = 'footer', i = 'itersep', l = 'lastsep', n = 'ifngiven', p = 'pairsep', s = 'oxfordsep' } -- Possible trimming modes for the `parsing` modifier local trim_parse_opts = { trim_none = { false, false }, trim_positional = { false, true }, trim_named = { true, false }, trim_all = { true, true } } -- Possible string modes for the iteration separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local isep_parse_opts = { splitter_pattern = false, splitter_string = true } -- Possible string modes for the key-value separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local psep_parse_opts = { setter_pattern = false, setter_string = true } -- Possible position references for the `splicing` modifier local position_references = { add_nothing = 0, add_smallest_number = 1, add_last_of_sequence = 2, add_largest_number = 3 } -- Possible modes for the `reassigning` modifier local a_modes = { transfer = 0, clone = 1, rename = 2, copy = 3, sacrifice = 4, provide = 5, spare = 7 } -- Functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names too: `here`, `in_substack`, -- `let`, `expose`, `use`, `with_flushed_glue`, `without_flushed_glue` -- `without_sorting` --[[ Private constants ]]-- --------------------------- -- Hard-coded name of the module (to avoid going through `frame:getTitle()`) local modulename = 'Module:Params' -- The functions listed here declare that they don't need the -- `frame:getParent().args` metatable to be copied into a regular table; if -- they are modifiers they also guarantee that they will make their own -- (modified) copy available local refparams = { call_for_each_group = true, combining = true, combining_by_calling = true, combining_values = true, concat_and_call = true, concat_and_invoke = true, concat_and_magic = true, count = true, grouping_by_calling = true, mixing_names_and_values = true, keeping_at_most = true, renaming_by_mixing = true, renaming_to_sequence = true, renaming_to_uppercase = true, renaming_to_lowercase = true, shifting = true, splicing = true, value_of = true, with_name_matching = true } -- Maximum number of numeric parameters that can be filled, if missing (we -- chose an arbitrary number for this constant; you can discuss about its -- optimal value at Module talk:Params) local maxfill = 1024 -- The private table of functions local library = {} -- Functions and modifiers that can only be invoked in first position local static_iface = {} --[[ Private functions ]]-- --------------------------- -- Create a new context local function context_new (child_frame, first_fn_name) local main_frame, tpipe = child_frame:getParent(), { first_fn_name } for key, val in pairs(child_frame.args) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then tpipe[key + 1] = val else tpipe[key] = val end end return { frame = main_frame, pipe = tpipe, oparams = main_frame.args, firstposonly = static_iface, iterfunc = pairs, fnpos = 1, sorttype = 0, n_parents = 0, n_children = 0, n_available = maxfill } end -- Move to the next action within the user-given list local function context_iterate (ctx, next_fn_pos, trimmed_fname) local fname = trimmed_fname or ctx.pipe[next_fn_pos] and ctx.pipe[next_fn_pos]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end if library[fname] == nil then if ctx.firstposonly[fname] == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) else error(modulename .. ': The ‘' .. fname .. '’ directive can only appear in first position', 0) end end ctx.fnpos = next_fn_pos return library[fname] end -- Main loop local function main_loop (ctx, start_with) local fn = start_with repeat fn = fn(ctx) until not fn if ctx.n_parents > 0 then error(modulename .. ': One or more ‘merging_substack’ directives are missing', 0) end if ctx.n_children > 0 then error(modulename .. ', For some of the snapshots either the ‘flushing’ directive is missing or a group has not been properly closed with ‘merging_substack’', 0) end end -- Load a `setting`-like directive string into the `dest` table local function set_strings_from_opts (dest, opts, offs) local cmd if opts[offs] == nil then return offs - 1 end cmd = opts[offs]:gsub('%s+', ''):gsub('/+', '/'):match'^/*(.*[^/])' if cmd == nil then return offs end local vname, chr local amap, sep, argc = {}, string.byte('/'), offs + 1 for idx = 1, #cmd do chr = cmd:byte(idx) if chr == sep then for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val], amap[key] = opts[argc], nil end argc = argc + 1 else vname = memoryslots[string.char(chr)] if vname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: Unknown slot ‘' .. string.char(chr) .. '’', 0) end table.insert(amap, vname) end end for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val] = opts[argc] end return argc end -- Add a new stack of parameters to `ctx.children` local function new_substack (ctx) local currsnap, newparams = ctx.n_children + 1, {} if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { newparams } else ctx.children[currsnap] = newparams end ctx.n_children = currsnap return newparams end -- Parse a raw argument containing a `sortfunctions` directive, or -- `'without_sorting'`, or `nil` local function load_sort_opt (raw_arg) local trarg if raw_arg ~= nil then trarg = raw_arg:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if trarg == nil then return nil, 1, false, nil end if trarg == 'without_sorting' then return nil, 2, false, nil end local tmp = sortfunctions[trarg] if tmp == nil then return nil, 1, false, trarg end return tmp or nil, 2, true, nil end -- Parse optional user arguments of type `...|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]| -- [number of additional parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]` local function load_child_opts (src, start_from, append_after, params) local tnamed, tmp1, tmp2 local pin, tbl, mem = start_from, {}, {} while src[pin] ~= nil and src[pin + 1] ~= nil do tmp1 = src[pin]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp1 == 'let' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_param_name(src[pin + 1]) tbl[tmp1], pin = src[pin + 2], pin + 3 --[[ elseif tmp1 == 'expose' then tmp1 = get_param_name(src[pin + 1]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[tmp1], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 2 ]]-- elseif tmp1 == 'use' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_param_name(src[pin + 2]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[get_param_name(src[pin + 1])], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 3 else break end end local tnew = copy_or_ref_table(params, next(mem) == nil) for key in pairs(mem) do tnew[key] = nil end if pin ~= start_from then tnamed, tbl = tbl, {} end tmp1 = tonumber(src[pin]) if tmp1 ~= nil and math.floor(tmp1) == tmp1 then if tmp1 < 0 then tmp1 = -1 end tmp2 = append_after - pin for idx = pin + 1, pin + tmp1 do tbl[idx + tmp2] = src[idx] end pin = pin + tmp1 + 1 end if tnamed ~= nil then for key, val in pairs(tnamed) do tbl[key] = val end end return tbl, pin, tnew, mem end -- Load the optional arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` -- class of modifiers local function load_callback_opts (src, start_from, default_style, params) local style, shf local tmp = src[start_from + 1] if tmp ~= nil then style = mapping_styles[tmp:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if style == nil then style, shf = default_style, start_from - 1 else shf = start_from end local n_exist, karg, varg = style[3], style[4], style[5] tmp = style[6] if tmp > -1 then karg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if karg == '0' or karg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then karg = tonumber(karg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, karg) end end tmp = style[7] if tmp > -1 then varg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if varg == '0' or varg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then varg = tonumber(varg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, varg) end end tmp = style[1] local dest, argc, tnew, mem = load_child_opts(src, style[2] + shf, n_exist, params) if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 2) and dest[karg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 2 end if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 1) and dest[varg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 1 end return dest, argc, tmp, karg, varg, tnew, mem end -- Parse the arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of -- modifiers local function load_replace_args (opts, offs, whoami) if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern string was given', 0) end if opts[offs + 2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No replacement string was given', 0) end local tn, flg local ptn, repl, nmax, argc = opts[offs + 1], opts[offs + 2], tonumber(opts[offs + 3]), 3 if nmax ~= nil then argc = 4 elseif opts[offs + 3] ~= nil then tn = opts[offs + 3]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tn == nil then argc = 4 end end if tn == nil and opts[offs + argc] ~= nil then tn = opts[offs + argc]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tn ~= nil then flg = mkeywords[tn] if flg ~= nil then tn = nil end end if flg == 0 then flg = nil elseif flg ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 end return ptn, repl, nmax, flg, offs + argc, (nmax ~= nil and nmax < 1) or (flg == 3 and ptn == repl), tn end -- Parse the arguments of the `with_*_matching` class of modifiers local function load_pattern_args (opts, offs, whoami) local tn, kwid local ptns, arg, state, nptns, idx = {}, opts[offs + 1], 0, 0, offs + 2 while arg ~= nil do if state == 0 then nptns, state = nptns + 1, -1 ptns[nptns] = { arg, false, false } else tn = arg:match'^%s*(.*%S)' kwid = tn and mkeywords[tn] if kwid == nil or (state > 0 and kwid > 0) then break else state = kwid if state > 1 then ptns[nptns][2] = true end if state == 3 then ptns[nptns][3] = true end end end arg, idx = opts[idx], idx + 1 end if state == 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern was given', 0) end return ptns, nptns, idx - 1, kwid == nil and tn or nil end -- Load the optional arguments of the `parsing`, `reinterpreting` and -- `evaluating` modifiers local function load_parse_opts (opts, offs, isp, psp) local tn, tmp local optslots, noptslots, argc, trimn, trimu, iplain, pplain = { true, true, true }, 3, offs, true, false, true, true repeat noptslots, tmp = noptslots - 1, opts[argc] tn = tmp and tmp:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tn == nil then break end if optslots[1] ~= nil and trim_parse_opts[tn] ~= nil then tmp = trim_parse_opts[tn] trimn, trimu, optslots[1] = tmp[1], tmp[2], nil elseif optslots[2] ~= nil and isep_parse_opts[tn] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 iplain, isp, optslots[2] = isep_parse_opts[tn], opts[argc], nil elseif optslots[3] ~= nil and psep_parse_opts[tn] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 pplain, psp, optslots[3] = psep_parse_opts[tn], opts[argc], nil else break end argc, tn = argc + 1, nil until noptslots < 1 return isp, iplain, psp, pplain, trimn, trimu, argc, tn end -- Map parameters' values using a custom callback and a referenced table local value_maps = { [0] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = fn() end end, [1] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[varg] = val tbl[key] = fn() end end, [2] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg] = key tbl[key] = fn() end end, [3] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg], margs[varg] = key, val tbl[key] = fn() end end } -- Private table for `map_names()` local name_thieves = { [0] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [1] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[varg] = val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [2] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg] = key steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [3] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg], rargs[varg] = key, val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end } -- Map parameters' names using a custom callback and a referenced table local function map_names (tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, fn) local cache = {} name_thieves[looptype](cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Return a new table that contains `src` regrouped according to the numeric -- suffixes in its keys local function make_groups (src) -- NOTE: `src` might be the original metatable! local prefix, gid local groups = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do -- `key` must only be a string or a number... if type(key) == 'string' then prefix, gid = key:match'^%s*(.-)%s*(%-?%d*)%s*$' gid = tonumber(gid) or '' else prefix, gid = '', key end if groups[gid] == nil then groups[gid] = {} end if prefix == '0' or prefix:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then prefix = tonumber(prefix) if prefix < 1 then prefix = prefix - 1 end end groups[gid][prefix] = val end return groups end -- Split into parts a string containing the `$#` and `$@` placeholders and -- return the information as a skeleton table, a canvas table and a length local function parse_placeholder_string (target) local skel, canvas, idx, s_pos, e_pos = {}, {}, 1, 1, string.find(target, '%$[@#]', 1, false) while e_pos ~= nil do canvas[idx], skel[idx + 1] = target:sub(s_pos, e_pos - 1), target:sub(e_pos, e_pos + 1) == '$@' idx, s_pos = idx + 2, e_pos + 2 e_pos = string.find(target, '%$[@#]', s_pos, false) end if (s_pos > target:len()) then idx = idx - 1 else canvas[idx] = target:sub(s_pos) end return skel, canvas, idx end -- Populate a table by parsing a parameter string (heavy lifting for `parsing`, -- `reinterpreting` and `evaluating`) local function parse_parameter_string (tbl, str, isp, ipl, psp, ppl, trn, tru) local key, val, spos1, spos2, pos1, pos2 local pos3, idx, lenplone = 0, 1, #str + 1 if isp == nil or isp == '' then if psp == nil or psp == '' then if tru then tbl[idx] = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else tbl[idx] = str end return end spos1, spos2 = str:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else val = str end else key = get_param_name(str:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = str:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val return end if psp == nil or psp == '' then repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end tbl[idx], idx = val, idx + 1 until pos2 == nil return end repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) spos1, spos2 = val:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end idx = idx + 1 else key = get_param_name(val:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = val:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val until pos2 == nil return end -- Heavy lifting for `snapshotting` and `remembering` local function make_child (ctx, src, whoami) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1]) if len == nil or len == 0 then local stack = new_substack(ctx) for key, val in pairs(src) do stack[key] = val end return len == nil and 1 or 2 end if len < 0 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: The number of parameters to copy must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end copy_table_maxn(new_substack(ctx), src, len) return 2 end -- Heavy lifting for `setting_by_flushing`, `combining` and `combining_values` local function set_strings_from_substack (ctx, dest, whoami) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children local stack = ctx.children[currsnap] for key, val in pairs(memoryslots) do if stack[key] ~= nil then dest[val] = stack[key] end end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 end -- Heavy lifting for `combining` and `combining_values` local function combine_parameters (ctx, keyval_fn, whoami) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! This function -- MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local argc local tbl, vars = ctx.params, {} local sortfn, ivar0, dosort, tmp = load_sort_opt(opts[offs + 2]) if ivar0 == 2 then tmp = opts[offs + 3] ~= nil and opts[offs + 3]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end ivar0 = ivar0 + offs if tmp == 'with_flushed_glue' then ivar0 = ivar0 + 1 argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, ivar0 + 1) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, vars, whoami) else if tmp == 'without_flushed_glue' then ivar0 = ivar0 + 1 end argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, ivar0 + 1) end if argc < ivar0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No setting directive was given', 0) end if next(tbl) == nil then if vars.ifngiven ~= nil then ctx.params = { [get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = vars.ifngiven } elseif tbl == ctx.oparams then ctx.params = {} end return argc + 1 end local cache, len if dosort then local words cache, words, len, tmp = get_sorted_key_list(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, tmp do cache[len + idx] = words[idx] end len = len + tmp else cache, len = {}, 1 for key in pairs(tbl) do cache[len], len = key, len + 1 end len = len - 1 end local pmap, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, vars.pairsep or '', vars.itersep or '' for idx = 1, len do tmp, pmap[nss + 1] = cache[idx], pps pmap[nss + 2] = keyval_fn(tmp, tbl[tmp], kvs) nss = nss + 2 end tmp = vars.oxfordsep or vars.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and nss > 4 then pmap[nss - 1] = tmp elseif nss > 2 and vars.lastsep ~= nil then pmap[nss - 1] = vars.lastsep end pmap[1] = vars.header or '' if vars.footer ~= nil then pmap[nss + 1] = vars.footer end ctx.params = { [get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = table.concat(pmap) } return argc + 1 end -- Concatenate the numeric keys from the table of parameters to the numeric -- keys from the table of options; non-numeric keys from the table of options -- will prevail over colliding non-numeric keys from the table of parameters local function concat_params (ctx, offs) local tbl, retval, cache, nmax = ctx.params, {}, {}, 0 for key, val in pairs(ctx.pipe) do if type(key) == 'number' then if key < 1 then cache[key] = val elseif key > offs then cache[key - offs] = val end if key > nmax then nmax = key end else cache[key] = val end end nmax = nmax - offs if ctx.subset == 1 then -- We need only the sequence for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do retval[key + nmax] = val end else if ctx.subset == -1 then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then retval[key + nmax] = val else retval[key] = val end end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do retval[key] = val end return retval end -- Flush the parameters by calling a custom function for each value (after this -- function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function flush_params (ctx, fn) local tmp local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.subset == -1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end elseif ctx.subset == 1 then if ctx.pins == nil then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end return end tmp = {} for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tmp[key] = val end tbl = tmp end if ctx.pins ~= nil then local marker = ctx.sorttype < 1 and ctx.subset ~= -1 or nil for idx = 1, #ctx.pins do tmp = ctx.pins[idx] if tbl[tmp] ~= nil then fn(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp] = marker end end if ctx.subset == 1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end end return end end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_sorted_key_list(tbl, natural_sort) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end return end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end return end if ctx.subset == -1 or ctx.pins == nil then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end return end for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end end end -- Flush the parameters by calling one of two custom functions for each value -- (after this function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function mixed_flush_params (ctx, fn_seq, fn_oth) if ctx.subset == 1 then flush_params(ctx, fn_seq) return end if ctx.subset == -1 then flush_params(ctx, fn_oth) return end local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.pins == nil and ctx.sorttype < 1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn_seq(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn_oth(key, val) end return end local tseq = {} for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tseq[key] = val end if ctx.pins ~= nil then local tmp local marker = ctx.sorttype < 1 or nil for idx = 1, #ctx.pins do tmp = ctx.pins[idx] if tseq[tmp] ~= nil then fn_seq(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp], tseq[tmp] = nil, marker elseif tbl[tmp] ~= nil then fn_oth(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp] = nil end end end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_sorted_key_list(tbl, natural_sort) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end for idx = 1, nn do if tseq[nums[idx]] ~= nil then fn_seq(nums[idx], tseq[nums[idx]]) else fn_oth(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end end if ctx.sorttype ~= 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end return end for key, val in ipairs(tseq) do if val ~= true then fn_seq(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn_oth(key, val) end end -- Finalize and return a concatenated list local function finalize_and_return_concatenated_list (ctx, lst, len, modsize) if len > 0 then local tmp = ctx.oxfordsep or ctx.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and len > modsize * 2 then lst[len - modsize + 1] = tmp elseif len > modsize and ctx.lastsep ~= nil then lst[len - modsize + 1] = ctx.lastsep end lst[1] = ctx.header or '' if ctx.footer ~= nil then lst[len + 1] = ctx.footer end ctx.text = table.concat(lst) else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end --- --- --- PUBLIC ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Modifiers ]]-- ------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sequential|pipe to library.sequential = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘non-sequential’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ and ‘reassorted’ directives are redundant when followed by ‘sequential’', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = ipairs, 1 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|non-sequential|pipe to library['non-sequential'] = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘non-sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘non-sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = pairs, -1 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|all_sorted|pipe to library.all_sorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘reassorted’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 1 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassorted|pipe to library.reassorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘reassorted’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 2 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pinned_until|sentinel|[parameter name 1]|[parameter -- name 2]|...