Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 8 124342 123484 2026-11-10T14:18:02Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124342 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:HIV Epidem.png|thumb|HIV.]] [[File:HIV-budding.jpg|thumb|HIV.]] '''HIV''' (mu Cingelezi ''human immunodeficiency virus'') ni kabungulu ako kakuwukira civikiliro ca thupi. Para munthu walije kucizgika, kangiziska nthenda zinandi kusazgapo '''Edesi''' (''AIDS''). Ni nthenda iyo yingavikilirika. Yingalaŵilirika na mankhwala na kuŵa nthenda ya nyengo yitali iyo yingalaŵilirika. Nangauli palije mankhwala gha kucizgiratu panji katemera wa HIV, mankhwala gha ma ARV ghangacepeska luŵiro la nthenda, ndipo para ghagwiliskirika ntchito pambere nthenda yindakure comene, ghangatalikiska umoyo wa munthu uyo wali na HIV kufika pafupifupi pa umo ukuŵira kwa ŵanthu ŵanyake. Munthu uyo wali na HIV, para wakumwa mankhwala, wangakhala umoyo wakawiro, ndipo wangafwa na kabungulu aka mu thupi, kweni cifukwa ca kabungulu aka yayi. Kucizga kukusacizgika luŵiro para nthenda yasangika. Munthu uyo wali na HIV uyo kabungulu kake kakusangika yayi mu ndopa cifukwa ca kumwa mankhwala nyengo yitali, walije ngozi ya kwambuzga ŵanyake HIV pa kugonana. Mawupu nga ni UNAIDS ghakuyowoya kuti kambura kusangika = kambura kwambuzgana. Para palije kucizga, kabungulu aka kakunanga civikiliro ca thupi, ndipo pamanyuma kakwiziska Edesi, nyengo zinyake pamanyuma pa vyaka vinandi. Pamanyuma pakuti munthu wakora kabungulu, wangawona vimanyikwiro yayi, panji wangalwara kwa kanyengo kacoko nga ni chimfine. Pa nyengo iyi munthu wangamanya yayi kuti wali na HIV, kweni wangambuzga ŵanyake. Pamanyuma pakuŵa nyengo yitali yambura vimanyikwiro. Pakumalira, HIV yikusazgirapo ngozi ya kukora nthenda zinyake nga ni TB na nthenda zinyake, na vibuli ivyo vikusangika comene yayi mu ŵanthu awo civikiliro cawo ca thupi cili makola. Para palije kucizga, munthu uyo wali na HIV wakukhala vyaka pafupifupi 11. HIV yikwambuzgika comene na kugonana kwambura kujivikilira, masingano ghakunangika panji kupokera ndopa zakunangika, na kufuma kwa amama kuya ku mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo, ya kubaba, panji ya kongeska. Maji ghanyake gha mu thupi, nga ni mata, thukutira, na masozi, ghakwambuzga kabungulu aka yayi. Nthowa za kujivikilira ni kugonana mwakujivikilira, mankhwala gha kuvikilira (PrEP), mankhwala ghakumwa pamanyuma pakukhwaskika na kabungulu (PEP), kucizga ŵanthu awo ŵali na kabungulu, na kusintha masingano. Nthenda mu mwana wakhanda yingavikilirika kanandi mwa kupeleka mankhwala gha ARV ku amama na ku mwana. Kufuma apo yikamanyikwira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, HIV na Edesi vyakhwaska comene wupu wa ŵanthu, nga ni nthenda na nga ni cifukwa ca kusankhana. Kufuma apo Edesi yikamanyikwira, yaŵa cifukwa ca nyifwa za ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 42.3 pa caro cose capasi. Mu 2025, ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 40.9 pa caro cose capasi ŵakaŵa na HIV. == Vimanyikwiro == Pali nyengo zitatu zikulu za HIV: nyengo yakwamba, nyengo yambura vimanyikwiro, na Edesi. == Umo Yikupatsirikira == HIV yikwambuzgika mu nthowa zitatu zikulu: kugonana, kukhwaskana na maji gha mu thupi panji vigaŵa vya thupi ivyo vili na kabungulu, na kufuma kwa amama kuya ku mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo, ya kubaba, panji ya kongeska. Palije ngozi ya kukora HIV kufuma ku mata, thukutira, masozi, panji matuzi, kupatula para vyasazganika na ndopa. == Kabungulu Kake == HIV ndiyo yikwiziska nthenda za HIV na Edesi. Kakuwukira vigaŵa vya civikiliro ca thupi, comene tumaselo twa CD4. == Kusanga Nthenda == HIV na Edesi vikusangika kwizira mu kupima ndopa ku cipatala. == Kujivikilira == Kugwiliskira ntchito makondomu nyengo zose kukucepeska ngozi ya kwambuzgana HIV pafupifupi magaŵa 80 pa 100. == Kucizga == HIV na Edesi ni nthenda ya nyengo yitali, cifukwa sono palije mankhwala gha kucizgiratu. Kucizga kukucitika na mankhwala gha ma ARV, agho ghakucepeska luŵiro la nthenda. Mu 2025, ŵanthu miliyoni 40.9 pa caro cose capasi ŵakaŵa na HIV, ndipo ŵanthu miliyoni 32.1 ŵakapokeranga mankhwala gha ma ARV. == Ivyo Tikwenera Kumanya == Munthu uyo wali na HIV wakumanyikwa na kawonekero kake yayi. Wangaŵa wakututuŵa, wakuwonda, musambazi, mukavu, muliska, musambizgi, mulimi, dokotala, panji waliyose. Ŵanthu awo ŵali na Edesi ŵacali ŵanyithu na ŵabali ŵithu. Tiŵatemwe na kuŵawovwira; ŵakasankha kulwara yayi. Para mwasanga munthu uyo mukumutemwa, pambere mundatorane, mose ŵaŵiri mulute ku cipatala kuti mukapimike. Para mose muli makola, muzizipizge na kulutaso kukapimika pamanyuma pa myezi yitatu. [[Category:Munkhwala]] 675vdnq28l92odjnnd9bfg8jig7oj4y 0 955 124415 124006 2026-11-10T20:48:07Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Vyakumela | fossil_range = Mesoproterozoic – sono | image = Frühling blühender Kirschenbaum.jpg | image_caption = Khuni lakuŵa na maluŵa | domain = Eukaryota | regnum = '''Plantae''' | regnum_authority = Copeland, 1956 | subdivision_ranks = Magulu | subdivision = *Rhodophyta (koyo wakuswesi) *Glaucophyta *Chlorophyta (koyo muŵisi) *Bryophyta (koyo) *Polypodiopsida (''fern'') *Pinophyta (''conifer'') *Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) }} [[File:חורשת המייסדים - גבעת השבשבת חיפה 02 2013 (98).JPG|thumb|Vyakumera]] '''Vyakumera''' (cimoza: '''cakumera''') ni vyamoyo vya ufumu wakuchemeka ''Plantae''. Vinandi vikusanga nkhongono zawo za ntchito kufuma ku ungweru wa [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]] mu nthowa ya [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mtundu wa ciŵisi ca mahamba (klorofilo) kupanga shuga kufuma ku kaboni dayokisayidi na [[Maji|maji]]. Mu nyengo, vyakumera vinyake vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake kuti visange nkhongono za ntchito. Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Kale, nga mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo ka Aristotle, ufumu wa vyakumera ukasazgangapo vyamoyo vyose ivyo nvinyama yayi, kusazgapo wowa. Ng'anamulo iyi yacepa kufuma apo; ng'anamulo za sono zikusazgamo wowa yayi. Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 380,000 iyo yikumanyikwa, ndipo yinandi, pafupifupi 260,000, yikupanga mbuto. Vyakumera vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku kaselo kamoza mpaka ku makuni ghatali comene. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi. Shuga uyo vikupanga mu usanisinuru ukupeleka nkhongono za ntchito ku vyamoyo vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo vyamoyo vinyake, kusazgapo [[Vinyama|vinyama]], vikurya vyakumera panji vikuthemba vyakumera. Mbuto, vipambi, na masamba ni vyakulya vyakwamba vya ŵanthu, ndipo vyaŵetika kwa vyaka vinandi comene. Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyakumera pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni vyakuzengera nga ni makuni, vyakujikongoleska, vyakulembera, na mitundu yinandi comene ya [[Mankhwala|mankhwala]]. Kusanda vyakumera mwa kasandiro kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto. == Ng'anamulo == === Mbiri ya Kagaŵiro === Kale, vyamoyo vyose vikagaŵikanga mu magulu ghaŵiri, vyakumera na vinyama. Kagaŵiro aka kakafuma kwa Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu), uyo wakapatula mitundu ya vyamoyo mu kasandiro kake ka vyamoyo, kuyana na usange vikaŵa na "mzimu wakupulika" panji, nga ni vyakumera, "mzimu wa kukura" pera.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hull |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ymrg0lMEYt0C&q=PA84 |title=Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2010 |page=82 |isbn=978-0-226-36049-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |pages=111–119}}</ref> Theophrastus, msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalutilizga ntchito yake pa kagaŵiro ka vyakumera.<ref name="OxBib">{{Cite web |title=Taxonomy and Classification |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199941728/obo-9780199941728-0065.xml |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=obo }}</ref> Pamanyuma comene, Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) wakaŵika maziko gha ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghano ya kagaŵiro ka kasandiro, kweni wakasunga maufumu gha vinyama na vyakumera, ndipo wakachema ufumu wa vyakumera kuti ''Vegetabilia''.<ref name="OxBib"/> === Maghanoghano Ghanyake === Para zina lakuti ''Plantae'' panji cakumera ligwiliskirika ntchito pa gulu linyake la vyamoyo, kanandi likung'anamula limoza mwa maghanoghano ghanayi, kufuma ku ilo likusazgamo vicoko mpaka ku ilo likusazgamo vinandi. == Kukura kwa Mitundu == === Kupambanapambana === [[File:Cosmarium201512081550.JPG|thumb|upright|Koyo wa ''Cosmarium botrytis'' ni kaselo kamoza.]] [[File:US 199 Redwood Highway.jpg|thumb|upright|Khuni la ''Sequoia sempervirens'' lingafika utali wa {{convert|380|ft|m|order=flip}}.]] Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 382,000 iyo yazomerezgeka, ndipo yinandi comene, pafupifupi 283,000, yikupanga mbuto.<ref name=WFO/><ref name="IUCNdata">{{cite web |title=Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2010) |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=11 March 2010 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721034312/https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |archive-date= 21 July 2011 |url-status= live }}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 85–90 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera ni vyakumera vya maluŵa. Ntchito zinandi sono zikuyezga kuwunjika malemba gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera pa intaneti, mwaciyelezgero World Flora Online.<ref name=WFO>{{cite web|work=The World Flora Online|title=An Online Flora of All Known Plants |url=http://worldfloraonline.org/|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-12 |title=How many plant species are there in the world? Scientists now have an answer |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323202847/https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakumera mu ng'anamulo yikulu vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza (vicoko kuluska mikulomita 3) mpaka ku makuni ghakulu comene, nga ni ''Sequoia sempervirens'' (mpaka mamita 120 kutali) na ''Eucalyptus regnans'' (mpaka mamita 100 kutali).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=John D.|last2=McCourt |first2=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter 9. Conjugating Green Algae Including Desmids |editor-first1=John D. |editor-last1=Wehr |editor-first2=Robert G. |editor-last2=Sheath |editor-first3=John Patrick |editor-last3=Kociolek |date=2014 |edition=2 |title=Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-385876-4 }}</ref><ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS One |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |article-number=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle, Christopher J. |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuthya mazina gha vyakumera kukulongozgeka na Malango gha Pakati pa Vyaro gha Mazina gha vyakumera, wowa, na vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=www.iapt-taxon.org }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gledhill |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&dq=international+code+of+nomenclature+for+cultivated+plants&pg=PA26 |title=The Names of Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=26 |isbn=978-0-5218-6645-3 }}</ref> === Mbiri ya Kukura === Vyakumera vya kale vya vyakumera vya pa mtunda vikakura mu maji. Ulenda wa vyakumera vicoko ukapangika pa mtunda vyaka miliyoni 1,200 ivyo vyajumpha, kweni mpaka pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 450 ivyo vyajumpha ndipo vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikawoneka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Thomas N. |title=The Origin of Land Plants: Some Answers, More Questions |journal=Taxon |date=November 1988 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=805–833 |doi=10.2307/1222087 |jstor=1222087|bibcode=1988Taxon..37..805T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ciesielski |first=Paul F. |title=Transition of plants to land |url=https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302040410/https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Kweni mafosilo mu malibwe gha kale comene ghakulongora kuti vyamoyo vya tumaselo tunandi vya mu maji ghawemi vikaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha miliyoni 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strother |first1=Paul K. |last2=Battison |first2=Leila |last3=Brasier |first3=Martin D. |last4=Wellman |first4=Charles H. |date=26 May 2011 |title=Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes |journal=Nature |volume=473 |issue=7348 |pages=505–509 |doi=10.1038/nature09943 |pmid=21490597 |bibcode=2011Natur.473..505S |s2cid=4418860 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51048998}}</ref> Vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikamba kupambanapambana pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 420 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beck |first=C. B. |title=The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon |journal=Brittonia |volume=12 |pages=351–368 |year=1960 |issue=4 |doi=10.2307/2805124 |jstor=2805124 |bibcode=1960Britt..12..351B |s2cid=27887887 }}</ref><ref name="Rothwelletal989">{{cite journal |last1=Rothwell |first1=G. W. |last2=Scheckler |first2=S. E. |last3=Gillespie |first3=W. H. |year=1989 |title=''Elkinsia'' gen. nov., a Late Devonian gymnosperm with cupulate ovules |journal=Botanical Gazette |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=170–189 |doi=10.1086/337763 |jstor=2995234 |bibcode=1989BoGaz.150..170R |s2cid=84303226 }}</ref> Pakumalira kwa nyengo ya Devonian, vimanyikwiro vinandi vyakwamba vya vyakumera vya mazuŵa ghano vikaŵako, kusazgapo misisi, mahamba, na makuni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plants |url=https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/plants-2/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=British Geological Survey }}</ref> Nyengo ya Carboniferous yikawona kukura kwa nkholongo mu madambo.<ref name="McElwain Punyasena 2007 pp. 548–557">{{cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=Jennifer C. |last2=Punyasena |first2=Surangi W. |title=Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=22 |issue=10 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003 |pages=548–557|pmid=17919771 |bibcode=2007TEcoE..22..548M }}</ref> Kumalira kukulu kwa vyamoyo kwa Permo-Triassic kukasintha comene mawupu gha vyamoyo. Ici cingaŵa kuti cikazomerezga kukura kwa vyakumera vya maluŵa mu Triassic (pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 200 ivyo vyajumpha), ndipo vikathandazgika luŵiro comene mu Cretaceous mwakuti Charles Darwin wakacichema kuti "fumbo lakofya".<ref name="Friedman-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=William E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |pmid=21628174|bibcode=2009AmJB...96....5F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Berendse Scheffer 2009 pp. 865–872">{{cite journal |last1=Berendse |first1=Frank |last2=Scheffer |first2=Marten |title=The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for Darwin's 'abominable mystery' |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=12 |issue=9 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01342.x |pages=865–872|pmid=19572916 |pmc=2777257 |bibcode=2009EcolL..12..865B }}</ref><ref name="Herendeen-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Herendeen |first1=Patrick S. |last2=Friis |first2=Else Marie |last3=Pedersen |first3=Kaj Raunsgaard |last4=Crane |first4=Peter R. |date=2017-03-03 |title=Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms |url=https://rdcu.be/c0Zhm |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=17015 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.15 |pmid=28260783 |bibcode=2017NatPl...317015H |s2cid=205458714 }}</ref> Makuni gha mahamba gha singano ghakapambanapambana kufuma pakumalira kwa Triassic, ndipo ghakaŵa ghanandi comene mu Jurassic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=Brian A. |last2=Serbet |first2=Rudolph |last3=Hieger |first3=Timothy J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Edith L. |date=October 2018 |title=Additional evidence for the Mesozoic diversification of conifers: Pollen cone of Chimaerostrobus minutus gen. et sp. nov. (Coniferales), from the Lower Jurassic of Antarctica |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=257 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2018.06.013 |bibcode=2018RPaPa.257...77A |s2cid=133732087|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Leslie etal-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |date=September 2018 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid=30157290 |bibcode=2018AmJB..105.1531L |s2cid=52120430 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Mbumba === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175" widths="175"> File:Rhynia stem.jpg|Cigaŵa ca ntonga ya ''Rhynia'', cakumera cakwamba ca pa mtunda, cakusungika mu libwe la Rhynie kufuma kwamba kwa nyengo ya Devonian File:Devonianscene-green.jpg|Pofika nyengo ya Devonian, vyakumera vikaŵa vyakunozgeka kukhala pa mtunda na misisi na ntonga za khuni. File:Asterophyllites Equisetiformis.jpg|Mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, vyakumera nga ni ''Asterophyllites'' vikandana comene mu nkholongo za madambo. File:Petrified Araucaria cone.jpg|Vyakumera vya mbuto za mu tumakoko (''conifer'') vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana na vinandi comene mu nyengo ya Jurassic. Pa cithuzi pali kakoko ka ''Araucaria mirabilis''. File:Sagaria cilentana (cropped).jpg|Kupambanapambana kukulu mu nyengo ya Cretaceous kukapanga vyakumera vinandi vya maluŵa, nga ni ''Sagaria'' mu mbumba ya Ranunculaceae. </gallery> Mu 2019, mbumba ya vyakumera iyo yikazengeka pa vyakuhara vya mitundu 1,153 ya vyakumera yikasacizgika.<ref name="1000plants">{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kagaŵiro ka magulu ghanyake ka vyakumera kakukhozgeka na kusanda kwa vyakuhara.<ref name="MvirideGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Zhe |display-authors=etal |title=Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta |journal=Advanced Science |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2019 |article-number=1901850 |doi=10.1002/advs.201901850 |pmid=31921561 |pmc=6947507 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Mv_and_Ca_Genomes">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sibo |display-authors=etal |title=Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=95–106 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3 |pmid=31844283 |pmc=7027972 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6...95W }}</ref><ref name="Puttick2018">{{cite journal |last1=Puttick |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte |journal=Current Biology |volume=28 |issue=5 |year=2018 |pages=733–745 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063 |pmid=29456145|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018CBio...28E.733P |hdl=10400.1/11601 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jian |display-authors=etal |title=The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4|pmid=32042158 |pmc=7027989 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..107Z }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome2">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Fay Wei |display-authors=etal |title=Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=259–272 |doi=10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2|pmid=32170292 |pmc=8075897 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..259L }}</ref> == Umo Thupi Likugwilira Ntchito == === Tumaselo twa Vyakumera === {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%; |label1=Archaeplastida |sublabel1=(na tuvigaŵa twa ciŵisi<br/>kufuma ku mabakiteriya) |1={{clade |1=Rhodophyta [[File:Chondrus crispus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-034 (single).jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |1=Glaucophyta [[File:Glaucocystis nostochinearum.jpg|50px]] |label2=Viridiplantae |sublabel2= (vyakumera viŵisi) |2={{clade |1=Chlorophyta [[File:Volvox sp.png|50px]] |bar1=darkgreen |2={{clade |1=Prasinococcales |bar1=darkgreen |2=&nbsp; |state2=none |style2=font-size:50%;line-height:50%; |3={{clade |1= {{clade |1=Mesostigmatophyceae|bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Chlorokybophyceae|bar1=blue |2=''Spirotaenia'' [[File:Spirotaenia condensata.jpg|30px]] |bar2=blue }} }} |2={{clade |1=Klebsormidiales [[File:Klebsormidium bilatum Belgium (14759117646).jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=''Chara'' [[File:CharaGlobularis.jpg|40px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Coleochaetales|bar1=blue |2={{clade |label1=Zygnematophyceae |1=[[File:The freshwater alga Spirogyra.jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |label2=Embryophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya pa mtunda) |2={{clade |label1="Bryophyta" |1={{clade |1=Anthocerotophyta [[File:Phaeoceros laevis 48205337 (white background).jpg|40px]] |label2=Setaphytes |2={{clade |1=Marchantiophyta [[File:Conocephalum conicum (e, 144739-474742) 1022.jpg|50px]] |2=Koyo (Bryophyta) [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]] }} }} |label2=Tracheophytes |sublabel2=(na machubu gha khuni<br/>gha kunyamulira maji) |2={{clade |1=Lycophyta [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219 (extracted).jpg|50px]] |label2=Euphyllophytes |sublabel2=(na mahamba) |2={{clade |label1=Ferns (Polypodiopsida) |1=[[File:California Arena Point fern.jpg|50px]] |label2=Spermatophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya mbuto) |2={{clade |1=Gymnospermae (mbuto zambura kuvikilirika) [[File:PIH 1830 Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) graft clone collection in Röykkä Finland.jpg|40px]] |2=Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Plant cell structure-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kapangikiro ka kaselo ka cakumera]] Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na vimanyikwiro vyapadera ivyo tumaselo tunyake (nga ni twa vinyama) tulije. Ivi vikusazgapo cigaŵa cikulu ca pakati cakuzura maji, vigaŵa vya klorofilo, na cikopa cakukhora kweni cakupindika ico cili kuwaro kwa kaselo. Vigaŵa vya klorofilo vikafuma ku kukhala pamoza kwa kaselo kambura klorofilo na mabakiteriya agho ghakupanga vyakulya na ungweru. Cikopa ca kaselo, ico cikupangika comene na selulosi, cikuzomerezga tumaselo twa vyakumera kuzura na maji kwambura kuphulika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Cells, Chloroplasts, and Cell Walls |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/plant-cells-chloroplasts-and-cell-walls-14053956/ |website=Scitable by Nature Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kapangikiro ka Vyakumera === [[File:Plant Anatomy.svg|thumb|Kapangikiro ka cakumera ca mbuto. 1. Vigaŵa vya pacanya. 2. Vigaŵa vya misisi. 3. Cigaŵa ca pasi pa mahamba ghakwamba. 4. Kaphukira ka pacanya. 5. Hamba. 6. Cigaŵa ca ntonga pakati pa mafundo. 7. Kaphukira ka mu khwapa. 8. Kakholo ka hamba. 9. Ntonga. 10. Fundo. 11. Msisi ukulu. 12. Visisi vya msisi. 13. Nsonga ya msisi. 14. Cakuvikilira nsonga ya msisi]] Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tukupambana mu mitundu yinandi, ndipo tukupanga vigaŵa nga ni minjololo ya kunyamulira maji na vyakulya mu mahamba na mu ntonga, na viŵaro vya ntchito zakupambana. Ivi vikusazgapo misisi ya kukwemya maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, ntonga ya kukhazga na kunyamula maji na vyakupangika, mahamba gha [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], na maluŵa gha kuŵaba.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farabee |first1=M. C. |title=Plants and their Structure |url=http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |publisher=Maricopa Community Colleges |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022174416/http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |archive-date=22 October 2006 }}</ref> === Usanisinuru === Vyakumera vikucita usanisinuru, kupanga vyakulya (shuga) mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za ntchito za [[Ungweru|ungweru]]. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na klorofilo mu vigaŵa vyake, iyo ni mtundu uŵisi uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito kukora nkhongono za ntchito za ungweru. Malinganizgo gha usungunu gha usanisinuru ni:<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=John |title=What Is the Photosynthesis Equation? |url=https://sciencing.com/photosynthesis-equation-6962557.html |website=Sciencing |date=4 March 2023 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> : 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → (ungweru) → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ Ici cikupangiska vyakumera kufumiska [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]] mu mphepo. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi, pamoza na koyo na mabakiteriya.<ref name="Reinhard Planavsky Olson Lyons 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Reinhard |first1=Christopher T. |last2=Planavsky |first2=Noah J. |last3=Olson |first3=Stephanie L. |last4=Lyons |first4=Timothy W. |last5=Erwin |first5=Douglas H. |display-authors=3 |title=Earth's oxygen cycle and the evolution of animal life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=32 |date=25 July 2016 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1521544113 |pages=8933–8938|pmid=27457943 |pmc=4987840 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.8933R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=behrenfeld>{{cite journal |last1=Field |first1=C. B. |last2=Behrenfeld |first2=M. J. |last3=Randerson |first3=J. T. |author4=Falkowski, P. |year=1998 |title=Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components |journal=Science |volume=281 |pages=237–240 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5374.237 |pmid=9657713 |issue=5374 |bibcode=1998Sci...281..237F |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215921/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |archive-date=25 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tivy 2014">{{cite book |last=Tivy |first=Joy |title=Biogeography: A Study of Plants in the Ecosphere |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-89723-1 |oclc=1108871710 |pages=31, 108–110|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake vingataya vyakuhara vya usanisinuru na kupanga klorofilo.<ref name="Qu-etal-2019">{{cite journal|first1=Xiao-Jian |last1=Qu |first2=Shou-Jin |last2=Fan |first3=Susann |last3=Wicke |first4=Ting-Shuang |last4=Yi |title=Plastome reduction in the only parasitic gymnosperm ''Parasitaxus'' is due to losses of photosynthesis but not housekeeping genes and apparently involves the secondary gain of a large inverted repeat |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=10 |date=2019 |pages=2789–2796 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz187 |pmid=31504501 |pmc=6786476 }}</ref> === Kukura na Kunozgeka === Kukura kukusimikizgika na kukolerana kwa vyakuhara vya cakumera na malo ghake gha kawiro na gha vyamoyo. Vinthu vya malo nga ni kufunda, maji, ungweru, kaboni dayokisayidi, na vyakulya vya mu dongo.<ref name="Ambroise Legay Guerriero Hausman 2019 pp. 3–20">{{cite journal |last1=Ambroise |first1=Valentin |last2=Legay |first2=Sylvain |last3=Guerriero |first3=Gea |last4=Hausman |first4=Jean-Francois |last5=Cuypers |first5=Ann |last6=Sergeant |first6=Kjell |display-authors=3 |title=The Roots of Plant Frost Hardiness and Tolerance |journal=Plant and Cell Physiology |volume=61 |issue=1 |date=18 October 2019 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcz196 |pages=3–20|pmid=31626277 |pmc=6977023 }}</ref> Vinthu vya vyamoyo ivyo vikukhwaska kukura kwa vyakumera ni kuwunjikana, kuryeka na viŵeto, mabakiteriya na wowa ivyo vikovwira, na kuwukirika na vibenene panji nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="pmid18707020">{{cite journal |author1=Roldán-Arjona, T. |author2=Ariza, R. R. |title=Repair and tolerance of oxidative DNA damage in plants |journal=Mutation Research |volume=681 |issue=2–3 |pages=169–179 |year=2009 |pmid=18707020 |doi=10.1016/j.mrrev.2008.07.003 |bibcode=2009MRRMR.681..169R |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |access-date=22 September 2017 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923050705/https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cikakato na kukoma vingananga panji kukoma vyakumera. Vyakumera vinyake vili na vinthu mu tumaselo twawo ivyo vikuvizomerezga kukhora pa masuzgo agha.<ref name="Yang Kim 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yun Young |last2=Kim |first2=Jae Geun |title=The optimal balance between sexual and asexual reproduction in variable environments: a systematic review |journal=Journal of Ecology and Environment |volume=40 |issue=1 |date=24 November 2016 |article-number=12 |doi=10.1186/s41610-016-0013-0 |bibcode=2016JEcEn..40...12Y |s2cid=257092048 |hdl=10371/100354 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kuŵaba === Vyakumera vikuŵaba kuti vipange ŵana, kwali mwa kugonana panji kwambura kugonana. Vyakumera vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zose ziŵiri. ==== Mwa Kugonana ==== [[File:Alternation of generations simpler.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kusinthana kwa mibadwo pakati pa cakumera ca ''haploid'' (n) (pacanya) na ca ''diploid'' (2n) (pasi), mu mitundu yose ya vyakumera]] Para vikuŵaba mwa kugonana, vyakumera vili na umoyo wakusuzga wa mbumba zakusintha-sintha. Vyakumera vinyake vikuŵaba so kwizira mu tumbuto tucoko. Vyakumera vya maluŵa vikuŵaba mwa kugonana mwa kugwiliskira ntchito maluŵa, agho ghali na vigaŵa vya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi: ivi vingaŵa mu ciluŵa cimoza, mu maluŵa ghakupambana pa cakumera cimoza, panji pa vyakumera vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Do Plants With Spores Reproduce? |url=https://sciencing.com/plants-spores-reproduce-4568855.html |website=Sciencing |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya ŵanalume vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa, uwo ukupanga vyakuŵabira vya ŵanalume ivyo vikunjira mu cigaŵa ca ŵanakazi. Kuŵabika kukucitika mu vigaŵa vya ŵanakazi, ivyo vikusanduka vipambi ivyo vili na mbuto. Vipambi vingathandazgika vyose, panji vingaphulika ndipo mbuto zikuthandazgika yimoza yimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barrett |first=S. C. H. |year=2002 |title=The evolution of plant sexual diversity |url=http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1038/nrg776 |pmid=11967552 |s2cid=7424193 |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527102011/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf }}</ref> ==== Kwambura Kugonana ==== [[File:RowOfPlants.JPG|thumb|''Ficinia spiralis'' yikuthandazgika kwambura mbuto, na tusisi twakwenda pasi mu mcenga.]] Vyakumera vikuŵaba kwambura kugonana mwa kukuzga vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya. Mwa nthowa yipepuka, vyakumera vinyake vingaphwanyika mu vigaŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ciliconse cingakura so kuŵa cakumera cose. Kupandira vyakumera vya maluŵa na vigaŵa vyakudumulika ni ndondomeko yakuyana. Vigaŵa nga ni minjololo yakwenda pasi vikuzomerezga vyakumera kukura na kuphimba malo. Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga vigaŵa vya kusungira vyakulya, nga ni kacewere panji hanyezi, ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asexual reproduction in plants |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zs4tyrd/revision/3 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kukhora pa Nthenda === Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangira kumanya tubungulu twa nthenda nga ni mabakiteriya agho ghakwiziska nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="Kato Yasui Ishizaki 2020 pp. 459–465">{{cite journal |last1=Kato |first1=Hirotaka |last2=Yasui |first2=Yukiko |last3=Ishizaki |first3=Kimitsune |title=Gemma cup and gemma development in Marchantia polymorpha |journal=New Phytologist |volume=228 |issue=2 |date=19 June 2020 |doi=10.1111/nph.16655 |pages=459–465|pmid=32390245 |s2cid=218583032 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NewPh.228..459K }}</ref><ref name="Moody Diggle Steingraeber 1999 pp. 1512–1522">{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Amber |last2=Diggle |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Steingraeber |first3=David A. |title=Developmental analysis of the evolutionary origin of vegetative propagules in Mimulus gemmiparus (Scrophulariaceae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=86 |issue=11 |year=1999 |doi=10.2307/2656789 |pages=1512–1522 |jstor=2656789 |pmid=10562243 }}</ref> Kumanya uku kukwiziska kujivikilira. === Vyakuhara === Vyakumera vili na vyakuhara vikulu comene pa vyamoyo vyose. Vyakuhara vikulu comene vya cakumera (pa unandi wa vyakuhara) ni vya tirigu, ivyo vikughanaghanirika kuŵa pafupifupi 94,000, pafupifupi kankhondi kuluska vya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Song |first=W. Y. |title=A receptor kinase-like protein encoded by the rice disease resistance gene, XA21 |journal=Science |volume=270 |issue=5243 |pages=1804–1806 |year=1995 |pmid=8525370 |doi=10.1126/science.270.5243.1804 |display-authors=etal |bibcode=1995Sci...270.1804S |s2cid=10548988 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107024436/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |archive-date=7 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gomez-Gomez |first=L. |title=FLS2: an LRR receptor-like kinase involved in the perception of the bacterial elicitor flagellin in ''Arabidopsis'' |journal=Molecular Cell |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=1003–1011 |year=2000 |pmid=10911994 |doi=10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80265-8 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Vyakumera na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kuthandazgika === [[File:Vegetation.png|thumb|upright=2.5|Mapu gha kagaŵiro ka vyakumera vya pa caro capasi kuyana na malo gha vyamoyo, nga ni malo ghakuzizima ghambura makuni, nkholongo za kumpoto, nkholongo za mahamba ghakulu, madambo gha utheka, nkholongo za vula, vipalamba, na nkholongo za mapiri. Mtundu wa caphuvyu ukulongora cikakato na vipalamba vya kumpoto na kumwera comene ivyo vilije vyakumera.]] Vyakumera vili pafupifupi pa caro cose capasi. Nangauli vikukhala mu malo ghanandi, ni vyakumera vyakukhora pera, vya mu Antarctica, ivyo vyasintha kukolerana na vyakucitika vya pa cigaŵa ici cikulu ca mtunda ca kumwera.<ref name="Olson 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Olson |first1=David M. |last2=Dinerstein |first2=Eric |last3=Wikramanayake |first3=Eric D. |last4=Burgess |first4=Neil D. |last5=Powell |first5=George V. N. |last6=Underwood |first6=Emma C. |last7=D'amico |first7=Jennifer A. |last8=Itoua |first8=Illanga |last9=Strand |first9=Holly E. |last10=Morrison |first10=John C. |last11=Loucks |first11=Colby J. |last12=Allnutt |first12=Thomas F. |last13=Ricketts |first13=Taylor H. |last14=Kura |first14=Yumiko |last15=Lamoreux |first15=John F. |last16=Wettengel |first16=Wesley W. |last17=Hedao |first17=Prashant |last18=Kassem |first18=Kenneth R. |display-authors=3 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth |journal=BioScience |volume=51 |issue=11 |year=2001 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:teotwa]2.0.co;2 |page=933|s2cid=26844434 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Schulze Beck Buchmann Clemens 2018 pp. 657–688">{{cite book |last1=Schulze |first1=Ernst-Detlef |last2=Beck |first2=Erwin |last3=Buchmann |first3=Nina |last4=Clemens |first4=Stephan |last5=Müller-Hohenstein |first5=Klaus |last6=Scherer-Lorenzen |first6=Michael |title=Plant Ecology |chapter=Spatial Distribution of Plants and Plant Communities |publisher=Springer |date=3 May 2018 |isbn=978-3-662-56231-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56233-8_18 |pages=657–688 }}</ref> Vyakumera kanandi ndivyo vikuwoneka comene mu malo agho vikukhala. Malo ghanandi gha vyamoyo pa caro capasi ghali na mazina gha mtundu wa vyakumera, cifukwa vyakumera ndivyo vinandi comene mu malo agho, nga ni madambo gha utheka na nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Five Major Types of Biomes |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/five-major-types-biomes/ |publisher=National Geographic Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Ŵakupanga Ŵakwamba === Usanisinuru uwo vyakumera vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikucita ndiwo kasupe waumaliro wa nkhongono za ntchito na vyakulya mu pafupifupi malo ghose gha vyamoyo. Usanisinuru ukasintha comene mphepo ya caro capasi ca kale, iyo yikaŵa yambura okisijeni, ndipo sono yili na magaŵa 21 pa 100 gha okisijeni. Vinyama na vyamoyo vinyake vinandi vikuthemba okisijeni. Vyakumera ndivyo ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu malo ghanandi gha pa mtunda, ndipo ndivyo maziko gha minjololo ya vyakulya mu malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gough |first=C. M. |year=2011 |title=Terrestrial Primary Production: Fuel for Life |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=28}}</ref> Vyakumera ni pafupifupi magaŵa 80 pa 100 gha vyamoyo vyose vya caro capasi.<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite journal |last1=Bar-On |first1=Y. M. |last2=Phillips |first2=R. |last3=Milo |first3=R. |title=The biomass distribution on Earth |journal=PNAS |volume=115 |issue=25 |pages=6506–6511 |date=June 2018 |pmid=29784790 |pmc=6016768 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6506B |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221154508/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ubale na Vyamoyo Vinyake === Vinyama vinandi vyakura pamoza na vyakumera; vyakumera vya maluŵa vyapanga vimanyikwiro vya maluŵa ivyo vikovwira kuŵaba kwawo. Vinandi, kusazgapo vibenene na viyuni, vikutolera ufu wa maluŵa kufuma ku maluŵa ghanyake kuya ku ghanyake, mwa kukhumba vyakulya.<ref name=Lunau>{{cite journal |last=Lunau |first=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004ODivE...4..207L }}</ref> Vinyama vinandi vikuthandazga mbuto. Vipambi vinyake vili na vigaŵa vya kuwaro vyakulyeka ivyo vikukopa vinyama, apo mbuto zikukhora pa kujumpha mu matumbo gha cinyama; vinyake vili na tumbeŵa utu tukukolerana na sisi la cinyama. Vyakumera vinyake vyakura pamoza na nyerere. Cakumera cikupeleka nyumba, ndipo nyengo zinyake vyakulya, ku nyerere.<ref>{{cite web |last=Deacon |first=Jim |title=The Microbial World: Mycorrhizas |url=http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |website=bio.ed.ac.uk (archived) |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180427082137/http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |archive-date=2018-04-27 }}</ref> Nazo nyerere zikuvikilira cakumera ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera.<ref name="Lyons1986">{{cite journal|last1=Lyons |first1=P. C. |last2=Plattner |first2=R. D. |last3=Bacon |first3=C. W. |year=1986|title=Occurrence of peptide and clavine ergot alkaloids in tall fescue grass |journal=Science |volume=232 |pages=487–489 |pmid=3008328 |doi=10.1126/science.3008328 |issue=4749|bibcode=1986Sci...232..487L }}</ref> Mitundu yinandi ya vyakumera yili na wowa yakukolerana na misisi yawo, mu kukhala pamoza kwa kovwirana. Bowa yikovwira vyakumera kusanga maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, apo cakumera cikupeleka ku wowa shuga uwo wapanga mu usanisinuru. Vyakumera vinandi vya mtundu wa nchunga vili na mabakiteriya mu misisi yawo agho ghakukora naitirojeni kufuma mu mphepo kuti cakumera cigwiliskire ntchito; nawo vyakumera vikupeleka shuga ku mabakiteriya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fullick |first=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5j1ys2uLQYC&pg=PA48 |title=Feeding Relationships |date=2006 |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |isbn=978-1-4034-7521-3 |language=en}}</ref> Ici nchakuzirwa pa ulimi; mwaciyelezgero, ŵalimi ŵangalima nchunga, kulondezgana na tirigu, kuti ŵacepeske feteleza wa naitirojeni.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Stephen |date=2011 |title=Biological Nitrogen Fixation |url=https://www.nature.com/ |website=Nature Education Knowledge |access-date=6 November 2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317210753/https://www.nature.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 1 pa 100 gha mitundu ya vyakumera ni vyakuthemba vyakumera vinyake. Vinyake vikutora vyakulya vicoko pera kufuma ku cakumera cinyake kweni vicali na mahamba gha usanisinuru, apo vinyake vikutora vyakulya vyose kwizira mu misisi ya vyakumera vinyake, ndipo vilije klorofilo.<ref name="Kokla Melnyk 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kokla |first1=Anna |last2=Melnyk |first2=Charles W. |date=2018 |title=Developing a thief: Haustoria formation in parasitic plants |journal=Developmental Biology |volume=442 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013 |pmid=29935146 |s2cid=49394142 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake, kanandi makuni, kwambura kuvithemba, vikuchemeka vyakumera pa vinyake. Vinyake vingananga cakumera ico vikumerapo, mwa kukanizga ungweru. Mitundu yinandi ya maluŵa gha ''orchid'', ''bromeliad'', na vinyake vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake. Mitundu pafupifupi 630 ya vyakumera ni yakurya vinyama. Vikukora vinyama vicoko na kuvigaya kuti visange vyakulya, comene naitirojeni na fosiforasi.<ref name="Ellison Adamec 2018">{{cite book |last1=Ellison |first1=Aaron |last2=Adamec |first2=Lubomir |title=Carnivorous Plants: Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1988-3372-7 |pages=3–4 |edition=First |chapter=Introduction: What is a carnivorous plant?}}</ref> === Kususkana === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175px" widths="175px"> File:Honey Bee gathering pollen image by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN4801 (13) (cropped).jpg|Njuci yikuwunjika ufu wa maluŵa (''pollen'') (pa lundi lake pali kathumba ka ''pollen'') File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding (cropped).jpg|Kayuni ka ''hummingbird'' kakufika pa duŵa kuti kamwe uchi wake File:Epizoochory - dog with hooked Geum fruits in his fur (detail).jpg|Kuthandazgika kwa mbuto na vinyama: vipambi vinandi vya ''Geum urbanum'' vyakuŵa na tumbeŵa vyakamatira pa weya wa nchewe File:Robinia pseudoacacia root nodules.JPG|Vyakumera vya mbumba ya nyemba vili na tumapundu pa misisi ivyo mukukhala mabakiteriya gha ''Rhizobium'' agho ghakusintha natrojeni wa mu mpweya kuŵa cakulya ca cakumera. File:Drosera capensis bend.JPG|Hamba la ''sundew'' lakuŵa na visisi vyakunata ivyo vikupinda kuti vikore na kugaya membe </gallery> Kususkana pa vyuma vyakugaŵana kukucepeska kukura kwa cakumera.<ref name="Ecology-2012">{{Cite journal |title=Competition in Plant Communities |last1=Keddy |first1=Paul A. |last2=Cahill |first2=James |journal=Oxford Bibliographies Online |year=2012 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |access-date=2021-02-16 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0009 |isbn=978-0-19-983006-0 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126003436/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Pocheville-2015">{{Cite book |last=Pocheville |first=Arnaud |title=Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences |chapter=The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |date=January 2015 |pages=547–586 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9014-7_26 |isbn=978-94-017-9013-0 |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115183211/https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyuma ivi ni ungweru wa zuŵa, maji, na vyakulya.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Ungweru nchakuzirwa comene cifukwa nchakukhumbikwa pa usanisinuru.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito mahamba ghawo kubisa vyakumera vinyake ku ungweru wa zuŵa, ndipo vikukura luŵiro.<ref name="Casper-1997">{{Cite journal |last1=Casper |first1=Brenda B. |last2=Jackson |first2=Robert B. |title=Plant Competition Underground |date=November 1997 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=545–570 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |bibcode=1997AnRES..28..545C |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525175642/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Maji nagho ngakuzirwa pa usanisinuru; misisi yikususkana kukwemya maji ghanandi mu dongo.<ref name="Casper-1997" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Craine |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Dybzinski |first2=Ray |date=2013 |title=Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients, water and light |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=833–840 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12081 |bibcode=2013FuEco..27..833C |s2cid=83776710 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vili na misisi yakuzika iyo yingasanga maji ghakuzika pasi, apo vinyake vili na misisi yambura kuzika iyo yingathandazgika kutali kuwunjika maji gha vula.<ref name="Oborny-2000">{{Cite journal |last1=Oborny |first1=Beáta |last2=Kun |first2=Ádám |last3=Czárán |first3=Tamás |last4=Bokros |first4=Szilárd |date=2000 |title=The Effect of Clonal Integration on Plant Competition for Mosaic Habitat Space |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |journal=Ecology |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=3291–3304 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[3291:TEOCIO]2.0.CO;2 |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418122432/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> == Kuzirwa ku Ŵanthu == === Vyakulya === [[File:Harvest Time - geograph.org.uk - 747095.jpg|thumb|upright|Kuvuna ''oat'' na makina gha kuvunira ]] Kulima vyakumera ndiyo maziko gha [[ULimi na kuŵeta|ulimi]], uwo nawo wakugwira ntchito yikulu mu mbiri ya midawuko ya caro cose capasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wrench |first=Jason S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtg672jRCfAC&pg=RA1-PA9 |title=Workplace Communication for the 21st Century: Tools and Strategies that Impact the Bottom Line [2 volumes]: Tools and Strategies That Impact the Bottom Line |date=9 January 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-3133-9632-8}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuthemba vyakumera vya maluŵa pa vyakulya, mwakulunjika panji nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto. Mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 7,000 yagwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakulya, nangauli vyakulya vinandi vya mazuŵa ghano vikufuma ku mitundu 30 pera.<ref>{{cite book |author=Agricultural Research Service |title=Report on the Agricultural Experiment Stations |date=1903 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiVGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA429}}</ref><ref name=NatGeogAgriculture>{{cite web |title=The Development of Agriculture |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |work=National Geographic |access-date=1 October 2017 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414142437/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |archive-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> Vyakulya vikulu ni mbuto nga ni mpunga na tirigu, misisi nga ni cinangwa na kacewere, na vya mtundu wa nchunga nga ni nchunga. Mafuta gha vyakumera nga ni gha ''olive'' na gha mgwalangwa ghakupeleka mafuta, apo vipambi na masamba vikupeleka mavitamini na vinthu vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food and drink |url=https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |publisher=Kew Gardens |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328124344/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref> Khofi, tiyi, na sokoleti ni mbuto zikulu izo vyakupangika vyake vili na kafeni.<ref name="Hopper 2015">{{citation |last=Hopper |first=Stephen D. |chapter=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher=Wiley |date=2015 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0024933 |pages=1–9 |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 }}</ref> Kusanda kagwiliskiro ka vyakumera na ŵanthu kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto ka vyacuma.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wS-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA644 |chapter=Ethnobotany |title=Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study |last=Kochhar |first=S. L. |date=31 May 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-3166-7539-7 |page=644 }}</ref> === Mankhwala === [[File:Folio Materia Medica Dioscurides Met 13.152.6 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Dokotala wa nyengo yapakati wakupanga munkhwala kufuma ku cakumera ca munkhwala, kufuma mu buku la Ciarabu la Dioscorides, 1224]] Vyakumera vya mankhwala ni kasupe mukulu wa vyakusazganika, pa ntchito yawo ya mankhwala, na pa kupanga vinthu vinandi vya usungunu mu mafakitale.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals from Plants|publisher=Cambridge University Botanic Garden|url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209152153/https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|archive-date=9 December 2017}} The details of each plant and the chemicals it yields are described in the linked subpages.</ref> Mankhwala ghanandi, kusazgapo mankhwala ghakuloŵezga, ghakufuma ku vyakumera, kwali mankhwala gha mdawuko panji vinthu vya usungunu ivyo vyafumyika mu vyakumera, ndipo pamanyuma vyapangika pa [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]] ka mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="tapsell">{{cite journal |last1=Tapsell |first1=L. C. |last2=Hemphill |first2=I. |last3=Cobiac |first3=L. |title=Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |volume=185 |issue=4 Supplement |pages=S4–24 |date=August 2006 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2006.tb00548.x |pmid=17022438 |s2cid=9769230 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031172039/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |url-status=live |hdl=2440/22802 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="lai">{{cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=P. K. |last2=Roy |first2=J. |title=Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1451–1460 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15180577 |doi=10.2174/0929867043365107 }}</ref> Mankhwala gha mazuŵa ghano agho ghakufuma ku vyakumera ni aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, na ghanyake. Buku la mankhwala la Dioscorides, ''De materia medica'', ilo likalongosora vyakumera vya mankhwala pafupifupi 600, likalembeka pakati pa 50 na 70 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ndipo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Ulaya na Vuma Lapakati mpaka pafupifupi 1600.<ref name=NIH>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |title=Greek Medicine |publisher=National Institutes of Health, USA |date=16 September 2002 |access-date=22 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109193334/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |archive-date=9 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hefferon |first=Kathleen |title=Let Thy Food Be Thy Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2012 |page=46 |isbn=978-0-1998-7398-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030407/https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Anne|author-link=Anne Rooney |title=The Story of Medicine |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |date=2009 |page=143 |isbn=978-1-8485-8039-8 |access-date=9 December 2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030419/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vyakupangika Vyambura Kuŵa Vyakulya === [[File:Timber DonnellyMills2005 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|upright|Makuni ghakusungika kuti pamanyuma ghacekeke pa malo gha kucekera makuni ]] Vyakumera ivyo vikulimika nga ni mbuto za mafakitale ndivyo kasupe wa vyakupangika vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial Crop Production |url=https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |publisher=Grace Communications Foundation |access-date=20 June 2016 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610195055/https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vikusazgapo mafuta ghakununkhira, mitundu ya kawiro, ulimbo, rabala, na vinyake. Vyakupangika ivyo vikufuma ku vyakumera ni sopo, vyakununkhira, pende, rabala, pulasitiki, ingi, na vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Industrial Crops and Products'' An International Journal |url=https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2016-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002022039/https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |archive-date=2 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CruzDierig2014">{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Von Mark V. |last2=Dierig |first2=David A. |title=Industrial Crops: Breeding for BioEnergy and Bioproducts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |year=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4939-1447-0 |pages=9 and passim |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422142944/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |archive-date=22 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakotcherera vya vyakumera vikusazgapo nkhuni.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sato |first=Motoaki|chapter=Thermochemistry of the formation of fossil fuels |title=Fluid-Mineral Interactions: A Tribute to H. P. Eugster, Special Publication No. 2 |date=1990 |url=https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |publisher=The Geochemical Society |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920172448/https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Makala gha pasi, mafuta gha pasi, na mpweya wa pasi vikufuma ku vyakusyala vya vyamoyo vya mu maji vya kale comene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4SnHbb-ZcC&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA11 |title=Environmental Science: Problems, Connections and Solutions |last2=Spoolman |first2=Scott |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-38337-6 |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ahuja |first=Satinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHKDBAAAQBAJ&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA278 |title=Food, Energy, and Water: The Chemistry Connection |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-12-800374-9 |access-date=14 April 2018 }}</ref> Vyuma vya kuzengera na ulusi vyakufuma ku vyakumera vikugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga nyumba na kupanga vyakuvwara. Makuni ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyumba, ngalawa, na vyakukhalapo, na pa vinthu vicoko nga ni vilwero vya sumu. Makuni ghakupangiska mapepala.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of pulp |volume=1 |editor1-last=Sixta |editor1-first=Herbert |year=2006 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |location=Winheim, Germany |isbn=978-3-527-30997-9 |page=9}}</ref> Nsalu kanandi yikupangika na thonje na vinyake. Ulusi wa kusonera nsalu nawo ukufuma comene ku thonje.<ref>{{cite web |title=Natural fibres |url=https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |website=Discover Natural Fibres |date=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720093749/https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |archive-date=20 July 2016 }}</ref> === Vyakumera vya Kujikongoleska === [[File:Rose espalier Niedernhall.JPG|thumb|upright|Duŵa la ''rose'' lakukuzgika pa ciliŵa ku Niedernhall, Germany]] Mitundu masauzandi ya vyakumera yikulimika cifukwa ca uwemi wawo na kupeleka mthunzi, kusintha kufunda, kucepeska mphepo, kucepeska congo, na kucepeska kukokoloka kwa dongo. Vyakumera ni maziko gha malonda gha ŵalendo gha madola mabiliyoni pa caka, ghakusazgapo maulendo ku madimba gha kale, mapaki gha caro, nkholongo za vula, na visangalalo nga ni vya maluŵa gha cherry vya Japani na Amerika.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani/page/12 12] |title=Introduction to Japanese culture |first=Daniel |last=Sosnoski |publisher=Tuttle |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8048-2056-1 |access-date=13 December 2017 }}</ref><ref name="NCBF">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055554/https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url=https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |title=History of the Cherry Blossom Trees and Festival |website=National Cherry Blossom Festival: About |publisher=National Cherry Blossom Festival |access-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Vyakumera vingakuzgika mu nyumba, panji mu nyumba zapadera za vyakumera. Luso la kunozga vyakumera vyakudumulika panji vyamoyo likusazgapo bonsai na ikebana. Vyakumera vya kujikongoleska nyengo zinyake vyasintha mbiri, nga mu cakucitika ca ''tulipomania''.<ref name="Lambert">{{cite web |last=Lambert |first=Tim |title=A Brief History of Gardening |url=https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |publisher=BBC |access-date=21 June 2016 |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609094015/https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mu Kasandiro === [[File:Barbara McClintock (1902-1992) shown in her laboratory in 1947.jpg|thumb|upright|Barbara McClintock wakagwiliskira ntchito cingoma kusanda umo vimanyikwiro vikuhalirikira.]] Kusanda kwa kale kwa vyakumera ni kasandiro ka mbuto.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mason |first1=Matthew G. |title=Introduction to Botany |url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/botany |website=Environmental Science |access-date=6 June 2023}}</ref> Kusanda kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo kanandi kwagwiliskira ntchito vyakumera nga ni viyelezgero.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mendel's Paper in English |url=https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113051202/https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |archive-date=13 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Barbara McClintock: A Brief Biographical Sketch |url=https://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |publisher=WebCite |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927171607/http://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref> Mu kasandiro ka vyakuhara, kuŵeta nchunga za ''pea'' kukazomerezga Gregor Mendel kusanga malango ghakwamba gha kuhara, ndipo kupenda vigaŵa vya vyakuhara mu cingoma kukazomerezga Barbara McClintock kulongora ubale wawo na vimanyikwiro ivyo vikuharika.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Arabidopsis |url=https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |publisher=TAIR |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022211543/https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |archive-date=22 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphete za makuni zikupeleka nthowa ya kupima vyaka mu kasandiro ka vya kale, na malemba gha nyengo za kale.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bauer |first=Bruce |website=Climate.gov |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |title=How Tree Rings Tell Time and Climate History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812140430/https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |archive-date=12 August 2021 |date=29 November 2018}}</ref> Kusanda mafosilo gha vyakumera kukupeleka mauthenga pa kukura kwa vyakumera na kusintha kwa nyengo kwa kale.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cleal |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Thomas |first2=Barry A. |title=Introduction to Plant Fossils |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019 |page=13 |isbn=978-1-1084-8344-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=plant+fossils }}</ref> === Mu Majandulo, Visopa, na Midawuko === [[File:Relief plaque with confronted ibexes, Iran, Sasanian period, 5th or 6th century AD, stucco originally with polychrome painting - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC03952.JPG|thumb|upright=0.55|Vinyama viŵiri vyakulaŵiskana ku mbali ziŵiri za khuni la umoyo, cithuzi cakuzgoŵereka mu luso la kale]] Vyakumera, kusazgapo makuni, vikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, na malemba. Mu visopa vinandi, khuni la caro cose likulongoreka nga ni khuni likulu comene ilo likumera pa caro capasi, likukhazga kuthambo, ndipo misisi yake yikufika ku caro ca pasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fogden |first1=Michael |last2=Fogden |first2=Patricia |title=The Natural History of Flowers |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-6234-9644-9 |page=1}}</ref> Maluŵa kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kukumbukira, nga ni vyawanangwa, na kumanyiska vyakucitika vyapadera nga ni kubabika, nyifwa, nthengwa, na mazuŵa gha cisangalalo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Botanical Imagery in European Painting |date=August 2007 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm |access-date=19 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Raymond |first=Francine |title=Why botanical art is still blooming today |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/9924556/Why-botanical-art-is-still-blooming-today.html |access-date=19 June 2016 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 March 2013}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo Viheni === [[File:Texas invasive Musk Thistle 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|''Musk thistle'' ni cakumera cakufuma kunyake ico cikunanga malo mu Texas.]] Mikoza ni vyakumera ivyo vikukhumbikwa yayi mu malo ghakupwelelereka nga ni minda na madimba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harlan |first1=J. R. |last2=deWet |first2=J. M. |year=1965 |title=Some thoughts about weeds |journal=Economic Botany |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=16–24 |doi=10.1007/BF02971181 |bibcode=1965EcBot..19...16H |s2cid=28399160 }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵathandazga vyakumera vinandi kuwaro kwa malo ghawo gha kawiro; vinyake vyaŵa vyakunanga, ndipo vikunanga malo gha vyamoyo mwa kupoka malo gha vyakumera vya malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Mark A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Ken |year=2000 |title=Eight Ways to be a Colonizer; Two Ways to be an Invader: A Proposed Nomenclature Scheme for Invasion Ecology |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=81 |number=3 |pages=226–230 |publisher=Ecological Society of America}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake ivyo vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa wakwenda na mphepo, kusazgapo utheka, vikwiziska ulwari wa kukhwasula ku ŵanthu ŵanyake.<ref name=NIH2015Cause>{{cite web |title=Cause of Environmental Allergies |url=http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |website=NIAID |access-date=June 17, 2015 |date=April 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617124141/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |archive-date=June 17, 2015}}</ref> Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga poizoni kuti vijivikilire ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera. Poizoni uyu ungapweteka ŵanthu na viŵeto para walyeka panji, pa vyakumera vinyake, para wakhwaskika.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm |title=Biochemical defenses: secondary metabolites |access-date=2007-05-21 |work=Plant Defense Systems & Medicinal Botany |archive-date=2007-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703145234/http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bevan-Jones |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4KOmAwAAQBAJ |title=Poisonous Plants: A Cultural and Social History |date=2009-08-01 |publisher=Windgather Press |isbn=978-1-909686-22-9 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gasZYoM22bkC |title=Livestock-Poisoning Plants of California |publisher=UCANR Publications |isbn=978-1-60107-674-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crosby |first=Donald G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9gJCAAAQBAJ |title=The Poisoned Weed: Plants Toxic to Skin |date=2004-04-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-028870-9}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vikukanizga vyakumera vinyake kukura kwizira mu vinthu vya usungunu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grodzinskii |first=A. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlA4DwAAQBAJ |title=Allelopathy in the Life of Plants and their Communities |date=2016-03-01 |publisher=Scientific Publishers |isbn=978-93-86102-04-1}}</ref> == Vyakumera mu Malaŵi == Mu caro ca [[Malaŵi]] muli vyakumera vya mitundu yinandi. Muli makuni, utheka, na vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Malaŵi pera mu caro cose capasi. Makuni gha mu Malaŵi ghakupambanapambana kuyana na malo agho ghakumerako. Makuni ghanyake ghakupandika na ŵanthu, nga ni bulugamu, payini, gemelina, na sayipurasi, na ghanyake ghanandi. Makuni agho ghakiza na ŵanthu ŵanyake ni nga ni makuni gha mayembe na mitundu ya malalanje. Makuni ghanyake ni agha: mubabani, thung'unda, minyozi ya mitundu yinandi, kabeza, maqokolo, mavilo, masuku, matubeni, mjejengwani, matowo, mulolo, makama, mphangala, kavundula, mono, matwatwa, matunduluka, buyu, mbula, cifiqe, mubanga, mzobala, msipani, nthumbuzga za [[kalulu]], kazando, na masuju. Mulinso mphangwe zakupambanapambana nga ni cindere na nyungu. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vyakumela]] [[Category:Malaŵi]] hgk5008zbf60turscdr3zofmv4ccuky 124421 124415 2026-11-10T21:02:10Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga tumalembo tucoko (ISBN / zina la bokosi) 124421 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Vyakumera | fossil_range = Mesoproterozoic – sono | image = Frühling blühender Kirschenbaum.jpg | image_caption = Khuni lakuŵa na maluŵa | domain = Eukaryota | regnum = '''Plantae''' | regnum_authority = Copeland, 1956 | subdivision_ranks = Magulu | subdivision = *Rhodophyta (koyo wakuswesi) *Glaucophyta *Chlorophyta (koyo muŵisi) *Bryophyta (koyo) *Polypodiopsida (''fern'') *Pinophyta (''conifer'') *Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) }} [[File:חורשת המייסדים - גבעת השבשבת חיפה 02 2013 (98).JPG|thumb|Vyakumera]] '''Vyakumera''' (cimoza: '''cakumera''') ni vyamoyo vya ufumu wakuchemeka ''Plantae''. Vinandi vikusanga nkhongono zawo za ntchito kufuma ku ungweru wa [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]] mu nthowa ya [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mtundu wa ciŵisi ca mahamba (klorofilo) kupanga shuga kufuma ku kaboni dayokisayidi na [[Maji|maji]]. Mu nyengo, vyakumera vinyake vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake kuti visange nkhongono za ntchito. Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Kale, nga mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo ka Aristotle, ufumu wa vyakumera ukasazgangapo vyamoyo vyose ivyo nvinyama yayi, kusazgapo wowa. Ng'anamulo iyi yacepa kufuma apo; ng'anamulo za sono zikusazgamo wowa yayi. Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 380,000 iyo yikumanyikwa, ndipo yinandi, pafupifupi 260,000, yikupanga mbuto. Vyakumera vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku kaselo kamoza mpaka ku makuni ghatali comene. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi. Shuga uyo vikupanga mu usanisinuru ukupeleka nkhongono za ntchito ku vyamoyo vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo vyamoyo vinyake, kusazgapo [[Vinyama|vinyama]], vikurya vyakumera panji vikuthemba vyakumera. Mbuto, vipambi, na masamba ni vyakulya vyakwamba vya ŵanthu, ndipo vyaŵetika kwa vyaka vinandi comene. Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyakumera pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni vyakuzengera nga ni makuni, vyakujikongoleska, vyakulembera, na mitundu yinandi comene ya [[Mankhwala|mankhwala]]. Kusanda vyakumera mwa kasandiro kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto. == Ng'anamulo == === Mbiri ya Kagaŵiro === Kale, vyamoyo vyose vikagaŵikanga mu magulu ghaŵiri, vyakumera na vinyama. Kagaŵiro aka kakafuma kwa Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu), uyo wakapatula mitundu ya vyamoyo mu kasandiro kake ka vyamoyo, kuyana na usange vikaŵa na "mzimu wakupulika" panji, nga ni vyakumera, "mzimu wa kukura" pera.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hull |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ymrg0lMEYt0C&q=PA84 |title=Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2010 |page=82 |isbn=978-0-226-36049-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |pages=111–119}}</ref> Theophrastus, msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalutilizga ntchito yake pa kagaŵiro ka vyakumera.<ref name="OxBib">{{Cite web |title=Taxonomy and Classification |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199941728/obo-9780199941728-0065.xml |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=obo }}</ref> Pamanyuma comene, Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) wakaŵika maziko gha ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghano ya kagaŵiro ka kasandiro, kweni wakasunga maufumu gha vinyama na vyakumera, ndipo wakachema ufumu wa vyakumera kuti ''Vegetabilia''.<ref name="OxBib"/> === Maghanoghano Ghanyake === Para zina lakuti ''Plantae'' panji cakumera ligwiliskirika ntchito pa gulu linyake la vyamoyo, kanandi likung'anamula limoza mwa maghanoghano ghanayi, kufuma ku ilo likusazgamo vicoko mpaka ku ilo likusazgamo vinandi. == Kukura kwa Mitundu == === Kupambanapambana === [[File:Cosmarium201512081550.JPG|thumb|upright|Koyo wa ''Cosmarium botrytis'' ni kaselo kamoza.]] [[File:US 199 Redwood Highway.jpg|thumb|upright|Khuni la ''Sequoia sempervirens'' lingafika utali wa {{convert|380|ft|m|order=flip}}.]] Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 382,000 iyo yazomerezgeka, ndipo yinandi comene, pafupifupi 283,000, yikupanga mbuto.<ref name=WFO/><ref name="IUCNdata">{{cite web |title=Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2010) |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=11 March 2010 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721034312/https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |archive-date= 21 July 2011 |url-status= live }}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 85–90 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera ni vyakumera vya maluŵa. Ntchito zinandi sono zikuyezga kuwunjika malemba gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera pa intaneti, mwaciyelezgero World Flora Online.<ref name=WFO>{{cite web|work=The World Flora Online|title=An Online Flora of All Known Plants |url=http://worldfloraonline.org/|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-12 |title=How many plant species are there in the world? Scientists now have an answer |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323202847/https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakumera mu ng'anamulo yikulu vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza (vicoko kuluska mikulomita 3) mpaka ku makuni ghakulu comene, nga ni ''Sequoia sempervirens'' (mpaka mamita 120 kutali) na ''Eucalyptus regnans'' (mpaka mamita 100 kutali).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=John D.|last2=McCourt |first2=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter 9. Conjugating Green Algae Including Desmids |editor-first1=John D. |editor-last1=Wehr |editor-first2=Robert G. |editor-last2=Sheath |editor-first3=John Patrick |editor-last3=Kociolek |date=2014 |edition=2 |title=Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-385876-4 }}</ref><ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS One |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |article-number=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle, Christopher J. |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuthya mazina gha vyakumera kukulongozgeka na Malango gha Pakati pa Vyaro gha Mazina gha vyakumera, wowa, na vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=www.iapt-taxon.org }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gledhill |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&dq=international+code+of+nomenclature+for+cultivated+plants&pg=PA26 |title=The Names of Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=26 |isbn=978-0-5218-6645-3 }}</ref> === Mbiri ya Kukura === Vyakumera vya kale vya vyakumera vya pa mtunda vikakura mu maji. Ulenda wa vyakumera vicoko ukapangika pa mtunda vyaka miliyoni 1,200 ivyo vyajumpha, kweni mpaka pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 450 ivyo vyajumpha ndipo vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikawoneka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Thomas N. |title=The Origin of Land Plants: Some Answers, More Questions |journal=Taxon |date=November 1988 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=805–833 |doi=10.2307/1222087 |jstor=1222087|bibcode=1988Taxon..37..805T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ciesielski |first=Paul F. |title=Transition of plants to land |url=https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302040410/https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Kweni mafosilo mu malibwe gha kale comene ghakulongora kuti vyamoyo vya tumaselo tunandi vya mu maji ghawemi vikaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha miliyoni 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strother |first1=Paul K. |last2=Battison |first2=Leila |last3=Brasier |first3=Martin D. |last4=Wellman |first4=Charles H. |date=26 May 2011 |title=Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes |journal=Nature |volume=473 |issue=7348 |pages=505–509 |doi=10.1038/nature09943 |pmid=21490597 |bibcode=2011Natur.473..505S |s2cid=4418860 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51048998}}</ref> Vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikamba kupambanapambana pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 420 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beck |first=C. B. |title=The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon |journal=Brittonia |volume=12 |pages=351–368 |year=1960 |issue=4 |doi=10.2307/2805124 |jstor=2805124 |bibcode=1960Britt..12..351B |s2cid=27887887 }}</ref><ref name="Rothwelletal989">{{cite journal |last1=Rothwell |first1=G. W. |last2=Scheckler |first2=S. E. |last3=Gillespie |first3=W. H. |year=1989 |title=''Elkinsia'' gen. nov., a Late Devonian gymnosperm with cupulate ovules |journal=Botanical Gazette |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=170–189 |doi=10.1086/337763 |jstor=2995234 |bibcode=1989BoGaz.150..170R |s2cid=84303226 }}</ref> Pakumalira kwa nyengo ya Devonian, vimanyikwiro vinandi vyakwamba vya vyakumera vya mazuŵa ghano vikaŵako, kusazgapo misisi, mahamba, na makuni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plants |url=https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/plants-2/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=British Geological Survey }}</ref> Nyengo ya Carboniferous yikawona kukura kwa nkholongo mu madambo.<ref name="McElwain Punyasena 2007 pp. 548–557">{{cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=Jennifer C. |last2=Punyasena |first2=Surangi W. |title=Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=22 |issue=10 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003 |pages=548–557|pmid=17919771 |bibcode=2007TEcoE..22..548M }}</ref> Kumalira kukulu kwa vyamoyo kwa Permo-Triassic kukasintha comene mawupu gha vyamoyo. Ici cingaŵa kuti cikazomerezga kukura kwa vyakumera vya maluŵa mu Triassic (pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 200 ivyo vyajumpha), ndipo vikathandazgika luŵiro comene mu Cretaceous mwakuti Charles Darwin wakacichema kuti "fumbo lakofya".<ref name="Friedman-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=William E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |pmid=21628174|bibcode=2009AmJB...96....5F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Berendse Scheffer 2009 pp. 865–872">{{cite journal |last1=Berendse |first1=Frank |last2=Scheffer |first2=Marten |title=The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for Darwin's 'abominable mystery' |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=12 |issue=9 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01342.x |pages=865–872|pmid=19572916 |pmc=2777257 |bibcode=2009EcolL..12..865B }}</ref><ref name="Herendeen-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Herendeen |first1=Patrick S. |last2=Friis |first2=Else Marie |last3=Pedersen |first3=Kaj Raunsgaard |last4=Crane |first4=Peter R. |date=2017-03-03 |title=Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms |url=https://rdcu.be/c0Zhm |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=17015 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.15 |pmid=28260783 |bibcode=2017NatPl...317015H |s2cid=205458714 }}</ref> Makuni gha mahamba gha singano ghakapambanapambana kufuma pakumalira kwa Triassic, ndipo ghakaŵa ghanandi comene mu Jurassic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=Brian A. |last2=Serbet |first2=Rudolph |last3=Hieger |first3=Timothy J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Edith L. |date=October 2018 |title=Additional evidence for the Mesozoic diversification of conifers: Pollen cone of Chimaerostrobus minutus gen. et sp. nov. (Coniferales), from the Lower Jurassic of Antarctica |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=257 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2018.06.013 |bibcode=2018RPaPa.257...77A |s2cid=133732087|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Leslie etal-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |date=September 2018 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid=30157290 |bibcode=2018AmJB..105.1531L |s2cid=52120430 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Mbumba === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175" widths="175"> File:Rhynia stem.jpg|Cigaŵa ca ntonga ya ''Rhynia'', cakumera cakwamba ca pa mtunda, cakusungika mu libwe la Rhynie kufuma kwamba kwa nyengo ya Devonian File:Devonianscene-green.jpg|Pofika nyengo ya Devonian, vyakumera vikaŵa vyakunozgeka kukhala pa mtunda na misisi na ntonga za khuni. File:Asterophyllites Equisetiformis.jpg|Mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, vyakumera nga ni ''Asterophyllites'' vikandana comene mu nkholongo za madambo. File:Petrified Araucaria cone.jpg|Vyakumera vya mbuto za mu tumakoko (''conifer'') vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana na vinandi comene mu nyengo ya Jurassic. Pa cithuzi pali kakoko ka ''Araucaria mirabilis''. File:Sagaria cilentana (cropped).jpg|Kupambanapambana kukulu mu nyengo ya Cretaceous kukapanga vyakumera vinandi vya maluŵa, nga ni ''Sagaria'' mu mbumba ya Ranunculaceae. </gallery> Mu 2019, mbumba ya vyakumera iyo yikazengeka pa vyakuhara vya mitundu 1,153 ya vyakumera yikasacizgika.<ref name="1000plants">{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kagaŵiro ka magulu ghanyake ka vyakumera kakukhozgeka na kusanda kwa vyakuhara.<ref name="MvirideGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Zhe |display-authors=etal |title=Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta |journal=Advanced Science |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2019 |article-number=1901850 |doi=10.1002/advs.201901850 |pmid=31921561 |pmc=6947507 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Mv_and_Ca_Genomes">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sibo |display-authors=etal |title=Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=95–106 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3 |pmid=31844283 |pmc=7027972 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6...95W }}</ref><ref name="Puttick2018">{{cite journal |last1=Puttick |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte |journal=Current Biology |volume=28 |issue=5 |year=2018 |pages=733–745 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063 |pmid=29456145|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018CBio...28E.733P |hdl=10400.1/11601 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jian |display-authors=etal |title=The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4|pmid=32042158 |pmc=7027989 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..107Z }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome2">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Fay Wei |display-authors=etal |title=Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=259–272 |doi=10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2|pmid=32170292 |pmc=8075897 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..259L }}</ref> == Umo Thupi Likugwilira Ntchito == === Tumaselo twa Vyakumera === {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%; |label1=Archaeplastida |sublabel1=(na tuvigaŵa twa ciŵisi<br/>kufuma ku mabakiteriya) |1={{clade |1=Rhodophyta [[File:Chondrus crispus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-034 (single).jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |1=Glaucophyta [[File:Glaucocystis nostochinearum.jpg|50px]] |label2=Viridiplantae |sublabel2= (vyakumera viŵisi) |2={{clade |1=Chlorophyta [[File:Volvox sp.png|50px]] |bar1=darkgreen |2={{clade |1=Prasinococcales |bar1=darkgreen |2=&nbsp; |state2=none |style2=font-size:50%;line-height:50%; |3={{clade |1= {{clade |1=Mesostigmatophyceae|bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Chlorokybophyceae|bar1=blue |2=''Spirotaenia'' [[File:Spirotaenia condensata.jpg|30px]] |bar2=blue }} }} |2={{clade |1=Klebsormidiales [[File:Klebsormidium bilatum Belgium (14759117646).jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=''Chara'' [[File:CharaGlobularis.jpg|40px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Coleochaetales|bar1=blue |2={{clade |label1=Zygnematophyceae |1=[[File:The freshwater alga Spirogyra.jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |label2=Embryophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya pa mtunda) |2={{clade |label1="Bryophyta" |1={{clade |1=Anthocerotophyta [[File:Phaeoceros laevis 48205337 (white background).jpg|40px]] |label2=Setaphytes |2={{clade |1=Marchantiophyta [[File:Conocephalum conicum (e, 144739-474742) 1022.jpg|50px]] |2=Koyo (Bryophyta) [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]] }} }} |label2=Tracheophytes |sublabel2=(na machubu gha khuni<br/>gha kunyamulira maji) |2={{clade |1=Lycophyta [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219 (extracted).jpg|50px]] |label2=Euphyllophytes |sublabel2=(na mahamba) |2={{clade |label1=Ferns (Polypodiopsida) |1=[[File:California Arena Point fern.jpg|50px]] |label2=Spermatophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya mbuto) |2={{clade |1=Gymnospermae (mbuto zambura kuvikilirika) [[File:PIH 1830 Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) graft clone collection in Röykkä Finland.jpg|40px]] |2=Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Plant cell structure-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kapangikiro ka kaselo ka cakumera]] Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na vimanyikwiro vyapadera ivyo tumaselo tunyake (nga ni twa vinyama) tulije. Ivi vikusazgapo cigaŵa cikulu ca pakati cakuzura maji, vigaŵa vya klorofilo, na cikopa cakukhora kweni cakupindika ico cili kuwaro kwa kaselo. Vigaŵa vya klorofilo vikafuma ku kukhala pamoza kwa kaselo kambura klorofilo na mabakiteriya agho ghakupanga vyakulya na ungweru. Cikopa ca kaselo, ico cikupangika comene na selulosi, cikuzomerezga tumaselo twa vyakumera kuzura na maji kwambura kuphulika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Cells, Chloroplasts, and Cell Walls |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/plant-cells-chloroplasts-and-cell-walls-14053956/ |website=Scitable by Nature Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kapangikiro ka Vyakumera === [[File:Plant Anatomy.svg|thumb|Kapangikiro ka cakumera ca mbuto. 1. Vigaŵa vya pacanya. 2. Vigaŵa vya misisi. 3. Cigaŵa ca pasi pa mahamba ghakwamba. 4. Kaphukira ka pacanya. 5. Hamba. 6. Cigaŵa ca ntonga pakati pa mafundo. 7. Kaphukira ka mu khwapa. 8. Kakholo ka hamba. 9. Ntonga. 10. Fundo. 11. Msisi ukulu. 12. Visisi vya msisi. 13. Nsonga ya msisi. 14. Cakuvikilira nsonga ya msisi]] Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tukupambana mu mitundu yinandi, ndipo tukupanga vigaŵa nga ni minjololo ya kunyamulira maji na vyakulya mu mahamba na mu ntonga, na viŵaro vya ntchito zakupambana. Ivi vikusazgapo misisi ya kukwemya maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, ntonga ya kukhazga na kunyamula maji na vyakupangika, mahamba gha [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], na maluŵa gha kuŵaba.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farabee |first1=M. C. |title=Plants and their Structure |url=http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |publisher=Maricopa Community Colleges |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022174416/http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |archive-date=22 October 2006 }}</ref> === Usanisinuru === Vyakumera vikucita usanisinuru, kupanga vyakulya (shuga) mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za ntchito za [[Ungweru|ungweru]]. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na klorofilo mu vigaŵa vyake, iyo ni mtundu uŵisi uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito kukora nkhongono za ntchito za ungweru. Malinganizgo gha usungunu gha usanisinuru ni:<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=John |title=What Is the Photosynthesis Equation? |url=https://sciencing.com/photosynthesis-equation-6962557.html |website=Sciencing |date=4 March 2023 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> : 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → (ungweru) → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ Ici cikupangiska vyakumera kufumiska [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]] mu mphepo. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi, pamoza na koyo na mabakiteriya.<ref name="Reinhard Planavsky Olson Lyons 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Reinhard |first1=Christopher T. |last2=Planavsky |first2=Noah J. |last3=Olson |first3=Stephanie L. |last4=Lyons |first4=Timothy W. |last5=Erwin |first5=Douglas H. |display-authors=3 |title=Earth's oxygen cycle and the evolution of animal life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=32 |date=25 July 2016 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1521544113 |pages=8933–8938|pmid=27457943 |pmc=4987840 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.8933R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=behrenfeld>{{cite journal |last1=Field |first1=C. B. |last2=Behrenfeld |first2=M. J. |last3=Randerson |first3=J. T. |author4=Falkowski, P. |year=1998 |title=Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components |journal=Science |volume=281 |pages=237–240 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5374.237 |pmid=9657713 |issue=5374 |bibcode=1998Sci...281..237F |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215921/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |archive-date=25 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tivy 2014">{{cite book |last=Tivy |first=Joy |title=Biogeography: A Study of Plants in the Ecosphere |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-89723-1 |oclc=1108871710 |pages=31, 108–110|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake vingataya vyakuhara vya usanisinuru na kupanga klorofilo.<ref name="Qu-etal-2019">{{cite journal|first1=Xiao-Jian |last1=Qu |first2=Shou-Jin |last2=Fan |first3=Susann |last3=Wicke |first4=Ting-Shuang |last4=Yi |title=Plastome reduction in the only parasitic gymnosperm ''Parasitaxus'' is due to losses of photosynthesis but not housekeeping genes and apparently involves the secondary gain of a large inverted repeat |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=10 |date=2019 |pages=2789–2796 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz187 |pmid=31504501 |pmc=6786476 }}</ref> === Kukura na Kunozgeka === Kukura kukusimikizgika na kukolerana kwa vyakuhara vya cakumera na malo ghake gha kawiro na gha vyamoyo. Vinthu vya malo nga ni kufunda, maji, ungweru, kaboni dayokisayidi, na vyakulya vya mu dongo.<ref name="Ambroise Legay Guerriero Hausman 2019 pp. 3–20">{{cite journal |last1=Ambroise |first1=Valentin |last2=Legay |first2=Sylvain |last3=Guerriero |first3=Gea |last4=Hausman |first4=Jean-Francois |last5=Cuypers |first5=Ann |last6=Sergeant |first6=Kjell |display-authors=3 |title=The Roots of Plant Frost Hardiness and Tolerance |journal=Plant and Cell Physiology |volume=61 |issue=1 |date=18 October 2019 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcz196 |pages=3–20|pmid=31626277 |pmc=6977023 }}</ref> Vinthu vya vyamoyo ivyo vikukhwaska kukura kwa vyakumera ni kuwunjikana, kuryeka na viŵeto, mabakiteriya na wowa ivyo vikovwira, na kuwukirika na vibenene panji nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="pmid18707020">{{cite journal |author1=Roldán-Arjona, T. |author2=Ariza, R. R. |title=Repair and tolerance of oxidative DNA damage in plants |journal=Mutation Research |volume=681 |issue=2–3 |pages=169–179 |year=2009 |pmid=18707020 |doi=10.1016/j.mrrev.2008.07.003 |bibcode=2009MRRMR.681..169R |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |access-date=22 September 2017 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923050705/https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cikakato na kukoma vingananga panji kukoma vyakumera. Vyakumera vinyake vili na vinthu mu tumaselo twawo ivyo vikuvizomerezga kukhora pa masuzgo agha.<ref name="Yang Kim 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yun Young |last2=Kim |first2=Jae Geun |title=The optimal balance between sexual and asexual reproduction in variable environments: a systematic review |journal=Journal of Ecology and Environment |volume=40 |issue=1 |date=24 November 2016 |article-number=12 |doi=10.1186/s41610-016-0013-0 |bibcode=2016JEcEn..40...12Y |s2cid=257092048 |hdl=10371/100354 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kuŵaba === Vyakumera vikuŵaba kuti vipange ŵana, kwali mwa kugonana panji kwambura kugonana. Vyakumera vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zose ziŵiri. ==== Mwa Kugonana ==== [[File:Alternation of generations simpler.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kusinthana kwa mibadwo pakati pa cakumera ca ''haploid'' (n) (pacanya) na ca ''diploid'' (2n) (pasi), mu mitundu yose ya vyakumera]] Para vikuŵaba mwa kugonana, vyakumera vili na umoyo wakusuzga wa mbumba zakusintha-sintha. Vyakumera vinyake vikuŵaba so kwizira mu tumbuto tucoko. Vyakumera vya maluŵa vikuŵaba mwa kugonana mwa kugwiliskira ntchito maluŵa, agho ghali na vigaŵa vya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi: ivi vingaŵa mu ciluŵa cimoza, mu maluŵa ghakupambana pa cakumera cimoza, panji pa vyakumera vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Do Plants With Spores Reproduce? |url=https://sciencing.com/plants-spores-reproduce-4568855.html |website=Sciencing |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya ŵanalume vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa, uwo ukupanga vyakuŵabira vya ŵanalume ivyo vikunjira mu cigaŵa ca ŵanakazi. Kuŵabika kukucitika mu vigaŵa vya ŵanakazi, ivyo vikusanduka vipambi ivyo vili na mbuto. Vipambi vingathandazgika vyose, panji vingaphulika ndipo mbuto zikuthandazgika yimoza yimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barrett |first=S. C. H. |year=2002 |title=The evolution of plant sexual diversity |url=http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1038/nrg776 |pmid=11967552 |s2cid=7424193 |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527102011/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf }}</ref> ==== Kwambura Kugonana ==== [[File:RowOfPlants.JPG|thumb|''Ficinia spiralis'' yikuthandazgika kwambura mbuto, na tusisi twakwenda pasi mu mcenga.]] Vyakumera vikuŵaba kwambura kugonana mwa kukuzga vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya. Mwa nthowa yipepuka, vyakumera vinyake vingaphwanyika mu vigaŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ciliconse cingakura so kuŵa cakumera cose. Kupandira vyakumera vya maluŵa na vigaŵa vyakudumulika ni ndondomeko yakuyana. Vigaŵa nga ni minjololo yakwenda pasi vikuzomerezga vyakumera kukura na kuphimba malo. Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga vigaŵa vya kusungira vyakulya, nga ni kacewere panji hanyezi, ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asexual reproduction in plants |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zs4tyrd/revision/3 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kukhora pa Nthenda === Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangira kumanya tubungulu twa nthenda nga ni mabakiteriya agho ghakwiziska nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="Kato Yasui Ishizaki 2020 pp. 459–465">{{cite journal |last1=Kato |first1=Hirotaka |last2=Yasui |first2=Yukiko |last3=Ishizaki |first3=Kimitsune |title=Gemma cup and gemma development in Marchantia polymorpha |journal=New Phytologist |volume=228 |issue=2 |date=19 June 2020 |doi=10.1111/nph.16655 |pages=459–465|pmid=32390245 |s2cid=218583032 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NewPh.228..459K }}</ref><ref name="Moody Diggle Steingraeber 1999 pp. 1512–1522">{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Amber |last2=Diggle |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Steingraeber |first3=David A. |title=Developmental analysis of the evolutionary origin of vegetative propagules in Mimulus gemmiparus (Scrophulariaceae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=86 |issue=11 |year=1999 |doi=10.2307/2656789 |pages=1512–1522 |jstor=2656789 |pmid=10562243 }}</ref> Kumanya uku kukwiziska kujivikilira. === Vyakuhara === Vyakumera vili na vyakuhara vikulu comene pa vyamoyo vyose. Vyakuhara vikulu comene vya cakumera (pa unandi wa vyakuhara) ni vya tirigu, ivyo vikughanaghanirika kuŵa pafupifupi 94,000, pafupifupi kankhondi kuluska vya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Song |first=W. Y. |title=A receptor kinase-like protein encoded by the rice disease resistance gene, XA21 |journal=Science |volume=270 |issue=5243 |pages=1804–1806 |year=1995 |pmid=8525370 |doi=10.1126/science.270.5243.1804 |display-authors=etal |bibcode=1995Sci...270.1804S |s2cid=10548988 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107024436/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |archive-date=7 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gomez-Gomez |first=L. |title=FLS2: an LRR receptor-like kinase involved in the perception of the bacterial elicitor flagellin in ''Arabidopsis'' |journal=Molecular Cell |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=1003–1011 |year=2000 |pmid=10911994 |doi=10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80265-8 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Vyakumera na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kuthandazgika === [[File:Vegetation.png|thumb|upright=2.5|Mapu gha kagaŵiro ka vyakumera vya pa caro capasi kuyana na malo gha vyamoyo, nga ni malo ghakuzizima ghambura makuni, nkholongo za kumpoto, nkholongo za mahamba ghakulu, madambo gha utheka, nkholongo za vula, vipalamba, na nkholongo za mapiri. Mtundu wa caphuvyu ukulongora cikakato na vipalamba vya kumpoto na kumwera comene ivyo vilije vyakumera.]] Vyakumera vili pafupifupi pa caro cose capasi. Nangauli vikukhala mu malo ghanandi, ni vyakumera vyakukhora pera, vya mu Antarctica, ivyo vyasintha kukolerana na vyakucitika vya pa cigaŵa ici cikulu ca mtunda ca kumwera.<ref name="Olson 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Olson |first1=David M. |last2=Dinerstein |first2=Eric |last3=Wikramanayake |first3=Eric D. |last4=Burgess |first4=Neil D. |last5=Powell |first5=George V. N. |last6=Underwood |first6=Emma C. |last7=D'amico |first7=Jennifer A. |last8=Itoua |first8=Illanga |last9=Strand |first9=Holly E. |last10=Morrison |first10=John C. |last11=Loucks |first11=Colby J. |last12=Allnutt |first12=Thomas F. |last13=Ricketts |first13=Taylor H. |last14=Kura |first14=Yumiko |last15=Lamoreux |first15=John F. |last16=Wettengel |first16=Wesley W. |last17=Hedao |first17=Prashant |last18=Kassem |first18=Kenneth R. |display-authors=3 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth |journal=BioScience |volume=51 |issue=11 |year=2001 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:teotwa]2.0.co;2 |page=933|s2cid=26844434 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Schulze Beck Buchmann Clemens 2018 pp. 657–688">{{cite book |last1=Schulze |first1=Ernst-Detlef |last2=Beck |first2=Erwin |last3=Buchmann |first3=Nina |last4=Clemens |first4=Stephan |last5=Müller-Hohenstein |first5=Klaus |last6=Scherer-Lorenzen |first6=Michael |title=Plant Ecology |chapter=Spatial Distribution of Plants and Plant Communities |publisher=Springer |date=3 May 2018 |isbn=978-3-662-56231-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56233-8_18 |pages=657–688 }}</ref> Vyakumera kanandi ndivyo vikuwoneka comene mu malo agho vikukhala. Malo ghanandi gha vyamoyo pa caro capasi ghali na mazina gha mtundu wa vyakumera, cifukwa vyakumera ndivyo vinandi comene mu malo agho, nga ni madambo gha utheka na nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Five Major Types of Biomes |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/five-major-types-biomes/ |publisher=National Geographic Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Ŵakupanga Ŵakwamba === Usanisinuru uwo vyakumera vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikucita ndiwo kasupe waumaliro wa nkhongono za ntchito na vyakulya mu pafupifupi malo ghose gha vyamoyo. Usanisinuru ukasintha comene mphepo ya caro capasi ca kale, iyo yikaŵa yambura okisijeni, ndipo sono yili na magaŵa 21 pa 100 gha okisijeni. Vinyama na vyamoyo vinyake vinandi vikuthemba okisijeni. Vyakumera ndivyo ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu malo ghanandi gha pa mtunda, ndipo ndivyo maziko gha minjololo ya vyakulya mu malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gough |first=C. M. |year=2011 |title=Terrestrial Primary Production: Fuel for Life |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=28}}</ref> Vyakumera ni pafupifupi magaŵa 80 pa 100 gha vyamoyo vyose vya caro capasi.<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite journal |last1=Bar-On |first1=Y. M. |last2=Phillips |first2=R. |last3=Milo |first3=R. |title=The biomass distribution on Earth |journal=PNAS |volume=115 |issue=25 |pages=6506–6511 |date=June 2018 |pmid=29784790 |pmc=6016768 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6506B |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221154508/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ubale na Vyamoyo Vinyake === Vinyama vinandi vyakura pamoza na vyakumera; vyakumera vya maluŵa vyapanga vimanyikwiro vya maluŵa ivyo vikovwira kuŵaba kwawo. Vinandi, kusazgapo vibenene na viyuni, vikutolera ufu wa maluŵa kufuma ku maluŵa ghanyake kuya ku ghanyake, mwa kukhumba vyakulya.<ref name=Lunau>{{cite journal |last=Lunau |first=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004ODivE...4..207L }}</ref> Vinyama vinandi vikuthandazga mbuto. Vipambi vinyake vili na vigaŵa vya kuwaro vyakulyeka ivyo vikukopa vinyama, apo mbuto zikukhora pa kujumpha mu matumbo gha cinyama; vinyake vili na tumbeŵa utu tukukolerana na sisi la cinyama. Vyakumera vinyake vyakura pamoza na nyerere. Cakumera cikupeleka nyumba, ndipo nyengo zinyake vyakulya, ku nyerere.<ref>{{cite web |last=Deacon |first=Jim |title=The Microbial World: Mycorrhizas |url=http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |website=bio.ed.ac.uk (archived) |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180427082137/http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |archive-date=2018-04-27 }}</ref> Nazo nyerere zikuvikilira cakumera ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera.<ref name="Lyons1986">{{cite journal|last1=Lyons |first1=P. C. |last2=Plattner |first2=R. D. |last3=Bacon |first3=C. W. |year=1986|title=Occurrence of peptide and clavine ergot alkaloids in tall fescue grass |journal=Science |volume=232 |pages=487–489 |pmid=3008328 |doi=10.1126/science.3008328 |issue=4749|bibcode=1986Sci...232..487L }}</ref> Mitundu yinandi ya vyakumera yili na wowa yakukolerana na misisi yawo, mu kukhala pamoza kwa kovwirana. Bowa yikovwira vyakumera kusanga maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, apo cakumera cikupeleka ku wowa shuga uwo wapanga mu usanisinuru. Vyakumera vinandi vya mtundu wa nchunga vili na mabakiteriya mu misisi yawo agho ghakukora naitirojeni kufuma mu mphepo kuti cakumera cigwiliskire ntchito; nawo vyakumera vikupeleka shuga ku mabakiteriya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fullick |first=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5j1ys2uLQYC&pg=PA48 |title=Feeding Relationships |date=2006 |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |isbn=978-1-4034-7521-3 |language=en}}</ref> Ici nchakuzirwa pa ulimi; mwaciyelezgero, ŵalimi ŵangalima nchunga, kulondezgana na tirigu, kuti ŵacepeske feteleza wa naitirojeni.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Stephen |date=2011 |title=Biological Nitrogen Fixation |url=https://www.nature.com/ |website=Nature Education Knowledge |access-date=6 November 2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317210753/https://www.nature.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 1 pa 100 gha mitundu ya vyakumera ni vyakuthemba vyakumera vinyake. Vinyake vikutora vyakulya vicoko pera kufuma ku cakumera cinyake kweni vicali na mahamba gha usanisinuru, apo vinyake vikutora vyakulya vyose kwizira mu misisi ya vyakumera vinyake, ndipo vilije klorofilo.<ref name="Kokla Melnyk 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kokla |first1=Anna |last2=Melnyk |first2=Charles W. |date=2018 |title=Developing a thief: Haustoria formation in parasitic plants |journal=Developmental Biology |volume=442 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013 |pmid=29935146 |s2cid=49394142 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake, kanandi makuni, kwambura kuvithemba, vikuchemeka vyakumera pa vinyake. Vinyake vingananga cakumera ico vikumerapo, mwa kukanizga ungweru. Mitundu yinandi ya maluŵa gha ''orchid'', ''bromeliad'', na vinyake vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake. Mitundu pafupifupi 630 ya vyakumera ni yakurya vinyama. Vikukora vinyama vicoko na kuvigaya kuti visange vyakulya, comene naitirojeni na fosiforasi.<ref name="Ellison Adamec 2018">{{cite book |last1=Ellison |first1=Aaron |last2=Adamec |first2=Lubomir |title=Carnivorous Plants: Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1988-3372-7 |pages=3–4 |edition=First |chapter=Introduction: What is a carnivorous plant?}}</ref> === Kususkana === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175px" widths="175px"> File:Honey Bee gathering pollen image by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN4801 (13) (cropped).jpg|Njuci yikuwunjika ufu wa maluŵa (''pollen'') (pa lundi lake pali kathumba ka ''pollen'') File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding (cropped).jpg|Kayuni ka ''hummingbird'' kakufika pa duŵa kuti kamwe uchi wake File:Epizoochory - dog with hooked Geum fruits in his fur (detail).jpg|Kuthandazgika kwa mbuto na vinyama: vipambi vinandi vya ''Geum urbanum'' vyakuŵa na tumbeŵa vyakamatira pa weya wa nchewe File:Robinia pseudoacacia root nodules.JPG|Vyakumera vya mbumba ya nyemba vili na tumapundu pa misisi ivyo mukukhala mabakiteriya gha ''Rhizobium'' agho ghakusintha natrojeni wa mu mpweya kuŵa cakulya ca cakumera. File:Drosera capensis bend.JPG|Hamba la ''sundew'' lakuŵa na visisi vyakunata ivyo vikupinda kuti vikore na kugaya membe </gallery> Kususkana pa vyuma vyakugaŵana kukucepeska kukura kwa cakumera.<ref name="Ecology-2012">{{Cite journal |title=Competition in Plant Communities |last1=Keddy |first1=Paul A. |last2=Cahill |first2=James |journal=Oxford Bibliographies Online |year=2012 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |access-date=2021-02-16 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0009 |isbn=978-0-19-983006-0 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126003436/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Pocheville-2015">{{Cite book |last=Pocheville |first=Arnaud |title=Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences |chapter=The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |date=January 2015 |pages=547–586 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9014-7_26 |isbn=978-94-017-9013-0 |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115183211/https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyuma ivi ni ungweru wa zuŵa, maji, na vyakulya.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Ungweru nchakuzirwa comene cifukwa nchakukhumbikwa pa usanisinuru.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito mahamba ghawo kubisa vyakumera vinyake ku ungweru wa zuŵa, ndipo vikukura luŵiro.<ref name="Casper-1997">{{Cite journal |last1=Casper |first1=Brenda B. |last2=Jackson |first2=Robert B. |title=Plant Competition Underground |date=November 1997 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=545–570 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |bibcode=1997AnRES..28..545C |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525175642/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Maji nagho ngakuzirwa pa usanisinuru; misisi yikususkana kukwemya maji ghanandi mu dongo.<ref name="Casper-1997" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Craine |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Dybzinski |first2=Ray |date=2013 |title=Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients, water and light |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=833–840 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12081 |bibcode=2013FuEco..27..833C |s2cid=83776710 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vili na misisi yakuzika iyo yingasanga maji ghakuzika pasi, apo vinyake vili na misisi yambura kuzika iyo yingathandazgika kutali kuwunjika maji gha vula.<ref name="Oborny-2000">{{Cite journal |last1=Oborny |first1=Beáta |last2=Kun |first2=Ádám |last3=Czárán |first3=Tamás |last4=Bokros |first4=Szilárd |date=2000 |title=The Effect of Clonal Integration on Plant Competition for Mosaic Habitat Space |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |journal=Ecology |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=3291–3304 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[3291:TEOCIO]2.0.CO;2 |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418122432/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> == Kuzirwa ku Ŵanthu == === Vyakulya === [[File:Harvest Time - geograph.org.uk - 747095.jpg|thumb|upright|Kuvuna ''oat'' na makina gha kuvunira ]] Kulima vyakumera ndiyo maziko gha [[ULimi na kuŵeta|ulimi]], uwo nawo wakugwira ntchito yikulu mu mbiri ya midawuko ya caro cose capasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wrench |first=Jason S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtg672jRCfAC&pg=RA1-PA9 |title=Workplace Communication for the 21st Century: Tools and Strategies that Impact the Bottom Line [2 volumes]: Tools and Strategies That Impact the Bottom Line |date=9 January 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-3133-9632-8}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuthemba vyakumera vya maluŵa pa vyakulya, mwakulunjika panji nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto. Mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 7,000 yagwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakulya, nangauli vyakulya vinandi vya mazuŵa ghano vikufuma ku mitundu 30 pera.<ref>{{cite book |author=Agricultural Research Service |title=Report on the Agricultural Experiment Stations |date=1903 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiVGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA429}}</ref><ref name=NatGeogAgriculture>{{cite web |title=The Development of Agriculture |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |work=National Geographic |access-date=1 October 2017 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414142437/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |archive-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> Vyakulya vikulu ni mbuto nga ni mpunga na tirigu, misisi nga ni cinangwa na kacewere, na vya mtundu wa nchunga nga ni nchunga. Mafuta gha vyakumera nga ni gha ''olive'' na gha mgwalangwa ghakupeleka mafuta, apo vipambi na masamba vikupeleka mavitamini na vinthu vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food and drink |url=https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |publisher=Kew Gardens |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328124344/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref> Khofi, tiyi, na sokoleti ni mbuto zikulu izo vyakupangika vyake vili na kafeni.<ref name="Hopper 2015">{{citation |last=Hopper |first=Stephen D. |chapter=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher=Wiley |date=2015 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0024933 |pages=1–9 |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 }}</ref> Kusanda kagwiliskiro ka vyakumera na ŵanthu kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto ka vyacuma.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wS-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA644 |chapter=Ethnobotany |title=Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study |last=Kochhar |first=S. L. |date=31 May 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-3166-7539-7 |page=644 }}</ref> === Mankhwala === [[File:Folio Materia Medica Dioscurides Met 13.152.6 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Dokotala wa nyengo yapakati wakupanga munkhwala kufuma ku cakumera ca munkhwala, kufuma mu buku la Ciarabu la Dioscorides, 1224]] Vyakumera vya mankhwala ni kasupe mukulu wa vyakusazganika, pa ntchito yawo ya mankhwala, na pa kupanga vinthu vinandi vya usungunu mu mafakitale.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals from Plants|publisher=Cambridge University Botanic Garden|url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209152153/https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|archive-date=9 December 2017}} The details of each plant and the chemicals it yields are described in the linked subpages.</ref> Mankhwala ghanandi, kusazgapo mankhwala ghakuloŵezga, ghakufuma ku vyakumera, kwali mankhwala gha mdawuko panji vinthu vya usungunu ivyo vyafumyika mu vyakumera, ndipo pamanyuma vyapangika pa [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]] ka mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="tapsell">{{cite journal |last1=Tapsell |first1=L. C. |last2=Hemphill |first2=I. |last3=Cobiac |first3=L. |title=Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |volume=185 |issue=4 Supplement |pages=S4–24 |date=August 2006 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2006.tb00548.x |pmid=17022438 |s2cid=9769230 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031172039/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |url-status=live |hdl=2440/22802 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="lai">{{cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=P. K. |last2=Roy |first2=J. |title=Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1451–1460 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15180577 |doi=10.2174/0929867043365107 }}</ref> Mankhwala gha mazuŵa ghano agho ghakufuma ku vyakumera ni aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, na ghanyake. Buku la mankhwala la Dioscorides, ''De materia medica'', ilo likalongosora vyakumera vya mankhwala pafupifupi 600, likalembeka pakati pa 50 na 70 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ndipo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Ulaya na Vuma Lapakati mpaka pafupifupi 1600.<ref name=NIH>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |title=Greek Medicine |publisher=National Institutes of Health, USA |date=16 September 2002 |access-date=22 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109193334/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |archive-date=9 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hefferon |first=Kathleen |title=Let Thy Food Be Thy Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2012 |page=46 |isbn=978-0-1998-7398-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030407/https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Anne|author-link=Anne Rooney |title=The Story of Medicine |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |date=2009 |page=143 |isbn=978-1-8485-8039-8 |access-date=9 December 2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030419/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vyakupangika Vyambura Kuŵa Vyakulya === [[File:Timber DonnellyMills2005 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|upright|Makuni ghakusungika kuti pamanyuma ghacekeke pa malo gha kucekera makuni ]] Vyakumera ivyo vikulimika nga ni mbuto za mafakitale ndivyo kasupe wa vyakupangika vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial Crop Production |url=https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |publisher=Grace Communications Foundation |access-date=20 June 2016 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610195055/https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vikusazgapo mafuta ghakununkhira, mitundu ya kawiro, ulimbo, rabala, na vinyake. Vyakupangika ivyo vikufuma ku vyakumera ni sopo, vyakununkhira, pende, rabala, pulasitiki, ingi, na vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Industrial Crops and Products'' An International Journal |url=https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2016-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002022039/https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |archive-date=2 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CruzDierig2014">{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Von Mark V. |last2=Dierig |first2=David A. |title=Industrial Crops: Breeding for BioEnergy and Bioproducts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |year=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4939-1447-0 |pages=9 and passim |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422142944/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |archive-date=22 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakotcherera vya vyakumera vikusazgapo nkhuni.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sato |first=Motoaki|chapter=Thermochemistry of the formation of fossil fuels |title=Fluid-Mineral Interactions: A Tribute to H. P. Eugster, Special Publication No. 2 |date=1990 |url=https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |publisher=The Geochemical Society |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920172448/https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Makala gha pasi, mafuta gha pasi, na mpweya wa pasi vikufuma ku vyakusyala vya vyamoyo vya mu maji vya kale comene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4SnHbb-ZcC&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA11 |title=Environmental Science: Problems, Connections and Solutions |last2=Spoolman |first2=Scott |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-38337-6 |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ahuja |first=Satinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHKDBAAAQBAJ&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA278 |title=Food, Energy, and Water: The Chemistry Connection |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-12-800374-9 |access-date=14 April 2018 }}</ref> Vyuma vya kuzengera na ulusi vyakufuma ku vyakumera vikugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga nyumba na kupanga vyakuvwara. Makuni ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyumba, ngalawa, na vyakukhalapo, na pa vinthu vicoko nga ni vilwero vya sumu. Makuni ghakupangiska mapepala.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of pulp |volume=1 |editor1-last=Sixta |editor1-first=Herbert |year=2006 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |location=Winheim, Germany |isbn=978-3-527-30997-9 |page=9}}</ref> Nsalu kanandi yikupangika na thonje na vinyake. Ulusi wa kusonera nsalu nawo ukufuma comene ku thonje.<ref>{{cite web |title=Natural fibres |url=https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |website=Discover Natural Fibres |date=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720093749/https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |archive-date=20 July 2016 }}</ref> === Vyakumera vya Kujikongoleska === [[File:Rose espalier Niedernhall.JPG|thumb|upright|Duŵa la ''rose'' lakukuzgika pa ciliŵa ku Niedernhall, Germany]] Mitundu masauzandi ya vyakumera yikulimika cifukwa ca uwemi wawo na kupeleka mthunzi, kusintha kufunda, kucepeska mphepo, kucepeska congo, na kucepeska kukokoloka kwa dongo. Vyakumera ni maziko gha malonda gha ŵalendo gha madola mabiliyoni pa caka, ghakusazgapo maulendo ku madimba gha kale, mapaki gha caro, nkholongo za vula, na visangalalo nga ni vya maluŵa gha cherry vya Japani na Amerika.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani/page/12 12] |title=Introduction to Japanese culture |first=Daniel |last=Sosnoski |publisher=Tuttle |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8048-2056-1 |access-date=13 December 2017 }}</ref><ref name="NCBF">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055554/https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url=https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |title=History of the Cherry Blossom Trees and Festival |website=National Cherry Blossom Festival: About |publisher=National Cherry Blossom Festival |access-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Vyakumera vingakuzgika mu nyumba, panji mu nyumba zapadera za vyakumera. Luso la kunozga vyakumera vyakudumulika panji vyamoyo likusazgapo bonsai na ikebana. Vyakumera vya kujikongoleska nyengo zinyake vyasintha mbiri, nga mu cakucitika ca ''tulipomania''.<ref name="Lambert">{{cite web |last=Lambert |first=Tim |title=A Brief History of Gardening |url=https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |publisher=BBC |access-date=21 June 2016 |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609094015/https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mu Kasandiro === [[File:Barbara McClintock (1902-1992) shown in her laboratory in 1947.jpg|thumb|upright|Barbara McClintock wakagwiliskira ntchito cingoma kusanda umo vimanyikwiro vikuhalirikira.]] Kusanda kwa kale kwa vyakumera ni kasandiro ka mbuto.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mason |first1=Matthew G. |title=Introduction to Botany |url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/botany |website=Environmental Science |access-date=6 June 2023}}</ref> Kusanda kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo kanandi kwagwiliskira ntchito vyakumera nga ni viyelezgero.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mendel's Paper in English |url=https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113051202/https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |archive-date=13 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Barbara McClintock: A Brief Biographical Sketch |url=https://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |publisher=WebCite |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927171607/http://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref> Mu kasandiro ka vyakuhara, kuŵeta nchunga za ''pea'' kukazomerezga Gregor Mendel kusanga malango ghakwamba gha kuhara, ndipo kupenda vigaŵa vya vyakuhara mu cingoma kukazomerezga Barbara McClintock kulongora ubale wawo na vimanyikwiro ivyo vikuharika.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Arabidopsis |url=https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |publisher=TAIR |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022211543/https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |archive-date=22 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphete za makuni zikupeleka nthowa ya kupima vyaka mu kasandiro ka vya kale, na malemba gha nyengo za kale.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bauer |first=Bruce |website=Climate.gov |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |title=How Tree Rings Tell Time and Climate History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812140430/https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |archive-date=12 August 2021 |date=29 November 2018}}</ref> Kusanda mafosilo gha vyakumera kukupeleka mauthenga pa kukura kwa vyakumera na kusintha kwa nyengo kwa kale.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cleal |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Thomas |first2=Barry A. |title=Introduction to Plant Fossils |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019 |page=13 |isbn=978-1-1084-8344-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=plant+fossils }}</ref> === Mu Majandulo, Visopa, na Midawuko === [[File:Relief plaque with confronted ibexes, Iran, Sasanian period, 5th or 6th century AD, stucco originally with polychrome painting - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC03952.JPG|thumb|upright=0.55|Vinyama viŵiri vyakulaŵiskana ku mbali ziŵiri za khuni la umoyo, cithuzi cakuzgoŵereka mu luso la kale]] Vyakumera, kusazgapo makuni, vikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, na malemba. Mu visopa vinandi, khuni la caro cose likulongoreka nga ni khuni likulu comene ilo likumera pa caro capasi, likukhazga kuthambo, ndipo misisi yake yikufika ku caro ca pasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fogden |first1=Michael |last2=Fogden |first2=Patricia |title=The Natural History of Flowers |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-6234-9644-9 |page=1}}</ref> Maluŵa kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kukumbukira, nga ni vyawanangwa, na kumanyiska vyakucitika vyapadera nga ni kubabika, nyifwa, nthengwa, na mazuŵa gha cisangalalo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Botanical Imagery in European Painting |date=August 2007 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm |access-date=19 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Raymond |first=Francine |title=Why botanical art is still blooming today |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/9924556/Why-botanical-art-is-still-blooming-today.html |access-date=19 June 2016 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 March 2013}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo Viheni === [[File:Texas invasive Musk Thistle 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|''Musk thistle'' ni cakumera cakufuma kunyake ico cikunanga malo mu Texas.]] Mikoza ni vyakumera ivyo vikukhumbikwa yayi mu malo ghakupwelelereka nga ni minda na madimba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harlan |first1=J. R. |last2=deWet |first2=J. M. |year=1965 |title=Some thoughts about weeds |journal=Economic Botany |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=16–24 |doi=10.1007/BF02971181 |bibcode=1965EcBot..19...16H |s2cid=28399160 }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵathandazga vyakumera vinandi kuwaro kwa malo ghawo gha kawiro; vinyake vyaŵa vyakunanga, ndipo vikunanga malo gha vyamoyo mwa kupoka malo gha vyakumera vya malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Mark A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Ken |year=2000 |title=Eight Ways to be a Colonizer; Two Ways to be an Invader: A Proposed Nomenclature Scheme for Invasion Ecology |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=81 |number=3 |pages=226–230 |publisher=Ecological Society of America}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake ivyo vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa wakwenda na mphepo, kusazgapo utheka, vikwiziska ulwari wa kukhwasula ku ŵanthu ŵanyake.<ref name=NIH2015Cause>{{cite web |title=Cause of Environmental Allergies |url=http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |website=NIAID |access-date=June 17, 2015 |date=April 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617124141/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |archive-date=June 17, 2015}}</ref> Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga poizoni kuti vijivikilire ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera. Poizoni uyu ungapweteka ŵanthu na viŵeto para walyeka panji, pa vyakumera vinyake, para wakhwaskika.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm |title=Biochemical defenses: secondary metabolites |access-date=2007-05-21 |work=Plant Defense Systems & Medicinal Botany |archive-date=2007-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703145234/http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bevan-Jones |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4KOmAwAAQBAJ |title=Poisonous Plants: A Cultural and Social History |date=2009-08-01 |publisher=Windgather Press |isbn=978-1-909686-22-9 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gasZYoM22bkC |title=Livestock-Poisoning Plants of California |publisher=UCANR Publications |isbn=978-1-60107-674-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crosby |first=Donald G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9gJCAAAQBAJ |title=The Poisoned Weed: Plants Toxic to Skin |date=2004-04-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-028870-9}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vikukanizga vyakumera vinyake kukura kwizira mu vinthu vya usungunu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grodzinskii |first=A. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlA4DwAAQBAJ |title=Allelopathy in the Life of Plants and their Communities |date=2016-03-01 |publisher=Scientific Publishers |isbn=978-93-86102-04-1}}</ref> == Vyakumera mu Malaŵi == Mu caro ca [[Malaŵi]] muli vyakumera vya mitundu yinandi. Muli makuni, utheka, na vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Malaŵi pera mu caro cose capasi. Makuni gha mu Malaŵi ghakupambanapambana kuyana na malo agho ghakumerako. Makuni ghanyake ghakupandika na ŵanthu, nga ni bulugamu, payini, gemelina, na sayipurasi, na ghanyake ghanandi. Makuni agho ghakiza na ŵanthu ŵanyake ni nga ni makuni gha mayembe na mitundu ya malalanje. Makuni ghanyake ni agha: mubabani, thung'unda, minyozi ya mitundu yinandi, kabeza, maqokolo, mavilo, masuku, matubeni, mjejengwani, matowo, mulolo, makama, mphangala, kavundula, mono, matwatwa, matunduluka, buyu, mbula, cifiqe, mubanga, mzobala, msipani, nthumbuzga za [[kalulu]], kazando, na masuju. Mulinso mphangwe zakupambanapambana nga ni cindere na nyungu. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vyakumela]] [[Category:Malaŵi]] fejx6rbzm1jig2ce5newqdprz4q3qff 124434 124421 2026-11-11T03:26:40Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Vyakumera | fossil_range = Mesoproterozoic – sono | image = Frühling blühender Kirschenbaum.jpg | image_caption = Khuni lakuŵa na maluŵa | domain = Eukaryota | regnum = '''Plantae''' | regnum_authority = Copeland, 1956 | subdivision_ranks = Magulu | subdivision = *Rhodophyta (koyo wakuswesi) *Glaucophyta *Chlorophyta (koyo muŵisi) *Bryophyta (koyo) *Polypodiopsida (''fern'') *Pinophyta (''conifer'') *Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) }} [[File:חורשת המייסדים - גבעת השבשבת חיפה 02 2013 (98).JPG|thumb|Vyakumera]] '''Vyakumera''' (cimoza: '''cakumera''') ni vyamoyo vya ufumu wakuchemeka ''Plantae''. Vinandi vikusanga nkhongono zawo za ntchito kufuma ku ungweru wa [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]] mu nthowa ya [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mtundu wa ciŵisi ca mahamba (klorofilo) kupanga shuga kufuma ku kaboni dayokisayidi na [[Maji|maji]]. Mu nyengo, vyakumera vinyake vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake kuti visange nkhongono za ntchito. Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Kale, nga mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo ka Aristotle, ufumu wa vyakumera ukasazgangapo vyamoyo vyose ivyo nvinyama yayi, kusazgapo wowa. Ng'anamulo iyi yacepa kufuma apo; ng'anamulo za sono zikusazgamo wowa yayi. Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 380,000 iyo yikumanyikwa, ndipo yinandi, pafupifupi 260,000, yikupanga mbuto. Vyakumera vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku kaselo kamoza mpaka ku makuni ghatali comene. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi. Shuga uyo vikupanga mu usanisinuru ukupeleka nkhongono za ntchito ku vyamoyo vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo vyamoyo vinyake, kusazgapo [[Vinyama|vinyama]], vikurya vyakumera panji vikuthemba vyakumera. Mbuto, vipambi, na masamba ni vyakulya vyakwamba vya ŵanthu, ndipo vyaŵetika kwa vyaka vinandi comene. Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyakumera pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni vyakuzengera nga ni makuni, vyakujikongoleska, vyakulembera, na mitundu yinandi comene ya [[Mankhwala|mankhwala]]. Kusanda vyakumera mwa kasandiro kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto. == Ng'anamulo == === Mbiri ya Kagaŵiro === Kale, vyamoyo vyose vikagaŵikanga mu magulu ghaŵiri, vyakumera na vinyama. Kagaŵiro aka kakafuma kwa Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu), uyo wakapatula mitundu ya vyamoyo mu kasandiro kake ka vyamoyo, kuyana na usange vikaŵa na "mzimu wakupulika" panji, nga ni vyakumera, "mzimu wa kukura" pera.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hull |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ymrg0lMEYt0C&q=PA84 |title=Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2010 |page=82 |isbn=978-0-226-36049-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |pages=111–119}}</ref> Theophrastus, msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalutilizga ntchito yake pa kagaŵiro ka vyakumera.<ref name="OxBib">{{Cite web |title=Taxonomy and Classification |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199941728/obo-9780199941728-0065.xml |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=obo }}</ref> Pamanyuma comene, Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) wakaŵika maziko gha ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghano ya kagaŵiro ka kasandiro, kweni wakasunga maufumu gha vinyama na vyakumera, ndipo wakachema ufumu wa vyakumera kuti ''Vegetabilia''.<ref name="OxBib"/> === Maghanoghano Ghanyake === Para zina lakuti ''Plantae'' panji cakumera ligwiliskirika ntchito pa gulu linyake la vyamoyo, kanandi likung'anamula limoza mwa maghanoghano ghanayi, kufuma ku ilo likusazgamo vicoko mpaka ku ilo likusazgamo vinandi. == Kukura kwa Mitundu == === Kupambanapambana === [[File:Cosmarium201512081550.JPG|thumb|upright|Koyo wa ''Cosmarium botrytis'' ni kaselo kamoza.]] [[File:US 199 Redwood Highway.jpg|thumb|upright|Khuni la ''Sequoia sempervirens'' lingafika utali wa {{convert|380|ft|m|order=flip}}.]] Pali mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 382,000 iyo yazomerezgeka, ndipo yinandi comene, pafupifupi 283,000, yikupanga mbuto.<ref name=WFO/><ref name="IUCNdata">{{cite web |title=Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2010) |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=11 March 2010 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721034312/https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf |archive-date= 21 July 2011 |url-status= live }}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 85–90 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera ni vyakumera vya maluŵa. Ntchito zinandi sono zikuyezga kuwunjika malemba gha mitundu yose ya vyakumera pa intaneti, mwaciyelezgero World Flora Online.<ref name=WFO>{{cite web|work=The World Flora Online|title=An Online Flora of All Known Plants |url=http://worldfloraonline.org/|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-12 |title=How many plant species are there in the world? Scientists now have an answer |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323202847/https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/many-plants-world-scientists-may-now-answer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakumera mu ng'anamulo yikulu vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza (vicoko kuluska mikulomita 3) mpaka ku makuni ghakulu comene, nga ni ''Sequoia sempervirens'' (mpaka mamita 120 kutali) na ''Eucalyptus regnans'' (mpaka mamita 100 kutali).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=John D.|last2=McCourt |first2=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter 9. Conjugating Green Algae Including Desmids |editor-first1=John D. |editor-last1=Wehr |editor-first2=Robert G. |editor-last2=Sheath |editor-first3=John Patrick |editor-last3=Kociolek |date=2014 |edition=2 |title=Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-385876-4 }}</ref><ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS One |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |article-number=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle, Christopher J. |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuthya mazina gha vyakumera kukulongozgeka na Malango gha Pakati pa Vyaro gha Mazina gha vyakumera, wowa, na vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=www.iapt-taxon.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216164849/https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |archive-date=2019-12-16 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gledhill |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&dq=international+code+of+nomenclature+for+cultivated+plants&pg=PA26 |title=The Names of Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=26 |isbn=978-0-5218-6645-3 }}</ref> === Mbiri ya Kukura === Vyakumera vya kale vya vyakumera vya pa mtunda vikakura mu maji. Ulenda wa vyakumera vicoko ukapangika pa mtunda vyaka miliyoni 1,200 ivyo vyajumpha, kweni mpaka pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 450 ivyo vyajumpha ndipo vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikawoneka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Thomas N. |title=The Origin of Land Plants: Some Answers, More Questions |journal=Taxon |date=November 1988 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=805–833 |doi=10.2307/1222087 |jstor=1222087|bibcode=1988Taxon..37..805T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ciesielski |first=Paul F. |title=Transition of plants to land |url=https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302040410/https://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html |archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Kweni mafosilo mu malibwe gha kale comene ghakulongora kuti vyamoyo vya tumaselo tunandi vya mu maji ghawemi vikaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha miliyoni 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strother |first1=Paul K. |last2=Battison |first2=Leila |last3=Brasier |first3=Martin D. |last4=Wellman |first4=Charles H. |date=26 May 2011 |title=Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes |journal=Nature |volume=473 |issue=7348 |pages=505–509 |doi=10.1038/nature09943 |pmid=21490597 |bibcode=2011Natur.473..505S |s2cid=4418860 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51048998}}</ref> Vyakumera vyakwamba vya pa mtunda vikamba kupambanapambana pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 420 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beck |first=C. B. |title=The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon |journal=Brittonia |volume=12 |pages=351–368 |year=1960 |issue=4 |doi=10.2307/2805124 |jstor=2805124 |bibcode=1960Britt..12..351B |s2cid=27887887 }}</ref><ref name="Rothwelletal989">{{cite journal |last1=Rothwell |first1=G. W. |last2=Scheckler |first2=S. E. |last3=Gillespie |first3=W. H. |year=1989 |title=''Elkinsia'' gen. nov., a Late Devonian gymnosperm with cupulate ovules |journal=Botanical Gazette |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=170–189 |doi=10.1086/337763 |jstor=2995234 |bibcode=1989BoGaz.150..170R |s2cid=84303226 }}</ref> Pakumalira kwa nyengo ya Devonian, vimanyikwiro vinandi vyakwamba vya vyakumera vya mazuŵa ghano vikaŵako, kusazgapo misisi, mahamba, na makuni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plants |url=https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/plants-2/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=British Geological Survey }}</ref> Nyengo ya Carboniferous yikawona kukura kwa nkholongo mu madambo.<ref name="McElwain Punyasena 2007 pp. 548–557">{{cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=Jennifer C. |last2=Punyasena |first2=Surangi W. |title=Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=22 |issue=10 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003 |pages=548–557|pmid=17919771 |bibcode=2007TEcoE..22..548M }}</ref> Kumalira kukulu kwa vyamoyo kwa Permo-Triassic kukasintha comene mawupu gha vyamoyo. Ici cingaŵa kuti cikazomerezga kukura kwa vyakumera vya maluŵa mu Triassic (pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 200 ivyo vyajumpha), ndipo vikathandazgika luŵiro comene mu Cretaceous mwakuti Charles Darwin wakacichema kuti "fumbo lakofya".<ref name="Friedman-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=William E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |pmid=21628174|bibcode=2009AmJB...96....5F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Berendse Scheffer 2009 pp. 865–872">{{cite journal |last1=Berendse |first1=Frank |last2=Scheffer |first2=Marten |title=The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for Darwin's 'abominable mystery' |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=12 |issue=9 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01342.x |pages=865–872|pmid=19572916 |pmc=2777257 |bibcode=2009EcolL..12..865B }}</ref><ref name="Herendeen-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Herendeen |first1=Patrick S. |last2=Friis |first2=Else Marie |last3=Pedersen |first3=Kaj Raunsgaard |last4=Crane |first4=Peter R. |date=2017-03-03 |title=Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms |url=https://rdcu.be/c0Zhm |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=17015 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.15 |pmid=28260783 |bibcode=2017NatPl...317015H |s2cid=205458714 }}</ref> Makuni gha mahamba gha singano ghakapambanapambana kufuma pakumalira kwa Triassic, ndipo ghakaŵa ghanandi comene mu Jurassic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=Brian A. |last2=Serbet |first2=Rudolph |last3=Hieger |first3=Timothy J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Edith L. |date=October 2018 |title=Additional evidence for the Mesozoic diversification of conifers: Pollen cone of Chimaerostrobus minutus gen. et sp. nov. (Coniferales), from the Lower Jurassic of Antarctica |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=257 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2018.06.013 |bibcode=2018RPaPa.257...77A |s2cid=133732087|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Leslie etal-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |date=September 2018 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid=30157290 |bibcode=2018AmJB..105.1531L |s2cid=52120430 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Mbumba === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175" widths="175"> File:Rhynia stem.jpg|Cigaŵa ca ntonga ya ''Rhynia'', cakumera cakwamba ca pa mtunda, cakusungika mu libwe la Rhynie kufuma kwamba kwa nyengo ya Devonian File:Devonianscene-green.jpg|Pofika nyengo ya Devonian, vyakumera vikaŵa vyakunozgeka kukhala pa mtunda na misisi na ntonga za khuni. File:Asterophyllites Equisetiformis.jpg|Mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, vyakumera nga ni ''Asterophyllites'' vikandana comene mu nkholongo za madambo. File:Petrified Araucaria cone.jpg|Vyakumera vya mbuto za mu tumakoko (''conifer'') vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana na vinandi comene mu nyengo ya Jurassic. Pa cithuzi pali kakoko ka ''Araucaria mirabilis''. File:Sagaria cilentana (cropped).jpg|Kupambanapambana kukulu mu nyengo ya Cretaceous kukapanga vyakumera vinandi vya maluŵa, nga ni ''Sagaria'' mu mbumba ya Ranunculaceae. </gallery> Mu 2019, mbumba ya vyakumera iyo yikazengeka pa vyakuhara vya mitundu 1,153 ya vyakumera yikasacizgika.<ref name="1000plants">{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kagaŵiro ka magulu ghanyake ka vyakumera kakukhozgeka na kusanda kwa vyakuhara.<ref name="MvirideGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Zhe |display-authors=etal |title=Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta |journal=Advanced Science |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2019 |article-number=1901850 |doi=10.1002/advs.201901850 |pmid=31921561 |pmc=6947507 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Mv_and_Ca_Genomes">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sibo |display-authors=etal |title=Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=95–106 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3 |pmid=31844283 |pmc=7027972 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6...95W }}</ref><ref name="Puttick2018">{{cite journal |last1=Puttick |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte |journal=Current Biology |volume=28 |issue=5 |year=2018 |pages=733–745 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063 |pmid=29456145|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018CBio...28E.733P |hdl=10400.1/11601 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome1">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jian |display-authors=etal |title=The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4|pmid=32042158 |pmc=7027989 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..107Z }}</ref><ref name="HornwortGenome2">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Fay Wei |display-authors=etal |title=Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=259–272 |doi=10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2|pmid=32170292 |pmc=8075897 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NatPl...6..259L }}</ref> == Umo Thupi Likugwilira Ntchito == === Tumaselo twa Vyakumera === {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%; |label1=Archaeplastida |sublabel1=(na tuvigaŵa twa ciŵisi<br/>kufuma ku mabakiteriya) |1={{clade |1=Rhodophyta [[File:Chondrus crispus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-034 (single).jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |1=Glaucophyta [[File:Glaucocystis nostochinearum.jpg|50px]] |label2=Viridiplantae |sublabel2= (vyakumera viŵisi) |2={{clade |1=Chlorophyta [[File:Volvox sp.png|50px]] |bar1=darkgreen |2={{clade |1=Prasinococcales |bar1=darkgreen |2=&nbsp; |state2=none |style2=font-size:50%;line-height:50%; |3={{clade |1= {{clade |1=Mesostigmatophyceae|bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Chlorokybophyceae|bar1=blue |2=''Spirotaenia'' [[File:Spirotaenia condensata.jpg|30px]] |bar2=blue }} }} |2={{clade |1=Klebsormidiales [[File:Klebsormidium bilatum Belgium (14759117646).jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=''Chara'' [[File:CharaGlobularis.jpg|40px]] |bar1=blue |2={{clade |1=Coleochaetales|bar1=blue |2={{clade |label1=Zygnematophyceae |1=[[File:The freshwater alga Spirogyra.jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue |label2=Embryophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya pa mtunda) |2={{clade |label1="Bryophyta" |1={{clade |1=Anthocerotophyta [[File:Phaeoceros laevis 48205337 (white background).jpg|40px]] |label2=Setaphytes |2={{clade |1=Marchantiophyta [[File:Conocephalum conicum (e, 144739-474742) 1022.jpg|50px]] |2=Koyo (Bryophyta) [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]] }} }} |label2=Tracheophytes |sublabel2=(na machubu gha khuni<br/>gha kunyamulira maji) |2={{clade |1=Lycophyta [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219 (extracted).jpg|50px]] |label2=Euphyllophytes |sublabel2=(na mahamba) |2={{clade |label1=Ferns (Polypodiopsida) |1=[[File:California Arena Point fern.jpg|50px]] |label2=Spermatophytes |sublabel2= (vyakumera vya mbuto) |2={{clade |1=Gymnospermae (mbuto zambura kuvikilirika) [[File:PIH 1830 Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) graft clone collection in Röykkä Finland.jpg|40px]] |2=Angiospermae (vyakumera vya maluŵa) [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Plant cell structure-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kapangikiro ka kaselo ka cakumera]] Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na vimanyikwiro vyapadera ivyo tumaselo tunyake (nga ni twa vinyama) tulije. Ivi vikusazgapo cigaŵa cikulu ca pakati cakuzura maji, vigaŵa vya klorofilo, na cikopa cakukhora kweni cakupindika ico cili kuwaro kwa kaselo. Vigaŵa vya klorofilo vikafuma ku kukhala pamoza kwa kaselo kambura klorofilo na mabakiteriya agho ghakupanga vyakulya na ungweru. Cikopa ca kaselo, ico cikupangika comene na selulosi, cikuzomerezga tumaselo twa vyakumera kuzura na maji kwambura kuphulika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Cells, Chloroplasts, and Cell Walls |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/plant-cells-chloroplasts-and-cell-walls-14053956/ |website=Scitable by Nature Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kapangikiro ka Vyakumera === [[File:Plant Anatomy.svg|thumb|Kapangikiro ka cakumera ca mbuto. 1. Vigaŵa vya pacanya. 2. Vigaŵa vya misisi. 3. Cigaŵa ca pasi pa mahamba ghakwamba. 4. Kaphukira ka pacanya. 5. Hamba. 6. Cigaŵa ca ntonga pakati pa mafundo. 7. Kaphukira ka mu khwapa. 8. Kakholo ka hamba. 9. Ntonga. 10. Fundo. 11. Msisi ukulu. 12. Visisi vya msisi. 13. Nsonga ya msisi. 14. Cakuvikilira nsonga ya msisi]] Vyakumera vinandi vili na tumaselo tunandi. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tukupambana mu mitundu yinandi, ndipo tukupanga vigaŵa nga ni minjololo ya kunyamulira maji na vyakulya mu mahamba na mu ntonga, na viŵaro vya ntchito zakupambana. Ivi vikusazgapo misisi ya kukwemya maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, ntonga ya kukhazga na kunyamula maji na vyakupangika, mahamba gha [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], na maluŵa gha kuŵaba.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farabee |first1=M. C. |title=Plants and their Structure |url=http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |publisher=Maricopa Community Colleges |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022174416/http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html |archive-date=22 October 2006 }}</ref> === Usanisinuru === Vyakumera vikucita usanisinuru, kupanga vyakulya (shuga) mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za ntchito za [[Ungweru|ungweru]]. Tumaselo twa vyakumera tuli na klorofilo mu vigaŵa vyake, iyo ni mtundu uŵisi uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito kukora nkhongono za ntchito za ungweru. Malinganizgo gha usungunu gha usanisinuru ni:<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=John |title=What Is the Photosynthesis Equation? |url=https://sciencing.com/photosynthesis-equation-6962557.html |website=Sciencing |date=4 March 2023 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> : 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → (ungweru) → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ Ici cikupangiska vyakumera kufumiska [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]] mu mphepo. Vyakumera viŵisi vikupeleka cigaŵa cikulu ca okisijeni wa caro cose capasi, pamoza na koyo na mabakiteriya.<ref name="Reinhard Planavsky Olson Lyons 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Reinhard |first1=Christopher T. |last2=Planavsky |first2=Noah J. |last3=Olson |first3=Stephanie L. |last4=Lyons |first4=Timothy W. |last5=Erwin |first5=Douglas H. |display-authors=3 |title=Earth's oxygen cycle and the evolution of animal life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=32 |date=25 July 2016 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1521544113 |pages=8933–8938|pmid=27457943 |pmc=4987840 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.8933R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=behrenfeld>{{cite journal |last1=Field |first1=C. B. |last2=Behrenfeld |first2=M. J. |last3=Randerson |first3=J. T. |author4=Falkowski, P. |year=1998 |title=Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components |journal=Science |volume=281 |pages=237–240 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5374.237 |pmid=9657713 |issue=5374 |bibcode=1998Sci...281..237F |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215921/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |archive-date=25 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tivy 2014">{{cite book |last=Tivy |first=Joy |title=Biogeography: A Study of Plants in the Ecosphere |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-89723-1 |oclc=1108871710 |pages=31, 108–110|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vyasintha kuŵa vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake vingataya vyakuhara vya usanisinuru na kupanga klorofilo.<ref name="Qu-etal-2019">{{cite journal|first1=Xiao-Jian |last1=Qu |first2=Shou-Jin |last2=Fan |first3=Susann |last3=Wicke |first4=Ting-Shuang |last4=Yi |title=Plastome reduction in the only parasitic gymnosperm ''Parasitaxus'' is due to losses of photosynthesis but not housekeeping genes and apparently involves the secondary gain of a large inverted repeat |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=10 |date=2019 |pages=2789–2796 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz187 |pmid=31504501 |pmc=6786476 }}</ref> === Kukura na Kunozgeka === Kukura kukusimikizgika na kukolerana kwa vyakuhara vya cakumera na malo ghake gha kawiro na gha vyamoyo. Vinthu vya malo nga ni kufunda, maji, ungweru, kaboni dayokisayidi, na vyakulya vya mu dongo.<ref name="Ambroise Legay Guerriero Hausman 2019 pp. 3–20">{{cite journal |last1=Ambroise |first1=Valentin |last2=Legay |first2=Sylvain |last3=Guerriero |first3=Gea |last4=Hausman |first4=Jean-Francois |last5=Cuypers |first5=Ann |last6=Sergeant |first6=Kjell |display-authors=3 |title=The Roots of Plant Frost Hardiness and Tolerance |journal=Plant and Cell Physiology |volume=61 |issue=1 |date=18 October 2019 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcz196 |pages=3–20|pmid=31626277 |pmc=6977023 }}</ref> Vinthu vya vyamoyo ivyo vikukhwaska kukura kwa vyakumera ni kuwunjikana, kuryeka na viŵeto, mabakiteriya na wowa ivyo vikovwira, na kuwukirika na vibenene panji nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="pmid18707020">{{cite journal |author1=Roldán-Arjona, T. |author2=Ariza, R. R. |title=Repair and tolerance of oxidative DNA damage in plants |journal=Mutation Research |volume=681 |issue=2–3 |pages=169–179 |year=2009 |pmid=18707020 |doi=10.1016/j.mrrev.2008.07.003 |bibcode=2009MRRMR.681..169R |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |access-date=22 September 2017 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923050705/https://zenodo.org/record/897726 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cikakato na kukoma vingananga panji kukoma vyakumera. Vyakumera vinyake vili na vinthu mu tumaselo twawo ivyo vikuvizomerezga kukhora pa masuzgo agha.<ref name="Yang Kim 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yun Young |last2=Kim |first2=Jae Geun |title=The optimal balance between sexual and asexual reproduction in variable environments: a systematic review |journal=Journal of Ecology and Environment |volume=40 |issue=1 |date=24 November 2016 |article-number=12 |doi=10.1186/s41610-016-0013-0 |bibcode=2016JEcEn..40...12Y |s2cid=257092048 |hdl=10371/100354 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kuŵaba === Vyakumera vikuŵaba kuti vipange ŵana, kwali mwa kugonana panji kwambura kugonana. Vyakumera vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zose ziŵiri. ==== Mwa Kugonana ==== [[File:Alternation of generations simpler.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kusinthana kwa mibadwo pakati pa cakumera ca ''haploid'' (n) (pacanya) na ca ''diploid'' (2n) (pasi), mu mitundu yose ya vyakumera]] Para vikuŵaba mwa kugonana, vyakumera vili na umoyo wakusuzga wa mbumba zakusintha-sintha. Vyakumera vinyake vikuŵaba so kwizira mu tumbuto tucoko. Vyakumera vya maluŵa vikuŵaba mwa kugonana mwa kugwiliskira ntchito maluŵa, agho ghali na vigaŵa vya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi: ivi vingaŵa mu ciluŵa cimoza, mu maluŵa ghakupambana pa cakumera cimoza, panji pa vyakumera vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Do Plants With Spores Reproduce? |url=https://sciencing.com/plants-spores-reproduce-4568855.html |website=Sciencing |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya ŵanalume vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa, uwo ukupanga vyakuŵabira vya ŵanalume ivyo vikunjira mu cigaŵa ca ŵanakazi. Kuŵabika kukucitika mu vigaŵa vya ŵanakazi, ivyo vikusanduka vipambi ivyo vili na mbuto. Vipambi vingathandazgika vyose, panji vingaphulika ndipo mbuto zikuthandazgika yimoza yimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barrett |first=S. C. H. |year=2002 |title=The evolution of plant sexual diversity |url=http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1038/nrg776 |pmid=11967552 |s2cid=7424193 |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527102011/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf }}</ref> ==== Kwambura Kugonana ==== [[File:RowOfPlants.JPG|thumb|''Ficinia spiralis'' yikuthandazgika kwambura mbuto, na tusisi twakwenda pasi mu mcenga.]] Vyakumera vikuŵaba kwambura kugonana mwa kukuzga vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya. Mwa nthowa yipepuka, vyakumera vinyake vingaphwanyika mu vigaŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ciliconse cingakura so kuŵa cakumera cose. Kupandira vyakumera vya maluŵa na vigaŵa vyakudumulika ni ndondomeko yakuyana. Vigaŵa nga ni minjololo yakwenda pasi vikuzomerezga vyakumera kukura na kuphimba malo. Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga vigaŵa vya kusungira vyakulya, nga ni kacewere panji hanyezi, ivyo vingakura kuŵa vyakumera viphya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asexual reproduction in plants |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zs4tyrd/revision/3 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Kukhora pa Nthenda === Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangira kumanya tubungulu twa nthenda nga ni mabakiteriya agho ghakwiziska nthenda za vyakumera.<ref name="Kato Yasui Ishizaki 2020 pp. 459–465">{{cite journal |last1=Kato |first1=Hirotaka |last2=Yasui |first2=Yukiko |last3=Ishizaki |first3=Kimitsune |title=Gemma cup and gemma development in Marchantia polymorpha |journal=New Phytologist |volume=228 |issue=2 |date=19 June 2020 |doi=10.1111/nph.16655 |pages=459–465|pmid=32390245 |s2cid=218583032 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020NewPh.228..459K }}</ref><ref name="Moody Diggle Steingraeber 1999 pp. 1512–1522">{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Amber |last2=Diggle |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Steingraeber |first3=David A. |title=Developmental analysis of the evolutionary origin of vegetative propagules in Mimulus gemmiparus (Scrophulariaceae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=86 |issue=11 |year=1999 |doi=10.2307/2656789 |pages=1512–1522 |jstor=2656789 |pmid=10562243 }}</ref> Kumanya uku kukwiziska kujivikilira. === Vyakuhara === Vyakumera vili na vyakuhara vikulu comene pa vyamoyo vyose. Vyakuhara vikulu comene vya cakumera (pa unandi wa vyakuhara) ni vya tirigu, ivyo vikughanaghanirika kuŵa pafupifupi 94,000, pafupifupi kankhondi kuluska vya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Song |first=W. Y. |title=A receptor kinase-like protein encoded by the rice disease resistance gene, XA21 |journal=Science |volume=270 |issue=5243 |pages=1804–1806 |year=1995 |pmid=8525370 |doi=10.1126/science.270.5243.1804 |display-authors=etal |bibcode=1995Sci...270.1804S |s2cid=10548988 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107024436/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4x0247kj |archive-date=7 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gomez-Gomez |first=L. |title=FLS2: an LRR receptor-like kinase involved in the perception of the bacterial elicitor flagellin in ''Arabidopsis'' |journal=Molecular Cell |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=1003–1011 |year=2000 |pmid=10911994 |doi=10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80265-8 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Vyakumera na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kuthandazgika === [[File:Vegetation.png|thumb|upright=2.5|Mapu gha kagaŵiro ka vyakumera vya pa caro capasi kuyana na malo gha vyamoyo, nga ni malo ghakuzizima ghambura makuni, nkholongo za kumpoto, nkholongo za mahamba ghakulu, madambo gha utheka, nkholongo za vula, vipalamba, na nkholongo za mapiri. Mtundu wa caphuvyu ukulongora cikakato na vipalamba vya kumpoto na kumwera comene ivyo vilije vyakumera.]] Vyakumera vili pafupifupi pa caro cose capasi. Nangauli vikukhala mu malo ghanandi, ni vyakumera vyakukhora pera, vya mu Antarctica, ivyo vyasintha kukolerana na vyakucitika vya pa cigaŵa ici cikulu ca mtunda ca kumwera.<ref name="Olson 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Olson |first1=David M. |last2=Dinerstein |first2=Eric |last3=Wikramanayake |first3=Eric D. |last4=Burgess |first4=Neil D. |last5=Powell |first5=George V. N. |last6=Underwood |first6=Emma C. |last7=D'amico |first7=Jennifer A. |last8=Itoua |first8=Illanga |last9=Strand |first9=Holly E. |last10=Morrison |first10=John C. |last11=Loucks |first11=Colby J. |last12=Allnutt |first12=Thomas F. |last13=Ricketts |first13=Taylor H. |last14=Kura |first14=Yumiko |last15=Lamoreux |first15=John F. |last16=Wettengel |first16=Wesley W. |last17=Hedao |first17=Prashant |last18=Kassem |first18=Kenneth R. |display-authors=3 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth |journal=BioScience |volume=51 |issue=11 |year=2001 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:teotwa]2.0.co;2 |page=933|s2cid=26844434 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Schulze Beck Buchmann Clemens 2018 pp. 657–688">{{cite book |last1=Schulze |first1=Ernst-Detlef |last2=Beck |first2=Erwin |last3=Buchmann |first3=Nina |last4=Clemens |first4=Stephan |last5=Müller-Hohenstein |first5=Klaus |last6=Scherer-Lorenzen |first6=Michael |title=Plant Ecology |chapter=Spatial Distribution of Plants and Plant Communities |publisher=Springer |date=3 May 2018 |isbn=978-3-662-56231-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56233-8_18 |pages=657–688 }}</ref> Vyakumera kanandi ndivyo vikuwoneka comene mu malo agho vikukhala. Malo ghanandi gha vyamoyo pa caro capasi ghali na mazina gha mtundu wa vyakumera, cifukwa vyakumera ndivyo vinandi comene mu malo agho, nga ni madambo gha utheka na nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Five Major Types of Biomes |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/five-major-types-biomes/ |publisher=National Geographic Education |access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref> === Ŵakupanga Ŵakwamba === Usanisinuru uwo vyakumera vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikucita ndiwo kasupe waumaliro wa nkhongono za ntchito na vyakulya mu pafupifupi malo ghose gha vyamoyo. Usanisinuru ukasintha comene mphepo ya caro capasi ca kale, iyo yikaŵa yambura okisijeni, ndipo sono yili na magaŵa 21 pa 100 gha okisijeni. Vinyama na vyamoyo vinyake vinandi vikuthemba okisijeni. Vyakumera ndivyo ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu malo ghanandi gha pa mtunda, ndipo ndivyo maziko gha minjololo ya vyakulya mu malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gough |first=C. M. |year=2011 |title=Terrestrial Primary Production: Fuel for Life |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=28}}</ref> Vyakumera ni pafupifupi magaŵa 80 pa 100 gha vyamoyo vyose vya caro capasi.<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite journal |last1=Bar-On |first1=Y. M. |last2=Phillips |first2=R. |last3=Milo |first3=R. |title=The biomass distribution on Earth |journal=PNAS |volume=115 |issue=25 |pages=6506–6511 |date=June 2018 |pmid=29784790 |pmc=6016768 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6506B |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221154508/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2018/05/15/1711842115.full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ubale na Vyamoyo Vinyake === Vinyama vinandi vyakura pamoza na vyakumera; vyakumera vya maluŵa vyapanga vimanyikwiro vya maluŵa ivyo vikovwira kuŵaba kwawo. Vinandi, kusazgapo vibenene na viyuni, vikutolera ufu wa maluŵa kufuma ku maluŵa ghanyake kuya ku ghanyake, mwa kukhumba vyakulya.<ref name=Lunau>{{cite journal |last=Lunau |first=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004ODivE...4..207L }}</ref> Vinyama vinandi vikuthandazga mbuto. Vipambi vinyake vili na vigaŵa vya kuwaro vyakulyeka ivyo vikukopa vinyama, apo mbuto zikukhora pa kujumpha mu matumbo gha cinyama; vinyake vili na tumbeŵa utu tukukolerana na sisi la cinyama. Vyakumera vinyake vyakura pamoza na nyerere. Cakumera cikupeleka nyumba, ndipo nyengo zinyake vyakulya, ku nyerere.<ref>{{cite web |last=Deacon |first=Jim |title=The Microbial World: Mycorrhizas |url=http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |website=bio.ed.ac.uk (archived) |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180427082137/http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/mycorrh.htm |archive-date=2018-04-27 }}</ref> Nazo nyerere zikuvikilira cakumera ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera.<ref name="Lyons1986">{{cite journal|last1=Lyons |first1=P. C. |last2=Plattner |first2=R. D. |last3=Bacon |first3=C. W. |year=1986|title=Occurrence of peptide and clavine ergot alkaloids in tall fescue grass |journal=Science |volume=232 |pages=487–489 |pmid=3008328 |doi=10.1126/science.3008328 |issue=4749|bibcode=1986Sci...232..487L }}</ref> Mitundu yinandi ya vyakumera yili na wowa yakukolerana na misisi yawo, mu kukhala pamoza kwa kovwirana. Bowa yikovwira vyakumera kusanga maji na vyakulya vya mu dongo, apo cakumera cikupeleka ku wowa shuga uwo wapanga mu usanisinuru. Vyakumera vinandi vya mtundu wa nchunga vili na mabakiteriya mu misisi yawo agho ghakukora naitirojeni kufuma mu mphepo kuti cakumera cigwiliskire ntchito; nawo vyakumera vikupeleka shuga ku mabakiteriya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fullick |first=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5j1ys2uLQYC&pg=PA48 |title=Feeding Relationships |date=2006 |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |isbn=978-1-4034-7521-3 |language=en}}</ref> Ici nchakuzirwa pa ulimi; mwaciyelezgero, ŵalimi ŵangalima nchunga, kulondezgana na tirigu, kuti ŵacepeske feteleza wa naitirojeni.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Stephen |date=2011 |title=Biological Nitrogen Fixation |url=https://www.nature.com/ |website=Nature Education Knowledge |access-date=6 November 2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317210753/https://www.nature.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 1 pa 100 gha mitundu ya vyakumera ni vyakuthemba vyakumera vinyake. Vinyake vikutora vyakulya vicoko pera kufuma ku cakumera cinyake kweni vicali na mahamba gha usanisinuru, apo vinyake vikutora vyakulya vyose kwizira mu misisi ya vyakumera vinyake, ndipo vilije klorofilo.<ref name="Kokla Melnyk 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kokla |first1=Anna |last2=Melnyk |first2=Charles W. |date=2018 |title=Developing a thief: Haustoria formation in parasitic plants |journal=Developmental Biology |volume=442 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013 |pmid=29935146 |s2cid=49394142 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake, kanandi makuni, kwambura kuvithemba, vikuchemeka vyakumera pa vinyake. Vinyake vingananga cakumera ico vikumerapo, mwa kukanizga ungweru. Mitundu yinandi ya maluŵa gha ''orchid'', ''bromeliad'', na vinyake vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake. Mitundu pafupifupi 630 ya vyakumera ni yakurya vinyama. Vikukora vinyama vicoko na kuvigaya kuti visange vyakulya, comene naitirojeni na fosiforasi.<ref name="Ellison Adamec 2018">{{cite book |last1=Ellison |first1=Aaron |last2=Adamec |first2=Lubomir |title=Carnivorous Plants: Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1988-3372-7 |pages=3–4 |edition=First |chapter=Introduction: What is a carnivorous plant?}}</ref> === Kususkana === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="175px" widths="175px"> File:Honey Bee gathering pollen image by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN4801 (13) (cropped).jpg|Njuci yikuwunjika ufu wa maluŵa (''pollen'') (pa lundi lake pali kathumba ka ''pollen'') File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding (cropped).jpg|Kayuni ka ''hummingbird'' kakufika pa duŵa kuti kamwe uchi wake File:Epizoochory - dog with hooked Geum fruits in his fur (detail).jpg|Kuthandazgika kwa mbuto na vinyama: vipambi vinandi vya ''Geum urbanum'' vyakuŵa na tumbeŵa vyakamatira pa weya wa nchewe File:Robinia pseudoacacia root nodules.JPG|Vyakumera vya mbumba ya nyemba vili na tumapundu pa misisi ivyo mukukhala mabakiteriya gha ''Rhizobium'' agho ghakusintha natrojeni wa mu mpweya kuŵa cakulya ca cakumera. File:Drosera capensis bend.JPG|Hamba la ''sundew'' lakuŵa na visisi vyakunata ivyo vikupinda kuti vikore na kugaya membe </gallery> Kususkana pa vyuma vyakugaŵana kukucepeska kukura kwa cakumera.<ref name="Ecology-2012">{{Cite journal |title=Competition in Plant Communities |last1=Keddy |first1=Paul A. |last2=Cahill |first2=James |journal=Oxford Bibliographies Online |year=2012 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |access-date=2021-02-16 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0009 |isbn=978-0-19-983006-0 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126003436/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0009.xml |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Pocheville-2015">{{Cite book |last=Pocheville |first=Arnaud |title=Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences |chapter=The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |date=January 2015 |pages=547–586 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9014-7_26 |isbn=978-94-017-9013-0 |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115183211/https://www.academia.edu/6188833 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyuma ivi ni ungweru wa zuŵa, maji, na vyakulya.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Ungweru nchakuzirwa comene cifukwa nchakukhumbikwa pa usanisinuru.<ref name="Ecology-2012" /> Vyakumera vikugwiliskira ntchito mahamba ghawo kubisa vyakumera vinyake ku ungweru wa zuŵa, ndipo vikukura luŵiro.<ref name="Casper-1997">{{Cite journal |last1=Casper |first1=Brenda B. |last2=Jackson |first2=Robert B. |title=Plant Competition Underground |date=November 1997 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=545–570 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |bibcode=1997AnRES..28..545C |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525175642/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.545 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Maji nagho ngakuzirwa pa usanisinuru; misisi yikususkana kukwemya maji ghanandi mu dongo.<ref name="Casper-1997" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Craine |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Dybzinski |first2=Ray |date=2013 |title=Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients, water and light |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=833–840 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12081 |bibcode=2013FuEco..27..833C |s2cid=83776710 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vili na misisi yakuzika iyo yingasanga maji ghakuzika pasi, apo vinyake vili na misisi yambura kuzika iyo yingathandazgika kutali kuwunjika maji gha vula.<ref name="Oborny-2000">{{Cite journal |last1=Oborny |first1=Beáta |last2=Kun |first2=Ádám |last3=Czárán |first3=Tamás |last4=Bokros |first4=Szilárd |date=2000 |title=The Effect of Clonal Integration on Plant Competition for Mosaic Habitat Space |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |journal=Ecology |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=3291–3304 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[3291:TEOCIO]2.0.CO;2 |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418122432/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282000%29081%5B3291%3ATEOCIO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> == Kuzirwa ku Ŵanthu == === Vyakulya === [[File:Harvest Time - geograph.org.uk - 747095.jpg|thumb|upright|Kuvuna ''oat'' na makina gha kuvunira ]] Kulima vyakumera ndiyo maziko gha [[ULimi na kuŵeta|ulimi]], uwo nawo wakugwira ntchito yikulu mu mbiri ya midawuko ya caro cose capasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wrench |first=Jason S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtg672jRCfAC&pg=RA1-PA9 |title=Workplace Communication for the 21st Century: Tools and Strategies that Impact the Bottom Line [2 volumes]: Tools and Strategies That Impact the Bottom Line |date=9 January 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-3133-9632-8}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuthemba vyakumera vya maluŵa pa vyakulya, mwakulunjika panji nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto. Mitundu ya vyakumera pafupifupi 7,000 yagwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakulya, nangauli vyakulya vinandi vya mazuŵa ghano vikufuma ku mitundu 30 pera.<ref>{{cite book |author=Agricultural Research Service |title=Report on the Agricultural Experiment Stations |date=1903 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiVGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA429}}</ref><ref name=NatGeogAgriculture>{{cite web |title=The Development of Agriculture |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |work=National Geographic |access-date=1 October 2017 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414142437/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |archive-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> Vyakulya vikulu ni mbuto nga ni mpunga na tirigu, misisi nga ni cinangwa na kacewere, na vya mtundu wa nchunga nga ni nchunga. Mafuta gha vyakumera nga ni gha ''olive'' na gha mgwalangwa ghakupeleka mafuta, apo vipambi na masamba vikupeleka mavitamini na vinthu vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food and drink |url=https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |publisher=Kew Gardens |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328124344/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/food-drink |archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref> Khofi, tiyi, na sokoleti ni mbuto zikulu izo vyakupangika vyake vili na kafeni.<ref name="Hopper 2015">{{citation |last=Hopper |first=Stephen D. |chapter=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher=Wiley |date=2015 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0024933 |pages=1–9 |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 }}</ref> Kusanda kagwiliskiro ka vyakumera na ŵanthu kukuchemeka kasandiro ka mbuto ka vyacuma.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wS-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA644 |chapter=Ethnobotany |title=Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study |last=Kochhar |first=S. L. |date=31 May 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-3166-7539-7 |page=644 }}</ref> === Mankhwala === [[File:Folio Materia Medica Dioscurides Met 13.152.6 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Dokotala wa nyengo yapakati wakupanga munkhwala kufuma ku cakumera ca munkhwala, kufuma mu buku la Ciarabu la Dioscorides, 1224]] Vyakumera vya mankhwala ni kasupe mukulu wa vyakusazganika, pa ntchito yawo ya mankhwala, na pa kupanga vinthu vinandi vya usungunu mu mafakitale.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals from Plants|publisher=Cambridge University Botanic Garden|url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209152153/https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Trail.aspx?p=27&ix=11|archive-date=9 December 2017}} The details of each plant and the chemicals it yields are described in the linked subpages.</ref> Mankhwala ghanandi, kusazgapo mankhwala ghakuloŵezga, ghakufuma ku vyakumera, kwali mankhwala gha mdawuko panji vinthu vya usungunu ivyo vyafumyika mu vyakumera, ndipo pamanyuma vyapangika pa [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]] ka mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="tapsell">{{cite journal |last1=Tapsell |first1=L. C. |last2=Hemphill |first2=I. |last3=Cobiac |first3=L. |title=Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |volume=185 |issue=4 Supplement |pages=S4–24 |date=August 2006 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2006.tb00548.x |pmid=17022438 |s2cid=9769230 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031172039/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450&context=hbspapers |url-status=live |hdl=2440/22802 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="lai">{{cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=P. K. |last2=Roy |first2=J. |title=Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1451–1460 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15180577 |doi=10.2174/0929867043365107 }}</ref> Mankhwala gha mazuŵa ghano agho ghakufuma ku vyakumera ni aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, na ghanyake. Buku la mankhwala la Dioscorides, ''De materia medica'', ilo likalongosora vyakumera vya mankhwala pafupifupi 600, likalembeka pakati pa 50 na 70 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ndipo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Ulaya na Vuma Lapakati mpaka pafupifupi 1600.<ref name=NIH>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |title=Greek Medicine |publisher=National Institutes of Health, USA |date=16 September 2002 |access-date=22 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109193334/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_dioscorides.html |archive-date=9 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hefferon |first=Kathleen |title=Let Thy Food Be Thy Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2012 |page=46 |isbn=978-0-1998-7398-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030407/https://books.google.com/books?id=iORoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Anne|author-link=Anne Rooney |title=The Story of Medicine |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |date=2009 |page=143 |isbn=978-1-8485-8039-8 |access-date=9 December 2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801030419/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBMEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vyakupangika Vyambura Kuŵa Vyakulya === [[File:Timber DonnellyMills2005 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|upright|Makuni ghakusungika kuti pamanyuma ghacekeke pa malo gha kucekera makuni ]] Vyakumera ivyo vikulimika nga ni mbuto za mafakitale ndivyo kasupe wa vyakupangika vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial Crop Production |url=https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |publisher=Grace Communications Foundation |access-date=20 June 2016 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610195055/https://www.sustainabletable.org/804/industrial-crop-production |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vikusazgapo mafuta ghakununkhira, mitundu ya kawiro, ulimbo, rabala, na vinyake. Vyakupangika ivyo vikufuma ku vyakumera ni sopo, vyakununkhira, pende, rabala, pulasitiki, ingi, na vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Industrial Crops and Products'' An International Journal |url=https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2016-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002022039/https://www.elsevier.com/journals/industrial-crops-and-products/0926-6690?generatepdf=true |archive-date=2 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CruzDierig2014">{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Von Mark V. |last2=Dierig |first2=David A. |title=Industrial Crops: Breeding for BioEnergy and Bioproducts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |year=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4939-1447-0 |pages=9 and passim |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422142944/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIFxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |archive-date=22 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vyakotcherera vya vyakumera vikusazgapo nkhuni.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sato |first=Motoaki|chapter=Thermochemistry of the formation of fossil fuels |title=Fluid-Mineral Interactions: A Tribute to H. P. Eugster, Special Publication No. 2 |date=1990 |url=https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |publisher=The Geochemical Society |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920172448/https://www.geochemsoc.org/files/6214/1261/1770/SP-2_271-284_Sato.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Makala gha pasi, mafuta gha pasi, na mpweya wa pasi vikufuma ku vyakusyala vya vyamoyo vya mu maji vya kale comene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4SnHbb-ZcC&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA11 |title=Environmental Science: Problems, Connections and Solutions |last2=Spoolman |first2=Scott |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-38337-6 |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ahuja |first=Satinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHKDBAAAQBAJ&q=fossil+fuels+depleted+much+faster+than+renewal&pg=PA278 |title=Food, Energy, and Water: The Chemistry Connection |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-12-800374-9 |access-date=14 April 2018 }}</ref> Vyuma vya kuzengera na ulusi vyakufuma ku vyakumera vikugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga nyumba na kupanga vyakuvwara. Makuni ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyumba, ngalawa, na vyakukhalapo, na pa vinthu vicoko nga ni vilwero vya sumu. Makuni ghakupangiska mapepala.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of pulp |volume=1 |editor1-last=Sixta |editor1-first=Herbert |year=2006 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |location=Winheim, Germany |isbn=978-3-527-30997-9 |page=9}}</ref> Nsalu kanandi yikupangika na thonje na vinyake. Ulusi wa kusonera nsalu nawo ukufuma comene ku thonje.<ref>{{cite web |title=Natural fibres |url=https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |website=Discover Natural Fibres |date=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720093749/https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |archive-date=20 July 2016 }}</ref> === Vyakumera vya Kujikongoleska === [[File:Rose espalier Niedernhall.JPG|thumb|upright|Duŵa la ''rose'' lakukuzgika pa ciliŵa ku Niedernhall, Germany]] Mitundu masauzandi ya vyakumera yikulimika cifukwa ca uwemi wawo na kupeleka mthunzi, kusintha kufunda, kucepeska mphepo, kucepeska congo, na kucepeska kukokoloka kwa dongo. Vyakumera ni maziko gha malonda gha ŵalendo gha madola mabiliyoni pa caka, ghakusazgapo maulendo ku madimba gha kale, mapaki gha caro, nkholongo za vula, na visangalalo nga ni vya maluŵa gha cherry vya Japani na Amerika.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoja00dani/page/12 12] |title=Introduction to Japanese culture |first=Daniel |last=Sosnoski |publisher=Tuttle |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8048-2056-1 |access-date=13 December 2017 }}</ref><ref name="NCBF">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055554/https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url=https://www.nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/about/history/ |title=History of the Cherry Blossom Trees and Festival |website=National Cherry Blossom Festival: About |publisher=National Cherry Blossom Festival |access-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Vyakumera vingakuzgika mu nyumba, panji mu nyumba zapadera za vyakumera. Luso la kunozga vyakumera vyakudumulika panji vyamoyo likusazgapo bonsai na ikebana. Vyakumera vya kujikongoleska nyengo zinyake vyasintha mbiri, nga mu cakucitika ca ''tulipomania''.<ref name="Lambert">{{cite web |last=Lambert |first=Tim |title=A Brief History of Gardening |url=https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |publisher=BBC |access-date=21 June 2016 |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609094015/https://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mu Kasandiro === [[File:Barbara McClintock (1902-1992) shown in her laboratory in 1947.jpg|thumb|upright|Barbara McClintock wakagwiliskira ntchito cingoma kusanda umo vimanyikwiro vikuhalirikira.]] Kusanda kwa kale kwa vyakumera ni kasandiro ka mbuto.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mason |first1=Matthew G. |title=Introduction to Botany |url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/botany |website=Environmental Science |access-date=6 June 2023}}</ref> Kusanda kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo kanandi kwagwiliskira ntchito vyakumera nga ni viyelezgero.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mendel's Paper in English |url=https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113051202/https://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |archive-date=13 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Barbara McClintock: A Brief Biographical Sketch |url=https://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |publisher=WebCite |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927171607/http://library.cshl.edu/archives/archives/bmcbio.htm |archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref> Mu kasandiro ka vyakuhara, kuŵeta nchunga za ''pea'' kukazomerezga Gregor Mendel kusanga malango ghakwamba gha kuhara, ndipo kupenda vigaŵa vya vyakuhara mu cingoma kukazomerezga Barbara McClintock kulongora ubale wawo na vimanyikwiro ivyo vikuharika.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Arabidopsis |url=https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |publisher=TAIR |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022211543/https://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp |archive-date=22 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphete za makuni zikupeleka nthowa ya kupima vyaka mu kasandiro ka vya kale, na malemba gha nyengo za kale.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bauer |first=Bruce |website=Climate.gov |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |title=How Tree Rings Tell Time and Climate History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812140430/https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/how-tree-rings-tell-time-and-climate-history |archive-date=12 August 2021 |date=29 November 2018}}</ref> Kusanda mafosilo gha vyakumera kukupeleka mauthenga pa kukura kwa vyakumera na kusintha kwa nyengo kwa kale.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cleal |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Thomas |first2=Barry A. |title=Introduction to Plant Fossils |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019 |page=13 |isbn=978-1-1084-8344-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=plant+fossils }}</ref> === Mu Majandulo, Visopa, na Midawuko === [[File:Relief plaque with confronted ibexes, Iran, Sasanian period, 5th or 6th century AD, stucco originally with polychrome painting - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC03952.JPG|thumb|upright=0.55|Vinyama viŵiri vyakulaŵiskana ku mbali ziŵiri za khuni la umoyo, cithuzi cakuzgoŵereka mu luso la kale]] Vyakumera, kusazgapo makuni, vikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, na malemba. Mu visopa vinandi, khuni la caro cose likulongoreka nga ni khuni likulu comene ilo likumera pa caro capasi, likukhazga kuthambo, ndipo misisi yake yikufika ku caro ca pasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fogden |first1=Michael |last2=Fogden |first2=Patricia |title=The Natural History of Flowers |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-6234-9644-9 |page=1}}</ref> Maluŵa kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kukumbukira, nga ni vyawanangwa, na kumanyiska vyakucitika vyapadera nga ni kubabika, nyifwa, nthengwa, na mazuŵa gha cisangalalo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Botanical Imagery in European Painting |date=August 2007 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm |access-date=19 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Raymond |first=Francine |title=Why botanical art is still blooming today |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/9924556/Why-botanical-art-is-still-blooming-today.html |access-date=19 June 2016 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 March 2013}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo Viheni === [[File:Texas invasive Musk Thistle 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|''Musk thistle'' ni cakumera cakufuma kunyake ico cikunanga malo mu Texas.]] Mikoza ni vyakumera ivyo vikukhumbikwa yayi mu malo ghakupwelelereka nga ni minda na madimba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harlan |first1=J. R. |last2=deWet |first2=J. M. |year=1965 |title=Some thoughts about weeds |journal=Economic Botany |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=16–24 |doi=10.1007/BF02971181 |bibcode=1965EcBot..19...16H |s2cid=28399160 }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵathandazga vyakumera vinandi kuwaro kwa malo ghawo gha kawiro; vinyake vyaŵa vyakunanga, ndipo vikunanga malo gha vyamoyo mwa kupoka malo gha vyakumera vya malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Mark A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Ken |year=2000 |title=Eight Ways to be a Colonizer; Two Ways to be an Invader: A Proposed Nomenclature Scheme for Invasion Ecology |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=81 |number=3 |pages=226–230 |publisher=Ecological Society of America}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake ivyo vikupanga ufu wa maluŵa wakwenda na mphepo, kusazgapo utheka, vikwiziska ulwari wa kukhwasula ku ŵanthu ŵanyake.<ref name=NIH2015Cause>{{cite web |title=Cause of Environmental Allergies |url=http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |website=NIAID |access-date=June 17, 2015 |date=April 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617124141/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/cause.aspx |archive-date=June 17, 2015}}</ref> Vyakumera vinandi vikupanga poizoni kuti vijivikilire ku vinyama vyakurya vyakumera. Poizoni uyu ungapweteka ŵanthu na viŵeto para walyeka panji, pa vyakumera vinyake, para wakhwaskika.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm |title=Biochemical defenses: secondary metabolites |access-date=2007-05-21 |work=Plant Defense Systems & Medicinal Botany |archive-date=2007-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703145234/http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/herbnew/aprodbc.htm }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bevan-Jones |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4KOmAwAAQBAJ |title=Poisonous Plants: A Cultural and Social History |date=2009-08-01 |publisher=Windgather Press |isbn=978-1-909686-22-9 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gasZYoM22bkC |title=Livestock-Poisoning Plants of California |publisher=UCANR Publications |isbn=978-1-60107-674-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crosby |first=Donald G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9gJCAAAQBAJ |title=The Poisoned Weed: Plants Toxic to Skin |date=2004-04-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-028870-9}}</ref> Vyakumera vinyake vikukanizga vyakumera vinyake kukura kwizira mu vinthu vya usungunu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grodzinskii |first=A. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlA4DwAAQBAJ |title=Allelopathy in the Life of Plants and their Communities |date=2016-03-01 |publisher=Scientific Publishers |isbn=978-93-86102-04-1}}</ref> == Vyakumera mu Malaŵi == Mu caro ca [[Malaŵi]] muli vyakumera vya mitundu yinandi. Muli makuni, utheka, na vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Malaŵi pera mu caro cose capasi. Makuni gha mu Malaŵi ghakupambanapambana kuyana na malo agho ghakumerako. Makuni ghanyake ghakupandika na ŵanthu, nga ni bulugamu, payini, gemelina, na sayipurasi, na ghanyake ghanandi. Makuni agho ghakiza na ŵanthu ŵanyake ni nga ni makuni gha mayembe na mitundu ya malalanje. Makuni ghanyake ni agha: mubabani, thung'unda, minyozi ya mitundu yinandi, kabeza, maqokolo, mavilo, masuku, matubeni, mjejengwani, matowo, mulolo, makama, mphangala, kavundula, mono, matwatwa, matunduluka, buyu, mbula, cifiqe, mubanga, mzobala, msipani, nthumbuzga za [[kalulu]], kazando, na masuju. Mulinso mphangwe zakupambanapambana nga ni cindere na nyungu. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vyakumela]] [[Category:Malaŵi]] ta3tnbw5tmiac6d7k8ew3ev2x822ak4 0 957 124366 123996 2026-11-10T14:19:08Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124366 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vinyama''' ni vyamoyo vya tumaselo tunandi, vya tumaselo twa mtima, mu ufumu wa vyamoyo wakuchemeka ''Animalia''. Vinyama vikurya vyakupangika na vyamoyo, vikupuma [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]], vili na tumaselo twa minofu, vingaŵana mwa kukumana kwa wanalume na wanakazi, ndipo apo vikukura mu nthumbo vikufuma ku mpira wa tumaselo uwo uli na malo ghambura kanthu mukati. Kupatula vicoko, vinyama vingenda. Vinyama vikupanga gulu limoza, ilo likung'anamula kuti vikafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale. Mitundu ya vinyama yakujumpha miliyoni 1.5 iyo yicalipo yalongosoreka, ndipo pafupifupi miliyoni 1.05 ni vibenene, yakujumpha 85,000 ni nkhono na ŵabali ŵawo, ndipo pafupifupi 65,000 ni vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Kukughanaghanirika kuti pangaŵa mitundu ya vinyama yakufika miliyoni 7.77 pa caro capasi. Utali wa vinyama ukufuma pa mikulomita 8.5 mpaka mamita 33.6. Vili na ubale wakusuzga na vinyake na malo ghawo, ndipo vikupanga minjololo ya vyakulya yakusuzga. Kusanda vinyama kukuchemeka kasandiro ka vinyama, ndipo kusanda nkhalo ya vinyama kukuchemeka kasandiro ka nkhalo ya vinyama. Ufumu wa vinyama ukugaŵika mu magulu ghakulu ghankhondi: Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria na Bilateria. Mitundu yinandi ya vinyama yili mu gulu la Bilateria, gulu likulu comene ilo vinyama vyake vili na thupi lakuyana ku mbali ziŵiri na mutu wakuwoneka, ndipo vinandi comene vya Bilateria vili mu magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu: ''protostome'', agho ghakusazgapo vinyama nga ni vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo, nkhono, mphutsi za pasi, na zinyake; na ''deuterostome'', agho ghakusazgapo nyenyezi za mbwani, na vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Gulu licoko la Xenacoelomorpha lili na malo ghambura kusimikizgika mu Bilateria. Vinyama vikawoneka dankha mu mafosilo mu nyengo ya Ediacaran, ndipo magulu ghanandi gha vinyama gha mazuŵa ghano ghakawoneka nga ni vinyama vya mu mbwani pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, uko kukamba pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 539 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo magulu ghanandi ghacoko ghakawoneka pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 485.4 ivyo vyajumpha. Magulu 6,331 gha vyakuhara ivyo vinyama vyose vyamoyo vikugaŵana ghasangika, ndipo ghangaŵa kuti ghakafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale ico cikaŵako pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha. Kale, Aristotle wakagaŵa vinyama mu ivyo vili na ndopa na ivyo vilije ndopa. Carl Linnaeus wakapanga ndondomeko yakwamba ya kugaŵa vinyama mu 1758 mu buku lake la ''Systema Naturae'', ndipo Jean-Baptiste Lamarck wakayisazgira kufika magulu 14 pofika 1809. Mu 1874, Ernst Haeckel wakagaŵa ufumu wa vinyama mu Metazoa ya tumaselo tunandi (sono ni zina linyake la Animalia) na Protozoa, vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza ivyo sono vikuwonekera kuŵa vinyama yayi. Mazuŵa ghano, kagaŵiro ka vinyama kakuthemba nthowa zapacanya, nga ni kusanda mbumba kwizira mu vyakuhara, izo zikulongora makola ubale wa vinyama mu kusintha. Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinyama vinyake vinandi pa vyakulya (kusazgapo nyama, masumbi, na mkaka), pa vyakupangira vinthu (nga ni vipapa, ubweya), nga ni vyakusanguluska, na nga ni vinyama vya ntchito pa mayendero na pa ntchito zinyake. Ncheŵe, cinyama cakwamba kuŵetika, zagwiliskirika ntchito pa kusaka, pa civikiliro, na pa nkhondo, nga ni mahachi, njiwa, na viyuni vyakusaka; apo vinyama vinyake vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikusakika pa maseŵero, ucindami, panji candulo. Vinyama vinyake kupatula ŵanthu ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca midawuko ya ŵanthu, ndipo vawoneka mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga na mu vimanyikwiro vya mbumba kufuma kale comene, ndipo kanandi vikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, luso, malemba, vimanyikwiro vya mafumu, ndyali, na maseŵero. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''animal'' likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''animal'' la ng'anamulo lakuyana, ilo likufuma ku Cilatini ''animalis'', "cakuŵa na mpweya panji mzimu". Ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka vyamoyo likusazgapo vyose vya ufumu wa Animalia. Mu kayowoyero ka zuŵa na zuŵa, lizgu lakuti cinyama kanandi likung'anamula vinyama vyambura kuŵa ŵanthu pera. Lizgu lakuti ''metazoa'' likufuma ku Cigiriki ca kale μετα ''meta'' "pamanyuma" na ζῷᾰ ''zōia'' "vinyama". Lizgu la Citumbuka lakuti ''cinyama'' likukolerana na ''nyama''. == Vimanyikwiro == Vinyama vili na vimanyikwiro vinandi ivyo vikugaŵana na vyamoyo vinyake. Vinyama vili na tumaselo twa mtima, tumaselo tunandi, ndipo vikupuma okisijeni, nga ni vyakumera na wowa. Kupambana na vyakumera na koyo, ivyo vikupanga vyakulya vyawo, vinyama vingapanga vyakulya vyawo yayi, cimanyikwiro ico vikugaŵana na wowa. Vinyama vikumeza vyakupangika na vyamoyo na kuvigaya mukati. === Kazengero === Vinyama vili na vimanyikwiro vya kazengero ivyo vikuvipatula na vyamoyo vinyake vyose, nga ni tumaselo kuzingilizgika na vinthu vya kuwaro kwa tumaselo ivyo vikupangika na ''collagen'' na purotini zakutambalala, kwenda kwa thupi paŵekha mu cigaŵa cinyake ca umoyo, na nyengo ya mpira wa tumaselo apo vikukura mu nthumbo. Kanandi, pali cigaŵa ca mukati ca kugayira vyakulya ico cili na mlomo umoza (mu Ctenophora, Cnidaria, na mphutsi zinyake zapapata) panji milomo yiŵiri (mu vinandi vya Bilateria). === Kukura === Kukura mu Bilateria na Cnidaria kukulongozgeka na vyakuhara vya Hox, ivyo vikulongora nyengo na malo gha kupanga vigaŵa nga ni vigaŵa vya thupi na mawoko na malundi. Apo vikukura, vinthu vya kuwaro kwa tumaselo vya vinyama vikupanga cizengo cakupindika ico tumaselo tungendapo na kunozgeka so kuŵa vigaŵa na viŵaro vyapadera, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kupangika kwa vigaŵa vyakusuzga na tumaselo kupambana. Vinthu ivi vingakhwima na kalisiyamu, kupanga vigaŵa nga ni vikoko, viwanga, na minga yicoko. Kweni tumaselo twa vyamoyo vinyake vya tumaselo tunandi (comene vyakumera vya mu maji, vyakumera, na wowa) tukukhazgika na vikopa vya kaselo, ntheura vikukura mwa kusazgikira pacoko pacoko. === Kuŵaba === Pafupifupi vinyama vyose vikugwiliskira ntchito kuŵaba mwa kugonana. Vikupanga tumaselo twa kuŵabira; tucoko twakwenda ni twa ŵanalume ndipo tukulu twambura kwenda ni masumbi. Ivi vikusazganika kupanga kaselo kamoza, ako kakukura mwa kugaŵika kuŵa mpira wa tumaselo wambura kanthu mukati. Mu vinyama vya mtundu wa ''sponge'', ŵana ŵakusambira kuya ku malo ghaphya, ŵakukakatira pasi pa mbwani, na kukura kuŵa ''sponge'' liphya. Mu magulu ghanyake ghanandi, mpira uwu ukunozgeka mwakusuzga comene. Pakwamba ukunjira mukati kupanga cigaŵa ca kugayira na vigaŵa viŵiri vya tumaselo, ca kuwaro na ca mukati. Kanandi, cigaŵa cacitatu cikukura pakati pawo. Vigaŵa ivi pamanyuma vikupambana kupanga vigaŵa vya thupi na viŵaro. Kutorana kanandi na ŵabali ŵapafupi kukupangiska kunangika kwa mbumba cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vimanyikwiro viheni vyakuharika. Vinyama vyapanga nthowa zinandi za kugega kutorana na ŵabali ŵapafupi. Vinyama vinyake vingaŵaba kwambura kugonana, ndipo ici kanandi cikupanga ŵana ŵakuyana ndendende na mupapi. Ici cingacitika mwa kuphwanyika; kumera kwa cigaŵa ciphya, nga ni mu Hydra na vinyake; panji kubaba kwambura kutorana, nga ni mu vibenene vinyake. == Malo gha Vyamoyo == Vinyama vikugaŵika mu magulu kuyana na umo vikuryera. Magulu agha ni vyakurya nyama (vyakugaŵika so nga ni vyakurya somba, vyakurya vibenene, vyakurya masumbi, na vinyake), vyakurya vyakumera (vyakurya mahamba, utheka, vipambi, mbuto, uchi wa maluŵa, na vinyake), vyakurya vyose, vyakurya wowa, vyakurya vyakufwa, na vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake. Ubale pakati pa vinyama vya malo ghaliwose ukupanga minjololo ya vyakulya yakusuzga. Mu vinyama vyakurya nyama panji vyakurya vyose, kusaka ni ubale umo cinyama cimoza cikurya cinyake, ndipo cinyama ico cikusakika kanandi cikusintha kuti cileke kuryeka. Kukakizgana uku kukupangiska mphikizgano ya kusintha pakati pa cakusaka na cakusakika. Pafupifupi vyakusaka vyose vya tumaselo tunandi ni vinyama. Vinyama vinyake vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinandi; mwaciyelezgero, mu ŵasanganavu ŵanyake, ŵana ŵakurya mnofu wamoyo wa cinyama cinyake na kucikoma, kweni ŵakulu ŵakurya uchi wa maluŵa. Vinyama vinyake vili na nkhalo yapadera comene ya kurya, nga ni fulu za mbwani zinyake izo zikurya comene ''sponge''. Vinyama vinandi vikuthemba vyamoyo na nkhongono izo vyakumera na koyo (ivyo vikuchemeka ŵakupanga) vikupanga kwizira mu usanisinuru. Vyakurya vyakumera, nga ni ŵakurya ŵakwamba, vikurya vyakumera mwakulunjika, apo vyakurya nyama na vinyama vinyake vikusanga vyakulya mwambura kulunjika mwa kurya vyakurya vyakumera panji vinyama ivyo vyarya vyakurya vyakumera. Vinyama vikotcha shuga, mafuta, purotini, na vinyake mu kupuma kwa tumaselo, ndipo ici cikuvizomerezga kukura na kusunga umoyo na kwenda. Pa matani mabiliyoni 550 gha kaboni ya vyamoyo pa caro capasi, vinyama ni mabiliyoni 2. Vinyama vinyake ivyo vikukhala pasi pa mbwani pafupi na malo gha maji ghakotcha vikurya vyakupangika na mabakiteriya kwizira mu usungunu. Vinyama vikafuma mu mbwani; magulu ghose gha vinyama agho ghaliko, kupatula ghaŵiri, ghali na mitundu yinyake ya mu mbwani. Kweni magulu ghanyake gha vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo ghakamba kukhala pa mtunda pa nyengo yeneyiyo na vyakumera vya pa mtunda, pakati pa vyaka miliyoni 510 na 471 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana nga ni somba ya Tiktaalik vikamba kwenda pa mtunda pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 375 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinyama vikukhala pafupifupi mu malo ghose gha caro capasi, mu maji gha mcere, malo gha maji ghakotcha, maji ghawemi, vithaphwi, nkholongo, madimba gha utheka, vipalamba, mu mphepo, na mukati mwa vyamoyo vinyake. Kweni vinyama vikuzizipizga comene kufunda yayi; vicoko comene ndivyo vingapona pa kufunda kwakujumpha 50 °C nyengo zose panji mu vipalamba vyakuzizima comene gha Antarctica. Kukhwaska kwa vinyama pa kusintha kwa pacanya pa caro capasi kundasandike makola, ndipo kusanda kunandi kwalaŵiska mitundu yinyake pera. == Kupambanapambana == === Ukulu === Nyamumba wa buluu ndiyo cinyama cikulu comene ico cindaŵeko, ca kuzitika mpaka matani 190 na utali mpaka mamita 33.6. Cinyama cikulu comene ca pa mtunda ico cicalipo ni zgovu ya Afilika, ya kuzitika mpaka matani 12.25 na utali mpaka mamita 10.67. Vinyama vikulu comene vya pa mtunda ivyo vindaŵeko vikaŵa ma''dinosaur'' nga ni Argentinosaurus, iyo yingaŵa kuti yikazitika matani 73, na Supersaurus iyo yingaŵa kuti yikafika mamita 39. Vinyama vinyake ni vicoko comene mwakuti vingawoneka na maso yayi; vinyake vya Myxozoa vikukura kujumpha mikulomita 20 yayi, ndipo cimoza mwa vicoko comene (Myxobolus szekeli) nchambura kujumpha mikulomita 8.5 para cakura. === Unandi na Malo gha Magulu Ghakulu === Unandi wa mitundu iyo yalongosoreka ukuthemba iyo ŵasandi ŵalongosora; ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵapima manambala ghakulu comene mwa nthowa zakupambana, ndipo ghangapambana comene. Mwaciyelezgero, mitundu ya mphutsi za ''nematode'' pafupifupi 25,000–27,000 yalongosoreka, apo ŵasandi ŵapima kuti unandi wose ungaŵa 10,000–20,000; 500,000; miliyoni 10; panji miliyoni 100. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za kagaŵiro, unandi wose wa mitundu ya vinyama, kusazgapo iyo yindalongosoreke, ukapimika kuŵa pafupifupi miliyoni 7.77 mu 2011. == Kwambilira mu Kusintha == Mafosilo ghakwamba gha thupi la vinyama ghakuwoneka mu Ediacaran, nga ni Charnia na Spriggina. Kwa nyengo yitali ŵakakayikiranga usange mafosilo agha ni vinyama nadi, kweni kusangika kwa mafuta gha vinyama gha ''cholesterol'' mu mafosilo gha Dickinsonia kukulongora kuti ni vinyama. Vinyama vikughanaghanirika kuti vikamba mu malo gha okisijeni yicoko, ntheura vingaŵa kuti vikakhalanga kwambura okisijeni, kweni apo vikasintha kugwiliskira ntchito okisijeni, vikamba kuyithemba yose. Magulu ghanandi gha vinyama ghakuwoneka dankha mu mafosilo pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, kwamba pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 539 ivyo vyajumpha, mu malibwe nga ni Burgess Shale. Magulu agho ghacalipo mu malibwe agha ni nkhono na ŵabali ŵawo, vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo, nyenyezi za mbwani, na vinyake, pamoza na vinyama vinandi ivyo vyamalira nga ni Anomalocaris iyo yikasakanga. Kweni kuwoneka kwa luŵiro uku kungaŵa cifukwa ca umo mafosilo ghakusungikira, m'malo mwa kulongora kuti vinyama vyose ivi vikawoneka pa nyengo yimoza. Ghanoghano ili likukhozgeka na kusangika kwa Auroralumina attenboroughii, cinyama ca Cnidaria cakwamba cakumanyikwa ca Ediacaran (vyaka miliyoni 557–562 ivyo vyajumpha, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 20 pambere pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian) ku Charnwood Forest, mu Ungelezi. Cikughanaghanirika kuŵa cimoza mwa vinyama vyakwamba vyakusaka, cikukora vinyama vicoko na minga yake. Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mafosilo ŵakuti vinyama vikawoneka kale comene pambere pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, panyake vyaka biliyoni yimoza ivyo vyajumpha. Mafosilo ghakwamba agho ghangaŵa gha vinyama ghakuwoneka mwaciyelezgero mu malibwe gha vyaka miliyoni 665 mu South Australia, ndipo ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa ma''sponge'' ghakwamba. Vimanyikwiro nga ni mayendero na maboŵa ivyo vyasangika mu nyengo ya Tonian (kufuma vyaka biliyoni 1 ivyo vyajumpha) vingalongora kuŵapo kwa vinyama vya mtundu wa mphutsi, vya ukulu nga ni mphutsi za pasi. Kweni mayendero ghakuyana ghakupangika na cinthu cikulu ca kaselo kamoza, Gromia sphaerica, ntheura vimanyikwiro ivi vingalongora vinyama vyakwamba yayi. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mphasa za tuvinyama tucoko comene zikacepa, panyake cifukwa ca kuryeka na vinyama viphya. Vinthu vinyake vya usungunu ivyo kanandi vikulongora ma''sponge'' vikusangika kufuma pakumalira kwa Cryogenian, kweni vingapangika so na vyamoyo vinyake. Vinthu nga ni mathumbu ghakuzura dongo agho ghakuyana na maboŵa gha vinyama vya mtundu wa mphutsi ghasangika mu malibwe gha vyaka biliyoni 1.2 mu Amerika ya Kumpoto, biliyoni 1.5 mu Australia na Amerika ya Kumpoto, na biliyoni 1.7 mu Australia. Kuti ghakufuma ku vinyama nkhwambura kuzomerezgeka na wose. == Mbumba ya Vinyama == === Mbumba ya Kuwaro === Vinyama vikafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale. Vinyama ni ŵabali ŵapafupi ŵa ''choanoflagellate'', ndipo pamoza vikupanga Choanozoa. Ros-Rocher na ŵanyake (2021) ŵakulondezga kwambilira kwa vinyama ku vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza. Gulu la vinyama likaŵako pofika vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo lingaŵa kuti likamba vyaka miliyoni 800 ivyo vyajumpha, kuyana na ukaboni wa vyakuhara. === Mbumba ya Mukati === Ubale pa maziko gha mbumba ya vinyama waŵa mphindano. Kupatula Ctenophora, Bilateria na Cnidaria ndigho magulu pera agho ghali na kuyana kwa thupi, ndipo ukaboni unyake ukulongora kuti ngakukolerana comene. Pamoza na ma''sponge'', Placozoa yilije kuyana kwa thupi ndipo kanandi yikawonekanga nga ni "ulalo wakusoŵa" pakati pa vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza na vinyama vya tumaselo tunandi. Kuŵapo kwa vyakuhara vya Hox mu Placozoa kukulongora kuti kale vikaŵa vyakusuzga comene. Porifera (ma''sponge'') ghakaghanaghanirikanga kwa nyengo yitali kuŵa ŵabali ŵa vinyama vinyake vyose, kweni pali ukaboni wakuti Ctenophora yingaŵa pa malo agha. Kusanda mbumba kwizira mu vyakuhara kwakhozga maghanoghano ghose ghaŵiri. Mu 2017, Roberto Feuda na ŵanyake ŵakalongora ghose ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵakakhozga ghanoghano lakuti ma''sponge'' ndigho ŵabali. Kweni kusanda kwa 2023 kwa Darrin Schultz na ŵanyake kukagwiliskira ntchito ubale wa kale wa vyakuhara kulongora kuti Ctenophora ndiyo mubali. === Porifera === Ma''sponge'' ngakupambana comene na vinyama vinyake, ndipo kwa nyengo yitali ghakaghanaghanirikanga kuti ghakapatukana dankha, kuŵa gulu la kale comene la vinyama. Nangauli ngakupambana mu mawonekero, ukaboni wa vyakuhara ukulongora kuti ma''sponge'' ngakukolerana comene na vinyama vinyake kuluska Ctenophora. Ma''sponge'' ghalije kanozgero kakusuzga ka magulu ghanyake; tumaselo twawo ntwakupambana, kweni kanandi tukupanga vigaŵa vyapadera yayi. Ma''sponge'' ghakwenda yayi para ghakura. Ghalije tumaselo twa mizirwe nadi. Ma''sponge'' ghalije ndondomeko ya kugaya, ya ndopa, ya kupuma, panji ya kufumiska vyakunyanyira. M'malo mwake, ghakuthemba kwenda kwa maji mu thupi lawo kuti ghacite ntchito izi. Ghanandi ghali na thupi lambura kanthu mukati kuti maji ghende makola. Kanandi ghakurya mwa kukwemya maji kwizira mu tuzenje, kusefa tuvyakulya tucoko. Ghakukora okisijeni wa mu maji, ndipo ghakufumiska kaboni dayokisayidi na vyakunyanyira mu maji. Ma''sponge'' ghangaŵaba mwa kugonana na kwambura kugonana. Kuŵaba kwambura kugonana kukucitika mu nthowa zinandi, kusazgapo kuphwanyika, apo cigaŵa ca ''sponge'' cikupatukana na kukura kunyake. Pa kuŵaba mwa kugonana, ma''sponge'' ghanandi ni wanalume na wanakazi pamoza, ndipo ghakupanga masumbi na tumaselo twa ŵanalume. === Ctenophora === Vinyama vya Ctenophora vili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati, ndipo vili na cigaŵa ca kugayira ca mlomo umoza, uwo ni mlomo na msundu pamoza. Vili na vigaŵa vyakupambana, kweni vikupanga viŵaro vyapadera yayi. Vikwenda mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mizere ya tusisi. Pafupifupi vyose ni vyakusaka. Vili na vigaŵa vyapadera pa minkhono yawo ivyo vikuvovwira kukora vyakurya. Vili na tumaselo twa mizirwe, kweni vilije wongo; mizirwe yawo yanozgeka nga ni ukonde. Mizirwe yawo njakupambana comene na ya vinyama vinyake, ndipo ukaboni ukulongora kuti yikakura paŵekha. === Cnidaria === Nga ni Ctenophora, Cnidaria vili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati na cigaŵa ca kugayira ca mlomo umoza. Vili so na vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vikupanga viŵaro yayi. Vinyama vya gulu la Anthozoa, nga ni ''sea anemone'' na korali, vikwenda yayi. Vinandi vya Medusozoa, kusazgapo ''jellyfish'', vili na nyengo ya kwambura kwenda na nyengo ya kwenda. Cnidaria vili na vigaŵa viŵiri pera vikulu vya tumaselo. === Placozoa === Placozoa vicoko comene vilije cigaŵa ca kugayira ca nyengo zose ndipo vilije kuyana kwa thupi; vikuyana na ''amoeba''. Mbumba yawo yikumanyikwa makola yayi, ndipo yicali kusandika. === Bilateria === Vinyama vyakusyala, vinandi comene, mu magulu pafupifupi 29 na mitundu yakujumpha miliyoni, vikupanga Bilateria, ivyo vili na thupi lakuyana ku mbali ziŵiri. Bilateria vili na vigaŵa vitatu vya tumaselo, ndipo vigaŵa vyawo vikupanga viŵaro vyapadera. Cigaŵa ca kugayira cili na milomo yiŵiri, mlomo na msundu, ndipo vinandi vili na malo ghambura kanthu mukati mwa thupi. Vinyama ivi vili na mutu (panthazi) na mcira (kumanyuma), msana na nthumbo, na mbali ya kumazere na ya kumalyero. Kuŵa na cigaŵa ca panthazi kukung'anamula kuti cigaŵa ici ndico cikukumana dankha na vinthu, nga ni vyakulya, ndipo ici cikovwira kukura kwa mutu wakuŵa na viŵaro vya kupulika na mlomo. Vinandi vya Bilateria vili na minofu ya kuzunguliya iyo yikufinya thupi, kulitalikiska, na minofu ya kutali iyo yikufupiska thupi; izi zikuzomerezga vinyama vya thupi lakupepuka kwenda mwa kufinyika. Vili so na matumbo agho ghakwenda mu thupi kufuma ku mlomo mpaka ku msundu. Kweni mu nyengo ya kusintha, vinyama vinyake vyataya cimoza panji vinandi mwa vimanyikwiro ivi. Mwaciyelezgero, nyenyezi za mbwani zikuru zili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati (kupambana na ŵana ŵawo), apo mphutsi zinyake zakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake zili na thupi lipepuka comene. Kusanda vyakuhara kwasintha comene kupulikiska kwa ŵasandi ŵa vinyama pa ubale mu Bilateria. Vinandi vikuwoneka kuŵa mu magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu, ''protostome'' na ''deuterostome''. Kanandi kukuyowoyeka kuti Xenacoelomorpha ndilo gulu la pasi comene, kweni ghanoghano ili lasuskika. ==== Protostome na Deuterostome ==== ''Protostome'' na ''deuterostome'' vikupambana mu nthowa zinandi. Pakwamba pa kukura, tumaselo twa ''deuterostome'' tukugaŵika mu nthowa yinyake, apo twa ''protostome'' tunandi tukugaŵika mwakuzungunyika. Vinyama vya magulu ghose ghaŵiri vili na matumbo ghakukwana, kweni mu ''protostome'' mlomo wakwamba wa matumbo ukusanduka mlomo, ndipo msundu ukupangika pamanyuma. Mu ''deuterostome'', msundu ukupangika dankha ndipo mlomo pamanyuma. Magulu ghakulu gha ''deuterostome'' ni Ambulacraria na Chordata. Ambulacraria vikusangika mu mbwani pera ndipo vikusazgapo nyenyezi za mbwani na vinyake. Chordata comene ni vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ivyo ni somba, vyakukhala mu maji na pa mtunda, vyakukwaŵa, viyuni, na vinyama vyakonkheska. ''Protostome'' vikusazgapo Ecdysozoa, vyakuthyika zina la kuvula cikopa pa kukura. Magulu ghakulu ni vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo na mphutsi za ''nematode''. ''Protostome'' vinyake vili mu Spiralia, ivyo magulu ghakulu ni mphutsi za pasi na nkhono. == Mbiri ya Kagaŵiro == Mu nyengo ya kale, Aristotle wakagaŵa vinyama, kuyana na kulaŵiska kwake, mu ivyo vili na ndopa (pafupifupi vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana) na ivyo vilije. Vinyama vikanozgeka pa makwelero kufuma ku munthu (na ndopa, malundi ghaŵiri, mzimu wa vinjeru) pasi kwizira mu vinyama vya malundi ghanayi vyakubaba (na ndopa, malundi ghanayi, mzimu wakupulika) na magulu ghanyake nga ni nkhala (kwambura ndopa, malundi ghanandi, mzimu wakupulika) mpaka ku ma''sponge'' (kwambura ndopa, kwambura malundi, mzimu wa vyakumera). Aristotle wakaŵa wakukayikira usange ma''sponge'' ni vinyama panji vyakumera: wakamanyanga kuti ghangapulika kukhwaskika na kufinyika, kweni ghakaŵa na misisi nga ni vyakumera ndipo ghakwendanga yayi. Mu 1758, Carl Linnaeus wakapanga kagaŵiro kakwamba ka makwelero mu ''Systema Naturae''. Mu ndondomeko yake, vinyama vikaŵa ufumu umoza mwa vitatu, ndipo vikagaŵika mu Vermes (mphutsi), Insecta (vibenene), Pisces (somba), Amphibia, Aves (viyuni), na Mammalia (vinyama vyakonkheska). Kufuma apo, vinayi vyaumaliro vyasazgika mu gulu limoza, Chordata, apo Insecta na Vermes vyasintha mazina panji kugaŵika. Ici cikamba mu 1793 na Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, uyo wakati Vermes ni "cisokonezgo" ndipo wakagaŵa gulu ili mu magulu ghatatu ghaphya. Pofika 1809, Lamarck wakaŵa wapanga magulu 9 kupatula vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana na nkhono. Mu 1817, Georges Cuvier wakayaniska kapangikiro ka thupi kuti wagaŵe vinyama mu minthavi yinayi: vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, nkhono, vinyama vyakuŵa na mafundo (vibenene na mphutsi za pasi), na vinyama vya thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati. Kagaŵiro aka ka vinayi kakalondezgeka na Karl Ernst von Baer mu 1828, Louis Agassiz mu 1857, na Richard Owen mu 1860. Mu 1874, Ernst Haeckel wakagaŵa ufumu wa vinyama mu maufumu ghacoko ghaŵiri: Metazoa (vinyama vya tumaselo tunandi, na magulu ghankhondi) na Protozoa (vinyama vya kaselo kamoza), pamoza na gulu la cinkhondi na cimoza, ma''sponge''. Protozoa pamanyuma vikasamira ku ufumu wa Protista, ndipo Metazoa yekha yikasyala nga ni zina linyake la Animalia. == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == === Kagwiliskiro ka Ntchito === Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mitundu yinandi ya vinyama pa vyakulya, vyose viŵeto vyakuŵetika na, comene mu mbwani, vinyama vya mu thengere ivyo vikusakika. Somba za mbwani za mitundu yinandi zikuloweka pa malonda. Mitundu yicoko yikuŵetika pa malonda. Ŵanthu na viŵeto vyawo ni magaŵa ghakujumpha 90 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa vinyama vyose vya pa mtunda vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Vinyama vyambura fupa la msana, kusazgapo ''squid'', nkhala, vibenene (comene njuci na mbozi za silika), na nkhono, vikusakika panji kuŵetika pa vyakulya na ulusi. Nkhuku, ng'ombe, mbelele, nkhumba, na vinyama vinyake vikuŵetika nga ni viŵeto vya nyama pa caro cose. Ulusi wa vinyama nga ni ubweya na silika ukugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga nsalu, apo misipa ya vinyama yagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakukakira, ndipo vipapa vikugwiliskirika ntchito comene kupanga skapato na vinthu vinyake. Vinyama vyasakika na kuŵetika cifukwa ca weya wawo kupanga vinthu nga ni malaya na vipewa. Mitundu ya vyakupaka yapangika kufuma ku vibenene. Vinyama vya ntchito nga ni ng'ombe na mahachi vyagwiliskirika ntchito pa ntchito na mayendero kufuma pa kwamba kwa ulimi. Vinyama nga ni nchenche ya vipambi Drosophila melanogaster vikugwira ntchito yikulu mu kasandiro nga ni viyelezgero vya kuyezgera. Vinyama vyagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga katemera kufuma apo katemera wakasangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Mankhwala ghanyake, nga ni gha kansa gha trabectedin, ghakufuma ku poizoni panji vinthu vinyake vya vinyama. Ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito ncheŵe za kusaka kovwira kuthamangiska na kutola vinyama, na viyuni vyakusaka kukora viyuni na vinyama, apo viyuni vya mbwani vyakukakika vyagwiliskirika ntchito kukora somba. Masele gha poizoni ghagwiliskirika ntchito kupaka poizoni ku misongo ya mivwi. Vinyama vinandi vikusungika nga ni vyakusanguluska, kufuma ku vinyama vyambura fupa la msana nga ni ŵalutatavi ŵakulu na ''octopus'', vyakukwaŵa nga ni njoka na ŵalwivi, na viyuni nga ni ma''canary'' na ŵakholwe. Kweni vyakusanguluska vinandi comene ni vinyama vyakonkheska, ndiko kuti ncheŵe, vyona, na akalulu. Pali kususkana pakati pa ntchito ya vinyama nga ni ŵabwezi ŵa ŵanthu na kuŵapo kwawo nga ni vyamoyo ivyo vili na wanangwa wawo. Vinyama vinandi vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikusakika pa maseŵero. === Kagwiliskiro ka Vimanyikwiro === Vimanyikwiro vya ndondomeko za nyenyezi za Kumanjiliro na za Ŵacayina vikuthemba vinyama. Mu China na Japani, khulukuska wakawonekanga nga ni mzimu wa munthu, ndipo mu vithuzi vya kale khulukuska ni cimanyikwiro ca mzimu. Vinyama vyaŵa nkhani ya luso kufuma kale comene, mu mbiri, nga mu Eguputo wa kale, na pambere pa mbiri, nga mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga gha Lascaux. Vithuzi vikulu vya vinyama ni ''The Rhinoceros'' ya Albrecht Dürer ya 1515, na cithuzi ca hachi ''Whistlejacket'' ca George Stubbs ca pafupifupi 1762. Vibenene, viyuni na vinyama vyakonkheska vikugwira ntchito mu malemba na mu mafilimu. Vinyama, kusazgapo vibenene na vinyama vyakonkheska, vikusangika mu majandulo na visopa. Cibenene ca ''scarab'' cikaŵa cakupatulika mu Eguputo wa kale, ndipo ng'ombe njakupatulika mu Cihindu. Mwa vinyama vinyake vyakonkheska, nswala, mahachi, nkhalamu, mileme, ŵankhalamila, na mimbulu ni nkhani za majandulo na kusopa. [[Category:Vinyama]] 0urf77v45agrf5t3axp9hu0g6nuwpqd 124417 124366 2026-11-10T20:52:29Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Vinyama | fossil_range = Cryogenian – sono, {{Fossilrange|665|0}} | image = Animal diversity b.png | image_caption = Vinyama vyakupambanapambana | domain = Eukaryota | unranked_regnum = Opisthokonta | regnum = '''Animalia''' | regnum_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Magulu ghakulu | subdivision = *Bilateria (magulu ghakulu pafupifupi 30) *Cnidaria *Ctenophora *Placozoa *Porifera }} '''Vinyama''' ni vyamoyo vya tumaselo tunandi, vya tumaselo twa mtima, mu ufumu wa vyamoyo wakuchemeka ''Animalia''.<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|animalia|accessdate=12 May 2024}}</ref> Vinyama vikurya vyakupangika na vyamoyo, vikupuma [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]], vili na tumaselo twa minofu, vingaŵana mwa kukumana kwa wanalume na wanakazi, ndipo apo vikukura mu nthumbo vikufuma ku mpira wa tumaselo uwo uli na malo ghambura kanthu mukati. Kupatula vicoko, vinyama vingenda. Vinyama vikupanga gulu limoza, ilo likung'anamula kuti vikafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale. Mitundu ya vinyama yakujumpha miliyoni 1.5 iyo yicalipo yalongosoreka, ndipo pafupifupi miliyoni 1.05 ni vibenene, yakujumpha 85,000 ni nkhono na ŵabali ŵawo, ndipo pafupifupi 65,000 ni vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana.<ref name="Zhang2013"/> Kukughanaghanirika kuti pangaŵa mitundu ya vinyama yakufika miliyoni 7.77 pa caro capasi. Utali wa vinyama ukufuma pa mikulomita 8.5 mpaka mamita 33.6. Vili na ubale wakusuzga na vinyake na malo ghawo, ndipo vikupanga minjololo ya vyakulya yakusuzga. Kusanda vinyama kukuchemeka kasandiro ka vinyama, ndipo kusanda nkhalo ya vinyama kukuchemeka kasandiro ka nkhalo ya vinyama. Ufumu wa vinyama ukugaŵika mu magulu ghakulu ghankhondi: Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria na Bilateria. Mitundu yinandi ya vinyama yili mu gulu la Bilateria, gulu likulu comene ilo vinyama vyake vili na thupi lakuyana ku mbali ziŵiri na mutu wakuwoneka, ndipo vinandi comene vya Bilateria vili mu magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu: ''protostome'', agho ghakusazgapo vinyama nga ni vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo, nkhono, mphutsi za pasi, na zinyake; na ''deuterostome'', agho ghakusazgapo nyenyezi za mbwani, na vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Gulu licoko la Xenacoelomorpha lili na malo ghambura kusimikizgika mu Bilateria. Vinyama vikawoneka dankha mu mafosilo mu nyengo ya Ediacaran, ndipo magulu ghanandi gha vinyama gha mazuŵa ghano ghakawoneka nga ni vinyama vya mu mbwani pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, uko kukamba pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 539 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo magulu ghanandi ghacoko ghakawoneka pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 485.4 ivyo vyajumpha. Magulu 6,331 gha vyakuhara ivyo vinyama vyose vyamoyo vikugaŵana ghasangika, ndipo ghangaŵa kuti ghakafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale ico cikaŵako pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha. Kale, Aristotle wakagaŵa vinyama mu ivyo vili na ndopa na ivyo vilije ndopa. Carl Linnaeus wakapanga ndondomeko yakwamba ya kugaŵa vinyama mu 1758 mu buku lake la ''Systema Naturae'', ndipo Jean-Baptiste Lamarck wakayisazgira kufika magulu 14 pofika 1809. Mu 1874, Ernst Haeckel wakagaŵa ufumu wa vinyama mu Metazoa ya tumaselo tunandi (sono ni zina linyake la Animalia) na Protozoa, vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza ivyo sono vikuwonekera kuŵa vinyama yayi. Mazuŵa ghano, kagaŵiro ka vinyama kakuthemba nthowa zapacanya, nga ni kusanda mbumba kwizira mu vyakuhara, izo zikulongora makola ubale wa vinyama mu kusintha. Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinyama vinyake vinandi pa vyakulya (kusazgapo nyama, masumbi, na mkaka), pa vyakupangira vinthu (nga ni vipapa, ubweya), nga ni vyakusanguluska, na nga ni vinyama vya ntchito pa mayendero na pa ntchito zinyake. Ncheŵe, cinyama cakwamba kuŵetika, zagwiliskirika ntchito pa kusaka, pa civikiliro, na pa nkhondo, nga ni mahachi, njiwa, na viyuni vyakusaka; apo vinyama vinyake vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikusakika pa maseŵero, ucindami, panji candulo. Vinyama vinyake kupatula ŵanthu ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca midawuko ya ŵanthu, ndipo vawoneka mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga na mu vimanyikwiro vya mbumba kufuma kale comene, ndipo kanandi vikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, luso, malemba, vimanyikwiro vya mafumu, ndyali, na maseŵero. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''animal'' likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''animal'' la ng'anamulo lakuyana, ilo likufuma ku Cilatini ''animalis'', "cakuŵa na mpweya panji mzimu".<ref>{{cite dictionary |last=Cresswell |first=Julia |dictionary=The Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-19-954793-7 |entry=Animal |quote='having the breath of life', from anima 'air, breath, life'.}}</ref> Ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka vyamoyo likusazgapo vyose vya ufumu wa Animalia.<ref name=americanheritage_animal>{{cite dictionary |title=Animal |dictionary=The American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2006 |edition=4th}}</ref> Mu kayowoyero ka zuŵa na zuŵa, lizgu lakuti cinyama kanandi likung'anamula vinyama vyambura kuŵa ŵanthu pera.<ref>{{cite dictionary |dictionary=English Oxford Living Dictionaries |title=Animal |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/animal |access-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726233938/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/animal |archive-date=26 July 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boly |first1=Melanie |last2=Seth |first2=Anil K. |last3=Wilke |first3=Melanie |last4=Ingmundson |first4=Paul |last5=Baars |first5=Bernard |last6=Laureys |first6=Steven |last7=Edelman |first7=David |last8=Tsuchiya |first8=Naotsugu |display-authors=5 |year=2013 |title=Consciousness in humans and non-human animals: recent advances and future directions |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=4 |page=625 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00625 |pmc=3814086 |pmid=24198791 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |website=Royal Society |url=https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/publications/2004/non-human-animals/ |title=The use of non-human animals in research |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140908/https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/publications/2004/non-human-animals/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/nonhuman |title=Nonhuman |dictionary=Collins English Dictionary |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142932/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/nonhuman |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''metazoa'' likufuma ku Cigiriki ca kale μετα ''meta'' "pamanyuma" na ζῷᾰ ''zōia'' "vinyama".<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Metazoa |dictionary=Collins |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/metazoa |access-date=6 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730091429/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/metazoa |url-status=live}} and further [https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/meta meta- (sense 1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730091429/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/meta |date=30 July 2022 }} and [https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/zoa -zoa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730091429/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ko/dictionary/english/zoa |date=30 July 2022 }}.</ref> Lizgu la Citumbuka lakuti ''cinyama'' likukolerana na ''nyama''.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Metazoan |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metazoan |access-date=6 July 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706115538/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metazoan |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vimanyikwiro == [[File:Blastulation.png|thumb|Vinyama vyekha ndivyo mpira wa tumaselo wa mwana wakwamba mu nthumbo (1) ukukura kuŵa mpira wambura kanthu mukati (''blastula'') (2).]] Vinyama vili na vimanyikwiro vinandi ivyo vikugaŵana na vyamoyo vinyake. Vinyama vili na tumaselo twa mtima, tumaselo tunandi, ndipo vikupuma okisijeni, nga ni vyakumera na wowa.<ref name="Avila1995">{{cite book |last=Avila |first=Vernon L. |title=Biology: Investigating Life on Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_OOazzGefEC |year=1995 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |isbn=978-0-86720-942-6 |page=767}}</ref> Kupambana na vyakumera na koyo, ivyo vikupanga vyakulya vyawo, vinyama vingapanga vyakulya vyawo yayi, cimanyikwiro ico vikugaŵana na wowa.<ref name=AnimalCells>{{cite web |last=Davidson |first=Michael W. |title=Animal Cell Structure |url=https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html |access-date=20 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920235924/https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html |archive-date=20 September 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="palaeos">{{cite web |title=Palaeos:Metazoa |url=https://palaeos.com/metazoa/metazoa.html |website=Palaeos |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228005641/https://palaeos.com/metazoa/metazoa.html |archive-date=28 February 2018 }}</ref><ref name=Windows>{{cite web |last=Bergman |first=Jennifer |title=Heterotrophs |url=https://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Life/heterotrophs.html&edu=high |access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829051950/https://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link%3D/earth/Life/heterotrophs.html%26edu%3Dhigh |archive-date=29 August 2007 }}</ref> Vinyama vikumeza vyakupangika na vyamoyo na kuvigaya mukati.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Angela E. |last2=Raven |first2=John A. |title=Genomes at the interface between bacteria and organelles |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=358 |issue=1429 |pages=5–17 |date=January 2003 |pmid=12594915 |pmc=1693093 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1188}}</ref> === Kazengero === Vinyama vili na vimanyikwiro vya kazengero ivyo vikuvipatula na vyamoyo vinyake vyose, nga ni tumaselo kuzingilizgika na vinthu vya kuwaro kwa tumaselo ivyo vikupangika na ''collagen'' na purotini zakutambalala, kwenda kwa thupi paŵekha mu cigaŵa cinyake ca umoyo, na nyengo ya mpira wa tumaselo apo vikukura mu nthumbo.<ref name="Heino">{{cite journal |last1=Heino |first1=Jyrki |last2=Huhtala |first2=Mikko |last3=Käpylä |first3=Jarmo |last4=Johnson |first4=Mark S. |title=Evolution of collagen-based adhesion systems |journal=The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology |date=February 2009 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=341–348 |doi=10.1016/j.biocel.2008.08.021|pmid=18790075 }}</ref><ref name="Molecular Biology of the Cell">{{cite book |last1=Alberts |first1=Bruce |last2=Johnson |first2=Alexander |last3=Lewis |first3=Julian |last4=Raff |first4=Martin |last5=Roberts |first5=Keith |last6=Walter |first6=Peter |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |year=2002 |publisher=Garland Science |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26810/ |isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3 |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223074013/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26810/ |archive-date=23 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Heino" /><ref name="Molecular Biology of the Cell" /><ref name="Concepts">{{cite web |url=https://employees.csbsju.edu/SSAUPE/biol116/Zoology/digestion.htm |last=Saupe |first=S. G. |title=Concepts of Biology |access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121084100/https://employees.csbsju.edu/SSAUPE/biol116/Zoology/digestion.htm |archive-date=21 November 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Minkoff 2008 48">{{cite book |last=Minkoff |first=Eli C. |title=Barron's EZ-101 Study Keys Series: Biology |year=2008 |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |isbn=978-0-7641-3920-8 |edition=2nd, revised |page=48}}</ref> Kanandi, pali cigaŵa ca mukati ca kugayira vyakulya ico cili na mlomo umoza (mu Ctenophora, Cnidaria, na mphutsi zinyake zapapata) panji milomo yiŵiri (mu vinandi vya Bilateria).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillmer |first1=Gero |last2=Lehmann |first2=Ulrich |translator-first=J. |translator-last=Lettau |title=Fossil Invertebrates |year=1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |isbn=978-0-521-27028-1 |page=54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jE4AAAAIAAJ |access-date=8 January 2016}}</ref> === Kukura === Kukura mu Bilateria na Cnidaria kukulongozgeka na vyakuhara vya Hox, ivyo vikulongora nyengo na malo gha kupanga vigaŵa nga ni vigaŵa vya thupi na mawoko na malundi.<ref name="Ryan Mazza Pang 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Joseph F. |last2=Mazza |first2=Maureen E. |last3=Pang |first3=Kevin |last4=Matus |first4=David Q. |last5=Baxevanis |first5=Andreas D. |last6=Martindale |first6=Mark Q. |last7=Finnerty |first7=John R. |title=Pre-Bilaterian Origins of the Hox Cluster and the Hox Code: Evidence from the Sea Anemone, Nematostella vectensis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=1 |date=24 January 2007 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000153 |doi-access=free |article-number=e153|pmid=17252055 |pmc=1779807 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..153R }}</ref><ref name="de Rosa Grenier Andreeva 1999">{{cite journal |last1=de Rosa |first1=Renaud |last2=Grenier |first2=Jennifer K. |last3=Andreeva |first3=Tatiana |last4=Cook |first4=Charles E. |last5=Adoutte |first5=André |last6=Akam |first6=Michael |last7=Carroll |first7=Sean B. |last8=Balavoine |first8=Guillaume |title=Hox genes in brachiopods and priapulids and protostome evolution |journal=Nature |volume=399 |issue=6738 |date=1999 |doi=10.1038/21631 |pages=772–776|pmid=10391241 |bibcode=1999Natur.399..772D }}</ref> Apo vikukura, vinthu vya kuwaro kwa tumaselo vya vinyama vikupanga cizengo cakupindika ico tumaselo tungendapo na kunozgeka so kuŵa vigaŵa na viŵaro vyapadera, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kupangika kwa vigaŵa vyakusuzga na tumaselo kupambana.<ref name="Minkoff 2008 48"/> Vinthu ivi vingakhwima na kalisiyamu, kupanga vigaŵa nga ni vikoko, viwanga, na minga yicoko.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sangwal |first=Keshra |title=Additives and crystallization processes: from fundamentals to applications |url=https://archive.org/details/additivescrystal00sang |url-access=limited |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-06153-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/additivescrystal00sang/page/n228 212]}}</ref> Kweni tumaselo twa vyamoyo vinyake vya tumaselo tunandi (comene vyakumera vya mu maji, vyakumera, na wowa) tukukhazgika na vikopa vya kaselo, ntheura vikukura mwa kusazgikira pacoko pacoko.<ref>{{cite book |last=Becker |first=Wayne M. |title=The world of the cell |year=1991 |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |isbn=978-0-8053-0870-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofcell00beck_0}}</ref> === Kuŵaba === [[File:Odonata copulation.jpg|thumb|Kuswana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kuli pafupifupi mu vinyama vyose, nga ni ŵakhulukuska aŵa.]] Pafupifupi vinyama vyose vikugwiliskira ntchito kuŵaba mwa kugonana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knobil |first=Ernst |title=Encyclopedia of reproduction |volume=1 |year=1998 |publisher=Academic |isbn=978-0-12-227020-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_f1r2/page/315 315] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_f1r2/page/315}}</ref> Vikupanga tumaselo twa kuŵabira; tucoko twakwenda ni twa ŵanalume ndipo tukulu twambura kwenda ni masumbi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Jill |title=Master the GED 2011 |year=2010 |publisher=Peterson's |isbn=978-0-7689-2885-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/petersonsmasterg0000stew_x3f1/page/371 371] |url=https://archive.org/details/petersonsmasterg0000stew_x3f1/page/371}}</ref> Ivi vikusazganika kupanga kaselo kamoza, ako kakukura mwa kugaŵika kuŵa mpira wa tumaselo wambura kanthu mukati.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Matthew B. |title=Population genetics |url=https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami |url-access=limited |year=2009 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-3277-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami/page/n69 55]}}</ref> Mu vinyama vya mtundu wa ''sponge'', ŵana ŵakusambira kuya ku malo ghaphya, ŵakukakatira pasi pa mbwani, na kukura kuŵa ''sponge'' liphya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ville |first1=Claude Alvin |last2=Walker |first2=Warren Franklin |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |title=General zoology |year=1984 |publisher=Saunders College |isbn=978-0-03-062451-3 |page=467}}</ref> Mu magulu ghanyake ghanandi, mpira uwu ukunozgeka mwakusuzga comene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=William James |last2=Boyd |first2=James Dixon |last3=Mossman |first3=Harland Winfield |title=Human embryology: (prenatal development of form and function) |year=1945 |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |page=330}}</ref> Pakwamba ukunjira mukati kupanga cigaŵa ca kugayira na vigaŵa viŵiri vya tumaselo, ca kuwaro na ca mukati.<ref>{{cite book |last=Philips |first=Joy B. |title=Development of vertebrate anatomy |year=1975 |publisher=Mosby |isbn=978-0-8016-3927-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/developmentofver0000phil/page/176 176] |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofver0000phil/page/176}}</ref> Kanandi, cigaŵa cacitatu cikukura pakati pawo.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia Americana |volume=10 |year=1918 |page=281}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivi pamanyuma vikupambana kupanga vigaŵa vya thupi na viŵaro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Romoser |first1=William S. |author-link1=William S. Romoser |last2=Stoffolano |first2=J. G. |title=The Science of Entomology |year=1998 |publisher=WCB McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-697-22848-2 |page=156}}</ref> Kutorana kanandi na ŵabali ŵapafupi kukupangiska kunangika kwa mbumba cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vimanyikwiro viheni vyakuharika.<ref name="pmid19834483">{{cite journal |last1=Charlesworth |first1=D. |last2=Willis |first2=J. H. |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–796 |year=2009 |pmid=19834483 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |s2cid=771357}}</ref><ref name="pmid3324702">{{cite book |last1=Bernstein |first1=H. |last2=Hopf |first2=F. A. |last3=Michod |first3=R. E. |chapter=The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex |title=Molecular Genetics of Development |series=Advances in Genetics |volume=24 |pages=323–370 |year=1987 |pmid=3324702 |doi=10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7 |isbn=978-0-12-017624-3}}</ref> Vinyama vyapanga nthowa zinandi za kugega kutorana na ŵabali ŵapafupi.<ref name=Pusey>{{cite journal |last1=Pusey |first1=Anne |last2=Wolf |first2=Marisa |title=Inbreeding avoidance in animals |journal=Trends Ecol. Evol. |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=201–206 |year=1996 |pmid=21237809 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(96)10028-8 |bibcode=1996TEcoE..11..201P}}</ref> Vinyama vinyake vingaŵaba kwambura kugonana, ndipo ici kanandi cikupanga ŵana ŵakuyana ndendende na mupapi. Ici cingacitika mwa kuphwanyika; kumera kwa cigaŵa ciphya, nga ni mu Hydra na vinyake; panji kubaba kwambura kutorana, nga ni mu vibenene vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adiyodi |first1=K. G. |title=Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates|last2=Hughes |first2=Roger N. |last3=Adiyodi |first3=Rita G. |date=July 2002 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-48968-9 |volume=11, Progress in Asexual Reproduction|page=116}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Schatz |first1=Phil |title=Concepts of Biology: How Animals Reproduce |url=https://philschatz.com/biology-concepts-book/contents/m45547.html |publisher=OpenStax College |access-date=5 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306022745/https://philschatz.com/biology-concepts-book/contents/m45547.html |archive-date=6 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Malo gha Vyamoyo == [[File:Ultramarine Flycatcher (Ficedula superciliaris) Naggar, Himachal Pradesh, 2013 (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright|Vyakusaka, nga ni kayuni aka ka ''Ficedula superciliaris'', vikulya vinyama vinyake.]] Vinyama vikugaŵika mu magulu kuyana na umo vikuryera. Magulu agha ni vyakurya nyama (vyakugaŵika so nga ni vyakurya somba, vyakurya vibenene, vyakurya masumbi, na vinyake), vyakurya vyakumera (vyakurya mahamba, utheka, vipambi, mbuto, uchi wa maluŵa, na vinyake), vyakurya vyose, vyakurya wowa, vyakurya vyakufwa, na vyakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marchetti |first1=Mauro |last2=Rivas |first2=Victoria |title=Geomorphology and environmental impact assessment |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-90-5809-344-8 |page=84}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Charles K. |title=Elements of Biology |year=1973 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |isbn=978-0-390-55627-1 |page=108}}</ref> Ubale pakati pa vinyama vya malo ghaliwose ukupanga minjololo ya vyakulya yakusuzga. Mu vinyama vyakurya nyama panji vyakurya vyose, kusaka ni ubale umo cinyama cimoza cikurya cinyake, ndipo cinyama ico cikusakika kanandi cikusintha kuti cileke kuryeka.<ref name="Ecology">{{cite book |last1=Begon |first1=M. |last2=Townsend |first2=C. |last3=Harper |first3=J. |date=1996 |title=Ecology: Individuals, populations and communities |edition=3rd |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-86542-845-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/ecology00mich}}</ref> Kukakizgana uku kukupangiska mphikizgano ya kusintha pakati pa cakusaka na cakusakika.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Larry Glen |last2=Pondella |first2=Daniel J. |last3=Horn |first3=Michael H. |title=Ecology of marine fishes: California and adjacent waters |year=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24653-9 |page=428}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Caro |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Caro |title=Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals |year=2005 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |pages=1–6 and passim}}</ref> Pafupifupi vyakusaka vyose vya tumaselo tunandi ni vinyama.<ref name="SimpsonCB">{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Alastair G. B. |last2=Roger |first2=Andrew J. |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2004.08.038 |pmid=15341755 |title=The real 'kingdoms' of eukaryotes |journal=Current Biology |volume=14 |issue=17 |pages=R693–R696 |year=2004 |s2cid=207051421 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004CBio...14.R693S}}</ref> Vinyama vinyake vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinandi; mwaciyelezgero, mu ŵasanganavu ŵanyake, ŵana ŵakurya mnofu wamoyo wa cinyama cinyake na kucikoma, kweni ŵakulu ŵakurya uchi wa maluŵa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Alison N. P. |title=Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |year=2010 |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=36 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/predation-herbivory-and-parasitism-13261134 |access-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930230324/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/predation-herbivory-and-parasitism-13261134 |archive-date=30 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jervis |first1=M. A. |last2=Kidd |first2=N. A. C. |date=November 1986 |title=Host-Feeding Strategies in Hymenopteran Parasitoids |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=395–434 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185x.1986.tb00660.x |s2cid=84430254}}</ref> Vinyama vinyake vili na nkhalo yapadera comene ya kurya, nga ni fulu za mbwani zinyake izo zikurya comene ''sponge''.<ref name="ScienceSpongi">{{cite journal |last=Meylan |first=Anne |title=Spongivory in Hawksbill Turtles: A Diet of Glass |journal=Science |volume=239 |issue=4838 |pages=393–395 |date=22 January 1988 |doi=10.1126/science.239.4838.393 |pmid=17836872 |jstor=1700236 |bibcode=1988Sci...239..393M |s2cid=22971831}}</ref> [[File:Expl0072 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|Vinyama vya mu cikopa (''mussel'') na tunkhanu twa mu mbwani pa malo apo maji ghakufunda comene ghakufuma pasi pa mbwani]] Vinyama vinandi vikuthemba vyamoyo na nkhongono izo vyakumera na koyo (ivyo vikuchemeka ŵakupanga) vikupanga kwizira mu usanisinuru. Vyakurya vyakumera, nga ni ŵakurya ŵakwamba, vikurya vyakumera mwakulunjika, apo vyakurya nyama na vinyama vinyake vikusanga vyakulya mwambura kulunjika mwa kurya vyakurya vyakumera panji vinyama ivyo vyarya vyakurya vyakumera. Vinyama vikotcha shuga, mafuta, purotini, na vinyake mu kupuma kwa tumaselo, ndipo ici cikuvizomerezga kukura na kusunga umoyo na kwenda.<ref>{{cite book |title=Understanding Science: Upper Primary |last=Clutterbuck |first=Peter |year=2000 |publisher=Blake |isbn=978-1-86509-170-9 |page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Garrett |first1=Reginald |last2=Grisham |first2=Charles M. |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry00rhga |url-access=limited |year=2010 |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-0-495-10935-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biochemistry00rhga/page/n572 535]}}</ref> Pa matani mabiliyoni 550 gha kaboni ya vyamoyo pa caro capasi, vinyama ni mabiliyoni 2.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bar-On |first1=Yinon M. |last2=Philips |first2=Rob |last3=Milo |first3=Ron |date=2017 |title=The biomass distribution on Earth |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=25 |pages=6506–6511 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115 |doi-access=free |pmid=29784790 |pmc=6016768 }}</ref> Vinyama vinyake ivyo vikukhala pasi pa mbwani pafupi na malo gha maji ghakotcha vikurya vyakupangika na mabakiteriya kwizira mu usungunu.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Castro |first1=Peter |last2=Huber |first2=Michael E. |title=Marine Biology |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2007 |edition=7th |page=376 |isbn=978-0-07-722124-9}}</ref> Vinyama vikafuma mu mbwani; magulu ghose gha vinyama agho ghaliko, kupatula ghaŵiri, ghali na mitundu yinyake ya mu mbwani. Kweni magulu ghanyake gha vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo ghakamba kukhala pa mtunda pa nyengo yeneyiyo na vyakumera vya pa mtunda, pakati pa vyaka miliyoni 510 na 471 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Rota-Stabelli2013">{{cite journal |last1=Rota-Stabelli |first1=Omar |last2=Daley |first2=Allison C. |last3=Pisani |first3=Davide |title=Molecular Timetrees Reveal a Cambrian Colonization of Land and a New Scenario for Ecdysozoan Evolution |journal=Current Biology |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=392–398 |year=2013 |doi-access=free |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.026 |pmid=23375891 |bibcode=2013CBio...23..392R}}</ref> Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana nga ni somba ya Tiktaalik vikamba kwenda pa mtunda pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 375 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daeschler |first1=Edward B. |last2=Shubin |first2=Neil H. |last3=Jenkins |first3=Farish A. Jr. |title=A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan |journal=Nature |volume=440 |pages=757–763 |date=6 April 2006 |doi=10.1038/nature04639 |pmid=16598249 |issue=7085 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..757D |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Jennifer A. Clack |last=Clack |first=Jennifer A. |journal=Scientific American |volume=293 |issue=6 |pages=100–107 |title=Getting a Leg Up on Land |date=21 November 2005 |bibcode=2005SciAm.293f.100C |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1205-100 |pmid=16323697}}</ref> Vinyama vikukhala pafupifupi mu malo ghose gha caro capasi, mu maji gha mcere, malo gha maji ghakotcha, maji ghawemi, vithaphwi, nkholongo, madimba gha utheka, vipalamba, mu mphepo, na mukati mwa vyamoyo vinyake.<ref name="Margulis">{{cite book |last=Margulis |first=Lynn |author1-link=Lynn Margulis |author2=Schwartz, Karlene V. |author3=Dolan, Michael |title=Diversity of Life: The Illustrated Guide to the Five Kingdoms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wJXWBMsEOkC |year=1999 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |isbn=978-0-7637-0862-7 |pages=115–116}}</ref> Kweni vinyama vikuzizipizga comene kufunda yayi; vicoko comene ndivyo vingapona pa kufunda kwakujumpha 50 °C nyengo zose panji mu vipalamba vyakuzizima comene gha Antarctica.<ref name="Clarke2014">{{cite journal |last=Clarke |first=Andrew |title=The thermal limits to life on Earth |journal=International Journal of Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=141–154 |year=2014 |bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..141C |url=https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/507274/1/Clarke.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424155004/https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/507274/1/Clarke.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live |doi=10.1017/S1473550413000438 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="bas-land">{{cite web |title=Land animals |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/land-animals/ |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106225451/https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/land-animals/ |archive-date=6 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kukhwaska kwa vinyama pa kusintha kwa pacanya pa caro capasi kundasandike makola, ndipo kusanda kunandi kwalaŵiska mitundu yinyake pera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=Gemma L. |last2=Khan |first2=Zareena |last3=Albertson |first3=Lindsey K. |last4=Coombes |first4=Martin |last5=Johnson |first5=Matthew F. |last6=Rice |first6=Stephen P. |last7=Viles |first7=Heather A. |date=2025-02-25 |title=Global diversity and energy of animals shaping the Earth's surface |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=122 |issue=8 |article-number=e2415104122 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2415104122 |doi-access=free |pmid=39964729|pmc=11874378 |bibcode=2025PNAS..12215104H }}</ref> == Kupambanapambana == === Ukulu === Nyamumba wa buluu ndiyo cinyama cikulu comene ico cindaŵeko, ca kuzitika mpaka matani 190 na utali mpaka mamita 33.6.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |location=Enfield, Middlesex}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Davies |first1=Ella |title=The longest animal alive may be one you never thought of |url=https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160420-the-longest-animal-alive-may-not-be-the-blue-whale |work=BBC Earth |access-date=1 March 2018 |date=20 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319073808/https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160420-the-longest-animal-alive-may-not-be-the-blue-whale |archive-date=19 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cinyama cikulu comene ca pa mtunda ico cicalipo ni zgovu ya Afilika, ya kuzitika mpaka matani 12.25 na utali mpaka mamita 10.67.<ref name="Wood"/><ref name=Wood/> Vinyama vikulu comene vya pa mtunda ivyo vindaŵeko vikaŵa ma''dinosaur'' nga ni Argentinosaurus, iyo yingaŵa kuti yikazitika matani 73, na Supersaurus iyo yingaŵa kuti yikafika mamita 39.<ref name="Mazzettaetal2004">{{cite journal |last1=Mazzetta |first1=Gerardo V. |last2=Christiansen |first2=Per |last3=Fariña |first3=Richard A. |year=2004 |title=Giants and Bizarres: Body Size of Some Southern South American Cretaceous Dinosaurs |journal=Historical Biology |volume=16 |issue=2–4 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/08912960410001715132 |bibcode=2004HBio...16...71M |s2cid=56028251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |last=Curtice |first=Brian |year=2020 |conference=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology |url=https://vertpaleo.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/SVP_2021_VirtualBook_final.pdf#page=92 |title=Dinosaur Systematics, Diversity, & Biology |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019192436/https://vertpaleo.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/SVP_2021_VirtualBook_final.pdf#page=92 |url-status=live |page=92}}</ref> Vinyama vinyake ni vicoko comene mwakuti vingawoneka na maso yayi; vinyake vya Myxozoa vikukura kujumpha mikulomita 20 yayi, ndipo cimoza mwa vicoko comene (Myxobolus szekeli) nchambura kujumpha mikulomita 8.5 para cakura.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tolweb.org/Myxozoa/2460/2008.07.10 |title=Myxozoa |last=Fiala |first=Ivan |date=10 July 2008 |publisher=Tree of Life Web Project |access-date=4 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301225416/https://tolweb.org/Myxozoa/2460/2008.07.10 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaur |first1=H. |last2=Singh |first2=R. |title=Two new species of Myxobolus (Myxozoa: Myxosporea: Bivalvulida) infecting an Indian major carp and a cat fish in wetlands of Punjab, India |pmc=3235390 |pmid=23024499 |doi=10.1007/s12639-011-0061-4 |volume=35 |issue=2 |year=2011 |journal=Journal of Parasitic Diseases |pages=169–176}}</ref> === Unandi na Malo gha Magulu Ghakulu === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="220" heights="160"> File:Anim1754 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library (1).jpg|Nyamumba wa buluu ndiyo cinyama cikulu comene ico cindaŵeko; ungafika utali wa {{convert|33.6|m|ft}}. File:Fdl17-9-grey.jpg|Myxozoa nga ni ''Myxobolus cerebralis'' ni vyakuthemba vinyake vya kaselo kamoza, ivyo nkhanira vikujumpha 20 μm. </gallery> Unandi wa mitundu iyo yalongosoreka ukuthemba iyo ŵasandi ŵalongosora; ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵapima manambala ghakulu comene mwa nthowa zakupambana, ndipo ghangapambana comene.<ref name="Zhang2013">{{cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Zhi-Qiang |title=Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013 |publisher=Magnolia Press |journal=Zootaxa |volume=3703 |issue=1 |date=30 August 2013 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3 |url=https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273 |page=5 |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424154926/https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273 |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Balian2008>{{cite book |last1=Balian |first1=E. V. |last2=Lévêque |first2=C. |last3=Segers |first3=H. |first4=K. |last4=Martens |title=Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw4H6DBHnAgC |year=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8259-7 |page=628}}</ref><ref name="Hogenboom2016">{{cite web |last1=Hogenboom |first1=Melissa |title=There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150325-all-animal-life-in-35-photos |publisher=BBC Earth |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810141811/https://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150325-all-animal-life-in-35-photos |archive-date=10 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Poulin2007>{{cite book |last=Poulin |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Poulin (zoologist) |title=Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-691-12085-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionaryecol0000poul/page/6 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionaryecol0000poul/page/6}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mitundu ya mphutsi za ''nematode'' pafupifupi 25,000–27,000 yalongosoreka, apo ŵasandi ŵapima kuti unandi wose ungaŵa 10,000–20,000; 500,000; miliyoni 10; panji miliyoni 100.<ref name=Felder2009>{{cite book |last1=Felder |first1=Darryl L. |last2=Camp |first2=David K. |title=Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CphA8hiwaFIC |year=2009 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-60344-269-5 |page=1111}}</ref> Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za kagaŵiro, unandi wose wa mitundu ya vinyama, kusazgapo iyo yindalongosoreke, ukapimika kuŵa pafupifupi miliyoni 7.77 mu 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110823180459.htm |access-date=2 March 2018 |date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701164954/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110823180459.htm |archive-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Mora2011">{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Camilo |last2=Tittensor |first2=Derek P. |last3=Adl |first3=Sina |last4=Simpson |first4=Alastair G. B. |last5=Worm |first5=Boris |editor-last=Mace |editor-first=Georgina M. |title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=9 |issue=8 |date=23 August 2011 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |article-number=e1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{efn|Kugwiliskira ntchito DNA kuti mitundu yimanyikwe kukusuzga comene nkhani iyi; kusanda kwa mu 2016 kukapima kuti ku Canada pera kuli mitundu ya tuvyamoyo pafupifupi 100,000, ndipo kukaghanaghanira kuti pa caro cose pangaŵa mitundu yakujumpha miliyoni 10, apo pafupifupi miliyoni 2 yili mu mbumba yimoza ya tumembe (Cecidomyiidae).