|parameter name N|sentinel|pipe to library.pinned_until = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: No sentinel was provided', 0) end local tmp, bucket, curr, ncurr local sntl, idx = opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$', 2 if ctx.pin_bucket == nil then bucket, curr, ncurr = {}, {}, 0 ctx.pin_bucket, ctx.pins = bucket, curr else bucket, curr, ncurr = ctx.pin_bucket, ctx.pins, ctx.npins end while opts[offs + idx] ~= nil do tmp = opts[offs + idx]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if tmp == sntl then if idx == 2 then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: No parameters to pin were provided', 0) end ctx.npins = ncurr + idx - 2 return context_iterate(ctx, offs + idx + 1) end if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tmp = tonumber(tmp) end if bucket[tmp] then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: Duplicate pinned parameter ‘' .. tostring(tmp) .. '’', 0) end curr[ncurr + idx - 1], bucket[tmp], idx = tmp, true, idx + 1 end error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: Missing sentinel in position #' .. tostring(idx), 0) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting|directives|...|pipe to library.setting = function (ctx) local new_offs = set_strings_from_opts(ctx, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos + 1) if new_offs - ctx.fnpos < 2 then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: No directive was given', 0) end return context_iterate(ctx, new_offs + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|scoring|new parameter name|[container]|pipe to library.scoring = function (ctx) local opts, offs, retval = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos, 0 if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘scoring’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end for _ in pairs(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end local tn = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tn == 'in_substack' then new_substack(ctx)[get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = tostring(retval) return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end ctx.params[get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = tostring(retval) return tn == 'here' and context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) or context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|squeezing|pipe to library.squeezing = function (ctx) local store, indices, tbl, newlen = {}, {}, ctx.params, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then newlen = newlen + 1 indices[newlen], store[key], tbl[key] = key, val, nil end end table.sort(indices) for idx = 1, newlen do tbl[idx] = store[indices[idx]] end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|filling_the_gaps|pipe to library.filling_the_gaps = function (ctx) local newval, tbl, tmp, nmin, nmax, nnums = ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1], ctx.params, {}, 1, nil, -1 if newval == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: No value was provided', 0) end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmax == nil then if key < nmin then nmin = key end nmax = key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end tmp[key], nnums = val, nnums + 1 end end if nmax ~= nil and nmax - nmin > nnums then ctx.n_available = ctx.n_available + nmin + nnums - nmax if ctx.n_available < 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: It is possible to fill at most ' .. tostring(maxfill) .. ' parameters', 0) end for idx = nmin, nmax do tbl[idx] = newval end for key, val in pairs(tmp) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|clearing|pipe to library.clearing = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil end end for key, val in ipairs(numerics) do tbl[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cutting|left cut|right cut|pipe to library.cutting = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local lcut = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Left cut must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Right cut must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local len = #tbl if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end local tot = lcut + rcut if tot > 0 then local cache = {} if tot >= len then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end tot = len else for idx = len - rcut + 1, len do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = 1, lcut do tbl[idx] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then if key > len then cache[key - tot] = val else cache[key - lcut] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cropping|left crop|right crop|pipe to library.cropping = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local lcut = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Left crop must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Right crop must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local nmin, nmax for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmin == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end if nmin ~= nil then local len = nmax - nmin + 1 if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end if lcut + rcut - len > -1 then for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key] = nil end end elseif lcut + rcut > 0 then for idx = nmax - rcut + 1, nmax do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = nmin, nmin + lcut - 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end local lshift = nmin + lcut - 1 if lshift > 0 then for idx = lshift + 1, nmax do tbl[idx - lshift], tbl[idx] = tbl[idx], nil end end end end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|purging|start offset|length|pipe to library.purging = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local idx = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if idx == nil or math.floor(idx) ~= idx then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params if len < 1 then len = len + table.maxn(tbl) if idx > len then return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end len = len - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(tbl, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|backpurging|start offset|length|pipe to library.backpurging = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local last = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if last == nil or math.floor(last) ~= last then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local idx local tbl = ctx.params if len > 0 then idx = last - len + 1 else for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and (idx == nil or key < idx) then idx = key end end if idx == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end idx = idx - len if last < idx then return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end len = last - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(ctx.params, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|shifting|addend|pipe to library.shifting = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local nshift = tonumber(ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1]) if nshift == nil or nshift == 0 or math.floor(nshift) ~= nshift then error(modulename .. ', ‘shifting’: A non-zero integer number must be provided', 0) end local tbl = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key + nshift] = val else tbl[key] = val end end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reversing_numeric_names|pipe to library.reversing_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics, nmax = ctx.params, {}, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil if key > nmax then nmax = key end end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[nmax - key + 1] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pivoting_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.pivoting_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params local shift = #tbl + 1 if shift < 2 then return library.reversing_numeric_names(ctx) end local tmp = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then tmp[key], tbl[key] = val, nil end end for key, val in pairs(tmp) do tbl[shift - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mirroring_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.mirroring_numeric_names = function (ctx) local nmax, nmin local tbl, tmp = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then tmp[key], tbl[key] = val, nil if nmax == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end for key, val in pairs(tmp) do tbl[nmax + nmin - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|swapping_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.swapping_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp local tbl, cache, nsize = ctx.params, {}, 1 for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then cache[nsize], nsize = key, nsize + 1 end end table.sort(cache) for idx = math.floor((nsize - 1) / 2), 1, -1 do tmp = tbl[cache[idx] ] tbl[cache[idx] ] = tbl[cache[nsize - idx] ] tbl[cache[nsize - idx] ] = tmp end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sorting_sequential_values|[criterion]|pipe to library.sorting_sequential_values = function (ctx) local sortfn local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tn = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tn ~= nil then sortfn = sortfunctions[tn] end if sortfn then table.sort(ctx.params, sortfn) else table.sort(ctx.params) end -- i.e. either `false` or `nil` if sortfn == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 1, tn) end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|splicing|[add to position]|position|increment| -- [number of elements to write]|...|pipe to library.splicing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp2, argc, pos, refp local tbl, opts, offs = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tmp1 = opts[offs + 1] if tmp1 ~= nil then tmp2 = tonumber(tmp1) if tmp2 == nil or math.floor(tmp2) ~= tmp2 then pos, argc, tmp2 = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]), offs + 4, tmp1:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp2 ~= nil then refp = position_references[tmp2] if refp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: ‘' .. tostring(tmp2) .. '’ is not a valid first argument', 0) end else refp = 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tmp2, offs + 3, 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]), offs + 4, 0 end if pos == nil or math.floor(pos) ~= pos then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The position must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[argc - 1]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The increment must be an integer number', 0) end local insn = tonumber(opts[argc]) if len == 0 and (insn == nil or insn < 1) then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: When the increment is zero the number of elements to write cannot be zero', 0) end if refp == 2 then for _ in ipairs(tbl) do pos = pos + 1 end refp = 0 end tmp1, tmp2 = nil, nil if refp ~= 0 or len ~= 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if tmp1 == nil then tmp1, tmp2 = key, key elseif key < tmp1 then tmp1 = key elseif key > tmp2 then tmp2 = key end end end end if tmp2 == nil then len = 0 elseif refp == 3 then pos = pos + tmp2 elseif refp == 1 then pos = pos + tmp1 end if len > 0 and pos + len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_expanded(tbl, pos, len) elseif len < 0 and pos - len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_reduced(tbl, pos, -len) else tbl = copy_or_ref_table(tbl, tbl ~= ctx.oparams) end ctx.params = tbl if insn == nil or insn < 0 or math.floor(insn) ~= insn then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end tmp1 = argc - offs - pos + 1 for key = pos, pos + insn - 1 do tbl[key] = opts[offs + key + tmp1] end return context_iterate(ctx, argc + insn + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|imposing|name|value|pipe to library.imposing = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘imposing’: Missing parameter name to impose', 0) end ctx.params[get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = opts[offs + 2] return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|providing|name|value|pipe to library.providing = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘providing’: Missing parameter name to provide', 0) end local key = get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]) if ctx.params[key] == nil then ctx.params[key] = opts[offs + 2] end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassigning|source|destination|[mode]|pipe to library.reassigning = function (ctx) local tbl, opts, offs = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing source parameter', 0) end if opts[offs + 2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing destination parameter', 0) end local mode, argc local src, tn = get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]), opts[offs + 3] ~= nil and opts[offs + 3]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' local val = tbl[src] if tn ~= nil then mode = a_modes[tn] end if mode == nil then mode, argc = 0, offs + 3 else argc, tn = offs + 4, nil end if val == nil and mode > 1 then return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end local dest = get_param_name(opts[offs + 2]) local tmp = tbl[dest] == nil if mode % 2 == 0 or (mode == 7 and tmp) then tbl[src] = nil end if tmp or mode < 4 then tbl[dest] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|discarding|name|[how many]|pipe to library.discarding = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: Missing parameter name to discard', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[offs + 2]) if len == nil then ctx.params[get_param_name(opts[offs + 1])] = nil return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end local key = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if key == nil or math.floor(key) ~= key then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range was provided, but the initial parameter name is not an integer number', 0) end if len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range can only be an integer number greater than zero', 0) end for idx = key, key + len - 1 do ctx.params[idx] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_non-numeric_names|pipe to library['excluding_non-numeric_names'] = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_numeric_names|pipe to library.excluding_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or]| -- [target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_name_matching = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp, ptn local tbl, newparams, opts, offs = ctx.params, {}, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local targets, nptns, argc, tn = load_pattern_args(opts, offs, 'with_name_matching') for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then tmp = ptn[1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tmp = tonumber(tmp) end newparams[tmp] = tbl[tmp] else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then newparams[key] = val end end end end ctx.params = newparams return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]| -- [and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_name_not_matching = function (ctx) local tbl, opts, offs = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local targets, nptns, argc, tn = load_pattern_args(opts, offs, 'with_name_not_matching') if nptns == 1 and targets[1][3] then local tmp = targets[1][1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tbl[tonumber(tmp)] = nil else tbl[tmp] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end local yesmatch, ptn for key in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if tostring(key) ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or]| -- [target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_value_matching = function (ctx) local nomatch, ptn local tbl, opts, offs = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local targets, nptns, argc, tn = load_pattern_args(opts, offs, 'with_value_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do nomatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val == ptn[1] then nomatch = false break end elseif val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then nomatch = false break end end if nomatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]| -- [and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_value_not_matching = function (ctx) local yesmatch, ptn local tbl, opts, offs = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local targets, nptns, argc, tn = load_pattern_args(opts, offs, 'with_value_not_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|keeping_at_most|number of parameters to pick|pipe to library.keeping_at_most = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘keeping_at_most’: The number of parameters to keep must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end ctx.params = copy_table_maxn({}, ctx.params, len) return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|trimming_values|pipe to library.trimming_values = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_lowercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_lowercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:lower() end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_uppercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_uppercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:upper() end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_calling = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = margs } value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_invoking|module name|function name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_invoking = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 2, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = margs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_magic = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, margs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.mapping_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die, tn = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos, 'mapping_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if val == ptn then tbl[key] = repl end end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:gsub(ptn, repl, nmax) end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.mapping_by_mixing = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local tbl, mix = ctx.params, opts[offs + 1] if mix == '$#' then for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = tostring(key) end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end tbl[key] = table.concat(cnv) end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_lowercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_lowercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:lower()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_uppercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_uppercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:upper()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_sequence|[sort order]|pipe to library.renaming_to_sequence = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache, len local tbl = ctx.params local sortfn, argc, dosort, tn = load_sort_opt(ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1]) if dosort then local words, wl cache, words, len, wl = get_sorted_key_list(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, len do cache[idx] = tbl[cache[idx]] end for idx = 1, wl do cache[len + idx] = tbl[words[idx]] end else cache, len = {}, 1 for _, val in pairs(tbl) do cache[len], len = val, len + 1 end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_calling = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = rargs } map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_invoking|module name|function -- name|[call style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of -- additional arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument -- N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_invoking = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 2, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = rargs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_magic = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, offs + 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, rargs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.renaming_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die, tn = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos, 'renaming_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then ptn = get_param_name(ptn) local val = tbl[ptn] if val ~= nil then tbl[ptn], tbl[get_param_name(repl)] = nil, val end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, tostring(key):gsub(ptn, repl, nmax)) end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.renaming_by_mixing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local mix = ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1] if mix == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local cache = {} mix = mix:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if mix == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_param_name(val)] = val end else local skel, canvas, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then canvas[idx] = val else canvas[idx] = tostring(key) end end cache[get_param_name(table.concat(canvas))] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|grouping_by_calling|template -- name|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.grouping_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tmp, argc, tbl, mem = load_child_opts(opts, offs + 2, 0, ctx.params) local gargs = {} for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' and key < 1 then gargs[key - 1] = val else gargs[key] = val end end tmp = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘grouping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local groups = make_groups(tbl) for gid, group in pairs(groups) do for key, val in pairs(gargs) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args = gid, group groups[gid] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end for key, val in pairs(mem) do groups[key] = val end ctx.params = groups return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|parsing|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.parsing = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘parsing’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc, tn = load_parse_opts(opts, offs + 2, '|', '=') parse_parameter_string(ctx.params, opts[offs + 1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reinterpreting|parameter to reinterpret|[trim -- flag]|[iteration delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter -- setter]|[...]