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hebert |first1=Paul D. N. |last2=Ratnasingham |first2=Sujeevan |last3=Zakharov |first3=Evgeny V. |last4=Telfer |first4=Angela C. |last5=Levesque-Beaudin |first5=Valerie |last6=Milton |first6=Megan A. |last7=Pedersen |first7=Stephanie |last8=Jannetta |first8=Paul |last9=deWaard |first9=Jeremy R. |display-authors=5 |title=Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=1 August 2016 |volume=371 |issue=1702 |article-number=20150333 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0333 |pmid=27481785 |pmc=4971185}}</ref>}} == Kwambilira mu Kusintha == Mafosilo ghakwamba gha thupi la vinyama ghakuwoneka mu Ediacaran, nga ni Charnia na Spriggina. Kwa nyengo yitali ŵakakayikiranga usange mafosilo agha ni vinyama nadi, kweni kusangika kwa mafuta gha vinyama gha ''cholesterol'' mu mafosilo gha Dickinsonia kukulongora kuti ni vinyama.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Bing |last2=Dong |first2=Lin |last3=Xiao |first3=Shuhai |last4=Kowalewski |first4=Michał |year=2008 |title=The Avalon Explosion: Evolution of Ediacara Morphospace |journal=Science |volume=319 |issue=5859 |pages=81–84 |doi=10.1126/science.1150279 |pmid=18174439 |bibcode=2008Sci...319...81S |s2cid=206509488}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Late Ediacaran trackways produced by bilaterian animals with paired appendages |first1=Zhe |last1=Chen |first2=Xiang |last2=Chen |first3=Chuanming |last3=Zhou |first4=Xunlai |last4=Yuan |first5=Shuhai |last5=Xiao |date=1 June 2018 |journal=Science Advances |volume=4 |issue=6 |article-number=eaao6691 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aao6691 |pmid=29881773 |pmc=5990303 |bibcode=2018SciA....4.6691C}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schopf |first=J. William |title=Evolution!: facts and fallacies |year=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-628860-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionfactsfa0000unse/page/7 7] |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionfactsfa0000unse/page/7}}</ref><ref name="Bobrovskiy Hope Ivantsov Nettersheim pp. 1246–1249"/> Vinyama vikughanaghanirika kuti vikamba mu malo gha okisijeni yicoko, ntheura vingaŵa kuti vikakhalanga kwambura okisijeni, kweni apo vikasintha kugwiliskira ntchito okisijeni, vikamba kuyithemba yose.<ref name="Zimorski2019">{{cite journal |last1=Zimorski |first1=Verena |last2=Mentel |first2=Marek |last3=Tielens |first3=Aloysius G. M. |last4=Martin |first4=William F. |title=Energy metabolism in anaerobic eukaryotes and Earth's late oxygenation |journal=Free Radical Biology and Medicine |volume=140 |pages=279–294 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.03.030 |pmid=30935869 |pmc=6856725}}</ref> Magulu ghanandi gha vinyama ghakuwoneka dankha mu mafosilo pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, kwamba pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 539 ivyo vyajumpha, mu malibwe nga ni Burgess Shale.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stratigraphic Chart 2022 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf |publisher=International Stratigraphic Commission |date=February 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402100018/https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Magulu agho ghacalipo mu malibwe agha ni nkhono na ŵabali ŵawo, vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo, nyenyezi za mbwani, na vinyake, pamoza na vinyama vinandi ivyo vyamalira nga ni Anomalocaris iyo yikasakanga. Kweni kuwoneka kwa luŵiro uku kungaŵa cifukwa ca umo mafosilo ghakusungikira, m'malo mwa kulongora kuti vinyama vyose ivi vikawoneka pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maloof |first1=A. C. |last2=Porter |first2=S. M. |last3=Moore |first3=J. L. |last4=Dudas |first4=F. O. |last5=Bowring |first5=S. A. |last6=Higgins |first6=J. A. |last7=Fike |first7=D. A. |last8=Eddy |first8=M. P. |s2cid=6694681 |title=The earliest Cambrian record of animals and ocean geochemical change |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |year=2010 |volume=122 |issue=11–12 |pages=1731–1774 |doi=10.1130/B30346.1 |bibcode=2010GSAB..122.1731M}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Timeline for Appearances of Skeletal Animals in Fossil Record Developed by UCSB Researchers |url=https://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?pkey=2364 |publisher=The Regents of the University of California |access-date=1 September 2014 |date=10 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903062054/https://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?pkey=2364 |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Conway-Morris |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Conway Morris |title=The Cambrian "explosion" of metazoans and molecular biology: would Darwin be satisfied? |journal=The International Journal of Developmental Biology |year=2003 |volume=47 |issue=7–8 |pages=505–515 |doi=10.1387/ijdb.14756326 |pmid=14756326 |url=https://ijdb.ehu.eus/article/pdf/14756326 |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202091416/https://ijdb.ehu.eus/article/pdf/14756326 |archive-date=2 December 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morris |first1=Simon Conway |author-link=Simon Conway Morris |title=Darwin's dilemma: the realities of the Cambrian 'explosion'. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |date=29 June 2006 |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=1069–83 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1846 |pmid=16754615 |pmc=1578734}}</ref><ref name="Royal Ontario Museum">{{cite web |title=The Tree of Life |url=https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/science/origin/01-life-tree.php |website=The Burgess Shale |publisher=Royal Ontario Museum |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216054845/https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/science/origin/01-life-tree.php |archive-date=16 February 2018 |date=10 June 2011}}</ref> Ghanoghano ili likukhozgeka na kusangika kwa Auroralumina attenboroughii, cinyama ca Cnidaria cakwamba cakumanyikwa ca Ediacaran (vyaka miliyoni 557–562 ivyo vyajumpha, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 20 pambere pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian) ku Charnwood Forest, mu Ungelezi. Cikughanaghanirika kuŵa cimoza mwa vinyama vyakwamba vyakusaka, cikukora vinyama vicoko na minga yake.<ref name="Dunn Kenchington Parry Clark 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=F. S. |last2=Kenchington |first2=C. G. |last3=Parry |first3=L. A. |last4=Clark |first4=J. W. |last5=Kendall |first5=R. S. |last6=Wilby |first6=P. R. |title=A crown-group cnidarian from the Ediacaran of Charnwood Forest, UK |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=25 July 2022 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=1095–1104 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01807-x |pmid=35879540 |pmc=9349040 |bibcode=2022NatEE...6.1095D}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mafosilo ŵakuti vinyama vikawoneka kale comene pambere pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, panyake vyaka biliyoni yimoza ivyo vyajumpha. Mafosilo ghakwamba agho ghangaŵa gha vinyama ghakuwoneka mwaciyelezgero mu malibwe gha vyaka miliyoni 665 mu South Australia, ndipo ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa ma''sponge'' ghakwamba. Vimanyikwiro nga ni mayendero na maboŵa ivyo vyasangika mu nyengo ya Tonian (kufuma vyaka biliyoni 1 ivyo vyajumpha) vingalongora kuŵapo kwa vinyama vya mtundu wa mphutsi, vya ukulu nga ni mphutsi za pasi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |last2=Reece |first2=Jane B. |title=Biology |year=2005 |publisher=Pearson, Benjamin Cummings |isbn=978-0-8053-7171-0 |edition=7th |page=526}}</ref> Kweni mayendero ghakuyana ghakupangika na cinthu cikulu ca kaselo kamoza, Gromia sphaerica, ntheura vimanyikwiro ivi vingalongora vinyama vyakwamba yayi.<ref name=roseMaloof>{{cite journal |title=Possible animal-body fossils in pre-Marinoan limestones from South Australia |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=3 |pages=653–659 |date=17 August 2010 |doi=10.1038/ngeo934 |issue=9 |bibcode=2010NatGe...3..653M |last1=Maloof |first1=Adam C. |last2=Rose |first2=Catherine V. |last3=Beach |first3=Robert |last4=Samuels |first4=Bradley M. |last5=Calmet |first5=Claire C. |last6=Erwin |first6=Douglas H. |last7=Poirier |first7=Gerald R. |last8=Yao |first8=Nan |last9=Simons |first9=Frederik J.}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mphasa za tuvinyama tucoko comene zikacepa, panyake cifukwa ca kuryeka na vinyama viphya.<ref name=Seilacher1998>{{cite journal |last1=Seilacher |first1=Adolf |author1-link=Adolf Seilacher |last2=Bose |first2=Pradip K. |last3=Pfluger |first3=Friedrich |title=Triploblastic animals more than 1 billion years ago: trace fossil evidence from india |journal=Science |volume=282 |pages=80–83 |date=2 October 1998 |doi=10.1126/science.282.5386.80 |pmid=9756480 |issue=5386 |bibcode=1998Sci...282...80S}}</ref><ref name=Matz2008>{{cite journal |last1=Matz |first1=Mikhail V. |last2=Frank |first2=Tamara M. |last3=Marshall |first3=N. Justin |last4=Widder |first4=Edith A. |last5=Johnsen |first5=Sönke |title=Giant Deep-Sea Protist Produces Bilaterian-like Traces |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=23 |pages=1849–54 |date=9 December 2008 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.028 |pmid=19026540 |s2cid=8819675 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18.1849M}}</ref><ref name=MSNBC200811>{{cite news |last=Reilly |first=Michael |title=Single-celled giant upends early evolution |newspaper=NBC News |date=20 November 2008 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27827279 |access-date=5 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329062924/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/27827279/ |archive-date=29 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake vya usungunu ivyo kanandi vikulongora ma''sponge'' vikusangika kufuma pakumalira kwa Cryogenian, kweni vingapangika so na vyamoyo vinyake.<ref name="Bengtson2002OriginsOfPredation">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bengtson |first=S. |year=2002 |chapter=Origins and early evolution of predation |encyclopedia=The Paleontological Society Papers |volume=8 |title=The fossil record of predation |editor-last=Kowalewski |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Kelley |editor-first2=P. H. |pages=289–317 |publisher=The Paleontological Society |chapter-url=https://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021552/Bengtson2002predation.pdf |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=30 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030140248/https://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021552/Bengtson2002predation.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Vinthu nga ni mathumbu ghakuzura dongo agho ghakuyana na maboŵa gha vinyama vya mtundu wa mphutsi ghasangika mu malibwe gha vyaka biliyoni 1.2 mu Amerika ya Kumpoto, biliyoni 1.5 mu Australia na Amerika ya Kumpoto, na biliyoni 1.7 mu Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nettersheim |first=Benjamin J. |last2=Brocks |first2=Jochen J. |last3=Schwelm |first3=Arne |last4=Hope |first4=Janet M. |last5=Not |first5=Fabrice |last6=Lomas |first6=Michael |last7=Schmidt |first7=Christiane |last8=Schiebel |first8=Ralf |last9=Nowack |first9=Eva C. M. |last10=De Deckker |first10=Patrick |last11=Pawlowski |first11=Jan |last12=Bowser |first12=Samuel S. |last13=Bobrovskiy |first13=Ilya |last14=Zonneveld |first14=Karin |last15=Kucera |first15=Michal |date=4 March 2019 |title=Putative sponge biomarkers in unicellular Rhizaria question an early rise of animals |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0806-5 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=577–581 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0806-5}}</ref> Kuti ghakufuma ku vinyama nkhwambura kuzomerezgeka na wose.<ref name="Seilacher 20072">{{cite book |last=Seilacher |first=Adolf |author-link=Adolf Seilacher |title=Trace fossil analysis |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-47226-1 |publication-place=Berlin |pages=176–177 |oclc=191467085}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Breyer |first=J. A. |year=1995 |title=Possible new evidence for the origin of metazoans prior to 1 Ga: Sediment-filled tubes from the Mesoproterozoic Allamoore Formation, Trans-Pecos Texas |journal=Geology |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=269–272 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0269:PNEFTO>2.3.CO;2 |bibcode=1995Geo....23..269B}}</ref> == Mbumba ya Vinyama == === Mbumba ya Kuwaro === Vinyama vikafuma ku cinyama cimoza ca kale. Vinyama ni ŵabali ŵapafupi ŵa ''choanoflagellate'', ndipo pamoza vikupanga Choanozoa. <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="220" heights="160"> File:DickinsoniaCostata.jpg|''Dickinsonia costata'' ya mu nyengo ya Ediacaran ({{circa}} vyaka miliyoni 635–542 ivyo vyajumpha) ni umoza mwa mitundu yakwamba ya vinyama iyo yikumanyikwa.<ref name="Bobrovskiy Hope Ivantsov Nettersheim pp. 1246–1249">{{cite journal |last1=Bobrovskiy |first1=Ilya |last2=Hope |first2=Janet M. |last3=Ivantsov |first3=Andrey |last4=Nettersheim |first4=Benjamin J. |last5=Hallmann |first5=Christian |last6=Brocks |first6=Jochen J. |title=Ancient steroids establish the Ediacaran fossil Dickinsonia as one of the earliest animals |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6408 |date=20 September 2018 |doi=10.1126/science.aat7228 |pmid=30237355 |pages=1246–1249 |bibcode=2018Sci...361.1246B |doi-access=free}}</ref> File:Auroralumina attenboroughii reconstruction.jpg|''Auroralumina attenboroughii'', cakusaka ca nyengo ya Ediacaran ({{circa}} vyaka miliyoni 560 ivyo vyajumpha)<ref name="Dunn Kenchington Parry Clark 2022" /> File:20191203 Anomalocaris canadensis.png|''Anomalocaris canadensis'' ni umoza mwa mitundu yinandi ya vinyama iyo yikawoneka pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, kwamba pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 539 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo yikusangika mu mafosilo gha Burgess Shale. </gallery> Ros-Rocher na ŵanyake (2021) ŵakulondezga kwambilira kwa vinyama ku vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza.<ref name="Budd2015">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/brv.12239 |pmid=26588818 |title=The origin of the animals and a 'Savannah' hypothesis for early bilaterian evolution |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=446–473 |year=2017 |last1=Budd |first1=Graham E. |last2=Jensen |first2=Sören |doi-access=free|hdl=10662/8091 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Gulu la vinyama likaŵako pofika vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo lingaŵa kuti likamba vyaka miliyoni 800 ivyo vyajumpha, kuyana na ukaboni wa vyakuhara.<ref name="Ros-Rocher Pérez-Posada Leger Ruiz-Trillo 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Ros-Rocher |first1=Núria |last2=Pérez-Posada |first2=Alberto |last3=Leger |first3=Michelle M. |last4=Ruiz-Trillo |first4=Iñaki |title=The origin of animals: an ancestral reconstruction of the unicellular-to-multicellular transition |journal=Open Biology |publisher=The Royal Society |volume=11 |issue=2 |year=2021 |article-number=200359 |doi=10.1098/rsob.200359 |doi-access=free|pmid=33622103 |pmc=8061703}}</ref> === Mbumba ya Mukati === {{Clade |style=font-size:100%; line-height:100% |label1=Opisthokonta |sublabel1= |1={{Clade |1=Holomycota (kusazgapo bowa) [[File:Asco1013.jpg|60 px]] |label2=Holozoa |sublabel2= |2={{Clade |state=dashed |1=Ichthyosporea [[File:Abeoforma whisleri-2.jpg|50 px]] |2=Pluriformea [[File:Corallochytrium limacisporum.png|50 px]] |label3=Filozoa |3={{Clade |1=Filasterea [[File:Ministeria vibrans.jpeg|60 px]] |label2=Choanozoa |sublabel2= |2={{Clade |label1=Choanoflagellatea |1=[[File:Desmarella moniliformis.jpg|60 px]] |label2 ='''Animalia''' |sublabel2=kujumpha vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha |2= [[File:Polychaeta (no) 2.jpg|60 px]] }} }} }} }} }} Ubale pa maziko gha mbumba ya vinyama waŵa mphindano.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erives |first1=Albert |last2=Fritzsch |first2=Bernd |title=A Screen for Gene Paralogies Delineating Evolutionary Branching Order of Early Metazoa |journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=811–826 |biorxiv=10.1101/704551 |doi=10.1534/g3.119.400951 |pmid=31879283 |pmc=7003098 }}</ref><ref name="Kapli_2020">{{cite journal |last1=Kapli |first1=Paschalia |last2=Telford |first2=Maximilian J. |title=Topology-dependent asymmetry in systematic errors affects phylogenetic placement of Ctenophora and Xenacoelomorpha |journal=Science Advances |date=11 December 2020 |volume=6 |issue=10 |article-number=eabc5162 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abc5162 |pmid=33310849 |pmc=7732190 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.5162K |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kupatula Ctenophora, Bilateria na Cnidaria ndigho magulu pera agho ghali na kuyana kwa thupi, ndipo ukaboni unyake ukulongora kuti ngakukolerana comene.<ref name="Giribet Edgecombe 2020">{{cite book |last1=Giribet |first1=G. |last2=Edgecombe |first2=G.D. |title=The Invertebrate Tree of Life |year=2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YHetDwAAQBAJ |page=21 |isbn=978-0-6911-7025-1 |access-date=27 May 2023}}</ref> Pamoza na ma''sponge'', Placozoa yilije kuyana kwa thupi ndipo kanandi yikawonekanga nga ni "ulalo wakusoŵa" pakati pa vyamoyo vya kaselo kamoza na vinyama vya tumaselo tunandi. Kuŵapo kwa vyakuhara vya Hox mu Placozoa kukulongora kuti kale vikaŵa vyakusuzga comene.<ref name="Wanninger 2024">{{cite journal |last=Wanninger |first=Andreas |date=2024 |title=Hox, homology, and parsimony: An organismal perspective |journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology |volume=152–153 |pages=16–23 |doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.01.007 |doi-access=free |pmid=36670036 }}</ref> Porifera (ma''sponge'') ghakaghanaghanirikanga kwa nyengo yitali kuŵa ŵabali ŵa vinyama vinyake vyose, kweni pali ukaboni wakuti Ctenophora yingaŵa pa malo agha. Kusanda mbumba kwizira mu vyakuhara kwakhozga maghanoghano ghose ghaŵiri. Mu 2017, Roberto Feuda na ŵanyake ŵakalongora ghose ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵakakhozga ghanoghano lakuti ma''sponge'' ndigho ŵabali. Kweni kusanda kwa 2023 kwa Darrin Schultz na ŵanyake kukagwiliskira ntchito ubale wa kale wa vyakuhara kulongora kuti Ctenophora ndiyo mubali.<ref name="Feuda Dohrmann 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Feuda |first1=Roberto |last2=Dohrmann |first2=Martin |last3=Pett |first3=Walker |last4=Philippe |first4=Hervé |last5=Rota-Stabelli |first5=Omar |last6=Lartillot |first6=Nicolas |last7=Wörheide |first7=Gert |last8=Pisani |first8=Davide |display-authors=5 |title=Improved Modeling of Compositional Heterogeneity Supports Sponges as Sister to All Other Animals |journal=Current Biology |volume=27 |issue=24 |pages=3864–3870.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.008 |pmid=29199080 |year=2017 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017CBio...27E3864F |hdl=10449/43929 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Porifera === {{clade |style = font-size:100%; line-height:100% |label1='''Animalia''' |sublabel1=''vya maselo ghanandi'' |1={{clade |1=Porifera [[File:Callyspongiatransparent.png|50 px]] |label2=Eumetazoa |2={{clade |1=Ctenophora [[File:Mnemiopsis leidyi 247259012.png|60 px]] |label2=ParaHoxozoa |sublabel2=''hox genes'' |2={{clade |1=Placozoa [[File:Trichoplax adhaerens photograph (no background).png|60 px]] |sublabel2=''kuyana kwa mbali ziŵiri'' |2={{clade |1=Cnidaria [[File:Jellyfish, Shaw Ocean Discovery Centre (7201323966).png|70px]] |2=Bilateria [[File:Saccoglossus kowalevskii by Spengel 1893.png|50 px]] }} }} }} }} }} {{clade |style = font-size:100%; line-height:100% |label1='''Animalia''' |sublabel1=''vya maselo ghanandi'' |1={{clade |1=Ctenophora [[File:Mnemiopsis leidyi 247259012.png|60 px]] |label2=Myriazoa |2={{clade |1=Porifera [[File:Callyspongiatransparent.png|50 px]] |label2=ParaHoxozoa |sublabel2=''hox genes'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Placozoa [[File:Trichoplax adhaerens photograph (no background).png|60 px]] |2=Cnidaria [[File:Jellyfish, Shaw Ocean Discovery Centre (7201323966).png|70px]] }} |label2= |sublabel2=''kuyana kwa mbali ziŵiri'' |2=Bilateria [[File:Saccoglossus kowalevskii by Spengel 1893.png|50 px]] }} }} }} }} Ma''sponge'' ngakupambana comene na vinyama vinyake, ndipo kwa nyengo yitali ghakaghanaghanirikanga kuti ghakapatukana dankha, kuŵa gulu la kale comene la vinyama.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhamrah |first1=H. S. |last2=Juneja |first2=Kavita |title=An Introduction to Porifera |year=2003 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-261-0675-2 |page=58}}</ref> Nangauli ngakupambana mu mawonekero, ukaboni wa vyakuhara ukulongora kuti ma''sponge'' ngakukolerana comene na vinyama vinyake kuluska Ctenophora.<ref name="Schultz Haddock 2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Schultz |first1=Darrin T. |last2=Haddock |first2=Steven H. D. |author2-link=Steven Haddock |last3=Bredeson |first3=Jessen V. |last4=Green |first4=Richard E. |last5=Simakov |first5=Oleg |last6=Rokhsar |first6=Daniel S. |date=2023-05-17 |title=Ancient gene linkages support ctenophores as sister to other animals |url=https://rdcu.be/dcJSY |journal=Nature |volume=618 |issue=7963 |pages=110–117 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05936-6 |pmid=37198475 |pmc=10232365 |bibcode=2023Natur.618..110S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whelan |first1=Nathan V. |last2=Kocot |first2=Kevin M. |last3=Moroz |first3=Tatiana P. |last4=Mukherjee |first4=Krishanu |last5=Williams |first5=Peter |last6=Paulay |first6=Gustav |last7=Moroz |first7=Leonid L. |last8=Halanych |first8=Kenneth M. |display-authors=5 |date=9 October 2017 |title=Ctenophore relationships and their placement as the sister group to all other animals |url=https://rdcu.be/dcJS3 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=1737–1746 |doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0331-3 |pmid=28993654 |pmc=5664179 |bibcode=2017NatEE...1.1737W}}</ref> Ma''sponge'' ghalije kanozgero kakusuzga ka magulu ghanyake; tumaselo twawo ntwakupambana, kweni kanandi tukupanga vigaŵa vyapadera yayi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sumich |first=James L. |title=Laboratory and Field Investigations in Marine Life |year=2008 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-5730-4 |page=67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jessop |first=Nancy Meyer |title=Biosphere; a study of life |year=1970 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |page=428}}</ref> Ma''sponge'' ghakwenda yayi para ghakura.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Sponges (Phylum Porifera): Locomotion {{!}} Q?rius |url=https://qrius.si.edu/taxonomy/term/11910 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=qrius.si.edu |language=en}}</ref> Ghalije tumaselo twa mizirwe nadi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Musser |first1=Jacob M. |last2=Schippers |first2=Klaske J. |last3=Nickel |first3=Michael |last4=Mizzon |first4=Giulia |last5=Kohn |first5=Andrea B. |last6=Pape |first6=Constantin |last7=Ronchi |first7=Paolo |last8=Papadopoulos |first8=Nikolaos |last9=Tarashansky |first9=Alexander J. |last10=Hammel |first10=Jörg U. |last11=Wolf |first11=Florian |last12=Liang |first12=Cong |last13=Hernández-Plaza |first13=Ana |last14=Cantalapiedra |first14=Carlos P. |last15=Achim |first15=Kaia |date=2021-11-05 |title=Profiling cellular diversity in sponges informs animal cell type and nervous system evolution |journal=Science |volume=374 |issue=6568 |pages=717–723 |doi=10.1126/science.abj2949 |pmc=9233960 |pmid=34735222}}</ref> [[File:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg|thumb|upright|Vinyama vyambura kuyana mbali ziŵiri vikusazgapo ''sponge'' (pakati) na korali (kumanyuma).]] Ma''sponge'' ghalije ndondomeko ya kugaya, ya ndopa, ya kupuma, panji ya kufumiska vyakunyanyira. M'malo mwake, ghakuthemba kwenda kwa maji mu thupi lawo kuti ghacite ntchito izi. Ghanandi ghali na thupi lambura kanthu mukati kuti maji ghende makola.<ref name="Fowler Roush 2013">{{cite web |last1=Fowler |first1=Samantha |last2=Roush |first2=Rebecca |last3=Wise |first3=James |date=25 April 2013 |title=15.2 Sponges and Cnidarians |website=OpenStax |url=https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-2-sponges-and-cnidarians |access-date=2 June 2026 }}</ref> Kanandi ghakurya mwa kukwemya maji kwizira mu tuzenje, kusefa tuvyakulya tucoko.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=N. S. |title=Continuity And Evolution Of Animals |year=2005 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8293-018-6 |page=106}}</ref> Ghakukora okisijeni wa mu maji, ndipo ghakufumiska kaboni dayokisayidi na vyakunyanyira mu maji.<ref name="Fowler Roush 2013"/> Ma''sponge'' ghangaŵaba mwa kugonana na kwambura kugonana. Kuŵaba kwambura kugonana kukucitika mu nthowa zinandi, kusazgapo kuphwanyika, apo cigaŵa ca ''sponge'' cikupatukana na kukura kunyake. Pa kuŵaba mwa kugonana, ma''sponge'' ghanandi ni wanalume na wanakazi pamoza, ndipo ghakupanga masumbi na tumaselo twa ŵanalume.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reproduction In Sponges |website=IAS Zoology |date=2 May 2012 |url=https://www.iaszoology.com/reproduction-sponges/ |access-date=3 June 2026}}</ref> === Ctenophora === Vinyama vya Ctenophora vili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati, ndipo vili na cigaŵa ca kugayira ca mlomo umoza, uwo ni mlomo na msundu pamoza.<ref name=":1" /> Vili na vigaŵa vyakupambana, kweni vikupanga viŵaro vyapadera yayi.<ref name=":2" /> Vikwenda mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mizere ya tusisi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Creature feature: Ctenophores – Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution |url=https://www.whoi.edu/ocean-learning-hub/ocean-facts/ctenophores/,%20https://www.whoi.edu/ocean-learning-hub/ocean-facts/ctenophores/ |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=www.whoi.edu/ |language=en-US}}</ref> Pafupifupi vyose ni vyakusaka.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-24 |title=Comb Jelly {{!}} Marine Biological Laboratory |url=https://www.mbl.edu/research/research-organisms/comb-jelly |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=www.mbl.edu |language=en}}</ref> Vili na vigaŵa vyapadera pa minkhono yawo ivyo vikuvovwira kukora vyakurya. Vili na tumaselo twa mizirwe, kweni vilije wongo; mizirwe yawo yanozgeka nga ni ukonde. Mizirwe yawo njakupambana comene na ya vinyama vinyake, ndipo ukaboni ukulongora kuti yikakura paŵekha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burkhardt |first1=Pawel |last2=Colgren |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Medhus |first3=Astrid |last4=Digel |first4=Leonid |last5=Naumann |first5=Benjamin |last6=Soto-Angel |first6=Joan J. |last7=Nordmann |first7=Eva-Lena |last8=Sachkova |first8=Maria Y. |last9=Kittelmann |first9=Maike |date=2023-04-21 |title=Syncytial nerve net in a ctenophore adds insights on the evolution of nervous systems |journal=Science |volume=380 |issue=6642 |pages=293–297 |doi=10.1126/science.ade5645 |pmc=7617566 |pmid=37079688}}</ref> === Cnidaria === Nga ni Ctenophora, Cnidaria vili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati na cigaŵa ca kugayira ca mlomo umoza.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |title=A Living Bay: The Underwater World of Monterey Bay |year=2000 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-22149-9 |last1=Langstroth |first1=Lovell |last2=Langstroth |first2=Libby |editor-last=Newberry |editor-first=Todd |page=[https://archive.org/details/livingbayunderwa0000lang/page/244 244] |url=https://archive.org/details/livingbayunderwa0000lang/page/244}}</ref> Vili so na vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vikupanga viŵaro yayi.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last=Safra |first=Jacob E. |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |volume=16 |year=2003 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |isbn=978-0-85229-961-6 |page=523}}</ref> Vinyama vya gulu la Anthozoa, nga ni ''sea anemone'' na korali, vikwenda yayi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-02 |title=28.2: Phylum Cnidaria |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_1e_(OpenStax)/5%3A_Biological_Diversity/28%3A_Invertebrates/28.2%3A_Phylum_Cnidaria |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=Biology LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Vinandi vya Medusozoa, kusazgapo ''jellyfish'', vili na nyengo ya kwambura kwenda na nyengo ya kwenda. Cnidaria vili na vigaŵa viŵiri pera vikulu vya tumaselo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kotpal |first=R.L. |title=Modern Text Book of Zoology: Invertebrates |publisher=Rastogi Publications |isbn=978-81-7133-903-7 |page=184 |year=2012}}</ref> === Placozoa === Placozoa vicoko comene vilije cigaŵa ca kugayira ca nyengo zose ndipo vilije kuyana kwa thupi; vikuyana na ''amoeba''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Robert D. |year=1982 |title=Invertebrate Zoology |publisher=Holt-Saunders International |pages=84–85 |isbn=978-0-03-056747-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!--"A.G.C."--> |title=Introduction to Placozoa |url=https://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/placozoa/placozoa.html |publisher=UCMP Berkeley |access-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325202849/https://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/placozoa/placozoa.html |archive-date=25 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mbumba yawo yikumanyikwa makola yayi, ndipo yicali kusandika.<ref name="Schultz Haddock 2023"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Mansi |last2=Begovic |first2=Emina |last3=Chapman |first3=Jarrod |last4=Putnam |first4=Nicholas H. |last5=Hellsten |first5=Uffe |last6=Kawashima |first6=Takeshi |last7=Kuo |first7=Alan |last8=Mitros |first8=Therese |last9=Salamov |first9=Asaf |last10=Carpenter |first10=Meredith L. |last11=Signorovitch |first11=Ana Y. |last12=Moreno |first12=Maria A. |last13=Kamm |first13=Kai |last14=Grimwood |first14=Jane |last15=Schmutz |first15=Jeremy |display-authors=5 |date=1 August 2008 |title=The Trichoplax genome and the nature of placozoans |journal=Nature |volume=454 |issue=7207 |pages=955–960 |doi=10.1038/nature07191 |pmid=18719581 |bibcode=2008Natur.454..955S |s2cid=4415492 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Bilateria === Vinyama vyakusyala, vinandi comene, mu magulu pafupifupi 29 na mitundu yakujumpha miliyoni, vikupanga Bilateria, ivyo vili na thupi lakuyana ku mbali ziŵiri. Bilateria vili na vigaŵa vitatu vya tumaselo, ndipo vigaŵa vyawo vikupanga viŵaro vyapadera. Cigaŵa ca kugayira cili na milomo yiŵiri, mlomo na msundu, ndipo vinandi vili na malo ghambura kanthu mukati mwa thupi.<ref name="Minelli2009"/><ref name=Brusca2016/> Vinyama ivi vili na mutu (panthazi) na mcira (kumanyuma), msana na nthumbo, na mbali ya kumazere na ya kumalyero.<ref name="Dunn Giribet Edgecombe Hejnol 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Casey W. |last2=Giribet |first2=Gonzalo |last3=Edgecombe |first3=Gregory D. |last4=Hejnol |first4=Andreas |title=Animal Phylogeny and Its Evolutionary Implications |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |volume=45 |issue=1 |date=23 November 2014 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091627 |pages=371–395}}</ref> {{clade |style=font-size:85%;line-height:85% |label1='''Bilateria''' |1={{clade |1=Xenacoelomorpha [[File:Xenoturbella japonica.jpg|70 px]] |label2= Nephrozoa |sublabel2=vyaka miliyoni 650 ivyo vyajumpha |2={{clade |label1=Deuterostomia |1={{clade |1=Ambulacraria [[File:Portugal 20140812-DSC01434 (21371237591).jpg|60 px]] |2=Chordata [[File:Blueback herring fish (white background).jpg|60 px]] }} |label2= Protostomia |sublabel2=vyaka miliyoni 610 ivyo vyajumpha |2={{clade |1=Ecdysozoa [[File:Long nosed weevil edit.jpg|60 px]] |2=Spiralia [[File:Grapevinesnail 01.jpg|60 px]] }} }} }} }} [[File:Bilaterian body plan.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Kapangikiro ka thupi ka vinyama vyakuyana mbali ziŵiri. Cifukwa thupi nditali ndipo cinyama cikwenda ku nthowa yimoza, cili na mutu na mcira. Vigaŵa vya kupulikira na mlomo vikupanga maziko gha mutu. Minofu ya kuzingilizga na ya kutali yikugwira ntchito mwakupambana kuti cinyama cikwende.{{efn|Yaniskani na cithuzi ca Annelid ico cikulongora makora kapangikiro aka mu gulu limoza.}}]] Kuŵa na cigaŵa ca panthazi kukung'anamula kuti cigaŵa ici ndico cikukumana dankha na vinthu, nga ni vyakulya, ndipo ici cikovwira kukura kwa mutu wakuŵa na viŵaro vya kupulika na mlomo. Vinandi vya Bilateria vili na minofu ya kuzunguliya iyo yikufinya thupi, kulitalikiska, na minofu ya kutali iyo yikufupiska thupi; izi zikuzomerezga vinyama vya thupi lakupepuka kwenda mwa kufinyika.<ref name=Brusca2016/><ref name=Quillin>{{cite journal |last=Quillin |first=K. J. |title=Ontogenetic scaling of hydrostatic skeletons: geometric, static stress and dynamic stress scaling of the earthworm lumbricus terrestris |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=201 |issue=12 |pages=1871–1883 |date=May 1998 |doi=10.1242/jeb.201.12.1871 |pmid=9600869 |url=https://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9600869 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1998JExpB.201.1871Q |access-date=4 March 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617135617/https://jeb.biologists.org/content/201/12/1871.long |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Vili so na matumbo agho ghakwenda mu thupi kufuma ku mlomo mpaka ku msundu. Kweni mu nyengo ya kusintha, vinyama vinyake vyataya cimoza panji vinandi mwa vimanyikwiro ivi. Mwaciyelezgero, nyenyezi za mbwani zikuru zili na thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati (kupambana na ŵana ŵawo), apo mphutsi zinyake zakuthemba vyamoyo vinyake zili na thupi lipepuka comene.<ref name="Minelli2009">{{cite book |last=Minelli |first=Alessandro |title=Perspectives in Animal Phylogeny and Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIASDAAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-856620-5 |page=53}}</ref><ref name=Brusca2016>{{Cite book |url=https://www.sinauer.com/media/wysiwyg/samples/Brusca3e_Chapter_9.pdf |chapter=Introduction to the Bilateria and the Phylum Xenacoelomorpha {{!}} Triploblasty and Bilateral Symmetry Provide New Avenues for Animal Radiation |title=Invertebrates |last=Brusca |first=Richard C. |date=2016 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |pages=345–372 |isbn=978-1-60535-375-3 |access-date=4 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424155137/https://www.sinauer.com/media/wysiwyg/samples/Brusca3e_Chapter_9.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda vyakuhara kwasintha comene kupulikiska kwa ŵasandi ŵa vinyama pa ubale mu Bilateria. Vinandi vikuwoneka kuŵa mu magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu, ''protostome'' na ''deuterostome''.<ref name="Telford 2008 pp. 457–459">{{cite journal |last=Telford |first=Maximilian J. |title=Resolving Animal Phylogeny: A Sledgehammer for a Tough Nut? |journal=Developmental Cell |volume=14 |issue=4 |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2008.03.016 |pages=457–459 |pmid=18410719 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Philippe2011">{{cite journal |last1=Philippe |first1=H. |last2=Brinkmann |first2=H. |last3=Copley |first3=R. R. |last4=Moroz |first4=L. L. |last5=Nakano |first5=H. |last6=Poustka |first6=A. J. |last7=Wallberg |first7=A. |last8=Peterson |first8=K. J. |last9=Telford |first9=M. J. |title=Acoelomorph flatworms are deuterostomes related to ''Xenoturbella'' |journal=Nature |volume=470 |pages=255–258 |year=2011 |pmid=21307940 |doi=10.1038/nature09676 |bibcode=2011Natur.470..255P |issue=7333 |pmc=4025995}}</ref><ref name="Perseke2007">{{cite journal |last1=Perseke |first1=M. |last2=Hankeln |first2=T. |last3=Weich |first3=B. |last4=Fritzsch |first4=G. |last5=Stadler |first5=P. F. |last6=Israelsson |first6=O. |last7=Bernhard |first7=D. |last8=Schlegel |first8=M. |title=The mitochondrial DNA of Xenoturbella bocki: genomic architecture and phylogenetic analysis |journal=Theory Biosci |volume=126 |issue=1 |date=August 2007 |pages=35–42 |url=https://www.bioinf.uni-leipzig.de/Publications/PREPRINTS/07-009.pdf |pmid=18087755 |doi=10.1007/s12064-007-0007-7 |bibcode=2007ThBio.126...35P |s2cid=17065867 |access-date=4 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424154927/https://www.bioinf.uni-leipzig.de/Publications/PREPRINTS/07-009.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cannon 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Cannon |first1=Johanna T. |last2=Vellutini |first2=Bruno C. |last3=Smith III |first3=Julian. |last4=Ronquist |first4=Frederik |last5=Jondelius |first5=Ulf |last6=Hejnol |first6=Andreas |date=3 February 2016 |title=Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group to Nephrozoa |journal=Nature |volume=530 |issue=7588 |pages=89–93 |doi=10.1038/nature16520 |pmid=26842059 |bibcode=2016Natur.530...89C |s2cid=205247296 |url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nrm:diva-1844 |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730091447/http://nrm.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1037430&dswid=-7165 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kanandi kukuyowoyeka kuti Xenacoelomorpha ndilo gulu la pasi comene, kweni ghanoghano ili lasuskika.<ref name="Kapli 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Kapli |first1=Paschalia |last2=Natsidis |first2=Paschalis |last3=Leite |first3=Daniel J. |last4=Fursman |first4=Maximilian |last5=Jeffrie |first5=Nadia |last6=Rahman |first6=Imran A. |last7=Philippe |first7=Hervé |last8=Copley |first8=Richard R. |last9=Telford |first9=Maximilian J. |date=19 March 2021 |title=Lack of support for Deuterostomia prompts reinterpretation of the first Bilateria |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=12 |article-number=eabe2741 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abe2741 |pmc=7978419 |pmid=33741592 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.2741K}}</ref> ==== Protostome na Deuterostome ==== ''Protostome'' na ''deuterostome'' vikupambana mu nthowa zinandi. Pakwamba pa kukura, tumaselo twa ''deuterostome'' tukugaŵika mu nthowa yinyake, apo twa ''protostome'' tunandi tukugaŵika mwakuzungunyika. Vinyama vya magulu ghose ghaŵiri vili na matumbo ghakukwana, kweni mu ''protostome'' mlomo wakwamba wa matumbo ukusanduka mlomo, ndipo msundu ukupangika pamanyuma. Mu ''deuterostome'', msundu ukupangika dankha ndipo mlomo pamanyuma. Magulu ghakulu gha ''deuterostome'' ni Ambulacraria na Chordata.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=Kenneth |title=Zoology: An Inside View of Animals |year=2004 |publisher=Kendall Hunt |isbn=978-0-7575-0997-1 |page=345}}</ref> Ambulacraria vikusangika mu mbwani pera ndipo vikusazgapo nyenyezi za mbwani na vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Alcamo |first=Edward |title=Biology Coloring Workbook |year=1998 |publisher=The Princeton Review |isbn=978-0-679-77884-4 |page=220}}</ref> Chordata comene ni vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ivyo ni somba, vyakukhala mu maji na pa mtunda, vyakukwaŵa, viyuni, na vinyama vyakonkheska.<ref>{{cite book |last=Holmes |first=Thom |title=The First Vertebrates |publisher=Infobase |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8160-5958-4 |page=64}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rice |first=Stanley A. |title=Encyclopedia of evolution |publisher=Infobase |year=2007 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofev0000rice/page/75 75] |isbn=978-0-8160-5515-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofev0000rice/page/75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tobin |first1=Allan J. |last2=Dusheck |first2=Jennie |title=Asking about life |year=2005 |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-0-534-40653-0 |page=497}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Hemichordate genomes and deuterostome origins |journal=Nature |date=26 November 2015 |pages=459–465 |volume=527 |issue=7579 |doi=10.1038/nature16150 |first1=Oleg |last1=Simakov |first2=Takeshi |last2=Kawashima |first3=Ferdinand |last3=Marlétaz |first4=Jerry |last4=Jenkins |first5=Ryo |last5=Koyanagi |first6=Therese |last6=Mitros |first7=Kanako |last7=Hisata |first8=Jessen |last8=Bredeson |first9=Eiichi |last9=Shoguchi |display-authors=5 |pmid=26580012 |pmc=4729200 |bibcode=2015Natur.527..459S}}</ref> ''Protostome'' vikusazgapo Ecdysozoa, vyakuthyika zina la kuvula cikopa pa kukura.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution |year=2005 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-618-61916-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancestorstale00rich_0/page/381 381] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancestorstale00rich_0/page/381}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prewitt |first1=Nancy L. |last2=Underwood |first2=Larry S. |last3=Surver |first3=William |title=BioInquiry: making connections in biology |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-20228-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bioinquiry00nanc_0/page/289 289] |url=https://archive.org/details/bioinquiry00nanc_0/page/289}}</ref> Magulu ghakulu ni vibenene na ŵabali ŵawo na mphutsi za ''nematode''. ''Protostome'' vinyake vili mu Spiralia, ivyo magulu ghakulu ni mphutsi za pasi na nkhono.<ref name=Shankland>{{cite journal |pmid=10781038 |pmc=34316 |jstor=122407 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.4434S |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.9.4434 |title=Evolution of the bilaterian body plan: What have we learned from annelids? |journal=PNAS |volume=97 |issue=9 |pages=4434–4437 |year=2000 |last1=Shankland |first1=M. |last2=Seaver |first2=E.C. |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Mbiri ya Kagaŵiro == <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=160 widths=300> File:Protovsdeuterostomes.svg|Matumbo gha vinyama vyakuyana mbali ziŵiri ghakukura mu nthowa ziŵiri. Mu ''protostome'' zinandi, dolozi lakwamba likuŵa mlomo, apo mu ''deuterostome'' likuŵa msundu. File:Spiral cleavage in Trochus.png|Spiralia zikukura na kugaŵika kwa maselo mwa kuzunguliya mu mwana wakwamba, nga apa mu nkhono ya mu mbwani. </gallery> [[File:Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck wakalongozga kupanga kagaŵiro ka mazuŵa ghano ka vinyama vyambura fupa la msana, wakagaŵa "Vermes" ya Linnaeus mu magulu ghakulu 9 pofika 1809.<ref name=Gould2011/>]] Mu nyengo ya kale, Aristotle wakagaŵa vinyama, kuyana na kulaŵiska kwake, mu ivyo vili na ndopa (pafupifupi vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana) na ivyo vilije.{{efn|Mu mabuku ghake ''History of Animals'' na ''Parts of Animals''.}} Vinyama vikanozgeka pa makwelero kufuma ku munthu (na ndopa, malundi ghaŵiri, mzimu wa vinjeru) pasi kwizira mu vinyama vya malundi ghanayi vyakubaba (na ndopa, malundi ghanayi, mzimu wakupulika) na magulu ghanyake nga ni nkhala (kwambura ndopa, malundi ghanandi, mzimu wakupulika) mpaka ku ma''sponge'' (kwambura ndopa, kwambura malundi, mzimu wa vyakumera). Aristotle wakaŵa wakukayikira usange ma''sponge'' ni vinyama panji vyakumera: wakamanyanga kuti ghangapulika kukhwaskika na kufinyika, kweni ghakaŵa na misisi nga ni vyakumera ndipo ghakwendanga yayi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |pages=111–119, 270–271}}</ref> Mu 1758, Carl Linnaeus wakapanga kagaŵiro kakwamba ka makwelero mu ''Systema Naturae''.<ref name=Linn1758>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |year=1758 |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. |language=la |trans-title=The System of Nature Through the Three Kingdoms of Nature |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010032456/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542 |archive-date=10 October 2008 |url-status=live |edition=10th |publisher=Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii) |access-date=22 September 2008}}</ref> Mu ndondomeko yake, vinyama vikaŵa ufumu umoza mwa vitatu, ndipo vikagaŵika mu Vermes (mphutsi), Insecta (vibenene), Pisces (somba), Amphibia, Aves (viyuni), na Mammalia (vinyama vyakonkheska). Kufuma apo, vinayi vyaumaliro vyasazgika mu gulu limoza, Chordata, apo Insecta na Vermes vyasintha mazina panji kugaŵika. Ici cikamba mu 1793 na Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, uyo wakati Vermes ni "cisokonezgo" ndipo wakagaŵa gulu ili mu magulu ghatatu ghaphya.{{efn|Lizgu la Cifulenci lakuti {{lang|fr|une espèce de}} likuyuyula.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Espèce de |url=https://dictionnaire.reverso.net/francais-anglais/esp%C3%A8ce%20de%20cr%C3%A9tin |dictionary=Reverso dictionnnaire |access-date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728151210/https://dictionnaire.reverso.net/francais-anglais/esp%C3%A8ce%20de%20cr%C3%A9tin |archive-date=28 July 2013 |url-status=live |language=fr,en}}</ref>}} Pofika 1809, Lamarck wakaŵa wapanga magulu 9 kupatula vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana na nkhono.<ref name=Gould2011>{{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |author-link=Stephen Jay Gould |title=The Lying Stones of Marrakech |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wApMpVmi-5gC |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06167-5 |pages=130–134}}</ref> Mu 1817, Georges Cuvier wakayaniska kapangikiro ka thupi kuti wagaŵe vinyama mu minthavi yinayi: vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, nkhono, vinyama vyakuŵa na mafundo (vibenene na mphutsi za pasi), na vinyama vya thupi lakuyana kuzunguliya pakati.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Wit |first=Hendrik C. D. |title=Histoire du développement de la biologie |volume=III |publisher=Presses polytechniques et universitaires Romandes |year=1994 |pages=94–96 |isbn=978-2-88074-264-5 |language=fr}}</ref> Kagaŵiro aka ka vinayi kakalondezgeka na Karl Ernst von Baer mu 1828, Louis Agassiz mu 1857, na Richard Owen mu 1860.<ref name=Valentine2004/> Mu 1874, Ernst Haeckel wakagaŵa ufumu wa vinyama mu maufumu ghacoko ghaŵiri: Metazoa (vinyama vya tumaselo tunandi, na magulu ghankhondi) na Protozoa (vinyama vya kaselo kamoza), pamoza na gulu la cinkhondi na cimoza, ma''sponge''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haeckel |first1=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Haeckel |title=Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des menschen |url=https://archive.org/details/anthropogenieod05haecgoog |year=1874 |page=202 |language=de |trans-title=Anthropogeny or the Development story of Humans |publisher=W. Engelmann}}</ref><ref name=Valentine2004>{{cite book |last=Valentine |first=James W. |title=On the Origin of Phyla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMBkmHm5fe4C |year=2004 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-84548-7 |pages=7–8}}</ref> Protozoa pamanyuma vikasamira ku ufumu wa Protista, ndipo Metazoa yekha yikasyala nga ni zina linyake la Animalia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hutchins |first1=Michael |title=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/animallifeprotos02mich_714 |url-access=limited |year=2003 |edition=2nd |publisher=Gale |isbn=978-0-7876-5777-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/animallifeprotos02mich_714/page/n21 3]}}</ref> == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == === Kagwiliskiro ka Ntchito === [[File:Carni bovine macellate.JPG|thumb|upright|Nyama ya ng'ombe pa malo gha kukomera viŵeto]] Ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mitundu yinandi ya vinyama pa vyakulya, vyose viŵeto vyakuŵetika na, comene mu mbwani, vinyama vya mu thengere ivyo vikusakika.<ref name=FAOFish>{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/fishery/ |title=Fisheries and Aquaculture |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519173740/https://www.fao.org/fishery |archive-date=19 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Economist/> Somba za mbwani za mitundu yinandi zikuloweka pa malonda. Mitundu yicoko yikuŵetika pa malonda.<ref name=FAOFish/><ref>{{cite book |last=Helfman |first=Gene S. |title=Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources |url=https://archive.org/details/fishconservation00helf |url-access=limited |date=2007 |publisher=Island |isbn=978-1-59726-760-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fishconservation00helf/page/n25 11]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e01.pdf |publisher=FAO |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828131307/https://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e01.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵanthu na viŵeto vyawo ni magaŵa ghakujumpha 90 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa vinyama vyose vya pa mtunda vyakuŵa na fupa la msana.<ref name="Eggleton 2020">{{cite journal |last=Eggleton |first=Paul |title=The State of the World's Insects |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=17 October 2020 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=61–82 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020ARER...45...61E }}</ref> Vinyama vyambura fupa la msana, kusazgapo ''squid'', nkhala, vibenene (comene njuci na mbozi za silika), na nkhono, vikusakika panji kuŵetika pa vyakulya na ulusi.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Shellfish climbs up the popularity ladder |journal=Seafood Business |url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-85675992.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105143157/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-85675992.html |archive-date=5 November 2012 |access-date=8 July 2016 |via=HighBeam Research |url-access=subscription |url-status=usurped |date=January 2002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2024-09-17 |title=Western honeybee |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/western-honeybee |access-date=2024-10-20}}</ref> Nkhuku, ng'ombe, mbelele, nkhumba, na vinyama vinyake vikuŵetika nga ni viŵeto vya nyama pa caro cose.<ref name=Economist>{{cite news |title=Graphic detail Charts, maps and infographics. Counting chickens |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts |access-date=23 June 2016 |date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715181213/https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://cattle-today.com/ |title=Breeds of Cattle at Cattle Today |publisher=Cattle-today.com |access-date=15 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715234745/https://cattle-today.com/ |archive-date=15 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lukefahr |first1=S. D. |last2=Cheeke |first2=P. R. |title=Rabbit project development strategies in subsistence farming systems |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/U4900T/u4900T0m.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=23 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506105314/https://www.fao.org/docrep/U4900T/u4900T0m.htm |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ulusi wa vinyama nga ni ubweya na silika ukugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga nsalu, apo misipa ya vinyama yagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakukakira, ndipo vipapa vikugwiliskirika ntchito comene kupanga skapato na vinthu vinyake. Vinyama vyasakika na kuŵetika cifukwa ca weya wawo kupanga vinthu nga ni malaya na vipewa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ancient fabrics, high-tech geotextiles |url=https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |publisher=Natural Fibres |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720093749/https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/fibres/ |archive-date=20 July 2016 }}</ref> Mitundu ya vyakupaka yapangika kufuma ku vibenene.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/v8879e/v8879e09.htm |chapter=Cochineal and Carmine |title=Major colourants and dyestuffs, mainly produced in horticultural systems |publisher=FAO |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306060330/https://www.fao.org/docrep/v8879e/V8879e09.htm |archive-date=6 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/ucm153038.htm |title=Guidance for Industry: Cochineal Extract and Carmine |publisher=FDA |access-date=6 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713100106/https://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/ucm153038.htm |archive-date=13 July 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How Shellac Is Manufactured |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article55073762 |access-date=17 July 2015 |newspaper=The Mail |location=Adelaide |date=18 December 1937 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730091433/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/55073762 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pearnchob |first1=N. |last2=Siepmann |first2=J. |last3=Bodmeier |first3=R. |year=2003 |title=Pharmaceutical applications of shellac: moisture-protective and taste-masking coatings and extended-release matrix tablets |journal=Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy |volume=29 |issue=8 |pages=925–938 |pmid=14570313 |doi=10.1081/ddc-120024188 |s2cid=13150932}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barber |first=E. J. W. |title=Prehistoric Textiles |year=1991 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00224-8 |pages=230–231}}</ref><ref name="Munro214">{{cite book |last=Munro |first=John H. |title=The Cambridge History of Western Textiles |chapter=Medieval Woollens: Textiles, Technology, and Organisation |editor-last1=Jenkins |editor-first1=David |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-34107-3 |pages=214–215}}</ref> Vinyama vya ntchito nga ni ng'ombe na mahachi vyagwiliskirika ntchito pa ntchito na mayendero kufuma pa kwamba kwa ulimi.<ref name="Pond2004">{{cite book |last=Pond |first=Wilson G. |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-5496-9 |pages=248–250 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Vinyama nga ni nchenche ya vipambi Drosophila melanogaster vikugwira ntchito yikulu mu kasandiro nga ni viyelezgero vya kuyezgera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Genetics Research |url=https://www.aht.org.uk/cms-display/genetics.html |publisher=Animal Health Trust |access-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193051/https://www.aht.org.uk/cms-display/genetics.html |archive-date=12 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Drug Development |url=https://www.animalresearch.info/en/drug-development/ |publisher=Animal Research.info |access-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608124406/https://www.animalresearch.info/en/drug-development/ |archive-date=8 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Animal Experimentation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/animals/using/experiments_1.shtml |publisher=BBC |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701220536/https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/animals/using/experiments_1.shtml |archive-date=1 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="EUstatistics2013">{{cite web |title=EU statistics show decline in animal research numbers |url=https://speakingofresearch.com/2013/12/12/eu-statistics-show-decline-in-animal-research-numbers/ |publisher=Speaking of Research |year=2013 |access-date=24 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162448/https://speakingofresearch.com/2013/12/12/eu-statistics-show-decline-in-animal-research-numbers/ |archive-date=6 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vinyama vyagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga katemera kufuma apo katemera wakasangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vaccines and animal cell technology |date=10 June 2013 |url=https://www.actip.org/library/vaccines-and-animal-cell-technology/ |publisher=Animal Cell Technology Industrial Platform |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713184805/https://www.actip.org/library/vaccines-and-animal-cell-technology/ |archive-date=13 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mankhwala ghanyake, nga ni gha kansa gha trabectedin, ghakufuma ku poizoni panji vinthu vinyake vya vinyama.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medicines by Design |url=https://publications.nigms.nih.gov/medbydesign/chapter3.html |publisher=National Institute of Health |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604214644/https://publications.nigms.nih.gov/medbydesign/chapter3.html |archive-date=4 June 2016 }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito ncheŵe za kusaka kovwira kuthamangiska na kutola vinyama, na viyuni vyakusaka kukora viyuni na vinyama, apo viyuni vya mbwani vyakukakika vyagwiliskirika ntchito kukora somba. Masele gha poizoni ghagwiliskirika ntchito kupaka poizoni ku misongo ya mivwi. [[File:Hebbuz.JPG|thumb|Nchewe ya kusaka yikutora baka pa kusaka]] Vinyama vinandi vikusungika nga ni vyakusanguluska, kufuma ku vinyama vyambura fupa la msana nga ni ŵalutatavi ŵakulu na ''octopus'', vyakukwaŵa nga ni njoka na ŵalwivi, na viyuni nga ni ma''canary'' na ŵakholwe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fergus |first=Charles |title=Gun Dog Breeds, A Guide to Spaniels, Retrievers, and Pointing Dogs |publisher=The Lyons Press |date=2002 |isbn=978-1-58574-618-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Falconry |url=https://www.thefalconrycentre.co.uk/bird-info/conservation/nocturnal-raptors/history-falconry/ |publisher=The Falconry Centre |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529023926/https://thefalconrycentre.co.uk/bird-info/conservation/nocturnal-raptors/history-falconry/ |archive-date=29 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="King2013">{{cite book |last=King |first=Richard J. |title=The Devil's Cormorant: A Natural History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucGyAAAAQBAJ |date=2013 |publisher=University of New Hampshire Press |isbn=978-1-61168-225-0 |page=9}}</ref><ref name="amphibiaweb1">{{cite web |url=https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Dendrobatidae.shtml |title=Dendrobatidae |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |access-date=10 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810090554/https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Dendrobatidae.shtml |archive-date=10 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dendrobatidae.html |title=Dendrobatidae |access-date=9 July 2016 |last=Heying |first=H. |year=2003 |publisher=Animal Diversity Web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212005358/https://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dendrobatidae.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kweni vyakusanguluska vinandi comene ni vinyama vyakonkheska, ndiko kuti ncheŵe, vyona, na akalulu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Other bugs |date=18 February 2011 |url=https://www.keepinginsects.com/cockroaches-locusts-ants/ |publisher=Keeping Insects |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707170022/https://www.keepinginsects.com/cockroaches-locusts-ants/ |archive-date=7 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Melissa |title=So, you think you want a reptile? |url=https://www.anapsid.org/parent.html |publisher=Anapsid.org |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703115141/https://www.anapsid.org/parent.html |archive-date=3 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pet Birds |url=https://www.humanesociety.org/animals/pet_birds/ |publisher=PDSA |access-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707053516/https://www.humanesociety.org/animals/pet_birds/ |archive-date=7 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pali kususkana pakati pa ntchito ya vinyama nga ni ŵabwezi ŵa ŵanthu na kuŵapo kwawo nga ni vyamoyo ivyo vili na wanangwa wawo.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.shea-online.org/Portals/0/PDFs/Animals%20in%20Healthcare%20Facilities.pdf |title=Animals in Healthcare Facilities |year=2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102728/https://www.shea-online.org/Portals/0/PDFs/Animals%20in%20Healthcare%20Facilities.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=The Humane Society of the United States |title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url=https://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |access-date=27 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407193941/https://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |archive-date=7 April 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Rabbit Industry profile |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergingissues/downloads/RabbitReport1.pdf |access-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020161216/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergingissues/downloads/RabbitReport1.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Plous |first=S. |title=The Role of Animals in Human Society |date=1993 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00906.x |journal=Journal of Social Issues |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–9}}</ref> Vinyama vinandi vya pa mtunda na vya mu maji vikusakika pa maseŵero.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hummel |first=Richard |title=Hunting and Fishing for Sport: Commerce, Controversy, Popular Culture |date=1994 |publisher=Popular Press |isbn=978-0-87972-646-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/huntingfishingfo0000humm}}</ref> === Kagwiliskiro ka Vimanyikwiro === Vimanyikwiro vya ndondomeko za nyenyezi za Kumanjiliro na za Ŵacayina vikuthemba vinyama.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lau |first=Theodora |title=The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes |pages=2–8, 30–35, 60–64, 88–94, 118–124, 148–153, 178–184, 208–213, 238–244, 270–278, 306–312, 338–344 |publisher=Souvenir |year=2005}}</ref><ref name="Tester1987">{{cite book |last=Tester |first=S. Jim |title=A History of Western Astrology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0HSvH96alIC |year=1987 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-0-85115-446-6 |pages=31–33 and passim}}</ref> Mu China na Japani, khulukuska wakawonekanga nga ni mzimu wa munthu, ndipo mu vithuzi vya kale khulukuska ni cimanyikwiro ca mzimu.<ref name=Hearn>{{cite book |last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |author-link=Lafcadio Hearn |year=1968|orig-year=1st pub. 1904 |title=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |title-link=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |publisher=Dover |isbn=978-0-486-21901-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0001.694 |title=Butterfly |journal=Encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert |access-date=16 December 2023 |date=January 2011 |first=Louis |last=De Jaucourt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811042437/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0001.694 |archive-date=11 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Hutchins, M., Arthur V. Evans, Rosser W. Garrison and Neil Schlager (Eds) (2003), ''Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia'', 2nd edition. Volume 3, Insects. Gale, 2003.</ref> [[File:Alexander Coosemans - Still Life with Lobster and Oysters.jpg|thumb|Luso: ''Still Life with Lobster and Oysters'' ya Alexander Coosemans, {{Circa|1660}}]] Vinyama vyaŵa nkhani ya luso kufuma kale comene, mu mbiri, nga mu Eguputo wa kale, na pambere pa mbiri, nga mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga gha Lascaux. Vithuzi vikulu vya vinyama ni ''The Rhinoceros'' ya Albrecht Dürer ya 1515, na cithuzi ca hachi ''Whistlejacket'' ca George Stubbs ca pafupifupi 1762.<ref name="Jones">{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=The top 10 animal portraits in art |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/jun/27/top-10-animal-portraits-in-art |access-date=24 June 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518105922/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/jun/27/top-10-animal-portraits-in-art |archive-date=18 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vibenene, viyuni na vinyama vyakonkheska vikugwira ntchito mu malemba na mu mafilimu.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Paterson |first1=Jennifer |chapter=Animals in Film and Media |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791286/obo-9780199791286-0044.xml |title=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=24 June 2016 |date=29 October 2013 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199791286-0044 |isbn=978-0-19-785827-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614200642/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791286/obo-9780199791286-0044.xml |archive-date=14 June 2016 |url-status=live|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="GregersdotterHöglund2016">{{cite book |last1=Gregersdotter |first1=Katarina |last2=Höglund |first2=Johan |last3=Hållén |first3=Nicklas |title=Animal Horror Cinema: Genre, History and Criticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hV-hCwAAQBAJ |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-49639-3 |page=147}}</ref><ref name="WarrenThomas2009">{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Bill |last2=Thomas |first2=Bill |title=Keep Watching the Skies!: American Science Fiction Movies of the Fifties, The 21st Century Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B7kUCwAAQBAJ |date=2009 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-1-4766-2505-8 |page=32}}</ref><ref name="Crouse2008">{{cite book |last=Crouse |first=Richard |title=Son of the 100 Best Movies You've Never Seen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5alnowvF3sC |year=2008 |publisher=ECW Press |isbn=978-1-55490-330-6 |page=200}}</ref> Vinyama, kusazgapo vibenene na vinyama vyakonkheska, vikusangika mu majandulo na visopa.<ref name=Hearn/><ref name=TFL/> Cibenene ca ''scarab'' cikaŵa cakupatulika mu Eguputo wa kale, ndipo ng'ombe njakupatulika mu Cihindu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ben-Tor |first=Daphna |title=Scarabs, A Reflection of Ancient Egypt |location=Jerusalem |publisher=Israel Museum |date=1989 |isbn=978-965-278-083-6 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |title=Why the humble cow is India's most polarising animal |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-34513185 |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 July 2016 |date=15 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122205058/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-34513185 |archive-date=22 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mwa vinyama vinyake vyakonkheska, nswala, mahachi, nkhalamu, mileme, ŵankhalamila, na mimbulu ni nkhani za majandulo na kusopa.<ref name=TFL>{{cite web |title=Deer |url=https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythology-folklore/deer/ |publisher=Trees for Life |access-date=23 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614200842/https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythology-folklore/deer/ |archive-date=14 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Hayagrīva: The Mantrayānic Aspect of Horse-cult in China and Japan |publisher=Brill Archive |page=9 |last=van Gulik |first=Robert Hans}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Grainger |first1=Richard |title=Lion Depiction across Ancient and Modern Religions |url=https://lionalert.org/page/Lion_Depiction_Across_Ancient_and_Modern_Religions |publisher=Alert |access-date=6 July 2016 |date=24 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923134807/https://lionalert.org/page/Lion_Depiction_Across_Ancient_and_Modern_Religions |archive-date=23 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=ReadGonzalez>{{cite book |last1=Read |first1=Kay Almere |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Jason J. |year=2000 |title=Mesoamerican Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=132–134}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wunn |first=Ina |s2cid=53595088 |date=January 2000 |title=Beginning of Religion |journal=Numen |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=417–452 |doi=10.1163/156852700511612}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McCone |first=Kim R. |title=Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |year=1987 |editor-last=Meid |editor-first=W. |location=Innsbruck |pages=101–154 |language=de |chapter=Hund, Wolf, und Krieger bei den Indogermanen}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vinyama]] 9p6y19svgzmu4glqpabydlttmsiqp4h 0 2442 124349 124018 2026-11-10T14:18:19Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124349 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Goat family.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] [[File:Irish Goat.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] [[File:Goats butting heads in Germany.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] '''Mbuzi''' (''Capra hircus'') ni mtundu wa [[Vinyama|cinyama]] ico kanandi cikuŵetika. Mbuzi zikaŵetika kufuma ku mbuzi za mu thengere za ku Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumanjiliro na Ulaya ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Mbuzi zili mu mbumba ya ng'ombe, ndipo zikukolerana comene na mbelele. Zikaŵa vinyama vyakwamba kuŵetika, mu Iran pafupifupi vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mbuzi zikuŵetika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo zikupeleka mkaka, vipapa, nyama, na ubweya. Mu 2022, pakaŵa mbuzi zakujumpha biliyoni 1.1 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo miliyoni 150 zikaŵa mu India. Mbuzi zikusangika mu majandulo na visopa vya vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, kusazgapo mu Cikhristu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''goat'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''gāt'' ("mbuzi, mbuzi yanakazi"), ilo likufuma ku muzu wa kale wa Ŵajeremani, ndipo pakumalira ku muzu wa Proto-Indo-European wakung'anamula "mwana wa mbuzi". Kuti ŵalongosore mbuzi yanalume, Cingelezi ca kale cikagwiliskiranga ntchito ''bucca'' mpaka pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1100. Mazina gha mbuzi yanakazi yikulu na yanalume yikulu ghakamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800. Mbuzi zanalume zakuthenulika zikuchemeka ''wethers''. Ŵana ŵa mbuzi ŵakuchemeka ''kids'', lizgu ilo likafuma ku ciyowoyero ca Scandinavia, ndipo kufuma mu ma 1590 lagwiliskirika ntchito so pa ŵana ŵa ŵanthu. == Mbiri == Mbuzi ni vimoza mwa vinyama vyakwamba ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaŵeta. Kusanda vyakuhara kukusimikizga ukaboni wa kale wakuti mbuzi ya mu thengere ya bezoar, iyo sono yikusangika mu mapiri gha Zagros, kweni kale yikaŵanga mu Anatolia yose, ndiyo yingaŵa kuti yikaŵa mbuzi ya kale ya mbuzi zose panji zinandi za panyumba za mazuŵa ghano. Ŵalimi ŵa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya ŵakamba kuŵeta mbuzi za mu thengere comene kuti ŵasange mkaka na nyama luŵiro, kweniso vyakunyela vyawo, ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito nga ni vyakotchera; ndipo viwanga, sisi, na misipa yawo vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa vyakuvwara, kuzenga, na vilwero. Vyakusyala vyakwamba vya mbuzi zakuŵetika, vya vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha, vyasangika ku Ganj Dareh mu Iran. Vyakusyala vya mbuzi vyasangika so ku Yeriko na malo ghanyake, ivyo vikulongora kuti mbuzi zikaŵetika mu Asiya ya Kumanjiliro pakati pa vyaka 8,000 na 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu mbiri, vipapa vya mbuzi vyagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakusungiramo maji na vinyo, na kupanga mapepala gha vipapa. == Kasandiro ka Vyamoyo == === Malongosoro === Mtundu uliwose wa mbuzi uli na kuzitika kwapadera, kufuma ku makilogalamu ghakujumpha 140 pa mbuzi zanalume za mitundu yikulu nga ni Boer, mpaka makilogalamu 20 mpaka 27 pa mbuzi zanakazi zicoko. Pasi comene pali mitundu yicoko comene nga ni African Pygmy, iyo yikuŵa yitali masentimita 41 mpaka 58 pa mapewa. Mbuzi zinandi zili na nyanga ziŵiri, ndipo mawonekero na ukulu wake vikuthemba mtundu. Pali mbuzi zinyake izo zili na nyanga zinandi (mpaka zinkhondi na zitatu), nangauli ici nchambura kucitika kanandi. Kupambana na ng'ombe, mbuzi zingaŵetika makola yayi kuti ziŵe zambura nyanga, cifukwa vyakuhara vya kuŵa wanalume panji wanakazi na vya nyanga vikukolerana comene. Nyanga zawo zikupangika na ciwanga camoyo ico cazingilizgika na keratin, ndipo zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kujivikilira, kuwusa, kuvikilira malo, na kulaŵilira kufunda kwa thupi. Mbuzi zanalume na zanakazi zingaŵa na mwembe, ndipo mitundu yinandi yingaŵa na tucikopa twakupachika pa singo. Mbuzi zili na mboni za maso za mawonekero gha mzere, izo zikuzizomerezga kuwona makola mu ungweru na mu mdima, na kuwona kutali kumphepete zose kuti zisange vinyama vyakusaka, kwambura kuziziskika na ungweru wa zuŵa wakufuma pacanya. Mbuzi zilije vyakufumira masozi. Mbuzi ni vinyama vyakuwerezga kulya. Zili na mithumbo yinayi. Mbuzi zanakazi zili na mabele ghaŵiri, kupambana na ng'ombe, izo zili na ghanayi. Mbuzi zili na vigaŵa viŵiri vya vigaŵa vya vyakuhara 30. === Kuyaniska na Mberere === Mberere na mbuzi vikukolerana comene: vyose viŵiri vili mu mbumba yimoza. Kweni ni mitundu yakupambana, ntheura ŵana ŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakuwoneka kanandi yayi ndipo ŵangaŵaba yayi. Kupambana kwakuwoneka pakati pa mbelele na mbuzi ni mwembe wa mbuzi na mlomo wa pacanya wakugaŵika wa mbelele. Mcira wa mbelele ukupachika pasi, apo mcira mufupi wa mbuzi ukwimilira pacanya. Mitundu ya mbelele kanandi yilije nyanga mwa kawiro, apo mbuzi zambura nyanga mwa kawiro nzicoko. Mbuzi zanalume zikunkha comene pa nyengo ya kutorana, apo mbelele zanalume zikunkha yayi. == Nkhalo na Malo == Mbuzi zili na khumbo la kumanya mwa kawiro. Nzaluŵiro, ndipo zingakwera na kujikhazga pa malo ghakusuzga. Ici cikuzipangiska kuŵa vinyama vyekha vyakuwerezga kulya ivyo vikukwera makuni nyengo zose. Nkhalo izi zazipangiska kumanyikwa pa kuthaŵa mu makhola mwa kuyezga mipanda. Usange cigaŵa ciliconse ca mpanda cingajumphika, mbuzi pafupifupi nyengo zose zikuthaŵa. Kuyana na kusanda kunyake, mbuzi nza vinjeru nga ni ncheŵe. Para zikulongozgeka pamoza, mbuzi zikulongora nkhalo yicoko ya kuwungana kuluska mbelele. Para zikurya kwambura kusokonezgeka, zikuthandazgika mu munda, m'malo mwa kurya pafupi na pafupi nga ni mbelele. Zikuzgokera na kulaŵiska munthu wakunjira, ndipo mbuzi zanalume zingathamangira panji kutimba ŵanthu kuluska mbelele zanalume. Kusanda kwa mu 2016 kukayowoya kuti mbuzi zikuyezga kuyowoyerana na ŵanthu nga ni vinyama vyakuŵetika nga ni ncheŵe na mahachi. Zikulaŵiska munthu kuti ziwovwirike para zakumana na suzgo liphya. === Kuŵaba === Mbuzi zikukura kufika pa kuŵaba pakati pa myezi 3 na 15, kuyana na mtundu na vyakulya. Ŵaŵeti ŵanandi ŵakukhumba kulindilira mpaka mbuzi yanakazi yafika magaŵa 70 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa mbuzi yikulu, kweni ici cikucitika kanandi yayi mu magulu agho ghakwendakwenda. Mbuzi zanalume za mitundu ya Switzerland na ya kumpoto zikunjira mu nyengo ya kutorana mu nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba, nga ni mbuzi zanakazi. Mbuzi zanalume za mitundu ya pafupi na mzere wapakati zingaŵa na kucepa kwa kuŵaba mu nyengo zinyake, kweni zingatorana nyengo zose. Nyengo ya kutorana yikumanyikwa na kucepa kwa khumbo la kulya na kukhumba comene mbuzi zanakazi. Mbuzi yanalume pa nyengo iyi yikupinda mlomo na kunyela matuzi pa malundi gha panthazi na pa cisko. Tuzenje twa fungo pasi pa nyanga tukusazgirapo fungo la mbuzi yanalume, ilo nlakuzirwa kuti yikope mbuzi yanakazi. Mbuzi zinyake zanakazi zikukana kutorana na mbuzi yanalume iyo tuzenje utu twawuskikapo. Nthumbo yikutora pafupifupi mazuŵa 150. Kanandi zikubaba mapasa, ndipo kubaba yumoza panji ŵatatu nako nkhwakumanyikwa. Ŵanayi, ŵankhondi, panji ŵankhondi na yumoza ŵakuwoneka kanandi yayi. Kubaba kanandi kukucitika makola. Pambere yindababe, mbuzi yanakazi yikuŵa na malo ghakunjira pafupi na mcira, ndipo yikupuma comene. Amama kanandi ŵakurya cigaŵa ca kubabira, ico cikuŵapa vyakulya vyakuzirwa na kucepeska ngozi ya kukopa vinyama vyakusaka. Mkaka ukwamba kanandi pa kubaba. Unandi wa mkaka ukupambana kuyana na mtundu, vyaka, na vyakulya vya mbuzi; mbuzi za mkaka kanandi zikupanga mkaka pakati pa makilogalamu 680 na 1,810 pa mazuŵa 305. Pakati, mbuzi yiwemi ya mkaka yikupeleka makilogalamu 3 gha mkaka pa zuŵa. Mbuzi iyo yikupeleka mkaka kakwamba yingapeleka ucoko, panji mpaka makilogalamu 7 panji kujumpha. Pamanyuma, mbuzi yanakazi yikuleka kupeleka mkaka, kanandi pamanyuma pa kutorana so. Nyengo zinyake, mbuzi izo zindatorane ndipo zikukamika nyengo zose zikulutilira kupeleka mkaka kujumpha mazuŵa 305. Nyengo zinyake mbuzi zanalume nazo zikupeleka mkaka. === Vyakulya === Mbuzi zikumanyikwa kuti zingarya pafupifupi ciliconse. Zikurya mahamba gha tumakuni, kupambana na ng'ombe na mbelele izo zikurya utheka, ndipo (pamoza na khumbo lawo la kumanya) zikutafuna na kunowa ciliconse ico cikuwoneka nga ni cakumera kuti zimanye usange ncakulyeka, kusazgapo makatoni, vyakuvwara, na mapepala. Thupi la kazinyane, pa kugaya, likuyana na la cinyama ca mthumbo umoza. Kugaya mkaka kukwamba mu mthumbo waumaliro. Pa kubabika, mthumbo wakwamba undakure, kweni apo mwana wakwamba kurya vyakulya vyakukhwima, ukukura luŵiro. Ukulu wa mbuzi yikulu ukuthemba mtundu wake na vyakulya apo yikukura. Nga ni viŵeto vyose, vyakulya vya purotini yinandi (magaŵa 10 mpaka 14 pa 100) na nkhongono zakukwana pambere pa kukura vikupangiska kukura luŵiro na ukulu ukulu. Mbuzi za viwanga vikulu zikufika pa kuzitika kwa ukulu pa vyaka vya pamanyuma (myezi 36 mpaka 42) kuluska mbuzi za viwanga vicoko (myezi 18 mpaka 24), ndipo zikukhumba vyakulya vinandi. === Nthenda na Utali wa Umoyo === Nangauli mbuzi nza nkhongono ndipo kanandi zikukhumba ucizgi ucoko, zingakora nthenda zinandi. Zinyake ni nthenda za kupuma nga ni chibayo, kuvunda kwa malundi, tuzirombo twa mukati, na poizoni wa vyakulya. Mbuzi zingakora nthenda za tubungulu na mabakiteriya, nga ni nthenda ya malundi na mlomo. Zingambuzga ku ŵanthu nthenda zinyake, nga ni TB na nthenda ya kuluma kwa ncheŵe yakuzerewuka. Utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi uli pakati pa vyaka 15 na 18. Mbuzi yinyake yikafika vyaka 24. Masuzgo pa kubaba ghangacepeska utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi yanakazi kufika 10 panji 11, ndipo nyengo za kutorana zingacepeska utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi yanalume kufika 8 mpaka 10. == Ulimi == === Kuŵeta === Kuŵeta kukupambana kuyana na cigaŵa na mdawuko. Vyakukhumbikwa vicoko vya mbuzi ni malo gha kuryera panji kupeleka vyakulya ku vinyama vya mu khola, maji ghawemi, mcere, malo gha kwendera, na kuwuskapo vyakugonapo vyakunyanyira. Mu Afilika na Vuma Lapakati, mbuzi kanandi zikuŵetika pamoza na mbelele. Ici cikusazgirapo vyakupangika pa malo, cifukwa mbuzi na mbelele zikurya vyakumera vyakupambana. Mu Ethiopia, pali nthowa zinayi zikulu za kuŵeta mbuzi, ndipo mu zose, mbuzi zikuŵetika mwambura kugula vinthu vinandi. Mu Nigeria na mu vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Ŵalatini, mbuzi zinyake zikuzomerezgeka kwendakwenda mu muzi, apo zinyake zikusungika mu khola na kupika vyakulya ivyo vyadumulika na kunyamulika. Ici cikwenelera pa mbuto nga ni cingoma izo zikunangika na kulyatika. === Unandi pa Caro Cose === Mu 2024, pakaŵa mbuzi zakujumpha biliyoni 1.18 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo vyaro vyakuŵa na zinandi comene vikaŵa India (miliyoni 211), China (miliyoni 118), na Nigeria (miliyoni 91). Pafupifupi mbuzi miliyoni 564 zikukomeka pa caka cifukwa ca nyama, ndipo zikupeleka matani miliyoni 7.74 gha nyama. Vyaro vyakupanga mkaka wa mbuzi comene mu 2022 vikaŵa India (matani miliyoni 6.25), Bangladesh (miliyoni 0.91), na South Sudan (miliyoni 0.52). Mu 2015, India yikakomanga magaŵa 41 pa 100 gha mbuzi zake miliyoni 124.4 pa caka. Nyama ya mbuzi ya matani miliyoni 0.6 ni magaŵa 8 pa 100 gha nyama yose iyo India yikupanga pa caka. === Mbuzi za mu Thengere === Mbuzi zikuwelera ku thengere luŵiro para zapika mwaŵi. Mbuzi za mu thengere zili mu malo ghanandi: Australia, New Zealand, Ufumu Ubanyi, Galapagos, na kunyake. Para zafika pa unandi ukulu mu malo umo muli maji ghanandi na vinyama vyakusaka vicoko, zingananga comene, nga ni kuwuskapo tumakuni na makuni gha malo agho. Mbuzi za mu thengere nzinandi comene mu Australia, pafupifupi miliyoni 2.6 pakati pa ma 1990. == Kagwiliskiro == Mbuzi zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa mkaka, ubweya wapadera, nyama, na vipapa. Mawupu ghanyake gha lusungu ghakupeleka mbuzi ku ŵanthu ŵakavu mu vyaro vyakavu, ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vyakovwira vikucepeska ukavu kuluska ndalama. Kweni mtengo wa kugula na kuthandazga mbuzi ungaŵa ukulu. === Nyama === Kunowa kwa nyama ya kazinyane kukuyana na kwa nyama ya mwana wa mbelele. Ŵanyake ŵakuyaniska nyama ya mbuzi na ya ng'ombe yaŵana panji ya nyama za mu thengere. Kunowa kwake kukufuma comene ku vinthu viŵiri vya usungunu ivyo vili mu nyama. Nyama yikuphikika mu vyakulya nga ni ''curry'' ya mbuzi, ''mutton satay'', na ''capra e fagioli''. Mu virwa vya Caribbean vya Cingelezi na mu Asiya ya Kumwera, lizgu lakuti ''mutton'' likung'anamula nyama ya mbuzi na ya mbelele. === Mkaka, Batala, na Tchizi === Mbuzi zikupanga pafupifupi magaŵa 2 pa 100 gha mkaka wose wa caro cose capasi pa caka. Mbuzi za mkaka zikupanga pakati pa makilogalamu 540 na 1,180 gha mkaka mu mazuŵa 284. Mkaka ungaŵa na magaŵa 3.5 mpaka 5 pa 100 gha mafuta kuyana na mtundu. Mkaka wa mbuzi ukupangika kuŵa vyakupangika nga ni tchizi na ''Dulce de leche''. === Ubweya === Mbuzi zinandi zili na sisi lakupepuka lakufundiska pafupi na cikumba, na sisi litali pacanya. Sisi lakupepuka ndilo likuzirwa ku mafakitale gha nsalu; likuchemeka ''cashmere'' na ''pashmina''. Mbuzi ya ''cashmere'' yikupanga ubweya wakupepuka wa ''cashmere'', umoza mwa ulusi wa kawiro wakudura comene. Ukuwunjikika kamoza pa caka. Mbuzi za Angora zikupanga sisi litali lakupindikapindika la ''mohair'', ilo likumetika kaŵiri pa caka, ndipo pakati likupeleka makilogalamu pafupifupi 4.5. Sisi lakukhwima la pacanya ndakuzirwa yayi cifukwa ndakukhwima comene na lakusuzga kulusa na kupaka mtundu. === Kutozga Malo === Ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kuwuskapo vyakumera vyambura kukhumbikwa kwa vyaka mahandiredi. Zalongosoreka nga ni "makina gha kurya". Ici cawelera so mu Amerika ya Kumpoto kufuma mu 1990, apo miskambo ya mbuzi yikagwiliskirika ntchito kuwuskapo tumakuni twakomira pa vikweza vya California, ivyo vikaŵa pa ngozi ya moto wa mu thengere. Mawupu ghanandi gha ulongozgi na gha ŵanthu paŵekha ghakubwereka miskambo ya mbuzi pa ntchito zakuyana. Ici cingadura, ndipo fungo lawo lingaŵa suzgo. Mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, mbuzi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuwuskapo vyakumera vyakunanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵangaviwuskapo luŵiro yayi. Misumba ya Chattanooga na Spartanburg mu United States yagwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kulaŵilira ''kudzu'', cakumera cakunanga. === Kusambizga Ŵantchito ŵa Ucizgi === Ŵankhondo ŵa vyaro vinyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kusambizga ŵacizgi ŵa nkhondo. Mu United States, mbuzi zaŵa vinyama vikulu ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa ici, pamanyuma pakuti ncheŵe zikaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito mu ma 1980. Nangauli vyakuyezgera vya mazuŵa ghano vikuyezga makola thupi la munthu, ŵakusambira ŵakuti "kuyezga na mbuzi kukupeleka luŵiro ilo ngozi yeneyiyo pera ndiyo yingapeleka". Kacitiro aka kasuskika na mawupu gha wanangwa wa vinyama. === Vyakusanguluska === Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakusankha mbuzi nga ni vyakusanguluska cifukwa zingaŵa ŵabwezi ŵapafupi na ŵakuzipwelelera. Mbuzi zikukhumba kukhala na mbuzi zinyake, kweni zikulondezga mwenecho na kuŵa ŵabwezi ŵapafupi nayo, ndipo ici cikuzipangiska kutemweka. Pa vyakulya, mbuzi zikuyana na nyama za mu thengere za mtundu wa nswala, ndipo zikukhumba vyakulya vya mitundu yinandi, nga ni utheka wakomira, mbuto, na mcere. Mbuzi kanandi zikuhara panji kusambira vyakulya ivyo zikutemwa pamanyuma pa kubabika. == Mu Midawuko == Mu majandulo gha Ŵagiriki ŵa kale, Amalthea ni cinyama panji mzimu uwo ukalyiska ciuta mwana Jupiter mkaka wa mbuzi. Mu jandulo linyake, ciuta wakaphwanya nyanga yimoza ya mbuzi, ndipo yikaŵa nyanga ya unandi, iyo yikazuranga na ciliconse ico mwenecho wakakhumbanga. Mu majandulo gha Ŵanoyi, ciuta wa mabingu, Thor, wali na galimoto la nkhondo ilo likuguzika na mbuzi ziŵiri. Usiku Thor wakurya nyama ya mbuzi, kweni wakupwelelera kuti viwanga vyose vileke kuphwanyika, ndipo mlenji mbuzi zikuwuka so kuguza galimoto. Para mwana wa mulimi uyo wakachemeka ku cakulya waphwanya ciwanga ca lundi la mbuzi yimoza kuti wafyonte mongo, lundi la cinyama likusyala laphwanyika mlenji, ndipo mwana wakukakizgika kuteŵetera Thor nga ni mteŵeti. Mbuzi ya Khrisimasi (''Julbocken'') ni mdawuko wa Khrisimasi wa Scandinavia. Pakwamba yikang'anamulanga mbuzi iyo yikakomekanga pa Khrisimasi, kweni sono kanandi ni cithuzi ca mbuzi cakupangika na udzu. Mbuzi ya Gävle ni mbuzi yikulu comene ya mtundu uwu iyo yikuzengeka caka ciliconse mu msumba wa Gävle mu Sweden. Mu Finland, pa zuŵa la St. Knut (13 Matika), ŵanyamata ŵakuvwala nga ni mbuzi (''Nuuttipukki'') na kuzungulira nyumba, ŵakupempha vyakulya. Msumba wa kale wa Ebla mu Siriya uli na nthumbo ya munthu yakuŵa na mpando wakujikongoleska na mitu ya mbuzi ya mkuŵa, iyo sono yikuchemeka "Nthumbo ya Fumu ya Mbuzi". Mbuzi ni cimoza mwa vinyama 12 vya ndondomeko ya vyaka ya Ŵacayina. Gulu la nyenyezi la Capricorn likulongoreka nga ni mbuzi iyo yili na mcira wa somba. Vinyama vinyake vya majandulo vyakusazganika, nga ni Chimera, vili na vigaŵa vya mbuzi. Fauns na satyrs ni vinyama vya majandulo vyakuŵa na thupi la munthu na malundi gha mbuzi. Ciuta wa Ŵagiriki Pan wali na thupi la munthu pacanya na nyanga na thupi la pasi la mbuzi. Mu Cihindu, Daksha nyengo zinyake wakulongoreka na mutu wa mbuzi yanalume. Jandulo likuti Daksha wakaleka kuchema Shiva ku sembe; Shiva wakadumula mutu wa Daksha, kweni apo Vishnu wakamupempha, wakamuwezgera ku umoyo na mutu wa mbuzi. Mbuzi zikuyowoyeka kanandi mu [[Baibolo]]. Kuzirwa kwake mu Israeli wa kale kukulongoreka na mazgo ghankhondi na ghaŵiri gha Ciheberi na ghatatu gha Cigiriki agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu Baibolo. Mbuzi yikuwonekera nga ni cinyama "cakutowa" mu malango gha vyakulya gha Ŵayuda, ndipo mwana wa mbuzi wakakomekanga pa mulendo wakucindikika. Yikazomerezgeka so pa sembe zinyake. Makatani gha sisi la mbuzi ghakagwiliskirika ntchito mu hema ilo likaŵa na nyumba ya Ciuta (Exodus 25:4). Nyanga zake zingagwiliskirika ntchito m'malo mwa nyanga ya mbelele kupanga ''shofar''. Pa Yom Kippur, zuŵa la kusambika kwa vyakwananga, mbuzi ziŵiri zikasankhika: yimoza yikaperekeka sembe, ndipo yinyake yikazomerezgeka kuthaŵira ku cipalamba, yikunyamula vyakwananga vya ŵanthu wose. Kufuma apa pakafuma lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''scapegoat''. Satana nyengo zinyake wakulongoreka nga ni mbuzi, nga ni Baphomet, ndipo ici cikupangiska cinyama ici kuŵa cimanyikwiro cakuzirwa mu Cisatana. [[Category:Vinyama]] b8d9mgtxu0q4hqathy90ckv4ay8gj6z 124413 124349 2026-11-10T20:44:41Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124413 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Mbuzi | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.01|0}} Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya – sono | status = DOM | image = Hausziege 04.jpg | image_caption = Mbuzi yicoko pacanya pa cigodo | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Mammalia | ordo = Artiodactyla | familia = Bovidae | genus = ''Capra'' | species = '''''C. hircus''''' | binomial = ''Capra hircus'' | binomial_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | synonyms = ''Capra aegagrus hircus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}<br/>''Capra depressa'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}<br/>''Capra mambrica'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}<br/>''Capra reversa'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}} }} [[File:Goat family.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] [[File:Irish Goat.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] [[File:Goats butting heads in Germany.jpg|thumb|250px|Mbuzi]] '''Mbuzi''' (''Capra hircus'') ni mtundu wa [[Vinyama|cinyama]] ico kanandi cikuŵetika. Mbuzi zikaŵetika kufuma ku mbuzi za mu thengere za ku Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumanjiliro na Ulaya ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Mbuzi zili mu mbumba ya ng'ombe, ndipo zikukolerana comene na mbelele. Zikaŵa vinyama vyakwamba kuŵetika, mu Iran pafupifupi vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mbuzi zikuŵetika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo zikupeleka mkaka, vipapa, nyama, na ubweya. Mu 2022, pakaŵa mbuzi zakujumpha biliyoni 1.1 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo miliyoni 150 zikaŵa mu India. Mbuzi zikusangika mu majandulo na visopa vya vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, kusazgapo mu Cikhristu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''goat'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''gāt'' ("mbuzi, mbuzi yanakazi"), ilo likufuma ku muzu wa kale wa Ŵajeremani, ndipo pakumalira ku muzu wa Proto-Indo-European wakung'anamula "mwana wa mbuzi".<ref>{{cite dictionary |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |display-authors=etal |title=The American Heritage Dictionary |year=1975 |editor=William Morris}}</ref> Kuti ŵalongosore mbuzi yanalume, Cingelezi ca kale cikagwiliskiranga ntchito ''bucca'' mpaka pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1100.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ullman |first=B. L. |date=1943 |title=Bucca, Bucca |journal=Classical Philology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=94–102 |doi=10.1086/362696 |jstor=264294}}</ref> Mazina gha mbuzi yanakazi yikulu na yanalume yikulu ghakamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800. Mbuzi zanalume zakuthenulika zikuchemeka ''wethers''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=nanny-goat |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/nanny-goat_n?tl=true |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Oxford English Dictionary |archive-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324070608/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/nanny-goat_n?tl=true |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2024 |title=billy-goat |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/billy-goat_n |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref> Ŵana ŵa mbuzi ŵakuchemeka ''kids'', lizgu ilo likafuma ku ciyowoyero ca Scandinavia, ndipo kufuma mu ma 1590 lagwiliskirika ntchito so pa ŵana ŵa ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abd Eldaim |first1=Mabrouk A. |last2=Gaafar |first2=Khalid M. |last3=Darwish |first3=Ragab A. |last4=Mahboub |first4=Hamad D. |last5=Helal |first5=Mohamed A. |title=Prepartum vitamin A supplementation enhances goat doe health status and kid viability and performance |journal=Small Ruminant Research |date=August 2015 |volume=129 |pages=6–10 |doi=10.1016/j.smallrumres.2015.06.007 }}</ref> == Mbiri == [[File:Atlit-Yam – Horn Cores of goat (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Nyanga za mbuzi kufuma ku muzi wa Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya wa Atlit Yam, pakati pa 6900 na 6300 pambere Khristu]] Mbuzi ni vimoza mwa vinyama vyakwamba ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaŵeta.<ref name=OKstate>{{cite web |title=Breeds of Livestock; Goats: (''Capra hircus'') |date=January 19, 2021 |url=http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/|publisher=Oklahoma State University Board of Regents |access-date=March 27, 2002 |archive-date=September 25, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925153835/http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda vyakuhara kukusimikizga ukaboni wa kale wakuti mbuzi ya mu thengere ya bezoar, iyo sono yikusangika mu mapiri gha Zagros, kweni kale yikaŵanga mu Anatolia yose, ndiyo yingaŵa kuti yikaŵa mbuzi ya kale ya mbuzi zose panji zinandi za panyumba za mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="Naderi et al. 17659–17664">{{cite journal |date=November 18, 2008 |title=The goat domestication process inferred from large-scale mitochondrial DNA analysis of wild and domestic individuals |journal=PNAS |volume=105 |issue=46 |pages=17659–17664 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0804782105 |pmid=19004765 |last1=Naderi |first1=Saeid |last2=Rezaei |first2=Hamid-Reza |last3=Pompanon |first3=François |last4=Blum |first4=Michael G. B. |last5=Negrini |first5=Riccardo |last6=Naghash |first6=Hamid-Reza |last7=Balkiz |first7=Özge |last8=Mashkour |first8=Marjan |last9=Gaggiotti |first9=Oscar E. |last10=Ajmone-Marsan |first10=Paolo |last11=Kence |first11=Aykut |last12=Vigne |first12=Jean-Denis |last13=Taberlet |first13=Pierre |display-authors=5 |pmc=2584717 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10517659N |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=OKstate/> Ŵalimi ŵa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya ŵakamba kuŵeta mbuzi za mu thengere comene kuti ŵasange mkaka na nyama luŵiro, kweniso vyakunyela vyawo, ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito nga ni vyakotchera; ndipo viwanga, sisi, na misipa yawo vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa vyakuvwara, kuzenga, na vilwero.<ref name="hadog">{{cite web|last=Hirst |first=K. Kris |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/goats.htm |title=The History of the Domestication of Goats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319011333/archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/goats.htm |archive-date=March 19, 2012 |url-status=dead |website=About.com |access-date=August 18, 2008}}</ref> Vyakusyala vyakwamba vya mbuzi zakuŵetika, vya vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha, vyasangika ku Ganj Dareh mu Iran.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Initial Domestication of Goats (''Capra hircus'') in the Zagros Mountains 10,000 Years Ago |journal=Science |bibcode=2000Sci...287.2254Z |last1=Zeder |first1=Melinda A. |last2=Hesse |first2=Brian |year=2000|volume=287 |issue=5461 |pages=2254–2257 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5461.2254 |pmid=10731145}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Kevin G. |last2=Mattiangeli |first2=Valeria |last3=Hare |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Davoudi |first4=Hossein |last5=Fathi |first5=Homa |last6=Doost |first6=Sanaz Beizaee |last7=Amiri |first7=Sarieh |last8=Khazaeli |first8=Roya |last9=Decruyenaere |first9=Delphine |last10=Nokandeh |first10=Jebrael |last11=Richter |first11=Tobias |last12=Darabi |first12=Hojjat |last13=Mortensen |first13=Peder |last14=Pantos |first14=Alexis |last15=Yeomans |first15=Lisa |display-authors=5 |date=2021 |title=Herded and hunted goat genomes from the dawn of domestication in the Zagros Mountains |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=118 |issue=25 |article-number=e2100901118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2100901118 |doi-access=free |pmc=8237664 |pmid=34099576 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11800901D }}</ref> Vyakusyala vya mbuzi vyasangika so ku Yeriko na malo ghanyake, ivyo vikulongora kuti mbuzi zikaŵetika mu Asiya ya Kumanjiliro pakati pa vyaka 8,000 na 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Maisels |first=C.K. |title=The Near East: Archaeology in the Cradle of Civilization |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |page=124 |isbn=978-0-415-18607-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1WOPkmChaFsC&dq=choga+mami+goat&pg=PA124 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924104103/https://books.google.com/books?id=1WOPkmChaFsC&dq=choga+mami+goat&pg=PA124 |archive-date=September 24, 2023}}</ref><ref name=OKstate/><ref name="Naderi et al. 17659–17664" /> Mu mbiri, vipapa vya mbuzi vyagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakusungiramo maji na vinyo, na kupanga mapepala gha vipapa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schröder |first1=Oskar |last2=Wagner |first2=Mayke |last3=Wutke |first3=Saskia |last4=Zhang |first4=Yong |last5=Ma |first5=Yingxia |last6=Xu |first6=Dongliang |last7=Goslar |first7=Tomasz |last8=Neef |first8=Reinder |last9=Tarasov |first9=Pavel E. |last10=Ludwig |first10=Arne |display-authors=5 |date=October 2016 |title=Ancient DNA identification of domestic animals used for leather objects in Central Asia during the Bronze Age |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959683616641741 |journal=The Holocene |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1722–1729 |doi=10.1177/0959683616641741 |bibcode=2016Holoc..26.1722S |access-date=March 26, 2024 |archive-date=March 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326113713/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959683616641741 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Vyamoyo == === Malongosoro === Mtundu uliwose wa mbuzi uli na kuzitika kwapadera, kufuma ku makilogalamu ghakujumpha 140 pa mbuzi zanalume za mitundu yikulu nga ni Boer, mpaka makilogalamu 20 mpaka 27 pa mbuzi zanakazi zicoko.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=R.E. |last2=Field |first2=T.G. |chapter=Growth and Development |title=Scientific Farm Animal Production: An Introduction to Animal Science |edition=6th |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1999 |location=Upper Saddle River |pages=321–324}}</ref> Pasi comene pali mitundu yicoko comene nga ni African Pygmy, iyo yikuŵa yitali masentimita 41 mpaka 58 pa mapewa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Belanger |first1=J. |last2=Bredesen |first2=S.T. |chapter=Basic Information about Goats |title=Storey's Guide to Raising Dairy Goats |edition=2nd |publisher=Storey Publishing |year=2010 |location=North Adams |isbn=978-1-61212-932-7 |page=14}}</ref> Mbuzi zinandi zili na nyanga ziŵiri, ndipo mawonekero na ukulu wake vikuthemba mtundu.<ref name="americangoatsociety.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.americangoatsociety.com/education/polled_genetics.php |title=American Goat Society: Polled Genetics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901182702/https://americangoatsociety.com/education/polled_genetics.php |archive-date=September 1, 2018 |url-status=dead |website=americangoatsociety.com}}</ref> Pali mbuzi zinyake izo zili na nyanga zinandi (mpaka zinkhondi na zitatu), nangauli ici nchambura kucitika kanandi. Kupambana na ng'ombe, mbuzi zingaŵetika makola yayi kuti ziŵe zambura nyanga, cifukwa vyakuhara vya kuŵa wanalume panji wanakazi na vya nyanga vikukolerana comene. Nyanga zawo zikupangika na ciwanga camoyo ico cazingilizgika na keratin, ndipo zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kujivikilira, kuwusa, kuvikilira malo, na kulaŵilira kufunda kwa thupi.<ref name="americangoatsociety.com"/><ref name="SmithSherman2011">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Mary C. |author2=David M. Sherman |title=Goat Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJS9NEpYnd8C |date=November 16, 2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-94952-7 |access-date=October 5, 2018 |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321193031/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJS9NEpYnd8C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Taylor 1966 pp. 127–139">{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Charles R. |date=1966 |title=The Vascularity and Possible Thermoregulatory Function of the Horns in Goats |journal=Physiological Zoology |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=127–139 |doi=10.1086/physzool.39.2.30152426 |bibcode=1966PhysZ..39..127T |s2cid=88164340}}</ref> Mbuzi zanalume na zanakazi zingaŵa na mwembe, ndipo mitundu yinandi yingaŵa na tucikopa twakupachika pa singo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tripleigoats.com/faq.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions – Triple I Goats |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717101526/http://www.tripleigoats.com/faq.htm |archive-date=July 17, 2011 |website=Tripleigoats.com}}</ref> Mbuzi zili na mboni za maso za mawonekero gha mzere, izo zikuzizomerezga kuwona makola mu ungweru na mu mdima, na kuwona kutali kumphepete zose kuti zisange vinyama vyakusaka, kwambura kuziziskika na ungweru wa zuŵa wakufuma pacanya.<ref name="Feltman 2015">{{cite news |last=Feltman |first=Rachel |title=Here's why goats have those freaky eyes |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/08/10/heres-why-goats-have-those-freaky-eyes/ |access-date=25 October 2024 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 10, 2015 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104203416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/military-is-required-to-justify-using-animals-in-medic-training-after-pressure-from-activists/2013/02/24/9b19e4ee-7d3e-11e2-82e8-61a46c2cde3d_story.html |archive-date=November 4, 2019}}</ref> Mbuzi zilije vyakufumira masozi.<ref name="Animals With No Tear Ducts">{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Caryn |title=Animals with no Tear Ducts |url=https://animals.mom.com/animals-tear-ducts-9716.html |website=Pets on Mom.com |access-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017234338/https://animals.mom.com/animals-tear-ducts-9716.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mbuzi ni vinyama vyakuwerezga kulya. Zili na mithumbo yinayi. Mbuzi zanakazi zili na mabele ghaŵiri, kupambana na ng'ombe, izo zili na ghanayi.<ref>Taylor, R.E., ''Scientific Farm Animal Production: An Introduction to Animal Science'', 6th ed, Upper Saddle River (Prentice Hall) 1998</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boergoatshome.com/genetic-goat-flaws.php |title=What is a Genetic Flaw in a Boer Goat? |access-date=November 12, 2014 |website=Boer Goats Home |last=Bowman |first=Gail |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112211106/http://www.boergoatshome.com/genetic-goat-flaws.php }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://roosterridgeboergoats.com/articles/choosing-your-4h-boer-goat-doe-guide-4hers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112220815/http://roosterridgeboergoats.com/articles/choosing-your-4h-boer-goat-doe-guide-4hers |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |url-status=dead |title=Choosing Your Boer Goat- How Do I Know What to Look For? |access-date=November 12, 2014 |website=Rooster Ridge Boer Goats }}</ref> Mbuzi zili na vigaŵa viŵiri vya vigaŵa vya vyakuhara 30.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iannuzzi |first1=Leopoldo |last2=Meo |first2=Giulia Pia |last3=Perucatti |first3=Angela |date=2004-05-28 |title=An Improved Characterization of Goat Chromosomes by Means of G- and R-band Comparison |journal=Hereditas |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=245–251 |doi=10.1111/j.1601-5223.1994.00245.x |pmid=7928388 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kuyaniska na Mberere === <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=150 widths=180> File:Goat skeleton (cropped).jpg|Viwanga File:Closeup of goat eye.jpg |Jiso lakuŵa na mboni yakugonera </gallery> Mberere na mbuzi vikukolerana comene: vyose viŵiri vili mu mbumba yimoza. Kweni ni mitundu yakupambana, ntheura ŵana ŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakuwoneka kanandi yayi ndipo ŵangaŵaba yayi. Kupambana kwakuwoneka pakati pa mbelele na mbuzi ni mwembe wa mbuzi na mlomo wa pacanya wakugaŵika wa mbelele. Mcira wa mbelele ukupachika pasi, apo mcira mufupi wa mbuzi ukwimilira pacanya. Mitundu ya mbelele kanandi yilije nyanga mwa kawiro, apo mbuzi zambura nyanga mwa kawiro nzicoko. Mbuzi zanalume zikunkha comene pa nyengo ya kutorana, apo mbelele zanalume zikunkha yayi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rose |first1=Paul |title=Do ewe know your sheep from your goats? We're not kidding about species differences! |url=https://www.veterinary-practice.com/article/behavioural-differences-sheep-goats |website=Improve Veterinary Practice |access-date=29 October 2024 |date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129192617/https://www.veterinary-practice.com/article/behavioural-differences-sheep-goats |archive-date=29 November 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Nkhalo na Malo == Mbuzi zili na khumbo la kumanya mwa kawiro. Nzaluŵiro, ndipo zingakwera na kujikhazga pa malo ghakusuzga. Ici cikuzipangiska kuŵa vinyama vyekha vyakuwerezga kulya ivyo vikukwera makuni nyengo zose. Nkhalo izi zazipangiska kumanyikwa pa kuthaŵa mu makhola mwa kuyezga mipanda. Usange cigaŵa ciliconse ca mpanda cingajumphika, mbuzi pafupifupi nyengo zose zikuthaŵa. Kuyana na kusanda kunyake, mbuzi nza vinjeru nga ni ncheŵe. Para zikulongozgeka pamoza, mbuzi zikulongora nkhalo yicoko ya kuwungana kuluska mbelele. Para zikurya kwambura kusokonezgeka, zikuthandazgika mu munda, m'malo mwa kurya pafupi na pafupi nga ni mbelele. Zikuzgokera na kulaŵiska munthu wakunjira, ndipo mbuzi zanalume zingathamangira panji kutimba ŵanthu kuluska mbelele zanalume.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/goats-are-just-as-smart-and-loving-as-dogs-say-scientists |title=Goats Are as Smart And Loving as Dogs, According to Science |last=MacDonald |first=Fiona |website=ScienceAlert |date=June 30, 2018 |access-date=September 8, 2019|archive-date=March 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315072302/https://www.sciencealert.com/goats-are-just-as-smart-and-loving-as-dogs-say-scientists |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda kwa mu 2016 kukayowoya kuti mbuzi zikuyezga kuyowoyerana na ŵanthu nga ni vinyama vyakuŵetika nga ni ncheŵe na mahachi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fowler |first=M.E. |title=Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals |edition=3rd |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2008 |page=144}}</ref> Zikulaŵiska munthu kuti ziwovwirike para zakumana na suzgo liphya.<ref name="Deamer">{{cite web |last=Deamer |first=Kacey |title=Man's New Best Friend Is a Goat? |publisher=Live Science |date=July 15, 2016 |url=http://www.livescience.com/55411-goats-communicate-with-humans-like-dogs.html |access-date=July 21, 2016 |archive-date=July 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724034445/http://www.livescience.com/55411-goats-communicate-with-humans-like-dogs.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nawroth |first1=Christian |last2=Brett |first2=Jemma |last3=McElligott |first3=Alan |title=Goats display audience-dependent human-directed gazing behaviour in a problem-solving task |journal=Biology Letters |volume=12 |issue=7 |article-number=20160283 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2016.0283 |pmid=27381884 |pmc=4971169 |date=July 5, 2016}}</ref> === Kuŵaba === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="180" widths="180"> File:Goats in an argan tree Morocco.jpg|Mbuzi zikulya pa khuni la ''argan'', Morocco File:Goats butting heads in Germany.jpg|Mbuzi zikupanga ndondomeko ya ukulu mwa kudumana na mitu File:Miyako-jima - Japan - goats 2020 03 25.webm|Mskambo wa mbuzi ukulya pamoza ku Japani File:Goats blocking road. Ladakh.jpg|Kuliska mskambo wa mbuzi pa msewu ku Ladakh </gallery> Mbuzi zikukura kufika pa kuŵaba pakati pa myezi 3 na 15, kuyana na mtundu na vyakulya. Ŵaŵeti ŵanandi ŵakukhumba kulindilira mpaka mbuzi yanakazi yafika magaŵa 70 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa mbuzi yikulu, kweni ici cikucitika kanandi yayi mu magulu agho ghakwendakwenda.<ref>Payne, William J.A., ''An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics'', 5th ed, Oxford (Blackwell Science) 1999</ref> Mbuzi zanalume za mitundu ya Switzerland na ya kumpoto zikunjira mu nyengo ya kutorana mu nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba, nga ni mbuzi zanakazi. Mbuzi zanalume za mitundu ya pafupi na mzere wapakati zingaŵa na kucepa kwa kuŵaba mu nyengo zinyake, kweni zingatorana nyengo zose. Nyengo ya kutorana yikumanyikwa na kucepa kwa khumbo la kulya na kukhumba comene mbuzi zanakazi.<ref name="SmithSherman2011"/> Mbuzi yanalume pa nyengo iyi yikupinda mlomo na kunyela matuzi pa malundi gha panthazi na pa cisko.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2527/jas1984.582500x |title=A Review of the Social Behavior of Feral and Wild Sheep and Goats |date=1984 |last1=Shackleton |first1=D. M. |last2=Shank |first2=C. C. |journal=Journal of Animal Science |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=500–509 |bibcode=1984JAniS..58..500S }}</ref> Tuzenje twa fungo pasi pa nyanga tukusazgirapo fungo la mbuzi yanalume, ilo nlakuzirwa kuti yikope mbuzi yanakazi. Mbuzi zinyake zanakazi zikukana kutorana na mbuzi yanalume iyo tuzenje utu twawuskikapo.<ref name="SmithSherman2011"/> Nthumbo yikutora pafupifupi mazuŵa 150. Kanandi zikubaba mapasa, ndipo kubaba yumoza panji ŵatatu nako nkhwakumanyikwa. Ŵanayi, ŵankhondi, panji ŵankhondi na yumoza ŵakuwoneka kanandi yayi. Kubaba kanandi kukucitika makola. Pambere yindababe, mbuzi yanakazi yikuŵa na malo ghakunjira pafupi na mcira, ndipo yikupuma comene. Amama kanandi ŵakurya cigaŵa ca kubabira, ico cikuŵapa vyakulya vyakuzirwa na kucepeska ngozi ya kukopa vinyama vyakusaka.<ref>{{cite video |people=Feichtenberger, Klaus, Jill Clarke, Elyse Eisenberg, and Otmar Penker (Writers and Directors) |date=2008 |title=Prince of the Alps |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/prince-of-the-alps-introduction/523/ |medium=Television Production |publisher=ORF/Nature |access-date=May 5, 2009 |time=Shortly after birth |quote='The mother eats the placenta to prevent predators from getting the scent.' |archive-date=March 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310112416/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/prince-of-the-alps-introduction/523/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Rue">{{cite book |title=The Deer of North America |last=Roe III |first=Leonard Lee |year=2004 |publisher=Globe Pequot |isbn=978-1-59228-465-8 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3BfvgAACAAJ&pg=PA244 |quote=Almost all wild animals and most domestic ones eat the afterbirth as soon as they can. The primary reason, I think, is to get rid of it so that it will not attract predators. . .Canine scavengers throughout the world are attracted to herd animals when they give birth, for the placental sacs provide an easily scavenged feast.}}</ref> Mkaka ukwamba kanandi pa kubaba.<ref name="SmithSherman2011-q">{{cite book |author1=Mary C. Smith |author2=David M. Sherman |title=Goat Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJS9NEpYnd8C|date=November 16, 2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-94952-7 |quote=Udder development and even milk production are relatively common in unbred doelings of dairy breeds |access-date=October 5, 2018 |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321193031/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJS9NEpYnd8C|url-status=live}}</ref> Unandi wa mkaka ukupambana kuyana na mtundu, vyaka, na vyakulya vya mbuzi; mbuzi za mkaka kanandi zikupanga mkaka pakati pa makilogalamu 680 na 1,810 pa mazuŵa 305. Pakati, mbuzi yiwemi ya mkaka yikupeleka makilogalamu 3 gha mkaka pa zuŵa. Mbuzi iyo yikupeleka mkaka kakwamba yingapeleka ucoko, panji mpaka makilogalamu 7 panji kujumpha. Pamanyuma, mbuzi yanakazi yikuleka kupeleka mkaka, kanandi pamanyuma pa kutorana so. Nyengo zinyake, mbuzi izo zindatorane ndipo zikukamika nyengo zose zikulutilira kupeleka mkaka kujumpha mazuŵa 305.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dairygoatjournal.com/issues/84/84-6/Tim_King.html |title=Dairy Goat Journal. – raising goats – goat business |website=Dairygoatjournal.com |access-date=May 5, 2009 |archive-date=May 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502135839/http://www.dairygoatjournal.com/issues/84/84-6/Tim_King.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake mbuzi zanalume nazo zikupeleka mkaka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Davendra |first2=S. |last2=Saha |author3=Chaturvedi, O.H. |author4=Kumar, Sushil |author5=Mann, J.S. |author6=Mittal, J.P. |author7=Singh, V.K. |title=Lactation in Males |journal=ISSGPU – Indian Society for Sheep and Goat Production and Utilization Newsletter |issue=2 |url=http://www.issgpu.org/newsletter-2.htm#3 |access-date=December 31, 2009 |archive-date=September 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924214014/http://www.issgpu.org/newsletter-2.htm#3 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vyakulya === <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180> File:Goat kid in char of Sirajganj, Bangladesh 05.jpg|Mbuzi yanakazi yikonkheska ŵana ŵaŵiri File:Domestic goat kid in capeweed.jpg|Mwana wa mbuzi wa myezi yiŵiri mu munda wa ''capeweed'' File:Grenadine Goat and Kids.jpg|Mbuzi yanakazi na ŵana ŵaŵiri </gallery> Mbuzi zikumanyikwa kuti zingarya pafupifupi ciliconse. Zikurya mahamba gha tumakuni, kupambana na ng'ombe na mbelele izo zikurya utheka, ndipo (pamoza na khumbo lawo la kumanya) zikutafuna na kunowa ciliconse ico cikuwoneka nga ni cakumera kuti zimanye usange ncakulyeka, kusazgapo makatoni, vyakuvwara, na mapepala.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tsgra.com/PDF-files/secogoats.pdf |title=Learning About Goats |publisher=Texas Department of Agriculture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222062352/http://www.tsgra.com/PDF-files/secogoats.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2009 }}</ref> Thupi la kazinyane, pa kugaya, likuyana na la cinyama ca mthumbo umoza. Kugaya mkaka kukwamba mu mthumbo waumaliro. Pa kubabika, mthumbo wakwamba undakure, kweni apo mwana wakwamba kurya vyakulya vyakukhwima, ukukura luŵiro.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ssl.acesag.auburn.edu/pubs/docs/U/UNP-0060/UNP-0060-archive.pdf |title=Digestive System of Goats |website=Ssl.acesag.auburn.edu |access-date=June 6, 2022 |archive-date=June 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602141259/https://ssl.acesag.auburn.edu/pubs/docs/U/UNP-0060/UNP-0060-archive.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Ukulu wa mbuzi yikulu ukuthemba mtundu wake na vyakulya apo yikukura. Nga ni viŵeto vyose, vyakulya vya purotini yinandi (magaŵa 10 mpaka 14 pa 100) na nkhongono zakukwana pambere pa kukura vikupangiska kukura luŵiro na ukulu ukulu.<ref>Pugh, D.G. and Rankins, D. L. Jr, "Feeding and Nutrition" [https://books.google.com/books?id=s-Z311q6CIcC&q=%22Feeding+and+nutrition%22 Sheep and Goat Medicine, 2nd Ed.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925174249/https://books.google.com/books?id=s-Z311q6CIcC&q=%22Feeding+and+nutrition%22 |date=September 25, 2023 }} Elsevier (2012) Maryland Heights, pg 40–42.</ref> Mbuzi za viwanga vikulu zikufika pa kuzitika kwa ukulu pa vyaka vya pamanyuma (myezi 36 mpaka 42) kuluska mbuzi za viwanga vicoko (myezi 18 mpaka 24), ndipo zikukhumba vyakulya vinandi.<ref>Taylor, R.E. and Field, T.G., "Growth and Development" ''Scientific Farm Animal Production: An Introduction to Animal Science'', 6th Ed. Prentice-Hall (1999) Upper Saddle River pg 324–325.</ref> === Nthenda na Utali wa Umoyo === <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180> File:Goat tied (a).jpg|Mbuzi yakukakika kuti yileke kulya kutali File:Domestic goat feeding on capeweed.jpg|Mbuzi yikulya mu munda wa ''capeweed'', iyo yikuambizga viŵeto vinandi </gallery> Nangauli mbuzi nza nkhongono ndipo kanandi zikukhumba ucizgi ucoko, zingakora nthenda zinandi. Zinyake ni nthenda za kupuma nga ni chibayo, kuvunda kwa malundi, tuzirombo twa mukati, na poizoni wa vyakulya. Mbuzi zingakora nthenda za tubungulu na mabakiteriya, nga ni nthenda ya malundi na mlomo. Zingambuzga ku ŵanthu nthenda zinyake, nga ni TB na nthenda ya kuluma kwa ncheŵe yakuzerewuka.<ref>Smith, M.C. ''Goat Medicine'', Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1994 pg 7</ref> Utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi uli pakati pa vyaka 15 na 18.<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of Biological Data|editor=William S. Spector|publisher=Saunders|year=1956}}</ref> Mbuzi yinyake yikafika vyaka 24.<ref name=fiascofarm>{{cite web|url=http://fiascofarm.com/goats/age.htm|title=Teeth, Life Expectancy & How to estimate a goat's age|date=March 16, 2009|access-date=May 30, 2009|publisher=fiascofarm.com|archive-date=May 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510140400/http://fiascofarm.com/goats/age.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Masuzgo pa kubaba ghangacepeska utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi yanakazi kufika 10 panji 11, ndipo nyengo za kutorana zingacepeska utali wa umoyo wa mbuzi yanalume kufika 8 mpaka 10.<ref name=fiascofarm /> == Ulimi == === Kuŵeta === Kuŵeta kukupambana kuyana na cigaŵa na mdawuko. Vyakukhumbikwa vicoko vya mbuzi ni malo gha kuryera panji kupeleka vyakulya ku vinyama vya mu khola, maji ghawemi, mcere, malo gha kwendera, na kuwuskapo vyakugonapo vyakunyanyira.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keeping Goats |url=https://www.britishgoatsociety.com/services/keeping-goats/ |publisher=British Goat Society |access-date=25 October 2024 |archive-date=April 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419161850/https://www.britishgoatsociety.com/services/keeping-goats/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Afilika na Vuma Lapakati, mbuzi kanandi zikuŵetika pamoza na mbelele. Ici cikusazgirapo vyakupangika pa malo, cifukwa mbuzi na mbelele zikurya vyakumera vyakupambana. Mu Ethiopia, pali nthowa zinayi zikulu za kuŵeta mbuzi, ndipo mu zose, mbuzi zikuŵetika mwambura kugula vinthu vinandi.<ref name="Gizaw Tegegne 2010">{{cite report |last1=Gizaw |first1=S. |last2=Tegegne |first2=A. |last3=Gebremedhin |first3=B. |last4=Hoekstra |first4=D. |year=2010 |title=Sheep and goat production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: Characteristics and strategies for improvement |work=IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Working Paper No. 23 |location=Nairobi, Kenya |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10568/2238 |publisher=International Livestock Research Institute |hdl=10568/2238 |access-date=February 20, 2011 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120231202/https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/2238 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Nigeria na mu vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Ŵalatini, mbuzi zinyake zikuzomerezgeka kwendakwenda mu muzi, apo zinyake zikusungika mu khola na kupika vyakulya ivyo vyadumulika na kunyamulika. Ici cikwenelera pa mbuto nga ni cingoma izo zikunangika na kulyatika.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Sumberg |first=J.E. |title=Small ruminant feed production in a farming systems context |conference=Proceedings of the Workshop on Small Ruminant Production Systems in the Humid Zone of West Africa |year=1984 |editor=Sumberg, J.E.}}</ref> === Unandi pa Caro Cose === <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180> File:Cabrasnortechico.JPG|Kuŵeta mbuzi ku Chile File:Kleine Ziegen im Tiergehege.jpg|Kuŵeta mbuzi zicoko ku Germany File:Goat-ged.1.jpg|Mliska wakulongozga mbuzi zake pa phiri lakusuzga ku Spain File:Asseta Lompo with her goats.jpg|Mlimi wa munda ucoko na mbuzi zake ku Burkina Faso File:10.36 Ziegenherde am Tell.jpg|Mskambo wa mbuzi na mbelele pamoza kuti vilye makora, Syria<ref name="Gizaw Tegegne 2010"/> </gallery> [[File:Goat worldwide distribution FAO 2015.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Umo mbuzi zathandazgikira pa caro capasi mu 2015. Mitundu yikulongora unandi wa mbuzi pa kilomita yimoza ya mbali zinayi.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.fao.org/livestock-systems/global-distributions/goats/en |title= Livestock Systems: Global Distributions: Goats |publisher= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations }}</ref>]] Mu 2024, pakaŵa mbuzi zakujumpha biliyoni 1.18 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo vyaro vyakuŵa na zinandi comene vikaŵa India (miliyoni 211), China (miliyoni 118), na Nigeria (miliyoni 91). Pafupifupi mbuzi miliyoni 564 zikukomeka pa caka cifukwa ca nyama, ndipo zikupeleka matani miliyoni 7.74 gha nyama.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population & Demographic Change (search on 'Goat') |url=https://ourworldindata.org/search |access-date=11 October 2026 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> Vyaro vyakupanga mkaka wa mbuzi comene mu 2022 vikaŵa India (matani miliyoni 6.25), Bangladesh (miliyoni 0.91), na South Sudan (miliyoni 0.52).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/ |title=FAOSTAT |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=October 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241010014008/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |archive-date=October 10, 2024}}</ref> Mu 2015, India yikakomanga magaŵa 41 pa 100 gha mbuzi zake miliyoni 124.4 pa caka. Nyama ya mbuzi ya matani miliyoni 0.6 ni magaŵa 8 pa 100 gha nyama yose iyo India yikupanga pa caka.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effects of citric acid, cucumis powder and pressure cooking on quality attributes of goat meat curry |doi=10.1007/s13197-013-1023-x |pmid=25745255 |pmc=4348252 |year=2015 |last1=Narayan |first1=Raj |last2=Mendiratta |first2=S. K. |last3=Mane |first3=B. G. |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=1772–1777}}</ref> === Mbuzi za mu Thengere === [[File:Feral Goats at St Tudno's Churchyard - geograph.org.uk - 2426882.jpg|thumb|Mbuzi zakucesama pa malo gha maliro gha mpingo pafupi na Llandudno, Wales]] Mbuzi zikuwelera ku thengere luŵiro para zapika mwaŵi.<ref name=OKstate/> Mbuzi za mu thengere zili mu malo ghanandi: Australia, New Zealand, Ufumu Ubanyi, Galapagos, na kunyake. Para zafika pa unandi ukulu mu malo umo muli maji ghanandi na vinyama vyakusaka vicoko, zingananga comene, nga ni kuwuskapo tumakuni na makuni gha malo agho. Mbuzi za mu thengere nzinandi comene mu Australia, pafupifupi miliyoni 2.6 pakati pa ma 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/goat/pubs/goat.pdf |title=The feral goat (''Capra hircus'') – Invasive species fact sheet |website=environment.gov.au |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911080808/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/goat/pubs/goat.pdf |archive-date=September 11, 2008 }}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro == Mbuzi zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa mkaka, ubweya wapadera, nyama, na vipapa. Mawupu ghanyake gha lusungu ghakupeleka mbuzi ku ŵanthu ŵakavu mu vyaro vyakavu, ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vyakovwira vikucepeska ukavu kuluska ndalama.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mahmoud |first=Abdel Aziz |title=Present status of the world goat populations and their productivity |journal=Lohmann Information |volume=45 |issue=2 |date=October 2010 |page=43 |url=http://www.lohmann-information.com/content/l_i_45_artikel17.pdf |publisher=Lohmann Group |access-date=February 20, 2011 |archive-date=May 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514052635/http://www.lohmann-information.com/content/l_i_45_artikel17.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Coffey |first1=Linda |last2=Hale |first2=Margo |last3=Wells |first3=Ann |url=http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/goatoverview.html |website=attra.ncat.org |date=August 2004 |title=Goats: Sustainable Production Overview |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204014920/http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/goatoverview.html |archive-date=February 4, 2007 }}</ref> Kweni mtengo wa kugula na kuthandazga mbuzi ungaŵa ukulu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blattman |first1=Christopher |last2=Niehaus |first2=Paul |title=Show them the money: Why giving cash helps alleviate poverty |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=93 |issue=3 |year=2014 |pages=117–126 |jstor=24483411 |url=http://www.relooney.com/NS4053/00_NS4053_92.pdf |access-date=October 25, 2024 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316075437/https://relooney.com/NS4053/00_NS4053_92.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Nyama === [[File:Goat_meat.jpg|thumb|upright|Nyama ya mbuzi yikuguliskika pa msika ku Nigeria]] Kunowa kwa nyama ya kazinyane kukuyana na kwa nyama ya mwana wa mbelele.<ref name=LifeMag1945>{{cite book |title=Milk Goats |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dUgEAAAAMBAJ&q=goat+tastes+like+lamb&pg=PA57 |date=June 18, 1945 |publisher=Life |access-date=July 6, 2010 |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321192933/https://books.google.com/books?id=dUgEAAAAMBAJ&q=goat+tastes+like+lamb&pg=PA57#v=snippet&q=goat%20tastes%20like%20lamb&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Janet Groene, Gordon Groene, ''U.S. Caribbean Guide'', 1998, ISBN 1883323878 [https://books.google.com/books?id=vh3eancwP-YC&q=goat%20mutton p. 81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510190117/https://books.google.com/books?id=vh3eancwP-YC&q=goat%20mutton |date=May 10, 2024 }}</ref><ref name=HT>{{cite news|title=Whose goat is it anyway?|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch-stories/whose-goat-is-it-anyway/article1-809563.aspx|access-date=15 May 2015|newspaper=Hindustan Times|date=11 February 2012|archive-date=December 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225054153/https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/whose-goat-is-it-anyway/story-iUTujy9czvoPPMoUKrTtqI.html}}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuyaniska nyama ya mbuzi na ya ng'ombe yaŵana panji ya nyama za mu thengere. Kunowa kwake kukufuma comene ku vinthu viŵiri vya usungunu ivyo vili mu nyama. Nyama yikuphikika mu vyakulya nga ni ''curry'' ya mbuzi, ''mutton satay'', na ''capra e fagioli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cramer |first=D. A. |date=1983 |title=Chemical compounds implicated in lamb flavor |journal=Food Technology |issue=37 |pages=249–257}} and {{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=E. |last2=Nixon |first2=L. N. |last3=Johnson |first3=B. C. |date=1975 |title=The contribution of 4-methyloctanoic (hircinoic) acid to mutton and goat meat flavor |journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=261–266|doi=10.1080/00288233.1975.10423642|doi-access=free |bibcode=1975NZJAR..18..261W }} Both articles cited in: {{cite journal |url=https://www.thaiscience.info/Article%20for%20ThaiScience/Article/1/10015445.pdf |title=Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Emulsion Goat Meat Sausages Containing Pork Fat or Shortening |author1=Intarapichet, K. |author2=Sihaboot, W. |author3=Chungsiriwat, P. |journal=ASEAN Food Journal |location=Malaysia |year=1995 |access-date=March 27, 2021 |archive-date=March 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331063730/https://www.thaiscience.info/Article%20for%20ThaiScience/Article/1/10015445.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu virwa vya Caribbean vya Cingelezi na mu Asiya ya Kumwera, lizgu lakuti ''mutton'' likung'anamula nyama ya mbuzi na ya mbelele.<ref name="Taffe 2013 p. 14">{{cite book |last=Taffe |first=M. |title=The Original Jamaican Curry Goat Recipe |publisher=Booktango |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4689-2551-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62XhMkm27gcC&pg=PA14 |page=14}}</ref><ref name ="JPSateKambing">{{cite news |title=Just a slice of mutton |author=Suryatini N. Ganie |date=13 June 2010 |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/06/13/just-a-slice-mutton.html |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=December 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241216055438/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/06/13/just-a-slice-mutton.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ilgo_Lost">{{cite web |title=Lo stufato di capra e fagioli |date=February 21, 2018 |access-date=15 February 2019 |url=https://www.ilgolosario.it/assaggi-e-news/attualita/stufato-di-capra-e-fagioli |language=it |trans-title=Goat and bean stew |archive-date=February 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215215902/https://www.ilgolosario.it/assaggi-e-news/attualita/stufato-di-capra-e-fagioli |url-status=live }}</ref> === Mkaka, Batala, na Tchizi === Mbuzi zikupanga pafupifupi magaŵa 2 pa 100 gha mkaka wose wa caro cose capasi pa caka.<ref>FAO. 1997. 1996 Production Yearbook. Food Agr. Organ., UN. Rome, Italy.</ref> Mbuzi za mkaka zikupanga pakati pa makilogalamu 540 na 1,180 gha mkaka mu mazuŵa 284.<ref name="IFAS">{{cite web |last1=Toledo |first1=Izabella |last2=Dacey |first2=Justine |title=Dairy Goat Facts |url=https://animal.ifas.ufl.edu/media/animalifasufledu/small-ruminant-website/fact-sheets/Dairy-Goat-Fact-Sheet.pdf |publisher=University of Florida IFAS Extension |access-date=29 October 2024 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Mkaka ungaŵa na magaŵa 3.5 mpaka 5 pa 100 gha mafuta kuyana na mtundu.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Goats Are Best |url=https://www.britishgoatsociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Web_3-British-Goats-Are-Best.pdf |publisher=British Goat Society |access-date=29 October 2024 |archive-date=January 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250108115659/https://www.britishgoatsociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Web_3-British-Goats-Are-Best.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mkaka wa mbuzi ukupangika kuŵa vyakupangika nga ni tchizi na ''Dulce de leche''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.foodnetwork.com/food/web/encyclopedia/termdetail/0,7770,1237,00.html |title=Chèvre cheese |date=2008 |website=foodnetwork.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110074428/http://web.foodnetwork.com/food/web/encyclopedia/termdetail/0,7770,1237,00.html |archive-date=January 10, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="edant2">{{cite web |date=6 April 2003 |title=Origen mítico del dulce de leche |language=es |trans-title=The Mythical Origin of Dulce de Leche |url=https://www.clarin.com/sociedad/origen-mitico-dulce-leche_0_r1nl5JflRtx.html |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Clarín |archive-date=9 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809045424/http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2003/04/06/s-04104.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ubweya === Mbuzi zinandi zili na sisi lakupepuka lakufundiska pafupi na cikumba, na sisi litali pacanya. Sisi lakupepuka ndilo likuzirwa ku mafakitale gha nsalu; likuchemeka ''cashmere'' na ''pashmina''. Mbuzi ya ''cashmere'' yikupanga ubweya wakupepuka wa ''cashmere'', umoza mwa ulusi wa kawiro wakudura comene.<ref name="AGN">{{cite web |title=Australian Goat Notes |url=http://www.acga.org.au/goatnotes/A002.php |publisher=Australian Cashmere Growers Association |access-date=2008-07-22 |archive-date=2018-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721211549/http://www.acga.org.au/goatnotes/A002.php }}</ref> Ukuwunjikika kamoza pa caka. Mbuzi za Angora zikupanga sisi litali lakupindikapindika la ''mohair'', ilo likumetika kaŵiri pa caka, ndipo pakati likupeleka makilogalamu pafupifupi 4.5. Sisi lakukhwima la pacanya ndakuzirwa yayi cifukwa ndakukhwima comene na lakusuzga kulusa na kupaka mtundu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shelton |first=Maurice |title=Angora Goat and Mohair Production |publisher=Anchor Publications |year=1993 |url=http://sanangelo.tamu.edu/files/2011/11/AngoraGoatandMohairProduction_21.pdf |access-date=October 25, 2024 |archive-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522085623/http://sanangelo.tamu.edu/files/2011/11/AngoraGoatandMohairProduction_21.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kutozga Malo === [[File:Earth Day 2010 DVIDS271562.jpg|thumb|right|Mbuzi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kumazga mikoza nga ni nthowa yakuvikilira caro pa Earth Day 2010.]] Ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kuwuskapo vyakumera vyambura kukhumbikwa kwa vyaka mahandiredi. Zalongosoreka nga ni "makina gha kurya".<ref name="seattlepi2007">{{cite news |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/article/Rent-a-goats-gain-foothold-1240623.php |title=Rent-a-goats gain foothold |work=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |date=June 14, 2007 |access-date=April 24, 2011 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120202847/https://www.seattlepi.com/local/article/Rent-a-goats-gain-foothold-1240623.php |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/an_sci/extension/animal/meatgoat/MGLand.htm |title=NCSU: Animal Science – Meat Goats in Land and Forage Management |work=ncsu.edu |access-date=April 24, 2011 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126125053/https://smallruminants.ces.ncsu.edu/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ici cawelera so mu Amerika ya Kumpoto kufuma mu 1990, apo miskambo ya mbuzi yikagwiliskirika ntchito kuwuskapo tumakuni twakomira pa vikweza vya California, ivyo vikaŵa pa ngozi ya moto wa mu thengere. Mawupu ghanandi gha ulongozgi na gha ŵanthu paŵekha ghakubwereka miskambo ya mbuzi pa ntchito zakuyana.<ref name="seattlepi2007" /><ref name="MF">{{cite web |url=http://modernfarmer.com/2013/09/get-goat-weed-garden/ |title=How to Get a Goat to Weed Your Garden |last=McGuire |first=Virginia C. |website=Modernfarmer.com |date=September 17, 2013 |access-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-date=June 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604202947/https://modernfarmer.com/2013/09/get-goat-weed-garden/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ici cingadura, ndipo fungo lawo lingaŵa suzgo.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-35676221 |title=Oregon scraps goat landscaping scheme due to cost and smell |date=February 27, 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118001404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-35676221 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, mbuzi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuwuskapo vyakumera vyakunanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵangaviwuskapo luŵiro yayi.<ref name="seattlepi2007" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/465/465-341/465-341.html |title=Options for Clearing Land: Pasture Establishment for Horses – Publications and Educational Resources – Virginia Tech|date=May 1, 2009 |work=vt.edu |access-date=April 24, 2011 |archive-date=December 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213191059/http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/465/465-341/465-341.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30583512 |title=The goats fighting America's plant invasion |work=BBC News |location=Washington |date=January 13, 2015 |last=Jolly |first=Joanna |access-date=June 20, 2018 |archive-date=September 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910203146/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30583512 |url-status=live }}</ref> Misumba ya Chattanooga na Spartanburg mu United States yagwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kulaŵilira ''kudzu'', cakumera cakunanga.<ref name="NYT">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/us/05goats.html |title=In Tennessee, Goats Eat the 'Vine That Ate the South' |last=Emery |first=Theo |date=June 5, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-date=April 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424024445/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/us/05goats.html |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kusambizga Ŵantchito ŵa Ucizgi === Ŵankhondo ŵa vyaro vinyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mbuzi kusambizga ŵacizgi ŵa nkhondo. Mu United States, mbuzi zaŵa vinyama vikulu ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa ici, pamanyuma pakuti ncheŵe zikaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito mu ma 1980.<ref>{{cite news |title=Who, What, Why: Does shooting goats save soldiers' lives? |first=Jon |last=Kelly |periodical=BBC News Magazine |date=March 8, 2013 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21620521 |access-date=June 20, 2018 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109004759/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21620521 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nangauli vyakuyezgera vya mazuŵa ghano vikuyezga makola thupi la munthu, ŵakusambira ŵakuti "kuyezga na mbuzi kukupeleka luŵiro ilo ngozi yeneyiyo pera ndiyo yingapeleka". Kacitiro aka kasuskika na mawupu gha wanangwa wa vinyama.<ref>{{cite news |title=Military is required to justify using animals in medic training after pressure from activists |first=Ernesto |last=Londoño |date=February 24, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/military-is-required-to-justify-using-animals-in-medic-training-after-pressure-from-activists/2013/02/24/9b19e4ee-7d3e-11e2-82e8-61a46c2cde3d_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228111659/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-24/world/37276084_1_animal-activists-human-simulators-civilian-trauma |url-status=live |archive-date=February 28, 2013}}</ref> === Vyakusanguluska === Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakusankha mbuzi nga ni vyakusanguluska cifukwa zingaŵa ŵabwezi ŵapafupi na ŵakuzipwelelera.<ref>{{Cite web|last=MacDonald |first=Fiona |date=June 30, 2018 |title=Goats Are as Smart And Loving as Dogs, According to Science|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/goats-are-just-as-smart-and-loving-as-dogs-say-scientists|access-date=April 18, 2021 |website=ScienceAlert |archive-date=March 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315072302/https://www.sciencealert.com/goats-are-just-as-smart-and-loving-as-dogs-say-scientists|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nawroth |first1=Christian |last2=Brett |first2=Jemma |last3 =McElligott |first3 =Alan |title =Goats display audience-dependent human-directed gazing behaviour in a problem-solving task |journal=Biology Letters |volume=12 |issue=7 |article-number=20160283 |doi =10.1098/rsbl.2016.0283 |pmc=4971169 |date =July 5, 2016 |pmid=27381884 }}</ref> Mbuzi zikukhumba kukhala na mbuzi zinyake, kweni zikulondezga mwenecho na kuŵa ŵabwezi ŵapafupi nayo, ndipo ici cikuzipangiska kutemweka.<ref name="Deamer"/> Pa vyakulya, mbuzi zikuyana na nyama za mu thengere za mtundu wa nswala, ndipo zikukhumba vyakulya vya mitundu yinandi, nga ni utheka wakomira, mbuto, na mcere.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thespruce.com/feed-and-tend-goats-3016793 |title=Learn How to Feed and Tend Goats on the Small Farm |website=The Spruce |access-date=April 19, 2020 |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804203330/https://www.thespruce.com/feed-and-tend-goats-3016793 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mbuzi kanandi zikuhara panji kusambira vyakulya ivyo zikutemwa pamanyuma pa kubabika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morand-Fehr |first1=P. |title=Dietary choices of goats at the trough |journal=Small Ruminant Research |date=September 2003 |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=231–239 |doi=10.1016/S0921-4488(03)00141-X }}</ref> == Mu Midawuko == <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180 caption="Uses of goats"> File:Boerbok.jpg|Mbuzi ya Boer, mtundu wa nyama File:Curry Goat and Rice.jpg|Nyama ya mbuzi ya ''curry'' na mpunga pa Notting Hill Carnival File:Mauritanian bota bag (cropped).jpg|Cakusungiramo maji ca cikumba ca mbuzi ku Mauritania File:Goat milking on an organic farm in Israel.jpg|Mbuzi yikukamika na makina File:Chabichou2.JPG|Chabichou, mkaka wakukhwimiska (''cheese'') wa mbuzi wa ku France File:Angora 001.jpg|Mbuzi ya Angora na ubweya utali wa ''mohair'' File:Duet mohair wool beret.jpg|Cisoti ca ubweya wa ''mohair'' File:Goats in landscape management at German Highway B 42. Spielvogel 2013.jpg|Mbuzi zikupwelelera mphepete ya msewu ukulu ku Germany File:Capra hircus & Homo sapiens (55026684731).jpg|Mbuzi yikupapasika ku malo gha vinyama gha ŵana ku Copenhagen Zoo </gallery> Mu majandulo gha Ŵagiriki ŵa kale, Amalthea ni cinyama panji mzimu uwo ukalyiska ciuta mwana Jupiter mkaka wa mbuzi.<ref>{{cite dictionary |last=Smith |first=William |author-link=William Smith (lexicographer) |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D18%3Aentry%3Damaltheia-bio-1 |publisher=Perseus.Tufts.edu |year=1870 |access-date=26 October 2024 |pages=A.18 |chapter=Amaltheia |archive-date=August 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820111333/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:alphabetic+letter=A:entry+group=18:entry=amaltheia-bio-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu jandulo linyake, ciuta wakaphwanya nyanga yimoza ya mbuzi, ndipo yikaŵa nyanga ya unandi, iyo yikazuranga na ciliconse ico mwenecho wakakhumbanga.<ref>"The Eighteenth Century BC Princes of Byblos and Ebla and the Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age", p. 161 ([https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age 161] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024213207/https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age |date=October 24, 2020 }})</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Matthiae |first=Paolo |author-link=Paolo Matthiae |title=Ebla: Archaeology and History |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-13885065-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dvn2DwAAQBAJ&q=%22tomb+of+the+lord+of+the+goats%22 |translator1=Bates, R. |translator2=Bilardello, M. |translator3=Weston, A. |access-date=May 3, 2021 |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321193058/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dvn2DwAAQBAJ&q=%22tomb+of+the+lord+of+the+goats%22#v=snippet&q=%22tomb%20of%20the%20lord%20of%20the%20goats%22&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu majandulo gha Ŵanoyi, ciuta wa mabingu, Thor, wali na galimoto la nkhondo ilo likuguzika na mbuzi ziŵiri. Usiku Thor wakurya nyama ya mbuzi, kweni wakupwelelera kuti viwanga vyose vileke kuphwanyika, ndipo mlenji mbuzi zikuwuka so kuguza galimoto.<ref name=symbols>{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=J.C. |title=An illustrated encyclopaedia of traditional symbols |date=1979 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-27125-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc00coop_0/page/74 74] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc00coop_0/page/74}}</ref> Para mwana wa mulimi uyo wakachemeka ku cakulya waphwanya ciwanga ca lundi la mbuzi yimoza kuti wafyonte mongo, lundi la cinyama likusyala laphwanyika mlenji, ndipo mwana wakukakizgika kuteŵetera Thor nga ni mteŵeti. Mbuzi ya Khrisimasi (''Julbocken'') ni mdawuko wa Khrisimasi wa Scandinavia. Pakwamba yikang'anamulanga mbuzi iyo yikakomekanga pa Khrisimasi, kweni sono kanandi ni cithuzi ca mbuzi cakupangika na udzu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Goat film |url=http://www.merjuligavle.se/English/VISIT-GAVLE/THE-CHRISTMAS-GOAT/Goat-film/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528014110/http://www.merjuligavle.se/English/VISIT-GAVLE/THE-CHRISTMAS-GOAT/Goat-film/ |archive-date=28 May 2013 |access-date=1 December 2012 |publisher=Mer Jul i Gävle}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=bocken |url=http://www.merjuligavle.se/upload/MerJul/filmer/bocken.avi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320011830/http://www.merjuligavle.se/upload/MerJul/filmer/bocken.avi |archive-date=20 March 2012 |access-date=1 December 2012 |website=Mer Jul i Gävle}}</ref> Mbuzi ya Gävle ni mbuzi yikulu comene ya mtundu uwu iyo yikuzengeka caka ciliconse mu msumba wa Gävle mu Sweden. Mu Finland, pa zuŵa la St. Knut (13 Matika), ŵanyamata ŵakuvwala nga ni mbuzi (''Nuuttipukki'') na kuzungulira nyumba, ŵakupempha vyakulya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satakunnankansa.fi/cs/Satellite/Satakunta/1194662115574/artikkeli/nuuttipukit+kolkuttelevat+ovilla+tanaan.html |title=Satakunnan Kansa |publisher=Satakunnankansa.fi |date=January 13, 2011 |access-date=January 13, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113214706/http://www.satakunnankansa.fi/cs/Satellite/Satakunta/1194662115574/artikkeli/nuuttipukit+kolkuttelevat+ovilla+tanaan.html |archive-date=January 13, 2014}}</ref> Msumba wa kale wa Ebla mu Siriya uli na nthumbo ya munthu yakuŵa na mpando wakujikongoleska na mitu ya mbuzi ya mkuŵa, iyo sono yikuchemeka "Nthumbo ya Fumu ya Mbuzi". Mbuzi ni cimoza mwa vinyama 12 vya ndondomeko ya vyaka ya Ŵacayina.<ref name= "huang">Huang, Wen. [https://www.chicagotribune.com/2003/01/31/year-of-the-sheep-goat-or-ram/ "Year of the Sheep, Goat or Ram?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250107144508/https://www.chicagotribune.com/2003/01/31/year-of-the-sheep-goat-or-ram/ |date=January 7, 2025 }} ''Chicago Tribune'', January 31, 2003.</ref> Gulu la nyenyezi la Capricorn likulongoreka nga ni mbuzi iyo yili na mcira wa somba.<ref>Peck, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=chimaera-harpers "Chimaera"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011181119/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=chimaera-harpers |date=October 11, 2022 }}.</ref> Vinyama vinyake vya majandulo vyakusazganika, nga ni Chimera, vili na vigaŵa vya mbuzi.<ref name=Rogers1998>{{cite journal |first=John H. |last=Rogers |title=Origins of the ancient constellations: I.&nbsp;The Mesopotamian traditions |journal=Journal of the British Astronomical Association |volume=108 |year=1998 |pages=9–28 |bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R}}</ref> Fauns na satyrs ni vinyama vya majandulo vyakuŵa na thupi la munthu na malundi gha mbuzi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fracer |first=Robert |date=2014 |title=Gerulata: The Lamps: Roman Lamps in a Provincial Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3xYCgAAQBAJ&q=satyr+and+the+traveler&pg=PA326 |editor1-last=Chrzanovsky |editor1-first=Laurent |editor2-last=Topoleanu |editor2-first=Florin |location=Prague, Czech Republic |publisher=Karolinum |isbn=978-80-246-2710-6 |page=326}}</ref> Ciuta wa Ŵagiriki Pan wali na thupi la munthu pacanya na nyanga na thupi la pasi la mbuzi.<ref name=symbols/> Mu Cihindu, Daksha nyengo zinyake wakulongoreka na mutu wa mbuzi yanalume. Jandulo likuti Daksha wakaleka kuchema Shiva ku sembe; Shiva wakadumula mutu wa Daksha, kweni apo Vishnu wakamupempha, wakamuwezgera ku umoyo na mutu wa mbuzi. Mbuzi zikuyowoyeka kanandi mu [[Baibolo]]. Kuzirwa kwake mu Israeli wa kale kukulongoreka na mazgo ghankhondi na ghaŵiri gha Ciheberi na ghatatu gha Cigiriki agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu Baibolo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=van der Geer |first1=Alexandra |title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-00416819-0 |page=171 |url=https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789047443568/B9789047443568-s015.pdf |chapter=Capra hircus, the Domestic Goat |access-date=October 29, 2024 |archive-date=November 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125183414/https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789047443568/B9789047443568-s015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mbuzi yikuwonekera nga ni cinyama "cakutowa" mu malango gha vyakulya gha Ŵayuda, ndipo mwana wa mbuzi wakakomekanga pa mulendo wakucindikika.<ref name="EDB">{{cite book |last1=Younker |first1=Randall W. |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansdictiona0000unse_i2l4/page/510 |title=Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible |date=2000 |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans |isbn=0-8028-2400-5 |page=510 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Yikazomerezgeka so pa sembe zinyake. Makatani gha sisi la mbuzi ghakagwiliskirika ntchito mu hema ilo likaŵa na nyumba ya Ciuta (Exodus 25:4). Nyanga zake zingagwiliskirika ntchito m'malo mwa nyanga ya mbelele kupanga ''shofar''.<ref name="Hearing Shofar">Chusid, Michael T. [http://hearingshofar.com/book.htm ''Hearing Shofar: The Still Small Voice of the Ram's Horn''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227002105/http://www.hearingshofar.com/book.htm |date=December 27, 2011 }}, 2009. Hearingshofar.com</ref> Pa Yom Kippur, zuŵa la kusambika kwa vyakwananga, mbuzi ziŵiri zikasankhika: yimoza yikaperekeka sembe, ndipo yinyake yikazomerezgeka kuthaŵira ku cipalamba, yikunyamula vyakwananga vya ŵanthu wose. Kufuma apa pakafuma lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''scapegoat''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The origins of the 'scapegoat' |url=https://sydneyjewishmuseum.com.au/jewish-culture/the-origins-of-the-scapegoat/ |publisher=Sydney Jewish Museum |access-date=14 October 2025 |date=8 October 2019 |archive-date=November 21, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251121114058/https://sydneyjewishmuseum.com.au/jewish-culture/the-origins-of-the-scapegoat/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Satana nyengo zinyake wakulongoreka nga ni mbuzi, nga ni Baphomet, ndipo ici cikupangiska cinyama ici kuŵa cimanyikwiro cakuzirwa mu Cisatana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Introvigne |first=Massimo |author-link=Massimo Introvigne |year=2016 |title=Satanism: A Social History |title-link=Satanism: A Social History |chapter=Éliphas Lévi and the Baphomet |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nt8zDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism |volume=21 |isbn=978-90-04-28828-7 |oclc=1030572947 |pages=105–109 }}</ref> <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=190 widths=140 caption="Goats in art and culture"> File:Glazed brick depicting a wild goat, from Nimrud, Iraq, 9th-7th century BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg|Njerwa yakupakika ya mbuzi ya mu thengere, kufuma ku Nimrud, Iraq, vyaka vya m'ma 800–600 pambere Khristu File:Oinochoe Wild Goat Louvre A311.jpg|Cimphani ca Ŵagiriki ŵa kale (''oenochoe'') cakuŵa na vithuzi vya mbuzi za mu thengere, 625–600 pambere Khristu File:Chimera Apulia Louvre K362.jpg|Cinyama ca nthanthi ca mbuzi na nkhalamu (''chimera'') pa mbale, {{circa|350–340 pambere Khristu}} File:PanandDaphnis.jpg|Pan wakusambizga Daphnis kuliza citoliro cake, Pompeii, {{circa|100 pambere Khristu}} File:Amalthea Julien Louvre CC230.jpg|Amalthea na mbuzi ya Jupiter, 1787, pa malo gha mkaka gha fumu ya France ku Rambouillet File:Yule Goat on the christmas tree 2.JPG|Mbuzi ya Yule pa khuni la Krisimasi ku Scandinavia, vyaka vya m'ma 2000 </gallery> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vinyama]] aup1t8mewk5bfiqr210lx9ryl252ri2 0 2444 124353 123995 2026-11-10T14:18:31Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124353 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg|thumb|250px|]] [[File:Day old chick black background.jpg|thumb|250px|]] '''Nkhuku''' (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') ni [[Viyuni|ciyuni]] cakuŵetika ico cikafuma ku nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere (''Gallus gallus''), izo pakwamba zikaŵa za ku Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma. Zikaŵetika dankha pafupifupi vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ni vimoza mwa vinyama vyakuŵetika vyakumanyikwa na vyakuthandazgika comene pa caro cose capasi. Nkhuku zikuŵetika comene cifukwa ca nyama na masumbi ghake, nangauli zikuŵetika so nga ni vyakusanguluska. Mu 2023, nkhuku zikaŵa zakujumpha biliyoni 26.5 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo viyuni vyakujumpha biliyoni 50 vikukuzgika caka ciliconse kuti vilyeke. Mitundu yapadera ya nkhuku za nyama na za masumbi yapangika. Nkhuku yanakazi iyo yikuŵetekera masumbi yingaikira masumbi ghakujumpha 300 pa caka. Nkhuku zikukhala pamoza, zili na vyongo na nkhalo zakusuzga, ndipo zikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, na malemba gha midawuko yinandi. Kuzirwa kwake pa vyacuma kukuzipangiska kuŵa cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kuŵeta viŵeto pa caro cose capasi. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''chicken'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''ċicen''. Nangauli muzu wake ngwa Ŵajeremani, kukumanyikwa makola yayi uko lizgu ili likafuma, nangauli lingaŵa kuti likafuma ku kuyezga congo ico nkhuku yikupanga. == Mazina == Mu Cingelezi, lizgu lakuti ''chicken'' kale likang'anamulanga mwana wa nkhuku, nga mu sewero la William Shakespeare la ''Macbeth''. Mu malemba gha kale, na kanandi mu malonda na kasandiro, nkhuku nga ni mtundu zikulongosoreka nga ni nkhuku za panyumba. == Malongosoro == Nkhuku ni viyuni vikulu pacoko, ivyo vikucita vinthu pa msana. Thupi lake ndakuzingilira, malundi ghalije masoya mu mitundu yinandi, ndipo maphapindo ngafupi. Nkhuku za mu thengere zingaduka, apo nkhuku za panyumba na minofu yake ya kudukira nzakuzitika comene mwakuti zingaduka kutali yayi. Ukulu na mitundu yikupambana comene pakati pa mitundu ya nkhuku. Ŵana ŵa nkhuku awo ŵasululuka sonosono ŵa mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano na ya kale ŵakuzitika mwakuyana, pafupifupi magalamu 37. Kweni mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano yikukura luŵiro comene; pa zuŵa la 35, nkhuku ya nyama ya Ross 708 yingazitika makilogalamu 1.8, kuyaniska na makilogalamu 1.05 gha nkhuku ya kale ya vyaka vyakuyana. Nkhuku zikulu za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi zili na cigaŵa ca nyama pa mutu cakuchemeka cisoti, na tucikopa twakupachika kumphepete zose pasi pa mlomo; visoti na tucikopa ivi nvyakuwoneka comene pa ŵanalume. Mitundu yinyake yili na kusintha uko kukupangiska masoya ghakusazgikira pasi pa cisko, nga ni ndevu. Nkhuku zikurya vyakumera na vinyama. Mu thengere, zikufukula dongo kupenja mbuto, vibenene, na vinyama vikulu nga ni ŵazinkhanu, tunjoka tucoko, na mbeŵa zaŵana. Nkhuku yingakhala vyaka 5–10, kuyana na mtundu wake. Nkhuku ya kale comene iyo yikumanyikwa pa caro capasi yikakhala vyaka 16. Nkhuku zikukhala pamoza mu magulu, ndipo zikulamira masumbi na kulera ŵana pamoza. Nkhuku zinyake zikuwusa zinyake, ndipo zikupanga ndondomeko ya kudyokolana; izo zikuwusa zikulya dankha na kusankha dankha malo gha kuikira. Ghanoghano la kuwusa ili likalongosoreka mu nkhuku zanakazi na Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe mu 1921 nga ni "ndondomeko ya kudyokolana". Tambala kanandi ŵakuduka na kugwiliskira ntchito vikhadabo vyawo pa kumenyana. Nkhuku zingawungana na kukoma cinyama cakusaka ico cikuŵa cambura nkhongono panji cambura luso, nga ni nkhandwe yaŵana. Nkhuku zikawonekeranga comene nga ni vyakupeleka vyakulya, kweni mahara, nkhalo za mtima, na kukhala pamoza kwawo vikuyana na kwa viyuni vinyake na vinyama vyakonkheska. Kulira kwa tambala ni kuchema kwakukwezga, ndipo nyengo zinyake kwakuthwa, uko kukulongora malo ghake ku tambala ŵanyake, na kuzgora ku vyakuzizwiska vya luŵiro mu malo ghake. Nkhuku zanakazi zikulira comene pamanyuma pa kuikira sumbi na pa kuchema ŵana ŵawo. Nkhuku zili na vyongo vyakupambana vya kuchenjezga kuti cinyama cakusaka cikwiza kufuma kumwamba panji pasi. == Kuŵaba na Umoyo == Kuti wambe kunyengelera, tambala ŵanyake ŵangavina mu cizungulizgo kuzingilizga panji pafupi na nkhuku yanakazi, kanandi ŵakuyiwiska phapindo ilo lili pafupi na nkhuku yanakazi. Kuvina uku kukupangiska nkhuku yanakazi kuzgora, ndipo para yazgora, tambala wangayikwera na kulutilira kugonana. Kanandi tambala wakwiza ku nkhuku yanakazi na kuvina. Usange nkhuku yanakazi yikukhumba yayi, yikuthaŵa; para yikukhumba, yikugwada, ndipo tambala wakuyikwera, wakulyata na malundi ghaŵiri pa msana wake. Mbeu ya tambala yikusamira kwizira mu kukhwaskana kwa vigaŵa vya pasi vya tambala na nkhuku yanakazi. Nga ni viyuni vyose, kuŵaba kukulongozgeka na ndondomeko ya mizirwe na vinthu vya mu ndopa. Kuŵaba kukucepa na vyaka. Nkhuku zanakazi kanandi zikuyezga kuikira mu visumbi ivyo vili kale na masumbi, ndipo nyengo zinyake zikusamizga masumbi kufuma ku visumbi vya pafupi kuya ku vyawo. Ntheura gulu likugwiliskira ntchito malo ghacoko pera, m'malo mwa kuŵa na cisumbi capaŵekha pa ciyuni ciliconse. Mu kawiro, viyuni vinandi vikuikira mpaka masumbi ghose ghakwane, pamanyuma vikulamira masumbi ghose. Nkhuku yanakazi yikukhala pa cisumbi, ndipo yikukukumuska masoya panji kudyokola para yasokonezgeka. Kanandi yikufuma pa cisumbi yayi mpaka masumbi ghasululuke. Masumbi gha nkhuku za mu malo ghatali gha Tibet ghali na vimanyikwiro vyapadera ivyo vikupangiska kuti ghasululuke comene mu malo umo okisijeni ngucoko. Masumbi gha nkhuku ghakusululuka pakumalira kwa nyengo ya kulamira, pafupifupi mazuŵa 21; mwana wa nkhuku wakugwiliskira ntchito dino lake la pa sumbi kuphwanya cikopa. Nkhuku yanakazi yikukhala pa cisumbi kwa mazuŵa pafupifupi ghaŵiri pamanyuma pakuti mwana wakwamba wasululuka; pa nyengo iyi ŵana ŵaphya ŵakulya cimaso ca mukati mwa sumbi. Nkhuku yanakazi yikuvikilira ŵana ŵake na kuŵafundiska. Yikuŵalongozga ku vyakulya na maji, na kuŵachema ku vyakulya. Ŵana ŵakumanya nkhuku yanakazi, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuyilondezga nyengo zose. Yikulutilira kuŵapwelelera mpaka ŵafike masabata ghanandi. Kutorana kwa nkhuku za ŵabali kukupangiska kucepa kwa masumbi na kuzerezgeka kwa kukura mu nkhuku za White Leghorn na Langshan. == Kwambilira == === Mbumba === Viyuni vya mu maji panji pa mtunda ivyo vikuyana na nkhwali za mazuŵa ghano, mu gulu la viyuni umo nkhuku zili, vikapona apo viyuni vyose vya mu makuni na madayinoso ghakamalira. Nkhuku zikufuma comene ku nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere (''Gallus gallus''), ndipo mu kasandiro zikugaŵika nga ni mtundu umoza. Nkhuku za panyumba zikutorana na nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere. Nkhuku ya panyumba pamanyuma yikasazganika na nkhuku zinyake za mu thengere; mwaciyelezgero, cakuhara ca cikopa cacikasu cikafuma ku nkhuku ya mu thengere yituŵa-cifipa. Kukughanaghanirika kuti nkhuku zikugaŵana magaŵa 71 mpaka 79 pa 100 gha vyakuhara vyawo na nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere. === Kuŵetika === Nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere zikumanya makola kugwiliskira ntchito mbuto zinandi izo nsungwi zikupanga pakumalira kwa nyengo yawo ya kupanga mbuto, kuti zisazgirepo kuŵaba kwawo. Pa kuŵeta nkhuku, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya nkhuku izi ya kuŵaba comene para vyakulya vyasazgikira. Nyengo na malo agho nkhuku zikaŵetikira vikaŵa nkhani yakususkana. Kusanda kwa vyakuhara kukaghanaghanira kuti nkhuku zikaŵetika vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma, ndipo zikathandazgika ku China na India pamanyuma pa vyaka 2,000 mpaka 3,000. Kusanda kwa mu 2020 uko kukapenda nkhuku 863 pa caro cose capasi kukulongora kuti nkhuku zose za panyumba zikufuma ku kuŵetika kumoza kwa nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere, izo sono zikusangika comene mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma. Nkhuku izi zikathandazgika mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma na ya Kumwera, apo zikasazganika na nkhuku za mu thengere za malo agho. Kupenda so viwanga kufuma ku malo ghakujumpha 600 kukasanga kuti viwanga vya nkhuku vya kale comene vikufuma ku Thailand ya pakati, ku Ban Non Wat, pafupifupi vyaka 3,250 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasandi Joris Peters na Greger Larson ŵakuyowoya kuti ici cikacitika pa nyengo yimoza na kulima mpunga, ndipo ŵakusacizga kuti nkhuku za mu thengere zikakopeka na mbuto za mpunga, zikazenga visumbi pafupi, ndipo zikaŵetika. == Kuthandazgika == === Austronesia === Lizgu la nkhuku ya panyumba (''*manuk'') ni cigaŵa ca ciyowoyero ca kale ca Proto-Austronesian, ico cikulongora kuti zikaŵetika na Ŵaustronesia kufuma kale. Nkhuku, pamoza na ncheŵe na nkhumba, zikanyamulika mu maulendo gha pa nyanja gha Ŵaustronesia kuya ku virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, na Madagascar, kwamba pafupifupi 3000 pambere Khristu kufuma ku Taiwan. === Afilika === Ukaboni wakwamba wa nkhuku za panyumba mu [[Afilika]] uli ku Mezber mu Ethiopia. Nkhuku izi zikalyekanga, nga umo vipsera vya mino gha ŵanthu na vya mipeni pa viwanga vya nkhuku vikulongolera. Nkhuku izi zikaŵa kuti zikafika ku Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa kwizira mu malonda gha pa Nyanja Yakucesama. Nkhuku zikafika ku [[Eguputo]] kwizira mu Vuma Lapakati kuti zikamenyane, pafupifupi 1400 pambere Khristu, ndipo zikaŵetika comene mu Eguputo pafupifupi 300 pambere Khristu. Mafupa ghanyake gha kale ghakufuma ku Mali, Nubia, mphepete ya kumafumiro gha zuŵa, na South Africa. === Amerika === Usange nkhuku za panyumba zikaŵa mu Amerika pambere Ŵaulaya ŵandize kukususkika, kweni nkhuku za masumbi gha buluu, izo zikusangika mu Amerika na Asiya pera, zikulongora kuti nkhuku zakwamba za Amerika zikafuma ku Asiya. === Yurasiya === Viwanga vya nkhuku nvyakusuzga kupima vyaka vyake, cifukwa viwanga vya viyuni nvicoko na vyakuphwanyika luŵiro. Nkhuku zikaŵa kuti zathandazgika mu Asiya ya pakati ya kumwera pofika vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu. Mafupa gha nkhuku gha mu Vuma Lapakati ghakufuma pambere pacoko pa 2000 pambere Khristu mu Siriya. Ŵafoyinike ŵakathandazga nkhuku pa mphepete za Nyanja ya Mediterranean mpaka ku Iberia. Vithuzi vyakwamba vya nkhuku mu [[Europe|Ulaya]] vikusangika pa viŵiya vya dongo vya Corinth vya vyaka vya m'ma 600 pambere Khristu. Kuŵeta kukasazgikira mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo kukacepa mu nyengo yapakati. == Nthenda == Nkhuku zingakora tuzirombo nga ni nthata, na nthenda izo zikwiziskika na tubungulu twa nthenda nga ni mabakiteriya na tubungulu. Kazirombo ka ''Dermanyssus gallinae'' kakurya ndopa, kakwiziska kuyabwa na kucepeska masumbi, ndipo kakwambuzga nthenda za mabakiteriya. Nthenda za tubungulu zikusazgapo cimfine ca viyuni. == Kagwiliskiro na Ŵanthu == === Kuŵeta === Nkhuku ni vinyama vyakuŵetika vyakumanyikwa comene, ndipo zikaŵa biliyoni 23.7 mu 2018. Nkhuku zakujumpha biliyoni 50 zikuŵetika caka ciliconse cifukwa ca nyama na masumbi. Viyuni vinandi vikuŵetika mu mafakitale gha kuŵeta. Kuyana na Worldwatch Institute, magaŵa 74 pa 100 gha nyama ya nkhuku ya caro cose capasi na magaŵa 68 pa 100 gha masumbi ghakupangika mu nthowa iyi. Nthowa yinyake ni kuŵeta nkhuku zakwenda kwa wanangwa. Ŵakususka kuŵeta kwa mafakitale ŵakuyowoya kuti kukunanga malo ghakuzingilizga, kukwiziska ngozi ku uchanda wa moyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo nkhwankhaza ku vinyama. Ŵakukolera ŵakuyowoya kuti nthowa yawo yikusunga malo na vyakulya, ndipo vinyama vikupwelelereka mu malo ghakulaŵilirika. Nkhuku za nyama zikutora masabata ghambura kukwana ghankhondi na ghamoza kufika pa ukulu wa kukoma. Nkhuku izo zikuŵetekera masumbi zikuchemeka nkhuku za masumbi. Ufumu Ubanyi pera ukulya masumbi ghakujumpha miliyoni 34 pa zuŵa. Nkhuku za mitundu yinyake zingaikira masumbi ghakujumpha 300 pa caka; unandi ukulu comene uwo wasimikizgika ni masumbi 371 mu mazuŵa 364. Pamanyuma pa myezi 12 ya kuikira, nkhongono ya kuikira ikucepa mwakuti gulu likupeleka candulo so yayi. === Nga ni Vyakusanguluska === Kuŵeta nkhuku nga ni vyakusanguluska kukatemweka comene mu ma 2000 mu misumba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵeta nkhuku cifukwa ca masumbi, kweni kanandi ŵakuzithya mazina na kuziwona nga ni vinyama vinyake vya panyumba nga ni ncheŵe. Nkhuku zili na nkhalo zapaŵekha. Zikulya mu woko la munthu, kuduka pa malundi gha munthu, kulondezga ŵakuzipwelelera, na kulongora citemwa. === Kumenyaniska Tambala === Kumenyaniska tambala ni mphikisano mu malo ghakuzingilizgika pakati pa tambala ŵaŵiri. Kwakanizgika mu vyaro vinandi cifukwa nkhwankhaza ku vinyama. Kukawoneka kuti kukacitikanga mu Mlonga wa Indus kufuma 2500 mpaka 2100 pambere Khristu. Pa kuŵetika, nkhuku zikaŵetikanga dankha pa kumenyaniska, ndipo pamanyuma pera zikamba kulyeka. === Mu Kasandiro === Nkhuku zagwiliskirika ntchito kanandi kusanda ŵana ŵa mu masumbi apo ŵakukura. Masumbi ghanandi ghangapezeka; ghangajulika na kulaŵiska mwana uyo wakukura. Kweniso ŵasandi ŵangacita mayeso pa ŵana aŵa, kujara so sumbi, na kusanda vyakufumapo pamanyuma. Mwaciyelezgero, vyakusanga vinandi vyakuzirwa pa kukura kwa mawoko na malundi vikacitika na ŵana ŵa nkhuku. Nkhuku ndico ciyuni cakwamba ico vyakuhara vyake vyose vikaŵazgika. Vyakuhara vya nkhuku vikuyana mu ukulu na vya viyuni vinyake, kweni ni vicoko kuluska vya pafupifupi vinyama vyose vyakonkheska. Mu 2006, ŵasandi ŵakasanda kwambilira kwa viyuni ŵakayatsa cakuhara cinyake ca nkhuku, ndipo ŵakasanga kuti nsaya za mwana zikamba kupanga mino, nga ni agho ghakusangika mu mafosilo gha viyuni vya kale. === Mu Midawuko, Majandulo, na Visopa === Nkhuku zikusangika comene mu majandulo, visopa, malemba, na midawuko. Nkhuku ni cinyama cakupatulika mu midawuko yinandi. Tambala nyengo zinyake ŵakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuŵeza, ici cikusazgapo kupeleka sembe tambala wakupatulika, kanandi pa kumenyaniska kwa cisopa, nga ni nthowa ya kuyowoyerana na ŵaciuta. Mu buku la Gabriel García Márquez la 1967, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', kumenyaniska tambala kukakanizgika mu msumba wa Macondo. Fumbo lakuti "Cifukwa wuli nkhuku yikajumpha msewu?" likufuma mu 1847 panji pambere. Nkhuku zikusangika mu vithuzi vya kujambula, nga ni ca Adriaen van Utrecht ca 1646 na ca Walter Osborne ca 1885. Sumu ya ŵana ya "Cock a Doodle Doo" yikafumyika mu 1765. Filimu ya 2000 ya ''Chicken Run'' yikaŵa na nkhuku izo zikucita nga ni ŵanthu. [[Category:Vinyama]] [[Category:Viyuni]] eohrfa5io6f5f65for6fzd7skwv9mna 124412 124353 2026-11-10T20:44:35Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Nkhuku | status = DOM | image = Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg | image_caption = Tambala (ku mazere) na nkhuku yanakazi (ku maryero) | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Aves | ordo = Galliformes | familia = Phasianidae | genus = ''Gallus'' | species = ''G. gallus'' | subspecies = '''''G. g. domesticus''''' | trinomial = ''Gallus gallus domesticus'' | trinomial_authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | synonyms = ''Gallus domesticus'' <small>L.</small> | range_map = GLW 2 global distributions of c) chickens.tif | range_map_caption = Uko nkhuku zikusangika }} [[File:Day old chick black background.jpg|thumb|250px|]] '''Nkhuku''' (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') ni [[Viyuni|ciyuni]] cakuŵetika ico cikafuma ku nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere (''Gallus gallus''), izo pakwamba zikaŵa za ku Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma. Zikaŵetika dankha pafupifupi vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ni vimoza mwa vinyama vyakuŵetika vyakumanyikwa na vyakuthandazgika comene pa caro cose capasi. Nkhuku zikuŵetika comene cifukwa ca nyama na masumbi ghake, nangauli zikuŵetika so nga ni vyakusanguluska.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joshua |date=July 27, 2020 |title=Chickens and Roosters...As Pets? |url=https://journal.iaabcfoundation.org/roosters-as-pets/ |access-date=December 5, 2024 |website=IAABC Foundation Journal}}</ref> Mu 2023, nkhuku zikaŵa zakujumpha biliyoni 26.5 pa caro cose capasi, ndipo viyuni vyakujumpha biliyoni 50 vikukuzgika caka ciliconse kuti vilyeke. Mitundu yapadera ya nkhuku za nyama na za masumbi yapangika. Nkhuku yanakazi iyo yikuŵetekera masumbi yingaikira masumbi ghakujumpha 300 pa caka. Nkhuku zikukhala pamoza, zili na vyongo na nkhalo zakusuzga, ndipo zikusangika mu majandulo, visopa, na malemba gha midawuko yinandi. Kuzirwa kwake pa vyacuma kukuzipangiska kuŵa cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kuŵeta viŵeto pa caro cose capasi. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''chicken'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''ċicen''. Nangauli muzu wake ngwa Ŵajeremani, kukumanyikwa makola yayi uko lizgu ili likafuma, nangauli lingaŵa kuti likafuma ku kuyezga congo ico nkhuku yikupanga.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=chicken, n. |encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/chicken_n?tab=etymology |access-date=2026-05-12 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723003425/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/chicken_n?tab=etymology |archive-date=2023-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=chicken |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/chicken |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260428050031/https://www.etymonline.com/word/chicken |archive-date=2026-04-28 |access-date=2026-05-12 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |language=en}}</ref> == Mazina == Mu Cingelezi, lizgu lakuti ''chicken'' kale likang'anamulanga mwana wa nkhuku, nga mu sewero la William Shakespeare la ''Macbeth''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2024|title=chicken (n.)|website=Oxford English Dictionary|doi=10.1093/OED/2784909248|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/chicken_n|access-date=February 1, 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260201013703/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/chicken_n?tl=true|archive-date=February 1, 2026|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Shakespeare, William, ''Macbeth'', Act 4 Scene 3, lines 217–229.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chicken |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chicken |url-status=live |access-date=March 4, 2021 |website=Merriam Webster Dictionary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821163810/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chicken |archive-date=August 21, 2008 }}</ref> Mu malemba gha kale, na kanandi mu malonda na kasandiro, nkhuku nga ni mtundu zikulongosoreka nga ni nkhuku za panyumba.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Lewis |title=Genetics and evolution of the domestic fowl |pages=11 and throughout |year=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-40317-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-DXqQ9UOmAC&dq=%22domestic+fowl%22&pg=PA11}}</ref> == Malongosoro == {{multiple image | width1 = 150 | image1 = Rooster portrait2.jpg | caption1 = Cisunzi (''comb'') na vikhanya (''wattle'') vya tambala | width2 = 200 | image2 = Hen Comb (cropped).jpg | caption2 = Cisunzi ca nkhuku yanakazi, kanandi cicoko }} Nkhuku ni viyuni vikulu pacoko, ivyo vikucita vinthu pa msana. Thupi lake ndakuzingilira, malundi ghalije masoya mu mitundu yinandi, ndipo maphapindo ngafupi.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> Nkhuku za mu thengere zingaduka, apo nkhuku za panyumba na minofu yake ya kudukira nzakuzitika comene mwakuti zingaduka kutali yayi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Geggel |first=Laura |title=Forget About the Road. Why Are Chickens So Bad at Flying? |url=https://www.livescience.com/57139-why-chickens-cannot-fly.html |website=Live Science |access-date=February 3, 2024 |date=December 8, 2016 |archive-date=April 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404115622/https://www.livescience.com/57139-why-chickens-cannot-fly.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukulu na mitundu yikupambana comene pakati pa mitundu ya nkhuku.<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web |title=Chicken |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/domestic-chicken |publisher=Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute |access-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202165324/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/domestic-chicken |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵana ŵa nkhuku awo ŵasululuka sonosono ŵa mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano na ya kale ŵakuzitika mwakuyana, pafupifupi magalamu 37. Kweni mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano yikukura luŵiro comene; pa zuŵa la 35, nkhuku ya nyama ya Ross 708 yingazitika makilogalamu 1.8, kuyaniska na makilogalamu 1.05 gha nkhuku ya kale ya vyaka vyakuyana.<ref name="Schmidt Persia 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=C.J. |last2=Persia |first2=M.E. |last3=Feierstein |first3=E. |last4=Kingham |first4=B. |last5=Saylor |first5=W.W. |title=Comparison of a modern broiler line and a heritage line unselected since the 1950s |journal=Poultry Science |volume=88 |issue=12 |date=2009 |doi=10.3382/ps.2009-00055 |doi-access=free |pages=2610–2619|pmid=19903960 }}</ref> Nkhuku zikulu za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi zili na cigaŵa ca nyama pa mutu cakuchemeka cisoti, na tucikopa twakupachika kumphepete zose pasi pa mlomo; visoti na tucikopa ivi nvyakuwoneka comene pa ŵanalume. Mitundu yinyake yili na kusintha uko kukupangiska masoya ghakusazgikira pasi pa cisko, nga ni ndevu.<ref name=plosg>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Ying |last2=Gu |first2=Xiaorong |last3=Sheng |first3=Zheya |last4=Wang |first4=Yanqiang |last5=Luo |first5=Chenglong |last6=Liu |first6=Ranran |last7=Qu |first7=Hao |last8=Shu |first8=Dingming |last9=Wen |first9=Jie |last10=Crooijmans |first10=Richard P. M. A. |last11=Carlborg |first11=Örjan |last12=Zhao |first12=Yiqiang |last13=Hu |first13=Xiaoxiang |last14=Li |first14=Ning |display-authors=5 |title=A Complex Structural Variation on Chromosome 27 Leads to the Ectopic Expression of HOXB8 and the Muffs and Beard Phenotype in Chickens |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=12 |issue=6 |date=June 2, 2016 |pmid=27253709 |pmc=4890787 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006071 |doi-access=free |article-number=e1006071}}</ref> Nkhuku zikurya vyakumera na vinyama.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ideas-4-pets.co.uk/info.-on-chicken-care |title=Info on Chicken Care |access-date=August 13, 2008 |website=Ideas-4-pets.co.uk |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625195044/http://www.ideas-4-pets.co.uk/info.-on-chicken-care |archive-date=June 25, 2015 }}</ref> Mu thengere, zikufukula dongo kupenja mbuto, vibenene, na vinyama vikulu nga ni ŵazinkhanu, tunjoka tucoko, na mbeŵa zaŵana.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45i1hZfUQhk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/45i1hZfUQhk| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|title=Chicken Kills Rattlesnake |last=D Lines |date=July 27, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |publisher=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html |title=Frequently asked questions about chickens & eggs |access-date=August 13, 2008 |website=Gworrell.freeyellow.com |author=Gerard P.Worrell AKA "Farmer Jerry" |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916202420/http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html |archive-date=September 16, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhuku yingakhala vyaka 5–10, kuyana na mtundu wake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General#q9 |title=The Poultry Guide – A to Z and FAQs |website=Ruleworks.co.uk |access-date=August 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128085141/http://ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General#q9 |archive-date=November 28, 2010 }}</ref> Nkhuku ya kale comene iyo yikumanyikwa pa caro capasi yikakhala vyaka 16.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith |first1=Jamon |url=https://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/DA/20060806/News/606120381/TL |title=World's oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220002804/https://www.tuscaloosanews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20060806%2FNEWS%2F608060400%2F1007%2FNEWS02 |archive-date=February 20, 2019 |website=Tuscaloosa News |location=Alabama, USA |date=August 6, 2006 |access-date=May 18, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhuku zikukhala pamoza mu magulu, ndipo zikulamira masumbi na kulera ŵana pamoza. Nkhuku zinyake zikuwusa zinyake, ndipo zikupanga ndondomeko ya kudyokolana; izo zikuwusa zikulya dankha na kusankha dankha malo gha kuikira. Ghanoghano la kuwusa ili likalongosoreka mu nkhuku zanakazi na Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe mu 1921 nga ni "ndondomeko ya kudyokolana".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perrin |first=P. G. |year=1955 |title='Pecking order' 1927–54 |journal=American Speech |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=265–268|doi=10.2307/453561 |jstor=453561 | issn = 0003-1283}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schjelderup-Ebbe |first=T. |year=1975 |chapter=Contributions to the social psychology of the domestic chicken [Schleidt M., Schleidt, W. M., translators] |editor-last=Schein |editor-first=M. W. |title=Social Hierarchy and Dominance. Benchmark Papers in Animal Behavior |volume=3 |location=Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania |publisher=Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross |pages=35–49}} (Reprinted from ''Zeitschrift für Psychologie'', 1922, 88:225–252.)</ref> Tambala kanandi ŵakuduka na kugwiliskira ntchito vikhadabo vyawo pa kumenyana.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rajecki |first=D. W. |year=1988 |title=Formation of leap orders in pairs of male domestic chickens |journal=Aggressive Behavior |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=425–436|doi=10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:6<425::AID-AB2480140604>3.0.CO;2-#|s2cid=141664966 }}</ref> Nkhuku zingawungana na kukoma cinyama cakusaka ico cikuŵa cambura nkhongono panji cambura luso, nga ni nkhandwe yaŵana.<ref>{{cite web |last=AFP |date=March 12, 2019 |title=Chickens 'teamed up to kill fox' at Brittany farming school |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/12/chickens-teamed-up-to-kill-fox-at-brittany-farming-school |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313002528/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/12/chickens-teamed-up-to-kill-fox-at-brittany-farming-school |archive-date=March 13, 2019 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> Nkhuku zikawonekeranga comene nga ni vyakupeleka vyakulya, kweni mahara, nkhalo za mtima, na kukhala pamoza kwawo vikuyana na kwa viyuni vinyake na vinyama vyakonkheska.<ref name="Maring 2017">{{cite journal |last=Marino |first=Lori |title=Thinking chickens: a review of cognition, emotion, and behavior in the domestic chicken |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=20 |issue=2 |date=2017 |pmid=28044197 |pmc=5306232 |doi=10.1007/s10071-016-1064-4 |pages=127–147}}</ref> [[File:Rooster crowing small.ogv|thumb|Kulira kwa tambala (na congo)]] Kulira kwa tambala ni kuchema kwakukwezga, ndipo nyengo zinyake kwakuthwa, uko kukulongora malo ghake ku tambala ŵanyake, na kuzgora ku vyakuzizwiska vya luŵiro mu malo ghake.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://phys.org/news/2015-07-cock-roosters-crow.html |title=Top cock: Roosters crow in pecking order |website=Phys.org |access-date=January 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115124738/https://phys.org/news/2015-07-cock-roosters-crow.html |archive-date=January 15, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhuku zanakazi zikulira comene pamanyuma pa kuikira sumbi na pa kuchema ŵana ŵawo. Nkhuku zili na vyongo vyakupambana vya kuchenjezga kuti cinyama cakusaka cikwiza kufuma kumwamba panji pasi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Christopher S. |last2=Evans |first2=Linda |last3=Marler |first3=Peter |title=On the meaning of alarm calls: functional reference in an avian vocal system |journal=Animal Behaviour |date=July 1993 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |doi=10.1006/anbe.1993.1158 |bibcode=1993AnBeh..46...23E |s2cid=53165305 |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> == Kuŵaba na Umoyo == [[File:Newly-hatched chickens.jpg|thumb|Tupiyupiyu utu twafuma sono mu masumbi]] Kuti wambe kunyengelera, tambala ŵanyake ŵangavina mu cizungulizgo kuzingilizga panji pafupi na nkhuku yanakazi, kanandi ŵakuyiwiska phapindo ilo lili pafupi na nkhuku yanakazi.<ref name="Briskie1997">{{cite journal |last=Briskie |first=J. V. |author2=R. Montgomerie |year=1997 |title=Sexual Selection and the Intromittent Organ of Birds |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=73–86 |doi=10.2307/3677097 |jstor=3677097 |bibcode=1997JAvBi..28...73B }}</ref> Kuvina uku kukupangiska nkhuku yanakazi kuzgora, ndipo para yazgora, tambala wangayikwera na kulutilira kugonana.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dufour |first1=Sylvie |last2=Quérat |first2=Bruno |last3=Tostivint |first3=Hervé |last4=Pasqualini |first4=Catherine |last5=Vaudry |first5=Hubert |last6=Rousseau |first6=Karine |date=April 2020 |title=Origin and Evolution of the Neuroendocrine Control of Reproduction in Vertebrates, With Special Focus on Genome and Gene Duplications |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00009.2019 |journal=Physiological Reviews |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=869–943 |doi=10.1152/physrev.00009.2019 |pmid=31625459 |issn=0031-9333 |archive-date=December 7, 2024 |access-date=December 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207000256/https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00009.2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kanandi tambala wakwiza ku nkhuku yanakazi na kuvina. Usange nkhuku yanakazi yikukhumba yayi, yikuthaŵa; para yikukhumba, yikugwada, ndipo tambala wakuyikwera, wakulyata na malundi ghaŵiri pa msana wake.<ref name="Bain-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Bain |first1=M. M. |last2=Nys |first2=Y. |last3=Dunn |first3=I.C. |title=Increasing persistency in lay and stabilising egg quality in longer laying cycles. What are the challenges? |journal=British Poultry Science |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=57 |issue=3 |date=May 3, 2016 |doi=10.1080/00071668.2016.1161727 |pages=330–338 |pmid=26982003 |pmc=4940894 |s2cid=17842329 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Mbeu ya tambala yikusamira kwizira mu kukhwaskana kwa vigaŵa vya pasi vya tambala na nkhuku yanakazi. Nga ni viyuni vyose, kuŵaba kukulongozgeka na ndondomeko ya mizirwe na vinthu vya mu ndopa. Kuŵaba kukucepa na vyaka. Nkhuku zanakazi kanandi zikuyezga kuikira mu visumbi ivyo vili kale na masumbi, ndipo nyengo zinyake zikusamizga masumbi kufuma ku visumbi vya pafupi kuya ku vyawo. Ntheura gulu likugwiliskira ntchito malo ghacoko pera, m'malo mwa kuŵa na cisumbi capaŵekha pa ciyuni ciliconse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherwin |first1=C.M. |last2=Nicol |first2=C.J. |year=1993 |title=Factors influencing floor-laying by hens in modified cages |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=36 |issue=2–3 |pages=211–222 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(93)90011-d}}</ref> Mu kawiro, viyuni vinandi vikuikira mpaka masumbi ghose ghakwane, pamanyuma vikulamira masumbi ghose. Nkhuku yanakazi yikukhala pa cisumbi, ndipo yikukukumuska masoya panji kudyokola para yasokonezgeka. Kanandi yikufuma pa cisumbi yayi mpaka masumbi ghasululuke.<ref name="Puff-up-Feathers">{{cite web |title=Why Do Chickens Puff up Their Feathers? I 4 Reasons Explained|date= August 8, 2020|url= https://chickenandchicksinfo.com/why-do-chickens-puff-up-their-feathers/ |access-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-date=June 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618091939/https://chickenandchicksinfo.com/why-do-chickens-puff-up-their-feathers/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Baby Chick Hatching.webm|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Vidiyo ya kapiyupiyu kakuswa sumbi na kufumamo]] Masumbi gha nkhuku za mu malo ghatali gha Tibet ghali na vimanyikwiro vyapadera ivyo vikupangiska kuti ghasululuke comene mu malo umo okisijeni ngucoko.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=H. |last2=Wang |first2=X.T. |last3=Chamba |first3=Y. |last4=Ling |first4=Y.|last5=Wu|first5=C.X. |date=October 2008|title=Influences of Hypoxia on Hatching Performance in Chickens with Different Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude |journal=Poultry Science |volume=87 |issue=10 |pages=2112–2116 |doi=10.3382/ps.2008-00122 |pmid=18809874 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Masumbi gha nkhuku ghakusululuka pakumalira kwa nyengo ya kulamira, pafupifupi mazuŵa 21; mwana wa nkhuku wakugwiliskira ntchito dino lake la pa sumbi kuphwanya cikopa.<ref name="grandin69">{{cite book |title=Animals in Translation |last1=Grandin |first1=Temple |author-link1=Temple Grandin |last2=Johnson |first2=Catherine |year=2005 |publisher=Scribner's |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-7432-4769-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran/page/69 69–71] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran/page/69 }}</ref> Nkhuku yanakazi yikukhala pa cisumbi kwa mazuŵa pafupifupi ghaŵiri pamanyuma pakuti mwana wakwamba wasululuka; pa nyengo iyi ŵana ŵaphya ŵakulya cimaso ca mukati mwa sumbi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=A. |last2=Cheng |first2=K.M. |year=1985 |title=Early egg production in genetically blind (rc/rc) chickens in comparison with sighted (Rc+/rc) controls |journal=Poultry Science |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=789–794 |doi=10.3382/ps.0640789 |pmid=4001066 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nkhuku yanakazi yikuvikilira ŵana ŵake na kuŵafundiska. Yikuŵalongozga ku vyakulya na maji, na kuŵachema ku vyakulya. Ŵana ŵakumanya nkhuku yanakazi, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuyilondezga nyengo zose. Yikulutilira kuŵapwelelera mpaka ŵafike masabata ghanandi.<ref name="Edgar Held Jones Troisi 2016 p. 2">{{cite journal |last1=Edgar |first1=Joanne |last2=Held |first2=Suzanne |last3=Jones |first3=Charlotte |last4=Troisi |first4=Camille |title=Influences of Maternal Care on Chicken Welfare |journal=Animals |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=January 5, 2016 |pmid=26742081 |pmc=4730119 |doi=10.3390/ani6010002 |doi-access=free |page=2}}</ref> Kutorana kwa nkhuku za ŵabali kukupangiska kucepa kwa masumbi na kuzerezgeka kwa kukura mu nkhuku za White Leghorn na Langshan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sewalem |first1=A. |last2=Johansson |first2=K. |last3=Wilhelmson |first3=M. |last4=Lillpers |first4=K. |title=Inbreeding and inbreeding depression on reproduction and production traits of White Leghorn lines selected for egg production traits |journal=British Poultry Science |volume=40 |issue=2 |date=1999 |doi=10.1080/00071669987601 |pages=203–208|pmid=10465386 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xue |first1=Qian |last2=Li |first2=Guohui |last3=Cao |first3=Yuxia |last4=Yin |first4=Jianmei |last5=Zhu |first5=Yunfen |last6=Zhang |first6=Huiyong |last7=Zhou |first7=Chenghao |last8=Shen |first8=Haiyu |last9=Dou |first9=Xinhong |last10=Su |first10=Yijun |last11=Wang |first11=Kehua |last12=Zou |first12=Jianmin |last13=Han |first13=Wei |title=Identification of genes involved in inbreeding depression of reproduction in Langshan chickens |journal=Animal Bioscience |volume=34 |issue=6 |date=June 1, 2021 |issn=2765-0189 |pmid=33152217 |pmc=8100482 |doi=10.5713/ajas.20.0248 |pages=975–984}}</ref> == Kwambilira == === Mbumba === [[File:Red Junglefowl.jpg|thumb|Nkhuku ya mu thengere yakuswesi, mbuyu wa nkhuku za panyumba ]] Viyuni vya mu maji panji pa mtunda ivyo vikuyana na nkhwali za mazuŵa ghano, mu gulu la viyuni umo nkhuku zili, vikapona apo viyuni vyose vya mu makuni na madayinoso ghakamalira.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pennisi |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |title=Quaillike creatures were the only birds to survive the dinosaur-killing asteroid impact |journal=Science |date=May 24, 2018 |doi=10.1126/science.aau2802}}</ref> Nkhuku zikufuma comene ku nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere (''Gallus gallus''), ndipo mu kasandiro zikugaŵika nga ni mtundu umoza.<ref name=nature>{{cite journal |title=A genetic variation map for chicken with 2.8 million single nucleotide polymorphisms |journal=Nature |date=December 9, 2004 |volume=432 |issue=7018 |pages=717–722 |doi=10.1038/nature03156 |pmid=15592405 |pmc=2263125 |bibcode=2004Natur.432..717B |last1=Wong |first1=G. K. |last2=Liu |first2=B. |last3=Wang |first3=J. |last4=Zhang |first4=Y. |last5=Yang |first5=X. |last6=Zhang |first6=Z. |last7=Meng |first7=Q. |last8=Zhou |first8=J. |last9=Li |first9=D. |last10=Zhang |first10=J. |last11=Ni |first11=P. |last12=Li |first12=S. |display-authors=6}}</ref> Nkhuku za panyumba zikutorana na nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere.<ref name=nature /> Nkhuku ya panyumba pamanyuma yikasazganika na nkhuku zinyake za mu thengere; mwaciyelezgero, cakuhara ca cikopa cacikasu cikafuma ku nkhuku ya mu thengere yituŵa-cifipa.<ref name="Lawal">{{cite journal |last1=Lawal |first1=Raman Akinyanju |last2=Martin |first2=Simon H. |last3=Vanmechelen |first3=Koen |last4=Vereijken |first4=Addie |last5=Silva |first5=Pradeepa |last6=Al-Atiyat |first6=Raed Mahmoud |last7=Aljumaah |first7=Riyadh Salah |last8=Mwacharo |first8=Joram M. |last9=Wu |first9=Dong-Dong |last10=Zhang |first10=Ya-Ping |last11=Hocking |first11=Paul M. |last12=Smith |first12=Jacqueline |last13=Wragg |first13=David |last14=Hanotte |first14=Olivier |display-authors=6 |title=The wild species genome ancestry of domestic chickens |journal=BMC Biology |date=December 2020 |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1186/s12915-020-0738-1 |pmid=32050971 |pmc=7014787 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Jonas |last2=Larson |first2=Greger |last3=Gunnarsson |first3=Ulrika |last4=Bed'hom |first4=Bertrand |last5=Tixier-Boichard |first5=Michele |last6=Strömstedt |first6=Lina |last7=Wright |first7=Dominic |last8=Jungerius |first8=Annemieke |last9=Vereijken |first9=Addie |last10=Randi |first10=Ettore |last11=Jensen |first11=Per |last12=Andersson |first12=Leif |display-authors=6 |title=Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=February 29, 2008 |volume=4 |issue=2 |article-number=e1000010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000010 |pmid=18454198 |pmc=2265484 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kukughanaghanirika kuti nkhuku zikugaŵana magaŵa 71 mpaka 79 pa 100 gha vyakuhara vyawo na nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere.<ref name="Lawal"/> === Kuŵetika === Nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere zikumanya makola kugwiliskira ntchito mbuto zinandi izo nsungwi zikupanga pakumalira kwa nyengo yawo ya kupanga mbuto, kuti zisazgirepo kuŵaba kwawo.<ref>{{citation |first=Rick |last=King |title=Rat Attack |date=February 24, 2009 |journal=Nova and National Geographic Television |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/rat-attack.html |access-date=August 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823151419/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/rat-attack.html |archive-date=August 23, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pa kuŵeta nkhuku, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya nkhuku izi ya kuŵaba comene para vyakulya vyasazgikira.<ref>{{citation |first=Rick |last=King |title=Plant vs. Predator |date=February 1, 2009 |journal=NOVA |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/plant-vs-predator/ |access-date=August 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821123509/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/plant-vs-predator.html |archive-date=August 21, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyengo na malo agho nkhuku zikaŵetikira vikaŵa nkhani yakususkana.<ref name="Lawal"/> Kusanda kwa vyakuhara kukaghanaghanira kuti nkhuku zikaŵetika vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma, ndipo zikathandazgika ku China na India pamanyuma pa vyaka 2,000 mpaka 3,000.<ref name=Lawal/><ref name="West Zhou 1988">{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=B. |last2=Zhou |first2=B.X. |year=1988 |title=Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=515–533 |doi=10.1016/0305-4403(88)90080-5 |bibcode=1988JArSc..15..515W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al-Nasser |first1=A. |last2=Al-Khalaifa |first2=H. |last3=Al-Saffar |first3=A. |last4=Khalil |first4=F. |last5=Albahouh |first5=M. |last6=Ragheb |first6=G. |last7=Al-Haddad |first7=A. |last8=Mashaly |first8=M. |title=Overview of chicken taxonomy and domestication |journal={{ill|World's Poultry Science Journal|nl}}|date=June 1, 2007 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=285–300 |doi=10.1017/S004393390700147X |s2cid=86734013 }}</ref> Kusanda kwa mu 2020 uko kukapenda nkhuku 863 pa caro cose capasi kukulongora kuti nkhuku zose za panyumba zikufuma ku kuŵetika kumoza kwa nkhuku zakucesama za mu thengere, izo sono zikusangika comene mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma.<ref name="oneMatriarch">{{citation |title=One subspecies of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus gallus) suffices as the matriarchic ancestor of all domestic breeds |first1=A. |last1=Fumihito |first2=T. |last2=Miyake |first3=S. |last3=Sumi |first4=M. |last4=Takada |first5=S. |last5=Ohno |first6=N. |last6=Kondo |journal=PNAS |date=December 20, 1994 |volume=91 |number=26 |pages=12505–12509 |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.26.12505 |pmid=7809067 |bibcode=1994PNAS...9112505F |pmc=45467 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nkhuku izi zikathandazgika mu Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma na ya Kumwera, apo zikasazganika na nkhuku za mu thengere za malo agho.<ref>{{cite journal |title=863 genomes reveal the origin and domestication of chicken |year=2020 |doi=10.1038/s41422-020-0349-y |s2cid=220050312 |last1=Wang |first1=Ming-Shan |last2=Thakur |first2=Mukesh |last3=Peng |first3=Min-Sheng |last4=Jiang |first4=Yu |last5=Frantz |first5=Laurent Alain François |last6=Li |first6=Ming |last7=Zhang |first7=Jin-Jin |last8=Wang |first8=Sheng |last9=Peters |first9=Joris |last10=Otecko |first10=Newton Otieno |last11=Suwannapoom |first11=Chatmongkon |last12=Guo |first12=Xing |journal=Cell Research |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=693–701 |pmid=32581344 |pmc=7395088 |display-authors=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yi-Ping |last2=Wu |first2=Gui-Sheng |last3=Yao |first3=Yong-Gang |last4=Miao |first4=Yong-Wang |last5=Luikart |first5=Gordon |last6=Baig |first6=Mumtaz |last7=Beja-Pereira |first7=Albano |last8=Ding |first8=Zhao-Li |last9=Palanichamy |first9=Malliya Gounder |last10=Zhang |first10=Ya-Ping |display-authors=6 |title=Multiple maternal origins of chickens: Out of the Asian jungles |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=January 2006 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=12–19 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.014 |pmid=16275023 |bibcode=2006MolPE..38...12L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeder |first1=Melinda A. |last2=Emshwiller |first2=Eve |last3=Smith |first3=Bruce D. |last4=Bradley |first4=Daniel G. |title=Documenting domestication: the intersection of genetics and archaeology |journal=Trends in Genetics |date=March 2006 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2006.01.007 |pmid=16458995 }}</ref> Kupenda so viwanga kufuma ku malo ghakujumpha 600 kukasanga kuti viwanga vya nkhuku vya kale comene vikufuma ku Thailand ya pakati, ku Ban Non Wat, pafupifupi vyaka 3,250 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasandi Joris Peters na Greger Larson ŵakuyowoya kuti ici cikacitika pa nyengo yimoza na kulima mpunga, ndipo ŵakusacizga kuti nkhuku za mu thengere zikakopeka na mbuto za mpunga, zikazenga visumbi pafupi, ndipo zikaŵetika.<ref name="Peters 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Joris |last2=Lebrasseur |first2=Ophélie |last3=Irving-Pease |first3=Evan K. |last4=Paxinos |first4=Ptolemaios Dimitrios |last5=Best |first5=Julia |last6=Smallman |first6=Riley |last7=Callou |first7=Cécile |last8=Gardeisen |first8=Armelle |last9=Trixl |first9=Simon |last10=Frantz |first10=Laurent |last11=Sykes |first11=Naomi |last12=Fuller |first12=Dorian Q. |last13=Larson |first13=Greger |display-authors=5 |title=The biocultural origins and dispersal of domestic chickens |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=24 |date=June 14, 2022 |article-number=e2121978119 |pmid=35666876 |pmc=9214543 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2121978119 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11921978P |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Kuthandazgika == === Austronesia === [[File:Map showing prehistoric diffusion of domestic chickens (Gallus gallus) into the Pacific via the Austronesian migrations (Thomson, Lebrasseur, & Austin, 2014).png|thumb|upright=2|Umo nkhuku za panyumba zikafikira ku Oceania kufuma ku Philippines kale comene, kwizira mu kusamira kwa Ŵaaustronesia mu Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya<ref name="Thomson"/>]] Lizgu la nkhuku ya panyumba (''*manuk'') ni cigaŵa ca ciyowoyero ca kale ca Proto-Austronesian, ico cikulongora kuti zikaŵetika na Ŵaustronesia kufuma kale.<ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=Vicki A. |others= et al. |title=Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=April 2014 |volume=111 |issue=13 |pages=4826–4831 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1320412111 |pmid=24639505 |pmc=3977275 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.4826T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= Piper>{{cite book |first1=Philip J. |last1=Piper |editor1-first=Philip J. |editor1-last=Piper |editor2-first=Hirofumi |editor2-last=Matsumura |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Bulbeck |title=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory |chapter=The Origins and Arrival of the Earliest Domestic Animals in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia: A Developing Story of Complexity |publisher=ANU Press |volume=45 |series=terra australis |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-76046-094-5 |chapter-url =http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2320/html/ch15.xhtml |access-date =May 5, 2023 |archive-date =November 28, 2022 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20221128075413/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2320/html/ch15.xhtml |url-status =live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ9ULYwX3zgC&pg=PA56 |title=The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders |first=Malama |last=Meleisea |date=March 25, 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=56 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913140948/https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ9ULYwX3zgC&pg=PA56 |archive-date=September 13, 2016 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-00354-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlSspaBLkhoC&pg=PA411 |title=Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications |first=Michael H. |last=Crawford |date=March 13, 2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=411 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913143140/https://books.google.com/books?id=tlSspaBLkhoC&pg=PA411 |archive-date=September 13, 2016 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-54697-3}}</ref> Nkhuku, pamoza na ncheŵe na nkhumba, zikanyamulika mu maulendo gha pa nyanja gha Ŵaustronesia kuya ku virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kuvuma, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, na Madagascar, kwamba pafupifupi 3000 pambere Khristu kufuma ku Taiwan.<ref name= Neumann>{{cite news |last=Neumann |first=Scott |title=Study: The Chicken Didn't Cross The Pacific To South America |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/03/18/291182073/study-the-chicken-didnt-cross-the-pacific-to-south-america |access-date=May 5, 2023 |work=The Two Way |agency=NPR |date=March 18, 2014 |archive-date=May 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505060006/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/03/18/291182073/study-the-chicken-didnt-cross-the-pacific-to-south-america |url-status=live }}</ref> === Afilika === Ukaboni wakwamba wa nkhuku za panyumba mu [[Afilika]] uli ku Mezber mu Ethiopia. Nkhuku izi zikalyekanga, nga umo vipsera vya mino gha ŵanthu na vya mipeni pa viwanga vya nkhuku vikulongolera. Nkhuku izi zikaŵa kuti zikafika ku Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa kwizira mu malonda gha pa Nyanja Yakucesama.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woldekiros |first=H. S. |last2=D'Andrea |first2=A. C. |date=2017 |title=Early Evidence for Domestic Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in the Horn of Africa |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/oa.2540 |journal=International Journal of Osteoarchaeology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=329–341 |doi=10.1002/oa.2540 |issn=1099-1212}}</ref> Nkhuku zikafika ku [[Eguputo]] kwizira mu Vuma Lapakati kuti zikamenyane, pafupifupi 1400 pambere Khristu, ndipo zikaŵetika comene mu Eguputo pafupifupi 300 pambere Khristu.<ref name="CHOF" /> Mafupa ghanyake gha kale ghakufuma ku Mali, Nubia, mphepete ya kumafumiro gha zuŵa, na South Africa.<ref name="CHOF" /> === Amerika === Usange nkhuku za panyumba zikaŵa mu Amerika pambere Ŵaulaya ŵandize kukususkika, kweni nkhuku za masumbi gha buluu, izo zikusangika mu Amerika na Asiya pera, zikulongora kuti nkhuku zakwamba za Amerika zikafuma ku Asiya. === Yurasiya === [[File:A Barred Rock Chicken Named Rootrip.png|alt=Plymouth Rock ni umoza mwa mitundu ya kale comene ya nkhuku mu Amerika – nkhuku yanakazi ya zina lakuti Rootrip|thumb|Plymouth Rock, mtundu wa nkhuku wa ku Amerika wa pamanyuma pa nyengo ya ucikoloni.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://livestockconservancy.org/index.php/heritage/internal/plymouthrock |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010131233/http://livestockconservancy.org/index.php/heritage/internal/plymouthrock |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-10-10 |title=Plymouth Rock Chicken |publisher=The Livestock Conservancy |access-date=18 February 2026}}</ref>]] Viwanga vya nkhuku nvyakusuzga kupima vyaka vyake, cifukwa viwanga vya viyuni nvicoko na vyakuphwanyika luŵiro.<ref name="CHOF">The Cambridge History of Food, 2000, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 1, pp. 496–499</ref> Nkhuku zikaŵa kuti zathandazgika mu Asiya ya pakati ya kumwera pofika vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu. Mafupa gha nkhuku gha mu Vuma Lapakati ghakufuma pambere pacoko pa 2000 pambere Khristu mu Siriya. Ŵafoyinike ŵakathandazga nkhuku pa mphepete za Nyanja ya Mediterranean mpaka ku Iberia.<ref name= pmid26195775>{{cite journal |last1=Perry-Gal |first1=Lee |last2=Erlich |first2=Adi |last3=Gilboa |first3=Ayelet |last4=Bar-Oz |first4=Guy |date=August 11, 2015 |title=Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=32 |pages=9849–9854 |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.9849P |doi=10.1073/pnas.1504236112 |pmc=4538678 |pmid=26195775 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vithuzi vyakwamba vya nkhuku mu [[Europe|Ulaya]] vikusangika pa viŵiya vya dongo vya Corinth vya vyaka vya m'ma 600 pambere Khristu. Kuŵeta kukasazgikira mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo kukacepa mu nyengo yapakati.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrIapgM4LwQC&pg=PA176 |title=Regional Greek Cooking |first1=Dean |last1=Karayanis |first2=Catherine |last2=Karayanis |date=March 13, 2019 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |page=176 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913141141/https://books.google.com/books?id=NrIapgM4LwQC&pg=PA176 |archive-date=September 13, 2016 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7818-1146-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xwq1lunLkuoC&pg=PA207 |title=Cooking with the Bible: Biblical Food, Feasts, and Lore |first1=Anthony F. |last1=Chiffolo |first2=Rayner W. |last2=Hesse |date=March 13, 2019 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=207 |access-date=March 13, 2019 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913080305/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xwq1lunLkuoC&pg=PA207 |archive-date=September 13, 2016 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-313-33410-8}}</ref> == Nthenda == [[File:Pesse oujheas H9N2 tanfla.JPG|thumb|left|Kapiyupiyu ka mazuŵa 8 kakulwara nthenda ya ''avian influenza'' ]] Nkhuku zingakora tuzirombo nga ni nthata, na nthenda izo zikwiziskika na tubungulu twa nthenda nga ni mabakiteriya na tubungulu. Kazirombo ka ''Dermanyssus gallinae'' kakurya ndopa, kakwiziska kuyabwa na kucepeska masumbi, ndipo kakwambuzga nthenda za mabakiteriya.<ref name="Schiavone Pugliese 2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schiavone |first1=Antonella |last2=Pugliese |first2=Nicola |last3=Otranto |first3=Domenico |last4=Samarelli |first4=Rossella |last5=Circella |first5=Elena |last6=De Virgilio |first6=Caterina |last7=Camarda |first7=Antonio |date=January 20, 2022 |title=''Dermanyssus gallinae'': the long journey of the poultry red mite to become a vector |journal=Parasites & Vectors |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=29 |doi=10.1186/s13071-021-05142-1 |pmid=35057849 |issn=1756-3305 |pmc=8772161 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022PVec...15...29S }}</ref> Nthenda za tubungulu zikusazgapo cimfine ca viyuni.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barjesteh |first1=Neda |last2=O'Dowd |first2=Kelsey |last3=Vahedi |first3=Seyed Milad |title=Antiviral responses against chicken respiratory infections: Focus on avian influenza virus and infectious bronchitis virus |journal=Cytokine |date=March 2020 |volume=127 |article-number=154961 |doi=10.1016/j.cyto.2019.154961 |pmid=31901597|pmc=7129915 }}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro na Ŵanthu == === Kuŵeta === Nkhuku ni vinyama vyakuŵetika vyakumanyikwa comene, ndipo zikaŵa biliyoni 23.7 mu 2018.<ref>{{cite web|title=Number of chickens worldwide from 1990 to 2018.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263962/number-of-chickens-worldwide-since-1990/|access-date=February 23, 2020|website=Statista|archive-date=November 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127124744/https://www.statista.com/statistics/263962/number-of-chickens-worldwide-since-1990/|url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhuku zakujumpha biliyoni 50 zikuŵetika caka ciliconse cifukwa ca nyama na masumbi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/chickens/ |title=About chickens |publisher=Compassion in World Farming |access-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426063521/https://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/chickens/ |archive-date=April 26, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/pg15bd88s |title=Poultry Slaughter Annual Summary |last=Fereira |first=John |website=usda.mannlib.cornell.edu |access-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426063701/http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1497 |archive-date=April 26, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/1v53jw96n |title=Chickens and Eggs Annual Summary |last=Fereira |first=John |website=usda.mannlib.cornell.edu |access-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426061324/http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1509 |archive-date=April 26, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Viyuni vinandi vikuŵetika mu mafakitale gha kuŵeta. Kuyana na Worldwatch Institute, magaŵa 74 pa 100 gha nyama ya nkhuku ya caro cose capasi na magaŵa 68 pa 100 gha masumbi ghakupangika mu nthowa iyi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Towards Happier Meals In A Globalized World |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/towards-happier-meals-globalized-world |publisher=Worldwatch Institute |access-date=May 29, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529153518/http://www.worldwatch.org/towards-happier-meals-globalized-world |archive-date=May 29, 2014 }}</ref> Nthowa yinyake ni kuŵeta nkhuku zakwenda kwa wanangwa. Ŵakususka kuŵeta kwa mafakitale ŵakuyowoya kuti kukunanga malo ghakuzingilizga, kukwiziska ngozi ku uchanda wa moyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo nkhwankhaza ku vinyama.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilea |first1=Ramona Cristina |title=Intensive Livestock Farming: Global Trends, Increased Environmental Concerns, and Ethical Solutions |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics |date=April 2009 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=153–167 |doi=10.1007/s10806-008-9136-3 |bibcode=2009JAEE...22..153I |s2cid=154306257 }}</ref> Ŵakukolera ŵakuyowoya kuti nthowa yawo yikusunga malo na vyakulya, ndipo vinyama vikupwelelereka mu malo ghakulaŵilirika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=David |last2=Cassman |first2=Kenneth G. |last3=Matson |first3=Pamela A. |last4=Naylor |first4=Rosamond |last5=Polasky |first5=Stephen |title=Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices |journal=Nature |date=August 2002 |volume=418 |issue=6898 |pages=671–677 |doi=10.1038/nature01014 |pmid=12167873 |bibcode=2002Natur.418..671T |s2cid=3016610 }}</ref> Nkhuku za nyama zikutora masabata ghambura kukwana ghankhondi na ghamoza kufika pa ukulu wa kukoma.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.animalsaustralia.org/factsheets/broiler_chickens.php |title=Broiler Chickens Fact Sheet |website=Animals Australia |access-date=August 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712123234/http://www.animalsaustralia.org/factsheets/broiler_chickens.php |archive-date=July 12, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chickens Farmed for Meat |url=https://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/chickens/meat-chickens/ |publisher=Compassion in World Farming |access-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-date=September 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921105646/https://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/chickens/meat-chickens/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhuku izo zikuŵetekera masumbi zikuchemeka nkhuku za masumbi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.egginfo.co.uk/egg-facts-and-figures/industry-information/data |title=UK Egg Industry Data |website=Official Egg Info |access-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230000509/https://www.egginfo.co.uk/egg-facts-and-figures/industry-information/data |archive-date=December 30, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ufumu Ubanyi pera ukulya masumbi ghakujumpha miliyoni 34 pa zuŵa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glenday |first1=Craig |title=Guinness World Records 2011 |date=April 26, 2011 |publisher=Jim Pattison Group |isbn=978-0-440-42310-2 |page=286}}</ref><ref name="Browne">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2002/mar/10/foodanddrink.features1 |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Ten weeks to live |first=Anthony |last=Browne |date=March 10, 2002 |access-date=April 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516080228/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,662799,00.html |archive-date=May 16, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhuku za mitundu yinyake zingaikira masumbi ghakujumpha 300 pa caka; unandi ukulu comene uwo wasimikizgika ni masumbi 371 mu mazuŵa 364.<ref name="Browne" /><ref name="Patwardhan and King, (2011)">{{cite journal |last1=Patwardhan |first1=D. |last2=King |first2=A. |year=2011 |title=Review: feed withdrawal and non feed withdrawal moult |journal=World's Poultry Science Journal |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=253–268 |doi=10.1017/s0043933911000286|s2cid=88353703 }}</ref><ref name="Webster, (2003)">{{cite journal |last1=Webster |first1=A.B. |year=2003 |title=Physiology and behavior of the hen during induced moult |journal=Poultry Science |volume=82 |issue=6 |pages=992–1002 |doi=10.1093/ps/82.6.992 |pmid=12817455|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Molino et al., (2009)">{{cite journal |last1=Molino |first1=A.B. |last2=Garcia |first2=E.A. |last3=Berto |first3=D.A. |last4=Pelícia |first4=K. |last5=Silva |first5=A.P. |last6=Vercese |first6=F. |year=2009 |title=The Effects of Alternative Forced-Molting Methods on The Performance and Egg Quality of Commercial Layers |journal=Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109–113 |doi=10.1590/s1516-635x2009000200006|doi-access=free |hdl=11449/14340 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Pamanyuma pa myezi 12 ya kuikira, nkhongono ya kuikira ikucepa mwakuti gulu likupeleka candulo so yayi.<ref name="Yousaf and Chaudhry, (2008)">{{cite journal |last1=Yousaf |first1=M. |last2=Chaudhry |first2=A.S. |title=History, changing scenarios and future strategies to induce moulting in laying hens |journal=World's Poultry Science Journal |date=March 1, 2008 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.1017/s0043933907001729 |s2cid=34761543 |url=http://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/56559/452E6892-26EF-40C6-891B-048E9FE17D2E.pdf |access-date=October 23, 2020 |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124090812/https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/56559/452E6892-26EF-40C6-891B-048E9FE17D2E.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Nga ni Vyakusanguluska === <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200 heights=180> File:Wright, Stephenson & Co Ltd - Woman feeding chickens (52532).jpg|Mwanakazi wakulyeska nkhuku na woko, {{circa|1930}} File:Florida chicken house.jpg|Citupa ca malonda cakujulika ku mbali, ico mukuŵetekera nkhuku zicoko za nyama File:A 95 year old woman with her pet rooster, Havana, Cuba.jpg|Mwanakazi na tambala wake wakuŵeta, Cuba </gallery> Kuŵeta nkhuku nga ni vyakusanguluska kukatemweka comene mu ma 2000 mu misumba.<ref>{{cite news |title=Some homeowners find chickens all the rage |work=Chicago Tribune |date=July 27, 2007 |last=Fly |first=Colin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Cooped up in suburbia |work=Boston Globe |date=December 16, 2004 |last=Pollack-Fusi |first=Mindy |url=https://www.boston.com/yourlife/home/articles/2004/12/16/cooped_up_in_suburbia/ |access-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063550/http://www.boston.com/yourlife/home/articles/2004/12/16/cooped_up_in_suburbia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵeta nkhuku cifukwa ca masumbi, kweni kanandi ŵakuzithya mazina na kuziwona nga ni vinyama vinyake vya panyumba nga ni ncheŵe. Nkhuku zili na nkhalo zapaŵekha.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kreilkamp |first1=Ivan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/25/magazine/backyard-chickens-empathy.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125101336/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/25/magazine/backyard-chickens-empathy.html |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=How Caring for Backyard Chickens Stretched My Emotional Muscles |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 25, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/style/pets/la-hm-pets-chickens-20170827-story.html |title=Chickens will become a beloved pet — just like the family dog |last=Boone |first=Lisa |website=Los Angeles Times |date=August 27, 2017 |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402104824/https://www.latimes.com/style/pets/la-hm-pets-chickens-20170827-story.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barras |first=Colin |title=Despite what you might think, chickens are not stupid |url=https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170110-despite-what-you-might-think-chickens-are-not-stupid |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605084929/https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170110-despite-what-you-might-think-chickens-are-not-stupid |archive-date=June 5, 2021 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=www.bbc.com }}</ref><ref name="UPC good homes">{{cite web |url=https://www.upc-online.org/home.html |title=Providing a Good Home for Chickens |author=United Poultry Concerns |access-date=May 4, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605061816/http://www.upc-online.org/home.html |archive-date=June 5, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Zikulya mu woko la munthu, kuduka pa malundi gha munthu, kulondezga ŵakuzipwelelera, na kulongora citemwa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.henkeeping.co.uk/henkeeping/choosing-your-chickens/ |website=Clucks and Chooks |title=Choosing Your Chickens |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730222405/http://www.henkeeping.co.uk/which.html |archive-date=July 30, 2009}}</ref> === Kumenyaniska Tambala === [[File:COCK FIGHT.JPG|thumb|Kulimbana kwa ŵatambala ku Tamil Nadu, India, 2011 ]] Kumenyaniska tambala ni mphikisano mu malo ghakuzingilizgika pakati pa tambala ŵaŵiri. Kwakanizgika mu vyaro vinandi cifukwa nkhwankhaza ku vinyama.<ref>{{cite news |author=Raymond Hernandez |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/11/nyregion/blood-sport-gets-blood-fans-cockfighting-don-t-understand-its-outlaw-status.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=A Blood Sport Gets in the Blood; Fans of Cockfighting Don't Understand Its Outlaw Status |work=The New York Times |location=New York City Metropolitan Area |date=April 11, 1995 |access-date=May 10, 2014 |archive-date=November 14, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114125938/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/11/nyregion/blood-sport-gets-blood-fans-cockfighting-don-t-understand-its-outlaw-status.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |url-status=live }}</ref> Kukawoneka kuti kukacitikanga mu Mlonga wa Indus kufuma 2500 mpaka 2100 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Crawford 1990">{{cite book |last=Crawford |first=R. D. |title=''Poultry Breeding and Genetics'' |publisher=Elsevier |year=1990 |pages=10–11 |isbn=978-0-444-88557-9 |ol=2207173M }}</ref> Pa kuŵetika, nkhuku zikaŵetikanga dankha pa kumenyaniska, ndipo pamanyuma pera zikamba kulyeka.<ref name="Lawler Adler 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Lawler |first1=Andrew |last2=Adler |first2=Jerry |title=How the Chicken Conquered the World |journal=Smithsonian Magazine |issue=June 2012 |date=June 2012 |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-chicken-conquered-the-world-87583657/ |access-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-date=October 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031040210/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-chicken-conquered-the-world-87583657/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Mu Kasandiro === Nkhuku zagwiliskirika ntchito kanandi kusanda ŵana ŵa mu masumbi apo ŵakukura. Masumbi ghanandi ghangapezeka; ghangajulika na kulaŵiska mwana uyo wakukura. Kweniso ŵasandi ŵangacita mayeso pa ŵana aŵa, kujara so sumbi, na kusanda vyakufumapo pamanyuma. Mwaciyelezgero, vyakusanga vinandi vyakuzirwa pa kukura kwa mawoko na malundi vikacitika na ŵana ŵa nkhuku.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=John J. |last2=Tabin |first2=Clifford J. |title=Saunders's framework for understanding limb development as a platform for investigating limb evolution |journal=Developmental Biology |date=September 2017 |volume=429 |issue=2 |pages=401–408 |doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.11.005 |pmid=27840200 |pmc=5426996 }}</ref> Nkhuku ndico ciyuni cakwamba ico vyakuhara vyake vyose vikaŵazgika.<ref>{{cite journal |author=International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium |title=Sequence and comparative analysis of the chicken genome provide unique perspectives on vertebrate evolution |journal=Nature |date=December 9, 2004 |volume=432 |issue=7018 |pages=695–716 |doi=10.1038/nature03154 |pmid=15592404 |bibcode=2004Natur.432..695C |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vyakuhara vya nkhuku vikuyana mu ukulu na vya viyuni vinyake, kweni ni vicoko kuluska vya pafupifupi vinyama vyose vyakonkheska.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gregory |first1=T. Ryan |title=Synergy between sequence and size in Large-scale genomics |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |date=September 2005 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=699–708 |doi=10.1038/nrg1674|pmid=16151375 |s2cid=24237594 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=Wesley C. |last2=Hillier |first2=LaDeana W. |last3=Tomlinson |first3=Chad |last4=Minx |first4=Patrick |last5=Kremitzki |first5=Milinn |last6=Graves |first6=Tina |last7=Markovic |first7=Chris |last8=Bouk |first8=Nathan |last9=Pruitt |first9=Kim D. |last10=Thibaud-Nissen |first10=Francoise |last11=Schneider |first11=Valerie |last12=Mansour |first12=Tamer A. |display-authors=6 |title=A New Chicken Genome Assembly Provides Insight into Avian Genome Structure |journal=G3 |date=January 2017 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=109–117 |doi=10.1534/g3.116.035923 |pmid=27852011 |pmc=5217101 }}</ref> Mu 2006, ŵasandi ŵakasanda kwambilira kwa viyuni ŵakayatsa cakuhara cinyake ca nkhuku, ndipo ŵakasanga kuti nsaya za mwana zikamba kupanga mino, nga ni agho ghakusangika mu mafosilo gha viyuni vya kale.<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1666805 Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to Grow Teeth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620230515/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1666805 |date=June 20, 2008 }} Ammu Kannampilly, ABC News, February 27, 2006. Retrieved October 1, 2007.</ref> === Mu Midawuko, Majandulo, na Visopa === Nkhuku zikusangika comene mu majandulo, visopa, malemba, na midawuko. Nkhuku ni cinyama cakupatulika mu midawuko yinandi.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">{{cite magazine |last1=Adler |first1=Jerry |last2=Lawler |first2=Andrew |date=June 2012 |title=How the Chicken Conquered the World |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-chicken-conquered-the-world-87583657/ |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=May 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103193648/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/How-the-Chicken-Conquered-the-World.html |archive-date=November 3, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tambala nyengo zinyake ŵakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuŵeza, ici cikusazgapo kupeleka sembe tambala wakupatulika, kanandi pa kumenyaniska kwa cisopa, nga ni nthowa ya kuyowoyerana na ŵaciuta.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvVPAAAAMAAJ&q=Alectryomancy+cockfight&pg=PA394 |title=Encyclopædia Perthensis; Or Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, Literature, &c. Intended to Supersede the Use of Other Books of Reference |publisher=John Brown |year=1816 |edition=2nd |volume=1 |page=394 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-date=September 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921105802/https://books.google.com/books?id=vvVPAAAAMAAJ&q=Alectryomancy+cockfight&pg=PA394#v=snippet&q=Alectryomancy%20cockfight&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu buku la Gabriel García Márquez la 1967, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', kumenyaniska tambala kukakanizgika mu msumba wa Macondo.<ref>{{cite news |title=Love and Immolation in Argentina |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1981/08/16/love-and-immolation-in-argentina/9cf0bdac-cfc3-4198-8824-d89d5e059c55/ |newspaper=Washington Post |date=August 16, 1981 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827142619/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1981/08/16/love-and-immolation-in-argentina/9cf0bdac-cfc3-4198-8824-d89d5e059c55/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Fumbo lakuti "Cifukwa wuli nkhuku yikajumpha msewu?" likufuma mu 1847 panji pambere.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Editor's Table |magazine=The Knickerbocker, or The New York Monthly |date=March 1847 |page=283 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030022381&seq=485 |quote=There are 'quips and quillets' which ''seem'' actual conundrums, but yet are none. Of such is this: 'Why does a chicken cross the street? [...] Because it wants to get on the other side!'}}</ref> Nkhuku zikusangika mu vithuzi vya kujambula, nga ni ca Adriaen van Utrecht ca 1646 na ca Walter Osborne ca 1885.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kellogg |first1=Diane M. |title=Chickens in Art History |work=Painting World |url=https://www.paintingworldmag.com/post/chickens-in-art-history |publisher=Painting World Magazine |access-date=February 2, 2024 |date=May 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202161615/https://www.paintingworldmag.com/post/chickens-in-art-history }}</ref> Sumu ya ŵana ya "Cock a Doodle Doo" yikafumyika mu 1765.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Opie |first1=Iona |last2=Opie |first2=Peter |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-date=1951 |edition=2nd |year=1997 |page=128}}</ref> Filimu ya 2000 ya ''Chicken Run'' yikaŵa na nkhuku izo zikucita nga ni ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Corliss |first=Richard |date=December 4, 2000 |title=Run, Chicken Run! |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2047283,00.html |access-date=March 23, 2023 |issn=0040-781X |archive-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124033415/https://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2047283,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/61096|title=AFI&#124;Catalog|access-date=August 17, 2018|archive-date=August 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817060102/https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/61096|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sfgate.com/movies/amp/Chicken-Recipe-Simply-Divine-Action-comedy-3239861.php|title='Chicken' Recipe Simply Divine / Action comedy blends great story, animation |website=SFGate |date=June 21, 2000 |access-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214504/https://www.sfgate.com/movies/amp/Chicken-Recipe-Simply-Divine-Action-comedy-3239861.php |url-status=live}}</ref> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200 heights=180> File:Terracotta askos (flask) in the form of a rooster MET DP252108 (cropped).jpg|Botolo la dongo la Ŵaetruska la mawonekero gha tambala, vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu File:Rooster and hen, Dong Ho picture, paper - Vietnam National Museum of Fine Arts - Hanoi, Vietnam - DSC05287.JPG|Tambala na nkhuku yanakazi, cithuzi ca mdawuko ca Đông Hồ cakusemeka pa khuni, Vietnam File:Feeding the chickens, by Walter Frederick Osborne.jpg|''Feeding the chickens'' ca Walter Osborne, 1885 File:Joseph Crawhall - Spanish Cock And Snail.jpg|Joseph Crawhall III, ''Spanish Cock and Snail'' (tambala wa ku Spain na nkhono), {{circa|1900}} File:Chicken Mask Bali.jpg|Cakuvwara ku cisko ca khuni ca mawonekero gha nkhuku, Bali, kumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 File:Yoruba Cockfight.jpg|Cikozgo ca khuni cakusemeka na kupakika utoto ca kulimbana kwa ŵatambala, Ŵayoruba, Afilika ya Kumanjiliro, {{circa|2000}} File:France-001717 - Gallic Rooster (15030544244).jpg|Cikozgo ca tambala, Bordeaux, France, 1894–1902. Ciyuni ici ni cimanyikwiro ca caro ici.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why is France's emblem a rooster? |url=https://www.ensemble-en-france.org/en/rooster-french-symbol/ |website=Ensemble en France |date=September 11, 2019 |access-date=16 March 2025 |archive-date=April 13, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250413150603/https://www.ensemble-en-france.org/en/rooster-french-symbol/ |url-status=live }}</ref> </gallery> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vinyama]] [[Category:Viyuni]] lvfj76s0bqvryrv86x33p9mhva73w7y 0 4366 124391 124020 2026-11-10T20:26:43Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{see also|Zuŵa}} [[File:A day panorama - digital art.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Zuŵa (mlenji, muhanya, mise, na usiku)]] {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | total_width = 400 | image1 = Midtown Manhattan from Weehawken September 2021 panorama 1.jpg | alt1 = Midtown Manhattan pa muhanya | image2 = Midtown Manhattan from Weehawken September 2021 panorama 2.jpg | image3 = Midtown Manhattan from Weehawken September 2021 HDR panorama.jpg | alt2 = Midtown Manhattan apo zuŵa likunjira | alt3 = Midtown Manhattan pa mise | footer = Cigaŵa cimoza mwa vinayi vya zuŵa ku Midtown Manhattan, kufuma pa muhanya mpaka pa cisi }} '''Dazi''' (panji '''zuŵa''') ni nyengo iyo [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]] cikutora kujizunguliya kamoza kose kuyana na [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]]. Pakati, ni maora 24 (maŵiri 86,400). Apo zuŵa likujumpha pa malo ghanyake, malo agho ghakuwona mlenji, muhanya, mise, na usiku. Kuzunguliya uku kwa zuŵa na zuŵa kukulongozga mendero gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha vyamoyo vinandi, agho ngakuzirwa pa vinthu vinandi vya umoyo. Mazuŵa ghakulondezgana ghakunozgeka mu makalendala nga ni madeti, pafupifupi nyengo zose mu masabata, myezi, na vyaka. Kalendala ya zuŵa yikunozga madeti kuyana na kuzunguliya kwa zuŵa kwa caka, ndipo yikupeleka mazuŵa ghakuyana gha kwamba kwa nyengo zinayi caka na caka. Kalendala ya mwezi yikunozga madeti kuyana na kawonekero ka [[Mwezi|mwezi]]. Mu kagwiliskiro ka zuŵa na zuŵa, zuŵa likwamba pakati pa usiku, apo pakulembeka 00:00 panji 12:00 am mu vipimanyengo vya maora 24 panji 12. Cifukwa cakuti nyengo ya pakati pa usiku yikupambana kuyana na malo, vigaŵa vya nyengo vyajalikiskika kuti nyengo yimoza yakuyana yigwiliskirike ntchito. Pali nthowa zinyake za kuŵikira kwamba na kumalira kwa mazuŵa, nga ni kalendala ya cisopa ca Ŵayuda, iyo yikupenda mazuŵa kwambira apo zuŵa likunjira, panji mu [[Astronome|astronome]], umo zuŵa likwamba pa muhanya kuti kulaŵiska kose kwa usiku umoza kulembeke kuŵa kwa zuŵa limoza. Pa kagwiliskiro kapadera, ng'anamulo ya zuŵa yikusintha pacoko, nga ni zuŵa la SI (maŵiri 86,400 ndendende) ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito pa mirangura na pa kusunga vipimo, nyengo yapakati ya malo iyo yikughanaghanira kusintha kwa kawiro kwa zuŵa la zuŵa, na zuŵa la nyenyezi ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu astronome. Mu vyaro vinyake kuwaro kwa tropiki, nyengo ya kusunga ungweru wa msana yikucitika, ndipo caka ciliconse pakuŵa zuŵa limoza la maora 23 na limoza la maora 25. Cifukwa ca kusintha kucoko kwa kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi, nyengo zinyake liŵiri lakusazgikira likunjizgika pakumalira kwa zuŵa la UTC; ntheura nangauli pafupifupi mazuŵa ghose ghali na maŵiri 86,400, pali mazuŵa ghanyake ghapadera gha maŵiri 86,401 (mu vyaka 50 kufuma 1972 mpaka 2022, maŵiri ghakusazgikira 27 ghakanjizgika, pafupifupi kamoza pa vyaka viŵiri viliyose). == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''day'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''dæġ'', ndipo likuyana na ''dagur'' mu Ciayisilandi, ''Tag'' mu Cijeremani, na ''dag'' mu Cinoweyi, Cidanishi, Ciswidishi, na Cidachi, ivyo vyose vikufuma ku muzu wa kale wa Ŵajeremani ''*dagaz''.<ref name=":0">Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). ''The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 124. {{ISBN|978-0-19-929668-2}}.</ref> == Ng'anamulo == === Zuŵa la Zuŵa Lakuwoneka na Lapakati === [[File:EpicEarth-Globespin-tilt-23.4.gif|thumb|Kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, kwakujambulika na Deep Space Climate Observatory, kukulongora umo caro capasi cakhotera]] Ng'anamulo zinandi za ghanoghano ili zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuyana na nkhani, kukhumbikwa, na kupepuka. Kupatula zuŵa la maora 24 (maŵiri 86,400), lizgu lakuti zuŵa likugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyengo zinandi zakupambana izo zikuthemba kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi. Yimoza yakuzirwa ni zuŵa la zuŵa, nyengo iyo zuŵa likutora kuwelera pa malo ghake ghapacanya comene kuthambo. Cifukwa cakuti nthowa ya caro capasi njakutalikilapo, zuŵa lili pa malo ghamoza mwa malo ghaŵiri gha mkati mwa nthowa iyo, pakati yayi. Ntheura, kuyana na dango laciŵiri la Kepler, cibwe cikwenda pa luŵiro lakupambana pa malo ghakupambana gha nthowa yake, ndipo zuŵa la zuŵa nduŵi lakuyana caka cose yayi. Cifukwa cakuti caro capasi cikwenda mu nthowa yakutalikilapo kuzunguliya zuŵa apo cikujizunguliya pa ndodo yakupendama, nyengo iyi yingaŵa yitali panji yifupi na maŵiri mpaka 7.9 kuluska maora 24. Mu vyaka makumi ghakumanyuma ivi, utali wapakati wa zuŵa la zuŵa pa caro capasi waŵa pafupifupi maŵiri 86,400.002.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earth Orientation Parameters|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eoppc/eop/eopc04/eopc04.62-now|publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426160146/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eoppc/eop/eopc04/eopc04.62-now|archive-date=April 26, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Sono pali mazuŵa gha zuŵa pafupifupi 365.2421875 mu caka cimoza. Mdawuko wa kale ukaŵikanga kwamba kwa zuŵa liphya apo zuŵa likufuma panji kunjira pa malo agho.<ref>L. Holford-Stevens, ''The History of Time'' (Oxford 2005) p. 6</ref> Nyengo yeneyiyo, na mtunda pakati pa kufuma kwa zuŵa kuŵiri panji kunjira kuŵiri, vikuthemba malo (na utali wa malo) na nyengo ya caka. Zuŵa lakukhazikika comene lingalongosoreka na zuŵa ilo likujumpha pa mzere wa malo, ico cikucitika pa muhanya panji pakati pa usiku. Nyengo yeneyiyo yikuthemba malo gha kumafumiro na kumanjiliro, na pacoko nyengo ya caka. Utali wa zuŵa ili pafupifupi ngwakukhazikika (maora 24 ± maŵiri 30). Iyi ndiyo nyengo iyo vipimanyengo vya zuŵa vya mazuŵa ghano vikulongora. Kuwemeska kunyake kukulongosora zuŵa lapakati la maghanoghano ilo likwenda pa luŵiro lakukhazikika; luŵiro ili likuyana na luŵiro lapakati la zuŵa lenecho, kweni likuwuskapo kusintha kwa caka cose apo caro capasi cikwenda mu nthowa yake. Pa kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi, zuŵa lapakati ni pafupifupi madigiri 360.9856. Zuŵa likutora kujumpha madigiri 360 gha kujizunguliya cifukwa caro capasi cikuzunguliya so zuŵa. Kunyake mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]] panji mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caro cose ca mlengalenga, zuŵa ni kujizunguliya kose kwa vinthu vinyake vikulu vya kuthambo kuyana na nyenyezi yawo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=day |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/day |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=2022-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710214718/https://www.britannica.com/science/day |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Zuŵa la Ŵanthu ==== Pa vilato vya ŵanthu, nyengo ya vipimanyengo yimoza yikuŵikika pa cigaŵa cose kuyana na nyengo yapakati ya zuŵa pa mzere wapakati. Vigaŵa ivi vya nyengo vikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, apo sitima zakwenda pa nyengo zakuŵikika zikamba, ndipo vyaro vinandi vikuru vikaŵa kuti vyavizomerezga pofika 1929. Mu 2015, vigaŵa 40 vikaŵa vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa caro cose capasi: cigaŵa capakati, ico vinyake vyose vikupimikira, cikuchemeka UTC+00, ico cikugwiliskira ntchito Nyengo Yakuyana ya Caro Cose (UTC). Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene yikwambiska zuŵa la ŵanthu pakati pa usiku. Zuŵa ili lingachemeka zuŵa la kalendala. Zuŵa kanandi likugaŵika mu maora 24, ndipo ora liliyose lili na maminiti 60, ndipo miniti yiliyose yili na maŵiri 60. === Zuŵa la Nyenyezi === [[File:PIA19547-Ceres-DwarfPlanet-Dawn-RC3-Animation-20150504.gif|thumb|Kuzunguliya kwa Ceres, cibwe cicoko]] Zuŵa la nyenyezi ni nyengo iyo caro capasi cikutora kujizunguliya kamoza kose kuyana na nyenyezi yakutali (iyo yikuwonekera kuŵa yambura kwenda).<ref>Certain authors caution against identifying "day" with rotation period. For example: {{cite web |first=Courtney |last=Seligman |title=Rotation Period and Day Length |url=http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929010908/http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |archive-date=2018-09-29 |access-date=2011-06-03 |quote=A Cautionary Note: Because the rotation period of the Earth is almost the same as the length of its day, we sometimes get a bit sloppy in discussing the rotation of the sky, and say that the stars rotate around us once each day. In a similar way, it is not unusual for careless people to mix up the rotation period of a planet with the length of its day, or vice versa.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=sidereal day |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sidereal-day |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926003236/https://www.britannica.com/science/sidereal-day |url-status=live }}</ref> Kupima zuŵa mu nthowa iyi kukugwiliskirika ntchito mu astronome.<ref name=":1" /> Zuŵa la nyenyezi ndifupi na pafupifupi maminiti 4 kuluska zuŵa la zuŵa la maora 24 (maora 23, maminiti 56, na maŵiri 4.09).<ref name="Allen296">{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296 |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |date=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-98746-0 |page=296 |author-link=Clabon Walter Allen |name-list-style=amp |access-date=2022-08-17 |archive-date=2011-12-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209062816/http://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pali mazuŵa gha nyenyezi pafupifupi 366.2422 mu caka cimoza (zuŵa limoza kujumpha mazuŵa gha zuŵa).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Komhyr |first=Walter Dmyro |date=June 1980 |title=Operations Handbook – Ozone Observations with a Dobson Spectrophotometer |url=https://gml.noaa.gov/ozwv/dobson/papers/report6/appi.html |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=gml.noaa.gov |page=122 |archive-date=2021-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612111012/https://gml.noaa.gov/ozwv/dobson/papers/report6/appi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> === Mu Ndondomeko ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Vipimo === Zuŵa ni cipimo ca Ndondomeko ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Vipimo (SI) yayi, nangauli pambere 2026 likalongosorekanga kuŵa lakuzomerezgeka kugwiliskirika ntchito na SI.<ref name="Non-SI">{{cite web |author=BIPM |author-link=International Bureau of Weights and Measures |date=2014 |title=Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI, and units based on fundamental constants |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/table6.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111155820/http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/table6.html |archive-date=2014-11-11 |access-date=2015-01-27 |website=SI Brochure |edition=8th |orig-year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SI-Brochure-9 |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/si-brochure-9 |date=June 2026 |access-date=2026-06-08 |website=BIPM |language=en-US |doi=10.59161/AUEZ1291 |edition=4.01|pages=140–141}}</ref> Zuŵa, na cimanyikwiro d, likulongosoreka na vipimo vya SI kuŵa maŵiri 86,400; liŵiri ndilo cipimo cakwamba ca nyengo mu SI. === Mu Nyengo ya Makhumi === [[File:Decimal Clock face by Pierre Daniel Destigny 1798-1805.jpg|thumb|Koloko ya nambala khumi, yakupangika pafupifupi pa kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800]] Pali maghanoghano ghanandi gha nyengo ya makhumi, kweni ghakusintha ng'anamulo ya zuŵa yayi, ndipo ghakugwiliskira ntchito zuŵa nga ni cipimo cakwamba. Mu nyengo ya makhumi, zuŵa likugaŵika mu maora 10, ndipo mazuŵa 10 ghakupanga ''décade'', iyo yikuyana na sabata.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Veitch |first=Harriet |date=2008-04-02 |title=Why don't we have metric time? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/why-dont-we-have-metric-time-20080402-gds868.html |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821154425/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/why-dont-we-have-metric-time-20080402-gds868.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Décades'' zitatu zikupanga mwezi.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Vera |first=Hector |date=2009 |title=Decimal Time: Misadventures of a Revolutionary Idea, 1793–2008 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/kron/9/1-2/article-p29_6.xml |journal=KronoScope |volume=9 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–48 |doi=10.1163/156771509X12638154745382 |issn=1567-715X |access-date=2022-08-21 |archive-date=2022-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821154425/https://brill.com/view/journals/kron/9/1-2/article-p29_6.xml |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Rp|page=35}}<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=42}}<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=|pages=42–43}}<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=42}} === Ng'anamulo Zinyake === Lizgu ili likung'anamula maghanoghano ghanyake ghakuyana, nga ni: * Zuŵa lose: nyengo ya mdima na ungweru, maora 24. * Kupenda kwa mazuŵa, mwaciyelezgero "Tizamuwonana pamanyuma pa mazuŵa ghatatu" panji "zuŵa lakulondezgapo". * Cigaŵa ca deti: zuŵa la caka, zuŵa la mwezi, panji zuŵa la sabata. * Nyengo iyo munthu wakugwira ntchito ya malipiro pa zuŵa limoza. * Msana: nyengo ya ungweru apo zuŵa lili pacanya pa mphepete ya kuthambo (kufuma apo zuŵa likufuma mpaka apo likunjira), panji kufuma ku ungweru wakwamba wa mlenji mpaka ku ungweru wakumalira wa mise. * Nyengo yinyake ya zuŵa, nga ni "zuŵa la kwamasambiro" panji "zuŵa la ntchito". == Kusintha kwa Utali == Comene cifukwa ca kucepa kwa luŵiro uko kukwiziskika na nkhongono yakuguza ya mwezi, kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi kukuzerezgeka.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |date=2008-11-01 |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–1908 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |s2cid=124701789 |issn=0004-6256 |access-date=2022-08-20 |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531162009/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Cifukwa ca umo liŵiri lalongosorekera, utali wapakati wa zuŵa la zuŵa sono ni pafupifupi maŵiri 86,400.002, ndipo ukusazgikira na pafupifupi magaŵa 2 pa 1,000 gha liŵiri pa vyaka 100 viliyose.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Arbab |first=Arbab I. |date=January 2009 |title=The Length of the Day: A Cosmological Perspective |url=http://www.ptep-online.com/2009/PP-16-02.PDF |journal=Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum |volume=1 |access-date=2022-08-20 |archive-date=2022-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820051602/http://www.ptep-online.com/2009/PP-16-02.PDF |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Pakuti luŵiro la kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi likucepa, utali wa liŵiri la SI ukaleka kuyana na liŵiri ilo likufuma ku kujizunguliya.<ref name=":4" /> Ici cikiziska kukhumbikwa kwa maŵiri ghakusazgikira, agho ghakunjizgika mu Nyengo Yakuyana ya Caro Cose (UTC).<ref name=":4" /> Nangauli kanandi zuŵa lili na maŵiri 86,400 gha SI, zuŵa la ŵanthu lingaŵa na maŵiri 86,401 panji 86,399 pa zuŵa ilo. Kupatula kusintha kwa magaŵa 2 pa 1,000 gha liŵiri, vinthu vinyake vikusintha pacoko comene utali wa zuŵa, ndipo ici cikupangiska kunjizga kwa maŵiri ghakusazgikira kuŵa kwambura ndondomeko.<ref>{{cite web |date=2013 |title=IERS science background |url=https://www.iers.org/IERS/EN/Science/EarthRotation/EarthRotation.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829050135/https://www.iers.org/IERS/EN/Science/EarthRotation/EarthRotation.html |archive-date=August 29, 2016 |access-date=August 6, 2016 |publisher=IERS |location=Frankfurt am Main}}</ref> Maŵiri ghakusazgikira ghakuphalirika pambere na Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kujizunguliya kwa Caro Capasi (IERS), uwo ukupima kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi na kusimikizga usange liŵiri lakusazgikira likukhumbikwa. === Utali wa Mazuŵa mu Nyengo za Kale === Musandi wa vyamoyo vya kale John W. Wells wakasanga kuti utali wa mazuŵa mu nyengo za kale ungapimika mwa kupima mphete za mafosilo gha matanthwe gha mu nyanja, cifukwa vyamoyo vinyake vikukhwaskika na kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha nyanja.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1969LAstr..83..411K/0000411.000.html|title=Paléo-Astronomie|author=J.Kovalesky ''Bureau des Longitudes''|journal=L'Astronomie|year=1969|volume=83|page=411|bibcode=1969LAstr..83..411K|access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20191221210557/http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1969LAstr..83..411K/0000411.000.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":2" /> Utali wa zuŵa apo caro capasi cikapangika ukughanaghanirika kuŵa maora 6.<ref name=":2" /> Arbab I. Arbab wakalemba utali wa mazuŵa mu nyengo, ndipo wakasanga mzere wakupindika.<ref name=":2" /> Arbab wakayowoya kuti ici cikafuma ku kusintha kwa unandi wa maji agho ghakhwaska kujizunguliya kwa caro capasi.<ref name=":2" /> == Mphaka za Zuŵa == [[File:Sun and Moon Nuremberg chronicle.jpg|thumb|208px|Zuŵa na mwezi, mu ''Nuremberg Chronicle'' ya Hartmann Schedel, 1493]] Pa vinyama vinandi vya msana, zuŵa likwamba pa matanda kuca na kumalira apo zuŵa likunjira. Ŵanthu, na mikhaliro ya mdawuko na umanyi wa kasandiro, ŵagwiliskira ntchito maghanoghano ghanandi ghakupambana gha mphaka za zuŵa. Mu Baibolo la Ciheberi, Genesis 1:5 likulongosora zuŵa na "mise" na "mlenji" pambere lindalongosore kupangika kwa zuŵa kuti liŵalire: "Ciuta wakachema ungweru kuti Muhanya, na mdima wakauchema kuti Usiku. Ndipo kukaŵa mise na mlenji, zuŵa lakwamba." Zuŵa la Ŵayuda likwamba apo zuŵa likunjira panji apo usiku wanjira (apo nyenyezi zitatu zikuwoneka). Ulaya wa nyengo yapakati nawo ukalondezga mdawuko uwu, wakumanyikwa nga ni kupenda kwa Florence: mu ndondomeko iyi, kuyowoya kuti "maora ghaŵiri mu zuŵa" kukang'anamula maora ghaŵiri pamanyuma pa kunjira kwa zuŵa, ntheura nyengo za mise zikwenera kuwezgereka zuŵa limoza mu kupenda kwa mazuŵa ghano. Mazuŵa nga ni Usiku wa Pambere pa Khrisimasi na ghanyake ni vyakusyala vya ndondomeko ya kale apo mazuŵa gha cisangalalo ghakambanga pa mise ya zuŵa la kumanyuma. Nthowa yakumanyikwa ya Ŵaroma ŵa kale, Ŵacayina ŵa kale, na mu nyengo ya sono, njakuti zuŵa la ŵanthu likwamba pakati pa usiku, ndiko kuti 00:00, ndipo likumala maora 24 ghose mpaka 24:00, ndiko kuti 00:00 ya zuŵa lakulondezgapo.<ref>See [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0212%3Asection%3D84 Plutarch, ''Quaestiones Romanae'', 84.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209025420/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0212:section%3D84 |date=2021-02-09 }}</ref><ref>s:zh:清史稿/卷48: 起''子正''，盡''夜子初''。</ref> Ungano wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Mzere Wapakati wa 1884 ukasimikizga kuti ukuthemba kuti luŵiro, para cingacitika, mazuŵa gha astronome na gha pa nyanja ghazamunozgeka kulikose kuti ghambe pakati pa usiku. Mu [[Eguputo]] wa kale, zuŵa likapendekanga kufuma apo zuŵa likufuma mpaka apo likufuma so. Pambere 1926, Turkey yikaŵa na ndondomeko ziŵiri za nyengo: ya Turkey, iyo yikapendanga maora kufuma apo zuŵa likunjira, na ya Ŵafurenci, iyo yikapendanga maora kufuma pakati pa usiku. == Vigaŵa vya Zuŵa == Ŵanthu ŵagaŵa zuŵa mu nyengo zinandi, izo zingaŵa na ng'anamulo mu mdawuko, na vyakufumapo vinyake pa umoyo wa thupi la ŵanthu. Vigaŵa vya zuŵa vilije nyengo zakuŵikika; vingapambana kuyana na umoyo wa ŵanthu panji maora gha ungweru mu malo ghanyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parts of the Day: Early morning, late morning, etc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/eb/qa/parts-of-the-day-early-morning-late-morning-etc |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Britannica Dictionary |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822024715/https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/eb/qa/parts-of-the-day-early-morning-late-morning-etc |url-status=live }}</ref> === Msana === Msana ni cigaŵa ca zuŵa umo ungweru wa zuŵa ukufika pasi mwakulunjika, para palije vikanizgo. Utali wa msana pakati nkhwakujumpha pacoko hafu ya zuŵa la maora 24. Vinthu viŵiri vikupangiska msana pakati kuŵa utali kuluska usiku. Zuŵa ni kadontho yayi, kweni lili na ukulu wakuwoneka. Kusazgirapo, mphepo iyo yikuzunguliya caro capasi yikupindiska ungweru wa zuŵa mwakuti unyake ukufika pasi nanga para zuŵa lili pasi pa mphepete ya kuthambo.<ref>{{frac|32′|2}} + 34′ = 50′</ref> Ntheura, msana pakati ngutali pafupifupi maminiti 7 kuluska maora 12.<ref>{{sfrac|50°|60}} ÷ 360° × 2(for sunrise and set) × 24 hours ≈ 7 min</ref> Msana ukugaŵika so mu mlenji na muhanya. Mlenji uli pakati pa kufuma kwa zuŵa na pakati pa msana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of MORNING |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morning |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822030634/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morning |url-status=live }}</ref> Muhanya uli pakati pa pakati pa msana na kunjira kwa zuŵa, panji pakati pa pakati pa msana na kwamba kwa mise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of AFTERNOON |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/afternoon |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822030634/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/afternoon |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kufunda kwa thupi la ŵanthu nkhukulu comene, ngozi za pa misewu zikusazgikira, ndipo ntchito yikucepa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Refinetti|first=Roberto|title=Circadian Physiology|date=2006|edition=2nd|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-8493-2233-4|page=556}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=McCabe|first=Paul T.|title=Contemporary Ergonomics|date=2004|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=0-8493-2342-8|page=588}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ray|first=James T.|title=Human Performance as a Function of the Work–Rest Cycle|publisher=National Academy of Sciences|date=1960|page=11}}</ref> === Matanda Kuca na Kuzirimila === [[File:Twilight-dawn_subcategories.svg|thumb|right]] Matanda kuca na kuzirimila ni nyengo pambere zuŵa lindafume na pamanyuma pa kunjira kwake apo pali ungweru wa kawiro kweni palije ungweru wa zuŵa wakulunjika.<ref name="USNO">{{cite web |title=Definitions from the US Astronomical Applications Dept |url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927072432/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.php |archive-date=2019-09-27 |access-date=2011-07-22 |publisher=USNO}}</ref> Kuzirimila kwa mlenji kukwamba pa matanda kuca na kumalira apo zuŵa likufuma, apo kuzirimila kwa mise kukwamba apo zuŵa likunjira na kumalira apo mdima wanjira.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Glossary of Marine Navigation |url=http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Gloss-1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829062838/http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Gloss-1.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-29 |access-date=2022-08-22 }}</ref> [[File:Adolf Stademann Flusslandschaft im Mondschein.jpg|thumb|Usiku mu luso la kujambula]] Mise yingamba pambere zuŵa lindanjire, ndipo yikukolerana na kuzirimila na usiku. Mise yikwamba pafupifupi pa 5 panji 6 koloko ya muhanya, panji apo zuŵa likunjira, ndipo yikumalira apo munthu wakuluta kukagona.<ref name="oed">{{cite web |title=evening, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/evening_n1 |website=www.oed.com |publisher=Oxford English Dictionary |access-date=18 September 2023|quote=The close of day, esp. the time from about 6 p.m., or sunset if earlier, to bedtime; the period between afternoon and night.}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|title=Definition of evening in English|url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/eb/qa/parts-of-the-day-early-morning-late-morning-etc|website=Britannica|publisher=Britannica|access-date=17 Sep 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of 'evening' |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/evening |website=Collins Dictionary |access-date=2022-08-22 |archive-date=2021-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501040345/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/evening |url-status=live }}</ref> === Usiku === Usiku ni nyengo iyo kuthambo kwafipa; nyengo pakati pa kunjira kwa ungweru na matanda kuca apo palije ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwoneka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Nighttime |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/nighttime |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press & Assessment |access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Nighttime |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/nighttime |dictionary=Collins Dictionary|publisher=Harper Collins |access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Nighttime |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nighttime |dictionary=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Night |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/night |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Cambridge Dictionary |archive-date=2022-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401194705/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/night |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of NIGHT |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/night |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822024714/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/night |url-status=live }}</ref> Ungweru wakupangika wa usiku ungakhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu na vinyama, mwaciyelezgero kuzerezga tulo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blume |first1=Christine |last2=Garbazza |first2=Corrado |last3=Spitschan |first3=Manuel |date=2019 |title=Effects of light on human circadian rhythms, sleep and mood |journal=Somnologie |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=147–156 |doi=10.1007/s11818-019-00215-x |doi-access=free |issn=1432-9123 |pmc=6751071 |pmid=31534436}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Light pollution harms wildlife and ecosystems|url=https://darksky.org/resources/what-is-light-pollution/effects/wildlife-ecosystems |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=DarkSky International |language=en}}</ref> === Mu Midawuko Yinyake === Kagaŵiro ka zuŵa mu vigaŵa kakupambana mu midawuko. Mwaciyelezgero, mu Brazil zuŵa likugaŵika mu nyengo zinayi za maora 6: ''madrugada'' kufuma pakati pa usiku mpaka 6:00 am, ''manhã'' kufuma 6:00 am mpaka pakati pa msana, ''tarde'' kufuma pakati pa msana mpaka 6:00 pm, na ''noite'' kufuma 6:00 pm mpaka pakati pa usiku.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www12.senado.leg.br/manualdecomunicacao/estilos/hora |title=Manual de Comunicação da Secom |publisher=Federal Senate, Brazil |language=pt |access-date=2025-06-28}}</ref> == Mazuŵa gha Sabata == * Lakwamba (Monday) * Ciŵiri (Tuesday) * Citatu (Wednesday) * Cinayi (Thursday) * Cinkhondi (Friday) * Cisulo (Saturday) * [[Sabata]] (Sunday) == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Madazi]] 8sd1vi7dm53ap6e7bxzu2oh7tmt2ybc 0 4368 124351 124016 2026-11-10T14:18:25Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{see also|Category:Miyezi{{!}}Miyezi ya caka}} [[file:FullMoon2010.jpg|thumb|Mwezi wa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]].]] [[File:Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites.jpg|thumb|upright|Myezi ya [[Jupita]]: ''Io'', ''Europa'', ''Ganymede'', ''Callisto''.]] [[file:Moon symbol (planetary color).svg|frameless|upright=0.35|☾]] '''Mwezi''' (cimanyikwiro: [[file:moon decrescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☾]] panji [[file:moon crescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☽]]) ndiyo setilayiti ya kawiro yekha ya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yakutalikilapo, pa mtunda uwo ukusintha mu caka, wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 378,000. Ukumalizga kuzunguliya kamoza (mwezi wa caka), kuyana na caro capasi na [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], mu mazuŵa 29.5 ghaliwose. Mwezi na caro capasi vikukoleka na nkhongono ya kukoka, iyo njankhongono comene ku mbali izo zikulaŵiskana. Nkhongono izi ndizo zikwiziska comene kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani pa caro capasi, ndipo zaguza mwezi kuti nyengo zose ulaŵiske caro capasi na cigaŵa cimoza ceneco. Kukakika uku kukupangiska nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwa mwezi pa ceneco (zuŵa la mwezi) kuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya caro capasi (mwezi wa caka). Pa kasandiro ka pasi, mwezi ni cinthu ca kuzitika kwa cibwe panji cibwe ca setilayiti. Kuzitika kwake ni magaŵa 1.2 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro capasi, ndipo ukulu wake ni makilomita 3,474, pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi. Mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]], ngukulu na wakuzitika kuluska cibwe cicoko ciliconse ico cikumanyikwa, ndipo ni mwezi wa cinkhondi pa ukulu na pa kuzitika, kweniso ni mwezi ukulu comene na wakuzitika comene kuyana na cibwe cake. Nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya pa mwezi njicoko pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi, pafupifupi hafu ya ya Aresi, ndipo njaciŵiri pa ukulu pa myezi yose ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa pamanyuma pa Io, mwezi wa Jupita. Thupi la mwezi lili na vigaŵa vyakupambana na ni la malibwe, ndipo lili na maji, mphepo, na nkhongono ya umagineti vicoko comene. Pacanya pa mwezi paphimbika na fuvu, ilo comene ni vinthu vyakupepuka ivyo vikaphulika kufuma ku cikopa ca mwezi apo vinthu vikatimbana nawo. Cikopa ca mwezi cili na mazenje gha kutimbana; ghanyake ghaphya ghali na mizere yakuŵala. Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo mwala wakusungunuka ukafuma comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, iyo cikopa cake ncifupi, ukazuzga mazenje gha kale, ndipo apo ukazizima ukapanga malo ghakufipa agho ghakuwoneka makola sono, ghakuchemeka ''maria'' ("nyanja"). Mwezi ukughanaghanirika kuti ukapangika kufuma ku vinthu vya caro capasi ivyo vikaphulika apo cinthu ca ukulu wa [[Aresi]] cikatimbana na caro capasi. Kusanda kwa kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika vyaka biliyoni 4.35 ivyo vyajumpha, pamanyuma mu mbiri ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kufuma kutali, msana na usiku vya zuŵa la mwezi vikuwoneka nga ni kawonekero kakusintha ka mwezi, ndipo para mwezi ukujumpha mu mzgezge wa caro capasi, kubisika kwa mwezi kukuwoneka. Ukulu wa mwezi kuthambo la caro capasi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ntheura mwezi ukuphimba zuŵa lose pa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa. Mwezi ndiwo cinthu cakuŵala comene kuthambo usiku cifukwa ca ukulu wake wakuwoneka, nangauli kuwezga ungweru kwa pacanya pake nkhwakuyana na kwa phula la misewu. Pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghakuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi cifukwa ca makona ghakupambana agho mwezi ungawonekera kuthambo, ndipo vigaŵa vinyake vya mbali ya kutali ya mwezi vikuwoneka. Mwezi waŵa kasupe wakuzirwa wa maghanoghano na vinjeru mu mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo wakaŵa wakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka caro cose, majandulo, visopa, luso, kupima nyengo, kasandiro ka kawiro, na maulendo gha mlengalenga. Maulendo ghakwamba gha mlengalenga ku cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi ghakaŵa ku mwezi, kwamba mu 1959 na kujumpha pafupi kwa Luna 1 (iyo yikatumika na Soviet Union), na kutimbana kwakukhumbika kwa Luna 2, kulondezgana mu 1966 na kukhala pasi makola kwakwamba (na Luna 9) na kunjira mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya (na Luna 10). Ŵanthu ŵakafika dankha mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi na Apollo 8 (iyo yikatumika na United States) pa 24 Zimya 1968, ndipo pamanyuma pacanya pa mwezi na Apollo 11 pa 20 Vuna 1969, ndipo ici cikapangiska mwezi kuŵa cinthu cekha ca kumwamba kuwaro kwa caro capasi ico ŵanthu ŵafikako. Pofika 1972, maulendo 6 gha Apollo ghakaŵa kuti ghafikiska ŵanthu 12 pa mwezi, ndipo ŵakakhalako mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu. Kupenda kuphya kwa mwezi na marobotiki, comene kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji pa mwezi, kwasazgirapo maghanoghano gha kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi. Mwa agha muli ndondomeko ya Artemis, kusazgapo ulendo wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi mu 2026. == Mazina na Muzu wa Lizgu == Zina la Cingelezi la setilayiti ya kawiro ya caro capasi kanandi likulembeka kuti ''Moon'', na M yikulu. Lizgu lakuti ''moon'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''mōna'', ilo likufuma ku ''*mēnōn'', ilo nalo likufuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''*mēnsis'' ("mwezi wa caka"), ilo lingakolerana na lizgu lakung'anamula "kupima [nyengo]". Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''mwezi'' nalo likung'anamula cinthu ca kumwamba na nyengo ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 30. Zina la Cilatini la mwezi ni ''lūna''. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''lunar'' likafuma ku Cilatini, panyake kwizira mu Cifulenci. Mu malemba gha kasandiro na mu nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro, mwezi nyengo zinyake ukuchemeka ''Luna'' kuti upambane na myezi yinyake. Mu ndakatulo, ''Luna'' lingang'anamula so mwezi wakulongoreka nga ni mwanakazi. Lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale ''selḗnē'' likang'anamulanga mwezi nga ni cinthu ca kumwamba, na so ciuta mwanakazi wa mwezi Selene. Lizgu la Cingelezi lambura kugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi lakuti ''selenian'' likulongosora mwezi nga ni caro. Muzu wakuti ''seleno-'' ukuwoneka mu mazgo nga ni ''selenography'' (kusanda pacanya pa mwezi). Vimanyikwiro vya astronome vya mwezi ni ☽ na ☾, mwaciyelezgero mu M☾, "kuzitika kwa mwezi". === Kagaŵiro === Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kasandiro ka Nyenyezi (IAU) ukuchema setilayiti ya caro capasi kuti "the Moon", na M yikulu. Setilayiti zinyake za kawiro za vibwe zikuchemeka "moons", na m yicoko. Mu mbiri, mwezi ukaŵa umoza mwa vibwe vya kale, mu ng'anamulo la kale la cinthu cakwendakwenda kuthambo. Apo Galileo wakasanga setilayiti izo zikuzunguliya Jupita, wakazichema kuti "myezi" cifukwa, nga ni mwezi, zingawonekera kuŵa vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya cibwe cinyake. Ŵakumanya ŵanyake ŵakulondezga ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi ilo likugaŵa myezi nga ni vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa apo vikuzunguliya so cibwe cinyake. Para tikulaŵiska kufuma ku zuŵa, mwezi ukuzunguliya zuŵa, ndipo caro capasi cikusintha pacoko nthowa yake. Ici capangiska ŵasandi ŵanyake kuyowoya kuti mwezi ungawonekera kuŵa cibwe, mu mbiri na mu kawiro kake, ndipo kuzitika kwake kungakwana kutozga nthowa yake kuzunguliya zuŵa usange ukaŵa paŵekha. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ici cikung'anamula kuti caro capasi na mwezi ni cibwe caŵiri. IAU yilije ng'anamulo la vibwe mu ndondomeko ya viŵiri, panji la ico cikupanga ndondomeko ya cibwe caŵiri, kweni ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezgana kuti ici cingakhumba pakati pa kuzitika kwa mwezi na caro capasi kuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ico nchambura kuŵa nthena. == Mbiri ya Kawiro == === Kapangikiro === Kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika mu vyaka miliyoni 200 vyakwamba pamanyuma pa kwamba kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kupima kwakugomezgeka comene pa mitundu yikulu ya malibwe kukulongora vyaka biliyoni 4.35. Ghanoghano ilo likuzomerezgeka comene ni lakuti caro capasi na mwezi vikapangika pamanyuma pa kutimbana kukulu kwa cinthu ca ukulu wa Aresi (cakuchemeka Theia) na caro capasi ca kale. Kutimbana kwa mphepete uku kukaponya vinthu mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo vinthu ivi vikawunjikana na kupanga mwezi kuwaro pacoko kwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi. Kutimbana kukulu kukughanaghanirika kuti kukacitikanga kanandi mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ka kale. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vya kutimbana kukulu vyapeleka vyakufumapo ivyo vikukolerana na kuzitika kwa mtima wa mwezi na nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya caro capasi na mwezi. Viyelezgero ivi vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku cinthu ico cikatimbana, m'malo mwa caro capasi ca kale. Kweni viyelezgero vya kufuma 2007 vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku caro capasi ca kale. Vinthu vinyake vya mukati mwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa nga ni Aresi na Vesta, kuyana na malibwe gha mlengalenga agho ghakufumako, vili na kapangikiro ka okisijeni na tungsten kakupambana comene na ka caro capasi. Kweni caro capasi na mwezi vili na kapangikiro kakuyana pafupifupi. Kuyana uku kungalongosoreka na kusazganika kwa vinthu vyakuzgoka mphepo ivyo vikapanga vyose viŵiri pamanyuma pa kutimbana, nangauli pali mphindano pa ici. Kutimbana kukafumiska nkhongono zakukwana kusungunuska vinthu vyakuphulika na cikopa ca caro capasi, kupanga nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka. Vinthu vyakusungunuka vyakuphulika vingaŵa kuti vikawunjikana so mu ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi. Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ungaŵa kuti ukaŵa na nyanja yake ya mwala wakusungunuka; kuzika kwake kukughanaghanirika kuŵa kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 500 mpaka 1,737. Vigaŵa viŵiri vya ukulu wa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda mu cigaŵa ca pasi ca caro capasi vyasacizgika kuŵa vyakusyala vya Theia ivyo vicali mukati mwa caro capasi. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vyakulunjika comene vikusanga kuti kutimbana kukulu kungaŵika luŵiro setilayiti ya kuzitika na unandi wa cisulo wakuyana na wa mwezi mu nthowa yakutali mwakukwana kufuma ku caro capasi kuti yileke kunangika na nkhongono ya kukoka (kuwaro kwa mphaka ya Roche). Nanga ni setilayiti izo pakwamba zikujumpha mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche zingapona, mwa kuwuskika vigaŵa vinyake na pamanyuma kukankhika ku nthowa zisani na zakukhazikika. Nangauli ghanoghano la kutimbana kukulu likulongosora ukaboni unandi, mafumbo ghanyake ghacali ghambura kuzgoleka, ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na kapangikiro ka mwezi. Viyelezgero ivyo mwezi ukutora cigaŵa cikulu ca caro capasi ca kale nvyakusuzga kukolerana na vyakusangika vya usungunu wa pasi pa zirconium, okisijeni, silicon, na vigaŵa vinyake. === Kukura kwa Kawiro === Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ukazunguliyanga caro capasi pafupi comene kuluska sono. Ntheura cilichose cikawonekanga cikulu comene kuthambo la cinyake, kubisika kukacitikanga kanandi, ndipo nkhongono za kukoka zikaŵa zikulu. Cifukwa ca nkhongono za kukoka, nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yakura comene, ndipo yikutora nyengo yitali. Pamanyuma pa kupangika, mwezi wazizima ndipo mphepo yake yinandi yawuskika. Pacanya pa mwezi pakusintha kufuma apo na kutimbana kukulu na kucoko kunandi, ndipo kwapanga malo ghakuŵa na mazenje gha vyaka vyose. Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo agha ghakapanga ''maria'' ghakuwoneka comene. Mwala wakusungunuka unandi wa ''maria'' ukafuma mu nyengo ya Imbrian, vyaka biliyoni 3.3–3.7 ivyo vyajumpha, nangauli unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 1.2 pera ndipo unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 4.2. Kuthandazgika kwa mwala uwu nkhwambura kuyana, ndipo ukuwoneka comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi. Vifukwa vya ici vindamanyikwe, nangauli kufupi kwa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa cifukwa cimoza. Vifukwa vya kuthandazgika kwa malo ghapacanya gha mwezi ku mbali ya kutali navyo vindamanyikwe makola. Kupima kukulongora kuti cikopa ca mbali ya pafupi ncifupi kuluska ca mbali ya kutali. Malongosoro ghanyake ni ghakuti kutimbana kukulu ku mbali ya pafupi kungaŵa kuti kukapepuska mwala wakusungunuka kuthiririka pacanya. === Nyengo za Kasandiro ka Pasi pa Mwezi === Nyengo za kasandiro ka pasi pa mwezi zikuthemba kutimbana kwakuwoneka comene, nga ni mazenje gha mphete zinandi nga ni Nectaris, Imbrium, na Orientale, agho ghali na ukulu wa makilomita mahandiredi mpaka masauzandi, ndipo ghali na vinthu vyakuphulika ivyo vyathandazgika kutali. Nyengo izi zikuthyika mazina gha vimanyikwiro vyake, kufuma ku mazenje ghanandi kuwaro kwa ''maria'' ghakufipa, ku ''maria'' na mazenje gha pamanyuma, na pakumalira ku mazenje ghaphya, ghacali ghakuŵala na ghakuwoneka makola, ghakuŵa na mizere nga ni Copernicus panji Tycho. Kusoŵa kwa mphepo, nyengo, na ndondomeko za pasi za sonosono kukung'anamula kuti mazenje ghanandi agha ghakusungika makola. Nangauli mazenje ghacoko pera gha mphete zinandi ghapimika vyaka mwakusimikizgika, ngakovwira pa kupeleka vyaka vyakuyaniska. Cifukwa mazenje gha kutimbana ghakuwunjikana pa luŵiro lwakuyana pafupifupi, kupenda unandi wa mazenje pa malo kungagwiliskirika ntchito kupima vyaka vya pacanya. Kweni pakwenera kupwelelera na nthowa iyi cifukwa pangaŵa mazenje ghaciŵiri. Vinthu vyakuphulika pa kutimbana vingapanga mazenje ghaciŵiri agho kanandi ghakuwoneka mu magulu panji mu mizere, kweni ghangawoneka so paŵekha kutali na apo kutimbana kukacitikira. Agha ghangayana na mazenje ghakwamba, ndipo ghangaŵa ghanandi mu mazenje ghacoko, ntheura kuŵapo kwawo kwambura kumanyikwa kungananga kupima vyaka. Vyaka vya malibwe ghakusungunuka na kutimbana agho ghakawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo vili pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3.8 na 4.1: ici cagwiliskirika ntchito kusacizga nyengo ya Kutimbana Kukulu kwa Pamanyuma, ya kusazgikira kwa kutimbana. Vithuzi vyakulunjika comene vya Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010 vikulongora kuti luŵiro lwa sono lwa kupangika kwa mazenje lukujumpha comene ivyo vikaghanaghanirika kale. Ndondomeko ya mazenje ghaciŵiri yikughanaghanirika kusazganya masentimita ghaŵiri gha pacanya gha fuvu mu vyaka 81,000. Luŵiro ili lukujumpha kahandiredi luŵiro ilo likapimika kufuma ku kutimbana kwa tumalibwe tucoko pera. === Ivyo Vikulindilirika Munthazi === Pamanyuma pa vyaka biliyoni 5, mwezi uzamuzunguliya kutali na caro capasi na magaŵa 40 pa 100 kuluska sono. Kweni pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 2 mpaka 3 pamanyuma pa ici, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira. Usange zuŵa lizamuphimba caro capasi na mwezi, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi kucepa mpaka mwezi wanjire mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi, ndipo ungaphwanyika. == Vimanyikwiro vya Kawiro == === Ukulu na Kuzitika === Mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro ya cinkhondi pa ukulu (pa ukulu na pa kuzitika) mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ungagaŵika nga ni mwezi wa kuzitika kwa cibwe, ntheura ni cibwe ca setilayiti kuyana na ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi. Ngucoko kuluska Mekyuri kweni ngukulu comene kuluska cibwe cicoko cikulu comene ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, Pulutu. Mwezi ni setilayiti yaciŵiri pa kukhwima mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, pamanyuma pa Io. Na kuzitika kwa cigaŵa cimoza pa 81 ca kwa caro capasi, na ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 3,500 (kujumpha cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi), mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro yikulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kuyaniska na cibwe cake. Cisko ca mwezi cikuyana na usani wa Australia, Ulaya, panji United States. Malo ghose gha pacanya pa mwezi ni makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 38, ghakuyana na gha Amerika yose. === Mawonekero === Pakwamba mwezi ukaŵa na mawonekero ghakukhazikika na kukoka kwa ceneco, kweni kufuma apo wasintha. Ni mpira wakutalikilapo pacoko comene cifukwa ca kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka, ndipo mzere wake mutali wapendama makona 30 kufuma ku kulaŵiska caro capasi, cifukwa ca kupambana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka uko kukufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana. Mawonekero ghake ngatali kuluska ivyo nkhongono za kukoka za sono zingalongosora. "Cifufu ca kale" ici cikulongora kuti mwezi ukakhwima apo ukazunguliyanga pa hafu ya mtunda wake wa sono kufuma ku caro capasi, ndipo sono ngwakuzizima comene kuti mawonekero ghake ghawelere ku kukhazikika pa mtunda wake wa sono. Mazuŵa ghano, kusintha kwa cikopa na nkhongono za kukoka kukupanga waka tumapiri tucoko twa kuphwanyika kwa cikopa. === Kazengero === Mwezi uli na vigaŵa vyakupambana pa usungunu: cikopa, cigaŵa capakati, na mtima. Uli na mtima wa mukati wakukhwima wa cisulo cinandi, wa ukulu wapakati panyake wa makilomita 240 pera, na mtima wa kuwaro wa vinthu vyakuthira, comene cisulo cakusungunuka, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 300. Kuzunguliya mtima kuli cigaŵa cakusungunuka pacoko ca ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 500. Kazengero aka kakughanaghanirika kuti kakapangika apo nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi wose yikakhwimanga pacoko pacoko pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa mwezi vyaka biliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha. Kukhwima kwa nyanja iyi ya mwala wakusungunuka kungaŵa kuti kukapanga cigaŵa capakati ca vinthu vyakuzitika apo vinthu nga ni ''olivine'' na ''pyroxene'' vikabiranga pasi; apo pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka vikakhwima, vinthu vyakupepuka vya ''plagioclase'' vikapangika na kuyandama kuŵa cikopa pacanya. Vinthu vyaumaliro kukhwima vingaŵa kuti pakwamba vikaŵa pakati pa cikopa na cigaŵa capakati, na unandi ukulu wa vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga kufunda. Kuyana na ghanoghano ili, mapu gha usungunu agho ghakapangika kufuma mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya ghakulongora kuti cikopa cikupangika comene na ''anorthosite''. Vigaŵa vya malibwe gha mwezi vya mwala wakusungunuka uwo ukafuma pacanya kufuma ku kusungunuka kwa cigaŵa capakati vikusimikizga kapangikiro ka cigaŵa capakati, ako kali na cisulo cinandi kuluska ca caro capasi. Cikopa cili na unandi wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 50. Kweni mtima wa mwezi ngucoko, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 350 panji pasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha ukulu wapakati wa mwezi. Kapangikiro kake kakumanyikwa makola yayi kweni panyake ni cisulo cakusazganika na sulfure na nickel pacoko. Kupenda kuzunguliya kwa mwezi uko kukusintha mu nyengo kukulongora kuti mtima ngwakusungunuka pacoko. Kukanikizga pa mtima wa mwezi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa GPa 5 (kanandi kakulu nga ni mphepo ya caro capasi kanandi 49,000). === Nkhongono ya Kukoka === Pakati, nkhongono ya kukoka pacanya pa mwezi ni 1.62 m/s², pafupifupi hafu ya ya pacanya pa Aresi na pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi. Pa myezi ya vibwe, mwezi uli na nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya yaciŵiri pa ukulu, pamanyuma pa Io. Luŵiro lwa kuthaŵa nkhongono yake ni makilomita 2.38 pa liŵiri. Nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njambura kuyana pose. Vyakulongosora vya nkhongono iyi vyapimika mwa kulondezga kusintha kwa vyakutumika vya wayilesi vyakufuma ku vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vimanyikwiro vikulu vya nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi ni ma''mascon'', malo gha nkhongono ya kukoka yikulu comene agho ghakukolerana na mazenje ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana, ndipo ghakufuma pacoko ku mwala wakusungunuka wakukhwima wa ''maria'' uwo ukazuzga mazenje agha. Malo agha ghakukhwaska comene nthowa za vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Pali mafumbo ghanyake: mwala wakusungunuka pera ungalongosora kupambana kose kwa nkhongono ya kukoka yayi, ndipo ma''mascon'' ghanyake ghakukolerana na mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' yayi. Cigaŵa umo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi yikuluska ya caro capasi cili na ukulu wapakati wa makilomita 60,000 (ndiko kuti, pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca mtunda wa makilomita 378,000 pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi). Malo agha ghakuchemeka mlengalenga wa pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi. === Nkhongono ya Umagineti === Mwezi uli na nkhongono ya umagineti ya kuwaro ya pasi pa nanotesla 0.2, panji pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa 100,000 ca ya caro capasi. Mwezi ulije nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi wose; uli waka na umagineti mu cikopa. Mbiri ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi njambura kuzomerezgeka na wose, ndipo pacali kusoŵa kuzomerezgana pa nkhongono na nyengo ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi. Kupima kunandi kwacitika pa vigaŵa vya mwezi ivyo vikawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo. Kupima uku kukulongora kuti nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi yikaŵa na nyengo ziŵiri zakupambana. Mu nyengo yakwamba (vyaka biliyoni 4.5 mpaka 3.56 ivyo vyajumpha), nkhongono ya umagineti yikafika pafupifupi ma''microtesla'' 100, pafupi na ya caro capasi ya sono. Nyengo yaciŵiri yikaŵa yitali comene (vyaka biliyoni 3.58 mpaka 1 ivyo vyajumpha), kweni yambura nkhongono comene, yikufika ma''microtesla'' 5–7 pera. Nchambura kuthekera kuti ndondomeko yimoza ya kwenda kwa kufunda panji kwa vinthu yikapanga mbiri iyi kwambura kukhwaskika na vinthu vya kuwaro. Mu maghanoghano, umagineti unyake uwo wasyala ungafuma ku nkhongono za umagineti za kanyengo kacoko izo zikapangika pa kutimbana kukulu kwizira mu kukura kwa maŵingu gha ''plasma''. Maŵingu agha ghakupangika pa kutimbana kukulu mu nkhongono ya umagineti iyo yilipo. Ici cikukhozgeka na malo gha umagineti ukulu comene mu cikopa agho ghali pafupi na mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana. === Mphepo === Mwezi uli na mphepo iyo ni cigaŵa ca kuwaro comene pera, iyo njicoko comene mwakuti pafupifupi njambura kuŵapo, ndipo kuzitika kwake kose ndambura kufika matani 10. Kukanikizga pacanya kwa mphepo iyi yicoko ni pafupifupi 3 × 10⁻¹⁵ ya mphepo ya caro capasi; kukusintha na zuŵa la mwezi. Yikufuma ku mphepo izo zikufuma mu mwezi na ku vinthu ivyo vikuphulika apo tuvinthu twa mphepo ya zuŵa tukutimbana na dongo la mwezi. Vigaŵa ivyo vyasangika ni sodiyamu na potasiyamu, ivyo vikupangika na kutimbana uku (vikusangika so mu mphepo za Mekyuri na Io); hiliyamu-4 na neon kufuma ku mphepo ya zuŵa; na argon-40, radon-222, na polonium-210, ivyo vikufuma mu mwezi pamanyuma pa kupangika na kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu mu cikopa na cigaŵa capakati. Kusoŵa kwa vigaŵa nga ni okisijeni, naitirojeni, kaboni, haidrojeni na magnesiyamu, ivyo vilipo mu fuvu, kukumanyikwa yayi. Nthunthu ya maji yikasangika na Chandrayaan-1 ndipo yikusintha kuyana na malo kufuma ku mzere wapakati, ndipo yili yinandi comene pa makona pafupifupi 60–70; panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu fuvu ico cikuzgoka mphepo. Mphepo izi zikuwelera mu fuvu cifukwa ca nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi panji zikutayika mu mlengalenga, kwali kwizira mu kukanikizga kwa ungweru wa zuŵa panji, usange zili na magesi, mwa kupyelekeka na nkhongono ya umagineti ya mphepo ya zuŵa. Bingu la fuvu la nyengo zose lilipo kuzunguliya mwezi, ilo likupangika na tuvinthu tucoko twakufuma ku nyenyezi za mcira. Matani 5 gha tuvinthu twa nyenyezi za mcira ghakughanaghanirika kutimbana na mwezi maora 24 ghaliwose, ndipo ici cikuphulika tuvinthu twa fuvu. Fuvu likukhala pacanya pa mwezi pafupifupi maminiti 10: maminiti 5 kukwera na maminiti 5 kuwa. Pakati, makilogalamu 120 gha fuvu ghali pacanya pa mwezi, ghakukwera mpaka makilomita 100 pacanya. Kupenda kwa fuvu kwa LADEE kukasanga kuti unandi wa tuvinthu ukaŵa ukulu comene pa kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga gha Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, na Omicron Centaurid, apo caro capasi na mwezi vikujumpha mu vyakusyala vya nyenyezi za mcira. Bingu la fuvu la mwezi ni lambura kuyana, ndipo ni lakukhwima comene pafupi na mphaka pakati pa mbali ya msana na mbali ya usiku ya mwezi. Kusanda kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi ivyo vikatoleka mu maulendo gha Apollo kukulongora kuti mwezi kale ukaŵa na mphepo yikulu pacoko kwa nyengo ya vyaka miliyoni 70 pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3 na 4 ivyo vyajumpha. Mphepo iyi, iyo yikafuma ku mphepo izo zikafumanga mu mapiri gha moto gha mwezi, yikaŵa kaŵiri kuluska ya Aresi ya sono. Mphepo ya kale ya mwezi yikawuskika pakumalira na mphepo ya zuŵa na kuthandazgika mu mlengalenga. === Vyakucitika vya Pacanya === Nkhongono zakunanga kufuma ku nkhongono za kuthambo, tuvinthu twa nyutironi utu zikupanga, na zuŵa vikupangiska unandi wapakati wa nkhongono izi wa ma''millisievert'' 1.369 pa zuŵa pa msana wa mwezi, ico ni kaŵiri na hafu kuluska pa Malo gha Mlengalenga gha Pakati pa Vyaro, kankhondi mpaka kakhumi kuluska pa ulendo wa ndege kujumpha Mbwani ya Atlantic, na kamahandiredi ghaŵiri kuluska pacanya pa caro capasi. Kuyaniska, unandi wapakati ni ma''millisievert'' 1.84 pa zuŵa pa ulendo wa ku Aresi na pafupifupi 0.64 pa zuŵa pa Aresi yeneyiyo. Ungweru wa zuŵa ukupeleka so magesi ku fuvu la mwezi lakuphalaza comene ndipo ukulipangiska kuyandama. Ici cikovwira kuthandazgika luŵiro kwa fuvu la mwezi lakukakatira, ilo likunanga maphapo na vilwero. Pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵa na kufunda kwakupambana kufuma 120 °C mpaka −171 °C kuyana na ungweru wa zuŵa. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa mphepo, kufunda kwa malo ghakupambana kukusintha comene kuyana na usange ghali mu ungweru wa zuŵa panji mu mzgezge, ntheura mawonekero gha malo ghakugwira ntchito yikulu pa kufunda kwa malo. Vigaŵa vya mazenje ghanandi, comene pasi pa mazenje ghanandi gha ku mphaka za mwezi, vili mu mzgezge nyengo zose. Mazenje agha gha mdima wa muyirayira ghali na kuzizima kukulu comene. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter yikapima kufunda kwapasi comene kwa nyengo ya kufunda mu mazenje gha ku mphaka ya kumwera pa −238 °C na −247 °C pera pafupi na nyengo ya kuzizima mu zenje la Hermite ku mphaka ya kumpoto. Uku ndiko kuzizima kukulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa uko combo ca mlengalenga cikapimapo, kuzizima kuluska nanga ni pacanya pa Pulutu. Pacanya pa cikopa ca mwezi pali cigaŵa ca pacanya ca fuvu lakuphwanyika comene na kutimbana, comene lakuzirima, ilo likupangika na kutimbana. Fuvu lakupepuka comene, dongo la mwezi la galasi la silicon dioxide, likuyana na cizizimu pa kukhwaska ndipo lili na fungo nga ni la mfuti iyo yaphulika. Fuvu la malo gha kale kanandi ndakukhwima kuluska la malo ghaphya: likupambana mu unandi kufuma mamita 10–15 mu malo ghapacanya na mamita 4–5 mu ''maria''. Pasi pa fuvu ili pali cigaŵa ca malibwe ghakuphwanyika comene ca makilomita ghanandi. Vyakucitika vikulu ivi vikughanaghanirika kupangiska kuti mabakiteriya ghaleke kupona pa vyombo vya mlengalenga pa mwezi kujumpha nyengo ya kuzunguliya kamoza kwa mwezi. === Vimanyikwiro vya Pacanya === Mawonekero gha malo gha mwezi ghapimika na laser na kupenda vithuzi. Cimanyikwiro cikulu comene ni dimba likulu la South Pole–Aitken ku mbali ya kutali, la ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 2,240, zenje likulu comene pa mwezi na laciŵiri pa ukulu mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Na kuzika kwa makilomita 13, pasi pake ndipo pali malo ghapasi comene pacanya pa mwezi, ghakufika −9.178 km mu zenje lifupi mukati mwa zenje la Antoniadi. Malo ghapacanya comene pa mwezi, kusazgapo ghakuchemeka Selenean summit pa makilomita 10.629, ghali ku kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa dimba ili, ndipo ghangaŵa kuti ghakakhwimiska na kutimbana kwa mphepete uko kukapanga dimba la South Pole–Aitken. Madimba ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana nga ni Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, na Orientale ghali na malo ghapasi na mphepete zapacanya. Mbali ya kutali ya mwezi njapacanya na makilomita pafupifupi 1.9 kuluska mbali ya pafupi. Kusangika kwa tumapiri twa kuphwanyika kukulongora kuti mwezi wacepa na mamita pafupifupi 90 mu vyaka biliyoni yimoza vyaumaliro. Vimanyikwiro vyakuyana vilipo pa Mekyuri. Mare Frigoris, dimba pafupi na mphaka ya kumpoto ilo likaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa lakufwa, laphwanyika na kusamika. Cifukwa mwezi ulije vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vyakwenda, kusintha kwa pasi kukucitika pacoko pacoko, ndipo kuphwanyika kukupangika apo ukutaya kufunda. Ŵasandi ŵasimikizga kuŵapo kwa phanga pa mwezi pafupi na Nyanja ya Mtendere, pafupi na malo agho Apollo 11 yikakhala mu 1969. Phanga ili, ilo lamanyikwa kuŵa mlomo wa thumbu la mwala wakusungunuka ilo lakhoŵa, ndisani mamita pafupifupi 45 na litali mpaka mamita 80. Kusanga uku ndiko kusimikizga kwakwamba kwa mlomo wa phanga la mwezi. Kupenda kukathemba vithuzi ivyo vikatoreka mu 2010 na Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ya NASA. Kufunda kwakukhazikika kwa phanga kwa pafupifupi 17 °C kungapeleka malo ghawemi ku ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga munthazi, ndipo kungaŵavikilira ku kufunda kukulu, ungweru wa zuŵa, na tumalibwe tucoko twa mlengalenga. Kweni pali masuzgo nga ni kunjira na ngozi ya kuwa kwa malibwe. Kusanga uku kukupeleka mwaŵi wa malo gha kukhala pa mwezi munthazi panji malo gha kubisamako pa ngozi. ==== Vimanyikwiro vya Mapiri gha Moto ==== Vimanyikwiro vikulu ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi na maso ni malo ghakufipa na ghambura vimanyikwiro vinandi gha mwezi agho ghakuchemeka ''maria'' (cimoza ''mare''; kufuma ku Cilatini "nyanja", cifukwa kale ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ghakazura maji), agho ni madimba ghakulu gha mwala wakusungunuka wa kale uwo wakhwima. Nangauli ukuyana na wa pa caro capasi, mwala uwu wa mwezi uli na cisulo cinandi ndipo ulije vinthu ivyo vyasinthika na maji. Mwala unandi uwu ukafuma panji ukathiririka mu malo ghapasi agho ghakukolerana na mazenje gha kutimbana, nangauli malo ghakulu comene gha mwala uwu pa mwezi, Oceanus Procellarum, ghakukolerana na zenje lakuwoneka la kutimbana yayi. Nyengo zakupambana za kuthiririka kwa mwala mu ''maria'' kanandi zingamanyikwa na kupambana kwa kuŵala kwa pacanya na mphepete zakuwoneka za kuthiririka. Apo ''maria'' ghakapangikanga, kuzizima na kucepa kwa mwala wakusungunuka kukapanga tumapiri twakukwinyika mu malo ghanyake. Tumilonga twakuzunguliyazunguliya, utu tukusangika mu na kuzunguliya ''maria'', panyake ni minjololo ya mwala wakusungunuka iyo yikafwa panji mathumbu gha mwala wakusungunuka agho ghakhoŵa. Mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' ghasintha mazenje gha kutimbana mu nthowa zinandi, kusazgapo kughazuzga pa unandi wakupambana, na kukwezga na kuphwanya pasi pake kufuma ku kukwera kwa vinthu vya ''maria'' pasi pake. Pafupifupi ''maria'' ghose ghali ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, ndipo ghakuphimba magaŵa 31 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mbali ya pafupi kuyaniska na magaŵa 2 pa 100 gha mbali ya kutali. Panyake ici nchifukwa ca kuwunjikana kwa vigaŵa vyakupanga kufunda pasi pa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi, ivyo vingaŵa kuti vikapangiska cigaŵa capakati ca pasi pake kufunda, kusungunuka pacoko, kukwera pacanya na kuphulika. Ukaboni wa mapiri gha moto gha sonosono pa mwezi wasangika pa malo 70 ghambura kunozgeka gha ''maria'', ghanyake gha vyaka pasi pa miliyoni 50. Vigaŵa vyakuŵala vya mwezi vikuchemeka ''terrae'', panji kanandi malo ghapacanya, cifukwa ngapacanya kuluska ''maria'' ghanandi. Vyaka vyake vyapimika kuŵa biliyoni 4.4, ndipo vingaŵa vinthu vya ''plagioclase'' ivyo vikawunjikana mu nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi. Kupambana na caro capasi, palije mapiri ghakulu gha mwezi agho ghakughanaghanirika kupangika cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi. ==== Mazenje gha Kutimbana ==== Ndondomeko yikulu ya pasi iyo yakhwaska pacanya pa mwezi ni kupangika kwa mazenje gha kutimbana, agho ghakupangika apo vibwe vicoko vya malibwe na nyenyezi za mcira vikutimbana na pacanya pa mwezi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti pali mazenje pafupifupi 300,000 ghakusani kujumpha kilomita 1 ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi. Mazenje gha mwezi ghali na mawonekero ghakupambana, kuyana na ukulu wawo. Kufuma ku ghacoko kuya ku ghakulu, mitundu yikulu ni mazenje ghapepuka gha mawonekero gha mbale na mphepete zakukwera, mazenje ghakusuzga gha pasi pakugonera, vikuta vya masitepu na mapiri gha pakati, madimba gha mphete ya mapiri, na madimba gha mphete ziŵiri panji kujumpha. Mazenje ghanandi comene gha kutimbana ngakuzunguliya, kweni ghanyake, nga ni Cantor na Janssen, ghali na mawonekero gha mbali zinandi, panyake cifukwa ca kuphwanyika kwa pasi pake. Ghanyake, nga ni Messier ziŵiri, Schiller, na Daniell, ngatali. Utali uwu ungafuma ku kutimbana kwa mphepete comene, kutimbana kwa vibwe vicoko viŵiri, kuphwanyika kwa cinthu pambere cindatimbane, panji kutimbana kwaciŵiri kwa pafupi pafupi. ==== Vizungulizgo vya Mwezi ==== Vizungulizgo vya mwezi ni vimanyikwiro vya fumbo ivyo vikusangika pacanya pose pa mwezi. Vikuwezga ungweru comene, vikuwoneka nga ni viphya (ndiko kuti vili na vimanyikwiro vya fuvu liphya), ndipo kanandi vili na mawonekero ghakuzunguliyazunguliya. Mawonekero ghawo kanandi ghakuwoneka makola cifukwa ca malo ghakufipa agho ghakwenda pakati pa vizungulizgo vyakuŵala. Vili mu malo agho nkhongono ya umagineti ya pacanya njikulu, ndipo vinandi vili ku mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku kutimbana kukulu. Vizungulizgo vyakumanyikwa ni Reiner Gamma na Mare Ingenii. Vikughanaghanirika kuŵa malo agho ghakavikilirika pacoko ku mphepo ya zuŵa, ntheura ghakusinthika pacoko pacoko na nyengo ya mlengalenga. === Kuŵapo kwa Maji === Maji ghakuthira ghangakhalilira pacanya pa mwezi yayi. Para ghakhwaskika na ungweru wa zuŵa, maji ghakugaŵika luŵiro na ungweru na kutayika mu mlengalenga. Kweni kufuma mu ma 1960, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti cikakato ca maji cingaŵikika na nyenyezi za mcira izo zikutimbana, panji kupangika na kukolerana kwa malibwe gha mwezi gha okisijeni yinandi na haidrojeni ya mphepo ya zuŵa, ndipo kusiya maji ghacoko agho ghangakhalilira mu mazenje ghakuzizima gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka zose ziŵiri za mwezi. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vikulongora kuti mpaka makilomita gha mbali zinayi 14,000 gha pacanya ghangaŵa mu mzgezge wa nyengo zose. Kuŵapo kwa maji ghakukwana pa mwezi nkhwakuzirwa comene kuti kukhala pa mwezi kuŵe kwambura kudura comene; kunyamula maji kufuma pa caro capasi kungadura comene. Mu vyaka vya pamanyuma, vimanyikwiro vya maji vyasangika pacanya pa mwezi. Mu 1994, kuyezga kwa radar pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Clementine kukalongora kuŵapo kwa tumalo tucoko twa maji ghakuzizima pafupi na pacanya. Kweni kulaŵiska kwa radar kwa pamanyuma kwa Arecibo kukulongora kuti vyakusangika ivi vingaŵa malibwe agho ghakaphulika kufuma ku mazenje ghaphya gha kutimbana. Mu 1998, cilwero ca nyutironi pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Lunar Prospector cikalongora kuti haidrojeni yinandi yilipo mu mita yakwamba ya kuzika mu fuvu pafupi na mphaka. Tumpira twa mwala wakusungunuka, utu tukatoleka ku caro capasi na Apollo 15, tukalongora maji ghacoko mukati mwawo. Combo ca mlengalenga ca Chandrayaan-1 ca 2008 casimikizga kuŵapo kwa cikakato ca maji pacanya, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito Moon Mineralogy Mapper. Cilwero ici cikawona mizere ya kukora ungweru iyo yikusangika na ''hydroxyl'', mu ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka, ndipo ici cikapeleka ukaboni wa cikakato ca maji cinandi pacanya pa mwezi. Combo ici cikalongora kuti unandi ungafika magaŵa 1,000 pa miliyoni. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wakuwezgeka, ungweru wambura kulunjika wa malo gha mzgezge ukasimikizga cikakato ca maji mukati mwa makona 20 gha mphaka zose ziŵiri mu 2018. Mu 2009, LCROSS yikatuma cinthu ca makilogalamu 2,300 kutimbana na zenje la mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka, ndipo yikasanga maji gha makilogalamu 100 panji kujumpha mu vinthu ivyo vikaphulika. Kupenda kunyake kwa vyakusangika vya LCROSS kukalongora kuti unandi wa maji ukaŵa pafupi na makilogalamu 155 ± 12. Mu Vula 2011, maji gha magaŵa 615–1410 pa miliyoni ghakasangika mu vigaŵa vya mukati vya cigaŵa ca mwezi 74220, "dongo la galasi la mtundu wa malalanje" lakumanyikwa, la titanium yinandi, ilo likafuma ku mapiri gha moto ndipo likawunjikika mu ulendo wa Apollo 17 mu 1972. Vigaŵa ivi vikapangika pa kuphulika kwa mapiri gha moto pa mwezi pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 3.7 ivyo vyajumpha. Unandi uwu ukuyana na wa mwala wakusungunuka mu cigaŵa capakati ca pacanya ca caro capasi. Kupenda kwa vyakusangika vya Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) kukavumbula mu Mpupulu 2018 kakwamba "ukaboni wakusimikizgika" wa cikakato ca maji pacanya pa mwezi. Vyakusangika vikalongora vimanyikwiro vyapadera vya kuwezga ungweru vya cikakato ca maji, kupambana na fuvu na vinthu vinyake vyakuwezga ungweru. Cikakato cikasangika ku mphaka ya kumpoto na ya kumwera, nangauli cili cinandi ku kumwera, uko maji ghakakika mu mazenje na mphanyiko za mzgezge wa nyengo zose, ndipo ghakukhalilira nga ni cikakato pacanya cifukwa ghakuvikilirika ku zuŵa. Mu Thukila 2020, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵasanga maji pacanya pa mwezi apo pali ungweru wa zuŵa, na vyombo vinandi vya mlengalenga vyakupambana, kusazgapo SOFIA. == Ndondomeko ya Caro Capasi na Mwezi == === Nthowa ya Kuzunguliya === Mtunda wapakati wa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi, uwo ukuchemeka mtunda wa mwezi, ni makilomita pafupifupi 385,000, panji maliŵiri 1.3 gha ungweru, ukuyana na kuzunguliya caro capasi pafupifupi kankhondi na kanayi na cigaŵa. Nthowa ya mwezi njakuzunguliya makola yayi kweni njakutalikilapo pacoko. Ici cikung'anamula kuti mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusintha kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 356,400 (pafupi comene) mpaka 406,700 (kutali comene), ntheura mtunda na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100. Ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi yili na pakati pa kuzitika pakugaŵana, apo pali makilomita 5,000 (pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi) kufuma pakati pa caro capasi. Caro capasi na mwezi vyose viŵiri vikuzunguliya pakati apa, ntheura caro capasi cikunjenjemera kuzunguliya malo agha pa nthowa yiliyose ya mwezi. Pakati apa pakusamira kuwaro pacoko pacoko apo kukwekana kwa nkhongono za kukoka kukutora nkhongono kufuma ku viŵiri ivi, ndipo pakumalira pazamuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi. Mwezi ukumalizga kuzunguliya caro capasi kamoza kuyaniska na nyenyezi zambura kusamika pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3 ghaliwose. Kweni cifukwa caro capasi na mwezi vikwenda pa nyengo yeneyiyo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya zuŵa, vikutora nyengo yitali pacoko kuwelera ku kawonekero kamoza ka mwezi, mazuŵa 29.5, kumalizga ndondomeko yose nga umo yikuwonekera kufuma pa caro capasi. Nyengo iyi kanandi yikumanyikwa nga ni mwezi wa caka ndipo njakuyana na utali wa zuŵa la zuŵa pa mwezi. Ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yikusunga kupendama kwakuyana pafupifupi, makona pafupifupi 5, kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa. Nthowa ya kupendama uku yikuzunguliya kumanjiliro pacoko pacoko, ndipo yikumalizga cizungulizgo kamoza mu vyaka 18.61. Ici cikung'anamula kuti kupendama kwa nthowa ya mwezi kuyaniska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi kukusintha kufuma makona 18 mpaka 28 mu nyengo iyi. Mawonekero gha nthowa nagho ghakuzunguliya, kumafumiro mu vyaka 8.85. Kupambana na setilayiti zinandi za vibwe vinyake, ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yili pafupi na ndondomeko ya nthowa ya caro capasi kuluska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi. Nthowa ya mwezi yikusinthika pacoko na zuŵa na caro capasi mu nthowa zinandi zicoko na zakusuzga. Vyakufumapo ivi vikulongosoreka mwa masamu na malango gha Cassini. === Kuzunguliya pa Ceneco === Cifukwa cakakika na caro capasi, mwezi uli na kukolerana kwa 1:1 kwa kuzunguliya pa ceneco na kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi njakuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya pa ceneco. Ntheura nyengo zose ukulaŵiska caro capasi na cisko cimoza pafupifupi apo ukuzunguliya. Mbali ya mwezi iyo yikulaŵiska caro capasi yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, ndipo yinyake mbali ya kutali. Cifukwa mwezi ngwambura kukakika na zuŵa, msana na usiku vya mwezi vikucitika pa mwezi wose. Mbali ya kutali kanandi yikuchemeka mwautesi kuti "mbali ya mdima", kweni nadi yikupokera ungweru kanandi nga ni mbali ya pafupi: kamoza mu mazuŵa 29.5 gha caro capasi. Apo mwezi ukuwoneka yayi, mbali ya pafupi njamdima. Usiku wa mwezi ngwa mdima comene ku mbali ya kutali na pa kubisika kwa mwezi ku mbali ya pafupi (ndipo ngwa mdima kuluska usiku wambura mwezi pa caro capasi). Usiku, mbali ya pafupi yikupokera ungweru wa caro capasi mwakuti vimanyikwiro vya pacanya pa mwezi vingawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi. Ungweru wa caro capasi ukupangiska usiku pa mbali ya pafupi kuŵala kanandi 43, ndipo nyengo zinyake kanandi 55, kuluska usiku pa caro capasi wakuŵala na mwezi wakuzura. Kupendama kwa mwezi kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi ni makona 1.5427, ntheura mu caka cimoza ca mazuŵa 346.62, zuŵa likusamira kufuma makona 1.5427 kumpoto kwa mzere wapakati wa mwezi kuya makona 1.5427 kumwera kwake na kuwelera. Ici cikuyana na umo, pa caro capasi, malo gha zuŵa ghakusamira kufuma ku mzere wa Cancer kuya ku mzere wa Capricorn na kuwelera caka ciliconse. Ici cikuŵika mphaka za mwezi mu mdima (panji na cigaŵa ca zuŵa pera ico cikuwoneka) kwa hafu ya caka ici na mu ungweru wa zuŵa kwa hafu yinyake. Unandi wa ungweru wa zuŵa uwo ukuwira malo ghakugonera pafupi na mphaka ukuthemba kupendama kwa zuŵa. Nyengo izi zili na vyakufumapo vicoko mu malo gha pafupi na mzere wapakati. Pakwamba mwezi ukazunguliyanga luŵiro pa ceneco, kweni pakwamba mu mbiri yake kuzunguliya kwake kukacepa na kukakika mu kalaŵiskiro aka cifukwa ca kukwekana uko kukafuma ku kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi. Mu nyengo, nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya mwezi pa ceneco yikazgoka kufunda, mpaka mwezi ukaleka kuzunguliya kuyaniska na caro capasi. Mu 2016, ŵasandi ŵa vibwe mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Lunar Prospector ya NASA ya 1998–99 ŵakasanga malo ghaŵiri gha haidrojeni yinandi (panyake cikakato ca maji ca kale) ku mbali zakususkana za mwezi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti malo agha ghakaŵa mphaka za mwezi vyaka mabiliyoni ivyo vyajumpha pambere undakakike na caro capasi. === Vyakufumapo vya Nkhongono za Kukoka === Nkhongono ya kukoka iyo caro capasi na mwezi (na zuŵa) vikukokerana yili yikulu pacoko ku mbali izo zili pafupi, ndipo ici cikupanga nkhongono za kukoka za kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji. Kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani ndico cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene, kweni nkhongono izi zikukhwaska so comene vinyake vya caro capasi, mwezi, na ndondomeko yawo. Cikopa cakukhwima ca mwezi cikuzuzga na kucepa na masentimita pafupifupi 10 mu mazuŵa 27, na vigaŵa vitatu: cimoza cambura kusintha cifukwa ca caro capasi, cifukwa vikuzunguliya mwakukolerana; cinyake cakusintha cifukwa ca kutalikilapo na kupendama kwa nthowa; na cigaŵa cicoko cakusintha kufuma ku zuŵa. Kuyana na kusanda kwa sonosono, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti kukhwaska kwa mwezi pa caro capasi kungovwira kusunga nkhongono ya umagineti ya caro capasi. Vyakufumapo vyakuwunjikana vya kukanikizga uko kukupangika na nkhongono izi vikupanga kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi. Kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukucitika pacoko comene na kwambura nkhongono kuluska kwa caro capasi, nangauli kungatora mpaka ora limoza, kutali comene kuluska kwa pa caro capasi, cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa kunjenjemera mu cikopa cakomira na cakuphwanyika. Kuŵapo kwa kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukaŵa kusanga kwambura kulindilirika kufuma ku vilwero ivyo ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo ŵakaŵika pa mwezi kufuma 1969 mpaka 1972. Cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene ca nkhongono za kukoka ni kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani. Nangauli mwezi ndiwo ukupanga nkhongono zinandi za kukoka, zuŵa nalo likupanga nkhongono izi ndipo likovwira mpaka magaŵa 40 pa 100 gha nkhongono ya mwezi; vyose pamoza vikupanga kuzuzga kukulu na kucoko kwa maji. Kuzuzga kwa maji ni vifufu viŵiri mu mbwani za caro capasi, cimoza ku mbali iyo yikulaŵiska mwezi na cinyake ku mbali yinyake. Apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pa ceneco, cifufu cimoza (maji ghakuzura) cikusungika "pasi" pa mwezi, apo cinyake cili ku mbali yinyake. Kuzuzga pasi pa mwezi kukulongosoreka na nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi kuŵa yikulu pa maji agho ghali pafupi nawo. Kuzuzga ku mbali yinyake kungalongosoreka na nkhongono ya kuthaŵa pakati apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pakati pa kuzitika, panji na kukhalilira kwa maji apo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njikulu pa caro capasi cakukhwima ico cili pafupi nawo, ndipo cikukokeka kutali na maji gha kutali. Ntheura, pali kuzuzga kuŵiri na kucepa kuŵiri mu maora pafupifupi 24. Cifukwa mwezi ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yeneyiyo iyo caro capasi cikuzunguliyira, kuzuzga kukucitika maora 12 na maminiti 25 ghaliwose; maminiti 25 ni cifukwa ca nyengo iyo mwezi ukutora kuzunguliya caro capasi. Usange caro capasi cikaŵa caro ca maji pera (cambura vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda), cingapanga kuzuzga kwa mita yimoza pera, ndipo kuzuzga uku kungamanyikwa makola, kweni kuzuzga kwa maji gha mbwani kukusinthika comene na vinthu vinyake: * kukwekana kwa maji na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kwizira pasi pa mbwani * kukhalilira kwa kwenda kwa maji * madimba gha mbwani agho ghakuŵa ghambura kuzika pafupi na mtunda * kusambasamba kwa maji pakati pa madimba ghakupambana gha mbwani === Kusintha kwa Ndondomeko === Kucedwa kwa kuzuzga kwa maji na kwa cikopa cakukhwima kukupanga nkhongono yakususkana na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi. Ici "cikufumiska" nkhongono ya kuzunguliya kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, ndipo cikucepeska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi. Vyaka biliyoni 3.2 ivyo vyajumpha, zuŵa likaŵa la maora pafupifupi 13 pera. Nkhongono ya kuzunguliya iyo yikutayika kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi yikuya ku mwezi, ndipo yikukwezga mwezi ku nthowa ya pacanya apo ikucepeska luŵiro lwake lwa kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ntheura mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi ukusazgikira, ndipo kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kukucepa. Kupima kufuma ku vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser ivyo vikasiyika mu maulendo gha Apollo kwasanga kuti mtunda wa mwezi ukusazgikira na milimita 38 pa caka (pafupifupi luŵiro ilo nyara za ŵanthu zikukulira). Vipimanyengo vya atomu vikulongora kuti zuŵa la caro capasi likutalikilira na ma''microsecond'' pafupifupi 17 caka ciliconse. Mu nyengo, kukwekana uku kukupangiska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya kuyana, ndipo cinthu cakupepuka cikukakika (nga umo mwezi uliri sono). Mu maghanoghano, mu vyaka biliyoni 50, kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kuzamucepa kuyana na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya, ndipo caro capasi cizamulaŵiska mwezi na mbali yimoza nyengo zose. Kweni pambere ici cindacitike, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ndipo lingaphimba caro capasi na mwezi. Usange caro capasi na mwezi vyapona kuphimbika uku, nga umo kusanda kwa 2026 kukulongolera, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska nthowa ya mwezi kucepa. Apo nthowa ya mwezi yazamufika pa mtunda wa makilomita 18,470, uzamujumpha mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi ndipo nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi zingaphwanya mwezi. Ungazgoka ndondomeko ya mphete, ndipo mphete zinandi zingacepa na kuwira pa caro capasi. == Kulaŵiska == === Ukulu na Malo Ghakuwoneka === Mwezi ukuwoneka kuthambo la caro capasi mwakupambana kuyana na malo agho munthu wakulaŵiskira pa caro capasi na nyengo ya caka, ya mwezi, na ya zuŵa. Mu caka, mwezi ukufika pacanya comene pa zuŵa pa malo ghakupambana. Mwezi wakuzura ukuwoneka pacanya comene kuthambo mu nyengo ya kuzizima na pasi comene mu nyengo ya kufunda, kupambana na zuŵa, ndipo ici nchaunenesko ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto na vya kumwera vya caro capasi. Ku Mphaka ya Kumpoto na ya Kumwera, mwezi ukuŵa pacanya pa mphepete ya kuthambo maora 24 kwa masabata ghaŵiri mu mwezi uliwose (pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3). Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji twa ku Arctic tukugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wa mwezi apo zuŵa likuŵa pasi pa mphepete ya kuthambo kwa myezi yinandi. Pakati, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ni makona pafupifupi 0.52, pafupifupi wakuyana na wa zuŵa. Ukulu wakuwoneka na kuŵala kwake vikusintha cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo, ndipo ukuwoneka wakuŵala mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 na ukulu mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 para uli pafupi comene kuluska para uli kutali comene. Kweniso, cakucitika ca maghanoghano pera, ico cikuchemeka cinyengo ca mwezi, cikupangiska mwezi kuwoneka ukulu para uli pafupi na mphepete ya kuthambo. === Kalaŵiskiro na Kawonekero === Kalaŵiskiro kakuwoneka ka mwezi kakuthemba malo ghake kuthambo na cigaŵa ca caro capasi uko ukulaŵiskika. Mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto ukuwoneka wakuzgokera pasi kuyaniska na kawonekero ka cigaŵa ca kumwera. Nyengo zinyake "nyanga" za mwezi wa cikweru zikuwoneka nga ni zikulaŵiska pacanya kuluska kumphepete. Ici cikuchemeka mwezi wa maji, ndipo cikucitika kanandi ku tropiki. Kuzunguliya kwakukakika kwa mwezi apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi kukupangiska kuti mbali yimoza pera ya mwezi, iyo yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, yiwoneke kufuma pa caro capasi. Kweni nangauli kwenda kwa mwezi nkhwakukolerana, nkhwambura kusintha pacoko yayi, ndipo kusintha kucoko kwa kalaŵiskiro kukupangiska kuti mu nyengo na malo pa caro capasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghawoneke. Cifukwa ca kusintha uku, nyengo zinyake ncakuthekera kuwona pacoko kuluska mwezi wakuzura (mpaka magaŵa pafupifupi 101 pa 100) panji cigaŵa cicoko ca mbali yake ya kutali (mpaka magaŵa 5 pa 100). ==== Vyakucitika Vyakulaŵiskika ==== Pakaŵa mphindano mu mbiri usange vimanyikwiro vyakuwoneka pacanya pa mwezi vikusintha mu nyengo. Mazuŵa ghano, mazgo ghanandi agha ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa vyautesi, ivyo vikafuma ku kulaŵiska mu ungweru wakupambana, kuwoneka kuheni kwa kuthambo, panji vithuzi vyambura kunozgeka makola. Kweni kufuma kwa mphepo kukucitika nyengo zinyake ndipo kungaŵa cifukwa ca vigaŵa vicoko vya vyakucitika vya kanyengo ivyo vyayowoyeka. Sonosono, kwasacizgika kuti malo gha makilomita pafupifupi 3 pacanya pa mwezi ghakasintha na kufuma kwa mphepo pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni yimoza ivyo vyajumpha. === Kawonekero ka Mwezi === Mwezi ukuzunguliya pa ceneco, apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo ukusintha kalaŵiskiro kake ku zuŵa, ntheura ukuŵa na zuŵa la mwezi. Zuŵa la mwezi likuyana na mwezi umoza wa caka (kuzunguliya kamoza caro capasi). Kusintha kwa malo gha ungweru wa zuŵa pa mwezi mu zuŵa la mwezi kukuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi nga ni kusintha kwa kawonekero ka mwezi. Kawonekero ka mwezi kakulondezga ndondomeko yakuwerezgeka, iyo yikwamba pa mwezi uphya. Mu hafu yakwamba ya ndondomeko, kalondezgero ni mwezi uphya, cikweru, cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi, mwezi wakukura, na mwezi wakuzura. Mu hafu yaciŵiri, kalondezgero kakuzgokera, ndipo ndondomeko yikuwerezgeka. Kuŵala na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha so cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ntheura, pa kawonekero kamoza, kuŵala kwa mwezi kukusintha so mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 pakati pa kuŵa kutali comene na pafupi comene. Para uli pafupi comene, cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi na caro capasi mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 kuluska para uli kutali comene, ukuwoneka ukulu mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100. Mwezi wakuzura (panji uphya) pa malo agha ukuchemeka mwezi ukulu comene. Kawonekero kaliko kose ka vinayi vyapakati kakutora, pakati, pafupifupi mazuŵa 7 (pafupifupi mazuŵa 7.38), kweni nyengo iyi yingasintha na magaŵa pafupifupi 11 pa 100 cifukwa ca kusintha kwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi. Unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya waumaliro ukuchemeka vyaka vya mwezi. Ndondomeko yose ya kawonekero ka mwezi yikuchemeka mwezi umoza wa caka. Vyaka na kawonekero ka mwezi pa zuŵa liliwose vingapimika mwa kupenda unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya wakumanyikwa (mwaciyelezgero, 1 Matika 1900, panji 11 Mpupulu 1999) na kugaŵa nambala iyi na utali wapakati wa mwezi wa caka (mazuŵa 29.53059). Ivyo vyasyala pa kugaŵa ndivyo vyaka vya mwezi. Nthowa iyi yikughanaghanira kuti nthowa njakuzunguliya makola ndipo yikulaŵiska nyengo yeneyiyo ya mwezi uphya yayi, ntheura vyakufumapo vingapambana na maora ghacoko. Kulunjika kukucepa apo zuŵa likutalikirana na zuŵa la kwambira. Kupima kupepuka uku nkhwakukwana pa vinthu vinandi, kweni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulunjika comene vikukhumba kupima kwakusuzga. === Kuwezga Ungweru na Mtundu wa Pacanya === Kawonekero ka mwezi kakupangika na umo ukuwezgera ungweru na kapangikiro ka pacanya pake. Kuwezga ungweru kwake ni pafupifupi 0.12, ndiko kuti ukuwezga magaŵa 12 pa 100 gha ungweru uwo ukuwufika. Ici cikuyana na kuwezga ungweru kwa cibwe cicoko ca malibwe. Vigaŵa vya cisulo na titanium pacanya pa mwezi vikukora ungweru, ndipo vikupangiska malo nga ni ''maria'' kuŵa ghakufipa (kuwezga ungweru kucoko) kuluska malo ghapacanya. Mtundu weneco wa mwezi, kwambura kukhwaskika na mphepo, ni wakuzirima wakufipa pacoko. Kufuma pa caro capasi, mtundu wa mwezi ungasinthika na mphepo, nyengo zinyake ukuwoneka wakufiira panji wa buluu. Ungawoneka wakufiira pa kubisika kwa mwezi, cifukwa ungweru wakufiira wa zuŵa ukupindika na mphepo ya caro capasi na kufika pa mwezi. Cifukwa ca mtundu uwu wakufiira, kubisika kwa mwezi nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka mwezi wa ndopa. Mwezi ungawoneka so wakufiira para uli pasi kuthambo na kujumpha mu mphepo yinandi. Mwezi ungawoneka so wa buluu kuyana na tuvinthu tunyake mu mphepo, nga ni twa mapiri gha moto. Cifukwa mazgo ghakuti "mwezi wa ndopa" na "mwezi wa buluu" ghangagwiliskirika ntchito so pa myezi yakuzura yinyake ya caka, nyengo zose ghakung'anamula ungweru wa mwezi wakufiira panji wa buluu yayi. === Kubisika === Kubisika kukucitika pera apo zuŵa, caro capasi, na mwezi vili mu mzere umoza. Kubisika kwa zuŵa kukucitika pa mwezi uphya, apo mwezi uli pakati pa zuŵa na caro capasi. Kweni kubisika kwa mwezi kukucitika pa mwezi wakuzura, apo caro capasi cili pakati pa zuŵa na mwezi. Ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ndipo vyose viŵiri vikuwoneka nga ni hafu ya kona limoza. Zuŵa ndikulu comene kuluska mwezi, kweni mtunda wake ukulu comene ndiwo ukulipangiska kuwoneka ukulu wakuyana na mwezi, uwo uli pafupi comene na ngucoko comene, kufuma pa caro capasi. Kusintha kwa ukulu wakuwoneka, cifukwa ca nthowa zambura kuzunguliya makola, nako kukuyana pafupifupi, nangauli kukucitika mu ndondomeko zakupambana. Ici cikupangiska kuthekera kwa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ukulu kuluska zuŵa) na kubisika kwa mphete (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ucoko kuluska zuŵa). Pa kubisika kose, mwezi ukuphimba cimbale cose ca zuŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca zuŵa cikuwoneka na maso. Cifukwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusazgikira pacoko pacoko mu nyengo, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukucepa. Apo zuŵa likusintha kuya ku kuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ukulu wake na ukulu wakuwoneka kuthambo vikusazgikira pacoko pacoko. Kusintha kuŵiri uku pamoza kukung'anamula kuti vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi ivyo vyajumpha, mwezi ukaphimbanga zuŵa lose nyengo zose pa kubisika kwa zuŵa, ndipo kubisika kwa mphete kukaŵavya. Nga ni nthena, vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi munthazi, mwezi uzamuphimba so zuŵa lose yayi, ndipo kubisika kose kwa zuŵa kuzamucitika yayi. Cifukwa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yapendama na makona pafupifupi 5.145 kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa, kubisika kukucitika pa mwezi uliwose wakuzura na uphya yayi. Kuti kubisika kucitike, mwezi ukwenera kuŵa pafupi na apo ndondomeko ziŵiri za nthowa zikukumana. Nyengo na kuwerezgeka kwa kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi, na kwa mwezi na caro capasi, kukulongosoreka na ''saros'', iyo yili na nyengo ya vyaka pafupifupi 18. Cifukwa mwezi nyengo zose ukubisa malo gha hafu ya kona kuthambo, cakucitika cakukolerana ca kubisa nyenyezi cikucitika apo nyenyezi yakuŵala panji cibwe cikujumpha kumanyuma kwa mwezi ndipo cikubisika. Mu nthowa iyi, kubisika kwa zuŵa ni kubisa zuŵa. Cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi pacoko na caro capasi, kubisika kwa nyenyezi zinyake kukuwoneka kose pa caro capasi yayi, panji pa nyengo yimoza yayi. Cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nthowa ya mwezi, caka ciliconse nyenyezi zakupambana zikubisika. == Kupenda Mwezi == === Kulaŵiska Pambere pa Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (pambere pa 1609) === Ncakuthekera kuti kukura na kucepa kwa kawonekero ka mwezi kukalondezgeka pa kupima nyengo mu vithuzi vya kale comene vya mu mapanga vya ng'ombe zanalume na mawonekero gha masamu, vya vyaka mpaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, panji na kugwiliskira ntchito tumakuni twa kupendera twa vyaka 20,000–30,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi vikamanyikwa na kuwunjikika mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, ndipo pamanyuma vikalembeka na kuŵikika mu vimanyikwiro kufuma pa kwamba kwa kulemba mu vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu. Cimoza mwa vithuzi vyakwamba ivyo vingaŵa vya mwezi ni cithuzi ca pa libwe ca vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu ku Knowth, mu Ireland. Cikweru ico cikulongora mwezi pamoza na ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin casangika kufuma mu vyaka masauzandi ghatatu pambere Khristu. Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa fumu, mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi mu vipinda vyake. Cithuzi ca kale comene ca mwezi ico cikulongora ubale wake na vinthu vinyake vya kumwamba ni cimbale ca kuthambo ca Nebra ca pafupifupi 1800–1600 pambere Khristu, ico cikulongora vinthu nga ni gulu la nyenyezi la Pleiades pafupi na mwezi. Mupenda vinjeru wa Ŵagiriki ŵa kale Anaxagoras (wakafwa 428 pambere Khristu) wakaghanaghana kuti zuŵa na mwezi vyose viŵiri ni malibwe ghakulu gha mawonekero gha mpira, na kuti mwezi ukuwezga ungweru wa zuŵa. Kunyake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 mpaka 400 pambere Khristu, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba ndondomeko ya ''Saros'' ya vyaka 18 ya kubisika kwa mwezi, ndipo ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵaindiya ŵakalongosora kutalikirana kwa mwezi mwezi uliwose. Msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ŵacayina Shi Shen (mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu) wakapeleka malangulo gha kulongolera kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi. Mu malongosoro gha Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu) gha caro cose ca mlengalenga, mwezi ukaŵa mphaka pakati pa vigaŵa vya vinthu vyakusintha (dongo, maji, mphepo na moto) na nyenyezi zambura kunangika, ghanoghano ilo likalongozga kwa vyaka mahandiredi. Archimedes (287–212 pambere Khristu) wakapanga cilwero ico cingapima kwenda kwa mwezi na vinthu vinyake mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu, Seleucus wa ku Seleucia wakaghanaghana makola kuti kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji kukufuma ku kukoka kwa mwezi, na kuti kukwera kwake kukuthemba malo gha mwezi kuyaniska na zuŵa. Mu vyaka vyenevivyo, Aristarchus wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi kufuma pa caro capasi, ndipo wakasanga kuti mtunda ni pafupifupi kanandi 20 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi. Ŵacayina ŵa ufumu wa Han ŵakagomezganga kuti mwezi ni nkhongono yakuyana na ''qi'', ndipo ghanoghano lawo likamanya kuti ungweru wa mwezi ni kuwezgeka kwa ungweru wa zuŵa pera; Jing Fang (78–37 pambere Khristu) wakawona kuti mwezi uli na mawonekero gha mpira. Ptolemy (90–168 mumuwilo wa Khristu) wakanozga comene manambala gha Aristarchus, ndipo wakapima mtunda wapakati wa kanandi 59 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi na ukulu wa 0.292 wa caro capasi, pafupi na manambala ghakwenelera gha pafupifupi 60 na 0.273. Mu 510 mumuwilo wa Khristu, msandi wa nyenyezi wa ku India Aryabhata wakayowoya mu buku lake kuti ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka ndiwo ukupangiska mwezi kuŵala. Msandi wa nyenyezi na wa mendero Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) wakasanga kuti ungweru wa zuŵa ukuwezgeka na mwezi nga ni galasi yayi, kweni ungweru ukufuma ku cigaŵa ciliconse ca pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵala, ku nthowa zose. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wa ufumu wa Song wakapanga ciyelezgero cakuyaniska kukura na kucepa kwa mwezi na mpira wa siliva wakuwezga ungweru uwo, para wapakika ufu wakutuŵa na kulaŵiskika kufuma kumphepete, ungawoneka nga ni cikweru. Mu nyengo yapakati, pambere cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cindapangike, mwezi ukamanyikwanga comene kuŵa mpira, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga kuti ngwakuterera makola. === Kupenda na Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (1609–1959) === Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika na kuyowoyeka mu 1608. Kalembero kakwamba ka astronome ya cilaŵiskiro ca kutali na mapu ghacoko gha vimanyikwiro vya mwezi kakafuma kwa Thomas Harriot pakwamba pa nyengo ya kufunda ya 1609, kweni wakakapharazga yayi. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo Galileo Galilei nayo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali kulaŵiska kuthambo na mwezi, ndipo mu caka cenecico wakalemba kulaŵiska kwakulongosora comene na vyakumalizgira vyakuzirwa, nga ni kuti mwezi ngwakuterera yayi, kweni uli na mapiri na mazenje, ivyo wakapharazga mu 1610 mu buku lake liphya ilo likayowoyeka comene, ''Sidereus Nuncius''. Pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ntchito ya Giovanni Battista Riccioli na Francesco Maria Grimaldi yikapangiska ndondomeko ya kuthya mazina vimanyikwiro vya mwezi iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Mapu ghakulunjika comene gha 1834–1836 gha Wilhelm Beer na Johann Heinrich von Mädler, na buku lawo la 1837 ''Der Mond'', kusanda kwakwamba kwakulunjika kwa masamu kwa vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, vikasazgapo kutalika kwa mapiri ghakujumpha 1,000, ndipo vikanjizga kusanda mwezi mwakulunjika nga ni pa malo gha caro capasi. Mazenje gha mwezi, agho Galileo wakawona kakwamba, ghakaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa gha mapiri gha moto mpaka mu ma 1870 apo Richard Proctor wakasacizga kuti ghakapangika na kutimbana. Ghanoghano ili likakhozgeka mu 1892 na viyezgo vya msandi wa pasi Grove Karl Gilbert, na kusanda kwakuyaniska kufuma 1920 mpaka ma 1940, ndipo ici cikapangiska kukura kwa kasandiro ka vigaŵa vya pasi pa mwezi, ako pofika ma 1950 kakaŵa cigaŵa ciphya ca kasandiro ka pasi ka mlengalenga. === Maulendo Ghakwamba ku Mwezi (1959–1976) === Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, ndondomeko zakwamba za kutuma vyombo zikapangika, ndipo pakumalira kwa ma 1950 zikaŵa na nkhongono izo zikazomerezga Soviet Union na United States kutuma vyombo mu mlengalenga. Nkhondo ya Mtima yikapangiska vyaro viŵiri ivi kupanga luŵiro ndondomeko za kutuma vyombo, ndipo ici cikapangiska Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga na pamanyuma Mphikizgano wa Mwezi, uko kukasazgirapo luŵiro na khumbo la kupenda mwezi. Pamanyuma pa ulendo wakwamba wa mlengalenga wa Sputnik 1 mu 1957, vyombo vya mlengalenga vya ndondomeko ya Luna ya Soviet Union vikaŵa vyakwamba kufiska vilato vinandi. Pamanyuma pa maulendo ghatatu ghambura kuthyika mazina agho ghakatondeka mu 1958, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 1, cikathaŵa nkhongono ya kukoka ya caro capasi na kujumpha mwezi pa 4 Matika 1959. Pamanyuma mu caka cenecico, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 2, cikafika pacanya pa mwezi mwa kutimbana mwakukhumba. Pakumalira kwa caka, Luna 3 yikaŵa cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu kufika ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, iyo kanandi yikuwoneka yayi, ndipo yikatora vithuzi vyakwamba vya mbali iyi. Combo cakwamba ca mlengalenga kukhala pasi makola pa mwezi cikaŵa Luna 9, ndipo combo cakwamba kuzunguliya mwezi cikaŵa Luna 10, vyose mu 1966. Pamanyuma pa pangano la Pulezidenti John F. Kennedy la 1961 la kufikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi pambere vyaka khumi vindamale, United States, pasi pa ulongozgi wa NASA, yikatuma vyombo vinandi vyambura ŵanthu kuti vipende pacanya pa mwezi pa kunozgekera maulendo gha ŵanthu: ndondomeko ya Ranger, ndondomeko ya Lunar Orbiter na ndondomeko ya Surveyor. Ndondomeko ya Apollo ya ŵanthu yikapangika pa nyengo yeneyiyo; pamanyuma pa viyezgo vinandi vya combo ca Apollo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, na cifukwa ca kopa kuti Soviet Union yingafikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi, mu 1968 Apollo 8 yikaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi. Vyamoyo vyakwamba vya pa caro capasi, fulu ziŵiri, zikazunguliya mwezi myezi yitatu pambere pa Zond 5 ya Soviet Union, ndipo fulu zinyake zikalondezga pa Zond 6. Kakwamba apo munthu wakafika pa mwezi na pa cinthu ciliconse ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi kukaŵa apo Neil Armstrong, mulongozgi wa ulendo wa Amerika wa Apollo 11, wakaŵika lundi pa mwezi pa 02:56 UTC pa 21 Vuna 1969. Ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 500 pa caro cose ŵakawonera pa wayilesi ya kanema, unandi ukulu comene wa ŵakuwonera pa nyengo iyo. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ulendo unyake, Luna 15 ya Soviet Union, ukaŵa mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi, ndipo pamoza na Apollo 11 yikaŵa ciyelezgero cakwamba ca maulendo ghaŵiri gha kuwaro kwa caro capasi pa nyengo yimoza. Maulendo gha Apollo 11 mpaka 17 (kupatula Apollo 13, iyo yikaleka kufika pa mwezi) ghakatora makilogalamu 380.05 gha malibwe na dongo la mwezi mu vigaŵa 2,196. Vilwero vya kasandiro vikaŵikika pacanya pa mwezi pa maulendo ghose gha Apollo. Malo gha vilwero gha nyengo yitali, kusazgapo vilwero vya kupima kufunda, kunyenyenkhuka, na umagineti, ghakaŵikika pa malo agho Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, na 17 yikakhala. Kutuma mauthenga ku caro capasi kukaleka pakumalira kwa 1977 cifukwa ca ndalama, kweni cifukwa vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser nvilwero vyambura kukhumba nkhongono, vicali kugwiliskirika ntchito. Apollo 17 mu 1972 yikaŵa ulendo waumaliro wa ŵanthu ku mwezi, ndipo waumaliro wa ŵanthu kufika pafupi na mwezi mpaka Artemis II mu 2026. Explorer 49 mu 1973 yikaŵa combo caumaliro ca U.S. ca mwezi mpaka 1994. Soviet Union yikalutilira kutuma maulendo gha marobotiki ku mwezi mpaka 1976, ndipo mu 1970 na Luna 17 yikaŵika galimoto lakwamba lakwendeskeka kufuma kutali, Lunokhod 1, pa cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ndipo yikawunjika na kuwezga makilogalamu 0.3 gha malibwe na dongo na maulendo ghatatu gha Luna (Luna 16 mu 1970, Luna 20 mu 1972, na Luna 24 mu 1976). === Phangano la Mwezi na Kuleka Kupenda (1976–1990) === Pamanyuma pa ulendo waumaliro wa Soviet Union ku mwezi mu 1976, pakaŵa kupenda kucoko kwa mwezi kwa vyaka 14. Maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakasintha kulaŵiska kupenda vibwe vya mukati (mwaciyelezgero ndondomeko ya Venera) na vya kuwaro (mwaciyelezgero Pioneer 10, 1972) vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, na so nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, kupanga na kwendeska, kupatula ma''satellite'' gha mauthenga, ma''satellite'' gha kulaŵiska caro capasi, vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya mlengalenga na comene malo gha kukhala mu mlengalenga. Kudumba kwa Phangano la Mwezi mu 1979, na kuzomerezgeka kwake mu 1984, ndiyo ntchito yekha yikulu ya mwezi mpaka 1990. === Kupenda Kuphya (1990 mpaka sono) === Mu 1990, Hiten–Hagoromo, ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi kufuma 1976, ukafika mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi. Ukatumika na Japani, ndipo ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi uwo ukaŵa wa Soviet Union panji U.S. yayi. Mu 1994, U.S. yikatuma so combo ca mlengalenga (Clementine) ku mwezi kakwamba kufuma 1973. Ulendo uwu ukapanga mapu ghakwamba gha mawonekero gha mwezi pafupifupi wose, na vithuzi vyakwamba vya ungweru wa mitundu yinandi vya pacanya pose pa mwezi. Mu 1998, Lunar Prospector yikalondezga, ndipo vilwero vyake vikalongora kuŵapo kwa haidrojeni yinandi ku mphaka za mwezi, iyo panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu mamita ghacoko gha pacanya gha fuvu mu mazenje gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose. Vyaka vyakulondezga vikawona maulendo ghakwamba ghanandi ku mwezi gha vyaro viphya ivyo vikupenda mwezi. Pakati pa 2004 na 2006, combo cakwamba ca Wupu wa Mlengalenga wa Ulaya (ESA), SMART-1, cikazunguliya mwezi ndipo cikalemba kupenda kwakwamba kwakulongosora kwa vigaŵa vya usungunu pacanya pa mwezi. Ndondomeko ya Ŵacayina ya Kupenda Mwezi yikafika pa mwezi kakwamba na Chang'e 1 (2007–2009), ndipo yikapanga mapu gha vithuzi gha mwezi wose. India yikafika, kuzunguliya, na kutimbana na mwezi mu 2008 kakwamba na Chandrayaan-1 na Moon Impact Probe, ndipo yikaŵa caro ca cinkhondi na ca cinkhondi na cimoza kucita nthena, ndipo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika gha usungunu na malibwe gha pacanya pa mwezi, na kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji mu dongo la mwezi. U.S. yikatuma Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) na LCROSS pa 18 Zizima 2009. LCROSS yikamalizga ntchito yake mwa kutimbana mwakunozgeka mu zenje la Cabeus pa 9 Thukila 2009, apo LRO yicali kugwira ntchito, yikupima kutalika kwa malo na kujambura vithuzi vyakulunjika. China yikalutilira ndondomeko yake mu 2010 na Chang'e 2, iyo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika comene mu myezi 8, na mu 2013 na Chang'e 3, combo ca kukhala pa mwezi pamoza na galimoto la mwezi la zina lakuti Yutu ("Kalulu wa Jade"). Ulendo uwu ukaŵa wakwamba wa galimoto la mwezi kufuma Lunokhod 2 mu 1973 na kukhala makola kwakwamba pa mwezi kufuma Luna 24 mu 1976, ndipo ukapangiska China kuŵa caro ca citatu kufiska ici. Mu 2014, combo cakwamba ca ndalama za ŵanthu paŵekha, Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, cikajumpha pafupi na mwezi. Ulendo unyake wa China, Chang'e 4, ukafika kakwamba ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi pakwamba pa 2019. Mu 2019 so, India yikatuma combo cake caciŵiri, Chandrayaan-2, ku mwezi. Mu 2020, China yikacita ulendo wake wakwamba wa marobotiki wa kuwezga vigaŵa (Chang'e 5), ndipo yikawezga magalamu 1,731 gha vinthu vya mwezi ku caro capasi. U.S. yikapanga ndondomeko za kuwezgera ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ku mwezi kwamba mu 2004, ndipo na kusayinika kwa Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, ghakulongozgeka na U.S., ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2020. Vyaro vinandi vyanjira mu Mapangano agha. Kwiza kwa Mapangano gha Artemis kwawuska so mphindano pa ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro na kovwirana pa ntchito za mwezi, kuthemba Phangano la Mwezi na ghanoghano la Muzi wa Mwezi ilo likulongozgeka na ESA. Mu 2022, Korea ya Kumwera yikatuma Danuri, combo cake cakwamba ca mwezi, kufuma ku U.S. Mu 2023 na 2024, India na Japani vikaŵa vyaro vya cinayi na ca cinkhondi kufikiska makola combo pa mwezi, pamanyuma pa Soviet Union na United States mu ma 1960, na China mu 2013. Combo ca Japani, SLIM, cikapona mausiku ghatatu gha mwezi. Mu Mpupulu 2024, IM-1 yikaŵa combo cakwamba cakupangika na kampani kufika pa mwezi. China yikatuma Chang'e 6 mu Vula 2024, iyo yikawezga kakwamba vigaŵa kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi. Yikanyamula so galimoto la China la kupenda pacanya pa mwezi na ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi. Pakistan yikatuma combo ca kuzunguliya mwezi ca ICUBE-Q pamoza na Chang'e 6. Nova-C 2, combo ca iSpace na Blue Ghost vyose vikatumika ku mwezi mu 2024. Ulendo wa NASA wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi ukatumika mu Masika 2026. Ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi kufuma nyengo ya Apollo. Christina Koch wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba, Victor Glover munthu wakwamba wa khungu lakufipa, Jeremy Hansen wa ku Canada munthu wakwamba wambura kuŵa wa ku Amerika, na mulongozgi Reid Wiseman munthu mulara comene, kufuma pafupi na caro capasi na kuzunguliya mwezi. == Ŵanthu na Mwezi == Kuŵapo kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi kukamba na vyakusyala vya vyombo ivyo vikatimbana, ivyo vikakhala pasi, na ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vyombo vya kuzunguliya nga ni Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter iyo yikatumika mu 2009 vikulutilira kupenda mwezi pa maulendo gha munthazi, apo vyombo vya kukhala pasi nga ni Chang'e 3 iyo yikatumika mu 2013, pamoza na cilaŵiskiro cake ca kutali ca ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, vikaŵa kuti vicali kugwira ntchito mu 2020. Vyakuwezga ungweru vinkhondi vyaŵikika pa mwezi kufuma mu ma 1970, ndipo vyagwiliskirika ntchito pa kupima kwakulunjika kwa kusintha kwa mwezi mwa laser. === Vyakufumapo vya Ŵanthu === Nangauli mwezi uli pa cigaŵa capasi comene ca kuvikilira vibwe, kunangika kwake nga ni malo ghambura kukhwaskika na gha kasandiro kwayowoyeka. Usange astronome yingacitika kufuma pa mwezi, yikwenera kuŵa yambura kunangika na vinthu na wayilesi. Nangauli mwezi ulije mphepo yikulu, kwendakwenda na kutimbana pa mwezi kukupanga maŵingu gha fuvu agho ghangathandazgika kutali na kunanga mawonekero gha kale gha mwezi na vyapadera vyake vya kasandiro. Msambiri Alice Gorman wakuti, nangauli mwezi ngwambura kukhalika, kuyowoya kuti mwezi ngwakufwa kukuleka kulaŵiska kusintha kwake, ntheura ntchito za ŵanthu zikwenera kuwona malo gha mwezi nga ni cigaŵa ca ntchito iyi. Cakucitika ca "tardigrade" ca combo ca Beresheet ico cikawa mu 2019 cikunyamula tuvinyama tucoko twa ''tardigrade'' cayowoyeka nga ni ciyelezgero ca kusoŵa kwa ndondomeko na malango gha pakati pa vyaro gha kuvikilira vibwe. Vyakusyala vya mu mlengalenga kuzunguliya mwezi vyawonekera nga ni suzgo la munthazi apo maulendo ghakusazgikira, comene nga ni ngozi ku maulendo agha. Ntheura kulongozga vyakutaya pa mwezi kwayowoyeka nga ni nkhani iyo maulendo gha munthazi ghakwenera kumazga, comene pacanya pa mwezi. Vyakusyala vya ŵanthu ŵakufwa vyatoleka ku mwezi, kusazgapo na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha. Cifukwa mwezi ngwakupatulika panji ngwakuzirwa ku midawuko yinandi, kuŵika vyakusyala vya ŵakufwa mu mlengalenga kwasuskika na ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵanthu ŵa malo agho. Mwaciyelezgero, mulongozgi wa Ŵanavajo wa nyengo iyo Albert Hale wakasuska NASA pa kutuma milota ya msandi Eugene Shoemaker ku mwezi mu 1998. Kupatula vyakusyala vya ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi, pali vinthu vinyake ivyo vikaŵikika mwakukhumba kuti vikhalilire, nga ni cithuzi ca Moon Museum, mauthenga gha uwemi gha Apollo 11, vimbale 6 vya mwezi, cikumbusko ca Ŵakwenda mu Mlengalenga Ŵakufwa, na vinthu vinyake. === Astronome Kufuma pa Mwezi === Mwezi wagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo na caro capasi. Caro capasi cikuwoneka kuthambo la mwezi na ukulu wakuwoneka wa makona pafupifupi 2, katatu mpaka kanayi ukulu wa mwezi panji zuŵa kuthambo la caro capasi. Kulaŵiska kufuma pa mwezi kukamba mu 1966 na vithuzi vyakwamba vya caro capasi kufuma pa mwezi, ivyo vikatoreka na Lunar Orbiter 1. Cakuzirwa comene ku midawuko ni cithuzi ca 1968 ico cikuchemeka "Kufuma kwa Caro Capasi", ico Bill Anders wa Apollo 8 wakatora. Mu Masika 1972 ulendo wa Apollo 16 ukaŵika cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cakwamba ca pa mwezi, ico cikajambura vithuzi na ungweru wakugaŵika vya kuthambo. Mwezi ukumanyikwa kuŵa malo ghawemi comene gha vilaŵiskiro vya kutali. Uli pafupi pacoko; mazenje ghanyake pafupi na mphaka ngamdima na ghakuzizima nyengo zose ndipo ngawemi comene ku vilaŵiskiro vya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi; ndipo vilaŵiskiro vya wayilesi ku mbali ya kutali vingavikilirika ku congo ca wayilesi ca caro capasi. Dongo la mwezi, nangauli likuŵa suzgo ku vigaŵa vyakwenda vya vilaŵiskiro, lingasazganika na vinthu vinyake na kugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga magalasi gha ukulu mpaka mamita 50. Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca kulaŵiska pacanya pera cingapangika mwa mtengo ucoko na vinthu vyakuthira vyapadera. Apo ntchito za ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi zikusazgikira, kwenda kwa fuvu la mwezi kuzamusazgikira, ndipo vyakucitika viwemi vya astronome kufuma pacanya vizamucepa, kuyana na ndondomeko za kucepeska kuthandazgika kwa fuvu. === Maulendo Ghakupangika === Ndondomeko za mwezi za U.S. na China zili na cilato ca kuzenga malo gha kukhala pa mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2030 pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa vyaro vinyake, ndipo vingaŵa kukhala pa mwezi kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu kufuma Apollo 17 mu 1972. Pamanyuma pa ulendo wa kuyezga wa Artemis III pafupi na caro capasi uwo ukunozgekera 2027, NASA yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi mu 2028, na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵaŵiri ŵa Artemis IV kukhala ku mphaka ya kumwera ya mwezi. Apo maulendo gha Apollo ghakaŵa gha kupenda, ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Pa ici, U.S. yikugwira ntchito pamoza na makampani pa mauthenga gha mwezi, kunyamula katundu, na kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya pa mwezi. Ndondomeko ya Chang'e ya China yikapharazga maulendo gha pamoza na ndondomeko ya Luna-Glob ya Russia. Maulendo ghaŵiri gha kupenda mwezi ghakunozgekera, Chang'e 7 mu 2026 na Chang'e 8 mu 2028, pambere ŵanthu ŵandafike mu 2029 panji 2030. === Kukhala pa Mwezi === Ŵanthu ŵakhala pa mwezi mu magulu gha ŵaŵiri na mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu. Pose pamoza ŵanthu 12 ŵakhala pa mwezi pa maulendo 6. Wose ŵakakhala mu mtundu umoza wa nyumba ya pacanya, Apollo Lunar Module. Mu kukhala uku ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakajumpha pose pamoza mpaka zuŵa limoza ŵakwendakwenda pacanya. Masuzgo pa kwendakwenda pacanya ghakufuma ku fuvu la mwezi ilo likukakatira ku vyakuvwara na vilwero, ndipo likanyamulikanga mukati mwa nyumba. Ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵakanowanga na kununkhizga fuvu, ilo likununkha nga ni mfuti, ndipo likachemeka "fungo la Apollo". Fuvu ili lakupepuka lingiziska masuzgo gha umoyo. Mu 2019, mbuto yimoza panji kujumpha yikamera mu kuyezga pa combo ca Chang'e 4. Yikanyamulika kufuma pa caro capasi pamoza na vyamoyo vinyake vicoko. Cifukwa mwezi ngwakukakika, ndipo ukulongora cisko cimoza pera ku caro capasi, kuŵapo kwa nyengo zose pa mwezi kuzamukhumba gulu la ma''satellite'' kuti ghatumizge mauthenga kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, na kufuma ku mphaka ya kumwera iyo yili na mawonekero ghakusuzga. Ma''satellite'' gha China gha Queqiao-1 na -2 ghali kale, ndipo NASA yikunozgekera ndondomeko ya mauthenga na kulongozgera mu Thukila 2026. === Ucindami pa Dango === Nangauli vyombo vya Luna vikathandazga vimanyikwiro vya Soviet Union pa mwezi, ndipo mbendera za U.S. zikaŵikika na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo pa malo agho ŵakakhala, palije caro ico cikuti cigaŵa ciliconse ca mwezi nca ici. Nga ni nthena, kuŵa mwenecho wa vigaŵa vya mwezi, panji wose, kwa munthu paŵekha kukuzomerezgeka yayi. Phangano la Mlengalenga la 1967 likuti mwezi na mlengalenga wose ni "cigaŵa ca ŵanthu wose". Likucepeska kagwiliskiro ka mwezi ku vilato vya mtendere pera, ndipo likukanizga mwakulunjika malo gha ŵankhondo na vilwero vya kunanga ŵanthu ŵanandi. Vyaro vinandi vili mu phangano ili. Phangano la Mwezi la 1979 likapangika kulongosora, na kukanizga kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya mwezi na caro cimoza pera, kuvisiya ku ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro iyo yindalongosoreke. Mu Matika 2020, likaŵa kuti lasayinika na kuzomerezgeka na vyaro 18. Kufuma 2020, vyaro vyanjira mu Mapangano gha Artemis na U.S., agho ghakususka phangano ili. U.S. yayowoya so mu lamulo la pulezidenti kuti "United States yikuwona mlengalenga nga ni 'cuma ca caro cose' yayi" ndipo yikuti Phangano la Mwezi ni "kuyezga kwakutondeka kukanizga malonda gha wanangwa". Apo Australia yikasayina na kuzomerezga Phangano la Mwezi mu 1986 na Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, pakaŵa mphindano usange ghangakolerana. Pa ici, Phangano la Kufiska Phangano la Mwezi lasacizgika, nga ni nthowa ya kumazga masuzgo gha Phangano la Mwezi na kulikoleranya na malango na mapangano ghanyake nga ni Mapangano gha Artemis, kuti lizomerezgeke na ŵanandi. Cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa khumbo la makampani na vyaro, comene kupenja malo, ŵapangi ŵa malango ŵa U.S. ŵakanjizga pakumalira kwa 2020 malango ghapadera gha kuvikilira malo gha mbiri agho vyombo vikakhala, ndipo magulu ghanyake ghakuti malo agha ghaŵe Malo gha Ucindami wa Caro Cose na malo gha kasandiro ghakuvikilirika. Mu 2021, Kalata ya Wanangwa wa Mwezi yikapangika na gulu la "ŵakumanya dango, ŵasandi ŵa vya kale vya mlengalenga na ŵanthu ŵakupwelelera", kuthemba ŵanthu ŵakukhozga wanangwa wa kawiro na ghanoghano la kuŵa munthu pa dango ku vinthu vyambura kuŵa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga. ==== Kukolerana na Kulongozga ==== Kusazgikira kwa ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwawuska khumbo la kukolerana kuti ntchito za pakati pa vyaro na za makampani pa mwezi zivikilirike. Nkhani kufuma pa kovwirana mpaka pa kukolerana pera, mwaciyelezgero kupanga nyengo yakugaŵana ya mwezi, zayowoyeka. Comene, kuŵika ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro panji ya Wupu wa Vyaro Vyose ya kulongozga ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwapemphika na Phangano la Mwezi na kusacizgika kwizira mu Phangano la Kufiska, kweni kucali mphindano. Ndondomeko za mwezi za sono nza vyaro vinandi, ya Artemis iyo yikulongozgeka na U.S. na ya Malo gha Kusanda Mwezi gha Pakati pa Vyaro agho ghakulongozgeka na China. Pa kovwirana na kukolerana kwa pakati pa vyaro kukulu, mawupu nga ni ILEWG, Moon Village Association, na ISECG ghapangika. == Mu Midawuko na Umoyo == === Majandulo === Ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi ŵali mu midawuko yose ya ŵanthu. Midawuko yinandi yakoleranya ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa 29.5 na ndondomeko ya kuwona mwezi kwa ŵanakazi, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mizu yakugaŵana ya mazgo gha "kuwona mwezi" na "mwezi" mu viyowoyero vinandi. Mu Citumbuka nako, kuwona mwezi kukukolerana na lizgu lakuti mwezi. Kweni ici cikaŵa mu midawuko yose yayi, cifukwa ŵaciuta wose ŵa mwezi ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi yayi. Kweni majandulo ghanandi ghakumanyikwa ghali na ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵa mwezi, kusazgapo Selene wa Ŵagiriki, Luna wa Ŵaroma, Chang'e wa Ŵacayina, na Coyolxāuhqui wa Ŵaaztec, uyo kudumulika mutu kwake kungaŵa kulongora kubisika kwa mwezi. Ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵanalume nga ni Nanna-Sin ŵakakolerananga so na kubaba na nthumbo. Ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵanyake, kusazgapo Artemis, Hecate, Phoebe, Theia na Isis, pakwamba ŵakaŵavya ubale na mwezi, kweni ŵakawusanga pamanyuma mu nyengo ya kale cifukwa ca kusazganika na Selene/Luna. Kugaŵika kwa mwezi mu vigaŵa viŵiri kuthambo ni cizukuso ico cikuyowoyeka kuti cikacitika na ncimi Muhammad. === Kupima Nyengo === Kufuma mu nyengo za kale ŵanthu ŵalaŵiska kawonekero ka mwezi na ndondomeko yake ya kukura na kucepa, ndipo ŵakuyigwiliskira ntchito kupima nyengo. Mazgo gha mwezi wa caka mu viyowoyero vinandi ghakulongora ubale uwu pakati pa nyengo ya mwezi wa caka na mwezi wa kuthambo. Mu Citumbuka, lizgu limoza lakuti mwezi likung'anamula vyose viŵiri. Kupima nyengo uku kukapangiska makalendala gha mwezi na zuŵa agho ghakaŵa ghanandi mu mbiri, kweni ghakupambana. Kalendala ya Cisilamu ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 ni ciyelezgero ca kalendala ya mwezi pera, umo myezi kanandi yikwamba na kuwoneka kwa ''hilal'', panji cikweru cakwamba ca mwezi, pa mphepete ya kuthambo. Cakuzirwa comene caŵa mwezi wakuzura, uwo ukusekelerika mu makalendala na midawuko yinandi, nga ni Vesak ya Ŵabuda. Mwezi wakuzura pafupi na nyengo ya kuvuna ukuchemeka mwezi wa vuna, ndipo ukusekelerika na visangalalo nga ni Cisangalalo ca Mwezi wa Vuna ca kalendala ya mwezi ya Ŵacayina, cisangalalo caciŵiri pa kuzirwa pamanyuma pa Caka Ciphya ca Ŵacayina. === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko === Ŵanthu ŵajambula mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, nga umo vithuzi vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha na malemba gha vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu vikulongolera. Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi na kulemba ndakatulo za mwezi. ==== Cikweru ==== Pa kulongora mwezi, comene kawonekero kake, cikweru (🌙) caŵa cimanyikwiro cakuwerezgeka mu midawuko yinandi kufuma vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu, panyake kale comene na nyanga za ng'ombe zanalume mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu malembo nga ni gha Ŵacayina, cikweru casintha kuŵa cimanyikwiro 月, lizgu la mwezi, ndipo mu Eguputo wa kale cikaŵa cimanyikwiro 𓇹, cakung'anamula mwezi, ndipo cikalembeka nga ni zina la ciuta wa mwezi Iah. Mu vithuzi, cikweru cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Mesopotamiya nga ni cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Nanna/Sîn, ciuta wa mwezi wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, uyo wakaŵa awiske wa Inanna/Ishtar, ciuta mwanakazi wa cibwe ca Venasi (wakulongoreka na nyenyezi ya Ishtar ya minyanga 8), na Utu/Shamash, ciuta wa zuŵa (wakulongoreka nga ni cimbale), ndipo ŵatatu wose kanandi ŵakulongoreka pafupi na pafupi. Nanna/Sîn, nga ni ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵa mwezi, wakulongoreka nga ni ciuta wa nyanga, na vyakuvwara vya mutu panji vingoma vya mawonekero gha cikweru. Kanozgero kapadera ka cikweru na nyenyezi (☪️) kakufuma ku Nyengo ya Mkuŵa, ndipo kakulongora zuŵa na mwezi, panji mwezi na cibwe ca Venasi, pamoza. Kufuma apo kagwiliskiro ka nyenyezi na cikweru kakathandazgika, ndipo kakaŵa cimanyikwiro cakumanyikwa ca Cisilamu (nga ni ''hilal'' ya kalendala ya Cisilamu) na ca vyaro vinandi. ==== Ubale Unyake ==== Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, malo ghapacanya ghakuŵala na ''maria'' ghakufipa, vyawoneka na midawuko yakupambana nga ni mawonekero ghakupambana. Mawonekero agha ni pakati pa ghanyake Munthu wa mu Mwezi panji Kalulu wa Mwezi (mwaciyelezgero mu majandulo gha Ŵacayina na gha Ŵaamerika ŵa malo agho). Mu nyengo yapakati pa caro cose, mwezi ukaŵa wakuzirwa mu midawuko pa nkhani nga ni ndakatulo za citemwa, uchimi, na maghanoghano gha ucizgi. Mu ''alchemy'' ya Kumanjiliro, mwezi ukakolerananga na siliva, apo golide likakolerananga na zuŵa. === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Kawonero ka mwezi mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano kakhwaskika na astronome ya vilaŵiskiro vya kutali. Maghanoghano ghaphya agha ghakapangiska vinthu vya midawuko, kukoleranya maghanoghano gha citemwa pa mwezi na nkhani zakupeka nga ni nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro izo zikuyowoya za mwezi. Pamanyuma, maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakiziska nyengo ya mlengalenga, iyo yikapanga, comene na kufika kwakwamba pa mwezi, vyakufiska vya mbiri ku ŵanthu wose, ivyo vikulongoreka mu vithuzi vya caro capasi kufuma kutali na kuzizwa uko kukuchemeka "overview effect". Ici capelekezgeka na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu na ghakususka pa ubale wa midawuko na wa dango wa ŵanthu na mwezi, comene nga ni cinthu ca ufumu wakuthandazga mazaza, nga mu Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga, na nga ni cinthu ca ukoloni kwizira mu kuguliska vyuma vya mwezi. Ndakatulo ya 1970 "Whitey on the Moon" yikamanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kulongora maghanoghano ghakususka agha. Maghanoghano ghanyake ghayowoya za kawiro ka mwezi, kuwuska nkhani nga ni kuvikilira mwezi na kuwugwiliskira ntchito mwakuti ukhalilire, kuwona mwezi nga ni cuma cakugaŵana. Mu 2021, 20 Vuna likaŵa Zuŵa la Mwezi la Pakati pa Vyaro, zuŵa la kufika kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi. === Vyakufumapo vya Mwezi pa Ŵanthu === Vyakufumapo vya mwezi ni ubale uwo ukughanaghanirika pakati pa nyengo zinyake za ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 29.5, na nkhalo na kusintha kwa thupi la ŵanthu pa caro capasi. Ndondomeko za mwezi zili na vyakufumapo vikulu pa midawuko ya ŵanthu, kweni palije ukaboni wakukhora wakuti ndondomeko izi zikukhwaska thupi la ŵanthu. Mwezi wakolerana kwa nyengo yitali na uchindere na kusoŵa vinjeru; mazgo gha Cingelezi ''lunacy'' na ''lunatic'' ghakufuma ku zina la Cilatini la mwezi, ''Luna''. Ŵapenda vinjeru Aristotle na Pliny Mulara ŵakayowoyanga kuti mwezi wakuzura ukwiziska uchindere ku ŵanthu ŵanyake, ŵakugomezga kuti wongo, uwo ni maji comene, ukwenera kukhwaskika na mwezi na nkhongono yake pa kuzuzga kwa maji, kweni nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njicoko comene kukhwaska munthu yumoza. Mu ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, vyakufumapo vya mwezi vyayowoyeka kuti vikupangiska kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu vipatala vya ŵalwari ŵa wongo, ngozi za pa misewu, kukomana, panji kujikoma pa mwezi wakuzura, kweni mazgo agha ghalongoreka kuŵa ghautesi na kusanda kwakujumpha 37. [[Category:Chibwe|*]] g4ri4dqwsoqyscfyvxci0m3jxxm9p0f 124418 124351 2026-11-10T20:56:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124418 wikitext text/x-wiki {{see also|Category:Miyezi{{!}}Miyezi ya caka}} [[file:FullMoon2010.jpg|thumb|Mwezi wa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]].]] [[File:Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites.jpg|thumb|upright|Myezi ya [[Jupita]]: ''Io'', ''Europa'', ''Ganymede'', ''Callisto''.]] [[file:Moon symbol (planetary color).svg|frameless|upright=0.35|☾]] '''Mwezi''' (cimanyikwiro: [[file:moon decrescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☾]] panji [[file:moon crescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☽]]) ndiyo setilayiti ya kawiro yekha ya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yakutalikilapo, pa mtunda uwo ukusintha mu caka, wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 378,000.<ref name="NSSDC">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=David R. |title=Moon Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/National Space Science Data Center |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |date=February 2, 2006 |access-date=December 31, 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323165650/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |archive-date=March 23, 2010}}</ref> Ukumalizga kuzunguliya kamoza (mwezi wa caka), kuyana na caro capasi na [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], mu mazuŵa 29.5 ghaliwose. Mwezi na caro capasi vikukoleka na nkhongono ya kukoka, iyo njankhongono comene ku mbali izo zikulaŵiskana. Nkhongono izi ndizo zikwiziska comene kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani pa caro capasi, ndipo zaguza mwezi kuti nyengo zose ulaŵiske caro capasi na cigaŵa cimoza ceneco. Kukakika uku kukupangiska nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwa mwezi pa ceneco (zuŵa la mwezi) kuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya caro capasi (mwezi wa caka). Pa kasandiro ka pasi, mwezi ni cinthu ca kuzitika kwa cibwe panji cibwe ca setilayiti. Kuzitika kwake ni magaŵa 1.2 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro capasi, ndipo ukulu wake ni makilomita 3,474, pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi. Mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]], ngukulu na wakuzitika kuluska cibwe cicoko ciliconse ico cikumanyikwa, ndipo ni mwezi wa cinkhondi pa ukulu na pa kuzitika, kweniso ni mwezi ukulu comene na wakuzitika comene kuyana na cibwe cake.<ref name="Metzger2021"/> Nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya pa mwezi njicoko pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi, pafupifupi hafu ya ya Aresi, ndipo njaciŵiri pa ukulu pa myezi yose ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa pamanyuma pa Io, mwezi wa Jupita. Thupi la mwezi lili na vigaŵa vyakupambana na ni la malibwe, ndipo lili na maji, mphepo, na nkhongono ya umagineti vicoko comene. Pacanya pa mwezi paphimbika na fuvu, ilo comene ni vinthu vyakupepuka ivyo vikaphulika kufuma ku cikopa ca mwezi apo vinthu vikatimbana nawo. Cikopa ca mwezi cili na mazenje gha kutimbana; ghanyake ghaphya ghali na mizere yakuŵala. Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo mwala wakusungunuka ukafuma comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, iyo cikopa cake ncifupi, ukazuzga mazenje gha kale, ndipo apo ukazizima ukapanga malo ghakufipa agho ghakuwoneka makola sono, ghakuchemeka ''maria'' ("nyanja"). Mwezi ukughanaghanirika kuti ukapangika kufuma ku vinthu vya caro capasi ivyo vikaphulika apo cinthu ca ukulu wa [[Aresi]] cikatimbana na caro capasi. Kusanda kwa kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika vyaka biliyoni 4.35 ivyo vyajumpha, pamanyuma mu mbiri ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kufuma kutali, msana na usiku vya zuŵa la mwezi vikuwoneka nga ni kawonekero kakusintha ka mwezi, ndipo para mwezi ukujumpha mu mzgezge wa caro capasi, kubisika kwa mwezi kukuwoneka. Ukulu wa mwezi kuthambo la caro capasi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ntheura mwezi ukuphimba zuŵa lose pa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa. Mwezi ndiwo cinthu cakuŵala comene kuthambo usiku cifukwa ca ukulu wake wakuwoneka, nangauli kuwezga ungweru kwa pacanya pake nkhwakuyana na kwa phula la misewu. Pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghakuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi cifukwa ca makona ghakupambana agho mwezi ungawonekera kuthambo, ndipo vigaŵa vinyake vya mbali ya kutali ya mwezi vikuwoneka. Mwezi waŵa kasupe wakuzirwa wa maghanoghano na vinjeru mu mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo wakaŵa wakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka caro cose, majandulo, visopa, luso, kupima nyengo, kasandiro ka kawiro, na maulendo gha mlengalenga. Maulendo ghakwamba gha mlengalenga ku cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi ghakaŵa ku mwezi, kwamba mu 1959 na kujumpha pafupi kwa Luna 1 (iyo yikatumika na Soviet Union), na kutimbana kwakukhumbika kwa Luna 2, kulondezgana mu 1966 na kukhala pasi makola kwakwamba (na Luna 9) na kunjira mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya (na Luna 10). Ŵanthu ŵakafika dankha mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi na Apollo 8 (iyo yikatumika na United States) pa 24 Zimya 1968, ndipo pamanyuma pacanya pa mwezi na Apollo 11 pa 20 Vuna 1969, ndipo ici cikapangiska mwezi kuŵa cinthu cekha ca kumwamba kuwaro kwa caro capasi ico ŵanthu ŵafikako. Pofika 1972, maulendo 6 gha Apollo ghakaŵa kuti ghafikiska ŵanthu 12 pa mwezi, ndipo ŵakakhalako mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu. Kupenda kuphya kwa mwezi na marobotiki, comene kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji pa mwezi, kwasazgirapo maghanoghano gha kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi. Mwa agha muli ndondomeko ya Artemis, kusazgapo ulendo wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi mu 2026. == Mazina na Muzu wa Lizgu == Zina la Cingelezi la setilayiti ya kawiro ya caro capasi kanandi likulembeka kuti ''Moon'', na M yikulu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling |title=Naming Astronomical Objects: Spelling of Names |publisher=International Astronomical Union |access-date=April 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216024716/http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling |archive-date=December 16, 2008}}</ref><ref name="PN-FAQ">{{cite web |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/FAQ |title=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Nomenclature FAQ |publisher=USGS Astrogeology Research Program |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''moon'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''mōna'', ilo likufuma ku ''*mēnōn'', ilo nalo likufuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''*mēnsis'' ("mwezi wa caka"), ilo lingakolerana na lizgu lakung'anamula "kupima [nyengo]". Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''mwezi'' nalo likung'anamula cinthu ca kumwamba na nyengo ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 30.<ref>{{cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Orel |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/Orel-AHandbookOfGermanicEtymology/mode/2up/search/moon |title=A Handbook of Germanic Etymology |publisher=Brill |access-date=March 5, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |entry=*mēnsis |first=Fernando |last=López-Menchero |url=https://indo-european.info/dictionary-translator/word.inc.php/ine/m%c4%93nsis |dictionary=Late Proto-Indo-European Etymological Lexicon |date=May 22, 2020 |access-date=July 30, 2022 |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522153418/https://indo-european.info/dictionary-translator/word.inc.php/ine/m%c4%93nsis |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="barnhart1995">{{cite dictionary |entry=moon |last=Barnhart |first=Robert K. |title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology |date=1995 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-270084-1 |page=487 |ol=1093523M}}</ref> Zina la Cilatini la mwezi ni ''lūna''. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''lunar'' likafuma ku Cilatini, panyake kwizira mu Cifulenci. Mu malemba gha kasandiro na mu nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro, mwezi nyengo zinyake ukuchemeka ''Luna'' kuti upambane na myezi yinyake.<ref>For example: {{cite book |first=James A. |last=Hall III |date=2016 |title=Moons of the Solar System |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-20636-3}}</ref> Mu ndakatulo, ''Luna'' lingang'anamula so mwezi wakulongoreka nga ni mwanakazi.<ref name="OEDLuna">''Oxford English Dictionary'': Luna</ref> Lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale ''selḗnē'' likang'anamulanga mwezi nga ni cinthu ca kumwamba, na so ciuta mwanakazi wa mwezi Selene. Lizgu la Cingelezi lambura kugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi lakuti ''selenian'' likulongosora mwezi nga ni caro.<ref>{{MW|selenian}}</ref><ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': selenian</ref><ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': selenic</ref><ref>{{MW|selenic}}</ref> Muzu wakuti ''seleno-'' ukuwoneka mu mazgo nga ni ''selenography'' (kusanda pacanya pa mwezi).<ref name="oed">{{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50136796?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=lunar&first=&max_to_show=10 |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |entry=lunar, a. and n. |edition=2nd| date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=March 23, 2010 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021946/https://public.oed.com/help/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|selh/nh |σελήνη |ref}}.</ref> Vimanyikwiro vya astronome vya mwezi ni ☽ na ☾, mwaciyelezgero mu M☾, "kuzitika kwa mwezi". === Kagaŵiro === Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kasandiro ka Nyenyezi (IAU) ukuchema setilayiti ya caro capasi kuti "the Moon", na M yikulu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Symbol for the Moon|url=https://www.universetoday.com/articles/symbol-for-the-moon|publisher=Universe Today|author=Fraser Cain|date= October 14, 2008|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Setilayiti zinyake za kawiro za vibwe zikuchemeka "moons", na m yicoko. Mu mbiri, mwezi ukaŵa umoza mwa vibwe vya kale, mu ng'anamulo la kale la cinthu cakwendakwenda kuthambo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Astronomical Union {{!}} IAU |url=https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/our_moon/ |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=iauarchive.eso.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.iau.org/IAU/Iau/Science/What-we-do/FAQs.aspx |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=www.iau.org}}</ref> Apo Galileo wakasanga setilayiti izo zikuzunguliya Jupita, wakazichema kuti "myezi" cifukwa, nga ni mwezi, zingawonekera kuŵa vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya cibwe cinyake. Ŵakumanya ŵanyake ŵakulondezga ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi ilo likugaŵa myezi nga ni vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa apo vikuzunguliya so cibwe cinyake.<ref name="k502">{{cite journal | last1=Metzger | first1=Philip T. | last2=Grundy | first2=W.M. | last3=Sykes | first3=Mark V. | last4=Stern | first4=Alan | last5=Bell | first5=James F. | last6=Detelich | first6=Charlene E. | last7=Runyon | first7=Kirby | last8=Summers | first8=Michael | title=Moons are planets: Scientific usefulness versus cultural teleology in the taxonomy of planetary science | journal=Icarus | volume=374 | date=2022 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114768 | article-number=114768 | arxiv=2110.15285 | bibcode=2022Icar..37414768M | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103521004206 | access-date=December 26, 2025}}</ref>{{rp|7}}<ref name="k502"/>{{rp|25}} Para tikulaŵiska kufuma ku zuŵa, mwezi ukuzunguliya zuŵa, ndipo caro capasi cikusintha pacoko nthowa yake.<ref name="q529">{{cite magazine | last=Allain | first=Rhett | title=Does the Moon Orbit the Sun or the Earth? | magazine=WIRED | date=December 6, 2012 | url=https://www.wired.com/2012/12/does-the-moon-orbit-the-sun-or-the-earth/ | access-date=December 26, 2025}}</ref><ref name="y136">{{cite web | title=Earth, Moon And Planets |author= Whipple, Fred. L |page=29 | website=Internet Archive | date=1941 | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205524/page/n35/mode/1up | access-date=December 27, 2025}}</ref> Ici capangiska ŵasandi ŵanyake kuyowoya kuti mwezi ungawonekera kuŵa cibwe, mu mbiri na mu kawiro kake, ndipo kuzitika kwake kungakwana kutozga nthowa yake kuzunguliya zuŵa usange ukaŵa paŵekha.<ref name="k502" /><ref name="s592">{{cite journal | last1=Stern | first1=S. Alan | last2=Levison | first2=Harold F. | title=Regarding the Criteria for Planethood and Proposed Planetary Classification Schemes | journal=Highlights of Astronomy | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=12 | year=2002 | issn=1539-2996 | doi=10.1017/s1539299600013289 | pages=205–213}}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuti ici cikung'anamula kuti caro capasi na mwezi ni cibwe caŵiri.<ref name="els">{{citation |last=Connors |first=Nicholas |title=Barycenter of the Earth-Moon System |date=2023 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Lunar Science |pages=69–71 |editor-last=Cudnik |editor-first=Brian |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-14541-9_151 |bibcode=2023els..book...69C |isbn=978-3-319-14540-2}}</ref>{{rp|70}} IAU yilije ng'anamulo la vibwe mu ndondomeko ya viŵiri, panji la ico cikupanga ndondomeko ya cibwe caŵiri, kweni ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezgana kuti ici cingakhumba pakati pa kuzitika kwa mwezi na caro capasi kuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ico nchambura kuŵa nthena.<ref name="l982">{{cite web | last=Nichols-Fleming | first=Fiona | title=Can Two Planets Orbit Each Other? | website=National Air and Space Museum | date=September 29, 2025 | url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/can-two-planets-orbit-each-other | access-date=December 25, 2025}}</ref> == Mbiri ya Kawiro == === Kapangikiro === [[File:Big Splash Theia.gif|thumb|Cithuzi ici cakwenda (cambura kuyana na ukulu weneco) cikulongora umo mwezi ukapangikira apo cibwe ca ukulu wa Aresi, cakuchemeka Theia, cikatimbana na caro capasi. Pamanyuma pa kuzunguliya kwa vyaka miliyoni makumi ghanandi pa malo gha L₄, nthowa ya Theia yikazgoka mu tuvizingo ndipo paumaliro yikafika pafupi comene na caro capasi.]] Kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika mu vyaka miliyoni 200 vyakwamba pamanyuma pa kwamba kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kupima kwakugomezgeka comene pa mitundu yikulu ya malibwe kukulongora vyaka biliyoni 4.35.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borg |first=Lars E. |last2=Carlson |first2=Richard W. |date=2023 |title=The Evolving Chronology of Moon Formation |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-060538 |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=51 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-060538 |issn=1545-4495}}</ref> Ghanoghano ilo likuzomerezgeka comene ni lakuti caro capasi na mwezi vikapangika pamanyuma pa kutimbana kukulu kwa cinthu ca ukulu wa Aresi (cakuchemeka Theia) na caro capasi ca kale. Kutimbana kwa mphepete uku kukaponya vinthu mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo vinthu ivi vikawunjikana na kupanga mwezi kuwaro pacoko kwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi.<ref name="taylor1998">{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec98/OriginEarthMoon.html |title=Origin of the Earth and Moon |last=Taylor |first=G. Jeffrey |date=December 31, 1998 |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=Hawai{{okina}}i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610011142/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec98/OriginEarthMoon.html |archive-date=June 10, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150416-asteroids-scars-moon-formation-space/ |title=Asteroids Bear Scars of Moon's Violent Formation |date=April 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008160812/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150416-asteroids-scars-moon-formation-space/ |archive-date=October 8, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Scaling in global tidal dissipation of the Earth–Moon system |last=van Putten |first=Maurice H. P. M. |journal=New Astronomy |volume=54 |pages=115–121 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1016/j.newast.2017.01.012 |arxiv=1609.07474 |bibcode=2017NewA...54..115V }}</ref> Kutimbana kukulu kukughanaghanirika kuti kukacitikanga kanandi mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ka kale. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vya kutimbana kukulu vyapeleka vyakufumapo ivyo vikukolerana na kuzitika kwa mtima wa mwezi na nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya caro capasi na mwezi. Viyelezgero ivi vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku cinthu ico cikatimbana, m'malo mwa caro capasi ca kale.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Canup |first=R. |author1-link=Robin Canup |author2=Asphaug, E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–712 |date=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C}}</ref> Kweni viyelezgero vya kufuma 2007 vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku caro capasi ca kale.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071219-moon-collision.html |title=Earth–Asteroid Collision Formed Moon Later Than Thought |magazine=National Geographic |date=October 28, 2010 |access-date=May 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418171528/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071219-moon-collision.html |archive-date=April 18, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=2008 Pellas-Ryder Award for Mathieu Touboul |journal=Meteoritics and Planetary Science |volume=43 |issue=S7 |pages=A11–A12 |date=2008 |bibcode=2008M&PS...43...11K |last1=Kleine |first1=Thorsten |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2008.tb00709.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature06428 |title=Late formation and prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals |date=2007 |last1=Touboul |first1=M. |last2=Kleine |first2=T. |last3=Bourdon |first3=B. |last4=Palme |first4=H. |last5=Wieler |first5=R. |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1206–1209 |pmid=18097403 |bibcode=2007Natur.450.1206T }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150408-moon-form-giant-impact-earth |title=Flying Oceans of Magma Help Demystify the Moon's Creation |magazine=National Geographic |date=April 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409220422/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150408-moon-form-giant-impact-earth/ |archive-date=April 9, 2015}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake vya mukati mwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa nga ni Aresi na Vesta, kuyana na malibwe gha mlengalenga agho ghakufumako, vili na kapangikiro ka okisijeni na tungsten kakupambana comene na ka caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book| title=Comparative Climatology of Terrestrial Planets|editor1=Stephen J. Mackwell |editor2= Amy A. Simon-Miller |editor3= Jerald W. Harder |editor4= Mark A. Bullock|publisher=The University of Arizona Press|year=2013|chapter=The Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets: Clues to the Origins and Early Evolution of Venus, Earth, and Mars|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20140017487/downloads/20140017487.pdf|author= Kevin H. Baines|isbn=978-0-8165-3059-5}}</ref> Kweni caro capasi na mwezi vili na kapangikiro kakuyana pafupifupi. Kuyana uku kungalongosoreka na kusazganika kwa vinthu vyakuzgoka mphepo ivyo vikapanga vyose viŵiri pamanyuma pa kutimbana, nangauli pali mphindano pa ici.<ref name="Pahlevan2007">{{cite journal |last1=Pahlevan |first1=Kaveh |last2=Stevenson |first2=David J. |date=2007 |title=Equilibration in the aftermath of the lunar-forming giant impact |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=262 |issue=3–4 |pages=438–449 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.055 |bibcode=2007E&PSL.262..438P |arxiv=1012.5323 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Nield |first=Ted |title=Moonwalk (summary of meeting at Meteoritical Society's 72nd Annual Meeting, Nancy, France) |magazine=Geoscientist |volume=19 |page=8 |date=2009 |url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/geoscientist/geonews/page6072.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927034348/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/geoscientist/geonews/page6072.html |archive-date=September 27, 2012}}</ref> Kutimbana kukafumiska nkhongono zakukwana kusungunuska vinthu vyakuphulika na cikopa ca caro capasi, kupanga nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka. Vinthu vyakusungunuka vyakuphulika vingaŵa kuti vikawunjikana so mu ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="Warren1985">{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=P. H. |date=1985 |title=The magma ocean concept and lunar evolution |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=201–240 |bibcode=1985AREPS..13..201W |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.13.050185.001221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tonks |first=W. Brian |author2=Melosh, H. Jay |date=1993 |title=Magma ocean formation due to giant impacts |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=98 |issue=E3 |pages=5319–5333 |bibcode=1993JGR....98.5319T |doi=10.1029/92JE02726}}</ref><ref name="Warren1985" /> Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ungaŵa kuti ukaŵa na nyanja yake ya mwala wakusungunuka; kuzika kwake kukughanaghanirika kuŵa kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 500 mpaka 1,737.<ref name="NYT-20231101">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=A 'Big Whack' Formed the Moon and Left Traces Deep in Earth, a Study Suggests – Two enormous blobs deep inside Earth could be remnants of the birth of the moon. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/01/science/moon-formation-theia.html |date=November 1, 2023 |work=The New York Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101164127/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/01/science/moon-formation-theia.html |archive-date=November 1, 2023 |access-date=February 23, 2026}}</ref><ref name="NAT-20231101">{{cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Qian |last2=Li |first2=Mingming |last3=Desch |first3=Steven J. |last4=Ko |first4=Byeongkwan |last5=Deng |first5=Hongping |last6=Garnero |first6=Edward J. |last7=Gabriel |first7=Travis S. J. |last8=Kegerreis |first8=Jacob A. |last9=Miyazaki |first9=Yoshinori |last10=Eke |first10=Vincent |last11=Asimow |first11=Paul D. |title=Moon-forming impactor as a source of Earth's basal mantle anomalies |journal=Nature |date=2 November 2023 |volume=623 |issue=7985 |pages=95–99 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06589-1 |pmid=37914947 |bibcode=2023Natur.623...95Y }}</ref> Vigaŵa viŵiri vya ukulu wa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda mu cigaŵa ca pasi ca caro capasi vyasacizgika kuŵa vyakusyala vya Theia ivyo vicali mukati mwa caro capasi. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vyakulunjika comene vikusanga kuti kutimbana kukulu kungaŵika luŵiro setilayiti ya kuzitika na unandi wa cisulo wakuyana na wa mwezi mu nthowa yakutali mwakukwana kufuma ku caro capasi kuti yileke kunangika na nkhongono ya kukoka (kuwaro kwa mphaka ya Roche). Nanga ni setilayiti izo pakwamba zikujumpha mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche zingapona, mwa kuwuskika vigaŵa vinyake na pamanyuma kukankhika ku nthowa zisani na zakukhazikika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kegerreis |first1=J.A. |last2=Ruiz-Bonilla |first2=S. |last3=Eke |first3=V.R. |last4=Massey |first4=R.J. |last5=Sandnes |first5=T.D. |last6=Teodoro |first6=L.F.A. |display-authors=1 |date=October 4, 2022 |title=Immediate Origin of the Moon as a Post-impact Satellite |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=937 |issue=L40 |pages=L40 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ac8d96 |arxiv=2210.01814 |bibcode=2022ApJ...937L..40K |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=You |last2=Bi |first2=Rongxi |last3=Liu |first3=Yun |date=May 30, 2024 |title=Research Advances in the Giant Impact Hypothesis of Moon Formation |url=https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/space.0153 |journal=Space: Science & Technology |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |volume=4 |pages=0153 |doi=10.34133/space.0153|doi-access=free }}</ref> Nangauli ghanoghano la kutimbana kukulu likulongosora ukaboni unandi, mafumbo ghanyake ghacali ghambura kuzgoleka, ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na kapangikiro ka mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clery |first=Daniel |journal=Science |title=Impact Theory Gets Whacked |volume=342 |pages=183–185 |date=October 11, 2013 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6155.183 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..183C |issue=6155 |pmid=24115419}}</ref> Viyelezgero ivyo mwezi ukutora cigaŵa cikulu ca caro capasi ca kale nvyakusuzga kukolerana na vyakusangika vya usungunu wa pasi pa zirconium, okisijeni, silicon, na vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Zirconium isotope constraints on the composition of Theia and current Moon-forming theories |first1=W. |last1=Akram |first2=M. |last2=Schönbächler |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=449 |date=September 1, 2016 |pages=302–310 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2016.05.022 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.449..302A |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/117905 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Kukura kwa Kawiro === [[File:Archean.png|thumb|Cithuzi ca wakujambula ca umo mwezi ungawonekera mu mlengalenga wa caro capasi pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 4 ivyo vyajumpha. Pa nyengo iyo mwezi ukazunguliyanga caro capasi pa cigaŵa cimoza mwa vitatu ca mtunda wake wa sono, ntheura ukawonekanga ukulu maulendo 2.8 kuluska sono.<ref name="Lunar and Planetary Institute" />]] [[File:Space.0076.fig.002.jpg|thumb|Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto ghamoyo kwa vyaka biliyoni zinandi pamanyuma pa kupangika kwake. Dongo lakusungunuka ilo likazuzga malo ghapasi gha mwezi likapanga ''maria'' gha sono, ndipo vyaka vyawo vili pa mapu agha (cikasu mpaka cakuswesi: ghaphya comene; camlengalenga mpaka ca ''purple'': gha kale comene).]] Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ukazunguliyanga caro capasi pafupi comene kuluska sono. Ntheura cilichose cikawonekanga cikulu comene kuthambo la cinyake, kubisika kukacitikanga kanandi, ndipo nkhongono za kukoka zikaŵa zikulu.<ref name="Lunar and Planetary Institute">{{cite web |title=Earth-Moon Dynamics |website=Lunar and Planetary Institute |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/training/illustrations/earthMoon/ |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907215806/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/training/illustrations/earthMoon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa ca nkhongono za kukoka, nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yakura comene, ndipo yikutora nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Early evolution of the Earth-Moon system with a fast-spinning Earth |last1=Wisdom |first1=Jack |last2=Tian |first2=ZhenLiang |journal=Icarus |volume=256 |pages=138–146 |date=August 2015 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.02.025 |bibcode=2015Icar..256..138W}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kupangika, mwezi wazizima ndipo mphepo yake yinandi yawuskika.<ref name="John 2017">{{cite magazine |last=John |first=Tara |title=NASA: The Moon Once Had an Atmosphere That Faded Away |magazine=Time |date=October 9, 2017 |url=https://time.com/4974580/nasa-moon-had-atmosphere-volcanoes/ |access-date=May 16, 2023 |archive-date=May 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514100131/https://time.com/4974580/nasa-moon-had-atmosphere-volcanoes/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pacanya pa mwezi pakusintha kufuma apo na kutimbana kukulu na kucoko kunandi, ndipo kwapanga malo ghakuŵa na mazenje gha vyaka vyose.<ref name = "yang">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Chen |last2=Zhao |first2=Haishi |last3=Bruzzone |first3=Lorenzo |last4=Benediktsson |first4=Jon Atli |last5=Liang |first5=Yanchun |last6=Liu |first6=Bin |last7=Zeng |first7=Xingguo |last8=Guan |first8=Renchu |last9=Li |first9=Chunlai |last10=Ouyang |first10=Ziyuan |title=Lunar impact crater identification and age estimation with Chang'E data by deep and transfer learning |journal=Nature Communications |date=December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6358 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20215-y |pmid=33353954 |pmc=7755906 |arxiv=1912.01240 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6358Y |doi-access=free }}</ref> Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo agha ghakapanga ''maria'' ghakuwoneka comene. Mwala wakusungunuka unandi wa ''maria'' ukafuma mu nyengo ya Imbrian, vyaka biliyoni 3.3–3.7 ivyo vyajumpha, nangauli unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 1.2 pera ndipo unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 4.2.<ref name="Hiesinger">{{cite journal |last1=Hiesinger |first1=H. |last2=Head |first2=J.W. |last3=Wolf |first3=U. |last4=Jaumann |first4=R. |last5=Neukum |first5=G. |title=Ages and stratigraphy of mare basalts in Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Numbium, Mare Cognitum, and Mare Insularum |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=108 |issue=E7 |page=1029 |date=2003 |doi=10.1029/2002JE001985 |bibcode=2003JGRE..108.5065H |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Papike">{{cite journal |last1=Papike |first1=J. |last2=Ryder |first2=G. |last3=Shearer |first3=C. |title=Lunar Samples |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=36 |pages=5.1–5.234 |date=1998}}</ref> Kuthandazgika kwa mwala uwu nkhwambura kuyana, ndipo ukuwoneka comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi. Vifukwa vya ici vindamanyikwe, nangauli kufupi kwa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa cifukwa cimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Lunar Nearside-Farside Mare Basalt Asymmetry: The Combined Role of Global Crustal Thickness Variations and South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin-Induced Lithospheric Thickening |last1=Head |first1=James W. |last2=Wang |first2=Xing |last3=Lark |first3=Laura H. |last4=Wilson |first4=Lionel |last5=Qian |first5=Yuqi |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=51 |date=October 2025 |issue=22 |article-number=e2024GL110510 |doi=10.1029/2024GL110510|hdl=10397/113189 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Vifukwa vya kuthandazgika kwa malo ghapacanya gha mwezi ku mbali ya kutali navyo vindamanyikwe makola. Kupima kukulongora kuti cikopa ca mbali ya pafupi ncifupi kuluska ca mbali ya kutali. Malongosoro ghanyake ni ghakuti kutimbana kukulu ku mbali ya pafupi kungaŵa kuti kukapepuska mwala wakusungunuka kuthiririka pacanya.<ref name="ESA Science & Technology 2006">{{cite web |title=Lunar Far Side Highlands |website=ESA Science & Technology |date=July 14, 2006 |url=https://sci.esa.int/web/smart-1/-/39791-lunar-far-side-highlands |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902221440/https://sci.esa.int/web/smart-1/-/39791-lunar-far-side-highlands |url-status=live}}</ref> === Nyengo za Kasandiro ka Pasi pa Mwezi === Nyengo za kasandiro ka pasi pa mwezi zikuthemba kutimbana kwakuwoneka comene, nga ni mazenje gha mphete zinandi nga ni Nectaris, Imbrium, na Orientale, agho ghali na ukulu wa makilomita mahandiredi mpaka masauzandi, ndipo ghali na vinthu vyakuphulika ivyo vyathandazgika kutali.<ref name="geologic">{{cite book |first=Don |last=Wilhelms |date=1987 |title=Geologic History of the Moon |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |chapter-url=http://ser.sese.asu.edu/GHM/ghm_07txt.pdf |chapter=Relative Ages |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611054723/http://ser.sese.asu.edu/GHM/ghm_07txt.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter Throughout Earth's History|editor=Bernhard Peucker-Ehrenbrink, Birger Schmitz|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8|publisher= Springer|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-306-46689-2|date=31 October 2001|chapter=The Lunar Record of Recent Impact Cratering|pages=403–422|author=Jennifer A. Grier & Alfred S. McEwen|bibcode=2001aemt.book.....P |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8_20}}</ref> Nyengo izi zikuthyika mazina gha vimanyikwiro vyake, kufuma ku mazenje ghanandi kuwaro kwa ''maria'' ghakufipa, ku ''maria'' na mazenje gha pamanyuma, na pakumalira ku mazenje ghaphya, ghacali ghakuŵala na ghakuwoneka makola, ghakuŵa na mizere nga ni Copernicus panji Tycho.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Moon: An Archive of Small Body Migration in the Solar System|date=19 October 2016|volume=118|pages=133–158|author1=Katherine H. Joy|author2= Ian A. Crawford |author3= Natalie M. Curran |author4= Michael Zolensky |author5= Amy F. Fagan|author6= David A. Kring|journal=Discover Space |issue=2–3 |doi=10.1007/s11038-016-9495-0 |bibcode=2016EM&P..118..133J |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="geologic" /> Kusoŵa kwa mphepo, nyengo, na ndondomeko za pasi za sonosono kukung'anamula kuti mazenje ghanandi agha ghakusungika makola.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Z. |last2=Strom |first2=R.G. |year=2012 |title=Problems determining relative and absolute ages using the small crater population |journal=Icarus |volume=220 |issue=1 |pages=254–267 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2012.05.012 |bibcode=2012Icar..220..254X |url=https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/planetology/lectures/ss2015/143897-hottopics/xiao_and_strom_2012.pdf}}</ref> Nangauli mazenje ghacoko pera gha mphete zinandi ghapimika vyaka mwakusimikizgika, ngakovwira pa kupeleka vyaka vyakuyaniska. Cifukwa mazenje gha kutimbana ghakuwunjikana pa luŵiro lwakuyana pafupifupi, kupenda unandi wa mazenje pa malo kungagwiliskirika ntchito kupima vyaka vya pacanya. Kweni pakwenera kupwelelera na nthowa iyi cifukwa pangaŵa mazenje ghaciŵiri. Vinthu vyakuphulika pa kutimbana vingapanga mazenje ghaciŵiri agho kanandi ghakuwoneka mu magulu panji mu mizere, kweni ghangawoneka so paŵekha kutali na apo kutimbana kukacitikira. Agha ghangayana na mazenje ghakwamba, ndipo ghangaŵa ghanandi mu mazenje ghacoko, ntheura kuŵapo kwawo kwambura kumanyikwa kungananga kupima vyaka. Vyaka vya malibwe ghakusungunuka na kutimbana agho ghakawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo vili pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3.8 na 4.1: ici cagwiliskirika ntchito kusacizga nyengo ya Kutimbana Kukulu kwa Pamanyuma, ya kusazgikira kwa kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=William K. |last2=Quantin |first2=Cathy |last3=Mangold |first3=Nicolas |date=2007 |volume=186 |issue=1 |pages=11–23 |journal=Icarus |title=Possible long-term decline in impact rates: 2. Lunar impact-melt data regarding impact history |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.009 |bibcode=2007Icar..186...11H}}</ref> Vithuzi vyakulunjika comene vya Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010 vikulongora kuti luŵiro lwa sono lwa kupangika kwa mazenje lukujumpha comene ivyo vikaghanaghanirika kale. Ndondomeko ya mazenje ghaciŵiri yikughanaghanirika kusazganya masentimita ghaŵiri gha pacanya gha fuvu mu vyaka 81,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |title=The moon has hundreds more craters than we thought |first=Rebecca |last=Boyle |work=New Scientist |date=October 12, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013143743/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |archive-date=October 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Quantifying crater production and regolith overturn on the Moon with temporal imaging |first1=Emerson J. |last1=Speyerer |first2=Reinhold Z. |last2=Povilaitis |first3=Mark S. |last3=Robinson |first4=Peter C. |last4=Thomas |first5=Robert V. |last5=Wagner |date=October 13, 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=215–218 |doi=10.1038/nature19829 |pmid=27734864 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..215S }}</ref> Luŵiro ili lukujumpha kahandiredi luŵiro ilo likapimika kufuma ku kutimbana kwa tumalibwe tucoko pera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth's Moon Hit by Surprising Number of Meteoroids |date=October 13, 2016 |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2016/lro-lunar-cratering |access-date=May 21, 2021 |archive-date=July 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702225136/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2016/lro-lunar-cratering/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ivyo Vikulindilirika Munthazi === Pamanyuma pa vyaka biliyoni 5, mwezi uzamuzunguliya kutali na caro capasi na magaŵa 40 pa 100 kuluska sono.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neron de Surgey |first1=O. |last2=Laskar |first2=J. |year=1996 |title=On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=318 |page=975 |bibcode=1997A&A...318..975N}}</ref> Kweni pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 2 mpaka 3 pamanyuma pa ici, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira. Usange zuŵa lizamuphimba caro capasi na mwezi, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi kucepa mpaka mwezi wanjire mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi, ndipo ungaphwanyika.<ref name="f170">{{cite web |last=Powell |first=David |title=Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate |website=Space |date=January 22, 2007 |url=https://www.space.com/3373-earth-moon-destined-disintegrate.html |access-date=September 3, 2025}}</ref> == Vimanyikwiro vya Kawiro == === Ukulu na Kuzitika === [[File:Selected Moons of Solar System.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kuyaniska ukulu wa myezi yikulu ya mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa na caro capasi. Myezi 19 njikulu mwakuti yili ya mawonekero gha mpira; yinyake yili na mbwani pasi pa cikopa, ndipo umoza, Titan, uli na mpweya unandi.]] Mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro ya cinkhondi pa ukulu (pa ukulu na pa kuzitika) mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ungagaŵika nga ni mwezi wa kuzitika kwa cibwe, ntheura ni cibwe ca setilayiti kuyana na ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi.<ref name="Metzger2021">{{Citation |last1=Metzger |first1=Philip |author-link1=Philip T. Metzger |last2=Grundy |first2=Will |last3=Sykes |first3=Mark |last4=Stern |first4=Alan |last5=Bell |first5=James |last6=Detelich |first6=Charlene |last7=Runyon |first7=Kirby |last8=Summers |first8=Michael |date=2021 |title=Moons are planets: Scientific usefulness versus cultural teleology in the taxonomy of planetary science |journal=Icarus |volume=374 |article-number=114768 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114768 |arxiv=2110.15285 |bibcode=2022Icar..37414768M }}</ref> Ngucoko kuluska Mekyuri kweni ngukulu comene kuluska cibwe cicoko cikulu comene ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, Pulutu. Mwezi ni setilayiti yaciŵiri pa kukhwima mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, pamanyuma pa Io.<ref name="Schubert2004">{{cite book |last=Schubert |first=J. |editor=F. Bagenal |display-editors=etal |title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites, and Magnetosphere |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 |pages=281–306 |chapter=Interior composition, structure, and dynamics of the Galilean satellites.}}</ref> Na kuzitika kwa cigaŵa cimoza pa 81 ca kwa caro capasi, na ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 3,500 (kujumpha cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi), mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro yikulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kuyaniska na cibwe cake.<ref name="worldbook">{{cite web |last=Spudis |first=P.D. |date=2004 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/moon_worldbook.html |title=Moon |publisher=World Book Online Reference Center, NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703162844/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/moon_worldbook.html |archive-date=July 3, 2013 |access-date=April 12, 2007}}</ref>{{efn|Palije kukolerana kukulu pakati pa ukulu wa vibwe na ukulu wa myezi yawo. Vibwe vikulu kanandi vili na myezi yinandi, yikulu na yicoko, kuluska vibwe vicoko.}}{{efn|name=Moon vs. Charon|Pa cigaŵa 27 pa 100 ca kuthwasa na 60 pa 100 ca kuzitika kwa caro capasi, mwezi uli na uzito wa magaŵa 1.23 pa 100 gha caro capasi. Mwezi wa Charon ngukulu kuluska Pluto uyo ukumuzunguliya, kweni caro capasi na mwezi vikupambana cifukwa Pluto ni cibwe cicoko, cibwe yayi, mwakupambana na caro capasi.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |title=Space Topics: Pluto and Charon |publisher=The Planetary Society |access-date=April 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218223842/http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |archive-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> Cisko ca mwezi cikuyana na usani wa Australia, Ulaya, panji United States.<ref name="Australia">{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840 |date=July 18, 2019 |access-date=November 15, 2020 |title=How big is the Moon? |first=Jonti |last=Horner |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Lund |doi=10.64628/AA.wedpwvfmm |doi-access=free |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107223707/http://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dyches 2021 d923">{{cite news |last=Dyches |first=Preston |title=Five Things to Know about the Moon |work=NASA Solar System Exploration |date=July 28, 2021 |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1946/five-things-to-know-about-the-moon/ |access-date=September 24, 2023 |archive-date=July 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718090707/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1946/five-things-to-know-about-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Malo ghose gha pacanya pa mwezi ni makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 38, ghakuyana na gha Amerika yose.<ref name="y857">{{cite magazine |last=Parks |first=Jake |title=Everything you need to know about the Moon |magazine=Astronomy |date=2023-09-07 |url=https://www.astronomy.com/observing/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-moon/ |access-date=2024-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260401032150/https://www.astronomy.com/web/20260401032150/https://www.astronomy.com/observing/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-moon/ |archive-date=2026-04-01}}</ref> === Mawonekero === Pakwamba mwezi ukaŵa na mawonekero ghakukhazikika na kukoka kwa ceneco, kweni kufuma apo wasintha.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Interpretation of lunar potential fields |first=Stanley Keith |last=Runcorn |date=March 31, 1977 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |doi=10.1098/rsta.1977.0094 |bibcode=1977RSPTA.285..507R |volume=285 |issue=1327 |pages=507–516 }}</ref> Ni mpira wakutalikilapo pacoko comene cifukwa ca kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka, ndipo mzere wake mutali wapendama makona 30 kufuma ku kulaŵiska caro capasi, cifukwa ca kupambana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka uko kukufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ian Garrick-Bethell |author2= Viranga Perera|author3= Francis Nimmo|author4= Maria T. Zuber |title=The tidal–rotational shape of the Moon and evidence for polar wander|journal=Nature|year=2014|volume=512 |issue=7513 |pages=181–184 |doi=10.1038/nature13639 |pmid=25079322 |bibcode=2014Natur.512..181G }}</ref> Mawonekero ghake ngatali kuluska ivyo nkhongono za kukoka za sono zingalongosora. "Cifufu ca kale" ici cikulongora kuti mwezi ukakhwima apo ukazunguliyanga pa hafu ya mtunda wake wa sono kufuma ku caro capasi, ndipo sono ngwakuzizima comene kuti mawonekero ghake ghawelere ku kukhazikika pa mtunda wake wa sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garrick-Bethell |first1=Ian |last2=Perera |first2=Viranga |last3=Nimmo |first3=Francis |last4=Zuber |first4=Maria T. |year=2014 |title=The tidal-rotational shape of the Moon and evidence for polar wander |journal=Nature |volume=512 |issue=7513 |pages=181–184 |doi=10.1038/nature13639 |pmid=25079322 |bibcode=2014Natur.512..181G }}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, kusintha kwa cikopa na nkhongono za kukoka kukupanga waka tumapiri tucoko twa kuphwanyika kwa cikopa.<ref name="c293">{{cite web |last=Choi |first=Charles Q. |title=Earth's Gravitational Pull Cracks Open the Moon |website=Space |date=October 12, 2015 |url=https://www.space.com/30795-earth-gravitational-pull-cracks-moon.html |access-date=October 9, 2025}}</ref> === Kazengero === [[File:Return of the moon diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kapangikiro ka mukati mwa mwezi: pakati pakukhwima (pa cisulo), pakati pa kuwaro pakusungunuka, cigaŵa capakati cakukhwima na cikopa. Cikopa ca mbali ya pafupi, iyo nyengo zose yikulaŵiska caro capasi, ncifupi, ndipo cili na malo ghakulu agho dongo lakusungunuka likazuzga, kupanga ''maria'' gha sono.]] Mwezi uli na vigaŵa vyakupambana pa usungunu: cikopa, cigaŵa capakati, na mtima. Uli na mtima wa mukati wakukhwima wa cisulo cinandi, wa ukulu wapakati panyake wa makilomita 240 pera, na mtima wa kuwaro wa vinthu vyakuthira, comene cisulo cakusungunuka, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 300. Kuzunguliya mtima kuli cigaŵa cakusungunuka pacoko ca ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 500.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=D. |last2=Anderson |first2=J. |website=NASA |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html |title=NASA Research Team Reveals Moon Has Earth-Like Core |date=January 6, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111112210/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Weber2011">{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Renee C. |last2=Lin |first2=Pei-Ying |last3=Garnero |first3=Edward J. |last4=Williams |first4=Quentin |last5=Lognonné |first5=Philippe |title=Seismic Detection of the Lunar Core |journal=Science |date=21 January 2011 |volume=331 |issue=6015 |pages=309–312 |doi=10.1126/science.1199375 |pmid=21212323 |bibcode=2011Sci...331..309W }}</ref> Kazengero aka kakughanaghanirika kuti kakapangika apo nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi wose yikakhwimanga pacoko pacoko pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa mwezi vyaka biliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ngeo417 |title=Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon |date=2009 |last1=Nemchin |first1=A. |last2=Timms |first2=N. |last3=Pidgeon |first3=R. |last4=Geisler |first4=T. |last5=Reddy |first5=S. |last6=Meyer |first6=C. |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=133–136 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2..133N |hdl=20.500.11937/44375 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Kukhwima kwa nyanja iyi ya mwala wakusungunuka kungaŵa kuti kukapanga cigaŵa capakati ca vinthu vyakuzitika apo vinthu nga ni ''olivine'' na ''pyroxene'' vikabiranga pasi; apo pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka vikakhwima, vinthu vyakupepuka vya ''plagioclase'' vikapangika na kuyandama kuŵa cikopa pacanya.<ref name="S06">{{cite journal |last1=Shearer |first1=Charles K. |last2=Hess |first2=Paul C. |last3=Wieczorek |first3=Mark A. |last4=Pritchard |first4=Matt E. |last5=Parmentier |first5=E. Mark |last6=Borg |first6=Lars E. |last7=Longhi |first7=John |last8=Elkins-Tanton |first8=Linda T. |last9=Neal |first9=Clive R. |last10=Antonenko |first10=Irene |last11=Canup |first11=Robin M. |last12=Halliday |first12=Alex N. |last13=Grove |first13=Tim L. |last14=Hager |first14=Bradford H. |last15=Lee |first15=D.-C. |last16=Wiechert |first16=Uwe |title=Thermal and magmatic evolution of the Moon |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=365–518 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.4 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60..365S}}</ref> Vinthu vyaumaliro kukhwima vingaŵa kuti pakwamba vikaŵa pakati pa cikopa na cigaŵa capakati, na unandi ukulu wa vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga kufunda.<ref name="W06">{{cite journal |last1=Wieczorek |first1=Mark A. |last2=Jolliff |first2=Bradley L. |last3=Khan |first3=Amir |last4=Pritchard |first4=Matthew E. |last5=Weiss |first5=Benjamin P. |last6=Williams |first6=James G. |last7=Hood |first7=Lon L. |last8=Righter |first8=Kevin |last9=Neal |first9=Clive R. |last10=Shearer |first10=Charles K. |last11=McCallum |first11=I. Stewart |last12=Tompkins |first12=Stephanie |last13=Hawke |first13=B. Ray |last14=Peterson |first14=Chris |last15=Gillis |first15=Jeffrey J. |last16=Bussey |first16=Ben |title=The constitution and structure of the lunar interior |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=221–364 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60..221W}}</ref> Kuyana na ghanoghano ili, mapu gha usungunu agho ghakapangika kufuma mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya ghakulongora kuti cikopa cikupangika comene na ''anorthosite''.<ref name="L06">{{cite journal |last1=Lucey |first1=Paul |last2=Korotev |first2=Randy L. |last3=Gillis |first3=Jeffrey J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Larry A. |last5=Lawrence |first5=David |last6=Campbell |first6=Bruce A. |last7=Elphic |first7=Rick |last8=Feldman |first8=Bill |last9=Hood |first9=Lon L.| last10 = Hunten| first10 = Donald |last11=Mendillo |first11=Michael |last12=Noble |first12=Sarah |last13=Papike |first13=James J. |last14=Reedy |first14=Robert C. |last15=Lawson |first15=Stefanie |last16=Prettyman |first16=Tom |last17=Gasnault |first17=Olivier |last18=Maurice |first18=Sylvestre |title=Understanding the lunar surface and space-Moon interactions |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=83–219 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.2 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60...83L}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya malibwe gha mwezi vya mwala wakusungunuka uwo ukafuma pacanya kufuma ku kusungunuka kwa cigaŵa capakati vikusimikizga kapangikiro ka cigaŵa capakati, ako kali na cisulo cinandi kuluska ca caro capasi.<ref name="W06" /> Cikopa cili na unandi wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 50.<ref name="W06" /> Kweni mtima wa mwezi ngucoko, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 350 panji pasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha ukulu wapakati wa mwezi.<ref name="W06" /> Kapangikiro kake kakumanyikwa makola yayi kweni panyake ni cisulo cakusazganika na sulfure na nickel pacoko. Kupenda kuzunguliya kwa mwezi uko kukusintha mu nyengo kukulongora kuti mtima ngwakusungunuka pacoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=J.G. |last2=Turyshev |first2=S.G. |last3=Boggs |first3=D.H. |last4=Ratcliff |first4=J.T. |title=Lunar laser ranging science: Gravitational physics and lunar interior and geodesy |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=2006 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=67–71 |bibcode=2006AdSpR..37...67W |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.013 |arxiv=gr-qc/0412049 }}</ref> Kukanikizga pa mtima wa mwezi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa GPa 5 (kanandi kakulu nga ni mphepo ya caro capasi kanandi 49,000).<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Case Against an Early Lunar Dynamo Powered by Core Convection |last1=Evans |first1=Alexander J. |last2=Tikoo |first2=Sonia M. |first3=Andrews-Hanna |last3=Jeffrey C. |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=January 2018 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=98–107 |doi=10.1002/2017GL075441 |bibcode=2018GeoRL..45...98E |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Nkhongono ya Kukoka === [[File:Youtubeastronautsonmoonot3.gif|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga John Young wakuduka pa mwezi, kulongora kuti nkhongono za kuguza za mwezi ni pafupifupi 1/6 ya za caro capasi. Utali wa kuduka ukucepeskeka na uzito wa Young pamoza na cakuvwara cake ca mlengalenga pa mwezi, pafupifupi {{cvt|27|kg|lbs}}, na mpweya wa mu cakuvwara ico cikukanizga kupinda.<ref name="Kluger 2018 z081">{{cite magazine |last=Kluger |first=Jeffrey |title=How Neil Armstrong's Moon Spacesuit Was Preserved for Centuries to Come |magazine=Time |date=October 12, 2018 |url=https://time.com/5422609/armstrong-spacesuit-smithsonian/ |access-date=November 29, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203061321/https://time.com/5422609/armstrong-spacesuit-smithsonian/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nast 2013 v237">{{cite magazine |title=How Do You Pick Up Something on the Moon? |magazine=Wired |date=December 9, 2013 |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/12/how-do-you-pick-up-something-on-the-moon/ |access-date=November 29, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203061321/https://www.wired.com/2013/12/how-do-you-pick-up-something-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Pakati, nkhongono ya kukoka pacanya pa mwezi ni 1.62 m/s², pafupifupi hafu ya ya pacanya pa Aresi na pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi.<ref name="NSSDC" /> Pa myezi ya vibwe, mwezi uli na nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya yaciŵiri pa ukulu, pamanyuma pa Io. Luŵiro lwa kuthaŵa nkhongono yake ni makilomita 2.38 pa liŵiri.<ref name="NSSDC"/> Nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njambura kuyana pose. Vyakulongosora vya nkhongono iyi vyapimika mwa kulondezga kusintha kwa vyakutumika vya wayilesi vyakufuma ku vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vimanyikwiro vikulu vya nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi ni ma''mascon'', malo gha nkhongono ya kukoka yikulu comene agho ghakukolerana na mazenje ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana, ndipo ghakufuma pacoko ku mwala wakusungunuka wakukhwima wa ''maria'' uwo ukazuzga mazenje agha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muller |first=P. |author2=Sjogren, W. |title=Mascons: lunar mass concentrations |journal=Science |volume=161 |pages=680–684 |date=1968 |doi=10.1126/science.161.3842.680 |pmid=17801458 |issue=3842 |bibcode=1968Sci...161..680M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Science |author=Richard A. Kerr |title=The Mystery of Our Moon's Gravitational Bumps Solved? |volume=340 |issue=6129 |pages=138–139 |date=April 12, 2013 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6129.138-a |pmid=23580504}}</ref> Malo agha ghakukhwaska comene nthowa za vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Pali mafumbo ghanyake: mwala wakusungunuka pera ungalongosora kupambana kose kwa nkhongono ya kukoka yayi, ndipo ma''mascon'' ghanyake ghakukolerana na mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Konopliv |first=A. |author2=Asmar, S. |author3=Carranza, E. |author4=Sjogren, W. |author5=Yuan, D. |title=Recent gravity models as a result of the Lunar Prospector mission |journal=Icarus |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |date=2001 |doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6573 |bibcode=2001Icar..150....1K }}</ref> Cigaŵa umo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi yikuluska ya caro capasi cili na ukulu wapakati wa makilomita 60,000 (ndiko kuti, pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca mtunda wa makilomita 378,000 pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi).<ref>{{cite web | author = Follows, Mike | date = 4 October 2017 | title = Ever Decreasing Circles | work = NewScientist.com | url = https://www.newscientist.com/lastword/mg23631461-200-ever-decreasing-circles/ | access-date = 23 July 2023 | quote = The moon's Hill sphere has a radius of 60,000 kilometres, about one-sixth of the distance between it and Earth.}}</ref> Malo agha ghakuchemeka mlengalenga wa pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="v692">{{cite web | last=StricklandMonday | first=John K. | title=The Space Review: The cislunar gateway with no gate | website=thespacereview.com | date=November 26, 2015 | url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207003135/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1 | archive-date=February 7, 2016 | access-date=August 3, 2025}}</ref> === Nkhongono ya Umagineti === Mwezi uli na nkhongono ya umagineti ya kuwaro ya pasi pa nanotesla 0.2, panji pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa 100,000 ca ya caro capasi.<ref name="Mighani2020">{{cite journal |last1=Mighani |first1=S. |last2=Wang |first2=H. |last3=Shuster |first3=D.L. |last4=Borlina |first4=C.S. |last5=Nichols |first5=C.I.O. |last6=Weiss |first6=B.P. |title=The end of the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=1 |year=2020 |article-number=eaax0883 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax0883 |pmid=31911941 |pmc=6938704 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..883M}}</ref> Mwezi ulije nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi wose; uli waka na umagineti mu cikopa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dyal |first1=Palmer |last2=Parkin |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Daily |first3=William D. |date=1974 |title=Magnetism and the interior of the Moon |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/RG012i004p00568 |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=568–591 |doi=10.1029/RG012i004p00568 |bibcode=1974RvGSP..12..568D |hdl=2060/19740018181 |issn=8755-1209|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richmond |first1=N. C. |last2=Hood |first2=L. L. |title=A preliminary global map of the vector lunar crustal magnetic field based on Lunar Prospector magnetometer data |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |volume=113 |issue=E2 |date=2008 |article-number=2007JE002933 |issn=0148-0227 |doi=10.1029/2007JE002933 |bibcode=2008JGRE..113.2010R |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2007JE002933|quote=Using the 329 optimal passes, global maps of the lunar crustal magnetic field are constructed at 30 and 40 km.}}</ref> Mbiri ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi njambura kuzomerezgeka na wose, ndipo pacali kusoŵa kuzomerezgana pa nkhongono na nyengo ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Claire I. O. |last2=Wade |first2=Jon |last3=Stephenson |first3=Simon N. |date=2026 |title=An intermittent dynamo linked to high-titanium volcanism on the Moon |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.1038/s41561-026-01929-y |bibcode=2026NatGe..19..425N |issn=1752-0894 |quote=The history of the lunar magnetic field is a longstanding controversy.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tarduno |first1=John A. |last2=Cottrell |first2=Rory D. |last3=Lawrence |first3=Kristin |last4=Bono |first4=Richard K. |last5=Huang |first5=Wentao |last6=Johnson |first6=Catherine L. |last7=Blackman |first7=Eric G. |last8=Smirnov |first8=Aleksey V. |last9=Nakajima |first9=Miki |last10=Neal |first10=Clive R. |last11=Zhou |first11=Tinghong |last12=Ibanez-Mejia |first12=Mauricio |last13=Oda |first13=Hirokuni |last14=Crummins |first14=Ben |date=2021-08-06 |title=Absence of a long-lived lunar paleomagnetosphere |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=32 |article-number=eabi7647 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi7647 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8336955 |pmid=34348904 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.7647T |quote=Together, these data indicate that the Moon did not have a long-lived core dynamo.}}</ref><ref name="Tikoo-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Tikoo |first1=Sonia M. |last2=Weiss |first2=Benjamin P. |last3=Shuster |first3=David L. |last4=Suavet |first4=Clément |last5=Wang |first5=Huapei |last6=Grove |first6=Timothy L. |date=2017-08-04 |title=A two-billion-year history for the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=8 |article-number=e1700207 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700207 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=5550224 |pmid=28808679 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0207T |quote=No single dynamo mechanism proposed thus far can explain the strong fields inferred for the period before 3.56 Ga while also allowing the dynamo to persist in such a weakened state beyond ~2.5 Ga. Therefore, our results suggest that the dynamo was powered by at least two distinct mechanisms operating during early and late lunar history.}}</ref> Kupima kunandi kwacitika pa vigaŵa vya mwezi ivyo vikawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo. Kupima uku kukulongora kuti nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi yikaŵa na nyengo ziŵiri zakupambana.<ref name="Mighani2020" /> Mu nyengo yakwamba (vyaka biliyoni 4.5 mpaka 3.56 ivyo vyajumpha), nkhongono ya umagineti yikafika pafupifupi ma''microtesla'' 100, pafupi na ya caro capasi ya sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Benjamin P. |last2=Tikoo |first2=Sonia M. |date=2014-12-05 |title=The lunar dynamo |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1246753 |journal=Science |volume=346 |issue=6214 |article-number=1246753 |doi=10.1126/science.1246753 |pmid=25477467 |bibcode=2014Sci...346.1198W |issn=0036-8075 |quote=It has now been established that a dynamo magnetic field likely existed on the Moon from at least 4.5 billion to 3.56 billion years ago, with an intensity similar to that at the surface of Earth today.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nyengo yaciŵiri yikaŵa yitali comene (vyaka biliyoni 3.58 mpaka 1 ivyo vyajumpha), kweni yambura nkhongono comene, yikufika ma''microtesla'' 5–7 pera.<ref name="Tikoo-2017" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mighani |first1=Saied |last2=Wang |first2=Huapei |last3=Shuster |first3=David L. |last4=Borlina |first4=Cauȇ S. |last5=Nichols |first5=Claire I. O. |last6=Weiss |first6=Benjamin P. |date=2020-01-03 |title=The end of the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=1 |article-number=eaax0883 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax0883 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=6938704 |pmid=31911941 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..883M |quote=However, paleomagnetic measurements of Apollo samples indicate that the Moon once generated a core dynamo with surface field intensities of several tens of microtesla (comparable to that of Earth today) during the period 4.25 to 3.56 billion years (Ga) ago (2–7). Following this high-field epoch, the field declined by at least an order of magnitude by 3.2 Ga ago (8) and persisted in a weakened state (~5 μT) until at least 2.5 Ga ago (9).}}</ref> Nchambura kuthekera kuti ndondomeko yimoza ya kwenda kwa kufunda panji kwa vinthu yikapanga mbiri iyi kwambura kukhwaskika na vinthu vya kuwaro.<ref name="Tikoo-2017" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=C. A. |last2=Stevenson |first2=D. J. |last3=Nimmo |first3=F. |date=2011 |title=A long-lived lunar dynamo driven by continuous mechanical stirring |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10564 |journal=Nature |volume=479 |issue=7372 |pages=212–214 |doi=10.1038/nature10564 |pmid=22071766 |bibcode=2011Natur.479..212D |issn=0028-0836 |quote=Models of conventional dynamos driven by thermal or compositional convection have had difficulty reproducing the existence and apparently long duration of the lunar dynamo.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu maghanoghano, umagineti unyake uwo wasyala ungafuma ku nkhongono za umagineti za kanyengo kacoko izo zikapangika pa kutimbana kukulu kwizira mu kukura kwa maŵingu gha ''plasma''. Maŵingu agha ghakupangika pa kutimbana kukulu mu nkhongono ya umagineti iyo yilipo. Ici cikukhozgeka na malo gha umagineti ukulu comene mu cikopa agho ghali pafupi na mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hood |first=L.L. |author2=Huang, Z. |title=Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=96 |issue=B6 |pages=9837–9846 |date=1991 |doi=10.1029/91JB00308 |bibcode=1991JGR....96.9837H}}</ref> === Mphepo === [[File:20120927 surveyor7-levitating-dust.jpg|thumb|Surveyor 7 yikuwona fuvu lakwenjama, cakucitika ico cikuchemeka ''lunar horizon glow'']] [[File:11214 2022 871 Fig6 HTML.webp|thumb|Kulaŵiska na kupima kwa mpweya wa sodiyamu wa mwezi, mcira wake, na "kadontho".]] Mwezi uli na mphepo iyo ni cigaŵa ca kuwaro comene pera, iyo njicoko comene mwakuti pafupifupi njambura kuŵapo, ndipo kuzitika kwake kose ndambura kufika matani 10.<ref name="l546">{{cite web | last=Barry | first=Caela | title=The Moon's Atmosphere | website=NASA Science | date=2025-01-30 | url=https://science.nasa.gov/moon/lunar-atmosphere/ | access-date=2025-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Richard D. Johnson & Charles Holbrow |last=Globus |first=Ruth |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |chapter=Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |chapter-url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |date=1977 |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531205037/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |archive-date=May 31, 2010}}</ref> Kukanikizga pacanya kwa mphepo iyi yicoko ni pafupifupi 3 × 10⁻¹⁵ ya mphepo ya caro capasi; kukusintha na zuŵa la mwezi. Yikufuma ku mphepo izo zikufuma mu mwezi na ku vinthu ivyo vikuphulika apo tuvinthu twa mphepo ya zuŵa tukutimbana na dongo la mwezi.<ref name="L06" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Crotts |first=Arlin P.S. |title=Lunar Outgassing, Transient Phenomena and The Return to The Moon, I: Existing Data |date=2008 |bibcode=2008ApJ...687..692C |volume=687 |issue=1 |pages=692–705 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |doi=10.1086/591634 |arxiv=0706.3949 }}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vyasangika ni sodiyamu na potasiyamu, ivyo vikupangika na kutimbana uku (vikusangika so mu mphepo za Mekyuri na Io); hiliyamu-4 na neon kufuma ku mphepo ya zuŵa; na argon-40, radon-222, na polonium-210, ivyo vikufuma mu mwezi pamanyuma pa kupangika na kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu mu cikopa na cigaŵa capakati.<ref name="NASA-20150817">{{cite web |last=Steigerwald |first=William |title=NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon |date=August 17, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 18, 2015 |archive-date=August 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819035151/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Stern1999">{{cite journal |last=Stern |first=S.A. |title=The Lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=37 |date=1999 |issue=4 |pages=453–491 |doi=10.1029/1999RG900005 |bibcode=1999RvGeo..37..453S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=S. |last2=Feldman |first2=W. |last3=Lawrence |first3=D. |last4=Moore |first4=K. |last5=Elphic |first5=R. |last6=Belian |first6=R. |title=Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=110 |issue=E9 |page=1029 |date=2005 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.9009L |doi=10.1029/2005JE002433 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kusoŵa kwa vigaŵa nga ni okisijeni, naitirojeni, kaboni, haidrojeni na magnesiyamu, ivyo vilipo mu fuvu, kukumanyikwa yayi.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Nthunthu ya maji yikasangika na Chandrayaan-1 ndipo yikusintha kuyana na malo kufuma ku mzere wapakati, ndipo yili yinandi comene pa makona pafupifupi 60–70; panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu fuvu ico cikuzgoka mphepo.<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |author1=R. Sridharan |author2=S.M. Ahmed |author3=Tirtha Pratim Dasa |author4=P. Sreelathaa |author5=P. Pradeepkumara |author6=Neha Naika |author7=Gogulapati Supriya |date=2010 |pages=947–950 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> Mphepo izi zikuwelera mu fuvu cifukwa ca nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi panji zikutayika mu mlengalenga, kwali kwizira mu kukanikizga kwa ungweru wa zuŵa panji, usange zili na magesi, mwa kupyelekeka na nkhongono ya umagineti ya mphepo ya zuŵa.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Bingu la fuvu la nyengo zose lilipo kuzunguliya mwezi, ilo likupangika na tuvinthu tucoko twakufuma ku nyenyezi za mcira. Matani 5 gha tuvinthu twa nyenyezi za mcira ghakughanaghanirika kutimbana na mwezi maora 24 ghaliwose, ndipo ici cikuphulika tuvinthu twa fuvu.<ref name=geo/> Fuvu likukhala pacanya pa mwezi pafupifupi maminiti 10: maminiti 5 kukwera na maminiti 5 kuwa.<ref name=geo/> Pakati, makilogalamu 120 gha fuvu ghali pacanya pa mwezi, ghakukwera mpaka makilomita 100 pacanya.<ref name=geo>{{cite web |title=Lopsided Cloud of Dust Discovered Around the Moon |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space |website=National Geographic News |access-date=June 20, 2015 |first1=Nadia |last1=Drake |author1-link=Nadia Drake |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619052915/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space/ |archive-date=June 19, 2015 |date=June 17, 2015}}</ref> Kupenda kwa fuvu kwa LADEE kukasanga kuti unandi wa tuvinthu ukaŵa ukulu comene pa kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga gha Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, na Omicron Centaurid, apo caro capasi na mwezi vikujumpha mu vyakusyala vya nyenyezi za mcira. Bingu la fuvu la mwezi ni lambura kuyana, ndipo ni lakukhwima comene pafupi na mphaka pakati pa mbali ya msana na mbali ya usiku ya mwezi.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A permanent, asymmetric dust cloud around the Moon |journal=Nature |date=June 18, 2015 |pages=324–326 |volume=522 |issue=7556 |doi=10.1038/nature14479 |first1=M. |last1=Horányi |first2=J.R. |last2=Szalay |first3=S. |last3=Kempf |first4=J. |last4=Schmidt |first5=E. |last5=Grün |first6=R. |last6=Srama |first7=Z. |last7=Sternovsky |bibcode=2015Natur.522..324H |pmid=26085272 }}</ref> Kusanda kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi ivyo vikatoleka mu maulendo gha Apollo kukulongora kuti mwezi kale ukaŵa na mphepo yikulu pacoko kwa nyengo ya vyaka miliyoni 70 pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3 na 4 ivyo vyajumpha. Mphepo iyi, iyo yikafuma ku mphepo izo zikafumanga mu mapiri gha moto gha mwezi, yikaŵa kaŵiri kuluska ya Aresi ya sono. Mphepo ya kale ya mwezi yikawuskika pakumalira na mphepo ya zuŵa na kuthandazgika mu mlengalenga.<ref name="John 2017"/> === Vyakucitika vya Pacanya === [[File:Duke on the Craters Edge - GPN-2000-001132.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga Charles Duke wakugwira ntchito pa mwezi, cakuvwara cake caphimbika na fuvu la mwezi. Fuvu la mwezi ndakukwenyeska comene ndipo lingapweteka maphapo gha munthu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=James |first1=John |last2=Kahn-Mayberry |first2=Noreen |date=Jan 2009 |title=Risk of Adverse Health Effects from Lunar Dust Exposure |url=https://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/evidence/reports/lunar%20dust.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2022 |archive-date=December 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204004317/https://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/evidence/reports/lunar%20dust.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Nkhongono zakunanga kufuma ku nkhongono za kuthambo, tuvinthu twa nyutironi utu zikupanga, na zuŵa vikupangiska unandi wapakati wa nkhongono izi wa ma''millisievert'' 1.369 pa zuŵa pa msana wa mwezi, ico ni kaŵiri na hafu kuluska pa Malo gha Mlengalenga gha Pakati pa Vyaro, kankhondi mpaka kakhumi kuluska pa ulendo wa ndege kujumpha Mbwani ya Atlantic, na kamahandiredi ghaŵiri kuluska pacanya pa caro capasi.<ref name="Science Mission Directorate 2005">{{cite web |date=September 8, 2005 |title=Radioactive Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/08sep_radioactivemoon#:~:text=Not%20so.,lunar%20surface%20itself%20is%20radioactive! |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102123953/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/08sep_radioactivemoon/#:~:text=Not%20so.,lunar%20surface%20itself%20is%20radioactive! |archive-date=November 2, 2019 |access-date=July 28, 2022 |website=Science Mission Directorate }}</ref><ref name="surface-radiation">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Zhang S, Wimmer-Schweingruber RF, Yu J, Wang C, Fu Q, Zou Y, Sun Y, Wang C, Hou D, Böttcher SI, Burmeister S |display-authors=6 |title=First measurements of the radiation dose on the lunar surface |journal=Science Advances |year=2020 |volume=6 |issue=39 |article-number=eaaz1334 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz1334 |pmc=7518862 |pmid=32978156 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.1334Z |quote=We measured an average total absorbed dose rate in silicon of 13.2 ± 1 μGy/hour ... LND measured an average dose equivalent of 1369 μSv/day on the surface of the Moon}}</ref><ref name="ScienceAlert 2020">{{cite web |date=September 26, 2020 |title=We Finally Know How Much Radiation There Is on The Moon, And It's Not Great News |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-predict-how-long-humans-can-survive-radiation-on-the-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728004319/https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-predict-how-long-humans-can-survive-radiation-on-the-moon |archive-date=July 28, 2022 |access-date=July 28, 2022 |website=ScienceAlert}}</ref><ref name="Paris Davies Tognetti Zahniser 2020">{{cite arXiv |last1=Paris |first1=Antonio |last2=Davies |first2=Evan |last3=Tognetti |first3=Laurence |last4=Zahniser |first4=Carly |title=Prospective Lava Tubes at Hellas Planitia |date=April 27, 2020 |class=astro-ph.EP |eprint=2004.13156v1}}</ref><ref name="Wall 2013">{{cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=December 9, 2013 |title=Radiation on Mars 'Manageable' for Manned Mission, Curiosity Rover Reveals |url=https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |access-date=August 7, 2022 |website=Space.com |archive-date=December 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215082045/https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuyaniska, unandi wapakati ni ma''millisievert'' 1.84 pa zuŵa pa ulendo wa ku Aresi na pafupifupi 0.64 pa zuŵa pa Aresi yeneyiyo.<ref name="e657">{{cite web |title=The toxic side of the Moon |website=ESA |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/The_toxic_side_of_the_Moon |access-date=2025-01-07}}</ref> Ungweru wa zuŵa ukupeleka so magesi ku fuvu la mwezi lakuphalaza comene ndipo ukulipangiska kuyandama. Ici cikovwira kuthandazgika luŵiro kwa fuvu la mwezi lakukakatira, ilo likunanga maphapo na vilwero. Pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵa na kufunda kwakupambana kufuma 120 °C mpaka −171 °C kuyana na ungweru wa zuŵa. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa mphepo, kufunda kwa malo ghakupambana kukusintha comene kuyana na usange ghali mu ungweru wa zuŵa panji mu mzgezge, ntheura mawonekero gha malo ghakugwira ntchito yikulu pa kufunda kwa malo. Vigaŵa vya mazenje ghanandi, comene pasi pa mazenje ghanandi gha ku mphaka za mwezi, vili mu mzgezge nyengo zose. Mazenje agha gha mdima wa muyirayira ghali na kuzizima kukulu comene.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rocheleau |first=Jake |date=May 21, 2012 |title=Temperature on the Moon – Surface Temperature of the Moon |url=http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527194737/http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |archive-date=May 27, 2015 |website=PlanetFacts.org}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{cite news |title='Coldest place' found on the Moon |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8416749.stm |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |access-date=March 20, 2010 |date=December 16, 2009 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811182717/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8416749.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="M03">{{cite journal |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/June03/lunarShadows.html |title=The Moon's Dark, Icy Poles |page=73 |last=Martel |first=L.M.V. |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |date=June 4, 2003 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301090706/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/June03/lunarShadows.html |archive-date=March 1, 2012 |bibcode=2003psrd.reptE..73M}}</ref> Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter yikapima kufunda kwapasi comene kwa nyengo ya kufunda mu mazenje gha ku mphaka ya kumwera pa −238 °C na −247 °C pera pafupi na nyengo ya kuzizima mu zenje la Hermite ku mphaka ya kumpoto.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 17, 2009 |title=Diviner News |url=http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307031354/http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |archive-date=March 7, 2010 |access-date=March 17, 2010 |publisher=UCLA}}</ref> Uku ndiko kuzizima kukulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa uko combo ca mlengalenga cikapimapo, kuzizima kuluska nanga ni pacanya pa Pulutu.<ref name="bbc" /> Pacanya pa cikopa ca mwezi pali cigaŵa ca pacanya ca fuvu lakuphwanyika comene na kutimbana, comene lakuzirima, ilo likupangika na kutimbana. Fuvu lakupepuka comene, dongo la mwezi la galasi la silicon dioxide, likuyana na cizizimu pa kukhwaska ndipo lili na fungo nga ni la mfuti iyo yaphulika.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 2006 |title=The Smell of Moondust |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308112332/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |archive-date=March 8, 2010 |access-date=March 15, 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Fuvu la malo gha kale kanandi ndakukhwima kuluska la malo ghaphya: likupambana mu unandi kufuma mamita 10–15 mu malo ghapacanya na mamita 4–5 mu ''maria''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heiken |first=G. |url=https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/286 |title=Lunar Sourcebook, a user's guide to the Moon |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33444-0 |editor1-last=Vaniman |editor1-first=D. |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/286 286] |access-date=December 17, 2019 |editor2-last=French |editor2-first=B. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617181609/https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/736 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pasi pa fuvu ili pali cigaŵa ca malibwe ghakuphwanyika comene ca makilomita ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=K.L. |author2=Warren, P.H. |date=1985 |title=Megaregolith thickness, heat flow, and the bulk composition of the Moon |journal=Nature |volume=313 |issue=5998 |pages=121–124 |bibcode=1985Natur.313..121R |doi=10.1038/313121a0 }}</ref> Vyakucitika vikulu ivi vikughanaghanirika kupangiska kuti mabakiteriya ghaleke kupona pa vyombo vya mlengalenga pa mwezi kujumpha nyengo ya kuzunguliya kamoza kwa mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schuerger |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Moores |first2=John E. |last3=Smith |first3=David J. |last4=Reitz |first4=Günther |date=June 2019 |title=A Lunar Microbial Survival Model for Predicting the Forward Contamination of the Moon |journal=Astrobiology |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=730–756 |bibcode=2019AsBio..19..730S |doi=10.1089/ast.2018.1952 |pmid=30810338|url=https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/01/16/28/00001/Schuerger_2019_Astrobiology_new%20LMS.pdf}}</ref> === Vimanyikwiro vya Pacanya === {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Near side of the moon 4k.png | caption1 = {{center|Mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi}} | image2 = Far side of the moon 4k.png | caption2 = {{center|Mbali yakutali ya mwezi}} }} {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Moon 4k west side.png | caption1 = {{center|Mbali ya kumafumiro}} | image2 = Moon 4k east side.png | caption2 = {{center|Mbali ya kumanjiliro}} }} [[File:Moon crustal thickness map NASA-JPL.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Mapu gha mwezi agho ghakulongora unandi wa cikopa, na vigaŵa vikulu vyakulembeka.{{pb}}Cigaŵa ca dongo ca KREEP, ico cigaŵa cake cikulu cikulongoreka ku mbali ya pafupi (ku mazere), Mare Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT).{{pb}}South Pole–Aitken Terrane (SPAT) yili ku mbali yakutali (ku maryero, cizingo cikulu comene).{{pb}}Mazenje 24 agho cikopa cake cacepa kujumpha {{cvt|200|km|mi}} ghakulongoreka (vizingo vyakufipa).{{pb}}Vinyake vyose ni malo ghapacanya gha cikopa cinandi (FHT; vyakuswesi na vituŵa).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinot |first1=M. |last2=Flahaut |first2=J. |last3=Besse |first3=S. |last4=Quantin-Nataf |first4=C. |last5=van Westrenen |first5=W. |title=Mineralogical survey of the anorthositic Feldspathic Highlands Terrane crust using Moon Mineralogy Mapper data |journal=Icarus |date=July 2020 |volume=345 |article-number=113747 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2020.113747 |bibcode=2020Icar..34513747M|hdl=1871.1/f01638a7-6efb-4ffb-8182-026f9bab8573 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>]] Mawonekero gha malo gha mwezi ghapimika na laser na kupenda vithuzi.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Topography of the South Polar Region from Clementine Stereo Imaging |last1=Spudis |first1=Paul D. |author1-link=Paul Spudis |last2=Cook |first2=A. |last3=Robinson |first3=M. |last4=Bussey |first4=B. |last5=Fessler |first5=B. |bibcode=1998nvmi.conf...69S |journal=Workshop on New Views of the Moon: Integrated Remotely Sensed, Geophysical, and Sample Datasets |page=69 |date=January 1998}}</ref> Cimanyikwiro cikulu comene ni dimba likulu la South Pole–Aitken ku mbali ya kutali, la ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 2,240, zenje likulu comene pa mwezi na laciŵiri pa ukulu mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref name="Spudis1994">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.266.5192.1848 |last1=Spudis |first1=Paul D. |last2=Reisse |first2=Robert A. |last3=Gillis |first3=Jeffrey J. |date=1994 |title=Ancient Multiring Basins on the Moon Revealed by Clementine Laser Altimetry |journal=Science |volume=266 |issue=5192 |pages=1848–1851 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1848S |pmid=17737079}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/97GL01718 |first1=C.M. |last1=Pieters |first2=S. |last2=Tompkins |first3=J.W. |last3=Head |first4=P.C. |last4=Hess |title=Mineralogy of the Mafic Anomaly in the South Pole-Aitken Basin: Implications for excavation of the lunar mantle |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages=1903–1906 |date=1997 |bibcode=1997GeoRL..24.1903P |hdl=2060/19980018038 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Na kuzika kwa makilomita 13, pasi pake ndipo pali malo ghapasi comene pacanya pa mwezi, ghakufika −9.178 km mu zenje lifupi mukati mwa zenje la Antoniadi.<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |title=The Biggest Hole in the Solar System |page=20 |last=Taylor |first=G. J. |date=July 17, 1998 |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820042129/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |archive-date=August 20, 2007 |bibcode=1998psrd.reptE..20T}}</ref><ref name="n402">{{cite journal | last1=Li | first1=ChunLai | last2=Ren | first2=Xin | last3=Liu | first3=JianJun | last4=Zou | first4=XiaoDuan | last5=Mu | first5=LingLi | last6=Wang | first6=JianYu | last7=Shu | first7=Rong | last8=Zou | first8=YongLiao | last9=Zhang | first9=HongBo | last10=Lü | first10=Chang | last11=Liu | first11=JianZhong | last12=Zuo | first12=Wei | last13=Su | first13=Yan | last14=Wen | first14=WeiBin | last15=Bian | first15=Wei | last16=Wang | first16=Min | last17=Xu | first17=Chun | last18=Kong | first18=DeQing | last19=Wang | first19=XiaoQian | last20=Wang | first20=Fang | last21=Geng | first21=Liang | last22=Zhang | first22=ZhouBin | last23=Zheng | first23=Lei | last24=Zhu | first24=XinYing | last25=Li | first25=JunDuo | last26=Ouyang | first26=ZiYuan | title=Laser altimetry data of Chang'E-1 and the global lunar DEM model | journal=Science China Earth Sciences | volume=53 | issue=11 | date=2010 | issn=1674-7313 | doi=10.1007/s11430-010-4020-1 | pages=1582–1593| bibcode=2010ScChD..53.1582L }}</ref> Malo ghapacanya comene pa mwezi, kusazgapo ghakuchemeka Selenean summit pa makilomita 10.629, ghali ku kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa dimba ili, ndipo ghangaŵa kuti ghakakhwimiska na kutimbana kwa mphepete uko kukapanga dimba la South Pole–Aitken.<ref name="n402"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schultz |first=P.H. |date=March 1997 |page=1259 |volume=28 |title=Forming the south-pole Aitken basin – The extreme games |journal=Conference Paper, 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |bibcode=1997LPI....28.1259S}}</ref> Madimba ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana nga ni Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, na Orientale ghali na malo ghapasi na mphepete zapacanya.<ref name="Spudis1994" /> Mbali ya kutali ya mwezi njapacanya na makilomita pafupifupi 1.9 kuluska mbali ya pafupi.<ref name="W06" /> Kusangika kwa tumapiri twa kuphwanyika kukulongora kuti mwezi wacepa na mamita pafupifupi 90 mu vyaka biliyoni yimoza vyaumaliro.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=NASA |title=NASA's LRO Reveals 'Incredible Shrinking Moon' |date=August 19, 2010 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124252/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html |archive-date=August 21, 2010}}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vyakuyana vilipo pa Mekyuri. Mare Frigoris, dimba pafupi na mphaka ya kumpoto ilo likaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa lakufwa, laphwanyika na kusamika. Cifukwa mwezi ulije vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vyakwenda, kusintha kwa pasi kukucitika pacoko pacoko, ndipo kuphwanyika kukupangika apo ukutaya kufunda.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watters |first1=Thomas R. |last2=Weber |first2=Renee C. |last3=Collins |first3=Geoffrey C. |last4=Howley |first4=Ian J. |last5=Schmerr |first5=Nicholas C. |last6=Johnson |first6=Catherine L. |date=June 2019 |title=Shallow seismic activity and young thrust faults on the Moon |journal=Nature Geoscience |publication-date=May 13, 2019 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=411–417 |doi=10.1038/s41561-019-0362-2 |bibcode=2019NatGe..12..411W }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵasimikizga kuŵapo kwa phanga pa mwezi pafupi na Nyanja ya Mtendere, pafupi na malo agho Apollo 11 yikakhala mu 1969.<ref name=base/> Phanga ili, ilo lamanyikwa kuŵa mlomo wa thumbu la mwala wakusungunuka ilo lakhoŵa, ndisani mamita pafupifupi 45 na litali mpaka mamita 80.<ref name=base/> Kusanga uku ndiko kusimikizga kwakwamba kwa mlomo wa phanga la mwezi. Kupenda kukathemba vithuzi ivyo vikatoreka mu 2010 na Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ya NASA.<ref name=base/> Kufunda kwakukhazikika kwa phanga kwa pafupifupi 17 °C kungapeleka malo ghawemi ku ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga munthazi, ndipo kungaŵavikilira ku kufunda kukulu, ungweru wa zuŵa, na tumalibwe tucoko twa mlengalenga.<ref name=base/> Kweni pali masuzgo nga ni kunjira na ngozi ya kuwa kwa malibwe. Kusanga uku kukupeleka mwaŵi wa malo gha kukhala pa mwezi munthazi panji malo gha kubisamako pa ngozi.<ref name=base>{{cite web |date=July 18, 2024 |title=Cave on the Moon: What this discovery means for space exploration |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/cave-on-the-moon-explained-9459805/ |access-date=July 19, 2024 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref> ==== Vimanyikwiro vya Mapiri gha Moto ==== [[File:Moon names.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Mapu gha mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, na ''maria'' ghakufipa gha mwezi, ivyo ni vimanyikwiro vikulu vya mapiri gha moto pa mwezi, vyakulembeka na camlengalenga (mazina gha mtundu wa dongo ni mazenje ghakulu)]] Vimanyikwiro vikulu ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi na maso ni malo ghakufipa na ghambura vimanyikwiro vinandi gha mwezi agho ghakuchemeka ''maria'' (cimoza ''mare''; kufuma ku Cilatini "nyanja", cifukwa kale ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ghakazura maji), agho ni madimba ghakulu gha mwala wakusungunuka wa kale uwo wakhwima.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wlasuk |first=Peter |title=Observing the Moon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWtLIOlPwS4C |date=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-85233-193-1 |page=19}}</ref> Nangauli ukuyana na wa pa caro capasi, mwala uwu wa mwezi uli na cisulo cinandi ndipo ulije vinthu ivyo vyasinthika na maji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |title=The Oldest Moon Rocks |last=Norman |first=M. |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=Hawai{{okina}}i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology |date=April 21, 2004 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418152325/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |archive-date=April 18, 2007}}</ref> Mwala unandi uwu ukafuma panji ukathiririka mu malo ghapasi agho ghakukolerana na mazenje gha kutimbana, nangauli malo ghakulu comene gha mwala uwu pa mwezi, Oceanus Procellarum, ghakukolerana na zenje lakuwoneka la kutimbana yayi. Nyengo zakupambana za kuthiririka kwa mwala mu ''maria'' kanandi zingamanyikwa na kupambana kwa kuŵala kwa pacanya na mphepete zakuwoneka za kuthiririka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=R. C. |last2=Blewett |first2=D. T. |last3=Taylor |first3=G. J. |last4=Lucey |first4=P. G. |year=1996 |title=FeO and TiO2 Variations in Mare Imbrium |journal=Lunar and Planetary Science |volume=27 |page=383 |bibcode=1996LPI....27..383F }}</ref> Apo ''maria'' ghakapangikanga, kuzizima na kucepa kwa mwala wakusungunuka kukapanga tumapiri twakukwinyika mu malo ghanyake. [[File:Lava flows in Mare Imbrium (AS15-M-1558).png|thumb|Dongo lakusungunuka la kale ilo lakukhwima mu Mare Imbrium, lakupanga tunyanga twakukwinyika.]] Tumilonga twakuzunguliyazunguliya, utu tukusangika mu na kuzunguliya ''maria'', panyake ni minjololo ya mwala wakusungunuka iyo yikafwa panji mathumbu gha mwala wakusungunuka agho ghakhoŵa.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Icarus|volume=391|date=February 2023 |title=Analysis of lunar wrinkle ridges regarding the maximum displacement–length scaling relationship and relevant geological factors|author1= Chenfan Li|author2= Bo Li|author3= Xiaohui Fu|author4= Le Qiao|author5= Zongcheng Ling|author6= Jianguo Yan|author7= Shaojie Qu|author8= Shengbo Chen|article-number=115361 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115361 |bibcode=2023Icar..39115361L }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Search for Intact Lava Tubes on the Moon: Possible Lunar Base Habitats|author=Cassandra R. Coombs and B. Ray Hawke|publisher=NASA|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19930008249/downloads/19930008249.pdf|date=1992|access-date=2026-08-09}}</ref> [[File:Marius Hills Pit - Lava Tube Skylight? (LROC202 - KaguyaTerrainCamera 039).png|Dolozi pa Marius Hillsb| Mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' ghasintha mazenje gha kutimbana mu nthowa zinandi, kusazgapo kughazuzga pa unandi wakupambana, na kukwezga na kuphwanya pasi pake kufuma ku kukwera kwa vinthu vya ''maria'' pasi pake. Pafupifupi ''maria'' ghose ghali ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, ndipo ghakuphimba magaŵa 31 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mbali ya pafupi kuyaniska na magaŵa 2 pa 100 gha mbali ya kutali.<ref name="worldbook" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gillis |first1=J. J. |last2=Spudis |first2=P. D. |title=The Composition and Geologic Setting of Lunar Far Side Maria |journal=Lunar and Planetary Science |date=1996 |volume=27 |page=413 |bibcode=1996LPI....27..413G}}</ref> Panyake ici nchifukwa ca kuwunjikana kwa vigaŵa vyakupanga kufunda pasi pa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi, ivyo vingaŵa kuti vikapangiska cigaŵa capakati ca pasi pake kufunda, kusungunuka pacoko, kukwera pacanya na kuphulika.<ref name="S06" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer |last1=Lawrence |first1=D.J. |last2=Feldman |first2=W.C. |last3=Barraclough |first3=B.L. |last4=Binder |first4=A.B. |last5=Elphic |first5=R.C. |last6=Maurice |first6=S. |last7=Thomsen |first7=D.R. |journal=Science |volume=281 |issue=5382 |pages=1484–1489 |date=August 11, 1998 |pmid=9727970 |bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L |doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |title=A New Moon for the Twenty-First Century |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |url-status=live |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |date=August 31, 2000 |page=41 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |bibcode=2000psrd.reptE..41T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301074958/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |archive-date=March 1, 2012}}</ref> Ukaboni wa mapiri gha moto gha sonosono pa mwezi wasangika pa malo 70 ghambura kunozgeka gha ''maria'', ghanyake gha vyaka pasi pa miliyoni 50.<ref>{{cite web |author=Major |first=Jason |date=October 14, 2014 |title=Volcanoes Erupted 'Recently' on the Moon |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016190653/http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |archive-date=October 16, 2014 |publisher=Discovery News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |title=NASA Mission Finds Widespread Evidence of Young Lunar Volcanism |publisher=NASA |date=October 12, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103095208/http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |archive-date=January 3, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |title=Recent volcanic eruptions on the moon |journal=Science |date=October 12, 2014 |author=Eric Hand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014092239/http://news.sciencemag.org/space/2014/10/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |archive-date=October 14, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Evidence for basaltic volcanism on the Moon within the past 100 million years |journal=Nature Geoscience |last1=Braden |first1=S.E. |last2=Stopar |first2=J. D. |last3=Robinson |first3=M.S. |last4=Lawrence |first4=S. J. |last5=van der Bogert |first5=C. H. |last6=Hiesinger |first6=H. |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=787–791 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7..787B |doi=10.1038/ngeo2252 |year=2014}}</ref> Vigaŵa vyakuŵala vya mwezi vikuchemeka ''terrae'', panji kanandi malo ghapacanya, cifukwa ngapacanya kuluska ''maria'' ghanandi. Vyaka vyake vyapimika kuŵa biliyoni 4.4, ndipo vingaŵa vinthu vya ''plagioclase'' ivyo vikawunjikana mu nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi.<ref name="Hiesinger" /><ref name="Papike" /> Kupambana na caro capasi, palije mapiri ghakulu gha mwezi agho ghakughanaghanirika kupangika cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Munsell |first=K. |publisher=NASA |work=Solar System Exploration |title=Majestic Mountains |url=http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |date=December 4, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917055643/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |archive-date=September 17, 2008}}</ref> ==== Mazenje gha Kutimbana ==== [[File:Gibbous Moon Highlighting the Tycho and Copernicus Craters.jpg|thumb|Pacanya pa mwezi pali mazenje ghanandi, comene uko ''maria'' ghakaleka kupangika; ici cikuwoneka para wakulaŵiska pafupi, na mphepete za mazenje zakuŵala pa mzere wa usiku na muhanya, kweniso mazenje ghaŵiri ghakuwoneka comene ku mbali ya pafupi, Tycho (ku mazere) na Copernicus (pacanya), ghakuŵa na mizere mitali yakuŵala.]] [[File:Daedalus crater AS11-41-6151.jpg|alt=Cizingo ca caphuvyu cakuŵa na viliŵa vitali na kaphiri kacoko pakati; pacanya pose mpaka ku mphepete pali vizingo vinyake vicoko vyakuyana.|thumb|Zenje likulu, Daedalus, lakuzika makilomita 3, ku mbali yakutali ya mwezi]] [[File:Apollo 17 Harrison H. Schmitt and Tracy's Rock - AS17-140-21493+AS17-140-21497 2025.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa Apollo 17 Harrison H. Schmitt pafupi na libwe likulu la pa mwezi ilo likuchemeka "Tracy's Rock"]] Ndondomeko yikulu ya pasi iyo yakhwaska pacanya pa mwezi ni kupangika kwa mazenje gha kutimbana, agho ghakupangika apo vibwe vicoko vya malibwe na nyenyezi za mcira vikutimbana na pacanya pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melosh |first=H. J. |title=Impact cratering: A geologic process |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-504284-9}}</ref> Kukughanaghanirika kuti pali mazenje pafupifupi 300,000 ghakusani kujumpha kilomita 1 ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Facts |url=http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412 |work=SMART-1 |publisher=European Space Agency |date=2010 |access-date=May 12, 2010 |archive-date=March 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317004513/http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412 }}</ref> Mazenje gha mwezi ghali na mawonekero ghakupambana, kuyana na ukulu wawo. Kufuma ku ghacoko kuya ku ghakulu, mitundu yikulu ni mazenje ghapepuka gha mawonekero gha mbale na mphepete zakukwera, mazenje ghakusuzga gha pasi pakugonera, vikuta vya masitepu na mapiri gha pakati, madimba gha mphete ya mapiri, na madimba gha mphete ziŵiri panji kujumpha.<ref>[https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/education/hsResearch/moon_101/ImpactCratering.pdf Impact Cratering Notes (LPI)]</ref> Mazenje ghanandi comene gha kutimbana ngakuzunguliya, kweni ghanyake, nga ni Cantor na Janssen, ghali na mawonekero gha mbali zinandi, panyake cifukwa ca kuphwanyika kwa pasi pake.<ref>{{cite web|title=Looking Around the Corner|author=Richard Hill|work=Vatican Observatory|url=https://www.vaticanobservatory.org/sacred-space-astronomy/looking-around-the-corner/ |accessdate=2026-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Farside northern highlands|publisher=Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|url=https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/290|accessdate=2026-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Icarus|volume=205|issue=2|date=February 2010| pages=356–363|title=The structural control of venusian polygonal impact craters|author1=M. Aittola|author2= T. Öhman|author3= J.J. Leitner|author4= V.-P. Kostama|author5= J. Raitala |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.08.004 |bibcode=2010Icar..205..356A }}</ref> Ghanyake, nga ni Messier ziŵiri, Schiller, na Daniell, ngatali. Utali uwu ungafuma ku kutimbana kwa mphepete comene, kutimbana kwa vibwe vicoko viŵiri, kuphwanyika kwa cinthu pambere cindatimbane, panji kutimbana kwaciŵiri kwa pafupi pafupi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrick |first1=R.R. |last2=Forsberg-Taylor |first2=N. K. |year=2003 |title=The shape and appearance of craters formed by oblique impact on the Moon and Venus |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=1551–1578 |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2003.tb00001.x |bibcode=2003M&PS...38.1551H }}</ref> ==== Vizungulizgo vya Mwezi ==== [[File:Reiner-gamma-clem1.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca kuzungulira kwa mitundu pa mwezi, Reiner Gamma, ca utali wa makilomita 70]] Vizungulizgo vya mwezi ni vimanyikwiro vya fumbo ivyo vikusangika pacanya pose pa mwezi. Vikuwezga ungweru comene, vikuwoneka nga ni viphya (ndiko kuti vili na vimanyikwiro vya fuvu liphya), ndipo kanandi vili na mawonekero ghakuzunguliyazunguliya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Nettles|first1= J. W.|last2= Staid|first2= M.|last3= Besse|first3= S.|last4= Boardman|first4= J.|last5= Clark|first5= R. N.|last6= Dhingra|first6= D.|last7= Isaacson|first7= P.|last8= Klima|first8= R.|last9= Kramer|first9= G.|last10= Pieters|first10= C. M.|last11= Taylor|first11= L. A.|title=Optical maturity variation in lunar spectra as measured by Moon Mineralogy Mapper data|journal= Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets|volume=116|date=2011 |article-number=2010JE003748 |doi=10.1029/2010JE003748 |bibcode=2011JGRE..116.0G17N }}</ref> Mawonekero ghawo kanandi ghakuwoneka makola cifukwa ca malo ghakufipa agho ghakwenda pakati pa vizungulizgo vyakuŵala. Vili mu malo agho nkhongono ya umagineti ya pacanya njikulu, ndipo vinandi vili ku mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku kutimbana kukulu. Vizungulizgo vyakumanyikwa ni Reiner Gamma na Mare Ingenii. Vikughanaghanirika kuŵa malo agho ghakavikilirika pacoko ku mphepo ya zuŵa, ntheura ghakusinthika pacoko pacoko na nyengo ya mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reflectance spectra of seven lunar swirls examined by statistical methods: A space weathering study |last1=Chrbolková |first1=Kateřina |last2=Kohout |first2=Tomáš |last3=Ďurech |first3=Josef |journal=Icarus |volume=333 |pages=516–527 |date=November 2019 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2019.05.024 |bibcode=2019Icar..333..516C |doi-access=free|hdl=10138/313044 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Kuŵapo kwa Maji === [[File:The image shows the distribution of surface ice at the Moon's south pole (left) and north pole (right).webp|thumb|upright=1.3|Umo cikakato cathandazgikira pacanya pa mwezi ku Kumwera Comene (ku mazere) na ku Kumpoto Comene (ku maryero)]] Maji ghakuthira ghangakhalilira pacanya pa mwezi yayi. Para ghakhwaskika na ungweru wa zuŵa, maji ghakugaŵika luŵiro na ungweru na kutayika mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets|volume=119|issue=4|pages=894–904|title=Photodissociation of water and O(3PJ) formation on a lunar impact melt breccia|author=Alice J. DeSimone, Thomas M. Orlando|date= 28 March 2014|doi=10.1002/2013JE004598}}</ref> Kweni kufuma mu ma 1960, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti cikakato ca maji cingaŵikika na nyenyezi za mcira izo zikutimbana, panji kupangika na kukolerana kwa malibwe gha mwezi gha okisijeni yinandi na haidrojeni ya mphepo ya zuŵa, ndipo kusiya maji ghacoko agho ghangakhalilira mu mazenje ghakuzizima gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka zose ziŵiri za mwezi.<ref name="Margot1999">{{cite journal |last1=Margot |first1=J.L. |last2=Campbell |first2=D.B. |last3=Jurgens |first3=R.F. |last4=Slade |first4=M.A. |title=Topography of the Lunar Poles from Radar Interferometry: A Survey of Cold Trap Locations |journal=Science |date=June 4, 1999 |volume=284 |issue=5420 |pages=1658–1660 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5420.1658 |pmid=10356393 |bibcode=1999Sci...284.1658M |url=https://www.astro.cornell.edu/~jlm/publications/Margot00.science284.lunarice.pdf |access-date=October 25, 2017 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811165220/http://www.astro.cornell.edu/~jlm/publications/Margot00.science284.lunarice.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal |first=William R. |last=Ward |title=Past Orientation of the Lunar Spin Axis |journal=Science |date=August 1, 1975 |volume=189 |issue=4200 |pages=377–379 |doi=10.1126/science.189.4200.377 |pmid=17840827 |bibcode=1975Sci...189..377W }}</ref> Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vikulongora kuti mpaka makilomita gha mbali zinayi 14,000 gha pacanya ghangaŵa mu mzgezge wa nyengo zose.<ref name="M03" /> Kuŵapo kwa maji ghakukwana pa mwezi nkhwakuzirwa comene kuti kukhala pa mwezi kuŵe kwambura kudura comene; kunyamula maji kufuma pa caro capasi kungadura comene.<ref name="seedhouse2009">{{cite book |last=Seedhouse |first=Erik |title=Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on the Moon |publisher=Springer Praxis |location=Germany |date=2009 |series=Springer-Praxis Books in Space Exploration |page=136 |isbn=978-0-387-09746-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJm_i3GS4r4C&pg=PA136 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126140722/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJm_i3GS4r4C&pg=PA136 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya pamanyuma, vimanyikwiro vya maji vyasangika pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="moonwater_18032010">{{cite web |last=Coulter |first=Dauna |title=The Multiplying Mystery of Moonwater |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2010/18mar_moonwater.htm?list940097 |publisher=NASA |date=March 18, 2010 |access-date=February 23, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002214735/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2010/18mar_moonwater/y2010/18mar_moonwater.htm?list940097 |archive-date=October 2, 2012}}</ref> Mu 1994, kuyezga kwa radar pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Clementine kukalongora kuŵapo kwa tumalo tucoko twa maji ghakuzizima pafupi na pacanya. Kweni kulaŵiska kwa radar kwa pamanyuma kwa Arecibo kukulongora kuti vyakusangika ivi vingaŵa malibwe agho ghakaphulika kufuma ku mazenje ghaphya gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spudis |first=P. |title=Ice on the Moon |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |publisher=The Space Review |date=November 6, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222083000/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |archive-date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> Mu 1998, cilwero ca nyutironi pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Lunar Prospector cikalongora kuti haidrojeni yinandi yilipo mu mita yakwamba ya kuzika mu fuvu pafupi na mphaka.<ref name="Feldman1998">{{cite journal |last1=Feldman |first1=W.C. |last2=Maurice |first2=S. |last3=Binder |first3=A.B. |last4=Barraclough |first4=B.L. |last5=Elphic |first5=R.C. |last6=Lawrence |first6=D.J. |title=Fluxes of Fast and Epithermal Neutrons from Lunar Prospector: Evidence for Water Ice at the Lunar Poles |journal=Science |pmid=9727973 |volume=281 |issue=5382 |pages=1496–1500 |date=1998 |bibcode=1998Sci...281.1496F |doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1496 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tumpira twa mwala wakusungunuka, utu tukatoleka ku caro capasi na Apollo 15, tukalongora maji ghacoko mukati mwawo.<ref name="Saal2008">{{cite journal |last1=Saal |first1=Alberto E. |last2=Hauri |first2=Erik H. |last3=Cascio |first3=Mauro L. |last4=van Orman |first4=James A. |last5=Rutherford |first5=Malcolm C. |last6=Cooper |first6=Reid F. |date=2008 |title=Volatile content of lunar volcanic glasses and the presence of water in the Moon's interior |journal=Nature |pmid=18615079 |volume=454 |issue=7201 |pages=192–195 |doi=10.1038/nature07047 |bibcode=2008Natur.454..192S}}</ref> Combo ca mlengalenga ca Chandrayaan-1 ca 2008 casimikizga kuŵapo kwa cikakato ca maji pacanya, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito Moon Mineralogy Mapper. Cilwero ici cikawona mizere ya kukora ungweru iyo yikusangika na ''hydroxyl'', mu ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka, ndipo ici cikapeleka ukaboni wa cikakato ca maji cinandi pacanya pa mwezi. Combo ici cikalongora kuti unandi ungafika magaŵa 1,000 pa miliyoni.<ref name="Pieters2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1178658 |last1=Pieters |first1=C. M. |last2=Goswami |first2=J. N. |last3=Clark |first3=R. N. |last4=Annadurai |first4=M. |last5=Boardman |first5=J. |last6=Buratti |first6=B. |last7=Combe |first7=J.-P. |last8=Dyar |first8=M. D. |last9=Green |first9=R. |last10=Head |first10=J. W. |last11=Hibbitts |first11=C. |last12=Hicks |first12=M. |last13=Isaacson |first13=P. |last14=Klima |first14=R. |last15=Kramer |first15=G. |last16=Kumar |first16=S. |last17=Livo |first17=E. |last18=Lundeen |first18=S. |last19=Malaret |first19=E. |last20=McCord |first20=T. |last21=Mustard |first21=J. |last22=Nettles |first22=J. |last23=Petro |first23=N. |last24=Runyon |first24=C. |last25=Staid |first25=M. |last26=Sunshine |first26=J. |last27=Taylor |first27=L. A. |last28=Tompkins |first28=S. |last29=Varanasi |first29=P. |date=2009 |title=Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1 |journal=Science |volume=326 |issue=5952 |pages=568–572 |pmid=19779151 |bibcode=2009Sci...326..568P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wakuwezgeka, ungweru wambura kulunjika wa malo gha mzgezge ukasimikizga cikakato ca maji mukati mwa makona 20 gha mphaka zose ziŵiri mu 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Shuai |last2=Lucey |first2=Paul G. |last3=Milliken |first3=Ralph E. |last4=Hayne |first4=Paul O. |last5=Fisher |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Williams |first6=Jean-Pierre |last7=Hurley |first7=Dana M. |last8=Elphic |first8=Richard C. |title=Direct evidence of surface exposed water ice in the lunar polar regions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=36 |pages=8907–8912 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30126996 |pmc=6130389 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8907L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1802345115 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mu 2009, LCROSS yikatuma cinthu ca makilogalamu 2,300 kutimbana na zenje la mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka, ndipo yikasanga maji gha makilogalamu 100 panji kujumpha mu vinthu ivyo vikaphulika.<ref name="Planetary">{{cite web |url=http://planetary.org/news/2009/1113_LCROSS_Lunar_Impactor_Mission_Yes_We.html |title=LCROSS Lunar Impactor Mission: "Yes, We Found Water!" |last=Lakdawalla |first=Emily |date=November 13, 2009 |publisher=The Planetary Society |access-date=April 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122233405/http://www.planetary.org/news/2009/1113_LCROSS_Lunar_Impactor_Mission_Yes_We.html |archive-date=January 22, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Colaprete">{{cite journal |last1=Colaprete |first1=A. |last2=Ennico |first2=K. |last3=Wooden |first3=D. |last4=Shirley |first4=M. |last5=Heldmann |first5=J. |last6=Marshall |first6=W. |last7=Sollitt |first7=L. |last8=Asphaug |first8=E. |last9=Korycansky |first9=D. |last10=Schultz |first10=P. |last11=Hermalyn |first11=B. |last12=Galal |first12=K. |last13=Bart |first13=G.D. |last14=Goldstein |first14=D. |last15=Summy |first15=D. |date=March 1–5, 2010 |title=Water and More: An Overview of LCROSS Impact Results |journal=41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |volume=41 |issue=1533 |page=2335 |bibcode=2010LPI....41.2335C}}</ref> Kupenda kunyake kwa vyakusangika vya LCROSS kukalongora kuti unandi wa maji ukaŵa pafupi na makilogalamu 155 ± 12.<ref name="Colaprete2010">{{cite journal |last1=Colaprete |first1=Anthony |last2=Schultz |first2=Peter |last3=Heldmann |first3=Jennifer |last4=Wooden |first4=Diane |last5=Shirley |first5=Mark |last6=Ennico |first6=Kimberly |last7=Hermalyn |first7=Brendan |last8=Marshall |first8=William |last9=Ricco |first9=Antonio |last10=Elphic |first10=Richard C. |last11=Goldstein |first11=David |last12=Summy |first12=Dustin |last13=Bart |first13=Gwendolyn D. |last14=Asphaug |first14=Erik |last15=Korycansky |first15=Don |last16=Landis |first16=David |last17=Sollitt |first17=Luke |title=Detection of Water in the LCROSS Ejecta Plume |journal=Science |date=October 22, 2010 |volume=330 |issue=6003 |pmid=20966242 |pages=463–468 |doi=10.1126/science.1186986 |bibcode=2010Sci...330..463C}}</ref> Mu Vula 2011, maji gha magaŵa 615–1410 pa miliyoni ghakasangika mu vigaŵa vya mukati vya cigaŵa ca mwezi 74220, "dongo la galasi la mtundu wa malalanje" lakumanyikwa, la titanium yinandi, ilo likafuma ku mapiri gha moto ndipo likawunjikika mu ulendo wa Apollo 17 mu 1972.<ref name="hauri">{{cite journal |last=Hauri |first=Erik |author2=Thomas Weinreich |author3=Albert E. Saal |author4=Malcolm C. Rutherford |author5=James A. Van Orman |date=May 26, 2011 |title=High Pre-Eruptive Water Contents Preserved in Lunar Melt Inclusions |journal=Science Express |volume=10 |issue=1126 |doi=10.1126/science.1204626 |pmid=21617039 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..213H |pages=213–215 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="hauri" /> Vigaŵa ivi vikapangika pa kuphulika kwa mapiri gha moto pa mwezi pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 3.7 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="hauri" /> Unandi uwu ukuyana na wa mwala wakusungunuka mu cigaŵa capakati ca pacanya ca caro capasi.<ref name="hauri" /> Kupenda kwa vyakusangika vya Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) kukavumbula mu Mpupulu 2018 kakwamba "ukaboni wakusimikizgika" wa cikakato ca maji pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="Rincon-2018">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45251370 |title=Water ice 'detected on Moon's surface' |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=August 21, 2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821151638/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45251370 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/beyond-the-shadow-of-a-doubt-water-ice-exists-on-the-moon/ |title=Beyond the Shadow of a Doubt, Water Ice Exists on the Moon |last=David |first=Leonard |work=Scientific American |url-access=subscription |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821125629/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/beyond-the-shadow-of-a-doubt-water-ice-exists-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyakusangika vikalongora vimanyikwiro vyapadera vya kuwezga ungweru vya cikakato ca maji, kupambana na fuvu na vinthu vinyake vyakuwezga ungweru.<ref name="Space.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/41554-water-ice-moon-surface-confirmed.html |title=Water Ice Confirmed on the Surface of the Moon for the 1st Time! |work=Space.com |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821134450/https://www.space.com/41554-water-ice-moon-surface-confirmed.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Cikakato cikasangika ku mphaka ya kumpoto na ya kumwera, nangauli cili cinandi ku kumwera, uko maji ghakakika mu mazenje na mphanyiko za mzgezge wa nyengo zose, ndipo ghakukhalilira nga ni cikakato pacanya cifukwa ghakuvikilirika ku zuŵa.<ref name="Rincon-2018"/><ref name="Space.com"/> Mu Thukila 2020, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵasanga maji pacanya pa mwezi apo pali ungweru wa zuŵa, na vyombo vinandi vya mlengalenga vyakupambana, kusazgapo SOFIA.<ref name="NA-20201026">{{cite journal |last1=Honniball |first1=C. I. |last2=Lucey |first2=P. G. |last3=Li |first3=S. |last4=Shenoy |first4=S. |last5=Orlando |first5=T. M. |last6=Hibbitts |first6=C. A. |last7=Hurley |first7=D. M. |last8=Farrell |first8=W. M. |title=Molecular water detected on the sunlit Moon by SOFIA |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=26 October 2020 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=121–127 |doi=10.1038/s41550-020-01222-x |bibcode=2021NatAs...5..121H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="NA-20201026poh">{{cite journal |last1=Hayne |first1=P. O. |last2=Aharonson |first2=O. |last3=Schörghofer |first3=N. |title=Micro cold traps on the Moon |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=26 October 2020 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=169–175 |doi=10.1038/s41550-020-1198-9 |arxiv=2005.05369 |bibcode=2021NatAs...5..169H }}</ref><ref name="WP-20201026">{{cite news |last1=Guarino |first1=Ben |last2=Achenbach |first2=Joel |title=Pair of studies confirm there is water on the moon – New research confirms what scientists had theorized for years — the moon is wet. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/10/26/water-on-the-moon/ |date=October 26, 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026184808/https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/10/26/water-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20201026">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=There's Water and Ice on the Moon, and in More Places Than NASA Once Thought – Future astronauts seeking water on the moon may not need to go into the most treacherous craters in its polar regions to find it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/26/science/moon-ice-water.html |date=October 26, 2020 |work=The New York Times |access-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026170716/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/26/science/moon-ice-water.html |url-status=live}}</ref> == Ndondomeko ya Caro Capasi na Mwezi == === Nthowa ya Kuzunguliya === [[File:Dscovrepicmoontransitfull.gif|thumb |Mbali ya muhanya ya caro capasi kuwoneka kufuma pa malo gha L1 pakati pa zuŵa na caro capasi; caro capasi cikuzunguliya ndipo mwezi ukujumpha pakati pa DSCOVR na caro capasi, kulongora mbali yakutali ya mwezi apo yili mu ungweru]] Mtunda wapakati wa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi, uwo ukuchemeka mtunda wa mwezi, ni makilomita pafupifupi 385,000, panji maliŵiri 1.3 gha ungweru, ukuyana na kuzunguliya caro capasi pafupifupi kankhondi na kanayi na cigaŵa.{{efn |name=distance ratio|Mtunda wapakati wa mwezi kufuma pa caro capasi ni makilomita <math>384401</math>. Utali kufuma pakati mpaka ku mphepete wa caro capasi pa mzere wapakati ni mamita <math>6.378136 \cdot 10^6</math>. Kupenda na <math>2\pi</math> kukupeleka utali wa kuzingilizga caro capasi pa mzere wapakati, mamita <math>4.007501 \cdot 10^7</math>, panji makilomita <math>40075.01</math>. Kugaŵa manambala agha kukupeleka <math>9.59</math>.}}<ref name="allen">{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=C. W. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2002 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4612-1186-0 |edition=4th|pages=240,308}}</ref> Nthowa ya mwezi njakuzunguliya makola yayi kweni njakutalikilapo pacoko. Ici cikung'anamula kuti mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusintha kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 356,400 (pafupi comene) mpaka 406,700 (kutali comene), ntheura mtunda na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100.<ref name="size1">{{cite web |author=Phillips |first=Tony |date=March 16, 2011 |title=Super Full Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507035348/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ |archive-date=May 7, 2012 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="size2">{{cite news |author=De Atley |first=Richard K. |date=March 18, 2011 |title=Full moon tonight is as close as it gets |url=http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322161600/http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html |archive-date=March 22, 2011 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |newspaper=The Press-Enterprise}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi yili na pakati pa kuzitika pakugaŵana, apo pali makilomita 5,000 (pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi) kufuma pakati pa caro capasi. Caro capasi na mwezi vyose viŵiri vikuzunguliya pakati apa, ntheura caro capasi cikunjenjemera kuzunguliya malo agha pa nthowa yiliyose ya mwezi. Pakati apa pakusamira kuwaro pacoko pacoko apo kukwekana kwa nkhongono za kukoka kukutora nkhongono kufuma ku viŵiri ivi, ndipo pakumalira pazamuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi.<ref name="els" />{{rp|69}} Mwezi ukumalizga kuzunguliya caro capasi kamoza kuyaniska na nyenyezi zambura kusamika pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3 ghaliwose.{{efn |name=orbpd|Kuyowoya makora, nyengo yapakati ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi (kufuma pa nyenyezi yimoza kufika so pa nyenyezi iyo) ni mazuŵa 27.321661 {{nowrap |(27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s)}}, ndipo nyengo yake yapakati kufuma pa ''equinox'' kufika pa ''equinox'' ni mazuŵa 27.321582 {{nowrap |(27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, peji 107).}} Kweni cifukwa caro capasi na mwezi vikwenda pa nyengo yeneyiyo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya zuŵa, vikutora nyengo yitali pacoko kuwelera ku kawonekero kamoza ka mwezi, mazuŵa 29.5, kumalizga ndondomeko yose nga umo yikuwonekera kufuma pa caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 28, 2004 |title=Is the 'full moon' merely a fallacy? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4402294 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601085529/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4402294 |archive-date=June 1, 2023 |access-date=May 30, 2023 |website=NBC News}}</ref>{{efn |name=synpd|Kuyowoya makora, nyengo yapakati ya mwezi kufuma pa mwezi uphya kufika pa mwezi uphya unyake ni mazuŵa 29.530589 {{nowrap |(29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, peji 107).}}<ref name="worldbook" /> Nyengo iyi kanandi yikumanyikwa nga ni mwezi wa caka ndipo njakuyana na utali wa zuŵa la zuŵa pa mwezi.<ref name="Day">{{cite news |author=Williams |first=Matt |date=July 10, 2017 |title=How Long is a Day on the Moon? |url=https://www.universetoday.com/20524/how-long-is-a-day-on-the-moon-1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129020253/https://www.universetoday.com/20524/how-long-is-a-day-on-the-moon-1/ |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |access-date=December 5, 2020 |work=Universe Today}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yikusunga kupendama kwakuyana pafupifupi, makona pafupifupi 5, kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa.<ref name="Lang2011">{{cite book |last=Lang |first=Kenneth R. |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4xDhVCxAQIC&pg=PA184 |title=The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071141/https://books.google.com/books?id=S4xDhVCxAQIC&pg=PA184 |archive-date=January 1, 2016 |edition=second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49417-5}}</ref> Nthowa ya kupendama uku yikuzunguliya kumanjiliro pacoko pacoko, ndipo yikumalizga cizungulizgo kamoza mu vyaka 18.61.<ref name=tilt>{{cite journal |author1=Haigh, I. D. |author2=Eliot, M. |author3=Pattiaratchi, C. |year=2011 |title=Global influences of the 18.61 year nodal cycle and 8.85 year cycle of lunar perigee on high tidal levels |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=116 |issue=C6 |pages=C06025 |doi=10.1029/2010JC006645 |bibcode=2011JGRC..116.6025H |url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/3380567/A0059.pdf |access-date=September 24, 2019 |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212170314/https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/3380567/A0059.pdf |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ici cikung'anamula kuti kupendama kwa nthowa ya mwezi kuyaniska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi kukusintha kufuma makona 18 mpaka 28 mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=tilt/> Mawonekero gha nthowa nagho ghakuzunguliya, kumafumiro mu vyaka 8.85.<ref name=apsis>{{cite journal| author1= Zhen Xu| author2= Kun-Shan Chen| author3= Zhao-Liang Li| author4= Gen-Yuan Du|title= Apsidal Precession Effects on the Lunar-Based Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Performance|journal= IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|date=2021|volume=18|issue=6|pages=1079–1083|doi=10.1109/LGRS.2020.2992508|bibcode= 2021IGRSL..18.1079X|url=https://hal.science/hal-03005957/document}}</ref><ref name=apsis/> Kupambana na setilayiti zinandi za vibwe vinyake, ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yili pafupi na ndondomeko ya nthowa ya caro capasi kuluska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi. Nthowa ya mwezi yikusinthika pacoko na zuŵa na caro capasi mu nthowa zinandi zicoko na zakusuzga. Vyakufumapo ivi vikulongosoreka mwa masamu na malango gha Cassini.<ref name="Beletskii2">{{cite book |author=V V Beletskiĭ |title=Essays on the Motion of Celestial Bodies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=byWZusmVSecC |date=2001 |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-3-7643-5866-2 |page=183 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=March 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323203843/https://books.google.com/books?id=byWZusmVSecC |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuzunguliya pa Ceneco === [[File:Moon distance range to scale.svg|center|thumb|upright=3.2|Mtunda wapasi, wapakati, na wapacanya pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi, na ukulu uwo mwezi ukuwonekera kufuma pa caro capasi]] [[File:Tidal locking of the Moon with the Earth.gif|thumb|Kuyaniska mwezi wa ku mazere, uwo ukuzgoka mwakuyana na kuzunguliya kwake (makora), na mwezi wa ku maryero, wambura kuzgoka (yayi)]] Cifukwa cakakika na caro capasi, mwezi uli na kukolerana kwa 1:1 kwa kuzunguliya pa ceneco na kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi njakuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya pa ceneco. Ntheura nyengo zose ukulaŵiska caro capasi na cisko cimoza pafupifupi apo ukuzunguliya.<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 3, 2024 |title=Observation of Moon-like Synchronous Revolution and Rotation of Janus Microparticles Trapped in an Annular Optical Trap|author1=Jing Liu| author2= Li Long| author3= Honglian Guo| author4= Zhiyuan Li |journal=ACS Photonics|volume= 11 |issue= 10|pages= 4027–4035|doi=10.1021/acsphotonics.4c00702}}</ref> Mbali ya mwezi iyo yikulaŵiska caro capasi yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, ndipo yinyake mbali ya kutali. Cifukwa mwezi ngwambura kukakika na zuŵa, msana na usiku vya mwezi vikucitika pa mwezi wose. Mbali ya kutali kanandi yikuchemeka mwautesi kuti "mbali ya mdima", kweni nadi yikupokera ungweru kanandi nga ni mbali ya pafupi: kamoza mu mazuŵa 29.5 gha caro capasi. Apo mwezi ukuwoneka yayi, mbali ya pafupi njamdima.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dark Side of the Moon |author=Phil Plait |publisher=Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions |url=http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |access-date=February 15, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412192834/http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |archive-date=April 12, 2010 |author-link=Phil Plait}}</ref> Usiku wa mwezi ngwa mdima comene ku mbali ya kutali na pa kubisika kwa mwezi ku mbali ya pafupi (ndipo ngwa mdima kuluska usiku wambura mwezi pa caro capasi). Usiku, mbali ya pafupi yikupokera ungweru wa caro capasi mwakuti vimanyikwiro vya pacanya pa mwezi vingawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi. Ungweru wa caro capasi ukupangiska usiku pa mbali ya pafupi kuŵala kanandi 43, ndipo nyengo zinyake kanandi 55, kuluska usiku pa caro capasi wakuŵala na mwezi wakuzura.<ref name="u988">{{cite web | last=Siegel | first=Ethan | title=Ask Ethan: How Bright Is The Earth As Seen From The Moon? | website=Forbes | date=March 18, 2017 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2017/03/18/ask-ethan-how-bright-is-the-earth-as-seen-from-the-moon/ | access-date=April 29, 2025}}</ref> Kupendama kwa mwezi kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi ni makona 1.5427, ntheura mu caka cimoza ca mazuŵa 346.62, zuŵa likusamira kufuma makona 1.5427 kumpoto kwa mzere wapakati wa mwezi kuya makona 1.5427 kumwera kwake na kuwelera.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Lunar Dissipation: Rotational and Orbital Consequences|author1=Williams J. G. | author2= Krisher, T. P. | author3= Boggs, D. H. | author4= Ratcliff, J. T. | author5= Dickey, J. O.|journal=29th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|date= March 16-20, 1998|issue=1963 |page=1963 |bibcode=1998LPI....29.1963W|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252908279}}</ref> Ici cikuyana na umo, pa caro capasi, malo gha zuŵa ghakusamira kufuma ku mzere wa Cancer kuya ku mzere wa Capricorn na kuwelera caka ciliconse. Ici cikuŵika mphaka za mwezi mu mdima (panji na cigaŵa ca zuŵa pera ico cikuwoneka) kwa hafu ya caka ici na mu ungweru wa zuŵa kwa hafu yinyake. Unandi wa ungweru wa zuŵa uwo ukuwira malo ghakugonera pafupi na mphaka ukuthemba kupendama kwa zuŵa. Nyengo izi zili na vyakufumapo vicoko mu malo gha pafupi na mzere wapakati. Pakwamba mwezi ukazunguliyanga luŵiro pa ceneco, kweni pakwamba mu mbiri yake kuzunguliya kwake kukacepa na kukakika mu kalaŵiskiro aka cifukwa ca kukwekana uko kukafuma ku kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=M.E. |title=The Weak Friction Approximation and Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems |journal=Astrophysics and Space Science |date=1973 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=459–508 |bibcode=1973Ap&SS..23..459A |doi=10.1007/BF00645172 }}</ref> Mu nyengo, nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya mwezi pa ceneco yikazgoka kufunda, mpaka mwezi ukaleka kuzunguliya kuyaniska na caro capasi. Mu 2016, ŵasandi ŵa vibwe mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Lunar Prospector ya NASA ya 1998–99 ŵakasanga malo ghaŵiri gha haidrojeni yinandi (panyake cikakato ca maji ca kale) ku mbali zakususkana za mwezi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti malo agha ghakaŵa mphaka za mwezi vyaka mabiliyoni ivyo vyajumpha pambere undakakike na caro capasi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moon used to spin 'on different axis' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |access-date=March 23, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323203442/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |archive-date=March 23, 2016 |work=BBC News |date=March 23, 2016}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Nkhongono za Kukoka === [[File:Tide animation.gif|thumb|Cithuzi ca caro capasi cakuguzika na kutambasulika kuya ku mwezi cifukwa ca nkhongono za kuguza za mwezi, ico ndico cikupangiska kukwera na kukhira kwa maji gha mbwani. Mbwani na caro capasi vikuguzika comene ku mbali iyo yili pafupi na mwezi, ntheura nkhongono zikucepa ku mbali yinyake ya caro capasi, ndipo ici cikupanga kukwera kwa maji kwaciŵiri. Cithuzi cikulongora kusintha kwa malo gha mwezi mu nthowa yake yakukhota.]] Nkhongono ya kukoka iyo caro capasi na mwezi (na zuŵa) vikukokerana yili yikulu pacoko ku mbali izo zili pafupi, ndipo ici cikupanga nkhongono za kukoka za kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji.<ref name="Tyson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/1995/11/01/the-tidal-force|title=The Tidal Force {{!}} Neil deGrasse Tyson|website=www.haydenplanetarium.org|access-date=2016-10-10}}</ref> Kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani ndico cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene, kweni nkhongono izi zikukhwaska so comene vinyake vya caro capasi, mwezi, na ndondomeko yawo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tides|date=June 6, 2023 |publisher=NASA|url=https://science.nasa.gov/moon/tides/|accessdate=2026-08-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Unlocking a Treasure Trove for Subsurface Characterization|author=T. McMillan and Gabriel Rau|date=12 July 2019|url=https://eos.org/editors-vox/unlocking-a-treasure-trove-for-subsurface-characterization|publisher=Eos|accessdate=2026-08-18}}</ref> Cikopa cakukhwima ca mwezi cikuzuzga na kucepa na masentimita pafupifupi 10 mu mazuŵa 27, na vigaŵa vitatu: cimoza cambura kusintha cifukwa ca caro capasi, cifukwa vikuzunguliya mwakukolerana; cinyake cakusintha cifukwa ca kutalikilapo na kupendama kwa nthowa; na cigaŵa cicoko cakusintha kufuma ku zuŵa.<ref name="touma1994">{{cite journal |last=Touma |first=Jihad |author2=Wisdom, Jack |date=1994 |title=Evolution of the Earth-Moon system |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |issue=5 |pages=1943–1961 |doi=10.1086/117209 |bibcode=1994AJ....108.1943T}}</ref><ref name="touma1994" /> Kuyana na kusanda kwa sonosono, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti kukhwaska kwa mwezi pa caro capasi kungovwira kusunga nkhongono ya umagineti ya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |author=Todd |first=Iain |date=March 31, 2018 |title=Is the Moon maintaining Earth's magnetism? |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/news/is-the-moon-maintaining-earths-magnetism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922194637/https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/news/is-the-moon-maintaining-earths-magnetism/ |archive-date=September 22, 2020 |access-date=November 16, 2020 |work=BBC Sky at Night Magazine}}</ref> Vyakufumapo vyakuwunjikana vya kukanikizga uko kukupangika na nkhongono izi vikupanga kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi. Kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukucitika pacoko comene na kwambura nkhongono kuluska kwa caro capasi, nangauli kungatora mpaka ora limoza, kutali comene kuluska kwa pa caro capasi, cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa kunjenjemera mu cikopa cakomira na cakuphwanyika.<ref name=quake/> Kuŵapo kwa kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukaŵa kusanga kwambura kulindilirika kufuma ku vilwero ivyo ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo ŵakaŵika pa mwezi kufuma 1969 mpaka 1972.<ref name=quake>{{cite journal |last1=Latham |first1=Gary |date=1972 |last2=Ewing |first2=Maurice |last3=Dorman |first3=James |last4=Lammlein |first4=David |last5=Press |first5=Frank |last6=Toksőz |first6=Naft |last7=Sutton |first7=George |last8=Duennebier |first8=Fred |last9=Nakamura |first9=Yosio |title=Moonquakes and lunar tectonism |journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=373–382 |doi=10.1007/BF00562004 |bibcode=1972Moon....4..373L }}</ref> Cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene ca nkhongono za kukoka ni kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani.<ref name="Lambeck1977">{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rsta.1977.0159 |last=Lambeck |first=K. |date=1977 |title=Tidal Dissipation in the Oceans: Astronomical, Geophysical and Oceanographic Consequences |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A |volume=287 |issue=1347 |pages=545–594 |bibcode=1977RSPTA.287..545L }}</ref> Nangauli mwezi ndiwo ukupanga nkhongono zinandi za kukoka, zuŵa nalo likupanga nkhongono izi ndipo likovwira mpaka magaŵa 40 pa 100 gha nkhongono ya mwezi; vyose pamoza vikupanga kuzuzga kukulu na kucoko kwa maji.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Kuzuzga kwa maji ni vifufu viŵiri mu mbwani za caro capasi, cimoza ku mbali iyo yikulaŵiska mwezi na cinyake ku mbali yinyake. Apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pa ceneco, cifufu cimoza (maji ghakuzura) cikusungika "pasi" pa mwezi, apo cinyake cili ku mbali yinyake. Kuzuzga pasi pa mwezi kukulongosoreka na nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi kuŵa yikulu pa maji agho ghali pafupi nawo. Kuzuzga ku mbali yinyake kungalongosoreka na nkhongono ya kuthaŵa pakati apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pakati pa kuzitika, panji na kukhalilira kwa maji apo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njikulu pa caro capasi cakukhwima ico cili pafupi nawo, ndipo cikukokeka kutali na maji gha kutali.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Feynman |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Feynman |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 7: The Theory of Gravitation |url=https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_07.html |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Feynman |first=Richard |title=Feynman's Lectures on Physics – The Law of Gravitation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UFr1X0prbo&t=1503s |via=YouTube |date=October 24, 2020 |access-date=5 December 2024}}</ref> Ntheura, pali kuzuzga kuŵiri na kucepa kuŵiri mu maora pafupifupi 24.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Cifukwa mwezi ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yeneyiyo iyo caro capasi cikuzunguliyira, kuzuzga kukucitika maora 12 na maminiti 25 ghaliwose; maminiti 25 ni cifukwa ca nyengo iyo mwezi ukutora kuzunguliya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tides and Their Effects|author=Chris Garrett and Leo Maas|journal=Oceanus |year=1993|volume=36 |pages=27–36 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255122250|accessdate=2026-08-21}}</ref> Usange caro capasi cikaŵa caro ca maji pera (cambura vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda), cingapanga kuzuzga kwa mita yimoza pera, ndipo kuzuzga uku kungamanyikwa makola, kweni kuzuzga kwa maji gha mbwani kukusinthika comene na vinthu vinyake: * kukwekana kwa maji na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kwizira pasi pa mbwani * kukhalilira kwa kwenda kwa maji * madimba gha mbwani agho ghakuŵa ghambura kuzika pafupi na mtunda * kusambasamba kwa maji pakati pa madimba ghakupambana gha mbwani === Kusintha kwa Ndondomeko === Kucedwa kwa kuzuzga kwa maji na kwa cikopa cakukhwima kukupanga nkhongono yakususkana na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi. Ici "cikufumiska" nkhongono ya kuzunguliya kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, ndipo cikucepeska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /><ref name="touma1994" /> Vyaka biliyoni 3.2 ivyo vyajumpha, zuŵa likaŵa la maora pafupifupi 13 pera. Nkhongono ya kuzunguliya iyo yikutayika kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi yikuya ku mwezi, ndipo yikukwezga mwezi ku nthowa ya pacanya apo ikucepeska luŵiro lwake lwa kuzunguliya caro capasi.<ref name="m870">{{cite journal | last1=Eulenfeld | first1=Tom | last2=Heubeck | first2=Christoph | title=Constraints on Moon's Orbit 3.2 Billion Years Ago From Tidal Bundle Data | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | volume=128 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=2169-9097 | doi=10.1029/2022JE007466 | doi-access=free | article-number=e2022JE007466 | arxiv=2207.05464 | bibcode=2023JGRE..12807466E }}</ref> Ntheura mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi ukusazgikira, ndipo kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kukucepa.<ref name="touma1994" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Chapront |first=J. |author2=Chapront-Touzé, M. |author3=Francou, G. |date=2002 |title=A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=387 |issue=2 |pages=700–709 |bibcode=2002A&A...387..700C |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020420 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |title=Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth |work=BBC News |date=February 1, 2011 |access-date=September 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925185706/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |archive-date=September 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |last2=Boggs |first2=Dale H. |date=2016 |title=Secular tidal changes in lunar orbit and Earth rotation |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=89–129 |doi=10.1007/s10569-016-9702-3 |bibcode=2016CeMDA.126...89W }}</ref> Kupima kufuma ku vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser ivyo vikasiyika mu maulendo gha Apollo kwasanga kuti mtunda wa mwezi ukusazgikira na milimita 38 pa caka (pafupifupi luŵiro ilo nyara za ŵanthu zikukulira).<ref>{{cite web |last=Ray |first=R. |date=May 15, 2001 |url=http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |title=Ocean Tides and the Earth's Rotation |publisher=IERS Special Bureau for Tides |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327084125/http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |archive-date=March 27, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stephenson |first1=F. R. |last2=Morrison |first2=L. V. |last3=Hohenkerk |first3=C. Y. |date=2016 |title=Measurement of the Earth's rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=472 |issue=2196 |article-number=20160404 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2016.0404 |pmc=5247521 |pmid=28119545 |bibcode=2016RSPSA.47260404S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=L. V. |last2=Stephenson |first2=F. R. |last3=Hohenkerk |first3=C. Y. |last4=Zawilski |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Addendum 2020 to 'Measurement of the Earth's rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015' |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=477 |issue=2246 |article-number=20200776 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2020.0776 |bibcode=2021RSPSA.47700776M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vipimanyengo vya atomu vikulongora kuti zuŵa la caro capasi likutalikilira na ma''microsecond'' pafupifupi 17 caka ciliconse. Mu nyengo, kukwekana uku kukupangiska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya kuyana, ndipo cinthu cakupepuka cikukakika (nga umo mwezi uliri sono). Mu maghanoghano, mu vyaka biliyoni 50, kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kuzamucepa kuyana na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya, ndipo caro capasi cizamulaŵiska mwezi na mbali yimoza nyengo zose. Kweni pambere ici cindacitike, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ndipo lingaphimba caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="Universe Today 2016">{{cite web |title=When Will Earth Lock to the Moon? |website=Universe Today |date=April 12, 2016 |url=https://www.universetoday.com/128350/will-earth-lock-moon/ |access-date=January 5, 2022 |archive-date=May 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528015905/https://www.universetoday.com/128350/will-earth-lock-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Usange caro capasi na mwezi vyapona kuphimbika uku, nga umo kusanda kwa 2026 kukulongolera, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska nthowa ya mwezi kucepa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=C.D. |last2=Dermott |first2=Stanley F. |title=Solar System Dynamics |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57295-8 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dickinson |first=Terence |author-link=Terence Dickinson |title=From the Big Bang to Planet X |date=1993 |publisher=Camden House |location=Camden East, Ontario |isbn=978-0-921820-71-0 |pages=79–81}}</ref> Apo nthowa ya mwezi yazamufika pa mtunda wa makilomita 18,470, uzamujumpha mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi ndipo nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi zingaphwanya mwezi. Ungazgoka ndondomeko ya mphete, ndipo mphete zinandi zingacepa na kuwira pa caro capasi. == Kulaŵiska == === Ukulu na Malo Ghakuwoneka === Mwezi ukuwoneka kuthambo la caro capasi mwakupambana kuyana na malo agho munthu wakulaŵiskira pa caro capasi na nyengo ya caka, ya mwezi, na ya zuŵa. Mu caka, mwezi ukufika pacanya comene pa zuŵa pa malo ghakupambana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Longitude from Moon Culminations |pages=513–522|date=May 1899|author= D. A. Pio.|publisher=Royal Astronomical Society|url=https://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1899MNRAS..59..513P}}</ref> Mwezi wakuzura ukuwoneka pacanya comene kuthambo mu nyengo ya kuzizima na pasi comene mu nyengo ya kufunda, kupambana na zuŵa, ndipo ici nchaunenesko ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto na vya kumwera vya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web|title=It looks like the Moon stays higher in the sky on some days than on others. Why is that?|author= Astronomy Staff| date= April 26, 2010|publisher= Astronomy Magazine|url= https://www.astronomy.com/science/it-looks-like-the-moon-stays-higher-in-the-sky-on-some-days-than-on-others-why-is-that/|accessdate=2026-08-21}}</ref> Ku Mphaka ya Kumpoto na ya Kumwera, mwezi ukuŵa pacanya pa mphepete ya kuthambo maora 24 kwa masabata ghaŵiri mu mwezi uliwose (pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3). Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji twa ku Arctic tukugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wa mwezi apo zuŵa likuŵa pasi pa mphepete ya kuthambo kwa myezi yinandi.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 16, 2016 |title=Moonlight helps plankton escape predators during Arctic winters |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28738-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130112225/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22930562-500-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |archive-date=January 30, 2016 |work=New Scientist}}</ref> Pakati, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ni makona pafupifupi 0.52, pafupifupi wakuyana na wa zuŵa. Ukulu wakuwoneka na kuŵala kwake vikusintha cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo, ndipo ukuwoneka wakuŵala mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 na ukulu mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 para uli pafupi comene kuluska para uli kutali comene. Kweniso, cakucitika ca maghanoghano pera, ico cikuchemeka cinyengo ca mwezi, cikupangiska mwezi kuwoneka ukulu para uli pafupi na mphepete ya kuthambo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hershenson |first=Maurice |title=The Moon illusion |date=1989 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-8058-0121-7 |page=5}}</ref> === Kalaŵiskiro na Kawonekero === [[File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007 HD.gif|alt=Mu mwezi umoza, kujumpha hafu ya pacanya pa mwezi kungawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi.|thumb|Kusintha kucoko kwa ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi na umo ukuwonekera mu mwezi umoza, kufuma ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi]] Kalaŵiskiro kakuwoneka ka mwezi kakuthemba malo ghake kuthambo na cigaŵa ca caro capasi uko ukulaŵiskika. Mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto ukuwoneka wakuzgokera pasi kuyaniska na kawonekero ka cigaŵa ca kumwera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Howells |first=Kate |date=September 25, 2020 |title=Can the Moon be upside down? |url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/can-the-moon-be-upside-down |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102132012/https://www.planetary.org/articles/can-the-moon-be-upside-down |archive-date=January 2, 2022 |access-date=January 2, 2022 |publisher=The Planetary Society}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake "nyanga" za mwezi wa cikweru zikuwoneka nga ni zikulaŵiska pacanya kuluska kumphepete. Ici cikuchemeka mwezi wa maji, ndipo cikucitika kanandi ku tropiki.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spekkens |first=K. |author1-link=Kristine Spekkens |date=October 18, 2002 |title=Is the Moon seen as a crescent (and not a 'boat') all over the world? |url=https://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016011356/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |archive-date=October 16, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2015 |publisher=Curious About Astronomy}}</ref> Kuzunguliya kwakukakika kwa mwezi apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi kukupangiska kuti mbali yimoza pera ya mwezi, iyo yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, yiwoneke kufuma pa caro capasi. Kweni nangauli kwenda kwa mwezi nkhwakukolerana, nkhwambura kusintha pacoko yayi, ndipo kusintha kucoko kwa kalaŵiskiro kukupangiska kuti mu nyengo na malo pa caro capasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghawoneke.<ref name="Libration">{{cite web |last=Stern |first=David |date=March 30, 2014 |title=Libration of the Moon |url=https://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smoon4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522153419/https://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smoon4.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |access-date=February 11, 2020 |website=NASA}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusintha uku, nyengo zinyake ncakuthekera kuwona pacoko kuluska mwezi wakuzura (mpaka magaŵa pafupifupi 101 pa 100) panji cigaŵa cicoko ca mbali yake ya kutali (mpaka magaŵa 5 pa 100).<ref>{{cite web |date=2025-05-14 |title=Lunar libration: what it is and how to photograph it |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/advice/skills/lunar-libration-what-is |access-date=2025-10-19 |work=BBC Sky at Night Magazine}}</ref> ==== Vyakucitika Vyakulaŵiskika ==== [[File:Lunar impact flash.jpg|thumb|Ungweru wa cinthu cakutimba mwezi, wakuŵikika pacanya pa cithuzi ca mwezi]] Pakaŵa mphindano mu mbiri usange vimanyikwiro vyakuwoneka pacanya pa mwezi vikusintha mu nyengo. Mazuŵa ghano, mazgo ghanandi agha ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa vyautesi, ivyo vikafuma ku kulaŵiska mu ungweru wakupambana, kuwoneka kuheni kwa kuthambo, panji vithuzi vyambura kunozgeka makola. Kweni kufuma kwa mphepo kukucitika nyengo zinyake ndipo kungaŵa cifukwa ca vigaŵa vicoko vya vyakucitika vya kanyengo ivyo vyayowoyeka. Sonosono, kwasacizgika kuti malo gha makilomita pafupifupi 3 pacanya pa mwezi ghakasintha na kufuma kwa mphepo pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni yimoza ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |date=November 8, 2006 |title=Recent Gas Escape from the Moon |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |page=110 |bibcode=2006psrd.reptE.110T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304055515/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |archive-date=March 4, 2007 |access-date=April 4, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schultz |first1=P.H. |last2=Staid |first2=M.I. |last3=Pieters |first3=C.M. |date=2006 |title=Lunar activity from recent gas release |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7116 |pages=184–186 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..184S |doi=10.1038/nature05303 |pmid=17093445}}</ref> === Kawonekero ka Mwezi === [[File:Moon phases en.jpg|center|thumb|upright=3|Kusintha kwa mwezi uliwose kwa ngodya pakati pa ungweru wa zuŵa na kulaŵiska kufuma pa caro capasi, na mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakufumapo, kuwoneka kufuma ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi. Mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi ngwambura kuyana na weneco.]] Mwezi ukuzunguliya pa ceneco, apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo ukusintha kalaŵiskiro kake ku zuŵa, ntheura ukuŵa na zuŵa la mwezi. Zuŵa la mwezi likuyana na mwezi umoza wa caka (kuzunguliya kamoza caro capasi). Kusintha kwa malo gha ungweru wa zuŵa pa mwezi mu zuŵa la mwezi kukuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi nga ni kusintha kwa kawonekero ka mwezi. Kawonekero ka mwezi kakulondezga ndondomeko yakuwerezgeka, iyo yikwamba pa mwezi uphya. Mu hafu yakwamba ya ndondomeko, kalondezgero ni mwezi uphya, cikweru, cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi, mwezi wakukura, na mwezi wakuzura. Mu hafu yaciŵiri, kalondezgero kakuzgokera, ndipo ndondomeko yikuwerezgeka.<ref name="r040">{{cite web | title=Phases of the Moon explained | website=BBC Sky at Night Magazine | date=January 21, 2025 | url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-science/why-does-the-moons-appearance-change | access-date=April 29, 2025}}</ref> Kuŵala na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha so cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ntheura, pa kawonekero kamoza, kuŵala kwa mwezi kukusintha so mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 pakati pa kuŵa kutali comene na pafupi comene.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html |title=Supermoon November 2016 |date=November 13, 2016 |access-date=November 14, 2016 |publisher=Space.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114220725/http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html |archive-date=November 14, 2016}}</ref> Para uli pafupi comene, cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi na caro capasi mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 kuluska para uli kutali comene, ukuwoneka ukulu mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100. Mwezi wakuzura (panji uphya) pa malo agha ukuchemeka mwezi ukulu comene.<ref name="size1" /><ref name="size2" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |title='Super moon' to reach closest point for almost 20 years |newspaper=The Guardian |date=March 19, 2011 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225175506/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |archive-date=December 25, 2013}}</ref> Kawonekero kaliko kose ka vinayi vyapakati kakutora, pakati, pafupifupi mazuŵa 7 (pafupifupi mazuŵa 7.38), kweni nyengo iyi yingasintha na magaŵa pafupifupi 11 pa 100 cifukwa ca kusintha kwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi. Unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya waumaliro ukuchemeka vyaka vya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Age Today |url=https://moonagetoday.org/ |access-date=2025-10-19}}</ref> Ndondomeko yose ya kawonekero ka mwezi yikuchemeka mwezi umoza wa caka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |date=2025-10-15 |title=lunation |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/lunation |access-date=2025-10-19 |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary}}</ref> Vyaka na kawonekero ka mwezi pa zuŵa liliwose vingapimika mwa kupenda unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya wakumanyikwa (mwaciyelezgero, 1 Matika 1900, panji 11 Mpupulu 1999) na kugaŵa nambala iyi na utali wapakati wa mwezi wa caka (mazuŵa 29.53059).<ref>{{cite web |title=Synodic month |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/synodic-month |access-date=2025-10-19 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Ivyo vyasyala pa kugaŵa ndivyo vyaka vya mwezi. Nthowa iyi yikughanaghanira kuti nthowa njakuzunguliya makola ndipo yikulaŵiska nyengo yeneyiyo ya mwezi uphya yayi, ntheura vyakufumapo vingapambana na maora ghacoko. Kulunjika kukucepa apo zuŵa likutalikirana na zuŵa la kwambira. Kupima kupepuka uku nkhwakukwana pa vinthu vinandi, kweni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulunjika comene vikukhumba kupima kwakusuzga. === Kuwezga Ungweru na Mtundu wa Pacanya === Kawonekero ka mwezi kakupangika na umo ukuwezgera ungweru na kapangikiro ka pacanya pake. Kuwezga ungweru kwake ni pafupifupi 0.12, ndiko kuti ukuwezga magaŵa 12 pa 100 gha ungweru uwo ukuwufika. Ici cikuyana na kuwezga ungweru kwa cibwe cicoko ca malibwe.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cain |first=Fraser |date=2008-10-23 |title=Moon Albedo |url=https://www.universetoday.com/articles/moon-albedo |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Universe Today}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya cisulo na titanium pacanya pa mwezi vikukora ungweru, ndipo vikupangiska malo nga ni ''maria'' kuŵa ghakufipa (kuwezga ungweru kucoko) kuluska malo ghapacanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shkuratov |first=Y. |last2=Kaydash |first2=V. |last3=Korokhin |first3=V. |last4=Velikodsky |first4=Y. |last5=Opanasenko |first5=N. |last6=Videen |first6=G. |date=October 2011 |title=Optical measurements of the Moon as a tool to study its surface |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0032063311001954 |journal=Planetary and Space Science |language=en |volume=59 |issue=13 |pages=1326–1371 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2011.06.011|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Two Lunar Phases.jpg|thumb|right|Mtundu wa mwezi uwo ukusintha cifukwa ca mpweya wa caro capasi]] Mtundu weneco wa mwezi, kwambura kukhwaskika na mphepo, ni wakuzirima wakufipa pacoko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kilburn |first=Kevin |date=September 2, 2019 |title=What's the real colour of the Moon? |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-science/what-colour-is-the-moon |access-date=2026-10-13 |website=BBC Sky at Night Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Kufuma pa caro capasi, mtundu wa mwezi ungasinthika na mphepo, nyengo zinyake ukuwoneka wakufiira panji wa buluu. Ungawoneka wakufiira pa kubisika kwa mwezi, cifukwa ungweru wakufiira wa zuŵa ukupindika na mphepo ya caro capasi na kufika pa mwezi. Cifukwa ca mtundu uwu wakufiira, kubisika kwa mwezi nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka mwezi wa ndopa. Mwezi ungawoneka so wakufiira para uli pasi kuthambo na kujumpha mu mphepo yinandi. Mwezi ungawoneka so wa buluu kuyana na tuvinthu tunyake mu mphepo, nga ni twa mapiri gha moto.<ref name="Science Mission Directorate 2020">{{cite web |date=November 11, 2020 |title=Colors of the Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/colors-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409212600/https://science.nasa.gov/colors-moon |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |access-date=April 9, 2022 |website=Science Mission Directorate}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gibbs |first=Philip |date=May 1997 |title=Why is the sky blue? |url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/BlueSky/blue_sky.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102085211/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/BlueSky/blue_sky.html |archive-date=November 2, 2015 |access-date=November 4, 2015 |website=math.ucr.edu |quote=... may cause the moon to have a blue tinge since the red light has been scattered out.}}</ref> Cifukwa mazgo ghakuti "mwezi wa ndopa" na "mwezi wa buluu" ghangagwiliskirika ntchito so pa myezi yakuzura yinyake ya caka, nyengo zose ghakung'anamula ungweru wa mwezi wakufiira panji wa buluu yayi. === Kubisika === {{multiple image | total_width = 330 | image1 = Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg | image2 = Full Eclipse of the Moon as seen in from Irvine, CA, USA (52075715442) (cropped).jpg | caption1 = Kubisika kwa zuŵa kukuphimba zuŵa, ndipo ungweru utuŵa wakuzingilizga zuŵa ukuwoneka. | caption2 = Mwezi wakuswesi pacoko pa nyengo ya kubisika kwa mwezi }} Kubisika kukucitika pera apo zuŵa, caro capasi, na mwezi vili mu mzere umoza. Kubisika kwa zuŵa kukucitika pa mwezi uphya, apo mwezi uli pakati pa zuŵa na caro capasi. Kweni kubisika kwa mwezi kukucitika pa mwezi wakuzura, apo caro capasi cili pakati pa zuŵa na mwezi. Ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ndipo vyose viŵiri vikuwoneka nga ni hafu ya kona limoza. Zuŵa ndikulu comene kuluska mwezi, kweni mtunda wake ukulu comene ndiwo ukulipangiska kuwoneka ukulu wakuyana na mwezi, uwo uli pafupi comene na ngucoko comene, kufuma pa caro capasi. Kusintha kwa ukulu wakuwoneka, cifukwa ca nthowa zambura kuzunguliya makola, nako kukuyana pafupifupi, nangauli kukucitika mu ndondomeko zakupambana. Ici cikupangiska kuthekera kwa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ukulu kuluska zuŵa) na kubisika kwa mphete (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ucoko kuluska zuŵa).<ref>{{cite web |first=F. |last=Espenak |date=2000 |url=http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html |title=Solar Eclipses for Beginners |publisher=MrEclip |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-date=May 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524172606/http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html }}</ref> Pa kubisika kose, mwezi ukuphimba cimbale cose ca zuŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca zuŵa cikuwoneka na maso.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Origin of the Corona's Light|publisher=NASA Sciences and Exploration Directorate|url=https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/attic/eclipse2017.gsfc.nasa.gov/origin-corona's-light.html|accessdate=2025-09-15}}</ref> Cifukwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusazgikira pacoko pacoko mu nyengo, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukucepa.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Apo zuŵa likusintha kuya ku kuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ukulu wake na ukulu wakuwoneka kuthambo vikusazgikira pacoko pacoko.{{efn|name=size changes|Sono kuthwasa kwa zuŵa kukukura pa magaŵa pafupifupi 5 pa 100 mu vyaka biliyoni yimoza. Ici cikuyana comene na umo ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukucepera apo mwezi ukuya kutali na caro capasi.}} Kusintha kuŵiri uku pamoza kukung'anamula kuti vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi ivyo vyajumpha, mwezi ukaphimbanga zuŵa lose nyengo zose pa kubisika kwa zuŵa, ndipo kubisika kwa mphete kukaŵavya. Nga ni nthena, vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi munthazi, mwezi uzamuphimba so zuŵa lose yayi, ndipo kubisika kose kwa zuŵa kuzamucitika yayi.<ref name=fourmilab>{{cite web |last=Walker |first=John |url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |title=Moon near Perigee, Earth near Aphelion |publisher=Fourmilab |date=July 10, 2004 |access-date=December 25, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208153430/http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |archive-date=December 8, 2013}}</ref> Cifukwa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yapendama na makona pafupifupi 5.145 kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa, kubisika kukucitika pa mwezi uliwose wakuzura na uphya yayi. Kuti kubisika kucitike, mwezi ukwenera kuŵa pafupi na apo ndondomeko ziŵiri za nthowa zikukumana.<ref name="eclipse">{{cite web |last=Thieman |first=J. |author2=Keating, S. |date=May 2, 2006 |url=http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/faq.html |title=Eclipse 99, Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211120127/http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/faq.html |archive-date=February 11, 2007}}</ref> Nyengo na kuwerezgeka kwa kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi, na kwa mwezi na caro capasi, kukulongosoreka na ''saros'', iyo yili na nyengo ya vyaka pafupifupi 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |last=Espenak |first=F. |title=Saros Cycle |publisher=NASA |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030225501/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |archive-date=October 30, 2007}}</ref> Cifukwa mwezi nyengo zose ukubisa malo gha hafu ya kona kuthambo, cakucitika cakukolerana ca kubisa nyenyezi cikucitika apo nyenyezi yakuŵala panji cibwe cikujumpha kumanyuma kwa mwezi ndipo cikubisika.{{Efn |name=area|Kanandi mwezi ukuphimba malo gha {{nowrap |digiri 0.21078 za mbali zinayi}} mu mlengalenga pa usiku.}}<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Square Degree as a Unit of Celestial Area |author=Guthrie, D.V. |date=1947 |magazine=Popular Astronomy |volume=55 |pages=200–203 |bibcode=1947PA.....55..200G}}</ref> Mu nthowa iyi, kubisika kwa zuŵa ni kubisa zuŵa. Cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi pacoko na caro capasi, kubisika kwa nyenyezi zinyake kukuwoneka kose pa caro capasi yayi, panji pa nyengo yimoza yayi. Cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nthowa ya mwezi, caka ciliconse nyenyezi zakupambana zikubisika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |title=Total Lunar Occultations |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223022627/http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |archive-date=February 23, 2010}}</ref> == Kupenda Mwezi == === Kulaŵiska Pambere pa Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (pambere pa 1609) === Ncakuthekera kuti kukura na kucepa kwa kawonekero ka mwezi kukalondezgeka pa kupima nyengo mu vithuzi vya kale comene vya mu mapanga vya ng'ombe zanalume na mawonekero gha masamu, vya vyaka mpaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, panji na kugwiliskira ntchito tumakuni twa kupendera twa vyaka 20,000–30,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi vikamanyikwa na kuwunjikika mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, ndipo pamanyuma vikalembeka na kuŵikika mu vimanyikwiro kufuma pa kwamba kwa kulemba mu vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu.<ref name="e093">{{cite web |last=Boyle |first=Rebecca |title=Ancient humans used the moon as a calendar in the sky |website=Science News |date=July 9, 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/moon-time-calendar-ancient-human-art |access-date=May 26, 2024 |archive-date=November 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104145754/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/moon-time-calendar-ancient-human-art |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Burton2011>{{cite book |title=The History of Mathematics: An Introduction |first=David M. |last=Burton |date=2011 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-07-741921-9 |publisher=Mcgraw-Hill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6uUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref> Cimoza mwa vithuzi vyakwamba ivyo vingaŵa vya mwezi ni cithuzi ca pa libwe ca vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu ku Knowth, mu Ireland.<ref name="Knowth">{{cite web |url=https://www.knowth.com/lunar-maps.htm |title=Lunar maps |access-date=September 18, 2019 |archive-date=June 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601184833/https://www.knowth.com/lunar-maps.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="spacetoday">{{cite web |url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |title=Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos |publisher=Space Today |date=2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305162253/http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |archive-date=March 5, 2012}}</ref> Cikweru ico cikulongora mwezi pamoza na ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin casangika kufuma mu vyaka masauzandi ghatatu pambere Khristu.<ref name=BlackGreen1992/> Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa fumu, mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi mu vipinda vyake.<ref name="c099">{{cite magazine | last=Winkler | first=Elizabeth | title=The Struggle to Unearth the World's First Author | magazine=The New Yorker | date=2022-11-19 | url=https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-struggle-to-unearth-the-worlds-first-author | access-date=2025-02-10}}</ref> Cithuzi ca kale comene ca mwezi ico cikulongora ubale wake na vinthu vinyake vya kumwamba ni cimbale ca kuthambo ca Nebra ca pafupifupi 1800–1600 pambere Khristu, ico cikulongora vinthu nga ni gulu la nyenyezi la Pleiades pafupi na mwezi.<ref name="g361">{{cite web |title=Nebra Sky Disc |website=State Museum of Prehistory |url=https://www.landesmuseum-vorgeschichte.de/en/nebra-sky-disc |access-date=27 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="k874">{{cite web |last=Simonova |first=Michaela |title=Under the Moonlight: Depictions of the Moon in Art |website=TheCollector |date=January 2, 2022 |url=https://www.thecollector.com/depictions-of-the-moon-in-art/ |access-date=May 26, 2024}}</ref> [[File:Nebra solstice 2.jpg|thumb|Mbale ya kuthambo ya Nebra ({{circa|1800–1600 pambere Khristu}}), yakusangika pafupi na malo agho ghangaŵa gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo; panyake yikulongora zuŵa panji mwezi wakukwana, mwezi uphya, Pleiades, na mazuŵa gha zuŵa la pacanya comene na la pasi comene nga ni mizere ya golide ku mbali, pacanya pakulongora mphepete ya mlengalenga na kumpoto<ref name="Meller 2021">{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/80363367 |title=Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany |chapter=The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power |last=Meller |first=Harald |date=2021 |publisher=Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). |isbn=978-3-948618-22-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dlijsmVJ9c&t=760s |title=Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge |work=British Museum |via=YouTube |date=2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bohan |first1=Elise |title=Big History |last2=Dinwiddie |first2=Robert |last3=Challoner |first3=Jack |last4=Stuart |first4=Colin |last5=Harvey |first5=Derek |last6=Wragg-Sykes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Chrisp |first7=Peter |last8=Hubbard |first8=Ben |last9=Parker |first9=Phillip |collaboration=Writers |date=February 2016 |publisher=DK |others=Foreword by David Christian |isbn=978-1-4654-5443-0 |edition=1st American |location=New York |page=20 |oclc=940282526}}</ref>]] Mupenda vinjeru wa Ŵagiriki ŵa kale Anaxagoras (wakafwa 428 pambere Khristu) wakaghanaghana kuti zuŵa na mwezi vyose viŵiri ni malibwe ghakulu gha mawonekero gha mpira, na kuti mwezi ukuwezga ungweru wa zuŵa.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Connor |first=J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |date=February 1999 |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Anaxagoras.html |title=Anaxagoras of Clazomenae |publisher=University of St Andrews |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112072236/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Anaxagoras.html |archive-date=January 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Needham1986>{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |title=Science and Civilization in China, Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC |date=1986 |publisher=Caves |isbn=978-0-521-05801-8 |place=Taipei |access-date=August 22, 2020}}</ref>{{rp|page=227}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1006543 |title=Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts |first1=A. |last1=Aaboe |first2=J.P. |last2=Britton |first3=J.A. |last3=Henderson |first4=Otto |last4=Neugebauer |author-link4=Otto Neugebauer |first5=A.J. |last5=Sachs |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81 |issue=6 |pages=1–75 |date=1991 |quote=One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223&nbsp;months (or 18&nbsp;years). |jstor=1006543}}</ref> Kunyake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 mpaka 400 pambere Khristu, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba ndondomeko ya ''Saros'' ya vyaka 18 ya kubisika kwa mwezi, ndipo ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵaindiya ŵakalongosora kutalikirana kwa mwezi mwezi uliwose.<ref name="Sarma-Ast-Ind">{{cite book |last=Sarma |first=K.V. |author-link=K. V. Sarma |editor=Helaine Selin |editor-link=Helaine Selin |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |edition=2 |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |pages=317–321 |contribution=Astronomy in India |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S}}</ref> Msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ŵacayina Shi Shen (mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu) wakapeleka malangulo gha kulongolera kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|page=411}} Mu malongosoro gha Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu) gha caro cose ca mlengalenga, mwezi ukaŵa mphaka pakati pa vigaŵa vya vinthu vyakusintha (dongo, maji, mphepo na moto) na nyenyezi zambura kunangika, ghanoghano ilo likalongozga kwa vyaka mahandiredi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=C.S. |author-link=C. S. Lewis |title=The Discarded Image |url=https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi |url-access=registration |date=1964 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-47735-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi/page/108 108] |access-date=November 11, 2019 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi_i1c3/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> Archimedes (287–212 pambere Khristu) wakapanga cilwero ico cingapima kwenda kwa mwezi na vinthu vinyake mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |work=The New York Times |title=Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C. |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=March 9, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204053238/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |archive-date=December 4, 2013}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu, Seleucus wa ku Seleucia wakaghanaghana makola kuti kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji kukufuma ku kukoka kwa mwezi, na kuti kukwera kwake kukuthemba malo gha mwezi kuyaniska na zuŵa.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Bartel Leendert |last=van der Waerden |author-link=Bartel Leendert van der Waerden |date=1987 |title=The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=500 |issue=1 |pages=1–569 |pmid=3296915 |bibcode=1987NYASA.500....1A |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37193.x }}</ref> Mu vyaka vyenevivyo, Aristarchus wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi kufuma pa caro capasi, ndipo wakasanga kuti mtunda ni pafupifupi kanandi 20 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction to Stars and Planets: An activities-based exploration|publisher=The American Astronomical Society, The Institute of Physics|chapter=The Sun’s Distance I: The Method of Aristarchus|author=Alan Hirshfeld|date= December 2020| pages=1–7|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/book/mono/978-0-7503-3691-8/chapter/bk978-0-7503-3691-8chi}}</ref> Ŵacayina ŵa ufumu wa Han ŵakagomezganga kuti mwezi ni nkhongono yakuyana na ''qi'', ndipo ghanoghano lawo likamanya kuti ungweru wa mwezi ni kuwezgeka kwa ungweru wa zuŵa pera; Jing Fang (78–37 pambere Khristu) wakawona kuti mwezi uli na mawonekero gha mpira.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|pages=413–414}} Ptolemy (90–168 mumuwilo wa Khristu) wakanozga comene manambala gha Aristarchus, ndipo wakapima mtunda wapakati wa kanandi 59 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi na ukulu wa 0.292 wa caro capasi, pafupi na manambala ghakwenelera gha pafupifupi 60 na 0.273.<ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=James |title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford & New York |isbn=978-0-19-509539-5 |pages=71, 386}}</ref> Mu 510 mumuwilo wa Khristu, msandi wa nyenyezi wa ku India Aryabhata wakayowoya mu buku lake kuti ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka ndiwo ukupangiska mwezi kuŵala.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata>Hayashi (2008), "Aryabhata I", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref><ref>''Gola'', 5; p. 64 in [https://archive.org/stream/The_Aryabhatiya_of_Aryabhata_Clark_1930#page/n93/mode/2up ''The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy''], translated by Walter Eugene Clark (University of Chicago Press, 1930; reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2006). "Half of the spheres of the Earth, the planets, and the asterisms is darkened by their shadows, and half, being turned toward the Sun, is light (being small or large) according to their size."</ref> Msandi wa nyenyezi na wa mendero Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) wakasanga kuti ungweru wa zuŵa ukuwezgeka na mwezi nga ni galasi yayi, kweni ungweru ukufuma ku cigaŵa ciliconse ca pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵala, ku nthowa zose.<ref>{{cite book |location=Detroit |date=2008 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography |chapter=Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan |author=A.I. Sabra |pages=189–210, at 195}}</ref> Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wa ufumu wa Song wakapanga ciyelezgero cakuyaniska kukura na kucepa kwa mwezi na mpira wa siliva wakuwezga ungweru uwo, para wapakika ufu wakutuŵa na kulaŵiskika kufuma kumphepete, ungawoneka nga ni cikweru.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|pages=415–416}} Mu nyengo yapakati, pambere cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cindapangike, mwezi ukamanyikwanga comene kuŵa mpira, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga kuti ngwakuterera makola.<ref>{{cite web |last=Van Helden |first=A. |date=1995 |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/moon.html |title=The Moon |publisher=Galileo Project |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040623085326/http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/Moon.html |archive-date=June 23, 2004}}</ref> === Kupenda na Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (1609–1959) === [[File:Galileo's sketches of the moon (cropped).png|thumb|Vithuzi vyakwamba vyakusindikizgika vya kulaŵiska mwezi na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali, kufuma mu ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (1610) ya Galileo Galilei, ivyo vikalongosora dankha mawonekero gha pacanya pa mwezi]] Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika na kuyowoyeka mu 1608.<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of the Telescope|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/space-astronomy/history-telescope|publisher=Royal Museums, Greenwich|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Kalembero kakwamba ka astronome ya cilaŵiskiro ca kutali na mapu ghacoko gha vimanyikwiro vya mwezi kakafuma kwa Thomas Harriot pakwamba pa nyengo ya kufunda ya 1609, kweni wakakapharazga yayi.<ref>{{cite web|title= Did an Englishman beat Galileo to the first moon observation?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2009/jan/14/thomas-harriot-galileo-moon-drawings|work=The Guardian|author=Ian Sample|date= 14 Jan 2009|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo Galileo Galilei nayo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali kulaŵiska kuthambo na mwezi, ndipo mu caka cenecico wakalemba kulaŵiska kwakulongosora comene na vyakumalizgira vyakuzirwa, nga ni kuti mwezi ngwakuterera yayi, kweni uli na mapiri na mazenje, ivyo wakapharazga mu 1610 mu buku lake liphya ilo likayowoyeka comene, ''Sidereus Nuncius''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sidereus Nuncius, English translation|author=Albert Van Helden|year=1989|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url=https://www.reed.edu/math-stats/wieting/mathematics537/SideriusNuncius.pdf}}</ref> Pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ntchito ya Giovanni Battista Riccioli na Francesco Maria Grimaldi yikapangiska ndondomeko ya kuthya mazina vimanyikwiro vya mwezi iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Riccioli and Lunar Nomenclature|author=T L McDonald|year=1967|journal=Journal of the British Astornomical Association|pages=112–117|url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/scan/manifest/1967JBAA...77..112M}}</ref> Mapu ghakulunjika comene gha 1834–1836 gha Wilhelm Beer na Johann Heinrich von Mädler, na buku lawo la 1837 ''Der Mond'', kusanda kwakwamba kwakulunjika kwa masamu kwa vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, vikasazgapo kutalika kwa mapiri ghakujumpha 1,000, ndipo vikanjizga kusanda mwezi mwakulunjika nga ni pa malo gha caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Consolmagno |first=Guy J. |date=1996 |title=Astronomy, Science Fiction and Popular Culture: 1277 to 2001 (And beyond) |journal=Leonardo |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=127–132 |jstor=1576348 |doi=10.2307/1576348 }}</ref> Mazenje gha mwezi, agho Galileo wakawona kakwamba, ghakaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa gha mapiri gha moto mpaka mu ma 1870 apo Richard Proctor wakasacizga kuti ghakapangika na kutimbana.<ref name="worldbook" /> Ghanoghano ili likakhozgeka mu 1892 na viyezgo vya msandi wa pasi Grove Karl Gilbert, na kusanda kwakuyaniska kufuma 1920 mpaka ma 1940, ndipo ici cikapangiska kukura kwa kasandiro ka vigaŵa vya pasi pa mwezi, ako pofika ma 1950 kakaŵa cigaŵa ciphya ca kasandiro ka pasi ka mlengalenga.<ref name="Hall1977">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/App_A.htm |title=Appendix A: Lunar Theory Before 1964 |last=Hall |first=R. Cargill |date=1977 |work=NASA History Series. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |location=Washington, DC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410085526/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/App_A.htm |archive-date=April 10, 2010}}</ref><ref name="worldbook" /> === Maulendo Ghakwamba ku Mwezi (1959–1976) === Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, ndondomeko zakwamba za kutuma vyombo zikapangika, ndipo pakumalira kwa ma 1950 zikaŵa na nkhongono izo zikazomerezga Soviet Union na United States kutuma vyombo mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951|url-access=registration|last=Neufeld|first=Michael J|publisher=The Free Press|year=1995|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951/page/158 158], 160–62, 190|isbn=978-0-02-922895-1}}</ref> Nkhondo ya Mtima yikapangiska vyaro viŵiri ivi kupanga luŵiro ndondomeko za kutuma vyombo, ndipo ici cikapangiska Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga na pamanyuma Mphikizgano wa Mwezi, uko kukasazgirapo luŵiro na khumbo la kupenda mwezi.<ref name=rmg>{{cite web|title=Space race timeline|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/space-astronomy/space-race-timeline|publisher=Royal Meuseums Greenwich|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> [[File:Luna 3 moon.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi cakwamba ca mbali yakutali ya mwezi, cakujambulika na Luna 3, 7 Okutobala 1959. Mare Moscoviense (pacanya ku maryero) na Mare Crisium, Mare Marginis na Mare Smythii (pakati ku mazere) vikuwoneka makora.]] Pamanyuma pa ulendo wakwamba wa mlengalenga wa Sputnik 1 mu 1957, vyombo vya mlengalenga vya ndondomeko ya Luna ya Soviet Union vikaŵa vyakwamba kufiska vilato vinandi. Pamanyuma pa maulendo ghatatu ghambura kuthyika mazina agho ghakatondeka mu 1958, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 1, cikathaŵa nkhongono ya kukoka ya caro capasi na kujumpha mwezi pa 4 Matika 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html |first=Anatoly |last=Zak |date=2009 |title=Russia's unmanned missions toward the Moon |access-date=April 20, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414115710/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html |archive-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref><ref name="NSSDCTrajectory">{{Cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/displayTrajectory.action?id=1959-012A|title=Luna 1 Launch and Trajectory Information|website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-date=2018-05-02}}</ref> Pamanyuma mu caka cenecico, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 2, cikafika pacanya pa mwezi mwa kutimbana mwakukhumba.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frfBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|title=Introduction to Aerospace Engineering with a Flight Test Perspective|last=Corda|first=Stephen|year=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-95336-5|language=en}}</ref> Pakumalira kwa caka, Luna 3 yikaŵa cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu kufika ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, iyo kanandi yikuwoneka yayi, ndipo yikatora vithuzi vyakwamba vya mbali iyi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-008A|title=Luna 3|website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref> Combo cakwamba ca mlengalenga kukhala pasi makola pa mwezi cikaŵa Luna 9, ndipo combo cakwamba kuzunguliya mwezi cikaŵa Luna 10, vyose mu 1966.<ref>{{cite web|title=Explore - Missions - Robotic Landers - Luna 9 |publisher=ESA|url=https://lunarexploration.esa.int/explore/missions/239?ia=334|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref name="worldbook" /> [[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|''Earthrise'', ya wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa NASA William Anders, cithuzi cakwamba ca mitundu ca caro capasi cakujambulika na munthu kufuma pa mwezi, pa Apollo 8 (1968), nyengo yakwamba apo ndege ya mlengalenga na ŵanthu yikafuma mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi na kufika pa cinthu cinyake ca kuthambo|alt=Caro capasi cicoko ca camlengalenga na cituŵa, cakuŵala mu cisi ca mlengalenga, cikuwuka pacanya pa mphepete ya mwezi wambura kanthu wakuŵa na mazenje]] Pamanyuma pa pangano la Pulezidenti John F. Kennedy la 1961 la kufikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi pambere vyaka khumi vindamale, United States, pasi pa ulongozgi wa NASA, yikatuma vyombo vinandi vyambura ŵanthu kuti vipende pacanya pa mwezi pa kunozgekera maulendo gha ŵanthu: ndondomeko ya Ranger, ndondomeko ya Lunar Orbiter na ndondomeko ya Surveyor. Ndondomeko ya Apollo ya ŵanthu yikapangika pa nyengo yeneyiyo; pamanyuma pa viyezgo vinandi vya combo ca Apollo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, na cifukwa ca kopa kuti Soviet Union yingafikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi, mu 1968 Apollo 8 yikaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web|title= From Ranger VIII to Apollo 11: Pioneering an Integrated Robotic and Human Exploration Program|author= David A. Kring|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute|url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar_images/Ranger8toApollo11/|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Vyamoyo vyakwamba vya pa caro capasi, fulu ziŵiri, zikazunguliya mwezi myezi yitatu pambere pa Zond 5 ya Soviet Union, ndipo fulu zinyake zikalondezga pa Zond 6.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apollo Missions|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/apollo50th/missions.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief History of Animals in Space|url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/a-brief-history-of-animals-in-space/|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Kakwamba apo munthu wakafika pa mwezi na pa cinthu ciliconse ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi kukaŵa apo Neil Armstrong, mulongozgi wa ulendo wa Amerika wa Apollo 11, wakaŵika lundi pa mwezi pa 02:56 UTC pa 21 Vuna 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html |title=Record of Lunar Events, 24 July 1969 |work=Apollo 11 30th anniversary |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408213454/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html |archive-date=April 8, 2010}}</ref> Ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 500 pa caro cose ŵakawonera pa wayilesi ya kanema, unandi ukulu comene wa ŵakuwonera pa nyengo iyo.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |last=Coren |first=M. |title='Giant leap' opens world of possibility |publisher=CNN |date=July 26, 2004 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/07/16/moon.landing/index.html |access-date=March 16, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120133640/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/07/16/moon.landing/index.html |archive-date=January 20, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Manned Space Chronology: Apollo_11 |url=http://www.spaceline.org/flightchron/apollo11.html |publisher=Spaceline.org |access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214213826/http://www.spaceline.org/flightchron/apollo11.html |archive-date=February 14, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing "Inspired World" |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html |work=National Geographic |access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209140059/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html |archive-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ulendo unyake, Luna 15 ya Soviet Union, ukaŵa mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi, ndipo pamoza na Apollo 11 yikaŵa ciyelezgero cakwamba ca maulendo ghaŵiri gha kuwaro kwa caro capasi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Luna 15 Accompanied Apollo 11 to the Moon|author=Amy Shira Teitel|date=Jul 4, 2019|publisher=Discover|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/luna-15-accompanied-apollo-11-to-the-moon-40769|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Maulendo gha Apollo 11 mpaka 17 (kupatula Apollo 13, iyo yikaleka kufika pa mwezi) ghakatora makilogalamu 380.05 gha malibwe na dongo la mwezi mu vigaŵa 2,196. Vilwero vya kasandiro vikaŵikika pacanya pa mwezi pa maulendo ghose gha Apollo. Malo gha vilwero gha nyengo yitali, kusazgapo vilwero vya kupima kufunda, kunyenyenkhuka, na umagineti, ghakaŵikika pa malo agho Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, na 17 yikakhala. Kutuma mauthenga ku caro capasi kukaleka pakumalira kwa 1977 cifukwa ca ndalama, kweni cifukwa vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser nvilwero vyambura kukhumba nkhongono, vicali kugwiliskirika ntchito. Apollo 17 mu 1972 yikaŵa ulendo waumaliro wa ŵanthu ku mwezi, ndipo waumaliro wa ŵanthu kufika pafupi na mwezi mpaka Artemis II mu 2026.<ref>{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans – Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |chapter=Extravehicular Activity |chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm |access-date=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |orig-date=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |ref=Orloff |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606114042/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |archive-date=June 6, 2013}}</ref> Explorer 49 mu 1973 yikaŵa combo caumaliro ca U.S. ca mwezi mpaka 1994.<ref>{{cite press release |title=NASA news release 77-47 page 242 |date=September 1, 1977 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf |access-date=March 16, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604114817/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm |access-date=August 29, 2007 |title=NASA Turns A Deaf Ear To The Moon |date=1977 |publisher=OASI Newsletters Archive |last=Appleton |first=James |author2=Radley, Charles |author3=Deans, John |author4=Harvey, Simon |author5=Burt, Paul |author6=Haxell, Michael |author7=Adams, Roy |author8=Spooner N. |author9=Brieske, Wayne |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210143103/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm |archive-date=December 10, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dickey |first1=J. |date=1994 |title=Lunar laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program |journal=Science |volume=265 |pages=482–490 |doi=10.1126/science.265.5171.482 |pmid=17781305 |issue=5171 |bibcode=1994Sci...265..482D |last2=Bender |first2=P. L. |last3=Faller |first3=J. E. |last4=Newhall |first4=X. X. |last5=Ricklefs |first5=R. L. |last6=Ries |first6=J. G. |last7=Shelus |first7=P. J. |last8=Veillet |first8=C. |last9=Whipple |first9=A. L. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Then and Now: Apollo to Artemis|publisher=NASA|url= https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/then-and-now-apollo-to-artemis/|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Explorer 49|url=https://science.nasa.gov/mission/explorer-49/|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> [[File:AS12-48-7133 (21470506269).jpg|thumb|Ciyelezgero ca kupenja mwezi na makina na ŵanthu: wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa Apollo 12 Pete Conrad wakulaŵiska Surveyor 3 pa malo ghawo gha pa mwezi (1969), na ndege ya Apollo 12 ''Intrepid'' kumanyuma<ref name="g936">{{cite web |last=Pearson |first=Ezzy | title=Apollo 12: the story of the second manned mission to the Moon |work=BBC Sky at Night | date=2019-11-01 | url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/apollo-12-story-second-mission-moon | access-date=2024-07-21}}</ref>]] Soviet Union yikalutilira kutuma maulendo gha marobotiki ku mwezi mpaka 1976, ndipo mu 1970 na Luna 17 yikaŵika galimoto lakwamba lakwendeskeka kufuma kutali, Lunokhod 1, pa cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ndipo yikawunjika na kuwezga makilogalamu 0.3 gha malibwe na dongo na maulendo ghatatu gha Luna (Luna 16 mu 1970, Luna 20 mu 1972, na Luna 24 mu 1976).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/index.cfm |title=Rocks and Soils from the Moon |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 6, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527085532/http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/index.cfm |archive-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> === Phangano la Mwezi na Kuleka Kupenda (1976–1990) === Pamanyuma pa ulendo waumaliro wa Soviet Union ku mwezi mu 1976, pakaŵa kupenda kucoko kwa mwezi kwa vyaka 14.<ref name=timeline>{{cite web|url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/|title=Lunar Mission Summaries|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakasintha kulaŵiska kupenda vibwe vya mukati (mwaciyelezgero ndondomeko ya Venera) na vya kuwaro (mwaciyelezgero Pioneer 10, 1972) vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, na so nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, kupanga na kwendeska, kupatula ma''satellite'' gha mauthenga, ma''satellite'' gha kulaŵiska caro capasi, vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya mlengalenga na comene malo gha kukhala mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aeronatics and Space Report of the President|date=1988 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/presrep1988.pdf?emrc=6814e862607f0|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Kudumba kwa Phangano la Mwezi mu 1979, na kuzomerezgeka kwake mu 1984, ndiyo ntchito yekha yikulu ya mwezi mpaka 1990.<ref>{{cite web|title=Moon Agreement: Key Provisions|author=Dr. Fabio Tronchetti|url=https://researchportal.northumbria.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/172023522/Chap_9_-_F._Tronchetti_Moon_Agreement_final_2_.pdf|publisher=University of Northumbria|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref><ref name=timeline/> === Kupenda Kuphya (1990 mpaka sono) === Mu 1990, Hiten–Hagoromo, ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi kufuma 1976, ukafika mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hiten-Hagomoro |publisher=NASA |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore |access-date=March 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614115823/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore |archive-date=June 14, 2011}}</ref> Ukatumika na Japani, ndipo ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi uwo ukaŵa wa Soviet Union panji U.S. yayi.<ref name=timeline/> Mu 1994, U.S. yikatuma so combo ca mlengalenga (Clementine) ku mwezi kakwamba kufuma 1973. Ulendo uwu ukapanga mapu ghakwamba gha mawonekero gha mwezi pafupifupi wose, na vithuzi vyakwamba vya ungweru wa mitundu yinandi vya pacanya pose pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clementine information |publisher=NASA |date=1994 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html |access-date=March 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925095846/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html |archive-date=September 25, 2010}}</ref> Mu 1998, Lunar Prospector yikalondezga, ndipo vilwero vyake vikalongora kuŵapo kwa haidrojeni yinandi ku mphaka za mwezi, iyo panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu mamita ghacoko gha pacanya gha fuvu mu mazenje gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lunar Prospector: Neutron Spectrometer |publisher=NASA |url=http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm |date=2001 |access-date=March 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527105801/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm |archive-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> Vyaka vyakulondezga vikawona maulendo ghakwamba ghanandi ku mwezi gha vyaro viphya ivyo vikupenda mwezi. Pakati pa 2004 na 2006, combo cakwamba ca Wupu wa Mlengalenga wa Ulaya (ESA), SMART-1, cikazunguliya mwezi ndipo cikalemba kupenda kwakwamba kwakulongosora kwa vigaŵa vya usungunu pacanya pa mwezi. Ndondomeko ya Ŵacayina ya Kupenda Mwezi yikafika pa mwezi kakwamba na Chang'e 1 (2007–2009), ndipo yikapanga mapu gha vithuzi gha mwezi wose. India yikafika, kuzunguliya, na kutimbana na mwezi mu 2008 kakwamba na Chandrayaan-1 na Moon Impact Probe, ndipo yikaŵa caro ca cinkhondi na ca cinkhondi na cimoza kucita nthena, ndipo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika gha usungunu na malibwe gha pacanya pa mwezi, na kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji mu dongo la mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMSDE1A6BD_0.html |title=SMART-1 factsheet |date=February 26, 2007 |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=March 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044139/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMSDE1A6BD_0.html |archive-date=March 23, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chang'e 1 |publisher=NASA |date=2019 |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/change-1/in-depth/ |access-date=October 3, 2021 |archive-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122070043/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/change-1/in-depth/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isro.org/Chandrayaan/htmls/mission_sequence.htm |title=Mission Sequence |date=November 17, 2008 |publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706225136/http://www.isro.org/chandrayaan/htmls/mission_sequence.htm |archive-date=July 6, 2010}}</ref> U.S. yikatuma Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) na LCROSS pa 18 Zizima 2009. LCROSS yikamalizga ntchito yake mwa kutimbana mwakunozgeka mu zenje la Cabeus pa 9 Thukila 2009, apo LRO yicali kugwira ntchito, yikupima kutalika kwa malo na kujambura vithuzi vyakulunjika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/observation.htm |title=Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS): Strategy & Astronomer Observation Campaign |date=October 2009 |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101191735/http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/observation.htm |archive-date=January 1, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NASA’s Moon Orbiter Spots New, ‘Once-in-Century’ Moon Crater|url= https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-moon-orbiter-spots-new-once-in-century-moon-crater/|publisher=NASA|author= Lonnie Shekhtman|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> China yikalutilira ndondomeko yake mu 2010 na Chang'e 2, iyo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika comene mu myezi 8, na mu 2013 na Chang'e 3, combo ca kukhala pa mwezi pamoza na galimoto la mwezi la zina lakuti Yutu ("Kalulu wa Jade"). Ulendo uwu ukaŵa wakwamba wa galimoto la mwezi kufuma Lunokhod 2 mu 1973 na kukhala makola kwakwamba pa mwezi kufuma Luna 24 mu 1976, ndipo ukapangiska China kuŵa caro ca citatu kufiska ici.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chang'e-3|publisher=ESA|url=https://lunarexploration.esa.int/explore/missions/237?ia=331|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Mu 2014, combo cakwamba ca ndalama za ŵanthu paŵekha, Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, cikajumpha pafupi na mwezi. Ulendo unyake wa China, Chang'e 4, ukafika kakwamba ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi pakwamba pa 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=China Outlines New Rockets, Space Station and Moon Plans |url=http://www.space.com/28809-china-rocket-family-moon-plans.html |date=March 17, 2015 |first=Leonard |last=David |publisher=Space.com |access-date=June 29, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701055507/http://www.space.com/28809-china-rocket-family-moon-plans.html |archive-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref> Mu 2019 so, India yikatuma combo cake caciŵiri, Chandrayaan-2, ku mwezi. Mu 2020, China yikacita ulendo wake wakwamba wa marobotiki wa kuwezga vigaŵa (Chang'e 5), ndipo yikawezga magalamu 1,731 gha vinthu vya mwezi ku caro capasi.<ref>{{cite news |title=China's Chang'e-5 brought 1,731 grams of samples from the moon |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chinas-change-5-brought-1731-grams-of-samples-from-the-moon/article33377559.ece |date=December 20, 2020 |work=The Hindu |access-date=October 15, 2021 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029180538/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chinas-change-5-brought-1731-grams-of-samples-from-the-moon/article33377559.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> U.S. yikapanga ndondomeko za kuwezgera ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ku mwezi kwamba mu 2004, ndipo na kusayinika kwa Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, ghakulongozgeka na U.S., ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2020.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html |title=President Bush Offers New Vision For NASA |date=December 14, 2004 |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510062228/http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html |archive-date=May 10, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=July 2019 |first=Adam |last=Mann |title=NASA's Artemis Program |url=https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |access-date=April 19, 2021 |website=Space.com |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417175557/https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vyanjira mu Mapangano agha. Kwiza kwa Mapangano gha Artemis kwawuska so mphindano pa ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro na kovwirana pa ntchito za mwezi, kuthemba Phangano la Mwezi na ghanoghano la Muzi wa Mwezi ilo likulongozgeka na ESA.<ref name="The Space Review 2020"/><ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021"/><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission"/> Mu 2022, Korea ya Kumwera yikatuma Danuri, combo cake cakwamba ca mwezi, kufuma ku U.S. Mu 2023 na 2024, India na Japani vikaŵa vyaro vya cinayi na ca cinkhondi kufikiska makola combo pa mwezi, pamanyuma pa Soviet Union na United States mu ma 1960, na China mu 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Danuri, South Korea’s first Moon mission|url=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/kplo|publisher=The Planetary Society|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Combo ca Japani, SLIM, cikapona mausiku ghatatu gha mwezi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan makes contact with 'Moon Sniper' on lunar surface |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/science-environment-68019846 |date=January 19, 2024 |access-date=January 19, 2024 |work=BBC News |archive-date=January 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119143351/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/science-environment-68019846 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lea |first=Robert |date=April 24, 2024 |title=Japan's SLIM moon lander defies death to survive 3rd frigid lunar night (image) |url=https://www.space.com/japan-slim-moon-lander-survives-3rd-lunar-night |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430163510/https://www.space.com/japan-slim-moon-lander-survives-3rd-lunar-night |archive-date=April 30, 2024 |access-date=May 1, 2024 |website=Space.com}}</ref> Mu Mpupulu 2024, IM-1 yikaŵa combo cakwamba cakupangika na kampani kufika pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intuitive Machines' 'Odysseus' becomes first commercial lander to reach the Moon – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/02/22/live-coverage-intuitive-machines-aims-to-become-first-commercial-lander-to-safely-reach-the-moon/ |access-date=April 15, 2024 |archive-date=June 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615055824/https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/02/22/live-coverage-intuitive-machines-aims-to-become-first-commercial-lander-to-safely-reach-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> China yikatuma Chang'e 6 mu Vula 2024, iyo yikawezga kakwamba vigaŵa kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi.<ref name="AJ_FI-20230425">{{cite tweet |author=Andrew Jones |user=AJ_FI |number=1650832520978526208 |title=China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W) |date=April 25, 2023}}</ref> Yikanyamula so galimoto la China la kupenda pacanya pa mwezi na ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Andrew |title=China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon/ |website=SpaceNews |access-date=May 8, 2024 |date=May 6, 2024 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508193233/https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan yikatuma combo ca kuzunguliya mwezi ca ICUBE-Q pamoza na Chang'e 6.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission/ |title=China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission |work=SpaceNews |date=January 10, 2024 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-date=May 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503100724/https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Nova-C 2, combo ca iSpace na Blue Ghost vyose vikatumika ku mwezi mu 2024.<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Space Missions to Watch for in 2024|author=David Dickinson|date= January 5, 2024|publisher=Sky & Telescope|url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/to-the-moon-and-beyond-top-space-missions-to-watch-for-in-2024/|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> [[File:Orion POV- Destination and Home (art002e009567).jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca mwezi na caro capasi apo caro capasi cikunjira kumanyuma kwa mwezi, na ndege ya ''Integrity'', pa ulendo wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu wa kuzunguliya mwezi mu 2026, ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi kufuma 1972]] Ulendo wa NASA wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi ukatumika mu Masika 2026. Ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi kufuma nyengo ya Apollo. Christina Koch wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba, Victor Glover munthu wakwamba wa khungu lakufipa, Jeremy Hansen wa ku Canada munthu wakwamba wambura kuŵa wa ku Amerika, na mulongozgi Reid Wiseman munthu mulara comene, kufuma pafupi na caro capasi na kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=2026-02-21 |title=NASA says it needs to haul the Artemis II rocket back to the hangar for repairs |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-says-it-needs-to-haul-the-artemis-ii-rocket-back-to-the-hangar-for-repairs/ |access-date=March 15, 2026 |website=Ars Technica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Seeing the Dark Side of the Moon on NASA’s Artemis II Mission|url=https://www.newyorker.com/podcast/the-new-yorker-radio-hour/seeing-the-dark-side-of-the-moon-on-nasas-artemis-ii-mission|author=David Remnick|date=June 5, 2026|publisher=The New Yorker|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Ŵanthu na Mwezi == [[File:Moon Soft Landings.svg|thumb|Mapu gha malo ghose apo ndege zikakhira makora pa mwezi (2024)]] Kuŵapo kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi kukamba na vyakusyala vya vyombo ivyo vikatimbana, ivyo vikakhala pasi, na ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vyombo vya kuzunguliya nga ni Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter iyo yikatumika mu 2009 vikulutilira kupenda mwezi pa maulendo gha munthazi, apo vyombo vya kukhala pasi nga ni Chang'e 3 iyo yikatumika mu 2013, pamoza na cilaŵiskiro cake ca kutali ca ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, vikaŵa kuti vicali kugwira ntchito mu 2020.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jones |first=Andrew |date=September 23, 2020 |title=China's Chang'e 3 lunar lander still going strong after 7 years on the moon |url=https://www.space.com/china-change-3-moon-lander-lasts-7-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125043612/https://www.space.com/china-change-3-moon-lander-lasts-7-years |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |access-date=November 16, 2020 |website=Space.com}}</ref> Vyakuwezga ungweru vinkhondi vyaŵikika pa mwezi kufuma mu ma 1970, ndipo vyagwiliskirika ntchito pa kupima kwakulunjika kwa kusintha kwa mwezi mwa laser.<ref name="UniverseToday">{{cite news |title=It's Not Just The Astronauts That Are Getting Older |date=10 March 2010 |work=Universe Today |url=http://www.universetoday.com/59310/its-not-just-the-astronauts-that-are-getting-older/ |access-date=24 August 2012}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Ŵanthu === [[File:ALSEP_AS17-134-20500.jpg|Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaleka pa mwezi: vilwero vya kuyezgera vya Apollo 17 pacanya pa mwezi<ref name="Garber 2012" />|thumb|right]] Nangauli mwezi uli pa cigaŵa capasi comene ca kuvikilira vibwe, kunangika kwake nga ni malo ghambura kukhwaskika na gha kasandiro kwayowoyeka.<ref name="Vidaurri 2019">{{cite web |last=Vidaurri |first=Monica |title=Will people go to space—and then colonize it? |work=Quartz |date=October 24, 2019 |url=https://qz.com/1734103/will-people-go-to-space-and-then-colonize-it/ |access-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109040803/https://qz.com/1734103/will-people-go-to-space-and-then-colonize-it/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Usange astronome yingacitika kufuma pa mwezi, yikwenera kuŵa yambura kunangika na vinthu na wayilesi. Nangauli mwezi ulije mphepo yikulu, kwendakwenda na kutimbana pa mwezi kukupanga maŵingu gha fuvu agho ghangathandazgika kutali na kunanga mawonekero gha kale gha mwezi na vyapadera vyake vya kasandiro.<ref name="David 2020">{{cite web |last=David |first=Leonard |title=Cold as (lunar) ice: Protecting the moon's polar regions from contamination |website=Space.com |date=August 21, 2020 |url=https://www.space.com/moon-ice-mining-contamination-concerns.html |access-date=February 3, 2022 |archive-date=February 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204000406/https://www.space.com/moon-ice-mining-contamination-concerns.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Msambiri Alice Gorman wakuti, nangauli mwezi ngwambura kukhalika, kuyowoya kuti mwezi ngwakufwa kukuleka kulaŵiska kusintha kwake, ntheura ntchito za ŵanthu zikwenera kuwona malo gha mwezi nga ni cigaŵa ca ntchito iyi.<ref name="Gorman 2022">{{cite web |last=Gorman |first=Alice |title=#SpaceWatchGL Opinion: An ecofeminist approach to the sustainable use of the Moon |website=SpaceWatch.Global |date=July 1, 2022 |url=https://spacewatch.global/2022/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-an-ecofeminist-approach-to-the-sustainable-used-of-the-moon/ |access-date=July 3, 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704024322/https://spacewatch.global/2022/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-an-ecofeminist-approach-to-the-sustainable-used-of-the-moon/ |url-status=live}} Note: see Val Plumwood which Alice Gorman cites regarding co-participation.</ref> Cakucitika ca "tardigrade" ca combo ca Beresheet ico cikawa mu 2019 cikunyamula tuvinyama tucoko twa ''tardigrade'' cayowoyeka nga ni ciyelezgero ca kusoŵa kwa ndondomeko na malango gha pakati pa vyaro gha kuvikilira vibwe.<ref name="Alvarez 2020 p."/> Vyakusyala vya mu mlengalenga kuzunguliya mwezi vyawonekera nga ni suzgo la munthazi apo maulendo ghakusazgikira, comene nga ni ngozi ku maulendo agha.<ref name="Carter 2022">{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Jamie |title=As Chinese Rocket Strikes Moon This Week We Need To Act Now To Prevent New Space Junk Around The Moon Say Scientists |website=Forbes |date=February 27, 2022 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2022/02/27/as-chinese-rocket-strikes-moon-this-week-we-need-to-act-now-to-prevent-new-space-junk-around-the-moon-say-scientists/ |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409134704/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2022/02/27/as-chinese-rocket-strikes-moon-this-week-we-need-to-act-now-to-prevent-new-space-junk-around-the-moon-say-scientists/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nast 2013"/> Ntheura kulongozga vyakutaya pa mwezi kwayowoyeka nga ni nkhani iyo maulendo gha munthazi ghakwenera kumazga, comene pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="Pino Salmeri Hugo Hume p.">{{cite journal |last1=Pino |first1=Paolo |last2=Salmeri |first2=Antonino |last3=Hugo |first3=Adam |last4=Hume |first4=Shayna |title=Waste Management for Lunar Resources Activities: Toward a Circular Lunar Economy |journal=New Space |publisher=Mary Ann Liebert Inc |date=August 27, 2021 |issn=2168-0256 |doi=10.1089/space.2021.0012 |pages=274–283 |volume=10 |issue=3}}</ref><ref name="NASA/ADS">{{cite journal |title=1985lbsa.conf..423B Page 423 |journal=Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century |bibcode=1985lbsa.conf..423B |language=fi |last1=Briggs |first1=Randall |last2=Sacco |first2=Albert |year=1985 |page=423}}</ref> Vyakusyala vya ŵanthu ŵakufwa vyatoleka ku mwezi, kusazgapo na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha. Cifukwa mwezi ngwakupatulika panji ngwakuzirwa ku midawuko yinandi, kuŵika vyakusyala vya ŵakufwa mu mlengalenga kwasuskika na ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵanthu ŵa malo agho. Mwaciyelezgero, mulongozgi wa Ŵanavajo wa nyengo iyo Albert Hale wakasuska NASA pa kutuma milota ya msandi Eugene Shoemaker ku mwezi mu 1998.<ref name="Magazine Sullivan 2024 a329">{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Will |date=January 5, 2024 |title=Navajo Nation President Asks for Delay of Moon Mission Carrying Human Remains |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/navajo-nation-president-asks-for-delay-of-moon-mission-carrying-human-remains-180983543/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106235545/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/navajo-nation-president-asks-for-delay-of-moon-mission-carrying-human-remains-180983543/ |archive-date=January 6, 2024 |access-date=January 7, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref><ref name="web.archive.org 2011 c901">{{cite web |title=Celestis Memorial Spaceflights |date=August 8, 2011 |url=http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314165835/http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |url-status=unfit |access-date=January 7, 2024}}</ref> Kupatula vyakusyala vya ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi, pali vinthu vinyake ivyo vikaŵikika mwakukhumba kuti vikhalilire, nga ni cithuzi ca Moon Museum, mauthenga gha uwemi gha Apollo 11, vimbale 6 vya mwezi, cikumbusko ca Ŵakwenda mu Mlengalenga Ŵakufwa, na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="Garber 2012">{{cite web |last=Garber |first=Megan |title=The Trash We've Left on the Moon |website=The Atlantic |date=December 19, 2012 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/the-trash-weve-left-on-the-moon/266465/ |access-date=April 11, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409080003/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/the-trash-weve-left-on-the-moon/266465/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Astronome Kufuma pa Mwezi === [[File:Earth’s geocorona from the Moon.jpg|thumb|Mpweya wapacanya comene wa caro capasi wakuŵala, kupanga ''geocorona'', wakuwoneka mu ungweru wa ''ultraviolet'' na kujambulika na kamera ya Apollo 16 pa mwezi]] Mwezi wagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo na caro capasi. Caro capasi cikuwoneka kuthambo la mwezi na ukulu wakuwoneka wa makona pafupifupi 2, katatu mpaka kanayi ukulu wa mwezi panji zuŵa kuthambo la caro capasi.<ref name="Gorkavyi Krotkov Marshak 2023 pp. 1527–1537">{{cite journal |last1=Gorkavyi |first1=Nick |last2=Krotkov |first2=Nickolay |last3=Marshak |first3=Alexander |title=Earth observations from the Moon's surface: dependence on lunar libration |journal=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=March 24, 2023 |issn=1867-8548 |doi=10.5194/amt-16-1527-2023 |pages=1527–1537 |bibcode=2023AMT....16.1527G |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kulaŵiska kufuma pa mwezi kukamba mu 1966 na vithuzi vyakwamba vya caro capasi kufuma pa mwezi, ivyo vikatoreka na Lunar Orbiter 1. Cakuzirwa comene ku midawuko ni cithuzi ca 1968 ico cikuchemeka "Kufuma kwa Caro Capasi", ico Bill Anders wa Apollo 8 wakatora. Mu Masika 1972 ulendo wa Apollo 16 ukaŵika cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cakwamba ca pa mwezi, ico cikajambura vithuzi na ungweru wakugaŵika vya kuthambo.<ref name="w422">{{cite web |last=Betz |first=Eric |title=The History and Future of Telescopes on the Moon |website=Astronomy Magazine |date=2020-06-03 |url=https://www.astronomy.com/observing/the-history-and-future-of-telescopes-on-the-moon/ |access-date=2024-10-22}}</ref><ref name="x909">{{cite web |title=Remembering the First Moon-Based Telescope |website=NASA |date=2019-07-15 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/remembering-the-first-moon-based-telescope/ |access-date=2024-10-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/experiments/f_ultra/ |title=Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph |publisher=Lpi.usra.edu |access-date=October 3, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010615/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/experiments/f_ultra/ |archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref> Mwezi ukumanyikwa kuŵa malo ghawemi comene gha vilaŵiskiro vya kutali.<ref>{{cite web |last=Takahashi |first=Yuki |title=Mission Design for Setting up an Optical Telescope on the Moon |publisher=California Institute of Technology |date=September 1999 |url=http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106142659/http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ |archive-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> Uli pafupi pacoko; mazenje ghanyake pafupi na mphaka ngamdima na ghakuzizima nyengo zose ndipo ngawemi comene ku vilaŵiskiro vya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi; ndipo vilaŵiskiro vya wayilesi ku mbali ya kutali vingavikilirika ku congo ca wayilesi ca caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chandler |first=David |title=MIT to lead development of new telescopes on moon |work=MIT News |date=February 15, 2008 |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html |access-date=March 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304062601/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html |archive-date=March 4, 2009}}</ref> Dongo la mwezi, nangauli likuŵa suzgo ku vigaŵa vyakwenda vya vilaŵiskiro, lingasazganika na vinthu vinyake na kugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga magalasi gha ukulu mpaka mamita 50.<ref>{{cite web |last=Naeye |first=Robert |title=NASA Scientists Pioneer Method for Making Giant Lunar Telescopes |publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center |date=April 6, 2008 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html |access-date=March 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222142443/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html |archive-date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca kulaŵiska pacanya pera cingapangika mwa mtengo ucoko na vinthu vyakuthira vyapadera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bell |first=Trudy |title=Liquid Mirror Telescopes on the Moon |work=Science News |publisher=NASA |date=October 9, 2008 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/ |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323081215/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/ |archive-date=March 23, 2011}}</ref> Apo ntchito za ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi zikusazgikira, kwenda kwa fuvu la mwezi kuzamusazgikira, ndipo vyakucitika viwemi vya astronome kufuma pacanya vizamucepa, kuyana na ndondomeko za kucepeska kuthandazgika kwa fuvu.<ref name="y615">{{cite journal |last1=Horányi |first1=Mihály |last2=Szalay |first2=Jamey R. |last3=Wang |first3=Xu |title=The lunar dust environment: concerns for Moon-based astronomy |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=382 |issue=2271 |date=May 9, 2024 |issn=1364-503X |pmid=38522460 |pmc=10961187 |article-number=20230075 |bibcode=2024RSPTA.38230075H |doi=10.1098/rsta.2023.0075 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Maulendo Ghakupangika === Ndondomeko za mwezi za U.S. na China zili na cilato ca kuzenga malo gha kukhala pa mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2030 pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa vyaro vinyake, ndipo vingaŵa kukhala pa mwezi kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu kufuma Apollo 17 mu 1972.<ref name="Since Apollo 17">{{cite web |last=Cameron |first=Claire |date=February 27, 2026 |title=NASA scraps 2027 Artemis III moon landing in favor of 2028 mission |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-scraps-2027-artemis-iii-moon-landing-in-favor-of-2028-mission/ |access-date=March 15, 2026 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa ulendo wa kuyezga wa Artemis III pafupi na caro capasi uwo ukunozgekera 2027, NASA yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi mu 2028, na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵaŵiri ŵa Artemis IV kukhala ku mphaka ya kumwera ya mwezi.<ref name="Since Apollo 17"/> Apo maulendo gha Apollo ghakaŵa gha kupenda, ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Pa ici, U.S. yikugwira ntchito pamoza na makampani pa mauthenga gha mwezi, kunyamula katundu, na kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya pa mwezi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bantock |first=Jack |date=April 24, 2024 |title=Streaming and texting on the Moon: Nokia and NASA are taking 4G into space |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/24/tech/nokia-moon-4g-network-nasa-spc/index.html |access-date=April 27, 2024 |publisher=CNN |archive-date=April 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427205419/https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/24/tech/nokia-moon-4g-network-nasa-spc/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.asianage.com/science/150519/nasa-plans-to-send-first-woman-on-moon-by-2024.html |title=NASA plans to send first woman on Moon by 2024 |date=May 15, 2019 |website=The Asian Age |access-date=May 15, 2019 |archive-date=April 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414162829/https://www.asianage.com/science/150519/nasa-plans-to-send-first-woman-on-moon-by-2024.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Meredith Garofalo |date=December 8, 2023 |title=DARPA moon tech study selects 14 companies to develop a lunar economy |url=https://www.space.com/darpa-moon-tech-study-future-lunar-economy |access-date=April 27, 2024 |website=Space.com |archive-date=June 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615055827/https://www.space.com/darpa-moon-tech-study-future-lunar-economy |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya Chang'e ya China yikapharazga maulendo gha pamoza na ndondomeko ya Luna-Glob ya Russia.<ref name="TASS 2019 x202">{{cite web |title=Russia, China agree on joint Moon exploration |website=TASS |date=September 17, 2019 |url=https://tass.com/science/1078599 |access-date=April 16, 2024 |archive-date=July 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722101456/https://tass.com/science/1078599 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/aw060506p2.xml |title=Russia Plans Ambitious Robotic Lunar Mission |last=Covault |first=C. |magazine=Aviation Week |date=June 4, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612215659/http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news%2Faw060506p2.xml |archive-date=June 12, 2006}}</ref> Maulendo ghaŵiri gha kupenda mwezi ghakunozgekera, Chang'e 7 mu 2026 na Chang'e 8 mu 2028, pambere ŵanthu ŵandafike mu 2029 panji 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-pathway-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration/ |title=China outlines pathway for lunar and deep space exploration |work=SpaceNews |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Andrew | last=Jones | title=China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan | url=https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan/ | work=spacenews.com | date=17 July 2023 | access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref> === Kukhala pa Mwezi === [[File:Aldrin Looks Back at Tranquility Base - GPN-2000-001102.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga Buzz Aldrin mu cakuvwara ca kusungira umoyo, wakulaŵiska kumanyuma ku ndege ya ''Eagle'' ya pa Tranquility Base, malo ghakwamba gha ŵanthu pa mwezi, pa Apollo 11 (1969), nyengo yakwamba ŵanthu kukhira pa mwezi]] Ŵanthu ŵakhala pa mwezi mu magulu gha ŵaŵiri na mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu.<ref name="i632">{{cite web |title=Apollo 17 Mission |website=Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) |date=December 6, 1972 |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_17/ |access-date=August 19, 2025}}</ref> Pose pamoza ŵanthu 12 ŵakhala pa mwezi pa maulendo 6.<ref name="n138">{{cite web |last=Chmielewski |first=Kenny |title=NASA, Space Program, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Jim Lovell, & Moon |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=July 10, 2025 |url=https://www.britannica.com/story/timeline-of-the-apollo-space-missions |access-date=August 19, 2025}}</ref> Wose ŵakakhala mu mtundu umoza wa nyumba ya pacanya, Apollo Lunar Module.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission Report: Apollo 17 – The Most Productive Lunar Expedition |url=http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/documents/apollo17_overview.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930204141/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/documents/apollo17_overview.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2006}}</ref> Mu kukhala uku ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakajumpha pose pamoza mpaka zuŵa limoza ŵakwendakwenda pacanya.<ref name="i632"/> Masuzgo pa kwendakwenda pacanya ghakufuma ku fuvu la mwezi ilo likukakatira ku vyakuvwara na vilwero, ndipo likanyamulikanga mukati mwa nyumba. Ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵakanowanga na kununkhizga fuvu, ilo likununkha nga ni mfuti, ndipo likachemeka "fungo la Apollo".<ref name="Aroma" /> Fuvu ili lakupepuka lingiziska masuzgo gha umoyo.<ref name="Aroma">{{cite web |url=https://www.space.com/moon-dust-problem-lunar-exploration.html |title=Moon Dust Could Be a Problem for Future Lunar Explorers |first=Leonard |last=David |website=Space.com |date=October 21, 2019 |access-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-date=December 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201103751/https://www.space.com/moon-dust-problem-lunar-exploration.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2019, mbuto yimoza panji kujumpha yikamera mu kuyezga pa combo ca Chang'e 4. Yikanyamulika kufuma pa caro capasi pamoza na vyamoyo vinyake vicoko.<ref name="Seeds">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2182111/chinese-lunar-landers-cotton-seeds-lead-way-plant-life-germinates |title=Chinese lunar lander's cotton seeds spring to life on far side of the moon |last1=Zheng |first1=William |date=January 15, 2019 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116174611/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2182111/chinese-lunar-landers-cotton-seeds-lead-way-plant-life-germinates |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa mwezi ngwakukakika, ndipo ukulongora cisko cimoza pera ku caro capasi, kuŵapo kwa nyengo zose pa mwezi kuzamukhumba gulu la ma''satellite'' kuti ghatumizge mauthenga kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, na kufuma ku mphaka ya kumwera iyo yili na mawonekero ghakusuzga. Ma''satellite'' gha China gha Queqiao-1 na -2 ghali kale, ndipo NASA yikunozgekera ndondomeko ya mauthenga na kulongozgera mu Thukila 2026.<ref>{{cite web|title= Queqiao-2: China’s bridge for lunar exploration|publisher=The Planetary Society|URL=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/queqiao-2-chinas-bridge-for-lunar-exploration|accessdate=2026-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Lunar Communications Relay and Navigation Systems (LCRNS)|publisher=NASA|URL=https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/esc/lcrns/|accessdate=2026-09-23}}</ref> === Ucindami pa Dango === Nangauli vyombo vya Luna vikathandazga vimanyikwiro vya Soviet Union pa mwezi, ndipo mbendera za U.S. zikaŵikika na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo pa malo agho ŵakakhala, palije caro ico cikuti cigaŵa ciliconse ca mwezi nca ici.<ref name="unoosa_q6">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |title=Can any State claim a part of outer space as its own? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref> Nga ni nthena, kuŵa mwenecho wa vigaŵa vya mwezi, panji wose, kwa munthu paŵekha kukuzomerezgeka yayi.<ref name="unoosa_q7">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |title=The treaties control space-related activities of States. What about non-governmental entities active in outer space, like companies and even individuals? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref><ref name="iisl_2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |title=Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Property Rights Regarding The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (2004) |date=2004 |publisher=International Institute of Space Law |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222021426/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2009}}</ref><ref name="iisl_2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |title=Further Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Lunar Property Rights (2009) |date=March 22, 2009 |publisher=International Institute of Space Law |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222022107/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2009}}</ref> Phangano la Mlengalenga la 1967 likuti mwezi na mlengalenga wose ni "cigaŵa ca ŵanthu wose". Likucepeska kagwiliskiro ka mwezi ku vilato vya mtendere pera, ndipo likukanizga mwakulunjika malo gha ŵankhondo na vilwero vya kunanga ŵanthu ŵanandi. Vyaro vinandi vili mu phangano ili. Phangano la Mwezi la 1979 likapangika kulongosora, na kukanizga kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya mwezi na caro cimoza pera, kuvisiya ku ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro iyo yindalongosoreke.<ref name="unoosa_q6" /><ref name="unoosa_q5">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |title=Do the five international treaties regulate military activities in outer space? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref><ref name="unoosa_q4">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |title=How many States have signed and ratified the five international treaties governing outer space? |date=January 1, 2006 |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref> Mu Matika 2020, likaŵa kuti lasayinika na kuzomerezgeka na vyaro 18.<ref name="The Space Review 2021">{{cite web |title=The Space Review: Is outer space a de jure common-pool resource? |website=The Space Review |date=October 25, 2021 |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4270/1 |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=November 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102004759/https://thespacereview.com/article/4270/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="unoosa_moon">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |title=Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809072447/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |archive-date=August 9, 2010}}</ref> Kufuma 2020, vyaro vyanjira mu Mapangano gha Artemis na U.S., agho ghakususka phangano ili. U.S. yayowoya so mu lamulo la pulezidenti kuti "United States yikuwona mlengalenga nga ni 'cuma ca caro cose' yayi" ndipo yikuti Phangano la Mwezi ni "kuyezga kwakutondeka kukanizga malonda gha wanangwa".<ref>{{cite web |first=Kiran |last=Vazhapully |title=Space Law at the Crossroads: Contextualizing the Artemis Accords and the Space Resources Executive Order |date=July 22, 2020 |website=OpinioJuris |access-date=May 10, 2021 |url=http://opiniojuris.org/2020/07/22/space-law-at-the-crossroads-contextualizing-the-artemis-accords-and-the-space-resources-executive-order/ |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510140033/http://opiniojuris.org/2020/07/22/space-law-at-the-crossroads-contextualizing-the-artemis-accords-and-the-space-resources-executive-order/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |author1=Spaceref |url=https://spacenews.com/administration-statement-on-executive-order-on-encouraging-international-support-for-the-recovery-and-use-of-space-resources/ |title=Administration Statement on Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources |via=SpaceNews |work=SpaceRef |date=April 6, 2020 |publisher=White House |access-date=August 5, 2026}}</ref> Apo Australia yikasayina na kuzomerezga Phangano la Mwezi mu 1986 na Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, pakaŵa mphindano usange ghangakolerana.<ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021">{{cite web |title=Australia Between the Moon Agreement and the Artemis Accords |website=Australian Institute of International Affairs |date=June 2, 2021 |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201052259/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa ici, Phangano la Kufiska Phangano la Mwezi lasacizgika, nga ni nthowa ya kumazga masuzgo gha Phangano la Mwezi na kulikoleranya na malango na mapangano ghanyake nga ni Mapangano gha Artemis, kuti lizomerezgeke na ŵanandi.<ref name="The Space Review 2020">{{cite web |title=The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration |website=The Space Review |date=June 29, 2020 |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=January 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125075833/https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission">{{cite web |title=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission: To give people Hope and Inspiration by helping the nations of Earth to build a Common Future |website=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission |url=http://www.spacetreaty.org/ |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201060827/http://www.spacetreaty.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa khumbo la makampani na vyaro, comene kupenja malo, ŵapangi ŵa malango ŵa U.S. ŵakanjizga pakumalira kwa 2020 malango ghapadera gha kuvikilira malo gha mbiri agho vyombo vikakhala, ndipo magulu ghanyake ghakuti malo agha ghaŵe Malo gha Ucindami wa Caro Cose na malo gha kasandiro ghakuvikilirika.<ref name="HowStuffWorks 2021">{{cite web |title='One Small Step' Act Encourages Protection of Human Heritage in Space |website=HowStuffWorks |date=January 12, 2021 |url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/us-law-protect-lunar-landing-sites.htm |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101214329/https://science.howstuffworks.com/us-law-protect-lunar-landing-sites.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="For All Moonkind">{{cite web |title=Moonkind – Human Heritage in Outer Space |website=For All Moonkind |url=https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101214336/https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Alvarez 2020 p.">{{cite thesis |last=Alvarez |first=Tamara |title=The Eighth Continent: An Ethnography of Twenty-First Century Euro-American Plans to Settle the Moon |date=January 1, 2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43890727 |access-date=November 1, 2021 |page=109-115, 164–167, 176 |archive-date=February 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205171101/https://www.academia.edu/43890727 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2021, Kalata ya Wanangwa wa Mwezi yikapangika na gulu la "ŵakumanya dango, ŵasandi ŵa vya kale vya mlengalenga na ŵanthu ŵakupwelelera", kuthemba ŵanthu ŵakukhozga wanangwa wa kawiro na ghanoghano la kuŵa munthu pa dango ku vinthu vyambura kuŵa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga.<ref name="Declaration">{{cite web |title=Declaration of the Rights of the Moon |date=February 11, 2021 |publisher=Australian Earth Laws Alliance |url=https://www.earthlaws.org.au/moon-declaration/ |access-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-date=April 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423050426/https://www.earthlaws.org.au/moon-declaration/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tepper |first1=Eytan |last2=Whitehead |first2=Christopher |date=December 1, 2018 |title=Moon, Inc.: The New Zealand Model of Granting Legal Personality to Natural Resources Applied to Space |journal=New Space |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=288–298 |doi=10.1089/space.2018.0025 |bibcode=2018NewSp...6..288T }}</ref><ref name="Evans 2021">{{cite web |last=Evans |first=Kate |title=Hear Ye! Hear Ye! A Declaration of the Rights of the Moon |website=Eos |date=July 20, 2021 |url=http://eos.org/features/hear-ye-hear-ye-a-declaration-of-the-rights-of-the-moon |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=February 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206102833/https://eos.org/features/hear-ye-hear-ye-a-declaration-of-the-rights-of-the-moon |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Kukolerana na Kulongozga ==== Kusazgikira kwa ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwawuska khumbo la kukolerana kuti ntchito za pakati pa vyaro na za makampani pa mwezi zivikilirike. Nkhani kufuma pa kovwirana mpaka pa kukolerana pera, mwaciyelezgero kupanga nyengo yakugaŵana ya mwezi, zayowoyeka. Comene, kuŵika ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro panji ya Wupu wa Vyaro Vyose ya kulongozga ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwapemphika na Phangano la Mwezi na kusacizgika kwizira mu Phangano la Kufiska, kweni kucali mphindano.<ref name="The Space Review 2020"/><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission"/> Ndondomeko za mwezi za sono nza vyaro vinandi, ya Artemis iyo yikulongozgeka na U.S. na ya Malo gha Kusanda Mwezi gha Pakati pa Vyaro agho ghakulongozgeka na China. Pa kovwirana na kukolerana kwa pakati pa vyaro kukulu, mawupu nga ni ILEWG, Moon Village Association, na ISECG ghapangika.<ref>{{cite web|title=the International Space Exploration Coordination Group|url=https://www.globalspaceexploration.org/|accessdate=2026-10-25}}</ref> == Mu Midawuko na Umoyo == === Majandulo === Ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi ŵali mu midawuko yose ya ŵanthu. Midawuko yinandi yakoleranya ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa 29.5 na ndondomeko ya kuwona mwezi kwa ŵanakazi, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mizu yakugaŵana ya mazgo gha "kuwona mwezi" na "mwezi" mu viyowoyero vinandi.<ref>Harding, Esther M., 'Woman's Mysteries: Ancient and Modern', London: Rider, 1971, p. 24.</ref> Mu Citumbuka nako, kuwona mwezi kukukolerana na lizgu lakuti mwezi. Kweni ici cikaŵa mu midawuko yose yayi, cifukwa ŵaciuta wose ŵa mwezi ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi yayi. Kweni majandulo ghanandi ghakumanyikwa ghali na ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵa mwezi, kusazgapo Selene wa Ŵagiriki, Luna wa Ŵaroma, Chang'e wa Ŵacayina, na Coyolxāuhqui wa Ŵaaztec, uyo kudumulika mutu kwake kungaŵa kulongora kubisika kwa mwezi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milbrath |first=Susan |date=1997 |title=Decapitated Lunar Goddesses in Aztec Art, Myth, and Ritual |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26307242 |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=185–206 |doi=10.1017/S095653610000167X |jstor=26307242 |issn=0956-5361}}</ref> Ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵanalume nga ni Nanna-Sin ŵakakolerananga so na kubaba na nthumbo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hätinen |first=Aino |title=The moon god Sîn in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times |date=2021 |publisher=Zaphon |isbn=978-3-96327-140-3 |series=Dubsar |location=Münster}}</ref> Ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵanyake, kusazgapo Artemis, Hecate, Phoebe, Theia na Isis, pakwamba ŵakaŵavya ubale na mwezi, kweni ŵakawusanga pamanyuma mu nyengo ya kale cifukwa ca kusazganika na Selene/Luna.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adler |first=Margot|author-link=Margot Adler |title=Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today, Revised and Expanded Edition |year=1986 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-3253-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sfameni Gasparro |first=Giulia |chapter=The Hellenistic Face of Isis: Cosmic and Saviour Goddess |editor1-last=Bricault |editor1-first=Laurent |editor2-last=Versluys |editor2-first=Miguel John |editor3-last=Meyboom |editor3-first=Paul G. P. |title=Nile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis Studies, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, May 11–14 2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric/page/n66 40]–72 |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15420-9 }}</ref> Kugaŵika kwa mwezi mu vigaŵa viŵiri kuthambo ni cizukuso ico cikuyowoyeka kuti cikacitika na ncimi Muhammad.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Splitting of the Moon|publisher=The Imam-Ghizali Institute|url=https://www.imamghazali.org/blog/splitting-moon-miracle|accessdate=2026-10-14}}</ref> === Kupima Nyengo === Kufuma mu nyengo za kale ŵanthu ŵalaŵiska kawonekero ka mwezi na ndondomeko yake ya kukura na kucepa, ndipo ŵakuyigwiliskira ntchito kupima nyengo. Mazgo gha mwezi wa caka mu viyowoyero vinandi ghakulongora ubale uwu pakati pa nyengo ya mwezi wa caka na mwezi wa kuthambo. Mu Citumbuka, lizgu limoza lakuti mwezi likung'anamula vyose viŵiri. Kupima nyengo uku kukapangiska makalendala gha mwezi na zuŵa agho ghakaŵa ghanandi mu mbiri, kweni ghakupambana. Kalendala ya Cisilamu ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 ni ciyelezgero ca kalendala ya mwezi pera, umo myezi kanandi yikwamba na kuwoneka kwa ''hilal'', panji cikweru cakwamba ca mwezi, pa mphepete ya kuthambo. [[File:Venus-de-Laussel-detail-corne.jpg|thumb|right|Venus wa Laussel ({{circa}} vyaka 25,000 ivyo vyajumpha) wakukora nyanga ya mawonekero gha mwezi uphya. Tumizere 13 pa nyanga tungaŵa kuti tukulongora mazuŵa pakati pa kwamba kwa msambo na nyengo ya kusazgika kwa sumbi, panji unandi wa misambo na wa myezi mu caka (nangauli vyose viŵiri vikukolerana yayi).<ref name=":0b">{{Cite book |last=Thompson, William Irwin. |title=The time falling bodies take to light: mythology, sexuality, and the origins of culture |date=1981 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0-312-80510-1 |location=New York |page=105 |oclc=6890108 }}</ref><ref name="e093" />]] Cakuzirwa comene caŵa mwezi wakuzura, uwo ukusekelerika mu makalendala na midawuko yinandi, nga ni Vesak ya Ŵabuda. Mwezi wakuzura pafupi na nyengo ya kuvuna ukuchemeka mwezi wa vuna, ndipo ukusekelerika na visangalalo nga ni Cisangalalo ca Mwezi wa Vuna ca kalendala ya mwezi ya Ŵacayina, cisangalalo caciŵiri pa kuzirwa pamanyuma pa Caka Ciphya ca Ŵacayina.<ref name="Confucius Institute for Scotland 2022">{{cite web |title=Mid-Autumn Festival Celebration |website=Confucius Institute for Scotland |date=August 30, 2022 |url=https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/events/mid-autumn-festival-activities-10-september/ |access-date=November 22, 2022 |archive-date=November 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122172612/https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/events/mid-autumn-festival-activities-10-september/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko === {{multiple image | title = Mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakuwerezgeka mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi | direction = vertical | image1 = Sumerian_Cylinder_Seal_of_King_Ur-Nammu.jpg | alt1 = Cidindo ca Ŵasumeri ca {{circa|2100}} pambere Khristu, ca Ḫašḫamer, wakuwusa wa Iškun-Sin. Uyo wakhala panyake ni fumu Ur-Nammu, wakupeleka ulongozgi ku Ḫašḫamer.<ref name="Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1987">{{cite web |title=Mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakuwerezgeka mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi |website=Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston |date=May 20, 1987 |url=https://collections.mfa.org/objects/6027/cylinder-vase;jsessionid=F2E906D47F69B2A85DB31D259E691783 |access-date=November 11, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111060850/https://collections.mfa.org/objects/6027/cylinder-vase;jsessionid=F2E906D47F69B2A85DB31D259E691783 |url-status=live}}</ref> | caption1 = Mwezi uphya wa Nanna/Sîn, {{circa|2100}} pambere Khristu | image2 = Patera di Parabiago - MI - Museo archeologico - Diana - Luna - 25-7-2003 - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 25-7-2003.jpg | alt2 = Luna pa mbale ya Parabiago (vyaka vya m'ma 100–400), na cisoti ca mwezi uphya, galeta, na nsalu yakuzingilizga mutu, vimanyikwiro vya mwezi ivyo vikusangika mu midawuko yakupambana. | caption2 = Cakuvwara ca mutu ca mwezi uphya, galeta, na nsalu ya Luna, vyaka vya m'ma 100–400 | image3 = Goddess O Ixchel.jpg | alt3 = Kalulu wakukolerana na mwezi mu midawuko yinandi, kufuma ku China mpaka ku ŵanthu ŵa kawiro ŵa Amerika. | caption3 = Kalulu wa mwezi wa ciuta mwanakazi wa mwezi wa Ŵamaya, vyaka vya m'ma 500–800 | image4 = | caption4 = }} Ŵanthu ŵajambula mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, nga umo vithuzi vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha na malemba gha vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu vikulongolera. Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi na kulemba ndakatulo za mwezi.<ref name="c099"/> ==== Cikweru ==== Pa kulongora mwezi, comene kawonekero kake, cikweru (🌙) caŵa cimanyikwiro cakuwerezgeka mu midawuko yinandi kufuma vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu, panyake kale comene na nyanga za ng'ombe zanalume mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="e093"/><ref name="k874"/> Mu malembo nga ni gha Ŵacayina, cikweru casintha kuŵa cimanyikwiro 月, lizgu la mwezi, ndipo mu Eguputo wa kale cikaŵa cimanyikwiro 𓇹, cakung'anamula mwezi, ndipo cikalembeka nga ni zina la ciuta wa mwezi Iah.<ref name="Hart 2005 p. 77">{{cite book |last=Hart |first=G. |title=The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Dictionaries |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-134-28424-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1LAiPylZm4C&pg=PA77 |access-date=February 23, 2022 |page=77 |archive-date=July 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725234921/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1LAiPylZm4C&pg=PA77 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>S. Quirke and A.J. Spencer, ''The British Museum Book of Ancient Egypt''. London, The British Museum Press, 1992</ref><ref>Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p. 111</ref> Mu vithuzi, cikweru cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Mesopotamiya nga ni cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Nanna/Sîn, ciuta wa mwezi wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, uyo wakaŵa awiske wa Inanna/Ishtar, ciuta mwanakazi wa cibwe ca Venasi (wakulongoreka na nyenyezi ya Ishtar ya minyanga 8), na Utu/Shamash, ciuta wa zuŵa (wakulongoreka nga ni cimbale), ndipo ŵatatu wose kanandi ŵakulongoreka pafupi na pafupi.<ref name=BlackGreen1992/><ref name=Nemet1998>{{citation |last=Nemet-Nejat |first=Karen Rhea |date=1998 |title=Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-29497-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/203 203] |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme |access-date=June 11, 2019 |archive-date=June 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616064441/https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/203 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=BlackGreen1992>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |first2=Anthony |last2=Green |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ |publisher=The British Museum Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8 |pages=54, 135 |access-date=October 28, 2017 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021935/https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nemet1998"/><ref name=BlackGreen1992/><ref name="Nemet1998"/><ref name=BlackGreen1992/> Nanna/Sîn, nga ni ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵa mwezi, wakulongoreka nga ni ciuta wa nyanga, na vyakuvwara vya mutu panji vingoma vya mawonekero gha cikweru.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zschietzschmann |first=W. |date=2006 |title=Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures |location=Whitefish, Montana |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-1-4286-5544-7 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Beth |date=2006 |article=Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyufPUA_S74C&pg=PA178 |title=The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-942-3 |pages=178–179 |access-date=April 28, 2020 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021937/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyufPUA_S74C&pg=PA178&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref> Kanozgero kapadera ka cikweru na nyenyezi (☪️) kakufuma ku Nyengo ya Mkuŵa, ndipo kakulongora zuŵa na mwezi, panji mwezi na cibwe ca Venasi, pamoza. Kufuma apo kagwiliskiro ka nyenyezi na cikweru kakathandazgika, ndipo kakaŵa cimanyikwiro cakumanyikwa ca Cisilamu (nga ni ''hilal'' ya kalendala ya Cisilamu) na ca vyaro vinandi.<ref>Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim Trans.), ''Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time'', Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108</ref><ref name="Kadoi 2014">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kadoi |first=Yuka |title=Crescent (symbol of Islam) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam Online |date=October 1, 2014 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/crescent-symbol-of-islam-COM_25588?s.num=27&s.start=20}}</ref> ==== Ubale Unyake ==== Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, malo ghapacanya ghakuŵala na ''maria'' ghakufipa, vyawoneka na midawuko yakupambana nga ni mawonekero ghakupambana. Mawonekero agha ni pakati pa ghanyake Munthu wa mu Mwezi panji Kalulu wa Mwezi (mwaciyelezgero mu majandulo gha Ŵacayina na gha Ŵaamerika ŵa malo agho).<ref name="Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1987"/> Mu nyengo yapakati pa caro cose, mwezi ukaŵa wakuzirwa mu midawuko pa nkhani nga ni ndakatulo za citemwa, uchimi, na maghanoghano gha ucizgi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lazikani |first=Ayoush Sarmada |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1499666971 |title=The medieval moon: a history of haunting and blessing |date=2025 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-27828-6 |location=New Haven |oclc=on1499666971}}</ref> Mu ''alchemy'' ya Kumanjiliro, mwezi ukakolerananga na siliva, apo golide likakolerananga na zuŵa.<ref name="Abbri 2019 pp. 39–44">{{cite journal |last=Abbri |first=Ferdinando |title=Gold and silver: perfection of metals in medieval and early modern alchemy |journal=Substantia |date=August 30, 2019 |issn=2532-3997 |doi=10.13128/Substantia-603 |pages=39–44 |url=https://riviste.fupress.net/index.php/subs/article/view/603 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=June 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617041849/https://riviste.fupress.net/index.php/subs/article/view/603 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko ya Mazuŵa Ghano === {{multiple image | total_width = 410 | image1 = Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg | image2 = Melies_color_Voyage_dans_la_lune.jpg | caption1 = Mwezi ukuwoneka comene mu cithuzi ca Vincent van Gogh ca 1889, ''The Starry Night''.<ref name="The New York Times 2019"/> | caption2 = Cithuzi cakumanyikwa comene ca Munthu wa mu Mwezi kufuma mu filimu yakwamba ya ulendo wa mlengalenga, ''A Trip to the Moon'' (1902, Georges Méliès). }} Kawonero ka mwezi mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano kakhwaskika na astronome ya vilaŵiskiro vya kutali. Maghanoghano ghaphya agha ghakapangiska vinthu vya midawuko, kukoleranya maghanoghano gha citemwa pa mwezi na nkhani zakupeka nga ni nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro izo zikuyowoya za mwezi.<ref name="The MIT Press Reader 2020">{{cite web |title=The Moon of Science or the Moon of Lovers? |website=The MIT Press Reader |date=September 29, 2020 |url=https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/moon-of-science-vs-moon-of-lovers/ |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101231807/https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/moon-of-science-vs-moon-of-lovers/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The New York Times 2019">{{cite web |last=Sirone |first=Shannon |title=Imagining the Moon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/science/moon-art-culture.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |website=The New York Times |date=July 9, 2019 |access-date=November 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709091131/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/science/moon-art-culture.html |archive-date=July 9, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Nature 2019">{{cite journal |last=Seed |first=David |title=Moon on the mind: two millennia of lunar literature |journal=Nature |volume=571 |issue=7764 |pages=172–173 |date=July 9, 2019 |bibcode=2019Natur.571..172S |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02090-w |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pamanyuma, maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakiziska nyengo ya mlengalenga, iyo yikapanga, comene na kufika kwakwamba pa mwezi, vyakufiska vya mbiri ku ŵanthu wose, ivyo vikulongoreka mu vithuzi vya caro capasi kufuma kutali na kuzizwa uko kukuchemeka "overview effect".<ref name=Mashable_20260410>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Chris |title=How NASA made 'moon joy' a space-age catchphrase |url=https://mashable.com/article/nasa-moon-joy |work=Mashable |date=10 April 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412040308/https://mashable.com/article/nasa-moon-joy |archive-date=12 April 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{multiple image | title = | image1 = Apollo 11 Landing - first steps on the moon.ogv | alt1 = | caption1 = Vidiyo ya sitepu yakwamba pacanya pa mwezi, ya Neil Armstrong, uyo wakati "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." ("Iyi ni sitepu yicoko ya munthu, kweni kuduka kukulu kwa ŵanthu wose."), yakulongoreka pa nyengo yeneyiyo pa caro cose (1969, Apollo 11). | image2 = A Man on the Moon, AS11-40-5903.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Cithuzi cakumanyikwa comene ca Buzz Aldrin (Apollo 11), na Neil Armstrong na caro capasi vyakuwoneka mu galasi la cisoti cake.<ref name="Byrne. 2019">{{cite web | last=Byrne | first=Dave | title=Vithuzi vya Apollo 11 | website=hq.nasa.gov | date=2019-07-08 | url=https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html#Mag37 | access-date=2021-06-10 | archive-date=February 24, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224163200/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html#Mag37 | url-status=live }}</ref>}} Ici capelekezgeka na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu na ghakususka pa ubale wa midawuko na wa dango wa ŵanthu na mwezi, comene nga ni cinthu ca ufumu wakuthandazga mazaza, nga mu Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga, na nga ni cinthu ca ukoloni kwizira mu kuguliska vyuma vya mwezi.<ref name="Alvarez 2020 p."/> Ndakatulo ya 1970 "Whitey on the Moon" yikamanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kulongora maghanoghano ghakususka agha.<ref name="x071">{{cite journal | last1=Simpson | first1=Sid | last2=Weber | first2=Désirée | last3=McMahon | first3=John | title=Towards a critical space theory: The instrumental politics of space exploitation | journal=European Journal of Political Theory | volume=25 | issue=2 | date=2026 | issn=1474-8851 | doi=10.1177/14748851241279679 | pages=269–291 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14748851241279679 | access-date=2026-04-20| url-access=subscription }}</ref> Maghanoghano ghanyake ghayowoya za kawiro ka mwezi, kuwuska nkhani nga ni kuvikilira mwezi na kuwugwiliskira ntchito mwakuti ukhalilire, kuwona mwezi nga ni cuma cakugaŵana.<ref name="Declaration"/><ref name="Nast 2013">{{cite magazine |title=Space: The Final Frontier of Environmental Disasters? |magazine=Wired |date=July 15, 2013 |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/07/space-environmentalism/ |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714235012/https://www.wired.com/2013/07/space-environmentalism/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Open Lunar Foundation 2022">{{cite web |title=Polycentricity for Governance of the Moon as a Commons |website=Open Lunar Foundation |date=March 22, 2022 |url=https://www.openlunar.org/library/polycentricity-for-governance-of-the-moon-as-a-commons |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=April 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420015444/https://www.openlunar.org/library/polycentricity-for-governance-of-the-moon-as-a-commons |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Space Review 2021"/><ref name="Evans 2021"/> Mu 2021, 20 Vuna likaŵa Zuŵa la Mwezi la Pakati pa Vyaro, zuŵa la kufika kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi.<ref name="Nations 1967 a849">{{cite web |author=United Nations |title=International Moon Day |publisher=United Nations |date=July 20, 2021 |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/moon-day |access-date=November 8, 2023 |archive-date=June 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627042218/https://www.un.org/en/observances/moon-day |url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Mwezi pa Ŵanthu === Vyakufumapo vya mwezi ni ubale uwo ukughanaghanirika pakati pa nyengo zinyake za ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 29.5, na nkhalo na kusintha kwa thupi la ŵanthu pa caro capasi. Ndondomeko za mwezi zili na vyakufumapo vikulu pa midawuko ya ŵanthu, kweni palije ukaboni wakukhora wakuti ndondomeko izi zikukhwaska thupi la ŵanthu.<ref name="FosterRoenneberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Russell G. |last2=Roenneberg |first2=Till |title=Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=17 |date=2008 |pages=R784–R794 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.003 |pmid=18786384 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18.R784F}}</ref> Mwezi wakolerana kwa nyengo yitali na uchindere na kusoŵa vinjeru; mazgo gha Cingelezi ''lunacy'' na ''lunatic'' ghakufuma ku zina la Cilatini la mwezi, ''Luna''. Ŵapenda vinjeru Aristotle na Pliny Mulara ŵakayowoyanga kuti mwezi wakuzura ukwiziska uchindere ku ŵanthu ŵanyake, ŵakugomezga kuti wongo, uwo ni maji comene, ukwenera kukhwaskika na mwezi na nkhongono yake pa kuzuzga kwa maji, kweni nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njicoko comene kukhwaska munthu yumoza. Mu ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, vyakufumapo vya mwezi vyayowoyeka kuti vikupangiska kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu vipatala vya ŵalwari ŵa wongo, ngozi za pa misewu, kukomana, panji kujikoma pa mwezi wakuzura, kweni mazgo agha ghalongoreka kuŵa ghautesi na kusanda kwakujumpha 37.<ref name="sciam">{{cite magazine |title=Lunacy and the Full Moon |magazine=Scientific American |date=2009 |first1=Scott O. |last1=Lilienfeld |first2=Hal |last2=Arkowitz |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016163312/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon |archive-date=October 16, 2009}} </ref><ref name="sciam"/><ref name="RottonKelly1985">{{cite journal |last1=Rotton |first1=James |last2=Kelly |first2=I.W. |title=Much ado about the full moon: A meta-analysis of lunar-lunacy research |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=97 |issue=2 |date=1985 |pages=286–306 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.286 |pmid=3885282}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Chibwe|*]] dri6alyonh8ugo66g7prlmwgpcxxiz2 124429 124418 2026-11-11T02:08:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124429 wikitext text/x-wiki {{see also|Category:Miyezi{{!}}Miyezi ya caka}} [[file:FullMoon2010.jpg|thumb|Mwezi wa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]].]] [[File:Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites.jpg|thumb|upright|Myezi ya [[Jupita]]: ''Io'', ''Europa'', ''Ganymede'', ''Callisto''.]] [[file:Moon symbol (planetary color).svg|frameless|upright=0.35|☾]] '''Mwezi''' (cimanyikwiro: [[file:moon decrescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☾]] panji [[file:moon crescent symbol (fixed width).svg|20px|☽]]) ndiyo setilayiti ya kawiro yekha ya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yakutalikilapo, pa mtunda uwo ukusintha mu caka, wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 378,000.<ref name="NSSDC">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=David R. |title=Moon Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/National Space Science Data Center |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |date=February 2, 2006 |access-date=December 31, 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323165650/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |archive-date=March 23, 2010}}</ref> Ukumalizga kuzunguliya kamoza (mwezi wa caka), kuyana na caro capasi na [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], mu mazuŵa 29.5 ghaliwose. Mwezi na caro capasi vikukoleka na nkhongono ya kukoka, iyo njankhongono comene ku mbali izo zikulaŵiskana. Nkhongono izi ndizo zikwiziska comene kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani pa caro capasi, ndipo zaguza mwezi kuti nyengo zose ulaŵiske caro capasi na cigaŵa cimoza ceneco. Kukakika uku kukupangiska nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwa mwezi pa ceneco (zuŵa la mwezi) kuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya caro capasi (mwezi wa caka). Pa kasandiro ka pasi, mwezi ni cinthu ca kuzitika kwa cibwe panji cibwe ca setilayiti. Kuzitika kwake ni magaŵa 1.2 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro capasi, ndipo ukulu wake ni makilomita 3,474, pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi. Mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]], ngukulu na wakuzitika kuluska cibwe cicoko ciliconse ico cikumanyikwa, ndipo ni mwezi wa cinkhondi pa ukulu na pa kuzitika, kweniso ni mwezi ukulu comene na wakuzitika comene kuyana na cibwe cake.<ref name="Metzger2021"/> Nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya pa mwezi njicoko pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi, pafupifupi hafu ya ya Aresi, ndipo njaciŵiri pa ukulu pa myezi yose ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa pamanyuma pa Io, mwezi wa Jupita. Thupi la mwezi lili na vigaŵa vyakupambana na ni la malibwe, ndipo lili na maji, mphepo, na nkhongono ya umagineti vicoko comene. Pacanya pa mwezi paphimbika na fuvu, ilo comene ni vinthu vyakupepuka ivyo vikaphulika kufuma ku cikopa ca mwezi apo vinthu vikatimbana nawo. Cikopa ca mwezi cili na mazenje gha kutimbana; ghanyake ghaphya ghali na mizere yakuŵala. Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo mwala wakusungunuka ukafuma comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, iyo cikopa cake ncifupi, ukazuzga mazenje gha kale, ndipo apo ukazizima ukapanga malo ghakufipa agho ghakuwoneka makola sono, ghakuchemeka ''maria'' ("nyanja"). Mwezi ukughanaghanirika kuti ukapangika kufuma ku vinthu vya caro capasi ivyo vikaphulika apo cinthu ca ukulu wa [[Aresi]] cikatimbana na caro capasi. Kusanda kwa kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika vyaka biliyoni 4.35 ivyo vyajumpha, pamanyuma mu mbiri ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kufuma kutali, msana na usiku vya zuŵa la mwezi vikuwoneka nga ni kawonekero kakusintha ka mwezi, ndipo para mwezi ukujumpha mu mzgezge wa caro capasi, kubisika kwa mwezi kukuwoneka. Ukulu wa mwezi kuthambo la caro capasi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ntheura mwezi ukuphimba zuŵa lose pa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa. Mwezi ndiwo cinthu cakuŵala comene kuthambo usiku cifukwa ca ukulu wake wakuwoneka, nangauli kuwezga ungweru kwa pacanya pake nkhwakuyana na kwa phula la misewu. Pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghakuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi cifukwa ca makona ghakupambana agho mwezi ungawonekera kuthambo, ndipo vigaŵa vinyake vya mbali ya kutali ya mwezi vikuwoneka. Mwezi waŵa kasupe wakuzirwa wa maghanoghano na vinjeru mu mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo wakaŵa wakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka caro cose, majandulo, visopa, luso, kupima nyengo, kasandiro ka kawiro, na maulendo gha mlengalenga. Maulendo ghakwamba gha mlengalenga ku cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi ghakaŵa ku mwezi, kwamba mu 1959 na kujumpha pafupi kwa Luna 1 (iyo yikatumika na Soviet Union), na kutimbana kwakukhumbika kwa Luna 2, kulondezgana mu 1966 na kukhala pasi makola kwakwamba (na Luna 9) na kunjira mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya (na Luna 10). Ŵanthu ŵakafika dankha mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi na Apollo 8 (iyo yikatumika na United States) pa 24 Zimya 1968, ndipo pamanyuma pacanya pa mwezi na Apollo 11 pa 20 Vuna 1969, ndipo ici cikapangiska mwezi kuŵa cinthu cekha ca kumwamba kuwaro kwa caro capasi ico ŵanthu ŵafikako. Pofika 1972, maulendo 6 gha Apollo ghakaŵa kuti ghafikiska ŵanthu 12 pa mwezi, ndipo ŵakakhalako mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu. Kupenda kuphya kwa mwezi na marobotiki, comene kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji pa mwezi, kwasazgirapo maghanoghano gha kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi. Mwa agha muli ndondomeko ya Artemis, kusazgapo ulendo wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi mu 2026. == Mazina na Muzu wa Lizgu == Zina la Cingelezi la setilayiti ya kawiro ya caro capasi kanandi likulembeka kuti ''Moon'', na M yikulu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling |title=Naming Astronomical Objects: Spelling of Names |publisher=International Astronomical Union |access-date=April 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216024716/http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling |archive-date=December 16, 2008}}</ref><ref name="PN-FAQ">{{cite web |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/FAQ |title=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Nomenclature FAQ |publisher=USGS Astrogeology Research Program |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''moon'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''mōna'', ilo likufuma ku ''*mēnōn'', ilo nalo likufuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''*mēnsis'' ("mwezi wa caka"), ilo lingakolerana na lizgu lakung'anamula "kupima [nyengo]". Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''mwezi'' nalo likung'anamula cinthu ca kumwamba na nyengo ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 30.<ref>{{cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Orel |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/Orel-AHandbookOfGermanicEtymology/mode/2up/search/moon |title=A Handbook of Germanic Etymology |publisher=Brill |access-date=March 5, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |entry=*mēnsis |first=Fernando |last=López-Menchero |url=https://indo-european.info/dictionary-translator/word.inc.php/ine/m%c4%93nsis |dictionary=Late Proto-Indo-European Etymological Lexicon |date=May 22, 2020 |access-date=July 30, 2022 |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522153418/https://indo-european.info/dictionary-translator/word.inc.php/ine/m%c4%93nsis |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="barnhart1995">{{cite dictionary |entry=moon |last=Barnhart |first=Robert K. |title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology |date=1995 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-270084-1 |page=487 |ol=1093523M}}</ref> Zina la Cilatini la mwezi ni ''lūna''. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''lunar'' likafuma ku Cilatini, panyake kwizira mu Cifulenci. Mu malemba gha kasandiro na mu nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro, mwezi nyengo zinyake ukuchemeka ''Luna'' kuti upambane na myezi yinyake.<ref>For example: {{cite book |first=James A. |last=Hall III |date=2016 |title=Moons of the Solar System |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-20636-3}}</ref> Mu ndakatulo, ''Luna'' lingang'anamula so mwezi wakulongoreka nga ni mwanakazi.<ref name="OEDLuna">''Oxford English Dictionary'': Luna</ref> Lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale ''selḗnē'' likang'anamulanga mwezi nga ni cinthu ca kumwamba, na so ciuta mwanakazi wa mwezi Selene. Lizgu la Cingelezi lambura kugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi lakuti ''selenian'' likulongosora mwezi nga ni caro.<ref>{{MW|selenian}}</ref><ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': selenian</ref><ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': selenic</ref><ref>{{MW|selenic}}</ref> Muzu wakuti ''seleno-'' ukuwoneka mu mazgo nga ni ''selenography'' (kusanda pacanya pa mwezi).<ref name="oed">{{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50136796?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=lunar&first=&max_to_show=10 |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |entry=lunar, a. and n. |edition=2nd| date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=March 23, 2010 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021946/https://public.oed.com/help/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|selh/nh |σελήνη |ref}}.</ref> Vimanyikwiro vya astronome vya mwezi ni ☽ na ☾, mwaciyelezgero mu M☾, "kuzitika kwa mwezi". === Kagaŵiro === Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kasandiro ka Nyenyezi (IAU) ukuchema setilayiti ya caro capasi kuti "the Moon", na M yikulu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Symbol for the Moon|url=https://www.universetoday.com/articles/symbol-for-the-moon|publisher=Universe Today|author=Fraser Cain|date= October 14, 2008|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Setilayiti zinyake za kawiro za vibwe zikuchemeka "moons", na m yicoko. Mu mbiri, mwezi ukaŵa umoza mwa vibwe vya kale, mu ng'anamulo la kale la cinthu cakwendakwenda kuthambo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Astronomical Union {{!}} IAU |url=https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/our_moon/ |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=iauarchive.eso.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251014193551/https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/our_moon/ |archive-date=2025-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.iau.org/IAU/Iau/Science/What-we-do/FAQs.aspx |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=www.iau.org}}</ref> Apo Galileo wakasanga setilayiti izo zikuzunguliya Jupita, wakazichema kuti "myezi" cifukwa, nga ni mwezi, zingawonekera kuŵa vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya cibwe cinyake. Ŵakumanya ŵanyake ŵakulondezga ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi ilo likugaŵa myezi nga ni vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa apo vikuzunguliya so cibwe cinyake.<ref name="k502">{{cite journal | last1=Metzger | first1=Philip T. | last2=Grundy | first2=W.M. | last3=Sykes | first3=Mark V. | last4=Stern | first4=Alan | last5=Bell | first5=James F. | last6=Detelich | first6=Charlene E. | last7=Runyon | first7=Kirby | last8=Summers | first8=Michael | title=Moons are planets: Scientific usefulness versus cultural teleology in the taxonomy of planetary science | journal=Icarus | volume=374 | date=2022 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114768 | article-number=114768 | arxiv=2110.15285 | bibcode=2022Icar..37414768M | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103521004206 | access-date=December 26, 2025}}</ref>{{rp|7}}<ref name="k502"/>{{rp|25}} Para tikulaŵiska kufuma ku zuŵa, mwezi ukuzunguliya zuŵa, ndipo caro capasi cikusintha pacoko nthowa yake.<ref name="q529">{{cite magazine | last=Allain | first=Rhett | title=Does the Moon Orbit the Sun or the Earth? | magazine=WIRED | date=December 6, 2012 | url=https://www.wired.com/2012/12/does-the-moon-orbit-the-sun-or-the-earth/ | access-date=December 26, 2025}}</ref><ref name="y136">{{cite web | title=Earth, Moon And Planets |author= Whipple, Fred. L |page=29 | website=Internet Archive | date=1941 | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205524/page/n35/mode/1up | access-date=December 27, 2025}}</ref> Ici capangiska ŵasandi ŵanyake kuyowoya kuti mwezi ungawonekera kuŵa cibwe, mu mbiri na mu kawiro kake, ndipo kuzitika kwake kungakwana kutozga nthowa yake kuzunguliya zuŵa usange ukaŵa paŵekha.<ref name="k502" /><ref name="s592">{{cite journal | last1=Stern | first1=S. Alan | last2=Levison | first2=Harold F. | title=Regarding the Criteria for Planethood and Proposed Planetary Classification Schemes | journal=Highlights of Astronomy | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=12 | year=2002 | issn=1539-2996 | doi=10.1017/s1539299600013289 | pages=205–213}}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuti ici cikung'anamula kuti caro capasi na mwezi ni cibwe caŵiri.<ref name="els">{{citation |last=Connors |first=Nicholas |title=Barycenter of the Earth-Moon System |date=2023 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Lunar Science |pages=69–71 |editor-last=Cudnik |editor-first=Brian |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-14541-9_151 |bibcode=2023els..book...69C |isbn=978-3-319-14540-2}}</ref>{{rp|70}} IAU yilije ng'anamulo la vibwe mu ndondomeko ya viŵiri, panji la ico cikupanga ndondomeko ya cibwe caŵiri, kweni ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezgana kuti ici cingakhumba pakati pa kuzitika kwa mwezi na caro capasi kuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ico nchambura kuŵa nthena.<ref name="l982">{{cite web | last=Nichols-Fleming | first=Fiona | title=Can Two Planets Orbit Each Other? | website=National Air and Space Museum | date=September 29, 2025 | url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/can-two-planets-orbit-each-other | access-date=December 25, 2025}}</ref> == Mbiri ya Kawiro == === Kapangikiro === [[File:Big Splash Theia.gif|thumb|Cithuzi ici cakwenda (cambura kuyana na ukulu weneco) cikulongora umo mwezi ukapangikira apo cibwe ca ukulu wa Aresi, cakuchemeka Theia, cikatimbana na caro capasi. Pamanyuma pa kuzunguliya kwa vyaka miliyoni makumi ghanandi pa malo gha L₄, nthowa ya Theia yikazgoka mu tuvizingo ndipo paumaliro yikafika pafupi comene na caro capasi.]] Kupima vyaka kwa vigaŵa vya mwezi kukulongora kuti mwezi ukapangika mu vyaka miliyoni 200 vyakwamba pamanyuma pa kwamba kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Kupima kwakugomezgeka comene pa mitundu yikulu ya malibwe kukulongora vyaka biliyoni 4.35.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borg |first=Lars E. |last2=Carlson |first2=Richard W. |date=2023 |title=The Evolving Chronology of Moon Formation |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-060538 |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=51 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-060538 |issn=1545-4495}}</ref> Ghanoghano ilo likuzomerezgeka comene ni lakuti caro capasi na mwezi vikapangika pamanyuma pa kutimbana kukulu kwa cinthu ca ukulu wa Aresi (cakuchemeka Theia) na caro capasi ca kale. Kutimbana kwa mphepete uku kukaponya vinthu mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo vinthu ivi vikawunjikana na kupanga mwezi kuwaro pacoko kwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi.<ref name="taylor1998">{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec98/OriginEarthMoon.html |title=Origin of the Earth and Moon |last=Taylor |first=G. Jeffrey |date=December 31, 1998 |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=Hawai{{okina}}i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610011142/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec98/OriginEarthMoon.html |archive-date=June 10, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150416-asteroids-scars-moon-formation-space/ |title=Asteroids Bear Scars of Moon's Violent Formation |date=April 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008160812/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150416-asteroids-scars-moon-formation-space/ |archive-date=October 8, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Scaling in global tidal dissipation of the Earth–Moon system |last=van Putten |first=Maurice H. P. M. |journal=New Astronomy |volume=54 |pages=115–121 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1016/j.newast.2017.01.012 |arxiv=1609.07474 |bibcode=2017NewA...54..115V }}</ref> Kutimbana kukulu kukughanaghanirika kuti kukacitikanga kanandi mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ka kale. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vya kutimbana kukulu vyapeleka vyakufumapo ivyo vikukolerana na kuzitika kwa mtima wa mwezi na nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya caro capasi na mwezi. Viyelezgero ivi vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku cinthu ico cikatimbana, m'malo mwa caro capasi ca kale.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Canup |first=R. |author1-link=Robin Canup |author2=Asphaug, E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–712 |date=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C}}</ref> Kweni viyelezgero vya kufuma 2007 vikulongora kuti cigaŵa cikulu ca mwezi cikafuma ku caro capasi ca kale.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071219-moon-collision.html |title=Earth–Asteroid Collision Formed Moon Later Than Thought |magazine=National Geographic |date=October 28, 2010 |access-date=May 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418171528/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071219-moon-collision.html |archive-date=April 18, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=2008 Pellas-Ryder Award for Mathieu Touboul |journal=Meteoritics and Planetary Science |volume=43 |issue=S7 |pages=A11–A12 |date=2008 |bibcode=2008M&PS...43...11K |last1=Kleine |first1=Thorsten |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2008.tb00709.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature06428 |title=Late formation and prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals |date=2007 |last1=Touboul |first1=M. |last2=Kleine |first2=T. |last3=Bourdon |first3=B. |last4=Palme |first4=H. |last5=Wieler |first5=R. |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1206–1209 |pmid=18097403 |bibcode=2007Natur.450.1206T }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150408-moon-form-giant-impact-earth |title=Flying Oceans of Magma Help Demystify the Moon's Creation |magazine=National Geographic |date=April 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409220422/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150408-moon-form-giant-impact-earth/ |archive-date=April 9, 2015}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake vya mukati mwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa nga ni Aresi na Vesta, kuyana na malibwe gha mlengalenga agho ghakufumako, vili na kapangikiro ka okisijeni na tungsten kakupambana comene na ka caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book| title=Comparative Climatology of Terrestrial Planets|editor1=Stephen J. Mackwell |editor2= Amy A. Simon-Miller |editor3= Jerald W. Harder |editor4= Mark A. Bullock|publisher=The University of Arizona Press|year=2013|chapter=The Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets: Clues to the Origins and Early Evolution of Venus, Earth, and Mars|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20140017487/downloads/20140017487.pdf|author= Kevin H. Baines|isbn=978-0-8165-3059-5}}</ref> Kweni caro capasi na mwezi vili na kapangikiro kakuyana pafupifupi. Kuyana uku kungalongosoreka na kusazganika kwa vinthu vyakuzgoka mphepo ivyo vikapanga vyose viŵiri pamanyuma pa kutimbana, nangauli pali mphindano pa ici.<ref name="Pahlevan2007">{{cite journal |last1=Pahlevan |first1=Kaveh |last2=Stevenson |first2=David J. |date=2007 |title=Equilibration in the aftermath of the lunar-forming giant impact |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=262 |issue=3–4 |pages=438–449 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.055 |bibcode=2007E&PSL.262..438P |arxiv=1012.5323 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Nield |first=Ted |title=Moonwalk (summary of meeting at Meteoritical Society's 72nd Annual Meeting, Nancy, France) |magazine=Geoscientist |volume=19 |page=8 |date=2009 |url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/geoscientist/geonews/page6072.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927034348/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/geoscientist/geonews/page6072.html |archive-date=September 27, 2012}}</ref> Kutimbana kukafumiska nkhongono zakukwana kusungunuska vinthu vyakuphulika na cikopa ca caro capasi, kupanga nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka. Vinthu vyakusungunuka vyakuphulika vingaŵa kuti vikawunjikana so mu ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="Warren1985">{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=P. H. |date=1985 |title=The magma ocean concept and lunar evolution |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=201–240 |bibcode=1985AREPS..13..201W |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.13.050185.001221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tonks |first=W. Brian |author2=Melosh, H. Jay |date=1993 |title=Magma ocean formation due to giant impacts |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=98 |issue=E3 |pages=5319–5333 |bibcode=1993JGR....98.5319T |doi=10.1029/92JE02726}}</ref><ref name="Warren1985" /> Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ungaŵa kuti ukaŵa na nyanja yake ya mwala wakusungunuka; kuzika kwake kukughanaghanirika kuŵa kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 500 mpaka 1,737.<ref name="NYT-20231101">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=A 'Big Whack' Formed the Moon and Left Traces Deep in Earth, a Study Suggests – Two enormous blobs deep inside Earth could be remnants of the birth of the moon. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/01/science/moon-formation-theia.html |date=November 1, 2023 |work=The New York Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101164127/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/01/science/moon-formation-theia.html |archive-date=November 1, 2023 |access-date=February 23, 2026}}</ref><ref name="NAT-20231101">{{cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Qian |last2=Li |first2=Mingming |last3=Desch |first3=Steven J. |last4=Ko |first4=Byeongkwan |last5=Deng |first5=Hongping |last6=Garnero |first6=Edward J. |last7=Gabriel |first7=Travis S. J. |last8=Kegerreis |first8=Jacob A. |last9=Miyazaki |first9=Yoshinori |last10=Eke |first10=Vincent |last11=Asimow |first11=Paul D. |title=Moon-forming impactor as a source of Earth's basal mantle anomalies |journal=Nature |date=2 November 2023 |volume=623 |issue=7985 |pages=95–99 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06589-1 |pmid=37914947 |bibcode=2023Natur.623...95Y }}</ref> Vigaŵa viŵiri vya ukulu wa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda mu cigaŵa ca pasi ca caro capasi vyasacizgika kuŵa vyakusyala vya Theia ivyo vicali mukati mwa caro capasi. Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vyakulunjika comene vikusanga kuti kutimbana kukulu kungaŵika luŵiro setilayiti ya kuzitika na unandi wa cisulo wakuyana na wa mwezi mu nthowa yakutali mwakukwana kufuma ku caro capasi kuti yileke kunangika na nkhongono ya kukoka (kuwaro kwa mphaka ya Roche). Nanga ni setilayiti izo pakwamba zikujumpha mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche zingapona, mwa kuwuskika vigaŵa vinyake na pamanyuma kukankhika ku nthowa zisani na zakukhazikika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kegerreis |first1=J.A. |last2=Ruiz-Bonilla |first2=S. |last3=Eke |first3=V.R. |last4=Massey |first4=R.J. |last5=Sandnes |first5=T.D. |last6=Teodoro |first6=L.F.A. |display-authors=1 |date=October 4, 2022 |title=Immediate Origin of the Moon as a Post-impact Satellite |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=937 |issue=L40 |pages=L40 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ac8d96 |arxiv=2210.01814 |bibcode=2022ApJ...937L..40K |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=You |last2=Bi |first2=Rongxi |last3=Liu |first3=Yun |date=May 30, 2024 |title=Research Advances in the Giant Impact Hypothesis of Moon Formation |url=https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/space.0153 |journal=Space: Science & Technology |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |volume=4 |pages=0153 |doi=10.34133/space.0153|doi-access=free }}</ref> Nangauli ghanoghano la kutimbana kukulu likulongosora ukaboni unandi, mafumbo ghanyake ghacali ghambura kuzgoleka, ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na kapangikiro ka mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clery |first=Daniel |journal=Science |title=Impact Theory Gets Whacked |volume=342 |pages=183–185 |date=October 11, 2013 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6155.183 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..183C |issue=6155 |pmid=24115419}}</ref> Viyelezgero ivyo mwezi ukutora cigaŵa cikulu ca caro capasi ca kale nvyakusuzga kukolerana na vyakusangika vya usungunu wa pasi pa zirconium, okisijeni, silicon, na vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Zirconium isotope constraints on the composition of Theia and current Moon-forming theories |first1=W. |last1=Akram |first2=M. |last2=Schönbächler |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=449 |date=September 1, 2016 |pages=302–310 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2016.05.022 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.449..302A |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/117905 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Kukura kwa Kawiro === [[File:Archean.png|thumb|Cithuzi ca wakujambula ca umo mwezi ungawonekera mu mlengalenga wa caro capasi pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 4 ivyo vyajumpha. Pa nyengo iyo mwezi ukazunguliyanga caro capasi pa cigaŵa cimoza mwa vitatu ca mtunda wake wa sono, ntheura ukawonekanga ukulu maulendo 2.8 kuluska sono.<ref name="Lunar and Planetary Institute" />]] [[File:Space.0076.fig.002.jpg|thumb|Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto ghamoyo kwa vyaka biliyoni zinandi pamanyuma pa kupangika kwake. Dongo lakusungunuka ilo likazuzga malo ghapasi gha mwezi likapanga ''maria'' gha sono, ndipo vyaka vyawo vili pa mapu agha (cikasu mpaka cakuswesi: ghaphya comene; camlengalenga mpaka ca ''purple'': gha kale comene).]] Mwezi uwo ukapangika uphya ukazunguliyanga caro capasi pafupi comene kuluska sono. Ntheura cilichose cikawonekanga cikulu comene kuthambo la cinyake, kubisika kukacitikanga kanandi, ndipo nkhongono za kukoka zikaŵa zikulu.<ref name="Lunar and Planetary Institute">{{cite web |title=Earth-Moon Dynamics |website=Lunar and Planetary Institute |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/training/illustrations/earthMoon/ |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907215806/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/training/illustrations/earthMoon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa ca nkhongono za kukoka, nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yakura comene, ndipo yikutora nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Early evolution of the Earth-Moon system with a fast-spinning Earth |last1=Wisdom |first1=Jack |last2=Tian |first2=ZhenLiang |journal=Icarus |volume=256 |pages=138–146 |date=August 2015 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.02.025 |bibcode=2015Icar..256..138W}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kupangika, mwezi wazizima ndipo mphepo yake yinandi yawuskika.<ref name="John 2017">{{cite magazine |last=John |first=Tara |title=NASA: The Moon Once Had an Atmosphere That Faded Away |magazine=Time |date=October 9, 2017 |url=https://time.com/4974580/nasa-moon-had-atmosphere-volcanoes/ |access-date=May 16, 2023 |archive-date=May 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514100131/https://time.com/4974580/nasa-moon-had-atmosphere-volcanoes/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pacanya pa mwezi pakusintha kufuma apo na kutimbana kukulu na kucoko kunandi, ndipo kwapanga malo ghakuŵa na mazenje gha vyaka vyose.<ref name = "yang">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Chen |last2=Zhao |first2=Haishi |last3=Bruzzone |first3=Lorenzo |last4=Benediktsson |first4=Jon Atli |last5=Liang |first5=Yanchun |last6=Liu |first6=Bin |last7=Zeng |first7=Xingguo |last8=Guan |first8=Renchu |last9=Li |first9=Chunlai |last10=Ouyang |first10=Ziyuan |title=Lunar impact crater identification and age estimation with Chang'E data by deep and transfer learning |journal=Nature Communications |date=December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6358 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20215-y |pmid=33353954 |pmc=7755906 |arxiv=1912.01240 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6358Y |doi-access=free }}</ref> Mwezi ukaŵa na mapiri gha moto mpaka vyaka biliyoni 1.2 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo agha ghakapanga ''maria'' ghakuwoneka comene. Mwala wakusungunuka unandi wa ''maria'' ukafuma mu nyengo ya Imbrian, vyaka biliyoni 3.3–3.7 ivyo vyajumpha, nangauli unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 1.2 pera ndipo unyake ngwa vyaka biliyoni 4.2.<ref name="Hiesinger">{{cite journal |last1=Hiesinger |first1=H. |last2=Head |first2=J.W. |last3=Wolf |first3=U. |last4=Jaumann |first4=R. |last5=Neukum |first5=G. |title=Ages and stratigraphy of mare basalts in Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Numbium, Mare Cognitum, and Mare Insularum |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=108 |issue=E7 |page=1029 |date=2003 |doi=10.1029/2002JE001985 |bibcode=2003JGRE..108.5065H |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Papike">{{cite journal |last1=Papike |first1=J. |last2=Ryder |first2=G. |last3=Shearer |first3=C. |title=Lunar Samples |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=36 |pages=5.1–5.234 |date=1998}}</ref> Kuthandazgika kwa mwala uwu nkhwambura kuyana, ndipo ukuwoneka comene ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi. Vifukwa vya ici vindamanyikwe, nangauli kufupi kwa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa cifukwa cimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Lunar Nearside-Farside Mare Basalt Asymmetry: The Combined Role of Global Crustal Thickness Variations and South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin-Induced Lithospheric Thickening |last1=Head |first1=James W. |last2=Wang |first2=Xing |last3=Lark |first3=Laura H. |last4=Wilson |first4=Lionel |last5=Qian |first5=Yuqi |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=51 |date=October 2025 |issue=22 |article-number=e2024GL110510 |doi=10.1029/2024GL110510|hdl=10397/113189 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Vifukwa vya kuthandazgika kwa malo ghapacanya gha mwezi ku mbali ya kutali navyo vindamanyikwe makola. Kupima kukulongora kuti cikopa ca mbali ya pafupi ncifupi kuluska ca mbali ya kutali. Malongosoro ghanyake ni ghakuti kutimbana kukulu ku mbali ya pafupi kungaŵa kuti kukapepuska mwala wakusungunuka kuthiririka pacanya.<ref name="ESA Science & Technology 2006">{{cite web |title=Lunar Far Side Highlands |website=ESA Science & Technology |date=July 14, 2006 |url=https://sci.esa.int/web/smart-1/-/39791-lunar-far-side-highlands |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902221440/https://sci.esa.int/web/smart-1/-/39791-lunar-far-side-highlands |url-status=live}}</ref> === Nyengo za Kasandiro ka Pasi pa Mwezi === Nyengo za kasandiro ka pasi pa mwezi zikuthemba kutimbana kwakuwoneka comene, nga ni mazenje gha mphete zinandi nga ni Nectaris, Imbrium, na Orientale, agho ghali na ukulu wa makilomita mahandiredi mpaka masauzandi, ndipo ghali na vinthu vyakuphulika ivyo vyathandazgika kutali.<ref name="geologic">{{cite book |first=Don |last=Wilhelms |date=1987 |title=Geologic History of the Moon |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |chapter-url=http://ser.sese.asu.edu/GHM/ghm_07txt.pdf |chapter=Relative Ages |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611054723/http://ser.sese.asu.edu/GHM/ghm_07txt.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter Throughout Earth's History|editor=Bernhard Peucker-Ehrenbrink, Birger Schmitz|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8|publisher= Springer|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-306-46689-2|date=31 October 2001|chapter=The Lunar Record of Recent Impact Cratering|pages=403–422|author=Jennifer A. Grier & Alfred S. McEwen|bibcode=2001aemt.book.....P |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8_20}}</ref> Nyengo izi zikuthyika mazina gha vimanyikwiro vyake, kufuma ku mazenje ghanandi kuwaro kwa ''maria'' ghakufipa, ku ''maria'' na mazenje gha pamanyuma, na pakumalira ku mazenje ghaphya, ghacali ghakuŵala na ghakuwoneka makola, ghakuŵa na mizere nga ni Copernicus panji Tycho.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Moon: An Archive of Small Body Migration in the Solar System|date=19 October 2016|volume=118|pages=133–158|author1=Katherine H. Joy|author2= Ian A. Crawford |author3= Natalie M. Curran |author4= Michael Zolensky |author5= Amy F. Fagan|author6= David A. Kring|journal=Discover Space |issue=2–3 |doi=10.1007/s11038-016-9495-0 |bibcode=2016EM&P..118..133J |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="geologic" /> Kusoŵa kwa mphepo, nyengo, na ndondomeko za pasi za sonosono kukung'anamula kuti mazenje ghanandi agha ghakusungika makola.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Z. |last2=Strom |first2=R.G. |year=2012 |title=Problems determining relative and absolute ages using the small crater population |journal=Icarus |volume=220 |issue=1 |pages=254–267 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2012.05.012 |bibcode=2012Icar..220..254X |url=https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/planetology/lectures/ss2015/143897-hottopics/xiao_and_strom_2012.pdf}}</ref> Nangauli mazenje ghacoko pera gha mphete zinandi ghapimika vyaka mwakusimikizgika, ngakovwira pa kupeleka vyaka vyakuyaniska. Cifukwa mazenje gha kutimbana ghakuwunjikana pa luŵiro lwakuyana pafupifupi, kupenda unandi wa mazenje pa malo kungagwiliskirika ntchito kupima vyaka vya pacanya. Kweni pakwenera kupwelelera na nthowa iyi cifukwa pangaŵa mazenje ghaciŵiri. Vinthu vyakuphulika pa kutimbana vingapanga mazenje ghaciŵiri agho kanandi ghakuwoneka mu magulu panji mu mizere, kweni ghangawoneka so paŵekha kutali na apo kutimbana kukacitikira. Agha ghangayana na mazenje ghakwamba, ndipo ghangaŵa ghanandi mu mazenje ghacoko, ntheura kuŵapo kwawo kwambura kumanyikwa kungananga kupima vyaka. Vyaka vya malibwe ghakusungunuka na kutimbana agho ghakawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo vili pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3.8 na 4.1: ici cagwiliskirika ntchito kusacizga nyengo ya Kutimbana Kukulu kwa Pamanyuma, ya kusazgikira kwa kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=William K. |last2=Quantin |first2=Cathy |last3=Mangold |first3=Nicolas |date=2007 |volume=186 |issue=1 |pages=11–23 |journal=Icarus |title=Possible long-term decline in impact rates: 2. Lunar impact-melt data regarding impact history |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.009 |bibcode=2007Icar..186...11H}}</ref> Vithuzi vyakulunjika comene vya Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010 vikulongora kuti luŵiro lwa sono lwa kupangika kwa mazenje lukujumpha comene ivyo vikaghanaghanirika kale. Ndondomeko ya mazenje ghaciŵiri yikughanaghanirika kusazganya masentimita ghaŵiri gha pacanya gha fuvu mu vyaka 81,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |title=The moon has hundreds more craters than we thought |first=Rebecca |last=Boyle |work=New Scientist |date=October 12, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013143743/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |archive-date=October 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Quantifying crater production and regolith overturn on the Moon with temporal imaging |first1=Emerson J. |last1=Speyerer |first2=Reinhold Z. |last2=Povilaitis |first3=Mark S. |last3=Robinson |first4=Peter C. |last4=Thomas |first5=Robert V. |last5=Wagner |date=October 13, 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=215–218 |doi=10.1038/nature19829 |pmid=27734864 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..215S }}</ref> Luŵiro ili lukujumpha kahandiredi luŵiro ilo likapimika kufuma ku kutimbana kwa tumalibwe tucoko pera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth's Moon Hit by Surprising Number of Meteoroids |date=October 13, 2016 |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2016/lro-lunar-cratering |access-date=May 21, 2021 |archive-date=July 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702225136/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2016/lro-lunar-cratering/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ivyo Vikulindilirika Munthazi === Pamanyuma pa vyaka biliyoni 5, mwezi uzamuzunguliya kutali na caro capasi na magaŵa 40 pa 100 kuluska sono.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neron de Surgey |first1=O. |last2=Laskar |first2=J. |year=1996 |title=On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=318 |page=975 |bibcode=1997A&A...318..975N}}</ref> Kweni pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 2 mpaka 3 pamanyuma pa ici, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira. Usange zuŵa lizamuphimba caro capasi na mwezi, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi kucepa mpaka mwezi wanjire mukati mwa mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi, ndipo ungaphwanyika.<ref name="f170">{{cite web |last=Powell |first=David |title=Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate |website=Space |date=January 22, 2007 |url=https://www.space.com/3373-earth-moon-destined-disintegrate.html |access-date=September 3, 2025}}</ref> == Vimanyikwiro vya Kawiro == === Ukulu na Kuzitika === [[File:Selected Moons of Solar System.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kuyaniska ukulu wa myezi yikulu ya mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa na caro capasi. Myezi 19 njikulu mwakuti yili ya mawonekero gha mpira; yinyake yili na mbwani pasi pa cikopa, ndipo umoza, Titan, uli na mpweya unandi.]] Mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro ya cinkhondi pa ukulu (pa ukulu na pa kuzitika) mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ungagaŵika nga ni mwezi wa kuzitika kwa cibwe, ntheura ni cibwe ca setilayiti kuyana na ng'anamulo la kasandiro ka pasi.<ref name="Metzger2021">{{Citation |last1=Metzger |first1=Philip |author-link1=Philip T. Metzger |last2=Grundy |first2=Will |last3=Sykes |first3=Mark |last4=Stern |first4=Alan |last5=Bell |first5=James |last6=Detelich |first6=Charlene |last7=Runyon |first7=Kirby |last8=Summers |first8=Michael |date=2021 |title=Moons are planets: Scientific usefulness versus cultural teleology in the taxonomy of planetary science |journal=Icarus |volume=374 |article-number=114768 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114768 |arxiv=2110.15285 |bibcode=2022Icar..37414768M }}</ref> Ngucoko kuluska Mekyuri kweni ngukulu comene kuluska cibwe cicoko cikulu comene ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, Pulutu. Mwezi ni setilayiti yaciŵiri pa kukhwima mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, pamanyuma pa Io.<ref name="Schubert2004">{{cite book |last=Schubert |first=J. |editor=F. Bagenal |display-editors=etal |title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites, and Magnetosphere |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 |pages=281–306 |chapter=Interior composition, structure, and dynamics of the Galilean satellites.}}</ref> Na kuzitika kwa cigaŵa cimoza pa 81 ca kwa caro capasi, na ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 3,500 (kujumpha cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca ukulu wa caro capasi), mwezi ni setilayiti ya kawiro yikulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kuyaniska na cibwe cake.<ref name="worldbook">{{cite web |last=Spudis |first=P.D. |date=2004 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/moon_worldbook.html |title=Moon |publisher=World Book Online Reference Center, NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703162844/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/moon_worldbook.html |archive-date=July 3, 2013 |access-date=April 12, 2007}}</ref>{{efn|Palije kukolerana kukulu pakati pa ukulu wa vibwe na ukulu wa myezi yawo. Vibwe vikulu kanandi vili na myezi yinandi, yikulu na yicoko, kuluska vibwe vicoko.}}{{efn|name=Moon vs. Charon|Pa cigaŵa 27 pa 100 ca kuthwasa na 60 pa 100 ca kuzitika kwa caro capasi, mwezi uli na uzito wa magaŵa 1.23 pa 100 gha caro capasi. Mwezi wa Charon ngukulu kuluska Pluto uyo ukumuzunguliya, kweni caro capasi na mwezi vikupambana cifukwa Pluto ni cibwe cicoko, cibwe yayi, mwakupambana na caro capasi.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |title=Space Topics: Pluto and Charon |publisher=The Planetary Society |access-date=April 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218223842/http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |archive-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> Cisko ca mwezi cikuyana na usani wa Australia, Ulaya, panji United States.<ref name="Australia">{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840 |date=July 18, 2019 |access-date=November 15, 2020 |title=How big is the Moon? |first=Jonti |last=Horner |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Lund |doi=10.64628/AA.wedpwvfmm |doi-access=free |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107223707/http://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dyches 2021 d923">{{cite news |last=Dyches |first=Preston |title=Five Things to Know about the Moon |work=NASA Solar System Exploration |date=July 28, 2021 |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1946/five-things-to-know-about-the-moon/ |access-date=September 24, 2023 |archive-date=July 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718090707/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1946/five-things-to-know-about-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Malo ghose gha pacanya pa mwezi ni makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 38, ghakuyana na gha Amerika yose.<ref name="y857">{{cite magazine |last=Parks |first=Jake |title=Everything you need to know about the Moon |magazine=Astronomy |date=2023-09-07 |url=https://www.astronomy.com/observing/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-moon/ |access-date=2024-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260401032150/https://www.astronomy.com/web/20260401032150/https://www.astronomy.com/observing/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-moon/ |archive-date=2026-04-01}}</ref> === Mawonekero === Pakwamba mwezi ukaŵa na mawonekero ghakukhazikika na kukoka kwa ceneco, kweni kufuma apo wasintha.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Interpretation of lunar potential fields |first=Stanley Keith |last=Runcorn |date=March 31, 1977 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |doi=10.1098/rsta.1977.0094 |bibcode=1977RSPTA.285..507R |volume=285 |issue=1327 |pages=507–516 }}</ref> Ni mpira wakutalikilapo pacoko comene cifukwa ca kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka, ndipo mzere wake mutali wapendama makona 30 kufuma ku kulaŵiska caro capasi, cifukwa ca kupambana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka uko kukufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ian Garrick-Bethell |author2= Viranga Perera|author3= Francis Nimmo|author4= Maria T. Zuber |title=The tidal–rotational shape of the Moon and evidence for polar wander|journal=Nature|year=2014|volume=512 |issue=7513 |pages=181–184 |doi=10.1038/nature13639 |pmid=25079322 |bibcode=2014Natur.512..181G }}</ref> Mawonekero ghake ngatali kuluska ivyo nkhongono za kukoka za sono zingalongosora. "Cifufu ca kale" ici cikulongora kuti mwezi ukakhwima apo ukazunguliyanga pa hafu ya mtunda wake wa sono kufuma ku caro capasi, ndipo sono ngwakuzizima comene kuti mawonekero ghake ghawelere ku kukhazikika pa mtunda wake wa sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garrick-Bethell |first1=Ian |last2=Perera |first2=Viranga |last3=Nimmo |first3=Francis |last4=Zuber |first4=Maria T. |year=2014 |title=The tidal-rotational shape of the Moon and evidence for polar wander |journal=Nature |volume=512 |issue=7513 |pages=181–184 |doi=10.1038/nature13639 |pmid=25079322 |bibcode=2014Natur.512..181G }}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, kusintha kwa cikopa na nkhongono za kukoka kukupanga waka tumapiri tucoko twa kuphwanyika kwa cikopa.<ref name="c293">{{cite web |last=Choi |first=Charles Q. |title=Earth's Gravitational Pull Cracks Open the Moon |website=Space |date=October 12, 2015 |url=https://www.space.com/30795-earth-gravitational-pull-cracks-moon.html |access-date=October 9, 2025}}</ref> === Kazengero === [[File:Return of the moon diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kapangikiro ka mukati mwa mwezi: pakati pakukhwima (pa cisulo), pakati pa kuwaro pakusungunuka, cigaŵa capakati cakukhwima na cikopa. Cikopa ca mbali ya pafupi, iyo nyengo zose yikulaŵiska caro capasi, ncifupi, ndipo cili na malo ghakulu agho dongo lakusungunuka likazuzga, kupanga ''maria'' gha sono.]] Mwezi uli na vigaŵa vyakupambana pa usungunu: cikopa, cigaŵa capakati, na mtima. Uli na mtima wa mukati wakukhwima wa cisulo cinandi, wa ukulu wapakati panyake wa makilomita 240 pera, na mtima wa kuwaro wa vinthu vyakuthira, comene cisulo cakusungunuka, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 300. Kuzunguliya mtima kuli cigaŵa cakusungunuka pacoko ca ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 500.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=D. |last2=Anderson |first2=J. |website=NASA |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html |title=NASA Research Team Reveals Moon Has Earth-Like Core |date=January 6, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111112210/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Weber2011">{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Renee C. |last2=Lin |first2=Pei-Ying |last3=Garnero |first3=Edward J. |last4=Williams |first4=Quentin |last5=Lognonné |first5=Philippe |title=Seismic Detection of the Lunar Core |journal=Science |date=21 January 2011 |volume=331 |issue=6015 |pages=309–312 |doi=10.1126/science.1199375 |pmid=21212323 |bibcode=2011Sci...331..309W }}</ref> Kazengero aka kakughanaghanirika kuti kakapangika apo nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi wose yikakhwimanga pacoko pacoko pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa mwezi vyaka biliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ngeo417 |title=Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon |date=2009 |last1=Nemchin |first1=A. |last2=Timms |first2=N. |last3=Pidgeon |first3=R. |last4=Geisler |first4=T. |last5=Reddy |first5=S. |last6=Meyer |first6=C. |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=133–136 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2..133N |hdl=20.500.11937/44375 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Kukhwima kwa nyanja iyi ya mwala wakusungunuka kungaŵa kuti kukapanga cigaŵa capakati ca vinthu vyakuzitika apo vinthu nga ni ''olivine'' na ''pyroxene'' vikabiranga pasi; apo pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka vikakhwima, vinthu vyakupepuka vya ''plagioclase'' vikapangika na kuyandama kuŵa cikopa pacanya.<ref name="S06">{{cite journal |last1=Shearer |first1=Charles K. |last2=Hess |first2=Paul C. |last3=Wieczorek |first3=Mark A. |last4=Pritchard |first4=Matt E. |last5=Parmentier |first5=E. Mark |last6=Borg |first6=Lars E. |last7=Longhi |first7=John |last8=Elkins-Tanton |first8=Linda T. |last9=Neal |first9=Clive R. |last10=Antonenko |first10=Irene |last11=Canup |first11=Robin M. |last12=Halliday |first12=Alex N. |last13=Grove |first13=Tim L. |last14=Hager |first14=Bradford H. |last15=Lee |first15=D.-C. |last16=Wiechert |first16=Uwe |title=Thermal and magmatic evolution of the Moon |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=365–518 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.4 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60..365S}}</ref> Vinthu vyaumaliro kukhwima vingaŵa kuti pakwamba vikaŵa pakati pa cikopa na cigaŵa capakati, na unandi ukulu wa vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga kufunda.<ref name="W06">{{cite journal |last1=Wieczorek |first1=Mark A. |last2=Jolliff |first2=Bradley L. |last3=Khan |first3=Amir |last4=Pritchard |first4=Matthew E. |last5=Weiss |first5=Benjamin P. |last6=Williams |first6=James G. |last7=Hood |first7=Lon L. |last8=Righter |first8=Kevin |last9=Neal |first9=Clive R. |last10=Shearer |first10=Charles K. |last11=McCallum |first11=I. Stewart |last12=Tompkins |first12=Stephanie |last13=Hawke |first13=B. Ray |last14=Peterson |first14=Chris |last15=Gillis |first15=Jeffrey J. |last16=Bussey |first16=Ben |title=The constitution and structure of the lunar interior |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=221–364 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60..221W}}</ref> Kuyana na ghanoghano ili, mapu gha usungunu agho ghakapangika kufuma mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya ghakulongora kuti cikopa cikupangika comene na ''anorthosite''.<ref name="L06">{{cite journal |last1=Lucey |first1=Paul |last2=Korotev |first2=Randy L. |last3=Gillis |first3=Jeffrey J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Larry A. |last5=Lawrence |first5=David |last6=Campbell |first6=Bruce A. |last7=Elphic |first7=Rick |last8=Feldman |first8=Bill |last9=Hood |first9=Lon L.| last10 = Hunten| first10 = Donald |last11=Mendillo |first11=Michael |last12=Noble |first12=Sarah |last13=Papike |first13=James J. |last14=Reedy |first14=Robert C. |last15=Lawson |first15=Stefanie |last16=Prettyman |first16=Tom |last17=Gasnault |first17=Olivier |last18=Maurice |first18=Sylvestre |title=Understanding the lunar surface and space-Moon interactions |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=83–219 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.2 |bibcode=2006RvMG...60...83L}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya malibwe gha mwezi vya mwala wakusungunuka uwo ukafuma pacanya kufuma ku kusungunuka kwa cigaŵa capakati vikusimikizga kapangikiro ka cigaŵa capakati, ako kali na cisulo cinandi kuluska ca caro capasi.<ref name="W06" /> Cikopa cili na unandi wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 50.<ref name="W06" /> Kweni mtima wa mwezi ngucoko, wa ukulu wapakati wa makilomita pafupifupi 350 panji pasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha ukulu wapakati wa mwezi.<ref name="W06" /> Kapangikiro kake kakumanyikwa makola yayi kweni panyake ni cisulo cakusazganika na sulfure na nickel pacoko. Kupenda kuzunguliya kwa mwezi uko kukusintha mu nyengo kukulongora kuti mtima ngwakusungunuka pacoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=J.G. |last2=Turyshev |first2=S.G. |last3=Boggs |first3=D.H. |last4=Ratcliff |first4=J.T. |title=Lunar laser ranging science: Gravitational physics and lunar interior and geodesy |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=2006 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=67–71 |bibcode=2006AdSpR..37...67W |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.013 |arxiv=gr-qc/0412049 }}</ref> Kukanikizga pa mtima wa mwezi kukughanaghanirika kuŵa GPa 5 (kanandi kakulu nga ni mphepo ya caro capasi kanandi 49,000).<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Case Against an Early Lunar Dynamo Powered by Core Convection |last1=Evans |first1=Alexander J. |last2=Tikoo |first2=Sonia M. |first3=Andrews-Hanna |last3=Jeffrey C. |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=January 2018 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=98–107 |doi=10.1002/2017GL075441 |bibcode=2018GeoRL..45...98E |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Nkhongono ya Kukoka === [[File:Youtubeastronautsonmoonot3.gif|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga John Young wakuduka pa mwezi, kulongora kuti nkhongono za kuguza za mwezi ni pafupifupi 1/6 ya za caro capasi. Utali wa kuduka ukucepeskeka na uzito wa Young pamoza na cakuvwara cake ca mlengalenga pa mwezi, pafupifupi {{cvt|27|kg|lbs}}, na mpweya wa mu cakuvwara ico cikukanizga kupinda.<ref name="Kluger 2018 z081">{{cite magazine |last=Kluger |first=Jeffrey |title=How Neil Armstrong's Moon Spacesuit Was Preserved for Centuries to Come |magazine=Time |date=October 12, 2018 |url=https://time.com/5422609/armstrong-spacesuit-smithsonian/ |access-date=November 29, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203061321/https://time.com/5422609/armstrong-spacesuit-smithsonian/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nast 2013 v237">{{cite magazine |title=How Do You Pick Up Something on the Moon? |magazine=Wired |date=December 9, 2013 |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/12/how-do-you-pick-up-something-on-the-moon/ |access-date=November 29, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203061321/https://www.wired.com/2013/12/how-do-you-pick-up-something-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Pakati, nkhongono ya kukoka pacanya pa mwezi ni 1.62 m/s², pafupifupi hafu ya ya pacanya pa Aresi na pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca ya caro capasi.<ref name="NSSDC" /> Pa myezi ya vibwe, mwezi uli na nkhongono ya kukoka ya pacanya yaciŵiri pa ukulu, pamanyuma pa Io. Luŵiro lwa kuthaŵa nkhongono yake ni makilomita 2.38 pa liŵiri.<ref name="NSSDC"/> Nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njambura kuyana pose. Vyakulongosora vya nkhongono iyi vyapimika mwa kulondezga kusintha kwa vyakutumika vya wayilesi vyakufuma ku vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vimanyikwiro vikulu vya nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi ni ma''mascon'', malo gha nkhongono ya kukoka yikulu comene agho ghakukolerana na mazenje ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana, ndipo ghakufuma pacoko ku mwala wakusungunuka wakukhwima wa ''maria'' uwo ukazuzga mazenje agha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muller |first=P. |author2=Sjogren, W. |title=Mascons: lunar mass concentrations |journal=Science |volume=161 |pages=680–684 |date=1968 |doi=10.1126/science.161.3842.680 |pmid=17801458 |issue=3842 |bibcode=1968Sci...161..680M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Science |author=Richard A. Kerr |title=The Mystery of Our Moon's Gravitational Bumps Solved? |volume=340 |issue=6129 |pages=138–139 |date=April 12, 2013 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6129.138-a |pmid=23580504}}</ref> Malo agha ghakukhwaska comene nthowa za vyombo vya mlengalenga ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Pali mafumbo ghanyake: mwala wakusungunuka pera ungalongosora kupambana kose kwa nkhongono ya kukoka yayi, ndipo ma''mascon'' ghanyake ghakukolerana na mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Konopliv |first=A. |author2=Asmar, S. |author3=Carranza, E. |author4=Sjogren, W. |author5=Yuan, D. |title=Recent gravity models as a result of the Lunar Prospector mission |journal=Icarus |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |date=2001 |doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6573 |bibcode=2001Icar..150....1K }}</ref> Cigaŵa umo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi yikuluska ya caro capasi cili na ukulu wapakati wa makilomita 60,000 (ndiko kuti, pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa vinkhondi na cimoza ca mtunda wa makilomita 378,000 pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi).<ref>{{cite web | author = Follows, Mike | date = 4 October 2017 | title = Ever Decreasing Circles | work = NewScientist.com | url = https://www.newscientist.com/lastword/mg23631461-200-ever-decreasing-circles/ | access-date = 23 July 2023 | quote = The moon's Hill sphere has a radius of 60,000 kilometres, about one-sixth of the distance between it and Earth.}}</ref> Malo agha ghakuchemeka mlengalenga wa pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="v692">{{cite web | last=StricklandMonday | first=John K. | title=The Space Review: The cislunar gateway with no gate | website=thespacereview.com | date=November 26, 2015 | url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207003135/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1 | archive-date=February 7, 2016 | access-date=August 3, 2025}}</ref> === Nkhongono ya Umagineti === Mwezi uli na nkhongono ya umagineti ya kuwaro ya pasi pa nanotesla 0.2, panji pasi pa cigaŵa cimoza pa 100,000 ca ya caro capasi.<ref name="Mighani2020">{{cite journal |last1=Mighani |first1=S. |last2=Wang |first2=H. |last3=Shuster |first3=D.L. |last4=Borlina |first4=C.S. |last5=Nichols |first5=C.I.O. |last6=Weiss |first6=B.P. |title=The end of the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=1 |year=2020 |article-number=eaax0883 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax0883 |pmid=31911941 |pmc=6938704 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..883M}}</ref> Mwezi ulije nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi wose; uli waka na umagineti mu cikopa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dyal |first1=Palmer |last2=Parkin |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Daily |first3=William D. |date=1974 |title=Magnetism and the interior of the Moon |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/RG012i004p00568 |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=568–591 |doi=10.1029/RG012i004p00568 |bibcode=1974RvGSP..12..568D |hdl=2060/19740018181 |issn=8755-1209|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richmond |first1=N. C. |last2=Hood |first2=L. L. |title=A preliminary global map of the vector lunar crustal magnetic field based on Lunar Prospector magnetometer data |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |volume=113 |issue=E2 |date=2008 |article-number=2007JE002933 |issn=0148-0227 |doi=10.1029/2007JE002933 |bibcode=2008JGRE..113.2010R |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2007JE002933|quote=Using the 329 optimal passes, global maps of the lunar crustal magnetic field are constructed at 30 and 40 km.}}</ref> Mbiri ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya mwezi njambura kuzomerezgeka na wose, ndipo pacali kusoŵa kuzomerezgana pa nkhongono na nyengo ya nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Claire I. O. |last2=Wade |first2=Jon |last3=Stephenson |first3=Simon N. |date=2026 |title=An intermittent dynamo linked to high-titanium volcanism on the Moon |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.1038/s41561-026-01929-y |bibcode=2026NatGe..19..425N |issn=1752-0894 |quote=The history of the lunar magnetic field is a longstanding controversy.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tarduno |first1=John A. |last2=Cottrell |first2=Rory D. |last3=Lawrence |first3=Kristin |last4=Bono |first4=Richard K. |last5=Huang |first5=Wentao |last6=Johnson |first6=Catherine L. |last7=Blackman |first7=Eric G. |last8=Smirnov |first8=Aleksey V. |last9=Nakajima |first9=Miki |last10=Neal |first10=Clive R. |last11=Zhou |first11=Tinghong |last12=Ibanez-Mejia |first12=Mauricio |last13=Oda |first13=Hirokuni |last14=Crummins |first14=Ben |date=2021-08-06 |title=Absence of a long-lived lunar paleomagnetosphere |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=32 |article-number=eabi7647 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi7647 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8336955 |pmid=34348904 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.7647T |quote=Together, these data indicate that the Moon did not have a long-lived core dynamo.}}</ref><ref name="Tikoo-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Tikoo |first1=Sonia M. |last2=Weiss |first2=Benjamin P. |last3=Shuster |first3=David L. |last4=Suavet |first4=Clément |last5=Wang |first5=Huapei |last6=Grove |first6=Timothy L. |date=2017-08-04 |title=A two-billion-year history for the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=8 |article-number=e1700207 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700207 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=5550224 |pmid=28808679 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0207T |quote=No single dynamo mechanism proposed thus far can explain the strong fields inferred for the period before 3.56 Ga while also allowing the dynamo to persist in such a weakened state beyond ~2.5 Ga. Therefore, our results suggest that the dynamo was powered by at least two distinct mechanisms operating during early and late lunar history.}}</ref> Kupima kunandi kwacitika pa vigaŵa vya mwezi ivyo vikawunjikika mu maulendo gha Apollo. Kupima uku kukulongora kuti nkhongono ya umagineti ya kale ya mwezi yikaŵa na nyengo ziŵiri zakupambana.<ref name="Mighani2020" /> Mu nyengo yakwamba (vyaka biliyoni 4.5 mpaka 3.56 ivyo vyajumpha), nkhongono ya umagineti yikafika pafupifupi ma''microtesla'' 100, pafupi na ya caro capasi ya sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Benjamin P. |last2=Tikoo |first2=Sonia M. |date=2014-12-05 |title=The lunar dynamo |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1246753 |journal=Science |volume=346 |issue=6214 |article-number=1246753 |doi=10.1126/science.1246753 |pmid=25477467 |bibcode=2014Sci...346.1198W |issn=0036-8075 |quote=It has now been established that a dynamo magnetic field likely existed on the Moon from at least 4.5 billion to 3.56 billion years ago, with an intensity similar to that at the surface of Earth today.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nyengo yaciŵiri yikaŵa yitali comene (vyaka biliyoni 3.58 mpaka 1 ivyo vyajumpha), kweni yambura nkhongono comene, yikufika ma''microtesla'' 5–7 pera.<ref name="Tikoo-2017" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mighani |first1=Saied |last2=Wang |first2=Huapei |last3=Shuster |first3=David L. |last4=Borlina |first4=Cauȇ S. |last5=Nichols |first5=Claire I. O. |last6=Weiss |first6=Benjamin P. |date=2020-01-03 |title=The end of the lunar dynamo |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=1 |article-number=eaax0883 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax0883 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=6938704 |pmid=31911941 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..883M |quote=However, paleomagnetic measurements of Apollo samples indicate that the Moon once generated a core dynamo with surface field intensities of several tens of microtesla (comparable to that of Earth today) during the period 4.25 to 3.56 billion years (Ga) ago (2–7). Following this high-field epoch, the field declined by at least an order of magnitude by 3.2 Ga ago (8) and persisted in a weakened state (~5 μT) until at least 2.5 Ga ago (9).}}</ref> Nchambura kuthekera kuti ndondomeko yimoza ya kwenda kwa kufunda panji kwa vinthu yikapanga mbiri iyi kwambura kukhwaskika na vinthu vya kuwaro.<ref name="Tikoo-2017" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=C. A. |last2=Stevenson |first2=D. J. |last3=Nimmo |first3=F. |date=2011 |title=A long-lived lunar dynamo driven by continuous mechanical stirring |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10564 |journal=Nature |volume=479 |issue=7372 |pages=212–214 |doi=10.1038/nature10564 |pmid=22071766 |bibcode=2011Natur.479..212D |issn=0028-0836 |quote=Models of conventional dynamos driven by thermal or compositional convection have had difficulty reproducing the existence and apparently long duration of the lunar dynamo.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu maghanoghano, umagineti unyake uwo wasyala ungafuma ku nkhongono za umagineti za kanyengo kacoko izo zikapangika pa kutimbana kukulu kwizira mu kukura kwa maŵingu gha ''plasma''. Maŵingu agha ghakupangika pa kutimbana kukulu mu nkhongono ya umagineti iyo yilipo. Ici cikukhozgeka na malo gha umagineti ukulu comene mu cikopa agho ghali pafupi na mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku mazenje ghakulu gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hood |first=L.L. |author2=Huang, Z. |title=Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=96 |issue=B6 |pages=9837–9846 |date=1991 |doi=10.1029/91JB00308 |bibcode=1991JGR....96.9837H}}</ref> === Mphepo === [[File:20120927 surveyor7-levitating-dust.jpg|thumb|Surveyor 7 yikuwona fuvu lakwenjama, cakucitika ico cikuchemeka ''lunar horizon glow'']] [[File:11214 2022 871 Fig6 HTML.webp|thumb|Kulaŵiska na kupima kwa mpweya wa sodiyamu wa mwezi, mcira wake, na "kadontho".]] Mwezi uli na mphepo iyo ni cigaŵa ca kuwaro comene pera, iyo njicoko comene mwakuti pafupifupi njambura kuŵapo, ndipo kuzitika kwake kose ndambura kufika matani 10.<ref name="l546">{{cite web | last=Barry | first=Caela | title=The Moon's Atmosphere | website=NASA Science | date=2025-01-30 | url=https://science.nasa.gov/moon/lunar-atmosphere/ | access-date=2025-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Richard D. Johnson & Charles Holbrow |last=Globus |first=Ruth |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |chapter=Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |chapter-url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |date=1977 |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531205037/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |archive-date=May 31, 2010}}</ref> Kukanikizga pacanya kwa mphepo iyi yicoko ni pafupifupi 3 × 10⁻¹⁵ ya mphepo ya caro capasi; kukusintha na zuŵa la mwezi. Yikufuma ku mphepo izo zikufuma mu mwezi na ku vinthu ivyo vikuphulika apo tuvinthu twa mphepo ya zuŵa tukutimbana na dongo la mwezi.<ref name="L06" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Crotts |first=Arlin P.S. |title=Lunar Outgassing, Transient Phenomena and The Return to The Moon, I: Existing Data |date=2008 |bibcode=2008ApJ...687..692C |volume=687 |issue=1 |pages=692–705 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |doi=10.1086/591634 |arxiv=0706.3949 }}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vyasangika ni sodiyamu na potasiyamu, ivyo vikupangika na kutimbana uku (vikusangika so mu mphepo za Mekyuri na Io); hiliyamu-4 na neon kufuma ku mphepo ya zuŵa; na argon-40, radon-222, na polonium-210, ivyo vikufuma mu mwezi pamanyuma pa kupangika na kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu mu cikopa na cigaŵa capakati.<ref name="NASA-20150817">{{cite web |last=Steigerwald |first=William |title=NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon |date=August 17, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 18, 2015 |archive-date=August 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819035151/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Stern1999">{{cite journal |last=Stern |first=S.A. |title=The Lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=37 |date=1999 |issue=4 |pages=453–491 |doi=10.1029/1999RG900005 |bibcode=1999RvGeo..37..453S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=S. |last2=Feldman |first2=W. |last3=Lawrence |first3=D. |last4=Moore |first4=K. |last5=Elphic |first5=R. |last6=Belian |first6=R. |title=Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=110 |issue=E9 |page=1029 |date=2005 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.9009L |doi=10.1029/2005JE002433 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kusoŵa kwa vigaŵa nga ni okisijeni, naitirojeni, kaboni, haidrojeni na magnesiyamu, ivyo vilipo mu fuvu, kukumanyikwa yayi.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Nthunthu ya maji yikasangika na Chandrayaan-1 ndipo yikusintha kuyana na malo kufuma ku mzere wapakati, ndipo yili yinandi comene pa makona pafupifupi 60–70; panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu fuvu ico cikuzgoka mphepo.<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |author1=R. Sridharan |author2=S.M. Ahmed |author3=Tirtha Pratim Dasa |author4=P. Sreelathaa |author5=P. Pradeepkumara |author6=Neha Naika |author7=Gogulapati Supriya |date=2010 |pages=947–950 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> Mphepo izi zikuwelera mu fuvu cifukwa ca nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi panji zikutayika mu mlengalenga, kwali kwizira mu kukanikizga kwa ungweru wa zuŵa panji, usange zili na magesi, mwa kupyelekeka na nkhongono ya umagineti ya mphepo ya zuŵa.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Bingu la fuvu la nyengo zose lilipo kuzunguliya mwezi, ilo likupangika na tuvinthu tucoko twakufuma ku nyenyezi za mcira. Matani 5 gha tuvinthu twa nyenyezi za mcira ghakughanaghanirika kutimbana na mwezi maora 24 ghaliwose, ndipo ici cikuphulika tuvinthu twa fuvu.<ref name=geo/> Fuvu likukhala pacanya pa mwezi pafupifupi maminiti 10: maminiti 5 kukwera na maminiti 5 kuwa.<ref name=geo/> Pakati, makilogalamu 120 gha fuvu ghali pacanya pa mwezi, ghakukwera mpaka makilomita 100 pacanya.<ref name=geo>{{cite web |title=Lopsided Cloud of Dust Discovered Around the Moon |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space |website=National Geographic News |access-date=June 20, 2015 |first1=Nadia |last1=Drake |author1-link=Nadia Drake |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619052915/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space/ |archive-date=June 19, 2015 |date=June 17, 2015}}</ref> Kupenda kwa fuvu kwa LADEE kukasanga kuti unandi wa tuvinthu ukaŵa ukulu comene pa kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga gha Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, na Omicron Centaurid, apo caro capasi na mwezi vikujumpha mu vyakusyala vya nyenyezi za mcira. Bingu la fuvu la mwezi ni lambura kuyana, ndipo ni lakukhwima comene pafupi na mphaka pakati pa mbali ya msana na mbali ya usiku ya mwezi.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A permanent, asymmetric dust cloud around the Moon |journal=Nature |date=June 18, 2015 |pages=324–326 |volume=522 |issue=7556 |doi=10.1038/nature14479 |first1=M. |last1=Horányi |first2=J.R. |last2=Szalay |first3=S. |last3=Kempf |first4=J. |last4=Schmidt |first5=E. |last5=Grün |first6=R. |last6=Srama |first7=Z. |last7=Sternovsky |bibcode=2015Natur.522..324H |pmid=26085272 }}</ref> Kusanda kwa vigaŵa vya mwala wakusungunuka wa mwezi ivyo vikatoleka mu maulendo gha Apollo kukulongora kuti mwezi kale ukaŵa na mphepo yikulu pacoko kwa nyengo ya vyaka miliyoni 70 pakati pa vyaka biliyoni 3 na 4 ivyo vyajumpha. Mphepo iyi, iyo yikafuma ku mphepo izo zikafumanga mu mapiri gha moto gha mwezi, yikaŵa kaŵiri kuluska ya Aresi ya sono. Mphepo ya kale ya mwezi yikawuskika pakumalira na mphepo ya zuŵa na kuthandazgika mu mlengalenga.<ref name="John 2017"/> === Vyakucitika vya Pacanya === [[File:Duke on the Craters Edge - GPN-2000-001132.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga Charles Duke wakugwira ntchito pa mwezi, cakuvwara cake caphimbika na fuvu la mwezi. Fuvu la mwezi ndakukwenyeska comene ndipo lingapweteka maphapo gha munthu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=James |first1=John |last2=Kahn-Mayberry |first2=Noreen |date=Jan 2009 |title=Risk of Adverse Health Effects from Lunar Dust Exposure |url=https://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/evidence/reports/lunar%20dust.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2022 |archive-date=December 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204004317/https://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/evidence/reports/lunar%20dust.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Nkhongono zakunanga kufuma ku nkhongono za kuthambo, tuvinthu twa nyutironi utu zikupanga, na zuŵa vikupangiska unandi wapakati wa nkhongono izi wa ma''millisievert'' 1.369 pa zuŵa pa msana wa mwezi, ico ni kaŵiri na hafu kuluska pa Malo gha Mlengalenga gha Pakati pa Vyaro, kankhondi mpaka kakhumi kuluska pa ulendo wa ndege kujumpha Mbwani ya Atlantic, na kamahandiredi ghaŵiri kuluska pacanya pa caro capasi.<ref name="Science Mission Directorate 2005">{{cite web |date=September 8, 2005 |title=Radioactive Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/08sep_radioactivemoon#:~:text=Not%20so.,lunar%20surface%20itself%20is%20radioactive! |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102123953/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/08sep_radioactivemoon/#:~:text=Not%20so.,lunar%20surface%20itself%20is%20radioactive! |archive-date=November 2, 2019 |access-date=July 28, 2022 |website=Science Mission Directorate }}</ref><ref name="surface-radiation">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Zhang S, Wimmer-Schweingruber RF, Yu J, Wang C, Fu Q, Zou Y, Sun Y, Wang C, Hou D, Böttcher SI, Burmeister S |display-authors=6 |title=First measurements of the radiation dose on the lunar surface |journal=Science Advances |year=2020 |volume=6 |issue=39 |article-number=eaaz1334 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz1334 |pmc=7518862 |pmid=32978156 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.1334Z |quote=We measured an average total absorbed dose rate in silicon of 13.2 ± 1 μGy/hour ... LND measured an average dose equivalent of 1369 μSv/day on the surface of the Moon}}</ref><ref name="ScienceAlert 2020">{{cite web |date=September 26, 2020 |title=We Finally Know How Much Radiation There Is on The Moon, And It's Not Great News |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-predict-how-long-humans-can-survive-radiation-on-the-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728004319/https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-predict-how-long-humans-can-survive-radiation-on-the-moon |archive-date=July 28, 2022 |access-date=July 28, 2022 |website=ScienceAlert}}</ref><ref name="Paris Davies Tognetti Zahniser 2020">{{cite arXiv |last1=Paris |first1=Antonio |last2=Davies |first2=Evan |last3=Tognetti |first3=Laurence |last4=Zahniser |first4=Carly |title=Prospective Lava Tubes at Hellas Planitia |date=April 27, 2020 |class=astro-ph.EP |eprint=2004.13156v1}}</ref><ref name="Wall 2013">{{cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=December 9, 2013 |title=Radiation on Mars 'Manageable' for Manned Mission, Curiosity Rover Reveals |url=https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |access-date=August 7, 2022 |website=Space.com |archive-date=December 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215082045/https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuyaniska, unandi wapakati ni ma''millisievert'' 1.84 pa zuŵa pa ulendo wa ku Aresi na pafupifupi 0.64 pa zuŵa pa Aresi yeneyiyo.<ref name="e657">{{cite web |title=The toxic side of the Moon |website=ESA |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/The_toxic_side_of_the_Moon |access-date=2025-01-07}}</ref> Ungweru wa zuŵa ukupeleka so magesi ku fuvu la mwezi lakuphalaza comene ndipo ukulipangiska kuyandama. Ici cikovwira kuthandazgika luŵiro kwa fuvu la mwezi lakukakatira, ilo likunanga maphapo na vilwero. Pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵa na kufunda kwakupambana kufuma 120 °C mpaka −171 °C kuyana na ungweru wa zuŵa. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa mphepo, kufunda kwa malo ghakupambana kukusintha comene kuyana na usange ghali mu ungweru wa zuŵa panji mu mzgezge, ntheura mawonekero gha malo ghakugwira ntchito yikulu pa kufunda kwa malo. Vigaŵa vya mazenje ghanandi, comene pasi pa mazenje ghanandi gha ku mphaka za mwezi, vili mu mzgezge nyengo zose. Mazenje agha gha mdima wa muyirayira ghali na kuzizima kukulu comene.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rocheleau |first=Jake |date=May 21, 2012 |title=Temperature on the Moon – Surface Temperature of the Moon |url=http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527194737/http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |archive-date=May 27, 2015 |website=PlanetFacts.org}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{cite news |title='Coldest place' found on the Moon |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8416749.stm |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |access-date=March 20, 2010 |date=December 16, 2009 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811182717/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8416749.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="M03">{{cite journal |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/June03/lunarShadows.html |title=The Moon's Dark, Icy Poles |page=73 |last=Martel |first=L.M.V. |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |date=June 4, 2003 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301090706/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/June03/lunarShadows.html |archive-date=March 1, 2012 |bibcode=2003psrd.reptE..73M}}</ref> Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter yikapima kufunda kwapasi comene kwa nyengo ya kufunda mu mazenje gha ku mphaka ya kumwera pa −238 °C na −247 °C pera pafupi na nyengo ya kuzizima mu zenje la Hermite ku mphaka ya kumpoto.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 17, 2009 |title=Diviner News |url=http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307031354/http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |archive-date=March 7, 2010 |access-date=March 17, 2010 |publisher=UCLA}}</ref> Uku ndiko kuzizima kukulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa uko combo ca mlengalenga cikapimapo, kuzizima kuluska nanga ni pacanya pa Pulutu.<ref name="bbc" /> Pacanya pa cikopa ca mwezi pali cigaŵa ca pacanya ca fuvu lakuphwanyika comene na kutimbana, comene lakuzirima, ilo likupangika na kutimbana. Fuvu lakupepuka comene, dongo la mwezi la galasi la silicon dioxide, likuyana na cizizimu pa kukhwaska ndipo lili na fungo nga ni la mfuti iyo yaphulika.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 2006 |title=The Smell of Moondust |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308112332/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |archive-date=March 8, 2010 |access-date=March 15, 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Fuvu la malo gha kale kanandi ndakukhwima kuluska la malo ghaphya: likupambana mu unandi kufuma mamita 10–15 mu malo ghapacanya na mamita 4–5 mu ''maria''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heiken |first=G. |url=https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/286 |title=Lunar Sourcebook, a user's guide to the Moon |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33444-0 |editor1-last=Vaniman |editor1-first=D. |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/286 286] |access-date=December 17, 2019 |editor2-last=French |editor2-first=B. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617181609/https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku0000unse/page/736 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pasi pa fuvu ili pali cigaŵa ca malibwe ghakuphwanyika comene ca makilomita ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=K.L. |author2=Warren, P.H. |date=1985 |title=Megaregolith thickness, heat flow, and the bulk composition of the Moon |journal=Nature |volume=313 |issue=5998 |pages=121–124 |bibcode=1985Natur.313..121R |doi=10.1038/313121a0 }}</ref> Vyakucitika vikulu ivi vikughanaghanirika kupangiska kuti mabakiteriya ghaleke kupona pa vyombo vya mlengalenga pa mwezi kujumpha nyengo ya kuzunguliya kamoza kwa mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schuerger |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Moores |first2=John E. |last3=Smith |first3=David J. |last4=Reitz |first4=Günther |date=June 2019 |title=A Lunar Microbial Survival Model for Predicting the Forward Contamination of the Moon |journal=Astrobiology |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=730–756 |bibcode=2019AsBio..19..730S |doi=10.1089/ast.2018.1952 |pmid=30810338|url=https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/01/16/28/00001/Schuerger_2019_Astrobiology_new%20LMS.pdf}}</ref> === Vimanyikwiro vya Pacanya === {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Near side of the moon 4k.png | caption1 = {{center|Mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi}} | image2 = Far side of the moon 4k.png | caption2 = {{center|Mbali yakutali ya mwezi}} }} {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Moon 4k west side.png | caption1 = {{center|Mbali ya kumafumiro}} | image2 = Moon 4k east side.png | caption2 = {{center|Mbali ya kumanjiliro}} }} [[File:Moon crustal thickness map NASA-JPL.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Mapu gha mwezi agho ghakulongora unandi wa cikopa, na vigaŵa vikulu vyakulembeka.{{pb}}Cigaŵa ca dongo ca KREEP, ico cigaŵa cake cikulu cikulongoreka ku mbali ya pafupi (ku mazere), Mare Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT).{{pb}}South Pole–Aitken Terrane (SPAT) yili ku mbali yakutali (ku maryero, cizingo cikulu comene).{{pb}}Mazenje 24 agho cikopa cake cacepa kujumpha {{cvt|200|km|mi}} ghakulongoreka (vizingo vyakufipa).{{pb}}Vinyake vyose ni malo ghapacanya gha cikopa cinandi (FHT; vyakuswesi na vituŵa).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinot |first1=M. |last2=Flahaut |first2=J. |last3=Besse |first3=S. |last4=Quantin-Nataf |first4=C. |last5=van Westrenen |first5=W. |title=Mineralogical survey of the anorthositic Feldspathic Highlands Terrane crust using Moon Mineralogy Mapper data |journal=Icarus |date=July 2020 |volume=345 |article-number=113747 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2020.113747 |bibcode=2020Icar..34513747M|hdl=1871.1/f01638a7-6efb-4ffb-8182-026f9bab8573 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>]] Mawonekero gha malo gha mwezi ghapimika na laser na kupenda vithuzi.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Topography of the South Polar Region from Clementine Stereo Imaging |last1=Spudis |first1=Paul D. |author1-link=Paul Spudis |last2=Cook |first2=A. |last3=Robinson |first3=M. |last4=Bussey |first4=B. |last5=Fessler |first5=B. |bibcode=1998nvmi.conf...69S |journal=Workshop on New Views of the Moon: Integrated Remotely Sensed, Geophysical, and Sample Datasets |page=69 |date=January 1998}}</ref> Cimanyikwiro cikulu comene ni dimba likulu la South Pole–Aitken ku mbali ya kutali, la ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 2,240, zenje likulu comene pa mwezi na laciŵiri pa ukulu mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref name="Spudis1994">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.266.5192.1848 |last1=Spudis |first1=Paul D. |last2=Reisse |first2=Robert A. |last3=Gillis |first3=Jeffrey J. |date=1994 |title=Ancient Multiring Basins on the Moon Revealed by Clementine Laser Altimetry |journal=Science |volume=266 |issue=5192 |pages=1848–1851 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1848S |pmid=17737079}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/97GL01718 |first1=C.M. |last1=Pieters |first2=S. |last2=Tompkins |first3=J.W. |last3=Head |first4=P.C. |last4=Hess |title=Mineralogy of the Mafic Anomaly in the South Pole-Aitken Basin: Implications for excavation of the lunar mantle |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages=1903–1906 |date=1997 |bibcode=1997GeoRL..24.1903P |hdl=2060/19980018038 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Na kuzika kwa makilomita 13, pasi pake ndipo pali malo ghapasi comene pacanya pa mwezi, ghakufika −9.178 km mu zenje lifupi mukati mwa zenje la Antoniadi.<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |title=The Biggest Hole in the Solar System |page=20 |last=Taylor |first=G. J. |date=July 17, 1998 |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820042129/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |archive-date=August 20, 2007 |bibcode=1998psrd.reptE..20T}}</ref><ref name="n402">{{cite journal | last1=Li | first1=ChunLai | last2=Ren | first2=Xin | last3=Liu | first3=JianJun | last4=Zou | first4=XiaoDuan | last5=Mu | first5=LingLi | last6=Wang | first6=JianYu | last7=Shu | first7=Rong | last8=Zou | first8=YongLiao | last9=Zhang | first9=HongBo | last10=Lü | first10=Chang | last11=Liu | first11=JianZhong | last12=Zuo | first12=Wei | last13=Su | first13=Yan | last14=Wen | first14=WeiBin | last15=Bian | first15=Wei | last16=Wang | first16=Min | last17=Xu | first17=Chun | last18=Kong | first18=DeQing | last19=Wang | first19=XiaoQian | last20=Wang | first20=Fang | last21=Geng | first21=Liang | last22=Zhang | first22=ZhouBin | last23=Zheng | first23=Lei | last24=Zhu | first24=XinYing | last25=Li | first25=JunDuo | last26=Ouyang | first26=ZiYuan | title=Laser altimetry data of Chang'E-1 and the global lunar DEM model | journal=Science China Earth Sciences | volume=53 | issue=11 | date=2010 | issn=1674-7313 | doi=10.1007/s11430-010-4020-1 | pages=1582–1593| bibcode=2010ScChD..53.1582L }}</ref> Malo ghapacanya comene pa mwezi, kusazgapo ghakuchemeka Selenean summit pa makilomita 10.629, ghali ku kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa dimba ili, ndipo ghangaŵa kuti ghakakhwimiska na kutimbana kwa mphepete uko kukapanga dimba la South Pole–Aitken.<ref name="n402"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schultz |first=P.H. |date=March 1997 |page=1259 |volume=28 |title=Forming the south-pole Aitken basin – The extreme games |journal=Conference Paper, 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |bibcode=1997LPI....28.1259S}}</ref> Madimba ghanyake ghakulu gha kutimbana nga ni Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, na Orientale ghali na malo ghapasi na mphepete zapacanya.<ref name="Spudis1994" /> Mbali ya kutali ya mwezi njapacanya na makilomita pafupifupi 1.9 kuluska mbali ya pafupi.<ref name="W06" /> Kusangika kwa tumapiri twa kuphwanyika kukulongora kuti mwezi wacepa na mamita pafupifupi 90 mu vyaka biliyoni yimoza vyaumaliro.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=NASA |title=NASA's LRO Reveals 'Incredible Shrinking Moon' |date=August 19, 2010 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124252/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html |archive-date=August 21, 2010}}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vyakuyana vilipo pa Mekyuri. Mare Frigoris, dimba pafupi na mphaka ya kumpoto ilo likaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa lakufwa, laphwanyika na kusamika. Cifukwa mwezi ulije vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vyakwenda, kusintha kwa pasi kukucitika pacoko pacoko, ndipo kuphwanyika kukupangika apo ukutaya kufunda.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watters |first1=Thomas R. |last2=Weber |first2=Renee C. |last3=Collins |first3=Geoffrey C. |last4=Howley |first4=Ian J. |last5=Schmerr |first5=Nicholas C. |last6=Johnson |first6=Catherine L. |date=June 2019 |title=Shallow seismic activity and young thrust faults on the Moon |journal=Nature Geoscience |publication-date=May 13, 2019 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=411–417 |doi=10.1038/s41561-019-0362-2 |bibcode=2019NatGe..12..411W }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵasimikizga kuŵapo kwa phanga pa mwezi pafupi na Nyanja ya Mtendere, pafupi na malo agho Apollo 11 yikakhala mu 1969.<ref name=base/> Phanga ili, ilo lamanyikwa kuŵa mlomo wa thumbu la mwala wakusungunuka ilo lakhoŵa, ndisani mamita pafupifupi 45 na litali mpaka mamita 80.<ref name=base/> Kusanga uku ndiko kusimikizga kwakwamba kwa mlomo wa phanga la mwezi. Kupenda kukathemba vithuzi ivyo vikatoreka mu 2010 na Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ya NASA.<ref name=base/> Kufunda kwakukhazikika kwa phanga kwa pafupifupi 17 °C kungapeleka malo ghawemi ku ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga munthazi, ndipo kungaŵavikilira ku kufunda kukulu, ungweru wa zuŵa, na tumalibwe tucoko twa mlengalenga.<ref name=base/> Kweni pali masuzgo nga ni kunjira na ngozi ya kuwa kwa malibwe. Kusanga uku kukupeleka mwaŵi wa malo gha kukhala pa mwezi munthazi panji malo gha kubisamako pa ngozi.<ref name=base>{{cite web |date=July 18, 2024 |title=Cave on the Moon: What this discovery means for space exploration |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/cave-on-the-moon-explained-9459805/ |access-date=July 19, 2024 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref> ==== Vimanyikwiro vya Mapiri gha Moto ==== [[File:Moon names.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Mapu gha mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, na ''maria'' ghakufipa gha mwezi, ivyo ni vimanyikwiro vikulu vya mapiri gha moto pa mwezi, vyakulembeka na camlengalenga (mazina gha mtundu wa dongo ni mazenje ghakulu)]] Vimanyikwiro vikulu ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi na maso ni malo ghakufipa na ghambura vimanyikwiro vinandi gha mwezi agho ghakuchemeka ''maria'' (cimoza ''mare''; kufuma ku Cilatini "nyanja", cifukwa kale ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ghakazura maji), agho ni madimba ghakulu gha mwala wakusungunuka wa kale uwo wakhwima.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wlasuk |first=Peter |title=Observing the Moon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWtLIOlPwS4C |date=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-85233-193-1 |page=19}}</ref> Nangauli ukuyana na wa pa caro capasi, mwala uwu wa mwezi uli na cisulo cinandi ndipo ulije vinthu ivyo vyasinthika na maji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |title=The Oldest Moon Rocks |last=Norman |first=M. |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=Hawai{{okina}}i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology |date=April 21, 2004 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418152325/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |archive-date=April 18, 2007}}</ref> Mwala unandi uwu ukafuma panji ukathiririka mu malo ghapasi agho ghakukolerana na mazenje gha kutimbana, nangauli malo ghakulu comene gha mwala uwu pa mwezi, Oceanus Procellarum, ghakukolerana na zenje lakuwoneka la kutimbana yayi. Nyengo zakupambana za kuthiririka kwa mwala mu ''maria'' kanandi zingamanyikwa na kupambana kwa kuŵala kwa pacanya na mphepete zakuwoneka za kuthiririka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=R. C. |last2=Blewett |first2=D. T. |last3=Taylor |first3=G. J. |last4=Lucey |first4=P. G. |year=1996 |title=FeO and TiO2 Variations in Mare Imbrium |journal=Lunar and Planetary Science |volume=27 |page=383 |bibcode=1996LPI....27..383F }}</ref> Apo ''maria'' ghakapangikanga, kuzizima na kucepa kwa mwala wakusungunuka kukapanga tumapiri twakukwinyika mu malo ghanyake. [[File:Lava flows in Mare Imbrium (AS15-M-1558).png|thumb|Dongo lakusungunuka la kale ilo lakukhwima mu Mare Imbrium, lakupanga tunyanga twakukwinyika.]] Tumilonga twakuzunguliyazunguliya, utu tukusangika mu na kuzunguliya ''maria'', panyake ni minjololo ya mwala wakusungunuka iyo yikafwa panji mathumbu gha mwala wakusungunuka agho ghakhoŵa.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Icarus|volume=391|date=February 2023 |title=Analysis of lunar wrinkle ridges regarding the maximum displacement–length scaling relationship and relevant geological factors|author1= Chenfan Li|author2= Bo Li|author3= Xiaohui Fu|author4= Le Qiao|author5= Zongcheng Ling|author6= Jianguo Yan|author7= Shaojie Qu|author8= Shengbo Chen|article-number=115361 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115361 |bibcode=2023Icar..39115361L }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Search for Intact Lava Tubes on the Moon: Possible Lunar Base Habitats|author=Cassandra R. Coombs and B. Ray Hawke|publisher=NASA|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19930008249/downloads/19930008249.pdf|date=1992|access-date=2026-08-09}}</ref> [[File:Marius Hills Pit - Lava Tube Skylight? (LROC202 - KaguyaTerrainCamera 039).png|Dolozi pa Marius Hillsb| Mapiri gha moto gha ''maria'' ghasintha mazenje gha kutimbana mu nthowa zinandi, kusazgapo kughazuzga pa unandi wakupambana, na kukwezga na kuphwanya pasi pake kufuma ku kukwera kwa vinthu vya ''maria'' pasi pake. Pafupifupi ''maria'' ghose ghali ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi, ndipo ghakuphimba magaŵa 31 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mbali ya pafupi kuyaniska na magaŵa 2 pa 100 gha mbali ya kutali.<ref name="worldbook" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gillis |first1=J. J. |last2=Spudis |first2=P. D. |title=The Composition and Geologic Setting of Lunar Far Side Maria |journal=Lunar and Planetary Science |date=1996 |volume=27 |page=413 |bibcode=1996LPI....27..413G}}</ref> Panyake ici nchifukwa ca kuwunjikana kwa vigaŵa vyakupanga kufunda pasi pa cikopa ku mbali ya pafupi, ivyo vingaŵa kuti vikapangiska cigaŵa capakati ca pasi pake kufunda, kusungunuka pacoko, kukwera pacanya na kuphulika.<ref name="S06" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer |last1=Lawrence |first1=D.J. |last2=Feldman |first2=W.C. |last3=Barraclough |first3=B.L. |last4=Binder |first4=A.B. |last5=Elphic |first5=R.C. |last6=Maurice |first6=S. |last7=Thomsen |first7=D.R. |journal=Science |volume=281 |issue=5382 |pages=1484–1489 |date=August 11, 1998 |pmid=9727970 |bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L |doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |title=A New Moon for the Twenty-First Century |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |url-status=live |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |date=August 31, 2000 |page=41 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |bibcode=2000psrd.reptE..41T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301074958/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |archive-date=March 1, 2012}}</ref> Ukaboni wa mapiri gha moto gha sonosono pa mwezi wasangika pa malo 70 ghambura kunozgeka gha ''maria'', ghanyake gha vyaka pasi pa miliyoni 50.<ref>{{cite web |author=Major |first=Jason |date=October 14, 2014 |title=Volcanoes Erupted 'Recently' on the Moon |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016190653/http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |archive-date=October 16, 2014 |publisher=Discovery News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |title=NASA Mission Finds Widespread Evidence of Young Lunar Volcanism |publisher=NASA |date=October 12, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103095208/http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |archive-date=January 3, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |title=Recent volcanic eruptions on the moon |journal=Science |date=October 12, 2014 |author=Eric Hand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014092239/http://news.sciencemag.org/space/2014/10/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |archive-date=October 14, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Evidence for basaltic volcanism on the Moon within the past 100 million years |journal=Nature Geoscience |last1=Braden |first1=S.E. |last2=Stopar |first2=J. D. |last3=Robinson |first3=M.S. |last4=Lawrence |first4=S. J. |last5=van der Bogert |first5=C. H. |last6=Hiesinger |first6=H. |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=787–791 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7..787B |doi=10.1038/ngeo2252 |year=2014}}</ref> Vigaŵa vyakuŵala vya mwezi vikuchemeka ''terrae'', panji kanandi malo ghapacanya, cifukwa ngapacanya kuluska ''maria'' ghanandi. Vyaka vyake vyapimika kuŵa biliyoni 4.4, ndipo vingaŵa vinthu vya ''plagioclase'' ivyo vikawunjikana mu nyanja ya mwala wakusungunuka ya mwezi.<ref name="Hiesinger" /><ref name="Papike" /> Kupambana na caro capasi, palije mapiri ghakulu gha mwezi agho ghakughanaghanirika kupangika cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Munsell |first=K. |publisher=NASA |work=Solar System Exploration |title=Majestic Mountains |url=http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |date=December 4, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917055643/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |archive-date=September 17, 2008}}</ref> ==== Mazenje gha Kutimbana ==== [[File:Gibbous Moon Highlighting the Tycho and Copernicus Craters.jpg|thumb|Pacanya pa mwezi pali mazenje ghanandi, comene uko ''maria'' ghakaleka kupangika; ici cikuwoneka para wakulaŵiska pafupi, na mphepete za mazenje zakuŵala pa mzere wa usiku na muhanya, kweniso mazenje ghaŵiri ghakuwoneka comene ku mbali ya pafupi, Tycho (ku mazere) na Copernicus (pacanya), ghakuŵa na mizere mitali yakuŵala.]] [[File:Daedalus crater AS11-41-6151.jpg|alt=Cizingo ca caphuvyu cakuŵa na viliŵa vitali na kaphiri kacoko pakati; pacanya pose mpaka ku mphepete pali vizingo vinyake vicoko vyakuyana.|thumb|Zenje likulu, Daedalus, lakuzika makilomita 3, ku mbali yakutali ya mwezi]] [[File:Apollo 17 Harrison H. Schmitt and Tracy's Rock - AS17-140-21493+AS17-140-21497 2025.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa Apollo 17 Harrison H. Schmitt pafupi na libwe likulu la pa mwezi ilo likuchemeka "Tracy's Rock"]] Ndondomeko yikulu ya pasi iyo yakhwaska pacanya pa mwezi ni kupangika kwa mazenje gha kutimbana, agho ghakupangika apo vibwe vicoko vya malibwe na nyenyezi za mcira vikutimbana na pacanya pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melosh |first=H. J. |title=Impact cratering: A geologic process |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-504284-9}}</ref> Kukughanaghanirika kuti pali mazenje pafupifupi 300,000 ghakusani kujumpha kilomita 1 ku mbali ya pafupi ya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Facts |url=http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412 |work=SMART-1 |publisher=European Space Agency |date=2010 |access-date=May 12, 2010 |archive-date=March 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317004513/http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412 }}</ref> Mazenje gha mwezi ghali na mawonekero ghakupambana, kuyana na ukulu wawo. Kufuma ku ghacoko kuya ku ghakulu, mitundu yikulu ni mazenje ghapepuka gha mawonekero gha mbale na mphepete zakukwera, mazenje ghakusuzga gha pasi pakugonera, vikuta vya masitepu na mapiri gha pakati, madimba gha mphete ya mapiri, na madimba gha mphete ziŵiri panji kujumpha.<ref>[https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/education/hsResearch/moon_101/ImpactCratering.pdf Impact Cratering Notes (LPI)]</ref> Mazenje ghanandi comene gha kutimbana ngakuzunguliya, kweni ghanyake, nga ni Cantor na Janssen, ghali na mawonekero gha mbali zinandi, panyake cifukwa ca kuphwanyika kwa pasi pake.<ref>{{cite web|title=Looking Around the Corner|author=Richard Hill|work=Vatican Observatory|url=https://www.vaticanobservatory.org/sacred-space-astronomy/looking-around-the-corner/ |accessdate=2026-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Farside northern highlands|publisher=Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|url=https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/290|accessdate=2026-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Icarus|volume=205|issue=2|date=February 2010| pages=356–363|title=The structural control of venusian polygonal impact craters|author1=M. Aittola|author2= T. Öhman|author3= J.J. Leitner|author4= V.-P. Kostama|author5= J. Raitala |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.08.004 |bibcode=2010Icar..205..356A }}</ref> Ghanyake, nga ni Messier ziŵiri, Schiller, na Daniell, ngatali. Utali uwu ungafuma ku kutimbana kwa mphepete comene, kutimbana kwa vibwe vicoko viŵiri, kuphwanyika kwa cinthu pambere cindatimbane, panji kutimbana kwaciŵiri kwa pafupi pafupi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrick |first1=R.R. |last2=Forsberg-Taylor |first2=N. K. |year=2003 |title=The shape and appearance of craters formed by oblique impact on the Moon and Venus |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=1551–1578 |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2003.tb00001.x |bibcode=2003M&PS...38.1551H }}</ref> ==== Vizungulizgo vya Mwezi ==== [[File:Reiner-gamma-clem1.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca kuzungulira kwa mitundu pa mwezi, Reiner Gamma, ca utali wa makilomita 70]] Vizungulizgo vya mwezi ni vimanyikwiro vya fumbo ivyo vikusangika pacanya pose pa mwezi. Vikuwezga ungweru comene, vikuwoneka nga ni viphya (ndiko kuti vili na vimanyikwiro vya fuvu liphya), ndipo kanandi vili na mawonekero ghakuzunguliyazunguliya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Nettles|first1= J. W.|last2= Staid|first2= M.|last3= Besse|first3= S.|last4= Boardman|first4= J.|last5= Clark|first5= R. N.|last6= Dhingra|first6= D.|last7= Isaacson|first7= P.|last8= Klima|first8= R.|last9= Kramer|first9= G.|last10= Pieters|first10= C. M.|last11= Taylor|first11= L. A.|title=Optical maturity variation in lunar spectra as measured by Moon Mineralogy Mapper data|journal= Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets|volume=116|date=2011 |article-number=2010JE003748 |doi=10.1029/2010JE003748 |bibcode=2011JGRE..116.0G17N }}</ref> Mawonekero ghawo kanandi ghakuwoneka makola cifukwa ca malo ghakufipa agho ghakwenda pakati pa vizungulizgo vyakuŵala. Vili mu malo agho nkhongono ya umagineti ya pacanya njikulu, ndipo vinandi vili ku mbali yinyake ya mwezi kufuma ku kutimbana kukulu. Vizungulizgo vyakumanyikwa ni Reiner Gamma na Mare Ingenii. Vikughanaghanirika kuŵa malo agho ghakavikilirika pacoko ku mphepo ya zuŵa, ntheura ghakusinthika pacoko pacoko na nyengo ya mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reflectance spectra of seven lunar swirls examined by statistical methods: A space weathering study |last1=Chrbolková |first1=Kateřina |last2=Kohout |first2=Tomáš |last3=Ďurech |first3=Josef |journal=Icarus |volume=333 |pages=516–527 |date=November 2019 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2019.05.024 |bibcode=2019Icar..333..516C |doi-access=free|hdl=10138/313044 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Kuŵapo kwa Maji === [[File:The image shows the distribution of surface ice at the Moon's south pole (left) and north pole (right).webp|thumb|upright=1.3|Umo cikakato cathandazgikira pacanya pa mwezi ku Kumwera Comene (ku mazere) na ku Kumpoto Comene (ku maryero)]] Maji ghakuthira ghangakhalilira pacanya pa mwezi yayi. Para ghakhwaskika na ungweru wa zuŵa, maji ghakugaŵika luŵiro na ungweru na kutayika mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets|volume=119|issue=4|pages=894–904|title=Photodissociation of water and O(3PJ) formation on a lunar impact melt breccia|author=Alice J. DeSimone, Thomas M. Orlando|date= 28 March 2014|doi=10.1002/2013JE004598}}</ref> Kweni kufuma mu ma 1960, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti cikakato ca maji cingaŵikika na nyenyezi za mcira izo zikutimbana, panji kupangika na kukolerana kwa malibwe gha mwezi gha okisijeni yinandi na haidrojeni ya mphepo ya zuŵa, ndipo kusiya maji ghacoko agho ghangakhalilira mu mazenje ghakuzizima gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka zose ziŵiri za mwezi.<ref name="Margot1999">{{cite journal |last1=Margot |first1=J.L. |last2=Campbell |first2=D.B. |last3=Jurgens |first3=R.F. |last4=Slade |first4=M.A. |title=Topography of the Lunar Poles from Radar Interferometry: A Survey of Cold Trap Locations |journal=Science |date=June 4, 1999 |volume=284 |issue=5420 |pages=1658–1660 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5420.1658 |pmid=10356393 |bibcode=1999Sci...284.1658M |url=https://www.astro.cornell.edu/~jlm/publications/Margot00.science284.lunarice.pdf |access-date=October 25, 2017 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811165220/http://www.astro.cornell.edu/~jlm/publications/Margot00.science284.lunarice.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal |first=William R. |last=Ward |title=Past Orientation of the Lunar Spin Axis |journal=Science |date=August 1, 1975 |volume=189 |issue=4200 |pages=377–379 |doi=10.1126/science.189.4200.377 |pmid=17840827 |bibcode=1975Sci...189..377W }}</ref> Viyelezgero vya makompyuta vikulongora kuti mpaka makilomita gha mbali zinayi 14,000 gha pacanya ghangaŵa mu mzgezge wa nyengo zose.<ref name="M03" /> Kuŵapo kwa maji ghakukwana pa mwezi nkhwakuzirwa comene kuti kukhala pa mwezi kuŵe kwambura kudura comene; kunyamula maji kufuma pa caro capasi kungadura comene.<ref name="seedhouse2009">{{cite book |last=Seedhouse |first=Erik |title=Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on the Moon |publisher=Springer Praxis |location=Germany |date=2009 |series=Springer-Praxis Books in Space Exploration |page=136 |isbn=978-0-387-09746-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJm_i3GS4r4C&pg=PA136 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126140722/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJm_i3GS4r4C&pg=PA136 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya pamanyuma, vimanyikwiro vya maji vyasangika pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="moonwater_18032010">{{cite web |last=Coulter |first=Dauna |title=The Multiplying Mystery of Moonwater |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2010/18mar_moonwater.htm?list940097 |publisher=NASA |date=March 18, 2010 |access-date=February 23, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002214735/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2010/18mar_moonwater/y2010/18mar_moonwater.htm?list940097 |archive-date=October 2, 2012}}</ref> Mu 1994, kuyezga kwa radar pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Clementine kukalongora kuŵapo kwa tumalo tucoko twa maji ghakuzizima pafupi na pacanya. Kweni kulaŵiska kwa radar kwa pamanyuma kwa Arecibo kukulongora kuti vyakusangika ivi vingaŵa malibwe agho ghakaphulika kufuma ku mazenje ghaphya gha kutimbana.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spudis |first=P. |title=Ice on the Moon |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |publisher=The Space Review |date=November 6, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222083000/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |archive-date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> Mu 1998, cilwero ca nyutironi pa combo ca mlengalenga ca Lunar Prospector cikalongora kuti haidrojeni yinandi yilipo mu mita yakwamba ya kuzika mu fuvu pafupi na mphaka.<ref name="Feldman1998">{{cite journal |last1=Feldman |first1=W.C. |last2=Maurice |first2=S. |last3=Binder |first3=A.B. |last4=Barraclough |first4=B.L. |last5=Elphic |first5=R.C. |last6=Lawrence |first6=D.J. |title=Fluxes of Fast and Epithermal Neutrons from Lunar Prospector: Evidence for Water Ice at the Lunar Poles |journal=Science |pmid=9727973 |volume=281 |issue=5382 |pages=1496–1500 |date=1998 |bibcode=1998Sci...281.1496F |doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1496 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tumpira twa mwala wakusungunuka, utu tukatoleka ku caro capasi na Apollo 15, tukalongora maji ghacoko mukati mwawo.<ref name="Saal2008">{{cite journal |last1=Saal |first1=Alberto E. |last2=Hauri |first2=Erik H. |last3=Cascio |first3=Mauro L. |last4=van Orman |first4=James A. |last5=Rutherford |first5=Malcolm C. |last6=Cooper |first6=Reid F. |date=2008 |title=Volatile content of lunar volcanic glasses and the presence of water in the Moon's interior |journal=Nature |pmid=18615079 |volume=454 |issue=7201 |pages=192–195 |doi=10.1038/nature07047 |bibcode=2008Natur.454..192S}}</ref> Combo ca mlengalenga ca Chandrayaan-1 ca 2008 casimikizga kuŵapo kwa cikakato ca maji pacanya, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito Moon Mineralogy Mapper. Cilwero ici cikawona mizere ya kukora ungweru iyo yikusangika na ''hydroxyl'', mu ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka, ndipo ici cikapeleka ukaboni wa cikakato ca maji cinandi pacanya pa mwezi. Combo ici cikalongora kuti unandi ungafika magaŵa 1,000 pa miliyoni.<ref name="Pieters2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1178658 |last1=Pieters |first1=C. M. |last2=Goswami |first2=J. N. |last3=Clark |first3=R. N. |last4=Annadurai |first4=M. |last5=Boardman |first5=J. |last6=Buratti |first6=B. |last7=Combe |first7=J.-P. |last8=Dyar |first8=M. D. |last9=Green |first9=R. |last10=Head |first10=J. 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A. |last28=Tompkins |first28=S. |last29=Varanasi |first29=P. |date=2009 |title=Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1 |journal=Science |volume=326 |issue=5952 |pages=568–572 |pmid=19779151 |bibcode=2009Sci...326..568P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wakuwezgeka, ungweru wambura kulunjika wa malo gha mzgezge ukasimikizga cikakato ca maji mukati mwa makona 20 gha mphaka zose ziŵiri mu 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Shuai |last2=Lucey |first2=Paul G. |last3=Milliken |first3=Ralph E. |last4=Hayne |first4=Paul O. |last5=Fisher |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Williams |first6=Jean-Pierre |last7=Hurley |first7=Dana M. |last8=Elphic |first8=Richard C. |title=Direct evidence of surface exposed water ice in the lunar polar regions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=36 |pages=8907–8912 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30126996 |pmc=6130389 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8907L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1802345115 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mu 2009, LCROSS yikatuma cinthu ca makilogalamu 2,300 kutimbana na zenje la mzgezge wa nyengo zose ku mphaka, ndipo yikasanga maji gha makilogalamu 100 panji kujumpha mu vinthu ivyo vikaphulika.<ref name="Planetary">{{cite web |url=http://planetary.org/news/2009/1113_LCROSS_Lunar_Impactor_Mission_Yes_We.html |title=LCROSS Lunar Impactor Mission: "Yes, We Found Water!" |last=Lakdawalla |first=Emily |date=November 13, 2009 |publisher=The Planetary Society |access-date=April 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122233405/http://www.planetary.org/news/2009/1113_LCROSS_Lunar_Impactor_Mission_Yes_We.html |archive-date=January 22, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Colaprete">{{cite journal |last1=Colaprete |first1=A. |last2=Ennico |first2=K. |last3=Wooden |first3=D. |last4=Shirley |first4=M. |last5=Heldmann |first5=J. |last6=Marshall |first6=W. |last7=Sollitt |first7=L. |last8=Asphaug |first8=E. |last9=Korycansky |first9=D. |last10=Schultz |first10=P. |last11=Hermalyn |first11=B. |last12=Galal |first12=K. |last13=Bart |first13=G.D. |last14=Goldstein |first14=D. |last15=Summy |first15=D. |date=March 1–5, 2010 |title=Water and More: An Overview of LCROSS Impact Results |journal=41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |volume=41 |issue=1533 |page=2335 |bibcode=2010LPI....41.2335C}}</ref> Kupenda kunyake kwa vyakusangika vya LCROSS kukalongora kuti unandi wa maji ukaŵa pafupi na makilogalamu 155 ± 12.<ref name="Colaprete2010">{{cite journal |last1=Colaprete |first1=Anthony |last2=Schultz |first2=Peter |last3=Heldmann |first3=Jennifer |last4=Wooden |first4=Diane |last5=Shirley |first5=Mark |last6=Ennico |first6=Kimberly |last7=Hermalyn |first7=Brendan |last8=Marshall |first8=William |last9=Ricco |first9=Antonio |last10=Elphic |first10=Richard C. |last11=Goldstein |first11=David |last12=Summy |first12=Dustin |last13=Bart |first13=Gwendolyn D. |last14=Asphaug |first14=Erik |last15=Korycansky |first15=Don |last16=Landis |first16=David |last17=Sollitt |first17=Luke |title=Detection of Water in the LCROSS Ejecta Plume |journal=Science |date=October 22, 2010 |volume=330 |issue=6003 |pmid=20966242 |pages=463–468 |doi=10.1126/science.1186986 |bibcode=2010Sci...330..463C}}</ref> Mu Vula 2011, maji gha magaŵa 615–1410 pa miliyoni ghakasangika mu vigaŵa vya mukati vya cigaŵa ca mwezi 74220, "dongo la galasi la mtundu wa malalanje" lakumanyikwa, la titanium yinandi, ilo likafuma ku mapiri gha moto ndipo likawunjikika mu ulendo wa Apollo 17 mu 1972.<ref name="hauri">{{cite journal |last=Hauri |first=Erik |author2=Thomas Weinreich |author3=Albert E. Saal |author4=Malcolm C. Rutherford |author5=James A. Van Orman |date=May 26, 2011 |title=High Pre-Eruptive Water Contents Preserved in Lunar Melt Inclusions |journal=Science Express |volume=10 |issue=1126 |doi=10.1126/science.1204626 |pmid=21617039 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..213H |pages=213–215 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="hauri" /> Vigaŵa ivi vikapangika pa kuphulika kwa mapiri gha moto pa mwezi pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 3.7 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="hauri" /> Unandi uwu ukuyana na wa mwala wakusungunuka mu cigaŵa capakati ca pacanya ca caro capasi.<ref name="hauri" /> Kupenda kwa vyakusangika vya Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) kukavumbula mu Mpupulu 2018 kakwamba "ukaboni wakusimikizgika" wa cikakato ca maji pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="Rincon-2018">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45251370 |title=Water ice 'detected on Moon's surface' |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=August 21, 2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821151638/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45251370 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/beyond-the-shadow-of-a-doubt-water-ice-exists-on-the-moon/ |title=Beyond the Shadow of a Doubt, Water Ice Exists on the Moon |last=David |first=Leonard |work=Scientific American |url-access=subscription |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821125629/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/beyond-the-shadow-of-a-doubt-water-ice-exists-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyakusangika vikalongora vimanyikwiro vyapadera vya kuwezga ungweru vya cikakato ca maji, kupambana na fuvu na vinthu vinyake vyakuwezga ungweru.<ref name="Space.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/41554-water-ice-moon-surface-confirmed.html |title=Water Ice Confirmed on the Surface of the Moon for the 1st Time! |work=Space.com |access-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821134450/https://www.space.com/41554-water-ice-moon-surface-confirmed.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Cikakato cikasangika ku mphaka ya kumpoto na ya kumwera, nangauli cili cinandi ku kumwera, uko maji ghakakika mu mazenje na mphanyiko za mzgezge wa nyengo zose, ndipo ghakukhalilira nga ni cikakato pacanya cifukwa ghakuvikilirika ku zuŵa.<ref name="Rincon-2018"/><ref name="Space.com"/> Mu Thukila 2020, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵasanga maji pacanya pa mwezi apo pali ungweru wa zuŵa, na vyombo vinandi vya mlengalenga vyakupambana, kusazgapo SOFIA.<ref name="NA-20201026">{{cite journal |last1=Honniball |first1=C. I. |last2=Lucey |first2=P. G. |last3=Li |first3=S. |last4=Shenoy |first4=S. |last5=Orlando |first5=T. M. |last6=Hibbitts |first6=C. A. |last7=Hurley |first7=D. M. |last8=Farrell |first8=W. M. |title=Molecular water detected on the sunlit Moon by SOFIA |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=26 October 2020 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=121–127 |doi=10.1038/s41550-020-01222-x |bibcode=2021NatAs...5..121H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="NA-20201026poh">{{cite journal |last1=Hayne |first1=P. O. |last2=Aharonson |first2=O. |last3=Schörghofer |first3=N. |title=Micro cold traps on the Moon |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=26 October 2020 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=169–175 |doi=10.1038/s41550-020-1198-9 |arxiv=2005.05369 |bibcode=2021NatAs...5..169H }}</ref><ref name="WP-20201026">{{cite news |last1=Guarino |first1=Ben |last2=Achenbach |first2=Joel |title=Pair of studies confirm there is water on the moon – New research confirms what scientists had theorized for years — the moon is wet. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/10/26/water-on-the-moon/ |date=October 26, 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026184808/https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/10/26/water-on-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20201026">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=There's Water and Ice on the Moon, and in More Places Than NASA Once Thought – Future astronauts seeking water on the moon may not need to go into the most treacherous craters in its polar regions to find it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/26/science/moon-ice-water.html |date=October 26, 2020 |work=The New York Times |access-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026170716/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/26/science/moon-ice-water.html |url-status=live}}</ref> == Ndondomeko ya Caro Capasi na Mwezi == === Nthowa ya Kuzunguliya === [[File:Dscovrepicmoontransitfull.gif|thumb |Mbali ya muhanya ya caro capasi kuwoneka kufuma pa malo gha L1 pakati pa zuŵa na caro capasi; caro capasi cikuzunguliya ndipo mwezi ukujumpha pakati pa DSCOVR na caro capasi, kulongora mbali yakutali ya mwezi apo yili mu ungweru]] Mtunda wapakati wa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi, uwo ukuchemeka mtunda wa mwezi, ni makilomita pafupifupi 385,000, panji maliŵiri 1.3 gha ungweru, ukuyana na kuzunguliya caro capasi pafupifupi kankhondi na kanayi na cigaŵa.{{efn |name=distance ratio|Mtunda wapakati wa mwezi kufuma pa caro capasi ni makilomita <math>384401</math>. Utali kufuma pakati mpaka ku mphepete wa caro capasi pa mzere wapakati ni mamita <math>6.378136 \cdot 10^6</math>. Kupenda na <math>2\pi</math> kukupeleka utali wa kuzingilizga caro capasi pa mzere wapakati, mamita <math>4.007501 \cdot 10^7</math>, panji makilomita <math>40075.01</math>. Kugaŵa manambala agha kukupeleka <math>9.59</math>.}}<ref name="allen">{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=C. W. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2002 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4612-1186-0 |edition=4th|pages=240,308}}</ref> Nthowa ya mwezi njakuzunguliya makola yayi kweni njakutalikilapo pacoko. Ici cikung'anamula kuti mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusintha kufuma pafupifupi makilomita 356,400 (pafupi comene) mpaka 406,700 (kutali comene), ntheura mtunda na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100.<ref name="size1">{{cite web |author=Phillips |first=Tony |date=March 16, 2011 |title=Super Full Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507035348/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ |archive-date=May 7, 2012 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="size2">{{cite news |author=De Atley |first=Richard K. |date=March 18, 2011 |title=Full moon tonight is as close as it gets |url=http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322161600/http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html |archive-date=March 22, 2011 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |newspaper=The Press-Enterprise}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya caro capasi na mwezi yili na pakati pa kuzitika pakugaŵana, apo pali makilomita 5,000 (pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi) kufuma pakati pa caro capasi. Caro capasi na mwezi vyose viŵiri vikuzunguliya pakati apa, ntheura caro capasi cikunjenjemera kuzunguliya malo agha pa nthowa yiliyose ya mwezi. Pakati apa pakusamira kuwaro pacoko pacoko apo kukwekana kwa nkhongono za kukoka kukutora nkhongono kufuma ku viŵiri ivi, ndipo pakumalira pazamuŵa kuwaro kwa caro capasi.<ref name="els" />{{rp|69}} Mwezi ukumalizga kuzunguliya caro capasi kamoza kuyaniska na nyenyezi zambura kusamika pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3 ghaliwose.{{efn |name=orbpd|Kuyowoya makora, nyengo yapakati ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi (kufuma pa nyenyezi yimoza kufika so pa nyenyezi iyo) ni mazuŵa 27.321661 {{nowrap |(27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s)}}, ndipo nyengo yake yapakati kufuma pa ''equinox'' kufika pa ''equinox'' ni mazuŵa 27.321582 {{nowrap |(27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, peji 107).}} Kweni cifukwa caro capasi na mwezi vikwenda pa nyengo yeneyiyo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya zuŵa, vikutora nyengo yitali pacoko kuwelera ku kawonekero kamoza ka mwezi, mazuŵa 29.5, kumalizga ndondomeko yose nga umo yikuwonekera kufuma pa caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 28, 2004 |title=Is the 'full moon' merely a fallacy? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4402294 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601085529/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4402294 |archive-date=June 1, 2023 |access-date=May 30, 2023 |website=NBC News}}</ref>{{efn |name=synpd|Kuyowoya makora, nyengo yapakati ya mwezi kufuma pa mwezi uphya kufika pa mwezi uphya unyake ni mazuŵa 29.530589 {{nowrap |(29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, peji 107).}}<ref name="worldbook" /> Nyengo iyi kanandi yikumanyikwa nga ni mwezi wa caka ndipo njakuyana na utali wa zuŵa la zuŵa pa mwezi.<ref name="Day">{{cite news |author=Williams |first=Matt |date=July 10, 2017 |title=How Long is a Day on the Moon? |url=https://www.universetoday.com/20524/how-long-is-a-day-on-the-moon-1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129020253/https://www.universetoday.com/20524/how-long-is-a-day-on-the-moon-1/ |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |access-date=December 5, 2020 |work=Universe Today}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yikusunga kupendama kwakuyana pafupifupi, makona pafupifupi 5, kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa.<ref name="Lang2011">{{cite book |last=Lang |first=Kenneth R. |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4xDhVCxAQIC&pg=PA184 |title=The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071141/https://books.google.com/books?id=S4xDhVCxAQIC&pg=PA184 |archive-date=January 1, 2016 |edition=second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49417-5}}</ref> Nthowa ya kupendama uku yikuzunguliya kumanjiliro pacoko pacoko, ndipo yikumalizga cizungulizgo kamoza mu vyaka 18.61.<ref name=tilt>{{cite journal |author1=Haigh, I. D. |author2=Eliot, M. |author3=Pattiaratchi, C. |year=2011 |title=Global influences of the 18.61 year nodal cycle and 8.85 year cycle of lunar perigee on high tidal levels |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=116 |issue=C6 |pages=C06025 |doi=10.1029/2010JC006645 |bibcode=2011JGRC..116.6025H |url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/3380567/A0059.pdf |access-date=September 24, 2019 |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212170314/https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/3380567/A0059.pdf |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ici cikung'anamula kuti kupendama kwa nthowa ya mwezi kuyaniska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi kukusintha kufuma makona 18 mpaka 28 mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=tilt/> Mawonekero gha nthowa nagho ghakuzunguliya, kumafumiro mu vyaka 8.85.<ref name=apsis>{{cite journal| author1= Zhen Xu| author2= Kun-Shan Chen| author3= Zhao-Liang Li| author4= Gen-Yuan Du|title= Apsidal Precession Effects on the Lunar-Based Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Performance|journal= IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|date=2021|volume=18|issue=6|pages=1079–1083|doi=10.1109/LGRS.2020.2992508|bibcode= 2021IGRSL..18.1079X|url=https://hal.science/hal-03005957/document}}</ref><ref name=apsis/> Kupambana na setilayiti zinandi za vibwe vinyake, ndondomeko ya nthowa ya mwezi yili pafupi na ndondomeko ya nthowa ya caro capasi kuluska na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi. Nthowa ya mwezi yikusinthika pacoko na zuŵa na caro capasi mu nthowa zinandi zicoko na zakusuzga. Vyakufumapo ivi vikulongosoreka mwa masamu na malango gha Cassini.<ref name="Beletskii2">{{cite book |author=V V Beletskiĭ |title=Essays on the Motion of Celestial Bodies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=byWZusmVSecC |date=2001 |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-3-7643-5866-2 |page=183 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=March 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323203843/https://books.google.com/books?id=byWZusmVSecC |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuzunguliya pa Ceneco === [[File:Moon distance range to scale.svg|center|thumb|upright=3.2|Mtunda wapasi, wapakati, na wapacanya pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi, na ukulu uwo mwezi ukuwonekera kufuma pa caro capasi]] [[File:Tidal locking of the Moon with the Earth.gif|thumb|Kuyaniska mwezi wa ku mazere, uwo ukuzgoka mwakuyana na kuzunguliya kwake (makora), na mwezi wa ku maryero, wambura kuzgoka (yayi)]] Cifukwa cakakika na caro capasi, mwezi uli na kukolerana kwa 1:1 kwa kuzunguliya pa ceneco na kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi njakuyana na nyengo yake ya kuzunguliya pa ceneco. Ntheura nyengo zose ukulaŵiska caro capasi na cisko cimoza pafupifupi apo ukuzunguliya.<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 3, 2024 |title=Observation of Moon-like Synchronous Revolution and Rotation of Janus Microparticles Trapped in an Annular Optical Trap|author1=Jing Liu| author2= Li Long| author3= Honglian Guo| author4= Zhiyuan Li |journal=ACS Photonics|volume= 11 |issue= 10|pages= 4027–4035|doi=10.1021/acsphotonics.4c00702}}</ref> Mbali ya mwezi iyo yikulaŵiska caro capasi yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, ndipo yinyake mbali ya kutali. Cifukwa mwezi ngwambura kukakika na zuŵa, msana na usiku vya mwezi vikucitika pa mwezi wose. Mbali ya kutali kanandi yikuchemeka mwautesi kuti "mbali ya mdima", kweni nadi yikupokera ungweru kanandi nga ni mbali ya pafupi: kamoza mu mazuŵa 29.5 gha caro capasi. Apo mwezi ukuwoneka yayi, mbali ya pafupi njamdima.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dark Side of the Moon |author=Phil Plait |publisher=Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions |url=http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |access-date=February 15, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412192834/http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |archive-date=April 12, 2010 |author-link=Phil Plait}}</ref> Usiku wa mwezi ngwa mdima comene ku mbali ya kutali na pa kubisika kwa mwezi ku mbali ya pafupi (ndipo ngwa mdima kuluska usiku wambura mwezi pa caro capasi). Usiku, mbali ya pafupi yikupokera ungweru wa caro capasi mwakuti vimanyikwiro vya pacanya pa mwezi vingawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi. Ungweru wa caro capasi ukupangiska usiku pa mbali ya pafupi kuŵala kanandi 43, ndipo nyengo zinyake kanandi 55, kuluska usiku pa caro capasi wakuŵala na mwezi wakuzura.<ref name="u988">{{cite web | last=Siegel | first=Ethan | title=Ask Ethan: How Bright Is The Earth As Seen From The Moon? | website=Forbes | date=March 18, 2017 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2017/03/18/ask-ethan-how-bright-is-the-earth-as-seen-from-the-moon/ | access-date=April 29, 2025}}</ref> Kupendama kwa mwezi kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi ni makona 1.5427, ntheura mu caka cimoza ca mazuŵa 346.62, zuŵa likusamira kufuma makona 1.5427 kumpoto kwa mzere wapakati wa mwezi kuya makona 1.5427 kumwera kwake na kuwelera.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Lunar Dissipation: Rotational and Orbital Consequences|author1=Williams J. G. | author2= Krisher, T. P. | author3= Boggs, D. H. | author4= Ratcliff, J. T. | author5= Dickey, J. O.|journal=29th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|date= March 16-20, 1998|issue=1963 |page=1963 |bibcode=1998LPI....29.1963W|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252908279}}</ref> Ici cikuyana na umo, pa caro capasi, malo gha zuŵa ghakusamira kufuma ku mzere wa Cancer kuya ku mzere wa Capricorn na kuwelera caka ciliconse. Ici cikuŵika mphaka za mwezi mu mdima (panji na cigaŵa ca zuŵa pera ico cikuwoneka) kwa hafu ya caka ici na mu ungweru wa zuŵa kwa hafu yinyake. Unandi wa ungweru wa zuŵa uwo ukuwira malo ghakugonera pafupi na mphaka ukuthemba kupendama kwa zuŵa. Nyengo izi zili na vyakufumapo vicoko mu malo gha pafupi na mzere wapakati. Pakwamba mwezi ukazunguliyanga luŵiro pa ceneco, kweni pakwamba mu mbiri yake kuzunguliya kwake kukacepa na kukakika mu kalaŵiskiro aka cifukwa ca kukwekana uko kukafuma ku kukwekeka na nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=M.E. |title=The Weak Friction Approximation and Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems |journal=Astrophysics and Space Science |date=1973 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=459–508 |bibcode=1973Ap&SS..23..459A |doi=10.1007/BF00645172 }}</ref> Mu nyengo, nkhongono ya kuzunguliya ya mwezi pa ceneco yikazgoka kufunda, mpaka mwezi ukaleka kuzunguliya kuyaniska na caro capasi. Mu 2016, ŵasandi ŵa vibwe mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Lunar Prospector ya NASA ya 1998–99 ŵakasanga malo ghaŵiri gha haidrojeni yinandi (panyake cikakato ca maji ca kale) ku mbali zakususkana za mwezi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti malo agha ghakaŵa mphaka za mwezi vyaka mabiliyoni ivyo vyajumpha pambere undakakike na caro capasi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moon used to spin 'on different axis' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |access-date=March 23, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323203442/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |archive-date=March 23, 2016 |work=BBC News |date=March 23, 2016}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Nkhongono za Kukoka === [[File:Tide animation.gif|thumb|Cithuzi ca caro capasi cakuguzika na kutambasulika kuya ku mwezi cifukwa ca nkhongono za kuguza za mwezi, ico ndico cikupangiska kukwera na kukhira kwa maji gha mbwani. Mbwani na caro capasi vikuguzika comene ku mbali iyo yili pafupi na mwezi, ntheura nkhongono zikucepa ku mbali yinyake ya caro capasi, ndipo ici cikupanga kukwera kwa maji kwaciŵiri. Cithuzi cikulongora kusintha kwa malo gha mwezi mu nthowa yake yakukhota.]] Nkhongono ya kukoka iyo caro capasi na mwezi (na zuŵa) vikukokerana yili yikulu pacoko ku mbali izo zili pafupi, ndipo ici cikupanga nkhongono za kukoka za kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji.<ref name="Tyson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/1995/11/01/the-tidal-force|title=The Tidal Force {{!}} Neil deGrasse Tyson|website=www.haydenplanetarium.org|access-date=2016-10-10}}</ref> Kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani ndico cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene, kweni nkhongono izi zikukhwaska so comene vinyake vya caro capasi, mwezi, na ndondomeko yawo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tides|date=June 6, 2023 |publisher=NASA|url=https://science.nasa.gov/moon/tides/|accessdate=2026-08-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Unlocking a Treasure Trove for Subsurface Characterization|author=T. McMillan and Gabriel Rau|date=12 July 2019|url=https://eos.org/editors-vox/unlocking-a-treasure-trove-for-subsurface-characterization|publisher=Eos|accessdate=2026-08-18}}</ref> Cikopa cakukhwima ca mwezi cikuzuzga na kucepa na masentimita pafupifupi 10 mu mazuŵa 27, na vigaŵa vitatu: cimoza cambura kusintha cifukwa ca caro capasi, cifukwa vikuzunguliya mwakukolerana; cinyake cakusintha cifukwa ca kutalikilapo na kupendama kwa nthowa; na cigaŵa cicoko cakusintha kufuma ku zuŵa.<ref name="touma1994">{{cite journal |last=Touma |first=Jihad |author2=Wisdom, Jack |date=1994 |title=Evolution of the Earth-Moon system |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |issue=5 |pages=1943–1961 |doi=10.1086/117209 |bibcode=1994AJ....108.1943T}}</ref><ref name="touma1994" /> Kuyana na kusanda kwa sonosono, ŵasandi ŵakughanaghanira kuti kukhwaska kwa mwezi pa caro capasi kungovwira kusunga nkhongono ya umagineti ya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |author=Todd |first=Iain |date=March 31, 2018 |title=Is the Moon maintaining Earth's magnetism? |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/news/is-the-moon-maintaining-earths-magnetism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922194637/https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/news/is-the-moon-maintaining-earths-magnetism/ |archive-date=September 22, 2020 |access-date=November 16, 2020 |work=BBC Sky at Night Magazine}}</ref> Vyakufumapo vyakuwunjikana vya kukanikizga uko kukupangika na nkhongono izi vikupanga kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi. Kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukucitika pacoko comene na kwambura nkhongono kuluska kwa caro capasi, nangauli kungatora mpaka ora limoza, kutali comene kuluska kwa pa caro capasi, cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa kunjenjemera mu cikopa cakomira na cakuphwanyika.<ref name=quake/> Kuŵapo kwa kunyenyenkhuka kwa mwezi kukaŵa kusanga kwambura kulindilirika kufuma ku vilwero ivyo ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo ŵakaŵika pa mwezi kufuma 1969 mpaka 1972.<ref name=quake>{{cite journal |last1=Latham |first1=Gary |date=1972 |last2=Ewing |first2=Maurice |last3=Dorman |first3=James |last4=Lammlein |first4=David |last5=Press |first5=Frank |last6=Toksőz |first6=Naft |last7=Sutton |first7=George |last8=Duennebier |first8=Fred |last9=Nakamura |first9=Yosio |title=Moonquakes and lunar tectonism |journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=373–382 |doi=10.1007/BF00562004 |bibcode=1972Moon....4..373L }}</ref> Cakufumapo cakumanyikwa comene ca nkhongono za kukoka ni kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani.<ref name="Lambeck1977">{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rsta.1977.0159 |last=Lambeck |first=K. |date=1977 |title=Tidal Dissipation in the Oceans: Astronomical, Geophysical and Oceanographic Consequences |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A |volume=287 |issue=1347 |pages=545–594 |bibcode=1977RSPTA.287..545L }}</ref> Nangauli mwezi ndiwo ukupanga nkhongono zinandi za kukoka, zuŵa nalo likupanga nkhongono izi ndipo likovwira mpaka magaŵa 40 pa 100 gha nkhongono ya mwezi; vyose pamoza vikupanga kuzuzga kukulu na kucoko kwa maji.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Kuzuzga kwa maji ni vifufu viŵiri mu mbwani za caro capasi, cimoza ku mbali iyo yikulaŵiska mwezi na cinyake ku mbali yinyake. Apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pa ceneco, cifufu cimoza (maji ghakuzura) cikusungika "pasi" pa mwezi, apo cinyake cili ku mbali yinyake. Kuzuzga pasi pa mwezi kukulongosoreka na nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi kuŵa yikulu pa maji agho ghali pafupi nawo. Kuzuzga ku mbali yinyake kungalongosoreka na nkhongono ya kuthaŵa pakati apo caro capasi cikuzunguliya pakati pa kuzitika, panji na kukhalilira kwa maji apo nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njikulu pa caro capasi cakukhwima ico cili pafupi nawo, ndipo cikukokeka kutali na maji gha kutali.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Feynman |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Feynman |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 7: The Theory of Gravitation |url=https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_07.html |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Feynman |first=Richard |title=Feynman's Lectures on Physics – The Law of Gravitation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UFr1X0prbo&t=1503s |via=YouTube |date=October 24, 2020 |access-date=5 December 2024}}</ref> Ntheura, pali kuzuzga kuŵiri na kucepa kuŵiri mu maora pafupifupi 24.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Cifukwa mwezi ukuzunguliya caro capasi mu nthowa yeneyiyo iyo caro capasi cikuzunguliyira, kuzuzga kukucitika maora 12 na maminiti 25 ghaliwose; maminiti 25 ni cifukwa ca nyengo iyo mwezi ukutora kuzunguliya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tides and Their Effects|author=Chris Garrett and Leo Maas|journal=Oceanus |year=1993|volume=36 |pages=27–36 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255122250|accessdate=2026-08-21}}</ref> Usange caro capasi cikaŵa caro ca maji pera (cambura vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda), cingapanga kuzuzga kwa mita yimoza pera, ndipo kuzuzga uku kungamanyikwa makola, kweni kuzuzga kwa maji gha mbwani kukusinthika comene na vinthu vinyake: * kukwekana kwa maji na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kwizira pasi pa mbwani * kukhalilira kwa kwenda kwa maji * madimba gha mbwani agho ghakuŵa ghambura kuzika pafupi na mtunda * kusambasamba kwa maji pakati pa madimba ghakupambana gha mbwani === Kusintha kwa Ndondomeko === Kucedwa kwa kuzuzga kwa maji na kwa cikopa cakukhwima kukupanga nkhongono yakususkana na kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi. Ici "cikufumiska" nkhongono ya kuzunguliya kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, ndipo cikucepeska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /><ref name="touma1994" /> Vyaka biliyoni 3.2 ivyo vyajumpha, zuŵa likaŵa la maora pafupifupi 13 pera. Nkhongono ya kuzunguliya iyo yikutayika kufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi yikuya ku mwezi, ndipo yikukwezga mwezi ku nthowa ya pacanya apo ikucepeska luŵiro lwake lwa kuzunguliya caro capasi.<ref name="m870">{{cite journal | last1=Eulenfeld | first1=Tom | last2=Heubeck | first2=Christoph | title=Constraints on Moon's Orbit 3.2 Billion Years Ago From Tidal Bundle Data | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | volume=128 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=2169-9097 | doi=10.1029/2022JE007466 | doi-access=free | article-number=e2022JE007466 | arxiv=2207.05464 | bibcode=2023JGRE..12807466E }}</ref> Ntheura mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi ukusazgikira, ndipo kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kukucepa.<ref name="touma1994" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Chapront |first=J. |author2=Chapront-Touzé, M. |author3=Francou, G. |date=2002 |title=A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=387 |issue=2 |pages=700–709 |bibcode=2002A&A...387..700C |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020420 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |title=Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth |work=BBC News |date=February 1, 2011 |access-date=September 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925185706/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |archive-date=September 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |last2=Boggs |first2=Dale H. |date=2016 |title=Secular tidal changes in lunar orbit and Earth rotation |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=89–129 |doi=10.1007/s10569-016-9702-3 |bibcode=2016CeMDA.126...89W }}</ref> Kupima kufuma ku vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser ivyo vikasiyika mu maulendo gha Apollo kwasanga kuti mtunda wa mwezi ukusazgikira na milimita 38 pa caka (pafupifupi luŵiro ilo nyara za ŵanthu zikukulira).<ref>{{cite web |last=Ray |first=R. |date=May 15, 2001 |url=http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |title=Ocean Tides and the Earth's Rotation |publisher=IERS Special Bureau for Tides |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327084125/http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |archive-date=March 27, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stephenson |first1=F. R. |last2=Morrison |first2=L. V. |last3=Hohenkerk |first3=C. Y. |date=2016 |title=Measurement of the Earth's rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=472 |issue=2196 |article-number=20160404 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2016.0404 |pmc=5247521 |pmid=28119545 |bibcode=2016RSPSA.47260404S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=L. V. |last2=Stephenson |first2=F. R. |last3=Hohenkerk |first3=C. Y. |last4=Zawilski |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Addendum 2020 to 'Measurement of the Earth's rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015' |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=477 |issue=2246 |article-number=20200776 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2020.0776 |bibcode=2021RSPSA.47700776M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vipimanyengo vya atomu vikulongora kuti zuŵa la caro capasi likutalikilira na ma''microsecond'' pafupifupi 17 caka ciliconse. Mu nyengo, kukwekana uku kukupangiska kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya kuyana, ndipo cinthu cakupepuka cikukakika (nga umo mwezi uliri sono). Mu maghanoghano, mu vyaka biliyoni 50, kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi kuzamucepa kuyana na nyengo ya mwezi kuzunguliya, ndipo caro capasi cizamulaŵiska mwezi na mbali yimoza nyengo zose. Kweni pambere ici cindacitike, zuŵa lizamuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ndipo lingaphimba caro capasi na mwezi.<ref name="Universe Today 2016">{{cite web |title=When Will Earth Lock to the Moon? |website=Universe Today |date=April 12, 2016 |url=https://www.universetoday.com/128350/will-earth-lock-moon/ |access-date=January 5, 2022 |archive-date=May 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528015905/https://www.universetoday.com/128350/will-earth-lock-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Usange caro capasi na mwezi vyapona kuphimbika uku, nga umo kusanda kwa 2026 kukulongolera, kukwekana na mphepo ya zuŵa kungapangiska nthowa ya mwezi kucepa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=C.D. |last2=Dermott |first2=Stanley F. |title=Solar System Dynamics |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57295-8 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dickinson |first=Terence |author-link=Terence Dickinson |title=From the Big Bang to Planet X |date=1993 |publisher=Camden House |location=Camden East, Ontario |isbn=978-0-921820-71-0 |pages=79–81}}</ref> Apo nthowa ya mwezi yazamufika pa mtunda wa makilomita 18,470, uzamujumpha mphaka ya Roche ya caro capasi ndipo nkhongono za kukoka za caro capasi zingaphwanya mwezi. Ungazgoka ndondomeko ya mphete, ndipo mphete zinandi zingacepa na kuwira pa caro capasi. == Kulaŵiska == === Ukulu na Malo Ghakuwoneka === Mwezi ukuwoneka kuthambo la caro capasi mwakupambana kuyana na malo agho munthu wakulaŵiskira pa caro capasi na nyengo ya caka, ya mwezi, na ya zuŵa. Mu caka, mwezi ukufika pacanya comene pa zuŵa pa malo ghakupambana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Longitude from Moon Culminations |pages=513–522|date=May 1899|author= D. A. Pio.|publisher=Royal Astronomical Society|url=https://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1899MNRAS..59..513P}}</ref> Mwezi wakuzura ukuwoneka pacanya comene kuthambo mu nyengo ya kuzizima na pasi comene mu nyengo ya kufunda, kupambana na zuŵa, ndipo ici nchaunenesko ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto na vya kumwera vya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web|title=It looks like the Moon stays higher in the sky on some days than on others. Why is that?|author= Astronomy Staff| date= April 26, 2010|publisher= Astronomy Magazine|url= https://www.astronomy.com/science/it-looks-like-the-moon-stays-higher-in-the-sky-on-some-days-than-on-others-why-is-that/|accessdate=2026-08-21}}</ref> Ku Mphaka ya Kumpoto na ya Kumwera, mwezi ukuŵa pacanya pa mphepete ya kuthambo maora 24 kwa masabata ghaŵiri mu mwezi uliwose (pafupifupi mazuŵa 27.3). Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji twa ku Arctic tukugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wa mwezi apo zuŵa likuŵa pasi pa mphepete ya kuthambo kwa myezi yinandi.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 16, 2016 |title=Moonlight helps plankton escape predators during Arctic winters |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28738-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130112225/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22930562-500-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |archive-date=January 30, 2016 |work=New Scientist}}</ref> Pakati, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ni makona pafupifupi 0.52, pafupifupi wakuyana na wa zuŵa. Ukulu wakuwoneka na kuŵala kwake vikusintha cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo, ndipo ukuwoneka wakuŵala mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 na ukulu mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 para uli pafupi comene kuluska para uli kutali comene. Kweniso, cakucitika ca maghanoghano pera, ico cikuchemeka cinyengo ca mwezi, cikupangiska mwezi kuwoneka ukulu para uli pafupi na mphepete ya kuthambo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hershenson |first=Maurice |title=The Moon illusion |date=1989 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-8058-0121-7 |page=5}}</ref> === Kalaŵiskiro na Kawonekero === [[File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007 HD.gif|alt=Mu mwezi umoza, kujumpha hafu ya pacanya pa mwezi kungawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi.|thumb|Kusintha kucoko kwa ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi na umo ukuwonekera mu mwezi umoza, kufuma ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi]] Kalaŵiskiro kakuwoneka ka mwezi kakuthemba malo ghake kuthambo na cigaŵa ca caro capasi uko ukulaŵiskika. Mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto ukuwoneka wakuzgokera pasi kuyaniska na kawonekero ka cigaŵa ca kumwera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Howells |first=Kate |date=September 25, 2020 |title=Can the Moon be upside down? |url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/can-the-moon-be-upside-down |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102132012/https://www.planetary.org/articles/can-the-moon-be-upside-down |archive-date=January 2, 2022 |access-date=January 2, 2022 |publisher=The Planetary Society}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake "nyanga" za mwezi wa cikweru zikuwoneka nga ni zikulaŵiska pacanya kuluska kumphepete. Ici cikuchemeka mwezi wa maji, ndipo cikucitika kanandi ku tropiki.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spekkens |first=K. |author1-link=Kristine Spekkens |date=October 18, 2002 |title=Is the Moon seen as a crescent (and not a 'boat') all over the world? |url=https://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016011356/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |archive-date=October 16, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2015 |publisher=Curious About Astronomy}}</ref> Kuzunguliya kwakukakika kwa mwezi apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi kukupangiska kuti mbali yimoza pera ya mwezi, iyo yikuchemeka mbali ya pafupi, yiwoneke kufuma pa caro capasi. Kweni nangauli kwenda kwa mwezi nkhwakukolerana, nkhwambura kusintha pacoko yayi, ndipo kusintha kucoko kwa kalaŵiskiro kukupangiska kuti mu nyengo na malo pa caro capasi, pafupifupi magaŵa 59 pa 100 gha pacanya pa mwezi ghawoneke.<ref name="Libration">{{cite web |last=Stern |first=David |date=March 30, 2014 |title=Libration of the Moon |url=https://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smoon4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522153419/https://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smoon4.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |access-date=February 11, 2020 |website=NASA}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusintha uku, nyengo zinyake ncakuthekera kuwona pacoko kuluska mwezi wakuzura (mpaka magaŵa pafupifupi 101 pa 100) panji cigaŵa cicoko ca mbali yake ya kutali (mpaka magaŵa 5 pa 100).<ref>{{cite web |date=2025-05-14 |title=Lunar libration: what it is and how to photograph it |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/advice/skills/lunar-libration-what-is |access-date=2025-10-19 |work=BBC Sky at Night Magazine}}</ref> ==== Vyakucitika Vyakulaŵiskika ==== [[File:Lunar impact flash.jpg|thumb|Ungweru wa cinthu cakutimba mwezi, wakuŵikika pacanya pa cithuzi ca mwezi]] Pakaŵa mphindano mu mbiri usange vimanyikwiro vyakuwoneka pacanya pa mwezi vikusintha mu nyengo. Mazuŵa ghano, mazgo ghanandi agha ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa vyautesi, ivyo vikafuma ku kulaŵiska mu ungweru wakupambana, kuwoneka kuheni kwa kuthambo, panji vithuzi vyambura kunozgeka makola. Kweni kufuma kwa mphepo kukucitika nyengo zinyake ndipo kungaŵa cifukwa ca vigaŵa vicoko vya vyakucitika vya kanyengo ivyo vyayowoyeka. Sonosono, kwasacizgika kuti malo gha makilomita pafupifupi 3 pacanya pa mwezi ghakasintha na kufuma kwa mphepo pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni yimoza ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |date=November 8, 2006 |title=Recent Gas Escape from the Moon |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |journal=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |page=110 |bibcode=2006psrd.reptE.110T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304055515/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |archive-date=March 4, 2007 |access-date=April 4, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schultz |first1=P.H. |last2=Staid |first2=M.I. |last3=Pieters |first3=C.M. |date=2006 |title=Lunar activity from recent gas release |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7116 |pages=184–186 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..184S |doi=10.1038/nature05303 |pmid=17093445}}</ref> === Kawonekero ka Mwezi === [[File:Moon phases en.jpg|center|thumb|upright=3|Kusintha kwa mwezi uliwose kwa ngodya pakati pa ungweru wa zuŵa na kulaŵiska kufuma pa caro capasi, na mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakufumapo, kuwoneka kufuma ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi. Mtunda pakati pa caro capasi na mwezi ngwambura kuyana na weneco.]] Mwezi ukuzunguliya pa ceneco, apo ukuzunguliya caro capasi, ndipo ukusintha kalaŵiskiro kake ku zuŵa, ntheura ukuŵa na zuŵa la mwezi. Zuŵa la mwezi likuyana na mwezi umoza wa caka (kuzunguliya kamoza caro capasi). Kusintha kwa malo gha ungweru wa zuŵa pa mwezi mu zuŵa la mwezi kukuwoneka kufuma pa caro capasi nga ni kusintha kwa kawonekero ka mwezi. Kawonekero ka mwezi kakulondezga ndondomeko yakuwerezgeka, iyo yikwamba pa mwezi uphya. Mu hafu yakwamba ya ndondomeko, kalondezgero ni mwezi uphya, cikweru, cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi, mwezi wakukura, na mwezi wakuzura. Mu hafu yaciŵiri, kalondezgero kakuzgokera, ndipo ndondomeko yikuwerezgeka.<ref name="r040">{{cite web | title=Phases of the Moon explained | website=BBC Sky at Night Magazine | date=January 21, 2025 | url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-science/why-does-the-moons-appearance-change | access-date=April 29, 2025}}</ref> Kuŵala na ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi vikusintha so cifukwa ca nthowa yake yakutalikilapo kuzunguliya caro capasi. Ntheura, pa kawonekero kamoza, kuŵala kwa mwezi kukusintha so mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100 pakati pa kuŵa kutali comene na pafupi comene.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html |title=Supermoon November 2016 |date=November 13, 2016 |access-date=November 14, 2016 |publisher=Space.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114220725/http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html |archive-date=November 14, 2016}}</ref> Para uli pafupi comene, cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi na caro capasi mpaka magaŵa 14 pa 100 kuluska para uli kutali comene, ukuwoneka ukulu mpaka magaŵa 30 pa 100. Mwezi wakuzura (panji uphya) pa malo agha ukuchemeka mwezi ukulu comene.<ref name="size1" /><ref name="size2" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |title='Super moon' to reach closest point for almost 20 years |newspaper=The Guardian |date=March 19, 2011 |access-date=March 19, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225175506/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |archive-date=December 25, 2013}}</ref> Kawonekero kaliko kose ka vinayi vyapakati kakutora, pakati, pafupifupi mazuŵa 7 (pafupifupi mazuŵa 7.38), kweni nyengo iyi yingasintha na magaŵa pafupifupi 11 pa 100 cifukwa ca kusintha kwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi. Unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya waumaliro ukuchemeka vyaka vya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Age Today |url=https://moonagetoday.org/ |access-date=2025-10-19}}</ref> Ndondomeko yose ya kawonekero ka mwezi yikuchemeka mwezi umoza wa caka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |date=2025-10-15 |title=lunation |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/lunation |access-date=2025-10-19 |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary}}</ref> Vyaka na kawonekero ka mwezi pa zuŵa liliwose vingapimika mwa kupenda unandi wa mazuŵa kufuma pa mwezi uphya wakumanyikwa (mwaciyelezgero, 1 Matika 1900, panji 11 Mpupulu 1999) na kugaŵa nambala iyi na utali wapakati wa mwezi wa caka (mazuŵa 29.53059).<ref>{{cite web |title=Synodic month |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/synodic-month |access-date=2025-10-19 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Ivyo vyasyala pa kugaŵa ndivyo vyaka vya mwezi. Nthowa iyi yikughanaghanira kuti nthowa njakuzunguliya makola ndipo yikulaŵiska nyengo yeneyiyo ya mwezi uphya yayi, ntheura vyakufumapo vingapambana na maora ghacoko. Kulunjika kukucepa apo zuŵa likutalikirana na zuŵa la kwambira. Kupima kupepuka uku nkhwakukwana pa vinthu vinandi, kweni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulunjika comene vikukhumba kupima kwakusuzga. === Kuwezga Ungweru na Mtundu wa Pacanya === Kawonekero ka mwezi kakupangika na umo ukuwezgera ungweru na kapangikiro ka pacanya pake. Kuwezga ungweru kwake ni pafupifupi 0.12, ndiko kuti ukuwezga magaŵa 12 pa 100 gha ungweru uwo ukuwufika. Ici cikuyana na kuwezga ungweru kwa cibwe cicoko ca malibwe.