|pipe to library.reinterpreting = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reinterpreting’: No parameter to reinterpret was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc, tn = load_parse_opts(opts, offs + 2, '|', '=') local tbl, tmp = ctx.params, get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]) local str = tbl[tmp] if str ~= nil then tbl[tmp] = nil parse_parameter_string(tbl, str, isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) end return context_iterate(ctx, argc, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|evaluating|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.evaluating = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘evaluating’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, repos, tn = load_parse_opts(opts, offs + 2, '!', ':') if opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' == nil then remove_numeric_keys(opts, offs, repos - offs) return context_iterate(ctx, offs, tn) end local new_opts, cache = {}, {} parse_parameter_string(cache, opts[offs + 1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) local shift = #cache + offs - repos + 1 for key, val in pairs(opts) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < offs then new_opts[key] = val elseif key >= repos then new_opts[key + shift] = val end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < 1 then new_opts[key] = val else new_opts[key + offs] = val end end ctx.pipe = new_opts return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mixing_names_and_values|mixing string|pipe to library.mixing_names_and_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter names', 0) end if opts[offs + 2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter values', 0) end local tmp local cache, mix_k, mix_v = {}, opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$', opts[offs + 2] if mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_param_name(val)] = val end elseif mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$#' then for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_param_name(val)] = tostring(key) end elseif mix_k == '$#' and mix_v == '$#' then for key in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[key] = tostring(key) end else local skel_k, cnv_k, n_parts_k = parse_placeholder_string(mix_k) local skel_v, cnv_v, n_parts_v = parse_placeholder_string(mix_v) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do tmp = tostring(key) for idx = 2, n_parts_k, 2 do if skel_k[idx] then cnv_k[idx] = val else cnv_k[idx] = tmp end end for idx = 2, n_parts_v, 2 do if skel_v[idx] then cnv_v[idx] = val else cnv_v[idx] = tmp end end cache[get_param_name(table.concat(cnv_k))] = table.concat(cnv_v) end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return key .. kvs .. val end, 'combining' )) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_values|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return val end, 'combining_values' )) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_calling|template name|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end if opts[offs + 2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_param_name(opts[offs + 2])] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = ctx.params } } return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_invoking|module name|function name|new -- parameter name|pipe to library.combining_by_invoking = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end if opts[offs + 3] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = ctx.params } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_param_name(opts[offs + 3])] = tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) } return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 4) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_magic|parser function|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end if opts[offs + 2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_param_name(opts[offs + 2])] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, ctx.params) } return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|snapshotting|[maximum number]|pipe to library.snapshotting = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + make_child(ctx, ctx.params, 'snapshotting')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|remembering|[maximum number]|pipe to library.remembering = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + make_child(ctx, ctx.oparams, 'remembering')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|entering_substack|[new]|pipe to library.entering_substack = function (ctx) local tbl, opts, offs, ncurrparent = ctx.params, ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos, ctx.n_parents + 1 local tn = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if ctx.parents == nil then ctx.parents = { tbl } else ctx.parents[ncurrparent] = tbl end ctx.n_parents = ncurrparent if tn == 'new' then ctx.params = {} return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children if currsnap > 0 then ctx.params, ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = ctx.children[currsnap], nil, currsnap - 1 else local newparams = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do newparams[key] = val end ctx.params = newparams end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 1, tn) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pulling|parameter name|pipe to library.pulling = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘pulling’: No parameter to pull was provided', 0) end local tmp = ctx.n_parents local parent = tmp < 1 and ctx.oparams or ctx.parents[tmp] tmp = get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]) if parent[tmp] ~= nil then ctx.params[tmp] = parent[tmp] end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|recalling|parameter name|pipe to library.recalling = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘recalling’: No parameter to recall was provided', 0) end local arg = get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]) if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|finding|parameter name|pipe to --[[ library.finding = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘finding’: No parameter to find was provided', 0) end local arg = get_param_name(opts[offs + 1]) local parent for idx = ctx.n_parents, 1, -1 do parent = ctx.parents[idx] if parent[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = parent[arg] return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end end if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, offs + 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|picking|number of parameters to pick|pipe to --[[ library.picking = function (ctx) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘picking’: The number of parameters to pick must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end if ctx.n_parents < 1 then copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.oparams, len) else copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.parents[ctx.n_parents], len) end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|detaching_substack|pipe to library.detaching_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘detaching_substack’: No substacks have been created', 0) end local parent = ctx.parents[ncurrparent] for key in pairs(ctx.params) do parent[key] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|dropping_substack|pipe to library.dropping_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘dropping_substack’: No substacks have been created', 0) end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|leaving_substack|pipe to library.leaving_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘leaving_substack’: No substacks have been created', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children + 1 if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { ctx.params } else ctx.children[currsnap] = ctx.params end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents, ctx.n_children = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1, currsnap return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|merging_substack|pipe to library.merging_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘merging_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local parent, child = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.params ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = parent, nil, ncurrparent - 1 for key, val in pairs(child) do parent[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|rearranging_substacks|...|pipe to library.rearranging_substacks = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tmp = tonumber(opts[offs + 1]) if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘rearranging_substacks’: You must specify at least one substack', 0) end local argc local oldchdn, newchdn, ntot, sid = ctx.children, {}, ctx.n_children, 1 repeat if tmp > ntot or tmp < 1 or math.floor(tmp) ~= tmp then error(modulename .. ', ‘rearranging_substacks’: Substack #' .. tostring(tmp) .. ' does not exist', 0) end if oldchdn[ntot - tmp + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘rearranging_substacks’: Substack #' .. tostring(tmp) .. ' appears multiple times', 0) end newchdn[ntot - sid + 1], oldchdn[ntot - tmp + 1], sid = oldchdn[ntot - tmp + 1], nil, sid + 1 tmp = tonumber(opts[offs + sid]) until tmp == nil ctx.children, argc, sid = newchdn, offs + sid, 1 for idx = 1, ntot do tmp = oldchdn[idx] if tmp ~= nil then newchdn[sid], sid = tmp, sid + 1 end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|flushing|pipe to library.flushing = function (ctx) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘flushing’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local parent, currsnap = ctx.params, ctx.n_children for key, val in pairs(ctx.children[currsnap]) do parent[key] = val end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting_by_flushing|pipe to library.setting_by_flushing = function (ctx) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, ctx, 'setting_by_flushing') return context_iterate(ctx, ctx.fnpos + 1) end --[[ Functions ]]-- ----------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|count library.count = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local retval = 0 for _ in ctx.iterfunc(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end if ctx.subset == -1 then retval = retval - #ctx.params end ctx.text = retval return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_call|template name|[prepend 1]|[prepend 2]| -- [...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n=value -- n]|[...] library.concat_and_call = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_call’: No template name was provided', 0) end ctx.text = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = concat_params(ctx, offs + 1) } return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_invoke|module name|function name|[prepend -- 1]|[prepend 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- item n=value n]|[...] library.concat_and_invoke = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No function name was provided', 0) end local mfunc = require('Module:' .. mname)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.text = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild{ title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = concat_params(ctx, offs + 2) }) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_magic|parser function|[prepend 1]|[prepend -- 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n= -- value n]|[...] library.concat_and_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end ctx.text = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, concat_params(ctx, offs + 1)) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|value_of|parameter name library.value_of = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos if opts[offs + 1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘value_of’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local val local key = opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if key == '0' or key:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then key = tonumber(key) val = ctx.params[key] -- No worries: #ctx.params is unused when the modifier is in -- first position (and therefore `ctx.params` is a metatable) if val ~= nil and ( ctx.subset ~= -1 or key > #ctx.params or key < 1 ) and ( ctx.subset ~= 1 or (key <= #ctx.params and key > 0) ) then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end else val = ctx.params[key] if ctx.subset ~= 1 and val ~= nil then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list library.list = function (ctx) local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_values library.list_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `library.coins()` and `library.unique_coins()` rely on us local ret, nss, pps = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], nss = pps, val, nss + 2 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_maybe_with_names library.list_maybe_with_names = function (ctx) local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' mixed_flush_params( ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, '', '', val, nss + 4 end, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end ) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|for_each|wikitext library.for_each = function (ctx) local ret, nss, pps, txt = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '', ctx.pipe[ctx.fnpos + 1] or '' local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(txt) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end ret[nss + 1], nss = pps, nss + 2 ret[nss] = table.concat(cnv) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each|template name|[append 1]|[append 2]| -- [...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each’: No template name was provided', 0) end local cargs = copy_table_reduced(opts, 1, offs - 1) local model, ret, nss, ccs = { title = tname, args = cargs }, {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) cargs[1], cargs[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each|module name|module function|[append -- 1]|[append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]| -- [named param n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No function name was provided', 0) end local iargs = copy_table_reduced(ctx.pipe, 1, offs) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = iargs } local mfunc, ret, nss, ccs = require(model.title)[fname], {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) iargs[1], iargs[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each|parser function|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local ret, nss, ccs, cargs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '', copy_table_reduced(opts, 1, offs - 1) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) cargs[1], cargs[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, cargs) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_value|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_value’: No template name was provided', 0) end local cargs = copy_table_reduced(ctx.pipe, 1, offs) local model = { title = tname, args = cargs } local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) cargs[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each_value|module name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local mname = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = opts[offs + 2] and opts[offs + 2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No function name was provided', 0) end local iargs = copy_table_reduced(ctx.pipe, 1, offs + 1) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = iargs } local mfunc, ret, nss, ccs = require(model.title)[fname], {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) iargs[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each_value|parser function|[append 1]| -- [append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- param n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local magic = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each_value’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local cargs, ret, nss, ccs = copy_table_reduced(opts, 1, offs), {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) cargs[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, cargs) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_group|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_group = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local opts, offs = ctx.pipe, ctx.fnpos local tmp = opts[offs + 1] and opts[offs + 1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_group’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local bargs, ret, nss, ccs = {}, {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' for key, val in pairs(opts) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then bargs[key] = val elseif key > offs then bargs[key - offs - 1] = val elseif key < 1 then bargs[key - 1] = val end end ctx.params = make_groups(ctx.params) flush_params(ctx, function (gid, group) for key, val in pairs(bargs) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args, ret[nss + 1], nss = gid, group, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end --[[ First-position-only modifiers ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|new|pipe to static_iface.new = function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame, 'new') ctx.params = {} main_loop(ctx, context_iterate(ctx, 2)) return ctx.text end --[[ First-position-only functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|self static_iface.self = function (child_frame) return child_frame:getParent():getTitle() end --[[ Public metatable of functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- return setmetatable({}, { __index = function (_, query) local fname = query:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end local func = static_iface[fname] if func ~= nil then return func end func = library[fname] if func == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end return function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame, fname) ctx.params = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.oparams, refparams[fname]) main_loop(ctx, func) return ctx.text end end }) edjjks8ayvjip4tl4xpkdb2en7irkcr 0 48466 124076 121838 2026-11-08T18:10:39Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261108) #IABot (v2.0.9.7) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]) 124076 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Kampani ya malonda ya ku East India ya ku Netherlands, 1602–1799}} {{other uses|Kampani ya East India (kuzatula)}} {{Use British English|date=March 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}} {{Infobox company | name = Kampani Yakukolerana ya East India{{nobold|1602–1799}} | logo = VOC.svg | logo_size = 100 | image = Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg | image_caption = Mbendera ya kampani (1630) | native_name = {{ubli|Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie|Generale Vereenichde Geoctrooieerde Compagnie {{lang|en|italic=no|(zina lakwamba)}}|Vereenigde Nederlandsche Geoctroyeerde Oostindische Compagnie {{noitalic|(zina lakovwira pa malango)}} }} | native_name_lang = nl | type = Kampani yakulongozgeka na boma na ŵanthu | fate = [[Kumazga (malango)|Yikamazgika]] ndipo [[Kwenjilira boma|yikapokeka na boma]] kuŵa [[Dutch East Indies]] | predecessor = {{collapsible list|bullets=y|title={{nobold|{{lang|nl|[[Voorcompagnie]]ën}}{{}}Makampani ghakwamba (1594–1602){{efn|Makampani agho ghakuchemeka {{lang|nl|voorcompagnieën}} (panji makampani ghakwamba) ghakusazgapo: {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Compagnie van Verre]]}} (Amsterdam, 1594–1598), {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Voorcompagnie|Nieuwe Compagnie]]}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Voorcompagnie|Eerste Verenigde Compagnie op Oost-Indië]]}} (Amsterdam, 1598–1601), {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Voorcompagnie|Oude Oost-Indische Compagnie]]}} (Amsterdam, 1598–1601), {{lang|nl|italic=no|Verenigde Amsterdamse Compagnie}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|Nieuwe of Tweede Compagnie}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Brabantsche Compagnie]]}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Nieuwe Brabantsche Compagnie]]}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|Magelhaensche Compagnie{{}}Rotterdamse Compagnie}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|Middelburgse Compagnie}}, {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Veerse Compagnie]]}} (Zeeland, 1597), {{lang|nl|italic=no|Verenigde Zeeuwse Compagnie}} (Middelburg & Veere, 1600), {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Compagnie van De Moucheron]]}} (Zeeland, 1600), na {{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Voorcompagnie|Delftse Vennootschap]]}}. Niels Steensgaard wakalemba kuti, "the {{lang|nl|voorcompagnieën}} were not [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]], but were run by a number of {{lang|nl|bewindhebbers}}, who were joined together like partners in a simple company, i.e. traded on joint account".