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cain |first=Fraser |date=2008-10-23 |title=Moon Albedo |url=https://www.universetoday.com/articles/moon-albedo |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Universe Today}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya cisulo na titanium pacanya pa mwezi vikukora ungweru, ndipo vikupangiska malo nga ni ''maria'' kuŵa ghakufipa (kuwezga ungweru kucoko) kuluska malo ghapacanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shkuratov |first=Y. |last2=Kaydash |first2=V. |last3=Korokhin |first3=V. |last4=Velikodsky |first4=Y. |last5=Opanasenko |first5=N. |last6=Videen |first6=G. |date=October 2011 |title=Optical measurements of the Moon as a tool to study its surface |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0032063311001954 |journal=Planetary and Space Science |language=en |volume=59 |issue=13 |pages=1326–1371 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2011.06.011|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Two Lunar Phases.jpg|thumb|right|Mtundu wa mwezi uwo ukusintha cifukwa ca mpweya wa caro capasi]] Mtundu weneco wa mwezi, kwambura kukhwaskika na mphepo, ni wakuzirima wakufipa pacoko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kilburn |first=Kevin |date=September 2, 2019 |title=What's the real colour of the Moon? |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-science/what-colour-is-the-moon |access-date=2026-10-13 |website=BBC Sky at Night Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Kufuma pa caro capasi, mtundu wa mwezi ungasinthika na mphepo, nyengo zinyake ukuwoneka wakufiira panji wa buluu. Ungawoneka wakufiira pa kubisika kwa mwezi, cifukwa ungweru wakufiira wa zuŵa ukupindika na mphepo ya caro capasi na kufika pa mwezi. Cifukwa ca mtundu uwu wakufiira, kubisika kwa mwezi nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka mwezi wa ndopa. Mwezi ungawoneka so wakufiira para uli pasi kuthambo na kujumpha mu mphepo yinandi. Mwezi ungawoneka so wa buluu kuyana na tuvinthu tunyake mu mphepo, nga ni twa mapiri gha moto.<ref name="Science Mission Directorate 2020">{{cite web |date=November 11, 2020 |title=Colors of the Moon |url=https://science.nasa.gov/colors-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409212600/https://science.nasa.gov/colors-moon |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |access-date=April 9, 2022 |website=Science Mission Directorate}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gibbs |first=Philip |date=May 1997 |title=Why is the sky blue? |url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/BlueSky/blue_sky.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102085211/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/BlueSky/blue_sky.html |archive-date=November 2, 2015 |access-date=November 4, 2015 |website=math.ucr.edu |quote=... may cause the moon to have a blue tinge since the red light has been scattered out.}}</ref> Cifukwa mazgo ghakuti "mwezi wa ndopa" na "mwezi wa buluu" ghangagwiliskirika ntchito so pa myezi yakuzura yinyake ya caka, nyengo zose ghakung'anamula ungweru wa mwezi wakufiira panji wa buluu yayi. === Kubisika === {{multiple image | total_width = 330 | image1 = Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg | image2 = Full Eclipse of the Moon as seen in from Irvine, CA, USA (52075715442) (cropped).jpg | caption1 = Kubisika kwa zuŵa kukuphimba zuŵa, ndipo ungweru utuŵa wakuzingilizga zuŵa ukuwoneka. | caption2 = Mwezi wakuswesi pacoko pa nyengo ya kubisika kwa mwezi }} Kubisika kukucitika pera apo zuŵa, caro capasi, na mwezi vili mu mzere umoza. Kubisika kwa zuŵa kukucitika pa mwezi uphya, apo mwezi uli pakati pa zuŵa na caro capasi. Kweni kubisika kwa mwezi kukucitika pa mwezi wakuzura, apo caro capasi cili pakati pa zuŵa na mwezi. Ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukuyana pafupifupi na wa zuŵa, ndipo vyose viŵiri vikuwoneka nga ni hafu ya kona limoza. Zuŵa ndikulu comene kuluska mwezi, kweni mtunda wake ukulu comene ndiwo ukulipangiska kuwoneka ukulu wakuyana na mwezi, uwo uli pafupi comene na ngucoko comene, kufuma pa caro capasi. Kusintha kwa ukulu wakuwoneka, cifukwa ca nthowa zambura kuzunguliya makola, nako kukuyana pafupifupi, nangauli kukucitika mu ndondomeko zakupambana. Ici cikupangiska kuthekera kwa kubisika kose kwa zuŵa (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ukulu kuluska zuŵa) na kubisika kwa mphete (apo mwezi ukuwoneka ucoko kuluska zuŵa).<ref>{{cite web |first=F. |last=Espenak |date=2000 |url=http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html |title=Solar Eclipses for Beginners |publisher=MrEclip |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-date=May 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524172606/http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html }}</ref> Pa kubisika kose, mwezi ukuphimba cimbale cose ca zuŵa, ndipo cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca zuŵa cikuwoneka na maso.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Origin of the Corona's Light|publisher=NASA Sciences and Exploration Directorate|url=https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/attic/eclipse2017.gsfc.nasa.gov/origin-corona's-light.html|accessdate=2025-09-15}}</ref> Cifukwa mtunda pakati pa mwezi na caro capasi ukusazgikira pacoko pacoko mu nyengo, ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukucepa.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Apo zuŵa likusintha kuya ku kuŵa nyenyezi yikulu yakufiira, ukulu wake na ukulu wakuwoneka kuthambo vikusazgikira pacoko pacoko.{{efn|name=size changes|Sono kuthwasa kwa zuŵa kukukura pa magaŵa pafupifupi 5 pa 100 mu vyaka biliyoni yimoza. Ici cikuyana comene na umo ukulu wakuwoneka wa mwezi ukucepera apo mwezi ukuya kutali na caro capasi.}} Kusintha kuŵiri uku pamoza kukung'anamula kuti vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi ivyo vyajumpha, mwezi ukaphimbanga zuŵa lose nyengo zose pa kubisika kwa zuŵa, ndipo kubisika kwa mphete kukaŵavya. Nga ni nthena, vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi munthazi, mwezi uzamuphimba so zuŵa lose yayi, ndipo kubisika kose kwa zuŵa kuzamucitika yayi.<ref name=fourmilab>{{cite web |last=Walker |first=John |url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |title=Moon near Perigee, Earth near Aphelion |publisher=Fourmilab |date=July 10, 2004 |access-date=December 25, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208153430/http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |archive-date=December 8, 2013}}</ref> Cifukwa nthowa ya mwezi kuzunguliya caro capasi yapendama na makona pafupifupi 5.145 kuyaniska na nthowa ya caro capasi kuzunguliya zuŵa, kubisika kukucitika pa mwezi uliwose wakuzura na uphya yayi. Kuti kubisika kucitike, mwezi ukwenera kuŵa pafupi na apo ndondomeko ziŵiri za nthowa zikukumana.<ref name="eclipse">{{cite web |last=Thieman |first=J. |author2=Keating, S. |date=May 2, 2006 |url=http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/faq.html |title=Eclipse 99, Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211120127/http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/faq.html |archive-date=February 11, 2007}}</ref> Nyengo na kuwerezgeka kwa kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi, na kwa mwezi na caro capasi, kukulongosoreka na ''saros'', iyo yili na nyengo ya vyaka pafupifupi 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |last=Espenak |first=F. |title=Saros Cycle |publisher=NASA |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030225501/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |archive-date=October 30, 2007}}</ref> Cifukwa mwezi nyengo zose ukubisa malo gha hafu ya kona kuthambo, cakucitika cakukolerana ca kubisa nyenyezi cikucitika apo nyenyezi yakuŵala panji cibwe cikujumpha kumanyuma kwa mwezi ndipo cikubisika.{{Efn |name=area|Kanandi mwezi ukuphimba malo gha {{nowrap |digiri 0.21078 za mbali zinayi}} mu mlengalenga pa usiku.}}<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Square Degree as a Unit of Celestial Area |author=Guthrie, D.V. |date=1947 |magazine=Popular Astronomy |volume=55 |pages=200–203 |bibcode=1947PA.....55..200G}}</ref> Mu nthowa iyi, kubisika kwa zuŵa ni kubisa zuŵa. Cifukwa mwezi uli pafupi pacoko na caro capasi, kubisika kwa nyenyezi zinyake kukuwoneka kose pa caro capasi yayi, panji pa nyengo yimoza yayi. Cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nthowa ya mwezi, caka ciliconse nyenyezi zakupambana zikubisika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |title=Total Lunar Occultations |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand |access-date=March 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223022627/http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |archive-date=February 23, 2010}}</ref> == Kupenda Mwezi == === Kulaŵiska Pambere pa Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (pambere pa 1609) === Ncakuthekera kuti kukura na kucepa kwa kawonekero ka mwezi kukalondezgeka pa kupima nyengo mu vithuzi vya kale comene vya mu mapanga vya ng'ombe zanalume na mawonekero gha masamu, vya vyaka mpaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, panji na kugwiliskira ntchito tumakuni twa kupendera twa vyaka 20,000–30,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi vikamanyikwa na kuwunjikika mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, ndipo pamanyuma vikalembeka na kuŵikika mu vimanyikwiro kufuma pa kwamba kwa kulemba mu vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu.<ref name="e093">{{cite web |last=Boyle |first=Rebecca |title=Ancient humans used the moon as a calendar in the sky |website=Science News |date=July 9, 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/moon-time-calendar-ancient-human-art |access-date=May 26, 2024 |archive-date=November 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104145754/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/moon-time-calendar-ancient-human-art |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Burton2011>{{cite book |title=The History of Mathematics: An Introduction |first=David M. |last=Burton |date=2011 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-07-741921-9 |publisher=Mcgraw-Hill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6uUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref> Cimoza mwa vithuzi vyakwamba ivyo vingaŵa vya mwezi ni cithuzi ca pa libwe ca vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu ku Knowth, mu Ireland.<ref name="Knowth">{{cite web |url=https://www.knowth.com/lunar-maps.htm |title=Lunar maps |access-date=September 18, 2019 |archive-date=June 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601184833/https://www.knowth.com/lunar-maps.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="spacetoday">{{cite web |url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |title=Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos |publisher=Space Today |date=2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305162253/http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |archive-date=March 5, 2012}}</ref> Cikweru ico cikulongora mwezi pamoza na ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin casangika kufuma mu vyaka masauzandi ghatatu pambere Khristu.<ref name=BlackGreen1992/> Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa fumu, mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi mu vipinda vyake.<ref name="c099">{{cite magazine | last=Winkler | first=Elizabeth | title=The Struggle to Unearth the World's First Author | magazine=The New Yorker | date=2022-11-19 | url=https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-struggle-to-unearth-the-worlds-first-author | access-date=2025-02-10}}</ref> Cithuzi ca kale comene ca mwezi ico cikulongora ubale wake na vinthu vinyake vya kumwamba ni cimbale ca kuthambo ca Nebra ca pafupifupi 1800–1600 pambere Khristu, ico cikulongora vinthu nga ni gulu la nyenyezi la Pleiades pafupi na mwezi.<ref name="g361">{{cite web |title=Nebra Sky Disc |website=State Museum of Prehistory |url=https://www.landesmuseum-vorgeschichte.de/en/nebra-sky-disc |access-date=27 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="k874">{{cite web |last=Simonova |first=Michaela |title=Under the Moonlight: Depictions of the Moon in Art |website=TheCollector |date=January 2, 2022 |url=https://www.thecollector.com/depictions-of-the-moon-in-art/ |access-date=May 26, 2024}}</ref> [[File:Nebra solstice 2.jpg|thumb|Mbale ya kuthambo ya Nebra ({{circa|1800–1600 pambere Khristu}}), yakusangika pafupi na malo agho ghangaŵa gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo; panyake yikulongora zuŵa panji mwezi wakukwana, mwezi uphya, Pleiades, na mazuŵa gha zuŵa la pacanya comene na la pasi comene nga ni mizere ya golide ku mbali, pacanya pakulongora mphepete ya mlengalenga na kumpoto<ref name="Meller 2021">{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/80363367 |title=Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany |chapter=The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power |last=Meller |first=Harald |date=2021 |publisher=Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). |isbn=978-3-948618-22-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dlijsmVJ9c&t=760s |title=Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge |work=British Museum |via=YouTube |date=2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bohan |first1=Elise |title=Big History |last2=Dinwiddie |first2=Robert |last3=Challoner |first3=Jack |last4=Stuart |first4=Colin |last5=Harvey |first5=Derek |last6=Wragg-Sykes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Chrisp |first7=Peter |last8=Hubbard |first8=Ben |last9=Parker |first9=Phillip |collaboration=Writers |date=February 2016 |publisher=DK |others=Foreword by David Christian |isbn=978-1-4654-5443-0 |edition=1st American |location=New York |page=20 |oclc=940282526}}</ref>]] Mupenda vinjeru wa Ŵagiriki ŵa kale Anaxagoras (wakafwa 428 pambere Khristu) wakaghanaghana kuti zuŵa na mwezi vyose viŵiri ni malibwe ghakulu gha mawonekero gha mpira, na kuti mwezi ukuwezga ungweru wa zuŵa.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Connor |first=J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |date=February 1999 |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Anaxagoras.html |title=Anaxagoras of Clazomenae |publisher=University of St Andrews |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112072236/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Anaxagoras.html |archive-date=January 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Needham1986>{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |title=Science and Civilization in China, Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC |date=1986 |publisher=Caves |isbn=978-0-521-05801-8 |place=Taipei |access-date=August 22, 2020}}</ref>{{rp|page=227}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1006543 |title=Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts |first1=A. |last1=Aaboe |first2=J.P. |last2=Britton |first3=J.A. |last3=Henderson |first4=Otto |last4=Neugebauer |author-link4=Otto Neugebauer |first5=A.J. |last5=Sachs |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81 |issue=6 |pages=1–75 |date=1991 |quote=One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223&nbsp;months (or 18&nbsp;years). |jstor=1006543}}</ref> Kunyake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 mpaka 400 pambere Khristu, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba ndondomeko ya ''Saros'' ya vyaka 18 ya kubisika kwa mwezi, ndipo ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵaindiya ŵakalongosora kutalikirana kwa mwezi mwezi uliwose.<ref name="Sarma-Ast-Ind">{{cite book |last=Sarma |first=K.V. |author-link=K. V. Sarma |editor=Helaine Selin |editor-link=Helaine Selin |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |edition=2 |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |pages=317–321 |contribution=Astronomy in India |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S}}</ref> Msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ŵacayina Shi Shen (mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu) wakapeleka malangulo gha kulongolera kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|page=411}} Mu malongosoro gha Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu) gha caro cose ca mlengalenga, mwezi ukaŵa mphaka pakati pa vigaŵa vya vinthu vyakusintha (dongo, maji, mphepo na moto) na nyenyezi zambura kunangika, ghanoghano ilo likalongozga kwa vyaka mahandiredi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=C.S. |author-link=C. S. Lewis |title=The Discarded Image |url=https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi |url-access=registration |date=1964 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-47735-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi/page/108 108] |access-date=November 11, 2019 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi_i1c3/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> Archimedes (287–212 pambere Khristu) wakapanga cilwero ico cingapima kwenda kwa mwezi na vinthu vinyake mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |work=The New York Times |title=Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C. |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=March 9, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204053238/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |archive-date=December 4, 2013}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu, Seleucus wa ku Seleucia wakaghanaghana makola kuti kuzuzga na kucepa kwa maji kukufuma ku kukoka kwa mwezi, na kuti kukwera kwake kukuthemba malo gha mwezi kuyaniska na zuŵa.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Bartel Leendert |last=van der Waerden |author-link=Bartel Leendert van der Waerden |date=1987 |title=The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=500 |issue=1 |pages=1–569 |pmid=3296915 |bibcode=1987NYASA.500....1A |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37193.x }}</ref> Mu vyaka vyenevivyo, Aristarchus wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi kufuma pa caro capasi, ndipo wakasanga kuti mtunda ni pafupifupi kanandi 20 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction to Stars and Planets: An activities-based exploration|publisher=The American Astronomical Society, The Institute of Physics|chapter=The Sun’s Distance I: The Method of Aristarchus|author=Alan Hirshfeld|date= December 2020| pages=1–7|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/book/mono/978-0-7503-3691-8/chapter/bk978-0-7503-3691-8chi}}</ref> Ŵacayina ŵa ufumu wa Han ŵakagomezganga kuti mwezi ni nkhongono yakuyana na ''qi'', ndipo ghanoghano lawo likamanya kuti ungweru wa mwezi ni kuwezgeka kwa ungweru wa zuŵa pera; Jing Fang (78–37 pambere Khristu) wakawona kuti mwezi uli na mawonekero gha mpira.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|pages=413–414}} Ptolemy (90–168 mumuwilo wa Khristu) wakanozga comene manambala gha Aristarchus, ndipo wakapima mtunda wapakati wa kanandi 59 ukulu wapakati wa caro capasi na ukulu wa 0.292 wa caro capasi, pafupi na manambala ghakwenelera gha pafupifupi 60 na 0.273.<ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=James |title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford & New York |isbn=978-0-19-509539-5 |pages=71, 386}}</ref> Mu 510 mumuwilo wa Khristu, msandi wa nyenyezi wa ku India Aryabhata wakayowoya mu buku lake kuti ungweru wa zuŵa wakuwezgeka ndiwo ukupangiska mwezi kuŵala.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata>Hayashi (2008), "Aryabhata I", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref><ref>''Gola'', 5; p. 64 in [https://archive.org/stream/The_Aryabhatiya_of_Aryabhata_Clark_1930#page/n93/mode/2up ''The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy''], translated by Walter Eugene Clark (University of Chicago Press, 1930; reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2006). "Half of the spheres of the Earth, the planets, and the asterisms is darkened by their shadows, and half, being turned toward the Sun, is light (being small or large) according to their size."</ref> Msandi wa nyenyezi na wa mendero Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) wakasanga kuti ungweru wa zuŵa ukuwezgeka na mwezi nga ni galasi yayi, kweni ungweru ukufuma ku cigaŵa ciliconse ca pacanya pa mwezi pakuŵala, ku nthowa zose.<ref>{{cite book |location=Detroit |date=2008 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography |chapter=Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan |author=A.I. Sabra |pages=189–210, at 195}}</ref> Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wa ufumu wa Song wakapanga ciyelezgero cakuyaniska kukura na kucepa kwa mwezi na mpira wa siliva wakuwezga ungweru uwo, para wapakika ufu wakutuŵa na kulaŵiskika kufuma kumphepete, ungawoneka nga ni cikweru.<ref name=Needham1986/>{{rp|pages=415–416}} Mu nyengo yapakati, pambere cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cindapangike, mwezi ukamanyikwanga comene kuŵa mpira, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga kuti ngwakuterera makola.<ref>{{cite web |last=Van Helden |first=A. |date=1995 |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/moon.html |title=The Moon |publisher=Galileo Project |access-date=April 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040623085326/http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/Moon.html |archive-date=June 23, 2004}}</ref> === Kupenda na Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali (1609–1959) === [[File:Galileo's sketches of the moon (cropped).png|thumb|Vithuzi vyakwamba vyakusindikizgika vya kulaŵiska mwezi na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali, kufuma mu ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (1610) ya Galileo Galilei, ivyo vikalongosora dankha mawonekero gha pacanya pa mwezi]] Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika na kuyowoyeka mu 1608.<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of the Telescope|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/space-astronomy/history-telescope|publisher=Royal Museums, Greenwich|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Kalembero kakwamba ka astronome ya cilaŵiskiro ca kutali na mapu ghacoko gha vimanyikwiro vya mwezi kakafuma kwa Thomas Harriot pakwamba pa nyengo ya kufunda ya 1609, kweni wakakapharazga yayi.<ref>{{cite web|title= Did an Englishman beat Galileo to the first moon observation?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2009/jan/14/thomas-harriot-galileo-moon-drawings|work=The Guardian|author=Ian Sample|date= 14 Jan 2009|accessdate=2026-09-15}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo Galileo Galilei nayo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali kulaŵiska kuthambo na mwezi, ndipo mu caka cenecico wakalemba kulaŵiska kwakulongosora comene na vyakumalizgira vyakuzirwa, nga ni kuti mwezi ngwakuterera yayi, kweni uli na mapiri na mazenje, ivyo wakapharazga mu 1610 mu buku lake liphya ilo likayowoyeka comene, ''Sidereus Nuncius''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sidereus Nuncius, English translation|author=Albert Van Helden|year=1989|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url=https://www.reed.edu/math-stats/wieting/mathematics537/SideriusNuncius.pdf}}</ref> Pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ntchito ya Giovanni Battista Riccioli na Francesco Maria Grimaldi yikapangiska ndondomeko ya kuthya mazina vimanyikwiro vya mwezi iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Riccioli and Lunar Nomenclature|author=T L McDonald|year=1967|journal=Journal of the British Astornomical Association|pages=112–117|url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/scan/manifest/1967JBAA...77..112M}}</ref> Mapu ghakulunjika comene gha 1834–1836 gha Wilhelm Beer na Johann Heinrich von Mädler, na buku lawo la 1837 ''Der Mond'', kusanda kwakwamba kwakulunjika kwa masamu kwa vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, vikasazgapo kutalika kwa mapiri ghakujumpha 1,000, ndipo vikanjizga kusanda mwezi mwakulunjika nga ni pa malo gha caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Consolmagno |first=Guy J. |date=1996 |title=Astronomy, Science Fiction and Popular Culture: 1277 to 2001 (And beyond) |journal=Leonardo |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=127–132 |jstor=1576348 |doi=10.2307/1576348 }}</ref> Mazenje gha mwezi, agho Galileo wakawona kakwamba, ghakaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa gha mapiri gha moto mpaka mu ma 1870 apo Richard Proctor wakasacizga kuti ghakapangika na kutimbana.<ref name="worldbook" /> Ghanoghano ili likakhozgeka mu 1892 na viyezgo vya msandi wa pasi Grove Karl Gilbert, na kusanda kwakuyaniska kufuma 1920 mpaka ma 1940, ndipo ici cikapangiska kukura kwa kasandiro ka vigaŵa vya pasi pa mwezi, ako pofika ma 1950 kakaŵa cigaŵa ciphya ca kasandiro ka pasi ka mlengalenga.<ref name="Hall1977">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/App_A.htm |title=Appendix A: Lunar Theory Before 1964 |last=Hall |first=R. Cargill |date=1977 |work=NASA History Series. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |location=Washington, DC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410085526/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/App_A.htm |archive-date=April 10, 2010}}</ref><ref name="worldbook" /> === Maulendo Ghakwamba ku Mwezi (1959–1976) === Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, ndondomeko zakwamba za kutuma vyombo zikapangika, ndipo pakumalira kwa ma 1950 zikaŵa na nkhongono izo zikazomerezga Soviet Union na United States kutuma vyombo mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951|url-access=registration|last=Neufeld|first=Michael J|publisher=The Free Press|year=1995|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029228951/page/158 158], 160–62, 190|isbn=978-0-02-922895-1}}</ref> Nkhondo ya Mtima yikapangiska vyaro viŵiri ivi kupanga luŵiro ndondomeko za kutuma vyombo, ndipo ici cikapangiska Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga na pamanyuma Mphikizgano wa Mwezi, uko kukasazgirapo luŵiro na khumbo la kupenda mwezi.<ref name=rmg>{{cite web|title=Space race timeline|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/space-astronomy/space-race-timeline|publisher=Royal Meuseums Greenwich|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> [[File:Luna 3 moon.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi cakwamba ca mbali yakutali ya mwezi, cakujambulika na Luna 3, 7 Okutobala 1959. Mare Moscoviense (pacanya ku maryero) na Mare Crisium, Mare Marginis na Mare Smythii (pakati ku mazere) vikuwoneka makora.]] Pamanyuma pa ulendo wakwamba wa mlengalenga wa Sputnik 1 mu 1957, vyombo vya mlengalenga vya ndondomeko ya Luna ya Soviet Union vikaŵa vyakwamba kufiska vilato vinandi. Pamanyuma pa maulendo ghatatu ghambura kuthyika mazina agho ghakatondeka mu 1958, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 1, cikathaŵa nkhongono ya kukoka ya caro capasi na kujumpha mwezi pa 4 Matika 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html |first=Anatoly |last=Zak |date=2009 |title=Russia's unmanned missions toward the Moon |access-date=April 20, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414115710/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html |archive-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref><ref name="NSSDCTrajectory">{{Cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/displayTrajectory.action?id=1959-012A|title=Luna 1 Launch and Trajectory Information|website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-date=2018-05-02}}</ref> Pamanyuma mu caka cenecico, cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu, Luna 2, cikafika pacanya pa mwezi mwa kutimbana mwakukhumba.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frfBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|title=Introduction to Aerospace Engineering with a Flight Test Perspective|last=Corda|first=Stephen|year=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-95336-5|language=en}}</ref> Pakumalira kwa caka, Luna 3 yikaŵa cinthu cakwamba cakupangika na ŵanthu kufika ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, iyo kanandi yikuwoneka yayi, ndipo yikatora vithuzi vyakwamba vya mbali iyi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-008A|title=Luna 3|website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref> Combo cakwamba ca mlengalenga kukhala pasi makola pa mwezi cikaŵa Luna 9, ndipo combo cakwamba kuzunguliya mwezi cikaŵa Luna 10, vyose mu 1966.<ref>{{cite web|title=Explore - Missions - Robotic Landers - Luna 9 |publisher=ESA|url=https://lunarexploration.esa.int/explore/missions/239?ia=334|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref name="worldbook" /> [[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|''Earthrise'', ya wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa NASA William Anders, cithuzi cakwamba ca mitundu ca caro capasi cakujambulika na munthu kufuma pa mwezi, pa Apollo 8 (1968), nyengo yakwamba apo ndege ya mlengalenga na ŵanthu yikafuma mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi na kufika pa cinthu cinyake ca kuthambo|alt=Caro capasi cicoko ca camlengalenga na cituŵa, cakuŵala mu cisi ca mlengalenga, cikuwuka pacanya pa mphepete ya mwezi wambura kanthu wakuŵa na mazenje]] Pamanyuma pa pangano la Pulezidenti John F. Kennedy la 1961 la kufikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi pambere vyaka khumi vindamale, United States, pasi pa ulongozgi wa NASA, yikatuma vyombo vinandi vyambura ŵanthu kuti vipende pacanya pa mwezi pa kunozgekera maulendo gha ŵanthu: ndondomeko ya Ranger, ndondomeko ya Lunar Orbiter na ndondomeko ya Surveyor. Ndondomeko ya Apollo ya ŵanthu yikapangika pa nyengo yeneyiyo; pamanyuma pa viyezgo vinandi vya combo ca Apollo mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, na cifukwa ca kopa kuti Soviet Union yingafikiska ŵanthu pa mwezi, mu 1968 Apollo 8 yikaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web|title= From Ranger VIII to Apollo 11: Pioneering an Integrated Robotic and Human Exploration Program|author= David A. Kring|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute|url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar_images/Ranger8toApollo11/|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Vyamoyo vyakwamba vya pa caro capasi, fulu ziŵiri, zikazunguliya mwezi myezi yitatu pambere pa Zond 5 ya Soviet Union, ndipo fulu zinyake zikalondezga pa Zond 6.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apollo Missions|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/apollo50th/missions.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief History of Animals in Space|url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/a-brief-history-of-animals-in-space/|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Kakwamba apo munthu wakafika pa mwezi na pa cinthu ciliconse ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi kukaŵa apo Neil Armstrong, mulongozgi wa ulendo wa Amerika wa Apollo 11, wakaŵika lundi pa mwezi pa 02:56 UTC pa 21 Vuna 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html |title=Record of Lunar Events, 24 July 1969 |work=Apollo 11 30th anniversary |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408213454/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html |archive-date=April 8, 2010}}</ref> Ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 500 pa caro cose ŵakawonera pa wayilesi ya kanema, unandi ukulu comene wa ŵakuwonera pa nyengo iyo.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |last=Coren |first=M. |title='Giant leap' opens world of possibility |publisher=CNN |date=July 26, 2004 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/07/16/moon.landing/index.html |access-date=March 16, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120133640/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/07/16/moon.landing/index.html |archive-date=January 20, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Manned Space Chronology: Apollo_11 |url=http://www.spaceline.org/flightchron/apollo11.html |publisher=Spaceline.org |access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214213826/http://www.spaceline.org/flightchron/apollo11.html |archive-date=February 14, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing "Inspired World" |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html |work=National Geographic |access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209140059/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html |archive-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ulendo unyake, Luna 15 ya Soviet Union, ukaŵa mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi, ndipo pamoza na Apollo 11 yikaŵa ciyelezgero cakwamba ca maulendo ghaŵiri gha kuwaro kwa caro capasi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Luna 15 Accompanied Apollo 11 to the Moon|author=Amy Shira Teitel|date=Jul 4, 2019|publisher=Discover|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/luna-15-accompanied-apollo-11-to-the-moon-40769|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Maulendo gha Apollo 11 mpaka 17 (kupatula Apollo 13, iyo yikaleka kufika pa mwezi) ghakatora makilogalamu 380.05 gha malibwe na dongo la mwezi mu vigaŵa 2,196. Vilwero vya kasandiro vikaŵikika pacanya pa mwezi pa maulendo ghose gha Apollo. Malo gha vilwero gha nyengo yitali, kusazgapo vilwero vya kupima kufunda, kunyenyenkhuka, na umagineti, ghakaŵikika pa malo agho Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, na 17 yikakhala. Kutuma mauthenga ku caro capasi kukaleka pakumalira kwa 1977 cifukwa ca ndalama, kweni cifukwa vyakuwezga ungweru vya laser nvilwero vyambura kukhumba nkhongono, vicali kugwiliskirika ntchito. Apollo 17 mu 1972 yikaŵa ulendo waumaliro wa ŵanthu ku mwezi, ndipo waumaliro wa ŵanthu kufika pafupi na mwezi mpaka Artemis II mu 2026.<ref>{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans – Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |chapter=Extravehicular Activity |chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm |access-date=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |orig-date=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |ref=Orloff |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606114042/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |archive-date=June 6, 2013}}</ref> Explorer 49 mu 1973 yikaŵa combo caumaliro ca U.S. ca mwezi mpaka 1994.<ref>{{cite press release |title=NASA news release 77-47 page 242 |date=September 1, 1977 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf |access-date=March 16, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604114817/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm |access-date=August 29, 2007 |title=NASA Turns A Deaf Ear To The Moon |date=1977 |publisher=OASI Newsletters Archive |last=Appleton |first=James |author2=Radley, Charles |author3=Deans, John |author4=Harvey, Simon |author5=Burt, Paul |author6=Haxell, Michael |author7=Adams, Roy |author8=Spooner N. |author9=Brieske, Wayne |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210143103/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm |archive-date=December 10, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dickey |first1=J. |date=1994 |title=Lunar laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program |journal=Science |volume=265 |pages=482–490 |doi=10.1126/science.265.5171.482 |pmid=17781305 |issue=5171 |bibcode=1994Sci...265..482D |last2=Bender |first2=P. L. |last3=Faller |first3=J. E. |last4=Newhall |first4=X. X. |last5=Ricklefs |first5=R. L. |last6=Ries |first6=J. G. |last7=Shelus |first7=P. J. |last8=Veillet |first8=C. |last9=Whipple |first9=A. L. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Then and Now: Apollo to Artemis|publisher=NASA|url= https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/then-and-now-apollo-to-artemis/|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Explorer 49|url=https://science.nasa.gov/mission/explorer-49/|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> [[File:AS12-48-7133 (21470506269).jpg|thumb|Ciyelezgero ca kupenja mwezi na makina na ŵanthu: wakwenda mu mlengalenga wa Apollo 12 Pete Conrad wakulaŵiska Surveyor 3 pa malo ghawo gha pa mwezi (1969), na ndege ya Apollo 12 ''Intrepid'' kumanyuma<ref name="g936">{{cite web |last=Pearson |first=Ezzy | title=Apollo 12: the story of the second manned mission to the Moon |work=BBC Sky at Night | date=2019-11-01 | url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/apollo-12-story-second-mission-moon | access-date=2024-07-21}}</ref>]] Soviet Union yikalutilira kutuma maulendo gha marobotiki ku mwezi mpaka 1976, ndipo mu 1970 na Luna 17 yikaŵika galimoto lakwamba lakwendeskeka kufuma kutali, Lunokhod 1, pa cinthu ca kuwaro kwa caro capasi, ndipo yikawunjika na kuwezga makilogalamu 0.3 gha malibwe na dongo na maulendo ghatatu gha Luna (Luna 16 mu 1970, Luna 20 mu 1972, na Luna 24 mu 1976).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/index.cfm |title=Rocks and Soils from the Moon |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 6, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527085532/http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/index.cfm |archive-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> === Phangano la Mwezi na Kuleka Kupenda (1976–1990) === Pamanyuma pa ulendo waumaliro wa Soviet Union ku mwezi mu 1976, pakaŵa kupenda kucoko kwa mwezi kwa vyaka 14.<ref name=timeline>{{cite web|url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/|title=Lunar Mission Summaries|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakasintha kulaŵiska kupenda vibwe vya mukati (mwaciyelezgero ndondomeko ya Venera) na vya kuwaro (mwaciyelezgero Pioneer 10, 1972) vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, na so nthowa ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, kupanga na kwendeska, kupatula ma''satellite'' gha mauthenga, ma''satellite'' gha kulaŵiska caro capasi, vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya mlengalenga na comene malo gha kukhala mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aeronatics and Space Report of the President|date=1988 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/presrep1988.pdf?emrc=6814e862607f0|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2026-09-20}}</ref> Kudumba kwa Phangano la Mwezi mu 1979, na kuzomerezgeka kwake mu 1984, ndiyo ntchito yekha yikulu ya mwezi mpaka 1990.<ref>{{cite web|title=Moon Agreement: Key Provisions|author=Dr. Fabio Tronchetti|url=https://researchportal.northumbria.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/172023522/Chap_9_-_F._Tronchetti_Moon_Agreement_final_2_.pdf|publisher=University of Northumbria|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref><ref name=timeline/> === Kupenda Kuphya (1990 mpaka sono) === Mu 1990, Hiten–Hagoromo, ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi kufuma 1976, ukafika mu nthowa ya kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hiten-Hagomoro |publisher=NASA |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore |access-date=March 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614115823/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore |archive-date=June 14, 2011}}</ref> Ukatumika na Japani, ndipo ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa mwezi uwo ukaŵa wa Soviet Union panji U.S. yayi.<ref name=timeline/> Mu 1994, U.S. yikatuma so combo ca mlengalenga (Clementine) ku mwezi kakwamba kufuma 1973. Ulendo uwu ukapanga mapu ghakwamba gha mawonekero gha mwezi pafupifupi wose, na vithuzi vyakwamba vya ungweru wa mitundu yinandi vya pacanya pose pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clementine information |publisher=NASA |date=1994 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html |access-date=March 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925095846/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html |archive-date=September 25, 2010}}</ref> Mu 1998, Lunar Prospector yikalondezga, ndipo vilwero vyake vikalongora kuŵapo kwa haidrojeni yinandi ku mphaka za mwezi, iyo panyake yikufuma ku cikakato ca maji mu mamita ghacoko gha pacanya gha fuvu mu mazenje gha mzgezge wa nyengo zose.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lunar Prospector: Neutron Spectrometer |publisher=NASA |url=http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm |date=2001 |access-date=March 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527105801/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm |archive-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> Vyaka vyakulondezga vikawona maulendo ghakwamba ghanandi ku mwezi gha vyaro viphya ivyo vikupenda mwezi. Pakati pa 2004 na 2006, combo cakwamba ca Wupu wa Mlengalenga wa Ulaya (ESA), SMART-1, cikazunguliya mwezi ndipo cikalemba kupenda kwakwamba kwakulongosora kwa vigaŵa vya usungunu pacanya pa mwezi. Ndondomeko ya Ŵacayina ya Kupenda Mwezi yikafika pa mwezi kakwamba na Chang'e 1 (2007–2009), ndipo yikapanga mapu gha vithuzi gha mwezi wose. India yikafika, kuzunguliya, na kutimbana na mwezi mu 2008 kakwamba na Chandrayaan-1 na Moon Impact Probe, ndipo yikaŵa caro ca cinkhondi na ca cinkhondi na cimoza kucita nthena, ndipo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika gha usungunu na malibwe gha pacanya pa mwezi, na kusimikizga kuŵapo kwa maji mu dongo la mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMSDE1A6BD_0.html |title=SMART-1 factsheet |date=February 26, 2007 |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=March 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044139/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMSDE1A6BD_0.html |archive-date=March 23, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chang'e 1 |publisher=NASA |date=2019 |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/change-1/in-depth/ |access-date=October 3, 2021 |archive-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122070043/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/change-1/in-depth/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isro.org/Chandrayaan/htmls/mission_sequence.htm |title=Mission Sequence |date=November 17, 2008 |publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706225136/http://www.isro.org/chandrayaan/htmls/mission_sequence.htm |archive-date=July 6, 2010}}</ref> U.S. yikatuma Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) na LCROSS pa 18 Zizima 2009. LCROSS yikamalizga ntchito yake mwa kutimbana mwakunozgeka mu zenje la Cabeus pa 9 Thukila 2009, apo LRO yicali kugwira ntchito, yikupima kutalika kwa malo na kujambura vithuzi vyakulunjika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/observation.htm |title=Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS): Strategy & Astronomer Observation Campaign |date=October 2009 |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101191735/http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/observation.htm |archive-date=January 1, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NASA’s Moon Orbiter Spots New, ‘Once-in-Century’ Moon Crater|url= https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-moon-orbiter-spots-new-once-in-century-moon-crater/|publisher=NASA|author= Lonnie Shekhtman|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> China yikalutilira ndondomeko yake mu 2010 na Chang'e 2, iyo yikapanga mapu ghakulunjika comene mu myezi 8, na mu 2013 na Chang'e 3, combo ca kukhala pa mwezi pamoza na galimoto la mwezi la zina lakuti Yutu ("Kalulu wa Jade"). Ulendo uwu ukaŵa wakwamba wa galimoto la mwezi kufuma Lunokhod 2 mu 1973 na kukhala makola kwakwamba pa mwezi kufuma Luna 24 mu 1976, ndipo ukapangiska China kuŵa caro ca citatu kufiska ici.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chang'e-3|publisher=ESA|url=https://lunarexploration.esa.int/explore/missions/237?ia=331|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Mu 2014, combo cakwamba ca ndalama za ŵanthu paŵekha, Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, cikajumpha pafupi na mwezi. Ulendo unyake wa China, Chang'e 4, ukafika kakwamba ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi pakwamba pa 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=China Outlines New Rockets, Space Station and Moon Plans |url=http://www.space.com/28809-china-rocket-family-moon-plans.html |date=March 17, 2015 |first=Leonard |last=David |publisher=Space.com |access-date=June 29, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701055507/http://www.space.com/28809-china-rocket-family-moon-plans.html |archive-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref> Mu 2019 so, India yikatuma combo cake caciŵiri, Chandrayaan-2, ku mwezi. Mu 2020, China yikacita ulendo wake wakwamba wa marobotiki wa kuwezga vigaŵa (Chang'e 5), ndipo yikawezga magalamu 1,731 gha vinthu vya mwezi ku caro capasi.<ref>{{cite news |title=China's Chang'e-5 brought 1,731 grams of samples from the moon |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chinas-change-5-brought-1731-grams-of-samples-from-the-moon/article33377559.ece |date=December 20, 2020 |work=The Hindu |access-date=October 15, 2021 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029180538/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chinas-change-5-brought-1731-grams-of-samples-from-the-moon/article33377559.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> U.S. yikapanga ndondomeko za kuwezgera ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ku mwezi kwamba mu 2004, ndipo na kusayinika kwa Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, ghakulongozgeka na U.S., ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu ku mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2020.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html |title=President Bush Offers New Vision For NASA |date=December 14, 2004 |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510062228/http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html |archive-date=May 10, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=July 2019 |first=Adam |last=Mann |title=NASA's Artemis Program |url=https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |access-date=April 19, 2021 |website=Space.com |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417175557/https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vyanjira mu Mapangano agha. Kwiza kwa Mapangano gha Artemis kwawuska so mphindano pa ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro na kovwirana pa ntchito za mwezi, kuthemba Phangano la Mwezi na ghanoghano la Muzi wa Mwezi ilo likulongozgeka na ESA.<ref name="The Space Review 2020"/><ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021"/><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission"/> Mu 2022, Korea ya Kumwera yikatuma Danuri, combo cake cakwamba ca mwezi, kufuma ku U.S. Mu 2023 na 2024, India na Japani vikaŵa vyaro vya cinayi na ca cinkhondi kufikiska makola combo pa mwezi, pamanyuma pa Soviet Union na United States mu ma 1960, na China mu 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Danuri, South Korea’s first Moon mission|url=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/kplo|publisher=The Planetary Society|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Combo ca Japani, SLIM, cikapona mausiku ghatatu gha mwezi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan makes contact with 'Moon Sniper' on lunar surface |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/science-environment-68019846 |date=January 19, 2024 |access-date=January 19, 2024 |work=BBC News |archive-date=January 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119143351/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/science-environment-68019846 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lea |first=Robert |date=April 24, 2024 |title=Japan's SLIM moon lander defies death to survive 3rd frigid lunar night (image) |url=https://www.space.com/japan-slim-moon-lander-survives-3rd-lunar-night |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430163510/https://www.space.com/japan-slim-moon-lander-survives-3rd-lunar-night |archive-date=April 30, 2024 |access-date=May 1, 2024 |website=Space.com}}</ref> Mu Mpupulu 2024, IM-1 yikaŵa combo cakwamba cakupangika na kampani kufika pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intuitive Machines' 'Odysseus' becomes first commercial lander to reach the Moon – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/02/22/live-coverage-intuitive-machines-aims-to-become-first-commercial-lander-to-safely-reach-the-moon/ |access-date=April 15, 2024 |archive-date=June 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615055824/https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/02/22/live-coverage-intuitive-machines-aims-to-become-first-commercial-lander-to-safely-reach-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> China yikatuma Chang'e 6 mu Vula 2024, iyo yikawezga kakwamba vigaŵa kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi.<ref name="AJ_FI-20230425">{{cite tweet |author=Andrew Jones |user=AJ_FI |number=1650832520978526208 |title=China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W) |date=April 25, 2023}}</ref> Yikanyamula so galimoto la China la kupenda pacanya pa mwezi na ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Andrew |title=China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon/ |website=SpaceNews |access-date=May 8, 2024 |date=May 6, 2024 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508193233/https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan yikatuma combo ca kuzunguliya mwezi ca ICUBE-Q pamoza na Chang'e 6.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission/ |title=China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission |work=SpaceNews |date=January 10, 2024 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-date=May 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503100724/https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Nova-C 2, combo ca iSpace na Blue Ghost vyose vikatumika ku mwezi mu 2024.<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Space Missions to Watch for in 2024|author=David Dickinson|date= January 5, 2024|publisher=Sky & Telescope|url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/to-the-moon-and-beyond-top-space-missions-to-watch-for-in-2024/|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> [[File:Orion POV- Destination and Home (art002e009567).jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca mwezi na caro capasi apo caro capasi cikunjira kumanyuma kwa mwezi, na ndege ya ''Integrity'', pa ulendo wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu wa kuzunguliya mwezi mu 2026, ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi kufuma 1972]] Ulendo wa NASA wa Artemis II wa ŵanthu kujumpha pafupi na mwezi ukatumika mu Masika 2026. Ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzunguliya mwezi kufuma nyengo ya Apollo. Christina Koch wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba, Victor Glover munthu wakwamba wa khungu lakufipa, Jeremy Hansen wa ku Canada munthu wakwamba wambura kuŵa wa ku Amerika, na mulongozgi Reid Wiseman munthu mulara comene, kufuma pafupi na caro capasi na kuzunguliya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=2026-02-21 |title=NASA says it needs to haul the Artemis II rocket back to the hangar for repairs |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-says-it-needs-to-haul-the-artemis-ii-rocket-back-to-the-hangar-for-repairs/ |access-date=March 15, 2026 |website=Ars Technica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Seeing the Dark Side of the Moon on NASA’s Artemis II Mission|url=https://www.newyorker.com/podcast/the-new-yorker-radio-hour/seeing-the-dark-side-of-the-moon-on-nasas-artemis-ii-mission|author=David Remnick|date=June 5, 2026|publisher=The New Yorker|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Ŵanthu na Mwezi == [[File:Moon Soft Landings.svg|thumb|Mapu gha malo ghose apo ndege zikakhira makora pa mwezi (2024)]] Kuŵapo kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi kukamba na vyakusyala vya vyombo ivyo vikatimbana, ivyo vikakhala pasi, na ivyo vikuzunguliya mwezi. Vyombo vya kuzunguliya nga ni Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter iyo yikatumika mu 2009 vikulutilira kupenda mwezi pa maulendo gha munthazi, apo vyombo vya kukhala pasi nga ni Chang'e 3 iyo yikatumika mu 2013, pamoza na cilaŵiskiro cake ca kutali ca ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, vikaŵa kuti vicali kugwira ntchito mu 2020.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jones |first=Andrew |date=September 23, 2020 |title=China's Chang'e 3 lunar lander still going strong after 7 years on the moon |url=https://www.space.com/china-change-3-moon-lander-lasts-7-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125043612/https://www.space.com/china-change-3-moon-lander-lasts-7-years |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |access-date=November 16, 2020 |website=Space.com}}</ref> Vyakuwezga ungweru vinkhondi vyaŵikika pa mwezi kufuma mu ma 1970, ndipo vyagwiliskirika ntchito pa kupima kwakulunjika kwa kusintha kwa mwezi mwa laser.<ref name="UniverseToday">{{cite news |title=It's Not Just The Astronauts That Are Getting Older |date=10 March 2010 |work=Universe Today |url=http://www.universetoday.com/59310/its-not-just-the-astronauts-that-are-getting-older/ |access-date=24 August 2012}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Ŵanthu === [[File:ALSEP_AS17-134-20500.jpg|Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaleka pa mwezi: vilwero vya kuyezgera vya Apollo 17 pacanya pa mwezi<ref name="Garber 2012" />|thumb|right]] Nangauli mwezi uli pa cigaŵa capasi comene ca kuvikilira vibwe, kunangika kwake nga ni malo ghambura kukhwaskika na gha kasandiro kwayowoyeka.<ref name="Vidaurri 2019">{{cite web |last=Vidaurri |first=Monica |title=Will people go to space—and then colonize it? |work=Quartz |date=October 24, 2019 |url=https://qz.com/1734103/will-people-go-to-space-and-then-colonize-it/ |access-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109040803/https://qz.com/1734103/will-people-go-to-space-and-then-colonize-it/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Usange astronome yingacitika kufuma pa mwezi, yikwenera kuŵa yambura kunangika na vinthu na wayilesi. Nangauli mwezi ulije mphepo yikulu, kwendakwenda na kutimbana pa mwezi kukupanga maŵingu gha fuvu agho ghangathandazgika kutali na kunanga mawonekero gha kale gha mwezi na vyapadera vyake vya kasandiro.<ref name="David 2020">{{cite web |last=David |first=Leonard |title=Cold as (lunar) ice: Protecting the moon's polar regions from contamination |website=Space.com |date=August 21, 2020 |url=https://www.space.com/moon-ice-mining-contamination-concerns.html |access-date=February 3, 2022 |archive-date=February 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204000406/https://www.space.com/moon-ice-mining-contamination-concerns.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Msambiri Alice Gorman wakuti, nangauli mwezi ngwambura kukhalika, kuyowoya kuti mwezi ngwakufwa kukuleka kulaŵiska kusintha kwake, ntheura ntchito za ŵanthu zikwenera kuwona malo gha mwezi nga ni cigaŵa ca ntchito iyi.<ref name="Gorman 2022">{{cite web |last=Gorman |first=Alice |title=#SpaceWatchGL Opinion: An ecofeminist approach to the sustainable use of the Moon |website=SpaceWatch.Global |date=July 1, 2022 |url=https://spacewatch.global/2022/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-an-ecofeminist-approach-to-the-sustainable-used-of-the-moon/ |access-date=July 3, 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704024322/https://spacewatch.global/2022/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-an-ecofeminist-approach-to-the-sustainable-used-of-the-moon/ |url-status=live}} Note: see Val Plumwood which Alice Gorman cites regarding co-participation.</ref> Cakucitika ca "tardigrade" ca combo ca Beresheet ico cikawa mu 2019 cikunyamula tuvinyama tucoko twa ''tardigrade'' cayowoyeka nga ni ciyelezgero ca kusoŵa kwa ndondomeko na malango gha pakati pa vyaro gha kuvikilira vibwe.<ref name="Alvarez 2020 p."/> Vyakusyala vya mu mlengalenga kuzunguliya mwezi vyawonekera nga ni suzgo la munthazi apo maulendo ghakusazgikira, comene nga ni ngozi ku maulendo agha.<ref name="Carter 2022">{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Jamie |title=As Chinese Rocket Strikes Moon This Week We Need To Act Now To Prevent New Space Junk Around The Moon Say Scientists |website=Forbes |date=February 27, 2022 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2022/02/27/as-chinese-rocket-strikes-moon-this-week-we-need-to-act-now-to-prevent-new-space-junk-around-the-moon-say-scientists/ |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409134704/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2022/02/27/as-chinese-rocket-strikes-moon-this-week-we-need-to-act-now-to-prevent-new-space-junk-around-the-moon-say-scientists/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nast 2013"/> Ntheura kulongozga vyakutaya pa mwezi kwayowoyeka nga ni nkhani iyo maulendo gha munthazi ghakwenera kumazga, comene pacanya pa mwezi.<ref name="Pino Salmeri Hugo Hume p.">{{cite journal |last1=Pino |first1=Paolo |last2=Salmeri |first2=Antonino |last3=Hugo |first3=Adam |last4=Hume |first4=Shayna |title=Waste Management for Lunar Resources Activities: Toward a Circular Lunar Economy |journal=New Space |publisher=Mary Ann Liebert Inc |date=August 27, 2021 |issn=2168-0256 |doi=10.1089/space.2021.0012 |pages=274–283 |volume=10 |issue=3}}</ref><ref name="NASA/ADS">{{cite journal |title=1985lbsa.conf..423B Page 423 |journal=Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century |bibcode=1985lbsa.conf..423B |language=fi |last1=Briggs |first1=Randall |last2=Sacco |first2=Albert |year=1985 |page=423}}</ref> Vyakusyala vya ŵanthu ŵakufwa vyatoleka ku mwezi, kusazgapo na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha. Cifukwa mwezi ngwakupatulika panji ngwakuzirwa ku midawuko yinandi, kuŵika vyakusyala vya ŵakufwa mu mlengalenga kwasuskika na ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵanthu ŵa malo agho. Mwaciyelezgero, mulongozgi wa Ŵanavajo wa nyengo iyo Albert Hale wakasuska NASA pa kutuma milota ya msandi Eugene Shoemaker ku mwezi mu 1998.<ref name="Magazine Sullivan 2024 a329">{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Will |date=January 5, 2024 |title=Navajo Nation President Asks for Delay of Moon Mission Carrying Human Remains |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/navajo-nation-president-asks-for-delay-of-moon-mission-carrying-human-remains-180983543/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106235545/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/navajo-nation-president-asks-for-delay-of-moon-mission-carrying-human-remains-180983543/ |archive-date=January 6, 2024 |access-date=January 7, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref><ref name="web.archive.org 2011 c901">{{cite web |title=Celestis Memorial Spaceflights |date=August 8, 2011 |url=http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314165835/http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |url-status=unfit |access-date=January 7, 2024}}</ref> Kupatula vyakusyala vya ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi, pali vinthu vinyake ivyo vikaŵikika mwakukhumba kuti vikhalilire, nga ni cithuzi ca Moon Museum, mauthenga gha uwemi gha Apollo 11, vimbale 6 vya mwezi, cikumbusko ca Ŵakwenda mu Mlengalenga Ŵakufwa, na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="Garber 2012">{{cite web |last=Garber |first=Megan |title=The Trash We've Left on the Moon |website=The Atlantic |date=December 19, 2012 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/the-trash-weve-left-on-the-moon/266465/ |access-date=April 11, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409080003/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/the-trash-weve-left-on-the-moon/266465/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Astronome Kufuma pa Mwezi === [[File:Earth’s geocorona from the Moon.jpg|thumb|Mpweya wapacanya comene wa caro capasi wakuŵala, kupanga ''geocorona'', wakuwoneka mu ungweru wa ''ultraviolet'' na kujambulika na kamera ya Apollo 16 pa mwezi]] Mwezi wagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo na caro capasi. Caro capasi cikuwoneka kuthambo la mwezi na ukulu wakuwoneka wa makona pafupifupi 2, katatu mpaka kanayi ukulu wa mwezi panji zuŵa kuthambo la caro capasi.<ref name="Gorkavyi Krotkov Marshak 2023 pp. 1527–1537">{{cite journal |last1=Gorkavyi |first1=Nick |last2=Krotkov |first2=Nickolay |last3=Marshak |first3=Alexander |title=Earth observations from the Moon's surface: dependence on lunar libration |journal=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=March 24, 2023 |issn=1867-8548 |doi=10.5194/amt-16-1527-2023 |pages=1527–1537 |bibcode=2023AMT....16.1527G |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kulaŵiska kufuma pa mwezi kukamba mu 1966 na vithuzi vyakwamba vya caro capasi kufuma pa mwezi, ivyo vikatoreka na Lunar Orbiter 1. Cakuzirwa comene ku midawuko ni cithuzi ca 1968 ico cikuchemeka "Kufuma kwa Caro Capasi", ico Bill Anders wa Apollo 8 wakatora. Mu Masika 1972 ulendo wa Apollo 16 ukaŵika cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cakwamba ca pa mwezi, ico cikajambura vithuzi na ungweru wakugaŵika vya kuthambo.<ref name="w422">{{cite web |last=Betz |first=Eric |title=The History and Future of Telescopes on the Moon |website=Astronomy Magazine |date=2020-06-03 |url=https://www.astronomy.com/observing/the-history-and-future-of-telescopes-on-the-moon/ |access-date=2024-10-22}}</ref><ref name="x909">{{cite web |title=Remembering the First Moon-Based Telescope |website=NASA |date=2019-07-15 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/remembering-the-first-moon-based-telescope/ |access-date=2024-10-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/experiments/f_ultra/ |title=Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph |publisher=Lpi.usra.edu |access-date=October 3, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010615/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/experiments/f_ultra/ |archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref> Mwezi ukumanyikwa kuŵa malo ghawemi comene gha vilaŵiskiro vya kutali.<ref>{{cite web |last=Takahashi |first=Yuki |title=Mission Design for Setting up an Optical Telescope on the Moon |publisher=California Institute of Technology |date=September 1999 |url=http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106142659/http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ |archive-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> Uli pafupi pacoko; mazenje ghanyake pafupi na mphaka ngamdima na ghakuzizima nyengo zose ndipo ngawemi comene ku vilaŵiskiro vya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi; ndipo vilaŵiskiro vya wayilesi ku mbali ya kutali vingavikilirika ku congo ca wayilesi ca caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chandler |first=David |title=MIT to lead development of new telescopes on moon |work=MIT News |date=February 15, 2008 |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html |access-date=March 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304062601/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html |archive-date=March 4, 2009}}</ref> Dongo la mwezi, nangauli likuŵa suzgo ku vigaŵa vyakwenda vya vilaŵiskiro, lingasazganika na vinthu vinyake na kugwiliskirika ntchito kuzenga magalasi gha ukulu mpaka mamita 50.<ref>{{cite web |last=Naeye |first=Robert |title=NASA Scientists Pioneer Method for Making Giant Lunar Telescopes |publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center |date=April 6, 2008 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html |access-date=March 27, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222142443/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html |archive-date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca kulaŵiska pacanya pera cingapangika mwa mtengo ucoko na vinthu vyakuthira vyapadera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bell |first=Trudy |title=Liquid Mirror Telescopes on the Moon |work=Science News |publisher=NASA |date=October 9, 2008 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/ |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323081215/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/ |archive-date=March 23, 2011}}</ref> Apo ntchito za ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi zikusazgikira, kwenda kwa fuvu la mwezi kuzamusazgikira, ndipo vyakucitika viwemi vya astronome kufuma pacanya vizamucepa, kuyana na ndondomeko za kucepeska kuthandazgika kwa fuvu.<ref name="y615">{{cite journal |last1=Horányi |first1=Mihály |last2=Szalay |first2=Jamey R. |last3=Wang |first3=Xu |title=The lunar dust environment: concerns for Moon-based astronomy |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=382 |issue=2271 |date=May 9, 2024 |issn=1364-503X |pmid=38522460 |pmc=10961187 |article-number=20230075 |bibcode=2024RSPTA.38230075H |doi=10.1098/rsta.2023.0075 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Maulendo Ghakupangika === Ndondomeko za mwezi za U.S. na China zili na cilato ca kuzenga malo gha kukhala pa mwezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2030 pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa vyaro vinyake, ndipo vingaŵa kukhala pa mwezi kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu kufuma Apollo 17 mu 1972.<ref name="Since Apollo 17">{{cite web |last=Cameron |first=Claire |date=February 27, 2026 |title=NASA scraps 2027 Artemis III moon landing in favor of 2028 mission |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-scraps-2027-artemis-iii-moon-landing-in-favor-of-2028-mission/ |access-date=March 15, 2026 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa ulendo wa kuyezga wa Artemis III pafupi na caro capasi uwo ukunozgekera 2027, NASA yikukhumba kuwezgera ŵanthu pacanya pa mwezi mu 2028, na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵaŵiri ŵa Artemis IV kukhala ku mphaka ya kumwera ya mwezi.<ref name="Since Apollo 17"/> Apo maulendo gha Apollo ghakaŵa gha kupenda, ndondomeko ya Artemis yikukhumba kuŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Pa ici, U.S. yikugwira ntchito pamoza na makampani pa mauthenga gha mwezi, kunyamula katundu, na kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya pa mwezi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bantock |first=Jack |date=April 24, 2024 |title=Streaming and texting on the Moon: Nokia and NASA are taking 4G into space |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/24/tech/nokia-moon-4g-network-nasa-spc/index.html |access-date=April 27, 2024 |publisher=CNN |archive-date=April 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427205419/https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/24/tech/nokia-moon-4g-network-nasa-spc/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.asianage.com/science/150519/nasa-plans-to-send-first-woman-on-moon-by-2024.html |title=NASA plans to send first woman on Moon by 2024 |date=May 15, 2019 |website=The Asian Age |access-date=May 15, 2019 |archive-date=April 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414162829/https://www.asianage.com/science/150519/nasa-plans-to-send-first-woman-on-moon-by-2024.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Meredith Garofalo |date=December 8, 2023 |title=DARPA moon tech study selects 14 companies to develop a lunar economy |url=https://www.space.com/darpa-moon-tech-study-future-lunar-economy |access-date=April 27, 2024 |website=Space.com |archive-date=June 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615055827/https://www.space.com/darpa-moon-tech-study-future-lunar-economy |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya Chang'e ya China yikapharazga maulendo gha pamoza na ndondomeko ya Luna-Glob ya Russia.<ref name="TASS 2019 x202">{{cite web |title=Russia, China agree on joint Moon exploration |website=TASS |date=September 17, 2019 |url=https://tass.com/science/1078599 |access-date=April 16, 2024 |archive-date=July 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722101456/https://tass.com/science/1078599 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/aw060506p2.xml |title=Russia Plans Ambitious Robotic Lunar Mission |last=Covault |first=C. |magazine=Aviation Week |date=June 4, 2006 |access-date=April 12, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612215659/http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news%2Faw060506p2.xml |archive-date=June 12, 2006}}</ref> Maulendo ghaŵiri gha kupenda mwezi ghakunozgekera, Chang'e 7 mu 2026 na Chang'e 8 mu 2028, pambere ŵanthu ŵandafike mu 2029 panji 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-pathway-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration/ |title=China outlines pathway for lunar and deep space exploration |work=SpaceNews |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Andrew | last=Jones | title=China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan | url=https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan/ | work=spacenews.com | date=17 July 2023 | access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref> === Kukhala pa Mwezi === [[File:Aldrin Looks Back at Tranquility Base - GPN-2000-001102.jpg|thumb|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga Buzz Aldrin mu cakuvwara ca kusungira umoyo, wakulaŵiska kumanyuma ku ndege ya ''Eagle'' ya pa Tranquility Base, malo ghakwamba gha ŵanthu pa mwezi, pa Apollo 11 (1969), nyengo yakwamba ŵanthu kukhira pa mwezi]] Ŵanthu ŵakhala pa mwezi mu magulu gha ŵaŵiri na mpaka mazuŵa ghatatu.<ref name="i632">{{cite web |title=Apollo 17 Mission |website=Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) |date=December 6, 1972 |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_17/ |access-date=August 19, 2025}}</ref> Pose pamoza ŵanthu 12 ŵakhala pa mwezi pa maulendo 6.<ref name="n138">{{cite web |last=Chmielewski |first=Kenny |title=NASA, Space Program, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Jim Lovell, & Moon |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=July 10, 2025 |url=https://www.britannica.com/story/timeline-of-the-apollo-space-missions |access-date=August 19, 2025}}</ref> Wose ŵakakhala mu mtundu umoza wa nyumba ya pacanya, Apollo Lunar Module.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission Report: Apollo 17 – The Most Productive Lunar Expedition |url=http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/documents/apollo17_overview.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930204141/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/documents/apollo17_overview.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2006}}</ref> Mu kukhala uku ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakajumpha pose pamoza mpaka zuŵa limoza ŵakwendakwenda pacanya.<ref name="i632"/> Masuzgo pa kwendakwenda pacanya ghakufuma ku fuvu la mwezi ilo likukakatira ku vyakuvwara na vilwero, ndipo likanyamulikanga mukati mwa nyumba. Ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵakanowanga na kununkhizga fuvu, ilo likununkha nga ni mfuti, ndipo likachemeka "fungo la Apollo".<ref name="Aroma" /> Fuvu ili lakupepuka lingiziska masuzgo gha umoyo.<ref name="Aroma">{{cite web |url=https://www.space.com/moon-dust-problem-lunar-exploration.html |title=Moon Dust Could Be a Problem for Future Lunar Explorers |first=Leonard |last=David |website=Space.com |date=October 21, 2019 |access-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-date=December 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201103751/https://www.space.com/moon-dust-problem-lunar-exploration.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2019, mbuto yimoza panji kujumpha yikamera mu kuyezga pa combo ca Chang'e 4. Yikanyamulika kufuma pa caro capasi pamoza na vyamoyo vinyake vicoko.<ref name="Seeds">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2182111/chinese-lunar-landers-cotton-seeds-lead-way-plant-life-germinates |title=Chinese lunar lander's cotton seeds spring to life on far side of the moon |last1=Zheng |first1=William |date=January 15, 2019 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116174611/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2182111/chinese-lunar-landers-cotton-seeds-lead-way-plant-life-germinates |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa mwezi ngwakukakika, ndipo ukulongora cisko cimoza pera ku caro capasi, kuŵapo kwa nyengo zose pa mwezi kuzamukhumba gulu la ma''satellite'' kuti ghatumizge mauthenga kufuma ku mbali ya kutali ya mwezi, na kufuma ku mphaka ya kumwera iyo yili na mawonekero ghakusuzga. Ma''satellite'' gha China gha Queqiao-1 na -2 ghali kale, ndipo NASA yikunozgekera ndondomeko ya mauthenga na kulongozgera mu Thukila 2026.<ref>{{cite web|title= Queqiao-2: China’s bridge for lunar exploration|publisher=The Planetary Society|URL=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/queqiao-2-chinas-bridge-for-lunar-exploration|accessdate=2026-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Lunar Communications Relay and Navigation Systems (LCRNS)|publisher=NASA|URL=https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/esc/lcrns/|accessdate=2026-09-23}}</ref> === Ucindami pa Dango === Nangauli vyombo vya Luna vikathandazga vimanyikwiro vya Soviet Union pa mwezi, ndipo mbendera za U.S. zikaŵikika na ŵakwenda mu mlengalenga ŵa Apollo pa malo agho ŵakakhala, palije caro ico cikuti cigaŵa ciliconse ca mwezi nca ici.<ref name="unoosa_q6">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |title=Can any State claim a part of outer space as its own? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref> Nga ni nthena, kuŵa mwenecho wa vigaŵa vya mwezi, panji wose, kwa munthu paŵekha kukuzomerezgeka yayi.<ref name="unoosa_q7">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |title=The treaties control space-related activities of States. What about non-governmental entities active in outer space, like companies and even individuals? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref><ref name="iisl_2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |title=Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Property Rights Regarding The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (2004) |date=2004 |publisher=International Institute of Space Law |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222021426/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2009}}</ref><ref name="iisl_2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |title=Further Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Lunar Property Rights (2009) |date=March 22, 2009 |publisher=International Institute of Space Law |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222022107/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2009}}</ref> Phangano la Mlengalenga la 1967 likuti mwezi na mlengalenga wose ni "cigaŵa ca ŵanthu wose". Likucepeska kagwiliskiro ka mwezi ku vilato vya mtendere pera, ndipo likukanizga mwakulunjika malo gha ŵankhondo na vilwero vya kunanga ŵanthu ŵanandi. Vyaro vinandi vili mu phangano ili. Phangano la Mwezi la 1979 likapangika kulongosora, na kukanizga kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya mwezi na caro cimoza pera, kuvisiya ku ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro iyo yindalongosoreke.<ref name="unoosa_q6" /><ref name="unoosa_q5">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |title=Do the five international treaties regulate military activities in outer space? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref><ref name="unoosa_q4">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |title=How many States have signed and ratified the five international treaties governing outer space? |date=January 1, 2006 |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref> Mu Matika 2020, likaŵa kuti lasayinika na kuzomerezgeka na vyaro 18.<ref name="The Space Review 2021">{{cite web |title=The Space Review: Is outer space a de jure common-pool resource? |website=The Space Review |date=October 25, 2021 |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4270/1 |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=November 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102004759/https://thespacereview.com/article/4270/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="unoosa_moon">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |title=Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809072447/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |archive-date=August 9, 2010}}</ref> Kufuma 2020, vyaro vyanjira mu Mapangano gha Artemis na U.S., agho ghakususka phangano ili. U.S. yayowoya so mu lamulo la pulezidenti kuti "United States yikuwona mlengalenga nga ni 'cuma ca caro cose' yayi" ndipo yikuti Phangano la Mwezi ni "kuyezga kwakutondeka kukanizga malonda gha wanangwa".<ref>{{cite web |first=Kiran |last=Vazhapully |title=Space Law at the Crossroads: Contextualizing the Artemis Accords and the Space Resources Executive Order |date=July 22, 2020 |website=OpinioJuris |access-date=May 10, 2021 |url=http://opiniojuris.org/2020/07/22/space-law-at-the-crossroads-contextualizing-the-artemis-accords-and-the-space-resources-executive-order/ |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510140033/http://opiniojuris.org/2020/07/22/space-law-at-the-crossroads-contextualizing-the-artemis-accords-and-the-space-resources-executive-order/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |author1=Spaceref |url=https://spacenews.com/administration-statement-on-executive-order-on-encouraging-international-support-for-the-recovery-and-use-of-space-resources/ |title=Administration Statement on Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources |via=SpaceNews |work=SpaceRef |date=April 6, 2020 |publisher=White House |access-date=August 5, 2026}}</ref> Apo Australia yikasayina na kuzomerezga Phangano la Mwezi mu 1986 na Mapangano gha Artemis mu 2020, pakaŵa mphindano usange ghangakolerana.<ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021">{{cite web |title=Australia Between the Moon Agreement and the Artemis Accords |website=Australian Institute of International Affairs |date=June 2, 2021 |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201052259/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa ici, Phangano la Kufiska Phangano la Mwezi lasacizgika, nga ni nthowa ya kumazga masuzgo gha Phangano la Mwezi na kulikoleranya na malango na mapangano ghanyake nga ni Mapangano gha Artemis, kuti lizomerezgeke na ŵanandi.<ref name="The Space Review 2020">{{cite web |title=The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration |website=The Space Review |date=June 29, 2020 |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=January 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125075833/https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission">{{cite web |title=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission: To give people Hope and Inspiration by helping the nations of Earth to build a Common Future |website=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission |url=http://www.spacetreaty.org/ |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201060827/http://www.spacetreaty.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa khumbo la makampani na vyaro, comene kupenja malo, ŵapangi ŵa malango ŵa U.S. ŵakanjizga pakumalira kwa 2020 malango ghapadera gha kuvikilira malo gha mbiri agho vyombo vikakhala, ndipo magulu ghanyake ghakuti malo agha ghaŵe Malo gha Ucindami wa Caro Cose na malo gha kasandiro ghakuvikilirika.<ref name="HowStuffWorks 2021">{{cite web |title='One Small Step' Act Encourages Protection of Human Heritage in Space |website=HowStuffWorks |date=January 12, 2021 |url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/us-law-protect-lunar-landing-sites.htm |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101214329/https://science.howstuffworks.com/us-law-protect-lunar-landing-sites.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="For All Moonkind">{{cite web |title=Moonkind – Human Heritage in Outer Space |website=For All Moonkind |url=https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101214336/https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Alvarez 2020 p.">{{cite thesis |last=Alvarez |first=Tamara |title=The Eighth Continent: An Ethnography of Twenty-First Century Euro-American Plans to Settle the Moon |date=January 1, 2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43890727 |access-date=November 1, 2021 |page=109-115, 164–167, 176 |archive-date=February 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205171101/https://www.academia.edu/43890727 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2021, Kalata ya Wanangwa wa Mwezi yikapangika na gulu la "ŵakumanya dango, ŵasandi ŵa vya kale vya mlengalenga na ŵanthu ŵakupwelelera", kuthemba ŵanthu ŵakukhozga wanangwa wa kawiro na ghanoghano la kuŵa munthu pa dango ku vinthu vyambura kuŵa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga.<ref name="Declaration">{{cite web |title=Declaration of the Rights of the Moon |date=February 11, 2021 |publisher=Australian Earth Laws Alliance |url=https://www.earthlaws.org.au/moon-declaration/ |access-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-date=April 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423050426/https://www.earthlaws.org.au/moon-declaration/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tepper |first1=Eytan |last2=Whitehead |first2=Christopher |date=December 1, 2018 |title=Moon, Inc.: The New Zealand Model of Granting Legal Personality to Natural Resources Applied to Space |journal=New Space |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=288–298 |doi=10.1089/space.2018.0025 |bibcode=2018NewSp...6..288T }}</ref><ref name="Evans 2021">{{cite web |last=Evans |first=Kate |title=Hear Ye! Hear Ye! A Declaration of the Rights of the Moon |website=Eos |date=July 20, 2021 |url=http://eos.org/features/hear-ye-hear-ye-a-declaration-of-the-rights-of-the-moon |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=February 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206102833/https://eos.org/features/hear-ye-hear-ye-a-declaration-of-the-rights-of-the-moon |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Kukolerana na Kulongozga ==== Kusazgikira kwa ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwawuska khumbo la kukolerana kuti ntchito za pakati pa vyaro na za makampani pa mwezi zivikilirike. Nkhani kufuma pa kovwirana mpaka pa kukolerana pera, mwaciyelezgero kupanga nyengo yakugaŵana ya mwezi, zayowoyeka. Comene, kuŵika ndondomeko ya pakati pa vyaro panji ya Wupu wa Vyaro Vyose ya kulongozga ntchito za ŵanthu pa mwezi kwapemphika na Phangano la Mwezi na kusacizgika kwizira mu Phangano la Kufiska, kweni kucali mphindano.<ref name="The Space Review 2020"/><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission"/> Ndondomeko za mwezi za sono nza vyaro vinandi, ya Artemis iyo yikulongozgeka na U.S. na ya Malo gha Kusanda Mwezi gha Pakati pa Vyaro agho ghakulongozgeka na China. Pa kovwirana na kukolerana kwa pakati pa vyaro kukulu, mawupu nga ni ILEWG, Moon Village Association, na ISECG ghapangika.<ref>{{cite web|title=the International Space Exploration Coordination Group|url=https://www.globalspaceexploration.org/|accessdate=2026-10-25}}</ref> == Mu Midawuko na Umoyo == === Majandulo === Ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi ŵali mu midawuko yose ya ŵanthu. Midawuko yinandi yakoleranya ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa 29.5 na ndondomeko ya kuwona mwezi kwa ŵanakazi, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mizu yakugaŵana ya mazgo gha "kuwona mwezi" na "mwezi" mu viyowoyero vinandi.<ref>Harding, Esther M., 'Woman's Mysteries: Ancient and Modern', London: Rider, 1971, p. 24.</ref> Mu Citumbuka nako, kuwona mwezi kukukolerana na lizgu lakuti mwezi. Kweni ici cikaŵa mu midawuko yose yayi, cifukwa ŵaciuta wose ŵa mwezi ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi yayi. Kweni majandulo ghanandi ghakumanyikwa ghali na ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵa mwezi, kusazgapo Selene wa Ŵagiriki, Luna wa Ŵaroma, Chang'e wa Ŵacayina, na Coyolxāuhqui wa Ŵaaztec, uyo kudumulika mutu kwake kungaŵa kulongora kubisika kwa mwezi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milbrath |first=Susan |date=1997 |title=Decapitated Lunar Goddesses in Aztec Art, Myth, and Ritual |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26307242 |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=185–206 |doi=10.1017/S095653610000167X |jstor=26307242 |issn=0956-5361}}</ref> Ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵanalume nga ni Nanna-Sin ŵakakolerananga so na kubaba na nthumbo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hätinen |first=Aino |title=The moon god Sîn in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times |date=2021 |publisher=Zaphon |isbn=978-3-96327-140-3 |series=Dubsar |location=Münster}}</ref> Ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵanyake, kusazgapo Artemis, Hecate, Phoebe, Theia na Isis, pakwamba ŵakaŵavya ubale na mwezi, kweni ŵakawusanga pamanyuma mu nyengo ya kale cifukwa ca kusazganika na Selene/Luna.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adler |first=Margot|author-link=Margot Adler |title=Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today, Revised and Expanded Edition |year=1986 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-3253-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sfameni Gasparro |first=Giulia |chapter=The Hellenistic Face of Isis: Cosmic and Saviour Goddess |editor1-last=Bricault |editor1-first=Laurent |editor2-last=Versluys |editor2-first=Miguel John |editor3-last=Meyboom |editor3-first=Paul G. P. |title=Nile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis Studies, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, May 11–14 2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric/page/n66 40]–72 |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15420-9 }}</ref> Kugaŵika kwa mwezi mu vigaŵa viŵiri kuthambo ni cizukuso ico cikuyowoyeka kuti cikacitika na ncimi Muhammad.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Splitting of the Moon|publisher=The Imam-Ghizali Institute|url=https://www.imamghazali.org/blog/splitting-moon-miracle|accessdate=2026-10-14}}</ref> === Kupima Nyengo === Kufuma mu nyengo za kale ŵanthu ŵalaŵiska kawonekero ka mwezi na ndondomeko yake ya kukura na kucepa, ndipo ŵakuyigwiliskira ntchito kupima nyengo. Mazgo gha mwezi wa caka mu viyowoyero vinandi ghakulongora ubale uwu pakati pa nyengo ya mwezi wa caka na mwezi wa kuthambo. Mu Citumbuka, lizgu limoza lakuti mwezi likung'anamula vyose viŵiri. Kupima nyengo uku kukapangiska makalendala gha mwezi na zuŵa agho ghakaŵa ghanandi mu mbiri, kweni ghakupambana. Kalendala ya Cisilamu ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 ni ciyelezgero ca kalendala ya mwezi pera, umo myezi kanandi yikwamba na kuwoneka kwa ''hilal'', panji cikweru cakwamba ca mwezi, pa mphepete ya kuthambo. [[File:Venus-de-Laussel-detail-corne.jpg|thumb|right|Venus wa Laussel ({{circa}} vyaka 25,000 ivyo vyajumpha) wakukora nyanga ya mawonekero gha mwezi uphya. Tumizere 13 pa nyanga tungaŵa kuti tukulongora mazuŵa pakati pa kwamba kwa msambo na nyengo ya kusazgika kwa sumbi, panji unandi wa misambo na wa myezi mu caka (nangauli vyose viŵiri vikukolerana yayi).<ref name=":0b">{{Cite book |last=Thompson, William Irwin. |title=The time falling bodies take to light: mythology, sexuality, and the origins of culture |date=1981 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0-312-80510-1 |location=New York |page=105 |oclc=6890108 }}</ref><ref name="e093" />]] Cakuzirwa comene caŵa mwezi wakuzura, uwo ukusekelerika mu makalendala na midawuko yinandi, nga ni Vesak ya Ŵabuda. Mwezi wakuzura pafupi na nyengo ya kuvuna ukuchemeka mwezi wa vuna, ndipo ukusekelerika na visangalalo nga ni Cisangalalo ca Mwezi wa Vuna ca kalendala ya mwezi ya Ŵacayina, cisangalalo caciŵiri pa kuzirwa pamanyuma pa Caka Ciphya ca Ŵacayina.<ref name="Confucius Institute for Scotland 2022">{{cite web |title=Mid-Autumn Festival Celebration |website=Confucius Institute for Scotland |date=August 30, 2022 |url=https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/events/mid-autumn-festival-activities-10-september/ |access-date=November 22, 2022 |archive-date=November 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122172612/https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/events/mid-autumn-festival-activities-10-september/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko === {{multiple image | title = Mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakuwerezgeka mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi | direction = vertical | image1 = Sumerian_Cylinder_Seal_of_King_Ur-Nammu.jpg | alt1 = Cidindo ca Ŵasumeri ca {{circa|2100}} pambere Khristu, ca Ḫašḫamer, wakuwusa wa Iškun-Sin. Uyo wakhala panyake ni fumu Ur-Nammu, wakupeleka ulongozgi ku Ḫašḫamer.<ref name="Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1987">{{cite web |title=Mawonekero gha mwezi agho ghakuwerezgeka mu ŵaciuta ŵa mwezi |website=Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston |date=May 20, 1987 |url=https://collections.mfa.org/objects/6027/cylinder-vase;jsessionid=F2E906D47F69B2A85DB31D259E691783 |access-date=November 11, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111060850/https://collections.mfa.org/objects/6027/cylinder-vase;jsessionid=F2E906D47F69B2A85DB31D259E691783 |url-status=live}}</ref> | caption1 = Mwezi uphya wa Nanna/Sîn, {{circa|2100}} pambere Khristu | image2 = Patera di Parabiago - MI - Museo archeologico - Diana - Luna - 25-7-2003 - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 25-7-2003.jpg | alt2 = Luna pa mbale ya Parabiago (vyaka vya m'ma 100–400), na cisoti ca mwezi uphya, galeta, na nsalu yakuzingilizga mutu, vimanyikwiro vya mwezi ivyo vikusangika mu midawuko yakupambana. | caption2 = Cakuvwara ca mutu ca mwezi uphya, galeta, na nsalu ya Luna, vyaka vya m'ma 100–400 | image3 = Goddess O Ixchel.jpg | alt3 = Kalulu wakukolerana na mwezi mu midawuko yinandi, kufuma ku China mpaka ku ŵanthu ŵa kawiro ŵa Amerika. | caption3 = Kalulu wa mwezi wa ciuta mwanakazi wa mwezi wa Ŵamaya, vyaka vya m'ma 500–800 | image4 = | caption4 = }} Ŵanthu ŵajambula mwezi kufuma mu nyengo za kale, nga umo vithuzi vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha na malemba gha vyaka masauzandi ghanayi pambere Khristu vikulongolera. Msandi wa nyenyezi na mulembi wa ndakatulo wakale comene uyo zina lake likumanyikwa, Enheduanna, wasembe mukulu wa Ŵakkadi wa ciuta wa mwezi Nanna/Sin na mwana wa Sargon Mukulu, wakalondezganga mwezi na kulemba ndakatulo za mwezi.<ref name="c099"/> ==== Cikweru ==== Pa kulongora mwezi, comene kawonekero kake, cikweru (🌙) caŵa cimanyikwiro cakuwerezgeka mu midawuko yinandi kufuma vyaka 3,000 pambere Khristu, panyake kale comene na nyanga za ng'ombe zanalume mu vithuzi vya mu mapanga vya vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="e093"/><ref name="k874"/> Mu malembo nga ni gha Ŵacayina, cikweru casintha kuŵa cimanyikwiro 月, lizgu la mwezi, ndipo mu Eguputo wa kale cikaŵa cimanyikwiro 𓇹, cakung'anamula mwezi, ndipo cikalembeka nga ni zina la ciuta wa mwezi Iah.<ref name="Hart 2005 p. 77">{{cite book |last=Hart |first=G. |title=The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Dictionaries |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-134-28424-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1LAiPylZm4C&pg=PA77 |access-date=February 23, 2022 |page=77 |archive-date=July 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725234921/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1LAiPylZm4C&pg=PA77 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>S. Quirke and A.J. Spencer, ''The British Museum Book of Ancient Egypt''. London, The British Museum Press, 1992</ref><ref>Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p. 111</ref> Mu vithuzi, cikweru cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Mesopotamiya nga ni cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Nanna/Sîn, ciuta wa mwezi wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, uyo wakaŵa awiske wa Inanna/Ishtar, ciuta mwanakazi wa cibwe ca Venasi (wakulongoreka na nyenyezi ya Ishtar ya minyanga 8), na Utu/Shamash, ciuta wa zuŵa (wakulongoreka nga ni cimbale), ndipo ŵatatu wose kanandi ŵakulongoreka pafupi na pafupi.<ref name=BlackGreen1992/><ref name=Nemet1998>{{citation |last=Nemet-Nejat |first=Karen Rhea |date=1998 |title=Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-29497-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/203 203] |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme |access-date=June 11, 2019 |archive-date=June 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616064441/https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/203 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=BlackGreen1992>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |first2=Anthony |last2=Green |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ |publisher=The British Museum Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8 |pages=54, 135 |access-date=October 28, 2017 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021935/https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nemet1998"/><ref name=BlackGreen1992/><ref name="Nemet1998"/><ref name=BlackGreen1992/> Nanna/Sîn, nga ni ŵaciuta ŵanyake ŵa mwezi, wakulongoreka nga ni ciuta wa nyanga, na vyakuvwara vya mutu panji vingoma vya mawonekero gha cikweru.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zschietzschmann |first=W. |date=2006 |title=Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures |location=Whitefish, Montana |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-1-4286-5544-7 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Beth |date=2006 |article=Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyufPUA_S74C&pg=PA178 |title=The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-942-3 |pages=178–179 |access-date=April 28, 2020 |archive-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819021937/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyufPUA_S74C&pg=PA178&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref> Kanozgero kapadera ka cikweru na nyenyezi (☪️) kakufuma ku Nyengo ya Mkuŵa, ndipo kakulongora zuŵa na mwezi, panji mwezi na cibwe ca Venasi, pamoza. Kufuma apo kagwiliskiro ka nyenyezi na cikweru kakathandazgika, ndipo kakaŵa cimanyikwiro cakumanyikwa ca Cisilamu (nga ni ''hilal'' ya kalendala ya Cisilamu) na ca vyaro vinandi.<ref>Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim Trans.), ''Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time'', Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108</ref><ref name="Kadoi 2014">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kadoi |first=Yuka |title=Crescent (symbol of Islam) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam Online |date=October 1, 2014 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/crescent-symbol-of-islam-COM_25588?s.num=27&s.start=20}}</ref> ==== Ubale Unyake ==== Vimanyikwiro vya mwezi, malo ghapacanya ghakuŵala na ''maria'' ghakufipa, vyawoneka na midawuko yakupambana nga ni mawonekero ghakupambana. Mawonekero agha ni pakati pa ghanyake Munthu wa mu Mwezi panji Kalulu wa Mwezi (mwaciyelezgero mu majandulo gha Ŵacayina na gha Ŵaamerika ŵa malo agho).<ref name="Collections Search – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1987"/> Mu nyengo yapakati pa caro cose, mwezi ukaŵa wakuzirwa mu midawuko pa nkhani nga ni ndakatulo za citemwa, uchimi, na maghanoghano gha ucizgi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lazikani |first=Ayoush Sarmada |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1499666971 |title=The medieval moon: a history of haunting and blessing |date=2025 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-27828-6 |location=New Haven |oclc=on1499666971}}</ref> Mu ''alchemy'' ya Kumanjiliro, mwezi ukakolerananga na siliva, apo golide likakolerananga na zuŵa.<ref name="Abbri 2019 pp. 39–44">{{cite journal |last=Abbri |first=Ferdinando |title=Gold and silver: perfection of metals in medieval and early modern alchemy |journal=Substantia |date=August 30, 2019 |issn=2532-3997 |doi=10.13128/Substantia-603 |pages=39–44 |url=https://riviste.fupress.net/index.php/subs/article/view/603 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=June 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617041849/https://riviste.fupress.net/index.php/subs/article/view/603 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kulongoreka mu Midawuko ya Mazuŵa Ghano === {{multiple image | total_width = 410 | image1 = Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg | image2 = Melies_color_Voyage_dans_la_lune.jpg | caption1 = Mwezi ukuwoneka comene mu cithuzi ca Vincent van Gogh ca 1889, ''The Starry Night''.<ref name="The New York Times 2019"/> | caption2 = Cithuzi cakumanyikwa comene ca Munthu wa mu Mwezi kufuma mu filimu yakwamba ya ulendo wa mlengalenga, ''A Trip to the Moon'' (1902, Georges Méliès). }} Kawonero ka mwezi mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano kakhwaskika na astronome ya vilaŵiskiro vya kutali. Maghanoghano ghaphya agha ghakapangiska vinthu vya midawuko, kukoleranya maghanoghano gha citemwa pa mwezi na nkhani zakupeka nga ni nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro izo zikuyowoya za mwezi.<ref name="The MIT Press Reader 2020">{{cite web |title=The Moon of Science or the Moon of Lovers? |website=The MIT Press Reader |date=September 29, 2020 |url=https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/moon-of-science-vs-moon-of-lovers/ |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101231807/https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/moon-of-science-vs-moon-of-lovers/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The New York Times 2019">{{cite web |last=Sirone |first=Shannon |title=Imagining the Moon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/science/moon-art-culture.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |website=The New York Times |date=July 9, 2019 |access-date=November 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709091131/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/science/moon-art-culture.html |archive-date=July 9, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Nature 2019">{{cite journal |last=Seed |first=David |title=Moon on the mind: two millennia of lunar literature |journal=Nature |volume=571 |issue=7764 |pages=172–173 |date=July 9, 2019 |bibcode=2019Natur.571..172S |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02090-w |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pamanyuma, maulendo gha mlengalenga ghakiziska nyengo ya mlengalenga, iyo yikapanga, comene na kufika kwakwamba pa mwezi, vyakufiska vya mbiri ku ŵanthu wose, ivyo vikulongoreka mu vithuzi vya caro capasi kufuma kutali na kuzizwa uko kukuchemeka "overview effect".<ref name=Mashable_20260410>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Chris |title=How NASA made 'moon joy' a space-age catchphrase |url=https://mashable.com/article/nasa-moon-joy |work=Mashable |date=10 April 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412040308/https://mashable.com/article/nasa-moon-joy |archive-date=12 April 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{multiple image | title = | image1 = Apollo 11 Landing - first steps on the moon.ogv | alt1 = | caption1 = Vidiyo ya sitepu yakwamba pacanya pa mwezi, ya Neil Armstrong, uyo wakati "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." ("Iyi ni sitepu yicoko ya munthu, kweni kuduka kukulu kwa ŵanthu wose."), yakulongoreka pa nyengo yeneyiyo pa caro cose (1969, Apollo 11). | image2 = A Man on the Moon, AS11-40-5903.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Cithuzi cakumanyikwa comene ca Buzz Aldrin (Apollo 11), na Neil Armstrong na caro capasi vyakuwoneka mu galasi la cisoti cake.<ref name="Byrne. 2019">{{cite web | last=Byrne | first=Dave | title=Vithuzi vya Apollo 11 | website=hq.nasa.gov | date=2019-07-08 | url=https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html#Mag37 | access-date=2021-06-10 | archive-date=February 24, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224163200/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html#Mag37 | url-status=live }}</ref>}} Ici capelekezgeka na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu na ghakususka pa ubale wa midawuko na wa dango wa ŵanthu na mwezi, comene nga ni cinthu ca ufumu wakuthandazga mazaza, nga mu Mphikizgano wa Mlengalenga, na nga ni cinthu ca ukoloni kwizira mu kuguliska vyuma vya mwezi.<ref name="Alvarez 2020 p."/> Ndakatulo ya 1970 "Whitey on the Moon" yikamanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kulongora maghanoghano ghakususka agha.<ref name="x071">{{cite journal | last1=Simpson | first1=Sid | last2=Weber | first2=Désirée | last3=McMahon | first3=John | title=Towards a critical space theory: The instrumental politics of space exploitation | journal=European Journal of Political Theory | volume=25 | issue=2 | date=2026 | issn=1474-8851 | doi=10.1177/14748851241279679 | pages=269–291 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14748851241279679 | access-date=2026-04-20| url-access=subscription }}</ref> Maghanoghano ghanyake ghayowoya za kawiro ka mwezi, kuwuska nkhani nga ni kuvikilira mwezi na kuwugwiliskira ntchito mwakuti ukhalilire, kuwona mwezi nga ni cuma cakugaŵana.<ref name="Declaration"/><ref name="Nast 2013">{{cite magazine |title=Space: The Final Frontier of Environmental Disasters? |magazine=Wired |date=July 15, 2013 |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/07/space-environmentalism/ |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714235012/https://www.wired.com/2013/07/space-environmentalism/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Open Lunar Foundation 2022">{{cite web |title=Polycentricity for Governance of the Moon as a Commons |website=Open Lunar Foundation |date=March 22, 2022 |url=https://www.openlunar.org/library/polycentricity-for-governance-of-the-moon-as-a-commons |access-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-date=April 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420015444/https://www.openlunar.org/library/polycentricity-for-governance-of-the-moon-as-a-commons |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Space Review 2021"/><ref name="Evans 2021"/> Mu 2021, 20 Vuna likaŵa Zuŵa la Mwezi la Pakati pa Vyaro, zuŵa la kufika kwakwamba kwa ŵanthu pa mwezi.<ref name="Nations 1967 a849">{{cite web |author=United Nations |title=International Moon Day |publisher=United Nations |date=July 20, 2021 |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/moon-day |access-date=November 8, 2023 |archive-date=June 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627042218/https://www.un.org/en/observances/moon-day |url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Mwezi pa Ŵanthu === Vyakufumapo vya mwezi ni ubale uwo ukughanaghanirika pakati pa nyengo zinyake za ndondomeko ya mwezi ya mazuŵa pafupifupi 29.5, na nkhalo na kusintha kwa thupi la ŵanthu pa caro capasi. Ndondomeko za mwezi zili na vyakufumapo vikulu pa midawuko ya ŵanthu, kweni palije ukaboni wakukhora wakuti ndondomeko izi zikukhwaska thupi la ŵanthu.<ref name="FosterRoenneberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Russell G. |last2=Roenneberg |first2=Till |title=Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=17 |date=2008 |pages=R784–R794 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.003 |pmid=18786384 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18.R784F}}</ref> Mwezi wakolerana kwa nyengo yitali na uchindere na kusoŵa vinjeru; mazgo gha Cingelezi ''lunacy'' na ''lunatic'' ghakufuma ku zina la Cilatini la mwezi, ''Luna''. Ŵapenda vinjeru Aristotle na Pliny Mulara ŵakayowoyanga kuti mwezi wakuzura ukwiziska uchindere ku ŵanthu ŵanyake, ŵakugomezga kuti wongo, uwo ni maji comene, ukwenera kukhwaskika na mwezi na nkhongono yake pa kuzuzga kwa maji, kweni nkhongono ya kukoka ya mwezi njicoko comene kukhwaska munthu yumoza. Mu ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, vyakufumapo vya mwezi vyayowoyeka kuti vikupangiska kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu vipatala vya ŵalwari ŵa wongo, ngozi za pa misewu, kukomana, panji kujikoma pa mwezi wakuzura, kweni mazgo agha ghalongoreka kuŵa ghautesi na kusanda kwakujumpha 37.<ref name="sciam">{{cite magazine |title=Lunacy and the Full Moon |magazine=Scientific American |date=2009 |first1=Scott O. |last1=Lilienfeld |first2=Hal |last2=Arkowitz |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon |access-date=April 13, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016163312/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon |archive-date=October 16, 2009}} </ref><ref name="sciam"/><ref name="RottonKelly1985">{{cite journal |last1=Rotton |first1=James |last2=Kelly |first2=I.W. |title=Much ado about the full moon: A meta-analysis of lunar-lunacy research |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=97 |issue=2 |date=1985 |pages=286–306 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.286 |pmid=3885282}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Chibwe|*]] ie8cy39tb6srsnbp7crvzk9bwl1lnpi 0 4372 124416 124009 2026-11-10T20:50:30Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124416 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Cingoma | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | image = Koeh-283.jpg | image_caption = Maluŵa gha ŵanalume na gha ŵanakazi | regnum = Plantae | unranked_divisio = Angiospermae | unranked_classis = Monocots | ordo = Poales | familia = Poaceae | genus = ''Zea'' | species = '''''Z. mays''''' | binomial = ''Zea mays'' | binomial_authority = L. }} [[File:Corncobs.jpg|thumb|250px|Vingoma]] [[File:Zea mays fraise MHNT.BOT.2011.18.21.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "fraise"'']] [[File:Dent Corn 'Oaxacan Green' (Zea mays) MHNT 2.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "Oaxacan Green"'']] [[File:Zea mays 'Ottofile giallo Tortonese' MHNT.BOT.2015.34.1.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "Ottofile giallo Tortonese”'']] '''Cingoma''' (''Zea mays''), panji ''corn'' mu Cingelezi ca Amerika, ni [[Vyakumela|cakumera]] citali na cakukhora ca mtundu wa utheka ico cikupanga mbuto za vyakulya. Ntonga ya mahamba ya cakumera ici yikupanga maluŵa gha ŵanalume panji mphungapunga, izo zikupanga ufu wa maluŵa, na maluŵa gha ŵanakazi agho ghakuchemeka vingoma. Vingoma vikupeleka mbuto. Mu mitundu ya malonda ya mazuŵa ghano, mbuto izi kanandi nza mtundu wa cikasu panji zakutuŵa; mitundu yinyake yingaŵa ya mitundu yinandi. Cingoma cikaŵetika na ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa ku Mexico ya kumwera pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha kufuma ku ''teosinte'' ya mu thengere.<ref name="Lohse Morgan Jones 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Lohse |first1=Jon C. |last2=Morgan |first2=Molly |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |display-authors=etal |title=Early Maize in the Maya Area |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=33 |issue=4 |year=2022 |pages=677–692 |jstor=27362456}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakacipandanga pamoza na nchunga na nyungu mu ndondomeko ya "Ŵadumbu Ŵatatu". Cingoma cikuthemba ŵanthu kuti cipandike. Kufuma pa kusinthana kwa Columbus, caŵa cakulya cikulu mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo cingoma cose ico cikupangika cikujumpha tirigu na mpunga. Cingoma cinandi cikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto, kwali nga ni mbuto panji cakumera cose, ico cingamangika nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto panji kupangika kuŵa ''silage''. Mitundu ya shuga yinandi, yakuchemeka cingoma ca shuga, yikulimika kuti ŵanthu ŵarye, apo mitundu ya minda yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakulya vya viŵeto, ufu wa cingoma, sitachi, shuga wa cingoma, mafuta gha cingoma, moŵa nga ni ''bourbon whiskey'', na vinthu vya usungunu kusazgapo ethanol na vyakotchera vinyake vya vyamoyo. Cingoma cikulimika pa caro cose capasi; cikupangika cinandi pa caka kuluska mbuto yiliyose. Mu 2020, cingoma cikapangika matani biliyoni 1.1 pa caro cose capasi. Cikukhwaskika na vibenene na nthenda zinandi; vibenene viŵiri vikulu, cibenene ca Ulaya ico cikudolora cikhuni na mphutsi za misisi, vyose viŵiri vikutayiska madola biliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse mu United States. Kuŵeta vyakumera kwa mazuŵa ghano kwasazgira comene vyakupangika na uwemi nga ni vyakukhozga thupi, kuzizipizga cilala, na kuzizipizga vibenene na nthenda. Cingoma cinandi sono cili na vyakuhara vyakusinthika. Nga ni cakulya, cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakulya vinandi kusazgapo ''tortilla'' na ''tamale'' za Mexico, ''polenta'' ya Italy, na ''grits'' za Amerika, na nsima mu Malaŵi na kunyake mu Afilika. Purotini ya cingoma njicoko pa ma''amino acid'' ghanyake ghakukhumbikwa, ndipo ''niacin'' iyo yilimo yikuŵa yakugwiliskirika ntchito pera para yafumyika na ''alkali''. Mu Amerika Yapakati ya kale, cingoma cikasopeka nga ni ciuta wa cingoma ndipo cikajambulika mu vithuzi vya malibwe. == Malongosoro == Cingoma ni utheka utali wa caka cimoza wa cikhuni cimoza, ucitali kufuma mamita 1.2 mpaka 4.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6">{{cite book |last1=Solaimalai |first1=A. |title=Maize Crop: Improvement, Production, Protection and Post Harvest Technology |last2=Anantharaju |first2=P. |last3=Irulandi |first3=S. |last4=Theradimani |first4=M. |date=2020-05-10 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-17695-7 |chapter=6. Growth and Development Stages |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7XjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60}}</ref> Mahamba ghatali na ghafupi ghakufuma ku mafundo, limoza limoza ku mbali zakupambana za cikhuni.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Cingoma cili na maluŵa gha ŵanalume na gha ŵanakazi ghakupambana pa cakumera cimoza.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Pacanya pa cikhuni pali mphungapunga, maluŵa gha ŵanalume; ghakufumiska ufu wa maluŵa, uwo ukuthandazgika na mphepo.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Maluŵa gha ŵanakazi, pasi pa cikhuni kufuma ku mphungapunga, ghakuwoneka dankha nga ni sisi lakupepuka, sisi limoza pa duŵa lililose la wanakazi, ilo likusanduka mbuto para lapokera ufu wa maluŵa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Caryopsis |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/caryopsis |access-date=January 9, 2024 |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Maluŵa ghose gha wanakazi ghakusanduka cingoma, cakuphimbika na vigaŵa vinandi vya mahamba (vikokoso).<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Hamba la cingoma ndilo hamba ilo likukolerana comene na cingoma cinyake ico cikukura. Hamba ili na agho ghali pacanya pake ghakupeleka kujumpha vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya sitachi iyo yikuzuzga mbuto.<ref name="USA-IA-ext-fung">{{cite web |title=Before applying fungicides to corn: Stop! Look! Consider! |url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/applying-fungicides-corn-stop-look-consider |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Integrated Crop Management |publisher=Iowa State University Extension}}</ref> Mbuto kanandi nza cikasu panji zakutuŵa mu mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano; mitundu yinyake yili na mbuto za malalanje, zakufiira, za nthaka, za buluu, za pepo, panji zakufipa. Zikunozgeka mu mizere 8 mpaka 32 kuzunguliya cisonga; pangaŵa mbuto mpaka 1,200 pa cingoma cikulu.<ref name="Davidson 2014">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |edition=3rd |pages=484–486 |chapter=Maize}}</ref> Mtundu wa cikasu ukufuma ku ma''carotenoid''; wakufiira ukufuma ku vinthu vinyake, ndipo mitundu ya malalanje na yiŵisi yingaŵa na kusazganika kwa mitundu iyi.<ref name="Chatham Paulsmeyer Juvik 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Chatham |first1=Laura A. |last2=Paulsmeyer |first2=Michael |last3=Juvik |first3=John A. |date=2019 |title=Prospects for economical natural colorants: insights from maize |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=132 |issue=11 |pages=2927–2946, and Figure 1 |doi=10.1007/s00122-019-03414-0 |pmid=31451836 |s2cid=201729476}}</ref> Cingoma cikukhumba mausiku gha utali unyake kuti cipange maluŵa. Kupanga maluŵa kukukhumba so mazuŵa ghakufunda ghakukwana pacanya pa 10 °C. Kupanga maluŵa kukulongozgeka na vyakuhara. Mitundu ya ku tropiki yingaŵa na suzgo para yalimika kutali na mzere wapakati, cifukwa mazuŵa ghatali ghangapangiska vyakumera kukura vitali m'malo mwa kupanga mbuto pambere nyengo ya kuzizima yindize. Kweni kukura vitali luŵiro kungaŵa kwiwemi pa kupanga vyakotchera.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Ntonga ziphya za cingoma zikuwunjika mankhwala ghankhongono gha kukoma tuzirombo, agho ghakucivikilira ku vibenene vinandi.<ref name="Smith2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=C. Michael |last2=Clement |first2=Stephen L. |year=2012 |title=Molecular Bases of Plant Resistance to Arthropods |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=309–328 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100642 |pmid=21910639}}</ref> Cifukwa misisi yake njambura kuzika, cingoma cili pa ngozi ya cilala, cikuzizipizga yayi dongo lambura vyakulya, ndipo cingazuka na mphepo zikulu.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2, 2008 |title=Corn Stalk Lodging |url=http://www.dekalb.ca/content/pdf/corn_stalk_lodging.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225054032/http://www.dekalb.ca/content/pdf/corn_stalk_lodging.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2009 |access-date=February 23, 2009 |publisher=Monsanto Imagine}}</ref> Ufu wa maluŵa ungiziska ulwari wa kukhwasula, kweni unandi ukuwira mu mamita ghacoko kufuma ku mphungapunga, ntheura ngozi njikulu ku ŵantchito ŵa mu minda pera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oldenburg |first1=Marcus |last2=Petersen |first2=Arnd |last3=Baur |first3=Xaver |date=2011 |title=Maize pollen is an important allergen in occupationally exposed workers |journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=32 |doi=10.1186/1745-6673-6-32 |pmc=3269392 |pmid=22165847 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Vyakuhara == <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="200" widths="150"> File:Corntassel 7095.jpg |Maluŵa ghanandi ghacoko gha ŵanalume ghakupanga mphungapunga. File:Cornsilk 7091.jpg |Maluŵa gha ŵanakazi, na ndevulira yiphya File:GreenCorn.JPG |Vikhuni, vingoma, na ndevulira File:ZeaMays.jpg |Vyakumera vya cingoma ivyo vyakura makora File:Klip kukuruza uzgojen u Međimurju (Croatia).JPG |Cingoma cakukhwima pa cikhuni </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:Männliche Blüte einer Maispflanze 2009-08-19.JPG |Maluŵa gha ŵanalume File:Corn blooming.jpg |Ndevulira yakukhwima </gallery> [[File:GEM corn.jpg|thumb|Mitundu yakufuma kunyake yikuwunjikika kuti yisazgire kupambanapambana kwa vyakuhara para ŵakupanga mitundu yiphya ya cingoma. ]] Cingoma cili na vigaŵa 20 vya vyakuhara. Magaŵa 83 pa 100 gha kupambana kwa vyakuhara vyake ghakufuma ku ''teosinte'' ya kale, comene cifukwa mitundu ya Zea yingatorana na yinyake.<ref name="Back-to-the-Wild">{{cite journal |last1=Wani |first1=Shabir Hussain |last2=Samantara |first2=Kajal |last3=Razzaq |first3=Ali |last4=Kakani |first4=Grihalakshmi |last5=Kumar |first5=Pardeep |title=Back to the wild: mining maize (''Zea mays'' L.) disease resistance using advanced breeding tools |journal=Molecular Biology Reports|date=June 2022 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=5787–5803 |doi=10.1007/s11033-021-06815-x |pmid=35064401 |s2cid=254834535 }}</ref> Barbara McClintock wakagwiliskira ntchito cingoma kusimikizga ghanoghano lake la "vyakuhara vyakudumpha", ilo wakapokera nalo Mphoto ya Nobel mu 1983.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/19/AR2009111903190.html |title=Scientists have high hopes for corn genome |first=David |last=Brown |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=November 20, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Strable Scanlon 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Strable |first1=Josh |last2=Scanlon |first2=Michael J. |title=Maize (Zea mays): A Model Organism for Basic and Applied Research in Plant Biology |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Protocols |volume=2009 |issue=10 |date=2009 |issn=1940-3402 |doi=10.1101/pdb.emo132 |article-number=pdb.emo132|pmid=20147033 }}</ref> Cingoma cicali cakuyelezgera cakuzirwa pa kasandiro ka vyakuhara na kukura kwa vyamoyo.<ref name="Friedman-et-al-2004">{{cite journal |date=October 2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Moore |first2=Richard C. |last3=Purugganan |first3=Michael D. |title=The evolution of plant development |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1726–1741 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1726 |pmid=21652320 |bibcode=2004AmJB...91.1726F |doi-access=free|id=Botanical Society of America}}</ref> Malemba gha Vyakuhara vya Cingoma ghakulipirika na Unduna wa Ulimi wa United States (USDA) kovwira kusanda cingoma.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.maizegdb.org/ |title=Welcome to MaizeGDB |website=MaizeGDB |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kunozga Cingoma na Tirigu ukusunga mitundu yinandi ya cingoma iyo yayezgeka pa kuzizipizga vibenene.<ref name="Breeding-Towards">{{cite journal |last1=Prasanna |first1=Boddupalli M. |last2=Bruce |first2=Anani |last3=Beyene |first3=Yoseph |last4=Makumbi |first4=Dan |last5=Gowda |first5=Manje |last6=Asim |first6=Muhammad |last7=Martinelli |first7=Samuel |last8=Head |first8=Graham P. |last9=Parimi |first9=Srinivas |title=Host plant resistance for fall armyworm management in maize: relevance, status and prospects in Africa and Asia |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=November 2022 |volume=135 |issue=11 |pages=3897–3916 |doi=10.1007/s00122-022-04073-4 |pmid=35320376 |pmc=9729323}}</ref> Mu 2005, mawupu gha U.S. ghakapanga gulu la kusanda vyakuhara vyose vya cingoma, ndipo ntchito iyi yikamalizgika mu 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maizesequence.org/index.html |title=Welcome to MaizeSequence.org |publisher=MaizeSequence.org |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170408/http://www.maizesequence.org/index.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSN2632641520080226 |title=Researchers sequence genome of maize, a key crop |newspaper=Reuters |access-date=October 6, 2014 |date=2008-02-26}}</ref> Mu 2009, gulu likapharazga vyakusangika.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1178534 |title=The B73 Maize Genome: Complexity, Diversity, and Dynamics |year=2009 |author1-link=Patrick Schnable |last1=Schnable |first1=P. S. |last2=Ware |first2=D. |last3=Fulton |first3=R. S. |last4=Stein |first4=J. C.|last5=Wei |first5=F. |display-authors=etal |journal=Science|volume=326 |issue=5956 |pages=1112–1115 |pmid=19965430 |bibcode=2009Sci...326.1112S |s2cid=21433160 |url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1206&context=stat_las_pubs}}</ref> Vyakuhara vyose, ivyo magaŵa 85 pa 100 ni vyakuhara vyakudumpha, vili na vyakuhara 32,540.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feschotte |first1=C. |last2=Pritham |first2=E. |title=A cornucopia of Helitrons shapes the maize genome |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=47 |pages=19747–19748 |year=2009 |pmid=19926864 |pmc=2785235 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0910273106 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10619747F |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Kagaŵiro == === Mbumba ya Kuwaro === Cingoma cikukolerana pafupi na mapira, ndipo kutali comene na mpunga na tirigu, ivyo vili mu gulu linyake likulu la utheka. Cikukolerana so pafupi na Tripsacum.<ref name="Gaut Le Thierry dEnnequin Peek Sawkins 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Gaut |first1=Brandon S. |last2=Le Thierry d'Ennequin |first2=Maud |last3=Peek |first3=Andrew S. |last4=Sawkins |first4=Mark C. |date=2000-06-20 |title=Maize as a model for the evolution of plant nuclear genomes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7008–7015 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7008G |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7008 |pmc=34377 |pmid=10860964 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Cingoma na Teosinte === Cingoma ni mtundu wakuŵetika wa mitundu yinayi ya ''teosinte'', ŵabali ŵake ŵa mu thengere. ''Teosinte'' yingaŵa kuti yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito na ŵakusaka na ŵakutola cifukwa yikasimikizganga vyakulya vyawo, pakuti yingakolerana na kusintha kwa nyengo na malo. {{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100% |label1=(Cigaŵa ca Poaceae) |1={{clade |label1= BOP clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=utheka wakupambanapambana |2={{clade |1=''Hordeum'' (balere) |2=''Triticum'' (tirigu) }} }} |2=''Oryza'' (mpunga) }} |label2= PACMAD clade |2={{clade |1=''Pennisetum'' (utheka wa Pennisetum) |2={{clade |1=''Sorghum'' (''sorghum'') |2={{clade |1=''Tripsacum'' (utheka wa Tripsacum) |label2=''Zea'' |2={{clade |1='''''Zea mays''''' (cingoma) |2=mitundu yinyake ya ''Zea'' (''teosinte'') }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Cornselection.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|''Teosinte'' (ku mazere), cingoma cakusazgana na ''teosinte'' (pakati), cingoma (ku maryero)]] Ghanoghano lakuti cingoma cikafuma ku ''teosinte'' likasacizgika na msandi wa vyakumera wa Russia Nikolai Vavilov mu 1931, na msandi wa Amerika George Beadle mu 1932.<ref name="corn">{{cite journal |last1=Whipple |first1=Clinton J. |last2=Kebrom |first2=Tesfamichael H. |last3=Weber |first3=Allison L. |last4=Yang |first4=Fang |last5=Hall |first5=Darren |last6=Meeley |first6=Robert |last7=Schmidt |first7=Robert |last8=Doebley |first8=John |last9=Brutnell |first9=Thomas P. |last10=Jackson |first10=David P. |display-authors=5 |date=16 August 2011 |title=grassy tillers1 promotes apical dominance in maize and responds to shade signals in the grasses |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=33 |pages=E506-12 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1102819108 |pmc=3158142 |pmid=21808030 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakumera viŵiri ivi vikuwoneka mwakupambana, cingoma cili na cikhuni cimoza citali na mahamba ghanandi ndipo ''teosinte'' ni cakumera cifupi ca minthavi yinandi.<ref name="Lohse Morgan Jones 2022"/><ref name="wilkes">{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Garrison |title=Corn: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |date=8 March 2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-41184-0 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=C. Wayne |pages=3–63 |chapter=Chapter 1.1 Corn, strange and marvelous: but is a definitive origin known? |editor2-last=Betrán |editor2-first=Javier |editor3-last=Runge |editor3-first=E. C. A. |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=eDJ3NjHh8H8C}}}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Kupambana uku kukulongozgeka comene na vyakuhara viŵiri pera.<ref name="corn" /> Pakumalira kwa ma 1930, Paul Mangelsdorf wakasacizga kuti cingoma ca panyumba cikafuma ku kusazganika kwa cingoma cinyake ca mu thengere na Tripsacum; ghanoghano ili lasuskika na kupima kwa vyakuhara kwa mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="wilkes" /> Mu 2004, John Doebley wakasanga kuti ''teosinte'' ya Balsas, ya mu dambo la mlonga wa Balsas mu Mexico, ndiyo yikuyana comene na cingoma ca mazuŵa ghano mu vyakuhara.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doebley |first=John F. |author-link=John Doebley |year=2004 |title=The genetics of maize evolution |url=http://teosinte.wisc.edu/pdfs/DoebleyAnnRev2004.pdf |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=38 |pages=37–59 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.092425 |pmid=15568971 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612073112/http://teosinte.wisc.edu/pdfs/DoebleyAnnRev2004.pdf |archive-date=June 12, 2010 |access-date=May 30, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Wu-et-al-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Chi-Chih |last2=Diggle |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Friedman |first3=William E. |date=September 2011 |title=Female gametophyte development and double fertilization in Balsas teosinte, ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''parviglumis'' (Poaceae) |journal=Sexual Plant Reproduction |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=219–229 |doi=10.1007/s00497-011-0164-1 |pmid=21380710 |s2cid=8045294}}</ref> Pakati pa dambo ili ndipo cingoma cikaŵetika dankha. Vilwero vya malibwe vya kusira na vyakusyala vya cingoma vyasangika mu phanga pafupi na Iguala, mu malo gha vyaka 8,700.<ref name="Ranere">{{cite journal |last1=Ranere |first1=Anthony J. |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Dickau |first4=Ruth |last5=Iriarte |first5=José |year=2009 |title=The cultural and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=13 |pages=5014–5018 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.5014R |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812590106 |pmc=2664064 |pmid=19307573 |doi-access=free}}<br />{{cite journal |last1=Ranere |first1=Anthony J. |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Dickau |first4=Ruth |last5=Iriarte |first5=José |year=2009 |title=Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=13 |pages=5019–5024 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.5019P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812525106 |pmc=2664021 |pmid=19307570 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Doebley na ŵanyake ŵakalongora mu 2002 kuti cingoma cikaŵetika kamoza pera, pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo pamanyuma cikathandazgika mu Amerika yose.<ref name="Mat">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=Y. |last2=Vigouroux |first2=Y. |last3=Goodman |first3=M. M. |last4=Sanchez G. |first4=J. |last5=Buckler |first5=E. |last6=Doebley |first6=J. |display-authors=3 |year=2002 |title=A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=99 |issue=9 |pages=6080–4 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.6080M |doi=10.1073/pnas.052125199 |pmc=122905 |pmid=11983901 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ufu wa maluŵa gha cingoma wa vyaka 7,300 wasangika mu mphepete ya Caribbean.<ref name="Ranere" /> Cingoma ca kale cikalimikanga mu Mexico ya kumwera, Amerika Yapakati, na kumpoto kwa Amerika ya Kumwera vyaka 7,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vingoma vya kale vyakusangika mu phanga la Guila Naquitz mu Oaxaca nvya vyaka pafupifupi 6,250; vya kale comene kufuma ku mapanga pafupi na Tehuacan nvya vyaka 5,450.<ref name="Roney 2009">{{cite journal |last=Roney |first=John |date=Winter 2009 |title=The Beginnings of Maize Agriculture |journal=Archaeology Southwest |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=4}}</ref> === Kuthandazgika Kumpoto === Pafupifupi vyaka 4,500 ivyo vyajumpha, cingoma cikamba kuthandazgika kumpoto. Cikalimika dankha mu New Mexico na Arizona pafupifupi vyaka 4,100 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Roney 2009" /> Mu vyaka 1,000 vyakwamba vya mumuwilo wa Khristu, kulima cingoma kukathandazgika comene kumpoto. Kulima na kurya cingoma kukulu mu Amerika ya Kumpoto ya kumafumiro kukamba pafupifupi 900 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakadumula nkholongo zikulu na madimba gha utheka kuti ŵalime cingoma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emerson |first1=Thomas E. |last2=Hedman |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Simon |first3=Mary L. |date=2005 |title=Marginal Horticulturalists or Maize Agriculturalists? Archaeobotanical, Paleopathological, and Isotopic Evidence Relating to Langford Tradition Maize Consumption |journal=Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=67–118 |doi=10.1179/mca.2005.003 |jstor=20708222 |s2cid=129150225}}</ref> Kusazgikira kwa kulima cingoma vyaka 500 mpaka 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha kukakolerana na kucepa kwa nkhono za maji ghawemi, izo zikukhwaskika luŵiro na kusintha kwa malo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peacock |first1=Evan |last2=Haag |first2=Wendell R. |last3=Warren |first3=Melvin L. Jr |year=2005 |title=Prehistoric decline in freshwater mussels coincident with the advent of maize agriculture |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_peacock001.pdf |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=547–551 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19..547P |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00036.x |s2cid=3679709}}</ref> === Mazina === Zina la Cingelezi lakuti ''maize'' likufuma ku Cisipanya ''maíz'', kufuma ku Citaíno ''mahis''.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': maize, n. (and adj.)</ref> Carl Linnaeus wakagwiliskira ntchito zina ili mu ''Zea mays''. Zina lakuti ''maize'' likutemweka mu kasandiro na pa caro cose cifukwa likung'anamula mbuto iyi pera, kupambana na ''corn'', ilo lili na ng'anamulo zinandi kuyana na malo.<ref name="Ranum">{{cite journal |last1=Ranum |first1=Peter |last2=Peña-Rosas |first2=Juan Pablo |last3=Garcia-Casal |first3=Maria Nieves |date=April 2014 |title=Global maize production, utilization, and consumption |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1312 |issue=1 |pages=105–112 |bibcode=2014NYASA1312..105R |doi=10.1111/nyas.12396 |pmid=24650320 |s2cid=4640742 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito ''maize'', ndipo ''corn'' likugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu U.S. na vyaro vinyake vicoko vya Cingelezi.<ref name="Ensminger">{{cite book |last=Ensminger |first=Audrey H. |title=Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. |publisher=CRC Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8493-8980-1 |page=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=XMA9gYIj-C4C|page=479}} 479] |quote=The word "maize" is preferred in international usage because in many countries the term "corn", the name by which the plant is known in the United States, is synonymous with the leading cereal grain; thus, in England "corn" refers to wheat, and in Scotland and Ireland it refers to oats.}}</ref> Mu vyaro ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito ''maize'', lizgu lakuti ''corn'' lingang'anamula mbuto yiliyose, nga ni tirigu mu Ungelezi.<ref name="OxfordEncyclopedia">{{cite book |last=McLellan Plaisted |first=Susan |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199734962.001.0001/acref-9780199734962-e-0218 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973922-6 |editor-last1=Smith |editor-first1=Andrew |edition=2nd |location=New York |chapter=Corn |quote=The use of the word "corn" for what is termed "maize" by most other countries is peculiar to the United States. Europeans who were accustomed to the names "wheat corn", "barley corn", and "rye corn" for other small-seeded cereal grains referred to the unique American grain maize as "Indian corn." The term was shortened to just "corn", which has become the American word for the plant of American genesis. |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Grain |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/grain/ |publisher=National Geographic |access-date=27 February 2023 |quote=In most countries, the grain of the ''Zea mays'' plant is called maize. In the United States, it's called corn.}}</ref><ref name="Espinoza 2015">{{cite web |last=Espinoza |first=Mauricio |date=April 1, 2015 |title='All Corn Is the Same,' and Other Foolishness about America's King of Crops |url=https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/'all-corn-is-the-same'-and-other-foolishness-about-america's-king-crops |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203073514/https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/'all-corn-is-the-same'-and-other-foolishness-about-america's-king-crops |archive-date=December 3, 2020 |access-date=21 September 2022 |publisher=Ohio State University: College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nielsen |first1=R. L. |title=Corn, the Great American Crop - Corny News Network (Purdue University) |url=https://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/Corn.html |website=www.agry.purdue.edu |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=1 September 2026 |quote=Native Americans called their crop "maize". After seeing maize for the first time, European settlers called it "Indian corn" in an attempt to compare the crop to the small grains grown in Europe that they called "corn". Today, most of the world still refers to the crop as maize, but the U.S. simply calls it corn.}}</ref><ref name="OED_corn">''Oxford English Dictionary'': corn, n.1</ref><ref name="Ensminger" /> Kagwiliskiro ka ''corn'' pa cingoma kakamba nga ni kufupiska kwa "Indian corn" mu Amerika ya Kumpoto mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''cingoma'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa cakumera na pa cisonga.<ref name=OED_corn/><ref name="Mencken">{{cite book |last1=Mencken |first1=H. L. |title=The American language: an inquiry into the development of English in the United States |date=1984 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=0-394-40075-5 |edition=4th |location=New York |page=122 |quote=Corn, in orthodox English, means grain for human consumption, especially wheat, e.g., the Corn Laws. The earliest settlers, following this usage, gave the name of Indian corn to what the Spaniards, following the Indians themselves, had called maiz. . . . But gradually the adjective fell off, and by the middle of the Eighteenth Century maize was simply called corn and grains in general were called breadstuffs. Thomas Hutchinson, discoursing to George III in 1774, used corn in this restricted sense speaking of "rye and corn mixed." "What corn?" asked George. "Indian corn," explained Hutchinson, "or as it is called in authors, maize."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uW2rM_6I3gMC|page=109}} |title=The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Boberg |first=Charles |year=2010 |page=109 |isbn=978-1-139-49144-0}}</ref> Msandi wa mbiri ya vyakulya Betty Fussell wakulemba kuti kuyowoya lizgu lakuti ''corn'' nkhunjira mu kung'anamulika kwautesi kwa ciyowoyero na mbiri.<ref name="Fussell1999">{{cite journal |last1=Fussell |first1=Betty |date=1999 |title=Translating Maize into Corn: The Transformation of America's Native Grain |journal=Social Research |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=41–65 |jstor=40971301 |id={{Gale|A54668866}} {{ProQuest|209670587}} |quote=To say the word "corn" is to plunge into the tragi-farcical mistranslations of language and history. If only the British had followed Columbus in phoneticizing the Taino word mahiz, which the Arawaks named their staple grain, we wouldn't be in the same linguistic pickle we're in today, where I have to explain to someone every year that when Biblical Ruth "stood in tears amid the alien corn" she was standing in a wheat field. But it was a near thing even with the Spaniards, when we read in Columbus' Journals that the grain "which the Indians called maiz... the Spanish called panizo.' The Spanish term was generic for the cereal grains they knew - wheat, millet, barley, oats - as was the Italian term polenta, from Latin pub. As was the English term "corn", which covered grains of all kinds, including grains of salt, as in "corned beef". <br/> French linguistic imperialism, by way of a Parisian botanist in 1536, provided the term Turcicum frumentum, which the British quickly translated into "Turkey wheat", "Turkey corn", and "Indian corn". By Turkey or Indian, they meant not a place but a condition, a savage rather than a civilized grain, with which the Turks concurred, calling it kukuruz, meaning barbaric.}}</ref> Nga ni Ŵangelezi, Ŵasipanya ŵakachema cingoma kuti ''panizo'', lizgu la mbuto zose, nga umo Ŵaitaliya ŵakacitira na ''polenta''. Ŵangelezi pamanyuma ŵakacichema "tirigu wa Turkey" panji "corn wa Ŵaindiya".<ref name="Fussell1999" /> Mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro ghakuwona ''maize'' kuŵa zina liwemi.<ref>{{cite journal |date=2019 |title=''Zea mays'' (maize) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/57417 |journal=CABI Compendium |publisher=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International |volume=CABI Compendium |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.57417 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref> Lizgu ili likugwiliskirika ntchito na Wupu wa Vyakulya na Ulimi wa UN, na mu mazina gha mawupu ghanandi gha cingoma mu Mexico, India, Australia, Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, na Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maize |url=https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/maize/en/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Overview – ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research |url=https://iimr.icar.gov.in/overview/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005162737/https://iimr.icar.gov.in/overview/ |archive-date=October 5, 2022 |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maize Association - Maize Association Australia |url=https://www.maizeaustralia.com.au/ |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Maize Association of Nigeria honors IITA for supporting the nation's agriculture |url=https://www.iita.org/news-item/the-maize-association-of-nigeria-honors-iita-for-supporting-the-nations-agriculture/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=SARD-SC Maize component supports the launch of the Ghana Maize Association |url=http://bulletin.iita.org/sard-sc-maize-component-supports-the-launch-of-the-ghana-maize-association/ |access-date=10 March 2024 |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Du Plessis |first1=Leon |title=THE MAIZE TRUST: Custodian of the maize industry |url=https://www.grainsa.co.za/the-maize-trust:-custodian-of-the-maize-industry |access-date=10 March 2024 |publisher=Grain SA}}</ref><ref name="Rusike Donovan 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Rusike |first1=Joseph |last2=Donovan |first2=Philip A |date=1995 |title=The maize seed industry in Zimbabwe |journal=Development Southern Africa |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1080/03768359508439804 |issn=0376-835X}}</ref> Mu United States, ''maize'' na ''corn'' ghangagwiliskirika ntchito mwakusinthana.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Allen |first1=Guy H. |title=U.S. Grains – Commodity Overview, Production Cycles and Descriptions |url=https://grains.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Updated-Complete-Importer-Manual.pdf |publisher=U.S. Grains Council |quote=Maize (which in the U.S. is interchangeably referred to as corn) is indigenous to the Americas. |access-date=31 August 2026}}</ref> == Kulima == === Kukura pambere pa Columbus === [[File:Museo Nacional de Antropología - MAÍZ.jpg|thumb|Cikozgo ca kale ca cingoma ca ku Amerika Yapakati, National Museum of Anthropology ya Mexico ]] Cingoma cikukhumba ŵanthu kuti cipandike. Mbuto za ''teosinte'' zikuwa ku cisonga zekha, kweni za cingoma ca panyumba yayi.<ref name="Benz 2001">{{cite journal |last=Benz |first=B. F. |year=2001 |title=Archaeological evidence of teosinte domestication from Guilá Naquitz, Oaxaca |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=2104–2106 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.2104B |doi=10.1073/pnas.98.4.2104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=29389 |pmid=11172083 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cingoma cose cikafuma ku kuŵetika kamoza mu Mexico ya kumwera pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mitundu ya kale comene iyo yicalipo ni ya mapiri gha Mexico.<ref name="Mat" /> Cingoma cikathandazgika kufuma apa kuya ku malo ghapasi na mu Amerika yose mu nthowa ziŵiri zikulu.<ref name="Piperno-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Piperno |first1=Dolores R. |date=October 2011 |title=The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=52 |issue=S4 |pages=S453–S470 |doi=10.1086/659998 |s2cid=83061925 |quote=Recent studies in the Central Balsas River Valley of Mexico, maize's postulated cradle of origin, document the presence of maize phytoliths and starch grains at 8700 BP, the earliest date recorded for the crop (Piperno et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009). A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Given the number of Cauca Valley, Colombia, sites that demonstrate early maize, it is likely that the inter-Andean valleys were a major dispersal route for the crop after it entered South America |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Pagán-JiménezGuachamín-Tello2015">{{cite journal |last1=Pagán-Jiménez |first1=Jaime R. |last2=Guachamín-Tello |first2=Ana M. |last3=Romero-Bastidas |first3=Martha E. |last4=Constantine-Castro |first4=Angelo R. |date=June 2016 |title=Late ninth millennium B.P. use of ''Zea mays'' L. at Cubilán area, highland Ecuador, revealed by ancient starches |journal=Quaternary International |volume=404 |pages=137–155 |bibcode=2016QuInt.404..137P |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.025}}</ref> Cikafika mu mapiri gha Ecuador vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha panji kujumpha, mu Amerika Yapakati ya pasi pofika vyaka 7,600 ivyo vyajumpha, na mu madambo gha mapiri gha Colombia pakati pa vyaka 7,000 na 6,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Piperno-2011" /> Vyakumera vyakwamba vya cingoma vikapanga cingoma cimoza cicoko pa cakumera.<ref name="Davidson 2014" /> Ŵaolmec na Ŵamaya ŵakalima mitundu yinandi ya cingoma mu Amerika Yapakati yose; ŵakaciphika, kucisira na kucinozga mwa ''nixtamalization''.<ref name="Roney 2009" /> Pofika vyaka 3,000 ivyo vyajumpha, cingoma cikaŵa pakati pa mdawuko wa Ŵaolmec, kusazgapo kalendala, ciyowoyero, na majandulo ghawo.<ref name="Fussell1999" /> Ŵamapuche ŵa Chile ŵakalimanga cingoma pamoza na ''quinoa'' na kacewere pambere Ŵasipanya ŵandize.<ref name="Dille2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dillehay |first1=Tom D. |author-link=Tom Dillehay |last2=Pino Quivira |first2=Mario |author-link2=Mario Pino Quivira |last3=Bonzani |first3=Renée |last4=Silva |first4=Claudia |last5=Wallner |first5=Johannes |last6=Le Quesne |first6=Carlos |year=2007 |title=Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change |url=http://www.dendrocronologia.cl/pubs/2007_Dillehay(AncientCultivatedWetlands).pdf |journal=Antiquity |volume=81 |issue=314 |pages=949–960 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00096034 |s2cid=59480757}}</ref> Pambere Ufumu wa Inca undakure, cingoma cikaguliskikanga na kunyamulika mpaka kumwera ku Argentina, panyake kufuma ku Chile kujumpha mapiri gha Andes.<ref name="PerezErre2011">{{cite journal |last1=Pérez |first1=Alberto E. |last2=Erra |first2=Georgina |date=2011 |title=Identificación de maiz de vasijas recuperadas de la Patagonia noroccidental argentina |trans-title=Identifying maize residues in pottery vessels in northwestern Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Magallania |language=es |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=309–316 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442011000200022 |hdl=11336/42613 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Kusinthana kwa Columbus === [[File:The Florentine Codex- Agriculture.tiff|thumb|upright=0.8|Kulima cingoma, nga umo cikulongoreka mu ''Florentine Codex'' ya vyaka vya m'ma 1500 ]] Pamanyuma pa kufika kwa Ŵaulaya mu 1492, Ŵasipanya ŵakaryanga cingoma, ndipo ŵakupenja na ŵalonda ŵakaciwezgera ku Ulaya. Ŵasipanya ŵakatemwanga comene cingwa ca tirigu kuluska cingoma. Ufu wa cingoma ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito yayi pa cingwa ca mgonelo, cifukwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakagomezganga kuti tirigu pera ndiyo yingasanduka thupi la Khristu.<ref name="Earle 2012">{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref> Cingoma cikathandazgika ku caro cose cifukwa cingakura mu nyengo zakupambana. Cikalimika mu Spain vyaka makhumi ghacoko pamanyuma pa maulendo gha Columbus ndipo pamanyuma cikathandazgika ku Italy, Afilika ya Kumanjiliro, Philippines na kunyake.<ref name="Earle 2012" /><ref name="Salazar2016">{{cite journal |last1=Salazar |first1=A.M. |last2=Pascual |first2=C.B. |last3=Caasi-Lit |first3=M.T. |last4=Pentecostes |first4=K.Z. |last5=Dumalag |first5=P.Y. |last6=Ladia |first6=V.A., Jr. |last7=Paril |first7=J.F. |date=2016 |title=Breeding Potential of Philippine Traditional Maize Varieties |url=https://sabraojournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SABRAO-J-Breed-Genet-48-2-154-161-Salazar-1.pdf |journal=SABRAO Journal of Breeding and Genetics |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=154–161}}</ref> Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 1600, cikaŵa cakulya ca ŵalimi ŵakavu mu Ulaya ya Kumwera. Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 1700, cikaŵa cakulya cikulu ca ŵalimi ŵa France ya kumwera na Italy, comene nga ni ''polenta'' mu Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Langer |first=William L. |year=1975 |title=American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850 |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=51–66 |doi=10.1353/jsh/8.2.51 |jstor=3786266}}</ref> Apo cingoma cikanjizgika mu ulimi wa Kumanjiliro, cikapokereka makola cifukwa ca kupanga kunandi. Kweni luŵiro suzgo likulu la kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana likawoneka kulikose uko cikaŵa cakulya cikulu.<ref name="pellagra_mystery">{{cite web |date=December 2001 |title=The origins of maize: the puzzle of pellagra |url=http://www.eufic.org/web/article.asp?cust=1&lng=en&sid=4&did=16&artid=103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927074332/http://www.eufic.org/web/article.asp?cust=1&lng=en&sid=4&did=16&artid=103 |archive-date=September 27, 2006 |access-date=September 14, 2006 |work=Understanding Food |publisher=The European Food Information Council}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakasambira kunyika cingoma mu maji gha ''alkali'', ghakupangika na milota na laimu, kufuma pafupifupi 1200–1500 pambere Khristu.<ref name="StallerCarrasco2009">{{cite book |last1=Staller |first1=John |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FJrr9i6HRp0C|page=317}} |title=Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica |last2=Carrasco |first2=Michael |date=24 November 2009 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-0471-3 |page=317}}</ref> Ŵakacitanga nthena kuti ŵawuskepo vikokoso, kweni ici cikafumiska so ''niacin'', vitamini B, iyo kusoŵa kwake kukwiziska nthenda ya ''pellagra''. Apo nthowa iyi na kurya vyakulya vyakupambana vikamanyikwa na kugwiliskirika ntchito, ''pellagra'' yikamalira mu vyaro vyakukura. Nthenda iyi yicalipo mu malo gha vyakulya vicoko na mu misasa ya ŵakuthaŵa umo ŵanthu ŵakuthemba cingoma cakupika.<ref name="Thompson2016">{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Janice J. |title=The Science of Nutrition |last2=Manore |first2=Melinda |last3=Vaughan |first3=Linda |date=15 January 2016 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-13-429880-1 |pages=292–321 |chapter=Nutrients involved in energy metabolism |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pbd5CwAAQBAJ |page=292}}}}</ref> === Kuŵeta kwa Kale === Kuŵeta cingoma pambere pa mbiri yakulembeka kukapangiska vyakumera vikulu ivyo vikupanga vingoma vikulu. Kuŵeta kwa mazuŵa ghano kukamba na ŵanthu awo ŵakasankhanga mitundu yakupanga comene mu minda yawo na kuguliska mbuto ku ŵalimi ŵanyake. James L. Reid wakaŵa yumoza mwa ŵakwamba na ŵakupunda comene, ndipo wakapanga Reid's Yellow Dent mu ma 1860. Ntchito izi zakwamba zikathemba kusankha kunandi na kusankha vyakumera pamanyuma pa kutolera ufu wa maluŵa. Ntchito za pamanyuma zikasazgapo kusankha kwa cingoma ku mzere, mitundu yakusazganika kufuma ku mitundu yakuŵetika mu mbumba yimoza, na mitundu yakusazganika kaŵiri ya mitundu yinayi, iyo yikapunda comene. Ndondomeko za kuŵeta za mayunivesite zikaŵa zakuzirwa comene pa kupanga na kunjizga mitundu yakusazganika ya mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="Jugen">{{cite book |last1=Jugenheimer |first1=Robert W. |title=Hybrid Maize Breeding and Seed Production |date=1958 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |chapter=Agricultural Development Paper #62}}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1940, mitundu yiwemi comene ya cingoma yaŵa mitundu yakusazganika ya mbumba yakwamba kufuma ku mitundu iyo yanozgeka pa vimanyikwiro vinyake, nga ni vyakupangika, vyakukhozga thupi, kuzizipizga cilala, vibenene na nthenda. Kuŵeta kwa kale na kusintha vyakuhara vyose viŵiri vyasazgira vyakupangika na kucepeska khumbo la minda, mankhwala gha vibenene, maji, na feteleza. Pali ukaboni wakususkana pa usange nkhongono ya cakumera cimoza kupanga yasazgikira mu vyaka makhumi vyaumaliro. Ici cikulongora kuti kusintha kwa vyakupangika kukukolerana na kupendama kwa mahamba, kuleka kuwa, kuzizipizga kulimika pafupi na pafupi, kuzizipizga nthenda na vibenene, na vimanyikwiro vinyake vya ulimi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duvick |first1=D. N. |last2=Cassman |first2=K. G. |title=Post-green-revolution trends in yield potential of temperate maize in the north-central United States |journal=Crop Science |volume=39 |pages=1622–1630 |year=2009 |url=http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/39/6/1622 |issue=6 |s2cid=39657597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115003659/http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/39/6/1622 |archive-date=November 15, 2009 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1999.3961622x|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mitundu yinyake ya cingoma yaŵetika kuti yipange vingoma vinandi; izi ndizo zikupanga "vingoma vicoko" ivyo vikurika nga ni dende mu vyakulya vya Asiya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maiti |first=Ratikanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_m7aIfR7xEC&pg=PA52 |title=Crop Plant Anatomy |date=2012 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78064-174-4 |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Lopes Nóbrega Pacheco Cruz-Silva 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Lopes |first1=Adelmary Prestes |last2=Nóbrega |first2=Lucia Helene Pereira |last3=Pacheco |first3=Fabio Palczewski |last4=Cruz-Silva |first4=Claudia Tatiana Araujo da |title=Maize varieties for baby corn yield and post-harvest quality under organic cropping |journal=Bioscience Journal |volume=32 |issue=2 |date=2016 |doi=10.14393/BJ-v32n2a2016-26230 |pages=298–307}}</ref> Mtundu wa maluŵa luŵiro wakuchemeka cingoma cicoko ukapangika kovwira kusanda, cifukwa mbumba zinandi zingasangika mu caka cimoza.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McCaw |first1=Morgan E |last2=Wallace |first2=Jason G |last3=Albert |first3=Patrice S |last4=Buckler |first4=Edward S |last5=Birchler |first5=James A |date=2016-09-01 |title=Fast-Flowering Mini-Maize: Seed to Seed in 60 Days |journal=Genetics |volume=204 |issue=1 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.1534/genetics.116.191726 |issn=1943-2631 |pmc=5012399 |pmid=27440866}}</ref> Mtundu unyake wa olotón wakolerana na tuvinyama tucoko twa kukora naitirojeni, utu tukupeleka ku cakumera magaŵa 29–82 pa 100 gha naitirojeni yake.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006352 |title=Nitrogen fixation in a landrace of maize is supported by a mucilage-associated diazotrophic microbiota |year=2018 |last1=Van Deynze |first1=Allen |last2=Zamora |first2=Pablo |last3=Delaux |first3=Pierre-Marc |last4=Heitmann |first4=Cristobal |last5=Jayaraman |first5=Dhileepkumar |display-authors=etal |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=16 |issue=8 |article-number=e2006352 |pmid=30086128 |pmc=6080747 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kunozga Cingoma na Tirigu (CIMMYT) ukwendeska ndondomeko ya kuŵeta kwa kale kuti upeleke mitundu yiwemi, kufuma mu ma 1980.<ref name="cimmyt">{{cite web |url=https://www.cimmyt.org/about/ |title=About us |publisher=CIMMYT |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref> Mbuto za mitundu yakusazganika zikuthandazgika mu Afilika kwizira mu ntchito yake ya Cingoma Cakuzizipizga Cilala ca Afilika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) |date=June 17, 2022 |url=https://www.cimmyt.org/projects/drought-tolerant-maize-for-africa-dtma/ |publisher=CIMMYT |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref> Mitundu ya kale ya ku tropiki yicali kasupe wakuzirwa kweni wambura kugwiliskirika ntchito makola wa vyakuhara vya kuzizipizga nthenda na vibenene. Vyakuhara ivi vingasazgika mu mitundu yakupanga comene.<ref name="Chakradhar-et-al-2017"/> Vyakuhara vyambura kusangika kanandi vya cilato ici vikasangika na Dao na Sood mu 2014.<ref name="Chakradhar-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Chakradhar |first1=Thammineni |last2=Hindu |first2=Vemuri |last3=Reddy |first3=Palakolanu Sudhakar |title=Genomic-based-breeding tools for tropical maize improvement |journal=Genetica |date=December 2017 |volume=145 |issue=6 |pages=525–539 |doi=10.1007/s10709-017-9981-y |pmid=28875394 |s2cid=24074330 |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/10349/1/10.1007%252Fs10709-017-9981-y.pdf }}</ref> Mu 2018, Zerka Rashid wa CIMMYT wakasanga vigaŵa viphya vya vyakuhara ivyo vikuzizipizga nthenda ya mahamba ya mapira.<ref name="Rashid Singh Vemuri Zaidi 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Zerka |last2=Singh |first2=Pradeep Kumar |last3=Vemuri |first3=Hindu |last4=Zaidi |first4=Pervez Haider |last5=Prasanna |first5=Boddupalli Maruthi |last6=Nair |first6=Sudha Krishnan |title=Genome-wide association study in Asia-adapted tropical maize reveals novel and explored genomic regions for sorghum downy mildew resistance |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2018-01-10 |page=366 |issn=2045-2322 |pmid=29321632 |pmc=5762920 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18690-3 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018NatSR...8..366R }}</ref> === Kusintha Vyakuhara === Cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyakulya 26 vyakusintha vyakuhara ivyo vikalimikanga pa malonda mu 2016.<ref name="James-2016">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/52/executivesummary/default.asp |title=Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2016 – ISAAA Brief 52-2016 |last=James |first=Clive |date=2016 |publisher=ISAAA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504055752/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/52/executivesummary/default.asp|archive-date=2017-05-04|access-date=2017-08-26}}</ref><ref>[http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp ISAAA Brief 43-2011]: Executive Summary, retrieved September 9, 2012</ref> Cinandi comene ni cingoma ca Bt. Cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara cikulimika kufuma 1997 mu United States na Canada; pofika 2016, magaŵa 92 pa 100 gha cingoma ca U.S. ghakaŵa ghakusintha vyakuhara.<ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015" /><ref name="James-2016"/> Mu 2011, cingoma cakuzizipizga mankhwala gha mikoza na cakuzizipizga vibenene cikalimikanga mu vyaro vyakujumpha 20.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/2/default.asp |title=ISAAA Pocket K No. 2: Plant Products of Biotechnology, 2018 |access-date=January 9, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-date=January 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130235541/https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/2/default.asp}}</ref> Mu Lupya 2000, vyakulya vya mtengo wa madola mpaka miliyoni 50 vikawezgereka cifukwa vikaŵa na cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara ca Starlink, ico cikazomerezgeka pa vyakulya vya viŵeto pera.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=September 23, 2000 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/23/business/kraft-recalls-taco-shells-with-bioengineered-corn.html |title=Kraft Recalls Taco Shells With Bioengineered Corn |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> === Kulima === Cifukwa cikuzizipizga kuzizima yayi, mu malo gha nyengo yapakati cingoma cikwenera kupandika mu nyengo ya kufunda kwakwamba. Misisi yake kanandi njambura kuzika, ntheura cakumera cikuthemba unyowevu wa dongo. Pakuti cikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya C4 pa usanisinuru, cingoma cikugwiliskira ntchito maji makola kuluska vyakumera vya C3 nga ni soya. Cingoma cikukhwaskika comene na cilala apo sisi likufuma, apo maluŵa ghali pafupi kupokera ufu. Mu United States, vuna liwemi likalongolerekanga usange cingoma cikaŵa "pa makongono pofika 4 Vuna", nangauli mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano kanandi yikujumpha ici. Cingoma ca ''silage'' cikuvunika apo cakumera cicali ciŵisi. Cingoma ca shuga cikuvunika apo mbuto zili mu "nyengo ya mkaka", pamanyuma pa kupokera ufu wa maluŵa kweni pambere sitachi yindapangike. Cingoma ca minda cikusiyika mu munda mpaka nyengo yitali kuti mbuto zikome makola, ndipo nyengo zinyake cikuvunika mu nyengo ya kuzizima panji pakwamba pa nyengo ya kufunda. Kuzirwa kwa unyowevu wa dongo wakukwana kukuwoneka mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Afilika, uko cilala ca nyengo zinyake kanandi cikunanga cingoma na kwiziska njara. Nangauli cikulimika comene mu nyengo zakunyowa na zakufunda, cingakura mu nyengo zakuzizima, zakufunda, zakomira panji zakunyowa, ntheura ni cakumera cakuzizipizga comene.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandez-Armesto |first=Felipe |year=2011 |title=The World: A History |page=470 |publisher=Penguin Academics |location=London |isbn=978-0-205-75930-9}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakapandanga cingoma mu tumapiri tucoko twa dongo, mu ndondomeko ya Ŵadumbu Ŵatatu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Christina Gish |date=2020-11-20 |title=Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures |url=http://theconversation.com/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes-people-land-and-cultures-149230 |access-date=2021-01-09 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> Cingoma cikakhazganga nchunga; nchunga zikapelekanga naitirojeni kufuma ku mabakiteriya agho ghakukhala pa misisi yawo; ndipo nyungu zikaphimbanga dongo kukanizga mikoza na kufumbuka kwa maji.<ref name=Mann_2011>{{cite book |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |edition=2nd |author-link=Charles C. Mann (writer) |first=Charles C. |last=Mann |chapter=Cotton (or Anchovies) and Maize |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/225 225–229] |date=July 2011 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |location=New York |title-link=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus}}</ref> === Kuvuna === <gallery mode=packed heights=150> File:Plàntules moresc 2012.JPG|Tucakumera twa cingoma masabata ghatatu pamanyuma pa kupanda File:Corn Zea mays Plant Row 2000px.jpg|Vikhuni viphya File:Maispflanze.jpg|Vyakumera vyakukura ivyo vili na vingoma File:Corn in regional NSW, Australia, 2022.jpg|Munda ukulu wa cingoma ca mbuto </gallery> Cingoma ca shuga, ico cikuvunika pambere pa cingoma ca mbuto, cikukhwima mu mazuŵa 60 mpaka 100 kuyana na mtundu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Home Garden Sweet Corn |url=https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C905&title=growing-home-garden-sweet-corn#Maturity |publisher=University of Georgia Extension |access-date=9 March 2024}}</ref> Vuna litali la cingoma ca shuga lingapangika mwa kupanda mitundu iyo yikukhwima luŵiro na pacoko pacoko, panji kupanda vigaŵa vyakupambana pa masabata ghaŵiri ghaliwose.<ref name="Wayne">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=C. Wayne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDJ3NjHh8H8C&pg=PA802 |title=Corn: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |last2=Betrán |first2=Javier |last3=Runge |first3=Edward C. A. |date=2004-03-08 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=802 |isbn=978-0-471-41184-0}}</ref> Cingoma ico cikuvunika nga ni mbuto cingasiyika mu munda nyengo yitali, nanga ni myezi, pamanyuma pakuti canozgeka; cingavunika na kusungika mu vikokoso usange cikomira. Kuyana na Unduna wa Ulimi wa U.S., mu vyaka 40 kufuma 1855 mpaka 1894, ntchito iyo yikakhumbikwanga kupanga cipimo cimoza ca cingoma yikacepa kufuma maora ghanayi na maminiti 34 mpaka maminiti 41 pera.<ref>George K. Holmes, "Supply and Wages of Farm Labor" ''Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1910'' (1911) pp. 190-191 [https://archive.org/details/yoa1910/page/196/mode/1up?view=theater online]</ref> Pambere pa 1940, cingoma cinandi mu Amerika ya Kumpoto cikavunikanga na mawoko. Ici cikakhumbanga ŵantchito ŵanandi na visangalalo vya pamoza vya kusenda. Kufuma mu ma 1850, makina ghanyake ghakamba kovwira. Pa mawoko panji na makina, cingoma cose cikuvunika, ndipo cikukhumba ntchito yinyake ya kufumyamo mbuto. Vingoma vyose kanandi vikasungikanga mu nkhokwe. Mazuŵa ghano nkhokwe izi zili zicoko cifukwa minda yinandi ya mazuŵa ghano yikuvuna mbuto na makina ghakulu na kuzisunga mu matanki. Makina agha ghakudumula cikhuni yayi; ghakuciguza waka pasi, ndipo cikusyala pasi kuŵa feteleza wa dongo. Makina ghakupatula makoko na cisonga, ghakusunga mbuto pera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Robert C. |author1-link=Robert C. Brown (engineer) |last2=Brown |first2=Tristan R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SENOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT114 |title=Biorenewable Resources: Engineering New Products from Agriculture |date=2013-12-06 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-52492-3 |at=PT114}}</ref> === Kusunga Mbuto === <gallery mode=packed heights=120> File:Iowa harvest 2009.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma, Iowa File:Maissipelto Rantasalmi.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma, Finland File:MyanmarCorn3.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma na mawoko, Myanmar File:Africa Food Security 11 (10665081134).jpg|Kusuŵa cingoma na mawoko, Malaŵi </gallery> Kukomeska nkhwakuzirwa kuvikilira panji kucepeska kunangika na wowa, iyo yikunanga mbuto na poizoni. Usange mbuto zili na unyowevu unandi, vilwero vya kukomeska vikugwiliskirika ntchito mwa kupuzga mphepo yakufunda mu mbuto.<ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ostrý |first1=Vladimír |last2=Malíř |first2=František |last3=Pfohl-Leszkowicz |first3=Annie |title=Comparative data concerning aflatoxin contents in Bt maize and non-Bt isogenic maize in relation to human and animal health – a review |journal=Acta Veterinaria Brno|date=2015 |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.2754/avb201585010047 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ici cingakhumba nkhongono zinandi za mphepo zakuyaka na magesi.<ref name="Van Devender 2011">{{cite web |last=Van Devender |first=Karl |title=Grain Drying Concepts and Options |publisher=University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture |date=July 2011 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-1072.pdf |access-date=December 15, 2013 |archive-date=June 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601162852/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-1072.pdf}}</ref> === Kupangika === Cingoma cikulimika comene pa caro cose, ndipo cikupangika cinandi pa caka kuluska mbuto yiliyose.<ref name="global">{{cite web |title=International Grains Council Market Report 28 November 2013 |url=http://www.igc.int/downloads/gmrsummary/gmrsumme.pdf |author=International Grains Council (international organization)|year=2013 |author-link=International Grains Council (international organization)}}</ref> Mu 2020, cingoma cose ca caro capasi cikaŵa matani biliyoni 1.16, ndipo U.S. yikalongozga na magaŵa 31.0 pa 100. China yikapanga magaŵa 22.4 pa 100.<ref name="fao.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=FAOSTAT |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Mu Mpupulu 2026, mitengo ya cingoma ya munthazi yikafika pacanya comene kufuma Vuna 2023, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵakalindilira kucepa kwa cingoma ca U.S. na khumbo likulu la caro cose. Lipoti la USDA la Mpupulu 2026 likacepeska kulongolera kwa vyakupangika vya cingoma ca U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zaidi |first=Deena |date=2026-08-28 |title=Corn and wheat prices jump to highest prices in more than three years |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2026/08/28/corn-and-wheat-prices-jump-to-highest-prices-in-more-than-three-years.html |access-date=2026-08-28 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> === Vibenene na Nthenda === <gallery mode="packed" heights="225"> File:Production of maize (2023).svg|Kupangika kwa cingoma (2023) File:World production of primary crops by main commodities.svg|Cingoma (mzere wa mtundu wa ''pink'') ndico cakuhara caciŵiri ico cikupangika comene pa caro capasi, pamanyuma pa mujuwa, ndipo ndico cakwamba mwa vyakuhara vya mbuto.<ref>{{Cite book |last=FAO |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd4313en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2025 |date=2025 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-140174-3 |language=English |doi=10.4060/cd4313en}}</ref> </gallery> [[File:NCLB disease cycle.JPG|thumb|upright=1.75|Umo nthenda ya ''Northern corn leaf blight'' yikwendera ]] Vinthu vinandi vingananga kukura kwa cingoma, kusazgapo vinyama vyambura fupa la msana, mikoza, na tuzirombo twa nthenda.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Pests |url=https://extension.usu.edu/pests/ipm/notes_ag/veg-list-corn |publisher=Utah State University |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Mueller |editor1-first=Daren |editor2-last=Pope |editor2-first=Rich |title=Corn Field Guide |date=2009 |publisher=Iowa State University Extension |url=https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/files/icm/corn-field-guide.pdf |access-date=11 January 2024 |archive-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111163925/https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/files/icm/corn-field-guide.pdf }}</ref> Cingoma cili pa ngozi ya nthenda zinandi za wowa, mabakiteriya, na tubungulu. Izo zikuzirwa pa vyacuma ni nthenda za mahamba, za cingoma, na za cikhuni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diseases and Disorders of Corn |url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/crop-management/grain-corn/corn-diseases-and-disorders.html |publisher=Province of Manitoba - Agriculture |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Nthenda zinyake za wowa zikupanga poizoni wakofya nga ni ''aflatoxin''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wise |first1=Kiersten |title=Diseasees of Corn: Northern Corn Leaf Blight |url=http://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-84-W.pdf |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Juroszek von Tiedemann 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Juroszek |first1=Peter |last2=von Tiedemann |first2=Andreas |title=Climatic changes and the potential future importance of maize diseases: a short review |journal=Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection |date=2013 |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=49–56 |doi=10.1007/BF03356454 |bibcode=2013JPDP..120...49J |s2cid=87234896 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295797868}}</ref><ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015"/> Mu United States mu 2022, nthenda yakunanga comene yikaŵa ''tar spot'', iyo yikatayiska vipimo miliyoni 116.8.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Disease Loss Estimates From the United States and Ontario, Canada — 2022 |url=https://cropprotectionnetwork.org/publications/corn-disease-loss-estimates-from-the-united-states-and-ontario-canada-2022 |website=cropprotectionnetwork.org |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Cingoma cikutaya madola biliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse mu U.S. kufuma ku vibenene viŵiri vikulu, cibenene ca Ulaya cakuboola cikhuni na mphutsi za misisi. Cibenene cinyake cikulu ni mbozi ya ''fall armyworm'', iyo yaŵa suzgo likulu so mu Afilika na mu Malaŵi. Fufuzi wa cingoma ni cibenene cikulu ca mbuto zakusungika. Mbozi yinyake ni cibenene cikulu ca cingoma mu Asiya. Mphutsi za ''nematode'' nazo zikunanga cingoma. Panyake cakumera ciliconse ca cingoma cili na mphutsi izi, ndipo unandi wawo mu misisi ungaŵa "ukulu comene". Zikupangiska vyakumera kuleka kukura, nyengo zinyake mu munda wose, comene para pali so kusoŵa maji na mikoza yinandi.<ref name="Norton 1983">{{cite journal |last=Norton |first=Don C. |title=Maize Nematode Problems |journal=Plant Disease |date=March 1983 |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=253–256 |doi=10.1094/PD-67-253 |bibcode=1983PlDis..67..253N |url=https://www.apsnet.org/publications/plantdisease/backissues/Documents/1983Articles/PlantDisease67n03_253.PDF}}</ref> Vyakumera vinandi vingasuskana na cingoma na kucepeska vyakupangika. Kulaŵilira kungaŵa kuwuskapo mikoza na mawoko panji makina, na moto, panji na mankhwala gha mikoza.<ref name="Meissle Mouron Musa">{{cite journal |last1=Meissle |first1=Michael |last2=Mouron |first2=Patrik |last3=Musa |first3=Tomke |display-authors=etal |title=Pests, pesticide use and alternative options in European maize production: Current status and future prospects |journal=Journal of Applied Entomology |volume=134 |issue=5 |year=2010 |pages=357–375 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0418.2009.01491.x |s2cid=73606627 |url=https://arpi.unipi.it/bitstream/11568/710064/3/Paper%202009-11-11.doc |hdl=11568/710064 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro == === Vyakulya === Cingoma na ufu wa cingoma ni vyakulya vikulu mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi. Cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga sitachi. Sitachi ya cingoma yingasinthika kupanga shuga wa cingoma. Cingoma cingapangika moŵa wa ''bourbon''. Mafuta gha cingoma ghakufumyika ku mtima wa mbuto. <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180> File:Northern corn leaf blight.JPG|Nthenda ya ''Northern corn leaf blight'' File:Symptoms corncobs destruction caused by Ostrinia nubilalis (cropped).JPG|Cingoma cakunangika na cibenene ca Ulaya ca cingoma File:European Corn Borer (15350098570).jpg|Mbozi ya cibenene ca Ulaya ca cingoma mu cingoma </gallery> Kale, ŵanakazi ŵa Amerika Yapakati ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito libwe la kusira kusira cingoma kuŵa ufu.<ref name="Davidson 2014"/> Ŵamama ŵakugwiliskiranga ntchito so cingoma nga ni phala la ŵana ŵakuleka kunkha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch |title=Cornstarch |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=2016-05-14 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081317/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa viŵiya vya dongo, Ŵaolmec ŵakamba kuphika cingoma pamoza na nchunga, kusazgira vyakukhozga thupi mu cakulya cikulu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ |title=Factsheet on Glucose Fructose Syrups and Isoglucose |author=European Starch Association |work=AAF |date=10 June 2013 |access-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-date=June 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603234139/http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ }}</ref> Nangauli cingoma cili na ''niacin'', yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu thupi yayi kwambura ''nixtamalization''.<ref name=bstreet>Kiniry, Laura. "[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/where-bourbon-really-got-its-name-and-more-tips-on-americas-native-spirit-145879/?no-ist Where Bourbon Really Got Its Name and More Tips on America's Native Spirit]". ''Smithsonian.com''. June 13, 2013.</ref> Ŵamaya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ufu uwu kupanga phala na ''tamale''.<ref name="corn dot org">Corn Refiners Association. [http://www.corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Corn Oil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412091052/https://corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf |date=2019-04-12 }} 5th Edition. 2006</ref> Cingoma ni cakulya cikulu ca Mexico. ''Masa'' ndiyo cigaŵa cikulu ca ''tortilla'', ''atole'' na vyakulya vinyake vinandi vya Amerika Yapakati. Bowa wa cingoma, wakuchemeka ''huitlacoche'', uwo ukukura pa cingoma, ni cakulya cakutemweka mu Mexico. Ufu wa cingoma ukupangika phala lakukhwima mu midawuko yinandi: ''polenta'' ya Italy, ''angu'' ya Brazil, ''mămăligă'' ya Romania, ''grits'' za U.S., ''pap'' ya South Africa, na sadza, nsima, ugali na mazina ghanyake mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Afilika. Cingoma cikanjizgika mu Afilika na Ŵapwitikizi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ndipo caŵa cakulya cikulu comene ca Afilika.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |title=The cassava transformation in Africa |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref> Cingoma ca shuga, mtundu uwo uli na shuga munandi na sitachi yicoko, cikurika cambura kukhwima nga ni cingoma cakuwocha panji cakuphika.<ref name="Nielsen 2007">{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=L. Michelle |title=The Biography of Corn |year=2007 |publisher=Crabtree Publishing |page=27 |isbn=978-0-7787-2491-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCUaWVFfquMC&pg=PA27 }}</ref> === Vyakukhozga Thupi === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="200" widths="200"> File:Corn, the food of the nation, US Food Administration poster, 1918.jpg|Cithandazgo ca vyakulya vya cingoma,<br/>U.S. Food Administration, 1918 File:Summer corn (48286638996).jpg|Cingoma cakusuŵika pacoko File:ChiapasTamale2.JPG|''Tamale'' za Mexico File:Polenta.jpg|Nthowa yimoza ya kupelekera ''polenta'' ya Italy </gallery> Mbuto za cingoma ca shuga zaziŵisi zili na magaŵa 76 pa 100 gha maji, 19 gha shuga na sitachi, 3 gha purotini, na 1 gha mafuta. Mu magalamu 100, mpuzi za cingoma zikupeleka ma''calorie'' 86 ndipo ni kasupe uwemi wa mavitamini gha B, ''thiamin'', ''niacin'' (usange yafumyika), na ''folate''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169998/nutrients|title=FoodData Central|website=fdc.nal.usda.gov|access-date=January 15, 2021|archive-date=April 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169998/nutrients|url-status=live}}</ref> Cingoma cili na ma''amino acid'' ghanyake ghakukhumbikwa ghacoko, ndico cifukwa ni kasupe uheni wa purotini.<ref name="UNFAO-1992">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0395e/T0395E0c.htm |title=Chapter 8: Improvement of maize diets; from corporate document: Maize in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |date=1992 |access-date=5 June 2017}}</ref> Purotini za nchunga zikukwaniska izo za cingoma.<ref name="UNFAO-1992" /> === Vyakulya vya Viŵeto === [[File:Corn By-Product Used for Livestock Feed.jpg|thumb|left|Ng'ombe zikulindilira pafupi na linga apo galimoto yikuthira vyakulya vya mbuto vyakupangika na vyakusyala vya cingoma mu vyakulyeramo.]] [[File:Bales from corn stems 01.jpg|thumb|left|Vikhuni vya cingoma vyakukakika pamoza]] Cingoma ni kasupe mukulu wa vyakulya vya viŵeto. Mu United States, vyakulya vya viŵeto ni pafupifupi magaŵa 40 pa 100 gha cingoma cose ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu caro.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corn and Other Feed Grains - Feed Grains Sector at a Glance {{!}} Economic Research Service |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/corn-and-other-feed-grains/feed-grains-sector-at-a-glance |access-date=2026-04-02 |website=www.ers.usda.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-02 |title=Share of Corn Crop for Feed - Inside Animal Ag |url=https://insideanimalag.org/share-of-corn-for-feed/ |access-date=2026-04-02 |website=insideanimalag.org}}</ref> Nga ni mbuto, mbuto zakomira zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto. Kanandi zikusungika pa cisonga mu nkhokwe, panji kufumyika na kusungika mu matanki. Para mbuto zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa viŵeto, cakumera cinyake cose cingagwiliskirika ntchito pamanyuma nga ni vyakulya, vyakugonapo viŵeto, panji feteleza wa dongo.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Edouard |first3=N. |last4=Lebas |first4=F. |title=Maize silage |publisher=Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/13883 |date=June 22, 2017}}</ref> Para cakumera cose cikugwiliskirika ntchito pa viŵeto, kanandi cikudumulika na kupangika ''silage'', cifukwa ngakugaya makola na ngakunowa ku viŵeto kuluska ivyo vyakomira. Kale, cingoma cikawunjikikanga mu milu pamanyuma pa kuvuna kuti cikome so. Pamanyuma cikasungikanga myezi mpaka cikaperekekanga ku viŵeto.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Edouard |first3=N. |last4=Lebas |first4=F. |title=Maize green forage |publisher=Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/358 |date=June 21, 2017}}</ref> Mu malo gha ku tropiki, cingoma cikuvunika caka cose na kupelekeka ciŵisi ku viŵeto.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://extension.illinois.edu/beef-cattle/baled-cornstalks |title=Baled Cornstalks |publisher=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref> === Vinthu vya Usungunu === Sitachi ya cingoma yingapangika pulasitiki, nsalu, ulimbo, na vinthu vinyake vinandi vya usungunu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Starch |url=https://corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/StarchBooklet2013.pdf |publisher=Corn Refiners Association |access-date=9 January 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma pa kusira cingoma na maji ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu mafakitale na mu kusanda kukuzga tuvinyama tucoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liggett |first1=R. Winston |last2=Koffler |first2=H. |journal=Bacteriological Reviews |date=December 1948 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=297–311 |title=Corn steep liquor in microbiology |pmc=180696 |pmid=16350125 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.12.4.297-311.1948}}</ref> === Vyakotchera === [[File:Haase anaerobic digester.JPG|thumb|Malo gha pa munda gha kupangira mpweya wa nkhongono (''biogas'') kufuma ku cingoma pafupi na Neumünster, Germany, 2007; ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyakumera vyose vya cingoma, mbuto pera yayi. Cakuphimbira ciŵisi ca pacanya cikukwezgeka na mpweya uwo wasungika mukati.]] Cingoma ca viŵeto cikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kufundiska; masitovu ghapadera gha cingoma ghakugwiliskira ntchito cingoma panji makuni ghakusirika kupanga kufunda. Visonga vya cingoma vingagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakotchera.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2015/03/150301-corn-stoves/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303022706/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2015/03/150301-corn-stoves/ |archive-date=March 3, 2015 |title=Corn for Home Heat: A Green Idea That Never Quite Popped |date=2015-03-02 |access-date=2017-07-07}}</ref> Cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga mafuta gha ethanol.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Andres F. |last2=Slegers |first2=Petronella M. |last3=Noordam-Boot |first3=Cornelie M. M. |last4=Dolstra |first4=Oene |last5=Vlaswinkel |first5=Louis |last6=van Boxtel |first6=Anton J. B. |last7=Visser |first7=Richard G. F. |last8=Trindade |first8=Luisa M. |display-authors=3 |title=Maize feedstocks with improved digestibility reduce the costs and environmental impacts of biomass pretreatment and saccharification |journal=Biotechnology for Biofuels |date=December 2016 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=63 |doi=10.1186/s13068-016-0479-0 |pmc=4791978 |pmid=26981155 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016BB......9...63T }}</ref> Mtengo wa vyakulya ukukhwaskika na kagwiliskiro ka cingoma pa vyakotchera: kagwiliskiro aka kakusazgira khumbo, ntheura na mtengo wa cingoma.<ref>{{cite news |last=Clayton |first=Mark |title=As global food costs rise, are biofuels to blame? |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=January 28, 2008 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Money/2008/0128/p03s03-usec.html |access-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref> Nyumba ya magesi ya vyakotchera vya vyamoyo ku Strem, mu Austria, yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hermann |first1=Hofbauer |last2=Reinhard |first2=R. |last3=Klaus |first3=Bosch |last4=Reinhard |first4=K. |last5=Christian |first5=Aichernig |date=January 2002 |title=Biomass CHP plant Güssing - A success story |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242422623 |publisher=Ministry of Economy and Labour and of the Federal States of Niederösterreich and Burgenland |s2cid=56073239}}</ref> == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == Mu Amerika Yapakati, cingoma cikuwonekera nga ni nkhongono ya umoyo, ndipo cikusopeka nga ni ciuta wa cingoma, kanandi wanakazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bassie |first=Karen |year=2002 |chapter=Corn Deities and the Complementary Male/Female Principle |title=Ancient Maya Gender Identity and Relations |editor1=Lowell S. Gustafson |editor2=Amelia N. Trevelyan |pages=169–190 |publisher=Bergin&Garvey |location=Westport, Conn. and London |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/features/bassie/corn/ |access-date=2007-12-05 |archive-date=2009-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710180840/http://www.mesoweb.com/features/bassie/corn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu U.S., vingoma vyajambulika pa mizati ya nyumba ya mphala ya caro.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corncob or Cornstalk Columns and Capitals |url=https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/art/corncob-or-cornstalk-columns-and-capitals |website=Architect of the Capitol |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Nyumba ya Cingoma mu Mitchell, South Dakota, yikugwiliskira ntchito vingoma vya mitundu yakupambana kupanga vithuzi pa malinga ivyo vikusinthika caka ciliconse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corn Palace History |website=City of Mitchell |url=http://www.cityofmitchell.org/palace/rent.htm |access-date=2007-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929180750/http://www.cityofmitchell.org/palace/rent.htm |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref> Cithuzi ca simenti ca Munda wa Cingoma mu Dublin, Ohio, cikulongora vingoma mahandiredi mu munda wa utheka.<ref>{{cite web |title=From oddity to cherished Dublin icon, 'Field of Corn' celebrates 25 years |last=Gordon |first=Ken |url=https://www.dispatch.com/news/20190928/from-oddity-to-cherished-dublin-icon-field-of-corn-celebrates-25-years |date=September 28, 2019 |work=The Columbus Dispatch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070612/https://www.dispatch.com/news/20190928/from-oddity-to-cherished-dublin-icon-field-of-corn-celebrates-25-years |archive-date=September 30, 2019 |access-date=December 21, 2021}}</ref> Ntonga ya cingoma na vingoma viŵiri vyakukhwima yikulongoreka pa ndalama ya Croatia ya lipa limoza.<ref>[http://www.hnb.hr/ Croatian National Bank]. [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 Kuna and Lipa, Coins of Croatia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622012116/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 |date=June 22, 2009}}: [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e1lipa.htm?tsfsg=dd58a2499ab048a6770b27c3017b7ec2 1 Lipa Coin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628203927/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e1lipa.htm?tsfsg=dd58a2499ab048a6770b27c3017b7ec2 |date=June 28, 2011}}. Retrieved on March 31, 2009.</ref> Mbuto za cingoma nyengo zinyake zikulongora wofi, cifukwa cingoma cikupelekeka ku nkhuku, izo zikulongora ŵanthu ŵa wofi. Mu myezi pambere pa kuwiska ulongozgi mu Chile mu 1973, ŵakususka Allende ŵakaponyanga cingoma ku malo gha ŵankhondo kuti ŵamuwiske.<ref>[https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-97031.html Proeza], Memoria Chilena. In Spanish.</ref><ref>[https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/opinion/2013/01/23/no-vayan-de-nuevo-a-tirar-maiz/ «No vayan de nuevo a tirar maíz»]. 2013. ''El Mostrador''.</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=175> File:Mochica Corn.jpg|Cikozgo ca cingoma, mdawuko wa Moche, 300 pamanyuma pa Khristu, Larco Museum, Lima, Peru File:Mayan - Stucco Portrait Head - Walters 20092026 - Three Quarter Right.jpg|Mutu wa ciuta wa cingoma wa Ŵamaya kufuma ku Campeche, Mexico, 550–850 pamanyuma pa Khristu File:Young Corn God MET DT9945.jpg|Cikozgo cicoko ca dongo ca ku Jaina Island ca ciuta muwukirano wa cingoma wa Ŵamaya wakufuma mu cingoma, 600–900 pamanyuma pa Khristu File:Aztecs storing maize.jpg|Ŵaaztec ŵakusunga cingoma,<br/>''Florentine Codex'', 1540/1585 File:CornWaterTower.JPG|Thanki la maji ku Rochester, Minnesota ilo likupakika utoto kuti liwoneke nga ni cingoma, 2008 </gallery> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vyakumela]] einsgi1tl2slfkows65u5ghihz6o0ml 124423 124416 2026-11-10T23:27:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Cingoma | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | image = Koeh-283.jpg | image_caption = Maluŵa gha ŵanalume na gha ŵanakazi | regnum = Plantae | unranked_divisio = Angiospermae | unranked_classis = Monocots | ordo = Poales | familia = Poaceae | genus = ''Zea'' | species = '''''Z. mays''''' | binomial = ''Zea mays'' | binomial_authority = L. }} [[File:Corncobs.jpg|thumb|250px|Vingoma]] [[File:Zea mays fraise MHNT.BOT.2011.18.21.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "fraise"'']] [[File:Dent Corn 'Oaxacan Green' (Zea mays) MHNT 2.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "Oaxacan Green"'']] [[File:Zea mays 'Ottofile giallo Tortonese' MHNT.BOT.2015.34.1.jpg|thumb|''Zea mays "Ottofile giallo Tortonese”'']] '''Cingoma''' (''Zea mays''), panji ''corn'' mu Cingelezi ca Amerika, ni [[Vyakumela|cakumera]] citali na cakukhora ca mtundu wa utheka ico cikupanga mbuto za vyakulya. Ntonga ya mahamba ya cakumera ici yikupanga maluŵa gha ŵanalume panji mphungapunga, izo zikupanga ufu wa maluŵa, na maluŵa gha ŵanakazi agho ghakuchemeka vingoma. Vingoma vikupeleka mbuto. Mu mitundu ya malonda ya mazuŵa ghano, mbuto izi kanandi nza mtundu wa cikasu panji zakutuŵa; mitundu yinyake yingaŵa ya mitundu yinandi. Cingoma cikaŵetika na ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa ku Mexico ya kumwera pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha kufuma ku ''teosinte'' ya mu thengere.<ref name="Lohse Morgan Jones 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Lohse |first1=Jon C. |last2=Morgan |first2=Molly |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |display-authors=etal |title=Early Maize in the Maya Area |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=33 |issue=4 |year=2022 |pages=677–692 |jstor=27362456}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakacipandanga pamoza na nchunga na nyungu mu ndondomeko ya "Ŵadumbu Ŵatatu". Cingoma cikuthemba ŵanthu kuti cipandike. Kufuma pa kusinthana kwa Columbus, caŵa cakulya cikulu mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, ndipo cingoma cose ico cikupangika cikujumpha tirigu na mpunga. Cingoma cinandi cikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto, kwali nga ni mbuto panji cakumera cose, ico cingamangika nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto panji kupangika kuŵa ''silage''. Mitundu ya shuga yinandi, yakuchemeka cingoma ca shuga, yikulimika kuti ŵanthu ŵarye, apo mitundu ya minda yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakulya vya viŵeto, ufu wa cingoma, sitachi, shuga wa cingoma, mafuta gha cingoma, moŵa nga ni ''bourbon whiskey'', na vinthu vya usungunu kusazgapo ethanol na vyakotchera vinyake vya vyamoyo. Cingoma cikulimika pa caro cose capasi; cikupangika cinandi pa caka kuluska mbuto yiliyose. Mu 2020, cingoma cikapangika matani biliyoni 1.1 pa caro cose capasi. Cikukhwaskika na vibenene na nthenda zinandi; vibenene viŵiri vikulu, cibenene ca Ulaya ico cikudolora cikhuni na mphutsi za misisi, vyose viŵiri vikutayiska madola biliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse mu United States. Kuŵeta vyakumera kwa mazuŵa ghano kwasazgira comene vyakupangika na uwemi nga ni vyakukhozga thupi, kuzizipizga cilala, na kuzizipizga vibenene na nthenda. Cingoma cinandi sono cili na vyakuhara vyakusinthika. Nga ni cakulya, cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakulya vinandi kusazgapo ''tortilla'' na ''tamale'' za Mexico, ''polenta'' ya Italy, na ''grits'' za Amerika, na nsima mu Malaŵi na kunyake mu Afilika. Purotini ya cingoma njicoko pa ma''amino acid'' ghanyake ghakukhumbikwa, ndipo ''niacin'' iyo yilimo yikuŵa yakugwiliskirika ntchito pera para yafumyika na ''alkali''. Mu Amerika Yapakati ya kale, cingoma cikasopeka nga ni ciuta wa cingoma ndipo cikajambulika mu vithuzi vya malibwe. == Malongosoro == Cingoma ni utheka utali wa caka cimoza wa cikhuni cimoza, ucitali kufuma mamita 1.2 mpaka 4.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6">{{cite book |last1=Solaimalai |first1=A. |title=Maize Crop: Improvement, Production, Protection and Post Harvest Technology |last2=Anantharaju |first2=P. |last3=Irulandi |first3=S. |last4=Theradimani |first4=M. |date=2020-05-10 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-17695-7 |chapter=6. Growth and Development Stages |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7XjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60}}</ref> Mahamba ghatali na ghafupi ghakufuma ku mafundo, limoza limoza ku mbali zakupambana za cikhuni.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Cingoma cili na maluŵa gha ŵanalume na gha ŵanakazi ghakupambana pa cakumera cimoza.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Pacanya pa cikhuni pali mphungapunga, maluŵa gha ŵanalume; ghakufumiska ufu wa maluŵa, uwo ukuthandazgika na mphepo.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Maluŵa gha ŵanakazi, pasi pa cikhuni kufuma ku mphungapunga, ghakuwoneka dankha nga ni sisi lakupepuka, sisi limoza pa duŵa lililose la wanakazi, ilo likusanduka mbuto para lapokera ufu wa maluŵa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Caryopsis |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/caryopsis |access-date=January 9, 2024 |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Maluŵa ghose gha wanakazi ghakusanduka cingoma, cakuphimbika na vigaŵa vinandi vya mahamba (vikokoso).<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Hamba la cingoma ndilo hamba ilo likukolerana comene na cingoma cinyake ico cikukura. Hamba ili na agho ghali pacanya pake ghakupeleka kujumpha vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya sitachi iyo yikuzuzga mbuto.<ref name="USA-IA-ext-fung">{{cite web |title=Before applying fungicides to corn: Stop! Look! Consider! |url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/applying-fungicides-corn-stop-look-consider |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Integrated Crop Management |publisher=Iowa State University Extension}}</ref> Mbuto kanandi nza cikasu panji zakutuŵa mu mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano; mitundu yinyake yili na mbuto za malalanje, zakufiira, za nthaka, za buluu, za pepo, panji zakufipa. Zikunozgeka mu mizere 8 mpaka 32 kuzunguliya cisonga; pangaŵa mbuto mpaka 1,200 pa cingoma cikulu.<ref name="Davidson 2014">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |edition=3rd |pages=484–486 |chapter=Maize}}</ref> Mtundu wa cikasu ukufuma ku ma''carotenoid''; wakufiira ukufuma ku vinthu vinyake, ndipo mitundu ya malalanje na yiŵisi yingaŵa na kusazganika kwa mitundu iyi.<ref name="Chatham Paulsmeyer Juvik 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Chatham |first1=Laura A. |last2=Paulsmeyer |first2=Michael |last3=Juvik |first3=John A. |date=2019 |title=Prospects for economical natural colorants: insights from maize |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=132 |issue=11 |pages=2927–2946, and Figure 1 |doi=10.1007/s00122-019-03414-0 |pmid=31451836 |s2cid=201729476}}</ref> Cingoma cikukhumba mausiku gha utali unyake kuti cipange maluŵa. Kupanga maluŵa kukukhumba so mazuŵa ghakufunda ghakukwana pacanya pa 10 °C. Kupanga maluŵa kukulongozgeka na vyakuhara. Mitundu ya ku tropiki yingaŵa na suzgo para yalimika kutali na mzere wapakati, cifukwa mazuŵa ghatali ghangapangiska vyakumera kukura vitali m'malo mwa kupanga mbuto pambere nyengo ya kuzizima yindize. Kweni kukura vitali luŵiro kungaŵa kwiwemi pa kupanga vyakotchera.<ref name="Solaimalai Anantharaju 2020 ch.6" /> Ntonga ziphya za cingoma zikuwunjika mankhwala ghankhongono gha kukoma tuzirombo, agho ghakucivikilira ku vibenene vinandi.<ref name="Smith2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=C. Michael |last2=Clement |first2=Stephen L. |year=2012 |title=Molecular Bases of Plant Resistance to Arthropods |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=309–328 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100642 |pmid=21910639}}</ref> Cifukwa misisi yake njambura kuzika, cingoma cili pa ngozi ya cilala, cikuzizipizga yayi dongo lambura vyakulya, ndipo cingazuka na mphepo zikulu.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2, 2008 |title=Corn Stalk Lodging |url=http://www.dekalb.ca/content/pdf/corn_stalk_lodging.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225054032/http://www.dekalb.ca/content/pdf/corn_stalk_lodging.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2009 |access-date=February 23, 2009 |publisher=Monsanto Imagine}}</ref> Ufu wa maluŵa ungiziska ulwari wa kukhwasula, kweni unandi ukuwira mu mamita ghacoko kufuma ku mphungapunga, ntheura ngozi njikulu ku ŵantchito ŵa mu minda pera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oldenburg |first1=Marcus |last2=Petersen |first2=Arnd |last3=Baur |first3=Xaver |date=2011 |title=Maize pollen is an important allergen in occupationally exposed workers |journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=32 |doi=10.1186/1745-6673-6-32 |pmc=3269392 |pmid=22165847 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Vyakuhara == <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="200" widths="150"> File:Corntassel 7095.jpg |Maluŵa ghanandi ghacoko gha ŵanalume ghakupanga mphungapunga. File:Cornsilk 7091.jpg |Maluŵa gha ŵanakazi, na ndevulira yiphya File:GreenCorn.JPG |Vikhuni, vingoma, na ndevulira File:ZeaMays.jpg |Vyakumera vya cingoma ivyo vyakura makora File:Klip kukuruza uzgojen u Međimurju (Croatia).JPG |Cingoma cakukhwima pa cikhuni </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:Männliche Blüte einer Maispflanze 2009-08-19.JPG |Maluŵa gha ŵanalume File:Corn blooming.jpg |Ndevulira yakukhwima </gallery> [[File:GEM corn.jpg|thumb|Mitundu yakufuma kunyake yikuwunjikika kuti yisazgire kupambanapambana kwa vyakuhara para ŵakupanga mitundu yiphya ya cingoma. ]] Cingoma cili na vigaŵa 20 vya vyakuhara. Magaŵa 83 pa 100 gha kupambana kwa vyakuhara vyake ghakufuma ku ''teosinte'' ya kale, comene cifukwa mitundu ya Zea yingatorana na yinyake.<ref name="Back-to-the-Wild">{{cite journal |last1=Wani |first1=Shabir Hussain |last2=Samantara |first2=Kajal |last3=Razzaq |first3=Ali |last4=Kakani |first4=Grihalakshmi |last5=Kumar |first5=Pardeep |title=Back to the wild: mining maize (''Zea mays'' L.) disease resistance using advanced breeding tools |journal=Molecular Biology Reports|date=June 2022 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=5787–5803 |doi=10.1007/s11033-021-06815-x |pmid=35064401 |s2cid=254834535 }}</ref> Barbara McClintock wakagwiliskira ntchito cingoma kusimikizga ghanoghano lake la "vyakuhara vyakudumpha", ilo wakapokera nalo Mphoto ya Nobel mu 1983.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/19/AR2009111903190.html |title=Scientists have high hopes for corn genome |first=David |last=Brown |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=November 20, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Strable Scanlon 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Strable |first1=Josh |last2=Scanlon |first2=Michael J. |title=Maize (Zea mays): A Model Organism for Basic and Applied Research in Plant Biology |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Protocols |volume=2009 |issue=10 |date=2009 |issn=1940-3402 |doi=10.1101/pdb.emo132 |article-number=pdb.emo132|pmid=20147033 }}</ref> Cingoma cicali cakuyelezgera cakuzirwa pa kasandiro ka vyakuhara na kukura kwa vyamoyo.<ref name="Friedman-et-al-2004">{{cite journal |date=October 2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Moore |first2=Richard C. |last3=Purugganan |first3=Michael D. |title=The evolution of plant development |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1726–1741 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1726 |pmid=21652320 |bibcode=2004AmJB...91.1726F |doi-access=free|id=Botanical Society of America}}</ref> Malemba gha Vyakuhara vya Cingoma ghakulipirika na Unduna wa Ulimi wa United States (USDA) kovwira kusanda cingoma.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.maizegdb.org/ |title=Welcome to MaizeGDB |website=MaizeGDB |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kunozga Cingoma na Tirigu ukusunga mitundu yinandi ya cingoma iyo yayezgeka pa kuzizipizga vibenene.<ref name="Breeding-Towards">{{cite journal |last1=Prasanna |first1=Boddupalli M. |last2=Bruce |first2=Anani |last3=Beyene |first3=Yoseph |last4=Makumbi |first4=Dan |last5=Gowda |first5=Manje |last6=Asim |first6=Muhammad |last7=Martinelli |first7=Samuel |last8=Head |first8=Graham P. |last9=Parimi |first9=Srinivas |title=Host plant resistance for fall armyworm management in maize: relevance, status and prospects in Africa and Asia |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=November 2022 |volume=135 |issue=11 |pages=3897–3916 |doi=10.1007/s00122-022-04073-4 |pmid=35320376 |pmc=9729323}}</ref> Mu 2005, mawupu gha U.S. ghakapanga gulu la kusanda vyakuhara vyose vya cingoma, ndipo ntchito iyi yikamalizgika mu 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maizesequence.org/index.html |title=Welcome to MaizeSequence.org |publisher=MaizeSequence.org |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170408/http://www.maizesequence.org/index.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSN2632641520080226 |title=Researchers sequence genome of maize, a key crop |newspaper=Reuters |access-date=October 6, 2014 |date=2008-02-26}}</ref> Mu 2009, gulu likapharazga vyakusangika.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1178534 |title=The B73 Maize Genome: Complexity, Diversity, and Dynamics |year=2009 |author1-link=Patrick Schnable |last1=Schnable |first1=P. S. |last2=Ware |first2=D. |last3=Fulton |first3=R. S. |last4=Stein |first4=J. C.|last5=Wei |first5=F. |display-authors=etal |journal=Science|volume=326 |issue=5956 |pages=1112–1115 |pmid=19965430 |bibcode=2009Sci...326.1112S |s2cid=21433160 |url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1206&context=stat_las_pubs}}</ref> Vyakuhara vyose, ivyo magaŵa 85 pa 100 ni vyakuhara vyakudumpha, vili na vyakuhara 32,540.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feschotte |first1=C. |last2=Pritham |first2=E. |title=A cornucopia of Helitrons shapes the maize genome |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=47 |pages=19747–19748 |year=2009 |pmid=19926864 |pmc=2785235 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0910273106 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10619747F |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Kagaŵiro == === Mbumba ya Kuwaro === Cingoma cikukolerana pafupi na mapira, ndipo kutali comene na mpunga na tirigu, ivyo vili mu gulu linyake likulu la utheka. Cikukolerana so pafupi na Tripsacum.<ref name="Gaut Le Thierry dEnnequin Peek Sawkins 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Gaut |first1=Brandon S. |last2=Le Thierry d'Ennequin |first2=Maud |last3=Peek |first3=Andrew S. |last4=Sawkins |first4=Mark C. |date=2000-06-20 |title=Maize as a model for the evolution of plant nuclear genomes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7008–7015 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7008G |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7008 |pmc=34377 |pmid=10860964 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Cingoma na Teosinte === Cingoma ni mtundu wakuŵetika wa mitundu yinayi ya ''teosinte'', ŵabali ŵake ŵa mu thengere. ''Teosinte'' yingaŵa kuti yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito na ŵakusaka na ŵakutola cifukwa yikasimikizganga vyakulya vyawo, pakuti yingakolerana na kusintha kwa nyengo na malo. {{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100% |label1=(Cigaŵa ca Poaceae) |1={{clade |label1= BOP clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=utheka wakupambanapambana |2={{clade |1=''Hordeum'' (balere) |2=''Triticum'' (tirigu) }} }} |2=''Oryza'' (mpunga) }} |label2= PACMAD clade |2={{clade |1=''Pennisetum'' (utheka wa Pennisetum) |2={{clade |1=''Sorghum'' (''sorghum'') |2={{clade |1=''Tripsacum'' (utheka wa Tripsacum) |label2=''Zea'' |2={{clade |1='''''Zea mays''''' (cingoma) |2=mitundu yinyake ya ''Zea'' (''teosinte'') }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Cornselection.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|''Teosinte'' (ku mazere), cingoma cakusazgana na ''teosinte'' (pakati), cingoma (ku maryero)]] Ghanoghano lakuti cingoma cikafuma ku ''teosinte'' likasacizgika na msandi wa vyakumera wa Russia Nikolai Vavilov mu 1931, na msandi wa Amerika George Beadle mu 1932.<ref name="corn">{{cite journal |last1=Whipple |first1=Clinton J. |last2=Kebrom |first2=Tesfamichael H. |last3=Weber |first3=Allison L. |last4=Yang |first4=Fang |last5=Hall |first5=Darren |last6=Meeley |first6=Robert |last7=Schmidt |first7=Robert |last8=Doebley |first8=John |last9=Brutnell |first9=Thomas P. |last10=Jackson |first10=David P. |display-authors=5 |date=16 August 2011 |title=grassy tillers1 promotes apical dominance in maize and responds to shade signals in the grasses |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=33 |pages=E506-12 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1102819108 |pmc=3158142 |pmid=21808030 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakumera viŵiri ivi vikuwoneka mwakupambana, cingoma cili na cikhuni cimoza citali na mahamba ghanandi ndipo ''teosinte'' ni cakumera cifupi ca minthavi yinandi.<ref name="Lohse Morgan Jones 2022"/><ref name="wilkes">{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Garrison |title=Corn: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |date=8 March 2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-41184-0 |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=C. Wayne |pages=3–63 |chapter=Chapter 1.1 Corn, strange and marvelous: but is a definitive origin known? |editor2-last=Betrán |editor2-first=Javier |editor3-last=Runge |editor3-first=E. C. A. |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=eDJ3NjHh8H8C}}}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Kupambana uku kukulongozgeka comene na vyakuhara viŵiri pera.<ref name="corn" /> Pakumalira kwa ma 1930, Paul Mangelsdorf wakasacizga kuti cingoma ca panyumba cikafuma ku kusazganika kwa cingoma cinyake ca mu thengere na Tripsacum; ghanoghano ili lasuskika na kupima kwa vyakuhara kwa mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="wilkes" /> Mu 2004, John Doebley wakasanga kuti ''teosinte'' ya Balsas, ya mu dambo la mlonga wa Balsas mu Mexico, ndiyo yikuyana comene na cingoma ca mazuŵa ghano mu vyakuhara.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doebley |first=John F. |author-link=John Doebley |year=2004 |title=The genetics of maize evolution |url=http://teosinte.wisc.edu/pdfs/DoebleyAnnRev2004.pdf |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=38 |pages=37–59 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.092425 |pmid=15568971 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612073112/http://teosinte.wisc.edu/pdfs/DoebleyAnnRev2004.pdf |archive-date=June 12, 2010 |access-date=May 30, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Wu-et-al-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Chi-Chih |last2=Diggle |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Friedman |first3=William E. |date=September 2011 |title=Female gametophyte development and double fertilization in Balsas teosinte, ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''parviglumis'' (Poaceae) |journal=Sexual Plant Reproduction |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=219–229 |doi=10.1007/s00497-011-0164-1 |pmid=21380710 |s2cid=8045294}}</ref> Pakati pa dambo ili ndipo cingoma cikaŵetika dankha. Vilwero vya malibwe vya kusira na vyakusyala vya cingoma vyasangika mu phanga pafupi na Iguala, mu malo gha vyaka 8,700.<ref name="Ranere">{{cite journal |last1=Ranere |first1=Anthony J. |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Dickau |first4=Ruth |last5=Iriarte |first5=José |year=2009 |title=The cultural and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=13 |pages=5014–5018 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.5014R |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812590106 |pmc=2664064 |pmid=19307573 |doi-access=free}}<br />{{cite journal |last1=Ranere |first1=Anthony J. |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Dickau |first4=Ruth |last5=Iriarte |first5=José |year=2009 |title=Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=13 |pages=5019–5024 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.5019P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812525106 |pmc=2664021 |pmid=19307570 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Doebley na ŵanyake ŵakalongora mu 2002 kuti cingoma cikaŵetika kamoza pera, pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo pamanyuma cikathandazgika mu Amerika yose.<ref name="Mat">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=Y. |last2=Vigouroux |first2=Y. |last3=Goodman |first3=M. M. |last4=Sanchez G. |first4=J. |last5=Buckler |first5=E. |last6=Doebley |first6=J. |display-authors=3 |year=2002 |title=A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=99 |issue=9 |pages=6080–4 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.6080M |doi=10.1073/pnas.052125199 |pmc=122905 |pmid=11983901 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ufu wa maluŵa gha cingoma wa vyaka 7,300 wasangika mu mphepete ya Caribbean.<ref name="Ranere" /> Cingoma ca kale cikalimikanga mu Mexico ya kumwera, Amerika Yapakati, na kumpoto kwa Amerika ya Kumwera vyaka 7,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vingoma vya kale vyakusangika mu phanga la Guila Naquitz mu Oaxaca nvya vyaka pafupifupi 6,250; vya kale comene kufuma ku mapanga pafupi na Tehuacan nvya vyaka 5,450.<ref name="Roney 2009">{{cite journal |last=Roney |first=John |date=Winter 2009 |title=The Beginnings of Maize Agriculture |journal=Archaeology Southwest |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=4}}</ref> === Kuthandazgika Kumpoto === Pafupifupi vyaka 4,500 ivyo vyajumpha, cingoma cikamba kuthandazgika kumpoto. Cikalimika dankha mu New Mexico na Arizona pafupifupi vyaka 4,100 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Roney 2009" /> Mu vyaka 1,000 vyakwamba vya mumuwilo wa Khristu, kulima cingoma kukathandazgika comene kumpoto. Kulima na kurya cingoma kukulu mu Amerika ya Kumpoto ya kumafumiro kukamba pafupifupi 900 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakadumula nkholongo zikulu na madimba gha utheka kuti ŵalime cingoma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emerson |first1=Thomas E. |last2=Hedman |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Simon |first3=Mary L. |date=2005 |title=Marginal Horticulturalists or Maize Agriculturalists? Archaeobotanical, Paleopathological, and Isotopic Evidence Relating to Langford Tradition Maize Consumption |journal=Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=67–118 |doi=10.1179/mca.2005.003 |jstor=20708222 |s2cid=129150225}}</ref> Kusazgikira kwa kulima cingoma vyaka 500 mpaka 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha kukakolerana na kucepa kwa nkhono za maji ghawemi, izo zikukhwaskika luŵiro na kusintha kwa malo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peacock |first1=Evan |last2=Haag |first2=Wendell R. |last3=Warren |first3=Melvin L. Jr |year=2005 |title=Prehistoric decline in freshwater mussels coincident with the advent of maize agriculture |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_peacock001.pdf |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=547–551 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19..547P |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00036.x |s2cid=3679709}}</ref> === Mazina === Zina la Cingelezi lakuti ''maize'' likufuma ku Cisipanya ''maíz'', kufuma ku Citaíno ''mahis''.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'': maize, n. (and adj.)</ref> Carl Linnaeus wakagwiliskira ntchito zina ili mu ''Zea mays''. Zina lakuti ''maize'' likutemweka mu kasandiro na pa caro cose cifukwa likung'anamula mbuto iyi pera, kupambana na ''corn'', ilo lili na ng'anamulo zinandi kuyana na malo.<ref name="Ranum">{{cite journal |last1=Ranum |first1=Peter |last2=Peña-Rosas |first2=Juan Pablo |last3=Garcia-Casal |first3=Maria Nieves |date=April 2014 |title=Global maize production, utilization, and consumption |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1312 |issue=1 |pages=105–112 |bibcode=2014NYASA1312..105R |doi=10.1111/nyas.12396 |pmid=24650320 |s2cid=4640742 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito ''maize'', ndipo ''corn'' likugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu U.S. na vyaro vinyake vicoko vya Cingelezi.<ref name="Ensminger">{{cite book |last=Ensminger |first=Audrey H. |title=Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. |publisher=CRC Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8493-8980-1 |page=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=XMA9gYIj-C4C|page=479}} 479] |quote=The word "maize" is preferred in international usage because in many countries the term "corn", the name by which the plant is known in the United States, is synonymous with the leading cereal grain; thus, in England "corn" refers to wheat, and in Scotland and Ireland it refers to oats.}}</ref> Mu vyaro ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito ''maize'', lizgu lakuti ''corn'' lingang'anamula mbuto yiliyose, nga ni tirigu mu Ungelezi.<ref name="OxfordEncyclopedia">{{cite book |last=McLellan Plaisted |first=Susan |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199734962.001.0001/acref-9780199734962-e-0218 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973922-6 |editor-last1=Smith |editor-first1=Andrew |edition=2nd |location=New York |chapter=Corn |quote=The use of the word "corn" for what is termed "maize" by most other countries is peculiar to the United States. Europeans who were accustomed to the names "wheat corn", "barley corn", and "rye corn" for other small-seeded cereal grains referred to the unique American grain maize as "Indian corn." The term was shortened to just "corn", which has become the American word for the plant of American genesis. |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Grain |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/grain/ |publisher=National Geographic |access-date=27 February 2023 |quote=In most countries, the grain of the ''Zea mays'' plant is called maize. In the United States, it's called corn.}}</ref><ref name="Espinoza 2015">{{cite web |last=Espinoza |first=Mauricio |date=April 1, 2015 |title='All Corn Is the Same,' and Other Foolishness about America's King of Crops |url=https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/'all-corn-is-the-same'-and-other-foolishness-about-america's-king-crops |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203073514/https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/'all-corn-is-the-same'-and-other-foolishness-about-america's-king-crops |archive-date=December 3, 2020 |access-date=21 September 2022 |publisher=Ohio State University: College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nielsen |first1=R. L. |title=Corn, the Great American Crop - Corny News Network (Purdue University) |url=https://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/Corn.html |website=www.agry.purdue.edu |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=1 September 2026 |quote=Native Americans called their crop "maize". After seeing maize for the first time, European settlers called it "Indian corn" in an attempt to compare the crop to the small grains grown in Europe that they called "corn". Today, most of the world still refers to the crop as maize, but the U.S. simply calls it corn.}}</ref><ref name="OED_corn">''Oxford English Dictionary'': corn, n.1</ref><ref name="Ensminger" /> Kagwiliskiro ka ''corn'' pa cingoma kakamba nga ni kufupiska kwa "Indian corn" mu Amerika ya Kumpoto mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''cingoma'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa cakumera na pa cisonga.<ref name=OED_corn/><ref name="Mencken">{{cite book |last1=Mencken |first1=H. L. |title=The American language: an inquiry into the development of English in the United States |date=1984 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=0-394-40075-5 |edition=4th |location=New York |page=122 |quote=Corn, in orthodox English, means grain for human consumption, especially wheat, e.g., the Corn Laws. The earliest settlers, following this usage, gave the name of Indian corn to what the Spaniards, following the Indians themselves, had called maiz. . . . But gradually the adjective fell off, and by the middle of the Eighteenth Century maize was simply called corn and grains in general were called breadstuffs. Thomas Hutchinson, discoursing to George III in 1774, used corn in this restricted sense speaking of "rye and corn mixed." "What corn?" asked George. "Indian corn," explained Hutchinson, "or as it is called in authors, maize."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uW2rM_6I3gMC|page=109}} |title=The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Boberg |first=Charles |year=2010 |page=109 |isbn=978-1-139-49144-0}}</ref> Msandi wa mbiri ya vyakulya Betty Fussell wakulemba kuti kuyowoya lizgu lakuti ''corn'' nkhunjira mu kung'anamulika kwautesi kwa ciyowoyero na mbiri.<ref name="Fussell1999">{{cite journal |last1=Fussell |first1=Betty |date=1999 |title=Translating Maize into Corn: The Transformation of America's Native Grain |journal=Social Research |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=41–65 |jstor=40971301 |id={{Gale|A54668866}} {{ProQuest|209670587}} |quote=To say the word "corn" is to plunge into the tragi-farcical mistranslations of language and history. If only the British had followed Columbus in phoneticizing the Taino word mahiz, which the Arawaks named their staple grain, we wouldn't be in the same linguistic pickle we're in today, where I have to explain to someone every year that when Biblical Ruth "stood in tears amid the alien corn" she was standing in a wheat field. But it was a near thing even with the Spaniards, when we read in Columbus' Journals that the grain "which the Indians called maiz... the Spanish called panizo.' The Spanish term was generic for the cereal grains they knew - wheat, millet, barley, oats - as was the Italian term polenta, from Latin pub. As was the English term "corn", which covered grains of all kinds, including grains of salt, as in "corned beef". <br/> French linguistic imperialism, by way of a Parisian botanist in 1536, provided the term Turcicum frumentum, which the British quickly translated into "Turkey wheat", "Turkey corn", and "Indian corn". By Turkey or Indian, they meant not a place but a condition, a savage rather than a civilized grain, with which the Turks concurred, calling it kukuruz, meaning barbaric.}}</ref> Nga ni Ŵangelezi, Ŵasipanya ŵakachema cingoma kuti ''panizo'', lizgu la mbuto zose, nga umo Ŵaitaliya ŵakacitira na ''polenta''. Ŵangelezi pamanyuma ŵakacichema "tirigu wa Turkey" panji "corn wa Ŵaindiya".<ref name="Fussell1999" /> Mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro ghakuwona ''maize'' kuŵa zina liwemi.<ref>{{cite journal |date=2019 |title=''Zea mays'' (maize) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/57417 |journal=CABI Compendium |publisher=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International |volume=CABI Compendium |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.57417 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref> Lizgu ili likugwiliskirika ntchito na Wupu wa Vyakulya na Ulimi wa UN, na mu mazina gha mawupu ghanandi gha cingoma mu Mexico, India, Australia, Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, na Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maize |url=https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/maize/en/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916024937/https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/maize/en/ |archive-date=16 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Overview – ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research |url=https://iimr.icar.gov.in/overview/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005162737/https://iimr.icar.gov.in/overview/ |archive-date=October 5, 2022 |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maize Association - Maize Association Australia |url=https://www.maizeaustralia.com.au/ |access-date=16 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Maize Association of Nigeria honors IITA for supporting the nation's agriculture |url=https://www.iita.org/news-item/the-maize-association-of-nigeria-honors-iita-for-supporting-the-nations-agriculture/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=SARD-SC Maize component supports the launch of the Ghana Maize Association |url=http://bulletin.iita.org/sard-sc-maize-component-supports-the-launch-of-the-ghana-maize-association/ |access-date=10 March 2024 |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Du Plessis |first1=Leon |title=THE MAIZE TRUST: Custodian of the maize industry |url=https://www.grainsa.co.za/the-maize-trust:-custodian-of-the-maize-industry |access-date=10 March 2024 |publisher=Grain SA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260214213030/https://www.grainsa.co.za/the-maize-trust:-custodian-of-the-maize-industry |archive-date=14 February 2026}}</ref><ref name="Rusike Donovan 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Rusike |first1=Joseph |last2=Donovan |first2=Philip A |date=1995 |title=The maize seed industry in Zimbabwe |journal=Development Southern Africa |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1080/03768359508439804 |issn=0376-835X}}</ref> Mu United States, ''maize'' na ''corn'' ghangagwiliskirika ntchito mwakusinthana.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Allen |first1=Guy H. |title=U.S. Grains – Commodity Overview, Production Cycles and Descriptions |url=https://grains.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Updated-Complete-Importer-Manual.pdf |publisher=U.S. Grains Council |quote=Maize (which in the U.S. is interchangeably referred to as corn) is indigenous to the Americas. |access-date=31 August 2026}}</ref> == Kulima == === Kukura pambere pa Columbus === [[File:Museo Nacional de Antropología - MAÍZ.jpg|thumb|Cikozgo ca kale ca cingoma ca ku Amerika Yapakati, National Museum of Anthropology ya Mexico ]] Cingoma cikukhumba ŵanthu kuti cipandike. Mbuto za ''teosinte'' zikuwa ku cisonga zekha, kweni za cingoma ca panyumba yayi.<ref name="Benz 2001">{{cite journal |last=Benz |first=B. F. |year=2001 |title=Archaeological evidence of teosinte domestication from Guilá Naquitz, Oaxaca |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=2104–2106 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.2104B |doi=10.1073/pnas.98.4.2104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=29389 |pmid=11172083 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cingoma cose cikafuma ku kuŵetika kamoza mu Mexico ya kumwera pafupifupi vyaka 9,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mitundu ya kale comene iyo yicalipo ni ya mapiri gha Mexico.<ref name="Mat" /> Cingoma cikathandazgika kufuma apa kuya ku malo ghapasi na mu Amerika yose mu nthowa ziŵiri zikulu.<ref name="Piperno-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Piperno |first1=Dolores R. |date=October 2011 |title=The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=52 |issue=S4 |pages=S453–S470 |doi=10.1086/659998 |s2cid=83061925 |quote=Recent studies in the Central Balsas River Valley of Mexico, maize's postulated cradle of origin, document the presence of maize phytoliths and starch grains at 8700 BP, the earliest date recorded for the crop (Piperno et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009). A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Given the number of Cauca Valley, Colombia, sites that demonstrate early maize, it is likely that the inter-Andean valleys were a major dispersal route for the crop after it entered South America |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Pagán-JiménezGuachamín-Tello2015">{{cite journal |last1=Pagán-Jiménez |first1=Jaime R. |last2=Guachamín-Tello |first2=Ana M. |last3=Romero-Bastidas |first3=Martha E. |last4=Constantine-Castro |first4=Angelo R. |date=June 2016 |title=Late ninth millennium B.P. use of ''Zea mays'' L. at Cubilán area, highland Ecuador, revealed by ancient starches |journal=Quaternary International |volume=404 |pages=137–155 |bibcode=2016QuInt.404..137P |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.025}}</ref> Cikafika mu mapiri gha Ecuador vyaka 8,000 ivyo vyajumpha panji kujumpha, mu Amerika Yapakati ya pasi pofika vyaka 7,600 ivyo vyajumpha, na mu madambo gha mapiri gha Colombia pakati pa vyaka 7,000 na 6,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Piperno-2011" /> Vyakumera vyakwamba vya cingoma vikapanga cingoma cimoza cicoko pa cakumera.<ref name="Davidson 2014" /> Ŵaolmec na Ŵamaya ŵakalima mitundu yinandi ya cingoma mu Amerika Yapakati yose; ŵakaciphika, kucisira na kucinozga mwa ''nixtamalization''.<ref name="Roney 2009" /> Pofika vyaka 3,000 ivyo vyajumpha, cingoma cikaŵa pakati pa mdawuko wa Ŵaolmec, kusazgapo kalendala, ciyowoyero, na majandulo ghawo.<ref name="Fussell1999" /> Ŵamapuche ŵa Chile ŵakalimanga cingoma pamoza na ''quinoa'' na kacewere pambere Ŵasipanya ŵandize.<ref name="Dille2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dillehay |first1=Tom D. |author-link=Tom Dillehay |last2=Pino Quivira |first2=Mario |author-link2=Mario Pino Quivira |last3=Bonzani |first3=Renée |last4=Silva |first4=Claudia |last5=Wallner |first5=Johannes |last6=Le Quesne |first6=Carlos |year=2007 |title=Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change |url=http://www.dendrocronologia.cl/pubs/2007_Dillehay(AncientCultivatedWetlands).pdf |journal=Antiquity |volume=81 |issue=314 |pages=949–960 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00096034 |s2cid=59480757}}</ref> Pambere Ufumu wa Inca undakure, cingoma cikaguliskikanga na kunyamulika mpaka kumwera ku Argentina, panyake kufuma ku Chile kujumpha mapiri gha Andes.<ref name="PerezErre2011">{{cite journal |last1=Pérez |first1=Alberto E. |last2=Erra |first2=Georgina |date=2011 |title=Identificación de maiz de vasijas recuperadas de la Patagonia noroccidental argentina |trans-title=Identifying maize residues in pottery vessels in northwestern Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Magallania |language=es |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=309–316 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442011000200022 |hdl=11336/42613 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Kusinthana kwa Columbus === [[File:The Florentine Codex- Agriculture.tiff|thumb|upright=0.8|Kulima cingoma, nga umo cikulongoreka mu ''Florentine Codex'' ya vyaka vya m'ma 1500 ]] Pamanyuma pa kufika kwa Ŵaulaya mu 1492, Ŵasipanya ŵakaryanga cingoma, ndipo ŵakupenja na ŵalonda ŵakaciwezgera ku Ulaya. Ŵasipanya ŵakatemwanga comene cingwa ca tirigu kuluska cingoma. Ufu wa cingoma ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito yayi pa cingwa ca mgonelo, cifukwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakagomezganga kuti tirigu pera ndiyo yingasanduka thupi la Khristu.<ref name="Earle 2012">{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref> Cingoma cikathandazgika ku caro cose cifukwa cingakura mu nyengo zakupambana. Cikalimika mu Spain vyaka makhumi ghacoko pamanyuma pa maulendo gha Columbus ndipo pamanyuma cikathandazgika ku Italy, Afilika ya Kumanjiliro, Philippines na kunyake.<ref name="Earle 2012" /><ref name="Salazar2016">{{cite journal |last1=Salazar |first1=A.M. |last2=Pascual |first2=C.B. |last3=Caasi-Lit |first3=M.T. |last4=Pentecostes |first4=K.Z. |last5=Dumalag |first5=P.Y. |last6=Ladia |first6=V.A., Jr. |last7=Paril |first7=J.F. |date=2016 |title=Breeding Potential of Philippine Traditional Maize Varieties |url=https://sabraojournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SABRAO-J-Breed-Genet-48-2-154-161-Salazar-1.pdf |journal=SABRAO Journal of Breeding and Genetics |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=154–161}}</ref> Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 1600, cikaŵa cakulya ca ŵalimi ŵakavu mu Ulaya ya Kumwera. Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 1700, cikaŵa cakulya cikulu ca ŵalimi ŵa France ya kumwera na Italy, comene nga ni ''polenta'' mu Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Langer |first=William L. |year=1975 |title=American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850 |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=51–66 |doi=10.1353/jsh/8.2.51 |jstor=3786266}}</ref> Apo cingoma cikanjizgika mu ulimi wa Kumanjiliro, cikapokereka makola cifukwa ca kupanga kunandi. Kweni luŵiro suzgo likulu la kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana likawoneka kulikose uko cikaŵa cakulya cikulu.<ref name="pellagra_mystery">{{cite web |date=December 2001 |title=The origins of maize: the puzzle of pellagra |url=http://www.eufic.org/web/article.asp?cust=1&lng=en&sid=4&did=16&artid=103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927074332/http://www.eufic.org/web/article.asp?cust=1&lng=en&sid=4&did=16&artid=103 |archive-date=September 27, 2006 |access-date=September 14, 2006 |work=Understanding Food |publisher=The European Food Information Council}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakasambira kunyika cingoma mu maji gha ''alkali'', ghakupangika na milota na laimu, kufuma pafupifupi 1200–1500 pambere Khristu.<ref name="StallerCarrasco2009">{{cite book |last1=Staller |first1=John |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FJrr9i6HRp0C|page=317}} |title=Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica |last2=Carrasco |first2=Michael |date=24 November 2009 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-0471-3 |page=317}}</ref> Ŵakacitanga nthena kuti ŵawuskepo vikokoso, kweni ici cikafumiska so ''niacin'', vitamini B, iyo kusoŵa kwake kukwiziska nthenda ya ''pellagra''. Apo nthowa iyi na kurya vyakulya vyakupambana vikamanyikwa na kugwiliskirika ntchito, ''pellagra'' yikamalira mu vyaro vyakukura. Nthenda iyi yicalipo mu malo gha vyakulya vicoko na mu misasa ya ŵakuthaŵa umo ŵanthu ŵakuthemba cingoma cakupika.<ref name="Thompson2016">{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Janice J. |title=The Science of Nutrition |last2=Manore |first2=Melinda |last3=Vaughan |first3=Linda |date=15 January 2016 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-13-429880-1 |pages=292–321 |chapter=Nutrients involved in energy metabolism |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pbd5CwAAQBAJ |page=292}}}}</ref> === Kuŵeta kwa Kale === Kuŵeta cingoma pambere pa mbiri yakulembeka kukapangiska vyakumera vikulu ivyo vikupanga vingoma vikulu. Kuŵeta kwa mazuŵa ghano kukamba na ŵanthu awo ŵakasankhanga mitundu yakupanga comene mu minda yawo na kuguliska mbuto ku ŵalimi ŵanyake. James L. Reid wakaŵa yumoza mwa ŵakwamba na ŵakupunda comene, ndipo wakapanga Reid's Yellow Dent mu ma 1860. Ntchito izi zakwamba zikathemba kusankha kunandi na kusankha vyakumera pamanyuma pa kutolera ufu wa maluŵa. Ntchito za pamanyuma zikasazgapo kusankha kwa cingoma ku mzere, mitundu yakusazganika kufuma ku mitundu yakuŵetika mu mbumba yimoza, na mitundu yakusazganika kaŵiri ya mitundu yinayi, iyo yikapunda comene. Ndondomeko za kuŵeta za mayunivesite zikaŵa zakuzirwa comene pa kupanga na kunjizga mitundu yakusazganika ya mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="Jugen">{{cite book |last1=Jugenheimer |first1=Robert W. |title=Hybrid Maize Breeding and Seed Production |date=1958 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |chapter=Agricultural Development Paper #62}}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1940, mitundu yiwemi comene ya cingoma yaŵa mitundu yakusazganika ya mbumba yakwamba kufuma ku mitundu iyo yanozgeka pa vimanyikwiro vinyake, nga ni vyakupangika, vyakukhozga thupi, kuzizipizga cilala, vibenene na nthenda. Kuŵeta kwa kale na kusintha vyakuhara vyose viŵiri vyasazgira vyakupangika na kucepeska khumbo la minda, mankhwala gha vibenene, maji, na feteleza. Pali ukaboni wakususkana pa usange nkhongono ya cakumera cimoza kupanga yasazgikira mu vyaka makhumi vyaumaliro. Ici cikulongora kuti kusintha kwa vyakupangika kukukolerana na kupendama kwa mahamba, kuleka kuwa, kuzizipizga kulimika pafupi na pafupi, kuzizipizga nthenda na vibenene, na vimanyikwiro vinyake vya ulimi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duvick |first1=D. N. |last2=Cassman |first2=K. G. |title=Post-green-revolution trends in yield potential of temperate maize in the north-central United States |journal=Crop Science |volume=39 |pages=1622–1630 |year=2009 |url=http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/39/6/1622 |issue=6 |s2cid=39657597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115003659/http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/39/6/1622 |archive-date=November 15, 2009 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1999.3961622x|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mitundu yinyake ya cingoma yaŵetika kuti yipange vingoma vinandi; izi ndizo zikupanga "vingoma vicoko" ivyo vikurika nga ni dende mu vyakulya vya Asiya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maiti |first=Ratikanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_m7aIfR7xEC&pg=PA52 |title=Crop Plant Anatomy |date=2012 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78064-174-4 |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Lopes Nóbrega Pacheco Cruz-Silva 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Lopes |first1=Adelmary Prestes |last2=Nóbrega |first2=Lucia Helene Pereira |last3=Pacheco |first3=Fabio Palczewski |last4=Cruz-Silva |first4=Claudia Tatiana Araujo da |title=Maize varieties for baby corn yield and post-harvest quality under organic cropping |journal=Bioscience Journal |volume=32 |issue=2 |date=2016 |doi=10.14393/BJ-v32n2a2016-26230 |pages=298–307}}</ref> Mtundu wa maluŵa luŵiro wakuchemeka cingoma cicoko ukapangika kovwira kusanda, cifukwa mbumba zinandi zingasangika mu caka cimoza.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McCaw |first1=Morgan E |last2=Wallace |first2=Jason G |last3=Albert |first3=Patrice S |last4=Buckler |first4=Edward S |last5=Birchler |first5=James A |date=2016-09-01 |title=Fast-Flowering Mini-Maize: Seed to Seed in 60 Days |journal=Genetics |volume=204 |issue=1 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.1534/genetics.116.191726 |issn=1943-2631 |pmc=5012399 |pmid=27440866}}</ref> Mtundu unyake wa olotón wakolerana na tuvinyama tucoko twa kukora naitirojeni, utu tukupeleka ku cakumera magaŵa 29–82 pa 100 gha naitirojeni yake.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006352 |title=Nitrogen fixation in a landrace of maize is supported by a mucilage-associated diazotrophic microbiota |year=2018 |last1=Van Deynze |first1=Allen |last2=Zamora |first2=Pablo |last3=Delaux |first3=Pierre-Marc |last4=Heitmann |first4=Cristobal |last5=Jayaraman |first5=Dhileepkumar |display-authors=etal |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=16 |issue=8 |article-number=e2006352 |pmid=30086128 |pmc=6080747 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kunozga Cingoma na Tirigu (CIMMYT) ukwendeska ndondomeko ya kuŵeta kwa kale kuti upeleke mitundu yiwemi, kufuma mu ma 1980.<ref name="cimmyt">{{cite web |url=https://www.cimmyt.org/about/ |title=About us |publisher=CIMMYT |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref> Mbuto za mitundu yakusazganika zikuthandazgika mu Afilika kwizira mu ntchito yake ya Cingoma Cakuzizipizga Cilala ca Afilika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) |date=June 17, 2022 |url=https://www.cimmyt.org/projects/drought-tolerant-maize-for-africa-dtma/ |publisher=CIMMYT |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref> Mitundu ya kale ya ku tropiki yicali kasupe wakuzirwa kweni wambura kugwiliskirika ntchito makola wa vyakuhara vya kuzizipizga nthenda na vibenene. Vyakuhara ivi vingasazgika mu mitundu yakupanga comene.<ref name="Chakradhar-et-al-2017"/> Vyakuhara vyambura kusangika kanandi vya cilato ici vikasangika na Dao na Sood mu 2014.<ref name="Chakradhar-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Chakradhar |first1=Thammineni |last2=Hindu |first2=Vemuri |last3=Reddy |first3=Palakolanu Sudhakar |title=Genomic-based-breeding tools for tropical maize improvement |journal=Genetica |date=December 2017 |volume=145 |issue=6 |pages=525–539 |doi=10.1007/s10709-017-9981-y |pmid=28875394 |s2cid=24074330 |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/10349/1/10.1007%252Fs10709-017-9981-y.pdf }}</ref> Mu 2018, Zerka Rashid wa CIMMYT wakasanga vigaŵa viphya vya vyakuhara ivyo vikuzizipizga nthenda ya mahamba ya mapira.<ref name="Rashid Singh Vemuri Zaidi 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Zerka |last2=Singh |first2=Pradeep Kumar |last3=Vemuri |first3=Hindu |last4=Zaidi |first4=Pervez Haider |last5=Prasanna |first5=Boddupalli Maruthi |last6=Nair |first6=Sudha Krishnan |title=Genome-wide association study in Asia-adapted tropical maize reveals novel and explored genomic regions for sorghum downy mildew resistance |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2018-01-10 |page=366 |issn=2045-2322 |pmid=29321632 |pmc=5762920 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18690-3 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018NatSR...8..366R }}</ref> === Kusintha Vyakuhara === Cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyakulya 26 vyakusintha vyakuhara ivyo vikalimikanga pa malonda mu 2016.<ref name="James-2016">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/52/executivesummary/default.asp |title=Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2016 – ISAAA Brief 52-2016 |last=James |first=Clive |date=2016 |publisher=ISAAA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504055752/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/52/executivesummary/default.asp|archive-date=2017-05-04|access-date=2017-08-26}}</ref><ref>[http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp ISAAA Brief 43-2011]: Executive Summary, retrieved September 9, 2012</ref> Cinandi comene ni cingoma ca Bt. Cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara cikulimika kufuma 1997 mu United States na Canada; pofika 2016, magaŵa 92 pa 100 gha cingoma ca U.S. ghakaŵa ghakusintha vyakuhara.<ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015" /><ref name="James-2016"/> Mu 2011, cingoma cakuzizipizga mankhwala gha mikoza na cakuzizipizga vibenene cikalimikanga mu vyaro vyakujumpha 20.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/2/default.asp |title=ISAAA Pocket K No. 2: Plant Products of Biotechnology, 2018 |access-date=January 9, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-date=January 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130235541/https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/2/default.asp}}</ref> Mu Lupya 2000, vyakulya vya mtengo wa madola mpaka miliyoni 50 vikawezgereka cifukwa vikaŵa na cingoma cakusintha vyakuhara ca Starlink, ico cikazomerezgeka pa vyakulya vya viŵeto pera.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=September 23, 2000 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/23/business/kraft-recalls-taco-shells-with-bioengineered-corn.html |title=Kraft Recalls Taco Shells With Bioengineered Corn |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> === Kulima === Cifukwa cikuzizipizga kuzizima yayi, mu malo gha nyengo yapakati cingoma cikwenera kupandika mu nyengo ya kufunda kwakwamba. Misisi yake kanandi njambura kuzika, ntheura cakumera cikuthemba unyowevu wa dongo. Pakuti cikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya C4 pa usanisinuru, cingoma cikugwiliskira ntchito maji makola kuluska vyakumera vya C3 nga ni soya. Cingoma cikukhwaskika comene na cilala apo sisi likufuma, apo maluŵa ghali pafupi kupokera ufu. Mu United States, vuna liwemi likalongolerekanga usange cingoma cikaŵa "pa makongono pofika 4 Vuna", nangauli mitundu ya mazuŵa ghano kanandi yikujumpha ici. Cingoma ca ''silage'' cikuvunika apo cakumera cicali ciŵisi. Cingoma ca shuga cikuvunika apo mbuto zili mu "nyengo ya mkaka", pamanyuma pa kupokera ufu wa maluŵa kweni pambere sitachi yindapangike. Cingoma ca minda cikusiyika mu munda mpaka nyengo yitali kuti mbuto zikome makola, ndipo nyengo zinyake cikuvunika mu nyengo ya kuzizima panji pakwamba pa nyengo ya kufunda. Kuzirwa kwa unyowevu wa dongo wakukwana kukuwoneka mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Afilika, uko cilala ca nyengo zinyake kanandi cikunanga cingoma na kwiziska njara. Nangauli cikulimika comene mu nyengo zakunyowa na zakufunda, cingakura mu nyengo zakuzizima, zakufunda, zakomira panji zakunyowa, ntheura ni cakumera cakuzizipizga comene.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandez-Armesto |first=Felipe |year=2011 |title=The World: A History |page=470 |publisher=Penguin Academics |location=London |isbn=978-0-205-75930-9}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Amerika ŵakapandanga cingoma mu tumapiri tucoko twa dongo, mu ndondomeko ya Ŵadumbu Ŵatatu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Christina Gish |date=2020-11-20 |title=Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures |url=http://theconversation.com/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes-people-land-and-cultures-149230 |access-date=2021-01-09 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> Cingoma cikakhazganga nchunga; nchunga zikapelekanga naitirojeni kufuma ku mabakiteriya agho ghakukhala pa misisi yawo; ndipo nyungu zikaphimbanga dongo kukanizga mikoza na kufumbuka kwa maji.<ref name=Mann_2011>{{cite book |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |edition=2nd |author-link=Charles C. Mann (writer) |first=Charles C. |last=Mann |chapter=Cotton (or Anchovies) and Maize |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/225 225–229] |date=July 2011 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |location=New York |title-link=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus}}</ref> === Kuvuna === <gallery mode=packed heights=150> File:Plàntules moresc 2012.JPG|Tucakumera twa cingoma masabata ghatatu pamanyuma pa kupanda File:Corn Zea mays Plant Row 2000px.jpg|Vikhuni viphya File:Maispflanze.jpg|Vyakumera vyakukura ivyo vili na vingoma File:Corn in regional NSW, Australia, 2022.jpg|Munda ukulu wa cingoma ca mbuto </gallery> Cingoma ca shuga, ico cikuvunika pambere pa cingoma ca mbuto, cikukhwima mu mazuŵa 60 mpaka 100 kuyana na mtundu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Home Garden Sweet Corn |url=https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C905&title=growing-home-garden-sweet-corn#Maturity |publisher=University of Georgia Extension |access-date=9 March 2024}}</ref> Vuna litali la cingoma ca shuga lingapangika mwa kupanda mitundu iyo yikukhwima luŵiro na pacoko pacoko, panji kupanda vigaŵa vyakupambana pa masabata ghaŵiri ghaliwose.<ref name="Wayne">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=C. Wayne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDJ3NjHh8H8C&pg=PA802 |title=Corn: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |last2=Betrán |first2=Javier |last3=Runge |first3=Edward C. A. |date=2004-03-08 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=802 |isbn=978-0-471-41184-0}}</ref> Cingoma ico cikuvunika nga ni mbuto cingasiyika mu munda nyengo yitali, nanga ni myezi, pamanyuma pakuti canozgeka; cingavunika na kusungika mu vikokoso usange cikomira. Kuyana na Unduna wa Ulimi wa U.S., mu vyaka 40 kufuma 1855 mpaka 1894, ntchito iyo yikakhumbikwanga kupanga cipimo cimoza ca cingoma yikacepa kufuma maora ghanayi na maminiti 34 mpaka maminiti 41 pera.<ref>George K. Holmes, "Supply and Wages of Farm Labor" ''Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1910'' (1911) pp. 190-191 [https://archive.org/details/yoa1910/page/196/mode/1up?view=theater online]</ref> Pambere pa 1940, cingoma cinandi mu Amerika ya Kumpoto cikavunikanga na mawoko. Ici cikakhumbanga ŵantchito ŵanandi na visangalalo vya pamoza vya kusenda. Kufuma mu ma 1850, makina ghanyake ghakamba kovwira. Pa mawoko panji na makina, cingoma cose cikuvunika, ndipo cikukhumba ntchito yinyake ya kufumyamo mbuto. Vingoma vyose kanandi vikasungikanga mu nkhokwe. Mazuŵa ghano nkhokwe izi zili zicoko cifukwa minda yinandi ya mazuŵa ghano yikuvuna mbuto na makina ghakulu na kuzisunga mu matanki. Makina agha ghakudumula cikhuni yayi; ghakuciguza waka pasi, ndipo cikusyala pasi kuŵa feteleza wa dongo. Makina ghakupatula makoko na cisonga, ghakusunga mbuto pera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Robert C. |author1-link=Robert C. Brown (engineer) |last2=Brown |first2=Tristan R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SENOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT114 |title=Biorenewable Resources: Engineering New Products from Agriculture |date=2013-12-06 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-52492-3 |at=PT114}}</ref> === Kusunga Mbuto === <gallery mode=packed heights=120> File:Iowa harvest 2009.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma, Iowa File:Maissipelto Rantasalmi.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma, Finland File:MyanmarCorn3.jpg|Kuvuna cingoma na mawoko, Myanmar File:Africa Food Security 11 (10665081134).jpg|Kusuŵa cingoma na mawoko, Malaŵi </gallery> Kukomeska nkhwakuzirwa kuvikilira panji kucepeska kunangika na wowa, iyo yikunanga mbuto na poizoni. Usange mbuto zili na unyowevu unandi, vilwero vya kukomeska vikugwiliskirika ntchito mwa kupuzga mphepo yakufunda mu mbuto.<ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ostrý |first1=Vladimír |last2=Malíř |first2=František |last3=Pfohl-Leszkowicz |first3=Annie |title=Comparative data concerning aflatoxin contents in Bt maize and non-Bt isogenic maize in relation to human and animal health – a review |journal=Acta Veterinaria Brno|date=2015 |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.2754/avb201585010047 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ici cingakhumba nkhongono zinandi za mphepo zakuyaka na magesi.<ref name="Van Devender 2011">{{cite web |last=Van Devender |first=Karl |title=Grain Drying Concepts and Options |publisher=University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture |date=July 2011 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-1072.pdf |access-date=December 15, 2013 |archive-date=June 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601162852/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-1072.pdf}}</ref> === Kupangika === Cingoma cikulimika comene pa caro cose, ndipo cikupangika cinandi pa caka kuluska mbuto yiliyose.<ref name="global">{{cite web |title=International Grains Council Market Report 28 November 2013 |url=http://www.igc.int/downloads/gmrsummary/gmrsumme.pdf |author=International Grains Council (international organization)|year=2013 |author-link=International Grains Council (international organization)}}</ref> Mu 2020, cingoma cose ca caro capasi cikaŵa matani biliyoni 1.16, ndipo U.S. yikalongozga na magaŵa 31.0 pa 100. China yikapanga magaŵa 22.4 pa 100.<ref name="fao.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=FAOSTAT |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Mu Mpupulu 2026, mitengo ya cingoma ya munthazi yikafika pacanya comene kufuma Vuna 2023, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵakalindilira kucepa kwa cingoma ca U.S. na khumbo likulu la caro cose. Lipoti la USDA la Mpupulu 2026 likacepeska kulongolera kwa vyakupangika vya cingoma ca U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zaidi |first=Deena |date=2026-08-28 |title=Corn and wheat prices jump to highest prices in more than three years |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2026/08/28/corn-and-wheat-prices-jump-to-highest-prices-in-more-than-three-years.html |access-date=2026-08-28 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> === Vibenene na Nthenda === <gallery mode="packed" heights="225"> File:Production of maize (2023).svg|Kupangika kwa cingoma (2023) File:World production of primary crops by main commodities.svg|Cingoma (mzere wa mtundu wa ''pink'') ndico cakuhara caciŵiri ico cikupangika comene pa caro capasi, pamanyuma pa mujuwa, ndipo ndico cakwamba mwa vyakuhara vya mbuto.<ref>{{Cite book |last=FAO |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd4313en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2025 |date=2025 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-140174-3 |language=English |doi=10.4060/cd4313en}}</ref> </gallery> [[File:NCLB disease cycle.JPG|thumb|upright=1.75|Umo nthenda ya ''Northern corn leaf blight'' yikwendera ]] Vinthu vinandi vingananga kukura kwa cingoma, kusazgapo vinyama vyambura fupa la msana, mikoza, na tuzirombo twa nthenda.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Pests |url=https://extension.usu.edu/pests/ipm/notes_ag/veg-list-corn |publisher=Utah State University |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Mueller |editor1-first=Daren |editor2-last=Pope |editor2-first=Rich |title=Corn Field Guide |date=2009 |publisher=Iowa State University Extension |url=https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/files/icm/corn-field-guide.pdf |access-date=11 January 2024 |archive-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111163925/https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/files/icm/corn-field-guide.pdf }}</ref> Cingoma cili pa ngozi ya nthenda zinandi za wowa, mabakiteriya, na tubungulu. Izo zikuzirwa pa vyacuma ni nthenda za mahamba, za cingoma, na za cikhuni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diseases and Disorders of Corn |url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/crop-management/grain-corn/corn-diseases-and-disorders.html |publisher=Province of Manitoba - Agriculture |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Nthenda zinyake za wowa zikupanga poizoni wakofya nga ni ''aflatoxin''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wise |first1=Kiersten |title=Diseasees of Corn: Northern Corn Leaf Blight |url=http://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-84-W.pdf |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Juroszek von Tiedemann 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Juroszek |first1=Peter |last2=von Tiedemann |first2=Andreas |title=Climatic changes and the potential future importance of maize diseases: a short review |journal=Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection |date=2013 |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=49–56 |doi=10.1007/BF03356454 |bibcode=2013JPDP..120...49J |s2cid=87234896 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295797868}}</ref><ref name="Ostry-et-al-2015"/> Mu United States mu 2022, nthenda yakunanga comene yikaŵa ''tar spot'', iyo yikatayiska vipimo miliyoni 116.8.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Disease Loss Estimates From the United States and Ontario, Canada — 2022 |url=https://cropprotectionnetwork.org/publications/corn-disease-loss-estimates-from-the-united-states-and-ontario-canada-2022 |website=cropprotectionnetwork.org |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Cingoma cikutaya madola biliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse mu U.S. kufuma ku vibenene viŵiri vikulu, cibenene ca Ulaya cakuboola cikhuni na mphutsi za misisi. Cibenene cinyake cikulu ni mbozi ya ''fall armyworm'', iyo yaŵa suzgo likulu so mu Afilika na mu Malaŵi. Fufuzi wa cingoma ni cibenene cikulu ca mbuto zakusungika. Mbozi yinyake ni cibenene cikulu ca cingoma mu Asiya. Mphutsi za ''nematode'' nazo zikunanga cingoma. Panyake cakumera ciliconse ca cingoma cili na mphutsi izi, ndipo unandi wawo mu misisi ungaŵa "ukulu comene". Zikupangiska vyakumera kuleka kukura, nyengo zinyake mu munda wose, comene para pali so kusoŵa maji na mikoza yinandi.<ref name="Norton 1983">{{cite journal |last=Norton |first=Don C. |title=Maize Nematode Problems |journal=Plant Disease |date=March 1983 |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=253–256 |doi=10.1094/PD-67-253 |bibcode=1983PlDis..67..253N |url=https://www.apsnet.org/publications/plantdisease/backissues/Documents/1983Articles/PlantDisease67n03_253.PDF}}</ref> Vyakumera vinandi vingasuskana na cingoma na kucepeska vyakupangika. Kulaŵilira kungaŵa kuwuskapo mikoza na mawoko panji makina, na moto, panji na mankhwala gha mikoza.<ref name="Meissle Mouron Musa">{{cite journal |last1=Meissle |first1=Michael |last2=Mouron |first2=Patrik |last3=Musa |first3=Tomke |display-authors=etal |title=Pests, pesticide use and alternative options in European maize production: Current status and future prospects |journal=Journal of Applied Entomology |volume=134 |issue=5 |year=2010 |pages=357–375 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0418.2009.01491.x |s2cid=73606627 |url=https://arpi.unipi.it/bitstream/11568/710064/3/Paper%202009-11-11.doc |hdl=11568/710064 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro == === Vyakulya === Cingoma na ufu wa cingoma ni vyakulya vikulu mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi. Cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga sitachi. Sitachi ya cingoma yingasinthika kupanga shuga wa cingoma. Cingoma cingapangika moŵa wa ''bourbon''. Mafuta gha cingoma ghakufumyika ku mtima wa mbuto. <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=180 widths=180> File:Northern corn leaf blight.JPG|Nthenda ya ''Northern corn leaf blight'' File:Symptoms corncobs destruction caused by Ostrinia nubilalis (cropped).JPG|Cingoma cakunangika na cibenene ca Ulaya ca cingoma File:European Corn Borer (15350098570).jpg|Mbozi ya cibenene ca Ulaya ca cingoma mu cingoma </gallery> Kale, ŵanakazi ŵa Amerika Yapakati ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito libwe la kusira kusira cingoma kuŵa ufu.<ref name="Davidson 2014"/> Ŵamama ŵakugwiliskiranga ntchito so cingoma nga ni phala la ŵana ŵakuleka kunkha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch |title=Cornstarch |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=2016-05-14 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081317/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa viŵiya vya dongo, Ŵaolmec ŵakamba kuphika cingoma pamoza na nchunga, kusazgira vyakukhozga thupi mu cakulya cikulu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ |title=Factsheet on Glucose Fructose Syrups and Isoglucose |author=European Starch Association |work=AAF |date=10 June 2013 |access-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-date=June 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603234139/http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ }}</ref> Nangauli cingoma cili na ''niacin'', yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu thupi yayi kwambura ''nixtamalization''.<ref name=bstreet>Kiniry, Laura. "[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/where-bourbon-really-got-its-name-and-more-tips-on-americas-native-spirit-145879/?no-ist Where Bourbon Really Got Its Name and More Tips on America's Native Spirit]". ''Smithsonian.com''. June 13, 2013.</ref> Ŵamaya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ufu uwu kupanga phala na ''tamale''.<ref name="corn dot org">Corn Refiners Association. [http://www.corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Corn Oil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412091052/https://corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf |date=2019-04-12 }} 5th Edition. 2006</ref> Cingoma ni cakulya cikulu ca Mexico. ''Masa'' ndiyo cigaŵa cikulu ca ''tortilla'', ''atole'' na vyakulya vinyake vinandi vya Amerika Yapakati. Bowa wa cingoma, wakuchemeka ''huitlacoche'', uwo ukukura pa cingoma, ni cakulya cakutemweka mu Mexico. Ufu wa cingoma ukupangika phala lakukhwima mu midawuko yinandi: ''polenta'' ya Italy, ''angu'' ya Brazil, ''mămăligă'' ya Romania, ''grits'' za U.S., ''pap'' ya South Africa, na sadza, nsima, ugali na mazina ghanyake mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Afilika. Cingoma cikanjizgika mu Afilika na Ŵapwitikizi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ndipo caŵa cakulya cikulu comene ca Afilika.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |title=The cassava transformation in Africa |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref> Cingoma ca shuga, mtundu uwo uli na shuga munandi na sitachi yicoko, cikurika cambura kukhwima nga ni cingoma cakuwocha panji cakuphika.<ref name="Nielsen 2007">{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=L. Michelle |title=The Biography of Corn |year=2007 |publisher=Crabtree Publishing |page=27 |isbn=978-0-7787-2491-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCUaWVFfquMC&pg=PA27 }}</ref> === Vyakukhozga Thupi === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="200" widths="200"> File:Corn, the food of the nation, US Food Administration poster, 1918.jpg|Cithandazgo ca vyakulya vya cingoma,<br/>U.S. Food Administration, 1918 File:Summer corn (48286638996).jpg|Cingoma cakusuŵika pacoko File:ChiapasTamale2.JPG|''Tamale'' za Mexico File:Polenta.jpg|Nthowa yimoza ya kupelekera ''polenta'' ya Italy </gallery> Mbuto za cingoma ca shuga zaziŵisi zili na magaŵa 76 pa 100 gha maji, 19 gha shuga na sitachi, 3 gha purotini, na 1 gha mafuta. Mu magalamu 100, mpuzi za cingoma zikupeleka ma''calorie'' 86 ndipo ni kasupe uwemi wa mavitamini gha B, ''thiamin'', ''niacin'' (usange yafumyika), na ''folate''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169998/nutrients|title=FoodData Central|website=fdc.nal.usda.gov|access-date=January 15, 2021|archive-date=April 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169998/nutrients|url-status=live}}</ref> Cingoma cili na ma''amino acid'' ghanyake ghakukhumbikwa ghacoko, ndico cifukwa ni kasupe uheni wa purotini.<ref name="UNFAO-1992">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0395e/T0395E0c.htm |title=Chapter 8: Improvement of maize diets; from corporate document: Maize in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |date=1992 |access-date=5 June 2017}}</ref> Purotini za nchunga zikukwaniska izo za cingoma.<ref name="UNFAO-1992" /> === Vyakulya vya Viŵeto === [[File:Corn By-Product Used for Livestock Feed.jpg|thumb|left|Ng'ombe zikulindilira pafupi na linga apo galimoto yikuthira vyakulya vya mbuto vyakupangika na vyakusyala vya cingoma mu vyakulyeramo.]] [[File:Bales from corn stems 01.jpg|thumb|left|Vikhuni vya cingoma vyakukakika pamoza]] Cingoma ni kasupe mukulu wa vyakulya vya viŵeto. Mu United States, vyakulya vya viŵeto ni pafupifupi magaŵa 40 pa 100 gha cingoma cose ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu caro.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corn and Other Feed Grains - Feed Grains Sector at a Glance {{!}} Economic Research Service |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/corn-and-other-feed-grains/feed-grains-sector-at-a-glance |access-date=2026-04-02 |website=www.ers.usda.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-02 |title=Share of Corn Crop for Feed - Inside Animal Ag |url=https://insideanimalag.org/share-of-corn-for-feed/ |access-date=2026-04-02 |website=insideanimalag.org}}</ref> Nga ni mbuto, mbuto zakomira zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakulya vya viŵeto. Kanandi zikusungika pa cisonga mu nkhokwe, panji kufumyika na kusungika mu matanki. Para mbuto zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa viŵeto, cakumera cinyake cose cingagwiliskirika ntchito pamanyuma nga ni vyakulya, vyakugonapo viŵeto, panji feteleza wa dongo.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Edouard |first3=N. |last4=Lebas |first4=F. |title=Maize silage |publisher=Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/13883 |date=June 22, 2017}}</ref> Para cakumera cose cikugwiliskirika ntchito pa viŵeto, kanandi cikudumulika na kupangika ''silage'', cifukwa ngakugaya makola na ngakunowa ku viŵeto kuluska ivyo vyakomira. Kale, cingoma cikawunjikikanga mu milu pamanyuma pa kuvuna kuti cikome so. Pamanyuma cikasungikanga myezi mpaka cikaperekekanga ku viŵeto.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Edouard |first3=N. |last4=Lebas |first4=F. |title=Maize green forage |publisher=Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/358 |date=June 21, 2017}}</ref> Mu malo gha ku tropiki, cingoma cikuvunika caka cose na kupelekeka ciŵisi ku viŵeto.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://extension.illinois.edu/beef-cattle/baled-cornstalks |title=Baled Cornstalks |publisher=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref> === Vinthu vya Usungunu === Sitachi ya cingoma yingapangika pulasitiki, nsalu, ulimbo, na vinthu vinyake vinandi vya usungunu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corn Starch |url=https://corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/StarchBooklet2013.pdf |publisher=Corn Refiners Association |access-date=9 January 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma pa kusira cingoma na maji ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu mafakitale na mu kusanda kukuzga tuvinyama tucoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liggett |first1=R. Winston |last2=Koffler |first2=H. |journal=Bacteriological Reviews |date=December 1948 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=297–311 |title=Corn steep liquor in microbiology |pmc=180696 |pmid=16350125 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.12.4.297-311.1948}}</ref> === Vyakotchera === [[File:Haase anaerobic digester.JPG|thumb|Malo gha pa munda gha kupangira mpweya wa nkhongono (''biogas'') kufuma ku cingoma pafupi na Neumünster, Germany, 2007; ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyakumera vyose vya cingoma, mbuto pera yayi. Cakuphimbira ciŵisi ca pacanya cikukwezgeka na mpweya uwo wasungika mukati.]] Cingoma ca viŵeto cikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kufundiska; masitovu ghapadera gha cingoma ghakugwiliskira ntchito cingoma panji makuni ghakusirika kupanga kufunda. Visonga vya cingoma vingagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakotchera.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2015/03/150301-corn-stoves/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303022706/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2015/03/150301-corn-stoves/ |archive-date=March 3, 2015 |title=Corn for Home Heat: A Green Idea That Never Quite Popped |date=2015-03-02 |access-date=2017-07-07}}</ref> Cingoma cikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga mafuta gha ethanol.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Andres F. |last2=Slegers |first2=Petronella M. |last3=Noordam-Boot |first3=Cornelie M. M. |last4=Dolstra |first4=Oene |last5=Vlaswinkel |first5=Louis |last6=van Boxtel |first6=Anton J. B. |last7=Visser |first7=Richard G. F. |last8=Trindade |first8=Luisa M. |display-authors=3 |title=Maize feedstocks with improved digestibility reduce the costs and environmental impacts of biomass pretreatment and saccharification |journal=Biotechnology for Biofuels |date=December 2016 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=63 |doi=10.1186/s13068-016-0479-0 |pmc=4791978 |pmid=26981155 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016BB......9...63T }}</ref> Mtengo wa vyakulya ukukhwaskika na kagwiliskiro ka cingoma pa vyakotchera: kagwiliskiro aka kakusazgira khumbo, ntheura na mtengo wa cingoma.<ref>{{cite news |last=Clayton |first=Mark |title=As global food costs rise, are biofuels to blame? |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=January 28, 2008 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Money/2008/0128/p03s03-usec.html |access-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref> Nyumba ya magesi ya vyakotchera vya vyamoyo ku Strem, mu Austria, yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hermann |first1=Hofbauer |last2=Reinhard |first2=R. |last3=Klaus |first3=Bosch |last4=Reinhard |first4=K. |last5=Christian |first5=Aichernig |date=January 2002 |title=Biomass CHP plant Güssing - A success story |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242422623 |publisher=Ministry of Economy and Labour and of the Federal States of Niederösterreich and Burgenland |s2cid=56073239}}</ref> == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == Mu Amerika Yapakati, cingoma cikuwonekera nga ni nkhongono ya umoyo, ndipo cikusopeka nga ni ciuta wa cingoma, kanandi wanakazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bassie |first=Karen |year=2002 |chapter=Corn Deities and the Complementary Male/Female Principle |title=Ancient Maya Gender Identity and Relations |editor1=Lowell S. Gustafson |editor2=Amelia N. Trevelyan |pages=169–190 |publisher=Bergin&Garvey |location=Westport, Conn. and London |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/features/bassie/corn/ |access-date=2007-12-05 |archive-date=2009-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710180840/http://www.mesoweb.com/features/bassie/corn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu U.S., vingoma vyajambulika pa mizati ya nyumba ya mphala ya caro.<ref>{{cite web |title=Corncob or Cornstalk Columns and Capitals |url=https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/art/corncob-or-cornstalk-columns-and-capitals |website=Architect of the Capitol |access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> Nyumba ya Cingoma mu Mitchell, South Dakota, yikugwiliskira ntchito vingoma vya mitundu yakupambana kupanga vithuzi pa malinga ivyo vikusinthika caka ciliconse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corn Palace History |website=City of Mitchell |url=http://www.cityofmitchell.org/palace/rent.htm |access-date=2007-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929180750/http://www.cityofmitchell.org/palace/rent.htm |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref> Cithuzi ca simenti ca Munda wa Cingoma mu Dublin, Ohio, cikulongora vingoma mahandiredi mu munda wa utheka.<ref>{{cite web |title=From oddity to cherished Dublin icon, 'Field of Corn' celebrates 25 years |last=Gordon |first=Ken |url=https://www.dispatch.com/news/20190928/from-oddity-to-cherished-dublin-icon-field-of-corn-celebrates-25-years |date=September 28, 2019 |work=The Columbus Dispatch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930070612/https://www.dispatch.com/news/20190928/from-oddity-to-cherished-dublin-icon-field-of-corn-celebrates-25-years |archive-date=September 30, 2019 |access-date=December 21, 2021}}</ref> Ntonga ya cingoma na vingoma viŵiri vyakukhwima yikulongoreka pa ndalama ya Croatia ya lipa limoza.<ref>[http://www.hnb.hr/ Croatian National Bank]. [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 Kuna and Lipa, Coins of Croatia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622012116/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 |date=June 22, 2009}}: [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e1lipa.htm?tsfsg=dd58a2499ab048a6770b27c3017b7ec2 1 Lipa Coin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628203927/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e1lipa.htm?tsfsg=dd58a2499ab048a6770b27c3017b7ec2 |date=June 28, 2011}}. Retrieved on March 31, 2009.</ref> Mbuto za cingoma nyengo zinyake zikulongora wofi, cifukwa cingoma cikupelekeka ku nkhuku, izo zikulongora ŵanthu ŵa wofi. Mu myezi pambere pa kuwiska ulongozgi mu Chile mu 1973, ŵakususka Allende ŵakaponyanga cingoma ku malo gha ŵankhondo kuti ŵamuwiske.<ref>[https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-97031.html Proeza], Memoria Chilena. In Spanish.</ref><ref>[https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/opinion/2013/01/23/no-vayan-de-nuevo-a-tirar-maiz/ «No vayan de nuevo a tirar maíz»]. 2013. ''El Mostrador''.</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=175> File:Mochica Corn.jpg|Cikozgo ca cingoma, mdawuko wa Moche, 300 pamanyuma pa Khristu, Larco Museum, Lima, Peru File:Mayan - Stucco Portrait Head - Walters 20092026 - Three Quarter Right.jpg|Mutu wa ciuta wa cingoma wa Ŵamaya kufuma ku Campeche, Mexico, 550–850 pamanyuma pa Khristu File:Young Corn God MET DT9945.jpg|Cikozgo cicoko ca dongo ca ku Jaina Island ca ciuta muwukirano wa cingoma wa Ŵamaya wakufuma mu cingoma, 600–900 pamanyuma pa Khristu File:Aztecs storing maize.jpg|Ŵaaztec ŵakusunga cingoma,<br/>''Florentine Codex'', 1540/1585 File:CornWaterTower.JPG|Thanki la maji ku Rochester, Minnesota ilo likupakika utoto kuti liwoneke nga ni cingoma, 2008 </gallery> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vyakumela]] amg6skshfgoph2g856uo3lskggfe5nc 0 4431 124367 123732 2026-11-10T14:19:10Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124367 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Superb fairy wrens mark 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Viyuni]] [[File:Eastern Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg|thumb|250px]] '''Viyuni''' (cimoza: '''ciyuni'''; mu Cilatini '''Aves''') ni vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ivyo vili na masoya, milomo yambura mino, vikuikira masumbi ghakuŵa na makoko ghakukhora, mtima wa vigaŵa vinayi, na viwanga vyakukhora kweni vyakupepuka. Ndopa zawo nzakotcha, vikukhala pa caro cose capasi, ndipo vikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku kayuni kacoko ka masentimita 5.5 mpaka ku nthiwatiwa ya mamita 2.8. Pali mitundu ya viyuni yakujumpha 11,000 iyo yicalipo. Pafupifupi viyuni vyose vili na maphapindo, agho ghakuvizomerezga kuduka, nangauli viyuni vinyake vikuduka yayi, nga ni nthiwatiwa na ma pengwini. Kusanda viyuni kukuchemeka kasandiro ka viyuni. Viyuni vikafuma ku vinyama vya kale vyakuchemeka madayinoso, ndipo ndivyo madayinoso ghekha agho ghacalipo. == Viyuni mu Malaŵi == Viyuni navyo mu [[Malaŵi]] ni vinandi. Viyuni ivyo vikusangika comene ni nga ni ivi: [[phululu]], [[kabelu-belu|kaŵeluŵelu]], [[njiba|njiŵa]], [[chaholi|caholi]], [[chababi|cabaŵi]], [[nkhanga]], na [[nkhwali]]. == Mazina gha Viyuni == * [[Mazina gha Viyuni mu chiTumbuka]] [[Category:Viyuni]] iyj8u7vhiwzajufjrogz84eafl4brhz 0 4461 124356 124010 2026-11-10T14:18:39Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124356 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mosquito 2007-2.jpg|thumb|250px|Nyimbu]] '''Nyimbu''' (''Culicidae'') ni mbumba ya membe zicoko ya mitundu 3,600. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''mosquito'' (kufuma ku ''mosca'' na ''-ito'' ya kucepeska) ni la Cisipanya na Cipwitikizi, ndipo likung'anamula "membe yicoko". Nyimbu zili na thupi licoko la vigaŵa, maphapindo ghaŵiri, malundi ghatali gha nga ni sisi ghankhondi na ghamoza, na mlomo utali wapadera wa kuluma na kufyonta. Nyimbu zose zikumwa uchi wa maluŵa; nyimbu zanakazi za mitundu yinandi zikumwa so ndopa. Gulu ili likapambanapambana mu nyengo ya Cretaceous. Ŵasandi ŵa kusintha kwa vyamoyo ŵakuwona nyimbu nga ni vyakusaka vicoko, vinyama vicoko ivyo vikuthemba vikulu mwa kumwa ndopa zawo kwambura kuvikoma luŵiro. Ŵasandi ŵa tuzirombo twa nthenda ŵakuwona nyimbu nga ni vyakunyamula nthenda, cifukwa zikunyamula tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza, mabakiteriya, panji tubungulu kufuma ku cinyama cimoza kuya ku cinyake. Umoyo wa nyimbu uli na nyengo zinayi: sumbi, mphutsi, cikumbi, na nyimbu yikulu. Masumbi ghakuikika pacanya pa maji; ghakusululuka kuŵa mphutsi izo zikwenda na kurya koyo na vinthu vinyake. Mphutsi izi ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku vinyama vinandi vya mu maji ghawemi, nga ni ŵana ŵa ŵakhulukuska, somba zinandi, na viyuni vinyake. Nyimbu zanakazi zikulu za mitundu yinandi zili na mlomo wakukolerana na kuboola cikumba ca cinyama na kumwa ndopa za vinyama vinandi vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, na vinyama vinyake vyambura fupa la msana. Mitundu yinyake yikuikira masumbi pera pamanyuma pa kumwa ndopa. Mate gha nyimbu ghakunjira mu cinyama apo yikuluma, ndipo ghangiziska vyakuyabwa. Kweniso, mitundu iyo yikumwa ndopa yingamwa tuzirombo twa nthenda apo yikuluma na kutuyambuzga ku vinyama vinyake. Mitundu iyi yikusazgapo iyo yikunyamula [[Malungo|malungo]] na nthenda ya ''filariasis'', na nthenda za tubungulu nga ni cikasu na dengue. Mwa kuyambuzga nthenda, nyimbu zikukoma ŵanthu ŵakujumpha miliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse. == Malongosoro na Umoyo == Nga ni membe zose, nyimbu zikujumpha mu nyengo zinayi za umoyo: sumbi, mphutsi, cikumbi, na nyimbu yikulu. Nyengo zitatu zakwamba zikucitika mu maji, ndipo masumbi kanandi ghakuikika mu maji ghakwimilira. Ghakusululuka kuŵa mphutsi, izo zikurya, kukura, na kuvula cikopa mpaka zikusanduka vikumbi. Nyimbu yikulu yikufuma mu cikumbi apo cikuyandama pacanya pa maji. Nyimbu zikulu zikukhala kufuma sabata limoza mpaka mwezi umoza. Mitundu yinyake yikujumpha nyengo ya kuzizima nga ni nyimbu zikulu, zikugona. === Nyimbu Yikulu === Nyimbu zili na maphapindo ghaŵiri, agho ghali na mamba pacanya. Maphapindo ghake ngatali na ghafupi, ndipo malundi ngatali na ghacoko. Thupi, kanandi lakuzirima panji lakufipa, ndicoko, ndipo kanandi nditali milimita 3–6. Para zikupumula, nyimbu zikusunga malundi ghakwamba kuwaro, apo tumembe tunyake twakuyana tukusunga malundi agha panthazi. Nyimbu za Anopheles zingaduka mpaka maora ghanayi kwambura kuleka pa makilomita 1 mpaka 2 pa ora, ndipo zingenda mpaka makilomita 12 usiku umoza. Ŵanalume ŵakutimba maphapindo pakati pa kanandi 450 na 600 pa liŵiri. Nyimbu kanandi ni membe zicoko; zikulu comene ni za mtundu wa Toxorhynchites, za utali mpaka milimita 18 na maphapindo gha milimita 24. Za Aedes nzicoko comene, za maphapindo gha milimita 2.8 mpaka 4.4. Nyimbu zingakura kufuma ku sumbi mpaka nyimbu yikulu mu mazuŵa ghankhondi pera para kukufunda, kweni kungatora mpaka mwezi umoza. Mlenji panji kuzirimila, mu mazuŵa ghacoko pamanyuma pa kufuma mu cikumbi, ŵanalume ŵakuwungana mu magulu, ndipo ŵakutorana para ŵanakazi ŵaduka mukati. Nyimbu yanakazi yikutorana kamoza pera mu umoyo wake, yikukopeka na fungo ilo wanalume wakufumiska. Mu mitundu iyo yikukhumba ndopa kuti masumbi ghakure, yanakazi yikusanga cinyama na kumwa ndopa zakukwana. Pamanyuma yikupumula mazuŵa ghaŵiri panji ghatatu kuti yigaye ndopa na masumbi ghakure. Pamanyuma yikunozgeka kuikira masumbi na kuwerezga ndondomeko ya kurya na kuikira. Ŵanakazi ŵangakhala mpaka masabata ghatatu mu thengere, kuyana na kufunda, unyowevu, kusanga ndopa, na kuleka kukomeka na vinyama ivyo zikuluma. === Masumbi === Masumbi gha nyimbu zinandi ghakuikika mu maji ghakwimilira, agho ghangaŵa cizima, dambo, kadzenje ka maji ka kanyengo, maji mu khuni lakuboŵa, panji maji agho ghakusungika pa mahamba gha vyakumera vinyake. Zinyake zikuikira pafupi na mphepete ya maji apo zinyake zikukakatiska masumbi ku vyakumera vya mu maji. Zicoko, nga ni Opifex fuscus, zingaŵaba mu madambo gha mcere. Wyeomyia smithii yikuŵaba mu vyakumera vyakuŵa na maji mukati, ndipo mphutsi zake zikurya vibenene vyakuvunda ivyo vyabira umo. Kaikiliro ka masumbi kakupambana pa mitundu. Ŵanakazi ŵa Anopheles ŵakuduka pacanya pa maji, ŵakukhwaska maji kuti ŵaŵike masumbi pacanya limoza limoza; masumbi ghawo ghali na vyakuyandamira ku mbali. Yanakazi yingaikira masumbi 100–200 mu umoyo wake. Ŵanakazi ŵa Aedes ŵakuwiska masumbi limoza limoza pa dongo lakunyowa pafupi na maji; masumbi ghawo ghakusululuka pera para maji ghazuzga. Ŵanakazi ŵa Culex na zinyake ŵakuikira masumbi mu tumphasa twakuyandama. Ŵanakazi ŵa Mansonia ŵakuikira masumbi pasi pa mahamba gha vyakumera vya mu maji. Masumbi gha nyimbu zinandi ghakusululuka pa nyengo yimoza, kweni masumbi gha Aedes agho ghakugona ghakusululuka pacoko pacoko mu nyengo yitali. === Mphutsi === Mutu wa mphutsi ya nyimbu uli na tuburashi twa mlomo utu tukugwiliskirika ntchito pa kurya, cifuwa cikulu cambura malundi, na nthumbo ya vigaŵa. Yikupuma mphepo kwizira mu kathumbu pa nthumbo yake, ntheura yikwenera kwiza pacanya kanandi. Yikujumpha nyengo yinandi yikurya vyakumera vicoko, mabakiteriya, na tuvinyama tucoko twa pacanya pa maji. Yikubira pasi para yasokonezgeka. Yikusambira mwa kujikankha na tuburashi twa mlomo, panji mwa kunyunganyunga thupi. Yikukura mu nyengo zinandi, yikuvula cikopa nyengo yiliyose, ndipo pamanyuma yikusanduka cikumbi. Mphutsi za Aedes, kupatula para nziphya comene, zingazizipizga kukoma; zikugona kwa myezi yinandi usange cizima cawo cakoma. === Cikumbi === Mutu na cifuwa vya cikumbi vyasazganika, ndipo nthumbo yikupindikira pasi pake. Cikumbi cingasambira mwa kupinda nthumbo yake. Nga ni mphutsi, cikumbi ca mitundu yinandi cikwenera kwiza pacanya kanandi kupuma, kwizira mu tumalipenga tuŵiri twa kupumira. Vikurya yayi; vikujumpha nyengo yinandi vikupachika pacanya pa maji. Para vyafipa mtima, vikusambira pasi mwa kupinda nthumbo nga ni mphutsi. Para vindasokonezgeke, vikuyandama so luŵiro. Nyimbu yikulu yikufuma mu cikumbi pacanya pa maji ndipo yikuduka. == Kurya kwa Nyimbu Zikulu == === Vyakulya === Nyimbu zanalume na zanakazi zikurya uchi wa maluŵa na maji gha vyakumera, kweni mu mitundu yinandi ŵanakazi ŵakumwa so ndopa. Mu mitundu yinyake, ndopa nzakukhumbikwa pa kupanga masumbi; mu yinyake, zikuzomerezga waka yanakazi kuikira masumbi ghanandi. Vyakumera na ndopa vyose ni makasupe ghawemi gha nkhongono mu shuga. Ndopa zikupeleka vyakulya vinandi, kweni ntchito yikulu ya ndopa ni kusanga purotini ya kupangira masumbi. Nyimbu zakunyamula nthenda nga ni Anopheles na Aedes zikukhumba ndopa kuti ziikire masumbi. Mitundu yicoko ya Malaya, Topomyia na Toxorhynchites yikuŵaba kwambura kumwa ndopa nanga ni kamoza. === Vinyama Ivyo Zikuluma === Nyimbu zakumwa ndopa zikutemwa vinyama vinyake, nangauli zikusankha comene yayi para vyakulya vyasoŵa. Mitundu yakupambana yikutemwa ŵacule, vyakukwaŵa kusazgapo njoka, viyuni, na vinyama vyakonkheska. Mwaciyelezgero, Culiseta melanura yikumwa ndopa za viyuni vicoko, kweni apo unandi wa nyimbu wasazgikira zikuluma vinyama vyakonkheska kusazgapo mahachi na ŵanthu, ndipo zikuthandazga nthenda ya kabungulu mu Amerika ya Kumpoto. Kutaya ndopa ku maluma ghanandi kungakula, ndipo nyengo zinyake kukukoma viŵeto vikulu nga ni ng'ombe na mahachi. Nyimbu za malungo zikupenja mbozi na kumwa maji gha mu thupi lawo, zikukanizga kukura kwawo. === Kusanga Vinyama === Nyimbu zinandi zikurya mlenji panji kuzirimila, ndipo zikupumula mu malo ghakuzizima msana. Mitundu yinyake, nga ni nyimbu ya Asiya ya mawanga, yikuduka na kurya msana. Nyimbu zanakazi zikupenja vinyama mwa kununkhizga vinthu nga ni kaboni dayokisayidi na vinyake ivyo vikufuma mu mpweya wa cinyama, na mwa kuwona. Cigaŵa cikulu ca kununkhizga kwa nyimbu cikugwira ntchito ya kupenja ndopa. Mwa mitundu 72 ya vyakununkhizgira pa minyanga yake, yakujumpha 27 yikusanga vinthu vya mu thukutira. Mu Aedes, kupenja kukucitika mu nyengo ziŵiri: pakwamba nyimbu yikuduka mpaka yasanga fungo la cinyama; pamanyuma yikuduka kuliya, yikulongozgeka na unandi wa fungo. Nyimbu zikutemwa kuluma ŵanthu ŵa ndopa za mtundu wa O, ŵa mabakiteriya ghanandi pa cikumba, na ŵa kufunda kukulu kwa thupi; zikutemwa so ŵanakazi ŵa nthumbo. Kukopa nyimbu kwa munthu kuli na cigaŵa cakuharika. Vimanyikwiro vinandi vya cinyama ivyo nyimbu yikuwona vikuyizomerezga kusankha cinyama ca kuluma. Para pali kaboni dayokisayidi, yikwamba kupenja na fungo na maso. Kusanda kwalongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukopa comene nyimbu ŵakupanga ma''carboxylic acid'' ghanandi. Fungo la thupi la munthu likulongora kuti ni munthu, kwambura kuŵa cinyama cinyake cakufunda. Fungo la thupi, ilo likufuma pa cikumba, ndilo cimanyikwiro cakuzirwa comene ku nyimbu. Fungo linandi ili likupangika apo mabakiteriya gha pa cikumba ghakugaya thukutira na mafuta gha cikopa. Kupambana kwa fungo kukufuma ku kuzitika kwa thupi, mahomoni, vyakuhara, na nthenda zinyake. Nthenda nga ni malungo zingasintha fungo la thupi. Ŵanthu ŵa malungo ŵakupanga vinthu vinyake vinandi pa cikumba ivyo vikukopa comene nyimbu. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵa malungo ŵakulumika comene na nyimbu. Kupenja na maso kwa nyimbu kukusazgapo kupulika mitundu yakupambana. Nyimbu zikukopeka na ungweru wa majigha ghatali, mitundu yakufiira na ya malalanje nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera, ndiko kuti mitundu ya cikumba ca ŵanthu. Kweniso zikukopeka comene na vinthu vyakufipa ivyo vikuwoneka makola pa malo ghakuŵala. Mitundu yakupambana ya nyimbu yasintha nthowa zakupambana za kusanga vinyama. Kusanda mitundu yiŵiri ya Aedes aegypti, yinyake ya ku nyumba na yinyake yakuluma vinyama, kukalongora kuti kutemwa fungo la ŵanthu kukukolerana na cakusangira fungo cinyake ico cikusanga ''sulcatone'', cinthu cinandi mu fungo la ŵanthu. Nyimbu ya malungo Anopheles gambiae nayo yili na vyakusangira fungo ivi, kweni vyakupambana, ntheura mitundu yiŵiri iyi yikasintha paŵekha kuluma ŵanthu. === Mlomo === Mlomo wa nyimbu yanakazi wakolerana comene na kuboola cikumba na kufyonta ndopa. Ŵanalume ŵakumwa maji gha shuga pera, ndipo mlomo wawo ngwapadera yayi. Kuwaro, cigaŵa cikulu ca kurya ni mlomo mutali, uwo uli na cikopa ca mawonekero nga ni ngalande, ico cikuphimba vigaŵa 6 vya kuboola. Cikopa ici cikupinda nga ni uta apo nyimbu yikwamba kuluma, cikukhwaska cikumba na kulongozgera vigaŵa vya kuboola pasi. Vigaŵa vyakuthwa comene vikwenda kumanyuma na panthazi kudumula cikumba, na nkhongono yicoko comene, cigaŵa cimoza pa 1,000 ca nkhongono iyo yingakhumbikwa na singano, ntheura kuluma kukupweteka yayi. === Mate === Mate gha nyimbu ghali na vinthu ivyo vikovwira kugaya shuga, na vinthu ivyo vikulaŵilira kukura kwa mabakiteriya mu shuga. Kuti nyimbu yisange ndopa, yikwenera kujumpha nthowa izo thupi la cinyama likujivikilira nazo. Mate gha nyimbu ghakukanizga ndopa kukoleka, mwa purotini izo zikucepeska kufinyika kwa mikoli na kukoleka kwa ndopa, kuti ndopa zilutilire kwenda. Ghakusintha so umo thupi likulimbana na nthenda kwizira mu purotini zinandi, ndipo ici cingapangiska nthenda za tubungulu kuŵa zikulu comene. === Kukura kwa Masumbi na Kugaya Ndopa === Ŵanakazi ŵa mitundu yinandi yakumwa ndopa ŵakukhumba ndopa kuti ŵambe kupanga masumbi. Ndopa zakukwana zikwamba ndondomeko ya mahomoni iyo yikupangiska masumbi kukura. Para yamalizga kumwa, nyimbu yikuwuska mlomo, ndipo apo matumbo ghakuzura, mthumbo ukupanga cikopa ico cikuzingilizga ndopa. Ici cikupatula ndopa na vinyake mu mthumbo. Nyimbu zinandi zikulu zikufumiska maji ghakunyanyira nanga ni apo zikurya, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga ŵanakazi kuwunjika vyakulya vinandi. Ndopa zikugayika mu mazuŵa ghanandi. Mthumbo ukupanga vinthu ivyo vikugaŵa purotini za ndopa, ndipo izi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga purotini ya masumbi. == Kuthandazgika == === Pa Caro Cose === Nyimbu zili pa caro cose, mu cigaŵa ciliconse ca mtunda kupatula Antarctica na virwa vicoko. Nyengo ya vigaŵa ivi njambura kumanyikwa, yakuzizima kweni kanandi yikufunda luŵiro pakati pa nyengo ya kuzizima, ndipo ici cikupangiska nyimbu kufuma mu vikumbi na pamanyuma kuzizima so pambere zindamalizge umoyo wawo. Masumbi gha nyimbu za malo gha nyengo yapakati ghakuzizipizga kuzizima kuluska gha mitundu ya malo ghakufunda. Ghanandi ghangazizipizga kuzizima kwa pasi pa zero, ndipo nyimbu zikulu za mitundu yinyake zingajumpha nyengo ya kuzizima mwa kubisama mu nyumba panji mu makuni ghakuboŵa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku tropiki vyakufunda na vyakunyowa, mitundu yinyake ya nyimbu yikugwira ntchito caka cose, kweni mu vigaŵa vyakuzizima zikugona. Nyimbu za ku Arctic zingaŵa zamoyo kwa masabata ghacoko pera pa caka apo maji gha cikakato cakusungunuka ghakupanga vizima. Kweni pa nyengo iyo zikufuma zinandi comene; gulu lingamwa mpaka mililita 300 za ndopa pa zuŵa kufuma ku cinyama ciliconse mu gulu la nswala za ku Arctic. === Vyakufumapo vya Kusintha kwa Nyengo === Kuti nyimbu yiyambuzge nthenda, pakwenera kuŵa vyakucitika viwemi vya nyengo, comene unyowevu, kufunda, na vula. El Niño yikukhwaska malo na unandi wa kuthandazgika kwa nthenda mu Afilika ya Kumafumiro, Amerika ya Ŵalatini, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na India. Kusintha kwa nyengo kukukhwaska vyakucitika ivi na kuthandazgika kwa nyimbu. Viyelezgero vya nyengo vingagwiliskira ntchito vyakusangika vya kale kulongolera ngozi ya nthenda kuyana na nyengo iyo yikulindilirika. Nthenda za nyimbu zaŵa zinandi comene mu Afilika ya Kumafumiro, Amerika ya Ŵalatini, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, na India. Kuwoneka mu Ulaya kukawonekeka pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Kukulongolereka kuti pofika 2030, nyengo ya kumwera kwa Britain yizamuŵa yiwemi ku nyimbu za Anopheles kuyambuzga malungo kwa myezi yiŵiri pa caka, ndipo pofika 2080 ndimo kuzamuŵira ku kumwera kwa Scotland. Nthenda ya dengue nayo yikuthandazgika kumpoto cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo. Nyimbu iyo yikuyinyamula, nyimbu ya Asiya ya mawanga, pofika 2023 yikaŵa kuti yathandazgika mu Ulaya ya kumwera mpaka ku kumpoto kwa France, Belgium, Holland, na vigaŵa vya Ungelezi. Mu 2025, nyimbu zinyake zikasangika mu Iceland, caro ico cikaŵavya nyimbu, nangauli palije iyo yikawoneka mu nyengo ya kufunda ya 2026. == Malo gha Vyamoyo == === Vyakusaka na Vyakuthemba === Mphutsi za nyimbu ni vinyama vinandi comene mu vizima, ndipo ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku vyakusaka vya mu maji ghawemi. Vibenene vinandi vya mu maji ivyo vikukora mphutsi izi ni ŵana ŵa ŵakhulukuska na vinyake. Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vikuzirya ni somba nga ni ŵabwankha na somba ya nyimbu, ŵacule, fulu za maji ghawemi, na viyuni nga ni ŵabaka. Nyimbu zikulu zikufuma zikuryeka pacanya pa maji na membe zakusaka na ŵalutatavi. Nyimbu zakuduka zikukoreka na ŵakhulukuska, na viyuni nga ni byambyali, na vinyama vyakonkheska kusazgapo mileme. Nyimbu zikuthembeka na nthata, tuvinyama tucoko twa kaselo kamoza, na wowa. === Kutolera Ufu wa Maluŵa === Maluŵa ghanyake ghakutolereka ufu na nyimbu, izo zikuza kusanga uchi wa shuga. Vyakumera vicoko vyapadera vikutolereka ufu na nyimbu pera, nga ni maluŵa ghanyake gha ''orchid'' agho ghakutolereka na Aedes. Zikukopeka ku maluŵa na fungo linandi, na mitundu nga ni ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi. Nyimbu zaluta ku maluŵa kufuma nyengo ya Cretaceous. Ncakuthekera kuti kufyonta maji gha vyakumera kukanozga nyimbu kufyonta ndopa. === Kuthemba Vyamoyo Vinyake === Mu malo gha vyamoyo, nyimbu zakumwa ndopa ni vyakusaka vicoko, vinyama vicoko ivyo vikurya vinyama vikulu kwambura kuvikoma luŵiro. Ŵasandi ŵa kusintha kwa vyamoyo ŵakuwona ici nga ni mtundu wa kuthemba vyamoyo vinyake; Edward O. Wilson wakati vyakuthemba "ni vyakusaka ivyo vikurya cakusakika pasi pa cimoza". Kusaka kucoko kukupambana cifukwa cinyama cikulutilira kuŵaba, ndipo nyimbu yikuluma vinyama vinandi. Pa kalaŵiskiro aka, nyimbu ni vyakuthemba vya kuwaro, vikumwa ndopa kufuma kuwaro kwa cinyama, kwambura kunjira mu thupi lake. Kupambana na vyakuthemba vinyake vya kuwaro nga ni nthata na nyinda, nyimbu zikukhala pa thupi la cinyama nyengo zose yayi, kweni zikuza pera kurya. == Kusintha mu Nyengo == === Mafosilo === Kusanda kwa mu 2023 kukati Libanoculex intermedius, iyo yikasangika mu ulimbo wakukhwima wa Lebanon wa vyaka miliyoni 125 ivyo vyajumpha, ndiyo nyimbu ya kale comene yakumanyikwa. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti ni nyimbu, ŵakuti ni membe yinyake. Mitundu yinyake 7 ya nyimbu za Cretaceous yambura mphindano yikumanyikwa. Burmaculex, ya mitundu yinkhondi, na Cretosabethes primaevus, iyo yikumanyikwa kufuma ku mphutsi, zasangika mu ulimbo wakukhwima wa Myanmar wa vyaka pafupifupi miliyoni 99 ivyo vyajumpha. Paleoculicis minutus yikumanyikwa kufuma ku ulimbo wa Canada wa vyaka pafupifupi miliyoni 79. Cretosabethes yikughanaghanirika kuŵa ya gulu la mazuŵa ghano, ico cikulongora kuti nyimbu zikaŵa kuti zapambanapambana comene pambere pa pakati pa Cretaceous, nangauli mafosilo nghacoko. Kusanda kwa vyakuhara kukulongora kuti nyimbu zikamba mu Jurassic, kweni kupambanapambana kukulu kukacitika mu Cretaceous. === Kagaŵiro === Pali mitundu ya nyimbu yakujumpha 3,700; magulu 112 ghalongosoreka. Kanandi zikugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri, Anophelinae na Culicinae, agho ghakunyamula nthenda zakupambana. Mwa pose, nthenda za tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza nga ni malungo zikuyambuzgika na Anophelinae, apo nthenda za tubungulu nga ni cikasu na dengue zikuyambuzgika na Culicinae. Zina lakuti Culicidae likanjizgika na msandi wa vibenene wa Ŵajeremani Johann Wilhelm Meigen mu kagaŵiro kake ka vigaŵa 7 ako kakapharazgika mu 1818–1838. Kagaŵiro ka nyimbu kakaluta panthazi mu 1901 apo msandi wa vibenene wa Ungelezi Frederick Vincent Theobald wakapharazga buku la vigaŵa vinkhondi pa Culicidae. Wakapika nyimbu izo zikatumika ku British Museum kufuma pa caro cose, kuyana na malangulo gha 1898 gha Nduna ya Vyaro vya Ŵakoloni, Joseph Chamberlain, uyo wakalemba kuti "pakuti malungo ghangakolerana na nyimbu, nchiwemi kumanya makola mitundu yakupambana ya nyimbu na vibenene vyakukolerana nazo mu vyaro vya ku tropiki vya ŵakoloni." === Mbumba === ==== Ya Kuwaro ==== Nyimbu ni mbumba ya membe zenecho (gulu la Diptera): Culicidae (kufuma ku Cilatini ''culex'', "kamembe kacoko"). Zili mu gulu likulu la Culicomorpha. ==== Ya Mukati ==== Magulu ghaŵiri ghacoko gha nyimbu ni Anophelinae, iyo yili na magulu ghatatu na mitundu pafupifupi 430, na Culicinae, iyo yili na magulu 108 na mitundu 3,046. Kyanne Reidenbach na ŵanyake ŵakasanda mbumba ya nyimbu mu 2009, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vyakuhara na mawonekero gha mitundu 26. Ŵakasanga kuti Anophelinae njya pasi pa mbumba, kweni vigaŵa vyakuzika vya mbumba vindamanyikwe makola. == Ubale na Ŵanthu == === Vyakunyamula Nthenda === Nyimbu zikunyamula tuzirombo tunandi twa nthenda kusazgapo mabakiteriya, tubungulu, na tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza. Ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 700 ŵakukora nthenda ya nyimbu caka ciliconse, ndipo ŵakujumpha miliyoni yimoza ŵakufwa. Nthenda za tubungulu za nyimbu zakumanyikwa ni cikasu, chikungunya na dengue, ivyo vyose vikuyambuzgika comene na Aedes aegypti. Nthenda za tuzirombo izo nyimbu zikuyambuzga ni malungo na ''filariasis''. Tuzirombo twa ''Plasmodium'' utu tukwiziska malungo tukunyamulika na nyimbu zanakazi za Anopheles. Purotini yinyake mu mata gha Anopheles yikuzomerezga tuzirombo twa malungo kukhala mu nyimbu. ''Filariasis'', cifukwa cikulu ca nthenda za kufufuma kwa malundi, yikuthandazgika na nyimbu za mitundu yinandi. Nthenda ya mabakiteriya iyo nyimbu za Culex zikuthandazga ni ''tularemia''. === Kulaŵilira === Nthowa zinandi zayezgeka pa kulaŵilira nyimbu, kusazgapo kuwuskapo malo gha kuŵabira, kukanizga na masefa gha mawindo na masefa gha nyimbu, kugwiliskira ntchito vyamoyo nga ni wowa na mphutsi, panji vyakusaka nga ni somba na ŵakhulukuska. Nthowa yinyake ni kuthandazga ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵambura kuŵaba. Nthowa za kusintha vyakuhara, izo zikuwonekera kuŵa zambura kudura, zasandika. Kulaŵilira nyimbu zakunyamula nthenda mwa kuthandazga vyakuhara vyakusinthika kwasacizgika. === Vyakucimbizga === Vyakucimbizga vibenene vikupakika pa cikopa ndipo vikuvikilira ku kuluma kwa nyimbu kwa kanyengo kacoko. DEET yikucimbizga nyimbu zinyake na vibenene vinyake. Vinyake ni mafuta gha bulugamu na vinyake. Pyrethrum, iyo yikufuma ku maluŵa ghanyake, ni cakucimbizga ciwemi ca vyakumera. Vilwero vya magesi ivyo vikupanga congo ca pacanya kuti vicimbizge nyimbu vikuguliskika, kweni palije kusanda uko kwalongora kuti vikuvikilira ŵanthu ku kuluma kwa nyimbu. === Kuluma === Kuluma kwa nyimbu kukwiziska vyakucitika vinandi pa cikumba, ndipo nyengo zinyake ulwari wa kukhwaskika comene na kuluma. Ulwari uwu ni kulimbana kukulu kwa thupi na purotini za mata gha nyimbu. Mitundu yinandi ya nyimbu yingiziska ici. Cifukwa purotini za mata gha nyimbu zakupambana zikuyana, ulwari ungafuma ku nyimbu za mtundu uliwose. Ucizgi ungaŵa wa mankhwala gha kuyabwa, gha kumwa panji gha kupaka pa cikumba. Amoniya wa maji nayo yikovwira. Kufunda na kuzizima nako kungovwira. == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == === Majandulo gha Ŵagiriki === Nthanthi za vinyama za Ŵagiriki ŵa kale, nga ni "Njovu na Nyimbu" na "Ng'ombe Yanalume na Nyimbu", izo zili na sambiro lakuti cinyama cikulu cikuwona nanga ni cicoko yayi, zikafuma ku Mesopotamiya. === Majandulo gha Kwambilira === Ŵanthu ŵa Siberia ŵali na majandulo gha kwambilira kwa nyimbu. Jandulo limoza likuyowoya za cimuntu cikulu cakurya ŵanthu, Punegusse, ico cikakomeka na mpalu kweni cikawukanga so. Mpalu wakacocha, kweni vyoto vya moto vikazgoka nyimbu, izo zicali kusuzga ŵanthu. Majandulo ghanyake gha Siberia ghakuti nyimbu zikafuma ku vyoto panji vigaŵa vya cinyama cikulu panji ciŵanda. Majandulo ghakuyana gha Ŵaamerika ŵa malo agho, umo nyimbu zikufuma ku vyoto vya cakurya ŵanthu, ghakulongora kuti ghakafuma pamoza. Lafcadio Hearn wakulemba kuti mu Japani, nyimbu zikuwonekera nga ni ŵakufwa awo ŵawuka so, ŵakulangika cifukwa ca vyakwananga vyawo kuŵa "mizimu yakumwa ndopa". === Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Filimu ya Winsor McCay ya 1912 ''How a Mosquito Operates'' yikaŵa yimoza mwa mafilimu ghakwamba gha vithuzi vyakwenda vyakujambulika. Yikulongora nyimbu yikulu yikusuzga munthu wakugona. Ngalawa 12 za nkhondo za Ŵabritoni zathyika zina la HMS Mosquito panji HMS Musquito. De Havilland Mosquito yikaŵa ndege ya luŵiro iyo yikapangika pakati pa 1940 na 1950, ndipo yikagwira ntchito zinandi. Msumba wa Berezniki mu Russia ukusekelera nyimbu zake na mphikizgano wa "msungwana wakunowa comene" caka ciliconse kufuma 17 mpaka 20 Vuna. Ŵanakazi ŵakwimilira maminiti 20 na vyakuvwara vifupi; uyo walumika comene ndiyo wakupunda. Singano izo zikuyana na mlomo wa nyimbu zikupangika pa ucizgi. [[Category:Vinyama]] elwvuu76ude1ytqgwfhi76bhw75pt6g 124414 124356 2026-11-10T20:48:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124414 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Nyimbu | fossil_range = {{fossilrange |99|0|earliest=125}} <small>Cretaceous – sono</small> | image = Aedes aegypti.jpg | image_caption = ''Aedes aegypti'', nyimbu iyo yikunyamula comene nthenda ya ''yellow fever'' | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Arthropoda | classis = Insecta | ordo = Diptera | subordo = Nematocera | infraordo = Culicomorpha | superfamilia = Culicoidea | familia = '''Culicidae''' | familia_authority = Meigen, 1818 | subdivision_ranks = Mbumba zicoko | subdivision = *Anophelinae *Culicinae }} [[File:Mosquito 2007-2.jpg|thumb|250px|Nyimbu]] '''Nyimbu''' (''Culicidae'') ni mbumba ya membe zicoko ya mitundu 3,600. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''mosquito'' (kufuma ku ''mosca'' na ''-ito'' ya kucepeska) ni la Cisipanya na Cipwitikizi, ndipo likung'anamula "membe yicoko".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=PuiMZGa |title=mosquito |publisher=Real Academia Española |access-date=24 July 2016 |archive-date=24 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724225319/http://dle.rae.es/?id=PuiMZGa |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="isbn0-19-861271-0">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Lesley |title=The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, England |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-861271-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/newshorteroxford00lesl }}</ref> Nyimbu zili na thupi licoko la vigaŵa, maphapindo ghaŵiri, malundi ghatali gha nga ni sisi ghankhondi na ghamoza, na mlomo utali wapadera wa kuluma na kufyonta. Nyimbu zose zikumwa uchi wa maluŵa; nyimbu zanakazi za mitundu yinandi zikumwa so ndopa. Gulu ili likapambanapambana mu nyengo ya Cretaceous. Ŵasandi ŵa kusintha kwa vyamoyo ŵakuwona nyimbu nga ni vyakusaka vicoko, vinyama vicoko ivyo vikuthemba vikulu mwa kumwa ndopa zawo kwambura kuvikoma luŵiro. Ŵasandi ŵa tuzirombo twa nthenda ŵakuwona nyimbu nga ni vyakunyamula nthenda, cifukwa zikunyamula tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza, mabakiteriya, panji tubungulu kufuma ku cinyama cimoza kuya ku cinyake. Umoyo wa nyimbu uli na nyengo zinayi: sumbi, mphutsi, cikumbi, na nyimbu yikulu. Masumbi ghakuikika pacanya pa maji; ghakusululuka kuŵa mphutsi izo zikwenda na kurya koyo na vinthu vinyake. Mphutsi izi ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku vinyama vinandi vya mu maji ghawemi, nga ni ŵana ŵa ŵakhulukuska, somba zinandi, na viyuni vinyake. Nyimbu zanakazi zikulu za mitundu yinandi zili na mlomo wakukolerana na kuboola cikumba ca cinyama na kumwa ndopa za vinyama vinandi vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, na vinyama vinyake vyambura fupa la msana. Mitundu yinyake yikuikira masumbi pera pamanyuma pa kumwa ndopa. Mate gha nyimbu ghakunjira mu cinyama apo yikuluma, ndipo ghangiziska vyakuyabwa. Kweniso, mitundu iyo yikumwa ndopa yingamwa tuzirombo twa nthenda apo yikuluma na kutuyambuzga ku vinyama vinyake. Mitundu iyi yikusazgapo iyo yikunyamula [[Malungo|malungo]] na nthenda ya ''filariasis'', na nthenda za tubungulu nga ni cikasu na dengue. Mwa kuyambuzga nthenda, nyimbu zikukoma ŵanthu ŵakujumpha miliyoni yimoza caka ciliconse. == Malongosoro na Umoyo == [[File:Mosquito Life-Cycle.svg|frameless|right|upright=1.2]] Nga ni membe zose, nyimbu zikujumpha mu nyengo zinayi za umoyo: sumbi, mphutsi, cikumbi, na nyimbu yikulu. Nyengo zitatu zakwamba zikucitika mu maji, ndipo masumbi kanandi ghakuikika mu maji ghakwimilira.<ref>{{cite web |title=FAQs |publisher=AMCA |url=https://www.mosquito.org/page/faq |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716212718/https://www.mosquito.org/page/FAQ |archive-date=16 July 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Wigglesworth 1933">{{cite journal |last=Wigglesworth |first=Vincent B. |author-link=Vincent Wigglesworth |year=1933 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=10 |pages=27–36 |title=The Adaptation of Mosquito Larvae to Salt Water |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/content/10/1/27 |issue=1 |doi=10.1242/jeb.10.1.27 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1933JExpB..10...27W |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=24 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624025943/http://jeb.biologists.org/content/10/1/27 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ghakusululuka kuŵa mphutsi, izo zikurya, kukura, na kuvula cikopa mpaka zikusanduka vikumbi. Nyimbu yikulu yikufuma mu cikumbi apo cikuyandama pacanya pa maji. Nyimbu zikulu zikukhala kufuma sabata limoza mpaka mwezi umoza. Mitundu yinyake yikujumpha nyengo ya kuzizima nga ni nyimbu zikulu, zikugona.<ref>Kosova, Jonida (2003) [http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes/94 "Longevity Studies of Sindbis Virus Infected ''Aedes Albopictus''"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425162236/http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes/94/ |date=25 April 2012 }}. All Volumes (2001–2008). Paper 94.</ref> === Nyimbu Yikulu === Nyimbu zili na maphapindo ghaŵiri, agho ghali na mamba pacanya. Maphapindo ghake ngatali na ghafupi, ndipo malundi ngatali na ghacoko. Thupi, kanandi lakuzirima panji lakufipa, ndicoko, ndipo kanandi nditali milimita 3–6. Para zikupumula, nyimbu zikusunga malundi ghakwamba kuwaro, apo tumembe tunyake twakuyana tukusunga malundi agha panthazi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nature.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/midges |title=Midges |website=MDC Discover Nature |access-date=19 November 2019 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026055541/https://nature.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/midges |url-status=live}}</ref> Nyimbu za Anopheles zingaduka mpaka maora ghanayi kwambura kuleka pa makilomita 1 mpaka 2 pa ora, ndipo zingenda mpaka makilomita 12 usiku umoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaufmann |first1=C. |last2=Briegel |first2=H. |title=Flight performance of the malaria vectors Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles atroparvus |journal=Journal of Vector Ecology |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=140–153 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15266751 |url=http://www.sove.org/Journal%20PDF/June%202004/Kaufmann.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728043927/http://www.sove.org/Journal%20PDF/June%202004/Kaufmann.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-28 }}</ref> Ŵanalume ŵakutimba maphapindo pakati pa kanandi 450 na 600 pa liŵiri.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |first=Diana |last=Leung |url=https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/DianaLeung.shtml |title=Frequency of mosquito wings |year=2000 |website=The Physics Factbook |editor-last=Elert |editor-first=Glenn |access-date=2022-01-24 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125000341/https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/DianaLeung.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=David S. |title=Flight muscles of insects |journal=Scientific American |volume=212 |pages=76–88 |year=1965 |issue=6 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0665-76 |pmid=14327957 |bibcode=1965SciAm.212f..76S }}</ref> Nyimbu kanandi ni membe zicoko; zikulu comene ni za mtundu wa Toxorhynchites, za utali mpaka milimita 18 na maphapindo gha milimita 24.<ref name="Cook 2009">{{cite book |author1=Cook, G.C. |author2=Zumla, A |year=2009 |title=Manson's Tropical Diseases |publisher=Saunders Elsevier |page=1735 |edition=22 |isbn=978-1-4160-4470-3}}</ref> Za Aedes nzicoko comene, za maphapindo gha milimita 2.8 mpaka 4.4.<ref name="UF/IFAS A. gambiae">{{cite web |title=African malaria mosquito |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/aquatic/Anopheles_gambiae.htm |publisher=University of Florida |access-date=11 February 2024 |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330125827/https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/aquatic/Anopheles_gambiae.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyimbu zingakura kufuma ku sumbi mpaka nyimbu yikulu mu mazuŵa ghankhondi pera para kukufunda, kweni kungatora mpaka mwezi umoza.<ref name="EPA life cycle"/> Mlenji panji kuzirimila, mu mazuŵa ghacoko pamanyuma pa kufuma mu cikumbi, ŵanalume ŵakuwungana mu magulu, ndipo ŵakutorana para ŵanakazi ŵaduka mukati.<ref name="CDC Anopheles"/><ref name=":6">{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/university-witwatersrand/p/male-mosquito-odours-reveal-how-mozzies-mate |title=Male mosquito odours reveal how mozzies mate |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |date=5 August 2020 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125141528/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/university-witwatersrand/p/male-mosquito-odours-reveal-how-mozzies-mate |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Mozūraitis |first1=R. |last2=Hajkazemian |first2=M. |last3=Zawada |first3=J.W. |display-authors=etal |title=Male swarming aggregation pheromones increase female attraction and mating success among multiple African malaria vector mosquito species |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=1395–1401 |date=3 August 2020 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1264-9 |pmid=32747772 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1395M |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e28af752-35bf-4ed0-b0c6-7d612b3e44e3 |archive-date=2 December 2024 |access-date=28 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202185415/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e28af752-35bf-4ed0-b0c6-7d612b3e44e3 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyimbu yanakazi yikutorana kamoza pera mu umoyo wake, yikukopeka na fungo ilo wanalume wakufumiska. Mu mitundu iyo yikukhumba ndopa kuti masumbi ghakure, yanakazi yikusanga cinyama na kumwa ndopa zakukwana. Pamanyuma yikupumula mazuŵa ghaŵiri panji ghatatu kuti yigaye ndopa na masumbi ghakure. Pamanyuma yikunozgeka kuikira masumbi na kuwerezga ndondomeko ya kurya na kuikira.<ref name="CDC Anopheles"/> Ŵanakazi ŵangakhala mpaka masabata ghatatu mu thengere, kuyana na kufunda, unyowevu, kusanga ndopa, na kuleka kukomeka na vinyama ivyo zikuluma.<ref name="CDC Anopheles"/><ref name="Peach-Gries-2020"/> === Masumbi === <gallery class=center mode="nolines" heights="450" widths="300"> File:Culex pipiens diagram en.svg|Kapangikiro ka nyimbu yanakazi yikulu File:Aedes aegypti E-A-Goeldi 1905.jpg|Nyimbu yikulu ya ''Aedes aegypti'' iyo yikunyamula nthenda ya ''yellow fever'', yakuzgoŵereka mu gulu la Culicinae. Yanalume (ku mazere) yili na vyakupulikira vya sisi linandi na vigaŵa vitali vya mlomo kuluska yanakazi (ku maryero) </gallery> Masumbi gha nyimbu zinandi ghakuikika mu maji ghakwimilira, agho ghangaŵa cizima, dambo, kadzenje ka maji ka kanyengo, maji mu khuni lakuboŵa, panji maji agho ghakusungika pa mahamba gha vyakumera vinyake. Zinyake zikuikira pafupi na mphepete ya maji apo zinyake zikukakatiska masumbi ku vyakumera vya mu maji. Zicoko, nga ni Opifex fuscus, zingaŵaba mu madambo gha mcere.<ref name="Wigglesworth 1933"/> Wyeomyia smithii yikuŵaba mu vyakumera vyakuŵa na maji mukati, ndipo mphutsi zake zikurya vibenene vyakuvunda ivyo vyabira umo.<ref>Crans, Wayne J.; [http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/sp27.htm ''Wyeomyia smithii'' (Coquillett)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605173233/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/sp27.htm |date=2013-06-05 }}. Rutgers University, Center for Vector Biology.</ref> Kaikiliro ka masumbi kakupambana pa mitundu. Ŵanakazi ŵa Anopheles ŵakuduka pacanya pa maji, ŵakukhwaska maji kuti ŵaŵike masumbi pacanya limoza limoza; masumbi ghawo ghali na vyakuyandamira ku mbali. Yanakazi yingaikira masumbi 100–200 mu umoyo wake.<ref name="CDC Anopheles">{{cite web |title=''Anopheles'' Mosquitoes |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/mosquitoes/ |access-date=December 13, 2023 |date=July 16, 2020 |archive-date=9 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909055158/http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/mosquitoes/ }}</ref> Ŵanakazi ŵa Aedes ŵakuwiska masumbi limoza limoza pa dongo lakunyowa pafupi na maji; masumbi ghawo ghakusululuka pera para maji ghazuzga.<ref name="Huang Walker Vulule Miller 2006"/> Ŵanakazi ŵa Culex na zinyake ŵakuikira masumbi mu tumphasa twakuyandama.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gullan |first1=P. J. |last2=Cranston |first2=P. S. |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Oxford |year=2014 |edition=5th |isbn=978-1-118-84616-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF5hBAAAQBAJ |page=280 |access-date=14 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211165406/https://books.google.com/books?id=lF5hBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Spielman, D'Antonio">{{cite book |last1=Spielman |first1=Andrew |last2=D'Antonio |first2=M. |chapter=Part One: Magnificent Enemy |title=Mosquito: a natural history of our most persistent and deadly foe |publisher=Hyperion |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7868-6781-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/mosquitonaturalh00spie }}</ref> Ŵanakazi ŵa Mansonia ŵakuikira masumbi pasi pa mahamba gha vyakumera vya mu maji.<ref name="Amorim Sa Rojas Santos Neto 2022 pp. 631–637">{{cite journal |last1=Amorim |first1=J. A. |last2=Sa |first2=I. L. R. |last3=Rojas |first3=M. V. R. |last4=Santos Neto |first4=N. F. |last5=Galardo |first5=A. K. R. |last6=Carvalho |first6=D. P. |last7=Ribeiro |first7=K. A. N. |last8=Sallum |first8=M. A. M. |display-authors=5 |title=Aquatic Macrophytes Hosting Immature Mansonia (Mansonia) Blanchard, 1901 (Diptera, Culicidae) in Porto Velho, Rondonia State, Brazil |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=59 |issue=2 |date=2022-03-16 |doi=10.1093/jme/tjab223 |pages=631–637|pmid=35043213 }}</ref> Masumbi gha nyimbu zinandi ghakusululuka pa nyengo yimoza, kweni masumbi gha Aedes agho ghakugona ghakusululuka pacoko pacoko mu nyengo yitali.<ref name="Huang Walker Vulule Miller 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Juan |last2=Walker |first2=Edward D |last3=Vulule |first3=John |last4=Miller |first4=James R. |title=Daily temperature profiles in and around Western Kenyan larval habitats of Anopheles gambiae as related to egg mortality |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=5 |issue=1 |date=2006 |page=87 |pmid=17038186 |pmc=1617108 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-5-87 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Mphutsi === <gallery mode="packed"> File:Anopheles_egg_2_(cropped).jpg|Masumbi gha ''Anopheles'' agho ghali na vyakuyandamira ku mbali File:Mosquito egg SEM.jpg|Cithuzi ca sumbi la nyimbu ya Culicinae, cakujambulika na maikulosikopu ya magesi File:Gelege1 (cropped).jpg|Tumphasa twa masumbi gha ''Culex'' </gallery> Mutu wa mphutsi ya nyimbu uli na tuburashi twa mlomo utu tukugwiliskirika ntchito pa kurya, cifuwa cikulu cambura malundi, na nthumbo ya vigaŵa. Yikupuma mphepo kwizira mu kathumbu pa nthumbo yake, ntheura yikwenera kwiza pacanya kanandi. Yikujumpha nyengo yinandi yikurya vyakumera vicoko, mabakiteriya, na tuvinyama tucoko twa pacanya pa maji. Yikubira pasi para yasokonezgeka. Yikusambira mwa kujikankha na tuburashi twa mlomo, panji mwa kunyunganyunga thupi. Yikukura mu nyengo zinandi, yikuvula cikopa nyengo yiliyose, ndipo pamanyuma yikusanduka cikumbi.<ref name="EPA life cycle">{{cite web |title=Mosquito Life Cycle |date=21 February 2013 |url=https://www.epa.gov/mosquitocontrol/mosquito-life-cycle |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=12 December 2023 |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219184319/https://www.epa.gov/mosquitocontrol/mosquito-life-cycle |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphutsi za Aedes, kupatula para nziphya comene, zingazizipizga kukoma; zikugona kwa myezi yinandi usange cizima cawo cakoma.<ref name="Huang Walker Vulule Miller 2006"/> === Cikumbi === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights=200 widths=200> File:AnophelesLarvaPhoto CDCHarryWeinburgh publicdomain.jpg|Mphutsi ya ''Anopheles'' File:Culex restuans larva diagram en.svg|Kapangikiro ka mphutsi ya ''Culex'' File:Culex sp larvae.png|Mphutsi za ''Culex'' na cikumbi cimoza </gallery> Mutu na cifuwa vya cikumbi vyasazganika, ndipo nthumbo yikupindikira pasi pake. Cikumbi cingasambira mwa kupinda nthumbo yake. Nga ni mphutsi, cikumbi ca mitundu yinandi cikwenera kwiza pacanya kanandi kupuma, kwizira mu tumalipenga tuŵiri twa kupumira. Vikurya yayi; vikujumpha nyengo yinandi vikupachika pacanya pa maji. Para vyafipa mtima, vikusambira pasi mwa kupinda nthumbo nga ni mphutsi. Para vindasokonezgeke, vikuyandama so luŵiro. Nyimbu yikulu yikufuma mu cikumbi pacanya pa maji ndipo yikuduka.<ref name="EPA life cycle"/> == Kurya kwa Nyimbu Zikulu == === Vyakulya === <gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights=200 widths=400> File:Underwater view of mosquito pupae in standing water.jpg|Vikumbi vya nyimbu, pambere nyimbu zikulu zindafumemo. Mutu na cifuwa vyakolerana kuŵa cigaŵa cimoza. </gallery> [[File:Mosquito Tasmania crop.jpg|thumb|Nyimbu yanakazi ya ''Aedes'' yikumwa ndopa pa woko la munthu. ]] Nyimbu zanalume na zanakazi zikurya uchi wa maluŵa na maji gha vyakumera, kweni mu mitundu yinandi ŵanakazi ŵakumwa so ndopa.<ref name="Peach-Gries-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Peach |first1=Daniel A. H. |last2=Gries |first2=Gerhard |title=Mosquito phytophagy – sources exploited, ecological function, and evolutionary transition to haematophagy |journal=Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata |issue=2 |doi=10.1111/eea.12852 |year=2019 |volume=168 |doi-access=free |pages=120–136 }}</ref> Mu mitundu yinyake, ndopa nzakukhumbikwa pa kupanga masumbi; mu yinyake, zikuzomerezga waka yanakazi kuikira masumbi ghanandi.<ref name="pmid30846726">{{cite journal |title=Multimodal floral cues guide mosquitoes to tansy inflorescences |journal=Scientific Reports |date=March 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=3908 |pmid=30846726 |last1=Peach |first1=Daniel A. H. |last2=Gries |first2=R. |last3=Zhai |first3=H. |last4=Young |first4=N. |last5=Gries |first5=G. |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-39748-4 |doi-access=free|pmc=6405845 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.3908P }}</ref> Vyakumera na ndopa vyose ni makasupe ghawemi gha nkhongono mu shuga.<ref name="Tyagi 2004">{{cite book |last=Tyagi |first=B. K. |title=The Invincible Deadly Mosquitoes |publisher=Scientific Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-93-87741-30-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4g9fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |access-date=6 April 2021 |page=79 |quote=Only female mosquitoes require a blood meal (protein)...The number of egg formation and development in ovary of the female is directly dependent on quantum and nature supply of blood meal. |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129181746/https://books.google.com/books?id=4g9fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="AMCA">{{cite web |title=Biology |url=https://www.mosquito.org/page/biology |website=mosquito.org |publisher=American Mosquito Control Association |access-date=6 April 2021 |quote=Acquiring a blood meal (protein) is essential for egg production, but mostly both male and female mosquitoes are nectar feeders for their nutrition. |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329163726/https://www.mosquito.org/page/biology |url-status=live }}</ref> Ndopa zikupeleka vyakulya vinandi, kweni ntchito yikulu ya ndopa ni kusanga purotini ya kupangira masumbi. Nyimbu zakunyamula nthenda nga ni Anopheles na Aedes zikukhumba ndopa kuti ziikire masumbi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sawabe |first1=K. |last2=Moribayashi |first2=A. |title=Lipid utilization for ovarian development in an autogenous mosquito, Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae) |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=726–731 |date=September 2000 |pmid=11004785 |doi=10.1603/0022-2585-37.5.726 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Mitundu yicoko ya Malaya, Topomyia na Toxorhynchites yikuŵaba kwambura kumwa ndopa nanga ni kamoza.<ref name="Wahid Sunahara Mogi 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Wahid |first1=Isra |last2=Sunahara |first2=Toshihiki |last3=Mogi |first3=Motoyoshi |date=2003 |title= Maxillae and mandibles of male mosquitoes and female autogenous mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=151 |doi=10.1603/0022-2585-40.2.150 |pmid=12693842 }}</ref> === Vinyama Ivyo Zikuluma === Nyimbu zakumwa ndopa zikutemwa vinyama vinyake, nangauli zikusankha comene yayi para vyakulya vyasoŵa. Mitundu yakupambana yikutemwa ŵacule, vyakukwaŵa kusazgapo njoka, viyuni, na vinyama vyakonkheska. Mwaciyelezgero, Culiseta melanura yikumwa ndopa za viyuni vicoko, kweni apo unandi wa nyimbu wasazgikira zikuluma vinyama vyakonkheska kusazgapo mahachi na ŵanthu, ndipo zikuthandazga nthenda ya kabungulu mu Amerika ya Kumpoto.<ref name="Lehane2005">{{cite book |last=Lehane |first=M. J. |title=The Biology of Blood-Sucking in Insects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZV5EKCEGHIoC&pg=PA151 |date=9 June 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83608-1 |page=151 |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-date=28 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528091322/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZV5EKCEGHIoC&pg=PA151 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kutaya ndopa ku maluma ghanandi kungakula, ndipo nyengo zinyake kukukoma viŵeto vikulu nga ni ng'ombe na mahachi.<ref name="LSUAgCenter">{{cite web |title=Hurricane Laura exacerbates mosquito problems with livestock |website=LSU AgCenter |date=2020-09-09 |url=https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/rbogren/articles/page1599664054105 |access-date=2022-02-26 |archive-date=2022-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226191729/https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/rbogren/articles/page1599664054105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyimbu za malungo zikupenja mbozi na kumwa maji gha mu thupi lawo, zikukanizga kukura kwawo.<ref name="George Blanford Thomas Baker 2014">{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Justin |last2=Blanford |first2=Simon |last3=Thomas |first3=Matthew B. |last4=Baker |first4=Thomas C. |title=Malaria Mosquitoes Host-Locate and Feed upon Caterpillars |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=11 |date=2014-11-05 |pmid=25372720 |pmc=4220911 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108894 |article-number=e108894 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j8894G |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martel |first1=Véronique |last2=Schlyter |first2=Fredrik |last3=Ignell |first3=Rickard |last4=Hansson |first4=Bill S. |last5=Anderson |first5=Peter |title=Mosquito feeding affects larval behaviour and development in a moth |journal=PLOS One |volume=6 |issue=10 |article-number=e25658 |year=2011 |pmid=21991329 |pmc=3185006 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025658 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...625658M |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kusanga Vinyama === <gallery mode=packed heights=150> File:Chironius scurrulus (Yasuni) (cropped) with mosquitoes.jpg|Zikumwa ndopa pa njoka File:Mosquitoes vs. Frog (14555480700) (cropped).jpg|Zikumwa ndopa pa cule File:JJeffreyApapaneMosquito.jpg|Yikumwa ndopa pa ciyuni </gallery> [[File:How to attract mosquitoes.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Nyimbu zanakazi izo zikumwa ndopa zikusanga vinyama mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vinandi, nga ni kaboni dayokisayidi uyo cinyama cikupuma, kufunda, na fungo linandi.]] Nyimbu zinandi zikurya mlenji panji kuzirimila, ndipo zikupumula mu malo ghakuzizima msana.<ref>{{cite conference |conference=Proceedings of the Eighty-Second Annual Meeting of the New Jersey Mosquito Control Association |year=1989 |pages=53–57 |last=Crans |first=Wayne J. |url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/restbox.htm |title=Resting boxes as mosquito surveillance tools |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720195034/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/restbox.htm |archive-date=2006-07-20 }}</ref> Mitundu yinyake, nga ni nyimbu ya Asiya ya mawanga, yikuduka na kurya msana.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Maruniak |first1=James E. |title=Asian tiger mosquito |url=https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN594 |website=Featured Creatures |publisher=University of Florida |access-date=October 2, 2014 |location=Gainesville, Florida |date=July 2014 |archive-date=September 7, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907181247/http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/aquatic/asian_tiger.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hallem |first1=Elissa A. |last2=Nicole Fox |first2=A. |last3=Zwiebel |first3=Laurence J. |last4=Carlson |first4=John R. |title=Olfaction: mosquito receptor for human-sweat odorant |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6971 |pages=212–213 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14724626 |doi=10.1038/427212a |bibcode=2004Natur.427..212H }}</ref> Nyimbu zanakazi zikupenja vinyama mwa kununkhizga vinthu nga ni kaboni dayokisayidi na vinyake ivyo vikufuma mu mpweya wa cinyama, na mwa kuwona.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2009/10/28/scientists-identify-key-smell-that-attracts-mosquitoes-to-humans.html |title=Scientists identify key smell that attracts mosquitoes to humans |magazine=US News |date=October 28, 2009 |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=10 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910225722/https://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2009/10/28/scientists-identify-key-smell-that-attracts-mosquitoes-to-humans |url-status=live }}</ref> Cigaŵa cikulu ca kununkhizga kwa nyimbu cikugwira ntchito ya kupenja ndopa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://richarddawkins.net/2014/11/scientists-have-identified-the-gene-that-makes-mosquitoes-crave-human-blood/ |title=Scientists have identified the gene that makes mosquitoes crave human blood |publisher=Richard Dawkins Foundation |date=November 21, 2014 |access-date=November 21, 2014 |archive-date=November 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125134812/https://richarddawkins.net/2014/11/scientists-have-identified-the-gene-that-makes-mosquitoes-crave-human-blood/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mwa mitundu 72 ya vyakununkhizgira pa minyanga yake, yakujumpha 27 yikusanga vinthu vya mu thukutira.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/medicine/article7014046.ece |newspaper=The Times |location=London |title=Sweat and blood why mosquitoes pick and choose between humans |first=Hannah |last=Devlin |date=February 4, 2010 |access-date=May 13, 2010 |archive-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003061323/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ }}</ref> Mu Aedes, kupenja kukucitika mu nyengo ziŵiri: pakwamba nyimbu yikuduka mpaka yasanga fungo la cinyama; pamanyuma yikuduka kuliya, yikulongozgeka na unandi wa fungo. Nyimbu zikutemwa kuluma ŵanthu ŵa ndopa za mtundu wa O, ŵa mabakiteriya ghanandi pa cikumba, na ŵa kufunda kukulu kwa thupi; zikutemwa so ŵanakazi ŵa nthumbo.<ref name="Estrada">{{cite book |last1=Estrada-Franco |first1=R. G. |last2=Craig |first2=G. B. |year=1995 |title=Biology, disease relationship and control of ''Aedes albopictus'' |publisher=Pan American Health Organization |location=Washington, D.C. |series=Technical Paper No. 42}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shirai |first1=Yoshikazu |last2=Funada |first2=Hisashi |last3=Takizawa |first3=Hisao |last4=Seki |first4=Taisuke |last5=Morohashi |first5=Masaaki |last6=Kamimura |first6=Kiyoshi |title=Landing preference of ''Aedes albopictus'' (Diptera: Culicidae) on human skin among ABO blood groups, secretors or nonsecretors, and ABH antigens |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=796–799 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15311477 |doi=10.1603/0022-2585-41.4.796 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Chappell, NPR 2013.07.12: Mosquitos' perceptions of humans">{{cite news |last1=Chappell |first1=Bill |title=5 Stars: A Mosquito's Idea Of A Delicious Human |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/07/12/201521175/5-stars-a-mosquitos-idea-of-a-delicious-human |access-date=23 July 2021 |publisher=NPR |date=12 July 2013 |archive-date=14 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014202549/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/07/12/201521175/5-stars-a-mosquitos-idea-of-a-delicious-human |url-status=live }}</ref> Kukopa nyimbu kwa munthu kuli na cigaŵa cakuharika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernández-Grandon |first1=G. Mandela |last2=Gezan |first2=Salvador A. |last3=Armour |first3=John A. L. |last4=Pickett |first4=John A. |last5=Logan |first5=James G. |title=Heritability of attractiveness to mosquitoes |journal=PLOS One |volume=10 |issue=4 |article-number=e0122716 |date=22 April 2015 |pmid=25901606 |pmc=4406498 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122716 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022716F |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vinandi vya cinyama ivyo nyimbu yikuwona vikuyizomerezga kusankha cinyama ca kuluma. Para pali kaboni dayokisayidi, yikwamba kupenja na fungo na maso. Kusanda kwalongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukopa comene nyimbu ŵakupanga ma''carboxylic acid'' ghanandi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Obaldia |first1=Maria Elena |last2=Morita |first2=Takeshi |last3=Dedmon |first3=Laura C. |last4=Boehmler |first4=Daniel J. |last5=Jiang |first5=Caroline S. |last6=Zeledon |first6=Emely V. |last7=Cross |first7=Justin R. |last8=Vosshall |first8=Leslie B. |display-authors=3 |date=2022-10-27 |title=Differential mosquito attraction to humans is associated with skin-derived carboxylic acid levels |journal=Cell |volume=185 |issue=22 |pages=4099–4116.e13 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.034 |pmid=36261039|pmc=10069481 }}</ref> Fungo la thupi la munthu likulongora kuti ni munthu, kwambura kuŵa cinyama cinyake cakufunda.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McBride |first=Carolyn |date=12 November 2014 |title=Evolution of mosquito preference for humans linked to an odorant receptor |journal=Nature|volume=515 |issue=7526 |pages=222–227 |doi=10.1038/nature13964 |pmid=25391959 |pmc=4286346 |bibcode=2014Natur.515..222M }}</ref> Fungo la thupi, ilo likufuma pa cikumba, ndilo cimanyikwiro cakuzirwa comene ku nyimbu.<ref name="Acree Turner 1968">{{cite journal |last1=Acree |first1=Fred |last2=Turner |first2=R. B. |last3=Gouck |first3=H. K. |last4=Beroza |first4=Morton |last5=Smith |first5=Nelson |title=L-Lactic Acid: A Mosquito Attractant Isolated from Humans |journal=Science |volume=161 |issue=3848 |date=27 September 1968 |doi=10.1126/science.161.3848.1346 |pages=1346–1347 |pmid=5673445 |bibcode=1968Sci...161.1346A }}</ref> Fungo linandi ili likupangika apo mabakiteriya gha pa cikumba ghakugaya thukutira na mafuta gha cikopa. Kupambana kwa fungo kukufuma ku kuzitika kwa thupi, mahomoni, vyakuhara, na nthenda zinyake. Nthenda nga ni malungo zingasintha fungo la thupi. Ŵanthu ŵa malungo ŵakupanga vinthu vinyake vinandi pa cikumba ivyo vikukopa comene nyimbu. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵa malungo ŵakulumika comene na nyimbu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Ailie |last2=Busula |first2=Annette O. |last3=Voets |first3=Mirjam A. |last4=Beshir |first4=Khalid B. |last5=Caulfield |first5=John C. |last6=Powers |first6=Stephen J. |last7=Verhulst |first7=Niels O. |last8=Winskill |first8=Peter |last9=Muwanguzi |first9=Julian |last10=Birkett |first10=Michael A. |last11=Smallegange |first11=Renate C. |last12=Masiga |first12=Daniel K. |last13=Mukabana |first13=W. Richard |last14=Sauerwein |first14=Robert W. |last15=Sutherland |first15=Colin J. |display-authors=3 |date=May 2018 |title=Plasmodium -associated changes in human odor attract mosquitoes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=18 |pages=E4209–E4218 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1721610115 |doi-access=free |pmc=5939094 |pmid=29666273 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115E4209R }}</ref> Kupenja na maso kwa nyimbu kukusazgapo kupulika mitundu yakupambana. Nyimbu zikukopeka na ungweru wa majigha ghatali, mitundu yakufiira na ya malalanje nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera, ndiko kuti mitundu ya cikumba ca ŵanthu. Kweniso zikukopeka comene na vinthu vyakufipa ivyo vikuwoneka makola pa malo ghakuŵala.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Alonso San Alberto |first1=Diego |last2=Rusch |first2=Claire |last3=Zhan |first3=Yinpeng |last4=Straw |first4=Andrew D. |last5=Montell |first5=Craig |last6=Riffell |first6=Jeffrey A. |date=2022-02-04 |title=The olfactory gating of visual preferences to human skin and visible spectra in mosquitoes |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=555 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28195-x |doi-access=free|pmid=35121739 |pmc=8816903 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..555A}}</ref> [[File:Culex mosquito proboscis.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca maikulosikopu ya magesi ca nsonga ya mlomo wa nyimbu ya ''Culex'']] Mitundu yakupambana ya nyimbu yasintha nthowa zakupambana za kusanga vinyama. Kusanda mitundu yiŵiri ya Aedes aegypti, yinyake ya ku nyumba na yinyake yakuluma vinyama, kukalongora kuti kutemwa fungo la ŵanthu kukukolerana na cakusangira fungo cinyake ico cikusanga ''sulcatone'', cinthu cinandi mu fungo la ŵanthu. Nyimbu ya malungo Anopheles gambiae nayo yili na vyakusangira fungo ivi, kweni vyakupambana, ntheura mitundu yiŵiri iyi yikasintha paŵekha kuluma ŵanthu.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> === Mlomo === Mlomo wa nyimbu yanakazi wakolerana comene na kuboola cikumba na kufyonta ndopa. Ŵanalume ŵakumwa maji gha shuga pera, ndipo mlomo wawo ngwapadera yayi.<ref name="Wahid Sunahara Mogi 2003"/> Kuwaro, cigaŵa cikulu ca kurya ni mlomo mutali, uwo uli na cikopa ca mawonekero nga ni ngalande, ico cikuphimba vigaŵa 6 vya kuboola. Cikopa ici cikupinda nga ni uta apo nyimbu yikwamba kuluma, cikukhwaska cikumba na kulongozgera vigaŵa vya kuboola pasi. Vigaŵa vyakuthwa comene vikwenda kumanyuma na panthazi kudumula cikumba, na nkhongono yicoko comene, cigaŵa cimoza pa 1,000 ca nkhongono iyo yingakhumbikwa na singano, ntheura kuluma kukupweteka yayi.<ref name="NPR mouthparts">{{cite web |last1=Quirós |first1=Gabriela |title=WATCH: Mosquitoes Use 6 Needles To Suck Your Blood |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/06/07/480653821/watch-mosquitoes-use-6-needles-to-suck-your-blood |publisher=NPR |access-date=13 December 2023 |date=June 7, 2016 |archive-date=3 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103011402/https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/06/07/480653821/watch-mosquitoes-use-6-needles-to-suck-your-blood |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Choo Buss Tan Leal 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Choo |first1=Young-Moo |last2=Buss |first2=Garrison K. |last3=Tan |first3=Kaiming |last4=Leal |first4=Walter S. |title=Multitasking roles of mosquito labrum in oviposition and blood feeding |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |volume=6 |date=2015-10-29 |page=306 |pmid=26578978 |pmc=4625056 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2015.00306 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Zahran Sawires Hamza 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Zahran |first1=Nagwan |last2=Sawires |first2=Sameh |last3=Hamza |first3=Ali |title=Piercing and sucking mouth parts sensilla of irradiated mosquito, Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) with gamma radiation |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=2022-10-25 |page=17833 |pmid=36284127 |pmc=9596698 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-22348-0 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022NatSR..1217833Z }}</ref> === Mate === <gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=275 widths=350> File:Evolution of mosquito mouthparts.svg|Umo vigaŵa vya mlomo wa nyimbu vikasinthira, kuyaniska na vya mphazi (vyakulongoreka pa malo ghawo na paŵekha), ivyo vili mu mawonekero gha kale. Vigaŵa vyose vya mlomo kupatula ca pasi ni tusingano utu tukukolerana pamoza. File:Feeding mosquito, mouthparts labelled.svg|Vigaŵa vya mlomo wa nyimbu yanakazi apo yikumwa ndopa, kulongora cikumba cakupepuka ico cikukora cubu ca kudolora na kufyonta ico cikunjira mu cikumba ca cinyama </gallery> Mate gha nyimbu ghali na vinthu ivyo vikovwira kugaya shuga, na vinthu ivyo vikulaŵilira kukura kwa mabakiteriya mu shuga.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grossman |first1=G. L. |last2=James |first2=A. A. |title=The salivary glands of the vector mosquito, ''Aedes aegypti'', express a novel member of the amylase gene family |journal=Insect Molecular Biology |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=223–232 |year=1993 |pmid=7505701 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2583.1993.tb00095.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rossignol |first1=P.A. |last2=Lueders |first2=A.M. |title=Bacteriolytic factor in the salivary glands of Aedes aegypti |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B, Comparative Biochemistry |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=819–822 |year=1986 |pmid=3519067 |doi=10.1016/0305-0491(86)90153-7 }}</ref> Kuti nyimbu yisange ndopa, yikwenera kujumpha nthowa izo thupi la cinyama likujivikilira nazo. Mate gha nyimbu ghakukanizga ndopa kukoleka, mwa purotini izo zikucepeska kufinyika kwa mikoli na kukoleka kwa ndopa, kuti ndopa zilutilire kwenda.<ref name="Valenzuela Pham Garfield 2002"/> Ghakusintha so umo thupi likulimbana na nthenda kwizira mu purotini zinandi, ndipo ici cingapangiska nthenda za tubungulu kuŵa zikulu comene.<ref name="Valenzuela Pham Garfield 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Valenzuela |first1=J.G. |last2=Pham |first2=V.M. |last3=Garfield |first3=M.K. |last4=Francischetti |first4=I.M.B. |last5=Ribeiro |first5=J.M.C. |title=Toward a description of the sialome of the adult female mosquito Aedes aegypti |journal=Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=1101–1122 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12213246 |doi=10.1016/S0965-1748(02)00047-4 |bibcode=2002IBMB...32.1101V }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=J.M. |last2=Francischetti |first2=I.M. |title=Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=48 |pages=73–88 |year=2003 |issue=1 |pmid=12194906 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.48.060402.102812 |bibcode=2003AREnt..48...73R |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234963 |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2020-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804040649/https://zenodo.org/record/1234963 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bissonnette |first1=Elyse Y. |last2=Rossignol |first2=Philippe A. |last3=Befus |first3=A. Dean|title=Extracts of mosquito salivary gland inhibit tumour necrosis factor alpha release from mast cells |journal=Parasite Immunology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=27–33 |date=January 1993 |pmid=7679483 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00569.x }}</ref><ref name="Cross Cupp Enriquez 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Cross |first1=Martin L. |last2=Cupp |first2=Eddie W. |last3=Enriquez |first3=F. Javier |title=Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extract of Aedes aegypti |journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=690–696 |date=November 1994 |pmid=7985763 |doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1994.51.690 }}</ref><ref name="Zeidner Higgs Happ 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Zeidner |first1=Nordin S. |last2=Higgs |first2=Stephen |last3=Happ |first3=Christine M. |last4=Beaty |first4=Barry J. |last5=Miller |first5=Barry R. |title=Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialokinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice |journal=Parasite Immunology |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=35–44 |date=January 1999 |pmid=10081770 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3024.1999.00199.x |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1236522 |access-date=2020-09-25 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410004355/https://zenodo.org/record/1236522 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wanasen |first1=N. |last2=Nussenzveig |first2=R. H. |last3=Champagne |first3=D. E. |last4=Soong |first4=L. |last5=Higgs |first5=S.|title=Differential modulation of murine host immune response by salivary gland extracts from the mosquitoes ''Aedes aegypti'' and ''Culex quinquefasciatus'' |journal=Medical and Veterinary Entomology |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=191–199 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15189245 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2915.2004.00498.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wasserman |first1=H. A. |last2=Singh |first2=S. |last3=Champagne |first3=D. E. |title=Saliva of the Yellow Fever mosquito, ''Aedes aegypti'', modulates murine lymphocyte function |journal=Parasite Immunology |volume=26 |issue=6–7 |pages=295–306 |year=2004 |pmid=15541033 |doi=10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00712.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Depinay |first1=Nadya |last2=Hacini |first2=Fériel |last3=Beghdadi |first3=Walid |last4=Peronet |first4=Roger |last5=Mécheri |first5=Salaheddine |title=Mast cell-dependent down-regulation of antigen-specific immune responses by mosquito bites |journal=Journal of Immunology |volume=176 |issue=7 |pages=4141–4146 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16547250 |doi=10.4049/jimmunol.176.7.4141 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Bradley S. |last2=Soong |first2=Lynn |last3=Zeidner |first3=Nordin S. |last4=Higgs |first4=Stephen |title=Aedes aegypti salivary gland extracts modulate anti-viral and TH1/TH2 cytokine responses to sindbis virus infection |journal=Viral Immunology |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=565–573 |year=2004 |pmid=15671753 |doi=10.1089/vim.2004.17.565 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=J. L. |last2=Schoenherr |first2=C. |last3=Grossberg |first3=S. E.|title=Protection against Japanese encephalitis virus in mice and hamsters by treatment with carboxymethylacridanone, a potent interferon inducer |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=394–399 |date=September 1980 |pmid=6255036 |doi=10.1093/infdis/142.3.394 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vogt |first1=Megan B. |last2=Lahon |first2=Anismrita |last3=Arya |first3=Ravi P. |last4=Kneubehl |first4=Alexander R. |last5=Spencer Clinton |first5=Jennifer L. |last6=Paust |first6=Silke |last7=Rico-Hesse |first7=Rebecca |title=Mosquito saliva alone has profound effects on the human immune system |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=12 |issue=5 |article-number=e0006439 |date=May 2018 |pmid=29771921 |pmc=5957326 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006439 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018PNTDi..1206439V }}</ref> === Kukura kwa Masumbi na Kugaya Ndopa === [[File:Anopheles stephensi.jpeg|thumb|Nyimbu yanakazi ya ''Anopheles stephensi'' yakukhuta ndopa, yikwamba kufumya maji ghambura kukhumbikwa kuti pa matumbo pasangike malo gha vyakulya vinandi.]] Ŵanakazi ŵa mitundu yinandi yakumwa ndopa ŵakukhumba ndopa kuti ŵambe kupanga masumbi. Ndopa zakukwana zikwamba ndondomeko ya mahomoni iyo yikupangiska masumbi kukura.<ref name="Mullen2009">{{cite book |first1=Gary |last1=Mullen |first2=Lance |last2=Durden |year=2009 |title=Medical and Veterinary Entomology |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=J. |last2=Miura |first2=K. |last3=Dittmer |first3=N.T. |last4=Raikhel |first4=A.S. |title=AaSvp, a mosquito homolog of COUP-TF is involved in termination of vitellogenesis by repressing the 20-hydroecdysone response |journal=Journal of Insect Science |date=2002 |volume=2 |issue=17 |page=17 |pmid=15455051|pmc=405832 }}</ref> Para yamalizga kumwa, nyimbu yikuwuska mlomo, ndipo apo matumbo ghakuzura, mthumbo ukupanga cikopa ico cikuzingilizga ndopa. Ici cikupatula ndopa na vinyake mu mthumbo. Nyimbu zinandi zikulu zikufumiska maji ghakunyanyira nanga ni apo zikurya, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga ŵanakazi kuwunjika vyakulya vinandi.<ref name="Curic Hercog Vrselja Wagner 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Curic |first1=Goran |last2=Hercog |first2=Rajna |last3=Vrselja |first3=Zvonimir |last4=Wagner |first4=Jasenka |title=Identification of person and quantification of human DNA recovered from mosquitoes (Culicidae) |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2013.07.011 |pages=109–112|pmid=24315597 }}</ref> Ndopa zikugayika mu mazuŵa ghanandi. Mthumbo ukupanga vinthu ivyo vikugaŵa purotini za ndopa, ndipo izi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga purotini ya masumbi.<ref name="Billingsley">{{cite journal |last1=Billingsley |first1=P.F. |last2=Hecker |first2=H. |title=Blood digestion in the mosquito, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae): activity and distribution of trypsin, aminopeptidase, and alpha-glucosidase in the midgut |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=865–871 |date=November 1991 |pmid=1770523 |doi=10.1093/jmedent/28.6.865 }}</ref> == Kuthandazgika == === Pa Caro Cose === Nyimbu zili pa caro cose, mu cigaŵa ciliconse ca mtunda kupatula Antarctica na virwa vicoko.<ref name="Visindavefur.hi.is">{{cite web |url=http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=2166 |title=Vísindavefurinn: Af hverju lifa ekki moskítóflugur á Íslandi, fyrst þær geta lifað báðum megin á Grænlandi? |language=is |publisher=Visindavefur.hi.is |access-date=2013-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930163338/http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=2166 |archive-date=2013-09-30 }}</ref> Nyengo ya vigaŵa ivi njambura kumanyikwa, yakuzizima kweni kanandi yikufunda luŵiro pakati pa nyengo ya kuzizima, ndipo ici cikupangiska nyimbu kufuma mu vikumbi na pamanyuma kuzizima so pambere zindamalizge umoyo wawo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Peterson |first=B.V. |year=1977 |journal=The Canadian Entomologist |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=449–472 |doi=10.4039/Ent109449-3 |title=The Black Flies of Iceland (Diptera: Simuliidae) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gislason |first1=G.M. |author2=Gardarsson A. |year=1988 |title=Long term studies on ''Simulium vittatum'' Zett. (Diptera: Simuliidae) in the River Laxá, North Iceland, with particular reference to different methods used in assessing population changes |journal=Verhandlungen der Internationalen Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=2179–2188 |doi=10.1080/03680770.1987.11899871 |bibcode=1988SILP...23.2179G }}</ref> Masumbi gha nyimbu za malo gha nyengo yapakati ghakuzizipizga kuzizima kuluska gha mitundu ya malo ghakufunda.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawley |first1=W. A. |last2=Pumpuni |first2=C. B. |last3=Brady |first3=R. H. |last4=Craig |first4=G. B. |title=Overwintering survival of ''Aedes albopictus'' (Diptera: Culicidae) eggs in Indiana |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=122–129 |date=March 1989 |pmid=2709388 |doi=10.1093/jmedent/26.2.122 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=S.M. |last2=Craig |first2=G.B. |title=''Aedes albopictus'' (Diptera: Culicidae) eggs: field survivorship during northern Indiana winters |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=599–604 |date=September 1995 |pmid=7473614 |doi=10.1093/jmedent/32.5.599 }}</ref> Ghanandi ghangazizipizga kuzizima kwa pasi pa zero, ndipo nyimbu zikulu za mitundu yinyake zingajumpha nyengo ya kuzizima mwa kubisama mu nyumba panji mu makuni ghakuboŵa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Romi |first1=Roberto |last2=Severini |first2=Francesco |last3=Toma |first3=Luciano |title=Cold acclimation and overwintering of female ''Aedes albopictus'' in Roma |journal=Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=149–151 |date=March 2006 |pmid=16646341 |doi=10.2987/8756-971X(2006)22[149:CAAOOF]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> Mu vigaŵa vya ku tropiki vyakufunda na vyakunyowa, mitundu yinyake ya nyimbu yikugwira ntchito caka cose, kweni mu vigaŵa vyakuzizima zikugona. Nyimbu za ku Arctic zingaŵa zamoyo kwa masabata ghacoko pera pa caka apo maji gha cikakato cakusungunuka ghakupanga vizima. Kweni pa nyengo iyo zikufuma zinandi comene; gulu lingamwa mpaka mililita 300 za ndopa pa zuŵa kufuma ku cinyama ciliconse mu gulu la nswala za ku Arctic.<ref name=n1>{{cite journal |last=Fang |first=J. |title=Ecology: A world without mosquitoes |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=7305 |pages=432–434 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20651669 |doi=10.1038/466432a |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010Natur.466..432F }}</ref> === Vyakufumapo vya Kusintha kwa Nyengo === Kuti nyimbu yiyambuzge nthenda, pakwenera kuŵa vyakucitika viwemi vya nyengo, comene unyowevu, kufunda, na vula. El Niño yikukhwaska malo na unandi wa kuthandazgika kwa nthenda mu Afilika ya Kumafumiro, Amerika ya Ŵalatini, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na India. Kusintha kwa nyengo kukukhwaska vyakucitika ivi na kuthandazgika kwa nyimbu. Viyelezgero vya nyengo vingagwiliskira ntchito vyakusangika vya kale kulongolera ngozi ya nthenda kuyana na nyengo iyo yikulindilirika. Nthenda za nyimbu zaŵa zinandi comene mu Afilika ya Kumafumiro, Amerika ya Ŵalatini, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, na India. Kuwoneka mu Ulaya kukawonekeka pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Kukulongolereka kuti pofika 2030, nyengo ya kumwera kwa Britain yizamuŵa yiwemi ku nyimbu za Anopheles kuyambuzga malungo kwa myezi yiŵiri pa caka, ndipo pofika 2080 ndimo kuzamuŵira ku kumwera kwa Scotland. Nthenda ya dengue nayo yikuthandazgika kumpoto cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Reiter |first=Paul |date=2001 |title=Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=109 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=142–158 |via=EHP |doi=10.1289/ehp.01109s1141 |pmid=11250812 |pmc=1240549|bibcode=2001EnvHP.109S.141R }}</ref><ref name="Bai Morton Liu 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Li |last2=Morton |first2=Lindsay Carol |last3=Liu |first3=Qiyong |title=Climate change and mosquito-borne diseases in China: a review |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=9 |article-number=10 |date=March 2013 |pmid=23497420 |pmc=3605364 |doi=10.1186/1744-8603-9-10 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid30120891">{{cite journal |last1=Caminade |first1=Cyril |last2=McIntyre |first2=K. Marie |last3=Jones |first3=Anne E. |title=Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1436 |issue=1 |pages=157–173 |date=January 2019 |pmid=30120891 |pmc=6378404 |doi=10.1111/nyas.13950 |bibcode=2019NYASA1436..157C }}</ref> Nyimbu iyo yikuyinyamula, nyimbu ya Asiya ya mawanga, pofika 2023 yikaŵa kuti yathandazgika mu Ulaya ya kumwera mpaka ku kumpoto kwa France, Belgium, Holland, na vigaŵa vya Ungelezi.<ref name="pmid29229233">{{cite journal |last1=Tjaden |first1=Nils Benjamin |last2=Caminade |first2=Cyril |last3=Beierkuhnlein |first3=Carl |last4=Thomas |first4=Stephanie Margarete |title=Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Advances in Modelling Climate-Change Impacts |journal=Trends in Parasitology |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=227–245 |date=March 2018 |pmid=29229233 |doi=10.1016/j.pt.2017.11.006 }}</ref><ref name=pmid29219091>{{Cite journal |last=Baylis |first=Matthew |date=5 December 2017 |title=Potential impact of climate change on emerging vector-borne and other infections in the UK |journal=Environmental Health |volume=16 |issue=Suppl 1 |article-number=112 |pmc=5773876 |pmid=29219091 |doi=10.1186/s12940-017-0326-1 |bibcode=2017EnvHe..16S.112B |doi-access=free }}</ref> Mu 2025, nyimbu zinyake zikasangika mu Iceland, caro ico cikaŵavya nyimbu, nangauli palije iyo yikawoneka mu nyengo ya kufunda ya 2026.<ref name="Horton 2024">{{cite news |last=Horton |first=Helena |title=Mosquito-borne diseases spreading in Europe due to climate crisis, says expert |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/apr/25/mosquito-borne-diseases-spreading-in-europe-due-to-climate-crisis-says-expert |access-date=25 April 2024 |work=The Guardian |date=25 April 2024 |archive-date=10 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910225716/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/apr/25/mosquito-borne-diseases-spreading-in-europe-due-to-climate-crisis-says-expert |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Horton |first=Helena |date=21 October 2025 |title=Mosquitoes found in Iceland for first time as climate crisis warms country |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/oct/21/mosquitoes-found-iceland-first-time-climate-crisis-warms-country}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.visir.is/g/20262936527d/moskitoflugan-virdist-hafa-gufad-upp|title=Moskítóflugan virðist hafa gufað upp |author=Tómas Arnar Þorláksson |date=18 September 2026 |access-date=18 September 2026 |lang=is |trans-title=The mosquito seems to have vanished into thin air |work=Vísir.is}}</ref> == Malo gha Vyamoyo == === Vyakusaka na Vyakuthemba === Mphutsi za nyimbu ni vinyama vinandi comene mu vizima, ndipo ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku vyakusaka vya mu maji ghawemi. Vibenene vinandi vya mu maji ivyo vikukora mphutsi izi ni ŵana ŵa ŵakhulukuska na vinyake. Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vikuzirya ni somba nga ni ŵabwankha na somba ya nyimbu, ŵacule, fulu za maji ghawemi, na viyuni nga ni ŵabaka.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Beck |first=Kevin |title=What Eats Mosquitoes? |date=November 22, 2019 |url=https://sciencing.com/eats-mosquitoes-8568515.html |url-status=live |access-date=31 May 2021 |website=Sciencing |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215704/https://sciencing.com/eats-mosquitoes-8568515.html}}</ref> Nyimbu zikulu zikufuma zikuryeka pacanya pa maji na membe zakusaka na ŵalutatavi. Nyimbu zakuduka zikukoreka na ŵakhulukuska, na viyuni nga ni byambyali, na vinyama vyakonkheska kusazgapo mileme.<ref name="Medlock Snow 2008"/> Nyimbu zikuthembeka na nthata, tuvinyama tucoko twa kaselo kamoza, na wowa.<ref name="Medlock Snow 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Medlock |first1=J. M. |last2=Snow |first2=K. R. |title=Natural predators and parasites of British mosquitoes–a review |journal=European Mosquito Bulletin |volume=25 |issue=1 |year=2008 |pages=1–11 |url=https://e-m-b.myspecies.info/sites/e-m-b.org/files/European_Mosquito_Bulletin_Publications811/EMB25/EMB25_1.pdf |access-date=15 December 2023 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215100621/https://e-m-b.myspecies.info/sites/e-m-b.org/files/European_Mosquito_Bulletin_Publications811/EMB25/EMB25_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kutolera Ufu wa Maluŵa === [[File:Mosquito on marigold flower.JPG|thumb|Nyimbu yikufika pa duŵa la ''marigold'' kuti yimwe uchi wake ]] Maluŵa ghanyake ghakutolereka ufu na nyimbu, izo zikuza kusanga uchi wa shuga. Vyakumera vicoko vyapadera vikutolereka ufu na nyimbu pera, nga ni maluŵa ghanyake gha ''orchid'' agho ghakutolereka na Aedes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Foster |first=Woodbridge A. |date=2024 |title=Mosquito pollination of plants: an overview of their role and an assessment of the possible contribution of disease vectors |journal=Transgenic Research |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=297–322 |doi=10.1007/s11248-024-00394-w |pmc=11588815 |pmid=39172353}}</ref> Zikukopeka ku maluŵa na fungo linandi, na mitundu nga ni ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shannon |first1=Danica M |last2=Richardson |first2=Nalany |last3=Lahondère |first3=Chloé |last4=Peach |first4=Daniel |date=2024 |title=Mosquito floral visitation and pollination |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214574524000725 |journal=Current Opinion in Insect Science |language=en |volume=65 |article-number=101230 |doi=10.1016/j.cois.2024.101230 |pmid=38971524 |bibcode=2024COIS...6501230S |url-access=subscription |archive-date=21 November 2025 |access-date=25 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251121232222/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214574524000725 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyimbu zaluta ku maluŵa kufuma nyengo ya Cretaceous. Ncakuthekera kuti kufyonta maji gha vyakumera kukanozga nyimbu kufyonta ndopa.<ref name="Peach-Gries-2020"/> === Kuthemba Vyamoyo Vinyake === Mu malo gha vyamoyo, nyimbu zakumwa ndopa ni vyakusaka vicoko, vinyama vicoko ivyo vikurya vinyama vikulu kwambura kuvikoma luŵiro. Ŵasandi ŵa kusintha kwa vyamoyo ŵakuwona ici nga ni mtundu wa kuthemba vyamoyo vinyake; Edward O. Wilson wakati vyakuthemba "ni vyakusaka ivyo vikurya cakusakika pasi pa cimoza".<ref name="Wilson 2014">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward O. |author-link=E. O. Wilson |title=The Meaning of Human Existence |year=2014 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-87140-480-0 |page=112 |quote=Parasites, in a phrase, are predators that eat prey in units of less than one. Tolerable parasites are those that have evolved to ensure their own survival and reproduction but at the same time with minimum pain and cost to the host.}}</ref> Kusaka kucoko kukupambana cifukwa cinyama cikulutilira kuŵaba, ndipo nyimbu yikuluma vinyama vinandi.<ref name="Poulin Randhawa 2011">{{cite book |last=Poulin |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Poulin (zoologist) |editor1=Rollinson, D. |editor2=Hay, S. I. |chapter=The Many Roads to Parasitism: A Tale of Convergence |title=Advances in Parasitology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9y4AlXka7t0C&pg=PA28 |year=2011 |volume=74 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-385897-9 |pages=27–28 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X |pmid=21295676 }}</ref><ref name="Poulin Randhawa 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Poulin |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Poulin (zoologist) |last2=Randhawa |first2=Haseeb S. |title=Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics |journal=Parasitology |date=February 2015 |volume=142 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S6–S15 |doi=10.1017/S0031182013001674 |pmc=4413784 |pmid=24229807}} {{open access}}</ref> Pa kalaŵiskiro aka, nyimbu ni vyakuthemba vya kuwaro, vikumwa ndopa kufuma kuwaro kwa cinyama, kwambura kunjira mu thupi lake. Kupambana na vyakuthemba vinyake vya kuwaro nga ni nthata na nyinda, nyimbu zikukhala pa thupi la cinyama nyengo zose yayi, kweni zikuza pera kurya.<ref name="Poulin Randhawa 2015"/> == Kusintha mu Nyengo == === Mafosilo === [[File:Culex malariager in Dominican amber.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Nyimbu yakuzgoka fosilo mukati mwa ulimbo wakukhwima |''Culex malariager'' yakuŵa na kazirombo ka malungo ''Plasmodium dominicana'', mu ulimbo wakukhwima wa ku Dominican Republic wa nyengo ya Miocene, vyaka miliyoni 15–20 ivyo vyajumpha<ref name="Poinar 2014">{{cite journal |last=Poinar |first=George |title=Evolutionary History of Terrestrial Pathogens and Endoparasites as Revealed in Fossils and Subfossils |journal=Advances in Biology |volume=2014 |date=2014-06-12 |doi=10.1155/2014/181353 |pages=1–29 |doi-access=free }}</ref>]] Kusanda kwa mu 2023 kukati Libanoculex intermedius, iyo yikasangika mu ulimbo wakukhwima wa Lebanon wa vyaka miliyoni 125 ivyo vyajumpha, ndiyo nyimbu ya kale comene yakumanyikwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Azar |first1=Dany |last2=Nel |first2=André |last3=Huang |first3=Diying |last4=Engel |first4=Michael S. |date=December 2023 |title=The Earliest Fossil Mosquito |journal=Current Biology |volume=33 |issue=23 |pages=5240–5246.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.047 |pmid=38052162 |doi-access=free |bibcode= }}</ref> Kweni ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti ni nyimbu, ŵakuti ni membe yinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Harbach |first=Ralph E. |date=2024-03-12 |title=Libanoculex&nbsp;intermedius is not a mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae): It is a chaoborid (Chaoboridae) |url=https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5424.1.9 |journal=Zootaxa |volume=5424 |issue=1 |pages=139–144 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.5424.1.9 |pmid=38480294 |access-date=9 August 2024 |archive-date=9 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240809084423/https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5424.1.9 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mitundu yinyake 7 ya nyimbu za Cretaceous yambura mphindano yikumanyikwa. Burmaculex, ya mitundu yinkhondi, na Cretosabethes primaevus, iyo yikumanyikwa kufuma ku mphutsi, zasangika mu ulimbo wakukhwima wa Myanmar wa vyaka pafupifupi miliyoni 99 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Szadziewski 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Szadziewski |first1=Ryszard |last2=Zhang |first2=Qing-Qing |last3=Bojarski |first3=BłAżEj |last4=šEvčIk |first4=Jan |last5=KrzemińSka |first5=Ewa |last6=KrzemińSki |first6=WiesłAw |date=30 August 2024 |title=Burmaculex (Diptera: Culicidae) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber, with the first description of a male and three new species |url=https://mapress.com/pe/article/view/palaeoentomology.7.4.13 |journal=Palaeoentomology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=539–553 |doi=10.11646/palaeoentomology.7.4.13 |bibcode=2024Plegy...7..539S |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2026 |access-date=1 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260106052701/https://mapress.com/pe/article/view/palaeoentomology.7.4.13 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borkent |first1=A. |last2=Grimaldi |first2=David A. |author2-link=David Grimaldi (entomologist) |year=2004 |title=The earliest fossil mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae), in Mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber |journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=882–888 |doi=10.1603/0013-8746(2004)097[0882:TEFMDC]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poinar |first1=George |last2=Zavortink |first2=Thomas J. |last3=Brown |first3=Alex |date=2019-01-30 |title=''Priscoculex burmanicus'' n. gen. et sp. (Diptera: Culicidae: Anophelinae) from mid-Cretaceous Myanmar amber |journal=Historical Biology |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=1157–1162 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2019.1570185 }}</ref><ref name="Amaral 2026">{{Cite journal |last1=Amaral |first1=André P. |last2=Borkent |first2=Art |last3=Baranov |first3=Viktor A. |last4=Haug |first4=Carolin |last5=Haug |first5=Joachim T. |date=February 2026 |title=First fossil mosquito larva in 99-million-year-old amber with a modern type of morphology sheds light on the evolutionary history of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) |journal=Gondwana Research |volume=150 |pages=154–162 |doi=10.1016/j.gr.2025.09.011 |bibcode=2026GondR.150..154A |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/414464 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Paleoculicis minutus yikumanyikwa kufuma ku ulimbo wa Canada wa vyaka pafupifupi miliyoni 79.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poinar |first=G. O. |display-authors=etal |year=2000 |title=''Paleoculicis minutus'' (Diptera: Culicidae) n. gen., n. sp., from Cretaceous Canadian amber with a summary of described fossil mosquitoes |url=http://www.geologica-acta.com/pdf/aghv3501a12.pdf |journal=Acta Geológica Hispánica |volume=35 |pages=119–128 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029193407/http://www.geologica-acta.com/pdf/aghv3501a12.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-29 |access-date=2009-12-10}}</ref> Cretosabethes yikughanaghanirika kuŵa ya gulu la mazuŵa ghano, ico cikulongora kuti nyimbu zikaŵa kuti zapambanapambana comene pambere pa pakati pa Cretaceous, nangauli mafosilo nghacoko.<ref name="Szadziewski 2024"/><ref name="Amaral 2026"/><ref name="Amaral 2026" /> Kusanda kwa vyakuhara kukulongora kuti nyimbu zikamba mu Jurassic, kweni kupambanapambana kukulu kukacitika mu Cretaceous.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lorenz |first1=Camila |last2=Alves |first2=João M. P. |last3=Foster |first3=Peter G. |last4=Suesdek |first4=Lincoln |last5=Sallum |first5=Maria Anice M. |date=2021-05-10 |title=Phylogeny and temporal diversification of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) with an emphasis on the Neotropical fauna |journal=Systematic Entomology |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=798–811 |doi=10.1111/syen.12489 |bibcode=2021SysEn..46..798L}}</ref> === Kagaŵiro === Pali mitundu ya nyimbu yakujumpha 3,700; magulu 112 ghalongosoreka.<ref>{{cite web|title=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: About the mosquito|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mosquitoes/about/index.html|date=2024|access-date=8 August 2025|archive-date=7 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250807042937/https://www.cdc.gov/mosquitoes/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Kanandi zikugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri, Anophelinae na Culicinae, agho ghakunyamula nthenda zakupambana. Mwa pose, nthenda za tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza nga ni malungo zikuyambuzgika na Anophelinae, apo nthenda za tubungulu nga ni cikasu na dengue zikuyambuzgika na Culicinae.<ref name="Molina-Cruz Lehmann Knöckel 2013 pp. 530–537">{{cite journal |last1=Molina-Cruz |first1=Alvaro |last2=Lehmann |first2=Tovi |last3=Knöckel |first3=Julia |title=Could culicine mosquitoes transmit human malaria? |journal=Trends in Parasitology |volume=29 |issue=11 |date=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.pt.2013.09.003 |pages=530–537 |pmid=24140295 |pmc=10987011 }}</ref> Zina lakuti Culicidae likanjizgika na msandi wa vibenene wa Ŵajeremani Johann Wilhelm Meigen mu kagaŵiro kake ka vigaŵa 7 ako kakapharazgika mu 1818–1838.<ref name="Meigen 1818">{{cite book |last=Meigen |first=Johann Wilhelm |author-link=Johann Wilhelm Meigen |date=1818–1838 |title=Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten Europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten |language=de |trans-title=Systematic description of the known European two-winged insects |location=Aachen |publisher=Friedrich Wilhelm Forstmann |volume=1–7 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45833#page/9/mode/1up |access-date=16 December 2023 |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226175413/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45833#page/9/mode/1up |url-status=live }}</ref> Kagaŵiro ka nyimbu kakaluta panthazi mu 1901 apo msandi wa vibenene wa Ungelezi Frederick Vincent Theobald wakapharazga buku la vigaŵa vinkhondi pa Culicidae.<ref name=Theobald1901>{{cite book |last=Theobald |first=Frederick Vincent |author-link=Frederick Vincent Theobald |date=1901 |title=A Monograph of the Culicidae, or Mosquitoes |location=London |publisher=British Museum (Natural History) |volume=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/amonographculic03zoolgoog/page/n3/mode/2up |page=4<!--ie whole book-->}}</ref> Wakapika nyimbu izo zikatumika ku British Museum kufuma pa caro cose, kuyana na malangulo gha 1898 gha Nduna ya Vyaro vya Ŵakoloni, Joseph Chamberlain, uyo wakalemba kuti "pakuti malungo ghangakolerana na nyimbu, nchiwemi kumanya makola mitundu yakupambana ya nyimbu na vibenene vyakukolerana nazo mu vyaro vya ku tropiki vya ŵakoloni."<ref name="Harbach Kitching 2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Harbach |first1=R. E. |last2=Kitching |first2=I. |date=January 2016 |title=The phylogeny of Anophelinae revisited: inferences about the origin and classification of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) |journal=Zoologica Scripta |volume=45 |pages=34–47 |url=https://nhm.openrepository.com/handle/10141/612216 |doi=10.1111/zsc.12137 |hdl=10141/612216 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 December 2023 |archive-date=10 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910225816/https://nhm.openrepository.com/handle/10141/612216 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Mbumba === ==== Ya Kuwaro ==== Nyimbu ni mbumba ya membe zenecho (gulu la Diptera): Culicidae (kufuma ku Cilatini ''culex'', "kamembe kacoko").<ref name="isbn0-398-06179-3">{{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Edmund C. |author-link=Edmund Jaeger |title=A Source-Book of Biological Names and Terms |publisher=Thomas |location=Springfield, Ill |year=1959 }}</ref> Zili mu gulu likulu la Culicomorpha.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yeates |first1=David K. |last2=Meier |first2=Rudolf |last3=Wiegmann |first3=Brian |title=Phylogeny of True Flies (Diptera): A 250 Million Year Old Success Story in Terrestrial Diversification |url=http://www.inhs.illinois.edu/research/flytree/flyphylogeny/ |website=Flytree |publisher=Illinois Natural History Survey |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151228210535/http://inhs.illinois.edu/research/flytree/flyphylogeny/ |archive-date=28 December 2015 |access-date=24 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yeates |first1=David K. |last2=Weigmann |first2=Brian M. |last3=Courtney |first3=Greg W. |last4=Meier |first4=Rudolf |last5=Lambkins |first5=Christine |last6=Pape |first6=Thomas |title=Phylogeny and systematics of Diptera: Two decades of progress and prospects |year=2007 |journal=Zootaxa |volume=1668 |pages=565–590 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.27 |bibcode=2007Zoot.1668.1.27Y }}</ref> ==== Ya Mukati ==== {{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:110%; |label1=Diptera |sublabel1= (membe zenecho) |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=Ptychopteromorpha [[File:Ptychoptera contaminata male Walker 1856 plate-XXVIII.png|70px]] |label2=Culicomorpha |2={{clade |1=Chironomidae (tumembe twambura kuluma) [[File:Chironomus ferrugineovittatus m.png|70px]] |2={{clade |1=Simulioidea (tumembe twakuluma) [[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 11052 Biting midge on human skin (cropped).jpg|60px]] |label2=Culicoidea |2={{clade |1=Dixidae [[File:Dixa nebulosa adult John Curtis British Entomology 409.png|70px]] |2={{clade |1=Corethrellidae (tumembe twakuluma ŵacule) |2={{clade |1=Chaoboridae (nkhungu) [[File:Chaoborus crystallinus male as Corethra plumicornis (Walker Insecta Britanica Vol 3 page 397 plate XXV).png|60px]] |2='''Culicidae''' (nyimbu) [[File:Stegomyia fasciata.jpg|100px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=tumembe tunyake [[File:Isoneuromyia annandalei.jpg|70px]] |2=membe zinyake zose, kusazgapo Brachycera [[File:Syrphidae icon.jpg|70px]] }} }} }} Magulu ghaŵiri ghacoko gha nyimbu ni Anophelinae, iyo yili na magulu ghatatu na mitundu pafupifupi 430, na Culicinae, iyo yili na magulu 108 na mitundu 3,046. Kyanne Reidenbach na ŵanyake ŵakasanda mbumba ya nyimbu mu 2009, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vyakuhara na mawonekero gha mitundu 26. Ŵakasanga kuti Anophelinae njya pasi pa mbumba, kweni vigaŵa vyakuzika vya mbumba vindamanyikwe makola.<ref name="Reidenbach Cook Bertone Harbach 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Reidenbach |first1=Kyanne R. |last2=Cook |first2=Shelley |last3=Bertone |first3=Matthew A. |last4=Harbach |first4=Ralph E. |last5=Wiegmann |first5=Brian M. |last6=Besansky |first6=Nora J. |title=Phylogenetic analysis and temporal diversification of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) based on nuclear genes and morphology |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=2009 |page=298|pmid=20028549 |pmc=2805638 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-9-298 |bibcode=2009BMCEE...9..298R |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Ubale na Ŵanthu == === Vyakunyamula Nthenda === {{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:110%; |label1='''Culicidae''' |1={{clade |1=mitundu ya kale |2={{clade |label1=Anophelinae |1=[[File:Anopheles gambiae mosquito feeding 1354.p lores.jpg|125px]] |label2=Culicinae |2={{clade |1=mitundu yinyake |2={{clade |1=Aedini [[File:Aedes aegypti feeding (cropped).jpg|125px]] |2={{clade |1=mitundu yinyake |2=Sabethini [[File:Sabethes albiprivus (cropped).jpg|125px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} [[File:Anopheles albimanus mosquito.jpg|thumb|''Anopheles albimanus'' yikumwa ndopa pa woko la munthu. Cifukwa nyimbu pera ndizo zikunyamula malungo, kuzilongozga kukucepeska malungo.]] Nyimbu zikunyamula tuzirombo tunandi twa nthenda kusazgapo mabakiteriya, tubungulu, na tuzirombo twa kaselo kamoza. Ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 700 ŵakukora nthenda ya nyimbu caka ciliconse, ndipo ŵakujumpha miliyoni yimoza ŵakufwa.<ref name="EBMED2014">{{cite web |title=Mosquito as Deadly Menace |url=https://www.pfizer.com/news/articles/mosquito_as_deadly_menace#.Yweo2_DM88I.link |publisher=Pfizer |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825170028/https://www.pfizer.com/news/articles/mosquito_as_deadly_menace#.Yweo2_DM88I.link |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases |url=https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/news-stories/stories/explainer-how-climate-change-amplifying-mosquito-borne-diseases |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=World Mosquito Program |date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=27 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127042108/https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/news-stories/stories/explainer-how-climate-change-amplifying-mosquito-borne-diseases |url-status=live }}</ref> Nthenda za tubungulu za nyimbu zakumanyikwa ni cikasu, chikungunya na dengue, ivyo vyose vikuyambuzgika comene na Aedes aegypti.<ref name="WHO2 014">{{cite web |title=Yellow fever Fact sheet N°100 |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs100/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=23 February 2014 |date=May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219011908/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs100/en/ |archive-date=19 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="WHO 2009">{{cite book |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241547871_eng.pdf |title=Dengue Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2009 |isbn=978-92-4-154787-1 |access-date=2013-08-13 |archive-date=2012-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017230435/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241547871_eng.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC250814">{{cite news |work=BBC News |date=14 August 2025 |first=Dominic |last=Hughes |title=UK cases of mosquito-borne virus more than double |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c7419g1l488o |access-date=14 August 2025 |archive-date=14 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814061013/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c7419g1l488o |url-status=live }}</ref> Nthenda za tuzirombo izo nyimbu zikuyambuzga ni malungo na ''filariasis''. Tuzirombo twa ''Plasmodium'' utu tukwiziska malungo tukunyamulika na nyimbu zanakazi za Anopheles. Purotini yinyake mu mata gha Anopheles yikuzomerezga tuzirombo twa malungo kukhala mu nyimbu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klug |first1=Dennis |last2=Gautier |first2=Amandine |last3=Calvo |first3=Eric |last4=Marois |first4=Eric |last5=Blandin |first5=Stéphanie A. |date=March 2023 |title=The salivary protein Saglin facilitates efficient midgut colonization of Anopheles mosquitoes by malaria parasites |journal=PLOS Pathogens |volume=19 |issue=3 |article-number=e1010538 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1010538 |doi-access=free|pmc=10013899 |pmid=36862755}}</ref> ''Filariasis'', cifukwa cikulu ca nthenda za kufufuma kwa malundi, yikuthandazgika na nyimbu za mitundu yinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lymphatic Filariasis |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs102/en/ |publisher=World Health Organisation |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-date=5 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505163529/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs102/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> Nthenda ya mabakiteriya iyo nyimbu za Culex zikuthandazga ni ''tularemia''.<ref name="pmid21776596">{{cite journal |last1=Muslu |first1=H. |last2=Kurt |first2=O. |last3=Özbilgin |first3=A. |title=[Evaluation of mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) identified in Manisa province according to their breeding sites and seasonal differences] |language=tr |journal=Turkiye Parazitolojii Dergisi |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=100–104 |year=2011 |pmid=21776596 |doi=10.5152/tpd.2011.25 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Kulaŵilira === [[File:Mosquito Netting.jpg|thumb|Wisikiti ungavikilira ŵanthu kuti nyimbu zileke kuŵaluma apo ŵagona.]] Nthowa zinandi zayezgeka pa kulaŵilira nyimbu, kusazgapo kuwuskapo malo gha kuŵabira, kukanizga na masefa gha mawindo na masefa gha nyimbu, kugwiliskira ntchito vyamoyo nga ni wowa na mphutsi, panji vyakusaka nga ni somba na ŵakhulukuska.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/10/science/10mosquito.html |title=Fungus Fatal to Mosquito May Aid Global War on Malaria |date=10 June 2005 |work=The New York Times |access-date=19 February 2017 |archive-date=9 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509040906/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/10/science/10mosquito.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kramer |first=J.P. |title=''Entomophthora culicis'' (Zygomycetes, Entomophthorales) as a pathogen of ''adultaedes aegypti'' (diptera, culicidae) |journal=Aquatic Insects |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=73–79 |year=1982 |doi=10.1080/01650428209361085 |bibcode=1982AqIns...4...73K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shamseldean |first1=M. 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A Comparative Study of the Ability of Fish to Catch Mosquito Larva |title=Rice-fish culture in China |isbn=978-1-55250-313-3 |year=1995 |publisher=International Development Research Centre |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609010556/https://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-27870-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html |archive-date=2011-06-09 |first1=Wang |last1=Jianguo |first2=Ni |last2=Dashu |editor1-first=Kenneth T. |editor1-last=MacKay}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fradin |first=M. S. |title=Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician's guide |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |volume=128 |issue=11 |pages=931–940 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9634433 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-128-11-199806010-00013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marten |first1=G. G. |last2=Reid |first2=J.W. |title=Cyclopoid copepods |journal=Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association |volume=23 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=65–92 |year=2007 |pmid=17853599 |doi=10.2987/8756-971X(2007)23[65:CC]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canyon |first1=D. V. |last2=Hii |first2=J. L. |title=The gecko: an environmentally friendly biological agent for mosquito control |journal=Medical and Veterinary Entomology |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=319–323 |date=October 1997 |pmid=9430109 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2915.1997.tb00416.x }}</ref> Nthowa yinyake ni kuthandazga ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵambura kuŵaba.<ref name=twsE44>{{cite news |last=Carpenter |first=Jennifer |title=Spermless mosquitoes hold promise to stop malaria |publisher=BBC |quote=Scientists have created spermless mosquitoes in an effort to curb the spread of malaria. |date=8 August 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14422440 |access-date=5 August 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809002749/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14422440 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nthowa za kusintha vyakuhara, izo zikuwonekera kuŵa zambura kudura, zasandika.<ref>Webb, Jonathan (10 June 2014) [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-27765974 GM lab mosquitoes may aid malaria fight] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816191930/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27765974 |date=16 August 2022 }}. ''BBC''.</ref> Kulaŵilira nyimbu zakunyamula nthenda mwa kuthandazga vyakuhara vyakusinthika kwasacizgika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kyrou |first1=Kyros Kyrou |display-authors=etal |title=A CRISPR–Cas9 gene drive targeting ''doublesex'' causes complete population suppression in caged ''Anopheles gambiae'' mosquitoes |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=36 |issue=11 |pages=1062–1066 |date=24 September 2018 |doi=10.1038/nbt.4245 |pmid=30247490 |pmc=6871539 |bibcode=2018NatBi..36.1062K |url=http://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/64952/11/nbt.4245.pdf |access-date=23 September 2019 |archive-date=29 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429023635/http://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/64952/11/nbt.4245.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michael Le Page |title=Gene tool could halt malaria spread |journal=New Scientist |date=29 September 2018 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23931974-000-evolution-defying-dna-makes-mosquitoes-infertile-by-changing-their-sex |access-date=2 November 2018 |archive-date=November 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112061002/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23931974-000-evolution-defying-dna-makes-mosquitoes-infertile-by-changing-their-sex/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vyakucimbizga === [[File:Insect repellents in Finnish store.jpg|thumb |Mankhwala gha kucimbizga nyimbu (kusazgapo ''mosquito coil'') mu sitolo ku Finland]] Vyakucimbizga vibenene vikupakika pa cikopa ndipo vikuvikilira ku kuluma kwa nyimbu kwa kanyengo kacoko. DEET yikucimbizga nyimbu zinyake na vibenene vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Z. |last2=Leal |first2=W. S. |title=Mosquitoes smell and avoid the insect repellent DEET |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=36 |pages=13598–13603 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18711137 |pmc=2518096 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0805312105 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vinyake ni mafuta gha bulugamu na vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |year=2009 |title=Updated Information regarding Insect Repellents |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/repellentupdates.htm |access-date=2017-09-10 |archive-date=2013-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512034920/http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/repellentupdates.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Nuwer, Rachel, ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/natural-mosquito-repellents-powers-finally-decoded/ Natural Mosquito Repellent's Powers Finally Decoded] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812180532/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/natural-mosquito-repellents-powers-finally-decoded/ |date=2021-08-12 }}'', Scientific American 325, 2, 23 (August 2021)</ref> Pyrethrum, iyo yikufuma ku maluŵa ghanyake, ni cakucimbizga ciwemi ca vyakumera. Vilwero vya magesi ivyo vikupanga congo ca pacanya kuti vicimbizge nyimbu vikuguliskika, kweni palije kusanda uko kwalongora kuti vikuvikilira ŵanthu ku kuluma kwa nyimbu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evidenceaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Electronic_mosquito_repellents_for_preventing_mosquito_bites_and_malaria_infection.pdf |title=Electronic mosquito repellents for preventing mosquito bites and malaria infection |access-date=2018-09-19 |archive-date=2017-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808175758/http://www.evidenceaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Electronic_mosquito_repellents_for_preventing_mosquito_bites_and_malaria_infection.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kuluma === Kuluma kwa nyimbu kukwiziska vyakucitika vinandi pa cikumba, ndipo nyengo zinyake ulwari wa kukhwaskika comene na kuluma.<ref name="Sawada Inoue Kawa 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sawada |first1=Akihisa |last2=Inoue |first2=Masami |last3=Kawa |first3=Keisei |title=How we treat chronic active Epstein–Barr virus infection |journal=International Journal of Hematology |volume=105 |issue=4 |date=2017 |doi=10.1007/s12185-017-2192-6 |pages=406–418 |pmid=28210942 }}</ref> Ulwari uwu ni kulimbana kukulu kwa thupi na purotini za mata gha nyimbu.<ref name="pmid24364549">{{cite journal |last=Juckett |first=G. |title=Arthropod bites |journal=American Family Physician |volume=88 |issue=12 |pages=841–847 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24364549 }}</ref> Mitundu yinandi ya nyimbu yingiziska ici.<ref name="Tatsuno Fujiyama Matsuoka Shimauchi 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Tatsuno |first1=Kazuki |last2=Fujiyama |first2=Toshiharu |last3=Matsuoka |first3=Hiroyuki |last4=Shimauchi |first4=Takatoshi |last5=Ito |first5=Taisuke |last6=Tokura |first6=Yoshiki |title=Clinical categories of exaggerated skin reactions to mosquito bites and their pathophysiology |journal=Journal of Dermatological Science |volume=82 |issue=3 |date=2016 |doi=10.1016/j.jdermsci.2016.04.010 |pages=145–152 |pmid=27177994 }}</ref><ref name="Peng Simons 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Z. |last2=Simons |first2=F.E. |title=Advances in mosquito allergy |journal=Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=350–354 |date=August 2007 |pmid=17620829 |doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e328259c313 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17169531">{{cite journal |last=Asada |first=H. |title=Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites: a unique pathogenic mechanism linking Epstein-Barr virus infection, allergy and oncogenesis |journal=Journal of Dermatological Science |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=153–160 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17169531 |doi=10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.11.002 }}</ref><ref name="pmid23352522">{{cite journal |last1=Crisp |first1=H.C. |last2=Johnson |first2=K.S. |title=Mosquito allergy |journal=Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=65–69 |date=February 2013 |pmid=23352522 |doi=10.1016/j.anai.2012.07.023 }}</ref> Cifukwa purotini za mata gha nyimbu zakupambana zikuyana, ulwari ungafuma ku nyimbu za mtundu uliwose.<ref name="pmid23442453">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=S. |last2=Mann |first2=B.K. |title=Insect bite reactions |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=151–164 |date=2013 |pmid=23442453 |doi=10.4103/0378-6323.107629 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ucizgi ungaŵa wa mankhwala gha kuyabwa, gha kumwa panji gha kupaka pa cikumba. Amoniya wa maji nayo yikovwira.<ref name="Ammonium">{{cite journal |last1=Zhai |first1=Hongbo |last2=Packman |first2=Elias W. |last3=Maiback |first3=Howard I. |title=Effectiveness of Ammonium Solution in Relieving Type I Mosquito Bite Symptoms: A Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study |journal=Acta Dermato-Venereologica |date=21 July 1998 |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=297–298 |doi=10.1080/000155598441918|pmid=9689301 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kufunda na kuzizima nako kungovwira.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=C. |last2=Großjohann |first2=B. |last3=Fischer |first3=L. |title=The use of concentrated heat after insect bites/stings as an alternative to reduce swelling, pain, and pruritus: an open cohort-study at German beaches and bathing-lakes |journal=Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology |volume=4 |pages=191–196 |date=15 December 2011 |pmid=22253544 |pmc=3257884 |doi=10.2147/CCID.S27825 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/insect-bites-and-stings/treatment/ |title=Treatment of Insect bites and stings |website=nhs.uk |access-date=31 October 2018 |date=19 October 2017 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031173837/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/insect-bites-and-stings/treatment/ |url-status=live }}</ref> == Mu Midawuko ya Ŵanthu == === Majandulo gha Ŵagiriki === [[File:Rackham-gnat and bull.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca Arthur Rackham ca nthanthi ya "Nkhambako na Nyimbu", 1912]] Nthanthi za vinyama za Ŵagiriki ŵa kale, nga ni "Njovu na Nyimbu" na "Ng'ombe Yanalume na Nyimbu", izo zili na sambiro lakuti cinyama cikulu cikuwona nanga ni cicoko yayi, zikafuma ku Mesopotamiya.<ref name="Adrados1999">{{cite book |last=Adrados |first=Francisco Rodríguez |author-link=Francisco Rodríguez Adrados |title=History of the Graeco-Latin Fable |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=093Gl8KEktMC&pg=PA324 |year=1999 |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-11454-8 |page=324 |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-date=28 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528074423/https://books.google.com/books?id=093Gl8KEktMC&pg=PA324 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Majandulo gha Kwambilira === Ŵanthu ŵa Siberia ŵali na majandulo gha kwambilira kwa nyimbu. Jandulo limoza likuyowoya za cimuntu cikulu cakurya ŵanthu, Punegusse, ico cikakomeka na mpalu kweni cikawukanga so. Mpalu wakacocha, kweni vyoto vya moto vikazgoka nyimbu, izo zicali kusuzga ŵanthu. Majandulo ghanyake gha Siberia ghakuti nyimbu zikafuma ku vyoto panji vigaŵa vya cinyama cikulu panji ciŵanda. Majandulo ghakuyana gha Ŵaamerika ŵa malo agho, umo nyimbu zikufuma ku vyoto vya cakurya ŵanthu, ghakulongora kuti ghakafuma pamoza.<ref>{{cite book |volume=4 |year=1927 |first=Uno |last=Holmberg |author-link=Uno Holmberg |title=Finno-Ugric and Siberian |url=https://archive.org/details/mythologyofallra41gray |work=The Mythology of All Races |at=IX. "The Origin of the Mosquito", p. 386 |publisher=Marshall Jones Company }}</ref> Lafcadio Hearn wakulemba kuti mu Japani, nyimbu zikuwonekera nga ni ŵakufwa awo ŵawuka so, ŵakulangika cifukwa ca vyakwananga vyawo kuŵa "mizimu yakumwa ndopa".<ref>{{cite book |last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |author-link=Lafcadio Hearn |chapter=Mosquitoes |title=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |title-link=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |publisher=Dover Publications |orig-date=1968 |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4209-6751-7 |pages=72–74}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === [[File:Winsor McCay (1912) How a Mosquito Operates.webm|thumb|alt=Filimu yambura congo ya mitundu yiŵiri (yakufipa na yituŵa) ya nyimbu yikulu comene yikumwa ndopa za munthu wakugona.|thumbtime=00:36|''How a Mosquito Operates'' (1912)]] Filimu ya Winsor McCay ya 1912 ''How a Mosquito Operates'' yikaŵa yimoza mwa mafilimu ghakwamba gha vithuzi vyakwenda vyakujambulika.<ref>{{cite book |last=Webster |first=Chris |title=Action Analysis for Animators |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jylUYRFfcywC |year=2012 |publisher=Focal Press |isbn=978-0-240-81218-2 |access-date=4 September 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104181628/https://books.google.com/books?id=jylUYRFfcywC |url-status=live}}</ref> Yikulongora nyimbu yikulu yikusuzga munthu wakugona.<ref>{{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |author-link=John Canemaker |title=Winsor McCay: His Life and Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vs82AQAAIAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Abrams Books |isbn=978-0-8109-5941-5 |page=165 }}</ref> Ngalawa 12 za nkhondo za Ŵabritoni zathyika zina la HMS Mosquito panji HMS Musquito.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Colledge |first1=J. J. |last2=Warlow |first2=Ben |title=Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy |publisher=Chatham |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-86176-281-8}} "Mosquito" and "Musquito".</ref> De Havilland Mosquito yikaŵa ndege ya luŵiro iyo yikapangika pakati pa 1940 na 1950, ndipo yikagwira ntchito zinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=De Havilland Mosquito |url=http://www.aviation-history.com/dehavilland/mosquito.html |publisher=The Aviation History Online Museum |access-date=21 November 2015 |archive-date=11 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111050938/http://www.aviation-history.com/dehavilland/mosquito.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Msumba wa Berezniki mu Russia ukusekelera nyimbu zake na mphikizgano wa "msungwana wakunowa comene" caka ciliconse kufuma 17 mpaka 20 Vuna. Ŵanakazi ŵakwimilira maminiti 20 na vyakuvwara vifupi; uyo walumika comene ndiyo wakupunda.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-33525015 |title=Russia: Mosquitoes honoured at annual festival |work=BBC News |date=July 14, 2015 |archive-date=6 July 2024 |access-date=5 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706013847/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-33525015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Singano izo zikuyana na mlomo wa nyimbu zikupangika pa ucizgi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gurera |first1=Dev |last2=Bhushan |first2=Bharat |last3=Kumar |first3=Navin |title=Lessons from mosquitoes' painless piercing |journal=Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials |date=August 2018 |volume=84 |pages=178–187 |doi=10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.05.025 |pmid=29793155 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Annie D. R. |last2=Putra |first2=Ketut B. |last3=Chen |first3=Lei |last4=Montgomery |first4=Jeffrey S. |last5=Shih |first5=Albert |title=Mosquito proboscis-inspired needle insertion to reduce tissue deformation and organ displacement |journal=Scientific Reports |date=22 July 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |article-number=12248 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-68596-w |doi-access=free |pmid=32699296 |pmc=7376018 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1012248L }}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Vinyama]] b7qlk7qcb7pa234iq0wuz1im4wvh4qr 0 6198 124409 123666 2026-11-10T20:41:48Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | perrow = 4 | total_width = 350 | footer = Vyakucitika vya vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya kusanda mendero, kuzunguliya nga ni koloko kufuma pacanya ku mazere: Newton's cradle ('''kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale'''), kusintha kwa cizizimu ('''kasandiro ka kufunda na nkhongono'''), cithuzi ca Chladni ('''majigha''', '''kunjenjemera''' na '''vyongo'''), ungweru wa ''aurora borealis'' ('''kusanda caro capasi''' na '''umagineti-magesi'''), kanyama kakwenda pacanya pa maji ('''kasandiro ka vyamaji''' na '''kusanda mendero kwa vyamoyo'''), ungweru wakupindika cifukwa ca nkhongono za kuguza ('''kusanda mendero kwa mlengalenga''', '''kasandiro ka ungweru''' na '''''relativity'''''), kuyezga kwa madolozi ghaŵiri ('''kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene'''), na cithuzi ca Feynman ca kunangika kwa beta ('''kasandiro ka pakati pa atomu''' na '''kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko''').{{efn|Malongosoro gha vithuzi ghafupikiskika; malongosoro ghakukwana ni agha: *'''Kasandiro ka kwenda''': cithuzi ca Newton's cradle, ico para cikwenda cikulongora malango gha kusunga nkhongono za kwenda na nkhongono za ntchito. *'''Kasandiro ka kufunda na nkhongono''': vithuzi viŵiri vya cizizimu pambere (ku mazere) na apo (ku maryero) cikusungunuka, kulongora kusazgikira kwa kusokonezgeka. *'''Majigha''', '''kunjenjemera''' na '''vyongo''': kunjenjemera pa mbale ya Chladni uko kukupangiska mcenga kuŵikika mu mawonekero ghakutowa. *'''Umagineti-magesi''' na '''kusanda caro capasi''': ''aurora borealis'', cakucitika ca kawiro ico cikukolerana na tuvinthu twakunyamula magesi mu nkhongono za umagineti za caro capasi. *'''Kasandiro ka vyamaji''' na '''kusanda mendero kwa vyamoyo''': kanyama kakwenda pacanya pa maji kwizira mu nkhongono za pacanya pa maji. *'''Kusanda mendero kwa mlengalenga''', '''''relativity''''' na '''kasandiro ka ungweru''': cithuzi ca mlengalenga ico cikunangika cifukwa nkhongono za kuguza zikupindiska ungweru. *'''Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene''': cithuzi ca kuyezga kwa madolozi ghaŵiri, kulongora kuti tuvinthu tucoko tukucita nga ni majigha. *'''Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko''' na '''kasandiro ka pakati pa atomu''': cithuzi ca Feynman ca kunangika kwa beta. Ivi ni vimoza waka mwa vigaŵa vinandi vya kusanda mendero.<ref> Koenigstorfer, Stephan (2017). ''From Uniquity to Ubiquity: The Story of a Cizizimu''. Available at: [http://www.koenigstorfer.com/science-article.pdf original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260805131306/http://www.koenigstorfer.com/science-article.pdf|date=5 August 2026}}. Koenigstorfer notes that “the complex structures disappear first” and that the snowflake “continues to transform until it is in spherical blobs,” describing this process as “a beautiful, large scale example of an increase in entropy”. </ref><ref> Krzanowski, Roman (2023). ''An Inquiry Concerning the Persistence of Physical Information''. ''Philosophies'' 8(2): 41. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2409-9287/8/2/41. Krzanowski describes snowflakes as “low-entropy complexes” and explains that “The reverse applies when the snowflake dissolves, with the energy influx increasing the local entropy as the snowflake transitions from an organized crystal state to a less organized (with higher entropy) liquid state,” noting that information in snowflakes is disclosed through their “complex morphologies”. </ref>}}| image1 = Newton's Cradle.jpg | alt1 = Newton's cradle | image2 = Snowflake – Before and After Melting (Composite, but with square reshaping).jpg | alt2 = Snowflake | image3 = Quadratic Chladni plate square cropped version.jpg | alt3 = Cithuzi ca Chladni | image4 = Virmalised 18.03.15 (4).jpg | alt4 = Aurora borealis | image5 = Feynman Diagram - Negative Beta Decay.png | alt5 = Cithuzi ca Feynman ca kunangika kwa beta | image6 = Doubleslitexperiment.svg | alt6 = Cithuzi ca kuyezga kwa madolozi ghaŵiri | image7 = Gravitational lens found in the DESI Legacy Surveys data (noirlab2104c).jpg | alt7 = Milambagombe iyo ungweru wake wapindika na nkhongono za kuguza | image8 = Gerridae P1060211a.jpg | alt8 = Kanyama kakwenda pacanya pa maji }} '''Kusanda mendero''' ni [[Kasandiro|kasandiro]] ka vyamvimba, vigaŵa vyake vyakwamba, kwenda kwake na umo vikucitira mu malo na mu nyengo, kweniso vinthu vyakukolerana navyo vya nkhongono za ntchito na nkhongono.<ref name="maxwell1878-physicalscience">{{harvnb|Maxwell|1878|p=9}} "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events."</ref> Ni umoza mwa tusandiro twakwamba comene.<ref name="youngfreedman2014p1">{{harvnb |Young|Freedman|2014|p=1}} "Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves."</ref><ref name="youngfreedman2014p2">{{harvnb |Young|Freedman|2014|p=2}} "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena."</ref><ref name="holzner2003-physics">{{harvnb|Holzner|2006|p=7}} "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you."</ref> Musandi uyo wakusanda comene kusanda mendero wakuchemeka musandi wa mendero. Kusanda mendero ni umoza mwa masambiro gha kale comene.<ref name="krupp2003">{{harvnb |Krupp|2003}}</ref> Mu vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kusanda mendero, [[Usungunu|usungunu]], kasandiro ka vyamoyo, na vigaŵa vinyake vya masamu vikaŵa vigaŵa vya filosofi ya kawiro, kweni mu Kusintha kwa Kasandiro mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, tusandiro twa kawiro utu tukapatukana kuŵa tusandiro twapaŵekha. Kusanda mendero kukukolerana na vigaŵa vinandi vya kusanda, nga ni kusanda mendero kwa vyamoyo na usungunu wa tuvinthu tucoko comene, ndipo mphaka za kusanda mendero zikuŵikika makola yayi. Maghanoghano ghaphya mu kusanda mendero kanandi ghakulongosora umo vinthu vikwendera ivyo tusandiro tunyake tukusanda, ndipo ghakulongora nthowa ziphya za kusanda mu tusandiro utu na mu masambiro ghanyake, nga ni masamu na filosofi.<ref name="youngfreedman2014p1" /> Kuluta panthazi kwa kusanda mendero kanandi kukupangiska luso la vilwero liphya. Mwaciyelezgero, kuluta panthazi pa kupulikiska umagineti-magesi, kusanda mendero kwa vinthu vyakukhwima, na kusanda mendero kwa mtima wa vimenyu kukapangiska mwakulunjika luso la vilwero ilo lasintha wupu wa ŵanthu wa mazuŵa ghano, nga ni wayilesi ya kanema, [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mirangura]], vilwero vya mu nyumba, na vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya; kuluta panthazi pa kusanda kufunda na nkhongono za ntchito kukapangiska kukura kwa mafakitale; ndipo kuluta panthazi pa kusanda kwenda kwa vinthu kukapangiska kukura kwa [[Kakyula|kakyula]].<ref name="youngfreedman2014p1" /> == Mbiri == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''physics'' likufuma ku Cilatini ''physica'' ("kusanda kawiro"), ilo nalo likufuma ku Cigiriki φυσική (''phusikḗ'', "kasandiro ka kawiro"), lizgu ilo likufuma ku φύσις (''phúsis'', "kwambilira, kawiro, cimanyikwiro").<ref name="etymonline-physics">{{cite web |title=physics |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&allowed_in_frame=0|access-date=1 November 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161224191507/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&allowed_in_frame=0 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="etymonline-physic">{{cite web |title=physic |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&allowed_in_frame=0 |access-date=1 November 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161224173651/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&allowed_in_frame=0 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LSJ">{{LSJ|fu/sis|φύσις}}, {{LSJ|fusiko/s|φυσική}}, {{LSJ|e)pisth/mh|ἐπιστήμη|ref}}</ref> === Astronome ya Kale === [[File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.8|Astronome ya Ŵaegipiti ŵa kale yikuwoneka pa vikumbusko nga ni pacanya pa nyumba ya maliro ya Senemut ya mu Mzere wa Mafumu wa 18 wa Egipiti.]] [[Astronome]] ni umoza mwa tusandiro twa kawiro twa kale comene. Midawuko ya kale ya pambere pa 3000 pambere Khristu, nga ni Ŵasumeri, Ŵaeguputo ŵa kale, na midawuko ya dambo la Indus, yikaŵa na vinjeru vya kulongolera na kumanya kwakwamba kwa kwenda kwa zuŵa, mwezi, na nyenyezi. Nyenyezi na vibwe, ivyo vikaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa ŵaciuta, kanandi vikasopekanga. Nangauli malongosoro gha malo gha nyenyezi kanandi ghakaŵa ghambura kasandiro na ghambura ukaboni, kulaŵiska kwakwamba uku kukaŵika maziko gha astronome ya pamanyuma.<ref name="krupp2003"/> Kuyana na Asger Aaboe, kwambilira kwa astronome ya Kumanjiliro kukusangika mu Mesopotamiya, ndipo ntchito zose za Kumanjiliro mu tusandiro twakulunjika zikufuma ku astronome ya Ŵababuloni ŵa pamanyuma.<ref name ="aaboe1991">{{harvnb |Aaboe|1991}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Eguputo ŵakasiya vyakukumbukira ivyo vikulongora kumanya magulu gha nyenyezi na kwenda kwa vinthu vya kumwamba, apo mulembi wa ndakatulo wa Ŵagiriki Homer wakalemba za vinthu vya kumwamba mu ''Iliad'' na ''Odyssey''; pamanyuma ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵagiriki ŵakapeleka mazina, agho ghacali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano, gha magulu ghanandi gha nyenyezi agho ghakuwoneka kufuma ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto.<ref name="clagett1995">{{harvnb |Clagett|1995}}</ref><ref name="thurston1994">{{harvnb |Thurston|1994}}</ref> === Filosofi ya Kawiro === Filosofi ya kawiro yikwamba mu Girisi mu nyengo ya kale (650–480 pambere Khristu), apo ŵapenda vinjeru nga ni Thales ŵakakana malongosoro ghambura kuŵa gha kawiro gha vyakucitika vya kawiro ndipo ŵakati cakucitika ciliconse cili na cifukwa ca kawiro.<ref name="singer2008p35">{{harvnb |Singer|2008|p=35}}</ref> Ŵakasacizga maghanoghano agho ghakasimikizgika na vinjeru na kulaŵiska, ndipo maghanoghano ghawo ghanandi ghakapunda mu viyezgo; mwaciyelezgero, ghanoghano la vimenyu likasangika kuŵa lakwenelera pafupifupi vyaka 2,000 pamanyuma pakuti lasacizgika na Leucippus na msambiri wake Democritus.<ref name="lloyd1970pp108-109">{{harvnb |Lloyd|1970|pp=108–109}}</ref><ref name="about-atomism"> {{cite web |last=Gill |first=N. S. |title=Atomism – Pre-Socratic Philosophy of Atomism |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/presocraticphiloso/p/Atomism.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710140657/http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/presocraticphiloso/p/Atomism.htm |archive-date=10 July 2014 |access-date=1 April 2014 |publisher=About Education }}</ref> === Aristotle na Kusanda Mendero kwa Ŵagiriki === [[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|upright|Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu)]] Mu nyengo ya Girisi wa kale (vyaka vya m'ma 600, 500 na 400 pambere Khristu) na pamanyuma, filosofi ya kawiro yikakura mu nthowa zinandi za kusanda. Aristotle (384–322 pambere Khristu), msambiri wa Plato, wakalemba pa nkhani zinandi, kusazgapo buku likulu la "Kusanda Mendero" mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu. Kusanda mendero kwa Aristotle kukakhwaska kwa pafupifupi vyaka 2,000. Nthowa yake yikasazganga kulaŵiska kucoko na kughanaghana makola, kweni yikathemba viyezgo yayi. Ntchito yake yakwamba, nangauli yikaŵa yambura kukwana, yikaŵa maziko agho ŵaghanaghani ŵa pamanyuma ŵakazengapo. Nthowa yake sono yaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito. Wakalongosora maghanoghano nga ni kwenda (na nkhongono ya kukoka) na ghanoghano la vigaŵa vinayi. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti cigaŵa ciliconse ca vinayi vya kale (mphepo, moto, maji, dongo) cili na malo ghake gha kawiro. Cifukwa ca kukhwima kwakupambana, cigaŵa ciliconse cikuwelera ku malo ghake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements |website=Cal State LA |url=https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106231001/https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2023 }}</ref> Ntheura, cifukwa ca kuzitika, moto ukaŵa pacanya, mphepo pasi pa moto, pamanyuma maji, ndipo pakumalira dongo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=tbcaldwe |title=Natural Philosophy: Aristotle {{!}} Physics 139 |date=14 October 2012 |url=https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209043612/https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Wakati so para cigaŵa cicoko ca cinthu cimoza canjira mu malo gha cinyake, cikuluta ceneco ku malo ghake gha kawiro. Mwaciyelezgero, para pali moto pasi, malawi ghakukwera mu mphepo kuyezga kuwelera ku malo ghake. Malango ghake gha kwenda ghakaŵa ghakuti vinthu vyakuzitika vikuwa luŵiro, luŵiro likukolerana na kuzitika, ndipo luŵiro lwa cinthu cakuwa likucepa apo cinthu ico cikuwiramo nchakukhwima.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Aristotle |url=https://galileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu/lectures/aristot2.html |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=galileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu}}</ref> Wakati so, pa kwenda kwakukakizgika (kwenda kwa cinthu para cakankhika na cinthu cinyake), luŵiro lwake likuyana na nkhongono iyo yaŵikika.<ref name=":1" /> Suzgo la kwenda na vifukwa vyake likasandika mwakupwelelera, ndipo likapangiska ghanoghano la "mwendeski wakwamba" nga ni kasupe waumaliro wa kwenda kose mu caro. === Ulaya na Cisilamu mu Nyengo Yapakati === [[File:Ibn al-Haytham crop.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Ibn al-Haytham ({{Circa|965|1040}}) wakalemba za kuyezga kwake kwa ''camera obscura'' mu Buku la Ungweru.{{sfn|Smith|2001|loc=Book I [6.85], [6.86], p. 379; Book II, [3.80], p. 453}}|alt=Cithuzi ca Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen)]] Ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa Kumanjiliro ukawa ku ŵakunjira na kunangika kwa mukati mu vyaka vya m'ma 400, ndipo ici cikapangiska kucepa kwa kusanda mu Ulaya ya kumanjiliro. Kweni Ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa Kumafumiro (wakumanyikwa nga ni Ufumu wa Byzantine) ukakana kuwukirika na kulutilira kukuzga masambiro ghanandi, kusazgapo kusanda mendero.{{sfn|Lindberg|1992|page=363}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500, John Philoponus wakasuska nthowa ya Aristotle, nangauli ntchito yake yinandi yikaŵa ya maghanoghano gha Cikhristu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wildberg |first=Christian |date=2021 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |title=John Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422010906/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500, Isidore wa ku Miletus wakawunjika ntchito za Archimedes, izo zikukoperekeka mu Archimedes Palimpsest. Ŵasambiri ŵa Cisilamu ŵakahara kusanda mendero kwa Aristotle kufuma ku Ŵagiriki ndipo mu Nyengo ya Golide ya Cisilamu ŵakakukuzga. Vyaphya vyakumanyikwa comene vya ŵasambiri ŵa Cisilamu vikaŵa mu kasandiro ka ungweru na kuwona, ivyo vikafuma ku ntchito za ŵasandi ŵanandi nga ni Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi na Avicenna.<ref>{{cite book |last= Dallal|first=Ahmad |author-link= |date= 2010|title=Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History |url= |location=New Haven |publisher= Yale University Press|page=38 |isbn=|quote = Within two centuries, the field of optics was radically transformed}}</ref> Mu Buku lake la Ungweru, Ibn al-Haytham wakalongora ghanoghano la mizere ya ungweru m'malo mwa ghanoghano la Ŵagiriki la mizere yakufuma mu maso. Nga ni Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham wakagwiliskira ntchito viyezgo vyakunozgeka, kusimikizga malango gha kupindika na kuwezgeka kwa ungweru.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=February 2015 |title=In retrospect: Book of Optics |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/518164a |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=518 |issue=7538 |pages=164–165 |doi=10.1038/518164a |bibcode=2015Natur.518..164A |issn=1476-4687 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=16 February 2024 |access-date=10 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216062544/https://www.nature.com/articles/518164a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Howard|Rogers|1995|pp=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Darrigol |first=Olivier |title=A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |pages=20}}</ref> === Kusintha kwa Kasandiro === [[File:Pinhole-camera.svg|thumb|left|upright|Umo ''camera obscura'' yikugwilira ntchito]] Kusanda mendero kukaŵa kasandiro kapaŵekha apo Ŵaulaya ŵa nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano yakwamba ŵakagwiliskira ntchito viyezgo na manambala kusanga ico sono tikuchema malango gha kusanda mendero.<ref name="benchaim2004">{{harvnb |Ben-Chaim|2004}}</ref> Kukura kukulu mu nyengo iyi kukusazgapo kusintha ciyelezgero ca caro capasi pakati ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kuŵa ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati ca Copernicus, malango gha kwenda kwa vibwe (ghakusangika na Johannes Kepler pakati pa 1609 na 1619), ntchito ya Galileo pa vilaŵiskiro vya kutali na astronome ya kulaŵiska mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, na kusanga kwa Isaac Newton na kukoleranya malango gha kwenda na nkhongono ya kukoka ya caro cose.<ref>{{harvnb |Guicciardini|1999}}</ref> Newton, na Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz paŵekha, ŵakapanga kakyula, kusanda kwa masamu kwa kusintha kwakulutilira, ndipo Newton wakakagwiliskira ntchito kumazga masuzgo gha kusanda mendero.<ref name=bblank>See also Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy. {{cite journal | last = Blank | first = Brian E. | date = May 2009 | title = The Calculus Wars reviewed by Brian E. Blank | journal = Notices of the American Mathematical Society | volume = 56 | issue = 5 | pages = 602–610 | url = https://www.ams.org/notices/200905/rtx090500602p.pdf | archive-date = 9 July 2024 | access-date = 6 February 2025 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240709100757/https://www.ams.org/notices/200905/rtx090500602p.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="allen1997">{{harvnb |Allen|1997}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1800 === <gallery mode="packed" heights="200px"> Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636.jpg|Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) related mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. JKepler.jpg|Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) explained planetary motions, formulating the first "natural laws" in the modern sense.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gould |first1=Alan |title=Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times |url=https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes/ |website=NASA |date=24 September 2016 |access-date=25 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624003856/https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes |archive-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|Isaac Newton discovered the laws of motion and universal gravitation. </gallery> Kusanga malango gha kufunda na nkhongono za ntchito, usungunu, na umagineti-magesi kukafuma ku kusanda mu Kusintha kwa Mafakitale apo khumbo la nkhongono za ntchito likasazgikira. Pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, maghanoghano gha kufunda, kwenda kwa vinthu, na umagineti-magesi ghakakolerana na kulaŵiska kunandi. Pamoza maghanoghano agha ghakaŵa maziko gha ico pamanyuma cikachemeka kusanda mendero kwa kale.<ref name=Krane-2019>{{Cite book |last=Krane |first=Kenneth S. |title=Modern physics |date=2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |isbn=978-1-119-49548-2 |edition=4 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Vyakusangika vinyake vya viyezgo vikasyala vyambura kulongosoreka. Umagineti-magesi wa kale ukaghanaghananga kuti pali cinthu, ''aether'', ico cikunyamula majigha, kweni cinthu ici cikasangika yayi. Ungweru wa vinthu vyakotcha ukakolerana yayi na kulongolera kwa maghanoghano gha kufunda na umagineti-magesi. Kufuma kwa ma''electron'' mu visulo vyakumulikika kukapambana na kulongolera. Kutondeka uku, uko kukawonekanga kucoko, kukasokonezga kusanda mendero mu vyaka makumi viŵiri vyakwamba vya m'ma 1900.<ref name=Krane-2019/> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === [[File:Max Planck Nobel 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Max Planck (1858–1947) wakaghanaghana za tuvigaŵa twa nkhongono (''quanta'') kuti walongosore ungweru wa vinthu vyakufunda comene, ndipo ici cikambiska kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene.<ref name=maxplanck>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Planck/Max_Planck_Originator_of_quantum_theory |title=Max Planck: Originator of quantum theory |date=2012-08-12 |quote="He renounced previous physics and introduced the concept of 'quanta' of energy."|work=esa.int |access-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=maxplanck/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Max-Planck|title=Max Planck &#124; Biography, Discoveries, & Quantum Theory &#124; Britannica|date=19 April 2025|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>]] [[File:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 2.jpg|thumb|right|Albert Einstein (1879–1955) wakasanga ungweru kufumiska magesi mu vinthu (''photoelectric effect'') na ghanoghano la ''relativity''.]] Kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano kukamba pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 na ntchito ya Max Planck pa kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene na ghanoghano la ''relativity'' la Albert Einstein. Maghanoghano ghose ghaŵiri ghakiza cifukwa ca kusoŵa kulunjika kwa kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale mu vyakucitika vinyake. Kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale kakalongoleranga kuti luŵiro lwa ungweru likuthemba kwenda kwa mulaŵiski, ico cikakolerananga yayi na luŵiro lwakukhazikika ilo malango gha Maxwell ghakalongoleranga. Ici cikanozgeka na ghanoghano la ''special relativity'' la Einstein, ilo likatora malo gha kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale pa vinthu vyakwenda luŵiro comene na kuzomerezga luŵiro lwakukhazikika lwa ungweru.<ref name="oconnorrobertson1996-relativity">{{harvnb |O'Connor|Robertson|1996a}}</ref> Ungweru wa vinthu vyakotcha ukaŵa suzgo linyake ku kusanda mendero kwa kale, ilo likanozgeka apo Planck wakati vinthu vyakunjenjemera vingasanga nkhongono mu vigaŵa vyapadera pera ivyo vikukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera kwake. Ici, pamoza na kufuma kwa ma''electron'' na ungweru na ghanoghano lose la vigaŵa vya nkhongono vya ma''electron'', cikapangiska kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene, ako kakanozga kusanda mendero kwa kale pa ukulu ucoko comene.<ref name="oconnorrobertson1996-quantum">{{harvnb |O'Connor|Robertson|1996b}}</ref> Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakalongozgeka na Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger na Paul Dirac.<ref name="oconnorrobertson1996-quantum"/> Kufuma ku ntchito iyi yakwamba, na ntchito za vigaŵa vyakukolerana, Ciyelezgero Cakuzomerezgeka ca kusanda mendero kwa tuvinthu tucoko comene cikapangika.<ref name="donut2001">{{cite web |website=DONUT |title=The Standard Model |publisher=Fermilab |date=29 June 2001 |url=http://www-donut.fnal.gov/web_pages/standardmodelpg/TheStandardModel.html |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531012204/http://www-donut.fnal.gov/web_pages/standardmodelpg/TheStandardModel.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kusanga kanthu kacoko kakuyana na Higgs boson ku CERN mu 2012, tuvinthu tucoko tose twakwamba utu Ciyelezgero Cakuzomerezgeka cikulongolera tukuwoneka kuŵako, ndipo tunyake yayi; kweni kusanda mendero kujumpha Ciyelezgero Cakuzomerezgeka ni cigaŵa ca kusanda kwakulutilira.<ref name="cho2012">{{harvnb |Cho|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Womersley |first=J. |url=http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200502/beyond_the_standard_model.pdf |date=February 2005 |title=Beyond the Standard Model |magazine= Symmetry |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=22–25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924114111/http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200502/beyond_the_standard_model.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya masamu nga ni kusanda mwaŵi na magulu ngakuzirwa ku cigaŵa ici. == Maghanoghano Ghakulu == Kusanda mendero kukukhwaskana na ndondomeko zinandi, nangauli maghanoghano ghanyake ghakugwiliskirika ntchito na ŵasandi wose ŵa mendero. Ghanoghano liliwose lapimika kanandi mu viyezgo ndipo lasangika kuŵa ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kawiro. Maghanoghano ghakulu agha ni vilwero vyakuzirwa vya kusanda nkhani zapadera, ndipo musandi wa mendero waliyose, kwambura kulaŵiska cigaŵa cake, wakwenera kughamanya. Ghakusazgapo kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale, kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene, kasandiro ka kufunda na nkhongono za ntchito, umagineti-magesi, na ''special relativity''. === Kupambana pakati pa Kusanda Mendero kwa Kale na kwa Mazuŵa Ghano === Mu vyaka makhumi vyakwamba vya m'ma 1900, kusanda mendero kukasintha comene na kusanga kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene na ''relativity''. Kusintha kukaŵa kukulu comene mwakuti maghanoghano ghaphya agha ghakaŵa maziko gha "kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano", ndipo nkhani zinyake zikaŵa "kusanda mendero kwa kale". Kagwiliskiro kanandi ka kusanda mendero nkha kale. Malango gha kusanda mendero kwa kale ghakulongosora makola ndondomeko izo ukulu wake ngukulu kuluska wa vimenyu na izo kwenda kwake kuli pacoko comene kuluska luŵiro lwa ungweru. Kuwaro kwa cigaŵa ici, kulaŵiska kukukolerana yayi na kulongolera kwa kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale. === Maghanoghano gha Kale === [[File:Modernphysicsfields.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|Kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale kakugwira ntchito pa vinthu vikulu na ivyo vikwenda pacoko; maghanoghano gha mazuŵa ghano ghakukhumbikwa pa vinyake.]] Kusanda mendero kwa kale kukusazgapo vigaŵa na nkhani izo zikamanyikwa na kukura makola pambere pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900: kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale, kasandiro ka kufunda na nkhongono za ntchito, na umagineti-magesi. Kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale kakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikukhwaskika na nkhongono na vinthu vyakwenda, ndipo kangagaŵika mu kusanda nkhongono pa vinthu vyambura kusintha luŵiro, kusanda kwenda kwambura kulaŵiska vifukwa vyake, na kusanda kwenda na nkhongono izo zikukukhwaska; kangagaŵika so mu kasandiro ka vinthu vyakukhwima na vyakuthira, ndipo kaciŵiri aka kakusazgapo kusanda maji ghakwimilira, maji ghakwenda, na mphepo. Kasandiro ka congo ni kusanda umo congo cikupangikira, kulaŵilirika, kutumizgika na kupokereka.<ref name="Thorne-2017">{{Cite book |last1=Thorne |first1=Kip S. |author-link1=Kip Thorne |title=Modern Classical Physics Optics, Fluids, Plasmas, Elasticity, Relativity, and Statistical Physics |last2=Blandford |first2=R.D. |publisher=Princeton University Press. |year=2017 |location=United States}}</ref>{{rp|xxxi|q=The resulting quantum mechanics and relativity occupied physicists for much of the succeeding century and today are viewed very differently from each other. Quantum mechanics is perceived as an abrupt departure from the tacit assumptions of the past, while relativity-though no less radical conceptually-is seen as a logical continuation of the physics of Galileo, Newton, and Maxwell.}}<ref name="Thorne-2017"/>{{rp|xxxii}} Vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya mazuŵa ghano vya kasandiro ka congo ni kusanda majigha gha congo gha unandi ukulu comene wa kunjenjemera uko ŵanthu ŵangapulika yayi; kusanda congo ca vinyama na kupulika kwake; na kusintha congo na vilwero vya magesi.<ref name=Krane-2019/>{{rp|6}} Kasandiro ka ungweru, kusanda ungweru, kakukhwaskana na ungweru wakuwoneka pera yayi kweni so na ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi na wa pacanya pa uswesi, uwo ukulongora vyakucitika vyose vya ungweru wakuwoneka kupatula kuwoneka, nga ni kuwezgeka, kupindika, kukolerana, na kujikhazgira.<ref name=Krane-2019/>{{rp|2|q=These three successful theories-mechanics, electromagnetism, and thermodynamics-form the basis for what we call "classical physics."}} Kufunda ni mtundu wa nkhongono za ntchito, nkhongono za mukati izo tuvinthu twa cinthu tuli nazo; kasandiro ka kufunda kakukhwaskana na ubale pakati pa kufunda na mitundu yinyake ya nkhongono za ntchito. Magesi na umagineti vyasandika nga ni cigaŵa cimoza ca kusanda mendero kufuma apo ubale wawo ukasangika pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800; magesi ghakwenda ghakupanga nkhongono ya umagineti, ndipo nkhongono ya umagineti yakusintha yikupanga magesi ghakwenda.<ref name="britannica-acoustics">{{cite encyclopedia |title=acoustics |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/4044/acoustics |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 June 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618235952/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/4044/acoustics |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref> Kusanda magesi ghambura kwenda, magesi ghakwenda, na umagineti wambura kwenda ni vigaŵa vyake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bioacoustics.info/ |title=Bioacoustics – the International Journal of Animal Sound and its Recording |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=31 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905120546/http://www.bioacoustics.info/ |archive-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Acoustical Society of America |title=Acoustics and You (A Career in Acoustics?) |url=http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/education_outreach/careers_in_acoustics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904010934/http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/education_outreach/careers_in_acoustics |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=21 May 2013 }}</ref> === Maghanoghano gha Mazuŵa Ghano === Kusanga ''relativity'' na kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene mu vyaka makhumi vyakwamba vya m'ma 1900 kukasintha maziko gha maghanoghano gha kusanda mendero kwambura kucepeska kuzirwa kwa maghanoghano ghanandi agho ghakaŵako. Ntheura nkhani za kusanda mendero zikagaŵika mu "kusanda mendero kwa kale" na "kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano", ndipo kwaciŵiri kukusazgapo vyakucitika vya kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene na ''relativity''. Kusanda mendero kwa kale kukukhwaskana na vyamvimba na nkhongono za ntchito pa ukulu wa kulaŵiska kwa nyengo zose, apo kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano kukukhwaskana comene na nkhalo ya vyamvimba na nkhongono za ntchito mu vyakucitika vikulu comene panji pa ukulu ukulu comene panji ucoko comene. Mwaciyelezgero, kusanda mendero kwa vimenyu na kwa mtima wa vimenyu kukusanda vyamvimba pa ukulu ucoko comene uko visungunu vingamanyikwira. Kusanda mendero kwa tuvinthu tucoko twakwamba kuli pa ukulu ucoko comene cifukwa kukukhwaskana na vigaŵa vyakwamba comene vya vyamvimba; cigaŵa ici cikuchemeka so kusanda mendero kwa nkhongono zikulu cifukwa ca nkhongono zikulu comene izo zikukhumbikwa kupanga tuvinthu tunandi mu makina gha kuthamangiska tuvinthu. Pa ukulu uwu, maghanoghano gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha malo, nyengo, vyamvimba, na nkhongono za ntchito ghakugwira so ntchito yayi. Maghanoghano ghaŵiri ghakulu gha kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano ghakulongora mawonekero ghakupambana gha malo, nyengo, na vyamvimba na agho kusanda mendero kwa kale kukulongora. Kasandiro ka kwenda ka kale kakuwona kawiro nga ni kakulutilira, apo kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakukhwaskana na kawiro ka vigaŵa vyapadera ka vyakucitika vinandi pa ukulu wa vimenyu na pasi pake, na ka tuvinthu na majigha pamoza. Ghanoghano la ''relativity'' likukhwaskana na kulongosora vyakucitika ivyo vikucitika mu cigaŵa cakwenda kuyaniska na mulaŵiski; ''special relativity'' likukhwaskana na kwenda kwambura nkhongono ya kukoka, ndipo ''general relativity'' na kwenda na ubale wake na nkhongono ya kukoka. Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene na ''relativity'' vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{harvnb |Tipler|Llewellyn|2003|pp=1–4, 115, 185–187}}</ref> Maghanoghano ghakwamba gha kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano ghakusazgapo kucita, cifukwa na cakufumapo, kanthu kacoko, cigaŵa ca nkhongono, kukwekana, ''quantum'', kuyana kwa mbali, na jigha. == Kusanda == === Nthowa ya Kasandiro === Ŵasandi ŵa mendero ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro kupima usange ghanoghano la kusanda mendero ndakwenelera. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakunozgeka ya kuyaniska ivyo ghanoghano likulongolera na vyakumalizgira vya viyezgo na kulaŵiska, ŵasandi ŵangapima makola usange ghanoghano ndakwenelera mu nthowa ya vinjeru, yambura kupendelera, na iyo yingawerezgeka. Pa ici, viyezgo vikucitika na kulaŵiska kukucitika kuti ŵamanye usange ghanoghano ndakwenelera panji yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=G. |last2=Silk |first2=J. |title=Scientific method: Defend the integrity of physics |journal=Nature |date=16 December 2014 |volume=516 |issue=7531 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/516321a |bibcode=2014Natur.516..321E |pmid=25519115 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Lamulo la kasandiro ni mazgo ghafupi panji gha masamu gha ubale uwo ukulongora fundo yikulu ya ghanoghano linyake, nga ni lamulo la Newton la nkhongono ya kukoka ya caro cose.<ref name="honderich1995pp474-476">{{harvnb |Honderich|1995|pp=474–476}}</ref> === Maghanoghano na Viyezgo === [[File:Bruce McCandless II during EVA in 1984.jpg|thumb|right|Wakwenda mu mlengalenga na caro capasi vyose viŵiri vikuwa kwambura cakuvikanizga. Pa cithuzi: Bruce McCandless. ]] [[File:Lightning in Arlington.jpg|thumb|right|Leza ni kwenda kwa magesi.]] Ŵaghanaghani ŵakuyezga kupanga viyelezgero vya masamu ivyo vikukolerana na viyezgo ivyo viliko na kulongolera makola vyakusangika vya viyezgo vya munthazi, apo ŵakuyezga ŵakupanga na kucita viyezgo kupima kulongolera kwa maghanoghano na kusanga vyakucitika viphya. Nangauli maghanoghano na viyezgo vikukura paŵekha, vikukhwaskana comene na kuthembana. Kuluta panthazi mu kusanda mendero kanandi kukucitika apo vyakusangika vya viyezgo vikutondeka kulongosoreka na maghanoghano agho ghaliko, ndipo ici cikupangiska kulaŵiska comene viyelezgero vyakwenelera, na apo maghanoghano ghaphya ghakulongolera vinthu ivyo vingapimika mu viyezgo, ndipo ici cikupangiska viyezgo viphya (na kanandi vilwero viphya).<ref>{{cite web |date=June 2015 |title=Has theoretical physics moved too far away from experiments? Is the field entering a crisis and, if so, what should we do about it? |url=https://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/research/conferences/convergence/roundtable-discussion-questions/has-theoretical-physics-moved-too |publisher=Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421064320/http://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/research/conferences/convergence/roundtable-discussion-questions/has-theoretical-physics-moved-too |archive-date=21 April 2016 }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa mendero awo ŵakugwira ntchito pakati pa maghanoghano na viyezgo ŵakusanda vyakucitika vyakusuzga ivyo vikuwoneka mu viyezgo na kuyezga kuvikoleranya na ghanoghano likulu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Phenomenology |url=https://www.mpp.mpg.de/english/research/theory/phenomenologie/index.html |publisher=Max Planck Institute for Physics |access-date=22 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307105406/https://www.mpp.mpg.de/english/research/theory/phenomenologie/index.html |archive-date=7 March 2016 }}</ref> Kusanda mendero kwa maghanoghano mu mbiri kwatora maghanoghano kufuma ku filosofi; umagineti-magesi ukakoleranyika mu nthowa iyi.{{efn|Mwaciyelezgero, wonani umo Kant na Ritter ŵakakhwaskira Ørsted.}} Kujumpha caro cose ca mlengalenga ico cikumanyikwa, cigaŵa ici cikukhwaskana so na nkhani za maghanoghano, nga ni vyaro vya mlengalenga vinyake na vigaŵa vinandi vya malo.{{efn|Maghanoghano agho ghakuchemeka ''ghakughanaghanirika waka'' ghangasintha mu nyengo. Mwaciyelezgero, atomu ya kusanda mendero kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 yikayuyulika na ŵanyake, nga ni Ernst Mach apo wakasuska kalongosoleko ka Ludwig Boltzmann. Pofika paumaliro wa Nkhondo Yikulu Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, atomu yikawonekanga so nga ni ghanoghano waka yayi.}} Ŵaghanaghani ŵakugwiliskira ntchito maghanoghano agha kuyezga kumazga masuzgo gha maghanoghano agho ghaliko; pamanyuma ŵakusanda vyakufumapo vya maghanoghano agha na kuyezga kupanga kulongolera uko kungapimika. Kusanda mendero kwa viyezgo kukusazgira, ndipo kukusazgirika, na kazengero ka vilwero na luso la vilwero. Ŵasandi ŵa viyezgo awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa kusanda kwakwamba ŵakupanga na kucita viyezgo na vilwero nga ni makina gha kuthamangiska tuvinthu na ma''laser'', apo awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa kusanda kwa kagwiliskiro kanandi ŵakugwira ntchito mu mafakitale, kupanga luso nga ni kujambura thupi na MRI na ma''transistor''. Feynman wakati ŵasandi ŵa viyezgo ŵangapenja vigaŵa ivyo ŵaghanaghani ŵandavisande makola.<ref name="feynman1965p157-experiment">{{harvnb|Feynman|1965|p=157}} "In fact experimenters have a certain individual character. They ... very often do their experiments in a region in which people know the theorist has not made any guesses."</ref> === Ivyo Kukusanda na Vilato === [[File:Acceleration components.JPG|thumb|left|Kusanda mendero kukulongosora caro ca kawiro na maghanoghano, kanandi gha manambala. Apa, nthowa ya kanthu kacoko yikulongosoreka na masamu gha ''calculus'' kuti walongosore umo kakwendera: ici ni cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero ico cikuchemeka kasandiro ka kwenda.]] Kusanda mendero kukusanda vyakucitika vinandi, kufuma ku tuvinthu tucoko twakwamba (nga ni ma''quark'', ma''neutrino'', na ma''electron'') mpaka ku magulu ghakulu comene gha milambagombe. Mu vyakucitika ivi muli vinthu vyakwamba comene ivyo vikupanga vinthu vinyake vyose. Ntheura kusanda mendero nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka "kasandiro kakwamba".<ref name="feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3" /> Kusanda mendero kukukhumba kulongosora vyakucitika vyakupambana vya mu kawiro mwa vyakucitika vipepuka. Ntheura kukukhumba kukoleranya vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona na vifukwa vyake vyakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma kukoleranya vifukwa ivi pamoza. Mwaciyelezgero, Ŵacayina ŵa kale ŵakawona kuti malibwe ghanyake ghakukokerana na nkhongono yambura kuwoneka. Ici pamanyuma cikachemeka umagineti, ndipo cikasandika makola kakwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600. Kweni nanga pambere Ŵacayina ŵandasange umagineti, Ŵagiriki ŵa kale ŵakamanyanga vinthu vinyake nga ni ulimbo wakukhwima, uwo para wapakizgika na sisi ukupangiska kukokerana kwambura kuwoneka kwakuyana.<ref name=stewart>{{cite book |last=Stewart |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Intermediate Electromagnetic Theory |page=50 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-02-4471-2}}</ref> Ici nacho cikasandika makola kakwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 ndipo cikachemeka magesi. Ntheura kusanda mendero kukapulikiska kulaŵiska kuŵiri kwa kawiro mwa vifukwa vyakwamba (magesi na umagineti). Kweni ntchito ya pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 yikavumbula kuti nkhongono ziŵiri izi ni vigaŵa viŵiri vya nkhongono yimoza: umagineti-magesi. Ndondomeko iyi ya "kukoleranya" nkhongono yikulutilira mazuŵa ghano, ndipo umagineti-magesi na nkhongono yicoko ya mtima wa vimenyu sono vikuwonekera kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri vya kukwekana kumoza. Kusanda mendero kukugomezga kusanga cifukwa caumaliro (ghanoghano la vyose) ca umo kawiro kaliri.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |year=1993 |title=Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature |publisher=Hutchinson Radius |isbn=978-0-09-177395-3}}</ref> === Kusanda kwa Sono === [[File:Feynman'sDiagram.JPG|thumb|right|Cithuzi ca Feynman ico R. P. Feynman wakalembapo zina lake]] [[File:Meissner effect p1390048.jpg|thumb|right|Cakucitika cakuzgoŵereka ico kusanda mendero kukulongosora: maginiti yikwenjama pacanya pa cinthu ico cikwenda magesi kwambura kukanizga, ndipo ici cikulongora Meissner effect.]] Kusanda mu kusanda mendero kukulutilira kuluta panthazi mu vigaŵa vinandi. Mu kusanda mendero kwa vyamvimba vyakukhwima, suzgo likulu lambura kumazgika la maghanoghano ni la vinthu ivyo vikwendeska magesi kwambura cikanizgo pa kufunda kukulu.<ref name="Legg2006">{{cite journal |last1=Leggett |first1=A. J. |year=2006 |title=What DO we know about high ''T''_c? |url=http://leopard.physics.ucdavis.edu/rts/p242/nphys254.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Nature Physics |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=134–136 |bibcode=2006NatPh...2..134L |doi=10.1038/nphys254 |s2cid=122055331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610183622/http://leopard.physics.ucdavis.edu/rts/p242/nphys254.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2010}}</ref> Viyezgo vinandi vikukhumba kupanga mirangura ya kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene.<ref name=cohen2008/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=S. A. |last2=Chtchelkanova |first2=A. Y. |last3=Treger |first3=D. M. |year=2006 |title=Spintronics&nbsp;– A retrospective and perspective |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/10b1/d4e488fabf429cb0630d96687548aa14158f.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=IBM Journal of Research and Development |volume=50 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1147/rd.501.0101 |s2cid=41178069 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924021923/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/10b1/d4e488fabf429cb0630d96687548aa14158f.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> Mu kusanda mendero kwa tuvinthu tucoko twakwamba, ukaboni wakwamba wa kusanda mendero kujumpha Ciyelezgero Cakuzomerezgeka wamba kuwoneka. Cakwamba ni ukaboni wakuti ma''neutrino'' ghali na kuzitika. Vyakusangika ivi vikuwoneka kuti vyamazga suzgo la kale la ma''neutrino'' gha zuŵa. Large Hadron Collider yasanga kale Higgs boson, kweni kusanda kwa munthazi kukukhumba kusimikizga panji kukana ghanoghano la ''supersymmetry''. Kusanda pa vyamvimba vyakufipa na nkhongono zakufipa nako kukulutilira.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibney |first1=E. |year=2015 |title=LHC 2.0: A new view of the Universe |journal=Nature |volume=519 |issue=7542 |pages=142–143 |doi=10.1038/519142a |bibcode=2015Natur.519..142G |pmid=25762263 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nangauli kuluta panthazi kukulu kwacitika mu kusanda mendero kwa nkhongono zikulu, kwa tuvinthu tucoko comene, na kwa kuthambo, vyakucitika vinandi vya zuŵa na zuŵa vya kusuzga, cisokonezgo, panji kusambasamba vicali vyambura kupulikiskika makola.<ref name="nrc1997v9p161">{{harvnb|National Research Council|Committee on Technology for Future Naval Forces|1997|p=161}}</ref><ref name="kellert1993p32">{{harvnb|Kellert|1993|p=32}}</ref><ref name="eames-quoting-feynman">{{cite journal |last1=Eames |first1=I. |last2=Flor |first2=J. B. |year=2011 |title=New developments in understanding interfacial processes in turbulent flows |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A |volume=369 |issue=1937 |pages=702–705 |bibcode=2011RSPTA.369..702E |doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0332 |pmid=21242127 |quote=Richard Feynman said that 'Turbulence is the most important unsolved problem of classical physics' |doi-access=free}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakusuzga agho ghakuwoneka nga ghangamazgika ghacali ghambura kumazgika; viyelezgero ni kupangika kwa milu ya mcenga, mawonekero gha madontho gha maji, na kujipatula kwa vinthu apo vyasunkhunyika.{{efn|Wonani ntchito ya Ilya Prigogine pa 'vinthu ivyo vili kutali na kukhazikika', na ŵanyake.}}<ref>{{Cite book |author1=National Research Council |chapter=What happens far from equilibrium and why |chapter-url= https://www.nap.edu/read/11967/chapter/7 |title=Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics: the science of the world around us |year=2007 |pages=91–110 |doi=10.17226/11967 |bibcode=2007nap..book11967N |isbn=978-0-309-10969-7 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161104001321/https://www.nap.edu/read/11967/chapter/7 |archive-date=4 November 2016}}<br />– {{cite arXiv |last1=Jaeger |first1=Heinrich M. |last2=Liu |first2=Andrea J. |author2-link=Andrea Liu|year=2010 |title=Far-From-Equilibrium Physics: An Overview |class=cond-mat.soft |eprint=1009.4874}}</ref> Vyakucitika ivi vyalaŵiskika comene kufuma mu ma 1970 pa vifukwa vinandi, kusazgapo nthowa za masamu za mazuŵa ghano na mirangura, ivyo vikazomerezga kupanga viyelezgero vya ndondomeko zakusuzga mu nthowa ziphya. Mu 1932, Horace Lamb wakati: "Sono ndine mulara, ndipo para nafwa na kuluta kucanya pali nkhani ziŵiri izo nkhugomezga kuti zizamulongosoreka. Yimoza ni kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ka magesi na ungweru, ndipo yinyake ni kwenda kwakusambasamba kwa vyakuthira. Pa yakwamba nkhugomezga comene."<ref name="goldstein1969">{{harvnb|Goldstein|1969}}</ref> == Vigaŵa == Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, vigaŵa vya kusanda mendero vyaŵa vyapadera comene, ndipo mazuŵa ghano ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵa mendero ŵakugwira ntchito mu cigaŵa cimoza umoyo wawo wose. "Ŵakumanya vyose" nga ni Einstein (1879–1955) na Lev Landau (1908–1968), awo ŵakagwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vinandi, sono mbacoko comene.{{efn|Kweni mu mdawuko wa kusanda mendero, kugaŵana na ŵanthu wose kukukhozgeka. Mwaciyelezgero, World Wide Web, iyo Tim Berners-Lee wakapanga ku CERN, yikapangika kuti yovwire makompyuta gha CERN, ndipo yikaŵa yakuti ŵasandi ŵa mendero pa caro cose ŵayigwiliskire ntchito. Ndimo viliri so na arXiv.org.}} Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu kusanda mendero kungagaŵika mu kusanda mendero kwa mtima wa vimenyu na kwa tuvinthu tucoko; kwa vyamvimba vyakukhwima; kwa vimenyu, mamolekyu, na ungweru; kwa kuthambo; na kwa kagwiliskiro.<ref>{{cite web |last=Redish |first=E. |title=Science and Physics Education Homepages |url=https://www.physics.umd.edu/perg/homepages.htm |publisher=University of Maryland Physics Education Research Group |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728005227/http://www.physics.umd.edu/perg/homepages.htm |archive-date=28 July 2016 }}</ref> ==== Mtima wa Vimenyu na Tuvinthu Tucoko ==== [[File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg|thumb|Cakucitika cakuyezgerapo mu cakusangira ca CMS ca Large Hadron Collider, cakulongora umo Higgs boson yingawonekera]] Kusanda mendero kwa tuvinthu tucoko ni kusanda vigaŵa vyakwamba vya vyamvimba na nkhongono za ntchito na kukwekana kwawo.<ref name="aps-dpf">{{cite web|title=Division of Particles & Fields |url=http://www.aps.org/units/dpf/index.cfm |publisher=American Physical Society |access-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829105655/http://www.aps.org/units/dpf/index.cfm |archive-date=29 August 2016 }}</ref> Kweniso, ŵasandi aŵa ŵakupanga makina gha kuthamangiska tuvinthu gha nkhongono zikulu, vilwero vya kusanga, na vilayizgo vya mirangura ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa kusanda uku.<ref name="halpern2010">{{harvnb|Halpern|2010}}</ref><ref name="grupen1999">{{harvnb|Grupen|1999}}</ref><ref name="walsh2012">{{harvnb|Walsh|2012}}</ref> Cigaŵa ici cikuchemeka so "kusanda mendero kwa nkhongono zikulu" cifukwa tuvinthu tunandi twakwamba tukusangika mu kawiro yayi kweni tukupangika pera pa kutimbana kwa nkhongono zikulu kwa tuvinthu tunyake.<ref name="iop-hepp">{{cite web|title=High Energy Particle Physics Group|url=http://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/hepp/index.html|publisher=Institute of Physics|access-date=18 October 2012|archive-date=29 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529024813/http://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/hepp/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Sono, kukwekana kwa tuvinthu tucoko twakwamba na vigaŵa vya nkhongono kukulongosoreka na Ciyelezgero Cakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="oerter2006">{{harvnb|Oerter|2006}}</ref> Ciyelezgero ici cikulongosora tuvinthu 12 twakumanyikwa twa vyamvimba (ma''quark'' na ma''lepton'') utu tukukwekana kwizira mu nkhongono zikulu, zicoko, na za umagineti-magesi.<ref name="oerter2006" /> Ciyelezgero ici cikulongolera so kanthu kakuchemeka Higgs boson.<ref name="gribbin1998">{{harvnb|Gribbin|Gribbin|Gribbin|1998}}</ref><ref name="oerter2006" /> Mu Vuna 2012 CERN, malo gha kusanda tuvinthu tucoko gha Ulaya, yikapharazga kusangika kwa kanthu kakuyana na Higgs boson.<ref name="eonr-higgs">{{cite web |title=CERN experiments observe particle consistent with long-sought Higgs boson |url=http://press-archived.web.cern.ch/press-archived/PressReleases/Releases2012/PR17.12E.html |publisher=CERN |access-date=18 October 2012 |date=4 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114084952/http://press-archived.web.cern.ch/press-archived/PressReleases/Releases2012/PR17.12E.html |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Kusanda mendero kwa mtima wa vimenyu ni cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero ico cikusanda vigaŵa na kukwekana kwa mitima ya vimenyu. Kagwiliskiro kakumanyikwa comene ka cigaŵa ici ni kupanga nkhongono ya nyukiliya na vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya, kweni kusanda kwapeleka kagwiliskiro mu vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo ucizgi wa nyukiliya, kujambura thupi na MRI, na kupima vyaka mu kasandiro ka pasi na ka vya kale. ==== Vimenyu, Mamolekyu, na Ungweru ==== Kusanda mendero kwa vimenyu, mamolekyu, na ungweru ni kusanda kukwekana kwa vyamvimba na vyamvimba na kwa ungweru na vyamvimba pa ukulu wa vimenyu na mamolekyu ghamoza ghamoza. Vigaŵa vitatu ivi vikuwunjikika pamoza cifukwa ca ubale wawo, kuyana kwa nthowa izo vikugwiliskira ntchito, na kuyana kwa ukulu wa nkhongono za ntchito izo vikusanda. Kusanda mendero kwa vimenyu kukusanda vigaŵa vya ma''electron'' vya vimenyu. Kusanda kwa sono kukulaŵiska kulongozga tuvinthu tucoko comene, kuzizimiska na kukora vimenyu, na kutimbana pa kuzizima kukulu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics |website=MIT Department of Physics |url=http://web.mit.edu/physics/research/abcp/areas.html#amo |access-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140227043906/http://web.mit.edu/physics/research/abcp/areas.html#amo |archive-date=27 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Korea University, Physics AMO Group |url=http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php |access-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301112653/http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php |archive-date=1 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aarhus Universitet, AMO Group |url=http://phys.au.dk/forskning/forskningsomraader/amo/ |access-date=21 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307062146/http://phys.au.dk/forskning/forskningsomraader/amo/ |archive-date=7 March 2014 }}</ref> Kugaŵika na kusazganika kwa mitima ya vimenyu ni cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero kwa mtima wa vimenyu. Kusanda mendero kwa mamolekyu kukulaŵiska kawunjikiro ka vimenyu vinandi na kukwekana kwake na vyamvimba na ungweru. Kusanda mendero kwa ungweru kukupambana na kasandiro ka ungweru cifukwa kukulaŵiska vimanyikwiro vyakwamba vya ungweru na kukwekana kwake na vyamvimba pa ukulu ucoko comene. ==== Vyamvimba Vyakukhwima ==== [[File:Bose Einstein condensate.png|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Uthenga wa luŵiro la atomu za rubidiyamu mu mpweya, uwo ukasimikizga kusanga mtundu uphya wa cinthu, Bose–Einstein condensate]] Kusanda mendero kwa vyamvimba vyakukhwima ni cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero ico cikukhwaskana na vimanyikwiro vya vyamvimba ivyo vikuwoneka.<ref name="taylorheinonen2002">{{harvnb|Taylor|Heinonen|2002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Girvin|first1=Steven M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ|title=Modern Condensed Matter Physics|last2=Yang|first2=Kun|date=28 February 2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-57347-4|language=en|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225152053/https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Comene, cikukhwaskana na vyamvimba ivyo vikuwoneka para unandi wa tuvinthu mu ndondomeko ngukulu comene na kukwekana kwawo kuli kwankhongono.<ref name=cohen2008>{{harvnb|Cohen|2008}}</ref> Viyelezgero vyakumanyikwa comene ni vinthu vyakukhwima na vyakuthira, ivyo vikupangika na kukolerana kwa vimenyu kwizira mu nkhongono ya umagineti-magesi.<ref name="moore2011">{{harvnb |Moore|2011|pp=255–258}}</ref> Viyelezgero vinyake vyapadera ni vinthu vyakuthira kwambura cikanizgo na kusazganika kwa Bose–Einstein mu vimenyu vinyake pa kuzizima kukulu comene, vinthu ivyo vikwendeska magesi kwambura cikanizgo, na mitundu ya umagineti.<ref name="leggett1999">{{harvnb |Leggett|1999}}</ref><ref name="levy2001">{{harvnb |Levy|2001}}</ref><ref name=stajiccoontzosborne2011>{{harvnb |Stajic|Coontz|Osborne|2011}}</ref><ref name="mattis2006">{{harvnb|Mattis|2006}}</ref> Kusanda mendero kwa vyamvimba vyakukhwima ndico cigaŵa cikulu comene ca kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano. Mu mbiri, kukakura kufuma ku kusanda mendero kwa vinthu vyakukhwima, ico sono ni cimoza mwa vigaŵa vyake vikulu.<ref name="aps-dcmp">{{cite web |url=http://www.aps.org/units/dcmp/history.cfm |title=History of Condensed Matter Physics |publisher=American Physical Society |access-date=31 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912081611/http://www.aps.org/units/dcmp/history.cfm |archive-date=12 September 2011 }}</ref> Zina ili likapangika na Philip Anderson mu 1967.<ref name="princeton-anderson">{{cite web |title=Philip Anderson |url=http://www.princeton.edu/physics/people/display_person.xml?netid=pwa&display=faculty |publisher=Princeton University, Department of Physics |access-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008123438/http://www.princeton.edu/physics/people/display_person.xml?netid=pwa&display=faculty |archive-date=8 October 2011 }}</ref> Mu 1978, cigaŵa ca Kusanda Mendero kwa Vinthu Vyakukhwima ca American Physical Society cikasintha zina.<ref name="aps-dcmp" /> Kusanda mendero kwa vyamvimba vyakukhwima kukukolerana comene na usungunu, kasandiro ka vyakupangira vinthu, luso la vinthu vicoko comene, na kazengero ka vilwero.<ref name="cohen2008" /> ==== Kusanda Mendero kwa Kuthambo ==== [[File:Hubble ultra deep field high rez edit1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Cithuzi ca ungweru wakuwoneka ca kutali comene ca caro cose ca mlengalenga, Hubble Ultra-Deep Field. Vinandi mwa ivyo vikuwoneka apa ni milambagombe ya kutali.]] Kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo na [[Astronome|astronome]] ni kugwiliskira ntchito maghanoghano na nthowa za kusanda mendero pa kusanda kazengero ka nyenyezi, kukura kwa nyenyezi, kwambilira kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, na masuzgo ghakukolerana gha kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga. Cifukwa ni nkhani yikulu, ŵasandi ŵake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vinandi vya kusanda mendero, kusazgapo kasandiro ka kwenda, umagineti-magesi, kasandiro ka kufunda, kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene, ''relativity'', kusanda mendero kwa mtima wa vimenyu na tuvinthu tucoko, na kwa vimenyu na mamolekyu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://manoa.hawaii.edu/astronomy/bs-in-astrophysics/ |title=BS in Astrophysics |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |access-date=14 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404195943/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/astronomy/bs-in-astrophysics/ |archive-date=4 April 2016 }}</ref> Kusanga kwa Karl Jansky mu 1931 kuti vinthu vya kumwamba vikufumiska vyakutumika vya wayilesi kukamba astronome ya wayilesi. Sonosono, mphaka za astronome zasazgikira na kupenda mlengalenga. Kusokonezga kwa mphepo ya caro capasi kukupangiska kulaŵiska kufuma mu mlengalenga kuŵa kwakukhumbikwa pa astronome ya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, wa pacanya pa uswesi, ''gamma'', na X-ray. Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga ni kusanda kupangika na kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga pa ukulu wake ukulu comene. Ghanoghano la ''relativity'' la Albert Einstein likugwira ntchito yikulu mu maghanoghano ghose gha mazuŵa ghano gha kasandiro aka. Pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, kusanga kwa Hubble kuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikukura kukapangiska malongosoro ghakususkana: caro cambura kusintha na Kuphulika Kukulu. Kuphulika Kukulu kukasimikizgika na kupunda kwa ghanoghano la kupangika kwa vigaŵa pa Kuphulika Kukulu na kusanga ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga mu 1964. Ciyelezgero ca Kuphulika Kukulu cikuthemba mizati ya maghanoghano iŵiri: ''general relativity'' ya Einstein na fundo yakuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikuyana kulikose. Ŵasandi sonosono ŵapanga ciyelezgero ca ΛCDM ca kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga, ico cikusazgapo kukura luŵiro kwakwamba, nkhongono zakufipa, na vyamvimba vyakufipa. == Vigaŵa Vinyake == === Filosofi === Kusanda mendero, nga ni kasandiro kose, kukuthemba filosofi ya kasandiro na "nthowa ya kasandiro" kuti kuluta panthazi pa kumanya caro ca kawiro.<ref name="rosenberg2006ch1">{{harvnb |Rosenberg|2006|loc=Chapter 1}}</ref><ref name="godfreysmith2003ch14">{{harvnb |Godfrey-Smith|2003|loc=Chapter 14: "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence"}}</ref> Nthowa ya kasandiro yikugwiliskira ntchito kughanaghana kwa pambere na kwa pamanyuma pa kulaŵiska, na kughanaghana kwa Bayes kupima usange ghanoghano ndakwenelera.<ref name="godfreysmith2003ch15">{{harvnb |Godfrey-Smith|2003|loc=Chapter 15: "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?"}}</ref> Kusanda nkhani za filosofi izo zikukhwaska kusanda mendero, filosofi ya kusanda mendero, kukusazgapo nkhani nga ni kawiro ka malo na nyengo, kusimikizgika kwa vyakucitika vyose, na maghanoghano nga ni kuthemba ivyo vikuwoneka, kawiro, na unenesko. Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵa mendero ŵalemba za vyakufumapo vya filosofi vya ntchito yawo, mwaciyelezgero Laplace, uyo wakakhozga ghanoghano lakuti vyose vikusimikizgika na vifukwa, na Erwin Schrödinger, uyo wakalemba pa kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene.<ref name="laplace1951">{{harvnb |Laplace|1951}}</ref><ref name="schroedinger1983">{{harvnb |Schrödinger|1983}}</ref><ref name="schroedinger1995">{{harvnb |Schrödinger|1995}}</ref> Musandi wa masamu na mendero Roger Penrose wachemeka mulondezgi wa Plato na Stephen Hawking, ndipo Penrose wakuyowoya za ici mu buku lake.<ref name="hawkingpenrose1996p4">{{harvnb|Hawking|Penrose|1996|p=4}}. "I think that Roger is a Platonist at heart but he must answer for himself."</ref><ref name="penrose2004">{{harvnb |Penrose|2004}}</ref> Hawking wakajichema "wakugaŵa vinthu mwambura soni" ndipo wakasuska maghanoghano gha Penrose.<ref name="penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997">{{harvnb |Penrose|Shimony|Cartwright|Hawking|1997}}</ref> [[File:Pahoeoe fountain original.jpg|thumb|Dongo lakusungunuka ili likwenda mu mawonekero gha ''parabola'', ndipo likulongora umo masamu ghakugwilira ntchito mu kusanda mendero; apa ni dango la Galileo la vinthu ivyo vikuwa.]] [[File:Physics and other sciences.png|thumb|upright=0.5|left|Masamu na filosofi vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kusanda mendero. Kusanda mendero kukugwiliskirika ntchito mu usungunu na kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga.]] Masamu ghakupeleka ciyowoyero cifupi na cakulunjika ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora kanozgero mu kawiro. Ici cikawonekeka na kukhozgeka na Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, na Newton.<ref name="dijksterhuis1986">{{harvnb|Dijksterhuis|1986}}</ref><ref name="mastin2010-plato">{{harvnb|Mastin|2010}} "Although usually remembered today as a philosopher, Plato was also one of ancient Greece's most important patrons of mathematics. Inspired by Pythagoras, he founded his Academy in Athens in 387 BC, where he stressed mathematics as a way of understanding more about reality. In particular, he was convinced that geometry was the key to unlocking the secrets of the universe. The sign above the Academy entrance read: 'Let no-one ignorant of geometry enter here.{{'"}}</ref><ref name="toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo">{{harvnb|Toraldo Di Francia|1976|p=10}} 'Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth.' – Galileo (1623), ''The Assayer''"</ref> Ŵaghanaghani ŵanyake, nga ni Hilary Putnam na Penelope Maddy, ŵakuti unenesko wa kughanaghana makola, na ntheura masamu, vikuthemba caro ico cikuwoneka. Kusanda mendero kukugwiliskira ntchito masamu kunozga na kulongosora vyakusangika vya viyezgo.<ref name="applicationsofmathematics">{{cite web |url=http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/tour_sci.html |title=Applications of Mathematics to the Sciences |date=25 January 2000 |access-date=30 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510112012/http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/tour_sci.html |archive-date=10 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Kufuma ku vyakusangika ivi, mazgoro ghakulunjika panji ghakupima ghakusangika, ndipo kufuma ku ivyo kulongolera kuphya kungapangika na kusimikizgika panji kukanika mu viyezgo. Vyakusangika vya viyezgo vya kusanda mendero ni manambala, pamoza na vipimo vyake na kupima kwa viheni vya kupima. Luso la vilwero ilo likuthemba masamu, nga ni mirangura, lapangiska kusanda mendero kwa mirangura kuŵa cigaŵa ca kusanda. [[File:Mathematical Physics and other sciences.png|thumb|Kupambana pakati pa masamu na kusanda mendero nkhwakuwoneka, kweni nyengo zose yayi, comene mu kusanda mendero kwa masamu.]] Kusanda kawiro ka ivyo viliko nkhwakukhumbikwa pa kusanda mendero, kweni pa masamu yayi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti kusanda mendero kukukhwaskana na kulongosora caro ceneco, apo masamu ghakukhwaskana na ndondomeko za maghanoghano, nanga ni kujumpha caro ceneco. Mazgo gha masamu ghakwenera kuŵa ghaunenesko mu kughanaghana pera, apo kulongolera kwa kusanda mendero kukwenera kukolerana na ivyo vikulaŵiskika na vyakusangika vya viyezgo. Kupambana uku nkhwakuwonekera, kweni nyengo zose yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, kusanda mendero kwa masamu ni kugwiliskira ntchito masamu mu kusanda mendero.<ref name="jmp-def">{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/journal/0022-2488_Journal_of_Mathematical_Physics | title=Journal of Mathematical Physics | access-date=31 March 2014 | quote=[Journal of Mathematical Physics] purpose is the publication of papers in mathematical physics—that is, the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818231853/http://www.researchgate.net/journal/0022-2488_Journal_of_Mathematical_Physics | archive-date=18 August 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Nthowa zake nza masamu, kweni nkhani yake njya kusanda mendero. Masuzgo mu cigaŵa ici ghakwamba na "ciyelezgero ca masamu ca cakucitika ca kawiro" na "malongosoro gha masamu gha lamulo la kawiro" ilo lizamugwiliskirika ntchito pa ndondomeko iyo. === Kusanda Mendero Kwakwamba na kwa Kagwiliskiro === Kusanda mendero ni cigaŵa ca kasandiro kakwamba. Kusanda mendero kukuchemeka so "kasandiro kakwamba" cifukwa vigaŵa vyose vya kasandiro ka kawiro kusazgapo usungunu, astronome, kasandiro ka pasi, na kasandiro ka vyamoyo vikulongozgeka na malango gha kusanda mendero.<ref name="feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3">[https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_03.html The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 3: The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences]; see also reductionism and special sciences</ref> Nga ni nthena, usungunu kanandi ukuchemeka kasandiro kapakati cifukwa ca ntchito yake ya kukoleranya tusandiro twa kawiro. Mwaciyelezgero, usungunu ukusanda vimanyikwiro, kazengero, na kusazganika kwa vyamvimba. Kazengero kakupangika cifukwa tuvinthu tukukokerana na nkhongono za magesi, vimanyikwiro vikusazgapo vimanyikwiro vya kawiro vya vinthu, ndipo kusazganika kukulongozgeka na malango gha kusanda mendero, nga ni kusungika kwa nkhongono za ntchito, kuzitika, na magesi. Kusanda mendero kwakwamba kukukhumba kulongosora na kupulikiska makola vyakucitika mu vigaŵa vyose, kwambura cilato ca kagwiliskiro kapadera, kupatula kupulikiska vyakucitika ivyo. [[File:Prediction of sound scattering from Schroeder Diffuser.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Cithuzi ca umo congo cikuwelera kufuma pa cakuthandazgira congo, cakupangika na kusanda mendero kwa kale]] [[File:Archimedes-screw one-screw-threads with-ball 3D-view animated small.gif|thumb|''Archimedes' screw'', makina ghambura kusuzga gha kukwezgera vinthu]] Kusanda mendero kwa kagwiliskiro ni lizgu lose la kusanda na kupanga mu kusanda mendero uko kukukhumba kugwiliskirika ntchito pa cinthu cinyake. Kasambiro ka kusanda mendero kwa kagwiliskiro kanandi kakusazgapo maphunziro ghacoko gha cigaŵa ca kagwiliskiro, nga ni kasandiro ka pasi panji kazengero ka vilwero vya magesi. Kanandi kakupambana na kazengero ka vilwero cifukwa musandi wa mendero wa kagwiliskiro wangaŵa kuti wakupanga cinthu cinyake yayi, kweni wakugwiliskira ntchito kusanda mendero panji kucita kusanda kuti wapange luso liphya panji kumazga suzgo. Nthowa iyi yikuyana na ya masamu gha kagwiliskiro. Ŵasandi ŵa mendero ŵa kagwiliskiro ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kusanda mendero mu kusanda kwa kasandiro. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa makina gha kuthamangiska tuvinthu ŵangayezga kupanga vilwero viwemi vya kusanga tuvinthu pa kusanda kwa maghanoghano. Kusanda mendero kukugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu kazengero ka vilwero. Mwaciyelezgero, kusanda nkhongono pa vinthu vyambura kwenda, cigaŵa ca kasandiro ka kwenda, kukugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuzenga malalo na vyakuzengeka vinyake. Kupulikiska na kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka congo kukupangiska kulongozga congo na nyumba ziwemi za kwimbiramo; nga ni nthena, kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka ungweru kukupanga vilwero viwemi vya ungweru. Kupulikiska kusanda mendero kukupangiska viyelezgero viwemi vya kwendeska ndege, maseŵero gha pa makompyuta, na mafilimu, ndipo kanandi nkhwakuzirwa pa kufufuza kwa milandu. [[File:Military laser experiment.jpg|thumb|Kuyezga na ''laser'']] Pakuti ŵanthu wose ŵakuzomerezga kuti malango gha kusanda mendero ngakuyana pose ndipo ghakusintha mu nyengo yayi, kusanda mendero kungagwiliskirika ntchito kusanda vinthu ivyo kanandi vikuŵa vyambura kusimikizgika. Mwaciyelezgero, pa kusanda kwambilira kwa caro capasi, musandi wa mendero wangapanga ciyelezgero ca kuzitika, kufunda, na luŵiro lwa kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi mu nyengo, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kulongolera vyakucitika vya munthazi panji vya kale. Cikuzomerezga so viyelezgero mu kazengero ka vilwero ivyo vikupangiska luŵiro kupanga luso liphya. Pali so kukolerana kunandi kwa vigaŵa, ntheura vigaŵa vinyake vinandi vyakuzirwa vikukhwaskika na kusanda mendero (mwaciyelezgero, kusanda vyacuma na kusanda wupu wa ŵanthu mwa nthowa za kusanda mendero). == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Aaboe |first=A. |author-link=Asger Aaboe |year=1991 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |edition=2nd |volume=III |chapter=Mesopotamian Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-22717-9 }} * {{cite web |last=Allen |first=D. |date=10 April 1997 |title=Calculus |publisher=Texas A&M University |url=http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/calc1/calc1.html |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323194040/https://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/calc1/calc1.html |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book |last=Ben-Chaim |first=M. |year=2004 |title=Experimental Philosophy and the Birth of Empirical Science: Boyle, Locke and Newton |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-4091-2 |oclc=53887772}} * {{cite journal |last=Cho |first=A. |title=Higgs Boson Makes Its Debut After Decades-Long Search |journal=Science |pages=141–143 |volume=337 |date=13 July 2012 |doi=10.1126/science.337.6091.141 |pmid=22798574 |bibcode=2012Sci...337..141C |issue=6091 }} * {{cite book |title=Ancient Egyptian Science |volume=2 |place=Philadelphia |publisher=American Philosophical Society |last=Clagett |first=M. |year=1995 }} * {{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=M.L. |title=Fifty Years of Condensed Matter Physics |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=2008 |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=25001–25006 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.250001 |url=http://prl.aps.org/edannounce/PhysRevLett.101.250001 |bibcode=2008PhRvL.101y0001C |pmid=19113681 |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131033326/http://prl.aps.org/edannounce/PhysRevLett.101.250001 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url = http://www.getcited.org/pub/102471397 |last = Dijksterhuis |first = E.J. |title = The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton |publisher = Princeton University Press |location = Princeton, New Jersey |year = 1986 |isbn = 978-0-691-08403-9 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110805141040/http://www.getcited.org/pub/102471397 |archive-date = 5 August 2011 |df = dmy-all }} * {{cite book |last1=Feynman |first1=R.P. |author1-link=Richard Feynman |last2=Leighton |first2=R.B. |last3=Sands |first3=M. |year=1963 |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-201-02116-5 |title-link=The Feynman Lectures on Physics |publisher=Addison-Wesley }} * {{cite book |last=Feynman |first=R.P. |author-link=Richard Feynman |title=The Character of Physical Law |year=1965 |isbn=978-0-262-56003-0 |title-link=The Character of Physical Law |publisher=M.I.T. 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E. R. Lloyd |publisher=Chatto and Windus; W. W. Norton & Company |location=London; New York |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-393-00583-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekscienc00gerl }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.lukemastin.com/storyofmathematics/greek_plato.html|last=Mastin|first=Luke|title=Plato|year=2010|publisher=lukemastin.com|access-date=3 January 2024|archive-date=3 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103114305/http://www.lukemastin.com/storyofmathematics/greek_plato.html|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Mattis |first=D.C. |title=The Theory of Magnetism Made Simple |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkNBAQAAIAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-238-579-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Maxwell |first=J.C. |author-link=James Clerk Maxwell |year=1878 |title=Matter and Motion |url=https://archive.org/details/matterandmotion03maxwgoog |quote=matter and motion. |publisher=D. Van Nostrand |isbn=978-0-486-66895-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Moore |first=J.T. |title=Chemistry For Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRuP-BbS9xoC |edition=2 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-00730-3 }} * {{cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5869&page=161 |title=Technology for the United States Navy and Marine Corps, 2000–2035 Becoming a 21st-Century Force: Volume 9: Modeling and Simulation |publisher=The National Academies Press |last1=National Research Council |author1-link=United States National Research Council |last2=Committee on Technology for Future Naval Forces |year=1997 |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-309-05928-2 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407045141/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5869&page=161 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=O'Connor |first1=J.J. |last2=Robertson |first2=E.F. |author2-link=Edmund F. 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Mark |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=i–clxxxi, 1–337 |year=2001a |doi=10.2307/3657358}} ** {{cite journal |ref=none |jstor=3657357|title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two |last1=Smith |first1=A. Mark |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91 |issue=5 |pages=339–819 |year=2001b |doi=10.2307/3657357}} * {{cite journal |last1=Stajic |first1=Jelena |last2=Coontz |first2=R. |last3=Osborne |first3=I. |title=Happy 100th, Superconductivity! |journal=Science |date=8 April 2011 |volume=332 |issue=6026 |page=189 |doi=10.1126/science.332.6026.189 |bibcode = 2011Sci...332..189S |pmid=21474747|doi-access=free }} * {{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=P.L. |last2=Heinonen |first2=O. |title=A Quantum Approach to Condensed Matter Physics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hyx6BjEX4U8C |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77827-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Thurston |first=H. |title=Early Astronomy |year=1994 |publisher=Springer }} * {{cite book |last1=Tipler |first1=Paul |last2=Llewellyn |first2=Ralph |title=Modern Physics |year=2003 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Toraldo Di Francia |first=G. |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |year=1976 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 }} * {{cite web |last=Walsh |first=K.M. |title=Plotting the Future for Computing in High-Energy and Nuclear Physics |url=http://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=23098 |publisher=Brookhaven National Laboratory |access-date=18 October 2012 |date=1 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729020032/https://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=23098 |archive-date=29 July 2016 }} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=H.D. |last2=Freedman |first2=R.A. |year=2014 |edition=13th |title=Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-1-292-02063-1 |title-link=University Physics }} {{Refend}} 4nrlrz4l163jvj2u4m4kmpd9635al0h 0 6203 124361 123721 2026-11-10T14:18:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124361 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ungweru''' (panji ungweru wakuwoneka) ni nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi izo maso gha munthu ghangawona. Ungweru wakuwoneka uli na majigha gha utali wa nanomita 400 mpaka 700, ghakukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera wa ma''terahertz'' 750 mpaka 420. Kufupi na ungweru wakuwoneka pali ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi (wa majigha ghatali na unandi wa kunjenjemera ucoko) na ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi (wa majigha ghafupi na unandi wa kunjenjemera ukulu), ndipo vyose pamoza vikuchemeka nkhongono za ungweru. Mu [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], lizgu lakuti "ungweru" lingang'anamula nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za utali uliwose wa jigha, zakuwoneka panji zambura kuwoneka. Mwa ng'anamulo iyi, nkhongono za ''gamma'', X-ray, ''microwave'', na majigha gha wayilesi nazo ni ungweru. Ndico cifukwa nkhongono zakuwoneka kanandi zikuchemeka ungweru wakuwoneka. Vimanyikwiro vikulu vya ungweru ni nkhongono yake, nthowa iyo ukwendera, unandi wa kunjenjemera panji utali wa jigha, na umo ukujikhazgira. Luŵiro lake mu malo ghambura kanthu, mamita 299,792,458 pa liŵiri, ni cimoza mwa vipimo vyakwamba vya kawiro. Nkhongono zose za umagineti-magesi zili na vimanyikwiro vya tuvinthu tucoko na vya majigha. Tuvinthu tucoko twa ungweru twambura kuzitika, tuchemeka mafotoni, tungasangika na vilwero vyapadera; vyakucitika nga ni kukolerana kwa majigha vikulongosoreka na majigha. Kanandi vyakucitika vya zuŵa na zuŵa vya ungweru vingapulikiskika na kasandiro ka ungweru ka mizere. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kusanda mu kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano. Kasupe mukulu wa ungweru wa kawiro pa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]] ni [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]]. Mu mbiri, kasupe munyake wakuzirwa wa ungweru ku ŵanthu wakaŵa moto, kufuma ku moto wa kale mpaka ku nyali za palafini. Pa kukura kwa nyali za [[Magesi|magesi]] na ndondomeko za nkhongono ya magesi, ungweru wa magesi wapoka malo gha ungweru wa moto. == Nkhongono za Ntchito za Umagineti-Magesi na Ungweru Wakuwoneka == Kanandi, nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi zikugaŵika kuyana na utali wa jigha mu majigha gha wayilesi, ''microwave'', ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, ungweru wakuwoneka uwo tikupulika nga ni ungweru, ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, X-ray, na nkhongono za ''gamma''. Nkhalo ya nkhongono izi yikuthemba utali wa jigha lake. Unandi ukulu wa kunjenjemera uli na majigha ghafupi, ndipo unandi ucoko uli na majigha ghatali. Para nkhongono izi zikukwekana na vimenyu na mamolekyu, nkhalo yawo yikuthemba unandi wa nkhongono izo cigaŵa cimoza cikunyamula. Nkhongono mu cigaŵa ca ungweru wakuwoneka zili na mafotoni agho ghali pasi pa nkhongono izo zingasintha ma''electron'' mu mamolekyu, ndipo ici cikusintha kukolerana kwa molekyu. Pasi pa ungweru wakuwoneka, nkhongono zikuwoneka yayi ku ŵanthu (ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi) cifukwa mafotoni ghake ghalije so nkhongono zakukwana kusintha molekyu ya kuwonera mu jiso la munthu, kusintha uko kukwiziska kuwona. Pali vinyama ivyo vikupulika ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, kweni mu nthowa yinyake. Njoka zikupulika ungweru uwu mwa kupulika kufunda, apo maji ghacoko mu tumaselo ghakufunda na ungweru uwu. Pacanya pa ungweru wakuwoneka, ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi ukuwoneka yayi ku ŵanthu, comene cifukwa ukukorekeka na cigaŵa ca panthazi ca jiso na galasi la mukati la jiso. Kweniso, tumaselo twa kuwonera mu jiso tungasanga ungweru uwu wafupi comene yayi, ndipo nadi tukunangika nawo. Vinyama vinandi ivyo maso ghake ghalije galasi (nga ni vibenene na shirimpi) vingawona ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, mu nthowa ya usungunu yakuyana na iyo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera ungweru wakuwoneka. Malo ghakupambana ghakulongosora ungweru wakuwoneka kuŵa wa nanomita 420–680 panji 380–800. Mu malo ghawemi gha kuyezgera, ŵanthu ŵangawona ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi mpaka nanomita 1,050; ŵana na ŵanyamata ŵangawona ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi mpaka nanomita pafupifupi 310. Kukura kwa vyakumera nako kukukhwaskika na mitundu ya ungweru. == Luŵiro lwa Ungweru == Luŵiro lwa ungweru mu malo ghambura kanthu lukulongosoreka kuŵa mamita 299,792,458 pa liŵiri ndendende. Nambala iyi njakukhazikika cifukwa mita sono yikulongosoreka kuyana na luŵiro lwa ungweru. Nkhongono zose za umagineti-magesi zikwenda pa luŵiro lwenelulo mu malo ghambura kanthu. Ŵasandi ŵakupambana ŵayezga kupima luŵiro lwa ungweru mu mbiri. Galileo wakayezga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600. Kuyezga kwakwamba kukacitika na Ole Rømer, wa ku Denmark, mu 1676. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito cilaŵiskiro ca kutali, Rømer wakalaŵiska kwenda kwa Jupita na mwezi wake Io. Pakuwona kupambana kwa nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwa Io, wakapima kuti ungweru ukutora maminiti pafupifupi 22 kujumpha ukulu wa nthowa ya caro capasi. Kweni ukulu uwu ukamanyikwanga yayi pa nyengo iyo. Usange Rømer wakamanyanga ukulu wa nthowa ya caro capasi, wakatenge wasanga luŵiro lwa mamita 227,000,000 pa liŵiri. Kupima kunyake kwakulunjika comene kukacitika mu Ulaya na Hippolyte Fizeau mu 1849. Fizeau wakalunjika ungweru ku galasi ilo likaŵa makilomita ghanandi kutali. Gudumu la mino lakuzunguliya likaŵikika mu nthowa ya ungweru apo ukafumanga ku kasupe, kuya ku galasi na kuwelera. Fizeau wakasanga kuti pa luŵiro lunyake lwa kuzunguliya, ungweru ukajumphanga mu zenje limoza pa kuluta na zenje linyake pa kuwelera. Mwa kumanya mtunda wa galasi, unandi wa mino, na luŵiro lwa kuzunguliya, Fizeau wakapima luŵiro lwa ungweru kuŵa mamita 313,000,000 pa liŵiri. Léon Foucault wakacita kuyezga uko kukagwiliskira ntchito magalasi ghakuzunguliya kusanga mamita 298,000,000 pa liŵiri mu 1862. Albert A. Michelson wakacita kuyezga kwa luŵiro lwa ungweru kufuma 1877 mpaka nyifwa yake mu 1931. Wakanozga nthowa za Foucault mu 1926 kupima nyengo iyo ungweru ukutora kuluta na kuwelera pakati pa mapiri ghaŵiri mu California. Kupima kwakulunjika kukapeleka mamita 299,796,000 pa liŵiri. Luŵiro lwa ungweru mu vinthu vyakuwonekera mukati ivyo vili na vyamvimba ngucoko kuluska mu malo ghambura kanthu. Mwaciyelezgero, luŵiro lwa ungweru mu maji ni pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya luŵiro mu malo ghambura kanthu. Magulu ghaŵiri gha ŵasandi ŵakayowoyeka kuti ŵakimiska ungweru "ndendende" mwa kuujumpha mu cinthu capadera ca rubidiyamu. Kweni kuyowoya kuti ungweru "ukimika" kukung'anamula waka kuti ungweru ukasungika mu vimenyu, ndipo pamanyuma ukafumiska so. Pa nyengo iyo "ukimika", ukaleka kuŵa ungweru. == Kasandiro ka Ungweru == Kusanda ungweru na kukwekana kwa ungweru na vyamvimba kukuchemeka kasandiro ka ungweru. Kali na mitundu yakupambana ya vyakucitika vyakupambana. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka mizere, ako kakwenelera kupulikiska vinthu nga ni maso, magalasi, makamera, ulusi wa ungweru, na magalasi gha kujiwona, kakugwira ntchito makola para utali wa jigha la ungweru ngucoko kuyaniska na vinthu ivyo ukukwekana navyo. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka majigha kakulaŵiska vimanyikwiro vya majigha ndipo nkhakukhumbikwa kupulikiska kupindika kwa ungweru kuzunguliya vinthu na kukolerana kwa majigha. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakugwira ntchito pa kusanda mafotoni ghamoza ghamoza ghakukwekana na vyamvimba. === Kuthandazgika pa Pacanya === Cinthu cakuwonekera mukati cikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo. Kweni cinthu cambura kuwonekera mukati cikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo yayi, ndipo cikuwezga panji kukora ungweru uwo cikupokera. Vinthu vinandi vikuwezga panji kujumpha ungweru makola yayi ndipo vikuthandazga ungweru pacoko. Kuthandazgika pacanya kukufuma ku kusoŵa kuterera kwa pacanya, ndipo kuthandazgika kwa mukati kukufuma ku kupambana kwa kupindiska ungweru pakati pa tuvinthu na vyamvimba mukati mwa cinthu. Nga ni vinthu vyakuwonekera mukati, vinthu vyakuwonekera pacoko vikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo, kweni vikuthandazga so ungweru unyake mukati. === Kupindika === Kupindika kwa ungweru ni kupindika kwa mizere ya ungweru apo yikujumpha pacanya pakati pa cinthu cimoza cakuwonekera mukati na cinyake. Kukulongosoreka na lamulo la Snell: : <math>n_1 \sin\theta_1 = n_2 \sin\theta_2</math> apo θ₁ ni kona pakati pa mzere wa ungweru na mzere wakwimilira mu cinthu cakwamba, θ₂ ni kona mu cinthu caciŵiri, ndipo n₁ na n₂ ni vipimo vya kupindika; n = 1 mu malo ghambura kanthu ndipo n > 1 mu cinthu cakuwonekera mukati. Para ungweru ukujumpha mphaka pakati pa malo ghambura kanthu na cinthu cinyake, panji pakati pa vinthu viŵiri vyakupambana, utali wa jigha la ungweru ukusintha, kweni unandi wa kunjenjemera ukusintha yayi. Usange ungweru ngwambura kwimilira ndendende pa mphaka, kusintha kwa utali wa jigha kukusintha nthowa ya ungweru. Kusintha uku kwa nthowa ndiko kupindika. Kupindika kwa ungweru mu magalasi kukugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi kusintha ukulu wakuwoneka wa vithuzi. Magalasi gha kukuzga, magalasi gha maso, magalasi gha mu maso, ma''microscope'', na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya kupindika vyose ni viyelezgero vya ici. == Makasupe gha Ungweru == Pali makasupe ghanandi gha ungweru. Cinthu ca kufunda kunyake cikufumiska ungweru wapadera kuyana na kufunda kwake. Kasupe mupepuka wa kufunda ni ungweru wa zuŵa, nkhongono izo zikufuma ku cigaŵa ca zuŵa pa kufunda kwa pafupifupi 5,730 °C. Ungweru wa zuŵa ngunandi comene mu cigaŵa ca ungweru wakuwoneka, ndipo pafupifupi magaŵa 44 pa 100 gha ungweru uwo ukufika pasi ngwakuwoneka. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni mababu gha magesi gha kale, agho ghakufumiska magaŵa pafupifupi 10 pa 100 pera gha nkhongono zawo nga ni ungweru wakuwoneka ndipo zinyake nga ni ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi. Kasupe wa kufunda wakumanyikwa mu mbiri ni tuvinthu tukukhwima twakuŵala mu moto, kweni ivi nabyo vikufumiska ungweru unandi wa pasi pa uswesi na ucoko pera wakuwoneka. Ungweru unandi wa vinthu vyakuzizima nga ni ŵanthu uli mu ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, pa utali wa jigha wa ma''micrometer'' pafupifupi 10. Apo kufunda kukusazgikira, ungweru ukusamira ku majigha ghafupi, kupeleka dankha ungweru wakufiira, pamanyuma wakutuŵa na pakumalira wa buluu wakutuŵa. Mitundu iyi yingawoneka para cisulo cafundiskika kuŵa "cakufiira" panji "cakutuŵa". Ungweru wa buluu wakutuŵa wa kufunda ukuwoneka kanandi yayi, kupatula mu nyenyezi. Vimenyu vikufumiska na kukora ungweru pa nkhongono zapadera. Ici cikupanga "mizere ya ungweru" mu ungweru wa cimenyu ciliconse. Kufumiska kungaŵa kwa ceneco, nga mu nyali za LED, nyali za mphepo (nga ni nyali za neon), na moto (mwaciyelezgero, sodiyamu mu moto ikufumiska ungweru wa cikasu). Kufumiska kungapangiska so, nga mu ''laser''. Kucepa kwa luŵiro lwa cinthu cicoko ca magesi, nga ni ''electron'', kungapanga ungweru wakuwoneka. Tuvinthu utu tukwenda mu cinthu luŵiro kuluska luŵiro lwa ungweru mu cinthu ico tungapanga ungweru wa Cherenkov. Vinthu vinyake vya usungunu vikupanga ungweru mwa kusazganika. Mu vyamoyo, ici cikuchemeka ungweru wa vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵakamulimuli ŵakupanga ungweru mu nthowa iyi, ndipo ngalawa izo zikwenda mu maji zingasokonezga tuvyamoyo tucoko utu tukupanga ungweru. Vinthu vinyake vikupanga ungweru para vyamulikika na nkhongono zikulu, ndipo ici cikuchemeka ''fluorescence''. Vinthu vinyake vikufumiska ungweru pacoko pacoko pamanyuma pa kupokera nkhongono zikulu; ici cikuchemeka ''phosphorescence''. Ici cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu wayilesi za kanema na makompyuta gha kale. Nthowa zinyake zingapanga so ungweru, nga ni ungweru wa magesi, ungweru wa kutimbana, ungweru wa congo, na ungweru wa kukwekana. Para ungweru ukusazgapo nkhongono za ''gamma'', nthowa zinyake zikusazgapo kumalirana kwa tuvinthu na tuvinthu twakususkana nato, na kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu. == Kupima == Ungweru ukupimika na magulu ghaŵiri gha vipimo: gulu limoza likupima nkhongono za ungweru pa majigha ghose, apo linyake likupima ungweru kuyana na umo jiso la munthu likupulikira kuŵala. Gulu laciŵiri ili ndakovwira, mwaciyelezgero, kupima ungweru wa kumulikira ŵanthu. Vipimo vya gulu laciŵiri vikupambana na vipimo vinyake vya kawiro cifukwa vikulaŵiska umo jiso la munthu likuzgolera ungweru. Tumaselo twa mtundu mu jiso la munthu nta mitundu yitatu, ndipo pamoza tukupulika comene ungweru wa utali wa jigha wa nanomita pafupifupi 555. Ntheura, ungweru uŵiri wa nkhongono yakuyana ungawoneka wakuŵala mwakuyana yayi. Vipimo ivi vikulaŵiska ici, ntheura vikulongora makola umo ungweru ukuwonekera "kuŵala". Vikugwiliskirika ntchito kumanya umo tingasangira ungweru wakukwana pa ntchito zakupambana mu nyumba na kuwaro. Ungweru uwo ukupimika na vilwero vya magesi ungaŵa wakuyana na uwo jiso la munthu likupulika yayi, ndipo kwambura vyakusefa ivyo vingadura, vilwero ivi vikupulika so ungweru unyake wa pasi pa uswesi panji wa pacanya pa uswesi. == Kukanikizga kwa Ungweru == Ungweru ukukanikizga vinthu ivyo vili mu nthowa yake, cakucitika ico cingalongosoreka na malango gha Maxwell, kweni cingalongosoreka mwakupepuka comene na kawiro ka tuvinthu tucoko ka ungweru: mafotoni ghakutimba na kupeleka nkhongono yawo ya kwenda. Kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhwakuyana na nkhongono ya ungweru kugaŵa na luŵiro lwa ungweru. Cifukwa luŵiro lwa ungweru ndukulu comene, kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhucoko comene pa vinthu vya zuŵa na zuŵa. Mwaciyelezgero, ''laser'' yicoko ya ''milliwatt'' yimoza yikukanikizga na nkhongono ya ma''piconewton'' pafupifupi 3.3; ntheura munthu wangakwezga ndalama yicoko ya U.S. na ma''laser'', kweni wangakhumba ma''laser'' pafupifupi biliyoni 30. Kweni mu vilwero vicoko comene, kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhukulu, ndipo kugwiliskira ntchito kukanikizga uku kwendeska vilwero vicoko comene ni cigaŵa ca kusanda. Pa ukulu ukulu, kukanikizga kwa ungweru kungapangiska vibwe vicoko vya malibwe kuzunguliya luŵiro. Kuthekera kwa kupanga ngalanyo za zuŵa izo zingakankha vyombo vya mlengalenga nako kukusandika. Nangauli kwenda kwa cilwero ca Crookes kukaghanaghanirikanga kufuma ku kukanikizga kwa ungweru, ici nchautesi; kuzunguliya kwake kukufuma ku malo ghambura mphepo yinandi. Ici cikupambana na cilwero ca Nichols, umo kwenda kucoko kukufuma mwakulunjika ku kukanikizga kwa ungweru. Cifukwa ca kukanikizga kwa ungweru, Einstein mu 1909 wakalongolera kuŵapo kwa "kukwekana kwa ungweru" uko kungasuska kwenda kwa vyamvimba. Wakalemba kuti ungweru ukukanikizga mbali zose ziŵiri za cimbale; para cimbale cikwenda, ungweru unandi ukuwezgeka pa mbali ya panthazi kuluska ya kumanyuma, ntheura pali nkhongono iyo yikususka kwenda kwa cimbale ndipo yikusazgikira na luŵiro lwake. Kanandi nkhongono ya kwenda ya ungweru yili mu nthowa yeneyiyo iyo ungweru ukwendera. Kweni mu majigha ghanyake, nkhongono iyi yikuŵa ku mbali. == Maghanoghano gha Kale pa Ungweru == === Girisi wa Kale === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 pambere Khristu, Empedocles wakati vinthu vyose vikupangika na vigaŵa vinayi: moto, mphepo, dongo na maji. Wakagomezganga kuti ciuta mwanakazi Aphrodite wakapanga jiso la munthu kufuma ku vigaŵa vinayi ivi, ndipo wakayatiska moto mu jiso uwo ukaŵalanga kufuma mu jiso na kuzomerezga kuwona. Usange ici cikaŵa caunenesko, munthu wangawona usiku nga ni msana, ntheura Empedocles wakaghanaghana kuti pali kukwekana pakati pa ungweru wakufuma mu maso na ungweru wakufuma ku kasupe nga ni zuŵa. Pafupifupi 300 pambere Khristu, Euclid wakalemba ''Optica'', umo wakasanda vimanyikwiro vya ungweru. Euclid wakati ungweru ukwenda mu mizere yakunyoloka ndipo wakalongosora malango gha kuwezga ungweru na kughasanda mwa masamu. Wakakayikira kuti kuwona kukufuma ku ungweru wakufuma mu jiso, cifukwa wakafumba umo munthu wakuwonera nyenyezi luŵiro usange wajalira maso na kughajula usiku. Usange ungweru wakufuma mu jiso ukwenda luŵiro lwambura mphaka, ici ncambura suzgo. Mu 55 pambere Khristu, Lucretius, Muroma uyo wakalutilizga maghanoghano gha Ŵagiriki ŵa vimenyu, wakalemba kuti ungweru na kufunda kwa zuŵa vikupangika na vimenyu vicoko comene ivyo, para vyakankhika, vikwenda luŵiro kujumpha mphepo. Nangauli vikuyana na maghanoghano gha tuvinthu tucoko gha pamanyuma, maghanoghano gha Lucretius ghakazomerezgeka yayi. Ptolemy (vyaka vya m'ma 100) wakalemba za kupindika kwa ungweru mu buku lake. === India wa Kale === Mu India wa kale, sukulu za Cihindu za Samkhya na Vaisheshika, kufuma pakwamba pa vyaka vya mumuwilo wa Khristu, zikapanga maghanoghano pa ungweru. Kuyana na Samkhya, ungweru ni cimoza mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vyakwamba "vyacoko comene" ivyo vigaŵa vikulu vikufumira. ''Vishnu Purana'' likuyowoya za ungweru wa zuŵa nga ni "mizere 7 ya zuŵa". Ŵabuda ŵa ku India, nga ni Dignāga mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 na Dharmakirti mu vyaka vya m'ma 600, ŵakapanga ghanoghano lakuti vinthu vyose vikupangika na tuvinthu tucoko utu ni kumweka kwa kanyengo kacoko kwa ungweru panji nkhongono. Ŵakawonanga ungweru nga ni cinthu cicoko cakuyana na nkhongono. === Descartes === René Descartes (1596–1650) wakati ungweru ni cimanyikwiro ca makina ca cinthu cakuŵala. Mu 1637 wakapharazga ghanoghano la kupindika kwa ungweru ilo likaghanaghana, mwautesi, kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro mu cinthu cakukhwima kuluska mu cinthu cambura kukhwima. Descartes wakafika pa ici mwa kuyaniska na majigha gha congo. Nangauli wakaŵa wautesi pa luŵiro, wakaŵa wakwenelera pa kughanaghana kuti ungweru ukwenda nga ni jigha na kuti kupindika kungalongosoreka na luŵiro lwa ungweru mu vinthu vyakupambana. Descartes ni wakwamba yayi kugwiliskira ntchito viyelezgero vya makina, kweni cifukwa wakayowoya mwakuwonekera kuti ungweru ni cimanyikwiro ca makina pera ca cinthu cakuŵala na cinthu ico ukujumphamo, ghanoghano lake likuwonekera nga ni kwamba kwa kasandiro ka ungweru ka mazuŵa ghano. === Ghanoghano la Tuvinthu Tucoko === Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) wakasacizga ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko twa ungweru ilo likapharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu ma 1660. Isaac Newton wakasanda ntchito ya Gassendi ndipo wakatemwa ghanoghano lake. Mu 1675 wakati ungweru ukupangika na tuvinthu tucoko utu tukufuma ku kasupe mu nthowa zose. Cimoza mwa vifukwa vya Newton vya kususka kuti ungweru ni jigha cikaŵa kuti majigha ghakupindika kuzunguliya vikanizgo, apo ungweru ukwenda mu mizere yakunyoloka pera. Kweni wakalongosora kupindika kwa ungweru kuzunguliya vinthu (uko Francesco Grimaldi wakawona) mwa kughanaghana kuti kanthu kacoko ka ungweru kangapanga jigha. Ghanoghano la Newton lingagwiliskirika ntchito kulongolera kuwezgeka kwa ungweru, kweni likalongosoranga kupindika mwa kughanaghana mwautesi kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro para wanjira mu cinthu cakukhwima. Newton wakapharazga ghanoghano lake laumaliro mu ''Opticks'' mu 1704. Ucindami wake ukovwira ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko kuwusa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Ghanoghano ili likapangiska Pierre-Simon Laplace kuyowoya kuti cinthu cingaŵa cakuzitika comene mwakuti ungweru ungathaŵa yayi, ndiko kuti cingaŵa ico sono tikuchema bowo lakufipa. Laplace pamanyuma wakaleka ghanoghano ili, apo ghanoghano la majigha likakhozgeka. Newton ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kulongosora kujikhazgira kwa ungweru mwa ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko. Étienne-Louis Malus mu 1810 wakapanga ghanoghano la masamu la ici, ndipo Jean-Baptiste Biot mu 1812 wakalongora kuti likulongosora vyakucitika vyose. Pa nyengo iyo ici cikawonekanga nga ni ukaboni wa ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko. === Ghanoghano la Majigha === Kuti walongosore kwambilira kwa mitundu, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) wakapanga "ghanoghano la kumweka" ndipo wakayaniska kuthandazgika kwa ungweru na kwa majigha mu maji mu buku lake la 1665. Mu 1672 Hooke wakati kunjenjemera kwa ungweru kungaŵa kwakwimilira ku nthowa iyo ukwendera. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) wakapanga ghanoghano la masamu la majigha gha ungweru mu 1678 ndipo wakalipharazga mu 1690. Wakati ungweru ukufuma mu nthowa zose nga ni majigha mu cinthu cakuchemeka ''aether''. Pakuti majigha ghakukhwaskika na nkhongono ya kukoka yayi, kukaghanaghanirika kuti ghakucepa luŵiro para ghanjira mu cinthu cakukhwima. Leonhard Euler nayo wakakhozga ghanoghano ili, ndipo mu 1746 wakati kupindika kuzunguliya vinthu kungalongosoreka makola na majigha. Ghanoghano la majigha likalongolera kuti majigha gha ungweru ghangakolerana nga ni majigha gha congo (nga umo Thomas Young wakawonera pafupifupi 1800). Young wakalongora mwa viyezgo vinandi kuti ungweru ukwenda nga ni majigha. Wakapharazga "lamulo lake la pose" la kukolerana mu Matika 1802: kuti vyakucitika vyose ivi vingalongosoreka na kukolerana kwa majigha ghaŵiri, agho ghakovwirana panji kunangana, nga umo mazgu ghaŵiri gha sumu ghakucitira. Wakati so mitundu yakupambana yikufuma ku utali wakupambana wa majigha gha ungweru, ndipo wakalongosora kuwona mitundu mwa vyakupulikira vya mitundu yitatu mu jiso. Mu 1816, André-Marie Ampère wakapeleka ku Augustin-Jean Fresnel ghanoghano lakuti kujikhazgira kwa ungweru kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano la majigha usange ungweru ni jigha la kumphepete. Pamanyuma, Fresnel wakapanga ghanoghano lake la majigha na kulipeleka ku Académie des Sciences mu 1817. Siméon Denis Poisson wakasuska ciyelezgero ca Fresnel, ŵakuti cikulongolera kadontho kakuŵala mu mzgezge kumanyuma kwa cinthu cakuzunguliya, ico cikuwoneka nga ni cautesi. Dominique-François-Jean Arago wakacita kuyezga uko kukalongora kadontho kakuŵala aka: kususka kwa Poisson kukaŵa ukaboni uphya wa ghanoghano la majigha. Mu 1818, Young wakalembera Arago kuti ungweru ukwenera kuŵa majigha gha kumphepete, kwambura kuŵa gha kukanikizgana nga ni gha congo. Fresnel wakatora ghanoghano ili ndipo wakalongora mwa masamu kuti kujikhazgira kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano ili. Suzgo la ghanoghano la majigha likaŵa kuti majigha gha ungweru, nga ni gha congo, ghangakhumba cinthu ca kujumphamo. Kuŵapo kwa ''aether'' uyo Huygens wakasacizga kukakayikirika comene pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kuyezga kwa Michelson na Morley. Ghanoghano la Newton likalongoleranga kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro mu cinthu cakukhwima, apo ghanoghano la majigha likalongoleranga cakususkana. Pa nyengo iyo, luŵiro lwa ungweru lingapimika makola yayi kuti ŵamanye ghanoghano lakwenelera. Wakwamba kupima makola wakaŵa Léon Foucault, mu 1850. Vyakusangika vyake vikakhozga ghanoghano la majigha, ndipo ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko likalekeka (kweni likawelera pacoko mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 nga ni mafotoni mu kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene). === Ghanoghano la Umagineti-Magesi === Mu 1845, Michael Faraday wakasanga kuti kujikhazgira kwa ungweru kukuzunguliya apo ungweru ukwenda mu nthowa ya nkhongono ya umagineti mu cinthu cakuwonekera mukati. Uwu ukaŵa ukaboni wakwamba wakuti ungweru ukukolerana na umagineti na magesi. Mu 1846 wakaghanaghana kuti ungweru ungaŵa kusokonezgeka kunyake uko kukwenda mu mizere ya nkhongono ya umagineti. Mu 1847 Faraday wakati ungweru ni kunjenjemera kwa umagineti-magesi kwa unandi ukulu, uko kungenda nanga ni kwambura cinthu nga ni ''aether''. Ntchito ya Faraday yikapangiska James Clerk Maxwell kusanda nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi na ungweru. Maxwell wakasanga kuti majigha gha umagineti-magesi ghangenda mu mlengalenga pa luŵiro lwakukhazikika, ilo likaŵa lakuyana na luŵiro lwa ungweru ilo likapimika kale. Kufuma apa, Maxwell wakamalizga kuti ungweru ni mtundu wa nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi: wakayowoya ici kakwamba mu 1862. Mu 1873, wakapharazga buku la magesi na umagineti ilo likaŵa na malongosoro ghose gha masamu gha nkhalo ya nkhongono za magesi na umagineti, agho ghacali kumanyikwa nga ni malango gha Maxwell. Pamanyuma, Heinrich Hertz wakasimikizga ghanoghano la Maxwell mwa kupanga na kusanga majigha gha wayilesi mu malo gha kuyezgera, na kulongora kuti majigha agha ghakwenda nga ni ungweru wakuwoneka, ghakuwezgeka, kupindika, na kukolerana. Ghanoghano la Maxwell na viyezgo vya Hertz vikapangiska mwakulunjika wayilesi ya mazuŵa ghano, ''radar'', wayilesi ya kanema, na kuyowoyerana kwambura waya. Mu kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene, mafotoni ghakuwonekera nga ni vigaŵa vya majigha gha Maxwell. Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakakhumbikwanga kulongosora vyakucitika ivyo ghanoghano la Maxwell likatondeka (nga ni mizere ya ungweru). === Kasandiro ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene === Mu 1900 Max Planck, apo wakayezganga kulongosora ungweru wa vinthu vyakufundiska, wakati nangauli ungweru ni jigha, majigha agha ghangasanga panji kutaya nkhongono mu vigaŵa vyapadera pera ivyo vikukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera kwake. Planck wakachema vigaŵa ivi kuti ''quanta'' (kufuma ku Cilatini "unandi wuli"). Mu 1905, Albert Einstein wakagwiliskira ntchito ghanoghano ili kulongosora umo ungweru ukufumiskira ma''electron'' mu visulo, ndipo wakati vigaŵa ivi vya ungweru viliko nadi. Mu 1923 Arthur Holly Compton wakalongora kuti kusintha kwa utali wa jigha la X-ray apo zikuthandazgika na ma''electron'' kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko, kweni na ghanoghano la majigha yayi. Mu 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis wakathya tuvinthu utu zina lakuti mafotoni. Pakumalira, kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakamba kuwona ungweru (mu ng'anamulo linyake) nga ni kanthu kacoko na jigha, ndipo (mu ng'anamulo linyake) nga ni cakucitika ico ni kanthu kacoko panji jigha yayi. M'malo mwake, ungweru ungalongosoreka nyengo zinyake na masamu gha ciyelezgero cimoza (tuvinthu tucoko) na nyengo zinyake na ciyelezgero cinyake (majigha). Nga umo viliri pa majigha gha wayilesi na X-ray, ŵasandi ŵawona kuti nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi zikwenda comene nga ni jigha pa unandi ucoko wa kunjenjemera, kweni nga ni kanthu kacoko pa unandi ukulu, kweni zikutaya yayi vimanyikwiro vyose vya cimoza panji cinyake. Ungweru wakuwoneka, uwo uli pakati, ungalongoreka luŵiro mu viyezgo kuti ungalongosoreka na ciyelezgero ca majigha panji ca tuvinthu tucoko, panji vyose viŵiri. Mu 1924–1925, Satyendra Nath Bose wakalongora kuti ungweru ukulondezga viŵerengero vyakupambana na vya tuvinthu tucoko twa kale. Pamoza na Einstein, ŵakasazgira ici ku gulu lose la tuvinthu utu tukuchemeka ma''boson'' (kuyana na Bose). Fotoni ni ''boson'' yambura kuzitika. Mu 1927, Paul Dirac wakagaŵa nkhongono ya umagineti-magesi mu vigaŵa vya ''quanta''. Pamanyuma, ghanoghano lose la kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ka magesi na ungweru likapangika pakumalira kwa ma 1940 kuthemba ntchito za Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, na Shinichiro Tomonaga. === Kasandiro ka Ungweru ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene === John R. Klauder, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, na Leonard Mandel ŵakagwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene pa nkhongono ya umagineti-magesi mu ma 1950 na 1960 kuti ŵamanye makola kusanga ungweru na viŵerengero vya ungweru. Ici cikapangiska kumanya kupambana pakati pa ungweru wa ''laser'', ungweru wa kufunda, na mitundu yinyake, apo kukamanyikwa kuti ungweru ungalongosoreka makola na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za kale pera yayi. Mu 1977, H. Jeff Kimble na ŵanyake ŵakalongora cimenyu cimoza cikufumiska fotoni yimoza pa nyengo yimoza, ukaboni unyake wakuti ungweru ukupangika na mafotoni. Mitundu yiphya ya ungweru iyo yikupambana na ya kale yikasangika pamanyuma. Kupanga ''laser'' za kanyengo kafupi comene kukajula nthowa ya kusanda vyakucitika vya luŵiro comene. Kagwiliskiro kake pa kusanda vinthu vyakukhwima kakasangika, ndipo nkhongono za ungweru pa vyamvimba zikasandika. Ici cikapangiska kuyandamiska na kuŵika maŵingu gha vimenyu panji nanga ni tuvyamoyo tucoko mu cakukora ca ungweru na ''laser''. Ici, pamoza na nthowa za kuzizimiska vimenyu, cikaŵa luso lakukhumbikwa kuti ŵafiske kusazganika kwa Bose–Einstein. Vyakusangika vinyake vyakuzizwiska ni kulongora kukolerana kwa tuvinthu tucoko comene, kutuma uthenga wa tuvinthu tucoko comene, na ndondomeko za kughanaghana za tuvinthu tucoko comene. Vyaumaliro ivi ni vyakuzirwa comene mu kasandiro ka uthenga wa tuvinthu tucoko comene. == Kagwiliskiro ka Ungweru pa Caro Capasi == Ungweru wa zuŵa ukupeleka nkhongono izo vyakumera viŵisi vikugwiliskira ntchito kupanga shuga, comene nga ni sitachi, uwo ukupeleka nkhongono ku vyamoyo ivyo vikuurya. Ndondomeko iyi ya [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]] yikupeleka pafupifupi nkhongono zose izo vyamoyo vikugwiliskira ntchito. Vinyama vinyake vikupanga ungweru wawo, ndondomeko iyo yikuchemeka ungweru wa vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵakamulimuli ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ungweru kusanga ŵabwezi ŵa kutorana, ndipo ''squid'' ya ''vampire'' yikugwiliskira ntchito ungweru kujibisa ku vyakuyisaka. 1q5b5srrfr4lexalks0pxb78ynfb1f4 124400 124361 2026-11-10T20:29:28Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124400 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Prism flat rainbow (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Galasi la mbali zitatu (''prism'') ilo likugaŵa ungweru utuŵa. Majigha ghatali (ghakuswesi) na majigha ghafupi (gha camlengalenga) ghakupatukana.]] '''Ungweru''' (panji ungweru wakuwoneka) ni nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi izo maso gha munthu ghangawona.<ref>CIE (1987). [http://www.cie.co.at/publ/abst/17-4-89.html ''International Lighting Vocabulary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227034508/http://www.cie.co.at/publ/abst/17-4-89.html |date=27 February 2010 }}. Number 17.4. CIE, 4th ed.. {{ISBN|978-3-900734-07-7}}.<br />By the ''International Lighting Vocabulary'', the definition of ''light'' is: "Any radiation capable of causing a visual sensation directly."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=CIE JTC 8 |url=https://cie.co.at/publications/ilv-international-lighting-vocabulary-2nd-edition-0 |title=CIE S 017/E:2020 ILV: International Lighting Vocabulary, 2nd Edition |publisher=International Commission on Illumination (CIE) |language=en |chapter=light, <photometric> noun |doi=10.25039/S017.2020 |chapter-url=https://cie.co.at/eilvterm/17-21-013}}</ref> Ungweru wakuwoneka uli na majigha gha utali wa nanomita 400 mpaka 700, ghakukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera wa ma''terahertz'' 750 mpaka 420. Kufupi na ungweru wakuwoneka pali ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi (wa majigha ghatali na unandi wa kunjenjemera ucoko) na ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi (wa majigha ghafupi na unandi wa kunjenjemera ukulu), ndipo vyose pamoza vikuchemeka nkhongono za ungweru.<ref name="Pal2001">{{cite book |last1=Pal |first1=G.K. |last2=Pal |first2=Pravati |title=Textbook of Practical Physiology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcJvIiesqp8C&pg=PA387 |access-date=11 October 2013 |edition=1st |year=2001 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |location=Chennai |isbn=978-81-250-2021-9 |page=387 |chapter=chapter 52 |quote=The human eye has the ability to respond to all the wavelengths of light from 400–700 nm. This is called the visible part of the spectrum. |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008031819/https://books.google.com/books?id=CcJvIiesqp8C&pg=PA387 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BuserImbert1992">{{cite book |last1=Buser |first1=Pierre A. |last2=Imbert |first2=Michel |title=Vision |url=https://archive.org/details/vision0000buse |url-access=registration |access-date=11 October 2013 |year=1992 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-02336-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/vision0000buse/page/50 50] |quote=Light is a special class of radiant energy embracing wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm (or mμ), or 4000 to 7000 Å.}}</ref> Mu [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], lizgu lakuti "ungweru" lingang'anamula nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za utali uliwose wa jigha, zakuwoneka panji zambura kuwoneka.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Camera lenses: from box camera to digital |author=Gregory Hallock Smith |publisher=SPIE Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8194-6093-6 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mb0C0cFCEYC&pg=PA4 |access-date=15 November 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008031820/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mb0C0cFCEYC&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Comprehensive Physics XII |author=Narinder Kumar |publisher=Laxmi Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7008-592-8 |page=1416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IryMtwHHngIC&pg=PA1416}}</ref> Mwa ng'anamulo iyi, nkhongono za ''gamma'', X-ray, ''microwave'', na majigha gha wayilesi nazo ni ungweru. Ndico cifukwa nkhongono zakuwoneka kanandi zikuchemeka ungweru wakuwoneka.<ref>{{cite book |title=SI Brochure, Appendix 2: Mise en pratique for the definition of the meter in the SI |edition=9 |page=2 |date=20 May 2019 |publisher=International Bureau of Weights and Measures |url=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41489670/SI-App2-metre.pdf |access-date=20 Dec 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spectroscopy: A Measurement Powerhouse |date=16 Apr 2025 |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |website=nist.gov |url=https://www.nist.gov/spectroscopy/what-spectroscopy |access-date=20 Dec 2025}}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vikulu vya ungweru ni nkhongono yake, nthowa iyo ukwendera, unandi wa kunjenjemera panji utali wa jigha, na umo ukujikhazgira. Luŵiro lake mu malo ghambura kanthu, mamita 299,792,458 pa liŵiri, ni cimoza mwa vipimo vyakwamba vya kawiro.<ref name="LeClerq">{{Cite book |last1=Uzan |first1=J-P |last2=Leclercq |first2=B |year=2008 |title=The Natural Laws of the Universe: Understanding Fundamental Constants |url=https://archive.org/details/the-natural-laws-of-the-universe-understanding-fundamental-constants |pages=43–44 |translator=Robert Mizon|isbn=978-0-387-73454-5|bibcode=2008nlu..book.....U |publisher=Springer-Praxis, Internet Archive: 2020-06-14 AbdzexK uban|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-74081-2 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}</ref> Nkhongono zose za umagineti-magesi zili na vimanyikwiro vya tuvinthu tucoko na vya majigha. Tuvinthu tucoko twa ungweru twambura kuzitika, tuchemeka mafotoni, tungasangika na vilwero vyapadera; vyakucitika nga ni kukolerana kwa majigha vikulongosoreka na majigha. Kanandi vyakucitika vya zuŵa na zuŵa vya ungweru vingapulikiskika na kasandiro ka ungweru ka mizere. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kusanda mu kusanda mendero kwa mazuŵa ghano. Kasupe mukulu wa ungweru wa kawiro pa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]] ni [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]]. Mu mbiri, kasupe munyake wakuzirwa wa ungweru ku ŵanthu wakaŵa moto, kufuma ku moto wa kale mpaka ku nyali za palafini. Pa kukura kwa nyali za [[Magesi|magesi]] na ndondomeko za nkhongono ya magesi, ungweru wa magesi wapoka malo gha ungweru wa moto. == Nkhongono za Ntchito za Umagineti-Magesi na Ungweru Wakuwoneka == [[File:EM spectrum.svg|thumb|380px|Nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi, kulongora cigaŵa ca ungweru wakuwoneka. Cithuzi ca pasi (ungweru wakuwoneka) cikulongora utali wa jigha mu nanomita (nm).]] Kanandi, nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi zikugaŵika kuyana na utali wa jigha mu majigha gha wayilesi, ''microwave'', ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, ungweru wakuwoneka uwo tikupulika nga ni ungweru, ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, X-ray, na nkhongono za ''gamma''. Nkhalo ya nkhongono izi yikuthemba utali wa jigha lake. Unandi ukulu wa kunjenjemera uli na majigha ghafupi, ndipo unandi ucoko uli na majigha ghatali. Para nkhongono izi zikukwekana na vimenyu na mamolekyu, nkhalo yawo yikuthemba unandi wa nkhongono izo cigaŵa cimoza cikunyamula. Nkhongono mu cigaŵa ca ungweru wakuwoneka zili na mafotoni agho ghali pasi pa nkhongono izo zingasintha ma''electron'' mu mamolekyu, ndipo ici cikusintha kukolerana kwa molekyu. Pasi pa ungweru wakuwoneka, nkhongono zikuwoneka yayi ku ŵanthu (ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi) cifukwa mafotoni ghake ghalije so nkhongono zakukwana kusintha molekyu ya kuwonera mu jiso la munthu, kusintha uko kukwiziska kuwona. Pali vinyama ivyo vikupulika ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, kweni mu nthowa yinyake. Njoka zikupulika ungweru uwu mwa kupulika kufunda, apo maji ghacoko mu tumaselo ghakufunda na ungweru uwu. Pacanya pa ungweru wakuwoneka, ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi ukuwoneka yayi ku ŵanthu, comene cifukwa ukukorekeka na cigaŵa ca panthazi ca jiso na galasi la mukati la jiso. Kweniso, tumaselo twa kuwonera mu jiso tungasanga ungweru uwu wafupi comene yayi, ndipo nadi tukunangika nawo. Vinyama vinandi ivyo maso ghake ghalije galasi (nga ni vibenene na shirimpi) vingawona ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi, mu nthowa ya usungunu yakuyana na iyo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera ungweru wakuwoneka. Malo ghakupambana ghakulongosora ungweru wakuwoneka kuŵa wa nanomita 420–680 panji 380–800.<ref>{{cite book |last=Laufer |first=Gabriel |chapter=Geometrical Optics |title=Introduction to Optics and Lasers in Engineering |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MxLPYMS5TUC&pg=PA11 |access-date=20 October 2013 |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-45233-5 |page=11 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139174190.004 |bibcode=1996iole.book.....L |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602052236/https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-74081-2 |archive-date=2 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradt2004">{{cite book |last=Bradt |first=Hale |title=Astronomy Methods: A Physical Approach to Astronomical Observations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hp7vyaGvhLMC&pg=PA26 |access-date=20 October 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53551-9 |page=26}}</ref><ref name="OhannesianStreeter2001">{{cite book |last1=Ohannesian |first1=Lena |last2=Streeter |first2=Anthony |title=Handbook of Pharmaceutical Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwPb4wgqseYC&pg=PA187 |access-date=20 October 2013 |year=2001 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-4194-5 |page=187}}</ref><ref name="AhluwaliaGoyal2000">{{cite book |last1=Ahluwalia |first1=V.K. |last2=Goyal |first2=Madhuri |title=A Textbook of Organic Chemistry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJNJnn0M75MC&pg=PA110 |access-date=20 October 2013 |year= 2000 |publisher=Narosa |isbn=978-81-7319-159-6 |page=110}}</ref> Mu malo ghawemi gha kuyezgera, ŵanthu ŵangawona ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi mpaka nanomita 1,050; ŵana na ŵanyamata ŵangawona ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi mpaka nanomita pafupifupi 310.<ref name="Sliney1976">{{cite journal |last1=Sliney |first1=David H. |last2=Wangemann |first2=Robert T. |last3=Franks |first3=James K. |last4=Wolbarsht |first4=Myron L. |year=1976 |title=Visual sensitivity of the eye to infrared laser radiation |journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=339–341 |doi=10.1364/JOSA.66.000339 |pmid=1262982 |quote=The foveal sensitivity to several near-infrared laser wavelengths was measured. It was found that the eye could respond to radiation at wavelengths at least as far as 1,064 nm. A continuous 1,064 nm laser source appeared red, but a 1,060 nm pulsed laser source appeared green, which suggests the presence of second harmonic generation in the retina. |bibcode=1976JOSA...66..339S }}</ref><ref name="LynchLivingston2001">{{cite book |last1=Lynch |first1=David K. |last2=Livingston |first2=William Charles |title=Color and Light in Nature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Abp5FdhskAC&pg=PA231 |access-date=12 October 2013 |edition=2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77504-5 |page=231 |quote=Limits of the eye's overall range of sensitivity extends from about 310 to 1,050 nanometers |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008031821/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Abp5FdhskAC&pg=PA231 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dash2009">{{cite book |last1=Dash |first1=Madhab Chandra |last2=Dash |first2=Satya Prakash |title=Fundamentals of Ecology 3E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7mW4-us4Yg8C&pg=PA213 |access-date=18 October 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-1-259-08109-5 |page=213 |quote=Normally the human eye responds to light rays from 390 to 760 nm. This can be extended to a range of 310 to 1,050 nm under artificial conditions. |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008031820/https://books.google.com/books?id=7mW4-us4Yg8C&pg=PA213 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Saidman1933">{{cite journal |last1=Saidman |first1=Jean |date=15 May 1933 |title=Sur la visibilité de l'ultraviolet jusqu'à la longueur d'onde 3130 |trans-title=The visibility of the ultraviolet to the wave length of 3130 |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences |volume=196 |pages=1537–9 |language=fr |url=http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3148d |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-date=24 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024092515/http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3148d |url-status=live }}</ref> Kukura kwa vyakumera nako kukukhwaskika na mitundu ya ungweru. == Luŵiro lwa Ungweru == [[File:Rocca dell'Abisso, Fondachelli Fantina, Sicilia.JPG|thumb|Ungweru wa zuŵa mukati mwa mphako ya Rocca ill'Abissu ku Fondachelli-Fantina, Sicily]] Luŵiro lwa ungweru mu malo ghambura kanthu lukulongosoreka kuŵa mamita 299,792,458 pa liŵiri ndendende. Nambala iyi njakukhazikika cifukwa mita sono yikulongosoreka kuyana na luŵiro lwa ungweru. Nkhongono zose za umagineti-magesi zikwenda pa luŵiro lwenelulo mu malo ghambura kanthu. Ŵasandi ŵakupambana ŵayezga kupima luŵiro lwa ungweru mu mbiri. Galileo wakayezga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600. Kuyezga kwakwamba kukacitika na Ole Rømer, wa ku Denmark, mu 1676. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito cilaŵiskiro ca kutali, Rømer wakalaŵiska kwenda kwa Jupita na mwezi wake Io. Pakuwona kupambana kwa nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwa Io, wakapima kuti ungweru ukutora maminiti pafupifupi 22 kujumpha ukulu wa nthowa ya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.ss%2F1009212817 |title=Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light |journal=Statistical Science |year=2000 |volume=15 |pages=254–278 |issue=3 |doi=10.1214/ss/1009212817 |mr=1847825 |last1=Oldford |first1=R. W |last2=MacKay |first2=R. J |doi-access=free |access-date=21 August 2008 |archive-date=24 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324201543/http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.ss%2F1009212817 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kweni ukulu uwu ukamanyikwanga yayi pa nyengo iyo. Usange Rømer wakamanyanga ukulu wa nthowa ya caro capasi, wakatenge wasanga luŵiro lwa mamita 227,000,000 pa liŵiri. Kupima kunyake kwakulunjika comene kukacitika mu Ulaya na Hippolyte Fizeau mu 1849.<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Light |volume=16 |page=624 |first=Simon |last=Newcomb}}</ref> Fizeau wakalunjika ungweru ku galasi ilo likaŵa makilomita ghanandi kutali. Gudumu la mino lakuzunguliya likaŵikika mu nthowa ya ungweru apo ukafumanga ku kasupe, kuya ku galasi na kuwelera. Fizeau wakasanga kuti pa luŵiro lunyake lwa kuzunguliya, ungweru ukajumphanga mu zenje limoza pa kuluta na zenje linyake pa kuwelera. Mwa kumanya mtunda wa galasi, unandi wa mino, na luŵiro lwa kuzunguliya, Fizeau wakapima luŵiro lwa ungweru kuŵa mamita 313,000,000 pa liŵiri. Léon Foucault wakacita kuyezga uko kukagwiliskira ntchito magalasi ghakuzunguliya kusanga mamita 298,000,000 pa liŵiri mu 1862.<ref name=EB1911/> Albert A. Michelson wakacita kuyezga kwa luŵiro lwa ungweru kufuma 1877 mpaka nyifwa yake mu 1931. Wakanozga nthowa za Foucault mu 1926 kupima nyengo iyo ungweru ukutora kuluta na kuwelera pakati pa mapiri ghaŵiri mu California. Kupima kwakulunjika kukapeleka mamita 299,796,000 pa liŵiri.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Michelson |first=A.A. |title=Measurements of the velocity of light between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=January 1927 |volume=65 |page=1 |doi=10.1086/143021 |bibcode=1927ApJ....65....1M}}</ref> Luŵiro lwa ungweru mu vinthu vyakuwonekera mukati ivyo vili na vyamvimba ngucoko kuluska mu malo ghambura kanthu. Mwaciyelezgero, luŵiro lwa ungweru mu maji ni pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vinayi vya luŵiro mu malo ghambura kanthu. Magulu ghaŵiri gha ŵasandi ŵakayowoyeka kuti ŵakimiska ungweru "ndendende" mwa kuujumpha mu cinthu capadera ca rubidiyamu.<ref>{{cite web |author=Harvard News Office |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/01.24/01-stoplight.html |title=Harvard Gazette: Researchers now able to stop, restart light |publisher=News.harvard.edu |date=24 January 2001 |access-date=8 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028041346/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/01.24/01-stoplight.html |archive-date=28 October 2011 }}</ref> Kweni kuyowoya kuti ungweru "ukimika" kukung'anamula waka kuti ungweru ukasungika mu vimenyu, ndipo pamanyuma ukafumiska so. Pa nyengo iyo "ukimika", ukaleka kuŵa ungweru. == Kasandiro ka Ungweru == [[File:Linear visible spectrum.svg|center|upright=2]] Kusanda ungweru na kukwekana kwa ungweru na vyamvimba kukuchemeka kasandiro ka ungweru. Kali na mitundu yakupambana ya vyakucitika vyakupambana. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka mizere, ako kakwenelera kupulikiska vinthu nga ni maso, magalasi, makamera, ulusi wa ungweru, na magalasi gha kujiwona, kakugwira ntchito makola para utali wa jigha la ungweru ngucoko kuyaniska na vinthu ivyo ukukwekana navyo. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka majigha kakulaŵiska vimanyikwiro vya majigha ndipo nkhakukhumbikwa kupulikiska kupindika kwa ungweru kuzunguliya vinthu na kukolerana kwa majigha. Kasandiro ka ungweru ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakugwira ntchito pa kusanda mafotoni ghamoza ghamoza ghakukwekana na vyamvimba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hecht |first=Eugene |title=Optics |date=1998 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-83887-9 |edition=3. |location=Reading, Mass. Harlow}}</ref>{{rp|33}} === Kuthandazgika pa Pacanya === Cinthu cakuwonekera mukati cikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo. Kweni cinthu cambura kuwonekera mukati cikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo yayi, ndipo cikuwezga panji kukora ungweru uwo cikupokera. Vinthu vinandi vikuwezga panji kujumpha ungweru makola yayi ndipo vikuthandazga ungweru pacoko. Kuthandazgika pacanya kukufuma ku kusoŵa kuterera kwa pacanya, ndipo kuthandazgika kwa mukati kukufuma ku kupambana kwa kupindiska ungweru pakati pa tuvinthu na vyamvimba mukati mwa cinthu. Nga ni vinthu vyakuwonekera mukati, vinthu vyakuwonekera pacoko vikuzomerezga ungweru kujumphamo, kweni vikuthandazga so ungweru unyake mukati.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Roy S. |url= |title=Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology |publisher=Wiley |others=Fred W. Billmeyer, Max Saltzman |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-119-36668-3 |edition=4th |location=Hoboken, NJ |oclc=1080250734}}</ref> === Kupindika === [[File:Optical refraction at water surface.jpg|thumb|Cifukwa ca kupindika kwa ungweru, mgeju uwo uli mu maji ukuwoneka kuti wapindika, ndipo nthonga yakupimira yikuwoneka yifupi para wacilaŵiska kufuma pa mbali.]] Kupindika kwa ungweru ni kupindika kwa mizere ya ungweru apo yikujumpha pacanya pakati pa cinthu cimoza cakuwonekera mukati na cinyake. Kukulongosoreka na lamulo la Snell: : <math>n_1 \sin\theta_1 = n_2 \sin\theta_2</math> apo θ₁ ni kona pakati pa mzere wa ungweru na mzere wakwimilira mu cinthu cakwamba, θ₂ ni kona mu cinthu caciŵiri, ndipo n₁ na n₂ ni vipimo vya kupindika; n = 1 mu malo ghambura kanthu ndipo n > 1 mu cinthu cakuwonekera mukati. Para ungweru ukujumpha mphaka pakati pa malo ghambura kanthu na cinthu cinyake, panji pakati pa vinthu viŵiri vyakupambana, utali wa jigha la ungweru ukusintha, kweni unandi wa kunjenjemera ukusintha yayi. Usange ungweru ngwambura kwimilira ndendende pa mphaka, kusintha kwa utali wa jigha kukusintha nthowa ya ungweru. Kusintha uku kwa nthowa ndiko kupindika. Kupindika kwa ungweru mu magalasi kukugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi kusintha ukulu wakuwoneka wa vithuzi. Magalasi gha kukuzga, magalasi gha maso, magalasi gha mu maso, ma''microscope'', na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya kupindika vyose ni viyelezgero vya ici. == Makasupe gha Ungweru == Pali makasupe ghanandi gha ungweru. Cinthu ca kufunda kunyake cikufumiska ungweru wapadera kuyana na kufunda kwake. Kasupe mupepuka wa kufunda ni ungweru wa zuŵa, nkhongono izo zikufuma ku cigaŵa ca zuŵa pa kufunda kwa pafupifupi 5,730 °C. Ungweru wa zuŵa ngunandi comene mu cigaŵa ca ungweru wakuwoneka, ndipo pafupifupi magaŵa 44 pa 100 gha ungweru uwo ukufika pasi ngwakuwoneka.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thulescientific.com/LYNCH%20%26%20Soffer%20OPN%201999.pdf |title=Spectrum and the Color Sensitivity of the Eye |website=Thulescientific.com |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705070506/http://thulescientific.com/LYNCH%20%26%20Soffer%20OPN%201999.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/ |title=Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5 |access-date=12 November 2009 |archive-date=12 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512190812/https://rredc.nrel.gov/solar//spectra/am1.5/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ciyelezgero cinyake ni mababu gha magesi gha kale, agho ghakufumiska magaŵa pafupifupi 10 pa 100 pera gha nkhongono zawo nga ni ungweru wakuwoneka ndipo zinyake nga ni ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi. Kasupe wa kufunda wakumanyikwa mu mbiri ni tuvinthu tukukhwima twakuŵala mu moto, kweni ivi nabyo vikufumiska ungweru unandi wa pasi pa uswesi na ucoko pera wakuwoneka. Ungweru unandi wa vinthu vyakuzizima nga ni ŵanthu uli mu ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, pa utali wa jigha wa ma''micrometer'' pafupifupi 10. Apo kufunda kukusazgikira, ungweru ukusamira ku majigha ghafupi, kupeleka dankha ungweru wakufiira, pamanyuma wakutuŵa na pakumalira wa buluu wakutuŵa. Mitundu iyi yingawoneka para cisulo cafundiskika kuŵa "cakufiira" panji "cakutuŵa". Ungweru wa buluu wakutuŵa wa kufunda ukuwoneka kanandi yayi, kupatula mu nyenyezi. Vimenyu vikufumiska na kukora ungweru pa nkhongono zapadera. Ici cikupanga "mizere ya ungweru" mu ungweru wa cimenyu ciliconse. Kufumiska kungaŵa kwa ceneco, nga mu nyali za LED, nyali za mphepo (nga ni nyali za neon), na moto (mwaciyelezgero, sodiyamu mu moto ikufumiska ungweru wa cikasu). Kufumiska kungapangiska so, nga mu ''laser''. Kucepa kwa luŵiro lwa cinthu cicoko ca magesi, nga ni ''electron'', kungapanga ungweru wakuwoneka. Tuvinthu utu tukwenda mu cinthu luŵiro kuluska luŵiro lwa ungweru mu cinthu ico tungapanga ungweru wa Cherenkov. Vinthu vinyake vya usungunu vikupanga ungweru mwa kusazganika. Mu vyamoyo, ici cikuchemeka ungweru wa vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵakamulimuli ŵakupanga ungweru mu nthowa iyi, ndipo ngalawa izo zikwenda mu maji zingasokonezga tuvyamoyo tucoko utu tukupanga ungweru. Vinthu vinyake vikupanga ungweru para vyamulikika na nkhongono zikulu, ndipo ici cikuchemeka ''fluorescence''. Vinthu vinyake vikufumiska ungweru pacoko pacoko pamanyuma pa kupokera nkhongono zikulu; ici cikuchemeka ''phosphorescence''. Ici cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu wayilesi za kanema na makompyuta gha kale. [[File:Colorful artificial lighting at night.jpg|thumb|250px|Hong Kong pa usiku, na ungweru wa magesi wa mitundu yinandi]] Nthowa zinyake zingapanga so ungweru, nga ni ungweru wa magesi, ungweru wa kutimbana, ungweru wa congo, na ungweru wa kukwekana. Para ungweru ukusazgapo nkhongono za ''gamma'', nthowa zinyake zikusazgapo kumalirana kwa tuvinthu na tuvinthu twakususkana nato, na kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu. == Kupima == Ungweru ukupimika na magulu ghaŵiri gha vipimo: gulu limoza likupima nkhongono za ungweru pa majigha ghose, apo linyake likupima ungweru kuyana na umo jiso la munthu likupulikira kuŵala. Gulu laciŵiri ili ndakovwira, mwaciyelezgero, kupima ungweru wa kumulikira ŵanthu. Vipimo vya gulu laciŵiri vikupambana na vipimo vinyake vya kawiro cifukwa vikulaŵiska umo jiso la munthu likuzgolera ungweru. Tumaselo twa mtundu mu jiso la munthu nta mitundu yitatu, ndipo pamoza tukupulika comene ungweru wa utali wa jigha wa nanomita pafupifupi 555. Ntheura, ungweru uŵiri wa nkhongono yakuyana ungawoneka wakuŵala mwakuyana yayi. Vipimo ivi vikulaŵiska ici, ntheura vikulongora makola umo ungweru ukuwonekera "kuŵala". Vikugwiliskirika ntchito kumanya umo tingasangira ungweru wakukwana pa ntchito zakupambana mu nyumba na kuwaro. Ungweru uwo ukupimika na vilwero vya magesi ungaŵa wakuyana na uwo jiso la munthu likupulika yayi, ndipo kwambura vyakusefa ivyo vingadura, vilwero ivi vikupulika so ungweru unyake wa pasi pa uswesi panji wa pacanya pa uswesi. == Kukanikizga kwa Ungweru == Ungweru ukukanikizga vinthu ivyo vili mu nthowa yake, cakucitika ico cingalongosoreka na malango gha Maxwell, kweni cingalongosoreka mwakupepuka comene na kawiro ka tuvinthu tucoko ka ungweru: mafotoni ghakutimba na kupeleka nkhongono yawo ya kwenda. Kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhwakuyana na nkhongono ya ungweru kugaŵa na luŵiro lwa ungweru. Cifukwa luŵiro lwa ungweru ndukulu comene, kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhucoko comene pa vinthu vya zuŵa na zuŵa. Mwaciyelezgero, ''laser'' yicoko ya ''milliwatt'' yimoza yikukanikizga na nkhongono ya ma''piconewton'' pafupifupi 3.3; ntheura munthu wangakwezga ndalama yicoko ya U.S. na ma''laser'', kweni wangakhumba ma''laser'' pafupifupi biliyoni 30.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tang |first=Hong |title=May The Force of Light Be With You |journal=IEEE Spectrum |date=1 October 2009 |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=46–51 |doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2009.5268000|s2cid=7928030 }}</ref><ref>See, for example, [http://www.eng.yale.edu/tanglab/research.htm nano-opto-mechanical systems research at Yale University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625042036/http://www.eng.yale.edu/tanglab/research.htm |date=25 June 2010 }}.</ref> Kweni mu vilwero vicoko comene, kukanikizga kwa ungweru nkhukulu, ndipo kugwiliskira ntchito kukanikizga uku kwendeska vilwero vicoko comene ni cigaŵa ca kusanda. Pa ukulu ukulu, kukanikizga kwa ungweru kungapangiska vibwe vicoko vya malibwe kuzunguliya luŵiro. Kuthekera kwa kupanga ngalanyo za zuŵa izo zingakankha vyombo vya mlengalenga nako kukusandika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2004/feb/asteroids-get-spun-by-the-sun/ |title=Asteroids Get Spun By the Sun |first=Kathy A. |last=Svitil |website=Discover Magazine |date=5 February 2004 |access-date=8 May 2007 |archive-date=9 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009045611/http://discovermagazine.com/2004/feb/asteroids-get-spun-by-the-sun/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/roboticexplorers/solar_sails.html |title=Solar Sails Could Send Spacecraft 'Sailing' Through Space |website=NASA |date=31 August 2004 |access-date=30 May 2008 |archive-date=21 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021035846/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/roboticexplorers/solar_sails.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releases/2004/04-208.html |title=NASA team successfully deploys two solar sail systems |website=NASA |date=9 August 2004 |access-date=30 May 2008 |archive-date=14 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614013757/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releases/2004/04-208.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nangauli kwenda kwa cilwero ca Crookes kukaghanaghanirikanga kufuma ku kukanikizga kwa ungweru, ici nchautesi; kuzunguliya kwake kukufuma ku malo ghambura mphepo yinandi. Ici cikupambana na cilwero ca Nichols, umo kwenda kucoko kukufuma mwakulunjika ku kukanikizga kwa ungweru. Cifukwa ca kukanikizga kwa ungweru, Einstein mu 1909 wakalongolera kuŵapo kwa "kukwekana kwa ungweru" uko kungasuska kwenda kwa vyamvimba.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Pyotr Lebedev |first=P. |last=Lebedew |title=Untersuchungen über die Druckkräfte des Lichtes |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=433–458 |year=1901 |doi=10.1002/andp.19013111102 |bibcode=1901AnP...311..433L |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1424005 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606184159/https://zenodo.org/record/1424005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=E.F |last2=Hull |first2=G.F. |year=1903 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8n8OAAAAIAAJ&q=torsion+balance+radiation&pg=RA5-PA327 |title=The Pressure due to Radiation |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=17 |pages=315–351 |issue=5 |bibcode=1903ApJ....17..315N |doi=10.1086/141035 |access-date=15 November 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008031820/https://books.google.com/books?id=8n8OAAAAIAAJ&q=torsion+balance+radiation&pg=RA5-PA327 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Einstein, A. |chapter=Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung |trans-chapter=On the development of our views concerning the nature and constitution of radiation |title=The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein |volume=2 |year=1989 |orig-date=1909 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |page=391}}</ref> Wakalemba kuti ungweru ukukanikizga mbali zose ziŵiri za cimbale; para cimbale cikwenda, ungweru unandi ukuwezgeka pa mbali ya panthazi kuluska ya kumanyuma, ntheura pali nkhongono iyo yikususka kwenda kwa cimbale ndipo yikusazgikira na luŵiro lwake. Kanandi nkhongono ya kwenda ya ungweru yili mu nthowa yeneyiyo iyo ungweru ukwendera. Kweni mu majigha ghanyake, nkhongono iyi yikuŵa ku mbali.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antognozzi|first1=M.|last2=Bermingham|first2=C. R.|last3=Harniman|first3=R. L.|last4=Simpson|first4=S.|last5=Senior|first5=J.|last6=Hayward|first6=R.|last7=Hoerber|first7=H.|last8=Dennis|first8=M. R.|last9=Bekshaev|first9=A. Y.|date=August 2016|title=Direct measurements of the extraordinary optical momentum and transverse spin-dependent force using a nano-cantilever|journal=Nature Physics|volume=12|issue=8|pages=731–735|doi=10.1038/nphys3732|issn=1745-2473|arxiv=1506.04248|bibcode=2016NatPh..12..731A|s2cid=52226942}}</ref> == Maghanoghano gha Kale pa Ungweru == === Girisi wa Kale === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 pambere Khristu, Empedocles wakati vinthu vyose vikupangika na vigaŵa vinayi: moto, mphepo, dongo na maji. Wakagomezganga kuti ciuta mwanakazi Aphrodite wakapanga jiso la munthu kufuma ku vigaŵa vinayi ivi, ndipo wakayatiska moto mu jiso uwo ukaŵalanga kufuma mu jiso na kuzomerezga kuwona. Usange ici cikaŵa caunenesko, munthu wangawona usiku nga ni msana, ntheura Empedocles wakaghanaghana kuti pali kukwekana pakati pa ungweru wakufuma mu maso na ungweru wakufuma ku kasupe nga ni zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fundamentals of Optical Engineering |last=Singh |first=S. |year=2009 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8356-436-6}}</ref> Pafupifupi 300 pambere Khristu, Euclid wakalemba ''Optica'', umo wakasanda vimanyikwiro vya ungweru. Euclid wakati ungweru ukwenda mu mizere yakunyoloka ndipo wakalongosora malango gha kuwezga ungweru na kughasanda mwa masamu. Wakakayikira kuti kuwona kukufuma ku ungweru wakufuma mu jiso, cifukwa wakafumba umo munthu wakuwonera nyenyezi luŵiro usange wajalira maso na kughajula usiku. Usange ungweru wakufuma mu jiso ukwenda luŵiro lwambura mphaka, ici ncambura suzgo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Light_1.html |title=Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell |last1=O'Connor |first1=J J |last2=Robertson |first2=E F |date=August 2002 |access-date=20 February 2017 |archive-date=19 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319180859/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Light_1.html }}</ref> Mu 55 pambere Khristu, Lucretius, Muroma uyo wakalutilizga maghanoghano gha Ŵagiriki ŵa vimenyu, wakalemba kuti ungweru na kufunda kwa zuŵa vikupangika na vimenyu vicoko comene ivyo, para vyakankhika, vikwenda luŵiro kujumpha mphepo. Nangauli vikuyana na maghanoghano gha tuvinthu tucoko gha pamanyuma, maghanoghano gha Lucretius ghakazomerezgeka yayi. Ptolemy (vyaka vya m'ma 100) wakalemba za kupindika kwa ungweru mu buku lake.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics with Introduction and Commentary |author=Ptolemy and A. Mark Smith |publisher=Diane Publishing |year=1996 |page=23 |isbn=978-0-87169-862-9}}</ref> === India wa Kale === Mu India wa kale, sukulu za Cihindu za Samkhya na Vaisheshika, kufuma pakwamba pa vyaka vya mumuwilo wa Khristu, zikapanga maghanoghano pa ungweru. Kuyana na Samkhya, ungweru ni cimoza mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vyakwamba "vyacoko comene" ivyo vigaŵa vikulu vikufumira.<ref name="sifuae.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.sifuae.com/sif/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Shastra-Pratibha-2015-Seniors-Booklet.pdf |title=Shastra Pratibha 2015 Seniors Booklet |website=Sifuae.com |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530101227/http://www.sifuae.com/sif/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Shastra-Pratibha-2015-Seniors-Booklet.pdf }}</ref><ref name="sifuae.com"/> ''Vishnu Purana'' likuyowoya za ungweru wa zuŵa nga ni "mizere 7 ya zuŵa". Ŵabuda ŵa ku India, nga ni Dignāga mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 na Dharmakirti mu vyaka vya m'ma 600, ŵakapanga ghanoghano lakuti vinthu vyose vikupangika na tuvinthu tucoko utu ni kumweka kwa kanyengo kacoko kwa ungweru panji nkhongono. Ŵakawonanga ungweru nga ni cinthu cicoko cakuyana na nkhongono.<ref name="sifuae.com"/> === Descartes === René Descartes (1596–1650) wakati ungweru ni cimanyikwiro ca makina ca cinthu cakuŵala.<ref name="Theories of light">''Theories of light, from Descartes to Newton'' A.I. Sabra CUP Archive,1981 p. 48 {{ISBN|978-0-521-28436-3}}</ref> Mu 1637 wakapharazga ghanoghano la kupindika kwa ungweru ilo likaghanaghana, mwautesi, kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro mu cinthu cakukhwima kuluska mu cinthu cambura kukhwima. Descartes wakafika pa ici mwa kuyaniska na majigha gha congo. Nangauli wakaŵa wautesi pa luŵiro, wakaŵa wakwenelera pa kughanaghana kuti ungweru ukwenda nga ni jigha na kuti kupindika kungalongosoreka na luŵiro lwa ungweru mu vinthu vyakupambana. Descartes ni wakwamba yayi kugwiliskira ntchito viyelezgero vya makina, kweni cifukwa wakayowoya mwakuwonekera kuti ungweru ni cimanyikwiro ca makina pera ca cinthu cakuŵala na cinthu ico ukujumphamo, ghanoghano lake likuwonekera nga ni kwamba kwa kasandiro ka ungweru ka mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="Theories of light" /> === Ghanoghano la Tuvinthu Tucoko === [[File:PierreGassendi.jpg|thumb|200 px|Pierre Gassendi]] Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) wakasacizga ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko twa ungweru ilo likapharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu ma 1660. Isaac Newton wakasanda ntchito ya Gassendi ndipo wakatemwa ghanoghano lake. Mu 1675 wakati ungweru ukupangika na tuvinthu tucoko utu tukufuma ku kasupe mu nthowa zose. Cimoza mwa vifukwa vya Newton vya kususka kuti ungweru ni jigha cikaŵa kuti majigha ghakupindika kuzunguliya vikanizgo, apo ungweru ukwenda mu mizere yakunyoloka pera. Kweni wakalongosora kupindika kwa ungweru kuzunguliya vinthu (uko Francesco Grimaldi wakawona) mwa kughanaghana kuti kanthu kacoko ka ungweru kangapanga jigha. Ghanoghano la Newton lingagwiliskirika ntchito kulongolera kuwezgeka kwa ungweru, kweni likalongosoranga kupindika mwa kughanaghana mwautesi kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro para wanjira mu cinthu cakukhwima. Newton wakapharazga ghanoghano lake laumaliro mu ''Opticks'' mu 1704. Ucindami wake ukovwira ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko kuwusa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Ghanoghano ili likapangiska Pierre-Simon Laplace kuyowoya kuti cinthu cingaŵa cakuzitika comene mwakuti ungweru ungathaŵa yayi, ndiko kuti cingaŵa ico sono tikuchema bowo lakufipa. Laplace pamanyuma wakaleka ghanoghano ili, apo ghanoghano la majigha likakhozgeka. Newton ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kulongosora kujikhazgira kwa ungweru mwa ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko. Étienne-Louis Malus mu 1810 wakapanga ghanoghano la masamu la ici, ndipo Jean-Baptiste Biot mu 1812 wakalongora kuti likulongosora vyakucitika vyose. Pa nyengo iyo ici cikawonekanga nga ni ukaboni wa ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko. === Ghanoghano la Majigha === Kuti walongosore kwambilira kwa mitundu, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) wakapanga "ghanoghano la kumweka" ndipo wakayaniska kuthandazgika kwa ungweru na kwa majigha mu maji mu buku lake la 1665. Mu 1672 Hooke wakati kunjenjemera kwa ungweru kungaŵa kwakwimilira ku nthowa iyo ukwendera. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) wakapanga ghanoghano la masamu la majigha gha ungweru mu 1678 ndipo wakalipharazga mu 1690. Wakati ungweru ukufuma mu nthowa zose nga ni majigha mu cinthu cakuchemeka ''aether''.<ref>Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cPFevyomPUIC Lenses and Waves: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematical Science of Optics in the 17th Century], Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004, {{ISBN|1-4020-2697-8}}</ref> Pakuti majigha ghakukhwaskika na nkhongono ya kukoka yayi, kukaghanaghanirika kuti ghakucepa luŵiro para ghanjira mu cinthu cakukhwima. Leonhard Euler nayo wakakhozga ghanoghano ili, ndipo mu 1746 wakati kupindika kuzunguliya vinthu kungalongosoreka makola na majigha. [[File:Caspar Netscher - Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer, 1671.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Christiaan Huygens]] [[File:Young Diffraction.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Cithuzi ca Thomas Young ca majigha gha maji, cakulongora umo majigha ghakuthandazgikira kuzunguliya vinthun> Ghanoghano la majigha likalongolera kuti majigha gha ungweru ghangakolerana nga ni majigha gha congo (nga umo Thomas Young wakawonera pafupifupi 1800). Young wakalongora mwa viyezgo vinandi kuti ungweru ukwenda nga ni majigha. Wakapharazga "lamulo lake la pose" la kukolerana mu Matika 1802: kuti vyakucitika vyose ivi vingalongosoreka na kukolerana kwa majigha ghaŵiri, agho ghakovwirana panji kunangana, nga umo mazgu ghaŵiri gha sumu ghakucitira.<ref name=Whittaker>{{Cite book |last=Whittaker |first=Edmund T. |title=A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The modern theories, 1900 - 1926 |date=1989 |publisher=Dover Publ |isbn=978-0-486-26126-3 |edition=Repr |place=New York }}</ref>{{rp|101}} Wakati so mitundu yakupambana yikufuma ku utali wakupambana wa majigha gha ungweru, ndipo wakalongosora kuwona mitundu mwa vyakupulikira vya mitundu yitatu mu jiso.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mollon |first=J. D. |date=2002 |title=The Origins of the Concept of Interference |jstor=3066507 |journal=Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=360 |issue=1794 |pages=807–819 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2001.0968 |pmid=12804280 |bibcode=2002RSPTA.360..807M |issn=1364-503X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Thomas |title=A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy |publisher=W. Savage for The Royal Institution |year=1802 |location=London |publication-date=1802 |page=117}}</ref> Mu 1816, André-Marie Ampère wakapeleka ku Augustin-Jean Fresnel ghanoghano lakuti kujikhazgira kwa ungweru kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano la majigha usange ungweru ni jigha la kumphepete.<ref>James R. Hofmann, ''André-Marie Ampère: Enlightenment and Electrodynamics'', Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 222.</ref> Pamanyuma, Fresnel wakapanga ghanoghano lake la majigha na kulipeleka ku Académie des Sciences mu 1817. Siméon Denis Poisson wakasuska ciyelezgero ca Fresnel, ŵakuti cikulongolera kadontho kakuŵala mu mzgezge kumanyuma kwa cinthu cakuzunguliya, ico cikuwoneka nga ni cautesi. Dominique-François-Jean Arago wakacita kuyezga uko kukalongora kadontho kakuŵala aka: kususka kwa Poisson kukaŵa ukaboni uphya wa ghanoghano la majigha.<ref name=Whittaker/>{{rp|109}} Mu 1818, Young wakalembera Arago kuti ungweru ukwenera kuŵa majigha gha kumphepete, kwambura kuŵa gha kukanikizgana nga ni gha congo. Fresnel wakatora ghanoghano ili ndipo wakalongora mwa masamu kuti kujikhazgira kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano ili.<ref name=Whittaker/>{{rp|115}} Suzgo la ghanoghano la majigha likaŵa kuti majigha gha ungweru, nga ni gha congo, ghangakhumba cinthu ca kujumphamo. Kuŵapo kwa ''aether'' uyo Huygens wakasacizga kukakayikirika comene pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kuyezga kwa Michelson na Morley. Ghanoghano la Newton likalongoleranga kuti ungweru ukwenda luŵiro mu cinthu cakukhwima, apo ghanoghano la majigha likalongoleranga cakususkana. Pa nyengo iyo, luŵiro lwa ungweru lingapimika makola yayi kuti ŵamanye ghanoghano lakwenelera. Wakwamba kupima makola wakaŵa Léon Foucault, mu 1850.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Understanding Physics |author1=David Cassidy |author2=Gerald Holton |author3=James Rutherford |publisher=Birkhäuser |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-387-98756-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC&pg=PA382}}</ref> Vyakusangika vyake vikakhozga ghanoghano la majigha, ndipo ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko likalekeka (kweni likawelera pacoko mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 nga ni mafotoni mu kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene). === Ghanoghano la Umagineti-Magesi === [[File:Onde electromagnetique.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|Jigha la umagineti-magesi ilo likwenda pa mzere wa z, E ni nkhongono za magesi ndipo B, iyo yikwimilira na E, ni nkhongono za umagineti|400x400px]] Mu 1845, Michael Faraday wakasanga kuti kujikhazgira kwa ungweru kukuzunguliya apo ungweru ukwenda mu nthowa ya nkhongono ya umagineti mu cinthu cakuwonekera mukati.<ref name="LongairMalcolm">{{cite book |last=Longair |first=Malcolm |title=Theoretical Concepts in Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/theoreticalconce00mslo |url-access=limited |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/theoreticalconce00mslo/page/n106 87]}}</ref> Uwu ukaŵa ukaboni wakwamba wakuti ungweru ukukolerana na umagineti na magesi. Mu 1846 wakaghanaghana kuti ungweru ungaŵa kusokonezgeka kunyake uko kukwenda mu mizere ya nkhongono ya umagineti.<ref name="LongairMalcolm" /> Mu 1847 Faraday wakati ungweru ni kunjenjemera kwa umagineti-magesi kwa unandi ukulu, uko kungenda nanga ni kwambura cinthu nga ni ''aether''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding Physics|last=Cassidy|first=D|publisher=Springer Verlag New York|year=2002}}</ref> Ntchito ya Faraday yikapangiska James Clerk Maxwell kusanda nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi na ungweru. Maxwell wakasanga kuti majigha gha umagineti-magesi ghangenda mu mlengalenga pa luŵiro lwakukhazikika, ilo likaŵa lakuyana na luŵiro lwa ungweru ilo likapimika kale. Kufuma apa, Maxwell wakamalizga kuti ungweru ni mtundu wa nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi: wakayowoya ici kakwamba mu 1862. Mu 1873, wakapharazga buku la magesi na umagineti ilo likaŵa na malongosoro ghose gha masamu gha nkhalo ya nkhongono za magesi na umagineti, agho ghacali kumanyikwa nga ni malango gha Maxwell. Pamanyuma, Heinrich Hertz wakasimikizga ghanoghano la Maxwell mwa kupanga na kusanga majigha gha wayilesi mu malo gha kuyezgera, na kulongora kuti majigha agha ghakwenda nga ni ungweru wakuwoneka, ghakuwezgeka, kupindika, na kukolerana. Ghanoghano la Maxwell na viyezgo vya Hertz vikapangiska mwakulunjika wayilesi ya mazuŵa ghano, ''radar'', wayilesi ya kanema, na kuyowoyerana kwambura waya. Mu kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene, mafotoni ghakuwonekera nga ni vigaŵa vya majigha gha Maxwell. Kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakakhumbikwanga kulongosora vyakucitika ivyo ghanoghano la Maxwell likatondeka (nga ni mizere ya ungweru). === Kasandiro ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene === Mu 1900 Max Planck, apo wakayezganga kulongosora ungweru wa vinthu vyakufundiska, wakati nangauli ungweru ni jigha, majigha agha ghangasanga panji kutaya nkhongono mu vigaŵa vyapadera pera ivyo vikukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera kwake. Planck wakachema vigaŵa ivi kuti ''quanta'' (kufuma ku Cilatini "unandi wuli"). Mu 1905, Albert Einstein wakagwiliskira ntchito ghanoghano ili kulongosora umo ungweru ukufumiskira ma''electron'' mu visulo, ndipo wakati vigaŵa ivi vya ungweru viliko nadi. Mu 1923 Arthur Holly Compton wakalongora kuti kusintha kwa utali wa jigha la X-ray apo zikuthandazgika na ma''electron'' kungalongosoreka na ghanoghano la tuvinthu tucoko, kweni na ghanoghano la majigha yayi. Mu 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis wakathya tuvinthu utu zina lakuti mafotoni.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/IntroductionToMolecularSpectroscopy |title=Introduction to Molecular Spectroscopy |last=Barrow |first=Gordon M. |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1962 |lccn=62-12478}}{{dead link|date=March 2025}}</ref> Pakumalira, kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene kakamba kuwona ungweru (mu ng'anamulo linyake) nga ni kanthu kacoko na jigha, ndipo (mu ng'anamulo linyake) nga ni cakucitika ico ni kanthu kacoko panji jigha yayi. M'malo mwake, ungweru ungalongosoreka nyengo zinyake na masamu gha ciyelezgero cimoza (tuvinthu tucoko) na nyengo zinyake na ciyelezgero cinyake (majigha). Nga umo viliri pa majigha gha wayilesi na X-ray, ŵasandi ŵawona kuti nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi zikwenda comene nga ni jigha pa unandi ucoko wa kunjenjemera, kweni nga ni kanthu kacoko pa unandi ukulu, kweni zikutaya yayi vimanyikwiro vyose vya cimoza panji cinyake. Ungweru wakuwoneka, uwo uli pakati, ungalongoreka luŵiro mu viyezgo kuti ungalongosoreka na ciyelezgero ca majigha panji ca tuvinthu tucoko, panji vyose viŵiri. Mu 1924–1925, Satyendra Nath Bose wakalongora kuti ungweru ukulondezga viŵerengero vyakupambana na vya tuvinthu tucoko twa kale. Pamoza na Einstein, ŵakasazgira ici ku gulu lose la tuvinthu utu tukuchemeka ma''boson'' (kuyana na Bose). Fotoni ni ''boson'' yambura kuzitika. Mu 1927, Paul Dirac wakagaŵa nkhongono ya umagineti-magesi mu vigaŵa vya ''quanta''. Pamanyuma, ghanoghano lose la kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ka magesi na ungweru likapangika pakumalira kwa ma 1940 kuthemba ntchito za Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, na Shinichiro Tomonaga. === Kasandiro ka Ungweru ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene === John R. Klauder, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, na Leonard Mandel ŵakagwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene pa nkhongono ya umagineti-magesi mu ma 1950 na 1960 kuti ŵamanye makola kusanga ungweru na viŵerengero vya ungweru. Ici cikapangiska kumanya kupambana pakati pa ungweru wa ''laser'', ungweru wa kufunda, na mitundu yinyake, apo kukamanyikwa kuti ungweru ungalongosoreka makola na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za kale pera yayi. Mu 1977, H. Jeff Kimble na ŵanyake ŵakalongora cimenyu cimoza cikufumiska fotoni yimoza pa nyengo yimoza, ukaboni unyake wakuti ungweru ukupangika na mafotoni. Mitundu yiphya ya ungweru iyo yikupambana na ya kale yikasangika pamanyuma. Kupanga ''laser'' za kanyengo kafupi comene kukajula nthowa ya kusanda vyakucitika vya luŵiro comene. Kagwiliskiro kake pa kusanda vinthu vyakukhwima kakasangika, ndipo nkhongono za ungweru pa vyamvimba zikasandika. Ici cikapangiska kuyandamiska na kuŵika maŵingu gha vimenyu panji nanga ni tuvyamoyo tucoko mu cakukora ca ungweru na ''laser''. Ici, pamoza na nthowa za kuzizimiska vimenyu, cikaŵa luso lakukhumbikwa kuti ŵafiske kusazganika kwa Bose–Einstein. Vyakusangika vinyake vyakuzizwiska ni kulongora kukolerana kwa tuvinthu tucoko comene, kutuma uthenga wa tuvinthu tucoko comene, na ndondomeko za kughanaghana za tuvinthu tucoko comene. Vyaumaliro ivi ni vyakuzirwa comene mu kasandiro ka uthenga wa tuvinthu tucoko comene. == Kagwiliskiro ka Ungweru pa Caro Capasi == Ungweru wa zuŵa ukupeleka nkhongono izo vyakumera viŵisi vikugwiliskira ntchito kupanga shuga, comene nga ni sitachi, uwo ukupeleka nkhongono ku vyamoyo ivyo vikuurya. Ndondomeko iyi ya [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]] yikupeleka pafupifupi nkhongono zose izo vyamoyo vikugwiliskira ntchito. Vinyama vinyake vikupanga ungweru wawo, ndondomeko iyo yikuchemeka ungweru wa vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵakamulimuli ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ungweru kusanga ŵabwezi ŵa kutorana, ndipo ''squid'' ya ''vampire'' yikugwiliskira ntchito ungweru kujibisa ku vyakuyisaka. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} j8mrv55nbkcv03j30pb6sozsra6dsga 0 6204 124341 123993 2026-11-10T14:17:59Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124341 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Congo''' (panji '''Chongo''') ni cakucitika ico kusintha kwa kukanikizga kukwenda mu cinthu ico cingajikoka na kuwelera. Mu [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], congo ni jigha la kukanikizga (panji vinthu vinyake vyakukolerana, nga ni kusunthira) ilo likwenda mu cinthu, apo pa umoyo wa thupi na mahara, congo cikung'anamula kupulika. Nangauli vyamoyo vikupulika vyongo mwakupambana, khutu la munthu likupulika vyongo vya unandi wa kunjenjemera wa 20 mpaka 20,000 pa liŵiri. Mu ng'anamulo yikulu, majigha gha congo ni majigha ghose gha kunjenjemera agho ghakwenda mu nthowa ya kwenda kwawo. Viyelezgero vya kuzirwa na kagwiliskiro ka congo ni sumu, nthowa za kuwona mukati mwa thupi pa [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]], [[Chiyowoyelo|ciyowoyero]] ca pa mlomo, na vigaŵa vya [[Kasandiro|kasandiro]]. == Ng'anamulo == Kuyana na vyakwenelera vya luso ivyo vyaŵikika na ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013, Vyakwenelera vya Amerika vya Mazgo gha Kasandiro ka Vyongo, congo cikulongosoreka kuŵa: : "(a) Kusintha-sintha kwa kukanikizga, kukhwesa, kusunthira kwa tunthu, luŵiro la tunthu, na vinyake, uko kukwenda mu cinthu cakuŵa na nkhongono za mukati, panji kusazganika kwa kusintha-sintha kwa mtundu uwu. : (b) Kupulika uko kukwiziskika na kusintha-sintha uko kwalongosoreka mu (a)." Ng'anamulo iyi ya vigaŵa viŵiri yikuyowoya kuti congo cingawonekera nga ni kwenda kwa jigha mu cinthu cakujikoka na kuwelera, ndipo ici cikucipangiska kuŵa cakusisimuska, panji nga ni kusisimuka kwa ciŵaro ca kupulikira, ndipo ici cikucipangiska kuŵa kupulika. Nangauli ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013 yikupeleka ng'anamulo yakwenelera ya congo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo mu United States, ndipo ni umoza mwa mawupu ghacoko ghakulu agho ghalongosora makola ghanoghano ili, malemba gha kusanda mendero na kazengero ka vilwero kanandi ghakulongosora congo nga ni kusokonezgeka kwa kunjenjemera uko kukwenda, ndiko kuti jigha, m'malo mwa kunjenjemera. Malemba agha kanandi ghakulongosora congo nga ni kusokonezgeka kwa vimanyikwiro vya kunjenjemera (nga ni kukanikizga panji kwenda kwa tunthu) uko kukwenda mu cinthu, na kusintha kwa cinthu ico (kukanikizgika na kutambasulika), kuti ghanoghano lipulikikiske makola na kuti kasandiro kaŵe kakupimika makola. == Kasandiro ka Vyongo == Kasandiro ka vyongo ni kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi ka majigha gha kunjenjemera, kunjenjemera, congo, congo ca pacanya, na congo ca pasi mu mpweya, mu vyamaji, panji mu vyakukhwima. Musandi uyo wakugwira ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo wakuchemeka musandi wa vyongo, apo munthu uyo wali waluso pa kazengero ka vilwero vya vyongo wakuchemeka muzengi wa vyongo. Muzengi wa congo, kweni, wakukhwaskana na kujambula, kusintha, kusazganya, na kupanga so congo. Kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka vyongo kakusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya wupu wa ŵanthu wa mazuŵa ghano. Vigaŵa vyake vicoko ni vyongo vya mphepo, kupenda vimanyikwiro vya congo, vyongo vya nyumba, vyongo vya vyamoyo, vyongo vya magesi, congo ca malo ghakuzingilizga, vyongo vya sumu, kulaŵilira congo, kasandiro ka mahara pa vyongo, kuyowoya, congo ca pacanya, vyongo vya pasi pa maji, na kunjenjemera. == Kusanda Mendero kwa Congo == Congo cikwenda nga ni jigha la kunjenjemera mu cinthu (mwaciyelezgero, maji, makristalo, mphepo). Majigha gha congo ghakupangika na kasupe wa congo, nga ni cigaŵa ca sipika ico cikunjenjemera. Apo kasupe wa congo wakunjenjemeska cinthu ico camuzunguliya, kusokonezgeka kukwenda kufuma pa kasupe pa luŵiro la congo, ndipo ici cikupanga jigha la congo. Pa mtunda wakuyana kufuma pa kasupe, kukanikizga, luŵiro, na kusunthira kwa tunthu twa cinthu vikusintha mu nyengo. Pa nyengo yimoza, kukanikizga, luŵiro, na kusunthira vikusintha mu malo. Tunthu twa cinthu tukwenda yayi na jigha la congo; m'malo mwake, kusokonezgeka na nkhongono zake za ntchito ndivyo vikwenda mu cinthu. Nangauli ici cikuwonekera pa vyakukhwima, cikucitika so mu vyamaji na mipweya. Cinthu ico cikunyamula congo cikuchemeka cinthu ca kutumizgira. Cingaŵa mtundu uliwose wa vyamvimba, kwali vyakukhwima, vyamaji, mipweya, panji plasima. Kweni congo cingenda yayi mu malo ghambura kanthu, cifukwa palije cinthu cakunyamula kusokonezgeka kwa kunjenjemera. Kwenda kwa congo mu cinthu kukukhwaskika comene na: * Ubale wakusuzga pakati pa kukhwima na kukanikizga kwa cinthu. Ubale uwu, uwo ukukhwaskika so na kufunda, ukusimikizga luŵiro la congo mu cinthu. * Kwenda kwa cinthu ceneco. Usange cinthu cikwenda, kwenda uku kungasazgirapo panji kucepeska luŵiro la jigha la congo kuyana na nthowa iyo cikwendera. Mwaciyelezgero, congo ico cikwenda mu mphepo cizamusazgirapo luŵiro lake na luŵiro la mphepo usange congo na mphepo vikwenda mu nthowa yimoza. Usange vikwenda mu nthowa zakupambana, luŵiro la jigha la congo lizamucepa na luŵiro la mphepo. * Kukhora kwa cinthu kukwenda. Ici cikusimikizga luŵiro ilo congo cikucepera. Pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni mphepo panji maji, kucepa uku nkhucoko comene. Ntchito ya fundo zakusacizga yikulongora kuti majigha gha congo ghakunyamula kuzitika kucoko comene kwa nkhongono yakuguza. Kuzitika uku kukufuma ku vyakusazgikira vya nkhongono za ntchito za jigha, ndipo kukung'anamula kuti majigha gha congo ghakukhwaskika na nkhongono yakuguza na kupanga cigaŵa ca nkhongono yakuguza cicoko comene. Pa vinthu vya nyengo zose, kuzitika uku nkhwakucepeska, ndiko kuti majigha gha congo ghakucita nga kuti ghakunyamula kuzitika kucoko kwakucepeska. Ici nchicoko comene. === Majigha === Majigha gha congo ghakulongora vimanyikwiro nga ni kuwelera, kutumizgika, kupindika, kuthandazgika, kumilika, na kucepa. Para congo cikwenda mu cinthu cambura kuyana, cingapindika (kuthandazgika panji kuwunjikana). Congo cikutumizgika mu vyamaji na mipweya nga ni majigha gha kukanikizga, agho ghakwenda mu nthowa ya kwenda kwawo. Mu vyakukhwima, kweni, congo cingatumizgika nga ni majigha gha kukanikizga na nga ni majigha gha kumphepete. Majigha gha kukanikizga ni majigha gha kusintha-sintha kwa kukanikizga, agho ghakupanga malo gha kukanikizgika na gha kutambasulika, apo majigha gha kumphepete (mu vyakukhwima) ni majigha gha kukhwesa kwa kumphepete ku nthowa ya kwenda. Kupambana na majigha gha kukanikizga, majigha gha kumphepete ghali na cimanyikwiro ca kujikhazgira mu nthowa yimoza. Majigha gha congo ghangawonekera kwizira mu magalasi gha kujiwonera ghakupindika na vinthu ivyo vikupanga congo. Nkhongono za ntchito izo jigha la congo likunyamula zikusintha-sintha pakati pa nkhongono zakusungika za kukanikizgika kwa vyamvimba na nkhongono za kwenda kwa tunthu mu cinthu. Nangauli kutumizgika kwa congo kukusazgapo ndondomeko zinandi za kawiro, cimanyikwiro ico cikupokereka pa malo ghamoza (nga ni pa maikolofoni panji khutu) cingalongosoreka cose nga ni kukanikizga uko kukusintha mu nyengo. Mawonekero agha gha kukanikizga na nyengo ghakulongosora cose congo ciliconse ico capokereka pa malo agho. Majigha gha congo kanandi ghakupepuskika nga ni majigha ghakusalala, agho ghali na vimanyikwiro ivi: * Unandi wa kunjenjemera, panji nyengo ya kunjenjemera kamoza. * Utali wa jigha. * Ukulu wa jigha, kukanikizga kwa congo, panji nkhongono. * Luŵiro la congo. * Nthowa. Nyengo zinyake luŵiro na nthowa vikusazganika pamoza. Kuti congo cipendeke, jigha lakusuzga lingalongoreka nga ni kusazganika kwa majigha ghakusalala gha unandi wa kunjenjemera, ukulu, na malo ghakupambana. === Luŵiro === Luŵiro la congo likuthemba cinthu ico majigha ghakwenda mwake, ndipo ni cimanyikwiro cakwamba ca cinthu ico. Kuyezga kwakwamba kukulu kwa kupima luŵiro la congo kukacitika na Isaac Newton. Wakagomezganga kuti luŵiro la congo mu cinthu cinyake likuyana na muzu wa kukanikizga uko kukucikhwaska kugaŵika na kukhwima kwake. Ici pamanyuma cikasangika kuŵa caunenesko yayi, ndipo musandi wa masamu wa Cifurenci, Laplace, wakanozga malinganizgo mwa kusanga kuti kwenda kwa congo nkhwa kufunda kwakuyana yayi, nga umo Newton wakagomezgera, kweni nkhwambura kusinthana kufunda. Wakasazgamo cinthu cinyake ku malinganizgo, ndipo ghakuchemeka malinganizgo gha Newton–Laplace. Ntheura luŵiro la congo likukolerana na muzu wa kukhora kwa cinthu kugaŵika na kukhwima kwake. Vimanyikwiro ivi na luŵiro la congo vikusintha kuyana na vyakucitika vya malo. Mwaciyelezgero, luŵiro la congo mu mipweya likuthemba kufunda. Mu mphepo ya 20 °C pa mphepete ya nyanja, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 343 pa liŵiri. Luŵiro la congo likukhwaskika so pacoko na ukulu wa congo. Mu maji ghawemi, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 1,482 pa liŵiri. Mu sitilo, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 5,960 pa liŵiri. Congo cikwenda luŵiro comene mu haidirojeni yakukhwima, pafupifupi mamita 36,000 pa liŵiri. === Kukanikizga kwa Congo === Kukanikizga kwa congo ni kupambana, mu cinthu cinyake, pakati pa kukanikizga kwapakati kwa malo na kukanikizga mu jigha la congo. Cifukwa cakuti khutu la munthu lingapulika vyongo vya ukulu wakupambana comene, kukanikizga kwa congo kanandi kukupimika pa mbondolo ya madesibelo. Vipimo vya kukanikizga kwa congo ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi ni 20 μPa mu mphepo na 1 μPa mu maji. Cifukwa cakuti khutu la munthu likupulika unandi wose wa kunjenjemera mwakuyana yayi, kukanikizga kwa congo kanandi kukupimika mwakuyana na umo khutu likupulikira. Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Luso la Magesi (IEC) walongosora nthowa zinandi za kupimira izi. == Kupulika == Mu kasandiro ka umoyo wa thupi na ka mahara, lizgu lakuti congo likung'anamula ivyo munthu wakupulika apo ciŵaro ca kupulikira casisimuskika, kupambana na ng'anamulo ya kusanda mendero iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo. Kasandiro ka mahara pa vyongo na kasandiro kakulu ka mahara pa vyakupulika vikusanda umo vyamoyo vikusangira na kung'anamulira vyakusisimuska ivi. Dikishonale ya Webster yikulongora kagwiliskiro aka ka ng'anamulo ziŵiri mwa kulongosora congo nga ni "kupulika" kweniso nga ni "nkhongono za kunjenjemera izo zikwiziska kupulika uku." Kupambana uku kukulongosora cifukwa ico fumbo lakuti "para khuni lawa mu nkholongo ndipo palije munthu kufupi kuti wapulike, kasi likupanga congo?" lingaŵa na mazgoro ghakupambana kuyana na ng'anamulo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito. Kupulika congo kwa vyamoyo ivyo vili na viŵaro vya kupulikira kuli na malire gha unandi wa kunjenjemera. Mu ŵanthu, kupulika kukufuma pa 20 mpaka 20,000 pa liŵiri, ndipo malire gha pacanya ghakucepa na vyaka. Pasi pa 20 pa liŵiri, vyongo vingapulikika nga ni kuphulika kumoza kumoza panji kusintha kwa pacoko pacoko. Lizgu lakuti congo nyengo zinyake likung'anamula kunjenjemera kwa mu malire gha kupulika kwa ŵanthu pera, nangauli vyamoyo vinyake vili na malire ghakupambana comene. Mwaciyelezgero, [[Ncheŵe|ncheŵe]] zingapulika unandi wa kunjenjemera wakujumpha 20,000 pa liŵiri. Nga ni cimanyikwiro ico cikupulikika na cimoza mwa viŵaro vikulu vya kupulikira, congo cikugwiliskirika ntchito na vyamoyo vinandi pa kusanga ngozi, kwenda, kusaka, na kuyowoyerana. Mphepo ya caro capasi, maji, na pafupifupi cakucitika ciliconse ca kawiro, nga ni moto, [[Vula|vula]], mphepo, majigha gha nyanja, panji kusunkhana kwa pasi, vikupanga vyongo vyapadera. Vyamoyo vinandi, nga ni ŵacule, [[Viyuni|viyuni]], na vinyama vyakonkheska vya mu nyanja na pa mtunda, vyapanga viŵaro vyapadera vya kupangira congo. Mu vyamoyo vinyake, viŵaro ivi vikupanga sumu na kuyowoya. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵapanga mdawuko na luso la vilwero (nga ni sumu, lamya, na wayilesi) ivyo vikuŵazomerezga kupanga, kujambula, kutumizga, na kuthandazga congo. Mu Cingelezi, congo cambura kukhumbikwa kanandi cikuchemeka ''noise''. Mu kasandiro na kazengero ka vilwero, congo cambura kukhumbikwa ni cigaŵa cambura kukhumbikwa ico cikubisa cimanyikwiro cakukhumbikwa. Kweni mu kupulika congo, kanandi cingagwiliskirika ntchito kumanya uko congo cikufumira, ndipo ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kupulika mtundu wa congo. Malo gha vyongo ni cigaŵa ca malo gha vyongo ico ŵanthu ŵangapulika. Malo gha vyongo ni vyongo vyose (kwali vikupulikika na ŵanthu panji yayi) mu malo ghanyake nga umo vyasinthikira na malo na kupulikiskika na ŵanthu. Mu mbiri, pali nthowa zinkhondi na yimoza zakuyezgeka izo majigha gha congo ghakupendekera: kuzika kwa congo, utali wake, kukwezga kwake, mtundu wake, kusazganika kwake, na malo ghake. Mazgo ghanyake agha ghali na ng'anamulo yakwenelera. === Kuzika kwa Congo === Kuzika kwa congo kukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "capasi" panji "capacanya", ndipo kukulongora kawiro ka kuwerezgawerezga ka kunjenjemera uko kukupanga congo. Pa vyongo vyakupepuka, kuzika kukukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera wa kunjenjemera kwakuzerezga comene mu congo. Pa vyongo vyakusuzga, kupulika kuzika kungapambana. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakupulika kuzika kwakupambana pa congo cimoza, kuyana na umo ŵakazgowera kupulika vyongo vinyake. Congo ciliconse cikuŵikika pa mzere wa kuzika kufuma pasi mpaka pacanya. === Utali wa Congo === Utali wa congo ukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "citali" panji "cifupi", ndipo ukukolerana na vimanyikwiro vya kwamba na kumalira ivyo mizirwe yikupanga pa vyongo. Utali wa congo kanandi ukufuma pa nyengo iyo congo capulikika dankha mpaka apo capulikika kuti casintha panji caleka. Nyengo zinyake ici cikukolerana mwakulunjika na utali wa congo ceneco yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, mu malo gha congo cambura kukhumbikwa, vyongo ivyo vikuleka na kwamba so vingapulikika nga kuti vikulutilira, cifukwa vimanyikwiro vya kuleka vikupulikika yayi cifukwa ca congo cambura kukhumbikwa. Ici cingovwira comene pa kupulikiska mauthenga ghakunangika, nga ni vimanyikwiro vya wayilesi, cifukwa uthenga ukupulikika nga kuti ukulutilira. === Kukwezga kwa Congo === Kukwezga kwa congo kukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "cakukwezga" panji "cakukhweŵa", ndipo kukulongora kagwiliro ka ntchito kose ka mizirwe ya kupulikira uko congo cikwiziska. Kanandi, vyongo vyakukwezga vikusunthira comene cigaŵa ca mukati mwa khutu, ndipo ici cikusisimuska mizirwe yinandi na kupanga kupulika kwakukwezga. Kukwezga uko kukupulikika kukuthemba so umo nkhongono za congo zagaŵikira mu nyengo. Para congo nchifupi comene, ciŵaro ca kupulikira cikuwunjika yayi nkhongono zake zose, ntheura cikupulikika kuŵa cakukhweŵa kuluska congo citali ca nkhongono yakuyana. Ndondomeko iyi yikugwira ntchito mu nyengo ya pafupifupi magaŵa 200 pa 1,000 gha liŵiri. Kujumpha nyengo iyi, kutalikiska congo kukusazgirapo so kukwezga kwake yayi. Kusuzga kwa congo kungakhwaska so kupulika kukwezga. Vyongo vyakusuzga, ivyo vikusisimuska mizirwe yinandi, kanandi vikupulikika kuŵa vyakukwezga kuluska vyongo vyakupepuka, nanga para ukulu wawo ngwakuyana. === Mtundu wa Congo === Mtundu wa congo ukupulikika nga ni kawiro ka vyongo vyakupambana (mwaciyelezgero, kuwa kwa libwe, kulira kwa cilwero ca kuboolera, congo ca cilwero ca sumu, panji mtundu wa mazgo gha munthu), ndipo ukulongora kumanya kwa congo ico cikucitika pambere munthu wandaghanaghane (mwaciyelezgero, "ici ni cilizgo!"). Kumanya uku kukuzengeka pa mauthenga gha kusintha kwa unandi wa kunjenjemera, congo cambura kukhumbikwa, kusintha-sintha, kuzika uko kukupulikika, na kuthandazgika na nkhongono za vyongo vyakusazgikira mu nyengo yitali. Umo congo cikusinthira mu nyengo ndimo kukupeleka mauthenga ghanandi gha kumanya mtundu wa congo. Nangauli cigaŵa cicoko ca jigha la cilwero ciliconse ca sumu cikuwoneka kuyana, kupambana kwa umo vikusinthira mu nyengo pakati pa kalineti na piyano kukuwoneka mu kukwezga na mu vyongo vyakusazgikira. Vyakuwoneka comene yayi ni vyongo vyakupambana, nga ni kufuta kwa mphepo pa kalineti na kutimba kwa nyundo pa piyano. === Kusazganika kwa Vyongo === Kusazganika kwa vyongo kukukolerana na unandi wa makasupe gha congo na kukolerana kwawo. Mu sumu, ici kanandi cikung'anamula kupambana pakati pa kuyimba congo cimoza na kuyimba vyongo vinandi pamoza, kweni cingakolerana so (mwaciyelezgero) na nyumba ya vyakulya yakuzura ŵanthu, congo ico cingachemeka cisokonezgo. === Malo gha Congo === Malo gha congo ni umo mahara ghakuŵikira congo mu malo, kusazgapo malo gha congo mu nthowa ya pa mzere na ya pacanya, mtunda kufuma ku kasupe wa congo, na vimanyikwiro vya malo gha vyongo. Mu malo umo muli vyongo vinandi, kungacitika kumanya makasupe ghanandi gha congo mwa kugwiliskira ntchito malo gha congo na mtundu wa congo pamoza. == Unandi wa Kunjenjemera == === Congo ca Pacanya === Congo ca pacanya ni majigha gha congo agho ghali na unandi wa kunjenjemera wakujumpha 20,000 pa liŵiri. Congo ca pacanya nchakupambana yayi na congo ico cikupulikika mu vimanyikwiro vyake, kweni ŵanthu ŵangacipulika yayi. Vilwero vya congo ca pacanya vikugwira ntchito pa unandi wa kunjenjemera kufuma 20,000 pa liŵiri mpaka mabiliyoni ghanandi pa liŵiri. Congo ca pacanya ca ucizgi cikugwiliskirika ntchito comene pa kusanga nthenda na kucizga. === Congo ca Pasi === Congo ca pasi ni majigha gha congo agho ghali na unandi wa kunjenjemera wambura kufika 20 pa liŵiri. Nangauli vyongo ivi nvyapasi comene kuti ŵanthu ŵavipulike nga ni kuzika, vikupulikika nga ni kuphulika kumoza kumoza (nga ni congo ca njinga ya moto iyo yikugwira ntchito kweni yikwenda yayi). Vinyama nga ni nyamumba, zgovu, na vinyake vingapulika congo ca pasi ndipo vikucigwiliskira ntchito pa kuyowoyerana. Cingagwiliskirika ntchito kusanga kuphulika kwa mapiri gha moto, ndipo cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu mitundu yinyake ya sumu. ic66u5h4ua0b9qnmczn67hrq2pme9el 124395 124341 2026-11-10T20:26:58Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124395 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Thoth08BigasDrumEvansChalmette.jpg|thumb|Ng'oma yikupanga congo mwa kunjenjemera kwa cikumba cake{{efn|Mu kasandiro ka vyongo, cikumba ca ng'oma ico cikunjenjemera cikugwira ntchito nga ni ''acoustic membrane'' (cikumba ico kunjenjemera kwake kukupanga panji kukupeleka congo).}}]] {{Listen | filename = Drum - Cadence A.ogg | title = Ng'oma | description = Kutimba ng'oma kwa United States Navy Band }} '''Congo''' (panji '''Chongo''') ni cakucitika ico kusintha kwa kukanikizga kukwenda mu cinthu ico cingajikoka na kuwelera. Mu [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], congo ni jigha la kukanikizga (panji vinthu vinyake vyakukolerana, nga ni kusunthira) ilo likwenda mu cinthu, apo pa umoyo wa thupi na mahara, congo cikung'anamula kupulika.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Western Electrical Company |title=Fundamentals of Telephone Communication Systems |date=1969 |page=2.1}}</ref> Nangauli vyamoyo vikupulika vyongo mwakupambana, khutu la munthu likupulika vyongo vya unandi wa kunjenjemera wa 20 mpaka 20,000 pa liŵiri. Mu ng'anamulo yikulu, majigha gha congo ni majigha ghose gha kunjenjemera agho ghakwenda mu nthowa ya kwenda kwawo. Viyelezgero vya kuzirwa na kagwiliskiro ka congo ni sumu, nthowa za kuwona mukati mwa thupi pa [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]], [[Chiyowoyelo|ciyowoyero]] ca pa mlomo, na vigaŵa vya [[Kasandiro|kasandiro]]. == Ng'anamulo == Kuyana na vyakwenelera vya luso ivyo vyaŵikika na ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013, Vyakwenelera vya Amerika vya Mazgo gha Kasandiro ka Vyongo, congo cikulongosoreka kuŵa: : "(a) Kusintha-sintha kwa kukanikizga, kukhwesa, kusunthira kwa tunthu, luŵiro la tunthu, na vinyake, uko kukwenda mu cinthu cakuŵa na nkhongono za mukati, panji kusazganika kwa kusintha-sintha kwa mtundu uwu. : (b) Kupulika uko kukwiziskika na kusintha-sintha uko kwalongosoreka mu (a)." Ng'anamulo iyi ya vigaŵa viŵiri yikuyowoya kuti congo cingawonekera nga ni kwenda kwa jigha mu cinthu cakujikoka na kuwelera, ndipo ici cikucipangiska kuŵa cakusisimuska, panji nga ni kusisimuka kwa ciŵaro ca kupulikira, ndipo ici cikucipangiska kuŵa kupulika. Nangauli ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013 yikupeleka ng'anamulo yakwenelera ya congo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo mu United States, ndipo ni umoza mwa mawupu ghacoko ghakulu agho ghalongosora makola ghanoghano ili, malemba gha kusanda mendero na kazengero ka vilwero kanandi ghakulongosora congo nga ni kusokonezgeka kwa kunjenjemera uko kukwenda, ndiko kuti jigha, m'malo mwa kunjenjemera.<ref name="ANSI">{{cite book |title=Acoustical Terminology |publisher=Acoustical Society of America |id=ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013 |year=2013 |ref=ANSI/ASA S1.1‑2013}}</ref>{{efn|name=StandardsNoDef|Mawupu ghanyake ghakulu gha kunozga malango gha kupima, nga ni ISO, IEC, DIN, na ndondomeko ya SI, kanandi ghakulongosora vinthu vya congo ivyo vikupimika (nga ni kukanikizga kwa congo, nkhongono za congo, na kukwezga kwa congo) panji mazgo gha kunjenjemera, kweni ghakupeleka ng'anamulo yikulu ya congo nga ni kusokonezgeka kwa nkhongono uko kukwenda yayi. ISO 80000‑8 yikulongosora vinthu na vipimo, ISO 18405 yikulongosora mazgo gha congo mu maji, IEC 60050‑801 yikulongosora congo nga ni kwenda kwa tunthu mu cinthu cakujikoka, DIN 1320 yikulongosora mazgo gha kasandiro ka vyongo, ndipo kabuku ka SI kakulongosora "congo cakupulikika" pera nga ni unandi wa kunjenjemera.<ref>{{cite tech report |title=ISO 80000‑8:2020 Quantities and units – Acoustics |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |year=2020 |ref=ISO 80000‑8}}</ref><ref>{{cite tech report |title=ISO 18405:2017 Underwater acoustics – Terminology |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |year=2017 |ref=ISO 18405}}</ref><ref>{{cite tech report |title=IEC 60050‑801:1994 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary – Acoustics and electroacoustics |publisher=International Electrotechnical Commission |year=1994 |ref=IEC 60050‑801}}</ref><ref>{{cite tech report |title=DIN 1320: Acoustics – Terminology |publisher=Deutsches Institut für Normung |year=2009 |ref=DIN 1320}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The International System of Units (SI) |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure |publisher=BIPM |access-date=2024-01-01 |ref=SI Brochure}}</ref>}} Malemba agha kanandi ghakulongosora congo nga ni kusokonezgeka kwa vimanyikwiro vya kunjenjemera (nga ni kukanikizga panji kwenda kwa tunthu) uko kukwenda mu cinthu, na kusintha kwa cinthu ico (kukanikizgika na kutambasulika), kuti ghanoghano lipulikikiske makola na kuti kasandiro kaŵe kakupimika makola.<ref name="OpenStaxSound">{{cite web |title=17.1 Sound |url=https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/17-1-sound |publisher=OpenStax |access-date=2024-01-01 |quote=Sound is a wave that is created by vibrating objects and propagated through a medium. Sound waves consist of alternating compressions and rarefactions. |ref=OpenStax – Sound}}</ref><ref name="BritannicaSound">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sound |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sound-physics |access-date=2024-01-01 |quote=Sound, a mechanical disturbance from a state of equilibrium that propagates through an elastic material medium. |ref=Britannica – Sound}}</ref>{{efn|name=OscVsVibMerged|Mu mabuku gha kusanda mendero na vyongo, ŵakupambaniska kunjenjemera kwa pa malo ghamoza (kusokonezgeka pa malo ghamoza uko kukusintha na nyengo) na jigha (kusokonezgeka uko kukwenda mu malo mu nyengo). Kusokonezgeka kukwenda mu cinthu, apo tunthu twa cinthu ico tukunjenjemera kuzingilizga malo ghawo gha kupumulira. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakuti kulongosora congo nga ni "kunjenjemera" kungapangiska ŵanthu kuluwa kuti congo cikwenda, ndipo kungapangiska ŵanthu kusazga kunjenjemera na majigha.<ref name="OpenStaxSound" />}} == Kasandiro ka Vyongo == [[File:MIT_4.401_Introduction_to_Building_Technology,_Spring_2006_-_Sound_source,_Wavelength,_and_Amplitude_-_3043793636.jpg|right|thumb|Cithuzi ca kasupe wa congo, utali wa jigha, na kukwera kwa jigha.]] Kasandiro ka vyongo ni kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi ka majigha gha kunjenjemera, kunjenjemera, congo, congo ca pacanya, na congo ca pasi mu mpweya, mu vyamaji, panji mu vyakukhwima. Musandi uyo wakugwira ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo wakuchemeka musandi wa vyongo, apo munthu uyo wali waluso pa kazengero ka vilwero vya vyongo wakuchemeka muzengi wa vyongo.<ref>ANSI S1.1‑1994. American National Standard: Acoustic Terminology. Sec. 3.03.</ref> Muzengi wa congo, kweni, wakukhwaskana na kujambula, kusintha, kusazganya, na kupanga so congo. Kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka vyongo kakusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya wupu wa ŵanthu wa mazuŵa ghano. Vigaŵa vyake vicoko ni vyongo vya mphepo, kupenda vimanyikwiro vya congo, vyongo vya nyumba, vyongo vya vyamoyo, vyongo vya magesi, congo ca malo ghakuzingilizga, vyongo vya sumu, kulaŵilira congo, kasandiro ka mahara pa vyongo, kuyowoya, congo ca pacanya, vyongo vya pasi pa maji, na kunjenjemera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Acoustical Society of America |title=PACS 2010 Regular Edition—Acoustics Appendix |url=http://www.aip.org/pacs/pacs2010/individuals/pacs2010_regular_edition/reg_acoustics_appendix.htm |access-date=22 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514111126/http://www.aip.org/pacs/pacs2010/individuals/pacs2010_regular_edition/reg_acoustics_appendix.htm |archive-date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> == Kusanda Mendero kwa Congo == [[File:23. Звучни вилушки.ogv|thumb|upright=1.2|Vyakuyezgera congo viŵiri (''tuning fork'') vya unandi wa kunjenjemera wakuyana vikulongora umo cimoza cikunjenjemeska cinyake. Para wapuma cimoza, cinyake cikwamba kunjenjemera cifukwa ca kusintha kwa kukanikizga kwa mpweya.]] Congo cikwenda nga ni jigha la kunjenjemera mu cinthu (mwaciyelezgero, maji, makristalo, mphepo). Majigha gha congo ghakupangika na kasupe wa congo, nga ni cigaŵa ca sipika ico cikunjenjemera. Apo kasupe wa congo wakunjenjemeska cinthu ico camuzunguliya, kusokonezgeka kukwenda kufuma pa kasupe pa luŵiro la congo, ndipo ici cikupanga jigha la congo. Pa mtunda wakuyana kufuma pa kasupe, kukanikizga, luŵiro, na kusunthira kwa tunthu twa cinthu vikusintha mu nyengo. Pa nyengo yimoza, kukanikizga, luŵiro, na kusunthira vikusintha mu malo. Tunthu twa cinthu tukwenda yayi na jigha la congo; m'malo mwake, kusokonezgeka na nkhongono zake za ntchito ndivyo vikwenda mu cinthu.{{efn|name=NoNetTransport|Kuyowoya makora, tunthu twa cinthu tukusokonezgeka pa malo ghawo apo jigha likujumpha, kweni tukuya kunyake yayi; kusokonezgeka na nkhongono zake pera ndivyo vikwenda.}} Nangauli ici cikuwonekera pa vyakukhwima, cikucitika so mu vyamaji na mipweya.{{efn|name=EnergyNotMatter|Mu vinthu vyakukhwima, tunthu tukukolerana comene, ntheura nkhongono pera ndizo zikwenda na jigha, cinthu ceneco yayi. Mu vyamaji na mpweya, tunthu tukukoleka comene yayi, kweni fundo njakuyana: cinthu cikusokonezgeka pa malo ghake kwambura kuya kunyake.}} Cinthu ico cikunyamula congo cikuchemeka cinthu ca kutumizgira. Cingaŵa mtundu uliwose wa vyamvimba, kwali vyakukhwima, vyamaji, mipweya, panji plasima. Kweni congo cingenda yayi mu malo ghambura kanthu, cifukwa palije cinthu cakunyamula kusokonezgeka kwa kunjenjemera.<ref>[http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/1-is-there-sound-in-space.html Is there sound in space?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016010300/http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/1-is-there-sound-in-space.html |date=2017-10-16 }} Northwestern University.</ref><ref>[https://curious.astro.cornell.edu/about-us/150-people-in-astronomy/space-exploration-and-astronauts/general-questions/918-can-you-hear-sounds-in-space-beginner Can you hear sounds in space? (Beginner)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618062312/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/about-us/150-people-in-astronomy/space-exploration-and-astronauts/general-questions/918-can-you-hear-sounds-in-space-beginner |date=2017-06-18 }}. Cornell University.</ref> Kwenda kwa congo mu cinthu kukukhwaskika comene na: * Ubale wakusuzga pakati pa kukhwima na kukanikizga kwa cinthu. Ubale uwu, uwo ukukhwaskika so na kufunda, ukusimikizga luŵiro la congo mu cinthu. * Kwenda kwa cinthu ceneco. Usange cinthu cikwenda, kwenda uku kungasazgirapo panji kucepeska luŵiro la jigha la congo kuyana na nthowa iyo cikwendera. Mwaciyelezgero, congo ico cikwenda mu mphepo cizamusazgirapo luŵiro lake na luŵiro la mphepo usange congo na mphepo vikwenda mu nthowa yimoza. Usange vikwenda mu nthowa zakupambana, luŵiro la jigha la congo lizamucepa na luŵiro la mphepo. * Kukhora kwa cinthu kukwenda. Ici cikusimikizga luŵiro ilo congo cikucepera. Pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni mphepo panji maji, kucepa uku nkhucoko comene. Ntchito ya fundo zakusacizga yikulongora kuti majigha gha congo ghakunyamula kuzitika kucoko comene kwa nkhongono yakuguza. Kuzitika uku kukufuma ku vyakusazgikira vya nkhongono za ntchito za jigha, ndipo kukung'anamula kuti majigha gha congo ghakukhwaskika na nkhongono yakuguza na kupanga cigaŵa ca nkhongono yakuguza cicoko comene. Pa vinthu vya nyengo zose, kuzitika uku nkhwakucepeska, ndiko kuti majigha gha congo ghakucita nga kuti ghakunyamula kuzitika kucoko kwakucepeska.{{efn|Ivyo vikucitika ivi vikudumbiskana so pa nkhani ya ''phonon''.}}<ref name="journals.aps.org">{{cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Angelo |last2=Krichevsky |first2=Rafael |last3=Nicolis |first3=Alberto |title=Gravitational Mass Carried by Sound Waves |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=122 |issue=8 |article-number=084501 |date=2019 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.084501 |url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.084501}}</ref> Ici nchicoko comene.<ref name="journals.aps.org"/> === Majigha === Majigha gha congo ghakulongora vimanyikwiro nga ni kuwelera, kutumizgika, kupindika, kuthandazgika, kumilika, na kucepa.<ref>Kinsler, L. E.; Frey, A. R.; Coppens, A. B.; Sanders, J. V. (2000). ''Fundamentals of Acoustics'' (4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 128–130.</ref> Para congo cikwenda mu cinthu cambura kuyana, cingapindika (kuthandazgika panji kuwunjikana).{{efn|name=NonHomogeneous|Cinthu cambura kuyana mose ni ico luŵiro la congo likusintha kuyana na malo, cifukwa ca kusintha kwa kufunda, kuzitika, panji vinthu ivyo vili mukati.}}<ref name="JHU">{{cite web |url=http://pages.jh.edu/~virtlab/ray/acoustic.htm |title=The Propagation of sound |access-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430054640/http://pages.jh.edu/~virtlab/ray/acoustic.htm |archive-date=30 April 2015 }}</ref> Congo cikutumizgika mu vyamaji na mipweya nga ni majigha gha kukanikizga, agho ghakwenda mu nthowa ya kwenda kwawo. Mu vyakukhwima, kweni, congo cingatumizgika nga ni majigha gha kukanikizga na nga ni majigha gha kumphepete. Majigha gha kukanikizga ni majigha gha kusintha-sintha kwa kukanikizga, agho ghakupanga malo gha kukanikizgika na gha kutambasulika, apo majigha gha kumphepete (mu vyakukhwima) ni majigha gha kukhwesa kwa kumphepete ku nthowa ya kwenda. Kupambana na majigha gha kukanikizga, majigha gha kumphepete ghali na cimanyikwiro ca kujikhazgira mu nthowa yimoza.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://labman.phys.utk.edu/phys222core/modules/m6/polarization.html|title=Polarization|website=Elements of Physics II|publisher=The University of Tennessee, Department of Physics and Astronomy|last=Breinig|first=Marianne|access-date=4 March 2024}}</ref> <gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="190"> Spherical pressure waves.gif|Circular, longitudinal waves propagating from a source and causing particle vibration. Onde compression impulsion 1d 30 petit.gif|A longitudinal plane wave, the horizontally distorted region moving across the grid. Onde cisaillement impulsion 1d 30 petit.gif|A transverse plane wave, the vertically distorted region moving across the grid. </gallery> Majigha gha congo ghangawonekera kwizira mu magalasi gha kujiwonera ghakupindika na vinthu ivyo vikupanga congo.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Does Sound Look Like? |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=px3oVGXr4mo |work=NPR | date=9 April 2014 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=9 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410064648/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=px3oVGXr4mo |archive-date=10 April 2014 }}</ref> Nkhongono za ntchito izo jigha la congo likunyamula zikusintha-sintha pakati pa nkhongono zakusungika za kukanikizgika kwa vyamvimba na nkhongono za kwenda kwa tunthu mu cinthu. Nangauli kutumizgika kwa congo kukusazgapo ndondomeko zinandi za kawiro, cimanyikwiro ico cikupokereka pa malo ghamoza (nga ni pa maikolofoni panji khutu) cingalongosoreka cose nga ni kukanikizga uko kukusintha mu nyengo. Mawonekero agha gha kukanikizga na nyengo ghakulongosora cose congo ciliconse ico capokereka pa malo agho. Majigha gha congo kanandi ghakupepuskika nga ni majigha ghakusalala, agho ghali na vimanyikwiro ivi: * Unandi wa kunjenjemera, panji nyengo ya kunjenjemera kamoza. * Utali wa jigha. * Ukulu wa jigha, kukanikizga kwa congo, panji nkhongono. * Luŵiro la congo. * Nthowa. Nyengo zinyake luŵiro na nthowa vikusazganika pamoza. Kuti congo cipendeke, jigha lakusuzga lingalongoreka nga ni kusazganika kwa majigha ghakusalala gha unandi wa kunjenjemera, ukulu, na malo ghakupambana.<ref name="Handel, S. 1995">Handel, S. (1995). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OywDx9pxCMYC&dq=%22Timbre+perception+and+auditory+object+identification%22&pg=PA425 Timbre perception and auditory object identification] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110135929/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OywDx9pxCMYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA425&dq=%22Timbre+perception+and+auditory+object+identification%22&ots=P_6L53f1rX&sig=UF2k3GyEzCF1rOnDKHhgeA2MyJc |date=2020-01-10 }}. Hearing, 425–461.</ref><ref name="Kendall, R. A. 1986">Kendall, R.A. (1986). The role of acoustic signal partitions in listener categorization of musical phrases. Music Perception, 185–213.</ref><ref name="Matthews, M. 1999 pp. 79-88">Matthews, M. (1999). Introduction to timbre. In P.R. Cook (Ed.), Music, cognition, and computerized sound: An introduction to psychoacoustic (pp. 79–88). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press.</ref>{{efn|name=LinearOnly|Kupenda kwa Fourier kukuthemba fundo ya kusazga majigha, ntheura kukugwira ntchito pa majigha agho ghakwenda mwakuyana pera. Mu kasandiro ka vyongo uko luŵiro la jigha likukolerana na kukwera kwa jigha, kugaŵa uku kukugwira ntchito makora yayi.<ref>Blackstock, D. T. (2000). ''Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics''. Wiley. pp. 143–145.</ref>}} === Luŵiro === <gallery mode="packed" widths="185" heights="175"> The Elements of Sound jpg.jpg|Pressure‑versus‑time waveform of a 20‑millisecond clarinet tone. Sine waves different frequencies.svg|Sinusoidal waveforms with wavelengths increasing upwards, representing pure frequency components used in Fourier analysis. </gallery> [[File:FA-18 Hornet breaking sound barrier (7 July 1999).jpg|right|thumb|Ndege ya F/A-18 ya Navy ya Amerika iyo yikufika pafupi na luŵiro la congo. Cizingo cituŵa ni tumaji tucoko utu tukupangika cifukwa kukanikizga kwa mpweya kwacepa kuzingilizga ndege.<ref name=nasa>{{cite web |title=A Sonic Boom|access-date=26 June 2015 |date=19 August 2007}}</ref>]] Luŵiro la congo likuthemba cinthu ico majigha ghakwenda mwake, ndipo ni cimanyikwiro cakwamba ca cinthu ico. Kuyezga kwakwamba kukulu kwa kupima luŵiro la congo kukacitika na Isaac Newton. Wakagomezganga kuti luŵiro la congo mu cinthu cinyake likuyana na muzu wa kukanikizga uko kukucikhwaska kugaŵika na kukhwima kwake. Ici pamanyuma cikasangika kuŵa caunenesko yayi, ndipo musandi wa masamu wa Cifurenci, Laplace, wakanozga malinganizgo mwa kusanga kuti kwenda kwa congo nkhwa kufunda kwakuyana yayi, nga umo Newton wakagomezgera, kweni nkhwambura kusinthana kufunda.{{efn|name=NewtonError|Newton wakaghanaghananga kuti mpweya ukukanikizgika kwambura kusintha kufunda, kweni congo cikwenda luŵiro comene kuti kufunda kusinthane na ivyo vyazingilizga, ntheura kufunda kukusinthana yayi.}} Wakasazgamo cinthu cinyake ku malinganizgo, ndipo ghakuchemeka malinganizgo gha Newton–Laplace. Ntheura luŵiro la congo likukolerana na muzu wa kukhora kwa cinthu kugaŵika na kukhwima kwake. Vimanyikwiro ivi na luŵiro la congo vikusintha kuyana na vyakucitika vya malo. Mwaciyelezgero, luŵiro la congo mu mipweya likuthemba kufunda. Mu mphepo ya 20 °C pa mphepete ya nyanja, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 343 pa liŵiri. Luŵiro la congo likukhwaskika so pacoko na ukulu wa congo. Mu maji ghawemi, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 1,482 pa liŵiri. Mu sitilo, luŵiro la congo ni pafupifupi mamita 5,960 pa liŵiri. Congo cikwenda luŵiro comene mu haidirojeni yakukhwima, pafupifupi mamita 36,000 pa liŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-scientists-upper-limit.html |title=Scientists find upper limit for the speed of sound |access-date=2020-10-09 |archive-date=2020-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009190631/https://phys.org/news/2020-10-scientists-upper-limit.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Speed of sound from fundamental physical constants |year=2020 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abc8662 |last1=Trachenko |first1=K. |last2=Monserrat |first2=B. |last3=Pickard |first3=C. J. |last4=Brazhkin |first4=V. V. |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=41 |article-number=eabc8662 |pmid=33036979 |pmc=7546695 |arxiv=2004.04818 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.8662T }}</ref> === Kukanikizga kwa Congo === Kukanikizga kwa congo ni kupambana, mu cinthu cinyake, pakati pa kukanikizga kwapakati kwa malo na kukanikizga mu jigha la congo. Cifukwa cakuti khutu la munthu lingapulika vyongo vya ukulu wakupambana comene, kukanikizga kwa congo kanandi kukupimika pa mbondolo ya madesibelo. Vipimo vya kukanikizga kwa congo ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi ni 20 μPa mu mphepo na 1 μPa mu maji. Cifukwa cakuti khutu la munthu likupulika unandi wose wa kunjenjemera mwakuyana yayi, kukanikizga kwa congo kanandi kukupimika mwakuyana na umo khutu likupulikira. Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Luso la Magesi (IEC) walongosora nthowa zinandi za kupimira izi. == Kupulika == Mu kasandiro ka umoyo wa thupi na ka mahara, lizgu lakuti congo likung'anamula ivyo munthu wakupulika apo ciŵaro ca kupulikira casisimuskika, kupambana na ng'anamulo ya kusanda mendero iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kasandiro ka vyongo. Kasandiro ka mahara pa vyongo na kasandiro kakulu ka mahara pa vyakupulika vikusanda umo vyamoyo vikusangira na kung'anamulira vyakusisimuska ivi. Dikishonale ya Webster yikulongora kagwiliskiro aka ka ng'anamulo ziŵiri mwa kulongosora congo nga ni "kupulika" kweniso nga ni "nkhongono za kunjenjemera izo zikwiziska kupulika uku."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Noah |title=Sound. In Webster's Collegiate Dictionary |date=1936 |publisher=The Riverside Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=950–951 |edition= Fifth}}</ref> Kupambana uku kukulongosora cifukwa ico fumbo lakuti "para khuni lawa mu nkholongo ndipo palije munthu kufupi kuti wapulike, kasi likupanga congo?" lingaŵa na mazgoro ghakupambana kuyana na ng'anamulo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito. Kupulika congo kwa vyamoyo ivyo vili na viŵaro vya kupulikira kuli na malire gha unandi wa kunjenjemera. Mu ŵanthu, kupulika kukufuma pa 20 mpaka 20,000 pa liŵiri, ndipo malire gha pacanya ghakucepa na vyaka.{{rp|382}}{{efn|Unandi wa 20 Hz–20 kHz uwo ukuyowoyeka kanandi ukukhwaskana pera na ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vicoko awo ŵakupulika makora. Umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikira kukupambana pakati pa munthu na munthu (mwaciyelezgero, kuyana na vyaka panji uchanda) ndipo kukupambana comene pakati pa mitundu ya vyamoyo.}}<ref name="Olson1967">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/musicphysicsengi0000olso |url-access=registration |title=Music, Physics and Engineering |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-21769-7 |last1=Olson |first1=Harry F. |date=1967}}</ref>{{rp|249}} Pasi pa 20 pa liŵiri, vyongo vingapulikika nga ni kuphulika kumoza kumoza panji kusintha kwa pacoko pacoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yeowart |first=R. |title=The perception of low-frequency sound |journal=Journal of Sound and Vibration |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=1967 |pages=382–387 |doi=10.1016/0022-460X(67)90137-1}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti congo nyengo zinyake likung'anamula kunjenjemera kwa mu malire gha kupulika kwa ŵanthu pera, nangauli vyamoyo vinyake vili na malire ghakupambana comene.<ref>{{cite web|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=Fourth |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |date=2000 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/65/S0576500.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012016/http://www.bartleby.com/61/65/S0576500.html |archive-date=June 25, 2008 |access-date=May 20, 2010}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, [[Ncheŵe|ncheŵe]] zingapulika unandi wa kunjenjemera wakujumpha 20,000 pa liŵiri.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heffner |first=H. |title=Hearing ranges of mammals |journal=American Zoologist |volume=36 |issue=6 |year=1996 |pages=671–684 |doi=10.1093/icb/36.6.671}}</ref> Nga ni cimanyikwiro ico cikupulikika na cimoza mwa viŵaro vikulu vya kupulikira, congo cikugwiliskirika ntchito na vyamoyo vinandi pa kusanga ngozi, kwenda, kusaka, na kuyowoyerana. Mphepo ya caro capasi, maji, na pafupifupi cakucitika ciliconse ca kawiro, nga ni moto, [[Vula|vula]], mphepo, majigha gha nyanja, panji kusunkhana kwa pasi, vikupanga vyongo vyapadera. Vyamoyo vinandi, nga ni ŵacule, [[Viyuni|viyuni]], na vinyama vyakonkheska vya mu nyanja na pa mtunda, vyapanga viŵaro vyapadera vya kupangira congo. Mu vyamoyo vinyake, viŵaro ivi vikupanga sumu na kuyowoya. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵapanga mdawuko na luso la vilwero (nga ni sumu, lamya, na wayilesi) ivyo vikuŵazomerezga kupanga, kujambula, kutumizga, na kuthandazga congo. Mu Cingelezi, congo cambura kukhumbikwa kanandi cikuchemeka ''noise''. Mu kasandiro na kazengero ka vilwero, congo cambura kukhumbikwa ni cigaŵa cambura kukhumbikwa ico cikubisa cimanyikwiro cakukhumbikwa. Kweni mu kupulika congo, kanandi cingagwiliskirika ntchito kumanya uko congo cikufumira, ndipo ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kupulika mtundu wa congo. Malo gha vyongo ni cigaŵa ca malo gha vyongo ico ŵanthu ŵangapulika. Malo gha vyongo ni vyongo vyose (kwali vikupulikika na ŵanthu panji yayi) mu malo ghanyake nga umo vyasinthikira na malo na kupulikiskika na ŵanthu. Mu mbiri, pali nthowa zinkhondi na yimoza zakuyezgeka izo majigha gha congo ghakupendekera: kuzika kwa congo, utali wake, kukwezga kwake, mtundu wake, kusazganika kwake, na malo ghake. Mazgo ghanyake agha ghali na ng'anamulo yakwenelera. === Kuzika kwa Congo === Kuzika kwa congo kukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "capasi" panji "capacanya", ndipo kukulongora kawiro ka kuwerezgawerezga ka kunjenjemera uko kukupanga congo. Pa vyongo vyakupepuka, kuzika kukukolerana na unandi wa kunjenjemera wa kunjenjemera kwakuzerezga comene mu congo.<ref>Burton, R.L. (2015). [https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=649996699786780;res=IELHSS The elements of music: what are they, and who cares?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510200056/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=649996699786780;res=IELHSS |date=2020-05-10 }} In J. Rosevear & S. Harding. (Eds.), ASME XXth National Conference proceedings. Paper presented at: Music: Educating for life: ASME XXth National Conference (pp. 22–28), Parkville, Victoria: The Australian Society for Music Education Inc.</ref> Pa vyongo vyakusuzga, kupulika kuzika kungapambana. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakupulika kuzika kwakupambana pa congo cimoza, kuyana na umo ŵakazgowera kupulika vyongo vinyake. Congo ciliconse cikuŵikika pa mzere wa kuzika kufuma pasi mpaka pacanya.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Viemeister|first1=Neal F.|chapter=Time Analysis|date=1993|title=Springer Handbook of Auditory Research|pages=116–154|publisher=Springer New York|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2728-1_4|isbn=978-1-4612-7644-9|last2=Plack|first2=Christopher J.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosen|first=Stuart|date=1992-06-29|title=Temporal information in speech: acoustic, auditory and linguistic aspects|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B|language=en|volume=336|issue=1278|pages=367–373|doi=10.1098/rstb.1992.0070|issn=0962-8436|pmid=1354376|bibcode=1992RSPTB.336..367R}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=Brian C.J.|date=2008-10-15|title=The Role of Temporal Fine Structure Processing in Pitch Perception, Masking, and Speech Perception for Normal-Hearing and Hearing-Impaired People|journal=Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=399–406|doi=10.1007/s10162-008-0143-x|issn=1525-3961|pmc=2580810|pmid=18855069}}</ref> === Utali wa Congo === [[File:Pitch perception.png|thumb|Kupulika kuzika kwa congo. Pakupulika, congo ciliconse cikupendeka kuti pawoneke ndondomeko yakuwerezgeka (mivi), ndipo ivyo vyasangika vikutumizgika ku wongo nga ni kuzika kumoza.]] [[File:Duration perception.png|thumb|Kupulika utali wa congo. Para congo ciphya capulikika (mivi), uthenga wa kwamba kwa congo ukutumizgika ku wongo. Para ndondomeko yakuwerezgeka yaleka, uthenga wa kumalira kwa congo ukutumizgika.]] Utali wa congo ukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "citali" panji "cifupi", ndipo ukukolerana na vimanyikwiro vya kwamba na kumalira ivyo mizirwe yikupanga pa vyongo. Utali wa congo kanandi ukufuma pa nyengo iyo congo capulikika dankha mpaka apo capulikika kuti casintha panji caleka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=S. |last2=Longe |first2=O. |last3=Pato |first3=M.V. |year=1998 |title=Auditory evoked potentials to abrupt pitch and timbre change of complex tones: electrophysiological evidence of streaming? |journal=Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=131–142 |doi=10.1016/s0168-5597(97)00077-4|pmid=9566626 }}</ref> Nyengo zinyake ici cikukolerana mwakulunjika na utali wa congo ceneco yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, mu malo gha congo cambura kukhumbikwa, vyongo ivyo vikuleka na kwamba so vingapulikika nga kuti vikulutilira, cifukwa vimanyikwiro vya kuleka vikupulikika yayi cifukwa ca congo cambura kukhumbikwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nishihara |first1=M. |last2=Inui |first2=K. |last3=Morita |first3=T. |last4=Kodaira |first4=M. |last5=Mochizuki |first5=H. |last6=Otsuru |first6=N. |last7=Kakigi |first7=R. |year=2014 |title=Echoic memory: Investigation of its temporal resolution by auditory offset cortical responses |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=8 |article-number=e106553 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0106553 |pmid=25170608 |pmc=4149571 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j6553N|doi-access=free }}</ref> Ici cingovwira comene pa kupulikiska mauthenga ghakunangika, nga ni vimanyikwiro vya wayilesi, cifukwa uthenga ukupulikika nga kuti ukulutilira. === Kukwezga kwa Congo === [[File:Loudness perception v5.gif|thumb|Kupulika kukwezga kwa congo kukukolerana na nkhongono za congo mu nyengo yicoko (pafupifupi 200 ms); kunjenjemera kukulu mu khutu na mizirwe iyo yikutumizga uthenga kanandi vikupangiska kuti congo cipulikike kuti nchakukwezga.]] Kukwezga kwa congo kukupulikika nga ni umo congo ciliri "cakukwezga" panji "cakukhweŵa", ndipo kukulongora kagwiliro ka ntchito kose ka mizirwe ya kupulikira uko congo cikwiziska. Kanandi, vyongo vyakukwezga vikusunthira comene cigaŵa ca mukati mwa khutu, ndipo ici cikusisimuska mizirwe yinandi na kupanga kupulika kwakukwezga.<ref>{{citation |author=Corwin, J. |date=March 6, 2009 |title=The auditory system |url=http://www.medicine.virginia.edu/basic-science/departments/neurosci/research/corwin-lab/educationresearch/handouts/Auditory-System-handout-revised-for-2009-by-JTC.pdf |access-date=March 6, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628061206/http://www.medicine.virginia.edu/basic-science/departments/neurosci/research/corwin-lab/educationresearch/handouts/Auditory-System-handout-revised-for-2009-by-JTC.pdf |archive-date=June 28, 2013 }}</ref> Kukwezga uko kukupulikika kukuthemba so umo nkhongono za congo zagaŵikira mu nyengo. Para congo nchifupi comene, ciŵaro ca kupulikira cikuwunjika yayi nkhongono zake zose, ntheura cikupulikika kuŵa cakukhweŵa kuluska congo citali ca nkhongono yakuyana. Ndondomeko iyi yikugwira ntchito mu nyengo ya pafupifupi magaŵa 200 pa 1,000 gha liŵiri.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zwislocki |first1=J.J. |year=1969 |title=Temporal summation of loudness: an analysis |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=46 |issue=2B |pages=431–441 |doi=10.1121/1.1911708 |pmid=5804115 |bibcode=1969ASAJ...46..431Z}}</ref> Kujumpha nyengo iyi, kutalikiska congo kukusazgirapo so kukwezga kwake yayi. Kusuzga kwa congo kungakhwaska so kupulika kukwezga. Vyongo vyakusuzga, ivyo vikusisimuska mizirwe yinandi, kanandi vikupulikika kuŵa vyakukwezga kuluska vyongo vyakupepuka, nanga para ukulu wawo ngwakuyana.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Massaro |first1=D.W. |year=1972 |title=Preperceptual images, processing time, and perceptual units in auditory perception |journal=Psychological Review |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=124–145 |doi=10.1037/h0032264 |pmid=5024158 }}</ref> === Mtundu wa Congo === [[File:Timbre perception.png|thumb|Kupulika mtundu wa congo, kulongora umo congo cikusinthira mu nyengo. Nangauli majigha ghakuyana, kupambana mu nyengo kukuwoneka.]] Mtundu wa congo ukupulikika nga ni kawiro ka vyongo vyakupambana (mwaciyelezgero, kuwa kwa libwe, kulira kwa cilwero ca kuboolera, congo ca cilwero ca sumu, panji mtundu wa mazgo gha munthu), ndipo ukulongora kumanya kwa congo ico cikucitika pambere munthu wandaghanaghane (mwaciyelezgero, "ici ni cilizgo!"). Kumanya uku kukuzengeka pa mauthenga gha kusintha kwa unandi wa kunjenjemera, congo cambura kukhumbikwa, kusintha-sintha, kuzika uko kukupulikika, na kuthandazgika na nkhongono za vyongo vyakusazgikira mu nyengo yitali.<ref name="Handel, S. 1995"/><ref name="Kendall, R. A. 1986"/><ref name="Matthews, M. 1999 pp. 79-88"/> Umo congo cikusinthira mu nyengo ndimo kukupeleka mauthenga ghanandi gha kumanya mtundu wa congo. Nangauli cigaŵa cicoko ca jigha la cilwero ciliconse ca sumu cikuwoneka kuyana, kupambana kwa umo vikusinthira mu nyengo pakati pa kalineti na piyano kukuwoneka mu kukwezga na mu vyongo vyakusazgikira. Vyakuwoneka comene yayi ni vyongo vyakupambana, nga ni kufuta kwa mphepo pa kalineti na kutimba kwa nyundo pa piyano. === Kusazganika kwa Vyongo === Kusazganika kwa vyongo kukukolerana na unandi wa makasupe gha congo na kukolerana kwawo.<ref>{{citation |author1=Cohen, D. |author2=Dubnov, S. |date=1997 |title=Gestalt phenomena in musical texture |journal=Journal of New Music Research |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=277–314 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233076257 |access-date=2015-11-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121084708/http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shlomo_Dubnov/publication/233076257_Polyspectra_as_measures_of_sound_texture_and_timbre*/links/0f31752f6ce3c49334000000.pdf |archive-date=2015-11-21 |doi=10.1080/09298219708570732 }}</ref><ref>Kamien, R. (1980). Music: an appreciation. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 62</ref><ref name="Cariani, P. 2012 pp. 351-390">{{Cite book | doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-2314-0_13| chapter=Toward a Theory of Information Processing in Auditory Cortex| title=The Human Auditory Cortex| volume=43| pages=351–390| series=Springer Handbook of Auditory Research| year=2012| last1=Cariani| first1=Peter| last2=Micheyl| first2=Christophe| isbn=978-1-4614-2313-3}}</ref> Mu sumu, ici kanandi cikung'anamula kupambana pakati pa kuyimba congo cimoza na kuyimba vyongo vinandi pamoza, kweni cingakolerana so (mwaciyelezgero) na nyumba ya vyakulya yakuzura ŵanthu, congo ico cingachemeka cisokonezgo. === Malo gha Congo === Malo gha congo ni umo mahara ghakuŵikira congo mu malo, kusazgapo malo gha congo mu nthowa ya pa mzere na ya pacanya, mtunda kufuma ku kasupe wa congo, na vimanyikwiro vya malo gha vyongo.<ref name="Cariani, P. 2012 pp. 351-390"/><ref>Levitin, D.J. (1999). Memory for musical attributes. In P.R. Cook (Ed.), Music, cognition, and computerized sound: An introduction to psychoacoustics (pp. 105–127). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press.</ref> Mu malo umo muli vyongo vinandi, kungacitika kumanya makasupe ghanandi gha congo mwa kugwiliskira ntchito malo gha congo na mtundu wa congo pamoza. == Unandi wa Kunjenjemera == === Congo ca Pacanya === [[File:Ultrasound range diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Unandi wa kunjenjemera wa congo ca pacanya (''ultrasound''), na ntchito zinyake izo cikugwira]] Congo ca pacanya ni majigha gha congo agho ghali na unandi wa kunjenjemera wakujumpha 20,000 pa liŵiri. Congo ca pacanya nchakupambana yayi na congo ico cikupulikika mu vimanyikwiro vyake, kweni ŵanthu ŵangacipulika yayi. Vilwero vya congo ca pacanya vikugwira ntchito pa unandi wa kunjenjemera kufuma 20,000 pa liŵiri mpaka mabiliyoni ghanandi pa liŵiri. Congo ca pacanya ca ucizgi cikugwiliskirika ntchito comene pa kusanga nthenda na kucizga. === Congo ca Pasi === Congo ca pasi ni majigha gha congo agho ghali na unandi wa kunjenjemera wambura kufika 20 pa liŵiri. Nangauli vyongo ivi nvyapasi comene kuti ŵanthu ŵavipulike nga ni kuzika, vikupulikika nga ni kuphulika kumoza kumoza (nga ni congo ca njinga ya moto iyo yikugwira ntchito kweni yikwenda yayi). Vinyama nga ni nyamumba, zgovu, na vinyake vingapulika congo ca pasi ndipo vikucigwiliskira ntchito pa kuyowoyerana. Cingagwiliskirika ntchito kusanga kuphulika kwa mapiri gha moto, ndipo cikugwiliskirika ntchito mu mitundu yinyake ya sumu.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leventhall|first=Geoff|date=2007-01-01|title=What is infrasound?|journal=Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology|series=Effects of ultrasound and infrasound relevant to human health|volume=93|issue=1|pages=130–137|doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.07.006|pmid=16934315|issn=0079-6107|doi-access=}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} 1osjdakyr7i83125kgb6xjiezumvlxg 0 6205 124362 123573 2026-11-10T14:18:57Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124362 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Usungunu''' ni kasandiro ka vimanyikwiro na umo vyamvimba vikucitira. Ni kasandiro ka kawiro ka vinthu ako kakusanda vyamvimba: umo vikupangikira, kazengero kake, vimanyikwiro vyake, umo vikucitira, na kusintha uko vikucitika para vikukolerana na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="definition">{{Cite web |title=What is Chemistry? |url=http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003061822/http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm |archive-date=3 October 2018 |access-date=12 June 2011 |publisher=Chemweb.ucc.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of CHEMISTRY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chemistry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807005724/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chemistry |archive-date=7 August 2020 |access-date=24 August 2020 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of chemistry {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Chemistry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305233029/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chemistry |archive-date=5 March 2016 |access-date=24 August 2020 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chemistry Is Everywhere |url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/everywhere.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129190223/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/everywhere.html |archive-date=29 November 2020 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=[[American Chemical Society]]}}</ref> Usungunu ukulongosora so kawiro ka malutata gha usungunu mu vyakusazganika vya usungunu. Pa nkhani zake, usungunu uli pakati pa [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]] na kasandiro ka vyamoyo. Nyengo zinyake ukuchemeka kasandiro ka pakati, cifukwa ukupeleka maziko gha kupulikiska tusandiro twakwamba na twa kagwiliskiro. Mwaciyelezgero, usungunu ukulongosora umo mbuto zikukulira (kasandiro ka mbuto), umo malibwe gha moto ghakupangikira (kasandiro ka caro capasi), umo ozoni wa mu mphepo iyo yikuzunguliya caro capasi ukupangikira na umo vyakunanga malo ghakuzingilizga vikumalira (kasandiro ka malo ghakuzingilizga), vimanyikwiro vya dongo la pa mwezi, umo [[Mankhwala|mankhwala]] ghakugwilira ntchito, na umo ukaboni wa DNA ukuwunjikira pa malo agho mlandu wacitikira. Usungunu waŵako na mazina ghakupambanapambana kufuma kale. Wasintha, ndipo sono uli na vigaŵa vinandi vyapadera, ivyo vikulutilira kusazgikira na kukolerana kuti vipange vigaŵa vinyake vya kasandiro. Kagwiliskiro ka vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya usungunu kakugwiliskirika ntchito comene pa vyacuma mu mafakitale gha usungunu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''chemistry'' likafuma ku kusintha kwa lizgu lakuti ''alchemy'' mu Nyengo ya Kuwuka Kwaciŵiri (Renaissance). ''Alchemy'' likang'anamulanga kacitiro ka kale ako kakasazgangapo vigaŵa vya usungunu, kasandiro ka visulo, kasandiro ka vinjeru, kulongolera vyamunthazi mwa nyenyezi, [[Astronome|kusanda nyenyezi]], vyakubisika vya uzimu, na mankhwala. ''Alchemy'' kanandi yikukolerana na kupenja nthowa ya kusandura mtovu panji visulo vinyake vyapasi kuŵa golide, nangauli ŵakucita ''alchemy'' ŵakakhumbanga so kumanya mafumbo ghanandi gha usungunu wa mazuŵa ghano. == Fundo za Mazuŵa Ghano == Usungunu wa kale ukwamba na kusanda tunthu twakwamba tucokocoko, [[Vimenyu|vimenyu]], mamolekyu, vyamvimba, visulo, makristalo, na vinthu vinyake. Vyamvimba vingasandika para vyakukhwima, vyamaji, vya mpweya, panji plasima, paŵekha panji pamoza. === Vimenyu === Cimenyu ndico cigaŵa cakwamba ca usungunu. Cili na mtima wakukhwima wakuchemeka mtima wa cimenyu, uwo ukuzungulirika na malo agho ghali na bingu la malekitironi. Mtima uwu ukupangika na mapurotoni agho ghali na cinyamulo cakusazgira na manyutironi ghambura cinyamulo, apo bingu la malekitironi likupangika na malekitironi agho ghali na cinyamulo cakucepeska agho ghakuzunguliya mtima. === Visungunu === Cisungunu ni cinthu cambura kusazgika ico cikupangika na mtundu umoza wa cimenyu, ndipo cikumanyikwa na unandi wa mapurotoni mu mitima ya vimenyu vyake, uwo ukuchemeka nambala ya cimenyu na kulembeka na cimanyikwiro Z. Wone [[Mndandanda wa visungunu]]. === Vyakusazganika === Cakusazganika ni cinthu ca usungunu cambura kusazgika ico cikupangika na visungunu vyakujumpha cimoza. Vimanyikwiro vya cakusazganika vikuyana pacoko waka na vya visungunu vyake. === Mamolekyu === Molekyu ni cigaŵa cicoko comene cambura kugaŵika ca cinthu ca usungunu cambura kusazgika ico cili na vimanyikwiro vyake vya usungunu, ndiko kuti nkhongono yake ya kukolerana na vinthu vinyake mu nthowa zinyake. Kanandi mamolekyu ni vimenyu ivyo vyakoleranira pamoza na malutata. === Kukolerana kwa Usungunu === Para cinthu ca usungunu casintha cifukwa ca kukolerana na cinthu cinyake panji na nkhongono za ntchito, tikuti kukolerana kwa usungunu kwacitika. Kukwiziska kusinthana kwa nkhongono za ntchito pakati pa vigaŵa vya kukolerana, kweniso na malo ghakuzingilizga. === Asidi na Mabesi === Cinthu kanandi cingagaŵika nga ni asidi panji besi. Pali fundo zakusacizga zinandi izo zikulongosora umo asidi na mabesi vikucitira. Yipepuka comene ni fundo ya Arrhenius, iyo yikuti asidi ni cinthu ico cikupanga ma ayoni gha haidironiyamu para casungunuka mu [[Maji|maji]], ndipo besi ni ico cikupanga ma ayoni gha haidirokisayidi para casungunuka mu maji. == Mbiri == Mbiri ya usungunu yikwamba kale comene mpaka mazuŵa ghano. Kufuma vyaka vinandi pambere Khristu, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito luso ilo pamanyuma likaŵa maziko gha vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya usungunu. Viyelezgero ni kufumya visulo mu malibwe, kupanga viŵiya vya dongo, kupanga moŵa na vinyo, kufumya vinthu mu mbuto kuti vipange mankhwala na vyakununkhira, kusandura mafuta kuŵa sopo, kupanga galasi, na kusazga visulo nga ni bulonzi. == Kacitiro == Pa kacitiro ka usungunu, usungunu wa maziko ni kusanda fundo zakwamba za usungunu, apo usungunu wa kagwiliskiro ukugwiliskira ntchito umanyi uwu kupanga luso la vilwero na kumazga masuzgo gha pa umoyo. [[Category:Kemistre]] nlkvwktirn78ztzqifuver3iuuuvn65 0 6206 124348 123508 2026-11-10T14:18:17Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124348 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maji''' ni cakusazganika ca usungunu ico cimanyikwiro cake ni H₂O. Ni cinthu ico cikujulika, cambura kunowa, cambura kununkha, ndipo pafupifupi cambura mtundu. Ndigho ghakupanga comene milonga, nyanja, na nyanja zikulu za [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Maji ndigho so ghakupanga vyamoyo vyose ivyo tikumanya, ndipo mu vyamoyo ghakusungunura vinthu vinyake. Maji ngakuzirwa ku umoyo wose uwo tikumanya, nangauli ghakupeleka nkhongono za ntchito za vyakulya yayi. Cifukwa cakuti ghali mu vyamoyo vyose, ghakusintha yayi luŵiro, ghali kulikose pa caro capasi, ndipo ghali na nkhongono yikulu ya kusungunura, maji kanandi ghakuchemeka "cakusungunulira ca caro cose". Cifukwa cakuti kufunda na kukanikizga kwa pa caro capasi kuli pafupi na umo maji ghangaŵira mu mitundu yitatu pa nyengo yimoza, maji ghali pa caro capasi nga ni cakukhwima, camaji, na mpweya. Ghakupanga vula na tumaji tucoko twa mu mphepo. Maŵingu ghakupangika na tumaji tucoko na ayisi, uko ndiko maji ghakukhwima. Para ayisi wagaŵika ucokoucoko, wangawa nga ni sinowu. Maji gha mpweya ni mvuchi. Maji ghakuphimba pafupifupi magaŵa 71 pa 100 gha caro capasi, ndipo nyanja zikulu ndizo zili na maji ghanandi comene (pafupifupi magaŵa 96.5 pa 100). Maji ghacoko ghali pasi pa dongo (1.7), mu ayisi wa ku Antarctica na Greenland (1.7), na mu mphepo nga ni mvuchi, maŵingu, na vula (0.001). Maji ghakwenda nyengo zose mu kazungulizgo ka maji: kufumbuka, kufuma mu mabani gha mbuto, kusanduka maji, kuwa nga ni vula, na kuthika, ndipo kanandi ghakufika ku nyanja. Maji ghakugwira ntchito yikulu mu vyacuma vya caro cose capasi. Pafupifupi magaŵa 70 pa 100 gha maji ghawemi agho ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ghakuya ku ulimi. Kulowa somba mu maji gha mcere na ghawemi kwaŵa, ndipo kucali, nthowa yikulu ya vyakulya mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi. Malonda ghanandi gha kutali ghakunyamulika na ngalawa pa nyanja, milonga, na ngalande. Maji ghanandi, ayisi, na mvuchi vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuziziska na kufundiska mu mafakitale na mu nyumba. Maji ni cakusungunulira ciwemi ca vinthu vinandi, ntheura ghakugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu mafakitale, pa kuphika, na pa kusuka. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''water'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''wæter''. == Vimanyikwiro == Maji (H₂O) ni cakusazganika ca usungunu. Para kufunda nkhwapakati, ni cinthu camaji cambura kunowa na cambura kununkha, pafupifupi cambura mtundu kweni na ubuluu pacoko. Ndico cakusazganika ico casandika comene, ndipo nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "cakusungunulira ca caro cose" cifukwa cikusungunura vinthu vinandi kuluska camaji cinyake ciliconse. == Pa Caro Capasi == Kasandiro ka maji ni kusanda kwenda, kugaŵika, na uwemi wa maji pa caro cose capasi. Kasandiro ka maji gha pasi pa dongo, ka ayisi, ka maji gha mukati mwa caro, na ka nyanja zikulu ni vigaŵa vyake. == Vyakufumapo pa Umoyo == Pa kasandiro ka vyamoyo, maji ghali na vimanyikwiro vinandi vyakuzirwa pa kukura kwa umoyo. Umoyo wose uwo tikumanya ukuthemba maji. == Vyakufumapo pa Ŵanthu == Mu mbiri, ŵanthu ŵakakura comene kufupi na milonga na nthowa zikulu za maji. Mesopotamiya, ilo ni limoza mwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakambira kukhala mwandondomeko, likaŵa pakati pa milonga yikulu ya Tigirisi na Yufurate; ŴaEguputo ŵa kale ŵakathembanga comene Nayelo. Roma nayo yikazengeka m'mphepete mwa mlonga wa Tiber mu Italiya. == Kugaŵika mu Kawiro == Maji ghanandi mu caro cose ca mlengalenga ghakupangika pa nyengo iyo nyenyezi zikupangika. == Dango, Ndyali, na Masuzgo == Ndyali ya maji ni ndyali iyo yikukhwaskika na maji na vyuma vya maji. Maji, comene maji ghawemi, ni cuma cakuzirwa pa caro cose capasi, ndipo ni cifukwa cikulu ca mphindano zinandi za ndyali. == Mu Mdawuko == Maji ghakuwoneka nga ni cakutozga mu visopa vinandi. Visopa ivyo vili na kusuka kwa cisopa ni Cikhristu, Cihindu, Cisilamu, Ciyuda, na vinyake. Kubizgika kwa munthu mu maji ni sakaramente yikulu ya Cikhristu (iyo yikuchemeka ubatizo). [[Category:Usungunu]] sc4rcaf7gzpqgqj3s0hkhl1cpz1p9gs 0 6217 124339 124015 2026-11-10T14:17:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124339 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Astronome''' (panji '''kusanda nyenyezi''') ni kasandiro ka kawiro ako kakusanda vinthu vya kumwamba na vyakucitika mu caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kakugwiliskira ntchito masamu, [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], na [[Usungunu|usungunu]] kulongosora kwambilira kwa vinthu ivi na umo vikukulira. Vinthu ivyo kakusanda ni [[Chibwe|vibwe]], myezi, nyenyezi, maŵingu gha nyenyezi, [[Mlambagombe|milambagombe]], malibwe gha mlengalenga, vibwe vicoko vya malibwe, na nyenyezi za mcira. Vyakucitika ivyo kakusanda ni kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, kumweka kwa nkhongono za ''gamma'', ma''quasar'', ma''blazar'', ma''pulsar'', na ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Mwa pose, astronome yikusanda cinthu ciliconse ico cikufuma kuwaro kwa mphepo iyo yikuzunguliya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga ni cigaŵa ca astronome ico cikusanda caro cose ca mlengalenga pamoza. Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro twa kawiro twa kale comene. Ŵanthu ŵa midawuko ya kale agho mbiri yawo yikalembeka ŵakalaŵiskanga kuthambo usiku mwandondomeko. Mwa iwo muli Ŵaeguputo, Ŵababuloni, Ŵagiriki, Ŵaindiya, Ŵacayina, Ŵamaya, na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa kale ŵa ku Amerika. Kale, astronome yikasazgangapo vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni kupima malo gha nyenyezi, kwendeska ngalawa mwa kulaŵiska nyenyezi, kulaŵiska kuthambo, na kupanga makalendala. Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro tucoko umo ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira kasandiro aka ŵakuwovwira comene. Ici nchaunenesko comene pa kusanga na kulaŵiska vyakucitika vya kanyengo kacoko. Ŵalaŵiski ŵa nyenyezi ŵambura kusambira ŵawovwira pa vyakusanga vinandi vyakuzirwa, nga ni kusanga nyenyezi za mcira ziphya. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu lakuti astronome likufuma ku Cigiriki ἀστρονομία, kufuma ku ἄστρον (''astron'', "nyenyezi") na -νομία (''-nomia'', kufuma ku νόμος ''nomos'', "dango" panji "lamulo"), ndipo likung'anamula kusanda vinthu vya kumwamba. Astronome yikwenera kupambanyizgika na kulongolera vyamunthazi mwa nyenyezi, ico ni cigomezgo cakuti vya umoyo wa ŵanthu vikukolerana na malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikafuma pamoza kweni vikapatukana, ndipo astronome yikukhozgeka na kusanda mendero, kweni kulongolera vyamunthazi mwa nyenyezi yayi. === Kagwiliskiro ka Mazgo "Astronome" na "Kusanda Mendero kwa Kuthambo" === "Astronome" na "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ghakung'anamula pafupifupi cinthu cimoza mu kagwiliskiro ka mazuŵa ghano. Mu madikishonale, "astronome" ni "kusanda vinthu ivyo vili kuwaro kwa mphepo ya caro capasi na vimanyikwiro vyake vya kawiro na vya usungunu", apo "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ni cigaŵa ca astronome ico cikukhwaskana na "nkhalo, vimanyikwiro vya kawiro, na ndondomeko za kwenda vya vinthu na vyakucitika vya kumwamba". Nyengo zinyake, nga ni mu buku la kusambizgira la Frank Shu, "astronome" yikung'anamula kusanda nkhani iyi mwa kulongosora, apo "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ni kusanda kwa mendero. Vigaŵa vinyake, nga ni kupima malo gha nyenyezi, ni astronome pera. Vigaŵa vya kusanda vingagwiliskira ntchito mazgo agha kuyana na usange cigaŵa ico kale cikakolerana na cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero, ndipo ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵali na madigiri gha kusanda mendero m'malo mwa gha astronome. Ntheura, mu kagwiliskiro ka mazuŵa ghano, mazgo ghaŵiri agha kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mwakusinthana. == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === Kukura kwakwamba kwa astronome kukiza cifukwa ca vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo, nga ni makalendala gha ulimi. Pambere mbiri yindalembeke, malo gha kale nga ni Stonehenge ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵakakhumbanga kulaŵiska kuthambo. Ukaboni ukufuma so ku vinthu vya kale nga ni cimbale ca kuthambo ca Nebra, ico cili na vimanyikwiro ivyo vikung'anamulika nga ni zuŵa, mwezi, na nyenyezi, kusazgapo gulu la nyenyezi 7. Malibwe ghakulu gha ku Nabta Playa, mu Eguputo ya Pacanya, ghakanozgeka kuyana na kuwoneka kwa nyenyezi ya Sirius mlenji, ndipo ghakovwiranga kunozga kalendala ya caka pa cigumula ca caka ciliconse ca mlonga wa Nilo. === Nyengo ya Kale === Midawuko nga ni Eguputo, Mesopotamiya, Girisi, India, na China, paŵekha kweni na kukhwaskana, yikazenga malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo ndipo yikapanga maghanoghano pa kawiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, pamoza na makalendala na vilwero vya kulaŵiskira kuthambo. Kukura kwakuzirwa kwakwamba kukaŵa kwamba kwa astronome ya masamu na ya kasandiro mwa Ŵababuloni, uko kukaŵika maziko gha midawuko ya astronome mu midawuko yinyake. Ŵababuloni ŵakasanga kuti kubisika kwa mwezi kukuwerezgeka mu ndondomeko ya ''saros'' ya myezi 223. Pamanyuma pa Ŵababuloni, kuluta panthazi kukulu kukacitika mu Girisi wa kale na mu caro ca Ŵagiriki. Astronome ya Ŵagiriki yikapenjanga malongosoro gha vinjeru na gha kawiro gha vyakucitika vya kumwamba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu, Heracleides Ponticus wakaŵa wakwamba kusacizga kuti caro capasi cikuzunguliya ca ceneco. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 pambere Khristu, Aristarchus wa ku Samos wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi na zuŵa, ndipo wakasacizga ciyelezgero ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa umo caro capasi na vibwe vikuzunguliya zuŵa, ico sono cikuchemeka ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu, Hipparchus wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi ndipo wakapanga vilwero vyakwamba vya astronome ivyo vikumanyikwa, nga ni ''astrolabe''. Wakawona so kusintha kucoko kwa malo gha mazuŵa agho usiku na msana vikuyana na agho zuŵa likufika kumpoto comene panji kumwera comene, kuyaniska na nyenyezi, ico sono tikumanya kuti cikufuma ku kuzungunyika kwa nthowa ya caro capasi. Hipparchus wakapanga so mndandanda wa nyenyezi 1,020, ndipo magulu ghanandi gha nyenyezi gha cigaŵa ca kumpoto ghakufuma ku astronome ya Ŵagiriki. Makina gha Antikythera (pafupifupi 150–80 pambere Khristu) ghakaŵa kompyuta yakwamba ya kale iyo yikapangika kupima malo gha zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe pa zuŵa linyake. Vilwero vya luso lakuyana vikawonekaso yayi mpaka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300, apo vipimanyengo vya makina vya astronome vikawoneka mu Ulaya. === Pamanyuma pa Nyengo ya Kale === Pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Ŵagiriki, astronome yikalongozgeka na ciyelezgero ca caro capasi pakati, panji ndondomeko ya Ptolemy, iyo yikathyika zina la Claudius Ptolemy. Buku lake la vigaŵa 13 la astronome, ilo likuchemeka ''Almagest'' mu kung'anamulika kwake kwa Ciarabu, likaŵa buku likulu la kulaŵiskako kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 1,000. Mu ndondomeko iyi, caro capasi cikaghanaghanirika kuŵa pakati pa caro cose ca mlengalenga, ndipo zuŵa, mwezi na nyenyezi vikacizunguliyanga. Nangauli ndondomeko iyi pamanyuma yikazomerezgeka yayi, yikapelekanga malongosoro ghakulunjika comene gha malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba agho ghakaŵako pa nyengo iyo. Apo astronome ya Ŵagiriki yikafika mu India kwizira mu malonda na kukumana kwa midawuko, astronome ya Ŵaindiya yikanjira mu nyengo yiphya mu vyaka vyakwamba vya mumuwilo wa Khristu. Midawuko ya kale ya malo agho, nga ni iyo yikalembeka mu ''Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa'', yikapeleka maziko gha makalendala, apo viyelezgero vya astronome ya Ŵagiriki pamanyuma vikasazgika na ŵasambiri nga ni Āryabhaṭa, Varāhamihira, na Brahmagupta. Āryabhaṭa wakanozga comene nthowa za kupima kwenda kwa vibwe na kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi. Mu nyengo yapakati ya pamanyuma, sukulu ya Kerala yikovwira astronome kwizira mu kulaŵiska kwakunozgeka na kupima kwakulunjika comene kwa vibwe na kubisika. Astronome yikakura comene mu caro ca Cisilamu ca nyengo yapakati. Malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo ghakazengeka kuko pakwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 800. Mu 964, Mlambagombe wa Andromeda, mlambagombe ukulu comene mu Gulu la Pafupi, ukalongosoreka na msandi wa nyenyezi wa Cisilamu wa ku Persia Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi mu Buku lake la Nyenyezi Zambura Kusamika. Kuphulika kwa nyenyezi SN 1006, cakucitika ca nyenyezi cakuŵala comene mu vyaka 1,000 vyaumaliro, kukalaŵiskika na msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ciarabu wa ku Eguputo Ali ibn Ridwan na ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵacayina mu 1006. Msambiri wa ku Iran Al-Biruni wakawona kuti, kupambana na Ptolemy, malo ghapacanya comene gha zuŵa ghakwenda, ghambura kukhazikika. Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ciarabu ŵakanjizga mazina ghanandi gha Ciarabu agho sono ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyenyezi zinyake. Vyakusyala vya Great Zimbabwe na Timbuktu vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa na malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo. Mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro ya pamanyuma pa nyengo ya kale, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakasanda kwenda kwa nyenyezi na ubale wake na nyengo za caka, ndipo ŵakapanga mapu gha kuthambo na vithuzi vya nthowa za vibwe vinyake kuyana na kupima kwakusuzga kwa masamu. Msandi wa mbiri wa Songhai Mahmud Kati wakalemba za kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga mu 1583. Mu Ulaya ya nyengo yapakati, Richard wa ku Wallingford (1292–1336) wakapanga cipimanyengo cakwamba ca astronome, ''Rectangulus'' iyo yikazomerezganga kupima makona pakati pa vibwe na vinthu vinyake vya kumwamba, na ''Albion'' iyo yingagwiliskirika ntchito pa kupima kwa astronome nga ni malo gha mwezi, zuŵa, na vibwe. Nicole Oresme (1320–1382) wakayowoya za ukaboni wa kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi. Jean Buridan (1300–1361) wakapanga ghanoghano la ''impetus'', ilo likulongosora kwenda kusazgapo kwa vinthu vya kumwamba. Kwa vyaka mahandiredi ghankhondi na limoza (kufuma ku kuwelera kwa kasambiro ka kale pakumalira kwa nyengo yapakati mpaka ku Nyengo ya Ungweru wa Vinjeru), Mpingo wa Katolika wa Roma ukapeleka wovwiri wa ndalama na wa ŵanthu ku kusanda astronome kuluska mawupu ghanyake ghose. Cimoza mwa vifukwa vya Mpingo cikaŵa kusanga zuŵa la Pasika. === Copernicus === Pa nyengo ya Kuwuka Kwaciŵiri, Nicolaus Copernicus wakasacizga ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Nangauli ciyelezgero cake cikasunga nthowa za cizungulizgo, cikakwana kupima ukulu wa nthowa za vibwe na nyengo yake. Kupepuka kwakukopa kwa astronome ya Copernicus kukapangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵayizomerezge nanga pambere yindasimikizgike na kulaŵiska kwa Galileo na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600. === Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali Vyakwamba === Pafupifupi 1608 cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika, ndipo pofika 1610, Galileo Galilei wakalaŵiska kusintha kwa kawonekero ka cibwe ca Venasi, kwakuyana na kwa mwezi, ico cikakhozga ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati cikanozgeka mwa manambala na Johannes Kepler. Mwa kupenda vyaka 20 vya kulaŵiska kwakupwelelera kwa Tycho Brahe, Kepler wakapanga ndondomeko iyo yikulongosora kwenda kwa vibwe kuzunguliya zuŵa. Nangauli Kepler wakaleka kwenda kwa cizungulizgo kwa Copernicus na kusankha kwenda kwa mawonekero gha jandi, wakatondeka kupanga ghanoghano lakulongosora malango agho wakalemba. Ndi Isaac Newton, na kupanga kwake kasandiro ka kwenda kwa vinthu vya kumwamba na lamulo lake la nkhongono ya kukoka, uyo pakumalira wakalongosora kwenda kwa vibwe. Newton wakapanga so cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca galasi la kuwezga ungweru. Newton, pamoza na Richard Bentley, wakasacizga kuti nyenyezi zikuyana na zuŵa kweni zili kutali comene. Vilaŵiskiro vya kutali viphya vikasintha so maghanoghano pa nyenyezi. Pofika 1610 Galileo wakasanga kuti mzere wa ungweru uwo ukujumpha kuthambo usiku, uwo tikuchema Milky Way, ukupangika na nyenyezi zinandi comene. Mu 1668 James Gregory wakayaniska kuŵala kwa Jupita na Sirius kuti wapime mtunda wake kuŵa wakujumpha AU 83,000. Msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ungelezi John Flamsteed, msandi wa nyenyezi wakwamba wa ufumu wa Britain, wakalemba nyenyezi zakujumpha 3,000, kweni vyakusangika vyake vikapharazgika kwambura khumbo lake mu 1712. Msandi wa nyenyezi William Herschel wakapanga mndandanda wakulongosora wa maŵingu gha nyenyezi na magulu gha nyenyezi, ndipo mu 1781 wakasanga cibwe ca Uranus, cibwe ciphya cakwamba ico cikasangika. Friedrich Bessel wakapanga nthowa ya kupima mtunda wa nyenyezi mu 1838, kweni yikaŵa yakusuzga kugwiliskira ntchito mwakuti nyenyezi pafupifupi 100 pera ndizo zikapimika pofika 1900. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700–1800, kusanda suzgo la vinthu vitatu na Leonhard Euler, Alexis Claude Clairaut, na Jean le Rond d'Alembert kukapangiska kulongolera kwakulunjika comene kwa kwenda kwa mwezi na vibwe. Ntchito iyi yikanozgeka so na Joseph-Louis Lagrange na Pierre Simon Laplace, ndipo ici cikazomerezga kupima kuzitika kwa vibwe na myezi kufuma ku umo vikukhwaskirana. Kuluta panthazi kukulu mu astronome kukiza na kunjizgika kwa luso liphya, kusazgapo cilwero ca kugaŵa ungweru na kujambura vithuzi vya kuthambo. Mu 1814–15, Joseph von Fraunhofer wakasanga mizere yakufipa pafupifupi 574 mu ungweru wakugaŵika wa zuŵa na wa nyenyezi zinyake. Mu 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff wakati mizere iyi yikufuma ku kuŵapo kwa vigaŵa vyakupambana. === Milambagombe === Pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1700, William Herschel wakapanga mapu gha kuthandazgika kwa nyenyezi mu nthowa zakupambana kufuma pa caro capasi, ndipo wakamalizga kuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikaŵa zuŵa pafupi na pakati pa cimbale ca nyenyezi, Milky Way. Pamanyuma pakuti John Michell walongora kuti nyenyezi zikupambana pa kuŵala kwake kweneko, na pamanyuma pa kulaŵiska kwa Herschel na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vyankhongono comene kuti nyenyezi zinyake zikawonekanga mu nthowa zose, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakamba kughanaghana kuti maŵingu ghanyake gha nyenyezi ghakuzunguliya ghangaŵa virwa vya caro ca mlengalenga vyakutali. Kuŵapo kwa milambagombe, kusazgapo mlambagombe withu, Milky Way, nga ni gulu la nyenyezi, kukalongoreka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 pera. Mu 1912, Henrietta Leavitt wakasanga nyenyezi za Cepheid izo kuŵala kwake kukusintha mwakunozgeka, ndipo ici cingagwiliskirika ntchito kumanya kuŵala kweneko kwa nyenyezi, ico cikuŵa cilwero cakulunjika ca kupima mtunda. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nyenyezi izi, Harlow Shapley wakapanga mapu ghakwamba ghakulunjika gha Milky Way. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito Cilaŵiskiro ca Kutali ca Hooker, Edwin Hubble wakasanga nyenyezi za Cepheid mu maŵingu ghanyake gha nyenyezi ghakuzunguliya, ndipo mu 1922–1923 wakalongora mwakusimikizgika kuti Andromeda na Triangulum, pamoza na yinyake, yikaŵa milambagombe yose kuwaro kwa withu, ndipo ici cikalongora kuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cili na milambagombe yinandi comene. === Kasandiro ka Caro Cose ca Mlengalenga === Kupharazga kwa Albert Einstein kwa ''general relativity'' mu 1917 kukamba nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano ya viyelezgero vya maghanoghano vya caro cose ca mlengalenga. Mu 1922, Alexander Friedman wakapharazga viyelezgero vipepuka vya caro cose ca mlengalenga ivyo vikalongora caro cambura kusintha, cakukura, na cakucepa. Mu 1929 Hubble wakapharazga kulaŵiska kwakuti milambagombe yose yikutalikirana na caro capasi pa luŵiro lwakukolerana na mtunda, ubale uwo sono ukumanyikwa kuti lamulo la Hubble. Ubale uwu ukulindilirika usange caro cose ca mlengalenga cikukura. Cakufumapo cakuti caro cose ca mlengalenga kale cikaŵa cakukhwima comene na cakotcha comene, ghanoghano la Kuphulika Kukulu ilo Georges Lemaître wakalongosora mu 1927, cikayowoyeka kweni pakaŵavya ukaboni wa viyezgo wakucikhozga. Kufuma mu ma 1940, unandi wa vyakucitika vya nyukiliya mu vyakucitika vya kukhwima kukulu ukasandika, ndipo ici cikapangiska ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kupangika kwa vigaŵa pa Kuphulika Kukulu pakumalira kwa ma 1940 na kwamba kwa ma 1950. Pamanyuma mu 1965 ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga ukasangika, ndipo ukakhozga ukaboni wa Kuphulika Kukulu. Kasandiro ka vyakwenda vya kuthambo kakalongolera kuŵapo kwa vinthu nga ni mabowo ghakufipa na nyenyezi za nyutironi. Ivi vyagwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora vyakucitika nga ni ma''quasar'' na ma''pulsar''. Vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya mu mlengalenga vyazomerezga kupima mu vigaŵa vya ungweru na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi ivyo kanandi vikukanizgika panji kufipiskika na mphepo ya caro capasi. Ntchito ya LIGO yikasanga ukaboni wa majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka mu 2015. == Kulaŵiska Kuthambo == Astronome ya kulaŵiska yikuthemba nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za utali wa majigha wakupambanapambana, ndipo mitundu ya astronome yikugaŵika kuyana na cigaŵa ca nkhongono izi ico kulaŵiska kukucitikira. === Wayilesi === Astronome ya wayilesi yikugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono izo majigha ghake ni ghatali, comene pakati pa milimita 1 na mamita 15, kutali comene na ivyo maso ghakuwona. Haidrojeni, iyo kanandi ni mphepo yambura kuwoneka, yikupanga mzere wa ungweru pa masentimita 21, uwo ungawoneka pa majigha gha wayilesi. Vinthu ivyo vingawoneka pa majigha gha wayilesi ni mphepo ya pakati pa nyenyezi, ma''pulsar'', kumweka kwa luŵiro kwa wayilesi, kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, na mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe. === Ungweru wa Pasi pa Uswesi === Astronome ya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi yikusanga nkhongono izo majigha ghake ngatali kuluska ungweru wakuswesa wakuwoneka, kuwaro kwa ivyo maso ghithu ghangawona. Ungweru uwu ngwakovwira pa kusanda vinthu ivyo vili vyakuzizima comene kuti vifumiske ungweru wakuwoneka, nga ni vibwe, vimbale vya kuzunguliya nyenyezi, panji maŵingu gha nyenyezi agho ungweru wake ukukanizgika na fuvu. Majigha ghatali gha ungweru uwu ghangajumpha maŵingu gha fuvu agho ghakukanizga ungweru wakuwoneka, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kulaŵiska nyenyezi ziphya izo zili mu maŵingu gha mamolekyu na mitima ya milambagombe. Kulaŵiska kwa WISE kwavumbula comene nyenyezi zinandi izo zikupangika na magulu gha nyenyezi umo zili. Kupatula majigha agho ghali pafupi na ungweru wakuwoneka, ungweru uwu ukukorekeka comene na mphepo ya caro capasi, panji ukubisika, cifukwa mphepo nayo yikufumiska ungweru unandi wa mtundu uwu. Ntheura, malo gha kulaŵiskira ungweru uwu ghakwenera kuŵa pacanya na malo ghakomira pa caro capasi panji mu mlengalenga. Mamolekyu ghanyake ghakufumiska comene ungweru uwu. Ici cikuzomerezga kusanda usungunu wa mu mlengalenga. Cilaŵiskiro ca Kutali ca Mlengalenga ca James Webb cikusanga ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi kuti cisange milambagombe yakutali comene. Ungweru wakuwoneka wa milambagombe iyi ukafuma vyaka mabiliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga kukasintha ungweru kuŵa wa pasi pa uswesi. Mwa kusanda milambagombe yakutali iyi, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakugomezga kumanya umo milambagombe yakwamba yikapangikira. === Ungweru Wakuwoneka === Mu mbiri, astronome ya ungweru wakuwoneka ndiyo mtundu wa kale comene wa astronome. Vithuzi vya kulaŵiska kale vikajambulikanga na woko. Pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na mu vyaka vinandi vya m'ma 1900, vithuzi vikapangikanga na vilwero vya kujambura vithuzi. Vithuzi vya mazuŵa ghano vikupangika na vilwero vya digito, comene ma''CCD'', ndipo vikusungika mu vilwero vya mazuŵa ghano. Nangauli ungweru wakuwoneka ukufuma pafupifupi nanomita 380 mpaka 700, vilwero vyenevivyo vingagwiliskirika ntchito kulaŵiska ungweru unyake wa pacanya pa uswesi na wa pasi pa uswesi uwo uli pafupi. === Ungweru wa Pacanya pa Uswesi === Astronome ya ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi yikugwiliskira ntchito majigha agho ghakukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi, ntheura kulaŵiska kukwenera kucitika pacanya mu mphepo panji mu mlengalenga. Astronome iyi njiwemi comene pa kusanda ungweru wa kufunda na mizere ya ungweru kufuma ku nyenyezi zakotcha za buluu, izo zikuŵala comene pa majigha agha. === X-ray === Astronome ya X-ray yikugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za X-ray, izo zikupangika na ndondomeko zakotcha comene na za nkhongono zikulu. Cifukwa X-ray zikukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi, kulaŵiska kukwenera kucitika pacanya comene, nga ni kufuma ku mabaluni, maloketi, panji ma''satellite'' ghapadera. Vinthu ivyo vikufumiska X-ray ni nyenyezi ziŵiri izo zikuzunguliyana, vyakusyala vya kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, magulu gha milambagombe, na mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe. Cifukwa pacanya pa zuŵa pakuzizima pacoko, vithuzi vya X-ray vya zuŵa na nyenyezi zinyake vikupeleka mauthenga ghakuzirwa pa cigaŵa cakotcha ca kuwaro kwa zuŵa. === Gamma === Astronome ya ''gamma'' yikulaŵiska vinthu vya kumwamba pa majigha ghafupi comene (nkhongono zikulu comene) gha nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi. Nkhongono za ''gamma'' zingalaŵiskika mwakulunjika na ma''satellite'' nga ni Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, panji na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vyapadera ivyo vikuchemeka vilaŵiskiro vya Cherenkov. Vilaŵiskiro ivi vikusanga nkhongono za ''gamma'' mwakulunjika yayi, kweni vikusanga kumweka kwa ungweru wakuwoneka uko kukupangika apo nkhongono za ''gamma'' zikukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi. Astronome ya ''gamma'' yikupeleka mauthenga pa kwambilira kwa nkhongono za kuthambo, vyakucitika ivyo vingaŵa vya kumalirana kwa vyamvimba vyakufipa, tuvinthu twa luŵiro comene utu tukufuma ku mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe, na, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mitima iyi nga ni vyakufumira vyakutali, vimanyikwiro vya mlengalenga wa pakati pa milambagombe. Kumweka kwa nkhongono za ''gamma'', uko kukucitika kwa kanyengo kacoko, ni vyakucitika vya nkhongono zikulu comene, ndipo ndivyo vyakuŵala comene mu caro cose ca mlengalenga. === Kulaŵiska Kwambura Nkhongono za Ntchito za Umagineti-Magesi === Vyakucitika vinyake ivyo vikufuma kutali comene vingalaŵiskika kufuma pa caro capasi na vilwero ivyo vikuthemba nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi yayi. Mu astronome ya ma''neutrino'', ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malo gha pasi pa nthaka ghakuvikilirika comene nga ni SAGE, GALLEX, na Kamioka II/III kusanga ma''neutrino''. Ma''neutrino'' ghanandi comene agho ghakujumpha mu caro capasi ghakufuma ku zuŵa, kweni ma''neutrino'' 24 ghakasangika so kufuma ku kuphulika kwa nyenyezi kwa 1987A. Nkhongono za kuthambo, izo zili na tuvinthu twa nkhongono zikulu comene (mitima ya maatomu) utu tungamalira panji kukorekeka apo tukunjira mu mphepo ya caro capasi, zikupangiska tuvinthu tunandi twaciŵiri utu tungasangika na malo gha kulaŵiskira gha mazuŵa ghano. Astronome ya majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka yikugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya kusanga majigha agha kuti yiwunjike mauthenga pa vinthu vikulu vyakutali. Malo ghacoko gha kulaŵiskira ghazengeka, nga ni LIGO. LIGO yikasanga kakwamba pa 14 Lupya 2015, ndipo yikalaŵiska majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka kufuma ku mabowo ghaŵiri ghakufipa. Jigha laciŵiri likasangika pa 26 Zimya 2015, ndipo kulaŵiska kunyake kukwenera kulutilira, kweni majigha agha ghakukhumba vilwero vyakupulika comene. Kusazga kulaŵiska uko kukucitika na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi, ma''neutrino'' panji majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka na mauthenga ghanyake ghakovwira kukuchemeka astronome ya vyakutumika vinandi. === Kupima Malo gha Nyenyezi na Kwenda kwa Vinthu vya Kumwamba === Cimoza mwa vigaŵa vya kale comene vya astronome, na vya kasandiro kose, ni kupima malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba, ico cikuchemeka ''astrometry''. Mu mbiri, kumanya makola malo gha zuŵa, mwezi, vibwe na nyenyezi kukaŵa kwakuzirwa pa kwendeska ngalawa mwa kulaŵiska kuthambo na pa kupanga makalendala. Kupima kwakupwelelera kwa malo gha vibwe kwapangiska kumanya makola kukhwaskana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka, na kumanya malo gha kale na gha munthazi gha vibwe mwakulunjika comene, cigaŵa ico cikuchemeka kasandiro ka kwenda kwa vinthu vya kumwamba. Kupima mtunda wa nyenyezi za pafupi kukupeleka maziko gha makwelero gha kupima mtunda wa caro cose ca mlengalenga, agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kupima ukulu wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kupima uku kukupeleka maziko gha vimanyikwiro vya nyenyezi zakutali comene, cifukwa vimanyikwiro vyawo vingayaniskika. Kupima luŵiro na kwenda kwa nyenyezi kukuzomerezga ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi kulongora kwenda kwa ndondomeko izi mu mlambagombe wa Milky Way. == Vigaŵa Kuyana na Ukulu == === Kasandiro ka Caro Cose ca Mlengalenga === Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, ako kakusanda kazengero kakulu ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, kakukhumba kupulikiska kupangika na kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Cakuzirwa comene ku kasandiro aka ka mazuŵa ghano ni ghanoghano lakuzomerezgeka la Kuphulika Kukulu (Big Bang), ilo likuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikamba ciŵe cakukhwima comene na cakotcha comene, pamanyuma cikakura mu vyaka biliyoni 13.8 kufika apo cili sono. Ghanoghano la Kuphulika Kukulu likazomerezgeka comene pamanyuma pa kusangika kwa ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga mu 1965. Vyamvimba vyakufipa na nkhongono zakufipa sono vikughanaghanirika kuŵa magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Pa cifukwa ici, ntchito yinandi yikucitika kuyezga kumanya vigaŵa ivi. === Kuwaro kwa Mlambagombe Withu === Kusanda vinthu kuwaro kwa mlambagombe withu kukukhwaskana na kupangika na kukura kwa milambagombe, mawonekero na kagaŵiro kake, kulaŵiska milambagombe yamoyo, na pa ukulu ukulu, magulu gha milambagombe. Ivi vikovwira kupulikiska kazengero kakulu ka caro cose ca mlengalenga. === Mlambagombe === Astronome ya milambagombe yikusanda milambagombe kusazgapo Milky Way, mlambagombe wakuzunguliya uwo uli mu Gulu la Pafupi la milambagombe ndipo uli na Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ni kawunjikiro kakuzunguliya ka mphepo, fuvu, nyenyezi na vinthu vinyake, ivyo vikukoleranga pamoza na nkhongono ya kukoka. Cifukwa caro capasi cili mu mikono ya kuwaro iyo yili na fuvu, vigaŵa vikulu vya Milky Way vikubisika. Kusanda kwenda kwa vyamvimba mu Milky Way na milambagombe yinyake kukulongora kuti pali kuzitika kukulu kuluska ivyo vyamvimba vyakuwoneka vingalongosora. Cizungulizgo ca vyamvimba vyakufipa cikuwoneka kuŵa ndico cili na kuzitika kukulu, nangauli kawiro ka vyamvimba vyakufipa ivi kakumanyikwa yayi. === Nyenyezi === Kusanda nyenyezi na kukura kwake nkhwakuzirwa comene ku kupulikiska kwithu caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kusanda mendero kwa nyenyezi kwamanyikwa kwizira mu kulaŵiska na maghanoghano, na kufuma ku viyelezgero vya makompyuta vya mukati mwa nyenyezi. Ivyo vikusandika ni kupangika kwa nyenyezi mu maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu; kupangika kwa nyenyezi ziphya; na kusintha kuya ku kukolerana kwa nyukiliya na nyenyezi za ndondomeko yikulu, izo zikupanga vigaŵa. Ndondomeko zinyake izo zikusandika ni kukura kwa nyenyezi, uko kukumalira na kuphulika kwa nyenyezi yikulu panji nyenyezi yicoko yakutuŵa. Kufumiska kwa vigaŵa vya kuwaro kukupanga bingu la nyenyezi la mtundu wa cibwe. Ivyo vikusyala pa kuphulika kwa nyenyezi yikulu ni nyenyezi ya nyutironi yakukhwima, panji, usange kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kukaŵa katatu kwa zuŵa panji kujumpha, bowo lakufipa. === Zuŵa === Astronome ya zuŵa ni kusanda [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], nyenyezi yicoko ya ndondomeko yikulu ya mtundu wa G2 V, iyo yili na vyaka pafupifupi biliyoni 4.6. Ndondomeko izo kasandiro aka kakusanda ni ndondomeko ya mawanga gha zuŵa, kusintha kwa kuŵala kwa zuŵa, kwa nyengo zose na kwa nyengo zinyake, na nkhalo ya vigaŵa vyakupambana vya zuŵa, ndiko kuti mtima wake na kukolerana kwa nyukiliya, cigaŵa ca kufumiska nkhongono, cigaŵa ca kwenda kwa kufunda, cigaŵa ca pacanya ca ungweru, cigaŵa ca mitundu, na cigaŵa ca kuwaro comene. === Kasandiro ka Vibwe === Kasandiro ka vibwe ni kusanda vibwe, myezi, vibwe vicoko, nyenyezi za mcira, vibwe vicoko vya malibwe, na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa, kweniso vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya nyenyezi zakutali. Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kasandika makola, pakwamba na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali ndipo pamanyuma na vyombo vya mlengalenga. Ndondomeko izo zikusandika ni kugaŵika kwa vigaŵa vya cibwe; kupangika kwa nkhongono ya umagineti ya cibwe na ivyo yikucita; na kupangika kwa kufunda mukati mwa cibwe, nga ni kufuma ku kutimbana, kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu, na kukoka kwa myezi. Kufunda uku nako kungiziska ndondomeko za pasi nga ni mapiri gha moto, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na kukokoloka kwa pacanya, ivyo vikusandika na vigaŵa vya kasandiro ka pasi. == Vigaŵa Vyakukolerana na Tusandiro Tunyake == === Usungunu wa Mlengalenga === Usungunu wa mlengalenga ni kukolerana kwa astronome na usungunu. Ukusanda unandi na kukolerana kwa mamolekyu mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, na kukwekana kwawo na nkhongono za ungweru. Lizgu ili lingagwiliskirika ntchito pa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa na pa mlengalenga wa pakati pa nyenyezi. Kusanda mu cigaŵa ici kukovwira mwaciyelezgero kumanya umo Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kakapangikira. === Kasandiro ka Vyamoyo mu Mlengalenga === Kasandiro ka vyamoyo mu mlengalenga kakusanda kwambilira kwa umoyo na kukura kwake kuwaro kwa caro capasi. Kakupenda usange umoyo ulipo kunyake, na umo ŵanthu ŵangawusangira usange ulipo. Kakugwiliskira ntchito astronome, usungunu wa vyamoyo, kasandiro ka pasi, kasandiro ka tuvinyama tucoko comene, kusanda mendero, na kasandiro ka vibwe kuti kapende usange umoyo ungaŵako pa vibwe vinyake, na kovwira kumanya malo gha vyamoyo agho ghangaŵa ghakupambana na gha caro capasi. Kwambilira na kukura kwakwamba kwa umoyo ni cigaŵa cambura kupatukana ca kasandiro aka. Ici cikusazgapo kusanda kwambilira kwa ndondomeko za vibwe, kwambilira kwa vinthu vya vyamoyo mu mlengalenga, kukolerana kwa malibwe, maji na kaboni, kwambilira kwa umoyo pa caro capasi, kukhalika kwa vibwe, kusanda vimanyikwiro vya umoyo, na kusanda umo umoyo ungakolerana na masuzgo pa caro capasi na mu mlengalenga. === Vinyake === Astronome na kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo vyapanga ubale na vigaŵa vinyake vikulu vya kasandiro. Astronome ya kale ni kusanda astronome za kale panji za midawuko mu midawuko yawo, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni wa vinthu vya kale na wa kasandiro ka ŵanthu. Viŵerengero vya astronome ni kugwiliskira ntchito viŵerengero pa kupenda unandi ukulu wa mauthenga gha kulaŵiska kuthambo. Pakumalira, nga ni "astronome ya milandu", nthowa za astronome zagwiliskirika ntchito kumazga masuzgo gha mbiri ya luso la kujambula na nyengo zinyake gha dango. == Ŵalaŵiski Ŵambura Kusambira == Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro umo ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira ŵangawovwira comene. Pamoza, ŵalaŵiski ŵa nyenyezi ŵambura kusambira ŵakulaŵiska vinthu na vyakucitika vya kumwamba, nyengo zinyake na vilwero vya ŵakugula panji vilwero ivyo ŵapanga ŵekha. Ivyo ŵakulaŵiska comene ni zuŵa, mwezi, vibwe, nyenyezi, nyenyezi za mcira, kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga, na vinthu vya kutali comene nga ni magulu gha nyenyezi, milambagombe, na maŵingu gha nyenyezi. Makilabu gha astronome pa caro cose ghali na ndondomeko za kovwira ŵanthu ŵawo kunozga na kwendeska ndondomeko za kulaŵiska, nga ni kulaŵiska vinthu vyose mu mindandanda ya Messier (vinthu 110) panji Herschel 400. Ŵanandi ŵakugwira ntchito pa majigha gha ungweru wakuwoneka, kweni ŵanyake ŵayezga majigha ghanyake. Mwambi wa astronome ya wayilesi ya ŵambura kusambira, Karl Jansky, wakasanga kufumira kwa wayilesi pakati pa Milky Way. Ŵalaŵiski ŵanyake ŵambura kusambira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali ivyo ŵapanga ŵekha panji vilaŵiskiro vya wayilesi ivyo pakwamba vikazengeka pa kusanda astronome. Ŵambura kusambira ŵangapima kubisa kwa nyenyezi kuti ŵanozge nthowa za vibwe vicoko. Ŵangasanga nyenyezi za mcira, na kulaŵiska nyengo zose nyenyezi izo kuŵala kwake kukusintha. Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la digito kwazomerezga ŵambura kusambira kuluta panthazi pa kujambura vithuzi vya kuthambo. == Mafumbo Ghambura Kuzgoleka == Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, pacali mafumbo ghakuzirwa ghambura kuzgoleka mu astronome. Ghanyake ngakulu nga ni caro cose ca mlengalenga: mwaciyelezgero, kasi vyamvimba vyakufipa na nkhongono zakufipa izo zikulongozga kukura na umaliro wa caro cose ca mlengalenga ni vici? Kasi umaliro wa caro cose ca mlengalenga uzamuŵa wuli? Cifukwa wuli unandi wa ''lithium'' mu caro cose ca mlengalenga ngucoko kanayi kuluska ivyo ciyelezgero ca Kuphulika Kukulu cikulongolera? Ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na vyakucitika vyapadera. Mwaciyelezgero, kasi Kanozgero ka Zuŵa nkhambura kupambana panji nkhapadera? Kasi kagaŵiro ka kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kakufuma nkhu, ndiko kuti cifukwa wuli ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakuwona kagaŵiro kakuyana ka kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kwambura kulaŵiska vyakucitika vyakwamba? Nga ni nthena, pacali mafumbo pa kupangika kwa milambagombe yakwamba, kwambilira kwa mabowo ghakufipa ghakulu comene, kufumira kwa nkhongono za kuthambo za nkhongono zikulu comene, na usange pali umoyo unyake mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, comene umoyo unyake wa vinjeru. ge8o90q7pa2ji9t8uh85cc8wm99fcbn 124407 124339 2026-11-10T20:37:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | perrow = 3 | total_width = 370 | image1 = Titan in front of the ring and Saturn.jpg | image2 = BD-08 1203 imaged by Euclid Space Telescope.png | image3 = Solar eclipse 1999 4.jpg | image4 = Laser Towards Milky Ways Centre.jpg | image5 = Black hole - Messier 87 crop max res.jpg | image6 = Hubble Interacting Galaxy UGC 9618 (2008-04-24).jpg | image7 = Cropped frame of the Constrained Local Universe Evolution Simulation (CLUES).jpg | image8 = Rho Ophiuchi (NIRCam Image) (2023-128).png | image9 = ASTRONAUT WHITE, EDWARD H. II - GEMINI-IV - EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY (EVA).jpg | footer = Vithuzi 9 ivyo vikukhwaskana na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya astronome.{{efn|Apa pali vithuzi ivyo vili mu cithuzi ici na cigaŵa ca astronome ico cilicose cikulongora, kufuma ku mazere kuya ku maryero: ; Kasandiro ka vibwe : Titan wakujumpha panthazi pa Saturn, cithuzi ca mitundu ya kawiro kufuma ku ndege ya mlengalenga ya Cassini, cakulongora kusintha kwa mpweya mu nyengo na cithulo ca vizingo vya Saturn. ; Astronome ya nyenyezi : nyenyezi BD−08 1203 yakujambulika na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca Euclid. ; Kasandiro ka zuŵa : cithuzi ca kufipa kwakukwana kwa zuŵa mu 1999 ku France, cakulongora ungweru wa kuzingilizga zuŵa. ; Astronome ya kulaŵiska na ya mlambagombe : VLT pa Paranal Observatory yikuponya ungweru wa ''laser'' mu mpweya kuti yilaŵiske makora pakati pa mlambagombe withu. ; Kasandiro ka nkhongono za mlengalenga : cithuzi cakwamba ca dolozi likulu la cisi la M87* kufuma ku Event Horizon Telescope. ; Astronome ya kuwaro kwa mlambagombe withu : milambagombe yiŵiri ya UGC 9618 iyo yikukwekana, yakujambulika na Hubble Space Telescope. ; Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga na kupenda na kompyuta : cithuzi kufuma ku ntchito ya CLUES, cakulongora umo milambagombe yikukolerana mu caro cose ca mlengalenga. ; Kasandiro ka vyakusazganika vya mlengalenga : maŵingu gha Rho Ophiuchi ghakujambulika na JWST. ; Kasandiro ka vyamoyo mu mlengalenga : Edward H. White II wakwenda kuwaro kwa ndege ya mlengalenga pa Gemini 4. <br> Ivi ni vimoza waka mwa vigaŵa vinandi vya astronome. Vinyake ni kasandiro ka nkhongono zikulu, kasandiro ka dongo la vibwe, kasandiro ka kunjenjemera kwa zuŵa, astronome ya ma''neutrino'', na vinyake. Kweniso vigaŵa vya astronome kanandi vikusazgana.}} }} '''Astronome''' (panji '''kusanda nyenyezi''') ni kasandiro ka kawiro ako kakusanda vinthu vya kumwamba na vyakucitika mu caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kakugwiliskira ntchito masamu, [[Kusanda mendero|kusanda mendero]], na [[Usungunu|usungunu]] kulongosora kwambilira kwa vinthu ivi na umo vikukulira. Vinthu ivyo kakusanda ni [[Chibwe|vibwe]], myezi, nyenyezi, maŵingu gha nyenyezi, [[Mlambagombe|milambagombe]], malibwe gha mlengalenga, vibwe vicoko vya malibwe, na nyenyezi za mcira. Vyakucitika ivyo kakusanda ni kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, kumweka kwa nkhongono za ''gamma'', ma''quasar'', ma''blazar'', ma''pulsar'', na ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Mwa pose, astronome yikusanda cinthu ciliconse ico cikufuma kuwaro kwa mphepo iyo yikuzunguliya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga ni cigaŵa ca astronome ico cikusanda caro cose ca mlengalenga pamoza. Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro twa kawiro twa kale comene. Ŵanthu ŵa midawuko ya kale agho mbiri yawo yikalembeka ŵakalaŵiskanga kuthambo usiku mwandondomeko. Mwa iwo muli Ŵaeguputo, Ŵababuloni, Ŵagiriki, Ŵaindiya, Ŵacayina, Ŵamaya, na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa kale ŵa ku Amerika. Kale, astronome yikasazgangapo vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni kupima malo gha nyenyezi, kwendeska ngalawa mwa kulaŵiska nyenyezi, kulaŵiska kuthambo, na kupanga makalendala. Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro tucoko umo ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira kasandiro aka ŵakuwovwira comene. Ici nchaunenesko comene pa kusanga na kulaŵiska vyakucitika vya kanyengo kacoko. Ŵalaŵiski ŵa nyenyezi ŵambura kusambira ŵawovwira pa vyakusanga vinandi vyakuzirwa, nga ni kusanga nyenyezi za mcira ziphya. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu lakuti astronome likufuma ku Cigiriki ἀστρονομία, kufuma ku ἄστρον (''astron'', "nyenyezi") na -νομία (''-nomia'', kufuma ku νόμος ''nomos'', "dango" panji "lamulo"), ndipo likung'anamula kusanda vinthu vya kumwamba.<ref>{{cite web |title=astronomy (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/astronomy |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=13 August 2025}}</ref> Astronome yikwenera kupambanyizgika na kulongolera vyamunthazi mwa nyenyezi, ico ni cigomezgo cakuti vya umoyo wa ŵanthu vikukolerana na malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikafuma pamoza kweni vikapatukana, ndipo astronome yikukhozgeka na kusanda mendero, kweni kulongolera vyamunthazi mwa nyenyezi yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2012JAHH...15...42L |title='Astronomy' or 'astrology': A brief history of an apparent confusion |last=Losev |first=Alexandre |journal=Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=42–46 |year=2012 |doi=10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2012.01.05 |arxiv=1006.5209 |s2cid=51802196 |issn=1440-2807}}</ref> === Kagwiliskiro ka Mazgo "Astronome" na "Kusanda Mendero kwa Kuthambo" === "Astronome" na "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ghakung'anamula pafupifupi cinthu cimoza mu kagwiliskiro ka mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="scharrinhausen">{{cite web |url=https://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30 |title=What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics? |website=Curious About Astronomy |date=January 2002 |last=Scharringhausen |first=B. |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609102139/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30 |archive-date=9 June 2007 }}</ref><ref name="odenwald">{{cite web |url=http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q449.html |title=Archive of Astronomy Questions and Answers: What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics? |last=Odenwald |first=Sten |publisher=The Astronomy Cafe |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708092148/http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q449.html |archive-date=8 July 2007 }}</ref><ref name="pennstateerie">{{cite web |title=School of Science-Astronomy and Astrophysics |website=Penn State Erie |date=July 18, 2005 |url=http://www.erie.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/astronomy/astrophysics.htm |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101100832/http://www.erie.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/astronomy/astrophysics.htm |archive-date=1 November 2007}}</ref> Mu madikishonale, "astronome" ni "kusanda vinthu ivyo vili kuwaro kwa mphepo ya caro capasi na vimanyikwiro vyake vya kawiro na vya usungunu", apo "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ni cigaŵa ca astronome ico cikukhwaskana na "nkhalo, vimanyikwiro vya kawiro, na ndondomeko za kwenda vya vinthu na vyakucitika vya kumwamba".<ref name="mw-astronomy">{{cite web |title=astronomy |work=Merriam-Webster Online |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617131203/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy |archive-date=17 June 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mw-astrophysics">{{cite web |title=astrophysics |work=Merriam-Webster Online |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics |url-status=live}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, nga ni mu buku la kusambizgira la Frank Shu, "astronome" yikung'anamula kusanda nkhani iyi mwa kulongosora, apo "kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo" ni kusanda kwa mendero.<ref name="shu1982">{{cite book |first=F.H. |last=Shu |chapter=Preface |title=The Physical Universe |publisher=University Science Books |date=1983 |location=Mill Valley, California |isbn=978-0-935702-05-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf}}</ref> Vigaŵa vinyake, nga ni kupima malo gha nyenyezi, ni astronome pera. Vigaŵa vya kusanda vingagwiliskira ntchito mazgo agha kuyana na usange cigaŵa ico kale cikakolerana na cigaŵa ca kusanda mendero, ndipo ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵali na madigiri gha kusanda mendero m'malo mwa gha astronome.<ref name="odenwald"/><ref name="pennstateerie"/> Ntheura, mu kagwiliskiro ka mazuŵa ghano, mazgo ghaŵiri agha kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mwakusinthana.<ref name="scharrinhausen"/> == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Malibwe ghakulu gha ku Nabta Playa, ghakuzengeka na ŵanthu ŵa Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya, ghali ku Aswan, Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=469, 705–722|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref>]] [[File:1600 Himmelsscheibe von Nebra sky disk anagoria.jpg|thumb|Mbale ya kuthambo ya Nebra iyo yikasangika pa phiri la Mittenberg ku Germany, ya {{circa|1800–1600 pambere Khristu}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pernicka |first1=Ernst |last2=Adam |first2=Jörg |last3=Borg |first3=Gregor |last4=Brügmann |first4=Gerhard |last5=Bunnefeld |first5=Jan-Heinrich |last6=Kainz |first6=Wolfgang |last7=Klamm |first7=Mechthild |last8=Koiki |first8=Thomas |last9=Meller |first9=Harald |last10=Schwarz |first10=Ralf |last11=Stöllner |first11=Thomas |last12=Wunderlich |first12=Christian-Heinrich |last13=Reichenberger |first13=Alfred |date=2020 |title=Why the Nebra Sky Disc Dates to the Early Bronze Age. An Overview of the Interdisciplinary Results |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27045107 |journal=Archaeologia Austriaca |volume=104 |pages=89–122 |doi=10.1553/archaeologia104s89 |jstor=27045107 |issn=0003-8008|doi-access=free }}</ref> ]] Kukura kwakwamba kwa astronome kukiza cifukwa ca vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo, nga ni makalendala gha ulimi. Pambere mbiri yindalembeke, malo gha kale nga ni Stonehenge ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵakakhumbanga kulaŵiska kuthambo.<ref name=Ryden-2020>{{Cite book |last1=Ryden |first1=Barbara |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108933001/type/book |title=Foundations of Astrophysics |last2=Peterson |first2=Bradley M. |date=2020-08-27 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-93300-1 |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/9781108933001.002}}</ref>{{rp|15}} Ukaboni ukufuma so ku vinthu vya kale nga ni cimbale ca kuthambo ca Nebra, ico cili na vimanyikwiro ivyo vikung'anamulika nga ni zuŵa, mwezi, na nyenyezi, kusazgapo gulu la nyenyezi 7.<ref name="Meller 2021">{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/80363367 |title=Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany |chapter=The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power |last=Meller |first=Harald |date=2021 |publisher=Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). |isbn=978-3-948618-22-3}}</ref><ref name="Halle">{{cite web|url=https://www.landesmuseum-vorgeschichte.de/en/nebra-sky-disc.html |title=Nebra Sky Disc|website=Halle State Museum of Prehistory}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://the-past.com/feature/the-nebra-sky-disc-decoding-a-prehistoric-vision-of-the-cosmos/|title=The Nebra Sky Disc: decoding a prehistoric vision of the cosmos|website=The-Past.com|date=May 2022}}</ref> Malibwe ghakulu gha ku Nabta Playa, mu Eguputo ya Pacanya, ghakanozgeka kuyana na kuwoneka kwa nyenyezi ya Sirius mlenji, ndipo ghakovwiranga kunozga kalendala ya caka pa cigumula ca caka ciliconse ca mlonga wa Nilo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24410-5 |pages=107–110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=christopher+ehret+nabta+playa |language=en}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kale === [[File:Ct-33-planisphere.jpg|thumb|left|Mapu gha kuthambo gha Ŵababuloni (vyaka vya m'ma 600 pambere Khristu) ghakaŵa cilwero cakwamba ca astronome. Kapendero kake ka manambala ka 60 (mwaciyelezgero 12, 24, 60, 360) kakugwiliskirika ntchito mpaka sono pa kupenda nyengo na kupima malo gha nyenyezi.<ref name="x754">{{cite web |last=Gent |first=R.H. van |title=Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy & Astrology |website=science.uu.nl project csg |url=https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/babylon/babybibl.htm |access-date=2024-11-22}}</ref>]] Midawuko nga ni Eguputo, Mesopotamiya, Girisi, India, na China, paŵekha kweni na kukhwaskana, yikazenga malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo ndipo yikapanga maghanoghano pa kawiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, pamoza na makalendala na vilwero vya kulaŵiskira kuthambo.<ref name="Sarma 2000">{{cite journal |last=Sarma |first=Nataraja |title=Diffusion of astronomy in the ancient world |journal=Endeavour |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=2000 |doi=10.1016/S0160-9327(00)01327-2 |pages=157–164 |pmid=11196987 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0160932700013272|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kukura kwakuzirwa kwakwamba kukaŵa kwamba kwa astronome ya masamu na ya kasandiro mwa Ŵababuloni, uko kukaŵika maziko gha midawuko ya astronome mu midawuko yinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |author=Aaboe, A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=1974 |pages=21–42 |jstor=74272 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |s2cid=122508567 }}</ref> Ŵababuloni ŵakasanga kuti kubisika kwa mwezi kukuwerezgeka mu ndondomeko ya ''saros'' ya myezi 223.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eclipses and the Saros |publisher=NASA |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |access-date=28 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030225501/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |archive-date=30 October 2007 }}</ref> Pamanyuma pa Ŵababuloni, kuluta panthazi kukulu kukacitika mu Girisi wa kale na mu caro ca Ŵagiriki. Astronome ya Ŵagiriki yikapenjanga malongosoro gha vinjeru na gha kawiro gha vyakucitika vya kumwamba.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Krafft |first=Fritz |date=2009 |contribution=Astronomy |editor-last=Cancik |editor-first=Hubert |editor2-last=Schneider |editor2-first=Helmuth |title=Brill's New Pauly |title-link=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu, Heracleides Ponticus wakaŵa wakwamba kusacizga kuti caro capasi cikuzunguliya ca ceneco.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Heracleides Ponticus {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Heracleides-Ponticus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251015114554/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Heracleides-Ponticus |archive-date=2025-10-15 |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 pambere Khristu, Aristarchus wa ku Samos wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi na zuŵa, ndipo wakasacizga ciyelezgero ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa umo caro capasi na vibwe vikuzunguliya zuŵa, ico sono cikuchemeka ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Aristarchus's On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon: Greek and Arabic Texts |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |date=May 2007 |first1=J.L. |last1=Berrgren |first2=Nathan |last2=Sidoli |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=213–54 |doi=10.1007/s00407-006-0118-4 |s2cid=121872685 }}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu, Hipparchus wakapima ukulu na mtunda wa mwezi ndipo wakapanga vilwero vyakwamba vya astronome ivyo vikumanyikwa, nga ni ''astrolabe''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Hipparchus.html |title=Hipparchus of Rhodes |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews |access-date=28 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023062202/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Hipparchus.html |archive-date=23 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> Wakawona so kusintha kucoko kwa malo gha mazuŵa agho usiku na msana vikuyana na agho zuŵa likufika kumpoto comene panji kumwera comene, kuyaniska na nyenyezi, ico sono tikumanya kuti cikufuma ku kuzungunyika kwa nthowa ya caro capasi.<ref name="Ryden-2020" /> Hipparchus wakapanga so mndandanda wa nyenyezi 1,020, ndipo magulu ghanandi gha nyenyezi gha cigaŵa ca kumpoto ghakufuma ku astronome ya Ŵagiriki.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thurston |first=H. |title=Early Astronomy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNpHjqxQQ9oC&pg=PA2 |year=1996 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-94822-5 |page=2 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012120/https://books.google.com/books?id=rNpHjqxQQ9oC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Makina gha Antikythera (pafupifupi 150–80 pambere Khristu) ghakaŵa kompyuta yakwamba ya kale iyo yikapangika kupima malo gha zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe pa zuŵa linyake. Vilwero vya luso lakuyana vikawonekaso yayi mpaka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300, apo vipimanyengo vya makina vya astronome vikawoneka mu Ulaya.<ref name="insearchoflosttime">{{cite journal |last1=Marchant |first1=Jo |title=In search of lost time |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=534–538 |date=2006 |pmid=17136067 |doi=10.1038/444534a |bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Pamanyuma pa Nyengo ya Kale === Pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Ŵagiriki, astronome yikalongozgeka na ciyelezgero ca caro capasi pakati, panji ndondomeko ya Ptolemy, iyo yikathyika zina la Claudius Ptolemy. Buku lake la vigaŵa 13 la astronome, ilo likuchemeka ''Almagest'' mu kung'anamulika kwake kwa Ciarabu, likaŵa buku likulu la kulaŵiskako kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 1,000.<ref name="Christian-2010">{{Cite book |title=A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/question-and-answer-guide-to-astronomy/history-of-astronomy/228E94E3DBEEA10CC8D6DDCBFB738FED |chapter=History of astronomy |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-67612-3 |editor-last=Christian |editor-first=Carol |location=Cambridge |pages=193–208 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511676123.009 |editor-last2=Roy |editor-first2=Jean-René |editor-last3=Bely |editor-first3=Pierre-Yves}}</ref>{{rp|196}} Mu ndondomeko iyi, caro capasi cikaghanaghanirika kuŵa pakati pa caro cose ca mlengalenga, ndipo zuŵa, mwezi na nyenyezi vikacizunguliyanga.<ref>{{cite book |last=DeWitt |first=Richard |title=Worldviews: An Introduction to the History and Philosophy of Science |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |location=Chichester, England |isbn=978-1-4051-9563-8 |page=113 |chapter=The Ptolemaic System}}</ref> Nangauli ndondomeko iyi pamanyuma yikazomerezgeka yayi, yikapelekanga malongosoro ghakulunjika comene gha malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba agho ghakaŵako pa nyengo iyo.<ref name="Christian-2010" /> Apo astronome ya Ŵagiriki yikafika mu India kwizira mu malonda na kukumana kwa midawuko, astronome ya Ŵaindiya yikanjira mu nyengo yiphya mu vyaka vyakwamba vya mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref>Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p. 269 [https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ&q=afghanistan,+les+tresors+retrouves] "Les influences de l'astronomie grecques sur l'astronomie indienne auraient pu commencer de se manifester plus tot qu'on ne le pensait, des l'epoque Hellenistique en fait, par l'intermediaire des colonies grecques des Greco-Bactriens et Indo-Grecs" (French) Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés", p. 269. Translation: "The influence of Greek astronomy on Indian astronomy may have taken place earlier than thought, as soon as the Hellenistic period, through the agency of the Greek colonies of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks.</ref> Midawuko ya kale ya malo agho, nga ni iyo yikalembeka mu ''Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa'', yikapeleka maziko gha makalendala, apo viyelezgero vya astronome ya Ŵagiriki pamanyuma vikasazgika na ŵasambiri nga ni Āryabhaṭa, Varāhamihira, na Brahmagupta. Āryabhaṭa wakanozga comene nthowa za kupima kwenda kwa vibwe na kubisika kwa zuŵa na mwezi.<ref name="Pingree (1978), 533, 554f.">D. Pingree: "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 533–633 (533, 554f.)</ref><ref>{{MacTutor|id=Aryabhata_I |title=Aryabhata the Elder}}</ref> Mu nyengo yapakati ya pamanyuma, sukulu ya Kerala yikovwira astronome kwizira mu kulaŵiska kwakunozgeka na kupima kwakulunjika comene kwa vibwe na kubisika.<ref>{{MacTutor|id=Nilakantha |title=Nilakantha}}</ref> [[File:Al- Fargānī, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad – Compilatio astronomica, 1493 – BEIC 13262685.jpg |thumb |upright |Cithuzi ca Alfraganus mu ''Compilatio astronomica'', 1493. Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Cisilamu ŵakawunjika na kung'anamula mabuku gha Ŵaindiya, Ŵapersia, na Ŵagiriki, ndipo ŵakasazgirako ntchito yawo.<ref name="n063">{{cite web |last=Akerman |first=Iain |title=The language of the stars |website=WIRED Middle East |date=2023-05-17 |url=https://wired.me/culture/arab-astronomy-the-language-of-stars/ |access-date=2024-11-23}}</ref>]] Astronome yikakura comene mu caro ca Cisilamu ca nyengo yapakati. Malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo ghakazengeka kuko pakwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 800.<ref name="Kennedy-1962">{{cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |date=1962 |title=Review: ''The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory'' by Aydin Sayili |journal=Isis |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=237–39 |doi=10.1086/349558 }}</ref><ref name="Micheau-992-3">{{cite journal |last=Micheau |first=Françoise |editor-last=Rashed |editor-first=Roshdi |editor2-last=Morelon |editor2-first=Régis |title=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East |journal=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=3 |pages=992–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nas |first=Peter J |title=Urban Symbolism |date=1993 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09855-8 |page=350}}</ref> Mu 964, Mlambagombe wa Andromeda, mlambagombe ukulu comene mu Gulu la Pafupi, ukalongosoreka na msandi wa nyenyezi wa Cisilamu wa ku Persia Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi mu Buku lake la Nyenyezi Zambura Kusamika.<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last1=Kepple |first1=George Robert |first2=Glen W. |last2=Sanner |title=The Night Sky Observer's Guide |volume=1 |publisher=Willmann-Bell, Inc. |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-943396-58-3 |page=18}}</ref> Kuphulika kwa nyenyezi SN 1006, cakucitika ca nyenyezi cakuŵala comene mu vyaka 1,000 vyaumaliro, kukalaŵiskika na msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ciarabu wa ku Eguputo Ali ibn Ridwan na ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ŵacayina mu 1006.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murdin |first1=Paul |title=Supernovae |last2=Murdin |first2=Lesley |date=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-30038-4 |edition=2 |location=Cambridge |page=14}}</ref> Msambiri wa ku Iran Al-Biruni wakawona kuti, kupambana na Ptolemy, malo ghapacanya comene gha zuŵa ghakwenda, ghambura kukhazikika.<ref name="Goldstein1967">{{cite journal |title=The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis |first=Bernard R. |last=Goldstein |page=6 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |date=1967 |volume=57 |issue=pt. 4 |doi=10.2307/1006040 |jstor=1006040}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Covington |first1=Richard |title=Rediscovering Arabic Science |url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm |access-date=6 March 2023 |work=Aramco World |issue=3 |volume=58 |date=2007 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301151438/https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵa Ciarabu ŵakanjizga mazina ghanandi gha Ciarabu agho sono ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyenyezi zinyake.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Morrison | first1=Robert G. | chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_89 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_89 | chapter=Astronomy in Islam | title=Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions | date=2013 | pages=155–158 | isbn=978-1-4020-8264-1 }}</ref> Vyakusyala vya Great Zimbabwe na Timbuktu vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa na malo gha kulaŵiskira kuthambo.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/royalkingdomsofg00patr |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/royalkingdomsofg00patr/page/103 103] |title=The royal kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: life in medieval Africa |first=Pat |last=McKissack |author2=McKissack, Frederick |date=1995 |publisher=H. Holt |isbn=978-0-8050-4259-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html |title=Eclipse brings claim of medieval African observatory |date=2002 |magazine=New Scientist |access-date=3 February 2010 |last=Clark |first=Stuart |author2=Carrington, Damian |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430173144/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro ya pamanyuma pa nyengo ya kale, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakasanda kwenda kwa nyenyezi na ubale wake na nyengo za caka, ndipo ŵakapanga mapu gha kuthambo na vithuzi vya nthowa za vibwe vinyake kuyana na kupima kwakusuzga kwa masamu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hammer |first=Joshua |title=The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4767-7743-6 |location=New York |pages=26–27}}</ref> Msandi wa mbiri wa Songhai Mahmud Kati wakalemba za kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga mu 1583.<ref>{{cite book |last=Holbrook |first=Jarita C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182 |title=African Cultural Astronomy |author2=Medupe, R. Thebe |author3=Johnson Urama |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |page=182 |isbn=978-1-4020-6638-2 |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817020340/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu Ulaya ya nyengo yapakati, Richard wa ku Wallingford (1292–1336) wakapanga cipimanyengo cakwamba ca astronome, ''Rectangulus'' iyo yikazomerezganga kupima makona pakati pa vibwe na vinthu vinyake vya kumwamba, na ''Albion'' iyo yingagwiliskirika ntchito pa kupima kwa astronome nga ni malo gha mwezi, zuŵa, na vibwe.<ref name="Gimpel 1992">{{cite book |title=The Medieval Machine |first=Jean |last=Gimpel |author-link=Jean Gimpel |year=1992 |orig-date=1976 |edition=2nd |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-0-7126-5484-5 |pages=155–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hannam |first=James |title=God's philosophers: how the medieval world laid the foundations of modern science |publisher=Icon Books |year=2009 |page=180}}</ref><ref>Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages'', (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 114–116.</ref> Nicole Oresme (1320–1382) wakayowoya za ukaboni wa kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi.<ref>''Questions on the Eight Books of the Physics of Aristotle: Book VIII Question 12''. English translation in Clagett's 1959 ''Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages '', p. 536</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Van Dyck |first1=Maarten |last2=Malara |first2=Ivan |title=Renaissance Concept of Impetus |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/VANRCO-3 |access-date=12 August 2025}}</ref> Jean Buridan (1300–1361) wakapanga ghanoghano la ''impetus'', ilo likulongosora kwenda kusazgapo kwa vinthu vya kumwamba.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J.L. |title=The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |page=3}}</ref> Kwa vyaka mahandiredi ghankhondi na limoza (kufuma ku kuwelera kwa kasambiro ka kale pakumalira kwa nyengo yapakati mpaka ku Nyengo ya Ungweru wa Vinjeru), Mpingo wa Katolika wa Roma ukapeleka wovwiri wa ndalama na wa ŵanthu ku kusanda astronome kuluska mawupu ghanyake ghose. Cimoza mwa vifukwa vya Mpingo cikaŵa kusanga zuŵa la Pasika. === Copernicus === Pa nyengo ya Kuwuka Kwaciŵiri, Nicolaus Copernicus wakasacizga ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 4: The Reign of Epicycles—From Ptolemy to Copernicus}}</ref> Nangauli ciyelezgero cake cikasunga nthowa za cizungulizgo, cikakwana kupima ukulu wa nthowa za vibwe na nyengo yake. Kupepuka kwakukopa kwa astronome ya Copernicus kukapangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵayizomerezge nanga pambere yindasimikizgike na kulaŵiska kwa Galileo na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600.<ref name=Ryden-2020/>{{rp|40}} === Vilaŵiskiro vya Kutali Vyakwamba === [[File:Galileo's sketches of the moon.png |thumb |upright |Vithuzi vyakwamba vya mawonekero gha mwezi, kufuma mu buku la Galileo ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (1610)]] Pafupifupi 1608 cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika, ndipo pofika 1610, Galileo Galilei wakalaŵiska kusintha kwa kawonekero ka cibwe ca Venasi, kwakuyana na kwa mwezi, ico cikakhozga ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati.<ref name=Ryden-2020/> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ciyelezgero ca zuŵa pakati cikanozgeka mwa manambala na Johannes Kepler.<ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 6: Galileo and the Telescope—Notionsl of gravity by Horrocks, etc.}}</ref> Mwa kupenda vyaka 20 vya kulaŵiska kwakupwelelera kwa Tycho Brahe, Kepler wakapanga ndondomeko iyo yikulongosora kwenda kwa vibwe kuzunguliya zuŵa.<ref name=Longair-2023>{{Cite book |last=Longair |first=Malcolm S. |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-65891-8_1 |title=Galaxy Formation |date=2023 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-662-65890-1 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |pages=3–30 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-65891-8_1}}</ref>{{rp|4}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Caspar |first1=Max |title=Kepler |last2=Hellman |first2=Clarisse Doris |author-link2=C. Doris Hellman |date=1993 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-67605-0 |location=New York}}</ref> Nangauli Kepler wakaleka kwenda kwa cizungulizgo kwa Copernicus na kusankha kwenda kwa mawonekero gha jandi, wakatondeka kupanga ghanoghano lakulongosora malango agho wakalemba.<ref name=Ryden-2020/><ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 5: Discovery of the True Solar System—Tycho Brahe—Kepler}}</ref> Ndi Isaac Newton, na kupanga kwake kasandiro ka kwenda kwa vinthu vya kumwamba na lamulo lake la nkhongono ya kukoka, uyo pakumalira wakalongosora kwenda kwa vibwe.<ref name="f58-64">{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 7: Sir Isaac Newton—Law of Universal Gravitation}}</ref> Newton wakapanga so cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca galasi la kuwezga ungweru.<ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 3, chapter 10: History of the Telescope—Spectroscope}}</ref> Newton, pamoza na Richard Bentley, wakasacizga kuti nyenyezi zikuyana na zuŵa kweni zili kutali comene.<ref name=Longair-2023/> Vilaŵiskiro vya kutali viphya vikasintha so maghanoghano pa nyenyezi. Pofika 1610 Galileo wakasanga kuti mzere wa ungweru uwo ukujumpha kuthambo usiku, uwo tikuchema Milky Way, ukupangika na nyenyezi zinandi comene.<ref name=Ryden-2020/>{{rp|48}} Mu 1668 James Gregory wakayaniska kuŵala kwa Jupita na Sirius kuti wapime mtunda wake kuŵa wakujumpha AU 83,000.<ref name=Longair-2023/> Msandi wa nyenyezi wa Ungelezi John Flamsteed, msandi wa nyenyezi wakwamba wa ufumu wa Britain, wakalemba nyenyezi zakujumpha 3,000, kweni vyakusangika vyake vikapharazgika kwambura khumbo lake mu 1712.<ref name="RMG Flamsteed">{{cite web |title=Who was John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal? |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/space-astronomy/who-was-john-flamsteed-first-astronomer-royal |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=12 August 2025}}</ref> Msandi wa nyenyezi William Herschel wakapanga mndandanda wakulongosora wa maŵingu gha nyenyezi na magulu gha nyenyezi, ndipo mu 1781 wakasanga cibwe ca Uranus, cibwe ciphya cakwamba ico cikasangika.<ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 9: Discovery of New Planets—Herschel, Piazzi, Adams, and Le Verrier}}</ref> Friedrich Bessel wakapanga nthowa ya kupima mtunda wa nyenyezi mu 1838, kweni yikaŵa yakusuzga kugwiliskira ntchito mwakuti nyenyezi pafupifupi 100 pera ndizo zikapimika pofika 1900.<ref name=Longair-2023/> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700–1800, kusanda suzgo la vinthu vitatu na Leonhard Euler, Alexis Claude Clairaut, na Jean le Rond d'Alembert kukapangiska kulongolera kwakulunjika comene kwa kwenda kwa mwezi na vibwe. Ntchito iyi yikanozgeka so na Joseph-Louis Lagrange na Pierre Simon Laplace, ndipo ici cikazomerezga kupima kuzitika kwa vibwe na myezi kufuma ku umo vikukhwaskirana.<ref>{{harvnb |Forbes |1909 |loc=Book 2, chapter 8: Newton's Successors—Halley, Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, etc.}}</ref> Kuluta panthazi kukulu mu astronome kukiza na kunjizgika kwa luso liphya, kusazgapo cilwero ca kugaŵa ungweru na kujambura vithuzi vya kuthambo. Mu 1814–15, Joseph von Fraunhofer wakasanga mizere yakufipa pafupifupi 574 mu ungweru wakugaŵika wa zuŵa na wa nyenyezi zinyake.<ref name="Ferguson Maciaszek 2014">{{cite web |title=The Glassmaker Who Sparked Astrophysics |last1=Ferguson |first1=Kitty |last2=Maciaszek |first2=Miko |url=http://nautil.us/issue/11/light/the-glassmaker-who-sparked-astrophysics |date=20 March 2014 |access-date=8 April 2018 |publisher=Nautilus |archive-date=23 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323010729/http://nautil.us/issue/11/light/the-glassmaker-who-sparked-astrophysics }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Buehrke |first1=Thomas |title=Physics & Astronomy: Cosmic Detective Work |magazine=Max Planck Research |date=2021 |issue=4 |pages=67–72 |url=https://www.mpg.de/18487049/W004_Physics_Astronomy_066-072.pdf}}</ref> Mu 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff wakati mizere iyi yikufuma ku kuŵapo kwa vigaŵa vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite journal |first=G. |last=Kirchhoff |title=Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien |language=de |trans-title=On Fraunhofer's Lines |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=185 |issue=1 |pages=148–150 |date=1860 |doi=10.1002/andp.18601850115 |bibcode=1860AnP...185..148K |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1423666 }}</ref> === Milambagombe === [[File:Herschel-galaxy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Cithuzi ca nyenyezi, kufuma mu buku la William Herschel ''On the construction of the heavens''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herschel |first1=William |date=1785-12-31 |title=On the construction of the heavens |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=75 |pages=213–266 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1785.0012 |doi-access=free |issn=0261-0523 |bibcode=1785RSPT...75..213H }}</ref>]] Pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1700, William Herschel wakapanga mapu gha kuthandazgika kwa nyenyezi mu nthowa zakupambana kufuma pa caro capasi, ndipo wakamalizga kuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikaŵa zuŵa pafupi na pakati pa cimbale ca nyenyezi, Milky Way. Pamanyuma pakuti John Michell walongora kuti nyenyezi zikupambana pa kuŵala kwake kweneko, na pamanyuma pa kulaŵiska kwa Herschel na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vyankhongono comene kuti nyenyezi zinyake zikawonekanga mu nthowa zose, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakamba kughanaghana kuti maŵingu ghanyake gha nyenyezi ghakuzunguliya ghangaŵa virwa vya caro ca mlengalenga vyakutali.<ref name=Longair-2023/>{{rp|6}} [[File:Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts,_29_December_1888 (cropped).jpg |thumb |upright |Cithuzi ca "Bingu" likulu la Andromeda ca Isaac Roberts mu 1888.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=James |first1=S. H. G. |title=DR Isaac Roberts (1829-1904) and his observatories |journal=Journal of the British Astronomical Association |date=1993 |volume=103 |page=120 |bibcode=1993JBAA..103..120J }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Isaac |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511659119/type/book |title=Photographs of Stars, Star-Clusters and Nebulae: Together with Records of Results Obtained in the Pursuit of Celestial Photography |date=2010-10-31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-01523-3 |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511659119}}</ref>{{rp|63}}]] Kuŵapo kwa milambagombe, kusazgapo mlambagombe withu, Milky Way, nga ni gulu la nyenyezi, kukalongoreka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 pera.<ref name=Belkora2003>{{cite book |last=Belkora |first=Leila |title=Minding the heavens: the story of our discovery of the Milky Way |isbn=978-0-7503-0730-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qBM-wez94WwC |publisher=CRC Press |date=2003 |pages=1–14 |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027093857/https://books.google.com/books?id=qBM-wez94WwC |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 1912, Henrietta Leavitt wakasanga nyenyezi za Cepheid izo kuŵala kwake kukusintha mwakunozgeka, ndipo ici cingagwiliskirika ntchito kumanya kuŵala kweneko kwa nyenyezi, ico cikuŵa cilwero cakulunjika ca kupima mtunda. Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nyenyezi izi, Harlow Shapley wakapanga mapu ghakwamba ghakulunjika gha Milky Way.<ref name=Longair-2023/>{{rp|7}} Mwa kugwiliskira ntchito Cilaŵiskiro ca Kutali ca Hooker, Edwin Hubble wakasanga nyenyezi za Cepheid mu maŵingu ghanyake gha nyenyezi ghakuzunguliya, ndipo mu 1922–1923 wakalongora mwakusimikizgika kuti Andromeda na Triangulum, pamoza na yinyake, yikaŵa milambagombe yose kuwaro kwa withu, ndipo ici cikalongora kuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cili na milambagombe yinandi comene.<ref name="SharovNovikov1993">{{cite book |last1=Sharov |first1=Aleksandr Sergeevich |last2=Novikov |first2=Igor Dmitrievich |title=Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the big bang universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34 |access-date=December 31, 2011 |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-41617-7 |page=34 |archive-date=June 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623075250/http://books.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka Caro Cose ca Mlengalenga === Kupharazga kwa Albert Einstein kwa ''general relativity'' mu 1917 kukamba nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano ya viyelezgero vya maghanoghano vya caro cose ca mlengalenga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kragh |first=Helge S. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12815 |title=Conceptions of Cosmos |date=2006-12-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-920916-3 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199209163.001.0001}}</ref> Mu 1922, Alexander Friedman wakapharazga viyelezgero vipepuka vya caro cose ca mlengalenga ivyo vikalongora caro cambura kusintha, cakukura, na cakucepa.<ref name=Longair-2023/>{{rp|13}} Mu 1929 Hubble wakapharazga kulaŵiska kwakuti milambagombe yose yikutalikirana na caro capasi pa luŵiro lwakukolerana na mtunda, ubale uwo sono ukumanyikwa kuti lamulo la Hubble. Ubale uwu ukulindilirika usange caro cose ca mlengalenga cikukura.<ref name=Longair-2023/>{{rp|13}} Cakufumapo cakuti caro cose ca mlengalenga kale cikaŵa cakukhwima comene na cakotcha comene, ghanoghano la Kuphulika Kukulu ilo Georges Lemaître wakalongosora mu 1927, cikayowoyeka kweni pakaŵavya ukaboni wa viyezgo wakucikhozga.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nussbaumer |first1=H. |last2=Bieri |first2=L. |author2-link=Lydia Bieri |date=2011 |title=Who discovered the expanding universe? |journal=The Observatory |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages=394–398 |arxiv=1107.2281 |bibcode=2011Obs...131..394N }}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1940, unandi wa vyakucitika vya nyukiliya mu vyakucitika vya kukhwima kukulu ukasandika, ndipo ici cikapangiska ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kupangika kwa vigaŵa pa Kuphulika Kukulu pakumalira kwa ma 1940 na kwamba kwa ma 1950. Pamanyuma mu 1965 ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga ukasangika, ndipo ukakhozga ukaboni wa Kuphulika Kukulu.<ref name=Longair-2023/>{{rp|16}} Kasandiro ka vyakwenda vya kuthambo kakalongolera kuŵapo kwa vinthu nga ni mabowo ghakufipa na nyenyezi za nyutironi.<ref name="Oppenheimer Volkoff 1939">{{Cite journal |last1=Oppenheimer |first1=J. R. |author-link1=J. Robert Oppenheimer |last2=Volkoff |first2=G. M. |author-link2=George Volkoff |date=1939 |title=On Massive Neutron Cores |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physical-review_1939-02-15_55_4/page/374 |journal=Physical Review |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=374–381 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.55.374 |bibcode=1939PhRv...55..374O}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bird |first1=Kai |author-link=Kai Bird |first2=Martin J. |last2=Sherwin |author-link2=Martin J. Sherwin |title=American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-375-41202-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanpromethe00bird/mode/2up |url-access=registration }}</ref>{{rp|89}}<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Physical Review |volume=46 |title=Remarks on Super-Novae and Cosmic Rays |issue=1 |last1=Baade |first1=Walter |author-link=Walter Baade |last2=Zwicky |first2=Fritz |author-link2=Fritz Zwicky |pages=76–77 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.46.76.2 |date=1934 |bibcode=1934PhRv...46...76B |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/5999/1/BAApr34.pdf |access-date=2019-09-16 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224205601/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/5999/1/BAApr34.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Ivi vyagwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora vyakucitika nga ni ma''quasar'' na ma''pulsar''.<ref name="Schmidt 1963">{{Cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=M. |author-link=Maarten Schmidt |date=March 1963 |title=3C 273: A Star-Like Object with Large Red-Shift |journal=Nature |volume=197 |issue=4872 |page=1040 |bibcode=1963Natur.197.1040S |doi=10.1038/1971040a0 |s2cid=4186361 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gold 1968">{{Cite journal |last1=Gold |first1=T. |title=Rotating Neutron Stars as the Origin of the Pulsating Radio Sources |journal=Nature |volume=218 |pages=731–732 |year=1968 |doi=10.1038/218731a0 |bibcode=1968Natur.218..731G |issue=5143|s2cid=4217682}}</ref> Vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya mu mlengalenga vyazomerezga kupima mu vigaŵa vya ungweru na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi ivyo kanandi vikukanizgika panji kufipiskika na mphepo ya caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Beating the atmosphere |first=Ian S. |last=McLean |title=Electronic Imaging in Astronomy |series=Springer Praxis Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-3-540-76582-0 |pages=39–75 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-76583-7_2 }}</ref> Ntchito ya LIGO yikasanga ukaboni wa majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka mu 2015.<ref name="Discovery 2016">{{cite journal |title=Einstein's gravitational waves found at last |journal=Nature News |url=http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361 |date=11 February 2016 |last1=Castelvecchi |first1=Davide |last2=Witze |first2=Witze |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19361 |s2cid=182916902 |access-date=11 February 2016 |archive-date=12 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212082216/http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361 |url-status=live |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name='LIGO Collab Nobel work'>{{cite journal |last=Abbott |first=B.P. |title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger |collaboration=LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=2016 |volume=116 |issue=6 |article-number=061102 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 |pmid=26918975 |bibcode=2016PhRvL.116f1102A |arxiv=1602.03837 |s2cid=124959784}}</ref> == Kulaŵiska Kuthambo == [[File:Openstax Astronomy EM spectrum and atmosphere.jpg |thumb |upright=1.6|Mitundu ya astronome ya kulaŵiska, kuyaniska utali wa majigha na umo ghangawonekera kufuma pa caro capasi]] Astronome ya kulaŵiska yikuthemba nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi za utali wa majigha wakupambanapambana, ndipo mitundu ya astronome yikugaŵika kuyana na cigaŵa ca nkhongono izi ico kulaŵiska kukucitikira.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html |title=Electromagnetic Spectrum |publisher=NASA |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905131651/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html |archive-date=5 September 2006 }}</ref> === Wayilesi === [[File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg |thumb |Very Large Array mu New Mexico, cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca wayilesi ]] Astronome ya wayilesi yikugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono izo majigha ghake ni ghatali, comene pakati pa milimita 1 na mamita 15, kutali comene na ivyo maso ghakuwona.<ref name="RAL">{{cite web |title=What is radio astronomy |url=http://www.radioastrolab.it/en/radio-astronomy/what-is-radio-astronomy/ |publisher=RadioAstroLab |access-date=12 August 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130704122042/http://www.radioastrolab.it/en/radio-astronomy/what-is-radio-astronomy/ |archive-date=2013-07-04}}</ref> Haidrojeni, iyo kanandi ni mphepo yambura kuwoneka, yikupanga mzere wa ungweru pa masentimita 21, uwo ungawoneka pa majigha gha wayilesi.<ref name="SKAO">{{cite web |title=What is radio astronomy? |url=https://www.skao.int/en/resources/what-radio-astronomy |publisher=SKAO |access-date=13 August 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo vingawoneka pa majigha gha wayilesi ni mphepo ya pakati pa nyenyezi, ma''pulsar'', kumweka kwa luŵiro kwa wayilesi, kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, na mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe.<ref name="SKAO"/><ref name="SKAO"/><ref name="SKAO"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Radio Wave Emissions from Supernova 1987a |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/radio-wave-emissions-from-supernova-1987a/ |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=13 August 2025 |date=March 11, 1987}}</ref><ref name="Radcliffe Barthel Garrett 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Radcliffe |first1=J. F. |last2=Barthel |first2=P. D. |last3=Garrett |first3=M. A. |last4=Beswick |first4=R. J. |last5=Thomson |first5=A. P. |last6=Muxlow |first6=T. W. B. |title=The radio emission from active galactic nuclei |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |volume=649 |date=2021 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202140791 |doi-access=free |page=L9 |arxiv=2104.04519 |bibcode=2021A&A...649L...9R }}</ref> === Ungweru wa Pasi pa Uswesi === [[File:The Keck Subaru and Infrared obervatories.JPG |thumb |Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca Subaru (ku mazere) na Keck Observatory (pakati) pa Mauna Kea, malo ghaŵiri gha kulaŵiskira agho ghakugwira ntchito na ungweru wa ''infrared'' na ungweru wakuwoneka. NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (ku maryero) ni ciyelezgero ca cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ico cikugwira ntchito na ungweru wa ''infrared'' pera.|left]] Astronome ya ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi yikusanga nkhongono izo majigha ghake ngatali kuluska ungweru wakuswesa wakuwoneka, kuwaro kwa ivyo maso ghithu ghangawona. Ungweru uwu ngwakovwira pa kusanda vinthu ivyo vili vyakuzizima comene kuti vifumiske ungweru wakuwoneka, nga ni vibwe, vimbale vya kuzunguliya nyenyezi, panji maŵingu gha nyenyezi agho ungweru wake ukukanizgika na fuvu. Majigha ghatali gha ungweru uwu ghangajumpha maŵingu gha fuvu agho ghakukanizga ungweru wakuwoneka, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kulaŵiska nyenyezi ziphya izo zili mu maŵingu gha mamolekyu na mitima ya milambagombe. Kulaŵiska kwa WISE kwavumbula comene nyenyezi zinandi izo zikupangika na magulu gha nyenyezi umo zili.<ref name="wright">{{cite web |url=http://wise.ssl.berkeley.edu/ |title=Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer Mission |date=30 September 2014 |publisher=NASA University of California, Berkeley |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112144939/http://wise.ssl.berkeley.edu/ |archive-date=12 January 2010}}</ref><ref name=ma2013>{{Cite journal |bibcode=2013Ap&SS.344..175M |title=Discovering protostars and their host clusters via WISE |last1=Majaess |first1=D. |journal=Astrophysics and Space Science |volume=344 |issue=1 |pages=175–186 |year=2013 |arxiv=1211.4032 |doi=10.1007/s10509-012-1308-y |s2cid=118455708}}</ref> Kupatula majigha agho ghali pafupi na ungweru wakuwoneka, ungweru uwu ukukorekeka comene na mphepo ya caro capasi, panji ukubisika, cifukwa mphepo nayo yikufumiska ungweru unandi wa mtundu uwu. Ntheura, malo gha kulaŵiskira ungweru uwu ghakwenera kuŵa pacanya na malo ghakomira pa caro capasi panji mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite news |date=11 September 2003 |title=Why infrared astronomy is a hot topic |publisher=ESA |url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMX9PZO4HD_FeatureWeek_0.html |access-date=11 August 2008 |archive-date=30 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120730/http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMX9PZO4HD_FeatureWeek_0.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mamolekyu ghanyake ghakufumiska comene ungweru uwu. Ici cikuzomerezga kusanda usungunu wa mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/Outreach/Edu/Spectra/irspec.html |title=Infrared Spectroscopy – An Overview |publisher=NASA California Institute of Technology |access-date=11 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005031543/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/Outreach/Edu/Spectra/irspec.html |archive-date=5 October 2008}}</ref> Cilaŵiskiro ca Kutali ca Mlengalenga ca James Webb cikusanga ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi kuti cisange milambagombe yakutali comene. Ungweru wakuwoneka wa milambagombe iyi ukafuma vyaka mabiliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga kukasintha ungweru kuŵa wa pasi pa uswesi. Mwa kusanda milambagombe yakutali iyi, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakugomezga kumanya umo milambagombe yakwamba yikapangikira.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rieke |first1=Marcia J. |last2=Kelly |first2=Douglas |last3=Horner |first3=Scott |date=2005-08-18 |editor-last=Heaney |editor-first=James B. |editor2-last=Burriesci |editor2-first=Lawrence G. |title=Overview of James Webb Space Telescope and NIRCam's Role |url=https://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/nircam/pdfs/5904-1_Rieke.pdf |journal=Proc. SPIE 5904, Cryogenic Optical Systems and Instruments XI |series=Cryogenic Optical Systems and Instruments XI |volume=5904 |page=590401 |doi=10.1117/12.615554 |bibcode=2005SPIE.5904....1R }}</ref> === Ungweru Wakuwoneka === Mu mbiri, astronome ya ungweru wakuwoneka ndiyo mtundu wa kale comene wa astronome.<ref name="moore1997">{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Patrick |title=Philip's atlas of the universe |date=2007 |publisher=Philip's |location=London |isbn=978-0-540-09118-8 |pages=20–21 |edition=6., new |chapter=Invisible Astronomy}}</ref> Vithuzi vya kulaŵiska kale vikajambulikanga na woko. Pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na mu vyaka vinandi vya m'ma 1900, vithuzi vikapangikanga na vilwero vya kujambura vithuzi. Vithuzi vya mazuŵa ghano vikupangika na vilwero vya digito, comene ma''CCD'', ndipo vikusungika mu vilwero vya mazuŵa ghano. Nangauli ungweru wakuwoneka ukufuma pafupifupi nanomita 380 mpaka 700, vilwero vyenevivyo vingagwiliskirika ntchito kulaŵiska ungweru unyake wa pacanya pa uswesi na wa pasi pa uswesi uwo uli pafupi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Visible Light - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/ems/09_visiblelight/ |website=NASA.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=5 August 2025 |date=10 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Glossary term: Optical Astronomy |url=https://astro4edu.org/resources/glossary/term/229/ |website=IAU Office of Astronomy for Education |publisher=International Astronomical Union |access-date=5 August 2025}}</ref> === Ungweru wa Pacanya pa Uswesi === Astronome ya ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi yikugwiliskira ntchito majigha agho ghakukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi, ntheura kulaŵiska kukwenera kucitika pacanya mu mphepo panji mu mlengalenga. Astronome iyi njiwemi comene pa kusanda ungweru wa kufunda na mizere ya ungweru kufuma ku nyenyezi zakotcha za buluu, izo zikuŵala comene pa majigha agha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mohammed |first=Steven Matthew |title=Probing the Ultraviolet Milky Way: The Final Galactic Puzzle Piece |date=2021 |publisher=Columbia University (PhD thesis) |pages=11–13 |doi=10.7916/d8-vqqh-qz10 |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d8-vqqh-qz10/download}}</ref> === X-ray === [[File:B30727.jpg |thumb|upright=1.2|Mzere wa X-ray uwo ukufuma ku dolozi likulu comene la cisi (''black hole'') ilo Chandra X-ray Observatory ya NASA yikasanga, ukuwoneka cifukwa ca ungweru wa caro cose ca mlengalenga ca kale.]] Astronome ya X-ray yikugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za X-ray, izo zikupangika na ndondomeko zakotcha comene na za nkhongono zikulu. Cifukwa X-ray zikukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi, kulaŵiska kukwenera kucitika pacanya comene, nga ni kufuma ku mabaluni, maloketi, panji ma''satellite'' ghapadera. Vinthu ivyo vikufumiska X-ray ni nyenyezi ziŵiri izo zikuzunguliyana, vyakusyala vya kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu, magulu gha milambagombe, na mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe.<ref name="Arnaud 2007">{{cite web |last1=Arnaud |first1=Keith |title=An Introduction to X-ray Astronomy |url=https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xrayschool-2007/arnaud_intro.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=13 August 2025 |date=2007}}</ref> Cifukwa pacanya pa zuŵa pakuzizima pacoko, vithuzi vya X-ray vya zuŵa na nyenyezi zinyake vikupeleka mauthenga ghakuzirwa pa cigaŵa cakotcha ca kuwaro kwa zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Godel |first=Manuel |date=2004 |title=X-ray astronomy of stellar coronae |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00159-004-0023-2 |journal=The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2–3 |page=71 |doi=10.1007/s00159-004-0023-2 |arxiv=astro-ph/0406661 |bibcode=2004A&ARv..12...71G |issn=0935-4956}}</ref> === Gamma === Astronome ya ''gamma'' yikulaŵiska vinthu vya kumwamba pa majigha ghafupi comene (nkhongono zikulu comene) gha nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/history_gamma.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980520035819/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/history_gamma.html |archive-date=May 20, 1998 |title=The History of Gamma-ray Astronomy |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 14, 2010}}</ref> Nkhongono za ''gamma'' zingalaŵiskika mwakulunjika na ma''satellite'' nga ni Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, panji na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vyapadera ivyo vikuchemeka vilaŵiskiro vya Cherenkov.<ref>{{cite web |title=MAGIC telescopes webpage |url=http://magic.mppmu.mpg.de/introduction/iact.html |access-date=2012-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511032953/http://magic.mppmu.mpg.de/introduction/iact.html|archive-date=2012-05-11}}</ref><ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&style=feature |title=The electromagnetic spectrum |last=Penston |first=Margaret J. |date=14 August 2002 |publisher=Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120908014227/http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&style=feature |archive-date=8 September 2012 |access-date=17 November 2016}}</ref> Vilaŵiskiro ivi vikusanga nkhongono za ''gamma'' mwakulunjika yayi, kweni vikusanga kumweka kwa ungweru wakuwoneka uko kukupangika apo nkhongono za ''gamma'' zikukorekeka na mphepo ya caro capasi.<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Funk |first=Stefan |date=2015-10-19 |title=Ground- and Space-Based Gamma-Ray Astronomy |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nucl-102014-022036 |journal=Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science |language=en |volume=65 |issue= |pages=245–277 |doi=10.1146/annurev-nucl-102014-022036 |arxiv=1508.05190 |bibcode=2015ARNPS..65..245F |issn=0163-8998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gehrels |first1=Neil |author-link=Neil Gehrels |last2=Mészáros |first2=Péter |author-link2=Péter Mészáros |date=2012-08-24 |title=Gamma-Ray Bursts |journal=Science |volume=337 |issue=6097 |pages=932–936 |doi=10.1126/science.1216793 |pmid=22923573 |arxiv=1208.6522 |bibcode=2012Sci...337..932G }}</ref> Astronome ya ''gamma'' yikupeleka mauthenga pa kwambilira kwa nkhongono za kuthambo, vyakucitika ivyo vingaŵa vya kumalirana kwa vyamvimba vyakufipa, tuvinthu twa luŵiro comene utu tukufuma ku mitima yamoyo ya milambagombe, na, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito mitima iyi nga ni vyakufumira vyakutali, vimanyikwiro vya mlengalenga wa pakati pa milambagombe. Kumweka kwa nkhongono za ''gamma'', uko kukucitika kwa kanyengo kacoko, ni vyakucitika vya nkhongono zikulu comene, ndipo ndivyo vyakuŵala comene mu caro cose ca mlengalenga. === Kulaŵiska Kwambura Nkhongono za Ntchito za Umagineti-Magesi === [[File:Antares Neutrinoteleskop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca ma''neutrino'' ca ANTARES ico cili pasi pa maji ]] Vyakucitika vinyake ivyo vikufuma kutali comene vingalaŵiskika kufuma pa caro capasi na vilwero ivyo vikuthemba nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi yayi.<ref name="Gaisser 1990"/><ref name='LIGO Collab Nobel work'/> Mu astronome ya ma''neutrino'', ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malo gha pasi pa nthaka ghakuvikilirika comene nga ni SAGE, GALLEX, na Kamioka II/III kusanga ma''neutrino''. Ma''neutrino'' ghanandi comene agho ghakujumpha mu caro capasi ghakufuma ku zuŵa, kweni ma''neutrino'' 24 ghakasangika so kufuma ku kuphulika kwa nyenyezi kwa 1987A. Nkhongono za kuthambo, izo zili na tuvinthu twa nkhongono zikulu comene (mitima ya maatomu) utu tungamalira panji kukorekeka apo tukunjira mu mphepo ya caro capasi, zikupangiska tuvinthu tunandi twaciŵiri utu tungasangika na malo gha kulaŵiskira gha mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="Gaisser 1990">{{cite book |last=Gaisser |first=Thomas K. |date=1990 |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/cosmicrayspartic0000gais |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cosmicrayspartic0000gais/page/1 1–2] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33931-5}}</ref> Astronome ya majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka yikugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya kusanga majigha agha kuti yiwunjike mauthenga pa vinthu vikulu vyakutali. Malo ghacoko gha kulaŵiskira ghazengeka, nga ni LIGO. LIGO yikasanga kakwamba pa 14 Lupya 2015, ndipo yikalaŵiska majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka kufuma ku mabowo ghaŵiri ghakufipa.<ref name='LIGO Collab Nobel work'/><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Clara |title=Gravitational Waves Discovered from Colliding Black Holes |magazine=Scientific American |date=February 11, 2016 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gravitational-waves-discovered-from-colliding-black-holes1/}}</ref> Jigha laciŵiri likasangika pa 26 Zimya 2015, ndipo kulaŵiska kunyake kukwenera kulutilira, kweni majigha agha ghakukhumba vilwero vyakupulika comene.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europhysicsnews.org/index.php?option=article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/epn/abs/2003/02/epn03208/epn03208.html |title=Opening new windows in observing the Universe |last1=Tammann |first1=Gustav-Andreas <!-- Gustav Alfred Andreas --> |author-link=Gustav Andreas Tammann |first2=Friedrich-Karl |last2=Thielemann |author-link2=Friedrich-Karl Thielemann |first3=Dirk |last3=Trautmann |date=2003 |publisher=Europhysics News |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120906192257/http://www.europhysicsnews.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/epn/abs/2003/02/epn03208/epn03208.html |archive-date=6 September 2012 |access-date=17 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration |last2=Abbott |first2=B. P. |last3=Abbott |first3=R. |last4=Abbott |first4=T. D. |last5=Abernathy |first5=M. R. |last6=Acernese |first6=F. |last7=Ackley |first7=K. |last8=Adams |first8=C. |last9=Adams |first9=T. |date=15 June 2016 |title=GW151226: Observation of Gravitational Waves from a 22-Solar-Mass Binary Black Hole Coalescence |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=116 |issue=24 |article-number=241103 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.241103 |pmid=27367379 |arxiv=1606.04855 |bibcode=2016PhRvL.116x1103A |s2cid=118651851 }}</ref> Kusazga kulaŵiska uko kukucitika na nkhongono za ntchito za umagineti-magesi, ma''neutrino'' panji majigha gha nkhongono ya kukoka na mauthenga ghanyake ghakovwira kukuchemeka astronome ya vyakutumika vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Planning for a bright tomorrow: Prospects for gravitational-wave astronomy with Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo |url=http://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-ObservingScenario/index.php |publisher=LIGO Scientific Collaboration |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-date=23 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423031110/http://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-ObservingScenario/index.php |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Neutrinos in Particle Physics, Astronomy and Cosmology |first1=Zhizhong |last1=Xing |first2=Shun |last2=Zhou |publisher=Springer |date=2011 |isbn=978-3-642-17560-2 |page=313 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QXqlCHLjJkC&pg=PA313 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012300/https://books.google.com/books?id=6QXqlCHLjJkC&pg=PA313 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kupima Malo gha Nyenyezi na Kwenda kwa Vinthu vya Kumwamba === [[File:Interferometric astrometry.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Kugwiliskira ntchito kusazgana kwa majigha gha ungweru kuti malo gha nyenyezi ghamanyikwe makora comene]] Cimoza mwa vigaŵa vya kale comene vya astronome, na vya kasandiro kose, ni kupima malo gha vinthu vya kumwamba, ico cikuchemeka ''astrometry''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kovalevsky |first1=Jean |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781139106832/type/book |title=Fundamentals of Astrometry |last2=Seidelmann |first2=P. Kenneth |date=2004-06-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64216-3 |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139106832}}</ref> Mu mbiri, kumanya makola malo gha zuŵa, mwezi, vibwe na nyenyezi kukaŵa kwakuzirwa pa kwendeska ngalawa mwa kulaŵiska kuthambo na pa kupanga makalendala.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fraknoi |first=Andrew |url=https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy-2e |title=Astronomy 2e |date=2022 |display-authors=etal |publisher=OpenStax |isbn=978-1-951693-50-3 |edition=2e |oclc=1322188620 |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223211041/https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy-2e |url-status=live |page=39}}</ref> Kupima kwakupwelelera kwa malo gha vibwe kwapangiska kumanya makola kukhwaskana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka, na kumanya malo gha kale na gha munthazi gha vibwe mwakulunjika comene, cigaŵa ico cikuchemeka kasandiro ka kwenda kwa vinthu vya kumwamba.<ref>{{cite web |last=Calvert |first=James B. |date=28 March 2003 |url=http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/orbits.htm |title=Celestial Mechanics |publisher=University of Denver |access-date=21 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907120741/http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/orbits.htm |archive-date=7 September 2006}}</ref> Kupima mtunda wa nyenyezi za pafupi kukupeleka maziko gha makwelero gha kupima mtunda wa caro cose ca mlengalenga, agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kupima ukulu wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kupima uku kukupeleka maziko gha vimanyikwiro vya nyenyezi zakutali comene, cifukwa vimanyikwiro vyawo vingayaniskika.<ref name="UWA cosmic distance ladder">{{cite web |title=Climbing the cosmic distance ladder |url=https://www.uwa.edu.au/study/-/media/Faculties/Science/Docs/Climbing-the-cosmic-distance-ladder.pdf |publisher=University of Western Australia |access-date=12 August 2025}}</ref> Kupima luŵiro na kwenda kwa nyenyezi kukuzomerezga ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi kulongora kwenda kwa ndondomeko izi mu mlambagombe wa Milky Way.<ref name="Lindegren2003">{{cite journal |last1=Lindegren |first1=Lennart |last2=Dravins |first2=Dainis |date=April 2003 |title=The fundamental definition of "radial velocity" |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=401 |issue=3 |pages=1185–1201 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030181 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2003A&A...401.1185L |arxiv=astro-ph/0302522 |s2cid=16012160 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Dainis |last1=Dravins |first2=Lennart|last2=Lindegren |first3=Søren |last3=Madsen |year=1999 |journal=Astron. Astrophys. |volume=348 |pages=1040–1051|bibcode=1999A&A...348.1040D |title=Astrometric radial velocities. I. Non-spectroscopic methods for measuring stellar radial velocity |arxiv=astro-ph/9907145 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~rjp0i/museum/engines.html |title=Hall of Precision Astrometry |publisher=University of Virginia Department of Astronomy |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826104509/http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~rjp0i/museum/engines.html |archive-date=26 August 2006 }}</ref> == Vigaŵa Kuyana na Ukulu == === Kasandiro ka Caro Cose ca Mlengalenga === [[File:Hubble Extreme Deep Field (full resolution).png |thumb |Hubble Extreme Deep Field]] Kasandiro ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, ako kakusanda kazengero kakulu ka caro cose ca mlengalenga, kakukhumba kupulikiska kupangika na kukura kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Cakuzirwa comene ku kasandiro aka ka mazuŵa ghano ni ghanoghano lakuzomerezgeka la Kuphulika Kukulu (Big Bang), ilo likuti caro cose ca mlengalenga cikamba ciŵe cakukhwima comene na cakotcha comene, pamanyuma cikakura mu vyaka biliyoni 13.8 kufika apo cili sono.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cosmic Detectives |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives |publisher=The European Space Agency (ESA) |date=2 April 2013 |access-date=15 April 2013 |archive-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211204726/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/osmic_detectives |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Dodelson2003/> Ghanoghano la Kuphulika Kukulu likazomerezgeka comene pamanyuma pa kusangika kwa ungweru wa kumanyuma wa caro cose ca mlengalenga mu 1965.<ref name=Dodelson2003>{{cite book |last=Dodelson |first=Scott |title=Modern cosmology |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-12-219141-1 |publisher=Academic Press |pages=1–22}}</ref> Vyamvimba vyakufipa na nkhongono zakufipa sono vikughanaghanirika kuŵa magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Pa cifukwa ici, ntchito yinandi yikucitika kuyezga kumanya vigaŵa ivi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Preuss |first=Paul |url=http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/dark-energy.html |title=Dark Energy Fills the Cosmos |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy, Berkeley Lab |access-date=8 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060811215815/http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/dark-energy.html |archive-date=11 August 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuwaro kwa Mlambagombe Withu === [[File:grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg |thumb |upright=0.8 |Vinthu vya camlengalenga vya mawonekero gha cizingo ni vithuzi vinandi vya mlambagombe umoza, ivyo vyawerezgeka cifukwa ca kuguza kwa nkhongono za kuguza. Kuguza kwa gulu la milambagombe kukupindiska ungweru, ndipo kukukuzga na kunanga cithuzi ca cinthu ico cili kutali comene.]] Kusanda vinthu kuwaro kwa mlambagombe withu kukukhwaskana na kupangika na kukura kwa milambagombe, mawonekero na kagaŵiro kake, kulaŵiska milambagombe yamoyo, na pa ukulu ukulu, magulu gha milambagombe. Ivi vikovwira kupulikiska kazengero kakulu ka caro cose ca mlengalenga.<ref name=":0"/> === Mlambagombe === Astronome ya milambagombe yikusanda milambagombe kusazgapo Milky Way, mlambagombe wakuzunguliya uwo uli mu Gulu la Pafupi la milambagombe ndipo uli na Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ni kawunjikiro kakuzunguliya ka mphepo, fuvu, nyenyezi na vinthu vinyake, ivyo vikukoleranga pamoza na nkhongono ya kukoka. Cifukwa caro capasi cili mu mikono ya kuwaro iyo yili na fuvu, vigaŵa vikulu vya Milky Way vikubisika.<ref name=":0"/>{{rp |pages=837–842, 944}} Kusanda kwenda kwa vyamvimba mu Milky Way na milambagombe yinyake kukulongora kuti pali kuzitika kukulu kuluska ivyo vyamvimba vyakuwoneka vingalongosora. Cizungulizgo ca vyamvimba vyakufipa cikuwoneka kuŵa ndico cili na kuzitika kukulu, nangauli kawiro ka vyamvimba vyakufipa ivi kakumanyikwa yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van den Bergh, Sidney |title=The Early History of Dark Matter |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1999 |volume=111 |issue=760 |pages=657–60 |doi=10.1086/316369 |arxiv=astro-ph/9904251 |bibcode=1999PASP..111..657V |s2cid=5640064}}</ref> === Nyenyezi === Kusanda nyenyezi na kukura kwake nkhwakuzirwa comene ku kupulikiska kwithu caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kusanda mendero kwa nyenyezi kwamanyikwa kwizira mu kulaŵiska na maghanoghano, na kufuma ku viyelezgero vya makompyuta vya mukati mwa nyenyezi.<ref name=Amos7>Harpaz, 1994, pp. 7–18</ref> Ivyo vikusandika ni kupangika kwa nyenyezi mu maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu; kupangika kwa nyenyezi ziphya; na kusintha kuya ku kukolerana kwa nyukiliya na nyenyezi za ndondomeko yikulu, izo zikupanga vigaŵa.<ref name=Smith2004>{{cite book |first=Michael David |last=Smith |date=2004 |pages=53–86 |title=The Origin of Stars |chapter=Cloud formation, Evolution and Destruction |publisher=Imperial College Press |isbn=978-1-86094-501-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVgBoqZg8a4C |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813210429/https://books.google.com/books?id=UVgBoqZg8a4C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Amos7/> Ndondomeko zinyake izo zikusandika ni kukura kwa nyenyezi, uko kukumalira na kuphulika kwa nyenyezi yikulu panji nyenyezi yicoko yakutuŵa.<ref name=Amos>Harpaz, 1994, p. 20 and whole book</ref><ref>Harpaz, 1994, pp. 173–78</ref> Kufumiska kwa vigaŵa vya kuwaro kukupanga bingu la nyenyezi la mtundu wa cibwe.<ref>Harpaz, 1994, pp. 111–18</ref> Ivyo vikusyala pa kuphulika kwa nyenyezi yikulu ni nyenyezi ya nyutironi yakukhwima, panji, usange kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kukaŵa katatu kwa zuŵa panji kujumpha, bowo lakufipa.<ref>Harpaz, 1994, pp. 189–210</ref> === Zuŵa === [[File:Uvsun trace big.jpg |thumb |upright=0.8 |Cithuzi ca ungweru wa ''ultraviolet'' ca pacanya pa zuŵa apo pali vyakucitika vinandi, nga umo cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca TRACE ca NASA cikawonera.]] Astronome ya zuŵa ni kusanda [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], nyenyezi yicoko ya ndondomeko yikulu ya mtundu wa G2 V, iyo yili na vyaka pafupifupi biliyoni 4.6. Ndondomeko izo kasandiro aka kakusanda ni ndondomeko ya mawanga gha zuŵa, kusintha kwa kuŵala kwa zuŵa, kwa nyengo zose na kwa nyengo zinyake, na nkhalo ya vigaŵa vyakupambana vya zuŵa, ndiko kuti mtima wake na kukolerana kwa nyukiliya, cigaŵa ca kufumiska nkhongono, cigaŵa ca kwenda kwa kufunda, cigaŵa ca pacanya ca ungweru, cigaŵa ca mitundu, na cigaŵa ca kuwaro comene.<ref name="solar FAQ">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-solar.html |title=The Solar FAQ |last=Johansson |first=Sverker |author-link=Sverker Johansson |date=27 July 2003 |publisher=Talk.Origins Archive |access-date=11 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907235636/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-solar.html |archive-date=7 September 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Environmental issues : essential primary sources.">{{cite web |url=http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v3=1&DB=local&CMD=010a+2006000857&CNT=10+records+per+page |title=Environmental issues: essential primary sources |last1=Lerner |first1=K. Lee |first2=Brenda Wilmoth |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710152134/http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v3=1&DB=local&CMD=010a+2006000857&CNT=10+records+per+page |archive-date=10 July 2012 |last2=Lerner |access-date=17 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="future-sun">{{cite web |author=Pogge, Richard W. |date=1997 |url=http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Lectures/vistas97.html |title=The Once & Future Sun |format=lecture notes |work=New Vistas in Astronomy |access-date=3 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527094435/http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu/Vistas/ |archive-date=27 May 2005 }}</ref><ref name=":0"/>{{rp |pages=498–502}} === Kasandiro ka Vibwe === [[File:dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg |thumb |Kadontho kakufipa pacanya ni kavuluvulu ka cuvu ako kakukwera ciliŵa ca dolozi pa Mars. Kavuluvulu aka ka mpweya wa Mars, ako kakwenda na kuzunguliya (kakuyana na cimphepo ca pa caro capasi), kakapanga mzere utali wakufipa.]] Kasandiro ka vibwe ni kusanda vibwe, myezi, vibwe vicoko, nyenyezi za mcira, vibwe vicoko vya malibwe, na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa, kweniso vibwe ivyo vikuzunguliya nyenyezi zakutali. Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kasandika makola, pakwamba na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali ndipo pamanyuma na vyombo vya mlengalenga.<ref name="geology">{{cite book |url=https://marswatch.tn.cornell.edu/rsm.html |title=Remote Sensing for the Earth Sciences: Manual of Remote Sensing |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=3rd |author=Bell III, J. F. |author2=Campbell, B.A. |author3=Robinson, M.S. |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060811220029/http://marswatch.tn.cornell.edu/rsm.html |archive-date=11 August 2006 }}</ref><ref name="Montmerle2006">{{cite journal |last=Montmerle |first=Thierry |author2=Augereau, Jean-Charles |author3=Chaussidon, Marc |title=Solar System Formation and Early Evolution: the First 100 Million Years |journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets |volume=98 |issue=1–4 |pages=39–95 |date=2006 |doi=10.1007/s11038-006-9087-5 |bibcode=2006EM&P...98...39M |s2cid=120504344 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Ndondomeko izo zikusandika ni kugaŵika kwa vigaŵa vya cibwe; kupangika kwa nkhongono ya umagineti ya cibwe na ivyo yikucita; na kupangika kwa kufunda mukati mwa cibwe, nga ni kufuma ku kutimbana, kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu, na kukoka kwa myezi.<ref>Montmerle, 2006, pp. 87–90</ref> Kufunda uku nako kungiziska ndondomeko za pasi nga ni mapiri gha moto, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na kukokoloka kwa pacanya, ivyo vikusandika na vigaŵa vya kasandiro ka pasi.<ref name="new solar system">{{cite book |editor=Beatty, J.K. |editor2=Petersen, C.C. |editor3=Chaikin, A. |title=The New Solar System |publisher=Cambridge press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOezyHMVAMcC&pg=PA70 |page=70 |edition=4th |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64587-4 |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=30 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330114739/http://books.google.com/books?id=iOezyHMVAMcC&pg=PA70 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vigaŵa Vyakukolerana na Tusandiro Tunyake == === Usungunu wa Mlengalenga === Usungunu wa mlengalenga ni kukolerana kwa astronome na usungunu. Ukusanda unandi na kukolerana kwa mamolekyu mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, na kukwekana kwawo na nkhongono za ungweru. Lizgu ili lingagwiliskirika ntchito pa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa na pa mlengalenga wa pakati pa nyenyezi. Kusanda mu cigaŵa ici kukovwira mwaciyelezgero kumanya umo Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kakapangikira.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/research/amp-rg/astrochemistry |title=Astrochemistry |date=15 July 2013 |newspaper=www.cfa.harvard.edu/ |access-date=20 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120211934/https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/research/amp-rg/astrochemistry |archive-date=20 November 2016}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka Vyamoyo mu Mlengalenga === Kasandiro ka vyamoyo mu mlengalenga kakusanda kwambilira kwa umoyo na kukura kwake kuwaro kwa caro capasi.<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exobiology Merriam Webster Dictionary entry "Exobiology"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904084642/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exobiology |date=4 September 2018 }} (accessed 11 April 2013)</ref> Kakupenda usange umoyo ulipo kunyake, na umo ŵanthu ŵangawusangira usange ulipo.<ref name="about">{{cite web |url=http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/ |title=About Astrobiology |access-date=20 October 2008 |date=21 January 2008 |work=NASA Astrobiology Institute |publisher=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011192341/http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/ |archive-date=11 October 2008}}</ref> Kakugwiliskira ntchito astronome, usungunu wa vyamoyo, kasandiro ka pasi, kasandiro ka tuvinyama tucoko comene, kusanda mendero, na kasandiro ka vibwe kuti kapende usange umoyo ungaŵako pa vibwe vinyake, na kovwira kumanya malo gha vyamoyo agho ghangaŵa ghakupambana na gha caro capasi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Astrobiology |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/planetary-sciences/research/astrobiology |publisher=University College London |access-date=13 August 2025}}</ref> Kwambilira na kukura kwakwamba kwa umoyo ni cigaŵa cambura kupatukana ca kasandiro aka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/11084 |title=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |work=Journal: Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |access-date=6 April 2015 |archive-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208140912/https://link.springer.com/journal/11084 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ici cikusazgapo kusanda kwambilira kwa ndondomeko za vibwe, kwambilira kwa vinthu vya vyamoyo mu mlengalenga, kukolerana kwa malibwe, maji na kaboni, kwambilira kwa umoyo pa caro capasi, kukhalika kwa vibwe, kusanda vimanyikwiro vya umoyo, na kusanda umo umoyo ungakolerana na masuzgo pa caro capasi na mu mlengalenga.<ref name="Goals2016">{{cite news |url=http://astrobiology.com/2016/03/release-of-the-first-roadmap-for-european-astrobiology.html |title=Release of the First Roadmap for European Astrobiology |work=European Science Foundation |publisher=Astrobiology Web |date=29 March 2016 |access-date=2 April 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610010327/http://astrobiology.com/2016/03/release-of-the-first-roadmap-for-european-astrobiology.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20151218-jc">{{cite news |last=Corum |first=Jonathan |title=Mapping Saturn's Moons |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/18/science/space/nasa-cassini-maps-saturns-moons.html |date=18 December 2015 |work=The New York Times |access-date=18 December 2015 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520124847/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/18/science/space/nasa-cassini-maps-saturns-moons.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cockell |first=Charles S. |title=How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth |date=4 October 2012 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/02/world/europe/astrobiology-aliens-environment-opinion/index.html?hpt=hp_c4 |work=CNN News |access-date=8 October 2012 |archive-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910182606/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/02/world/europe/astrobiology-aliens-environment-opinion/index.html?hpt=hp_c4 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Vinyake === Astronome na kusanda mendero kwa kuthambo vyapanga ubale na vigaŵa vinyake vikulu vya kasandiro. Astronome ya kale ni kusanda astronome za kale panji za midawuko mu midawuko yawo, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni wa vinthu vya kale na wa kasandiro ka ŵanthu. Viŵerengero vya astronome ni kugwiliskira ntchito viŵerengero pa kupenda unandi ukulu wa mauthenga gha kulaŵiska kuthambo. Pakumalira, nga ni "astronome ya milandu", nthowa za astronome zagwiliskirika ntchito kumazga masuzgo gha mbiri ya luso la kujambula na nyengo zinyake gha dango. == Ŵalaŵiski Ŵambura Kusambira == [[File:Telescope trailer 22.jpg |upright |thumb |Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵambura kulipirika ŵangapanga vilwero vyawo, ndipo ŵangawungana pamoza kulaŵiska nyenyezi, nga ni ku Stellafane.]] Astronome ni umoza mwa tusandiro umo ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira ŵangawovwira comene.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mims III |first=Forrest M. |title=Amateur Science—Strong Tradition, Bright Future |journal=Science |date=1999 |volume=284 |issue=5411 |pages=55–56 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5411.55 |quote=Astronomy has traditionally been among the most fertile fields for serious amateurs [...] |bibcode=1999Sci...284...55M |s2cid=162370774 }}</ref> Pamoza, ŵalaŵiski ŵa nyenyezi ŵambura kusambira ŵakulaŵiska vinthu na vyakucitika vya kumwamba, nyengo zinyake na vilwero vya ŵakugula panji vilwero ivyo ŵapanga ŵekha. Ivyo ŵakulaŵiska comene ni zuŵa, mwezi, vibwe, nyenyezi, nyenyezi za mcira, kuwa kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga, na vinthu vya kutali comene nga ni magulu gha nyenyezi, milambagombe, na maŵingu gha nyenyezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsmeteors.org/ |title=The American Meteor Society |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822135040/http://www.amsmeteors.org/ |archive-date=22 August 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lodriguss |first=Jerry |url=http://www.astropix.com/ |title=Catching the Light: Astrophotography |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901185541/http://www.astropix.com/ |archive-date=1 September 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Imbriale 1998">{{cite journal |last=Imbriale |first=William A. |title=Introduction to "Electrical Disturbances Apparently of Extraterrestrial Origin" |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |date=July 1998 |volume=86 |issue=7 |pages=1507–1509 |doi=10.1109/JPROC.1998.681377 |bibcode=1998IEEEP..86.1507I }}</ref> Makilabu gha astronome pa caro cose ghali na ndondomeko za kovwira ŵanthu ŵawo kunozga na kwendeska ndondomeko za kulaŵiska, nga ni kulaŵiska vinthu vyose mu mindandanda ya Messier (vinthu 110) panji Herschel 400.<ref>{{cite web |author=Ghigo, F. |date=7 February 2006 |url=http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_jansky.shtml |title=Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831105945/http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_jansky.shtml |archive-date=31 August 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~arcus/cara/ |title=Cambridge Amateur Radio Astronomers |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-date=24 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~arcus/cara/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵanandi ŵakugwira ntchito pa majigha gha ungweru wakuwoneka, kweni ŵanyake ŵayezga majigha ghanyake. Mwambi wa astronome ya wayilesi ya ŵambura kusambira, Karl Jansky, wakasanga kufumira kwa wayilesi pakati pa Milky Way. Ŵalaŵiski ŵanyake ŵambura kusambira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali ivyo ŵapanga ŵekha panji vilaŵiskiro vya wayilesi ivyo pakwamba vikazengeka pa kusanda astronome. Ŵambura kusambira ŵangapima kubisa kwa nyenyezi kuti ŵanozge nthowa za vibwe vicoko. Ŵangasanga nyenyezi za mcira, na kulaŵiska nyengo zose nyenyezi izo kuŵala kwake kukusintha. Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la digito kwazomerezga ŵambura kusambira kuluta panthazi pa kujambura vithuzi vya kuthambo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lunar-occultations.com/iota/iotandx.htm |title=The International Occultation Timing Association |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821180723/http://www.lunar-occultations.com/iota/iotandx.htm |archive-date=21 August 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/EdgarWilson.html |title=Edgar Wilson Award |publisher=IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024202325/http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/EdgarWilson.html |archive-date=24 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aavso.org/ |title=American Association of Variable Star Observers |publisher=AAVSO |access-date=3 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202050715/http://www.aavso.org/ |archive-date=2 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Mafumbo Ghambura Kuzgoleka == Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, pacali mafumbo ghakuzirwa ghambura kuzgoleka mu astronome. Ghanyake ngakulu nga ni caro cose ca mlengalenga: mwaciyelezgero, kasi vyamvimba vyakufipa na nkhongono zakufipa izo zikulongozga kukura na umaliro wa caro cose ca mlengalenga ni vici?<ref name="physics questions">{{cite web |url=http://www.pnl.gov/energyscience/01-02/11-questions/11questions.htm |title=11 Physics Questions for the New Century |publisher=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |access-date=12 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203152634/http://www.pnl.gov/energyscience/01-02/11-questions/11questions.htm |archive-date=3 February 2006}}</ref> Kasi umaliro wa caro cose ca mlengalenga uzamuŵa wuli?<ref>{{cite web |last=Hinshaw |first=Gary |date=15 December 2005 |url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101fate.html |title=What is the Ultimate Fate of the Universe? |publisher=NASA WMAP |access-date=28 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529145436/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101fate.html |archive-date=29 May 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cifukwa wuli unandi wa ''lithium'' mu caro cose ca mlengalenga ngucoko kanayi kuluska ivyo ciyelezgero ca Kuphulika Kukulu cikulongolera?<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Howk |first1=J. Christopher |last2=Lehner |first2=Nicolas |last3=Fields |first3=Brian D. |last4=Mathews |first4=Grant J. |date=6 September 2012 |title=Observation of interstellar lithium in the low-metallicity Small Magellanic Cloud |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=489 |issue=7414 |pages=121–23 |doi=10.1038/nature11407 |pmid=22955622 |arxiv=1207.3081 |bibcode=2012Natur.489..121H |s2cid=205230254}}</ref> Ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na vyakucitika vyapadera. Mwaciyelezgero, kasi Kanozgero ka Zuŵa nkhambura kupambana panji nkhapadera?<ref>{{cite journal |title=How special is the Solar system? |last1=Beer |first1=M. E. |last2=King |first2=A. R. |last3=Livio |first3=M. |last4=Pringle |first4=J. E. |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=354 |issue=3 |pages=763–768 |date=November 2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08237.x |doi-access=free |arxiv=astro-ph/0407476 |bibcode=2004MNRAS.354..763B |s2cid=119552423 }}</ref> Kasi kagaŵiro ka kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kakufuma nkhu, ndiko kuti cifukwa wuli ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakuwona kagaŵiro kakuyana ka kuzitika kwa nyenyezi kwambura kulaŵiska vyakucitika vyakwamba?<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kroupa |first=Pavel |title=The Initial Mass Function of Stars: Evidence for Uniformity in Variable Systems |journal=Science |date=2002 |volume=295 |issue=5552 |pages=82–91 |doi=10.1126/science.1067524 |pmid=11778039 |arxiv=astro-ph/0201098 |bibcode=2002Sci...295...82K |s2cid=14084249}}</ref> Nga ni nthena, pacali mafumbo pa kupangika kwa milambagombe yakwamba, kwambilira kwa mabowo ghakufipa ghakulu comene, kufumira kwa nkhongono za kuthambo za nkhongono zikulu comene, na usange pali umoyo unyake mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, comene umoyo unyake wa vinjeru.<ref>{{cite web |title=FAQ – How did galaxies form? |url=http://origins.stsci.edu/faq/galaxies.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628054952/http://origins.stsci.edu/faq/galaxies.html |archive-date=28 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Supermassive Black Hole |url=http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Supermassive+Black+Hole |publisher=Swinburne University |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814110807/https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Supermassive+Black+Hole |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |title=The Origin of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays |last=Hillas |first=A.M. |volume=22 |date=September 1984 |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002233 |pages=425–44 |quote=This poses a challenge to these models, because [...] |bibcode=1984ARA&A..22..425H }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astrobio.net/debate/236/complex-life-elsewhere-in-the-universe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628214416/http://www.astrobio.net/debate/236/complex-life-elsewhere-in-the-universe |archive-date=28 June 2011 |title=Rare Earth: Complex Life Elsewhere in the Universe? |work=Astrobiology Magazine |access-date=12 August 2006 |date=15 July 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bigear.org/vol1no2/sagan.htm |title=The Quest for Extraterrestrial Intelligence |last=Sagan |first=Carl |work=Cosmic Search Magazine |access-date=12 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818144558/http://www.bigear.org/vol1no2/sagan.htm |archive-date=18 August 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === * {{cite book |first=George |last=Forbes |title=History of Astronomy |publisher=Plain Label Books |location=London, England |date=1909 |isbn=978-1-60303-159-2 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8172 |access-date=7 April 2019 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828185512/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8172 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Harpaz |first=Amos |title=Stellar Evolution |date=1994 |isbn=978-1-56881-012-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C |publisher=A K Peters |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Unsöld |first=A. |title=The New Cosmos: An Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=2001 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-67877-9 |author2=Baschek, B. |ref=none}} 7mkcklw2juth7j3mwxdoiedo17a2kuo 0 6225 124408 124077 2026-11-10T20:38:38Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124408 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dango''' ni malango agho ghakupangika na kulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ulongozgi panji gha ŵanthu kuti ghalongozge nkhalo, ndipo ng'anamulo yake yakwenelera yaŵa nkhani ya kususkana kwa nyengo yitali.{{sfn|Robertson|2006|p=90}}{{sfn|Willis|1926}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbs |first1= Jack P. |title=Definitions of Law and Empirical Questions |journal=Law & Society Review |date=1968 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=429–446 |doi= 10.2307/3052897 |issn=0023-9216|jstor=3052897 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akers |first1=Ronald L. |title=Toward a Comparative Definition of Law |journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology |date=1965 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=301–306 |url=http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5313&context=jclc |access-date=3 January 2020 |doi=10.2307/1141239 |jstor=1141239 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719212013/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5313&context=jclc |url-status=live | issn=0022-0205|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakulilongosola nga ni kasandiro, ndipo ŵanyake nga ni luso la ulunji.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spooner |first1=Lysander |author-link1=Lysander Spooner |title=Natural Law; or The Science of Justice: A Treatise on Natural Law, Natural Justice, Natural Rights, Natural Liberty, and Natural Society; Showing that All Legislation Whatsoever is an Absurdity, a Usurpation, and a Crime. Part First. |date=1882 |publisher=A. Williams & Co. |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_Law;_or_The_Science_of_Justice:_A_Treatise_on_Natural_Law,_Natural_Justice,_Natural_Rights,_Natural_Liberty,_and_Natural_Society;_Showing_that_All_Legislation_Whatsoever_is_an_Absurdity,_a_Usurpation,_and_a_Crime._Part_First. |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231072121/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_Law;_or_The_Science_of_Justice:_A_Treatise_on_Natural_Law,_Natural_Justice,_Natural_Rights,_Natural_Liberty,_and_Natural_Society;_Showing_that_All_Legislation_Whatsoever_is_an_Absurdity,_a_Usurpation,_and_a_Crime._Part_First. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Núñez Vaquero |first1=Álvaro |title=Five Models of Legal Science |journal=Revus. Journal for Constitutional Theory and Philosophy of Law / Revija za ustavno teorijo in filozofijo prava |date=10 June 2013 |volume=19 |issue=19 |pages=53–81 |doi=10.4000/revus.2449 |language=en |issn=1581-7652 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Cohen|1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |last = Rubin |first = Basha|title=Is Law an Art or a Science?: A Bit of Both |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/basharubin/2015/01/13/is-law-an-art-or-a-science-a-bit-of-both/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181103170800/https://www.forbes.com/sites/basharubin/2015/01/13/is-law-an-art-or-a-science-a-bit-of-both/ |archive-date=3 November 2018 |url-status=live |website=Forbes |date=13 January 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Berger|1953|p=525}} Malango agho caro cikulondezgeska ghangapangika na mphala, ndipo ghakuŵa malango gha mphala; na cigaŵa cakufiska malango kwizira mu vilangulo na malongozgero; panji na viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi, ivyo vikuŵa viweruzgo vyakulongozgera mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo. Wakuwusa payekha wangacita milimo iyi yose mu ufumu wake. Kupangika kwa malango ghene kungakhwaskika na Dango Likulu, lakulembeka panji lambura kulembeka, kweniso wanangwa uwo walembeka mu ilo. Dango likukhwaska ndyali, cuma, mbiri na ŵanthu mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo likuteŵetera so nga ni nkhoswe pa ubwezi wa ŵanthu. Ndondomeko za dango zikupambana kuyana na dera la mazaza, ndipo kupambana kwake kukusandika mu kasandiro ka kuyaniska malango. Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba, mphala panji wupu unyake wapakati ukulemba malango ghose mu malemba ghamoza na kughawunjika pamoza. Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, ŵeruzgi ŵangapanga malango gha viweruzgo agho ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kughalondezga kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, nangauli nyengo zinyake malango agha ghangang'anamulika na mphara yapacanya panji mphala.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Anthony |title=The Judge as Law-maker |journal=James Cook University Mayo Lecture |date=1996 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JCULRev/1996/2.pdf |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231082120/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JCULRev/1996/2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Devins |first1=Neal |title=Congressional Responses to Judicial Decisions |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court |date=2008 |publisher=Gale MacMillan |pages=400–403 |url=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1633 |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231082120/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1633/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Dango la cisopa likugwira ntchito mu magulu ghanyake gha visopa na mu vyaro vinyake, ndipo kale lakakhwaska dango lambura cisopa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Religious Foundations of Law in the West: An Historical Perspective |journal=Journal of Law and Religion |date=1983 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–43 |doi=10.2307/1051071 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|jstor=1051071 |s2cid=146933872 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Jonathan |last2=Sandler |first2=Shmuel |title=Separation of Religion and State in the Twenty-First Century: Comparing the Middle East and Western Democracies |journal=Comparative Politics |date=1 April 2005 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=317 |doi=10.2307/20072892 |jstor=20072892}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Noel |title=Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction in the Church of the Province of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia |journal=Deakin Law Review |date=2001 |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=262 |url=http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/DeakinLawRw/2001/14.html |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231152654/http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/DeakinLawRw/2001/14.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Otto |editor1-first=Jan Michiel |title=Sharia incorporated: a comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present |publisher=Leiden University Press |isbn=9789087280574|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Raisch |first1=Marylin Johnson |title=Religious Legal Systems in Comparative Law: A Guide to Introductory Research – GlobaLex |url=https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Religious_Legal_Systems1.html |department=Hauser Global Law School Program |publisher=New York University School of Law |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231153027/https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Religious_Legal_Systems1.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Dango lingagawika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: dango la ŵanthu wose likukhwaskana na ulongozgi na ŵanthu, kusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango; dango la ŵanthu paŵekha likukhwaskana na mphindano za dango pakati pa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa nga ni maphangano, cuma, kunanga ŵanyake, na dango la malonda. Kupambana uku nkhwakuwoneka comene mu vyaro vya Dango la Malemba, comenecomene ivyo vili na ndondomeko yapadera ya mphara za ulongozgi; kweni mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, kupatulana kwa dango la ŵanthu wose na la ŵanthu paŵekha kukuwoneka comene yayi. Dango likupeleka nkhani za kusanda kwa ŵasambiri mu mbiri ya dango, kasandiro ka vinjeru, kusanda cuma, na kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordley |first1=James |title=Comparative Law and Legal History |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law |pages=752–774 |date=16 November 2006 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.013.0024 |isbn=9780199296064 |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199296064-e-024 |access-date=31 December 2019 |language=en |editor1-last=Reimann |editor1-first=Mathias |editor2-last=Zimmermann |editor2-first=Reinhard |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231074358/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199296064-e-024 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bor |first1=Fredric L. |title=The nexus between philosophy and law |journal=Journal of Legal Education |date=1974 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=539–543 |issn=0022-2208|jstor=42896964 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rubin |first1=Paul H. |title=Law and Economics |website=The Library of Economics and Liberty |publisher=Liberty Fund, Inc. |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=2 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Banakar |first1=Reza |title=Merging law and sociology : beyond the dichotomies in socio-legal research |date=2003 |publisher=Galda and Wilch Publishing |location=Berlin/Wisconsin |isbn=1-931255-13-X}}</ref> Dango likwiziska so nkhani zakuzirwa na zakusuzga zakukhwaskana na kuyana kwa ŵanthu, kweruzga kwambura kutora lwande, na ulunji.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pound |first1=Roscoe |title=The End of Law as Developed in Legal Rules and Doctrines |journal=Harvard Law Review |date=1914 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=195–234 |doi=10.2307/1325958 |issn=0017-811X|jstor=1325958 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice and Injustice in Law and Legal Theory|date=1996|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=9780472096251|pages=18–19|doi=10.3998/mpub.10283|jstor=10.3998/mpub.10283|editor1-last=Sarat|editor1-first=Austin|editor2-last=Kearns|editor2-first=Thomas}}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''law'', ilo likusangika mu Cingelezi ca Kale nga ni ''lagu'', likufuma ku lizgu la Cinorse ca Kale lakuti ''lǫg''. Mu umoza wake, ''lag'' likang'anamulanga "cinthu cakuŵikika panji cakukhazikika", kweni mu unandi wake likang'anamulanga "dango".<ref>{{cite OED|law, n.|4864419306}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Vinjeru ka Dango == {{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=22em|salign=left|quote=Kasi dango nchivici? [...] Para nkhuti cilato ca malango nyengo zose nca ŵanthu wose, nkhung'anamula kuti dango likuwona ŵanthu pamoza na milimo mwakugaŵika yayi, ndipo likuwona munthu yumoza panji ncito yimoza yayi. [...] Mwa kuwona uku, tikuwona luŵiro kuti tingafumba so yayi kuti ndi njani wakwenera kupanga malango, cifukwa ni milimo ya khumbo la wose; panji usange fumu yili pacanya pa dango, cifukwa nayo ni yumoza wa caro; panji usange dango lingaŵa lambura urunji, cifukwa palije uyo wakujipusika yekha; panji umo tingaŵira ŵanangwa kweni pasi pa malango, cifukwa malango ni waka kulembeka kwa makhumbo ghithu.|source=Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ''The Social Contract'', II, 6.<ref>Rousseau, ''The Social Contract'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20080222135803/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/r/rousseau/jean_jacques/r864s/book2.html#section16 Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)]</ref>}} Kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango kakumanyikwa comene kuti kasandiro ka malango. Kasandiro ka malango ka vyakwenelera kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango likwenera kuŵa wuli?", apo kasandiro ka malango kakusanda kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" === Kasandiro ka Malango Kakusanda === Pali kuyezgayezga kunandi kwa kupanga "ng'anamulo ya dango iyo yingazomerezgeka na ŵanthu wose pa caro cose". Mu 1972, Baron Hampstead wakasacizga kuti ng'anamulo nga iyi yingapangika yayi.<ref name="Jurisprudence. Third Edition 1972. Page 39">Dennis Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. ''Introduction to Jurisprudence''. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975. p. 39.</ref> McCoubrey na White ŵakayowoya kuti fumbo lakuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" lilije zgoro lambura kusuzga.<ref> McCoubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. ''Textbook on Jurisprudence''. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. {{ISBN|1-85431-582-X}}. p. 2.</ref> Glanville Williams wakayowoya kuti ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" yikuyana na malo agho lizgu ili likugwiliskirika ntchito. Wakayowoya kuti, mwaciyelezgero, "dango la mdawuko la kale" na "dango la msumba" ni malo agho lizgu lakuti "dango" lili na ng'anamulo ziŵiri zakupambana izo zingagumanyika yayi.<ref>Williams, Glanville. International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Meaning of the Word "Law". Revised version published in Laslett (Editor), ''Philosophy, Politics and Society'' (1956) p. 134 et seq. The original was published in (1945) 22 BYBIL 146.</ref> Thurman Arnold wakayowoya kuti nkhwakuwonekera kuti nchambura kucitikiska kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango", ndipo nkhwakuwonekera so kuti kuyezgayezga kupeleka ng'anamulo yake kukwenera kulekeka yayi nyengo yose.{{sfn|Arnold|1935|p=36}} Munthu wangaghanaghana kuti palije cifukwa ca kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" (mwaciyelezgero, "tiluwe nkhani za pacanya-pacanya, tiye ku milandu yeneyene").<ref>Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. ''Introduction to Jurisprudence''. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975.</ref> Ng'anamulo yimoza njakuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango na malongozgero agho ghakulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ŵanthu kuti ghawuse nkhalo.{{sfn|Robertson|2006|p=90}} Mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', H. L. A. Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni "ndondomeko ya malango"; John Austin wakayowoya kuti dango ni "cilangulo ca wakuwusa wapacanya, cakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa cilango"; Ronald Dworkin, mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', wakulongosola dango nga ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" kuti ulunji ufiskike; ndipo Joseph Raz wakuti dango ni "mazaza" ghakuŵa nkhoswe pa vyakukhumba vya ŵanthu.{{sfn|Campbell|1993|p=184}}{{sfn|Bix|2022}}{{sfn|Dworkin|1986|p=410}}{{sfn|Raz|1979|pp=3–36}} Oliver Wendell Holmes wakapeleka ng'anamulo ya dango kuti ni "ucimi wa ivyo mphara zicitenge nadi, ndipo palije cinyake cakujikuzga kuluska ivi."<ref>Holmes, Oliver Wendell. "The Path of Law" (1897) 10 ''Harvard Law Review'' 457 at 461.</ref> Mu buku lake la ''Treatise on Law'', Thomas Aquinas wakuti dango ni kulongosola vinthu mwa vinjeru, vyakukhwaskana na uwemi wa ŵanthu wose, uko kukuthandazgika na yose uyo wapika udindo wa kupwelelera ŵanthu.<ref>Aquinas, St Thomas. ''Summa Theologica''. 1a2ae, 90.4. Translated by J G Dawson. Ed d'Entreves. (Basil Blackwell). Latin: "nihil est aliud qau edam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune, ab eo qi curam communitatis habet, promulgata".</ref> Ng'anamulo iyi yili na vigaŵa vya dango lakuŵikika na vya dango la kawiro.<ref>McCoubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. ''Textbook on Jurisprudence''. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. {{ISBN|1-85431-582-X}}. p. 73.</ref> === Dango, Nkhalo Yiwemi na Ulunji === Ng'anamulo za dango kanandi zikwiziska fumbo lakuti kasi dango likusazgamo nkhalo yiwemi mpaka pati.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=T. W. |title=The Conception of Morality in Jurisprudence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_philosophical-review_1896-01_5_1/page/36 |journal=The Philosophical Review |date=January 1896 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=36–50 |doi=10.2307/2176104 |jstor=2176104 }}</ref> Zgoro la John Austin, la ghanoghano la candulo, likaŵa kuti dango ni "vilangulo, vyakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa vilango, vyakufuma kwa wakuwusa wapacanya, uyo ŵanthu ŵazgoŵera kumupulikira".{{sfn|Bix|2022}} Kweni ŵakukolera dango la kawiro, nga ni Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ŵakuti dango likulongola malango gha kawiro agho ni gha nkhalo yiwemi na ghambura kusintha. Ghanoghano la "dango la kawiro" likamba mu kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki ŵa kale pa nyengo yimoza na ghanoghano la ulunji, ndipo likawelera so mu ukhaliro wa Kumadazi kwizira mu malemba gha Thomas Aquinas, comenecomene buku lake la ''Treatise on Law''. Hugo Grotius, uyo wakambiska ndondomeko ya dango la kawiro yakuthemba pa vinjeru pera, wakayowoya kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la ŵanthu la kukhala pamoza, nga umo Aristotle wakalongolera, kweniso ku vinjeru.<ref>Fritz Berolzheimer, ''The World's Legal Philosophies'', 115–116</ref> Immanuel Kant wakagomezga kuti cilangulo ca nkhalo yiwemi cikukhumba kuti malango "ghasankhike nga ni kuti ghakwenera kugwira ntchito nga ni malango gha kawiro gha pa caro cose".<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> Jeremy Bentham na msambiri wake Austin, kulondezga David Hume, ŵakagomezga kuti ici cikasazganya suzgo la "ivyo viliko" na "ivyo vikwenera kuŵa". Bentham na Austin ŵakakolera dango lakuŵikika; kuti dango nadi ndakupatukana limoza na "nkhalo yiwemi".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Green |first=Leslie |title=Legal Positivism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/|access-date=10 December 2006 |archive-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609094650/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kant wakasuskika so na Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakakana fundo ya kuyana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo wakagomezga kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo lingacemeka yayi kuti nda "nkhalo yiwemi" panji nda "nkhalo yiheni".<ref>Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref><ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98</ref><ref>Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Mu 1934, musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Austria, Hans Kelsen, wakalutilizga mdawuko wa dango lakuŵikika mu buku lake la ''Pure Theory of Law''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Marmor |first=Andrei |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ |title=The Pure Theory of Law |access-date=9 February 2007 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=1934 |archive-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609130143/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kelsen wakagomezga kuti nangauli dango ndakupatukana na nkhalo yiwemi, lili na "ukwenelero", kung'anamula kuti tikwenera kulipulikira. Nangauli malango ni mazgo gha "ivyo viliko" (mwaciyelezgero, dipo la kwendeska galimoto kumanyuma pa msewu ukulu ni €500), malango ghakutiphalira ivyo "tikwenera" kucita. Ntheura, tingaghanaghana kuti ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango yili na "dango la muzu" (Cijeremani: ''Grundnorm'') ilo likutiphalira kupulikira. Mususki mukulu wa Kelsen, Carl Schmitt, wakakana dango lakuŵikika na ghanoghano la uwuso wa dango, cifukwa wakazomera yayi kuti fundo za vyakwenelera zambura kuwoneka ziŵe pa malo ghakwamba kuluska maghanoghano gha ndyali ghakuwoneka na visankho.<ref>Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Ntheura, Schmitt wakakolera kasandiro ka malango ka nyengo yapadera (nyengo ya suzgo likulu), ako kakakana kuti malango ghangafikapo pa vyose ivyo vikucitika mu ndyali.{{sfn|Finn|1991|pp=170–171}} Kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, H. L. A. Hart, mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', wakasuska Austin cifukwa ca kupepuska vinthu, na Kelsen cifukwa ca vyakughanaghanira waka.{{sfn|Bayles|1992|p=21}} Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango, ghakugawika mu malango ghakwamba (malango gha nkhalo) na malango ghaciŵiri (malango gha ŵamazaza, ghakuŵawovwira kufiska malango ghakwamba). Malango ghaciŵiri ghakugawika so mu malango gha kweruzga (kumazga mphindano za dango), malango gha kusintha (kusintha malango), na dango la kuzomerezga (kumanya kuti malango ni ghakwenelera). Ŵasambiri ŵaŵiri ŵa Hart ŵakalutilizga kususkana uku: Mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', Ronald Dworkin wakasuska Hart na ŵakukolera dango lakuŵikika cifukwa ca kukana kwawo kuwona dango nga ni nkhani ya nkhalo yiwemi. Dworkin wakuti dango ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" ilo likukhumba kuti ŵeruzgi ŵasange nthowa yakwenelera comene na ya ulunji comene ya kumazgira mphindano ya dango, kuyana na midawuko ya Dango Likulu ya Ŵangelezi na Ŵamerika.{{sfn|Dworkin|1986|p=410}} Kweni Joseph Raz wakavikilira ghanoghano la dango lakuŵikika, ndipo mu ''The Authority of Law'' wakasuska nthowa ya Hart ya "fundo ya ŵanthu yakupepuka".{{sfn|Raz|1979|pp=3–36}} Raz wakuti dango ni mazaza, agho ghangamanyikwa kwizira mu malo ghakufumira mu ŵanthu pera, kwambura kukhwaska maghanoghano gha nkhalo yiwemi. Mu maghanoghano ghake, kugawa kulikose kwa malango kujumpha ntchito yawo nga ni vyakugwiriskira ntchito vya mazaza pa unkhoswe, kukwenera kusidikilika ku kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu, pa malo pa kasandiro ka malango.{{sfn|Raz|1979|p=37}} == Mbiri == Mbiri ya dango yikukolerana comene na kukura kwa ukhaliro wa ŵanthu. Dango la Ŵaegupto ŵa kale, ilo likamba mu 3000 pambere Khristu, likazengeka pa ghanoghano la ''Ma'at'', ndipo likamanyikwanga na mdawuko, luso la kuyowoya, kuyana kwa ŵanthu, na kwambura kutora lwande.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lippert |first1=Sandra |title=Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies |chapter=Egyptian Law, Saite to Roman Periods |journal=Oxford Handbooks Online |date=11 February 2016 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.48 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-48 |access-date=3 January 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-993539-0 |language=en |archive-date=3 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103123820/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-48 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pofika mu vyaka vya m'ma 2100 pambere Khristu, wakuwusa wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, Ur-Nammu, wakaŵa wapanga buku lakwamba la malango, ilo likaŵa na mazgo gha "para … ntheura …". Cha m'ma 1760 pambere Khristu, Kalonga Hammurabi wakakuzga dango la Ŵababulo mwa kulilemba pamoza na kuligwala pa libwe. Hammurabi wakaŵika malibwe ghakwimika ghanandi gha buku lake la malango mu ufumu wose wa Babulo kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaghawone; ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Codex Hammurabi''. Libwe ilo likaŵa lambura kunangika comene likasangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵasiriya ŵa ku Britain, ndipo kufuma apo ilo lalembeka mu malembo ghanyake na kung'anamulika mu viyowoyero vinandi, kusazgapo Cingelezi, Ciitaliya, Cijeremani na Cifurenci.{{sfn|Richardson|2004|p=11}} Phangano Lakale likufuma mu 1280 pambere Khristu, ndipo likupeleka vilangulo vya nkhalo yiwemi nga ni ulongozgi wa ŵanthu ŵawemi. Msumba-caro mucoko wa Ŵagiriki, Atene wa kale, kufuma cha m'ma vyaka vya 700 pambere Khristu, ukaŵa wupu wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzengeka pa kupokera ŵenecaro wose, kupatulapo ŵanakazi na ŵazga. Kweni Atene ukaŵavya kasandiro ka malango panji lizgu limoza la "dango"; ukathemba pa kupatula vinthu vitatu: dango la Ciuta (''thémis''), cilangulo ca ŵanthu (''nómos''), na mdawuko (''díkē'').{{sfn|Kelly|1992|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Mallory|1997|p=346}} Ndipouli, dango la Ŵagiriki ŵa kale likaŵa na vyakupangika viphya vikulu vya Dango Likulu pa kukura kwa uwuso wa ŵanthu.{{sfn|Ober|1996|p=121}} Dango la Ŵaroma likakhwaskika comene na kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki, kweni ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika ndiwo ŵakapanga malango ghake mwakufikapo, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene.{{sfn|Kelly|1992|p=39}}{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=1}} Mu vyaka vinandi pakati pa kuwuka na kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, dango likasinthika kuti likolerane na umoyo wa ŵanthu wakusintha, ndipo likalembeka pamoza comene mu nyengo ya Theodosius II na Justinian I.{{efn|Nga ni ndondomeko ya dango, dango la Ŵaroma lakhwaska kakulilo ka malango pa caro cose. Ndilo maziko gha mabuku gha malango gha vyaro vinandi vya Ulaya, ndipo lili na ntchito yikulu pa kukura kwa ghanoghano la mdawuko umoza wa Ulaya (Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 2, 104–107).}} Nangauli mabuku gha malango ghakasinthika na mdawuko na malango gha viweruzgo mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba, dango la Ŵaroma likasangika so cha m'ma vyaka vya 1000, apo ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵa nyengo ya pakati ŵakamba kusanda mabuku gha malango gha Ŵaroma na kukozgeska maghanoghano ghake ku dango la mpingo, ndipo ivi vikababa ''jus commune''. Mazgo gha vinjeru gha dango mu Cilatini (ghakucemeka ''brocards'') ghakawunjikika pamoza kuti ghalongozgenge. Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mphara za mafumu zikapanga viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vinandi, ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa Dango la Viweruzgo. Dango la Ŵamalonda likakhazikiskika mu Ulaya yose kuti ŵamalonda ŵacitenge malonda pa malongozgero ghakuyana, pa malo pa malango ghanandi ghakupambanapambana gha malo ghakupambana. Dango la Ŵamalonda, ilo likaŵa pambere dango la malonda la sono lindize, likakhomeleza wanangwa wa kupangana maphangano na wanangwa wa kupeleka cuma ku munthu munyake.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|first1= M. A.|last1= Clarke|first2= R. J. A.|last2= Hooley|first3= R. J. C.|last3= Munday|first4= L. S.|last4= Sealy|first5= A. M.|last5= Tettenborn|first6= P. G.|last6= Turner|title= Commercial Law|page= 14|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2017|isbn= 9780199692088|access-date= 10 December 2020|archive-date= 15 April 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210415014329/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|url-status= live}}</ref> Apo kutemwa caro kukakuranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na m'ma 1800, Dango la Ŵamalonda likasazgika mu malango gha vyaro mu mabuku ghaphya gha Dango la Malemba. Buku la Malango la Napoleon na Buku la Malango la Ŵajeremani ndigho ghakakhwaska comene kuluska ghanyake. Kupambana na Dango la Viweruzgo la Ŵangelezi, ilo lili na mabuku ghakulu comene gha malango gha viweruzgo, mabuku ghacoko gha malango ngakupepuka kutumizga ku vyaro vinyake, ndipo ngakupepuka kuti ŵeruzgi ŵaghagwiriske ntchito. Kweni sono pali vimanyikwiro vyakuti Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo vikuneng'enerana.{{sfn|Mattei|1997|p=71}} Dango la Wupu wa Vyaro vya Ulaya lili kulembeka mu maphangano, kweni likukura kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera nadi ivyo vikuŵikika na Mphara ya Ulunji ya Ulaya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McAuliffe |first1=Karen |chapter=Precedent at the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Linguistic Aspect |title=Law and Language: Current Legal Issues, Volume 15 |date=21 February 2013|editor1= Michael Freeman|editor2= Fiona Smith|isbn=9780199673667 |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29 |access-date=1 January 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |archive-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101105552/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Constitution of India.jpg|thumb|Dango Likulu la India, lakulembeka na woko mwakutowa na vithuzi pa vyakusekelera.]] India na China ŵa kale ŵakulongola midawuko yakupambana ya dango, ndipo kale ŵakaŵa na mawupu ghawo gha fundo zakusacizga za dango na kagwiliskiro kake ka ntchito. ''Arthashastra'', ilo panji likawunjikika cha m'ma 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu (nangauli lili na vinthu vya kale kuluska apo), na ''Manusmriti'' (cha m'ma 100–300 mumuwilo wa Khristu) ghakaŵa mabuku gha muzu mu India, ndipo ghali na malemba agho ghakuwonekera kuŵa malongozgero gha dango ghakugomezgeka.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'', 18–25.</ref> Vinjeru vikulu vya Manu vikaŵa kuzizipizga ŵanyake na kuzomera kupambanapambana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo vikazunulikanga mu Asia yose ya Kumwera kwa Kumafumiro gha Dazi.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=276}} Mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Ŵasilamu za kuthereska cigaŵa ca India, ''sharia'' likakhazikiskika na maufumu gha Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ''Fatawa-e-Alamgiri'' la Ufumu wa Mughal, ilo likawunjikika na Themba Aurangzeb pamoza na ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵa Cisilamu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chapra|first1=Muhammad Umer|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=9781783475728|pages=62–63|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Roy|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref> Mu India, mdawuko wa dango wa Ŵahindu, pamoza na dango la Cisilamu, vikaŵikirikapo Dango la Viweruzgo pa malo ghawo apo India likaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=273}} Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore na Hong Kong nawo ŵakapokera ndondomeko ya Dango la Viweruzgo. Mdawuko wa dango wa Asia ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi ukulongola kusazganikana kwapadera kwa vyakukhwaska vyambura cisopa na vya cisopa.