{{cite book |last=Steensgaard |first=Niels |title=The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century |url=[https://archive.org/details/asiantraderevolu0000stee](https://archive.org/details/asiantraderevolu0000stee) |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1974 |isbn=0-226-77139-3}}}}}} |{{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Compagnie van Verre]]}}|{{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Brabantsche Compagnie]]}}|{{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Compagnie van De Moucheron]]}}|{{lang|nl|italic=no|[[Veerse Compagnie]]}}}} | founded = {{start date and age|df=y|1602|03|20}},{{cite web|url=[http://entoen.nu/voc/en|title=The](http://entoen.nu/voc/en|title=The) Dutch East India Company (VOC)|publisher=Canon van Nederland|access-date=19 March 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20101201212719/http://entoen.nu/voc/en|archive-date=1](https://web.archive.org/web/20101201212719/http://entoen.nu/voc/en|archive-date=1) December 2010|url-status=dead}} na [[States General of the Netherlands|Konsili Yikuru ya Netherlands]] kuyunganizga [[Voorcompagnie|makampani agho ghakaŵako]]/makampani ghakwamba | defunct = {{end date and age|df=y|1799|12|31}} | founder = [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]] na [[States General of the Dutch Republic|Konsili Yikuru ya Dutch Republic]] | hq_location_city = {{plainlist| * [[Amsterdam]], [[Dutch Republic]] (likuru la kampani pa charu chose) * [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], Dutch East Indies (likuru lachiŵiri panji malo ghakulamulirako ku vyaru vinyake)}} | area_served = {{hlist|[[South East Asia]]|[[South Asia]]|[[Asia–Pacific]]|[[Southern Africa]]}} | key_people = {{plainlist| * {{ill|Heeren XVII|nl|Heren XVII}}{{}}Ŵalongozgi 17{{efn|Kuŵa komiti ya ŵalongozgi}} (Dutch Republic, 1602–1799) * [[Governors-general of the Dutch East Indies]]{{efn|Kuŵa ''de facto'' [[ŵalongozgi ŵakuru ŵa kampani]]}} ([[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], 1610–1800)}} | industry = [[Kampani yakusazgapo mabizinesi|Kampani yakwamba yakusazga mabizinesi]] | products = [[Malonda gha vyakununkhira|Vakununkhira]], [[silika]], [[porcelain]], [[visulo]], [[viŵeto]], [[tiyi]], [[tirigu]], [[mpunga]], [[soya]], [[makampani gha shuga|nzimbe]], [[South African wine|vinyu]], [[Coffee production in Indonesia|khofi]], [[ŵazga]] }} [[File:Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Johan van Oldenbarnevelt.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Kampani ya United East India Company yikapangika na [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]], munthu wakuzirwa chomene mu ndyale za Dutch Republic.]] [[File:SA 3025-De binnenplaats van de Beurs van Hendrick de Keyser.jpg|alt=|thumb|Msika wa malonda wa Hendrick de Keyser]] '''United East India Company'''{{efn|Kung'anamulira mwakudunjika zina la Chidachi {{lang|nl|Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie}} ni ''Kampani Yakukolerana ya East India''. Pa mazina ghakupambanapambana gha malonda gha VOC mu Chingelezi, wonani nkhani izi: [[East India Company (disambiguation)|Kampani za East India]]; [[Greater India|India Yikuru]]; [[East India|East India]]; [[East Indies|East Indies]]; [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies ya Chidachi]]; [[Dutch India|India ya Chidachi]]; [[Voorcompagnie|Makampani ghakwambilira]]; [[List of Dutch East India Company trading posts and settlements|Mndandanda wa malo gha malonda na maderahene gha Kampani ya Dutch East India]].}} ({{langx|nl|Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie}} {{IPA|nl|vərˈeːnɪɣdə oːstˈɪndisə kɔmpɑˈɲi|}}; {{abbr.}}'''VOC''' {{IPA|nl|veː(j)oːˈseː|}}), iyo yikudziŵika chomene kuti '''Kampani ya Dutch East India''', yikaŵa [[chartered company|kampani yakupika chiphaso]] yakuchita [[trading company|malonda]] kweniso yikaŵa yimoza mwa [[joint-stock companies|makampani ghakwamba gha masheya]] pa charu chapasi. Likapangika pa 20 Malichi 1602 na [[States General of the Netherlands|Wupu wa Ŵalongozgi wa Netherlands]] ukusazga pamoza [[Voorcompagnie|makampani agho ghakaŵako kale]], ndipo likapika [[monopoly|ufumu wa malonda wakuŵikika yekha]] wa vyaka 21 kuti lichite malonda ku Asia. Masheya gha kampani iyi ghakaŵa ghakugulika na nzika yiliyose ya [[Dutch Republic|Dutch Republic]] ndipo ghakaguliskikanga pa misika yakuwonekera kwa wose ya [[secondary markets|masheya agho ghaguliskikaso]], ndipo umoza wa misika iyi ukazgoka [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|Msika wa Masheya wa Amsterdam]]. Kampani iyi yikaŵa na nkhongono zakuyana na za boma, kusazgapo nkhongono zakuchita nkhondo, kuŵika ŵakayidi mu jele na kuŵakoma, kupanga mapangano, kupanga [[Coinage of the Dutch East India Company|ndalama zake]], na kukhazikiska maderahene. Chifukwa chakuti yikachitanga malonda pakati pa maderahene na vyaru vinandi vya ku East na West, VOC nyengo zinyake yikuwoneka kuti yikaŵa [[multinational corporation|kampani yakwamba pa charu chose chapasi yakuchita ntchito mu vyaru vinandi]]. Mbiri ya Ulamuliro wa Ŵachidachi] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150207085730/http://www.kb.nl/themas/geschiedenis-en-cultuur/koloniaal-verleden/voc-1602%E2%80%931799](https://web.archive.org/web/20150207085730/http://www.kb.nl/themas/geschiedenis-en-cultuur/koloniaal-verleden/voc-1602%E2%80%931799) |date=7 February 2015 }} VOC ku [[National Library of the Netherlands|Laibulare ya Charu ya Netherlands]] (mu Chidachi) Kuwoneska mu 1602 kuti yisange phindu mu [[Maluku Islands|malonda gha vyakununkhira gha ku Maluku]], VOC yikakhazikiska likuru lake mu msumba wa madoko wa [[Jayakarta]] mu 1619 ndipo yikasintha zina lake kuŵa [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], uwo sono ukuchemeka [[Jakarta]]. Mu vyaka viŵiri vyakulondezgapo, kampani iyi yikasanga madoko ghanyake kuŵa malo ghake gha malonda ndipo yikavikilira vyakukhumba vyake mwa kupoka malo agho ghakaŵa kuzingilira. Yikalutilira kuŵa kampani yakuzirwa ya malonda ndipo yikapelekanga vigawanyo vya phindu vya chaka na chaka ivyo pa avareji vikaŵa pafupi 18% ya ndalama zakuguliskira kampani iyi kwa vyaka pafupifupi 200. Chifukwa cha uzgaŵa wa malonda, vimbundi na kukwera kwa ndalama zakulongozgera kampani mu vyaka vyakumalizga vya m'ma 18, kampani iyi yikafilisika ndipo yikamazgika mwalamulo mu 1799. Katundu wake na ngongole zake vikapokeka na boma la Dutch [[Batavian Republic]]. ==Zina la kampani, chimanyikwilo na mbendera== [[File:17th century plaque to Dutch East India Company (VOC), Hoorn.jpg|thumb|upright=1.36|Chizindikiro cha m'ma 17 cha Kampani Yakukolerana ya East India, VOC, ku [[Hoorn]]]] [[File\:VOC-Amsterdam.svg|thumb|upright|Chimanyikwilo cha [[Amsterdam]] Chamber ya VOC]] Mu Chidachi, zina la kampani iyi likaŵa ''Vereenigde Nederlandsche Geoctroyeerde Oostindische Compagnie'', ilo likachemekanga mwakufupikiska kuti VOC, ndipo likung'anamura kuti 'Kampani Yakukolerana ya Dutch Yakupika Chiphaso ya East India' (Kampani Yakukolerana ya East India). Chimanyikwilo cha kampani iyi chikaŵa na ''V'' yikuru, na ''O'' kumazere ndipo ''C'' ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro, ndipo panji chikaŵa chimanyikwilo chakwamba cha kampani icho chikamanyikwa pa charu chose. Chikawonekanga pa vinthu vya kampani, nga ni mbendera, mizinga na ndalama. Kalata yakwamba ya zina la msumba uko chipinda cha kampani chikachitira ntchito yikaŵikikanga pachanya. Kusinthasintha, kupulikikwa makora, kuphweka, kuyana kwa vigaŵa, kuleka kuchita ukalamba na uthenga wa chimanyikwilo ichi vikuwoneka kuti ni vinthu vyakuzirwa vya chimanyikwilo cha VOC icho chikapangika mwaluso. Vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti chimanyikwilo ichi chizomerezeke pa nyengo iyo fundo ya [[chimanyikwilo cha kampani]] yikamanyikwanga viŵi yayi. Munthu wakulima mpheska ku Australia wagwiliskira ntchito chimanyikwilo cha VOC kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 20, wati walembeskaso zina la kampani iyi na chilato ichi. Pa charu chose, chomene mu vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Chingelezi, VOC yikumanyikwa chomene kuti ni 'Kampani ya Dutch East India'. Zina lakuti 'Kampani ya Dutch East India' likugwiliskirika ntchito kupambaniska kampani iyi na [ya ku Britain] [[Kampani ya East India]] (EIC) na makampani ghanyake gha ku East India, nga ni [[Kampani ya Danish East India]], [[Kampani Yakwamba ya French East Indies|Kampani ya French East India]], [[Kampani ya Portuguese East India]], na [[Kampani ya Swedish East India]]. Mazina ghanyake agho kampani iyi yikumanyikwira nagho ghakusazgapo 'Kampani ya Dutch East Indies', 'Kampani Yakukolerana ya East India', 'Kampani ya Jan', panji 'Jan Compagnie'. Kampani ya Dutch East India] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121307/http://european-heritage.org/netherlands/alkmaar/dutch-east-india-company](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121307/http://european-heritage.org/netherlands/alkmaar/dutch-east-india-company) |date=6 September 2015}}, ''European Heritage Project.'' ==Mbili== ===Kwambira=== {{See also|Ulendo wa Ŵachi Dutch Wakwamba ku Indonesia|Ulendo wa Ŵachi Dutch Wachiŵiri ku Indonesia|Voorcompagnie}} {{Further|Malonda gha vyakununkhira|Njira ya Cape}} Pambere pa [[Dutch Revolt|kuwukira kwa ŵa Dutch]], uko kukamba mu 1566/68, msumba wa Brabant wa [[Antwerp]] ukachita ntchito yakuzirwa nga ni malo ghakugawirako katundu kumpoto kwa [[Europe]]. Pamanyuma pa 1591, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakagwiliskira ntchito gulu la malonda la vyaru vinandi la ŵa German [[Fugger family|Fugger]] na [[Welser family|Welser]], pamoza na makampani gha ku [[Spain]] na Italy, agho ghakagwiranga ntchito kufuma ku [[Hamburg]] nga ni doko likuru la kumpoto lakugawirako katundu wawo, mwakuti ŵamalonda ŵa ku Dutch ŵakatolekera kuwalo kwa malonda. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, dongosolo la malonda la Ŵapwitikizi likatondeka kusazgirako katundu kuti likwaniriske kusazgikira kwa khumbo, chomene khumbo la pepper. Khumbo la vyakununkhira likaŵa [[Price elasticity of demand|lakusuzga kusintha mwakuyana na mtengo]]; ntheura, kuchedwa kulikose pa kupereka pepper kukapangiska kuti mitengo ya pepper yikwere chomene. Mu 1580, [[Kingdom of Portugal|ufumu wa Portugal]] ukakolerana mu [[personal union|umoza wa mafumu]] na [[Spanish crown|ufumu wa Spain]], uwo ukamanyikwa kuti [[Iberian Union]]. Pa nyengo iyi [[Dutch Republic]] yikaŵa pa nkhondo na Spain. Ntheura, [[Portuguese Empire|Ufumu wa Portugal]] ukazgoka chilato chakwenelera cha nkhondo za ŵa Dutch. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska ŵamalonda ŵa ku Dutch kuti nawo ŵambe kuchita malonda gha vyakununkhira pakati pa makontinenti. Kweniso, ŵamalonda na ŵakupenja vinthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Dutch, nga ni [[Jan Huyghen van Linschoten]] na [[Cornelis de Houtman]], ŵakasanga umanyi waŵeneŵene wa nthowa za malonda na nthowa za ntchito za Ŵapwitikizi "zachisisi", ndipo ivi vikapeleka mwaŵi unyake ku ŵa Dutch kuti ŵanjire mu malonda agha.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=383}} Mwaŵi ukaŵa wakunozgeka kuti ŵa Dutch ŵambe maulendo ghawo ghakupenja ku [[Indonesia|visiwa vya Indonesia]], kuyambira na [[Cornelis de Houtman]] mu 1595 ndipo mu 1598, [[Jacob Corneliszoon van Neck|Jacob Van Neck]] mu 1598, pakati pa ŵanyake. Pa ulendo wakupenja wa zombo vinayi uwo ukalongozgeka na [[Frederick de Houtman]] mu 1595 ku [[Bantam (city)|Banten]], doko likuru la pepper ku West Java, ŵalendo ŵa mu sitima ŵakasangana na Ŵapwitikizi na ŵa ku Java. Ulendo wa Houtman ukalutilira kuya kumafumiro gha dazi mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumpoto kwa [[Java]], ndipo ŵanthu 12 ŵa mu gulu lake ŵakakomeka pa nkhondo na ŵa ku Java ku Sidayu, uku iwo ŵakakoma mulongozgi wa malo ku [[Madura]]. Hafu ya gulu la ŵalendo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵatayika pambere ulendo uwu undafike ku Netherlands mu 1596, kweni ŵakiza na vyakununkhira vinandi ivyo vikaŵapa phindu likuru.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=27}} [[File\:De terugkomst in Amsterdam van de tweede expeditie naar Oost-Indië, Hendrik Cornelisz Vroom, 1599, Rijksmuseum SK-A-2858.jpg|thumb|260px|Kuwelera kwa [[Ulendo wa Ŵa Dutch Wachiŵiri ku Indonesia|ulendo wachiŵiri wa ku Asia]] wa [[Jacob van Neck]] mu 1599, wakajambulika na [[Cornelis Vroom]]]] Mu 1598, magulu gha zombo ghakupambanapambana ghakatumika na magulu gha ŵamalonda ghakupambanapambana kufuma mu Netherlands yose. Zombo vinyake vikazgeŵeka, kweni vinandi vikafika makora, ndipo maulendo ghanyake ghakapanga phindu likuru. Mu 1598, [[Ulendo wa Ŵa Dutch Wachiŵiri ku Indonesia|gulu la zombo vinayi]] ilo likalongozgeka na [[Jacob van Neck]] likaŵa gulu lakwamba la zombo za ku Dutch kufika ku 'Visiwa vya Vyakununkhira' vya Maluku, ivyo vikamanyikwangaso kuti Moluccas, ndipo likasindika ŵamalonda ŵa pakati ŵa ku Java. Zombo izi zikawelera ku Europe mu 1599 na 1600, ndipo ulendo uwu ukapanga phindu la 400%.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=27}} Mu 1600, ŵa Dutch ŵakakolerana na [[Hitu people|ŵa Hitu]] Ŵasilamu pa [[Ambon Island]] mu phangano lakulimbana na Ŵapwitikizi. Pa phangano ili, ŵa Dutch ŵakapika wanangwa wakugura vyakununkhira kufuma kwa ŵa Hitu pera. Ŵa Dutch ŵakamba kulamulira Ambon apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakajipeleka na kupereka linga lawo ku Ambon ku phangano la ŵa Dutch na ŵa Hitu. Mu 1613, ŵa Dutch ŵakafumiska Ŵapwitikizi ku linga lawo la [[Solor]], kweni nkhondo yinyake ya Ŵapwitikizi yikapangiska kuti ulamuliro usinthe kachiŵiri. Pamanyuma pa kupokaso linga ili, ŵa Dutch ŵakapokaso Solor mu 1636.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |pages=25–28}} Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Solor]], pa chisumbu cha [[Timor]], kuluta panthazi kwa ŵa Dutch kukakanizgika na gulu lakujilamulira ilo likaŵa na nkhongono la Ŵapwitikizi ŵa ku Eurasia ilo likachemekanga [[Topasses]]. Iwo ŵakalutilira kulamulira malonda gha [[Sandalwood|mtengo wa sandalwood]]. Kukanizgika kwawo kukalutilira mu vyaka vya m'ma 17 na 18, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti [[Portuguese Timor]] chilutilire kuŵa pasi pa ulamuliro wa Ŵapwitikizi.{{in lang|pt}} Matos, Artur Teodoro de (1974), ''Timor Portugues, 1515–1769'', Lisboa: Instituto Histórico Infante Dom Henrique.{{in lang|nl}} Roever, Arend de (2002), ''De jacht op sandelhout: De VOC en de tweedeling van Timor in de zeventiende eeuw'', Zutphen: Walburg Pers. ===Vyaka vyakwambilira=== [[File\:Sd2-baggala.JPG|thumb|[[Mughal Bengal]]'s baghlah yikaŵa mtundu wa sitima uwo ŵamalonda ŵa ku Dutch ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chomene mu [[Indian Ocean]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Bay of Bengal]], [[Strait of Malacca]] na [[South China Sea]].]] [[File\:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reproductie van een plattegrond van Batavia uit circa 1627 TMnr 496-3.jpg|thumb|Chithuzithuzi chakubwerezga mapu gha msumba wa Batavia pafupi na{{nbsp}}1627, mu [[Wereldmuseum Amsterdam]]]] [[File\:Waere affbeeldinge Wegens het Casteel ende Stadt BATAVIA gelegen opt groot Eylant JAVA Anno 1681.jpg|thumb|Batavia ya ŵa Dutch mu 1681, yakazengeka pa malo agho sono ni [[North Jakarta]]]] Pa nyengo iyi, chikaŵa chizolowezi kuti kampani yipelekekenge ndalama kwa nyengo ya ulendo umoza pera ndipo yimazgikenge apo gulu la zombo lawelera. Kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama pa maulendo agha kukaŵa kwakofya chomene chifukwa cha vyakofya vya kawirikawiri vya ŵankhondo ŵa panyanja, matenda na kusweka kwa sitima, kweniso chifukwa cha kusangana kwa [[inelastic demand|khumbo ilo likusintha viŵi yayi mwakuyana na mtengo]] na [[elastic supply|katundu uyo wakusangika mwaluso]]{{efn|Mu nyengo yapakati, apo ŵapereki ŵaphya ŵanganjira mu msika. Mu nyengo yifupi, katundu uyo wakusangika nawo ukaŵa wakusintha viŵi yayi mwakuyana na mtengo.}} gha vyakununkhira, uko kukapangiskanga kuti mitengo yiwile chomene na kuparanya chigomezgo cha kupanga phindu. Kuti ŵalamulire ngozi iyi, kupanga [[cartel|gulu la makampani ghakukolerana]] kuti lilamulire katundu uyo wakuperekeka kukawoneka kuti ni nthowa yakwenelera. Mu 1600, Ŵaingelezi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi mwa kusazga vinthu vyawo mu kampani yakukhala na ulamuliro wa yekha, [[East India Company|Kampani ya East India ya ku England]], ndipo ivi vikawofya ŵapikisana nawo ŵa ku Dutch kuti ŵangaparanyika.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=384–385}} Mu 1602, boma la Dutch likalondezga nthowa iyi, likawovwira kukhazikiska "Kampani Yakukolerana ya East Indies" yimoza iyo yikapikikaso ulamuliro wa yekha pa malonda gha ku Asia.{{Cite book |url=[https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/archief/1.04.02/invnr/1/file/NL-HaNA\_1.04.02\_1\_01](https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/archief/1.04.02/invnr/1/file/NL-HaNA_1.04.02_1_01) |title=Octrooi verleend door de Staten-Generaal betreffende de alleenhandel ten oosten van Kaap de Goede Hoop en ten westen van de Straat van Magallanes voor de duur van 21 jaar |year=1602 |publication-place=Amsterdam |pages=5 |language=nl |trans-title=Patent granted by the States General concerning exclusive trade east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Strait of Magallanes for a period of 21 years |quote='Dese vereenichde Compaignie sal beginnen ende aenvanck nemen met desen Jaere xvi C ende twee ende sal gedurende den tyt van eenentwintich Jaren achter (This United Company shall commence operations in the year of 1602, and shall continue for a period of twenty-one consecutive years)' |access-date=22 April 2022 |orig-date=20 March 1602 |via=Nationaal Archief |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220422184915/https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/archief/1.04.02/invnr/1/file/NL-HaNA\_1.04.02\_1\_01](https://web.archive.org/web/20220422184915/https://web.archive.org/web/20220422184915/https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/archief/1.04.02/invnr/1/file/NL-HaNA_1.04.02_1_01) |url-status=live}} Kwa nyengo yinyake mu vyaka vya m'ma 17, yikakwaniska kulamulira malonda gha nutmeg, mace na cloves, na kuguliska vyakununkhira ivi mu maufumu gha ku Europe na mu [[Mughal Empire]] wa Emperor [[Akbar the Great]] pa mitengo iyo yikaŵa yakukwera maulendo 14–17 kuluska mtengo uwo yikaguliranga ku [[Indonesia]].{{Cite book|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680|last=Reid|first=Anthony|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1993|location=New Haven, Connecticut|pages=290}} Apo phindu la ŵa Dutch likakweranga chomene, chuma cha ku Visiwa vya Vyakununkhira chikaparanyika, chifukwa nga ni mugulisi yumoza pera, VOC yikachichizga kuti mitengo iyo ŵalimi ŵa ku Visiwa vya Vyakununkhira ŵakapokeranga yiŵe yichoko chomene. Na ndalama zakwamba za 6,440,200 [[guilder]]s{{cite book|first=John|last=Bruce|title=Annals of the Honourable East-India Company |url=[https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable00brucgoog|year=1810|publisher=Black](https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable00brucgoog|year=1810|publisher=Black), Parry, and Kingsbury|page=[[https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable00brucgoog/page/n42](https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable00brucgoog/page/n42) 28]}} (yakuyana na {{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:6440200/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}million|link=yes}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}), chiphaso cha kampani yiphya chikayipa mazaza ghakuzenga malinga, kusungilira ŵasilikari, na kuchita mapangano na ŵawusi ŵa ku Asia. Chikapeleka mwaŵi wa kampani iyo yikeneranga kulutilira kwa vyaka 21, kweni kuŵerengera vya ndalama kukeneranga kuchitika paumaliro wa chaka chilichose cha vyaka 10.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=384–385}} [[File\:Willem Blaeu00.jpg|thumb|Early map of the Maluku Islands made during the [[Age of Discovery]], by [[Willem Blaeu]], 1630. North is on the right, with [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate]] as the rightmost followed by [[Sultanate of Tidore|Tidore]], both were known as the [[Spice Islands]] (trade secret, outposts of the VOC). |left]] Mu Febuluwale 1603, kampani iyi yikapoka [[Santa Catarina (ship)|''Santa Catarina'']], sitima ya malonda ya Ŵapwitikizi ya matani 1,500, pafupi na mphepete mwa nyanja ya [[Malay Peninsula]]. Mu chaka cheneko, gulu lakukolerana la ŵa Dutch na Ŵaingelezi likapoka sitima yinyake ya malonda ya Ŵapwitikizi kufupi na [[Macau]].{{cite book |author-link=C. R. Boxer |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |title=Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location=The Hague |date=1948 |page=50}} Ndalama izo zikapatika pakuguliska katundu wa mu sitima ziŵiri izi zikaŵa zakujumpha 50% ya ndalama zakwamba izo ŵanthu ŵakaŵika mu VOC.{{cite book |last=Boyajian |first=James C. |title=Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C0lrDYYzMyAC&pg=PA151](https://books.google.com/books?id=C0lrDYYzMyAC\&pg=PA151) |page=151 |publisher=JHU Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-8018-8754-3 |access-date=2 June 2016 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160033/https://books.google.com/books?id=C0lrDYYzMyAC&pg=PA151](https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160033/https://books.google.com/books?id=C0lrDYYzMyAC\&pg=PA151) |url-status=live}} Mu 1603, malo ghakwamba gha malonda gha Ŵa Dutch agho ghakaŵa ghakukhazikika ku Indonesia ghakakhazikiskika ku [[Banten]], [[West Java]]. Mu 1611, ghanyake ghakakhazikiskika ku [[Jayakarta]] (pamanyuma likachemekanga "Batavia" ndipo pamanyuma "Jakarta").{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=29}} Mu 1610, VOC yikakhazikiska udindo wa [[governor-general of the Dutch East Indies|mulongozgi mukuru]] kuti yikwaniske kulamulira makora nkhani zake ku Asia. Kuti walangure na kulamulira ngozi ya [[despotism|ulamuliro wankhaza]] wa ŵalongozgi ŵakuru, [[Council of the Indies (Dutch)|Khonsolo ya Indies]] (''Raad van Indië'') yikapangika. Mulongozgi mukuru wakazgoka mulongozgi mukuru wa ntchito za VOC ku Asia. ''Heeren XVII'', gulu la ŵanthu 17 awo ŵakaŵa na magawo gha kampani ndipo ŵakimiranga vipinda vyakupambanapambana, likalutilira kuŵa na ulamuliro wose pa kampani iyi mwalamulo.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |pages=25–28}} [[File\:Amboina. 17th century print, most likely English..jpg|thumb|''Chisumbu cha Amboina'', chithuzithuzi cha [[17th century|m'ma 17]], panji chikajambulika na Mungwelezi]] Likuru la VOC likaŵa ku [[Governorate of Ambon|Ambon]] mu nyengo ya ŵalongozgi ŵakuru ŵatatu ŵakwamba (1610–1619), kweni malo agha ghakaŵa ghambura kwenelera. Nangauli ghakaŵa pakati pa malo agho vyakununkhira vikapangikanga, ghakaŵa kutali na nthowa za malonda gha ku Asia na malo ghanyake agho VOC yikachitirangako ntchito, kufuma ku Africa kuya ku India na Japan. Om Prakash, ''The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630–1720'' (Princeton University Press, 1985)William De Lange, ''Pars Japonica: the first Dutch expedition to reach the shores of Japan'', (2006) Ntheura, malo gha kumadzulo kwa chigaŵa ichi ghakapenjeka. [[Straits of Malacca]] ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa pa nkhani za nkhondo na malonda kweni ghakamba kuŵa ghakofya pamanyuma pa kupoka na Ŵapwitikizi, ndipo malo ghakwamba gha VOC ghakukhazikika ku Banten ghakaŵa pasi pa ulamuliro wa mulongozgi wa ku malo uyo wakaŵa na nkhongono, kweniso ghakakumana na chipikano chikuru kufuma kwa ŵamalonda ŵa ku China na Ŵaingelezi.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |pages=25–28}} Mu 1604, ulendo wachiŵiri wa Ŵaingelezi wa [[Kampani ya East India]] uwo ukalongozgekanga na [[Sir Henry Middleton]] ukafika ku visiwa vya [[Ternate]], [[Tidore]], [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] na [[Banda Islands|Banda]]. Ku Banda, ŵakasangana na kususka kukuru kufuma ku VOC, ndipo ichi chikapangiska chipikano cha ŵa Dutch na Ŵaingelezi pa nkhani ya kusanga vyakununkhira. Kufuma mu 1611 mpaka 1617, Ŵaingelezi ŵakakhazikiska malo gha malonda ku [[Sukadana]] (kumwera chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Kalimantan]]), [[Makassar]], [[Jayakarta]] na [[Jepara]] ku [[Java]], kweniso Aceh, [[Pariaman]] na [[Jambi]] ku [[Sumatra]], ndipo ivi vikawofya khumbo la ŵa Dutch lakuti ŵaŵe na ulamuliro wawo watekha pa malonda gha East Indies.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=29}} Mu 1620, mapangano gha ubwezi mu Europe ghakapanga nyengo ya kukolerana pakati pa malonda gha vyakununkhira gha ŵa Dutch na Ŵaingelezi.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=29}} Ivi vikamalira pa [[Amboyna massacre|kupharazgana na kukoma ŵa Amboyna]], apo Ŵaingelezi 10 ŵakakakika, ŵakayuzgika ndipo ŵakadumulika mitu chifukwa cha kuyuzgika kuti ŵakapangana kugalukira boma la Dutch.{{cite book |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=George |title=To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |location=New York|pages=xvi |isbn=967-65-3099-9 |no-pp=true}} Nangauli ivi vikapangiska ukali ukuru mu Europe na suzgo la ubwezi pakati pa vyaru, Ŵaingelezi mwakufwasa ŵakafumapo mu vinandi mwa vyakuchita vyawo ku Indonesia, kweni ŵakalutilira kuguliska malonda ku Banten, ndipo ŵakaŵika mtima pa vyakukhumba vinyake ku Asia. ===Kukura=== [[File\:Melaka-St-Paul-Dutch-graves-2182.jpg|thumb|Manda gha ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Dutch mu mabwinja gha [[St. Paul's Church, Malacca]], mu [[Dutch Malacca]] yakale]] [[File\:De handelsloge van de VOC in Hougly in Bengalen Rijksmuseum SK-A-4282.jpeg|thumb|260px|Fakitale ya Kampani ya Dutch East India ku [[Hugli-Chuchura]], [[Mughal Bengal]] — Hendrik van Schuylenburgh (1665)]] Mu 1619, [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]] wakimikika kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru wa VOC. Wakamanya kuti VOC yingazgoka nkhongono ku Asia, pa nkhani za ndale kweniso chuma. Pa 30 Meyi 1619, Coen, wakovwirika na gulu la zombo 19, wakaluta ku Jayakarta mwankhondo, wakachimbizga ŵasilikari ŵa Banten; ndipo kufuma pa mabwinja gha msumba uwu wakakhazikiska [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] kuŵa likuru la VOC. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1620, pafupifupi ŵanthu wose ŵa ku [[Banda Islands]] ŵakachimbizgika, ŵakafa na njala, panji ŵakakomeka pakuyezga kuŵikapo minda ya ŵa Dutch.{{sfn|Ricklefs |1993 |page=30}} Minda iyi yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pakulima [[nutmeg]] kuti yiguliskike ku vyaru vinyake. Coen wakakhumbanga kusamuska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Dutch kuti ŵakakhale ku East Indies, kweni ndondomeko iyi yikafika yayi pa chilato chake, chomene chifukwa ŵa Dutch ŵachoko chomene ŵakaŵa ŵakunozgeka kusamukira ku Asia. ''The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800'', page 218 Chinthu chinyake icho Coen wakachita chikenda makora chomene. Suzgo likuru mu malonda gha ku Europe na Asia pa nyengo iyi likaŵa lakuti Ŵaevulopu ŵakaŵavya katundu munandi uyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Asia ŵakakhumbanga, kupatulapo siliva na golide. Ntheura ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe ŵakeneranga kulipira vyakununkhira na visulo vyamtengo, ivyo vikaŵa vichoko ku Europe, kupatulapo ku Spain na [[Portugal]]. Ŵa Dutch na Ŵaingelezi ŵakeneranga kusanga visulo ivi mwa kupanga malonda ghakujumpha na vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe. Coen wakasanga nthowa yakupulikikwa ya kumazgira suzgo ili: kwambiska dongosolo la malonda pakati pa vyaru vya ku Asia, ilo phindu lake likatenge ligwiliskikenge ntchito kulipilira malonda gha vyakununkhira na Europe. Mu nyengo yitali, ivi vikamazga kufipa mtima na kufumiska visulo vyamtengo kufuma ku Europe, nangauli pakwamba vikakhumbanga kuti pakhale ndalama zinandi za malonda ku Indies. VOC yikawelerangaso kuŵika chigaŵa chikuru cha phindu lake mu chilato ichi mu nyengo yakufika ku 1630.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=386}} The VOC yikachitanga malonda mu Asia yose, ndipo yikasanga phindu likuru chomene ku [[Bengal]]. Zombo izo zikafumanga ku Netherlands kuya ku Batavia zikanyamuranga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa ku malo gha VOC mu Asia. Siliva na mkuwa kufuma ku Japan vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito kuchita malonda na maufumu ghakukhupuka chomene pa charu, [[India ya Mughal]] na [[China ya Qing]], kuti ŵasange silika, thonje, porcelain na vyakuvwara. Katundu uyu wakagulikanga mu Asia kuti ŵasange vyakununkhira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga chomene, panji wakanyamulika kuwelera ku Europe. VOC yikaŵaso yakuzirwa chomene pakwambiska maghanoghano gha ku Europe na tekinoloje ku Asia. Kampani iyi yikawovwiranga ŵamisiri ŵa Chikhristu ndipo yikachitanga malonda gha tekinoloje yiphya na China na Japan. Malo gha malonda gha VOC gha mtende ku [[Dejima]], [[chisumbu chakupangika na ŵanthu]] icho chili kufupi na [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], ghakaŵa kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 200 malo ghakwamba pera agho Ŵaevulopu ŵakazomerezgekanga kuchitira malonda na [[Japan]].{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/115 115]}} Apo VOC yikayezga kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za nkhondo kuti yikakamizge [[Ming dynasty|mafumu gha Ming]] kuzomerezga malonda na ŵa Dutch, Ŵachina ŵakathereska ŵa Dutch mu [[Sino–Dutch conflicts|nkhondo ya visiwa vya Penghu]] kufuma mu 1623 mpaka 1624, ndipo VOC yikachichizgika kuleka [[Penghu]] na kuluta ku [[Taiwan]]. Ŵachina ŵakathereskaso VOC pa [[Battle of Liaoluo Bay|Nkhondo ya ku Liaoluo Bay]] mu 1633. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Vietnam ŵa [[Nguyen lords|Nguyen]] ŵakathereska VOC mu [[Battle of the Gianh River (1643)|nkhondo ya 1643]] pa nyengo ya [[Trịnh–Nguyễn War|Nkhondo ya Trịnh–Nguyễn]], ndipo ŵakaphulika sitima ya Ŵa Dutch. Ŵa Cambodia ŵakathereska VOC mu [[Cambodian–Dutch War|Nkhondo ya Cambodia na Dutch]] kufuma mu 1643 mpaka 1644 pa Mlonga wa Mekong. [[File\:Dutch settlement at Chunchura on the Hugli river, West Benga Wellcome V0050427 (cropped).jpg|thumb|260px|Malo ghakukhala gha ŵa Dutch mu [[Suba ya Bengal]]]] Mu 1640, VOC yikasanga dowoko la [[Galle]], [[Ceylon ya Dutch|Ceylon]], kufuma kwa Ŵapwitikizi ndipo yikamazga ulamuliro wawo watekha pa malonda gha [[cinnamon|sinamoni]]. Mu 1658, [[Gerard Pietersz Hulft]] wakazingilizga [[Colombo]], ndipo msumba uwu ukapokeka na wovwiri wa Fumu [[Rajasinghe II]] ya [[Kandy]]. Mu 1659, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵachimbizga mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, ivyo pamanyuma vikapokeka na VOC, ndipo ichi chikawovwira VOC kuŵa na ulamuliro wawo watekha pa malonda gha sinamoni. Kuti Ŵapwitikizi panji Ŵaingelezi ŵaleke kupokaso [[Sri Lanka]], VOC yikalutilira kupoka [[Dutch Malabar|Malo gha Malabar]] ghose kufuma ku Ŵapwitikizi, ndipo pafupifupi yikaŵachimbizga wose ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa India. Mu 1652, [[Jan van Riebeeck]] wakakhazikiska malo ghakupumulirapo na kusazgirako vyakukhumbikwa pa [[Cape of Storms]] (kumwera chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, sono [[Cape Town]], South Africa) kuti ghawovwire zombo za kampani pa ulendo wawo kuya na kufuma ku East Asia. Pamanyuma, cape iyi yikachemekaso [[Cape of Good Hope]] chifukwa cha kuŵapo kwa malo agha. Nangauli zombo izo zikaŵavya ubwezi na kampani zikazomerezgekanga kugwiliskira ntchito malo agha, zikakhomeskekanga ndalama zinandi chomene. Pamanyuma malo agha ghakazgoka koloni lakukwana, [[Dutch Cape Colony|Cape Colony]], apo ŵa Dutch na ŵa ku Europe ŵanyake ŵakamba kukhala kwenekura. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 17, malo gha malonda gha VOC ghakakhazikiskikaso ku [[Persia]],{{Cite web |title=Dutch era |url=[https://www.nla.ae/en/our-history/historical-periods/dutch-era/](https://www.nla.ae/en/our-history/historical-periods/dutch-era/) |access-date=2026-04-08}} [[Dutch Bengal|Bengal]], [[Dutch Malacca|Malacca]], [[Thailand|Siam]], [[Dutch Formosa|Formosa]] (sono Taiwan), kweniso ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya [[Dutch Malabar|Malabar]] na [[Dutch Coromandel|Coromandel]] ku India. Kufika mwakudunjika ku China mainland kukiza mu 1729 apo [[Canton Factories|fakitale]] yikakhazikiskika ku [[Guangzhou|Canton]].{{cite journal |last1=Hertroijes |first1=Frasie |title=Meeting the Dutch: cooperation and conflict between Jesuits and Dutch merchants in Asia, 1680–1795 |journal=Paper Presented at the Conference of ENIUGH, London |year=2011 |page=10 |url=[http://research.uni-leipzig.de/eniugh/congress/fileadmin/eniugh2011/dokumente/Going\_Dutch\_Hertroijs\_2011\_4\_7.pdf](http://research.uni-leipzig.de/eniugh/congress/fileadmin/eniugh2011/dokumente/Going_Dutch_Hertroijs_2011_4_7.pdf) |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220407020410/http://research.uni-leipzig.de/eniugh/congress/fileadmin/eniugh2011/dokumente/Going_Dutch_Hertroijs_2011_4_7.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20220407020410/http://research.uni-leipzig.de/eniugh/congress/fileadmin/eniugh2011/dokumente/Going_Dutch_Hertroijs_2011_4_7.pdf) |url-status=dead }} Mu 1661, mulongozgi wa [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] Koxinga wakalongozga gulu la zombo kuti lithere ŵa Dutch. Ŵati ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ku Ming ŵathereska ŵasilikari ŵakuwovwira ŵa Dutch awo ŵakafuma ku Java mu 1662, Frederick Coyett, mulongozgi wa ŵa Dutch, wakapereka Taiwan.{{cite book|last=Andrade|author1-link=Tonio Andrade|first=Tonio|title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2005|url=[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade11.html#s02/|access-date=16](http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade11.html#s02/|access-date=16) May 2012|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210419085256/http://gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade11.html#s02/|url-status=live](https://web.archive.org/web/20210419085256/http://gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade11.html#s02/|url-status=live)}} (''wonani'' [[History of Taiwan]]). Mu 1663, VOC yikasayina "Pangano la Painan" na ŵalongozgi ŵa ku malo ŵanandi mu chigaŵa cha [[Painan]] awo ŵakagalukira [[Aceh Sultanate]]. Phangano ili likazomerezga VOC kuzenga malo gha malonda mu chigaŵa ichi ndipo pamanyuma kuŵa na ulamuliro wawo watekha pa malonda, chomene malonda gha golide.{{Cite web |date=31 July 1982 |title=170 tahun kepahlawanan minangkabau |url=[http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html](http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html) |url-status=dead |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120314193208/http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20120314193208/http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html) |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=11 March 2012 |website=Majalah Tempo Online |language=indonesian}} Kufika mu 1669, VOC yikaŵa kampani yakukhupuka chomene ya ŵanthu ŵapadera iyo charu chikaŵa nacho kufika pa nyengo iyo, ndipo yikaŵa na zombo za malonda zakujumpha 150, zombo za nkhondo 40, ŵantchito 50,000, ŵasilikari ŵake 10,000, kweniso [[dividend|malipiro gha phindu]] gha 40% pa ndalama zakwamba izo zikaŵikika.{{efn|The share price had appreciated significantly, so in that respect the dividend was less impressive.}} Ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa VOC ŵakasangananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo ndipo ŵakasazgiranga chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa [[Indos in pre-colonial history|Indo mu mbili ya nyengo ya ukoloni undandambe]].{{cite web |last=De Witt |first=D. |work=Children of the VOC at |title=The Easternization of the West: The Role of Melaka, the Malay-Indonesian archipelago and the Dutch (VOC). (International seminar by the Melaka State Government, the Malaysian Institute of Historical and Patriotism Studies (IKSEP), the Institute of Occidental Studies (IKON) at the National University of Malaysia (UKM) and the Netherlands Embassy in Malaysia. Malacca, Malaysia, 27 July 2006 |url=[http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html](http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html) |access-date=14 February 2010 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090814022910/http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20090814022910/http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html) |archive-date=14 August 2009 |url-status=dead}}{{cite book |last=Blusse |first=Leonard |title=Strange Company: Chinese Settlers, Mestizo Women and the Dutch in VOC Batavia. (Dordrecht-Holland; Riverton, US, Foris Publications, 1986. xiii, 302p.) number: 959.82 B659}} ===Kusintha kwa nkhani=== Kuzingira mu 1670, vinthu viŵiri vikapangiska kuti malonda gha VOC ghaleke kukura. Chakwamba, malonda ghakupindulitsa chomene na Japan ghakamba kuchepa. Kutayika kwa malo gha VOC pa [[Formosa]] chifukwa cha [[Koxinga]] mu [[siege of Fort Zeelandia|kuzingilizga Fort Zeelandia]] mu 1662, pamoza na masuzgo gha mukati mwa [[China]] (apo [[Ming dynasty]] yikasinthikanga na [[Qing dynasty|ufumu wa Qing]] wa China), kukamazga malonda gha silika pamanyuma pa 1666. Nangauli VOC yikagwiliskira ntchito silika wa [[Mughal Bengal|Bengal ya Mughal]] m'malo mwa silika wa ku China, vinthu vinyake vikakhwaska umo siliva na golide wa ku Japan vikafikiranga ku malonda. [[Shogunate|Shogunate]] yikakhazikiska nthowa zinandi zakukanizgira kufumiskika kwa visulo ivi vyamtengo, ndipo pakuchita nthena yikakanizga mwaŵi wa VOC wa malonda na kusazgirapo kuŵinya kwa malonda. Ntheura, Japan yikaleka kuŵa chinthu chakuzirwa chomene mu malonda gha VOC pakati pa vyaru vya Asia kufika mu 1685.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=434–435}} Chinthu chakuzirwa chomene ntchakuti, [[Third Anglo-Dutch War|Nkhondo yachitatu ya Anglo-Dutch]] yikakanizga kwa nyengo yichoko malonda gha VOC na Europe. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mtengo wa pepper ukwere chomene, ndipo vikakopa [[English East India Company|Kampani ya East India ya Ŵaingelezi]] (EIC) kuti yinjire mwankhongono mu msika uwu mu vyaka vyakafuma pamanyuma pa 1672. Pambere apa, chimoza mwa malango gha VOC pa kuŵika mitengo chikaŵa chakuti ŵaŵikenge pepper yinandi pachoko mu msika kuti ŵachitiske mitengo kukhira pasi pa mlingo uwo ŵamalonda ŵanyake ŵangakhumbiranga kunjira mu msika (m'malo mwa kupenja [[Profit maximization|phindu likuru chomene]] mu nyengo yichoko). Vinjeru vya ndondomeko iyi vikawoneka apo pakawuka nkhondo yikuru ya mitengo na EIC, apo kampani iyi yikazuzga msika na katundu wuphya kufuma ku India. Mu chipikano ichi cha kutora chigaŵa chikuru cha msika, VOC (iyo yikaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene) yikakwaniska kulindilira mpaka EIC yileke nkhongono. Nadi, kufika mu 1683, EIC yikaŵa pafupi kusoŵa ndalama; mtengo wa magawo ghake ukakhira kufuma pa 600 kuya pa 250; ndipo purezidenti wake [[Josiah Child]] wakachichizgika kwa kanyengo kufumapo pa udindo.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=430–433}} Kweni vimanyikwilo vya suzgo vikamba kuwoneka. Makampani ghanyake, nga ni [[Louis XIV's East India Company|Kampani ya East India ya Ŵafaransa]] na [[Danish East India Company|Kampani ya East India ya ŵa Denmark]], nagho ghakamba kunjira mu dongosolo la ŵa Dutch. Ntheura VOC yikajara malo ghakuzura malonda gha pepper agho ghakaŵa ghakuchita makora ku [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]] kwizira mu phangano ilo likachitika na Sultan mu 1684. Kweniso, pa [[Dutch Coromandel|mphepete mwa nyanja ya Coromandel]], yikasamuska malo ghake ghakuru ghakukhora kufuma ku [[Pulicat]] kuya ku [[Nagapattinam]], kuti yisungilire ulamuliro wawo watekha pa malonda gha pepper mwakukwenyerezga Ŵafaransa na ŵa Denmark.{{efn|During the [[War of the Grand Alliance|Nine Years' War]], the French and Dutch companies came to blows on the Indian Subcontinent. The French sent naval expeditions from metropolitan France, which the VOC easily countered. On the other hand, the VOC conquered the important fortress of [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] after a siege of only 16 days by an expedition of 3,000 men and 19 ships under Laurens Pit from [[Nagapattinam]] in September 1693. The Dutch then made the defenses of the fortress impregnable, which they came to regret when the Dutch government returned it to the French by the [[Peace of Ryswick]] in exchange for tariff concessions in Europe by the French.{{sfn|Chaudhuri|Israel|1991|page=424}}}} Kweni, pa nyengo iyi kuzirwa kwa katundu wa mtundu uwu mu malonda gha pakati pa Asia na Europe kukamba kuchepa mwaluŵiro. Ndalama izo VOC yikeneranga kugwiliskira ntchito pa nkhondo kuti yisungilire ulamuliro wawo watekha zikaŵa zambura kwenelera kuyana na phindu ilo likafumanga mu malonda agha agho ghakamba kuchepa.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=433–434}} Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kusambira kwa VOC pa nkhani iyi kukachedwa, ndipo pakwamba VOC yikapanga chakusankha cha ndondomeko chakuti yinozge malo ghake gha nkhondo pa [[Dutch Malabar|mphepete mwa nyanja ya Malabar]] (na chilindizga chakuti yichepeskenge nkhongono za Ŵaingelezi mu chigaŵa ichi na kumazga kutayika kwa ndalama zake chifukwa cha kugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha ŵasilikari gha ku Malabar) mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono kukakamizga [[Saamoothiri|Zamorin]] wa [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] kuti wajilambike ku ulamuliro wa ŵa Dutch. Mu 1710, Zamorin wakachichizgika kusayina phangano na VOC ilo likamuphaliranga kuti wachitire malonda mwapadera na VOC pera na kuchimbizga ŵamalonda ŵanyake wose ŵa ku Europe. Kwa kanyengo kachoko, ichi chikawoneka kuti chikusazgiranga mwaŵi wa kampani. Kweni mu 1715, na chikhukhumaliro cha EIC, Zamorin wakakana phangano ili. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch ŵakakwaniska kuzimazga kugaluka uku kwa kanyengo, Zamorin wakalutilira kuchita malonda na Ŵaingelezi na Ŵafaransa, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti malonda gha Ŵaingelezi na Ŵafaransa ghakwere chomene. VOC yikaghanaghana mu 1721 kuti chikaŵaso chakwenelera yayi kusuzgika kuyezga kulamulira malonda gha [[Malabar pepper|pepper na vyakununkhira vya Malabar]]. Chisankho cha ndondomeko chikapangika chakuti ŵachepeske ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch na kusiya chigaŵa ichi pasi pa chikoka cha EIC.{{sfn|Chaudhuri|Israel|1991|pages=428–429}} [[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|250px|thumb|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] wa Kampani ya Dutch East India wakujipereka kwa Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] wa [[Kingdom of Travancore|Ufumu wa Travancore]] wa ku India pamanyuma pa [[Battle of Colachel|Nkhondo ya Colachel]] (chithuzithuzi ku [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]]).]] Mu [[Battle of Colachel|Nkhondo ya Colachel]] ya 1741, ŵankhondo ŵa [[Travancore]] pasi pa Fumu [[Marthanda Varma]] ŵakathereska ŵa Dutch. Mulongozgi wa ŵa Dutch, Kaputeni [[Eustachius De Lannoy]], wakakakika. Marthanda Varma wakazomera kuleka umoyo wa kaputeni wa Dutch pa sharti lakuti wanjire mu gulu lake la ŵasilikari na kusambizga ŵasilikari ŵake maluso gha nkhondo gha mazuŵa ghano. Kuthereska uku mu [[Travancore–Dutch War|Nkhondo ya Travancore–Dutch]] kukuwoneka kuti ntchakuwonerapo chakwamba cha nkhongono ya ku Asia yakukhazikika kuthera tekinoloje na nthowa za nkhondo za ku Europe; ndipo kukalongora kwamba kwa kuchepa kwa nkhongono za ŵa Dutch ku India.{{efn|However, the VOC had been defeated many times before. On the Indian subcontinent, the EIC had suffered a resounding defeat in its [[Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)|war]] against the Mughals.{{sfn|Chaudhuri|Israel|1991|pages=435–436}}}} Ntheura, kuyezga kulutilira kuchita vinthu nga kale nga kampani ya malonda ya katundu wuchoko kweni phindu likuru, iyo yikakhazikika pa malonda gha vyakununkhira, kukatondeka. Kweni kampani iyi yikaŵa kuti yamba kale (nangauli yikakhumbanga yayi) kulondezga chakuwonerapo cha ŵapikisanawo ŵa ku Europe mwa kusazgirako katundu munyake wa ku Asia, nga ni tiyi, khofi, thonje, vyakuvwara na shuga. Katundu uyu wakaperekanga phindu lichoko, ntheura wakakhumbanga kuti ŵaguliske vinandi kuti ŵasange ndalama zakuyana. Kusintha uku kwa mtundu wa katundu mu malonda gha VOC kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1680, pamanyuma pakuti EIC yikagwa kanyengo mu 1683, ndipo ichi chikapeleka mwaŵi uwemi chomene wa kunjira mu misika iyi. Chifukwa cheneko cha kusintha uku, kweni, chikaŵa mu vinthu viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na kapangidwe ka nyengo yiphya. Chakwamba, kukachitika kusintha kukuru chomene mu vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga, chomene pa vyakuvwara vya ku Asia, khofi na tiyi, kuzungulira kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 18. Chachiŵiri, nyengo yiphya ya ndalama zinandi chomene zakukhazikika pa chiwongolero chichoko yikamba mwamabuchi pa nyengo iyi. Chinthu chachiŵiri ichi chikawovwira kampani kuti yipeze ndalama mwambura kusuzga kuti yikuzge malonda ghake mu vigaŵa viphya.{{efn|It was also helpful that the price war with the EIC in the early decade had caused the accumulation of enormous inventories of pepper and spices, which enabled the VOC to cut down on shipments later on, thereby freeing up capital to increase shipments of other goods.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=436}}}} Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1680 na 1720, VOC yikakwaniska kunozga na kuŵika ŵanthu ŵakukwana mu zombo zake zinandi, kweniso kugura visulo vinandi vyamtengo kuti yilipire kugula katundu munandi wa ku Asia kuti wanyamulike kuya ku Europe. Ivi vikapangiska kuti kukula kwa kampani kukwere pafupifupi kaŵiri.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=436–437}} Kulemera kwa zombo izo zikaŵeranga kuwelera kunyumba kukakwera na 125% mu nyengo iyi. Kweni ndalama izo kampani yikasanganga chifukwa cha kuguliska katundu uyo wakafikanga ku Europe zikakwera na 78% pera. Ivi vikulongora kusintha kukuru mu umo VOC yikaŵira: sono yikachitanga ntchito mu misika yiphya ya katundu uyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga chomene para mtengo ukusintha, ndipo yikeneranga kuphalizgana mwakuyana na ŵalonda ŵanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti phindu liŵe lichoko.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=437–440}} Ndondomeko za malonda za nyengo iyo zikapangiskanga kuti chiŵe chakusuzga kwa ŵalongozgi ŵa kampani kumanya vinthu ivi, ndipo ichi chingalongosora mwakudunjika vifukwa vya vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakabudiska pakuwona ivyo vikachitika pamanyuma. Kusoŵa kwa chidziŵitso uku katenge kungamazgika (nga umo vikaŵira mu nyengo zakwamba za mbili ya VOC) na luso lwa ŵalongozgi pa malonda. Kweni pa nyengo iyi, ŵalongozgi aŵa pafupifupi wose ŵakasankhikanga kufuma mu gulu la ndale la ''[[Regenten|ŵalongozgi ŵa regent]]'', ilo likaŵa kuti lataya kale ubwezi wake wapafupi na magulu gha ŵamalonda.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=441–442}} Maupangiro ghachoko gha phindu pera ghakulongosora yayi kuchepa kwa ndalama izo kampani yikasanganga. Pa mulingo ukuru, ndalama za ntchito za VOC zikaŵa na kawonekero ka "fixed" (malo gha nkhondo; kusungilira zombo na vinyake). Ntheura, viŵelengero vya phindu mphanyi vikulutilira kuŵa vyakukhora usange kukura kwa malonda agho ghakachitikanga mphanyi kwapangiska [[Economies of scale|kusunga ndalama chifukwa cha kukura kwa ntchito]]. Kweni, nangauli zombo zikuru zikanyamura vinthu vinandi ivyo vikakuranga, ntchito ya ŵantchito yikakura yayi mwakukwana kuti yipange phindu ili. Mwakawiro, ndalama zose za kampani zikakuranga pamoza na kukura kwa malonda; kuchepa kwa phindu lakupambura ndalama kukapangiska mwakudunjika kuchepa kwa phindu la ndalama izo zikaŵikikamo. Nyengo ya kukura yikaŵa ya "kukura kwambura phindu".{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=447}} Mwakudunjika: "[t]he long-term average annual profit in the VOC's 1630–70 'Golden Age' was [[guilder|ƒ]]2.1 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:2100000/10^6}}|1650|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} in {{Inflation/year|NL}}), of which just under half was distributed as dividends and the remainder reinvested. The long-term average annual profit in the 'Expansion Age' (1680–1730) was ƒ2.0 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:2000000/10^6}}|1700|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} in {{Inflation/year|NL}}), of which three-quarters was distributed as dividend and one-quarter reinvested. In the earlier period, profits averaged 18% of total revenues; in the latter period, 10%. The annual return of invested capital in the earlier period stood at approximately 6%; in the latter period, 3.4%."{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=447}} Ndipouli, pamaso pa ŵakuŵikamo ndalama, VOC yikachita viheni chomene yayi. Mtengo wa magawo ghake ukalutilira kuŵa pafupi na 400 kufuma pakati pa ma 1680 (kupatula kusintha pachoko pa [[Glorious Revolution|Kusintha kwa Ulemerero]] mu 1688), ndipo ukafika pachanya chomene pa 642 mu ma 1720. Magawo gha VOC pa nyengo iyi ghakaperekanga phindu la 3.5%, ilo likaŵa pachoko waka kuluska phindu la ma bond gha boma la Netherlands.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=448}} \===Kuchepa na kumara=== [[File\:Chinezenmoord Van Stolk.jpg|thumb|A print of the [[1740 Batavia massacre]]]] [[File\:The East Indiaman General Goddard capturing Dutch East Indiamen, June 1795, by Thomas Luny.jpg|thumb|The British East Indiaman ''[[General Goddard (ship)|General Goddard]]'' attacking seven VOC East Indiamen on 14 June 1795]] Pamanyuma pa 1730, vinthu vya VOC vikamba kuchepa. Pali vinthu vinkhondi vikuru ivyo vikapangiska kuti kampani iyi yimare nkhongono mu vyaka 50 pakati pa 1730 na 1780:{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=449–455}} - Pakaŵa kuchepa kwambura kuleka kwa malonda gha pakati pa vyaru vya ku Asia chifukwa cha kusintha kwa ndale na chuma mu Asia, uko VOC yikaŵa na nkhongono yichoko waka yakuchitapo kanthu. Vinthu ivi pachokopachoko vikachichizga kampani kufuma ku Persia, [[Dutch Suratte|Suratte]], ku Malabar Coast, na Bengal. Kampani yikeneranga kuchepeska ntchito zake ku chigaŵa icho yikaŵa nacho mwakuthupi, kufuma ku Ceylon kwizira mu visumbu vya Indonesia. Ntheura, unandi wa malonda agha gha pakati pa vyaru vya ku Asia na phindu lake vikeneranga kuchepa. - Umo kampani yikaŵikikira mu Asia (pakati pa malo ghake ghakuru ku Batavia), uko pakwamba kukaŵa kwakovwira pakusanga nkhani za misika, kukamba kuŵa suzgo mu vyaka vya m'ma 18 chifukwa cha kulephera kwa kutumiza vinthu vyose dankha ku malo agha ghakuru. Suzgo ili likawoneka chomene mu malonda gha tiyi, apo ŵapikisano nga ni EIC na [[Ostend Company|Kampani ya Ostend]] ŵakatumizanga vinthu mwakudunjika kufuma ku China kuya ku Europe. - "Venality" ya ŵantchito ŵa VOC (mu ng'anamuro la uryarya na kuleka kuchita ntchito), nangauli yikaŵa suzgo ku makampani ghose gha East India pa nyengo iyo, yikuwoneka kuti yikasuzga VOC pa mulingo ukuru kuluska ŵapikisano ŵake. Kuyowoya unenesko, kampani yikaŵa "mwenezi muwemi" yayi. Malipiro ghakaŵa ghachoko, ndipo "malonda pa nkhani ya munthu" ghakaŵa ghakuzomerezgeka yayi mwalamulo. Ghakamba kusazgikira mu vyaka vya m'ma 18, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ntchito ya kampani yichepe.{{efn|Chakuluska chomene chikaŵa cha "[[Amfioen Society]]". Iyi yikaŵa bizinesi ya ŵantchito ŵapachanya ŵa VOC iyo yikapika ulamuliro wakwendeska malonda gha opium pa Java, pa nyengo iyo VOC yikeneranga kulipira mitengo yapachanya ku EIC kuti yigule opium ku Bengal.}} Kwambira pafupifupi mu ma 1790, mazgu ghakuti ''perished under corruption'' (''vergaan onder corruptie'', agho ghakafupikiskikanga kuŵa VOC mu Chidachi) ghakamba kugwiriskirika ntchito kulongosora ivyo vikachitikira kampani iyi. - Suzgo yinyake iyo VOC yikasangananga nayo pamoza na makampani ghanyake yikaŵa viŵelengero vyapachanya vya ŵantchito kufwa na kulwara. Ivi vikamalanga ŵantchito ŵa kampani na kuchepeska nkhongono za ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakapona. - Suzgo yinyake yikachitika chifukwa cha [[dividend policy|ndondomeko ya kampani yakugaŵira phindu]]. Ma dividend agho kampani yikagaŵanga ghakajumphanga ndalama zakusazgikira izo yikasanganga ku Europe mu vyaka vyose kufuma mu 1690 mpaka 1760 kupatula 1710–1720. Kweni, mu nyengo yakufika mu 1730, ŵalongozgi ŵakatumizga vinthu ku Asia kuti ŵakwezge ndalama za malonda kwenekuko. Ntheura, ma buku gha ndalama ghakuphatikizika mphanyi ghakalongora kuti phindu lose likajumphanga ma dividend. Kweniso, pakati pa 1700 na 1740 kampani yikafumiskamo ƒ5.4 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:5400000/10^6}}|1720|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}) ya ngongoli ya nyengo yitali. Ntheura, kampani yikaŵa pa malo ghakukhora gha ndalama mu vyaka ivi. Ivi vikasintha pamanyuma pa 1730. Apo phindu likagwa chomene, ''bewindhebbers'' ŵakachepeska waka pachoko ma dividend kufuma pa mulingo wa kale. Ntheura, ma dividend agho ghakagaŵikanga ghakajumphanga ndalama izo zikasangikanga mu vyaka vyose kupatula chimoza (1760–1770). Kuti ŵafiske kuchita ivi, ndalama za kampani izo zikaŵikika ku Asia zikeneranga kuchepetskeka na ƒ4 M pakati pa 1730 na 1780, ndipo ndalama zakusungika izo zikaŵapo ku Europe zikachepa na ƒ20 M mu nyengo yeneyiyo. Ntheura, ŵalongozgi ŵakachichizgika kusazgirapo ndalama zakugwiliskirika ntchito za kampani mwa kukopa ndalama za nyengo yifupi kufuma ku ngongoli zakudikirira, izo zikakhazikiskikanga pa ndalama izo zikayembekezekanga kufuma ku zombo izo zikaŵeranga ku nyumba.Gaastra, Femme (2003), ''The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline'' (Zutphen: Walberg Pers). Nangauli pakaŵa masuzgo agha, mu 1780 VOC yikaŵa nipera kampani yikuru chomene. Chuma chake mu Republic, icho chikaŵa na sitima na katundu wakusungika, chikaŵa ƒ28 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:28000000/10^6}}|1780|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}); chuma chake mu Asia, icho chikaŵa na ndalama zakugwiliskira ntchito pa malonda kweniso katundu uyo wakaŵa paulendo kuluta ku Europe, chikaŵa ƒ46 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:46000000/10^6}}|1780|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}). Chuma chose, para wangabwisikapo ngongole zose izo zikaŵa zindabwezgeke, chikaŵa ƒ62 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:62000000/10^6}}|1780|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}). Ntheura, nyengo iyi kampani yikaŵa yikuru chomene ndipo vinthu vyake vikaŵa vyakuti vingalutilira, usange nthowa yimoza ya kunozga kampani yikatekeleka makora. Mu 1780, [[Nkhondo ya Nayi ya Anglo-Dutch]] yikamba, ndipo pa nyengo ya nkhondo ŴaBritain ŵakawukira kampani ya Dutch East India, ŵakachepeska sitima za VOC na hafu ndipo ŵakalopweska chomene nkhongono zake mu Asia. Chifukwa cha nkhondo iyi, VOC yikaluza ndalama zakukwana ƒ43 M (±{{Euro|{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:43000000/10^6}}|1780|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M}} mu {{Inflation/year|NL}}). Ngongole izo zikaperekeka kuti kampani yilutilire kugwira ntchito zikapangiska kuti chuma chake chose chambura ngongole chifike pa ziro.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=454–455}} Kwambira mu 1720, msika wa shuga wakufuma ku Indonesia ukamba kuchepa chifukwa mpikisano wa shuga wa mtengo waku [[Brazil]] ukakura. Misika ya ku Europe yikazura na shuga. Ŵamalonda ŵa shuga ŵa ku China ŵakukwana makumi ghanandi ŵakafika pa ubankirapuse, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaleke ntchito. Pamanyuma pake, magulu gha ŵantchito ŵa ku Asia awo ŵakaŵavya ntchito ghakamba kupanga. Boma la Netherlands ku Batavia likatondeka kuchitapo kanthu mwakukwana pa masuzgo agha. Mu 1740, mphekesera zakuti magulu gha ŵanthu agha ghachimbizgikenge mu chigaŵa cha Batavia zikapangiska chipolowe chikuru. Ŵasilikari ŵa Netherlands ŵakasanda nyumba za Ŵachina ku Batavia kuti ŵapenje vilwero. Nyumba yinyake yati yaphya mwangozi, ŵasilikari na ŵanthu ŵakavu ŵakamba kukoma na kupoka katundu wa Ŵachina.{{cite book|author=Kumar, Ann|title=Java and Modern Europe: Ambiguous Encounters|year=1997|page=32}} [[Kukoma Ŵachina ku Batavia mu 1740|Kukoma Ŵachina]] uku kukawoneka kuti kukaŵa kwakofya chomene mwakuti bungwe la ŵalongozgi ŵa VOC likamba kufufuza mwalamulo Boma la Dutch East Indies kwa ulendo wakwamba mu mdauko wake. Nkhondo ya Nayi ya Anglo-Dutch yati yamara mu 1783, masuzgo gha ndalama gha VOC ghakakura chomene. Pamanyuma pa kuyezga kwambura phindu kunozga kampani kwizira mu maboma gha zigawo za [[Holland]] na [[Zeeland]], bungwe la ŵalongozgi ŵa VOC likachimbizgika mu 1796 ndipo kayendetsedwe ka kampani kakaperekeka ku ''Komiti ya Vinthu vya Malonda gha ku East Indies na Vinthu Vyake'' ({{langx|nl|Komiti ya vinthu vya malonda gha ku East Indies na vinthu vyake}}).{{Citation |last=Koenders |first=Pieter |chapter=TANAP And The Co-Operation Between ANRI And Nationaal Archief |date=2007-01-01 |title=The Archives of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Local Institutions in Batavia (Jakarta) |pages=169–180 |chapter-url=[http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004163652.1-556.9](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004163652.1-556.9) |access-date=2024-01-27 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004163652.1-556.9 |isbn=978-90-474-2179-5|chapter-url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=VOC – Kampani Yakukolerana ya Dutch East India {{!}} Nyumba ya Vyakale ya Western Australia |url=[http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/dirk-hartog/voc-united-dutch-east-india-company](http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/dirk-hartog/voc-united-dutch-east-india-company) |access-date=2024-01-27 |website=Nyumba ya Vyakale ya Western Australia |language=Tum}} Kuyamba kwa [[Nkhondo za French Revolutionary|Nkhondo za ku France za Kusintha Boma]] kukamazga umaliro wa VOC, chifukwa kugwa kwa [[Republic ya Netherlands]] na kusinthika kwake kuŵa [[Republic ya Batavia]] mu 1795 kukapangiska kuti ŴachiDutch na ŴaBritain ŵambe nkhondo. Kuwukira kwa ŴaBritain pa sitima na makoloni gha VOC kukapangiska kuti kampani iyi yitaye vinthu vinandi, ndipo nangauli chikalata cha VOC chikawonjezgeka kanandi, chikazomerezgeka kumara pa 31 Disembala 1799, ndipo kampani yikazgoka ya boma. TANAP, Umaliro wa VOC ==Kapangidwe ka kampani== [[File\:Simon\_Fokke,\_Afb\_010097014121.jpg|thumb|Ŵalongozgi Makumi Ghanomwe, mu chipinda cha ŵalongozgi pa [[East India House (Amsterdam)|Nyumba ya East India]] ku Amsterdam.]] Nangauli VOC yikagwiranga ntchito chomene mu chigaŵa icho pamanyuma chikazgoka [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch East Indies]] (lero ni [[Indonesia]]), kampani iyi yikaŵaso na ntchito zakuzirwa mu vigaŵa vinyake. Yikagwiranga ntchito ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku makontinenti na mitundu yakupambanapambana pa ntchito na malo ghakugwilira ntchito ghakuyana. Nangauli yikaŵa kampani ya ŴachiDutch, ŵantchito ŵake ŵakaŵa ŵakufuma ku Netherlands pera yayi, kweni ŵanandi ŵakafumanga ku Germany na vyaru vinyake. Padera pa ŵantchito ŵakupambanapambana ŵakufuma ku kumpoto na kuzambwe kwa Europe awo VOC yikawalembanga ntchito mu [[Dutch Republic|Republic ya Netherlands]], VOC yikagwiliskiranga ntchito chomene misika ya ŵantchito ŵa ku Asia. Ntheura, ŵantchito ŵa maofesi ghakupambanapambana gha VOC mu Asia ŵakaŵa ŴaEurope na ŴaAsia. Ŵantchito ŵa ku Asia panji [[Eurasian|Ŵa ku Europe na Asia]] ŵakagwiranga ntchito nga mbasekera sitima, ŵasilikari, ŵalembi, ŵakuduka mathabwa, ŵakupanga vinthu vya chisulo, panji ŵantchito ŵambura luso.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=462}} Pa nyengo iyo VOC yikaŵa pa nkhongono zake zikuru, yikaŵa na ŵantchito 25,000 awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu Asia na ŵanyake 11,000 awo ŵakaŵa paulendo.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=462}} Kweniso, nangauli ŵanandi mwa [[shareholder|ŵeneŵa ŵa magawo gha kampani]] ŵakaŵa ŴachiDutch, pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵeneŵa ŵakwamba ŵa magawo gha kampani ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Southern Netherlands (ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku chigaŵa icho sono chikusazgapo Belgium na [[Luxembourg]]), ndipo pakaŵaso Ŵachijeremani ŵakukwana makumi ghanandi. VOC yikaŵa na mitundu yiŵiri ya ŵeneŵa ŵa magawo gha kampani: ''participanten'', awo ŵangawoneka nga mbamembala awo ŵakalongozganga kampani yayi, na ''bewindhebbers'' 76 (pamanyuma ŵakachepeskeka kufika pa 60), awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito nga mbalongozgi ŵa kampani. Uwu ukaŵa umo kampani za ku Netherlands zakuguliska magawo gha kampani zikapangikanga pa nyengo iyo. Chinthu chiphya pa VOC chikaŵa chakuti udindo wa kulipira ngongole wa ''participanten'' pera yayi, kweniso wa ''bewindhebbers'', ukaŵa wakukolerana na ndalama izo ŵakaŵikamo (kanandi, ''bewindhebbers'' ŵakaŵa na udindo wambura mphaka). Ntheura VOC yikaŵa [[limited company|kampani iyo udindo wa ŵeneŵo pa ngongole ukaŵa wakupimika]]. Kweniso, ndalama zikeneranga kukhala ''zakukhazikika'' mu nyengo yose ya umoyo wa kampani. Chifukwa cha ichi, ŵakuŵika ndalama awo ŵakakhumbanga kufumiska ndalama zawo pakati pa nyengo ya kampani ŵakeneranga kuguliska gawo lawo ku ŵanyake pa [[Euronext Amsterdam|Msika wa Magawo gha Amsterdam]].{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |page=385}} ''Confusion of Confusions'', buku la 1688 la mazungumizgo ilo likalembeka na Muyuda wa Sephardi [[Joseph de la Vega|Joseph de la Vega]], likalongosora umo msika uwu wa magawo ghamoza ukagwiriranga ntchito. VOC yikaŵa na Maofesi 6 (''Kamers'') mu misumba ya madoko: [[Amsterdam]], [[Delft]], [[Rotterdam]], [[Enkhuizen]], [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]], na [[Hoorn]]. Ŵimiliri ŵa maofesi agha ŵakakumananga nga ni ''Heeren XVII'' (Ŵalongozgi panji Ŵanthu 17). Ŵakasankhikanga kufuma mu gulu la ŵeneŵa ŵa magawo gha kampani la ''bewindhebbers''.{{sfn|De Vries|Van der Woude |1997 |pages=384–385}} Pa ''Heeren XVII'', ŵimiliri 8 ŵakafumanga ku Ofesi ya Amsterdam (mumoza waka wakuchepa kuti ŵaŵe ŵanandi paŵekha), ŵanayi ŵakafumanga ku Ofesi ya Zeeland, ndipo yumoza wakafumanga ku ofesi yiliyose mwa maofesi ghachoko, apo mpando wa 17 ŵakuperekanga mwakupambanapambana ku Ofesi ya Middelburg-Zeeland panji ŵakasinthananga pakati pa maofesi ghachoko ghankhondi. Ntheura Amsterdam ndiyo yikaŵa na mazgu ghakuzirwa chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zeeland chomene ŵakaŵa na vyenjezgo pa ndondomeko iyi pakwamba. Wofi uwu ukaŵa wambura chifukwa yayi, chifukwa mu ntchito zikang'anamuranga kuti Amsterdam ndiyo yikakhazikiskanga ivyo vikeneranga kuchitika. Maofesi ghankhondi na limoza ghakawuska ndalama zakwambira za Dutch East India Company: {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Ofesi!! colspan="2" |Ndalama |- ! align="center" |[[Dutch guilder|Ma-guilder]] (ƒ) ! align="center" |± [[Euro|Yuro]] (€)<br>yakuyana mu {{Inflation/year|NL}} |- |Amsterdam || align="center" |3,679,915 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:3679915/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- |Middelburg || align="center" |1,300,405 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:1300405/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- |Enkhuizen || align="center" |540,000 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:540000/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- |Delft || align="center" |469,400 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:469400/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- |Hoorn || align="center" |266,868 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:266868/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- |Rotterdam || align="center" |173,000 | align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:173000/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |- !Jumla:!!6,424,588 ! align="center" |{{Inflation|NL|{{#expr:6424588/10^6}}|1600|r=0}}{{nbsp}}M |} Kuwuska ndalama ku Rotterdam kukenda makora yayi. Chigaŵa chikuru cha ndalama izo chikafuma kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Dordrecht]]. Nangauli Enkhuizen yikawuska ndalama zichoko kuluska Amsterdam panji Middelburg-Zeeland, ndiyo yikaŵa na chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha ndalama za [[Share (finance)|magawo]] gha VOC. Pa ŵanthu 358 ŵakwamba awo ŵakagura magawo, pakaŵa ŵamalonda ŵachoko ŵanandi awo ŵakajipeleka kuyezga [[risk|chiwawa cha kutaya ndalama]]. Ndalama zakuchepera izo munthu wakeneranga kuŵikamo mu VOC zikaŵa ƒ3,000, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti magawo gha kampani ghaŵe ghakugulika na ŵamalonda ŵanandi.{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/103 103]}} [[File:AMH-5460-NA Uniform for VOC soldiers (cropped).jpg|thumb|{{circa|1783}} Chithuzithuzi cha ŵasilikari ŵatatu ŵa VOC mu Dutch East Indies]] Pakati pa ŵeneŵa ŵa magawo gha VOC ŵakwambilira, ŵalendo ŵakaŵa na ntchito yikuru. Pa ŵanthu 1,143 awo ŵakapereka ndalama, pakaŵa [[German people|Ŵachijeremani]] 39 na ŵanthu 301 ŵakufuma ku [[Southern Netherlands|Southern Netherlands]] (pafupifupi Belgium na Luxembourg mazuŵa ghano, ivyo panyengo iyo vikaŵa pasi pa ulamuliro wa [[Habsburg|Ŵa Habsburg]]), ndipo [[Isaac le Maire]] ndiyo wakaŵa munthu uyo wakaŵika ndalama zinandi chomene, ƒ85,000. ''Heeren XVII'' (Ŵalongozgi 17) ŵakakumananga mwakusintha: vyaka 6 ku Amsterdam na vyaka 2 ku Middelburg-Zeeland. Ŵakasankhanga ndondomeko zikuru za VOC na kugaŵa ntchito pakati pa maofesi. Maofesi ghakachitanga ntchito zose zakukhumbikwa, ghakapanganga sitima zawo na malo ghakusungiramo katundu, kweniso kuguliska na kugura katundu. ''Heeren XVII'' ŵakatumanga ŵalongozgi ŵa sitima na ulongozgi wakupulikikwa makora wa nthowa iyo ŵakeneranga kwendamo, mphepo izo zikaŵa zikulamulira, mikhaliro ya maji, malo ghakuzika sitima na vimanyikwiro vya pa nyanja. VOC yikapanganga so [[nautical charts|mapu gha pa nyanja]] ghake. Mu nkhani ya [[Dutch–Portuguese War|Nkhondo ya ŴachiDutch na Ŵapwitikizi]], kampani yikakhazikiska likulu lake ku Batavia, pa [[Java island|chirwa cha Java]] (sono ni [[Jakarta]], Indonesia). Malo ghanyake gha ukoloni ghakakhazikiskikaso mu [[East Indies|East Indies]], nga ni pa [[Maluku Islands|Virwa vya Maluku]], ivyo vikusazgapo [[Banda Islands|Virwa vya Banda]], uko VOC yikalamuliranga mwankhaza kuti yisunge ulamuliro wa yekha pa malonda gha [[nutmeg|muskat]] na [[mace (spice)|mace]]. Nthowa izo zikagwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵasungilire ulamuliro uwu zikazganga [[extortion|kukakamizga ŵanthu kupereka ndalama panji katundu]] na kupondereza mwankhaza ŵanthu ŵakwawo, kusazgapo [[mass murder|kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi]].<ref>[[Hanna, Willard A.]] (1991). ''Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands''. Bandanaira: Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Naira.</ref> Kweniso, ŵimiliri ŵa VOC nyengo zinyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa ya kuwotcha makuni gha vyakununkhira kuti ŵachichizge ŵanthu ŵakwawo kulima vyakurya vinyake, ndipo ivi vikachepeskanga mwadala unandi wa vyakununkhira nga ni muskat na ma clove.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/111 111]}}</ref> ==Ŵeneŵa ŵa magawo na nkhani za ulamuliro== [[File:VOC duit.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Mbali zose ziŵiri za [[duit|duit]], [[Coinage of the Dutch East India Company|ndalama iyo yikapangika mu 1735 na VOC]]]] Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Netherlands ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, chomenechomene awo ŵakaŵikamo ndalama mu VOC, ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵaŵezi ŵakwamba kulembedwa mu mdauko awo ŵakaghanaghanirapo mwakuzirwa za masuzgo gha [[corporate governance|ulamuliro wa makampani]]. Isaac Le Maire, uyo wakumanyikwa kuti wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kulembedwa mu mdauko kuchita [[short selling|kuguliska magawo mwachidule]], wakaŵaso yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵikamo ndalama zinandi mu VOC. Mu 1609, wakadandawura za ulamuliro uheni wa kampani wa VOC. Pa 24 Janyuwale 1609, Le Maire wakapeleka pempho lakususkana na VOC, ndipo ichi chikaŵa chinthu chakwamba kulembedwa mu mdauko cha [[shareholder activism|ntchito ya ŵalembeka magawo yakususkana na kampani]]. Mu mphindano yakwamba kulembeka mu mdauko yakukhwaskana na ulamuliro wa kampani, Le Maire wakasuzga mwakuzomerezgeka kuti wupu wakulongozga wa VOC (Heeren XVII) ukakhumbanga "kusunga ndalama za munyake kwa nyengo yitali panji kuzituma mu nthowa yinyake yakupambana na khumbo la mwenecho", ndipo wakapempha kuti VOC yimazgike mwakuyana na umo malonda ghakachitikira nyengo iyo. Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2010). ''Putting Le Maire into Perspective: Business Organization and the Evolution of Corporate Governance in the Dutch Republic, 1590–1610'', mu J. Koppell, ed., ''Origins of Shareholder Advocacy''. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan) Mueller, Dennis C. (ed.), (2012). ''The Oxford Handbook of Capitalism'', peji 333. (New York: Oxford University Press) Pambere wakaŵa mwenecho wa magawo ghanandi chomene mu VOC kweniso ''bewindhebber'' uyo wakakhalanga pa wupu wakulongozga, Le Maire wakuwoneka kuti wakayezga kupatuska phindu la kampani kuti liŵe lake mwa kuchita maulendo 14 mu zina lake m'malo mwa zina la kampani. Pakuti magawo ghake ghanandi ghakaŵavya nkhongono yikuru yakuvota, mu 1605 Le Maire wakachimbizgika na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake chifukwa cha milandu ya kwiba ndalama za kampani, ndipo wakachichizgika kusayina phangano lakuti waleke kupikisana na VOC. Wakati wasungilira magawo mu kampani pamanyuma pa nkhani iyi, mu 1609 Le Maire wakaŵa mulembi wa icho chikuchemeka kuti "mazgu ghakwamba kulembeka mu mdauko gha ŵakuŵikamo ndalama ghakuvikilira wanangwa wawo mu kampani iyo magawo ghake ghakuguliskika pa msika". Frentrop, Paul (2009). ''The First Known Shareholder Activist: The Colorful Life and Times of Isaac le Maire (1559–1624)'', mu Frentrop/Jonker/Davis 2009, 11–26 Frentrop, Paul; Jonker, Joost; Davis, S. (ed.), (2009). ''Shareholder Rights at 400: Commemorating Isaac Le Maire and the First Recorded Expression of Investor Advocacy'' (The Hague: Remix Business Communications, 2009) Hansmann, Henry; Pargendler, Mariana (2013). ''The Evolution of Shareholder Voting Rights: Separation of Ownership and Consumption''. (Yale Law Journal, Volume 123, pages 100–165, 2014) Mu 1622, ŵakuŵikamo ndalama mu VOC ŵakachitikasongaso chiŵembu chakwamba kulembeka mu mdauko cha [[shareholder revolt|kuwukira kwa ŵakuŵikamo ndalama]], ŵeneŵo ŵakadandawura kuti mabuku gha ndalama gha kampani "ghakapakika mafuta gha nyama" mwakuti "ghadyeke na ŵapusu". Ŵakuŵikamo ndalama ŵakakhumbanga "reeckeninge", kung'anamura kufufuza mwakwenelera kwa ndalama za kampani. Ntchito ya ŵakuŵikamo ndalama mu VOC mu 1622 yikulongora umo [[corporate social responsibility|kampani yikamba kupulikira udindo wake ku ŵanthu]], apo ŵakuŵikamo ndalama ŵakachitanga viwawa vyakususka mwa kugaŵira mapepala ghakupharazga na kudandawura za kujipangira usambazi kwa ŵalongozgi kweniso kubisa vinthu. ==Malo ghakuru gha malonda, malo ghakukhala ŵanthu, na makoloni== {{Main|Mndandanda wa malo gha malonda na malo ghakukhala ŵanthu gha Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands}} {{See also|\:Category\:Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu na makoloni gha Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands agho ghakale|l1=Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu na makoloni gha Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands agho ghakale (VOC)}} {{See also|\:Category\:Malo gha malonda gha Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands agho ghakale|l1=Malo gha malonda gha Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands agho ghakale (VOC)}} {{See also|\:Category\:Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu agho ghakakhazikiskika na Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands|l1=Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu agho ghakakhazikiskika na Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands (VOC)}} {{See also|Ulamuliro wa kampani mu East Indies ya ku Netherlands}} Likulu likuru la kampani pa charu chose likaŵa ku [[Amsterdam]], ndipo yikaŵaso na malo ghanyake mu misumba ya ku Netherlands ya [[Delft]], [[Enkhuizen]], [[Hoorn]], [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] na [[Rotterdam]]. Ku Africa, malo gha malonda na makoloni ghakaŵa mu [[Mauritius ya ku Netherlands]] mu 1638–1658 na 1664–1710, kweniso mu [[Koloni ya Cape ya ku Netherlands]] pakati pa 1652 na 1806. Malo gha malonda na makoloni gha kampani ku South Asia na Indonesia ghakaŵa mu [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], [[Coromandel ya ku Netherlands]] mu 1806–1825, [[Suratte ya ku Netherlands]] mu 1616–1825, [[Bengal ya ku Netherlands]] kufuma mu 1827 kufika 1825, [[Ceylon ya ku Netherlands]] kufuma mu 1640 kufika 1796, na [[Malabar ya ku Netherlands]] kufuma mu 1661 kufika 1795. Malo gha ku Japan ghakaŵa ku [[Hirado, Nagasaki]] kufuma mu 1609 kufika 1641, kweni ghakasamuskika ku [[Dejima]] kufuma mu 1641 kufika 1853. Ku Taiwan, kampani yikaŵa na malo ghake ku [[Anping, Tainan|Anping]] ([[Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan)|Fort Zeelandia]]), [[Tainan]] ([[Fort Provincia]]), [[Wang-an, Penghu]] pa [[Pescadores Islands|Viwumba vya Pescadores]] (Fort Vlissingen; 1620–1624), [[Keelung]] ([[Santisima Trinidad (Taiwan)|Fort Noord-Holland]] na Fort Victoria) na [[Tamsui]] ([[Fort Antonio]]). Ku Malaysia, kampani yikaŵa ku [[Malacca ya ku Netherlands]] mu 1641–1795 na 1818–1825. Ku Thailand, kampani yikaŵa mu [[Ufumu wa Ayutthaya]] mu 1608–1767. Ku Vietnam, kampani yikaŵa ku [[Hanoi]]/Tonkin mu 1636–1699, na ku [[Hội An (city)|Hội An]] mu 1636–1741. [[File\:Fort Rotterdam, Makassar, Indonesia - 20100227-02.jpg|thumb|[[Fort Rotterdam]] ku [[Makassar]], wakazengeka na VOC mu 1673]] [[File\:Melaka-Dutch-Square-2201.jpg|thumb|upright|Dutch Square ku [[Malacca]], pamoza na [[Christ Church, Malacca|Tchalitchi cha Christ]] (pakati) na [[Stadthuys]] (ku malyero)]] [[File\:Kasteel de Goede Hoop Gateway.JPG|thumb|upright|Chipata cha [[Castle of Good Hope]], linga lakukhora lakuzingilizgika ilo likazengeka na VOC mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600]] ==''Mawonekero gha VOC''== {{Cquote| (...) Nkhupulikiska chifukwa icho mose mukuyowoya vinthu viheni na vyakukwiyiska nthena. Tiyeni tikondwenge pamoza. Tiyeni tiyowoyeso kuti "Netherlands yingachita" nga umo tikayowoyeranga: mawonekero gha VOC. Laŵiskani ivyo vili kujumpha mphaka zithu. Kuchita vinthu mwamphu! Asi mukuwona?|200px||[[Jan Pieter Balkenende]], uyo panyengo iyi wakaŵa [[Mlongozgi wa Boma wa Netherlands]], wakazgora ivyo ŵakamususka pa ndondomeko ya boma lake pa nkhani ya nyumba ya malango mu Seputembala 2006{{efn|Jan Peter Balkenende: "Nkhupulikiska chifukwa icho mose mukuyowoya vinthu viheni na vyakukwiyiska nthena. Tiyeni tikondwenge pamoza. Tiyeni tiyowoyeso kuti: 'Netherlands yingachita nadi!', mawonekero gha VOC. Laŵiskani ivyo vili kujumpha mphaka! Kuchita vinthu mwamphu! Asi?" [Mazgu ghakwamba mu Chidachi, ghafwatulika mwakuyanako na ivyo vikawonekanga mu vidiyo]}}Oostindie, Gert: ''Postcolonial Netherlands Sixty-Five Years of Forgetting, Commemorating, Silencing''. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, {{ISBN|9789089643537}}), peji 252Jonsson, Stefan; Willén, Julia (eds.): ''Austere Histories in European Societies: Social Exclusion and the Contest of Colonial Memories''. (London: Routledge, 2016), peji 67}} Mdauko wa VOC (chomenechomene vigaŵa vyake viheni) nyengo zose waŵa chinthu icho chingapangiska mphindano. Mu 2006, apo [[Mlongozgi wa Boma wa Netherlands]] [[Jan Pieter Balkenende]] wakayowoya za mzimu wa upayiniya wa malonda na [[work ethic|mtheto wa ntchito]] wa [[ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands]] na [[Dutch Republic|Republic ya ku Netherlands]] mu [[Dutch Golden Age|nyengo yawo ya usambazi]], wakapangiska lizgu lakuti "mawonekero gha VOC" (''[[Nl\:VOC-mentaliteit|VOC-mentaliteit]]'' mu Chidachi).{{efn|Balkenende: "Tiyeni tiŵe ŵakugomezga! Tiyeni tiyowoye kuti, 'Ku Netherlands vinthu vingachitikaso!' Mawonekero gha VOC agha: kuluta kujumpha mphaka na kuchita vinthu mwamphu!" [Lafwatulika kufuma ku mazgu ghakwamba gha Chidachi].}} Kwa Balkenende, VOC yikimiranga [[business acumen|mahara gha malonda]] gha ŵa ku Netherlands, [[entrepreneurship|mzimu wa kuchita bizinesi]], mzimu wa kusambira vinthu vipya na kuŵa na mtima wakusankha vinthu mwakukhora. Kweni mazgu agha ghakakwiyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi, chifukwa kuwona mwakukondwera nyengo ya Dutch Golden Age kukuzerezga vinthu ivyo vikayanana nayo mu mdauko, nga ni [[colonialism|ulamuliro wa makoloni]], [[exploitation of labour|kuphindulira ŵantchito mwankhaza]] na nkhaza. Pamanyuma Balkenende wakalongosora kuti "chikaŵa chinthu icho wakakhumbanga yayi kuyowoyapo napachoko". Kweni nangauli ŵanthu ŵakayisuskanga, "mawonekero gha VOC", nga ni chigaŵa cha umo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuwonera mdauko wa Dutch Golden Age, kwa vyaka vinandi ghakaŵa chinthu chakuzirwa mu ndondomeko ya chikhalidwe cha Netherlands. ==Kususka== [[File\:Natives of Arrakan sell slaves to the Dutch East India Company (1663).jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Rakhine State|Arakan]] ŵakuguliska ŵazga ku Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands, pafupifupi{{nbsp}}1663 CE.]] Kampani iyi yikususkika chifukwa cha vyakufumapo vya [[quasi-absolute monopoly|umaliro wapafupi wa ulamuliro wa malonda wawoŵene]], [[colonialism|ulamuliro wa makoloni]], [[exploitation of labour|kuphindulira ŵantchito mwankhaza]] (kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[slave labour|ŵazga ngati ŵantchito]]), [[History of slavery|malonda gha ŵazga]], kugwiliskira ntchito nkhaza, [[environmental destruction|kunanga chilengedwe]] (kusazgapo [[deforestation|kutema misitu]]), kweniso chifukwa cha umo kampani iyi yikaŵira na [[bureaucratic|malango na maofesi ghanandi chomene]]. Batavia, iyo sono ni Jakarta, yikaŵa likulu la Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands, ndipo mu koloni iyi mukaŵa ndondomeko yakukhwima ya magulu gha ŵanthu. Kuyana na Marsely L. Kahoe mu ''The Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art'', "ntchakwambura kwenelera kupulikiska Batavia, nga umo ŵakusambira ŵanyake ŵachitira, kuti yikaŵa ndondomeko yakukhazikika na kuyana kwa ŵanthu iyo pamanyuma yikanangika chifukwa cha vinthu vya ulamuliro wa makoloni. M'malo mwake, kupatukana kwa ŵanthu mu magulu na kuŵapatula mu Batavia kukafumanga mu nthowa zinyake mwakudunjika mu ndondomeko ya ŵa ku Netherlands." Pakaŵa chiŵerengero chikuru chomene cha ŵantchito ŵa VOC awo ŵakafwanga chifukwa cha ngozi za ngalawa, matenda nga ni scurvy na dysentery, kweniso kukakirana na makampani ghanyake gha malonda na ŵakupoka katundu mu nyanja. Pakati pa 1602 na 1795, pafupifupi ŵasekelaŵa na ŵamisiri miliyoni yimoza ŵakafuma ku Holland, kweni ŵaŵiri pera pa ŵatatu ŵakaŵerako. J.L. van Zanden wakulemba kuti "VOC 'yikamalanga' ŵanthu pafupifupi 4,000 chaka chilichose." ===Ulamuliro wa makoloni, ulamuliro wa malonda wawoŵene na nkhaza=== {{Further|Gulu\:Mdauko wa nkhondo wa Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands|l1=Mdauko wa nkhondo wa Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands|Gulu\:Nkhondo izo Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands yikachitamo|l2=Nkhondo izo Kampani ya East Indies ya ku Netherlands yikachitamo|Ukoloni wa ŵa ku Europe mu Africa|Ulamuliro wa ŵa ku Western mu Asia|Ukoloni wa ŵa ku Europe mu Southeast Asia|Nkhondo za vyakununkhira|Kupha ŵanthu ku Amboyna|Kupha ŵanthu ku Batavia|Kupha ŵanthu pa Chirwa cha Lamey}} {{Cquote|Ŵakulu ŵinu mukumanya kufuma mu ivyo mwawona kuti malonda mu Asia ghakwenera kuchitika na kusungika pasi pa civikiliro na chovwiro cha vilwero vya ŵakulu ŵinu, ndipo vilwero ivi vikwenera kulipilika na phindu lakufuma mu malonda; ntheura tingachita malonda yayi kwambura nkhondo, nesi nkhondo kwambura malonda.|200px||[[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]], uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi mukuru wa VOC ''de facto'' [mu [[East Indies|East Indies]]], ku [[Heeren XVII]], wupu wakulongozga wa VOC [mu [[Dutch Republic|Republic ya ku Netherlands]]], mu 1614}} Malamulo gha VOC ghakazomerezga kuti ichite vinthu nga ni boma ilo likaŵa na mazaza ghakujiyimira, ndipo likachita nkhondo zakukora malo mwankhaza.{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&pg=PA86|title=The](https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC\&pg=PA86|title=The) Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=86–|author-link=Nicholas Tarling|access-date=8 March 2021|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160028/https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&pg=PA86|url-status=live](https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160028/https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC\&pg=PA86|url-status=live)}} Chimoza ntchimoza chikaŵa [[Kukora kwa Ŵadachi Visiwa vya Banda|kukora kwa Ŵadachi Visiwa vya Banda]], pakati pa 1609 na 1621, pamanyuma pakuti visiwa ivi vikakana kupereka mafuta gha nutmeg kwa Ŵadachi pera. Ŵadachi ŵakatuma ŵasilikari kuti ŵalange ŵanthu, ndipo nkhondo izi zikapangiska kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Banda unangike pafupi chose.{{Cite journal|last=Ittersum|first=Martine Julia van|date=2016-05-18|title=Debating Natural Law in the Banda Islands: A Case Study in Anglo–Dutch Imperial Competition in the East Indies, 1609–1621|journal=History of European Ideas|volume=42|issue=4|pages=459–501|doi=10.1080/01916599.2015.1101216|issn=0191-6599|doi-access=free}} Ŵakadukira chirwa chikuru cha [[Visiwa vya Banda|Banda]], icho chikaŵa [[Lontor (chirwa)|Lontor]], mu 1621. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana 2,800 ŵa ku Banda ŵakakomeka, ŵanandi chifukwa cha njara, ndipo ŵanthu 1,700 ŵakazgoka ŵazga pa nyengo ya kuwukira uku.{{Cite book |last=Straver |first=Hans |date=2018 |title=Vaders en dochters: Molukse historie in de Nederlandse literatuur van de negentiende eeuw en haar weerklank in Indonesië |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA90](https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJGDwAAQBAJ\&pg=PA90) |location=Hilversum |publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren |pages=90–91 |isbn=9789087047023 |access-date=17 June 2020 |quote=Om hierin naar behooren te voorzien is het noodig dat Banda t'eenemaal vermeesterd en met ander volk gepeupleerd worde. |language=nl |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160029/https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA90](https://web.archive.org/web/20230411160029/https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJGDwAAQBAJ\&pg=PA90) |url-status=live}} Ŵanthu wose pa visiwa ivi ŵakayanayika kuti ŵakaŵa 15,000 pambere ŵandakoreke. Nangauli chiŵelengero cheneko chichali chambura kumanyikwa makora, ŵakupima kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 14,000 ŵakakomeka, ŵakapangika ŵazga panji ŵakachimbilira ku malo ghanyake, ndipo ŵanthu 1,000 pera ŵa ku Banda ndiwo ŵakapona pa visiwa ivi. Ŵanthu ŵakupulumuka ŵakaŵikika mu minda ya nutmeg nga mbantchito ŵakukakamizgika.{{cite journal|first=Vincent C.|last=Loth|date=1995|title=Pioneers and Perkeniers: The Banda Islands in the 17th Century|journal=[[Cakalele (magazini)|Cakalele]]|volume=6|publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa|Yunivesite ya Hawaiʻi ku Mānoa]]|location=Honolulu|hdl=10125/4207|pages=13–35}} Ŵazga ŵakachitirika nkhaza chomene ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Banda chikakhira kufika pa 1,000 mu 1681. Ŵazga 200 ŵakazizwanga chaka chilichose kuti ŵasungire chiŵelengero cha ŵazga pafupifupi 4,000.{{Cite book|last=van Zanden |first=J. L.|title=The rise and decline of Holland's economy : merchant capitalism and the labour market|url=https://archive.org/details/risedeclineofhol0000zand |date=1993|publisher=Manchester University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/risedeclineofhol0000zand/page/77 77]|oclc=654324718}} Mu 1623 pa [[Chirwa cha Ambon|Ambon]] (Amboina), ŵalara ŵa VOC ŵakakaka, ŵakasuzga na kukoma ŵantchito 10 ŵa [[Kampani ya Ŵangerezi ya East India]], pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Japan na Portugal awo ŵakawovwiranga, chifukwa cha kukayikira kuti ŵakachita chiŵembu. Chochitika ichi chikumanyikwa nga ni [[Kukomeka kwa Amboyna]], ndipo chikamazga kukolerana pakati pa Ŵangerezi na Ŵadachi mu Moluccas kweniso chikalongora umo Kampani iyi yikagwiliskiranga ntchito makhoti na chilango kuti yivikilire malonda ghake gha monopoly.{{cite book |last=Clulow |first=Adam |title=Amboina, 1623: Fear and Conspiracy on the Edge of Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/amboina1623fearc0000clul |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0231175128}}{{Page needed|date=September 2025}} Mu 1740, apo chuma cha shuga ku Batavia chikakhira chomene, ŵasilikari ŵa VOC na ŵasilikari ŵanyake awo ŵakakolerananga nawo ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵanandi chomene. Ŵakufufuza ŵakupereka chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 10,000 mu chochitika icho chikaŵa chikumanyikwa nga ni [[Kukomeka kwa Batavia mu 1740|Kukomeka kwa Batavia]].{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 2|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780521663700|editor-last=Tarling|editor-first=Nicholas|pages=86–88}} Pambere ivi vindachitike, mu 1636, ŵasilikari ŵa VOC ŵakachita ulendo wakulanga pa [[Kukomeka kwa Chirwa cha Lamey|Chirwa cha Lamey]] (Lamay) icho chili pafupi na Taiwan pamanyuma pa ngozi za sitima. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa pachilwa ŵakakomeka panji ŵakachimbizgika, ndipo chirwa ichi chikakhala pafupi chambura ŵanthu.{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780231144601}} ===Malonda gha ŵazga gha Ŵadachi na uzga mu nyengo ya ulamuliro wa VOC=== {{Further|Mbiri ya uzga|Uzga ku South Africa|Kupanduka kwa ŵazga pa Meermin}} Panyengo iyo malo ghakukhazikikapo ŵanthu ghakaŵikika pa [[Koloni ya Ŵadachi ya Cape|Cape]] mu 1652, VOC yikaŵa kuti yakhala kale na vyaka vinandi yikuchita [[uzga]] mu [[East Indies]]. [[Jan van Riebeeck]] wakamanya mukati mwa myezi yiŵiri pera kufuma apo malo ghakukhazikikapo ŵanthu gha ku Cape ghakakhazikiskikira kuti [[ntchito ya ŵazga|ntchito ya ŵazga]] yikakhumbikwiranga pa ntchito zakusuzga chomene na zakufipiska chomene. Pakwamba, VOC yikaghanaghananga kuti yingazgora ŵanalume ŵa mtundu wa [[Khoikhoi]] ŵa ku malo agha kuŵa ŵazga, kweni maghanoghano agha ghakakanika chifukwa cha kughanaghana kuti ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa yakudura kweniso yakofya. Ŵanandi ŵa Khoikhoi ŵakasankha kuleka kugwira ntchito ya Ŵadachi chifukwa cha malipiro ghachoko na vinthu vyakusuzga pa ntchito. Pakwamba, ŵakukhazikika ŵakachitanga malonda na Khoikhoi, kweni vinthu vyakusuzga pa ntchito na malipiro ghachoko ivyo Ŵadachi ŵakaŵika vikapangiska nkhondo zinandi. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe chikakhalanga pasi pa 200 mu vyaka vinkhondi vyakwamba vya malo agha, ndipo kuchita nkhondo na ŵazengezgani awo ŵakaŵa ŵakujumpha 20,000 mphanyi kukaŵa kupusa. Kweniso, Ŵadachi ŵakawopanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa Khoikhoi usange ŵazgika ŵangachimbilira nyengo zose ku ŵanthu ŵanyawo, apo ŵalendo ŵangasuska chomene kuti ŵachimbire na kupona panji kuleka kukakika so.{{cite book |last=Byrnes |first=Rita |title=South Africa: A Country Study |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1996 |location=Washington |pages=Kukhazikiska chuma chakuthemba pa uzga |url=[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htm](http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htm) |access-date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180811031816/http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htm](https://web.archive.org/web/20180811031816/http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htm) |url-status=live}} Pakati pa 1652 na 1657, ŵakachita viyezgo vinandi vyambura kufiskika vyakutolera ŵanalume kufuma ku [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies]] na ku [[Mauritius]]. Kweni mu 1658, VOC yikafika na sitima ziŵiri za ŵazga ku Cape. Yimoza yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200 awo ŵakiza kufuma ku [[Dahomey]] (pasono [[Benin]]), ndipo yinyake yikaŵa na ŵanthu pafupifupi 200, ŵanandi ŵaŵo ŵakaŵa ŵana, awo ŵakakoleka kufuma pa sitima ya Ŵaportugal yakunyamura ŵazga pafupi na mphepete mwa nyanja ya Angola. Kupatulako ŵanthu ŵachoko waka, aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵekha awo ŵakizikapo ku Cape kufuma ku West Africa. Kufuma mu 1658 mpaka kuumaliro wa ulamuliro wa kampani, ŵazga ŵanandi chomene ŵakizanga ku Cape nyengo na nyengo mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, chomenechomene kwizira mu maulendo ghakunyamura ŵazga agho kampani yikawovwiranga na ŵazga awo ŵakizanga ku Cape mu sitima zake zakuwelera. Kufuma ku malo agha kweniso chifukwa cha kubabika kwawo, chiŵelengero cha ŵazga chikakura kufuma pa ziro mu 1652 kufika pafupifupi 1,000 mu 1700. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, chiŵelengero cha ŵazga chikakura chomene kufika pa 16,839 mu 1795. Pamanyuma pakuti malonda gha ŵazga ghayambika, ŵazga wose awo ŵakizanga ku Cape mpaka apo Britain yikakhazikiskira [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Dango la Malonda gha Ŵazga la 1807]] ŵakafumanga ku East Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, South na Southeast Asia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakizanga kufuma ku [[Dutch Ceylon|Ceylon]] na ku visiwa vya Indonesia. Ŵakayidi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake mu ufumu wa VOC nawo ŵakazgikanga. Chiŵelengero cha ŵazga, icho chikajumpha cha ŵakukhazikika ŵa ku Europe mpaka mu kotala lakwamba la vyaka vya m'ma 1800, chikaŵa chomene cha ŵanalume, ntheura chikakhumbikwiranga ŵazga ŵaphya nyengo zose kuti chisungike na kukura. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1660, malo ghakukhazikikapo ŵanthu gha ku Cape ghakamba kuzaniska ŵazga kufuma ku Ceylon, Malaya (Malaysia), na Madagascar kuti ŵagwire ntchito pa minda.{{cite book |last=Appiah |first=Anthony |author2=Henry Louis Gates |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |pages=732 |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&dq=slave+trade+%22dutch+east+india+trading+company%22&pg=PA732](https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ\&dq=slave+trade+%22dutch+east+india+trading+company%22\&pg=PA732) |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220407031804/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&dq=slave+trade+%22dutch+east+india+trading+company%22&pg=PA732](https://web.archive.org/web/20220407031804/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ\&dq=slave+trade+%22dutch+east+india+trading+company%22\&pg=PA732) |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2022}} Kukanirana pakati pa ŵalimi ŵa Ŵadachi na Khoikhoi kukamba apo ŵa Khoikhoi ŵakamanya kuti Ŵadachi ŵakaŵa kuti ŵiza kuti ŵakhalenge kwenekuko, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kutora malo gha ŵaliski. Mu 1659, Doman, wa mtundu wa Khoikhoi uyo wakagwiranga ntchito nga ni wakung'anamura wa Ŵadachi ndipo wakaŵa kuti waluta mpaka ku Java, wakalongozga chiwukirano cha ŵasilikari kuti ŵachimbizge Ŵadachi pa chigaŵa cha Cape. Chiŵukirano ichi chikatherera, nangauli nkhondo yikalutilira mpaka apo mtende wambura kumazga nkhani ukakhazikiskika chaka chakulondezgapo. Mu vyaka vyakhumi ivyo vikarongeka pamanyuma, suzgo pa Khoikhoi likakura apo Ŵadachi ŵanandi ŵakazgoka ŵalimi ŵakujiyimira, ŵakakuliska malo ghawo, ndipo ŵakapenjanga malo gha kuliskapo viŵeto vyawo ivyo vikakuranga. Nkhondo yikambaso mu 1673 ndipo yikalutilira mpaka 1677, apo kukana kwa Khoikhoi kukathereskeka chifukwa cha kusazgikana kwa vilwero vyapachanya vya ku Europe na nthowa ya Ŵadachi yakugwiliskira ntchito kugaŵikana kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Pamanyuma pa ichi, umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa Khoikhoi ku Western Cape ukambaso kusweka. Ŵanyake ŵakasanga ntchito nga mbaliski pa minda ya ŵa ku Europe; ŵanyake ŵakakana ulamuliro wa ŵalendo ndipo ŵakafumapo ku Cape. Chilango chikuru chomene kwa ŵanandi chikiza mu 1713 apo sitima ya Ŵadachi yikiza na nthenda ya nthomba ku Cape. Pakwamba nthenda iyi yikaŵa yambura kumanyikwa mu malo agha, ndipo yikaparanya ŵanthu ŵa Khoikhoi awo ŵakakhalapo, na kukoma 90% ya ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vyose vya m'ma 1700, malo ghakukhazikikapo ŵanthu ghakalutilira kukura chifukwa cha kuwanda kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kweniso kulutilira kuzaniska ŵazga. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 3,000 ŵa ku Europe na ŵazga awo ŵakaŵa ku Cape mu 1700 ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 20,000 ŵa ku Europe na ŵazga pafupifupi 25,000 kuumaliro wa vyaka ivi. ==Malo ghakusungirako mbiri na malembere== Ivyo VOC yikachitanga (malo gha malonda na makoloni) vikapanga malo ghakusungirako vinthu ghakuzura na viŵegha, khofi, tiyi, malaya, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya porcelain na silika, kweniso sitima izo zikasazganga malemba ghanandi. Mauthenga ghakukhwaskana na vinthu vya ndale, chuma, chikhalidwe, chisopa na umoyo wa ŵanthu kufuma ku chigaŵa chikuru chomene ghakendanga pakati pa malo gha VOC, likuru la malonda ku [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (pasono [[Jakarta]]), na wupu wa ŵalongozgi (a [[Heeren XVII|Ŵalongozgi Ŵakukwana 17]]) mu Dutch Republic. Balk, G.L.; van Dijk, F.; Kortlang, D.J.; Gaastra, F.S. ''et al.'': ''The Archives of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Local Institutions in Batavia (Jakarta)''. (BRILL, 2007, {{ISBN|9789004163652}}) Masamba 25 miliyoni gha malemba gha VOC ghachali kusungika, ndipo ghali ku Jakarta; [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka; [[Chennai]], India; [[Cape Town]], South Africa; na [[The Hague]], Netherlands. Mu 2003, [[UNESCO]] yikasazga malemba agha pa [[Memory of the World Programme|ndandanda wa pacharu chose wa Memory of the World]].{{cite web |title=Archives of the Dutch East India Company [Documentary heritage submitted by Netherlands and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register in 2003] |url=[https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/archives-dutch-east-india-company](https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/archives-dutch-east-india-company) |access-date=2 February 2017 |publisher=UNESCO Memory of the World Programme}} * [[East India Company (disambiguation)|Kampani ya East India (kupambaniska maina)]] * [[Muscovy Company|Kampani ya Muscovy]] * [[Levant Company|Kampani ya Levant]] * [[British East India Company|Kampani ya Ŵabritishi ya East India]] * [[Danish East India Company|Kampani ya Ŵadanishi ya East India]] * [[Dutch West India Company|Kampani ya Ŵachidachi ya West India]] * [[Portuguese East India Company|Kampani ya Ŵapwitikizi ya East India]] * [[Compagnie des Indes (disambiguation)|Compagnie des Indes (kupambaniska maina)]] * [[Danish West India Company|Kampani ya Ŵadanishi ya West India]] * [[Hudson's Bay Company|Kampani ya Hudson's Bay]] * [[Mississippi Company|Kampani ya Mississippi]] * [[South Sea Company|Kampani ya South Sea]] * [[Ostend Company|Kampani ya Ostend]] * [[Swedish East India Company|Kampani ya Ŵaswidishi ya East India]] * [[Emden Company|Kampani ya Emden]] * [[Austrian East India Company|Kampani ya Ŵaustiriya ya East India]] * [[Swedish West India Company|Kampani ya Ŵaswidishi ya West India]] * [[Russian-American Company|Kampani ya Russia-America]] {{div end}} * [[10649 VOC]], pulaneti yichoko, asteroid VOC ({{langx|nl|link=no|Vereeniging van de Oostindische Compagnie||Kampani ya East India}}), asteroid ya nambara 10649 kulembeka, ndipo yili mu chigaŵa chikuru cha ma asteroid ==Mazgu ghakulongosora== == Vinyake == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} ==Mabuku ghakugwiliskirika ntchito== * {{cite book |last1=De Vries |first1=Jan |author-link1=Jan de Vries (historian) |last2=Van der Woude |first2=Ad |year=1997 |title=Chuma Chakwamba cha Mazuŵa Ghano: Kufiskika, Kuthera na Kulutilira kwa Chuma cha Ŵadachi, 1500–1815 |url=[https://archive.org/details/firstmodernecono0000devr](https://archive.org/details/firstmodernecono0000devr) |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-57061-1 }} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Fusaro |editor-first1=Maria |editor-last2=Allaire |editor-first2=Bernard |editor-last3=Blakemore |editor-first3=Richard J. |editor-last4=Vanneste |editor-first4=Tijl |title=Malango, Ntchito na Ufumu: Maghanoghano Ghakuyaniska pa Ŵanthu Ŵakugwira Ntchito pa Sitima, c. 1500–1800 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-137-44746-3}} * {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |author-link=M. C. Ricklefs |title=Mbiri ya Indonesia ya Mazuŵa Ghano Kufuma pa c. 1300 |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick\_i0z4](https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_i0z4) |url-access=registration |publisher=MacMillan |year=1993 |location=London |isbn=0-333-57689-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Chaudhuri |first1=K. N. |author-link1=Kirti N. Chaudhuri |last2=Israel |first2=J. I. |author-link2=Jonathan Israel |editor-last1=Israel |editor-first1=J. I. |editor-link=Jonathan Israel |year=1991 |title=Nyengo ya Ŵangerezi na Ŵadachi: Nkhani pa Chiŵukirano Chikuru na Ivyo Chikakhwaskira Charu Chose |url=[https://archive.org/details/anglodutchmoment0000unse](https://archive.org/details/anglodutchmoment0000unse) |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-39075-3 }} ==Ukaboni wa kuwali== {{Commons category}} {{Wikisource|nl|Octrooi van de VOC}} * [[http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/DAS/voyages](http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/DAS/voyages) Maulendo gha sitima za VOC] – nkhokwe ya pa intaneti ya maulendo gha sitima za VOC * [[https://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/en/](http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/en/) Atlas of Mutual Heritage] – atlas ya pa intaneti ya malo ghakukhazikikapo ŵanthu na GWC * {{in lang|nl|cap=yew}} [[https://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx](http://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx) Nkhokwe ya ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito pa sitima za VOC] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160322115642/http://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx](https://web.archive.org/web/20160322115642/http://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx) |date=22 March 2016}} * [[http://www.vochistory.org.au/](http://www.vochistory.org.au/) Gulu la Mbiri ya VOC] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200727065844/http://www.vochistory.org.au/](https://web.archive.org/web/20200727065844/http://www.vochistory.org.au/) |date=27 July 2020 }} * [[http://vocwarfare.net](http://vocwarfare.net) Nkhondo za VOC] * [[https://sejarah-nusantara.anri.go.id/foreword/](https://sejarah-nusantara.anri.go.id/foreword/) Nkhokwe ya VOC kufuma ku nkhokwe ya charu cha Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200727065854/https://sejarah-nusantara.anri.go.id/foreword/](https://web.archive.org/web/20200727065854/https://sejarah-nusantara.anri.go.id/foreword/) |date=27 July 2020 }} {{Navboxes|list1= {{Chartered companies}} {{Foreign trade in Imperial China |state=collapsed}} {{Dutch colonies|East India}} {{Dutch Formosa}} {{Governors-general of the Dutch East Indies}} {{Governor of Dutch Mauritius}} {{Governors of the Cape Colony}} {{DutchplacenamesAus}} {{Economic history of the Netherlands}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Kampani ya Ŵadachi ya East India]] [[Category:1602 kukhazikiskika mu Dutch Republic]] [[Category:1800 kumazgika mu Batavian Republic]] [[Category:Makampani ghakupika chilolezo]] [[Category:Makampani gha ku India gha nyengo ya ukoloni]] [[Category:Makampani ghakukhazikika ku Amsterdam]] [[Category:Makampani agho ghakamazgika mu 1800]] [[Category:Makampani agho ghakakhazikiskika mu 1602]] [[Category:Makampani agho pakwamba ghakaŵikika pa Euronext Amsterdam]] [[Category:Makampani gha mitundu yakupambanapambana]] [[Category:Makampani gha Netherlands agho ghalije]] [[Category:Ma monopoly ghakale]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Ufumu wa Ŵadachi]] [[Category:Ubwezi pakati pa India na Netherlands]] [[Category:Mbiri ya panyanja ya Dutch Republic]] [[Category:Mbiri ya nkhondo ya Ufumu wa Ŵadachi]] [[Category:Makampani gha mitundu yinandi agho ghali na likuru ku Netherlands]] [[Category:Makampani ghakunyamura vinthu gha Dutch Republic]] [[Category:Malonda gha ŵazga gha Ŵadachi]] [[Category:Makampani gha malonda agho ghakakhazikiskika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600]] [[Category:Makampani gha malonda gha Dutch Republic]] [[Category:Ma monopoly gha malonda]] q8a16f98r2pphrcwdq28de55vqkmt3c 0 50195 124072 124028 2026-11-08T17:26:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261108) #IABot (v2.0.9.7) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]) 124072 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave''' (''Sportwave Theory'') ndi dongosolo la malingaliro okhudza njira zoyendetsera mabizinesi ndi zachuma cha khalidwe la anthu, lomwe linapangidwa ndi Paolo Biotti Natoli, katswiri wa zamalonda komanso bizinesi ya masewera wa ku Italy, mu 2018. Dongosololi limafotokoza za mgwirizano pakati pa chidwi cha msika, mmene mtengo umaoneredwera, kulumikizana, maubwenzi ndi magulu okhudzidwa, kuwonekera m'manyuzipepala ndi njira zowunikira mtengo wa katundu ndi zinthu za kampani.<ref name="Oktagon">{{cite web |title=Breaking News: Paolo Biotti, il nuovo Chairman di OKTAGON |url=https://www.oktagon.it/breaking-news-paolo-biotti-il-nuovo-chairman-di-oktagon/ |website=OKTAGON |access-date=6 November 2026}}</ref> Chiphunzitsochi chimafufuza mmene kuphatikiza zinthu zimenezi kungakhudzire zisankho zachuma, khalidwe la ogula pogula zinthu, kugula ndi kuphatikiza makampani, zisankho za ndalama zogwiritsidwa ntchito pa mabizinesi, kuwerengera mtengo wa magawo a kampani, kusanthula malipoti a zachuma komanso kuzindikira katundu wooneka ndi wosaoneka amene mtengo wake sunazindikiridwe mokwanira. Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave chinayambira mu bizinesi ya masewera, koma chinapangidwa kuti chizigwiritsidwa ntchito m'magawo osiyanasiyana a zachuma ndi malonda, kuphatikizapo zachuma, ukadaulo, kupanga zinthu m'mafakitale, atolankhani, zosangalatsa, inshuwaransi, malo ndi nyumba, kuphatikiza ndi kugula makampani (M&A), komanso makampani omwe amagulitsa magawo awo m'misika ya masheya. Mfundo yaikulu ya dongosololi ndi kuona kampani ngati chilengedwe cha zachuma chomwe chimasintha nthawi zonse, momwe chidwi cha anthu, maubwenzi, kulumikizana, atolankhani, ndalama ndi mwayi wa malonda zimagwirira ntchito limodzi. Mosiyana ndi njira zachikhalidwe zomwe nthawi zambiri zimaona malonda, kulumikizana, kukulitsa bizinesi, kasamalidwe ndi zachuma ngati ntchito zosiyana, Sportwave imalimbikitsa njira imodzi yolumikizirana zinthu zonsezi kuti zithandizire kupanga ndi kuwonjezera mtengo wa kampani. Chinthu chapadera cha dongosololi ndi chakuti linayambira mu bizinesi ya masewera ndipo pambuyo pake linakulitsidwa m'malingaliro kuti ligwiritsidwe ntchito pa chuma chonse. Masewera ndi malo oyambirira amene chiphunzitsochi chinapangidwira, osati malire a ntchito zake. == Mbiri == Paolo Biotti anayambitsa Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave ndipo anachipatsa dzina limeneli poyera ku Italy mu 2018. Malinga ndi zomwe zinalembedwa ndi OKTAGON, Biotti anafotokoza dongosololi pamsonkhano wa maphunziro apamwamba a maloya womwe unachitikira ku likulu la Boma la Chigawo cha Lombardy, mogwirizana ndi bungwe la maloya la ku Milan.<ref name="Oktagon"/> Zochitika za Biotti pa ntchito zinaphatikizapo bizinesi ya masewera, malonda apadziko lonse, kasamalidwe ka zochitika zazikulu komanso kuphatikiza ndi kugula makampani. Ntchito zake zinaphatikizanso maudindo a utsogoleri ndi uphungu m'magawo a inshuwaransi, ukadaulo wa zamakompyuta, mphamvu zongowonjezedwanso komanso zachuma zamakampani.<ref name="Oktagon"/> Dongosololi linachokera pakuwona mwayi wachuma umene ungapezeke pophatikiza zochitika zamasewera, kulumikizana kwa mayiko osiyanasiyana, kufalitsa mapulogalamu pa wailesi yakanema, kuthandizidwa ndi othandizira ndalama, maubwenzi amalonda komanso kasamalidwe ka katundu wa kampani. Malinga ndi nkhani yomwe inafalitsidwa ndi OKTAGON, dongosololi linayamba kukopa chidwi m'magulu a maphunziro apamwamba m'mayiko osiyanasiyana, ndipo izi zinathandiza kuti pakhale ntchito zofufuza ndi zolemba za maphunziro a ku yunivesite zokhudza mfundo zake, kuphatikizapo m'mayunivesite a ku United States.<ref name="Oktagon"/> Njira yoyambirira, yomwe inapangidwa kudzera mu bizinesi ya masewera, pambuyo pake inafotokozedwa ngati njira yoyendetsera mabizinesi yomwe ingagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi mabungwe omwe amagwira ntchito m'magawo osiyanasiyana a zachuma. == Maziko a chiphunzitso == Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave chimagwiritsa ntchito malingaliro okhudzana ndi zachuma cha khalidwe la anthu, zachuma cha chidwi, malonda a njira zazitali, malonda okhudzana ndi magulu a anthu, kasamalidwe ka magulu okhudzidwa komanso zachuma zamakampani. Kapangidwe ka malingaliro ake kangagawidwe m'magawo anayi akuluakulu. === Zachuma cha chidwi === Gawo loyamba likukhudza kupanga ndi kusamalira chidwi cha msika. Chidwi chimaonedwa ngati chinthu chofunika kwambiri pa zachuma chifukwa chimatha kukhudza kudziwika kwa mtundu wa malonda, mmene ogula amaonera zinthu, zisankho zogula komanso maubwenzi ndi magulu okhudzidwa. Lingaliro limeneli likugwirizana ndi maganizo a Herbert A. Simon okhudza kuchepa kwa chidwi cha anthu m'malo omwe muli zambiri zochuluka.<ref name="Simon">{{cite book |last=Simon |first=Herbert A. |chapter=Designing Organizations for an Information-Rich World |title=Computers, Communications, and the Public Interest |editor-last=Greenberger |editor-first=Martin |publisher=Johns Hopkins Press |year=1971 |pages=37–72}}</ref> Sportwave imaona chidwi osati ngati zotsatira za kampeni imodzi yotsatsa malonda kapena chochitika chimodzi, koma ngati njira yopitirira yomwe imakulitsidwa kudzera m'm njira zosiyanasiyana zolumikizirana komanso mwayi wochita zinthu limodzi ndi anthu. Njirayi ingathandize kusonkhanitsa anthu, kuwonjezera kutenga nawo mbali, kupanga magulu a anthu ogwirizana komanso kugawana malingaliro ndi maganizo ofanana. === Kuphatikiza magulu okhudzidwa === Gawo lachiwiri likukhudza kuphatikiza magulu onse okhudzidwa mkati mwa chilengedwe chimodzi cha zachuma. Makasitomala, osunga ndalama, antchito, ogulitsa zinthu, ogawa zinthu, mabungwe a atolankhani komanso anzawo ochita nawo ntchito za njira zazitali amaonedwa ngati anthu ndi mabungwe olumikizana. Maubwenzi awo angathandize kukulitsa bungwe kuposa phindu la ndalama lomwe limapezeka nthawi yomweyo. Njirayi ili ndi mgwirizano wa malingaliro ndi chiphunzitso cha magulu okhudzidwa (Stakeholder Theory), makamaka dongosolo lomwe linapangidwa ndi R. Edward Freeman, lomwe limafotokoza za makampani poganizira zofuna ndi maubwenzi a magulu osiyanasiyana okhudzidwa.<ref name="Freeman">{{cite book |last=Freeman |first=R. Edward |title=Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach |url=https://archive.org/details/strategicmanagem00free |publisher=Pitman |location=Boston |year=1984}}</ref> M'masewera, gawoli limaphatikizapo magulu amasewera, othamanga, mabungwe oyang'anira masewera, okonza zochitika, othandizira ndalama, ofalitsa mapulogalamu komanso owonera. === Kuphatikiza ndi kuwerengera mtengo wa katundu === Gawo lachitatu likukhudza kuphatikiza zinthu za kampani zomwe zimaoneka ndi zomwe sizimaoneka. Zinthu zimenezi zikuphatikizapo mayina ndi zizindikiro za malonda, ufulu wa katundu wanzeru, zomangamanga, maukonde ogawa zinthu, nsanja za digito, maubwenzi amalonda, luso la bungwe komanso zinthu zina zomwe zingathandize kampani kukhala ndi mwayi wopikisana ndi ena. Dongosololi limaganizira za mwayi wachuma umene ungabwere chifukwa cha mgwirizano pakati pa zinthu zimenezi, m'malo mongowerengera mtengo wa chinthu chilichonse payekha. Lingaliro limeneli likufanana ndi njira yowerengera kampani potengera zinthu ndi luso lake (Resource-Based View), yomwe imafufuza mmene zinthu zofunika komanso zapadera za kampani zingathandizire kuti ikhale ndi mwayi wopikisana kwa nthawi yaitali.<ref name="Barney">{{cite journal |last=Barney |first=Jay |title=Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage |journal=Journal of Management |volume=17 |issue=1 |year=1991 |pages=99–120 |doi=10.1177/014920639101700108}}</ref> === Kuphatikiza njira za utsogoleri ndi zachuma === Gawo lachinayi likukhudza kugwirizanitsa malonda, kukulitsa bizinesi, kasamalidwe ka kampani komanso njira za zachuma. Sportwave imalimbikitsa kugwirizanitsa ntchito zonsezi mkati mwa dongosolo limodzi la njira zazitali, poganizira mgwirizano pakati pa malo a kampani pamsika, kukula kwa kampani, malonda ogulitsa kapena kugula mabizinesi komanso kuwerengera mtengo wa ndalama zomwe zaikidwa mu kampani. Gawoli ndi lofunika kwambiri pa kuphatikiza ndi kugula makampani komanso pa njira zokulitsira makampani omwe amagulitsa magawo awo m'misika ya masheya. == Dongosolo la Sportwave == Mmene Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave chimagwirira ntchito m'malingaliro kungafotokozedwe kudzera mu njira zingapo zomwe zimagwirizana. === Kupanga chidwi === Bungwe limakulitsa kutchuka kwake ndi chidwi cha anthu omwe likufuna kuwafikira komanso pamsika umene likugwiramo ntchito, pogwiritsa ntchito zinthu zomwe limagulitsa, ntchito zake, zochitika, mayina a malonda, zinthu zofalitsidwa komanso njira zosiyanasiyana zamalonda. Chidwi chimakhala maziko oyambirira opangira maubwenzi ndi mwayi wachuma. === Kupitiriza kwa kayendedwe ka chidwi === Chidwi chimasungidwa komanso kulimbikitsidwa kudzera mu maubwenzi obwerezabwereza komanso njira zosiyanasiyana zolumikizirana ndi kugawa zinthu. Ubale pakati pa bungwe ndi msika wake umaonedwa ngati njira yopitirirabe yomwe ingayambe chochitika kapena ntchito yamalonda isanachitike, kupitiriza pamene ikuchitika komanso kupitiriza ikatha. === Kuphatikiza chilengedwe cha bizinesi === Magulu okhudzidwa ndi zinthu za kampani amaonedwa ngati mbali za dongosolo limodzi lolumikizana. Kuphatikizaku kungaphatikizepo makasitomala, anzawo amalonda, osunga ndalama, nsanja za digito, maukonde ogawa zinthu, mayina a malonda komanso mabungwe omwe amagwira ntchito m'mafakitale osiyanasiyana. === Kukulitsa mtengo === Mgwirizano pakati pa zigawo zosiyanasiyana za chilengedwe cha bizinesi ungapangitse mwayi wopeza ndalama, kukulitsa malonda, kusiyanitsa njira zopezera ndalama komanso kukulitsa njira za kampani. Pa malonda okhudza kugula ndi kuphatikiza makampani, gawoli limaphatikizaponso kuzindikira maubwino omwe angapezeke chifukwa chophatikiza makampani, katundu wawo, luso lawo logawa zinthu komanso maukonde awo a magulu okhudzidwa. == Magawo ogwiritsira ntchito == Chiphunzitso cha Sportwave chinayambira mu bizinesi ya masewera, koma chinapangidwa kuti chizigwiritsidwa ntchito m'magawo osiyanasiyana a zachuma. === Bizinesi ya masewera === Masewera ndi gawo loyambirira lomwe dongosololi linapangidwira. Dongosololi siliona chochitika chamasewera ngati mpikisano wokha, koma ngati chilengedwe cha zachuma ndi atolankhani momwe othamanga, okonza zochitika, mabungwe oyang'anira masewera, othandizira ndalama, ofalitsa mapulogalamu komanso owonera amathandizira kupanga mtengo. Chinthu chimodzi chapadera cha njirayi ndi kukonza zochitika kuti zifalitsidwe kudzera m'm njira zosiyanasiyana, kuphatikizapo wailesi yakanema, mautumiki ofalitsa mavidiyo pa intaneti a mtundu wa OTT, nsanja za digito komanso njira zolumikizirana zomwe kampani ili nazo. Njirayi ingaphatikizepo mpikisano wamasewera, kukulitsa dzina la wothamanga payekha, ufulu wofalitsa mapulogalamu, mapangano a othandizira ndalama komanso kufalitsa zochitika m'mayiko osiyanasiyana. == Zolemba ndi maumboni == <references /> == Kuwerenga kwina == * Barney, Jay (1991). "Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage". ''Journal of Management'', 17(1), 99–120. doi:10.1177/014920639101700108. * Bauer, Florian and Friesl, Martin (2024). "Synergy Evaluation in Mergers and Acquisitions: An Attention-Based View". ''Journal of Management Studies'', 61(1), 37–68. doi:10.1111/joms.12804. * Feldman, Emilie R. and Hernandez, Exequiel (2022). "Synergy in Mergers and Acquisitions: Typology, Life Cycles, and Value". ''Academy of Management Review''. doi:10.5465/amr.2018.0345. * Freeman, R. Edward (1984). ''Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach''. Pitman, Boston. * Kahneman, Daniel and Tversky, Amos (1979). "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk". ''Econometrica'', 47(2), 263–292. doi:10.2307/1914185. * Keller, Kevin Lane (1993). "Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity". ''Journal of Marketing'', 57(1), 1–22. doi:10.1177/002224299305700101. * Muniz, Albert M. Jr. and O'Guinn, Thomas C. (2001). "Brand Community". ''Journal of Consumer Research'', 27(4), 412–432. doi:10.1086/319618. * Ocasio, William (1997). "Towards an Attention-Based View of the Firm". ''Strategic Management Journal'', 18(S1), 187–206. * Simon, Herbert A. (1971). "Designing Organizations for an Information-Rich World". In Martin Greenberger (ed.), ''Computers, Communications, and the Public Interest'', 37–72. Johns Hopkins Press. [[Category:Masamba okhala ndi matembenuzidwe omwe sanawunikidwe]] [[Category:Ziphunzitso]] 72vorxsivlpk6vpapc1w7h8twwlupie