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=287}} Japan ndico caro cakwamba kwamba kusintha ndondomeko yake ya dango kuŵa ya sono kulondezga Ŵakumadazi, mwa kutora vigaŵa vya Buku la Dango la Malemba la Ŵafurenci, kweni comene la Ŵajeremani.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=304}} Ici cikalongolanga, pa cigaŵa cinyake, umo Germany likaŵira caro cakukura mu nkhongono kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mwakuyana waka, dango la mdawuko la China likapeleka malo ku kulondezga Ŵakumadazi mu vyaka vyaumaliro vya Ufumu wa Qing, mu mabuku ghankhondi na limoza gha dango la ŵanthu paŵekha, agho ghakazengeka comene pa ciyelezgero ca Ŵajapani ca dango la Ŵajeremani.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=305}} Sono dango la Taiwan ndilo likuyana comene na malango ghakulembeka pamoza gha nyengo iyo, cifukwa ca kupatukana pakati pa ŵakutemwa caro ŵa Chiang Kai-shek, awo ŵakacimbilira kwenekuko, na ŵakukolera cuma ca wose ŵa Mao Zedong, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa caro cikulu mu 1949. Ndondomeko ya sono ya dango mu Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China yikakhwaskika comene na Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma la Soviet, ilo likuŵika dango la ulongozgi pa malo ghakwamba kuluska wanangwa wa dango la ŵanthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=307}} Cifukwa ca kukura luŵiro kwa vyakupanga mu nyumba za vyakupangira, sono China yikusintha, comenecomene pa wanangwa wa cuma, nangauli ni pa wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali yayi. Buku liphya la malango gha maphangano ilo likambika mu 1999 likalongola kusintha kufuma ku kuwusika na ulongozgi pera.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=309}} Kweniso, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa vyaka khumi na vinkhondi, mu 2001 China yikanjila mu Wupu wa Malonda wa Caro Cose.{{sfn|Farah|2006|pp=263–304}} == Ndondomeko za Dango == Kanandi, ndondomeko za dango zingagawika pakati pa Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo. Ŵamanyi ŵa sono ŵakuti kuzirwa kwa kupambana uku kwacepa pacokopacoko. Kutora malango kufuma ku vyaro vinyake kunandi, uko nkhwakuzgoŵereka mu dango la sono, kukupangiska kuti vimanyikwiro vinandi ivyo kale vikamanyikwanga kuŵa vya Dango la Viweruzgo panji vya Dango la Malemba visangike mu vyose viŵiri. Mtundu wacitatu wa ndondomeko ya dango ni dango la cisopa, ilo lazengeka pa malemba gha cisopa. Ndondomeko iyo caro cikuwusikira nayo kanandi yikusankhika na mbiri yake, ubwezi wake na vyaro vinyake, panji kupulikira kwake malongozgero gha pakati pa vyaro. Malo agho madera gha mazaza ghakupokera nga ni ghakuŵa na mazaza gha kukakizga ŵanthu ndigho ghakupambaniska ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango. === Dango la Malemba === [[File:Code Civil 1804.png|thumb|Peji lakwamba la Buku la Malango la Napoleon la mu 1804]] Dango la Malemba ni ndondomeko ya dango iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vinandi pa caro cose mazuŵa ghano. Mu Dango la Malemba, malo agho ghakuzomerezgeka kuŵa na mazaza ni, comene, malango gha mphala (comenecomene malango ghakulembeka pamoza mu Malango Ghakulu panji malango gha mphala agho ulongozgi wazomerezga) na mdawuko.{{efn|Madera gha Dango la Malemba ghakuzomera mdawuko nga ni "kasupe munyake wa dango"; ntheura ŵamanyi ŵakugaŵa Dango la Malemba mu magulu ghakulu ghaŵiri: "dango lakulembeka" (''ius scriptum'') panji malango gha Nyumba ya Malango, na "dango lambura kulembeka" (''ius non-scriptum'') panji mdawuko. Kweni ŵakuwona mdawuko kuŵa wakuzirwa comene yayi kuyaniska na malango ghakulembeka (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).}} Kulemba malango pamoza kukamba vyaka vinandi comene ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ciyelezgero cimoza ca kale ni ''Codex Hammurabi'' ca Ŵababulo. Ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba zikufuma comene ku mabuku gha malango agho Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakapeleka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500, agho ghakasangika so mu Italy mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Economist explains: What is the difference between common and civil law? |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2013/07/16/what-is-the-difference-between-common-and-civil-law |access-date=1 January 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |date=17 July 2013 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222150215/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2013/07/16/what-is-the-difference-between-common-and-civil-law |url-status=live }}</ref> Dango la Ŵaroma mu nyengo ya Caro Cambura Fumu ca Ŵaroma na ya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma likathembanga comene pa ndondomeko za milandu, ndipo likaŵavya gulu la ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=18}} M'malo mwake, mweruzgi wambura kusambira dango, ''iudex'', wakasankhikanga kuti weruzge. Viweruzgo vikathandazgikanga mwandondomeko yayi, ntheura malango gha viweruzgo ghose agho ghakakuranga ghakabisikanga ndipo ghakamanyikwanga cara.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=21}} Mulandu uliwose ukeruzgikanga kwambira pasi kufuma mu malango gha caro, ico cikuyana na kuleka kuzirwa (mu fundo yakusacizga) kwa viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi pa milandu ya kunthazi mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba mazuŵa ghano. Kufuma mu 529 kufika mu 534 mumuwilo wa Khristu, Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakalemba pamoza na kuwunjika dango lose la Ŵaroma mpaka nyengo iyo, mwakuti ivyo vikakhalako vikaŵa cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa 20 vya malemba ghose gha dango agho ghakaŵapo kale.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=32}} Ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Corpus Juris Civilis''. Nga umo mulembi yumoza wa mbiri ya dango wakalembera, "Justinian wakawona dala kumanyuma ku nyengo ya golide ya dango la Ŵaroma, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuliwezgera pa msonga uwo likaŵa kuti lafikapo vyaka 300 pambere."{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=35}} Buku la Malango la Justinian likalutilira kugwira ntchito ku Kumafumiro gha Dazi mpaka kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Byzantium. Pa nyengo iyo, Ulaya wa Kumadazi ukathembanga pa kusazganikana kwa Buku la Malango la Theodosius na malango gha mdawuko gha Ŵajeremani ŵa kale, mpaka Buku la Malango la Justinian likasangika so mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ilo ŵamanyi ŵa ku Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Bologna ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito kung'anamula malango ghawo.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=43}} Malango gha Dango la Malemba ghakulembeka pamoza, agho ghakazengeka comene pa dango la Ŵaroma na kukhwaskika na malango gha cisopa nga ni dango la mpingo, ghakalutilira kuthandazgika mu Ulaya yose mpaka ku Nyengo ya Kungweluskika. Ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, France, na ''Code Civil'', na Germany, na ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'', vikasintha mabuku ghawo gha malango kuŵa gha sono. Mabuku agha ghaŵiri ghakakhwaska comene, kuleka waka ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vya Ulaya wa pa mtunda, kweni so midawuko ya dango ya Ŵajapani na Ŵakoreya.{{sfn|Hatzis|2002|pp=253–263}}{{sfn|Demirgüç-Kunt|Levine|2001|p=204}} Fundo yakugomezgeka yikulu mu maghanoghano gha dango gha Ulaya wa pa mtunda, iyo yikafuma mu kasandiro ka malango ka Ŵajeremani, ni ghanoghano la ''Rechtsstaat'', ilo likung'anamula kuti waliyose wali pasi pa dango, comenecomene maulongozgi.<ref>Carl Schmitt, ''The Concept of the Political'', ch. 7; ''Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy''</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, vyaro ivyo vili na ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba vikwamba ku Russia na Turkey kufika ku vyaro vinandi vya Amerika ya Pakati na Amerika ya Cilatini.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook&nbsp;– Field Listing&nbsp;– Legal system|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=13 October 2007|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Dango la Viweruzgo na Dango la Kwenelera === [[File:"The sealing of the Magna Carta at Runnymede" (1997) David Parfitt, High Street, Egham, Surrey.jpg|thumb|Cikumbusko ca ku England ca apo Fumu John yikaŵika cidindo pa Magna Carta]] Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, viweruzgo vya mphara vikuzomerezgeka pakweru kuŵa dango, mwakuyana na malango gha mphala na malongozgero gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Fundo yakugomezgeka ya viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, panji ''stare decisis'' (mu Cilatini, "kwimilira pa viweruzgo"), yikung'anamula kuti viweruzgo vya mphara zapacanya vikukakizga mphara zapasi, kuti milandu yakuyana yiŵe na viweruzgo vyakuyana. Kweni mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, malango gha mphala kanandi ngakufikapo comene. Viweruzgo vya mphara ni vyafupi ndipo vyakufikapo comene yayi, cifukwa mweruzgi wakulemba kuti weruzge mulandu umoza pera, kuleka kuti waŵike maghanoghano agho ghazamulongozga mphara za kunthazi. Dango la Viweruzgo likafuma ku Ungelezi, ndipo lahalika na pafupifupi caro ciliconse ico kale cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain (kupatulapo Malta, Scotland, cigaŵa ca Louisiana mu United States, na cigaŵa ca Quebec mu Canada). Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mu nyengo ya Kuthereska kwa Ŵanoromani, dango likapambananga kufuma ku cigaŵa kuya ku cigaŵa, kulongola midawuko yakupambanapambana ya mitundu. Ghanoghano la dango lakuyana mu caro cose likakura mu uwuso wa Henry II kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, apo Henry wakasankha ŵeruzgi awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza gha kupanga ndondomeko ya dango yimoza yakukhazikika, iyo yikaŵa ya caro cose. Mbondolo yikulu yakulondezgapo pa kukura kwa Dango la Viweruzgo yikiza apo Kalonga John wakakakizgika na mafumu ghake ghacoko kuzomera cikalata ico cikacepeska mazaza ghake gha kupanga malango. ''Magina Karita'' ya 1215 yikakhumba so kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakulondezga Kalonga ŵacitirenge mphara na viweruzgo vyawo pa "malo ghamoza ghakumanyikwa", kuleka kweruzga mwakujiwusira pa malo ghambura kumanyikwa mu caro cose.<ref>{{cite web| title=Magna Carta| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html| publisher=Fordham University| access-date=10 November 2006| archive-date=10 September 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910155351/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html| url-status=live}}</ref> Gulu licoko la ŵeruzgi ŵakusankhika likaŵa na mazaza ghakulu pa kupanga malango mu ndondomeko iyi, ndipo kuyaniska na ivyo vikaŵa mu Ulaya, cigaŵa ca kweruzga ca Ungelezi cikaŵa pa malo ghamoza comene. Mwaciyelezgero, mu 1297, apo mphara yapacanya comene mu France yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi 51, ''Court of Common Pleas'' ya Ungelezi yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi ŵankhondi pera.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=4}} Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ici, ico cikaŵa na nkhongono na kukolerana comene, cikababa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kukuzgira Dango la Viweruzgo.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=3}} [[File:Microcosm of London Plate 022 - Court of Chancery, Lincoln's Inn Hall edited.jpg|thumb|right|Mphara ya Chancery, London, England, kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800]] Apo nyengo yikajumphanga, ŵanandi ŵakawona kuti Dango la Viweruzgo likaŵa lakukhazikika comene na lambura kupindika, ndipo ŵenecaro ŵanandi comene ŵakapempha Kalonga kuti walijumphe. Pa malo pa Kalonga, ''Lord Chancellor'' wakamba kupeleka viweruzgo kuti cakwenelera cicitike pa mulandu. Kufuma mu nyengo ya Sir Thomas More, mwimiliri wa milandu wakwamba kusankhika kuŵa ''Lord Chancellor'', Dango la Kwenelera lakukhazikika likakura pamoza na Dango la Viweruzgo lambura kupindika, ndipo likaŵa na mphara yake, ''Court of Chancery''. Pakwamba, Dango la Kwenelera likasuskikanga kanandi cifukwa ca kwendera kwambura ndondomeko.<ref>Pollock (ed) ''Table Talk of John Selden'' (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the standard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."</ref> Pacokopacoko, mphara za Dango la Kwenelera zikapanga fundo zakukhora, comenecomene mu nyengo ya Lord Eldon.<ref>''Gee v Pritchard'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 mu Ungelezi, na mu 1937 mu United States, ndondomeko izi ziŵiri zikalumikizgika. Pa kukuzga Dango la Viweruzgo, malemba gha ŵamanyi ghaŵa na ntchito yakuzirwa nyengo zose, pa kuwunjika fundo zikulu kufuma mu malango gha viweruzgo ghakuthandazgika, na pa kukhumbira kusintha. William Blackstone, kufuma cha m'ma 1760, ndiyo wakaŵa mumanyi wakwamba kuwunjika, kulongosola, na kusambizga Dango la Viweruzgo.<ref>Blackstone, ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'', [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp Book the First&nbsp;– Chapter the First] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705141310/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp |date=5 July 2011 }}</ref> Kweni pa kulongosola pera, ŵamanyi awo ŵakapenjanga malongosoro na ndondomeko za mukati pacokopacoko ŵakasintha umo dango likagwiliranga ntchito nadi.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=17}} === Dango la Cisopa === Dango la cisopa lazengeka pakweru pa fundo za cisopa. Viyelezgero ni ''Halakha'' ya Ŵayuda na ''Sharia'' ya Cisilamu, ndipo ng'anamulo ya vyose viŵiri ni "nthowa ya kulondezga". Dango la mpingo la Ŵakhristu nalo likucali kugwira ntchito mu mipingo yinyake. Kanandi, cisopa cikung'anamula kuti dango lingasintha yayi, cifukwa Mazgo gha Ciuta ghangasinthika panji kususkika na malango gha ŵeruzgi panji gha maulongozgi yayi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ferrari |first1=Silvio |editor1-last=Huxley |editor1-first=Andrew |title=Religion, Law and Tradition: Comparative Studies in Religious Law |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-13250-6 |page=51 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 4: Canon Law as a Religious Legal System |quote=Divine law... is eternal and cannot be changed by any human authority.}}</ref> Ndipouli, madera ghanandi gha mazaza gha cisopa ghakuthemba pa malongosoro ghanyake gha ŵanthu kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko za dango zakufikapo. Mwaciyelezgero, Kurani lili na malango ghanyake, ndipo likuŵa cisimi ca malango ghanyake kwizira mu kung'anamula, ''Qiyas'' (kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska), ''Ijma'' (kupulikana kwa wose), na viweruzgo vyakulongozgera.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=159}} Ivi vili comene mu malango na kasandiro ka malango ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti ''Sharia'' na ''Fiqh'', mwakulondezgana. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni ''Torah'' panji Phangano Lakale, mu Mabuku Ghankhondi gha Mozesi. Ili lili na malango gha muzu gha dango la Ŵayuda, agho magulu ghanyake gha Ŵaisrayeli ghakusankha kugwiliskira ntchito. ''Halakha'' ni buku la malango la Ŵayuda ilo likupatawula mwakufupikiska ng'anamulo zinyake za ''Talmud''. Vyaro vinandi ni madera gha mazaza gha ''Sharia''. Dango la Israeli likuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa pa mulandu kugwiliskira ntchito malango gha cisopa pera para ŵasankha. Dango la mpingo likugwiliskirika ntchito pera na ŵanthu ŵa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, na Mipingo ya Angilikani. ==== Dango la Mpingo ==== [[File:Graverat titelblad till "Kanonisk rätt" - Skoklosters slott - 93238.tif|thumb|''Corpus Juris Canonici'', unandi wa malango gha mpingo uwo ukagwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 750]] Dango la mpingo (Cigiriki ca Kale: κανών, ''kanon'', kung'anamula kuti "nthonga yakugoloka yakupimira") ni vilangulo na malongozgero agho ghakupangika na mazaza gha mpingo, kuti ghawuse wupu wa Ŵakhristu panji mpingo na ŵanthu ŵake. Ni dango la mukati la mpingo ilo likuwusa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro, na mipingo ya caro ciliconse mu Mipingo ya Angilikani.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Boudinhon |first=Auguste |title=Canon Law |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm |year=1910 |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |location=New York |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=9 |access-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331231326/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm |archive-date=31 March 2019}}</ref> Umo dango la mpingo ili likupangikira, kung'anamulikira, na nyengo zinyake kweruzgikira, vikupambana comene pakati pa magulu agha ghatatu gha mipingo. Mu midawuko yose yitatu, ''canon'' pakwamba likaŵa dango ilo wungano wa mpingo wazomerezga; malango agha ndigho ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la mpingo.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender in History: Global Perspectives|last=Wiesner-Hanks|first=Merry|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|year=2011|pages=37}}</ref> Mpingo wa Katolika uli na ndondomeko ya dango ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito kwambura kuleka mu caro ca Kumadazi, ndipo yikambapo pambere ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo za Ulaya zindakure.<ref>Raymond Wacks, ''Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed.'' (Oxford University Press, 2015) pg. 13.</ref><ref name=White>{{cite web |last=Peters |first=Edward |url=http://canonlaw.info |publisher=CanonLaw.info |title=Home Page |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928005444/http://www.canonlaw.info/ |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Buku la Dango la Mpingo la 1983 likuwusa Mpingo wa Cilatini ''sui juris''. Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi, iyo yikapanga malango na midawuko yakupambana, yikuwusika na Buku la Malango la Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi.<ref>{{cite web|author=Blessed John Paul II, Ap. Const.|url=https://archive.org/stream/ApostolicConstitutionSacriCanonesJohnPaulIi1990/Sacri_Canones_Apostolic_Constitution_John_Paul_II_1990#page/n7/mode/2up|title=Apostolic Constitution Sacri Canones John Paul II 1990|year=1990|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324090532/https://archive.org/stream/ApostolicConstitutionSacriCanonesJohnPaulIi1990/Sacri_Canones_Apostolic_Constitution_John_Paul_II_1990#page/n7/mode/2up|archive-date=24 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Dango la mpingo la Mpingo wa Katolika likakhwaska Dango la Viweruzgo mu nyengo ya pakati kwizira mu kusunga fundo zakugomezgeka za dango la Ŵaroma, nga ni fundo ya kumuwona munthu kuŵa wambura mlandu mpaka wasimikizgike.<ref>Friedman, Lawrence M., ''American Law: An Introduction'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1984), pg. 70.</ref>{{efn|«Mu limoza mwa mazgo ghake ghatali mu Nyumba ya Malango ya United States, Bambo Charles Sumner wakayowoya za "ghanoghano lawemi la Dango la Viweruzgo lakuti munthu wakususkika ngwambura kwananga;" kweni tikwenera kuzomera kuti ghanoghano ili likusangika mu dango la Ŵaanglo-Saxon yayi, uko nyengo zinyake ghanoghano likawonekanga kuŵa lakupambana. Ndipo mu mlandu wa sono apa mu Mphara Yikulu ya United States, mlandu wa Coffin, 156 U. S. 432, vikalongoreka kuti ghanoghano ili likaŵa lakukhazikika makora mu dango la Ŵaroma, ndipo likasungika mu dango la mpingo.»<ref>William Wirt Howe, ''Studies in the Civil Law, and its Relation to the Law of England and America'' (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1896), pg. 51.</ref>}} Dango la mpingo la Katolika ni ndondomeko ya dango yakukura comene, iyo yili na vyose vyakukhumbikwa: mphara, ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, ŵeruzgi, buku la malango lakulongosoleka makora, fundo za kung'anamula dango, na vilango vyakukakizga, nangauli lilije nkhongono ya kukakizga ŵanthu mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza ghambura cisopa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts|first=James|last= A. Brundag|year=2010|isbn=978-0226077598|page=116|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> ==== Dango la Sharia ==== Mpaka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, dango la ''Sharia'' likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu vyaro vyose vya Ŵasilamu kwambura kulembeka pamoza, ndipo buku la malango la ''Mecelle'' la Ufumu wa Ŵaottomani mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 likaŵa kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kulemba pamoza vigaŵa vya dango la ''Sharia''. Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1940, vyaro vinandi, cimoza pamanyuma pa cinyake, vyayezgayezga kuti dango la ''Sharia'' likolerane comene na umoyo na maghanoghano gha sono.{{sfn|Anderson|1956|p=43}}{{sfn|Giannoulatos|1975|pp=274–275}} Mazuŵa ghano, ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu zikutora ku midawuko ya Dango la Malemba na ya Dango la Viweruzgo, kweniso ku dango la Cisilamu na mdawuko. Malango Ghakulu gha vyaro vinyake vya Ŵasilamu, nga ni Egupto na Afghanistan, ghakuzomerezga Cisilamu kuŵa cisopa ca caro, ndipo ghakukakizga mphala kulondezga ''Sharia''.{{sfn|Sherif|2005|pp=157–158}} Saudi Arabia likuzomerezga Kurani kuŵa Dango Likulu lake, ndipo likuwusika kuyana na dango la Cisilamu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |publisher=JURIST |access-date=2 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830232216/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |archive-date=30 August 2006}}</ref> Iran nalo lawona dango la Cisilamu likuwelera so mu ndondomeko yake ya dango pamanyuma pa 1979.{{sfn|Akhlaghi|2005|p=127}} Mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha, cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vikulu vya wupu wa kuwuska so Cisilamu caŵa kucema kuti ''Sharia'' liwezgeke, ico capangiska malemba ghanandi comene na kukhwaska ndyali ya pa caro cose.{{sfn|Hallaq|2005|p=1}} === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma ni ndondomeko ya dango mu vyaro vya cuma ca wose nga ni Soviet Union ya kale na Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China.{{sfn|Markovits|2007}} Ŵamanyi ŵakupambana maghanoghano pa kuti kasi ni ndondomeko yapadera kufuma ku Dango la Malemba, cifukwa ca kupambana kukulu na Dango la Malemba uko kukufuma mu cigomezgo ca Marx na Lenin, nga ni kuŵika cigaŵa ca kweruzga pasi pa wupu wa ndyali wakuwusa.{{sfn|Markovits|2007}}<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=840224|pages=781–808|last1=Quigley|first1=J.|title=Socialist Law and the Civil Law Tradition|volume=37|issue=4|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|year=1989|doi=10.2307/840224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=G. B. |chapter=Socialist Legality and the Soviet Legal System |title=Soviet Politics |date=1988 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-333-45919-5 |pages=137–162 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19172-7_7 }}</ref> == Nthowa za Dango == Pali nthowa zakupambana za kughanaghana kwa dango (kugwiliskira ntchito dango) na nthowa za kung'anamula dango. Nthowa zakwamba ni kughanaghana kwa vigaŵa vitatu, uko kukuwusa mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba; kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska, uko kukusangika mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, comenecomene mu United States; na fundo zakusacizga za kususkana, izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri. Nthowa zaciŵiri ni malango ghakupambana gha kung'anamula dango, nga ni kung'anamula mwa ciyowoyero, kung'anamula mwa candulo, na kung'anamula mwa ndondomeko, kweniso malango ghapadera, mwaciyelezgero, Dango la Golide panji dango la suzgo. Paliso maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi na malango gha kung'anamulira, agho pamoza ghakupangiska kuti kung'anamula malango gha mphala kucitike. Msambizgi mukulu wa dango, kweniso Mwimiliri Mukulu wa Ulongozgi wa United States wa kale, Edward H. Levi, wakawona kuti "ciyelezgero ca muzu ca kughanaghana kwa dango ni kughanaghana mwa viyelezgero", kung'anamula kuti kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska ivyo vikafumamo mu milandu iyo yikamazga mafumbo gha dango ghakuyana.<ref>Edward H. Levi, ''An Introduction to Legal Reasoning'' (2013), p. 1-2.</ref> Mu mulandu wa Mphara Yilala ya United States, wakukhwaskana na ndondomeko izo wupu wa malonda wakulozga vikwerete ukacita kuti ukhweŵe vyakubudiska, Mweruzgi Sotomayor wakacenjezga kuti "kughanaghana kwa dango nkhwambura kucitika waka nga ni makina, panji kwa mzere umoza pera".<ref>''Jerman v. Carlisle'', 130 S.Ct. 1605, 1614, 559 U.S. 573, 587 (2010), Sotomayor, J.</ref> Malango nyengo zinyake ghangababa vyakufumamo vyambura kukhumbika, vyakukokera ŵanthu ku vyakuheni, panji vyakunanga ico ghakakhumbanga kufiska.<ref name="v654">{{cite journal | last1=Walker | first1=Orville C. | last2=Sauter | first2=Richard F. | last3=Ford | first3=Neil M. | title=The Potential Secondary Effects of Consumer Legislation: A Conceptual Framework | journal=Journal of Consumer Affairs | volume=8 | issue=2 | date=1974 | issn=0022-0078 | doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.1974.tb00537.x | pages=144–156 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6606.1974.tb00537.x | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="g465">{{cite journal | last1=Carbonara | first1=Emanuela | last2=Parisi | first2=Francesco | last3=von Wangenheim | first3=Georg | title=Unjust laws and illegal norms | journal=International Review of Law and Economics | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=2012 | doi=10.1016/j.irle.2012.03.001 | pages=285–299 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0144818812000221 | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="k006">{{cite journal | last1=Broughel | first1=James | last2=Chambers | first2=Dustin | title=Federal Regulation and Mortality in the 50 States | journal=Risk Analysis | volume=42 | issue=3 | date=2022 | issn=0272-4332 | doi=10.1111/risa.13774 | pages=592–613 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.13774 | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref> Masamu gha Dango ni kugwiliskira ntchito mwandondomeko nthowa za kupima unandi, comenecomene fundo ya mayero na Kusanthura-Maŵiro, pa mafumbo gha dango. Kuzirwa kwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro mu milandu ya mphara na mu nkhani za magazini gha dango kwakura comene mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heise|first=Michael|date=1999|title=The Importance of Being Empirical|url=https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1445&context=plr|journal=Pepperdine Law Review|volume=26|issue=4|pages=807–834|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225055124/https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1445&context=plr|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ericposner.com/the-rise-of-statistics-in-law/|title=The rise of statistics in law|last=Posner|first=Eric|date=2015-07-24|website=ERIC POSNER|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-16|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220060506/http://ericposner.com/the-rise-of-statistics-in-law/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Mawupu gha Dango == {{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=22em|salign=left|quote=Ni umoza waunenesko wa ŵanthu wose mu munthu yumoza, wakupangika na phangano la munthu waliyose na munthu waliyose, nga ni kuti munthu waliyose wakuphalira munyake kuti: Nkhupeleka mazaza na wanangwa wane wa kujiwusa ku munthu uyu, panji ku wungano uwu wa ŵanthu, pa fundo iyi; kuti nawe upeleke wanangwa wako kwa iyo, na kuzomerezga milimo yake yose mwakuyana.|source=Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html#CHAPTERXVII XVII]}} Mawupu ghakulu gha dango mu vyaro ivyo vyakura mu vyakupanga ni mphara zakujiwusa, mphala za ŵathenga, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cakuzgolera ku ŵanthu, ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, uteŵeti wa ulongozgi, ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, na mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghene. John Locke, mu buku lake la ''Two Treatises of Government'', na Baroni de Montesquieu, mu ''The Spirit of the Laws'', ŵakakolera kupatulana kwa mazaza pakati pa mawupu gha ndyali, gha mphala, na gha kufiska malango.<ref>Montesquieu, ''The Spirit of Laws'', [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203190914/http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 |date=3 February 2007 }}</ref> Fundo yawo yikaŵa yakuti palije munthu uyo wakwenera kujitolera mazaza ghose gha caro, kupambana na fundo yakusacizga ya mazaza ghose kwa wakuwusa yumoza iyo Thomas Hobbes wakalemba mu ''Leviathan''.<ref>Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20021125191001/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html#CHAPTERXVII XVII]</ref> Dango Likulu la Mazaza Ghankhondi la Sun Yat-sen, ilo likaŵa la Caro Cambura Fumu ca China, likalutilizga kupatulana kwa mazaza mwa kusazgapo vigaŵa viŵiri vinyake vya ulongozgi: ''Control Yuan'', ya kupenda ndalama na kulaŵilira, na ''Examination Yuan'', ya kusankha ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caldwell |first1=Ernest |title=Chinese Constitutionalism: Five-Power Constitution |journal=Max Planck Encyclopedia of Comparative Constitutional Law |date=2016 |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=2828104 |access-date=8 January 2020 |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225080817/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2828104 |url-status=live }}</ref> Max Weber na ŵanyake ŵakasintha maghanoghano pa kukura kwa mazaza gha caro. Mazaza gha sono gha ŵankhondo, gha ŵapolisi na gha uteŵeti wa ulongozgi pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa wa ŵenecaro ŵaŵaka vikwiziska masuzgo ghapadera pa kuzgolera, agho ŵalembi ŵa kale nga ni Locke panji Montesquieu ŵakatenge ŵaghawone pambere yayi. Midawuko na kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kufika kwa ŵanthu ku ulunji, apo mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghakung'anamula mawupu gha ŵanthu, magulu, na ubwezi uwo ukupanga maziko gha dango mu ndyali. === Cigaŵa ca Kweruzga === Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ni ndondomeko ya mphara iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito dango na maphangano. Kuyana na fundo yakugomezgeka ya kupatulana kwa mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga kanandi cikupanga malango gha mphala yayi (uwo ni udindo wa mphala), panji kulondezgeska dango yayi (uwo ni udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango); kweni cikung'anamula, kuvikilira, na kugwiliskira ntchito dango pa vyaunenesko vya mulandu uliwose. Kweni mu vyaro vinyake, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cikupanga Dango la Viweruzgo nadi. Mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cili na mazaza gha kung'anamula malango, kupenda malango, na kupenda pa Dango Likulu. Mphara izo zili na mazaza gha kupenda malango zingamazga malango na malongozgero gha caro para zasanga kuti ghakupambana na malango ghanyake, nga ni malango ghakwamba gha mphala, Dango Likulu, maphangano, panji dango la pakati pa vyaro. Cigaŵa ca kweruzga cingawoneka so nga ni nthowa ya mtende ya kumazgira mphindano. Kutora lwande mu ndyali, kupambana kwa vilango ivyo ŵeruzgi ŵakupeleka, na lusungu lukulu kuluska ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhumba, vikucepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa cigaŵa ca kweruzga mu ndyali. Kugomezga kwa ŵanthu pa cigaŵa ca kweruzga kukupambana kuyana na caro, nga umo kufumba maghanoghano gha ŵanthu kukulongolera. === Mphala === [[File:Chamber of the House of Representatives of Japan.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri, nyumba yapasi ya Nyumba ya Malango ya Japani]] Viyelezgero vyakumanyikwa vya mphala ni Nyumba za Mphala mu London, Kongiresi mu Washington, D.C., Bundesitagi mu Berlin, Duma mu Moscow, Palamento Italiyano mu Roma, na Asembule Nasiyonale mu Paris. Kuyana na fundo ya ulongozgi wa ŵathenga, ŵanthu ŵakusola ŵandyali kuti ŵafiske vyakukhumba vyawo. Nangauli vyaro nga ni Israeli, Girisi, Sweden na China vili na mphala ya nyumba yimoza, vyaro vinandi vili na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri, kung'anamula kuti vili na nyumba ziŵiri za mphala izo zikusankhika paŵekha-paŵekha.{{sfn|Riker|1992|p=101}} Mu "nyumba yapasi", ŵandyali ŵakusoleka kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa vya visola vicoko. "Nyumba yapacanya" kanandi yikusoleka kuti yimilire vigaŵa mu ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakulumikizgika (nga ni mu Australia, Germany, panji United States), panji ndondomeko yinyake ya kusolera mu caro ca ulongozgi umoza (nga ni mu France). Mu Ufumu Ubanyi, nyumba yapacanya yikusankhika na ulongozgi nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Kususka kumoza kwa ndondomeko za mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri izo zose zikusoleka na ŵanthu nkhwakuti nyumba yapacanya na yapasi zingayana waka. Cifukwa ca kale ca kuŵa na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri nchakuti nyumba yapacanya yikugwira ntchito nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Ici cingacepeska kucita mwakujiwusira na kwambura ulunji mu vyakucita vya ulongozgi.{{sfn|Riker|1992|p=101}} Kuti dango lizomerezgeke, ŵanandi mwa ŵathenga ŵa mphala ŵakwenera kusola dango lakusacizgika mu nyumba yiliyose. Kanandi, pakuŵa kuŵazga kunandi na kusintha uko magulu ghakupambana gha ndyali ghakusacizga. Para caro cili na Dango Likulu lakukhazikika comene, unandi wapadera ungakhumbikwa pa kusintha Dango Likulu, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusintha dango kuŵa kwakusuzga comene. Ulongozgi kanandi ndiwo ukulongozga ndondomeko iyi, ndipo ukupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala (mwaciyelezgero, mu Ufumu Ubanyi panji Germany). Kweni mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, ulongozgi kanandi ukupangika na cigaŵa cakufiska malango na Wupu wa ŵaNduna uwo wasankha (mwaciyelezgero, United States panji Brazil).{{efn|Pa nkhani ya "kuzgolera kwa ŵalongozgi" mu ndondomeko za pulezidenti na za nyumba ya malango, wonani Shugart–Haggard, ''Presidential Systems'', 67, na vinyake.}} === Cigaŵa cakufiska Malango === [[File:Family photo G20 Italy 2021.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Maungano gha G20 ghakusazgapo ŵimiliri ŵa mazaza gha ulongozgi gha caro cilicose.]] Cigaŵa cakufiska malango mu ndondomeko ya dango ndico nchikaya ca mazaza gha ndyali gha caro. Mu ndondomeko ya ulongozgi wa mphala, nga ni mu Ufumu Ubanyi, Itale, Germany, India na Japani, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikuchemeka Wupu wa ŵaNduna, ndipo cikupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala. Cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikulongozgeka na mulara wa ulongozgi, uyo wakuŵa na mazaza para mphala yikumugomezga. Cifukwa visola vya ŵanthu wose ndivyo vikusola mawupu gha ndyali kuti ghawuse, mulongozgi wa wupu wa ndyali wangasintha pakati pa visola.{{sfn|Haggard|Shugart|2001|p=71}} Mulara wa caro ngwakupatukana na cigaŵa cakufiska malango, wakuzomerezga malango mwacimanyikwiro, ndipo ni mthenga wa caro. Viyelezgero ni Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Germany (uyo wakusankhika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala ya caro cose na ya vigaŵa), Fumukazi ya Ufumu Ubanyi (udindo wakuhara), na Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Austria (uyo wakusoleka na ŵanthu wose). Ndondomeko yinyake yakuzirwa ni ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, iyo yikusangika mu United States na Brazil. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ndico mulara wa caro na mulara wa ulongozgi, ndipo cili na mazaza gha kusankha Wupu wa ŵaNduna wambura kusoleka. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ncakupatukana na mphala, ndipo cikuzgolera ku mphala yayi.{{sfn|Haggard|Shugart|2001|p=71}}<ref>Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> Nangauli udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango ukupambana kuyana na caro, kanandi ndico cikusacizga malango ghanandi na kuŵika vyakulondezga vya ulongozgi. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango kanandi cili na mazaza gha kukanizga dango. Vigaŵa vinandi vyakufiska malango mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri vili na udindo pa ubale na vyaro vyakuwaro, kulondezgeska dango, na uteŵeti wa ulongozgi. ŵaNduna panji ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵakulongozga maofesi gha ulongozgi, nga ni Unduna wa Vyaro vyakuWaro panji Unduna wa Civikiliro. Ntheura, kusola cigaŵa cakufiska malango cinyake kungasinthiratu umo caro cose cikulongozgekera. === Kulondezgeska Dango === [[File:South african police may 2010.jpg|thumb|Ŵapolisi ŵa South Africa ku Johannesburg, 2010]] Max Weber wakamanyikwa comene pakuti wakayowoya kuti caro ndico cili na mazaza gheneco gha kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>Weber, Politics as a Vocation</ref><ref>Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> Ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi ndiwo ŵakulondezgeska dango para ulongozgi panji mphara zaŵapempha. Lizgu lakuti caro ico catondeka likung'anamula vyaro ivyo vikutondeka kufiska panji kulondezgeska ndondomeko za ulongozgi. Ŵapolisi na ŵankhondo ŵawo ŵakulaŵiliraso civikiliro na cimango yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu caro cambura ulongozgi, ndiko kuti kwambura ulongozgi.{{efn|Pa nyengo izi, mazaza gha caro ghakucepa, ndipo kanandi ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵankhondo ŵakupokera mazaza ghanandi comene (Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 166–167).}} Nangauli mawupu gha ŵankhondo ghaŵako kwamba umo ulongozgi wakambira, maghanoghano gha kuŵa na ŵapolisi ŵanyengo zose ngaphya cifukwa ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, mu nyengo yapakati, Ungelezi ukaŵa na mphara za ukana-malango izo zikendanga malo na malo. Mphara izi zikachitanga milandu pamaso pa ŵanthu na kukoma ŵanthu pamaso pa ŵanthu wose kuti ŵanthu ŵopenge na kuti ulongozgi ulaŵilire.<ref>See, e.g., ''Tuberville v Savage'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight, in a threatening tone, said to a layperson, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> Ŵapolisi ŵakwamba ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakaŵa pamoza ŵa mu Paris mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, mu nyumba ya ufumu ya Kalonga Louis XIV. Kweni Wofesi Yikulu ya Ŵapolisi ya Paris yikuti ŵapolisi ŵake ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba pa caro cose capasi kuvwala malaya ghakuyana.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=History of Police Forces |url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 |encyclopedia=History.com Encyclopedia |access-date=10 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229014447/http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 |archive-date=29 December 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité : la Préfecture de Police au Service des Citoyens|language=fr|publisher=La Préfecture de Police de Paris|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm|access-date=24 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506215949/http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm|archive-date=6 May 2008}}</ref> === Uteŵeti wa Ulongozgi === [[File:Yamen-sitzung.jpg|thumb|Ŵamandarini ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵa nkhongono mu ufumu wa China (cithuzi cikulongora mlongozgi wa nyengo ya ufumu wa Qing na cimanyikwiro ca udindo wake pa cakuvwara).]] Muzu wa lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''bureaucracy'' ukufuma ku lizgu la Cifurenci la wofesi (''bureau'') na lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale la mazaza (''kratos'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode=none |title=bureaucracy |access-date=2 September 2007 |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |archive-date=15 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115180219/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode=none |url-status=live}}</ref> Nga ni ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi na mawupu agho ghakupanga uteŵeti wa ulongozgi ŵakufiska malangulo gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Umoza mwa ŵakwamba kuyowoyapo za maghanoghano agha ni Baroni de Grimm, mulembi wa ku Germany uyo wakakhalanga ku France. Mu 1765, wakalemba kuti:{{sfn|Albrow|1970|p=16}} {{quote|Mzimu nadi wa malango mu France ni uteŵeti wa ulongozgi uwo ŵacipondi Bwana de Gournay ŵakadandawulanga nawo comene. Kuno maofesi, ŵalembi ŵa maofesi, ŵasunga-vikalata, ŵapenduzgi, na ŵalaŵiliri ŵakusankhika kuti ŵawovwire uwemi wa ŵanthu wose yayi. Nadi, kukuwoneka kuti uwemi wa ŵanthu wose ukaŵikika kuti maofesi ghaŵeko.}} Kuleka kugomezga "vya maofesi" kucalipo comene, ndipo ntchito za ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi kanandi zikuyaniskika na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha agho ghakulondezga candulo.<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, [https://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914004054/https://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp |date=14 September 2014 }}</ref> Nadi, makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha, comene comene ghakulu, nagho ghali na uteŵeti wa maofesi. Kuleka maghanoghano ghaheni pa "ndondomeko zakusuzga za maofesi", uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose nga ni masambiro, kupwelelera umoyo, ulaŵiliri wa ŵapolisi, na mayendero gha ŵanthu wose ukuwoneka nga ni ntchito zakuzirwa comene za caro.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=367}} Ici cikupangiska vyakucita vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi kuŵa nchikaya ca mazaza gha ulongozgi.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=367}} Pakulemba kumwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Max Weber wakagomezganga kuti cimanyikwiro cikulu ca caro icho catukuka cikaŵa uteŵeti wake wa ulongozgi.<ref>Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber wakalemba kuti vimanyikwiro vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi wa mazuŵa ghano ni ivi: ŵalongozgi ndiwo ŵakuŵika cilato cake; ntchito yikukhazgika na malamulo; ndipo ŵakulaŵilira ni ŵaluso ŵa ntchito yawo awo ŵakulongozga kufuma pacanya kuya pasi, ŵakuyowoyerana mwakulemba, na kukhazga wanangwa wa ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi wa kujisankhira na malamulo.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=371}} === Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu === [[File:Color photograph of judges' bench at IMT.jpg|thumb|Ŵeruzgi ŵakulongozga viweruzgo vya Nuremberg mu Nyumba ya Vyeruzgo ku Nuremberg, Germany, 1946]] Cakulondezgapo ca muwuso wa dango ni kuŵapo kwa ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu iyo yili na wanangwa wakukwana kuti yingapempha mazaza gha cigaŵa ca kweruzga cakujiwusa; wanangwa wa kovwirika na mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara ukufuma pa ici.{{sfn|Hazard|Dondi|2004|p=1}} Mu Ungelezi, ntchito ya mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara yikupambana na ya mupangizgi wa malango. Nga umo Mphara ya Ulaya ya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu yikayowoyera, dango likwenera kufikirika na waliyose, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kumanyiratu umo dango likuŵakhwaskira.<ref>''The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom'' [1979] [http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html ECHR 1 at 49] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916131454/http://worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html|date=16 September 2006}} Case no. 6538/74</ref> Kuti ntchito yicitike mwaluso, ntchito ya malango kanandi yikulaŵiliriska na ulongozgi panji wupu wakulaŵilira wakujiwusa, nga ni wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, wupu ukulu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, panji wupu wa malango. Ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuŵa na umanyikwiro wapadera wa ntchito yawo kwizira mu ndondomeko zakuŵikika za dango (mwaciyelezgero, kutonda mayeso ghakuzomerezgera). Dango likukhumba kuti ŵaŵe na cipaso capadera (masambiro gha dango agho ghakupeleka ku msambiri Digri Yakwamba ya Malango, Digri Yakwamba ya Dango la Malemba, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Ntchito ya Dango). Ŵangalondezga so madigri gha masambiro ghapacanya. Viyelezgero ni Digri Yaciŵiri ya Malango, Digri Yaciŵiri ya Masambiro gha Dango, Masambiro gha Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu mu Mphara, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Malango. Ŵakunjizgika mu udindo wawo kwizira mu nthowa za dango za kusankhira (kuzomerezgeka kunjira mu wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu). Pali mazina ghacoko gha ucindami agho ghakulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakumanyikwa, nga ni Esikwaya, kulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu mu mphara ŵa ucindami ukulu, na Dokotala wa Malango, kulongora munthu uyo wali na digri ya Dokotala mu Malango.<ref>{{cite web|title=British English: Esquire|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|access-date=23 September 2014|date=n.d.|publisher=Collins Dictionary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006092224/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|publisher=Collins Dictionary|title=American English: Esquire|access-date=23 September 2014|date=n.d.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084621/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu vyapanga malamulo ghakuyana agho ghakulongozga masambiro gha dango na ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, kweni vinyake vicazomerezga ŵimiliri ŵa milandu awo ŵakasambira dango la mdawuko la Cisilamu kugwira ntchito mu mphara za umoyo wa munthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Ahmad|2009}} Mu China na mu vyaro vinyake ivyo vikutukuka, palije ŵanthu ŵakukwana ŵakusambizgika ntchito iyi kuti ŵagwire ntchito mu ndondomeko za kweruzga izo zilipo, ntheura malamulo ghakuŵikika ngakufwasa comene.{{sfn|Hazard|Dondi|2004|pp=22–23}} Para wazomerezgeka, mwimiliri wa milandu kanandi wakugwira ntchito mu kampani ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, mu wofesi yake yekha, mu udindo wa ulongozgi, panji mu kampani ya ŵanthu paŵekha nga ni mupangizgi wa malango wa mukati. Kusazgirapo, mwimiliri wa milandu wangaŵa musandi wa malango uyo wakusanda malango para ŵamupempha, kwizira mu nyumba ya mabuku, uteŵeti wa malonda, panji ntchito yakujigwilira yekha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambira malango ŵakugwiliskira ntchito luso lawo kuwaro kwa ntchito ya malango.<ref name="Fine364">Fine, ''The Globalisation of Legal Education'', 364</ref> Cakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango mu mdawuko wa Dango la Viweruzgo ni kusanda malango kuti ŵamanye umo dango lilili sono. Ici kanandi cikukhumba kuŵazga mabuku gha viweruzgo vya mphara, magazini gha malango, na malango gha mphala. Ntchito ya malango yikusazgapo so kulemba vikalata nga ni vyakuyowoya vya mulandu ku mphara, vikalata vyakunyengelera, maphangano, panji vikalata vya vyakuhara na vya usungi wa cuma. Luso la kudumba na kumazga mphindano (kusazgapo nthowa za kumazgira mphindano kwambura kuya ku mphara) nalo ndakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango, kuyana na cigaŵa.<ref name="Fine364" /> === Mawupu gha Ŵenecaro === [[File:1963 march on washington.jpg|thumb|Ulendo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Washington, D.C. pa nyengo ya kulimbirana wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵakufipa mu Amerika, 1963]] Ghanoghano la "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" la ŵakukolera caro cambura fumu ŵa kale likufuma kwa Hobbes na Locke.<ref>Warren, ''Civil Society'', 3–4</ref> Locke wakawonanga mawupu gha ŵenecaro nga ni ŵanthu awo ŵali na "dango limoza lakukhazikika na mphara izo ŵangadandawulirako, izo zili na mazaza gha kumazga mphindano pakati pawo."<ref>Locke, ''Second Treatise'', Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil Society. Chapter 7, section 87</ref> Musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wakapatula "caro" na "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" (mu Cijeremani: ''bürgerliche Gesellschaft'') mu buku lake la ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm 182] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401193900/http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm |date=1 April 2007 }}</ref>{{sfn|Karkatsoulis|2004|pp=277–278}} Hegel wakagomezganga kuti mawupu gha ŵenecaro na caro vikaŵa vyakususkana, mu fundo yake yakusacizga ya mbiri iyo yikuzengeka pa kususkana kwa maghanoghano. Kupatulana kwa mazuŵa ghano pakati pa caro na mawupu gha ŵenecaro kukawonekaso mu fundo zakusacizga za Alexis de Tocqueville na Karl Marx.<ref>(Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13; Warren, ''Civil Society'', 5–9)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zaleski|first=Pawel|title=Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=50|year=2008}}</ref> Mu fundo zakusacizga za mazuŵa ghano comene, mawupu gha ŵenecaro ni malo agho dango likufumira, cifukwa ndimo ŵanthu ŵakupangira maghanoghano ghawo na kunyengelera ŵalongozgi pa ivyo ŵakughanaghana kuti dango likwenera kuŵa. Nga umo mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara na mulembi wa ku Australia, Geoffrey Robertson QC, wakalembera za dango la pakati pa vyaro, "umoza mwa malo ghakulu agho dango ili likufumira mazuŵa ghano ni umo ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵawanthu waka, na mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi agho ŵanandi ŵakughakolera, ŵakucitira pa kuphwanyika kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu uko ŵakuwona pa wayilesi ya kanema mu nyumba zawo."<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref> Wanangwa wa kuyowoya, wanangwa wa kuwungana mu mawupu, na wanangwa unyake wa munthu waliyose vikuzomerezga ŵanthu kuwungana, kudumbiskana, kususka, na kupangiska maulongozgi ghawo kuzgolera, ndipo apa ndipo maziko gha uwuso wa ŵanthu wa kudumbiskana ghakufumira. Apo ŵanthu ŵakunjilirapo comene, ŵakupwelelera comene, na kuŵa na nkhongono zakusintha umo mazaza gha ndyali ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa umoyo wawo, ndipo dango likuŵa lakupokelereka na lakuzomerezgeka comene kwa ŵanthu. Mawupu ghakumanyikwa comene gha ŵenecaro ni misika ya malonda, makampani agho ghakulondezga candulo, mabanja, mawupu gha ŵantchito, vipatala, makwamasambiro ghakulu, makwamasambiro, mawupu gha lusungu, mawupu gha kususkana mu mazgo, mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi, ŵazengezgani, mipingo, na mawupu gha visopa. Palije ng'anamulo yakuwoneka ya dango ya mawupu gha ŵenecaro, panji ya mawupu agho ghakusazgikamo. Mawupu ghanandi agho ghakulemba mindandanda ya mawupu (nga ni Wupu wa Ulaya wa Vyacuma na Vya Ŵanthu) ghakusazgamo mawupu gha ndyali yayi.{{sfn|Jakobs|2004|pp=5–6}}<ref>Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, ''Global Civil Society'', ''[http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf passim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817130457/http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf |date=17 August 2007 }}''</ref>{{sfn|Karkatsoulis|2004|pp=282–283}} == Vigaŵa vya Dango == Ndondomeko zose za dango zikuwona nkhani zakwamba zakuyana, kweni madera gha mazaza ghakugaŵa na kumanya nkhani zawo za dango mwakupambana. Kupatulana kwakumanyikwa ni pakati pa "dango la ŵanthu wose" (lizgu lakukhwaskana comene na caro, ilo likusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango), na "dango la ŵanthu paŵekha" (ilo likusazgapo maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, na cuma). Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake vikunjira mu dango likulu la vyakukakizgika, apo dango la usungi wa cuma likulongozgeka na malango gha mphala panji maphangano gha pakati pa vyaro. Nangauli pali kupambana kucoko pakati pa madera gha mazaza, vigaŵa vya dango ivyo kanandi vikuwoneka kuŵa vyakwamba ni dango la pakati pa vyaro, dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, dango la ukana-malango, maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, dango la cuma, Dango la Kwenelera na usungi wa cuma, dango la makampani, na dango la ukaboni. === Dango la Pakati pa Vyaro === Dango la pakati pa vyaro, ilo likuchemekaso dango la ŵanthu wose la pakati pa vyaro panji dango la mitundu, ni malamulo, mikhaliro yakwenelera, midawuko ya dango, na vyakwenelera ivyo vyaro na ŵanyake ŵakujiwona kuti ŵakwenera kulondezga pa ubale wawo, ndipo kanandi ŵakulondezga nadi. Mu ubale wa pakati pa vyaro, ŵakucita ni ŵanthu paŵekha na mawupu, nga ni vyaro, mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro, na magulu ghambura kuŵa vyaro, agho ghangasankha vyakucita, vyakulondezga dango panji vyakuphwanya dango. Malamulo ni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulembeka ivyo vikulongosora nkhalo yakukhumbikwa, apo mikhaliro yakwenelera ni malongozgero ghambura kulembeka gha nkhalo yakwenelera agho ghakupangika na midawuko na kacitiro ka ŵanthu. Dango ili likuŵika mikhaliro yakwenelera ku vyaro mu vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo na kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, ubale wa vyacuma, na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lizgu ili likung'anamula dango ilo likulongozga nkhalo na ubale wa pakati pa vyaro pera yayi, kweniso wa mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro na ubale wawo na vyaro. Dango la pakati pa vyaro likupambana na ndondomeko za dango za mukati mwa caro cifukwa kanandi likugwira ntchito kwizira mu kuzomerezgana, pakuti palije mazaza agho ghakuzomerezgeka na wose kuti ghalondezgeske dango ili pa vyaro vyakujiwusa. Vyaro na ŵanyake ŵambura kuŵa vyaro ŵangasankha kuleka kulondezga dango la pakati pa vyaro, panji kuphwanya phangano, kweni kuphwanya uku, comene kwa mikhaliro yakwenelera yambura kusinthika, kungasuskika na ŵanyake, ndipo nyengo zinyake kungawovwirika na vyakukakizga, nga ni kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, vilango vya vyacuma, na nkhondo.{{efn|Nangauli ŵamanyi ŵanandi ŵakuti "mphaka pakati pa dango la boma na dango la ŵanthu paŵekha zikuleka kuwoneka", ndipo kuti kupambana uku kwaŵa waka "nthanthi" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).}} Kusoŵa kwa mazaza ghaumaliro mu dango la pakati pa vyaro kungiziska so kupambana kukulu. Ici cikucitika cifukwa vyaro vingang'anamula dango la pakati pa vyaro umo vikukhumbira, ndipo ici cingiziska maghanoghano ghakusuzga agho ghakuŵa na vyakufumapo vikulu mu malo ghawo.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://legalservicescouncil.org.au/documents/Prescribed_Academic_Areas_of_Knowledge_Updated_31_October_2025.pdf |title=Prescribed academic areas of knowledge |author=Law Admissions Consultative Committee (Australia) |date=31 October 2025 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.ncbex.org/sites/default/files/2023-01/MBE_Subject_Matter_Outline.pdf |title=Multistate Bar Examination Subject Matter Outline |last=National Conference of Bar Examiners (United States) |first= |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.sra.org.uk/globalassets/documents/students/academic-stage/academic-stage-handbook.pdf?version=4a1ac3 |title=Academic Stage Handbook |last=Solicitors Regulation Authority (United Kingdom) |date=July 2014 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref> === Dango la Dango Likulu na Dango la Ulongozgi === [[File:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|Kapharazgiro ka Wanangwa wa Munthu na wa Mwenecaro ka ku France ka 1789]] Dango la Dango Likulu na dango la ulongozgi vikulongozga vya caro. Dango la Dango Likulu likukhwaskana na ubale pakati pa cigaŵa cakufiska malango, mphala, na cigaŵa ca kweruzga, kweniso na wanangwa wa ŵanthu panji wanangwa wa ŵenecaro pamaso pa caro. Madera ghanandi gha mazaza, nga ni United States na France, ghali na Dango Likulu limoza lakulembeka pamoza ilo lili na mndandanda wa wanangwa. Ghacoko, nga ni Ufumu Ubanyi, ghalije cikalata ici. "Dango Likulu" ni malango agho ghakupanga caro nga ni wupu wa ndyali, kufuma mu malango gha mphala, malango gha viweruzgo, na midawuko ya ulongozgi. Fundo yikulu ya Dango Likulu, iyo yikafuma kwa John Locke, yikuti munthu wangacita cilicose kupatula ico dango lakanizga; kweni caro cingacita kanthu yayi kupatula ico dango lazomerezga.<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', Chapter 9, section 124</ref><ref>Tamanaha, ''On the Rule of Law'', 47</ref> Dango la ulongozgi ndiyo nthowa yikulu iyo ŵanthu ŵakupangiska mawupu gha caro kuzgolera. Ŵanthu (kuli uko kwazomerezgeka) ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kususka mwakwenelera dango (panji kumanga mulandu) wupu wa ulongozgi, wupu wa ulongozgi wa mu cigaŵa, uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose, panji unduna wa ulongozgi, kuti mphara yipende cilangulo ico cakwiziska suzgo (dango, malango gha cigaŵa, panji ndondomeko ya ulongozgi). Kususka uku kukupenda usange wupu wa ulongozgi uli na mazaza gha dango gha kucita ivyo wacita, na usange ukalondezga ndondomeko iyo yikukhumbikwa. Mphara yakwamba ya dango la ulongozgi yikaŵa Konseyi Deta, iyo yikajalikiska mu 1799, apo Napoleon wakatora mazaza mu France.{{sfn|Auby|2002|p=75}} Cigaŵa cimoza ca dango la Dango Likulu ni dango la visola. Pamoza na mawupu gha visola, dango ili likuwona ndondomeko za ulongozgi na ndondomeko izo zikovwira kuti visola vicitike. Malamulo agha ghakumazga mphindano panji kuzomerezga kuti khumbo la ŵanthu lisandulike kuŵa uwuso wa ŵanthu uwo ukugwira ntchito. Dango la visola likuwona nkhani nga ni nkhu njani uyo wali na wanangwa wa kusola, kulembeska ŵakusola, wanangwa wa kuŵa pa mapepala gha visola, ndalama za kunyengelera ŵakusola na za mawupu gha ndyali, kugaŵaso vigaŵa vya visola, kugaŵa mipando ya mphala, kusola pa makina gha magesi na makina gha kusolera, kufikirika kwa visola, ndondomeko za visola, kupenda vyakusola, mphindano za visola, cisola ca ŵanthu wose pa nkhani yimoza, na nkhani nga ni upusikizgi mu visola na kukhala cete pambere visola vindacitike. === Dango la Ukana-malango === Dango la ukana-malango, ilo likuchemekaso dango la vilango, likukhwaskana na milandu na vilango.<ref>Cesare Beccaria's seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (''Dei delitti e delle pene'').</ref> Ntheura likulongosora ng'anamulo na vilango vya milandu iyo yasangika kuti yikunanga comene ŵanthu, kweni lene likweruzga yayi nkhalo ya wakunanga, panji kuŵika vikanizgo ku ŵanthu ivyo vingaŵakanizga kucita mlandu pakwamba.{{sfn|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Wilson|2003|p=2}} Kupenduzga, kukora, kumanga mulandu, na kweruzga ŵanthu awo ŵakukayikirika kuti ŵacita mlandu kukulongozgeka na dango la ndondomeko ya milandu ya ukana-malango.<ref>Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams ''Textbook of Criminal Law'' (London: 2012), 2</ref> Ciyelezgero cikulu ca mlandu ni ukaboni, kwambura kukayika kulikose kwakwenelera, wakuti munthu wali na mlandu pa vinthu viŵiri. Cakwamba, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa kuti wacita cinthu ico ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni mlandu, panji ''actus reus'' (cakucita ca mlandu).<ref>See e.g. {{harvnb|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=205}} about ''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Caciŵiri, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa na khumbo liheni ilo likukhumbikwa kuti wacite mlandu, panji ''mens rea'' (mtima wa mlandu). Kweni pa milandu ya "udindo wambura kufumbira khumbo", ''actus reus'' pera ndiyo yikukwana.<ref>See e.g. Feinman, ''Law 111'', 260–261 about ''Powell v. Texas'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> Ndondomeko za ukana-malango za mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba zikupatula khumbo mu ng'anamulo yikulu (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na kuleka kupwelelera. Kuleka kupwelelera kukwiziska udindo wa mlandu yayi kupatula para dango la mlandu unyake likuŵikapo cilango cake.{{sfn|Dörmann|Doswald-Beck|Kolb|2003|p=491}}{{sfn|Kaiser|2005|p=333}} [[File:Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death at the conclusion of the Eichmann Trial USHMM 65289.jpg|thumb|Adolf Eichmann (wakwimilira mu kabokosi ka galasi ku mazere) apo wakweruzgika kuti wakomeke pa umaliro wa mlandu wake wa mu 1961, ciyelezgero ca mlandu wa vigaŵenga]] Viyelezgero vya milandu ni kukoma munthu, kumenya, upusikizgi, na kwiba. Mu vyakucitika vyapadera, vyakujivikilira vingagwira ntchito pa vyakucita vinyake, nga ni kukoma pakujivikilira panji kuyowoya kuti wakaŵa na ufunthi. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni mulandu wa mu Ungelezi wa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 wa ''R v Dudley and Stephens'', uwo ukapenda usange cifukwa ca "kusoŵa nthowa yinyake" cingazomerezga kukoma munthu na kurya nyama ya munthu kuti ŵapone pa ngozi ya ngalawa pa nyanja.<ref>About ''R v Dudley and Stephens'' [1884] [http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html 14 QBD 273 DC] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228224504/http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html |date=28 February 2005 }}, see Simpson, ''Cannibalism and the Common Law'', 212–217, 229–237</ref> Milandu ya ukana-malango yikuwoneka kuŵa yakunanga ŵakupwetekeka pera yayi, kweniso wupu wose wa ŵanthu.{{sfn|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Wilson|2003|p=2}} Caro, kanandi na wovwiri wa ŵapolisi, ndico cikulongozga kusumira, ndico cifukwa mu vyaro vya Dango la Viweruzgo milandu yikulembeka kuti "Ŵanthu v ..." panji "R (ya ''Rex'' panji ''Regina'') v ...". Kweniso, mawupu gha ŵakweruzga kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ghasimikizge usange ŵakusumirika ŵali na mlandu pa nkhani za unenesko; mawupu agha ghangasintha malango gha dango yayi. Vyaro vinyake ivyo vyatukuka vicazomerezga cilango ca nyifwa pa milandu yinyake. Kweni vilango ivyo vikupelekeka kanandi pa mlandu ni kuŵikika mu gadi, kulipiska ndalama, kulaŵiliriska na caro (nga ni kufwatulika kwakulaŵiliriska), panji kuteŵetera wupu wa ŵanthu. Dango la ukana-malango la mazuŵa ghano lakhwaskika comene na tusandiro twa ŵanthu, comene pa kupeleka vilango, kusanda malango, kupanga malango, na kuwezgera ŵakunanga ku umoyo uwemi.<ref>Pelser, ''Criminal Legislation'', 198</ref> Pa caro cose capasi, vyaro 125 vili mu Mphara ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Ukana-malango, iyo yikajalikiska kuti yiweruzge ŵanthu pa milandu yakunanga ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite web |title=The States Parties to the Rome Statute |url=https://asp.icc-cpi.int/states-parties |access-date=28 August 2026}}</ref> === Dango la Maphangano === [[File:carbolic smoke ball co.jpg|thumb|Cithandazgo ca Carbolic Smoke Ball, ico cikalayizga kucizga ''influenza'', cikawoneka na mphara kuŵa phangano la mbali yimoza.]] Dango la maphangano likukhwaskana na malayizgo agho ghangalondezgeskeka, ndipo lingafupikiskika mu mazgo gha Cilatini ''pacta sunt servanda'' (maphangano ghakwenera kusungika). Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, vinthu vitatu vyakuzirwa vikukhumbikwa kuti phangano lipangike: kusacizga na kuzomera, cakusinthana, na khumbo la kupanga ubale wa dango. Cakusinthana cikulongora kuti ŵose awo ŵali mu phangano ŵasinthana cinthu cakuzirwa. Ndondomeko zinyake za Dango la Viweruzgo, kusazgapo ya Australia, zikuleka kukhumba cakusinthana. Ghanoghano la ''estoppel'' panji ''culpa in contrahendo'' lingagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakukakizgika pa nyengo ya kudumba pambere phangano lindapangike.<ref>''Austotel v Franklins'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> Madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba ghakuwona maphangano mwakupambana mu nthowa zinyake, ndipo caro cikunjilirapo comene pa kupanga na kulondezgeska maphangano.{{sfn|Pargendler|2018}} Para tayaniska na madera gha Dango la Viweruzgo, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zikusazgamo vigaŵa vinandi vyakukakizgika mu maphangano, zikupeleka wanangwa ukulu ku mphara wa kung'anamula na kusintha vigaŵa vya phangano, na kukakizga comene udindo wa kucita mwakugomezgeka; kweni so zikulondezgeska comene vigaŵa vya vilango na kufiska nadi ivyo phangano likuyowoya.{{sfn|Pargendler|2018}} Kweniso zikukhumba cakusinthana yayi kuti phangano likakizge.<ref>e.g., in Germany, [http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html §&nbsp;311 Abs. II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111212855/http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html |date=11 January 2007 }} BGB</ref> Mu France, phangano lakawiro likuyowoyeka kuti likupangika pa "kuyana kwa maghanoghano" panji "kuyana kwa makhumbo". Germany yili na nthowa yapadera ya maphangano iyo yikukolerana comene na dango la cuma. "Fundo ya kupatula" (''Abstraktionsprinzip'') yikung'anamula kuti cakukakizgika ca munthu ca phangano cikupangika paŵekha na uweneco wa cuma ico cikupelekeka. Para phangano lamazgika pa cifukwa cinyake (mwaciyelezgero, wakugula galimoto wakuloŵera comene mwakuti walije wanangwa wa dango wa kupanga phangano), cakukakizgika ca phangano ca kulipira cingamazgika paŵekha na uweneco wa galimoto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html|title=§&nbsp;105 BGB Nichtigkeit der Willenserklärung|work=dejure.org|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209072433/http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html|archive-date=9 December 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> Dango la kusambazgika mwambura ulunji, m'malo mwa dango la maphangano, likugwiliskirika ntchito kuwezgera uweneco ku mwenecho wakwenelera.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> === Kunanga Ŵanyake === Viheni vinyake vya pakati pa ŵanthu paŵekha vikuwunjikika pamoza nga ni "kunanga ŵanyake" mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, na nga ni ''delicts'' mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=R. W. |title=Torts and Delicts |journal=Yale Law Journal |date=April 1918 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=721–730 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol27/iss6/1 |access-date=1 January 2020 |issn=0044-0094 |doi=10.2307/786478 |jstor=786478 |archive-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101082254/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol27/iss6/1/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuti munthu waŵe kuti wananga munyake, wakwenera kuŵa kuti waphwanya udindo wake kwa munthu munyake, panji waphwanya wanangwa wa dango uwo ukaŵako kale. Ciyelezgero cipepuka cingaŵa kutimba munthu na mpira kwambura kukhumba.<ref>''Bolton v Stone'' [1951] AC 850</ref> Mu dango la kuleka kupwelelera, ilo ndilo kunanga ŵanyake kwakucitika comene, wakupwetekeka wangapempha malipiro gha vilonda vyake kwa uyo wali na mlandu.{{efn|name=DvS|''Donoghue v Stevenson'' ([1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1). Wonani malemba gha mlandu uwu ku [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm UK Law Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216044953/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm |date=16 February 2007 }}.}} Fundo za kuleka kupwelelera zikulongoreka mu mulandu wa ''Donoghue v Stevenson''. Mubwezi wa Donoghue wakagula botolo ilo mukati mwake mukawonekanga yayi la cakumwa ca jinja (ca Donoghue kuti wamwe) mu nyumba ya vyakulya mu Paisley. Pamanyuma pakumwa cigaŵa cimoza, Donoghue wakathira ivyo vikakhalako mu kapu. Mutumbu wa nkhono uwo ukavunda ukatuluka. Wakayowoya kuti wakazizwa comene, wakalwara nthenda ya matumbo, ndipo wakamanga mulandu wakupanga cakumwa cifukwa ca kuleka kupwelelera mwakuti cakumwa cikanangika. Nyumba ya ŵaLodi yikeruzga kuti wakupanga ndiyo wakaŵa na mlandu pa ulwari wa Mama Donoghue. Lodi Atkin wakatora nthowa ya nkhalo yiwemi ndipo wakayowoya kuti:<ref>''Donoghue v Stevenson'' [1932] AC 532, 580</ref> {{quote|Udindo pa kuleka kupwelelera [...] kwambura kukayika ukuzengeka pa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu wose gha ubudi wa nkhalo, uwo wakunanga wakwenera kulipira. [...] Lamulo lakuti ukwenera kutemwa muzengezgani wako likusanduka mu dango kuti, ukwenera kupweteka muzengezgani wako yayi; ndipo fumbo la mwimiliri wa milandu, ''Muzengezgani wane njani?'' likupokera zgoro lakupimika. Ukwenera kupwelelera mwakwenelera kuti ulekere vyakucita panji vyakuleka kucita ivyo ukumanyiratu mwakwenelera kuti vingapweteka muzengezgani wako.}} Ici cikaŵa maziko gha fundo zinayi za kuleka kupwelelera, izo ni: * Stevenson wakaŵa na udindo wa kupwelelera Donoghue mwa kupeleka vyakumwa vyambura ngozi; * wakaphwanya udindo wake wa kupwelelera; * ulwari ukatenge uleke kucitika para wangaleka kuphwanya udindo wake; ndipo * cakucita cake ndico cikaŵa cifukwa cakufupi ca ulwari wake. Ciyelezgero cinyake ca kunanga ŵanyake cingaŵa muzengezgani uyo wakupanga congo cikulu na makina pa malo ghake.<ref name="Sturges">''Sturges v Bridgman'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Pa mulandu wa kusuzga ŵazengezgani, congo ici cingamazgika. Kunanga ŵanyake kungasazgapo so vyakucita vyakukhumba nga ni kofya kumenya, kumenya, panji kunjira pa malo gha munyake kwambura wanangwa. Kunanga ŵanyake kwakumanyikwa comene ni kunanga mbiri ya munthu, uko kukucitika, mwaciyelezgero, para kalata ya makani yayowoya vyambura ukaboni ivyo vyananga mbiri ya mundyali.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd'' [2004] EWHC 2786</ref> Vyakumanyikwa uheni comene ni kunanga ŵanyake pa vyacuma, uko nkhu maziko gha dango la ŵantchito mu vyaro vinyake, mwa kupangiska mawupu gha ŵantchito kuŵa na mlandu pa kunyanyala ntchito, para malango gha mphala ghakuŵavikilira yayi.<ref>''Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants'' [1901] AC 426</ref>{{efn|Ku UK, Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992; ku U.S., wonani National Labor Relations Act}} === Dango la Cuma === [[File:Edward Matthew Ward (1816-1879) - The South Sea Bubble, a Scene in 'Change Alley in 1720 - N00432 - National Gallery.jpg|thumb|''The South Sea Bubble'' ya Edward Matthew Ward. South Sea Bubble ya mu 1720, imoza mwa nyengo zakwamba pa caro capasi apo mitengo ya magaŵa yikakwera comene mwambura kukwenelera na kugwa, yikapangiska kuti malonda gha magaŵa ghalongozgeke na malango ghakukhwima.{{sfn|Harris|1994|pp=610–627}}]] Dango la cuma likulongozga uweneco na kuŵa naco. Cuma cambura kusamika, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "malo na nyumba", cikung'anamula uweneco wa malo na vinthu ivyo vyakhoma pa malo agho.<ref>e.g. ''Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd'' [1997] [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm 2 All ER 426] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922164352/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm |date=22 September 2017 }}</ref> Cuma ca munthu cikung'anamula vinthu vinyake vyose: vinthu ivyo vingasamika, nga ni mirangura, magalimoto, vyakujikongoleska, panji wanangwa wambura kukhwaskika, nga ni magawo gha makampani. Wanangwa ''in rem'' ni wanangwa pa cuma cinyake capadera, kupambana na wanangwa ''in personam'', uwo ukuzomerezga malipiro pa cakutayika kweni pa cinthu capadera yayi. Dango la malo ndilo maziko gha mitundu yinandi ya dango la cuma ndipo ndakusuzga comene. Likukhwaskana na ngongole za malo, maphangano gha kubwereka, vyakuzomerezgera, malayizgo gha pa malo, wanangwa wa kuporota pa malo gha munyake, na ndondomeko za malango gha kulembeska malo. Malongozgero gha kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka cuma ca munthu ghakunjira mu cuma ca maghanoghano, dango la makampani, usungi wa cuma, na dango la malonda. Ciyelezgero cakwimilira ca dango la cuma ni mulandu wa 1722 wa ''Armory v Delamirie'', uwo ukagwiliskira ntchito dango la Ungelezi.<ref>''Armory v Delamirie'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> Mwana wakapokeka malibwe gha mtengo wapacanya agho ghakaŵa mu cakujikongoleska, na muguliski uyo wakapika cakujikongoleska ici kuti wapime mtengo wake. Mphara yikeruzga kuti, kuyana na umo Dango la Viweruzgo likuwonera cuma, munthu uyo wangalongora cifukwa ciwemi comene ca kuŵa na cuma, kuluska waliyose wakususka, ndiyo mwenecho.{{sfn|Matthews|1995|pp=251–274}} Kweni nthowa ya kale ya Dango la Malemba pa cuma, iyo yikasacizgika na Friedrich Carl von Savigny, njakuti cuma ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kuwuzomera. Vyakukakizgika, nga ni ivyo vikufuma ku maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake, vikuwoneka nga ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu paŵekha ŵakwenera kupeleka.{{sfn|Savigny|1803|p=25}} Ghanoghano la cuma likwiziska nkhani zinyake zinandi za kasandiro ka vinjeru na za ndyali. Locke wakayowoya kuti "umoyo, wanangwa, na vyuma" vyithu ni cuma cithu cifukwa tili ŵeneco ŵa mathupi ghithu ndipo tikusazga ntchito yithu na ivyo vyatizunguliya.{{sfn|Locke|1689|loc=Section 123}} === Dango la Kwenelera na Usungi wa Cuma === Mu dango la Ungelezi la kale, Dango la Viweruzgo likazomerezganga yayi kupatula uweneco na ulaŵiliri wa cuma cimoza, kweni Dango la Kwenelera likazomerezganga ici kwizira mu ndondomeko yakuchemeka usungi wa cuma. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ndiwo ŵakulaŵilira cuma, apo uweneco wa candulo, panji wakwenelera, wa cuma ca usungi uli kwa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka ŵakupindura. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ŵali na udindo kwa ŵakupindura ŵawo wa kupwelelera makola cuma ico ŵapika.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew |date=1998}}</ref> Ciyelezgero cinyake ca udindo wa musungi wa cuma cingaŵa kuŵika cuma mu vyandulo mwavinjeru panji kuciguliska.<ref>''Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc'' [1993] 1 WLR 1260</ref> Ici nchakuwoneka comene pa ndalama za ucekuru, uwo ni mtundu wakuzirwa comene wa usungi wa cuma, apo ŵakuŵika ndalama ŵakuŵa ŵasungi ŵa ndalama za ŵanthu mpaka ŵapumule ntchito. Kweni usungi wa cuma ungajalikiskika so pa vilato vya lusungu. Ndondomeko zinyake za pakati pa vyaro za kapangiro na malongozgero gha usungi wa cuma zili mu Phangano la Hague la Usungi wa Cuma la mu 1985. === Dango la Makampani === Dango la makampani ni malango agho ghakulongozga kujalikiska, kulongozga, kagwiliskiro ka ntchito, na kumazgika kwa makampani agho ghalembeskeka. Likulongozga wanangwa na maudindo gha ŵeneco ŵa magawo, ŵalongozgi, ŵateŵeti ŵakulu, na ŵanyake awo ŵakukhwaskika. === Dango la Ukaboni === Dango la ukaboni likusazgapo malamulo na fundo za dango izo zikulongozga kusimikizga unenesko mu milandu ya dango. Malamulo agha ghakusimikizga ukaboni uwo wangaghanaghanirika panji yayi na wakweruzga, nga ni mweruzgi panji wupu wa ŵakweruzga. == Kukolerana na Vigaŵa Vinyake == === Kusanda Cuma === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, Adam Smith wakapeleka maziko gha kasandiro ka vinjeru gha kulongosora ubale wa dango na kusanda cuma.{{efn|Kuyana na Malloy, Smith wakakhazikiska "fundo ya wanangwa iyo yikaŵika munthu waliyose pakati, kweni yikuzomera kuti tikukhala patekha yayi, kweni pamoza na ŵanyithu" (''Law and Economics'', 114).}} Kasandiro aka kakafuma cigaŵa cinyake ku kususka mawupu gha ŵantchito na dango la United States lakukanizga kampani yimoza kuwusa msika. Musandi wakumanyikwa comene wa dango pa vyacuma ni Ronald Coase, uyo nkhani yake yikulu yakwamba, ''The Nature of the Firm'' (1937), yikayowoya kuti cifukwa ico makampani (makampani, mawupu gha ŵanthu ŵakugwira pamoza, na vinyake) ghaliko ni ndalama za kugulana.{{sfn|Coase|1937|pp=386–405}} Ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakugulana kwizira mu maphangano gha ŵanthu ŵaŵiri mu misika yakujura, mpaka ndalama za kugulana zapangiska kuti kugwiliskira ntchito makampani pa kupanga vinthu kuŵe kwakusunga ndalama comene. Nkhani yake yaciŵiri yikulu, ''The Problem of Social Cost'' (1960), yikayowoya kuti para tingakhala mu caro cambura ndalama za kugulana, ŵanthu ŵangadumbana na kufika pa kugaŵa kwakuyana kwa vyuma, kwambura kuwona umo mphara yingeruzgira pa mphindano za cuma. Wakayowoya kuti dango likwenera kuŵa lakwamba kucita, na kulongozgeka na nthowa yakwenelera comene.{{sfn|Coase|1960|pp=1–44}} Ŵanandi mwa ŵakuchemeka Sukulu ya Chicago ŵakukolera kuwuskapo malongozgero na kupeleka vyuma vya caro ku ŵanthu paŵekha, ndipo ŵakususka malongozgero gha caro panji ivyo ŵakuwona kuti ni vikanizgo pa misika ya wanangwa.{{sfn|Jakoby|2005|p=53}} === Kasandiro ka Wupu wa Ŵanthu === Kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kakusanda kukolerana kwa dango na wupu wa ŵanthu, ndipo kakunjilirana na kasandiro ka malango, kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango, fundo zakusacizga za wupu wa ŵanthu, na tusandiro tunyake twapadera nga ni kasandiro ka milandu.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1992}}{{sfn|Jary|Jary|1995|p=636}} Ni kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi ako kakulaŵiska pa kupanga fundo zakusacizga na kusanda mwakupenda kacitiro na vyakucitikira vya dango nga ni vyakucitika vya wupu wa ŵanthu. Kapangikiro ka maghanoghano mu wupu wa ŵanthu, mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu, kumazga mphindano, na mdawuko wa dango ni vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya kusanda mu kasandiro aka. Mu United States, kasandiro aka kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka dango na wupu wa ŵanthu; mu Ulaya, kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu na dango. Pakwamba, ŵamanyi ŵa dango na ŵasandi ŵa vinjeru ŵa dango ŵakakayikiranga kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango. Kelsen wakasuska umoza mwa ŵakwambiska kasandiro aka, Eugen Ehrlich, uyo wakakhumbanga kulongosora kupambana na kukolerana pakati pa dango lakuŵikika, ilo ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakusambira na kugwiliskira ntchito, na mitundu yinyake ya "dango" panji mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu iyo yikulongozga umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo yikukanizga mphindano kufika ku ŵimiliri ŵa milandu na ku mphara.<ref>Ehrlich, ''Fundamental Principles'', Hertogh, ''Living Law'', Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109, Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kukulaŵiska umo dango likukulira kuwaro kwa madera gha mazaza gha caro, kupangika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa ŵanthu mu malo gha wupu wa ŵanthu, na kusanga malo ghanandi gha mazaza mu vigaŵa vya ŵanthu vya mu caro na vya pakati pa vyaro.{{sfn|Cotterrell|2006}} [[File:Max Weber, 1918.jpg|thumb|Max Weber, uyo wakamba ntchito yake nga ni wakumanya dango, ndipo wakupendeka kuŵa umoza mwa ŵakwambiska kasandiro ka ŵanthu na kasandiro ka ŵanthu na dango]] Kufupi na 1900, Max Weber wakalongosora nthowa yake ya "kasandiro" ya dango, ndipo wakawona "kawiro ka dango ka vinjeru" nga ni mtundu wa kuwusa, uko kukufuma ku mazaza gha munthu yayi kweni ku mazaza gha mikhaliro yakwenelera ya mu maghanoghano.{{sfn|Rheinstein|1954|p=336}} Vinjeru vya dango lakulembeka ndilo lizgu lake la cimanyikwiro cikulu ca dango lakukolerana na lakupimika, ilo likaŵa lakukhumbikwa pambere ndyali ya mazuŵa ghano na caro ca mazuŵa ghano ca uteŵeti wa ulongozgi vindakure. Weber wakawona kuti dango ili likakura pamoza na kukura kwa ndondomeko ya cuma ca ŵanthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1992}}{{sfn|Jary|Jary|1995|p=636}} Musandi munyake wa wupu wa ŵanthu, Émile Durkheim, wakalemba mu buku lake lakumanyikwa la ''The Division of Labour in Society'' kuti apo wupu wa ŵanthu ukusuzga comene, malango ghambura kuŵa gha ukana-malango agho ghakukhwaskana comene na kuwezgera na malipiro ghakusazgikira, ndipo malango gha ukana-malango na vilango ghakucepa.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1999}}{{sfn|Johnson|1995|p=156}} Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵakwamba ŵa wupu wa ŵanthu na dango ŵakaŵa Hugo Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch na Leon Petrażycki mu Ulaya, na William Graham Sumner mu United States.{{sfn|Gurvitch|Hunt|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Papachristou|1999|pp=81–82}} == Mabuku == {{refbegin|35em}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Ahmad |first=Ahmad Atif |title=Lawyers: Islamic Law |encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 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Henderson)|year=1964|publisher=The Free Press of Glencoe|id= ASIN B-000-LRHAX-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Wehberg|first=Hans |date=October 1959 |title=Pacta Sunt Servanda|journal=The American Journal of International Law|volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=775–786 |doi=10.2307/2195750 |jstor=2195750|s2cid=147466309 }} * {{cite book|last=Wilson|first=William|year=2003|title=Criminal Law|chapter=Understanding Criminal Law|isbn=978-0-582-47301-0|publisher=Pearson Education}} * {{cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=Hugh Evander |title=A Definition of Law |journal=Virginia Law Review |date=January 1926 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=203–214 |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub |doi=10.2307/1065717 |access-date=3 January 2020 |jstor=1065717 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212165001/https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub |url-status=live |doi-access=free }} * {{cite book|last=World Intellectual Property Organization|author-link=World Intellectual Property Organization|title=Introduction to Intellectual Property |year=1997|isbn=978-90-411-0938-5|publisher=Kluwer Law International|chapter=The System of Intellectual Property}} * {{Cite web |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898 |title=The ideal of good government in Luigi Einaudi's Thought and Life: Between Law and Freedom |last=Paolo |first=Silvestri |date=11 June 2014 |ssrn=2447898 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225080826/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898 |archive-date=25 February 2022 }} {{refend}} njlx7cz6bomxxaz4oo4b8r2p4copr4g 124419 124408 2026-11-10T20:58:42Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kufumyapo mndandanda wa mabuku uwo ukawerezgeka 124419 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dango''' ni malango agho ghakupangika na kulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ulongozgi panji gha ŵanthu kuti ghalongozge nkhalo, ndipo ng'anamulo yake yakwenelera yaŵa nkhani ya kususkana kwa nyengo yitali.{{sfn|Robertson|2006|p=90}}{{sfn|Willis|1926}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbs |first1= Jack P. |title=Definitions of Law and Empirical Questions |journal=Law & Society Review |date=1968 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=429–446 |doi= 10.2307/3052897 |issn=0023-9216|jstor=3052897 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akers |first1=Ronald L. |title=Toward a Comparative Definition of Law |journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology |date=1965 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=301–306 |url=http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5313&context=jclc |access-date=3 January 2020 |doi=10.2307/1141239 |jstor=1141239 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719212013/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5313&context=jclc |url-status=live | issn=0022-0205|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakulilongosola nga ni kasandiro, ndipo ŵanyake nga ni luso la ulunji.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spooner |first1=Lysander |author-link1=Lysander Spooner |title=Natural Law; or The Science of Justice: A Treatise on Natural Law, Natural Justice, Natural Rights, Natural Liberty, and Natural Society; Showing that All Legislation Whatsoever is an Absurdity, a Usurpation, and a Crime. Part First. |date=1882 |publisher=A. Williams & Co. |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_Law;_or_The_Science_of_Justice:_A_Treatise_on_Natural_Law,_Natural_Justice,_Natural_Rights,_Natural_Liberty,_and_Natural_Society;_Showing_that_All_Legislation_Whatsoever_is_an_Absurdity,_a_Usurpation,_and_a_Crime._Part_First. |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231072121/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_Law;_or_The_Science_of_Justice:_A_Treatise_on_Natural_Law,_Natural_Justice,_Natural_Rights,_Natural_Liberty,_and_Natural_Society;_Showing_that_All_Legislation_Whatsoever_is_an_Absurdity,_a_Usurpation,_and_a_Crime._Part_First. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Núñez Vaquero |first1=Álvaro |title=Five Models of Legal Science |journal=Revus. Journal for Constitutional Theory and Philosophy of Law / Revija za ustavno teorijo in filozofijo prava |date=10 June 2013 |volume=19 |issue=19 |pages=53–81 |doi=10.4000/revus.2449 |language=en |issn=1581-7652 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Cohen|1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |last = Rubin |first = Basha|title=Is Law an Art or a Science?: A Bit of Both |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/basharubin/2015/01/13/is-law-an-art-or-a-science-a-bit-of-both/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181103170800/https://www.forbes.com/sites/basharubin/2015/01/13/is-law-an-art-or-a-science-a-bit-of-both/ |archive-date=3 November 2018 |url-status=live |website=Forbes |date=13 January 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Berger|1953|p=525}} Malango agho caro cikulondezgeska ghangapangika na mphala, ndipo ghakuŵa malango gha mphala; na cigaŵa cakufiska malango kwizira mu vilangulo na malongozgero; panji na viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi, ivyo vikuŵa viweruzgo vyakulongozgera mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo. Wakuwusa payekha wangacita milimo iyi yose mu ufumu wake. Kupangika kwa malango ghene kungakhwaskika na Dango Likulu, lakulembeka panji lambura kulembeka, kweniso wanangwa uwo walembeka mu ilo. Dango likukhwaska ndyali, cuma, mbiri na ŵanthu mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo likuteŵetera so nga ni nkhoswe pa ubwezi wa ŵanthu. Ndondomeko za dango zikupambana kuyana na dera la mazaza, ndipo kupambana kwake kukusandika mu kasandiro ka kuyaniska malango. Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba, mphala panji wupu unyake wapakati ukulemba malango ghose mu malemba ghamoza na kughawunjika pamoza. Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, ŵeruzgi ŵangapanga malango gha viweruzgo agho ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kughalondezga kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, nangauli nyengo zinyake malango agha ghangang'anamulika na mphara yapacanya panji mphala.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Anthony |title=The Judge as Law-maker |journal=James Cook University Mayo Lecture |date=1996 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JCULRev/1996/2.pdf |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231082120/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JCULRev/1996/2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Devins |first1=Neal |title=Congressional Responses to Judicial Decisions |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court |date=2008 |publisher=Gale MacMillan |pages=400–403 |url=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1633 |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231082120/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1633/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Dango la cisopa likugwira ntchito mu magulu ghanyake gha visopa na mu vyaro vinyake, ndipo kale lakakhwaska dango lambura cisopa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Religious Foundations of Law in the West: An Historical Perspective |journal=Journal of Law and Religion |date=1983 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–43 |doi=10.2307/1051071 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|jstor=1051071 |s2cid=146933872 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Jonathan |last2=Sandler |first2=Shmuel |title=Separation of Religion and State in the Twenty-First Century: Comparing the Middle East and Western Democracies |journal=Comparative Politics |date=1 April 2005 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=317 |doi=10.2307/20072892 |jstor=20072892}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Noel |title=Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction in the Church of the Province of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia |journal=Deakin Law Review |date=2001 |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=262 |url=http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/DeakinLawRw/2001/14.html |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231152654/http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/DeakinLawRw/2001/14.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Otto |editor1-first=Jan Michiel |title=Sharia incorporated: a comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present |publisher=Leiden University Press |isbn=9789087280574|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Raisch |first1=Marylin Johnson |title=Religious Legal Systems in Comparative Law: A Guide to Introductory Research – GlobaLex |url=https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Religious_Legal_Systems1.html |department=Hauser Global Law School Program |publisher=New York University School of Law |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231153027/https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Religious_Legal_Systems1.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Dango lingagawika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: dango la ŵanthu wose likukhwaskana na ulongozgi na ŵanthu, kusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango; dango la ŵanthu paŵekha likukhwaskana na mphindano za dango pakati pa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa nga ni maphangano, cuma, kunanga ŵanyake, na dango la malonda. Kupambana uku nkhwakuwoneka comene mu vyaro vya Dango la Malemba, comenecomene ivyo vili na ndondomeko yapadera ya mphara za ulongozgi; kweni mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, kupatulana kwa dango la ŵanthu wose na la ŵanthu paŵekha kukuwoneka comene yayi. Dango likupeleka nkhani za kusanda kwa ŵasambiri mu mbiri ya dango, kasandiro ka vinjeru, kusanda cuma, na kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordley |first1=James |title=Comparative Law and Legal History |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law |pages=752–774 |date=16 November 2006 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.013.0024 |isbn=9780199296064 |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199296064-e-024 |access-date=31 December 2019 |language=en |editor1-last=Reimann |editor1-first=Mathias |editor2-last=Zimmermann |editor2-first=Reinhard |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231074358/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199296064.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199296064-e-024 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bor |first1=Fredric L. |title=The nexus between philosophy and law |journal=Journal of Legal Education |date=1974 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=539–543 |issn=0022-2208|jstor=42896964 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rubin |first1=Paul H. |title=Law and Economics |website=The Library of Economics and Liberty |publisher=Liberty Fund, Inc. |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=2 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Banakar |first1=Reza |title=Merging law and sociology : beyond the dichotomies in socio-legal research |date=2003 |publisher=Galda and Wilch Publishing |location=Berlin/Wisconsin |isbn=1-931255-13-X}}</ref> Dango likwiziska so nkhani zakuzirwa na zakusuzga zakukhwaskana na kuyana kwa ŵanthu, kweruzga kwambura kutora lwande, na ulunji.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pound |first1=Roscoe |title=The End of Law as Developed in Legal Rules and Doctrines |journal=Harvard Law Review |date=1914 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=195–234 |doi=10.2307/1325958 |issn=0017-811X|jstor=1325958 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice and Injustice in Law and Legal Theory|date=1996|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=9780472096251|pages=18–19|doi=10.3998/mpub.10283|jstor=10.3998/mpub.10283|editor1-last=Sarat|editor1-first=Austin|editor2-last=Kearns|editor2-first=Thomas}}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''law'', ilo likusangika mu Cingelezi ca Kale nga ni ''lagu'', likufuma ku lizgu la Cinorse ca Kale lakuti ''lǫg''. Mu umoza wake, ''lag'' likang'anamulanga "cinthu cakuŵikika panji cakukhazikika", kweni mu unandi wake likang'anamulanga "dango".<ref>{{cite OED|law, n.|4864419306}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Vinjeru ka Dango == {{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=22em|salign=left|quote=Kasi dango nchivici? [...] Para nkhuti cilato ca malango nyengo zose nca ŵanthu wose, nkhung'anamula kuti dango likuwona ŵanthu pamoza na milimo mwakugaŵika yayi, ndipo likuwona munthu yumoza panji ncito yimoza yayi. [...] Mwa kuwona uku, tikuwona luŵiro kuti tingafumba so yayi kuti ndi njani wakwenera kupanga malango, cifukwa ni milimo ya khumbo la wose; panji usange fumu yili pacanya pa dango, cifukwa nayo ni yumoza wa caro; panji usange dango lingaŵa lambura urunji, cifukwa palije uyo wakujipusika yekha; panji umo tingaŵira ŵanangwa kweni pasi pa malango, cifukwa malango ni waka kulembeka kwa makhumbo ghithu.|source=Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ''The Social Contract'', II, 6.<ref>Rousseau, ''The Social Contract'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20080222135803/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/r/rousseau/jean_jacques/r864s/book2.html#section16 Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)]</ref>}} Kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango kakumanyikwa comene kuti kasandiro ka malango. Kasandiro ka malango ka vyakwenelera kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango likwenera kuŵa wuli?", apo kasandiro ka malango kakusanda kakufumba kuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" === Kasandiro ka Malango Kakusanda === Pali kuyezgayezga kunandi kwa kupanga "ng'anamulo ya dango iyo yingazomerezgeka na ŵanthu wose pa caro cose". Mu 1972, Baron Hampstead wakasacizga kuti ng'anamulo nga iyi yingapangika yayi.<ref name="Jurisprudence. Third Edition 1972. Page 39">Dennis Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. ''Introduction to Jurisprudence''. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975. p. 39.</ref> McCoubrey na White ŵakayowoya kuti fumbo lakuti "Kasi dango ni vici?" lilije zgoro lambura kusuzga.<ref> McCoubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. ''Textbook on Jurisprudence''. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. {{ISBN|1-85431-582-X}}. p. 2.</ref> Glanville Williams wakayowoya kuti ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" yikuyana na malo agho lizgu ili likugwiliskirika ntchito. Wakayowoya kuti, mwaciyelezgero, "dango la mdawuko la kale" na "dango la msumba" ni malo agho lizgu lakuti "dango" lili na ng'anamulo ziŵiri zakupambana izo zingagumanyika yayi.<ref>Williams, Glanville. International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Meaning of the Word "Law". Revised version published in Laslett (Editor), ''Philosophy, Politics and Society'' (1956) p. 134 et seq. The original was published in (1945) 22 BYBIL 146.</ref> Thurman Arnold wakayowoya kuti nkhwakuwonekera kuti nchambura kucitikiska kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango", ndipo nkhwakuwonekera so kuti kuyezgayezga kupeleka ng'anamulo yake kukwenera kulekeka yayi nyengo yose.{{sfn|Arnold|1935|p=36}} Munthu wangaghanaghana kuti palije cifukwa ca kupeleka ng'anamulo ya lizgu lakuti "dango" (mwaciyelezgero, "tiluwe nkhani za pacanya-pacanya, tiye ku milandu yeneyene").<ref>Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. ''Introduction to Jurisprudence''. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975.</ref> Ng'anamulo yimoza njakuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango na malongozgero agho ghakulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha ŵanthu kuti ghawuse nkhalo.{{sfn|Robertson|2006|p=90}} Mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', H. L. A. Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni "ndondomeko ya malango"; John Austin wakayowoya kuti dango ni "cilangulo ca wakuwusa wapacanya, cakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa cilango"; Ronald Dworkin, mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', wakulongosola dango nga ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" kuti ulunji ufiskike; ndipo Joseph Raz wakuti dango ni "mazaza" ghakuŵa nkhoswe pa vyakukhumba vya ŵanthu.{{sfn|Campbell|1993|p=184}}{{sfn|Bix|2022}}{{sfn|Dworkin|1986|p=410}}{{sfn|Raz|1979|pp=3–36}} Oliver Wendell Holmes wakapeleka ng'anamulo ya dango kuti ni "ucimi wa ivyo mphara zicitenge nadi, ndipo palije cinyake cakujikuzga kuluska ivi."<ref>Holmes, Oliver Wendell. "The Path of Law" (1897) 10 ''Harvard Law Review'' 457 at 461.</ref> Mu buku lake la ''Treatise on Law'', Thomas Aquinas wakuti dango ni kulongosola vinthu mwa vinjeru, vyakukhwaskana na uwemi wa ŵanthu wose, uko kukuthandazgika na yose uyo wapika udindo wa kupwelelera ŵanthu.<ref>Aquinas, St Thomas. ''Summa Theologica''. 1a2ae, 90.4. Translated by J G Dawson. Ed d'Entreves. (Basil Blackwell). Latin: "nihil est aliud qau edam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune, ab eo qi curam communitatis habet, promulgata".</ref> Ng'anamulo iyi yili na vigaŵa vya dango lakuŵikika na vya dango la kawiro.<ref>McCoubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. ''Textbook on Jurisprudence''. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. {{ISBN|1-85431-582-X}}. p. 73.</ref> === Dango, Nkhalo Yiwemi na Ulunji === Ng'anamulo za dango kanandi zikwiziska fumbo lakuti kasi dango likusazgamo nkhalo yiwemi mpaka pati.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=T. W. |title=The Conception of Morality in Jurisprudence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_philosophical-review_1896-01_5_1/page/36 |journal=The Philosophical Review |date=January 1896 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=36–50 |doi=10.2307/2176104 |jstor=2176104 }}</ref> Zgoro la John Austin, la ghanoghano la candulo, likaŵa kuti dango ni "vilangulo, vyakukhomezgeka na kofya kwa vilango, vyakufuma kwa wakuwusa wapacanya, uyo ŵanthu ŵazgoŵera kumupulikira".{{sfn|Bix|2022}} Kweni ŵakukolera dango la kawiro, nga ni Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ŵakuti dango likulongola malango gha kawiro agho ni gha nkhalo yiwemi na ghambura kusintha. Ghanoghano la "dango la kawiro" likamba mu kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki ŵa kale pa nyengo yimoza na ghanoghano la ulunji, ndipo likawelera so mu ukhaliro wa Kumadazi kwizira mu malemba gha Thomas Aquinas, comenecomene buku lake la ''Treatise on Law''. Hugo Grotius, uyo wakambiska ndondomeko ya dango la kawiro yakuthemba pa vinjeru pera, wakayowoya kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la ŵanthu la kukhala pamoza, nga umo Aristotle wakalongolera, kweniso ku vinjeru.<ref>Fritz Berolzheimer, ''The World's Legal Philosophies'', 115–116</ref> Immanuel Kant wakagomezga kuti cilangulo ca nkhalo yiwemi cikukhumba kuti malango "ghasankhike nga ni kuti ghakwenera kugwira ntchito nga ni malango gha kawiro gha pa caro cose".<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> Jeremy Bentham na msambiri wake Austin, kulondezga David Hume, ŵakagomezga kuti ici cikasazganya suzgo la "ivyo viliko" na "ivyo vikwenera kuŵa". Bentham na Austin ŵakakolera dango lakuŵikika; kuti dango nadi ndakupatukana limoza na "nkhalo yiwemi".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Green |first=Leslie |title=Legal Positivism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/|access-date=10 December 2006 |archive-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609094650/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kant wakasuskika so na Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakakana fundo ya kuyana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo wakagomezga kuti dango likufuma ku khumbo la kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo lingacemeka yayi kuti nda "nkhalo yiwemi" panji nda "nkhalo yiheni".<ref>Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref><ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98</ref><ref>Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Mu 1934, musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Austria, Hans Kelsen, wakalutilizga mdawuko wa dango lakuŵikika mu buku lake la ''Pure Theory of Law''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Marmor |first=Andrei |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ |title=The Pure Theory of Law |access-date=9 February 2007 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=1934 |archive-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609130143/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kelsen wakagomezga kuti nangauli dango ndakupatukana na nkhalo yiwemi, lili na "ukwenelero", kung'anamula kuti tikwenera kulipulikira. Nangauli malango ni mazgo gha "ivyo viliko" (mwaciyelezgero, dipo la kwendeska galimoto kumanyuma pa msewu ukulu ni €500), malango ghakutiphalira ivyo "tikwenera" kucita. Ntheura, tingaghanaghana kuti ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango yili na "dango la muzu" (Cijeremani: ''Grundnorm'') ilo likutiphalira kupulikira. Mususki mukulu wa Kelsen, Carl Schmitt, wakakana dango lakuŵikika na ghanoghano la uwuso wa dango, cifukwa wakazomera yayi kuti fundo za vyakwenelera zambura kuwoneka ziŵe pa malo ghakwamba kuluska maghanoghano gha ndyali ghakuwoneka na visankho.<ref>Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Ntheura, Schmitt wakakolera kasandiro ka malango ka nyengo yapadera (nyengo ya suzgo likulu), ako kakakana kuti malango ghangafikapo pa vyose ivyo vikucitika mu ndyali.{{sfn|Finn|1991|pp=170–171}} Kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, H. L. A. Hart, mu buku la ''The Concept of Law'', wakasuska Austin cifukwa ca kupepuska vinthu, na Kelsen cifukwa ca vyakughanaghanira waka.{{sfn|Bayles|1992|p=21}} Hart wakayowoya kuti dango ni ndondomeko ya malango, ghakugawika mu malango ghakwamba (malango gha nkhalo) na malango ghaciŵiri (malango gha ŵamazaza, ghakuŵawovwira kufiska malango ghakwamba). Malango ghaciŵiri ghakugawika so mu malango gha kweruzga (kumazga mphindano za dango), malango gha kusintha (kusintha malango), na dango la kuzomerezga (kumanya kuti malango ni ghakwenelera). Ŵasambiri ŵaŵiri ŵa Hart ŵakalutilizga kususkana uku: Mu buku lake la ''Law's Empire'', Ronald Dworkin wakasuska Hart na ŵakukolera dango lakuŵikika cifukwa ca kukana kwawo kuwona dango nga ni nkhani ya nkhalo yiwemi. Dworkin wakuti dango ni "ghanoghano la kung'anamula" ilo likukhumba kuti ŵeruzgi ŵasange nthowa yakwenelera comene na ya ulunji comene ya kumazgira mphindano ya dango, kuyana na midawuko ya Dango Likulu ya Ŵangelezi na Ŵamerika.{{sfn|Dworkin|1986|p=410}} Kweni Joseph Raz wakavikilira ghanoghano la dango lakuŵikika, ndipo mu ''The Authority of Law'' wakasuska nthowa ya Hart ya "fundo ya ŵanthu yakupepuka".{{sfn|Raz|1979|pp=3–36}} Raz wakuti dango ni mazaza, agho ghangamanyikwa kwizira mu malo ghakufumira mu ŵanthu pera, kwambura kukhwaska maghanoghano gha nkhalo yiwemi. Mu maghanoghano ghake, kugawa kulikose kwa malango kujumpha ntchito yawo nga ni vyakugwiriskira ntchito vya mazaza pa unkhoswe, kukwenera kusidikilika ku kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu, pa malo pa kasandiro ka malango.{{sfn|Raz|1979|p=37}} == Mbiri == Mbiri ya dango yikukolerana comene na kukura kwa ukhaliro wa ŵanthu. Dango la Ŵaegupto ŵa kale, ilo likamba mu 3000 pambere Khristu, likazengeka pa ghanoghano la ''Ma'at'', ndipo likamanyikwanga na mdawuko, luso la kuyowoya, kuyana kwa ŵanthu, na kwambura kutora lwande.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lippert |first1=Sandra |title=Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies |chapter=Egyptian Law, Saite to Roman Periods |journal=Oxford Handbooks Online |date=11 February 2016 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.48 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-48 |access-date=3 January 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-993539-0 |language=en |archive-date=3 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103123820/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-48 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pofika mu vyaka vya m'ma 2100 pambere Khristu, wakuwusa wa Ŵasumeri ŵa kale, Ur-Nammu, wakaŵa wapanga buku lakwamba la malango, ilo likaŵa na mazgo gha "para … ntheura …". Cha m'ma 1760 pambere Khristu, Kalonga Hammurabi wakakuzga dango la Ŵababulo mwa kulilemba pamoza na kuligwala pa libwe. Hammurabi wakaŵika malibwe ghakwimika ghanandi gha buku lake la malango mu ufumu wose wa Babulo kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaghawone; ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Codex Hammurabi''. Libwe ilo likaŵa lambura kunangika comene likasangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵasiriya ŵa ku Britain, ndipo kufuma apo ilo lalembeka mu malembo ghanyake na kung'anamulika mu viyowoyero vinandi, kusazgapo Cingelezi, Ciitaliya, Cijeremani na Cifurenci.{{sfn|Richardson|2004|p=11}} Phangano Lakale likufuma mu 1280 pambere Khristu, ndipo likupeleka vilangulo vya nkhalo yiwemi nga ni ulongozgi wa ŵanthu ŵawemi. Msumba-caro mucoko wa Ŵagiriki, Atene wa kale, kufuma cha m'ma vyaka vya 700 pambere Khristu, ukaŵa wupu wakwamba wa ŵanthu kuzengeka pa kupokera ŵenecaro wose, kupatulapo ŵanakazi na ŵazga. Kweni Atene ukaŵavya kasandiro ka malango panji lizgu limoza la "dango"; ukathemba pa kupatula vinthu vitatu: dango la Ciuta (''thémis''), cilangulo ca ŵanthu (''nómos''), na mdawuko (''díkē'').{{sfn|Kelly|1992|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Mallory|1997|p=346}} Ndipouli, dango la Ŵagiriki ŵa kale likaŵa na vyakupangika viphya vikulu vya Dango Likulu pa kukura kwa uwuso wa ŵanthu.{{sfn|Ober|1996|p=121}} Dango la Ŵaroma likakhwaskika comene na kasandiro ka vinjeru ka Ŵagiriki, kweni ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika ndiwo ŵakapanga malango ghake mwakufikapo, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene.{{sfn|Kelly|1992|p=39}}{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=1}} Mu vyaka vinandi pakati pa kuwuka na kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, dango likasinthika kuti likolerane na umoyo wa ŵanthu wakusintha, ndipo likalembeka pamoza comene mu nyengo ya Theodosius II na Justinian I.{{efn|Nga ni ndondomeko ya dango, dango la Ŵaroma lakhwaska kakulilo ka malango pa caro cose. Ndilo maziko gha mabuku gha malango gha vyaro vinandi vya Ulaya, ndipo lili na ntchito yikulu pa kukura kwa ghanoghano la mdawuko umoza wa Ulaya (Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 2, 104–107).}} Nangauli mabuku gha malango ghakasinthika na mdawuko na malango gha viweruzgo mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba, dango la Ŵaroma likasangika so cha m'ma vyaka vya 1000, apo ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵa nyengo ya pakati ŵakamba kusanda mabuku gha malango gha Ŵaroma na kukozgeska maghanoghano ghake ku dango la mpingo, ndipo ivi vikababa ''jus commune''. Mazgo gha vinjeru gha dango mu Cilatini (ghakucemeka ''brocards'') ghakawunjikika pamoza kuti ghalongozgenge. Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mphara za mafumu zikapanga viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vinandi, ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa Dango la Viweruzgo. Dango la Ŵamalonda likakhazikiskika mu Ulaya yose kuti ŵamalonda ŵacitenge malonda pa malongozgero ghakuyana, pa malo pa malango ghanandi ghakupambanapambana gha malo ghakupambana. Dango la Ŵamalonda, ilo likaŵa pambere dango la malonda la sono lindize, likakhomeleza wanangwa wa kupangana maphangano na wanangwa wa kupeleka cuma ku munthu munyake.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|first1= M. A.|last1= Clarke|first2= R. J. A.|last2= Hooley|first3= R. J. C.|last3= Munday|first4= L. S.|last4= Sealy|first5= A. M.|last5= Tettenborn|first6= P. G.|last6= Turner|title= Commercial Law|page= 14|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2017|isbn= 9780199692088|access-date= 10 December 2020|archive-date= 15 April 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210415014329/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|url-status= live}}</ref> Apo kutemwa caro kukakuranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na m'ma 1800, Dango la Ŵamalonda likasazgika mu malango gha vyaro mu mabuku ghaphya gha Dango la Malemba. Buku la Malango la Napoleon na Buku la Malango la Ŵajeremani ndigho ghakakhwaska comene kuluska ghanyake. Kupambana na Dango la Viweruzgo la Ŵangelezi, ilo lili na mabuku ghakulu comene gha malango gha viweruzgo, mabuku ghacoko gha malango ngakupepuka kutumizga ku vyaro vinyake, ndipo ngakupepuka kuti ŵeruzgi ŵaghagwiriske ntchito. Kweni sono pali vimanyikwiro vyakuti Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo vikuneng'enerana.{{sfn|Mattei|1997|p=71}} Dango la Wupu wa Vyaro vya Ulaya lili kulembeka mu maphangano, kweni likukura kwizira mu viweruzgo vyakulongozgera nadi ivyo vikuŵikika na Mphara ya Ulunji ya Ulaya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McAuliffe |first1=Karen |chapter=Precedent at the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Linguistic Aspect |title=Law and Language: Current Legal Issues, Volume 15 |date=21 February 2013|editor1= Michael Freeman|editor2= Fiona Smith|isbn=9780199673667 |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29 |access-date=1 January 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |archive-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101105552/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Constitution of India.jpg|thumb|Dango Likulu la India, lakulembeka na woko mwakutowa na vithuzi pa vyakusekelera.]] India na China ŵa kale ŵakulongola midawuko yakupambana ya dango, ndipo kale ŵakaŵa na mawupu ghawo gha fundo zakusacizga za dango na kagwiliskiro kake ka ntchito. ''Arthashastra'', ilo panji likawunjikika cha m'ma 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu (nangauli lili na vinthu vya kale kuluska apo), na ''Manusmriti'' (cha m'ma 100–300 mumuwilo wa Khristu) ghakaŵa mabuku gha muzu mu India, ndipo ghali na malemba agho ghakuwonekera kuŵa malongozgero gha dango ghakugomezgeka.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'', 18–25.</ref> Vinjeru vikulu vya Manu vikaŵa kuzizipizga ŵanyake na kuzomera kupambanapambana kwa ŵanthu, ndipo vikazunulikanga mu Asia yose ya Kumwera kwa Kumafumiro gha Dazi.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=276}} Mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Ŵasilamu za kuthereska cigaŵa ca India, ''sharia'' likakhazikiskika na maufumu gha Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ''Fatawa-e-Alamgiri'' la Ufumu wa Mughal, ilo likawunjikika na Themba Aurangzeb pamoza na ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵa Cisilamu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chapra|first1=Muhammad Umer|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=9781783475728|pages=62–63|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Roy|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref> Mu India, mdawuko wa dango wa Ŵahindu, pamoza na dango la Cisilamu, vikaŵikirikapo Dango la Viweruzgo pa malo ghawo apo India likaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=273}} Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore na Hong Kong nawo ŵakapokera ndondomeko ya Dango la Viweruzgo. Mdawuko wa dango wa Asia ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi ukulongola kusazganikana kwapadera kwa vyakukhwaska vyambura cisopa na vya cisopa.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=287}} Japan ndico caro cakwamba kwamba kusintha ndondomeko yake ya dango kuŵa ya sono kulondezga Ŵakumadazi, mwa kutora vigaŵa vya Buku la Dango la Malemba la Ŵafurenci, kweni comene la Ŵajeremani.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=304}} Ici cikalongolanga, pa cigaŵa cinyake, umo Germany likaŵira caro cakukura mu nkhongono kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mwakuyana waka, dango la mdawuko la China likapeleka malo ku kulondezga Ŵakumadazi mu vyaka vyaumaliro vya Ufumu wa Qing, mu mabuku ghankhondi na limoza gha dango la ŵanthu paŵekha, agho ghakazengeka comene pa ciyelezgero ca Ŵajapani ca dango la Ŵajeremani.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=305}} Sono dango la Taiwan ndilo likuyana comene na malango ghakulembeka pamoza gha nyengo iyo, cifukwa ca kupatukana pakati pa ŵakutemwa caro ŵa Chiang Kai-shek, awo ŵakacimbilira kwenekuko, na ŵakukolera cuma ca wose ŵa Mao Zedong, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa caro cikulu mu 1949. Ndondomeko ya sono ya dango mu Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China yikakhwaskika comene na Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma la Soviet, ilo likuŵika dango la ulongozgi pa malo ghakwamba kuluska wanangwa wa dango la ŵanthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=307}} Cifukwa ca kukura luŵiro kwa vyakupanga mu nyumba za vyakupangira, sono China yikusintha, comenecomene pa wanangwa wa cuma, nangauli ni pa wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali yayi. Buku liphya la malango gha maphangano ilo likambika mu 1999 likalongola kusintha kufuma ku kuwusika na ulongozgi pera.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=309}} Kweniso, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa vyaka khumi na vinkhondi, mu 2001 China yikanjila mu Wupu wa Malonda wa Caro Cose.{{sfn|Farah|2006|pp=263–304}} == Ndondomeko za Dango == Kanandi, ndondomeko za dango zingagawika pakati pa Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo. Ŵamanyi ŵa sono ŵakuti kuzirwa kwa kupambana uku kwacepa pacokopacoko. Kutora malango kufuma ku vyaro vinyake kunandi, uko nkhwakuzgoŵereka mu dango la sono, kukupangiska kuti vimanyikwiro vinandi ivyo kale vikamanyikwanga kuŵa vya Dango la Viweruzgo panji vya Dango la Malemba visangike mu vyose viŵiri. Mtundu wacitatu wa ndondomeko ya dango ni dango la cisopa, ilo lazengeka pa malemba gha cisopa. Ndondomeko iyo caro cikuwusikira nayo kanandi yikusankhika na mbiri yake, ubwezi wake na vyaro vinyake, panji kupulikira kwake malongozgero gha pakati pa vyaro. Malo agho madera gha mazaza ghakupokera nga ni ghakuŵa na mazaza gha kukakizga ŵanthu ndigho ghakupambaniska ndondomeko yiliyose ya dango. === Dango la Malemba === [[File:Code Civil 1804.png|thumb|Peji lakwamba la Buku la Malango la Napoleon la mu 1804]] Dango la Malemba ni ndondomeko ya dango iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vinandi pa caro cose mazuŵa ghano. Mu Dango la Malemba, malo agho ghakuzomerezgeka kuŵa na mazaza ni, comene, malango gha mphala (comenecomene malango ghakulembeka pamoza mu Malango Ghakulu panji malango gha mphala agho ulongozgi wazomerezga) na mdawuko.{{efn|Madera gha Dango la Malemba ghakuzomera mdawuko nga ni "kasupe munyake wa dango"; ntheura ŵamanyi ŵakugaŵa Dango la Malemba mu magulu ghakulu ghaŵiri: "dango lakulembeka" (''ius scriptum'') panji malango gha Nyumba ya Malango, na "dango lambura kulembeka" (''ius non-scriptum'') panji mdawuko. Kweni ŵakuwona mdawuko kuŵa wakuzirwa comene yayi kuyaniska na malango ghakulembeka (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).}} Kulemba malango pamoza kukamba vyaka vinandi comene ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ciyelezgero cimoza ca kale ni ''Codex Hammurabi'' ca Ŵababulo. Ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba zikufuma comene ku mabuku gha malango agho Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakapeleka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500, agho ghakasangika so mu Italy mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Economist explains: What is the difference between common and civil law? |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2013/07/16/what-is-the-difference-between-common-and-civil-law |access-date=1 January 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |date=17 July 2013 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222150215/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2013/07/16/what-is-the-difference-between-common-and-civil-law |url-status=live }}</ref> Dango la Ŵaroma mu nyengo ya Caro Cambura Fumu ca Ŵaroma na ya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma likathembanga comene pa ndondomeko za milandu, ndipo likaŵavya gulu la ŵamanyi ŵa dango ŵakusambizgika.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=18}} M'malo mwake, mweruzgi wambura kusambira dango, ''iudex'', wakasankhikanga kuti weruzge. Viweruzgo vikathandazgikanga mwandondomeko yayi, ntheura malango gha viweruzgo ghose agho ghakakuranga ghakabisikanga ndipo ghakamanyikwanga cara.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=21}} Mulandu uliwose ukeruzgikanga kwambira pasi kufuma mu malango gha caro, ico cikuyana na kuleka kuzirwa (mu fundo yakusacizga) kwa viweruzgo vya ŵeruzgi pa milandu ya kunthazi mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba mazuŵa ghano. Kufuma mu 529 kufika mu 534 mumuwilo wa Khristu, Themba Justinian I wa Byzantium wakalemba pamoza na kuwunjika dango lose la Ŵaroma mpaka nyengo iyo, mwakuti ivyo vikakhalako vikaŵa cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa 20 vya malemba ghose gha dango agho ghakaŵapo kale.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=32}} Ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ''Corpus Juris Civilis''. Nga umo mulembi yumoza wa mbiri ya dango wakalembera, "Justinian wakawona dala kumanyuma ku nyengo ya golide ya dango la Ŵaroma, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuliwezgera pa msonga uwo likaŵa kuti lafikapo vyaka 300 pambere."{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=35}} Buku la Malango la Justinian likalutilira kugwira ntchito ku Kumafumiro gha Dazi mpaka kuwa kwa Ufumu wa Byzantium. Pa nyengo iyo, Ulaya wa Kumadazi ukathembanga pa kusazganikana kwa Buku la Malango la Theodosius na malango gha mdawuko gha Ŵajeremani ŵa kale, mpaka Buku la Malango la Justinian likasangika so mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ilo ŵamanyi ŵa ku Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Bologna ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito kung'anamula malango ghawo.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=43}} Malango gha Dango la Malemba ghakulembeka pamoza, agho ghakazengeka comene pa dango la Ŵaroma na kukhwaskika na malango gha cisopa nga ni dango la mpingo, ghakalutilira kuthandazgika mu Ulaya yose mpaka ku Nyengo ya Kungweluskika. Ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, France, na ''Code Civil'', na Germany, na ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'', vikasintha mabuku ghawo gha malango kuŵa gha sono. Mabuku agha ghaŵiri ghakakhwaska comene, kuleka waka ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vya Ulaya wa pa mtunda, kweni so midawuko ya dango ya Ŵajapani na Ŵakoreya.{{sfn|Hatzis|2002|pp=253–263}}{{sfn|Demirgüç-Kunt|Levine|2001|p=204}} Fundo yakugomezgeka yikulu mu maghanoghano gha dango gha Ulaya wa pa mtunda, iyo yikafuma mu kasandiro ka malango ka Ŵajeremani, ni ghanoghano la ''Rechtsstaat'', ilo likung'anamula kuti waliyose wali pasi pa dango, comenecomene maulongozgi.<ref>Carl Schmitt, ''The Concept of the Political'', ch. 7; ''Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy''</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, vyaro ivyo vili na ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba vikwamba ku Russia na Turkey kufika ku vyaro vinandi vya Amerika ya Pakati na Amerika ya Cilatini.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook&nbsp;– Field Listing&nbsp;– Legal system|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=13 October 2007|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Dango la Viweruzgo na Dango la Kwenelera === [[File:"The sealing of the Magna Carta at Runnymede" (1997) David Parfitt, High Street, Egham, Surrey.jpg|thumb|Cikumbusko ca ku England ca apo Fumu John yikaŵika cidindo pa Magna Carta]] Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, viweruzgo vya mphara vikuzomerezgeka pakweru kuŵa dango, mwakuyana na malango gha mphala na malongozgero gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Fundo yakugomezgeka ya viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, panji ''stare decisis'' (mu Cilatini, "kwimilira pa viweruzgo"), yikung'anamula kuti viweruzgo vya mphara zapacanya vikukakizga mphara zapasi, kuti milandu yakuyana yiŵe na viweruzgo vyakuyana. Kweni mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, malango gha mphala kanandi ngakufikapo comene. Viweruzgo vya mphara ni vyafupi ndipo vyakufikapo comene yayi, cifukwa mweruzgi wakulemba kuti weruzge mulandu umoza pera, kuleka kuti waŵike maghanoghano agho ghazamulongozga mphara za kunthazi. Dango la Viweruzgo likafuma ku Ungelezi, ndipo lahalika na pafupifupi caro ciliconse ico kale cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa Britain (kupatulapo Malta, Scotland, cigaŵa ca Louisiana mu United States, na cigaŵa ca Quebec mu Canada). Mu Ungelezi ya nyengo ya pakati, mu nyengo ya Kuthereska kwa Ŵanoromani, dango likapambananga kufuma ku cigaŵa kuya ku cigaŵa, kulongola midawuko yakupambanapambana ya mitundu. Ghanoghano la dango lakuyana mu caro cose likakura mu uwuso wa Henry II kumanyuma kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, apo Henry wakasankha ŵeruzgi awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza gha kupanga ndondomeko ya dango yimoza yakukhazikika, iyo yikaŵa ya caro cose. Mbondolo yikulu yakulondezgapo pa kukura kwa Dango la Viweruzgo yikiza apo Kalonga John wakakakizgika na mafumu ghake ghacoko kuzomera cikalata ico cikacepeska mazaza ghake gha kupanga malango. ''Magina Karita'' ya 1215 yikakhumba so kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakulondezga Kalonga ŵacitirenge mphara na viweruzgo vyawo pa "malo ghamoza ghakumanyikwa", kuleka kweruzga mwakujiwusira pa malo ghambura kumanyikwa mu caro cose.<ref>{{cite web| title=Magna Carta| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html| publisher=Fordham University| access-date=10 November 2006| archive-date=10 September 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910155351/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html| url-status=live}}</ref> Gulu licoko la ŵeruzgi ŵakusankhika likaŵa na mazaza ghakulu pa kupanga malango mu ndondomeko iyi, ndipo kuyaniska na ivyo vikaŵa mu Ulaya, cigaŵa ca kweruzga ca Ungelezi cikaŵa pa malo ghamoza comene. Mwaciyelezgero, mu 1297, apo mphara yapacanya comene mu France yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi 51, ''Court of Common Pleas'' ya Ungelezi yikaŵa na ŵeruzgi ŵankhondi pera.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=4}} Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ici, ico cikaŵa na nkhongono na kukolerana comene, cikababa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kukuzgira Dango la Viweruzgo.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=3}} [[File:Microcosm of London Plate 022 - Court of Chancery, Lincoln's Inn Hall edited.jpg|thumb|right|Mphara ya Chancery, London, England, kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800]] Apo nyengo yikajumphanga, ŵanandi ŵakawona kuti Dango la Viweruzgo likaŵa lakukhazikika comene na lambura kupindika, ndipo ŵenecaro ŵanandi comene ŵakapempha Kalonga kuti walijumphe. Pa malo pa Kalonga, ''Lord Chancellor'' wakamba kupeleka viweruzgo kuti cakwenelera cicitike pa mulandu. Kufuma mu nyengo ya Sir Thomas More, mwimiliri wa milandu wakwamba kusankhika kuŵa ''Lord Chancellor'', Dango la Kwenelera lakukhazikika likakura pamoza na Dango la Viweruzgo lambura kupindika, ndipo likaŵa na mphara yake, ''Court of Chancery''. Pakwamba, Dango la Kwenelera likasuskikanga kanandi cifukwa ca kwendera kwambura ndondomeko.<ref>Pollock (ed) ''Table Talk of John Selden'' (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the standard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."</ref> Pacokopacoko, mphara za Dango la Kwenelera zikapanga fundo zakukhora, comenecomene mu nyengo ya Lord Eldon.<ref>''Gee v Pritchard'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 mu Ungelezi, na mu 1937 mu United States, ndondomeko izi ziŵiri zikalumikizgika. Pa kukuzga Dango la Viweruzgo, malemba gha ŵamanyi ghaŵa na ntchito yakuzirwa nyengo zose, pa kuwunjika fundo zikulu kufuma mu malango gha viweruzgo ghakuthandazgika, na pa kukhumbira kusintha. William Blackstone, kufuma cha m'ma 1760, ndiyo wakaŵa mumanyi wakwamba kuwunjika, kulongosola, na kusambizga Dango la Viweruzgo.<ref>Blackstone, ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'', [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp Book the First&nbsp;– Chapter the First] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705141310/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp |date=5 July 2011 }}</ref> Kweni pa kulongosola pera, ŵamanyi awo ŵakapenjanga malongosoro na ndondomeko za mukati pacokopacoko ŵakasintha umo dango likagwiliranga ntchito nadi.{{sfn|Gordley|von Mehren|2006|p=17}} === Dango la Cisopa === Dango la cisopa lazengeka pakweru pa fundo za cisopa. Viyelezgero ni ''Halakha'' ya Ŵayuda na ''Sharia'' ya Cisilamu, ndipo ng'anamulo ya vyose viŵiri ni "nthowa ya kulondezga". Dango la mpingo la Ŵakhristu nalo likucali kugwira ntchito mu mipingo yinyake. Kanandi, cisopa cikung'anamula kuti dango lingasintha yayi, cifukwa Mazgo gha Ciuta ghangasinthika panji kususkika na malango gha ŵeruzgi panji gha maulongozgi yayi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ferrari |first1=Silvio |editor1-last=Huxley |editor1-first=Andrew |title=Religion, Law and Tradition: Comparative Studies in Religious Law |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-13250-6 |page=51 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 4: Canon Law as a Religious Legal System |quote=Divine law... is eternal and cannot be changed by any human authority.}}</ref> Ndipouli, madera ghanandi gha mazaza gha cisopa ghakuthemba pa malongosoro ghanyake gha ŵanthu kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko za dango zakufikapo. Mwaciyelezgero, Kurani lili na malango ghanyake, ndipo likuŵa cisimi ca malango ghanyake kwizira mu kung'anamula, ''Qiyas'' (kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska), ''Ijma'' (kupulikana kwa wose), na viweruzgo vyakulongozgera.{{sfn|Glenn|2000|p=159}} Ivi vili comene mu malango na kasandiro ka malango ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti ''Sharia'' na ''Fiqh'', mwakulondezgana. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni ''Torah'' panji Phangano Lakale, mu Mabuku Ghankhondi gha Mozesi. Ili lili na malango gha muzu gha dango la Ŵayuda, agho magulu ghanyake gha Ŵaisrayeli ghakusankha kugwiliskira ntchito. ''Halakha'' ni buku la malango la Ŵayuda ilo likupatawula mwakufupikiska ng'anamulo zinyake za ''Talmud''. Vyaro vinandi ni madera gha mazaza gha ''Sharia''. Dango la Israeli likuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa pa mulandu kugwiliskira ntchito malango gha cisopa pera para ŵasankha. Dango la mpingo likugwiliskirika ntchito pera na ŵanthu ŵa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, na Mipingo ya Angilikani. ==== Dango la Mpingo ==== [[File:Graverat titelblad till "Kanonisk rätt" - Skoklosters slott - 93238.tif|thumb|''Corpus Juris Canonici'', unandi wa malango gha mpingo uwo ukagwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 750]] Dango la mpingo (Cigiriki ca Kale: κανών, ''kanon'', kung'anamula kuti "nthonga yakugoloka yakupimira") ni vilangulo na malongozgero agho ghakupangika na mazaza gha mpingo, kuti ghawuse wupu wa Ŵakhristu panji mpingo na ŵanthu ŵake. Ni dango la mukati la mpingo ilo likuwusa Mpingo wa Katolika, Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Dazi, Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro, na mipingo ya caro ciliconse mu Mipingo ya Angilikani.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Boudinhon |first=Auguste |title=Canon Law |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm |year=1910 |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |location=New York |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=9 |access-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331231326/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm |archive-date=31 March 2019}}</ref> Umo dango la mpingo ili likupangikira, kung'anamulikira, na nyengo zinyake kweruzgikira, vikupambana comene pakati pa magulu agha ghatatu gha mipingo. Mu midawuko yose yitatu, ''canon'' pakwamba likaŵa dango ilo wungano wa mpingo wazomerezga; malango agha ndigho ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la mpingo.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender in History: Global Perspectives|last=Wiesner-Hanks|first=Merry|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|year=2011|pages=37}}</ref> Mpingo wa Katolika uli na ndondomeko ya dango ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito kwambura kuleka mu caro ca Kumadazi, ndipo yikambapo pambere ndondomeko za sono za Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo za Ulaya zindakure.<ref>Raymond Wacks, ''Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed.'' (Oxford University Press, 2015) pg. 13.</ref><ref name=White>{{cite web |last=Peters |first=Edward |url=http://canonlaw.info |publisher=CanonLaw.info |title=Home Page |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928005444/http://www.canonlaw.info/ |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Buku la Dango la Mpingo la 1983 likuwusa Mpingo wa Cilatini ''sui juris''. Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi, iyo yikapanga malango na midawuko yakupambana, yikuwusika na Buku la Malango la Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi.<ref>{{cite web|author=Blessed John Paul II, Ap. Const.|url=https://archive.org/stream/ApostolicConstitutionSacriCanonesJohnPaulIi1990/Sacri_Canones_Apostolic_Constitution_John_Paul_II_1990#page/n7/mode/2up|title=Apostolic Constitution Sacri Canones John Paul II 1990|year=1990|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324090532/https://archive.org/stream/ApostolicConstitutionSacriCanonesJohnPaulIi1990/Sacri_Canones_Apostolic_Constitution_John_Paul_II_1990#page/n7/mode/2up|archive-date=24 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Dango la mpingo la Mpingo wa Katolika likakhwaska Dango la Viweruzgo mu nyengo ya pakati kwizira mu kusunga fundo zakugomezgeka za dango la Ŵaroma, nga ni fundo ya kumuwona munthu kuŵa wambura mlandu mpaka wasimikizgike.<ref>Friedman, Lawrence M., ''American Law: An Introduction'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1984), pg. 70.</ref>{{efn|«Mu limoza mwa mazgo ghake ghatali mu Nyumba ya Malango ya United States, Bambo Charles Sumner wakayowoya za "ghanoghano lawemi la Dango la Viweruzgo lakuti munthu wakususkika ngwambura kwananga;" kweni tikwenera kuzomera kuti ghanoghano ili likusangika mu dango la Ŵaanglo-Saxon yayi, uko nyengo zinyake ghanoghano likawonekanga kuŵa lakupambana. Ndipo mu mlandu wa sono apa mu Mphara Yikulu ya United States, mlandu wa Coffin, 156 U. S. 432, vikalongoreka kuti ghanoghano ili likaŵa lakukhazikika makora mu dango la Ŵaroma, ndipo likasungika mu dango la mpingo.»<ref>William Wirt Howe, ''Studies in the Civil Law, and its Relation to the Law of England and America'' (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1896), pg. 51.</ref>}} Dango la mpingo la Katolika ni ndondomeko ya dango yakukura comene, iyo yili na vyose vyakukhumbikwa: mphara, ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, ŵeruzgi, buku la malango lakulongosoleka makora, fundo za kung'anamula dango, na vilango vyakukakizga, nangauli lilije nkhongono ya kukakizga ŵanthu mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza ghambura cisopa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts|first=James|last= A. Brundag|year=2010|isbn=978-0226077598|page=116|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> ==== Dango la Sharia ==== Mpaka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, dango la ''Sharia'' likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu vyaro vyose vya Ŵasilamu kwambura kulembeka pamoza, ndipo buku la malango la ''Mecelle'' la Ufumu wa Ŵaottomani mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 likaŵa kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kulemba pamoza vigaŵa vya dango la ''Sharia''. Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1940, vyaro vinandi, cimoza pamanyuma pa cinyake, vyayezgayezga kuti dango la ''Sharia'' likolerane comene na umoyo na maghanoghano gha sono.{{sfn|Anderson|1956|p=43}}{{sfn|Giannoulatos|1975|pp=274–275}} Mazuŵa ghano, ndondomeko za dango za vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu zikutora ku midawuko ya Dango la Malemba na ya Dango la Viweruzgo, kweniso ku dango la Cisilamu na mdawuko. Malango Ghakulu gha vyaro vinyake vya Ŵasilamu, nga ni Egupto na Afghanistan, ghakuzomerezga Cisilamu kuŵa cisopa ca caro, ndipo ghakukakizga mphala kulondezga ''Sharia''.{{sfn|Sherif|2005|pp=157–158}} Saudi Arabia likuzomerezga Kurani kuŵa Dango Likulu lake, ndipo likuwusika kuyana na dango la Cisilamu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |publisher=JURIST |access-date=2 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830232216/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |archive-date=30 August 2006}}</ref> Iran nalo lawona dango la Cisilamu likuwelera so mu ndondomeko yake ya dango pamanyuma pa 1979.{{sfn|Akhlaghi|2005|p=127}} Mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha, cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vikulu vya wupu wa kuwuska so Cisilamu caŵa kucema kuti ''Sharia'' liwezgeke, ico capangiska malemba ghanandi comene na kukhwaska ndyali ya pa caro cose.{{sfn|Hallaq|2005|p=1}} === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma === Dango la Ugawi wa Cuma ni ndondomeko ya dango mu vyaro vya cuma ca wose nga ni Soviet Union ya kale na Caro ca Ŵanthu Cambura Fumu ca China.{{sfn|Markovits|2007}} Ŵamanyi ŵakupambana maghanoghano pa kuti kasi ni ndondomeko yapadera kufuma ku Dango la Malemba, cifukwa ca kupambana kukulu na Dango la Malemba uko kukufuma mu cigomezgo ca Marx na Lenin, nga ni kuŵika cigaŵa ca kweruzga pasi pa wupu wa ndyali wakuwusa.{{sfn|Markovits|2007}}<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=840224|pages=781–808|last1=Quigley|first1=J.|title=Socialist Law and the Civil Law Tradition|volume=37|issue=4|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|year=1989|doi=10.2307/840224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=G. B. |chapter=Socialist Legality and the Soviet Legal System |title=Soviet Politics |date=1988 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-333-45919-5 |pages=137–162 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19172-7_7 }}</ref> == Nthowa za Dango == Pali nthowa zakupambana za kughanaghana kwa dango (kugwiliskira ntchito dango) na nthowa za kung'anamula dango. Nthowa zakwamba ni kughanaghana kwa vigaŵa vitatu, uko kukuwusa mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba; kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska, uko kukusangika mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, comenecomene mu United States; na fundo zakusacizga za kususkana, izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri. Nthowa zaciŵiri ni malango ghakupambana gha kung'anamula dango, nga ni kung'anamula mwa ciyowoyero, kung'anamula mwa candulo, na kung'anamula mwa ndondomeko, kweniso malango ghapadera, mwaciyelezgero, Dango la Golide panji dango la suzgo. Paliso maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi na malango gha kung'anamulira, agho pamoza ghakupangiska kuti kung'anamula malango gha mphala kucitike. Msambizgi mukulu wa dango, kweniso Mwimiliri Mukulu wa Ulongozgi wa United States wa kale, Edward H. Levi, wakawona kuti "ciyelezgero ca muzu ca kughanaghana kwa dango ni kughanaghana mwa viyelezgero", kung'anamula kuti kughanaghana mwa kuyaniska ivyo vikafumamo mu milandu iyo yikamazga mafumbo gha dango ghakuyana.<ref>Edward H. Levi, ''An Introduction to Legal Reasoning'' (2013), p. 1-2.</ref> Mu mulandu wa Mphara Yilala ya United States, wakukhwaskana na ndondomeko izo wupu wa malonda wakulozga vikwerete ukacita kuti ukhweŵe vyakubudiska, Mweruzgi Sotomayor wakacenjezga kuti "kughanaghana kwa dango nkhwambura kucitika waka nga ni makina, panji kwa mzere umoza pera".<ref>''Jerman v. Carlisle'', 130 S.Ct. 1605, 1614, 559 U.S. 573, 587 (2010), Sotomayor, J.</ref> Malango nyengo zinyake ghangababa vyakufumamo vyambura kukhumbika, vyakukokera ŵanthu ku vyakuheni, panji vyakunanga ico ghakakhumbanga kufiska.<ref name="v654">{{cite journal | last1=Walker | first1=Orville C. | last2=Sauter | first2=Richard F. | last3=Ford | first3=Neil M. | title=The Potential Secondary Effects of Consumer Legislation: A Conceptual Framework | journal=Journal of Consumer Affairs | volume=8 | issue=2 | date=1974 | issn=0022-0078 | doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.1974.tb00537.x | pages=144–156 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6606.1974.tb00537.x | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="g465">{{cite journal | last1=Carbonara | first1=Emanuela | last2=Parisi | first2=Francesco | last3=von Wangenheim | first3=Georg | title=Unjust laws and illegal norms | journal=International Review of Law and Economics | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=2012 | doi=10.1016/j.irle.2012.03.001 | pages=285–299 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0144818812000221 | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="k006">{{cite journal | last1=Broughel | first1=James | last2=Chambers | first2=Dustin | title=Federal Regulation and Mortality in the 50 States | journal=Risk Analysis | volume=42 | issue=3 | date=2022 | issn=0272-4332 | doi=10.1111/risa.13774 | pages=592–613 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.13774 | access-date=2026-08-03| url-access=subscription }}</ref> Masamu gha Dango ni kugwiliskira ntchito mwandondomeko nthowa za kupima unandi, comenecomene fundo ya mayero na Kusanthura-Maŵiro, pa mafumbo gha dango. Kuzirwa kwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro mu milandu ya mphara na mu nkhani za magazini gha dango kwakura comene mu vyaka makhumi ghacoko ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heise|first=Michael|date=1999|title=The Importance of Being Empirical|url=https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1445&context=plr|journal=Pepperdine Law Review|volume=26|issue=4|pages=807–834|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225055124/https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1445&context=plr|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ericposner.com/the-rise-of-statistics-in-law/|title=The rise of statistics in law|last=Posner|first=Eric|date=2015-07-24|website=ERIC POSNER|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-16|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220060506/http://ericposner.com/the-rise-of-statistics-in-law/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Mawupu gha Dango == {{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=22em|salign=left|quote=Ni umoza waunenesko wa ŵanthu wose mu munthu yumoza, wakupangika na phangano la munthu waliyose na munthu waliyose, nga ni kuti munthu waliyose wakuphalira munyake kuti: Nkhupeleka mazaza na wanangwa wane wa kujiwusa ku munthu uyu, panji ku wungano uwu wa ŵanthu, pa fundo iyi; kuti nawe upeleke wanangwa wako kwa iyo, na kuzomerezga milimo yake yose mwakuyana.|source=Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html#CHAPTERXVII XVII]}} Mawupu ghakulu gha dango mu vyaro ivyo vyakura mu vyakupanga ni mphara zakujiwusa, mphala za ŵathenga, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cakuzgolera ku ŵanthu, ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, uteŵeti wa ulongozgi, ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, na mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghene. John Locke, mu buku lake la ''Two Treatises of Government'', na Baroni de Montesquieu, mu ''The Spirit of the Laws'', ŵakakolera kupatulana kwa mazaza pakati pa mawupu gha ndyali, gha mphala, na gha kufiska malango.<ref>Montesquieu, ''The Spirit of Laws'', [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203190914/http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 |date=3 February 2007 }}</ref> Fundo yawo yikaŵa yakuti palije munthu uyo wakwenera kujitolera mazaza ghose gha caro, kupambana na fundo yakusacizga ya mazaza ghose kwa wakuwusa yumoza iyo Thomas Hobbes wakalemba mu ''Leviathan''.<ref>Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20021125191001/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html#CHAPTERXVII XVII]</ref> Dango Likulu la Mazaza Ghankhondi la Sun Yat-sen, ilo likaŵa la Caro Cambura Fumu ca China, likalutilizga kupatulana kwa mazaza mwa kusazgapo vigaŵa viŵiri vinyake vya ulongozgi: ''Control Yuan'', ya kupenda ndalama na kulaŵilira, na ''Examination Yuan'', ya kusankha ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caldwell |first1=Ernest |title=Chinese Constitutionalism: Five-Power Constitution |journal=Max Planck Encyclopedia of Comparative Constitutional Law |date=2016 |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=2828104 |access-date=8 January 2020 |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225080817/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2828104 |url-status=live }}</ref> Max Weber na ŵanyake ŵakasintha maghanoghano pa kukura kwa mazaza gha caro. Mazaza gha sono gha ŵankhondo, gha ŵapolisi na gha uteŵeti wa ulongozgi pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa wa ŵenecaro ŵaŵaka vikwiziska masuzgo ghapadera pa kuzgolera, agho ŵalembi ŵa kale nga ni Locke panji Montesquieu ŵakatenge ŵaghawone pambere yayi. Midawuko na kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kufika kwa ŵanthu ku ulunji, apo mawupu gha ŵenecaro ghakung'anamula mawupu gha ŵanthu, magulu, na ubwezi uwo ukupanga maziko gha dango mu ndyali. === Cigaŵa ca Kweruzga === Cigaŵa ca kweruzga ni ndondomeko ya mphara iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito dango na maphangano. Kuyana na fundo yakugomezgeka ya kupatulana kwa mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga kanandi cikupanga malango gha mphala yayi (uwo ni udindo wa mphala), panji kulondezgeska dango yayi (uwo ni udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango); kweni cikung'anamula, kuvikilira, na kugwiliskira ntchito dango pa vyaunenesko vya mulandu uliwose. Kweni mu vyaro vinyake, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cikupanga Dango la Viweruzgo nadi. Mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza, cigaŵa ca kweruzga cili na mazaza gha kung'anamula malango, kupenda malango, na kupenda pa Dango Likulu. Mphara izo zili na mazaza gha kupenda malango zingamazga malango na malongozgero gha caro para zasanga kuti ghakupambana na malango ghanyake, nga ni malango ghakwamba gha mphala, Dango Likulu, maphangano, panji dango la pakati pa vyaro. Cigaŵa ca kweruzga cingawoneka so nga ni nthowa ya mtende ya kumazgira mphindano. Kutora lwande mu ndyali, kupambana kwa vilango ivyo ŵeruzgi ŵakupeleka, na lusungu lukulu kuluska ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhumba, vikucepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa cigaŵa ca kweruzga mu ndyali. Kugomezga kwa ŵanthu pa cigaŵa ca kweruzga kukupambana kuyana na caro, nga umo kufumba maghanoghano gha ŵanthu kukulongolera. === Mphala === [[File:Chamber of the House of Representatives of Japan.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri, nyumba yapasi ya Nyumba ya Malango ya Japani]] Viyelezgero vyakumanyikwa vya mphala ni Nyumba za Mphala mu London, Kongiresi mu Washington, D.C., Bundesitagi mu Berlin, Duma mu Moscow, Palamento Italiyano mu Roma, na Asembule Nasiyonale mu Paris. Kuyana na fundo ya ulongozgi wa ŵathenga, ŵanthu ŵakusola ŵandyali kuti ŵafiske vyakukhumba vyawo. Nangauli vyaro nga ni Israeli, Girisi, Sweden na China vili na mphala ya nyumba yimoza, vyaro vinandi vili na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri, kung'anamula kuti vili na nyumba ziŵiri za mphala izo zikusankhika paŵekha-paŵekha.{{sfn|Riker|1992|p=101}} Mu "nyumba yapasi", ŵandyali ŵakusoleka kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa vya visola vicoko. "Nyumba yapacanya" kanandi yikusoleka kuti yimilire vigaŵa mu ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakulumikizgika (nga ni mu Australia, Germany, panji United States), panji ndondomeko yinyake ya kusolera mu caro ca ulongozgi umoza (nga ni mu France). Mu Ufumu Ubanyi, nyumba yapacanya yikusankhika na ulongozgi nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Kususka kumoza kwa ndondomeko za mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri izo zose zikusoleka na ŵanthu nkhwakuti nyumba yapacanya na yapasi zingayana waka. Cifukwa ca kale ca kuŵa na mphala ya nyumba ziŵiri nchakuti nyumba yapacanya yikugwira ntchito nga ni nyumba yakuwoneseska. Ici cingacepeska kucita mwakujiwusira na kwambura ulunji mu vyakucita vya ulongozgi.{{sfn|Riker|1992|p=101}} Kuti dango lizomerezgeke, ŵanandi mwa ŵathenga ŵa mphala ŵakwenera kusola dango lakusacizgika mu nyumba yiliyose. Kanandi, pakuŵa kuŵazga kunandi na kusintha uko magulu ghakupambana gha ndyali ghakusacizga. Para caro cili na Dango Likulu lakukhazikika comene, unandi wapadera ungakhumbikwa pa kusintha Dango Likulu, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusintha dango kuŵa kwakusuzga comene. Ulongozgi kanandi ndiwo ukulongozga ndondomeko iyi, ndipo ukupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala (mwaciyelezgero, mu Ufumu Ubanyi panji Germany). Kweni mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, ulongozgi kanandi ukupangika na cigaŵa cakufiska malango na Wupu wa ŵaNduna uwo wasankha (mwaciyelezgero, United States panji Brazil).{{efn|Pa nkhani ya "kuzgolera kwa ŵalongozgi" mu ndondomeko za pulezidenti na za nyumba ya malango, wonani Shugart–Haggard, ''Presidential Systems'', 67, na vinyake.}} === Cigaŵa cakufiska Malango === [[File:Family photo G20 Italy 2021.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Maungano gha G20 ghakusazgapo ŵimiliri ŵa mazaza gha ulongozgi gha caro cilicose.]] Cigaŵa cakufiska malango mu ndondomeko ya dango ndico nchikaya ca mazaza gha ndyali gha caro. Mu ndondomeko ya ulongozgi wa mphala, nga ni mu Ufumu Ubanyi, Itale, Germany, India na Japani, cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikuchemeka Wupu wa ŵaNduna, ndipo cikupangika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala. Cigaŵa cakufiska malango cikulongozgeka na mulara wa ulongozgi, uyo wakuŵa na mazaza para mphala yikumugomezga. Cifukwa visola vya ŵanthu wose ndivyo vikusola mawupu gha ndyali kuti ghawuse, mulongozgi wa wupu wa ndyali wangasintha pakati pa visola.{{sfn|Haggard|Shugart|2001|p=71}} Mulara wa caro ngwakupatukana na cigaŵa cakufiska malango, wakuzomerezga malango mwacimanyikwiro, ndipo ni mthenga wa caro. Viyelezgero ni Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Germany (uyo wakusankhika na ŵathenga ŵa mphala ya caro cose na ya vigaŵa), Fumukazi ya Ufumu Ubanyi (udindo wakuhara), na Mulongozgi wa Caro wa Austria (uyo wakusoleka na ŵanthu wose). Ndondomeko yinyake yakuzirwa ni ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, iyo yikusangika mu United States na Brazil. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ndico mulara wa caro na mulara wa ulongozgi, ndipo cili na mazaza gha kusankha Wupu wa ŵaNduna wambura kusoleka. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango ncakupatukana na mphala, ndipo cikuzgolera ku mphala yayi.{{sfn|Haggard|Shugart|2001|p=71}}<ref>Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> Nangauli udindo wa cigaŵa cakufiska malango ukupambana kuyana na caro, kanandi ndico cikusacizga malango ghanandi na kuŵika vyakulondezga vya ulongozgi. Mu ndondomeko ya Mulongozgi wa Caro, cigaŵa cakufiska malango kanandi cili na mazaza gha kukanizga dango. Vigaŵa vinandi vyakufiska malango mu ndondomeko zose ziŵiri vili na udindo pa ubale na vyaro vyakuwaro, kulondezgeska dango, na uteŵeti wa ulongozgi. ŵaNduna panji ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵakulongozga maofesi gha ulongozgi, nga ni Unduna wa Vyaro vyakuWaro panji Unduna wa Civikiliro. Ntheura, kusola cigaŵa cakufiska malango cinyake kungasinthiratu umo caro cose cikulongozgekera. === Kulondezgeska Dango === [[File:South african police may 2010.jpg|thumb|Ŵapolisi ŵa South Africa ku Johannesburg, 2010]] Max Weber wakamanyikwa comene pakuti wakayowoya kuti caro ndico cili na mazaza gheneco gha kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>Weber, Politics as a Vocation</ref><ref>Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> Ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi ndiwo ŵakulondezgeska dango para ulongozgi panji mphara zaŵapempha. Lizgu lakuti caro ico catondeka likung'anamula vyaro ivyo vikutondeka kufiska panji kulondezgeska ndondomeko za ulongozgi. Ŵapolisi na ŵankhondo ŵawo ŵakulaŵiliraso civikiliro na cimango yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu caro cambura ulongozgi, ndiko kuti kwambura ulongozgi.{{efn|Pa nyengo izi, mazaza gha caro ghakucepa, ndipo kanandi ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵankhondo ŵakupokera mazaza ghanandi comene (Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 166–167).}} Nangauli mawupu gha ŵankhondo ghaŵako kwamba umo ulongozgi wakambira, maghanoghano gha kuŵa na ŵapolisi ŵanyengo zose ngaphya cifukwa ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, mu nyengo yapakati, Ungelezi ukaŵa na mphara za ukana-malango izo zikendanga malo na malo. Mphara izi zikachitanga milandu pamaso pa ŵanthu na kukoma ŵanthu pamaso pa ŵanthu wose kuti ŵanthu ŵopenge na kuti ulongozgi ulaŵilire.<ref>See, e.g., ''Tuberville v Savage'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight, in a threatening tone, said to a layperson, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> Ŵapolisi ŵakwamba ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakaŵa pamoza ŵa mu Paris mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, mu nyumba ya ufumu ya Kalonga Louis XIV. Kweni Wofesi Yikulu ya Ŵapolisi ya Paris yikuti ŵapolisi ŵake ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba pa caro cose capasi kuvwala malaya ghakuyana.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=History of Police Forces |url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 |encyclopedia=History.com Encyclopedia |access-date=10 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229014447/http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 |archive-date=29 December 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité : la Préfecture de Police au Service des Citoyens|language=fr|publisher=La Préfecture de Police de Paris|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm|access-date=24 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506215949/http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm|archive-date=6 May 2008}}</ref> === Uteŵeti wa Ulongozgi === [[File:Yamen-sitzung.jpg|thumb|Ŵamandarini ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵa nkhongono mu ufumu wa China (cithuzi cikulongora mlongozgi wa nyengo ya ufumu wa Qing na cimanyikwiro ca udindo wake pa cakuvwara).]] Muzu wa lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''bureaucracy'' ukufuma ku lizgu la Cifurenci la wofesi (''bureau'') na lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale la mazaza (''kratos'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode=none |title=bureaucracy |access-date=2 September 2007 |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |archive-date=15 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115180219/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode=none |url-status=live}}</ref> Nga ni ŵankhondo na ŵapolisi, ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi na mawupu agho ghakupanga uteŵeti wa ulongozgi ŵakufiska malangulo gha cigaŵa cakufiska malango. Umoza mwa ŵakwamba kuyowoyapo za maghanoghano agha ni Baroni de Grimm, mulembi wa ku Germany uyo wakakhalanga ku France. Mu 1765, wakalemba kuti:{{sfn|Albrow|1970|p=16}} {{quote|Mzimu nadi wa malango mu France ni uteŵeti wa ulongozgi uwo ŵacipondi Bwana de Gournay ŵakadandawulanga nawo comene. Kuno maofesi, ŵalembi ŵa maofesi, ŵasunga-vikalata, ŵapenduzgi, na ŵalaŵiliri ŵakusankhika kuti ŵawovwire uwemi wa ŵanthu wose yayi. Nadi, kukuwoneka kuti uwemi wa ŵanthu wose ukaŵikika kuti maofesi ghaŵeko.}} Kuleka kugomezga "vya maofesi" kucalipo comene, ndipo ntchito za ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi kanandi zikuyaniskika na makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha agho ghakulondezga candulo.<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, [https://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914004054/https://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp |date=14 September 2014 }}</ref> Nadi, makampani gha ŵanthu paŵekha, comene comene ghakulu, nagho ghali na uteŵeti wa maofesi. Kuleka maghanoghano ghaheni pa "ndondomeko zakusuzga za maofesi", uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose nga ni masambiro, kupwelelera umoyo, ulaŵiliri wa ŵapolisi, na mayendero gha ŵanthu wose ukuwoneka nga ni ntchito zakuzirwa comene za caro.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=367}} Ici cikupangiska vyakucita vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi kuŵa nchikaya ca mazaza gha ulongozgi.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=367}} Pakulemba kumwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Max Weber wakagomezganga kuti cimanyikwiro cikulu ca caro icho catukuka cikaŵa uteŵeti wake wa ulongozgi.<ref>Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber wakalemba kuti vimanyikwiro vya uteŵeti wa ulongozgi wa mazuŵa ghano ni ivi: ŵalongozgi ndiwo ŵakuŵika cilato cake; ntchito yikukhazgika na malamulo; ndipo ŵakulaŵilira ni ŵaluso ŵa ntchito yawo awo ŵakulongozga kufuma pacanya kuya pasi, ŵakuyowoyerana mwakulemba, na kukhazga wanangwa wa ŵateŵeti ŵa ulongozgi wa kujisankhira na malamulo.{{sfn|Kettl|2006|p=371}} === Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu === [[File:Color photograph of judges' bench at IMT.jpg|thumb|Ŵeruzgi ŵakulongozga viweruzgo vya Nuremberg mu Nyumba ya Vyeruzgo ku Nuremberg, Germany, 1946]] Cakulondezgapo ca muwuso wa dango ni kuŵapo kwa ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu iyo yili na wanangwa wakukwana kuti yingapempha mazaza gha cigaŵa ca kweruzga cakujiwusa; wanangwa wa kovwirika na mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara ukufuma pa ici.{{sfn|Hazard|Dondi|2004|p=1}} Mu Ungelezi, ntchito ya mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara yikupambana na ya mupangizgi wa malango. Nga umo Mphara ya Ulaya ya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu yikayowoyera, dango likwenera kufikirika na waliyose, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kumanyiratu umo dango likuŵakhwaskira.<ref>''The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom'' [1979] [http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html ECHR 1 at 49] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916131454/http://worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html|date=16 September 2006}} Case no. 6538/74</ref> Kuti ntchito yicitike mwaluso, ntchito ya malango kanandi yikulaŵiliriska na ulongozgi panji wupu wakulaŵilira wakujiwusa, nga ni wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, wupu ukulu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, panji wupu wa malango. Ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuŵa na umanyikwiro wapadera wa ntchito yawo kwizira mu ndondomeko zakuŵikika za dango (mwaciyelezgero, kutonda mayeso ghakuzomerezgera). Dango likukhumba kuti ŵaŵe na cipaso capadera (masambiro gha dango agho ghakupeleka ku msambiri Digri Yakwamba ya Malango, Digri Yakwamba ya Dango la Malemba, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Ntchito ya Dango). Ŵangalondezga so madigri gha masambiro ghapacanya. Viyelezgero ni Digri Yaciŵiri ya Malango, Digri Yaciŵiri ya Masambiro gha Dango, Masambiro gha Ntchito ya Ŵimiliri ŵa Milandu mu Mphara, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Malango. Ŵakunjizgika mu udindo wawo kwizira mu nthowa za dango za kusankhira (kuzomerezgeka kunjira mu wupu wa ŵimiliri ŵa milandu). Pali mazina ghacoko gha ucindami agho ghakulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakumanyikwa, nga ni Esikwaya, kulongora ŵimiliri ŵa milandu mu mphara ŵa ucindami ukulu, na Dokotala wa Malango, kulongora munthu uyo wali na digri ya Dokotala mu Malango.<ref>{{cite web|title=British English: Esquire|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|access-date=23 September 2014|date=n.d.|publisher=Collins Dictionary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006092224/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|publisher=Collins Dictionary|title=American English: Esquire|access-date=23 September 2014|date=n.d.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084621/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/esquire?showCookiePolicy=true|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Vyaro vinandi vya Ŵasilamu vyapanga malamulo ghakuyana agho ghakulongozga masambiro gha dango na ntchito ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, kweni vinyake vicazomerezga ŵimiliri ŵa milandu awo ŵakasambira dango la mdawuko la Cisilamu kugwira ntchito mu mphara za umoyo wa munthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Ahmad|2009}} Mu China na mu vyaro vinyake ivyo vikutukuka, palije ŵanthu ŵakukwana ŵakusambizgika ntchito iyi kuti ŵagwire ntchito mu ndondomeko za kweruzga izo zilipo, ntheura malamulo ghakuŵikika ngakufwasa comene.{{sfn|Hazard|Dondi|2004|pp=22–23}} Para wazomerezgeka, mwimiliri wa milandu kanandi wakugwira ntchito mu kampani ya ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, mu wofesi yake yekha, mu udindo wa ulongozgi, panji mu kampani ya ŵanthu paŵekha nga ni mupangizgi wa malango wa mukati. Kusazgirapo, mwimiliri wa milandu wangaŵa musandi wa malango uyo wakusanda malango para ŵamupempha, kwizira mu nyumba ya mabuku, uteŵeti wa malonda, panji ntchito yakujigwilira yekha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambira malango ŵakugwiliskira ntchito luso lawo kuwaro kwa ntchito ya malango.<ref name="Fine364">Fine, ''The Globalisation of Legal Education'', 364</ref> Cakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango mu mdawuko wa Dango la Viweruzgo ni kusanda malango kuti ŵamanye umo dango lilili sono. Ici kanandi cikukhumba kuŵazga mabuku gha viweruzgo vya mphara, magazini gha malango, na malango gha mphala. Ntchito ya malango yikusazgapo so kulemba vikalata nga ni vyakuyowoya vya mulandu ku mphara, vikalata vyakunyengelera, maphangano, panji vikalata vya vyakuhara na vya usungi wa cuma. Luso la kudumba na kumazga mphindano (kusazgapo nthowa za kumazgira mphindano kwambura kuya ku mphara) nalo ndakuzirwa pa ntchito ya malango, kuyana na cigaŵa.<ref name="Fine364" /> === Mawupu gha Ŵenecaro === [[File:1963 march on washington.jpg|thumb|Ulendo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Washington, D.C. pa nyengo ya kulimbirana wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵakufipa mu Amerika, 1963]] Ghanoghano la "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" la ŵakukolera caro cambura fumu ŵa kale likufuma kwa Hobbes na Locke.<ref>Warren, ''Civil Society'', 3–4</ref> Locke wakawonanga mawupu gha ŵenecaro nga ni ŵanthu awo ŵali na "dango limoza lakukhazikika na mphara izo ŵangadandawulirako, izo zili na mazaza gha kumazga mphindano pakati pawo."<ref>Locke, ''Second Treatise'', Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil Society. Chapter 7, section 87</ref> Musandi wa vinjeru wa ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wakapatula "caro" na "mawupu gha ŵenecaro" (mu Cijeremani: ''bürgerliche Gesellschaft'') mu buku lake la ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm 182] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401193900/http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm |date=1 April 2007 }}</ref>{{sfn|Karkatsoulis|2004|pp=277–278}} Hegel wakagomezganga kuti mawupu gha ŵenecaro na caro vikaŵa vyakususkana, mu fundo yake yakusacizga ya mbiri iyo yikuzengeka pa kususkana kwa maghanoghano. Kupatulana kwa mazuŵa ghano pakati pa caro na mawupu gha ŵenecaro kukawonekaso mu fundo zakusacizga za Alexis de Tocqueville na Karl Marx.<ref>(Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13; Warren, ''Civil Society'', 5–9)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zaleski|first=Pawel|title=Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=50|year=2008}}</ref> Mu fundo zakusacizga za mazuŵa ghano comene, mawupu gha ŵenecaro ni malo agho dango likufumira, cifukwa ndimo ŵanthu ŵakupangira maghanoghano ghawo na kunyengelera ŵalongozgi pa ivyo ŵakughanaghana kuti dango likwenera kuŵa. Nga umo mwimiliri wa milandu mu mphara na mulembi wa ku Australia, Geoffrey Robertson QC, wakalembera za dango la pakati pa vyaro, "umoza mwa malo ghakulu agho dango ili likufumira mazuŵa ghano ni umo ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵawanthu waka, na mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi agho ŵanandi ŵakughakolera, ŵakucitira pa kuphwanyika kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu uko ŵakuwona pa wayilesi ya kanema mu nyumba zawo."<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref> Wanangwa wa kuyowoya, wanangwa wa kuwungana mu mawupu, na wanangwa unyake wa munthu waliyose vikuzomerezga ŵanthu kuwungana, kudumbiskana, kususka, na kupangiska maulongozgi ghawo kuzgolera, ndipo apa ndipo maziko gha uwuso wa ŵanthu wa kudumbiskana ghakufumira. Apo ŵanthu ŵakunjilirapo comene, ŵakupwelelera comene, na kuŵa na nkhongono zakusintha umo mazaza gha ndyali ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa umoyo wawo, ndipo dango likuŵa lakupokelereka na lakuzomerezgeka comene kwa ŵanthu. Mawupu ghakumanyikwa comene gha ŵenecaro ni misika ya malonda, makampani agho ghakulondezga candulo, mabanja, mawupu gha ŵantchito, vipatala, makwamasambiro ghakulu, makwamasambiro, mawupu gha lusungu, mawupu gha kususkana mu mazgo, mawupu ghambura kuŵa gha ulongozgi, ŵazengezgani, mipingo, na mawupu gha visopa. Palije ng'anamulo yakuwoneka ya dango ya mawupu gha ŵenecaro, panji ya mawupu agho ghakusazgikamo. Mawupu ghanandi agho ghakulemba mindandanda ya mawupu (nga ni Wupu wa Ulaya wa Vyacuma na Vya Ŵanthu) ghakusazgamo mawupu gha ndyali yayi.{{sfn|Jakobs|2004|pp=5–6}}<ref>Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, ''Global Civil Society'', ''[http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf passim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817130457/http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf |date=17 August 2007 }}''</ref>{{sfn|Karkatsoulis|2004|pp=282–283}} == Vigaŵa vya Dango == Ndondomeko zose za dango zikuwona nkhani zakwamba zakuyana, kweni madera gha mazaza ghakugaŵa na kumanya nkhani zawo za dango mwakupambana. Kupatulana kwakumanyikwa ni pakati pa "dango la ŵanthu wose" (lizgu lakukhwaskana comene na caro, ilo likusazgapo dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, na dango la ukana-malango), na "dango la ŵanthu paŵekha" (ilo likusazgapo maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, na cuma). Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake vikunjira mu dango likulu la vyakukakizgika, apo dango la usungi wa cuma likulongozgeka na malango gha mphala panji maphangano gha pakati pa vyaro. Nangauli pali kupambana kucoko pakati pa madera gha mazaza, vigaŵa vya dango ivyo kanandi vikuwoneka kuŵa vyakwamba ni dango la pakati pa vyaro, dango la Dango Likulu, dango la ulongozgi, dango la ukana-malango, maphangano, kunanga ŵanyake, dango la cuma, Dango la Kwenelera na usungi wa cuma, dango la makampani, na dango la ukaboni. === Dango la Pakati pa Vyaro === Dango la pakati pa vyaro, ilo likuchemekaso dango la ŵanthu wose la pakati pa vyaro panji dango la mitundu, ni malamulo, mikhaliro yakwenelera, midawuko ya dango, na vyakwenelera ivyo vyaro na ŵanyake ŵakujiwona kuti ŵakwenera kulondezga pa ubale wawo, ndipo kanandi ŵakulondezga nadi. Mu ubale wa pakati pa vyaro, ŵakucita ni ŵanthu paŵekha na mawupu, nga ni vyaro, mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro, na magulu ghambura kuŵa vyaro, agho ghangasankha vyakucita, vyakulondezga dango panji vyakuphwanya dango. Malamulo ni vyakukhumbikwa vyakulembeka ivyo vikulongosora nkhalo yakukhumbikwa, apo mikhaliro yakwenelera ni malongozgero ghambura kulembeka gha nkhalo yakwenelera agho ghakupangika na midawuko na kacitiro ka ŵanthu. Dango ili likuŵika mikhaliro yakwenelera ku vyaro mu vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo na kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, ubale wa vyacuma, na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lizgu ili likung'anamula dango ilo likulongozga nkhalo na ubale wa pakati pa vyaro pera yayi, kweniso wa mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro na ubale wawo na vyaro. Dango la pakati pa vyaro likupambana na ndondomeko za dango za mukati mwa caro cifukwa kanandi likugwira ntchito kwizira mu kuzomerezgana, pakuti palije mazaza agho ghakuzomerezgeka na wose kuti ghalondezgeske dango ili pa vyaro vyakujiwusa. Vyaro na ŵanyake ŵambura kuŵa vyaro ŵangasankha kuleka kulondezga dango la pakati pa vyaro, panji kuphwanya phangano, kweni kuphwanya uku, comene kwa mikhaliro yakwenelera yambura kusinthika, kungasuskika na ŵanyake, ndipo nyengo zinyake kungawovwirika na vyakukakizga, nga ni kudumba kwa pakati pa vyaro, vilango vya vyacuma, na nkhondo.{{efn|Nangauli ŵamanyi ŵanandi ŵakuti "mphaka pakati pa dango la boma na dango la ŵanthu paŵekha zikuleka kuwoneka", ndipo kuti kupambana uku kwaŵa waka "nthanthi" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).}} Kusoŵa kwa mazaza ghaumaliro mu dango la pakati pa vyaro kungiziska so kupambana kukulu. Ici cikucitika cifukwa vyaro vingang'anamula dango la pakati pa vyaro umo vikukhumbira, ndipo ici cingiziska maghanoghano ghakusuzga agho ghakuŵa na vyakufumapo vikulu mu malo ghawo.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://legalservicescouncil.org.au/documents/Prescribed_Academic_Areas_of_Knowledge_Updated_31_October_2025.pdf |title=Prescribed academic areas of knowledge |author=Law Admissions Consultative Committee (Australia) |date=31 October 2025 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.ncbex.org/sites/default/files/2023-01/MBE_Subject_Matter_Outline.pdf |title=Multistate Bar Examination Subject Matter Outline |last=National Conference of Bar Examiners (United States) |first= |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.sra.org.uk/globalassets/documents/students/academic-stage/academic-stage-handbook.pdf?version=4a1ac3 |title=Academic Stage Handbook |last=Solicitors Regulation Authority (United Kingdom) |date=July 2014 |access-date=2 July 2026}}</ref> === Dango la Dango Likulu na Dango la Ulongozgi === [[File:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|Kapharazgiro ka Wanangwa wa Munthu na wa Mwenecaro ka ku France ka 1789]] Dango la Dango Likulu na dango la ulongozgi vikulongozga vya caro. Dango la Dango Likulu likukhwaskana na ubale pakati pa cigaŵa cakufiska malango, mphala, na cigaŵa ca kweruzga, kweniso na wanangwa wa ŵanthu panji wanangwa wa ŵenecaro pamaso pa caro. Madera ghanandi gha mazaza, nga ni United States na France, ghali na Dango Likulu limoza lakulembeka pamoza ilo lili na mndandanda wa wanangwa. Ghacoko, nga ni Ufumu Ubanyi, ghalije cikalata ici. "Dango Likulu" ni malango agho ghakupanga caro nga ni wupu wa ndyali, kufuma mu malango gha mphala, malango gha viweruzgo, na midawuko ya ulongozgi. Fundo yikulu ya Dango Likulu, iyo yikafuma kwa John Locke, yikuti munthu wangacita cilicose kupatula ico dango lakanizga; kweni caro cingacita kanthu yayi kupatula ico dango lazomerezga.<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', Chapter 9, section 124</ref><ref>Tamanaha, ''On the Rule of Law'', 47</ref> Dango la ulongozgi ndiyo nthowa yikulu iyo ŵanthu ŵakupangiska mawupu gha caro kuzgolera. Ŵanthu (kuli uko kwazomerezgeka) ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kususka mwakwenelera dango (panji kumanga mulandu) wupu wa ulongozgi, wupu wa ulongozgi wa mu cigaŵa, uteŵeti wa ŵanthu wose, panji unduna wa ulongozgi, kuti mphara yipende cilangulo ico cakwiziska suzgo (dango, malango gha cigaŵa, panji ndondomeko ya ulongozgi). Kususka uku kukupenda usange wupu wa ulongozgi uli na mazaza gha dango gha kucita ivyo wacita, na usange ukalondezga ndondomeko iyo yikukhumbikwa. Mphara yakwamba ya dango la ulongozgi yikaŵa Konseyi Deta, iyo yikajalikiska mu 1799, apo Napoleon wakatora mazaza mu France.{{sfn|Auby|2002|p=75}} Cigaŵa cimoza ca dango la Dango Likulu ni dango la visola. Pamoza na mawupu gha visola, dango ili likuwona ndondomeko za ulongozgi na ndondomeko izo zikovwira kuti visola vicitike. Malamulo agha ghakumazga mphindano panji kuzomerezga kuti khumbo la ŵanthu lisandulike kuŵa uwuso wa ŵanthu uwo ukugwira ntchito. Dango la visola likuwona nkhani nga ni nkhu njani uyo wali na wanangwa wa kusola, kulembeska ŵakusola, wanangwa wa kuŵa pa mapepala gha visola, ndalama za kunyengelera ŵakusola na za mawupu gha ndyali, kugaŵaso vigaŵa vya visola, kugaŵa mipando ya mphala, kusola pa makina gha magesi na makina gha kusolera, kufikirika kwa visola, ndondomeko za visola, kupenda vyakusola, mphindano za visola, cisola ca ŵanthu wose pa nkhani yimoza, na nkhani nga ni upusikizgi mu visola na kukhala cete pambere visola vindacitike. === Dango la Ukana-malango === Dango la ukana-malango, ilo likuchemekaso dango la vilango, likukhwaskana na milandu na vilango.<ref>Cesare Beccaria's seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (''Dei delitti e delle pene'').</ref> Ntheura likulongosora ng'anamulo na vilango vya milandu iyo yasangika kuti yikunanga comene ŵanthu, kweni lene likweruzga yayi nkhalo ya wakunanga, panji kuŵika vikanizgo ku ŵanthu ivyo vingaŵakanizga kucita mlandu pakwamba.{{sfn|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Wilson|2003|p=2}} Kupenduzga, kukora, kumanga mulandu, na kweruzga ŵanthu awo ŵakukayikirika kuti ŵacita mlandu kukulongozgeka na dango la ndondomeko ya milandu ya ukana-malango.<ref>Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams ''Textbook of Criminal Law'' (London: 2012), 2</ref> Ciyelezgero cikulu ca mlandu ni ukaboni, kwambura kukayika kulikose kwakwenelera, wakuti munthu wali na mlandu pa vinthu viŵiri. Cakwamba, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa kuti wacita cinthu ico ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni mlandu, panji ''actus reus'' (cakucita ca mlandu).<ref>See e.g. {{harvnb|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=205}} about ''Robinson v. California'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Caciŵiri, wakusumirika wakwenera kuŵa na khumbo liheni ilo likukhumbikwa kuti wacite mlandu, panji ''mens rea'' (mtima wa mlandu). Kweni pa milandu ya "udindo wambura kufumbira khumbo", ''actus reus'' pera ndiyo yikukwana.<ref>See e.g. Feinman, ''Law 111'', 260–261 about ''Powell v. Texas'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> Ndondomeko za ukana-malango za mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba zikupatula khumbo mu ng'anamulo yikulu (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na kuleka kupwelelera. Kuleka kupwelelera kukwiziska udindo wa mlandu yayi kupatula para dango la mlandu unyake likuŵikapo cilango cake.{{sfn|Dörmann|Doswald-Beck|Kolb|2003|p=491}}{{sfn|Kaiser|2005|p=333}} [[File:Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death at the conclusion of the Eichmann Trial USHMM 65289.jpg|thumb|Adolf Eichmann (wakwimilira mu kabokosi ka galasi ku mazere) apo wakweruzgika kuti wakomeke pa umaliro wa mlandu wake wa mu 1961, ciyelezgero ca mlandu wa vigaŵenga]] Viyelezgero vya milandu ni kukoma munthu, kumenya, upusikizgi, na kwiba. Mu vyakucitika vyapadera, vyakujivikilira vingagwira ntchito pa vyakucita vinyake, nga ni kukoma pakujivikilira panji kuyowoya kuti wakaŵa na ufunthi. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni mulandu wa mu Ungelezi wa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 wa ''R v Dudley and Stephens'', uwo ukapenda usange cifukwa ca "kusoŵa nthowa yinyake" cingazomerezga kukoma munthu na kurya nyama ya munthu kuti ŵapone pa ngozi ya ngalawa pa nyanja.<ref>About ''R v Dudley and Stephens'' [1884] [http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html 14 QBD 273 DC] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228224504/http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html |date=28 February 2005 }}, see Simpson, ''Cannibalism and the Common Law'', 212–217, 229–237</ref> Milandu ya ukana-malango yikuwoneka kuŵa yakunanga ŵakupwetekeka pera yayi, kweniso wupu wose wa ŵanthu.{{sfn|Brody|Acker|Logan|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Wilson|2003|p=2}} Caro, kanandi na wovwiri wa ŵapolisi, ndico cikulongozga kusumira, ndico cifukwa mu vyaro vya Dango la Viweruzgo milandu yikulembeka kuti "Ŵanthu v ..." panji "R (ya ''Rex'' panji ''Regina'') v ...". Kweniso, mawupu gha ŵakweruzga kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ghasimikizge usange ŵakusumirika ŵali na mlandu pa nkhani za unenesko; mawupu agha ghangasintha malango gha dango yayi. Vyaro vinyake ivyo vyatukuka vicazomerezga cilango ca nyifwa pa milandu yinyake. Kweni vilango ivyo vikupelekeka kanandi pa mlandu ni kuŵikika mu gadi, kulipiska ndalama, kulaŵiliriska na caro (nga ni kufwatulika kwakulaŵiliriska), panji kuteŵetera wupu wa ŵanthu. Dango la ukana-malango la mazuŵa ghano lakhwaskika comene na tusandiro twa ŵanthu, comene pa kupeleka vilango, kusanda malango, kupanga malango, na kuwezgera ŵakunanga ku umoyo uwemi.<ref>Pelser, ''Criminal Legislation'', 198</ref> Pa caro cose capasi, vyaro 125 vili mu Mphara ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Ukana-malango, iyo yikajalikiska kuti yiweruzge ŵanthu pa milandu yakunanga ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite web |title=The States Parties to the Rome Statute |url=https://asp.icc-cpi.int/states-parties |access-date=28 August 2026}}</ref> === Dango la Maphangano === [[File:carbolic smoke ball co.jpg|thumb|Cithandazgo ca Carbolic Smoke Ball, ico cikalayizga kucizga ''influenza'', cikawoneka na mphara kuŵa phangano la mbali yimoza.]] Dango la maphangano likukhwaskana na malayizgo agho ghangalondezgeskeka, ndipo lingafupikiskika mu mazgo gha Cilatini ''pacta sunt servanda'' (maphangano ghakwenera kusungika). Mu madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Viweruzgo, vinthu vitatu vyakuzirwa vikukhumbikwa kuti phangano lipangike: kusacizga na kuzomera, cakusinthana, na khumbo la kupanga ubale wa dango. Cakusinthana cikulongora kuti ŵose awo ŵali mu phangano ŵasinthana cinthu cakuzirwa. Ndondomeko zinyake za Dango la Viweruzgo, kusazgapo ya Australia, zikuleka kukhumba cakusinthana. Ghanoghano la ''estoppel'' panji ''culpa in contrahendo'' lingagwiliskirika ntchito kupanga vyakukakizgika pa nyengo ya kudumba pambere phangano lindapangike.<ref>''Austotel v Franklins'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> Madera gha mazaza gha Dango la Malemba ghakuwona maphangano mwakupambana mu nthowa zinyake, ndipo caro cikunjilirapo comene pa kupanga na kulondezgeska maphangano.{{sfn|Pargendler|2018}} Para tayaniska na madera gha Dango la Viweruzgo, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zikusazgamo vigaŵa vinandi vyakukakizgika mu maphangano, zikupeleka wanangwa ukulu ku mphara wa kung'anamula na kusintha vigaŵa vya phangano, na kukakizga comene udindo wa kucita mwakugomezgeka; kweni so zikulondezgeska comene vigaŵa vya vilango na kufiska nadi ivyo phangano likuyowoya.{{sfn|Pargendler|2018}} Kweniso zikukhumba cakusinthana yayi kuti phangano likakizge.<ref>e.g., in Germany, [http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html §&nbsp;311 Abs. II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111212855/http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html |date=11 January 2007 }} BGB</ref> Mu France, phangano lakawiro likuyowoyeka kuti likupangika pa "kuyana kwa maghanoghano" panji "kuyana kwa makhumbo". Germany yili na nthowa yapadera ya maphangano iyo yikukolerana comene na dango la cuma. "Fundo ya kupatula" (''Abstraktionsprinzip'') yikung'anamula kuti cakukakizgika ca munthu ca phangano cikupangika paŵekha na uweneco wa cuma ico cikupelekeka. Para phangano lamazgika pa cifukwa cinyake (mwaciyelezgero, wakugula galimoto wakuloŵera comene mwakuti walije wanangwa wa dango wa kupanga phangano), cakukakizgika ca phangano ca kulipira cingamazgika paŵekha na uweneco wa galimoto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html|title=§&nbsp;105 BGB Nichtigkeit der Willenserklärung|work=dejure.org|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209072433/http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html|archive-date=9 December 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> Dango la kusambazgika mwambura ulunji, m'malo mwa dango la maphangano, likugwiliskirika ntchito kuwezgera uweneco ku mwenecho wakwenelera.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> === Kunanga Ŵanyake === Viheni vinyake vya pakati pa ŵanthu paŵekha vikuwunjikika pamoza nga ni "kunanga ŵanyake" mu ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo, na nga ni ''delicts'' mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=R. W. |title=Torts and Delicts |journal=Yale Law Journal |date=April 1918 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=721–730 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol27/iss6/1 |access-date=1 January 2020 |issn=0044-0094 |doi=10.2307/786478 |jstor=786478 |archive-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101082254/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol27/iss6/1/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuti munthu waŵe kuti wananga munyake, wakwenera kuŵa kuti waphwanya udindo wake kwa munthu munyake, panji waphwanya wanangwa wa dango uwo ukaŵako kale. Ciyelezgero cipepuka cingaŵa kutimba munthu na mpira kwambura kukhumba.<ref>''Bolton v Stone'' [1951] AC 850</ref> Mu dango la kuleka kupwelelera, ilo ndilo kunanga ŵanyake kwakucitika comene, wakupwetekeka wangapempha malipiro gha vilonda vyake kwa uyo wali na mlandu.{{efn|name=DvS|''Donoghue v Stevenson'' ([1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1). Wonani malemba gha mlandu uwu ku [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm UK Law Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216044953/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm |date=16 February 2007 }}.}} Fundo za kuleka kupwelelera zikulongoreka mu mulandu wa ''Donoghue v Stevenson''. Mubwezi wa Donoghue wakagula botolo ilo mukati mwake mukawonekanga yayi la cakumwa ca jinja (ca Donoghue kuti wamwe) mu nyumba ya vyakulya mu Paisley. Pamanyuma pakumwa cigaŵa cimoza, Donoghue wakathira ivyo vikakhalako mu kapu. Mutumbu wa nkhono uwo ukavunda ukatuluka. Wakayowoya kuti wakazizwa comene, wakalwara nthenda ya matumbo, ndipo wakamanga mulandu wakupanga cakumwa cifukwa ca kuleka kupwelelera mwakuti cakumwa cikanangika. Nyumba ya ŵaLodi yikeruzga kuti wakupanga ndiyo wakaŵa na mlandu pa ulwari wa Mama Donoghue. Lodi Atkin wakatora nthowa ya nkhalo yiwemi ndipo wakayowoya kuti:<ref>''Donoghue v Stevenson'' [1932] AC 532, 580</ref> {{quote|Udindo pa kuleka kupwelelera [...] kwambura kukayika ukuzengeka pa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu wose gha ubudi wa nkhalo, uwo wakunanga wakwenera kulipira. [...] Lamulo lakuti ukwenera kutemwa muzengezgani wako likusanduka mu dango kuti, ukwenera kupweteka muzengezgani wako yayi; ndipo fumbo la mwimiliri wa milandu, ''Muzengezgani wane njani?'' likupokera zgoro lakupimika. Ukwenera kupwelelera mwakwenelera kuti ulekere vyakucita panji vyakuleka kucita ivyo ukumanyiratu mwakwenelera kuti vingapweteka muzengezgani wako.}} Ici cikaŵa maziko gha fundo zinayi za kuleka kupwelelera, izo ni: * Stevenson wakaŵa na udindo wa kupwelelera Donoghue mwa kupeleka vyakumwa vyambura ngozi; * wakaphwanya udindo wake wa kupwelelera; * ulwari ukatenge uleke kucitika para wangaleka kuphwanya udindo wake; ndipo * cakucita cake ndico cikaŵa cifukwa cakufupi ca ulwari wake. Ciyelezgero cinyake ca kunanga ŵanyake cingaŵa muzengezgani uyo wakupanga congo cikulu na makina pa malo ghake.<ref name="Sturges">''Sturges v Bridgman'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Pa mulandu wa kusuzga ŵazengezgani, congo ici cingamazgika. Kunanga ŵanyake kungasazgapo so vyakucita vyakukhumba nga ni kofya kumenya, kumenya, panji kunjira pa malo gha munyake kwambura wanangwa. Kunanga ŵanyake kwakumanyikwa comene ni kunanga mbiri ya munthu, uko kukucitika, mwaciyelezgero, para kalata ya makani yayowoya vyambura ukaboni ivyo vyananga mbiri ya mundyali.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd'' [2004] EWHC 2786</ref> Vyakumanyikwa uheni comene ni kunanga ŵanyake pa vyacuma, uko nkhu maziko gha dango la ŵantchito mu vyaro vinyake, mwa kupangiska mawupu gha ŵantchito kuŵa na mlandu pa kunyanyala ntchito, para malango gha mphala ghakuŵavikilira yayi.<ref>''Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants'' [1901] AC 426</ref>{{efn|Ku UK, Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992; ku U.S., wonani National Labor Relations Act}} === Dango la Cuma === [[File:Edward Matthew Ward (1816-1879) - The South Sea Bubble, a Scene in 'Change Alley in 1720 - N00432 - National Gallery.jpg|thumb|''The South Sea Bubble'' ya Edward Matthew Ward. South Sea Bubble ya mu 1720, imoza mwa nyengo zakwamba pa caro capasi apo mitengo ya magaŵa yikakwera comene mwambura kukwenelera na kugwa, yikapangiska kuti malonda gha magaŵa ghalongozgeke na malango ghakukhwima.{{sfn|Harris|1994|pp=610–627}}]] Dango la cuma likulongozga uweneco na kuŵa naco. Cuma cambura kusamika, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "malo na nyumba", cikung'anamula uweneco wa malo na vinthu ivyo vyakhoma pa malo agho.<ref>e.g. ''Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd'' [1997] [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm 2 All ER 426] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922164352/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm |date=22 September 2017 }}</ref> Cuma ca munthu cikung'anamula vinthu vinyake vyose: vinthu ivyo vingasamika, nga ni mirangura, magalimoto, vyakujikongoleska, panji wanangwa wambura kukhwaskika, nga ni magawo gha makampani. Wanangwa ''in rem'' ni wanangwa pa cuma cinyake capadera, kupambana na wanangwa ''in personam'', uwo ukuzomerezga malipiro pa cakutayika kweni pa cinthu capadera yayi. Dango la malo ndilo maziko gha mitundu yinandi ya dango la cuma ndipo ndakusuzga comene. Likukhwaskana na ngongole za malo, maphangano gha kubwereka, vyakuzomerezgera, malayizgo gha pa malo, wanangwa wa kuporota pa malo gha munyake, na ndondomeko za malango gha kulembeska malo. Malongozgero gha kagwiliskiro ka ntchito ka cuma ca munthu ghakunjira mu cuma ca maghanoghano, dango la makampani, usungi wa cuma, na dango la malonda. Ciyelezgero cakwimilira ca dango la cuma ni mulandu wa 1722 wa ''Armory v Delamirie'', uwo ukagwiliskira ntchito dango la Ungelezi.<ref>''Armory v Delamirie'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> Mwana wakapokeka malibwe gha mtengo wapacanya agho ghakaŵa mu cakujikongoleska, na muguliski uyo wakapika cakujikongoleska ici kuti wapime mtengo wake. Mphara yikeruzga kuti, kuyana na umo Dango la Viweruzgo likuwonera cuma, munthu uyo wangalongora cifukwa ciwemi comene ca kuŵa na cuma, kuluska waliyose wakususka, ndiyo mwenecho.{{sfn|Matthews|1995|pp=251–274}} Kweni nthowa ya kale ya Dango la Malemba pa cuma, iyo yikasacizgika na Friedrich Carl von Savigny, njakuti cuma ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu wose ŵakwenera kuwuzomera. Vyakukakizgika, nga ni ivyo vikufuma ku maphangano na kunanga ŵanyake, vikuwoneka nga ni wanangwa uwo ŵanthu paŵekha ŵakwenera kupeleka.{{sfn|Savigny|1803|p=25}} Ghanoghano la cuma likwiziska nkhani zinyake zinandi za kasandiro ka vinjeru na za ndyali. Locke wakayowoya kuti "umoyo, wanangwa, na vyuma" vyithu ni cuma cithu cifukwa tili ŵeneco ŵa mathupi ghithu ndipo tikusazga ntchito yithu na ivyo vyatizunguliya.{{sfn|Locke|1689|loc=Section 123}} === Dango la Kwenelera na Usungi wa Cuma === Mu dango la Ungelezi la kale, Dango la Viweruzgo likazomerezganga yayi kupatula uweneco na ulaŵiliri wa cuma cimoza, kweni Dango la Kwenelera likazomerezganga ici kwizira mu ndondomeko yakuchemeka usungi wa cuma. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ndiwo ŵakulaŵilira cuma, apo uweneco wa candulo, panji wakwenelera, wa cuma ca usungi uli kwa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka ŵakupindura. Ŵasungi ŵa cuma ŵali na udindo kwa ŵakupindura ŵawo wa kupwelelera makola cuma ico ŵapika.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew |date=1998}}</ref> Ciyelezgero cinyake ca udindo wa musungi wa cuma cingaŵa kuŵika cuma mu vyandulo mwavinjeru panji kuciguliska.<ref>''Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc'' [1993] 1 WLR 1260</ref> Ici nchakuwoneka comene pa ndalama za ucekuru, uwo ni mtundu wakuzirwa comene wa usungi wa cuma, apo ŵakuŵika ndalama ŵakuŵa ŵasungi ŵa ndalama za ŵanthu mpaka ŵapumule ntchito. Kweni usungi wa cuma ungajalikiskika so pa vilato vya lusungu. Ndondomeko zinyake za pakati pa vyaro za kapangiro na malongozgero gha usungi wa cuma zili mu Phangano la Hague la Usungi wa Cuma la mu 1985. === Dango la Makampani === Dango la makampani ni malango agho ghakulongozga kujalikiska, kulongozga, kagwiliskiro ka ntchito, na kumazgika kwa makampani agho ghalembeskeka. Likulongozga wanangwa na maudindo gha ŵeneco ŵa magawo, ŵalongozgi, ŵateŵeti ŵakulu, na ŵanyake awo ŵakukhwaskika. === Dango la Ukaboni === Dango la ukaboni likusazgapo malamulo na fundo za dango izo zikulongozga kusimikizga unenesko mu milandu ya dango. Malamulo agha ghakusimikizga ukaboni uwo wangaghanaghanirika panji yayi na wakweruzga, nga ni mweruzgi panji wupu wa ŵakweruzga. == Kukolerana na Vigaŵa Vinyake == === Kusanda Cuma === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, Adam Smith wakapeleka maziko gha kasandiro ka vinjeru gha kulongosora ubale wa dango na kusanda cuma.{{efn|Kuyana na Malloy, Smith wakakhazikiska "fundo ya wanangwa iyo yikaŵika munthu waliyose pakati, kweni yikuzomera kuti tikukhala patekha yayi, kweni pamoza na ŵanyithu" (''Law and Economics'', 114).}} Kasandiro aka kakafuma cigaŵa cinyake ku kususka mawupu gha ŵantchito na dango la United States lakukanizga kampani yimoza kuwusa msika. Musandi wakumanyikwa comene wa dango pa vyacuma ni Ronald Coase, uyo nkhani yake yikulu yakwamba, ''The Nature of the Firm'' (1937), yikayowoya kuti cifukwa ico makampani (makampani, mawupu gha ŵanthu ŵakugwira pamoza, na vinyake) ghaliko ni ndalama za kugulana.{{sfn|Coase|1937|pp=386–405}} Ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakugulana kwizira mu maphangano gha ŵanthu ŵaŵiri mu misika yakujura, mpaka ndalama za kugulana zapangiska kuti kugwiliskira ntchito makampani pa kupanga vinthu kuŵe kwakusunga ndalama comene. Nkhani yake yaciŵiri yikulu, ''The Problem of Social Cost'' (1960), yikayowoya kuti para tingakhala mu caro cambura ndalama za kugulana, ŵanthu ŵangadumbana na kufika pa kugaŵa kwakuyana kwa vyuma, kwambura kuwona umo mphara yingeruzgira pa mphindano za cuma. Wakayowoya kuti dango likwenera kuŵa lakwamba kucita, na kulongozgeka na nthowa yakwenelera comene.{{sfn|Coase|1960|pp=1–44}} Ŵanandi mwa ŵakuchemeka Sukulu ya Chicago ŵakukolera kuwuskapo malongozgero na kupeleka vyuma vya caro ku ŵanthu paŵekha, ndipo ŵakususka malongozgero gha caro panji ivyo ŵakuwona kuti ni vikanizgo pa misika ya wanangwa.{{sfn|Jakoby|2005|p=53}} === Kasandiro ka Wupu wa Ŵanthu === Kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kakusanda kukolerana kwa dango na wupu wa ŵanthu, ndipo kakunjilirana na kasandiro ka malango, kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango, fundo zakusacizga za wupu wa ŵanthu, na tusandiro tunyake twapadera nga ni kasandiro ka milandu.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1992}}{{sfn|Jary|Jary|1995|p=636}} Ni kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi ako kakulaŵiska pa kupanga fundo zakusacizga na kusanda mwakupenda kacitiro na vyakucitikira vya dango nga ni vyakucitika vya wupu wa ŵanthu. Kapangikiro ka maghanoghano mu wupu wa ŵanthu, mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu, kumazga mphindano, na mdawuko wa dango ni vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya kusanda mu kasandiro aka. Mu United States, kasandiro aka kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka dango na wupu wa ŵanthu; mu Ulaya, kanandi kakuchemeka kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu na dango. Pakwamba, ŵamanyi ŵa dango na ŵasandi ŵa vinjeru ŵa dango ŵakakayikiranga kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango. Kelsen wakasuska umoza mwa ŵakwambiska kasandiro aka, Eugen Ehrlich, uyo wakakhumbanga kulongosora kupambana na kukolerana pakati pa dango lakuŵikika, ilo ŵimiliri ŵa milandu ŵakusambira na kugwiliskira ntchito, na mitundu yinyake ya "dango" panji mikhaliro yakwenelera ya wupu wa ŵanthu iyo yikulongozga umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo yikukanizga mphindano kufika ku ŵimiliri ŵa milandu na ku mphara.<ref>Ehrlich, ''Fundamental Principles'', Hertogh, ''Living Law'', Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109, Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu kasandiro ka wupu wa ŵanthu ka dango kukulaŵiska umo dango likukulira kuwaro kwa madera gha mazaza gha caro, kupangika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa ŵanthu mu malo gha wupu wa ŵanthu, na kusanga malo ghanandi gha mazaza mu vigaŵa vya ŵanthu vya mu caro na vya pakati pa vyaro.{{sfn|Cotterrell|2006}} [[File:Max Weber, 1918.jpg|thumb|Max Weber, uyo wakamba ntchito yake nga ni wakumanya dango, ndipo wakupendeka kuŵa umoza mwa ŵakwambiska kasandiro ka ŵanthu na kasandiro ka ŵanthu na dango]] Kufupi na 1900, Max Weber wakalongosora nthowa yake ya "kasandiro" ya dango, ndipo wakawona "kawiro ka dango ka vinjeru" nga ni mtundu wa kuwusa, uko kukufuma ku mazaza gha munthu yayi kweni ku mazaza gha mikhaliro yakwenelera ya mu maghanoghano.{{sfn|Rheinstein|1954|p=336}} Vinjeru vya dango lakulembeka ndilo lizgu lake la cimanyikwiro cikulu ca dango lakukolerana na lakupimika, ilo likaŵa lakukhumbikwa pambere ndyali ya mazuŵa ghano na caro ca mazuŵa ghano ca uteŵeti wa ulongozgi vindakure. Weber wakawona kuti dango ili likakura pamoza na kukura kwa ndondomeko ya cuma ca ŵanthu paŵekha.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1992}}{{sfn|Jary|Jary|1995|p=636}} Musandi munyake wa wupu wa ŵanthu, Émile Durkheim, wakalemba mu buku lake lakumanyikwa la ''The Division of Labour in Society'' kuti apo wupu wa ŵanthu ukusuzga comene, malango ghambura kuŵa gha ukana-malango agho ghakukhwaskana comene na kuwezgera na malipiro ghakusazgikira, ndipo malango gha ukana-malango na vilango ghakucepa.{{sfn|Cotterrell|1999}}{{sfn|Johnson|1995|p=156}} Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵakwamba ŵa wupu wa ŵanthu na dango ŵakaŵa Hugo Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch na Leon Petrażycki mu Ulaya, na William Graham Sumner mu United States.{{sfn|Gurvitch|Hunt|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Papachristou|1999|pp=81–82}} == Mabuku == {{refbegin|35em}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Ahmad |first=Ahmad Atif |title=Lawyers: Islamic Law |encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326034212/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 }} * {{cite book |last=Akhlaghi |first=Behrooz |title=The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-16-148787-3 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |editor-last1=Yassari |editor-first1=Nadjma |chapter=Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA }} * {{cite book |last=Albrow|first=Martin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|title=Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science) |year=1970|isbn=978-0-333-11262-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=J.N.D. |date=January 1956 |title=Law Reform in the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_1956-01_32_1/page/42 |journal=International Affairs |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=43–51 |doi=10.2307/2607811 |jstor=2607811 }} * {{cite wikisource |author=Aristotle |title=Athenian 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Cole)|year=1762|chapter-url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/r/rousseau/jean_jacques/r864s/book2.html#section16|chapter=Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)|access-date=8 November 2007|archive-date=22 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222135803/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/r/rousseau/jean_jacques/r864s/book2.html#section16|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book|last=Salazar|first=Philippe-Joseph|author-link=Philippe-Joseph Salazar|title=Air Law|year=2019|publisher=Juta|isbn=9781485133148}} * {{cite book|title=Das Recht des Besitzes|first=Friedrich Carl von|last=Savigny|author-link=Friedrich Carl von Savigny|year=1803|language=de|chapter=Zu welcher Classe von Rechten gehört der Besitz?|chapter-url=http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/books/%22235083%22|access-date=11 October 2008|archive-date=6 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006071410/http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/books/%22235083%22|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=International Institutional Law|first=Henry G.|last=Schermers|author2=Blokker, Niels M. |year=1995|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publisher|location=The Hague/London/Boston| chapter=Supervision and Sanctions}} * {{cite book|title=Commercial Law|url=https://archive.org/details/commerciallawtex0003seal|first=L.S.|last=Sealy|author2=Hooley, R.J.A. |year=2003|publisher=LexisNexis Butterworths}} * {{cite book |last=Sherif |first=Adel Omar |title=The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-16-148787-3 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |editor=Yassari, Nadjma |chapter=Constitutions of Arab Countries and the Position of Sharia}} * {{cite book|title=Cannibalism and the Common Law|url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismcommo0000simp|last=Simpson|first=A.W.B.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1984|isbn=978-0-226-75942-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Stephen A. |date=2003 |title=The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law: Is Restitution a Right or a Remedy |journal=Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=1037–1062 |url=http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v36-issue2/smith.pdf |access-date=9 February 2007 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119194050/http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v36-issue2/smith.pdf |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Stein |first=Peter |title=Roman Law in European History |url=https://archive.org/details/romanlaweuropean00stei |url-access=limited |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64372-6 }} * {{cite book|last=Stone|first=Julius|author-link=Julius Stone|title=Human Law and Human Justice|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/humanlawhumanjus0000ston|chapter-url-access=registration|year=1965|isbn=978-0-8047-0215-7|publisher=Stanford University Press|chapter=Early Horizons of Justice in the West}} * {{cite book |last=Tamanaha|first=Brian Z.|title=On the Rule of Law|url=https://archive.org/details/ontuleoflawhisto00bria|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-60465-9|chapter=Locke, Montesquieu the Federalist Papers}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|first=Aristide|year=1999 | title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt| publisher=Routledge (UK) | id = 0-415-18589-0}} * {{cite book| first=Russ|last=VerSteeg|title=Law in Ancient Egypt|year=2002|isbn=978-0-89089-978-6| publisher=Carolina Academic Press| location=Durham, N.C.}} * {{cite book|title=Civil Society and Good Governance|year=1999|last=Warren|first=Mark E.|publisher=Center for the Study of Voluntary Organisations and Services, Georgetown University|location=Washington DC|url=https://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/wilcoxc//CivilSociety.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029022603/https://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/wilcoxc//CivilSociety.pdf|archive-date=29 October 2008}} * {{cite book|title=Re-Examining Progressive Halakhah edited by Walter Jacob, Moshe Zemer|first=Mark|last=Washofsky|year=2002|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-404-3|chapter=Taking Precedent Seriously}} * {{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|author-link=Max Weber|title=Economy and Society, Volume I (Translated and edited by Claus Wittich, Ephraim Fischoff, and Guenther Roth)|year=1978|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-03500-3|chapter=Bureaucracy and Political Leadership}} * {{cite wikisource |title=Politics as a Vocation |authorlink=Max Weber |last=Weber |first=Max |year=1919}} * {{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|author-link=Max Weber|title=The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (Edited with Introduction by Talcott Parsons&nbsp;– Translated in English by A. M. Henderson)|year=1964|publisher=The Free Press of Glencoe|id= ASIN B-000-LRHAX-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Wehberg|first=Hans |date=October 1959 |title=Pacta Sunt Servanda|journal=The American Journal of International Law|volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=775–786 |doi=10.2307/2195750 |jstor=2195750|s2cid=147466309 }} * {{cite book|last=Wilson|first=William|year=2003|title=Criminal Law|url=https://archive.org/details/criminallawdoctr0000wils_t6i8|chapter=Understanding Criminal Law|isbn=978-0-582-47301-0|publisher=Pearson Education}} * {{cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=Hugh Evander |title=A Definition of Law |journal=Virginia Law Review |date=January 1926 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=203–214 |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub |doi=10.2307/1065717 |access-date=3 January 2020 |jstor=1065717 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212165001/https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub |url-status=live |doi-access=free }} * {{cite book|last=World Intellectual Property Organization|author-link=World Intellectual Property Organization|title=Introduction to Intellectual Property |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin0000unse_v0t6|year=1997|isbn=978-90-411-0938-5|publisher=Kluwer Law International|chapter=The System of Intellectual Property}} * {{Cite web |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898 |title=The ideal of good government in Luigi Einaudi's Thought and Life: Between Law and Freedom |last=Paolo |first=Silvestri |date=11 June 2014 |ssrn=2447898 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225080826/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898 |archive-date=25 February 2022 }} {{refend}} == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} of5lwo399ndyci3819kg8dh6ciwby5u 0 6230 124401 124014 2026-11-10T20:29:32Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124401 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg|alt=Ŵakupanga ŵakugwira ntchito pa turbine ya mvuchi|thumb|Turbine ya mvuchi iyo yili na cakuvikilira cakujulika, ciyelezgero ca luso la vilwero la nkhongono.]] '''Luso la vilwero''' ni kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya maghanoghano kuti vilato vya pa umoyo vifiskike, comene mu nthowa iyo yingacitika so kanandi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skolnikoff |first=Eugene B. |year=1993 |title=The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics |chapter=The Setting |page=13 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-08631-1 |jstor=j.ctt7rpm1 |quote=I find the most useful conceptual definition for this study to be that given by Harvey Brooks, who has defined technology{{nbsp}}...as 'knowledge of how to fulfill certain human purposes in a specifiable and reproducible way.'}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti luso la vilwero lingang'anamula so vinthu ivyo vikufuma mu ntchito iyi, kusazgapo vinthu vyakukhwaskika nga ni vilwero panji makina, na vyambura kukhwaskika nga ni [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|pages=117–118}}: "The first pole, that of the naturalisation of a new discipline within the university curriculum, was presented by Christian Wolff in 1728, in Chapter III of the "Preliminary discourse" to his ''{{lang|la|Philosophia rationalisis sive Logica}}'': "Technology is the science of skills and works of skill, or, if one prefers, the science of things made by man's labour, chiefly through the use of his hands."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mitcham |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Mitcham |year=1994 |title=Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-53196-1}}</ref> Luso la vilwero likugwira ntchito yikulu comene mu [[Kasandiro|kasandiro]], kazengero ka vilwero, na umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The roles of science and technology in national development | url=https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320172737/https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-date=2023-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Technology and Innovation Report 2025: Inclusive artificial intelligence for development {{!}} |url=https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260706031807/https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025 |archive-date=2026-07-06 |access-date=2026-08-04 |website=UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |language=en}}</ref> Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero kwiziska kusintha kukulu mu wupu wa ŵanthu. Luso la vilwero lakwamba ilo likumanyikwa ni cilwero ca malibwe, ico cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pambere mbiri yindalembeke, kulondezgana na kumanya kulaŵilira moto, uko nako kukovwira kukura kwa wongo wa munthu na kupangika kwa ciyowoyero mu Nyengo ya Cikakato, kuyana na ghanoghano la kuphika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. {{!}} Thiru Murugan |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/thiru-murugan-1b362b31a_snsinstitutions-snsdesignthinkers-designthinking-activity-7239857452509278208-7b_e |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> Kupangika kwa gudumu mu Nyengo ya Mkuŵa kukazomerezga maulendo ghanandi na kupanga makina ghakusuzga comene. Vyakupangika vya sonosono vya luso la vilwero, kusazgapo makina gha kudindira, [[Lamya|lamya]], na [[Intaneti|intaneti]], vyacepeska vikanizgo vya kuyowoyerana na kwiziska vyacuma vya vinjeru. Nangauli luso la vilwero likovwira kukura kwa vyacuma na kukhozga usambazi wa ŵanthu, lingaŵa so na vyakufumapo viheni nga ni kunanga malo ghakuzingilizga na kumalizga vyuma, ndipo lingiziska masuzgo mu wupu wa ŵanthu nga ni kusoŵa ntchito cifukwa ca makina agho ghakucita ntchito ghekha. Ntheura, mphindano za filosofi na za ndyali pa ntchito na kagwiliskiro ka luso la vilwero, makhalidwe ghake, na nthowa za kucepeska viheni vyake zikulutilira.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373932-2.00027-2 |chapter=Technology, Ethics of |title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics |date=2012 |last1=Braunack-Mayer |first1=A.J. |last2=Street |first2=J.M. |last3=Palmer |first3=N. |pages=321–327 |isbn=978-0-12-373932-2 }}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''technology'' likwamba pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ndipo likang'anamulanga "kunozga mwandondomeko" (kufuma ku Cigiriki τέχνη, ''tékhnē'', "luso, mahara gha mawoko" na -λογία, "kusanda, vinjeru").<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |author1-link=Henry Liddell |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=Greek-English Lexicon |title-link=Greek-English Lexicon |edition=Abridged |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |orig-date=1891 |isbn=0-19-910205-8 |oclc=38307662}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=technology |encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary |editor1-last=Simpson |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Weiner |editor2-first=Edmund |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-19-861186-8}}</ref> Pambere pa ici, lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale ''tékhnē'' likagwiliskirikanga ntchito kung'anamula "kumanya kupanga vinthu", ilo likasazgapo ntchito nga ni kazengero ka nyumba.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Lesley |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=David |year=2009 |title=The Nicomachean Ethics |page=105 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-921361-0 |lccn=2009005379 |oclc=246896490 |series=Oxford World's Classics}}</ref> Kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵaulaya ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito mazgo ghakuti ''Technik'' (Cijeremani) panji ''technique'' (Cifulenci) kung'anamula "nthowa ya kucitira", iyo yikasazgapo maluso ghose, nga ni kuvina, kwendeska ngalawa, panji kudinda, kwali ghakukhumba vilwero panji yayi.{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|pages=114–115}} Pa nyengo iyo, ''Technologie'' likang'anamulanga cigaŵa ca kasambiro ico cikusanda "nthowa za maluso", panji cigaŵa ca ndyali "ca kupanga malango gha maluso".{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|page=117}} Kupambana pakati pa ''Technik'' na ''Technologie'' kulije mu Cingelezi, ntheura ghose ghakang'anamulika kuti ''technology''. Lizgu ili likaŵa lambura kugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi mu Cingelezi, ndipo comene likang'anamulanga cigaŵa ca kasambiro, nga mu Massachusetts Institute of Technology.<ref name=jstor40061169>{{Cite journal |last=Schatzberg |first=Eric |year=2006 |title="Technik" Comes to America: Changing Meanings of "Technology" before 1930 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=486–512 |doi=10.1353/tech.2006.0201 |jstor=40061169 |s2cid=143784033 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, cifukwa ca kuluta panthazi kwa kasandiro na Kusintha Kwaciŵiri kwa Mafakitale, luso la vilwero likaleka kuwonekera nga ni cigaŵa ca kasambiro capadera, ndipo likamba kung'anamula: kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru mwandondomeko pa vilato vya umoyo.<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|page=119}}: "With the industrial revolution and the important part England played in it, the word technology was to lose this meaning as the subject or thrust of a branch of education, as first in English and then in other languages it embodied all technical activity based on the application of science to practical ends."</ref> == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === [[File:Faustkeil Nachbau, 2020 PD a-7.jpg|thumb|Munthu wakukora mbavi ya libwe ya woko|alt=wonani malongosoro]] Vilwero vikapangika dankha na ŵambuye ŵa ŵanthu kwizira mu kulaŵiska na kuyezgayezga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffer |first=M. B. |title=The Archaeology of Science |chapter=Discovery Processes: Trial Models |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |series=Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique |volume=9 |pages=185–198 |place=Heidelberg |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |isbn=978-3-319-00077-0 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184259/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 2 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵakasambira kupanga vilwero vyakwamba vya malibwe mwa kutimba libwe kuti vigaŵa vifume, kupanga mbavi yakuthwa ya woko.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |author=The British Museum |title=Our earliest technology? |url=https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902015829/https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=smarthistory.org}}</ref> Nthowa iyi yikanozgeka vyaka 75,000 ivyo vyajumpha kuŵa nthowa ya kukanikizga, iyo yikazomerezga ntchito yakunozgeka comene.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minogue |first=K. |date=28 October 2010 |title=Stone Age Toolmakers Surprisingly Sophisticated |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=science.org |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910174555/https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated }}</ref> Kusanga moto kukalongosoreka na Charles Darwin nga ni "panyake kusanga kukulu comene ako munthu wandacitepo".<ref>{{cite book | last=Crump | first=Thomas | title=A Brief History of Science | year=2001 | publisher=Constable & Robinson | isbn=978-1-84119-235-2 | page=9}}</ref> Ukaboni wa vya kale, wa vyakulya, na wa ŵanthu ukulongora "kugwiliskira ntchito moto kwakulutilira" pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 1.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gowlett |first1=J. A. J. |last2=Wrangham |first2=R. W. |date=1 March 2013 |title=Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 |s2cid=163033909 |issn=0067-270X}}</ref> Moto, wa nkhuni na makala, ukazomerezga ŵanthu ŵa kale kuphika vyakulya vyawo kuti vigayike makola, kusazgira vyakukhozga thupi na kusazgira unandi wa vyakulya ivyo vingarika.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stahl | first= Ann B. | author-link= Ann B. Stahl | year=1984 | title=Hominid dietary selection before fire | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=25 | pages= 151–68 | doi=10.1086/203106 | issue=2 | jstor=2742818| s2cid= 84337150 }}</ref> Ghanoghano la kuphika likuti kumanya kuphika kukasazgira ukulu wa wongo wa ŵambuye ŵa ŵanthu, nangauli ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵakuti ukaboni ndambura kukwana.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrangham |first=R. |date=1 August 2017 |title=Control of Fire in the Paleolithic: Evaluating the Cooking Hypothesis |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=S16 |pages=S303–S313 |doi=10.1086/692113 |s2cid=148798286 |issn=0011-3204 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910190830/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ukaboni wa vya kale wa malo gha moto ngwa vyaka 790,000 ivyo vyajumpha; ŵasandi ŵakugomezga kuti ici cikasazgira kukolerana kwa ŵanthu na cingaŵa kuti cikovwira kupangika kwa ciyowoyero.<ref name=worldcat1124046527>{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=Lucy to Language: The Benchmark Papers |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965259-4 |editor-last=Dunbar |editor-first=R. I. M. |oclc=1124046527 |editor-last2=Gamble |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Gowlett |editor-first3=J. A. J. }}</ref><ref name=20030715nytimes-science>{{Cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=15 July 2003 |title=Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312091336/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |archive-date=12 March 2017 }}</ref> Kuluta panthazi kunyake mu nyengo ya Malibwe gha Kale kukusazgapo vyakuvwara na nyumba.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=May 2021 |volume=259 |article-number=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S }}</ref> Palije kuzomerezgana pa nyengo iyo vikamba, kweni ŵasandi ŵa vya kale ŵasanga ukaboni wa vyakuvwara vya vyaka 90,000–120,000 ivyo vyajumpha na wa nyumba wa vyaka 450,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hallett |first1=Emily Y. |last2=Marean |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Steele |first3=Teresa E. |last4=Álvarez-Fernández |first4=Esteban |last5=Jacobs |first5=Zenobia |author5-link=Zenobia Jacobs |last6=Cerasoni |first6=Jacopo Niccolò |last7=Aldeias |first7=Vera |last8=Scerri |first8=Eleanor M. L. |last9=Olszewski |first9=Deborah I. |last10=Hajraoui |first10=Mohamed Abdeljalil El |last11=Dibble |first11=Harold L. |date=24 September 2021 |title=A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco |journal=iScience |volume=24 |issue=9 |article-number=102988 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988 |issn=2589-0042 |pmc=8478944 |pmid=34622180|bibcode=2021iSci...24j2988H }}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Apo nyengo iyi yikalutilira, nyumba zikaŵa zakunozgeka comene; kufuma vyaka 380,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakazenganga vigoŵa vya makuni.<ref>{{cite web |author=O'Neil, Dennis |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Archaic Homo sapiens Culture |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404130017/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |archive-date=4 April 2007 |access-date=31 March 2007 |publisher=Palomar College }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Villa |first=Paola |title=Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-09662-2 |location=Berkeley |page=303}}</ref> Vyakuvwara, ivyo vikapangika na sisi na vipapa vya vinyama vyakusakika, vikovwira ŵanthu kuthandazgika ku malo ghakuzizima; ŵanthu ŵakamba kufuma mu Afilika pafupifupi vyaka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha, pakwamba kuya ku Yurasiya.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cordaux |first=Richard |author2=Stoneking, Mark |year=2003 |title=South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an 'Early' Human Dispersal out of Africa |url=http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=1586–1590; author reply 1590–93 |doi=10.1086/375407 |pmc=1180321 |pmid=12817589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001022940/http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2009 |access-date=22 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=phys.org |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711124429/https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Harvati | first1=Katerina | author-link=Katerina Harvati | last2=Röding | first2=Carolin | last3=Bosman | first3=Abel M. | last4=Karakostis | first4=Fotios A. | last5=Grün | first5=Rainer | last6=Stringer | first6=Chris | last7=Karkanas | first7=Panagiotis | last8=Thompson | first8=Nicholas C. | last9=Koutoulidis | first9=Vassilis | last10=Moulopoulos | first10=Lia A. | last11=Gorgoulis | first11=Vassilis G. | last12=Kouloukoussa | first12=Mirsini | title=Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=571 | issue=7766 | year=2019 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z | pages=500–504 | pmid=31292546 | bibcode=2019Natur.571..500H | hdl=10072/397334 | s2cid=195873640 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | access-date=17 September 2022 | archive-date=1 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801132212/https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | url-status=live | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya === [[File:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|Vinthu vya Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya, nga ni vibangiri, mitu ya mbavi, vyakusemera, na vyakusalazgira|alt=Cithuzi ca vilwero vya libwe vya Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya]] Kusintha kwa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya (panji Kusintha Kwakwamba kwa Ulimi) kukasazgira luŵiro lwa kupanga vinthu viphya, ndipo kukasazgira kusuzga kwa wupu wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |publisher=Springer New York |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-306-47166-7 |editor-last=Kuijt |editor-first=i. |series=Fundamental Issues in Archaeology |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184244/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kupangika kwa mbavi ya libwe lakunozgeka kukaŵa kuluta panthazi kukulu uko kukazomerezga kudumula nkholongo zikulu na kulima.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coghlan |first=H. H. |date=1943 |title=The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=73 |issue=1/2 |pages=27–56 |doi=10.2307/2844356 |jstor=2844356 |issn=0307-3114 }}</ref> Ulimi ukalyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo kuleka kwendakwenda kukazomerezga kulera ŵana ŵanandi pa nyengo yimoza, cifukwa ŵana ŵakanyamulikanga so yayi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Driscoll|first1=Killian|title=The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland|date=2006|url=http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|access-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904110326/http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵana ŵangovwira ntchito ya kulima kuluska kusaka na kutola.<ref name=20060104sciencedaily>{{cite press release |title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Chicago Press Journals |date=4 January 2006 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108133752/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |archive-date=8 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|journal=Current Anthropology|author=Sussman, Robert W. |author2=Hall, Roberta L. |volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|date=April 1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977|s2cid=143449170}}</ref> Na kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu na ŵantchito, ntchito zikamba kugaŵika kuyana na luso.<ref>{{cite book|access-date=17 May 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|title=Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective|publisher=The Thomson Corporation|author=Ferraro, Gary P.|year=2006|isbn=978-0-495-03039-3|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145412/https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|url-status=live}}</ref> Ico cikapangiska kusintha kufuma ku mizi ya Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya kuya ku misumba yakwamba, nga ni Uruk, na midawuko yakwamba, nga ni Sumer, cindamanyikwe makola; kweni kukura kwa wupu wa ŵanthu wa makwelero, ntchito zapadera, malonda na nkhondo pakati pa midawuko ya pafupi, na khumbo la kugwira ntchito pamoza kumazga masuzgo gha malo nga ni kuthilira, vyose vikughanaghanirika kuti vikovwira.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|access-date=17 May 2008|title=The Essentials of Ancient History|publisher=Research & Education Association|author=Patterson, Gordon M.|year=1992|isbn=978-0-87891-704-4|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145419/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref> Kupangika kwa kulemba kukapangiska kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru vya midawuko ndipo kukaŵa maziko gha mbiri, malo gha mabuku, sukulu, na kusanda kwa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goody |first=J. |date=1986 |title=The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Kunozga kwakulutilira kukapangiska ng'anjo na vyakupuzgira moto, ndipo kakwamba ŵanthu ŵakamanya kusungunuska na kufula golide, mkuŵa, siliva, na mtovu, visulo ivyo vikusangika pafupifupi vyakutowa mu kawiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Short History of Metals |journal=Nature |volume=203 |issue=4943 |page=337 |last=Cramb |first=Alan W |bibcode=1964Natur.203Q.337T |year=1964 |doi=10.1038/203337a0 |s2cid=382712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Uwemi wa vilwero vya mkuŵa kuluska vya malibwe, viwanga, na makuni ukawoneka luŵiro ku ŵanthu ŵa kale, ndipo mkuŵa ungaŵa kuti ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito kufuma pafupi na kwamba kwa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya (pafupifupi vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha).<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Ceramics |volume= 05 | pages = 703–760; see page 708 |last1= Hall |first1= Harry Reginald Holland |author-link= Harry Reginald Holland Hall |quote= The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.).}}</ref> Pakumalira, kufula visulo kukapangiska kusanga visulo vyakusazganika nga ni mkuŵa wa bulonzi (pafupifupi 4,000 pambere Khristu). Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa cisulo cakusazganika nga ni ''steel'' kukwamba pafupifupi 1,800 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Hideo |last=Akanuma |title=The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey |journal=Anatolian Archaeological Studies |volume=14 |publisher=Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology |place=Tokyo}}</ref><ref name=hindu001200903261>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |title=Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel |date=26 March 2009 |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090329111924/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009 |access-date=8 November 2016 }}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kale === [[File:Wheel Iran.jpg|thumb|upright|Gudumu likapangika {{Circa|4,000 pambere Khristu}}.|alt=Cithuzi ca gudumu la khuni la kale]] [[File:Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered).jpg|thumb|upright|Gudumu la ku madambo gha Ljubljana na nthonga yake yapakati (gudumu la khuni la kale comene ilo lasangika pofika 2024)|alt=Cithuzi ca gudumu la khuni na nthonga yake yapakati (gudumu la khuni la kale comene ilo lasangika)]] Pamanyuma pa kulongozga moto, ŵanthu ŵakasanga nkhongono zinyake. Kagwiliskiro kakwamba kakumanyikwa ka nkhongono ya mphepo ni ngalawa ya ngalanyo; kalembero kakwamba ka ngalawa ya ngalanyo ni ka ngalawa ya mlonga wa Nilo pafupifupi 7,000 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-first=Donatella |author1-last=Usai | author2-first=Sandro |author2-last=Salvatori |title=The oldest representation of a Nile boat|journal=Antiquity|volume=81}}</ref> Kufuma kale, Ŵaeguputo ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhongono ya cigumula ca caka ciliconse ca Nilo kuthilira minda yawo, ndipo pacoko pacoko ŵakasambira kucilaŵilira kwizira mu ngalande na madimba ghakuzengeka.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postel |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Postel |url=http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |title=Pillar of Sand: Can the Irrigation Miracle Last? |date=1999 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-31937-8 |chapter=Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119022630/http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵasumeri ŵa kale mu Mesopotamiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ngalande na malinga ghakusuzga kupatula maji kufuma ku milonga ya Tigris na Euphrates pa kuthilira.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Harriet|author-link=Harriet Crawford|date=2013|title=The Sumerian World|location=New York & London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-09660-4|pages=34–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205005423/https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa vya kale ŵakughanaghanira kuti gudumu likapangika paŵekha na pa nyengo yimoza mu Mesopotamiya (Iraq ya sono), Caucasus ya Kumpoto, na Ulaya Yapakati.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|last=Potts|first=D.T.|year=2012|page=285}}</ref> Nyengo yikughanaghanirika kuŵa pakati pa 5,500 na 3,000 pambere Khristu, ndipo ŵakumanya ŵanandi ŵakuyiŵika pafupi na 4,000 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Light on the Most Ancient East|last=Childe|first=V. Gordon|year=1928|page=110}}</ref> Vinthu vya kale comene ivyo vili na vithuzi vya ngolo za magudumu nvya pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World|last=Anthony|first=David A.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-691-05887-0|location=Princeton|page=67}}</ref> Sonosono, gudumu la makuni la kale comene lakumanyikwa mu 2024 likasangika mu dambo la Ljubljana mu Slovenia, ndipo ŵakumanya ŵa Austria ŵakasanga kuti lili na vyaka pakati pa 5,100 na 5,350.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|title=World's Oldest Wheel Found in Slovenia|last=Gasser|first=Aleksander|date=March 2003|publisher=Republic of Slovenia Government Communication Office|access-date=8 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826021129/http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|archive-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> Kupangika kwa gudumu kukasintha comene malonda na nkhondo. Luŵiro ŵanthu ŵakasanga kuti ngolo za magudumu zingagwiliskirika ntchito kunyamula katundu wakuzitika. Ŵasumeri ŵa kale ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito gudumu la ŵaumbi ŵa viŵiya, ndipo ŵangaŵa kuti ndiwo ŵakalipanga.<ref name="Kramer1963">{{cite book|last=Kramer|first=Samuel Noah|year=1971|orig-date=1963|title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-45238-8|page=290|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808201642/http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Sumerians.html?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Gudumu la libwe la ŵaumbi ilo likasangika mu msumba wa Uri ndi la pafupifupi 3,429 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Moorey1994">{{cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger Stuart|date=1999|orig-date=1994|title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-042-2|page=146|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017215042/https://books.google.com/books/about/Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus.html?id=P_Ixuott4doC|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Moorey1994" /> Magudumu gha luŵiro gha ŵaumbi ghakazomerezga kupanga viŵiya vinandi, kweni kagwiliskiro ka gudumu nga ni cakusintha nkhongono (kwizira mu magudumu gha maji, gha mphepo, na gha kuponda) ndiko kukasintha comene kagwiliskiro ka nkhongono zambura kuŵa za ŵanthu. Magaleta ghakwamba gha magudumu ghaŵiri ghakagwiliskirika ntchito dankha mu Mesopotamiya na Iran pafupifupi 3,000 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Lay1992">{{cite book|last=Lay|first=M. G. |title=Ways of the World|publisher=Primavera Press|year=1992|location=Sydney|page=28|isbn=978-1-875368-05-1}}</ref><ref name="Lay1992" /> Misewu ya kale comene yakuzengeka ni misewu ya malibwe ya msumba wa Uri, ya pafupifupi 4,000 pambere Khristu, na misewu ya makuni iyo yikajumphanga mu madambo gha Glastonbury, mu Ungelezi, ya nyengo yakuyana.<ref name="Gregersen2012">{{cite book|last1=Gregersen|first1=Erik|title=The Complete History of Wheeled Transportation: From Cars and Trucks to Buses and Bikes|date=2012|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|location=New York |isbn=978-1-61530-701-2|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145500/https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /> Msewu wakwamba utali, uwo ukamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu, ukaŵa utali makilomita 2,400 kufuma ku Persian Gulf mpaka ku Nyanja ya Mediterranean, kweni ukazengeka na malibwe yayi.<ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Aicher1995" /><ref name="Eslamian2014">{{cite book|last1=Eslamian|first1=Saeid|title=Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management|date=2014|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-1-4665-5250-0|pages=171–175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210095408/https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|url-status=live}}</ref> Pafupifupi 2,000 pambere Khristu, Ŵaminoa pa cirwa ca Ŵagiriki ca Krete ŵakazenga msewu wa makilomita 50 kufuma ku nyumba ya fumu ya Gortyn kumwera kwa cirwa, kujumpha mapiri, mpaka ku nyumba ya fumu ya Knossos kumpoto.<ref name="Eslamian2014" /><ref name="Lechner2012">{{cite book|last1=Lechner|first1=Norbert|title=Plumbing, Electricity, Acoustics: Sustainable Design Methods for Architecture|date=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=978-1-118-01475-2|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145421/https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Eslamian2014" /> Kupambana na msewu wa kale, msewu wa Ŵaminoa ukazengeka wose na malibwe.<ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /> Nyumba za ŵanthu paŵekha za Ŵaminoa ŵa kale zikaŵa na maji ghakwenda. Cakugezeramo cakuyana ndendende na ca mazuŵa ghano cikasangika pa nyumba ya fumu ya Knossos. Nyumba zinyake zikaŵa so na vimbuzi, ivyo vikatozgekanga mwa kuthira maji. Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakaŵa na vimbuzi vinandi vya ŵanthu wose, ivyo vikathiranga mu ndondomeko yikulu ya ngalande za vyakunyanyira. Ngalande yikulu mu Roma yikaŵa Cloaca Maxima; kuzengeka kwake kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu, ndipo yicali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakaŵa so na ndondomeko yakusuzga ya ngalande za maji, izo zikanyamulanga maji mtunda utali.<ref name="Aicher1995">{{cite book|last1=Aicher|first1=Peter J.|title=Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome|date=1995|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc.|location=Wauconda, IL|isbn=978-0-86516-282-2|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205010425/https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aicher1995" /> Ngalande yakwamba ya Ŵaroma yikazengeka mu 312 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> Ya khumi na yimoza, yaumaliro, yikazengeka mu 226 mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> Pamoza, ngalande za Ŵaroma zikaŵa zitali kujumpha makilomita 450, kweni pasi pa makilomita 70 ndipo zikaŵa pacanya pa mtunda na kukhazgika na malinga gha mawonekero gha uta.<ref name="Aicher1995" /><ref name="Aicher1995" /> === Pambere pa Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Kupanga vinthu viphya kukalutilira mu nyengo yapakati, na kupanga silika (mu Asiya ndipo pamanyuma Ulaya), cakukoleka ca hachi pa singo, na nsapato za cisulo za mahachi. Makina ghapepuka (nga ni ''lever'', ''screw'', na ''pulley'') ghakasazganika kupanga vilwero vyakusuzga, nga ni wilibala, magudumu gha mphepo, na vipimanyengo.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315588605 |isbn=978-1-317-11653-0 |s2cid=148764971 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315588605/innovation-creativity-late-medieval-early-modern-european-cities-karel-davids-bert-de-munck |editor-last=Davids |editor-first=K. |editor-last2=De Munck |editor-first2=B. |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184255/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315588605/innovation-creativity-late-medieval-early-modern-european-cities-karel-davids-bert-de-munck |url-status=live }}</ref> Ndondomeko ya mayunivesite yikakura ndipo yikathandazga maghanoghano na kacitiro ka kasandiro, kusazgapo Oxford na Cambridge.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |title=Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |date=2000 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-11351-0 |editor-last=Courtenay |editor-first=W. J. |editor-last2=Miethke |editor-first2=J. |editor-last3=Priest |editor-first3=D. B. |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184252/https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyengo ya Kuwuka Kwaciŵiri yikapanga vinthu viphya vinandi, kusazgapo kwiza kwa makina gha kudindira gha malembo ghakusamika mu Ulaya, agho ghakapepuska kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru. Luso la vilwero likamba kukhwaskika comene na kasandiro, ndipo ici cikamba ndondomeko ya kovwirana kuluta panthazi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deming |first=D. |url= |title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9086-8}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === [[File:1885Benz.jpg|thumb|Galimoto, apa Benz Patent-Motorwagen yakwamba, yikasintha comene umo ŵanthu ŵakwendera.]] Kwamba mu Ufumu Ubanyi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, kusanga nkhongono ya mvuci kukamba Kusintha kwa Mafakitale, uko kukawona kusanga kunandi kwa luso la vilwero, comene mu ulimi, kupanga vinthu, migodi, kufula visulo, na mayendero, na kuthandazgika kwa ndondomeko ya mafakitale.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stearns |first=P. N. |url= |title=The Industrial Revolution in World History |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-8133-4729-5 }}</ref> Ici cikalondezgeka vyaka 100 pamanyuma na Kusintha Kwaciŵiri kwa Mafakitale, uko kukapangiska kusanga luŵiro kwa kasandiro, kupanga vinthu mwakuyana, na kupanga vinthu vinandi. Luso liphya likapangika, kusazgapo ndondomeko za ngalande za vyakunyanyira, magesi, mababu gha magesi, injini za magesi, njanji za sitima, magalimoto, na ndege. Kuluta panthazi uku kukapangiska kukura kukulu mu kasandiro ka ucizgi, usungunu, kusanda mendero, na kazengero ka vilwero.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mokyr |first=J. |title=The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914 |year=2000 |url=https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910210450/https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kukapelekezgeka na kusintha kukulu mu wupu wa ŵanthu, na kwiza kwa nyumba zitali comene pamoza na kukura luŵiro kwa misumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=B. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |title=To Have and Have Not: Energy in World History |year= 2022 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-0504-7 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184800/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuyowoyerana kukanozgeka na kupangika kwa telegilafu, lamya, wayilesi, na wayilesi ya kanema.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albion |first=Robert G. |date=1 January 1933 |title=The Communication Revolution, 1760–1933 |journal=Transactions of the Newcomen Society |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.1179/tns.1933.002 |issn=0372-0187 }}</ref> Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikiziska vinthu viphya vinandi. Mu kusanda mendero, kusanga kugaŵika kwa mtima wa vimenyu mu Nyengo ya Vimenyu kukapangiska vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya na nkhongono ya nyukiliya. Makompyuta gha ''analog'' ghakapangika ndipo ghakawusa pa kupenda mauthenga ghakusuzga. Nangauli kupangika kwa ma''vacuum tube'' kukazomerezga makompyuta gha digito nga ni ENIAC, ukulu wawo ukakanizga kagwiliskiro kanandi mpaka ''transistor'' yikapangika mu 1947, iyo yikacepeska comene makompyuta na kwiziska kusintha kwa digito. Luso la vilwero vya uthenga, comene ulusi wa ungweru, likazomerezga kuyowoyerana kupepuka na kwa luŵiro kutali, ndipo likiziska Nyengo ya Uthenga na kubabika kwa intaneti. Nyengo ya Mlengalenga yikamba na kutumika kwa Sputnik 1 mu 1957, ndipo pamanyuma maulendo gha ŵanthu ku mwezi mu ma 1960. Ntchito zakunozgeka za kupenja vinjeru vya kuwaro kwa caro capasi zagwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya wayilesi kupenja vimanyikwiro vya luso la vilwero ivyo vikufuma ku midawuko ya kunyake. Mu ucizgi, luso liphya likapangika pa kupima nthenda (kujambura thupi na CT, PET, na MRI), kucizga (nga ni makina gha kutozga ndopa, gha kuwuska mtima, na mankhwala ghaphya ghanandi), na kusanda.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agar |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |title=Science in the 20th Century and Beyond |year=2012 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0-7456-3469-2|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |url-status=live }}</ref> Nthowa zakusuzga za kupanga na kuzenga, na mawupu, ni vyakukhumbikwa kupanga na kusunga luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano, ndipo mafakitale ghose ghapangika kupanga vilwero vyakusuzga comene. Luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano likuthemba comene kusambizga; ŵakulinozga, ŵakulizenga, ŵakulisunga, na ŵakuligwiliskira ntchito kanandi ŵakukhumba kusambira kukulu.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goldin |first1=C. |author1-link=Claudia Goldin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |title=The Race between Education and Technology |last2=Katz |first2=L. F. |author2-link=Lawrence F. Katz |year=2010 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03773-1 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweniso, luso ili laŵa lakusuzga comene mwakuti vigaŵa vyose vya kasambiro vyapangika kulikhozga, kusazgapo kazengero ka vilwero, kasandiro ka ucizgi, na kasandiro ka makompyuta; ndipo vigaŵa vinyake vyaŵa vyakusuzga comene, nga ni kuzenga, mayendero, na kazengero ka nyumba. == Vyakufumapo == [[File:20260425 Technology growth cycle.svg |thumb |Kupanga luso la vilwero liphya, nga ni nkhongono izo zikumala yayi, kukwambiska mzingo uwo ukujisazgira wekha. Mwaciyelezgero, apo vipangizo vinandi vya nkhongono za zuŵa vikuŵikika, mitengo yikucepa cifukwa ca kupanga vinandi, ndipo luso ili likwamba kuŵa la mtengo wakuyana na vinyake, ico cikusazgira so unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakulikhumba.<ref name=OWID_TechGrowthCycle>Chart titled "Technologies that become cheaper with increasing production enter a virtuous cycle" in: {{cite web |last1=Roser |first1=Max |title=Why did renewables become so cheap so fast? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |date=1 December 2020 |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260416161944/https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |archive-date=16 April 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Kusintha kwa luso la vilwero ndico cifukwa cikulu comene ca kukura kwa vyacuma kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Solow |first=Robert M. |date=1957 |title=Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function |journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=312–320 |doi=10.2307/1926047 |jstor=1926047 |issn=0034-6535 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bresnahan |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Trajtenberg |first2=M. |date=1 January 1995 |title=General purpose technologies 'Engines of growth'? |journal=Journal of Econometrics |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=83–108 |doi=10.1016/0304-4076(94)01598-T |bibcode=1995JEcon..65...83B |issn=0304-4076|doi-access=free }}</ref> Mu mbiri yose ya ŵanthu, kupanga nkhongono ndiko kukaŵa cikanizgo cikulu ca kukura kwa vyacuma, ndipo luso liphya likazomerezga ŵanthu kusazgira comene nkhongono iyo yikaŵako. Pakwamba pakiza moto, uwo ukapangiska vyakulya vinandi kurika, na kugaya kwambura kusuzga. Moto ukazomerezga so kusungunuska visulo na kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya ''tin'', mkuŵa, na cisulo, pa kusaka panji pa ntchito za luso. Pamanyuma pakiza kusintha kwa ulimi: ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga so kusaka panji kutola kuti ŵapone yayi, ndipo ŵakamba kukhala mu mizi na misumba, kupanga mawupu gha ŵanthu ghakusuzga, na ŵankhondo na visopa vyakunozgeka.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Wrigley |first=E. A |date=13 March 2013 |title=Energy and the English Industrial Revolution |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=371 |issue=1986 |article-number=20110568 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2011.0568|pmid=23359739 |bibcode=2013RSPTA.37110568W |s2cid=10624423 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Luso la vilwero lovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu kwizira mu usambazi, kupepuka kwa umoyo, na kuluta panthazi kwa ucizgi, kweni lingasokonezga so makwelero gha wupu wa ŵanthu, kunanga malo ghakuzingilizga, na kupweteka ŵanthu panji magulu. Mu vyaka vya sonosono, nthowa za kuyowoyerana pa intaneti zaŵa zakuzirwa comene mu midawuko, ndipo zingakhwaska ulongozgi wa ŵanthu, vyacuma, na umoyo wa wupu wa ŵanthu. Pakwamba, intaneti yikawonekanga nga ni "luso la wanangwa" ilo lingathandazga vinjeru ku wose, kupepuska kufikira kasambiro, na kukhozga ulongozgi wa ŵanthu. Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano kwazgokera ku kusanda viheni vya intaneti, kusazgapo mauthenga ghautesi, kugaŵana kwa ŵanthu, mazgo gha cidani, na kuthandazga maghanoghano gha ndyali.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |title=Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-83555-8 |editor-last=Persily |editor-first=Nathaniel |series=SSRC Anxieties of Democracy |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/9781108890960 |hdl=11245.1/cf2f5b6a-8dc8-4400-bc38-3317b0164499 |s2cid=243715477 |editor-last2=Tucker |editor-first2=Joshua A. |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019091703/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1970, vyakufumapo vya luso la vilwero pa malo ghakuzingilizga vyasuskika, ndipo ici capangiska kusazgikira kwa ndalama mu nkhongono za zuŵa, mphepo, na nkhongono zinyake zakutowa. === Pa Wupu wa Ŵanthu === ==== Ntchito ==== Kufuma pa kupangika kwa gudumu, luso la vilwero lovwira kusazgira vyakupangika vya ŵanthu. Makina gha kale ghakatora malo gha ŵantchito na kuŵovwira; makina ghakatora malo gha ŵanthu pa ntchito zinyake za malipiro ghacoko (mwaciyelezgero, mu ulimi), kweni ntchito ziphya za malipiro ghakulu zikapangika.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Autor|first=D. H.|year=2015|title=Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=29|number=3|pages=3–30|doi=10.1257/jep.29.3.3 |url=https://economics.mit.edu/files/11563|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901060615/http://economics.mit.edu/files/11563 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/109476|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Kusanda kwasanga kuti makompyuta ghandapangiske kusoŵa ntchito kukulu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bessen |first=J. E. |date=3 October 2016 |title=How Computer Automation Affects Occupations: Technology, Jobs, and Skills |journal=Economic Perspectives on Employment & Labor Law EJournal. |volume=15{{hyphen}}49 |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2690435 |ssrn=2690435 |s2cid=29968989 |url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310050823/https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Cifukwa [[Vinjeru vyakupangika|vinjeru vyakupangika]] vili na nkhongono zikulu comene kuluska makompyuta, ndipo vicali viphya, palije kumanya usange vizamulondezga nthowa yakuyana; nkhani iyi yayowoyeka comene na ŵasandi ŵa vyacuma na ŵapangi ŵa ndondomeko. Kufumba kwa mu 2017 kukasanga kuti ŵasandi ŵa vyacuma ŵakazomerezgana yayi usange vinjeru vyakupangika vizamusazgira kusoŵa ntchito kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2017 |title=Robots and Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |access-date=17 September 2022 |website=igmchicago.org |publisher=Initiative on Global Markets |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171212/https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuyana na lipoti la World Economic Forum la 2020, vinjeru vyakupangika vikulongolereka kutora malo gha ntchito miliyoni 85 pa caro cose na kupanga ntchito ziphya miliyoni 97 pofika 2025. Kufuma 1990 mpaka 2007, kusanda kwa Daron Acemoglu wa MIT mu U.S. kukalongora kuti kusazga roboti limoza pa ŵantchito 1,000 kukacepeska unandi wa ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito na magaŵa 0.2 pa 100, panji ŵantchito pafupifupi 3.3, na kucepeska malipiro na magaŵa 0.42 pa 100.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2020 |title=The Future of Jobs Report 2020 |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=www3.weforum.org |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115173909/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Robots and AI Taking Over Jobs: What to Know {{!}} Built In |url=https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=builtin.com |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171804/https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweni kofya kuti luso la vilwero lingatora malo gha ŵantchito kwaŵa kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How many jobs do robots really replace? |url=https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171803/https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Restrepo |first2=Pascual |date=1 June 2020 |title=Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=128 |issue=6 |pages=2188–2244 |doi=10.1086/705716 |hdl=1721.1/130324 |s2cid=7468879 |issn=0022-3808 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171811/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nga umo Pulezidenti wa U.S. Lyndon Johnson wakayowoyera mu 1964, "Luso la vilwero likutipa mwaŵi uphya na udindo uphya, mwaŵi wa kupanga vinandi na kuluta panthazi; udindo wa kusimikizga kuti palije muntchito panji mbumba iyo yikulipira mtengo wambura urunji pa kuluta panthazi."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Remarks Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress. {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174700/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1966 |title=Technology and the American Economy |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=files.eric.ed.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=If Robots Take Our Jobs, Will They Make It Up to Us? |url=https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=The University of Chicago Booth School of Business |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325132904/https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=GovInfo |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.govinfo.gov n |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1963 |title=H.R.11611 – An Act to establish a National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.congress.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116180845/https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Civikiliro ==== Apo ŵanthu ŵakuthemba comene luso la vilwero, pali kofya pa civikiliro na pa kusunga mauthenga gha munthu mwakubisika. Ŵanthu mabiliyoni ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambana za kulipira pa intaneti kutumizga ndalama. Nangauli pali ndondomeko za civikiliro, ŵapokwa ŵanyake ŵangazijumpha.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Elizabeth |author1-link=Elizabeth Rosenberg |last2=Harrell |first2=Peter E. |last3=Shiffman |first3=Gary M. |last4=Dorshimer |first4=Sam |date=2019 |title=Financial Technology and National Security |publisher=Center for a New American Security |jstor=resrep20404 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |access-date=19 January 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Masika 2022, Korea ya Kumpoto yikagwiliskira ntchito nthowa yinyake ya kubisa kusinthana kwa ndalama za pa intaneti kuti yibise ndalama zakujumpha madola miliyoni 20.5 na kwiba ndalama zakujumpha madola miliyoni 600 kufuma ku mwenecho wa sewero linyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. takes aim at North Korean crypto laundering |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. ties North Korean hacker group to Axie Infinity crypto theft |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140346/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cifukwa ca ici, Unduna wa Ndalama wa U.S. ukalanga nthowa iyi. Kubisika kwa ndalama za pa intaneti kuli mphindano: ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kubisika uku, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuti pakwenera kuŵa kuŵa pakweru na kukhazikika.<ref name=":11" /> === Pa Malo Ghakuzingilizga === Luso la vilwero lingaŵa na vyakufumapo viwemi na viheni pa malo ghakuzingilizga. Luso la malo ghakuzingilizga likulongosora luso lakupambana ilo likuyezga kuwezgera, kucepeska, panji kuleka kunangika kwa malo ghakuzingilizga.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Austin |first1=David |last2=Macauley |first2=Molly K. |author2-link=Molly K. Macauley |date=1 December 2001 |title=Cutting Through Environmental Issues: Technology as a double-edged sword |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=Brookings |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002853/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ici cingasazgapo ndondomeko za kuleka kunanga malo kwizira mu malango, kukora na kusunga vyakunanga, panji kugwiliskira ntchito vyakusyala vyakunanga mu mafakitale ghanyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grainger |first1=Alan |last2=Francisco |first2=Herminia A |last3=Tiraswat |first3=Penporn |title=The impact of changes in agricultural technology on long-term trends in deforestation |journal=Land Use Policy |date=July 2003 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=209–223 |doi=10.1016/S0264-8377(03)00009-7 |bibcode=2003LUPol..20..209G }}</ref> Luso liphya mu cigaŵa ca kusintha nyengo lingaleka panji kuwezgera kufunda kwa caro cose, nangauli ici cicali mphindano yikulu.<ref>{{cite web|author=EPA|date=19 January 2017|title=Climate Impacts on Ecosystems|url=https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127185656/https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|archive-date=27 January 2018|access-date=5 February 2019|quote=Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Union of Concerned Scientists |date=6 November 2017 |title=What is Climate Engineering? |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-climate-engineering |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.ucsusa.org |language=en |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027225649/https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-climate-engineering |url-status=live }}</ref> Apo luso la vilwero lakura, ndimo vyakufumapo viheni pa malo ghakuzingilizga vyasazgikira, na kufumiska kunandi kwa mphepo zakusunga kufunda, kusazgapo metheni na kaboni dayokisayidi, mu mphepo. Ici cikulutilira kufundiska caro capasi pacoko pacoko, kwiziska kufunda kwa caro cose na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chaudhry |first1=Imran Sharif |last2=Ali |first2=Sajid |last3=Bhatti |first3=Shaukat Hussain |last4=Anser |first4=Muhammad Khalid |last5=Khan |first5=Ahmad Imran |last6=Nazar |first6=Raima |title=Dynamic common correlated effects of technological innovations and institutional performance on environmental quality: Evidence from East-Asia and Pacific countries |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |date=October 2021 |volume=124 |pages=313–323 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.007 |bibcode=2021ESPol.124..313C }}</ref> ==== Kunanga Malo ==== Kunanga malo, kuŵapo kwa vinthu viheni mu malo ivyo vikwiziska vyakufumapo viheni, kungaŵa kuti kukaŵako kale mu Ufumu wa Inca. Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mtovu pa kusungunuska visulo, pamoza na ng'anjo za dongo izo zikapuzgikanga na mphepo, ndipo ici cikafumiskanga mtovu mu mphepo na mu dongo la milonga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smol |first=J. P. |title=Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: A Paleoenvironmental Perspective. |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0757-3 |edition=2nd |location=Chichester |page=135 |oclc=476272945 }}</ref> == Filosofi == Filosofi ya luso la vilwero ni cigaŵa ca filosofi ico cikusanda "kacitiro ka kunozga na kupanga vinthu", na "kawiro ka vinthu ivyo vyapangika".<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Franssen |first1=M. |chapter=Philosophy of Technology |year=2018 |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=E. N. |edition=Fall 2018 |access-date=11 September 2022 |last2=Lokhorst |first2=G.-J. |last3=van de Poel |first3=I. |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911061556/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=de Vries |first1=M. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOmPCgAAQBAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction for Technology and Business Students |last2=Verkerk |first2=M. J. |last3=Hoogland |first3=J. |last4=van der Stoep |first4=J. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-44571-5 |location=United Kingdom |oclc=907132694 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184227/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Philosophy_of_Technology/EOmPCgAAQBAJ |archive-date=4 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Yikamba nga ni cigaŵa ca kasambiro mu vyaka 200 vyaumaliro, ndipo yakura comene kufuma mu ma 1970.<ref name=":5" /> Pakwamba, luso la vilwero likawonekanga nga ni kusazgira kwa thupi la munthu ilo likuwerezga panji kukhozga nkhongono za thupi na za mahara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brey |first=P. |year=2000 |editor-last=Mitcham |editor-first=C. |title=Theories of Technology as Extension of Human Faculties |journal=Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Technology. Research in Philosophy and Technology |volume=19 }}</ref> Marx wakaliwona nga ni cilwero ico ŵakapitalisti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kusuzga ŵantchito, kweni wakagomezganga kuti luso la vilwero lizamuŵa nkhongono ya wanangwa para "lawuskika ku kunangika kwa wupu wa ŵanthu". Ŵapenda vinjeru ŵa nyengo yaciŵiri nga ni Ortega ŵakasintha kulaŵiska umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ŵakuti luso la vilwero lingasuzga "nanga ni ŵasambazi awo ŵakawonekanga kuŵa ŵaneco". Ŵapenda vinjeru ŵa nyengo yacitatu nga ni Don Ihde na Albert Borgmann ŵakulaŵiska umo ŵanthu ŵangasambira kukhala na luso la vilwero.<ref name=":8" /> Kusanda kwakwamba kwa luso la vilwero kukagaŵika pakati pa maghanoghano ghaŵiri: lakuti luso la vilwero likusimikizga wupu wa ŵanthu, na lakuti wupu wa ŵanthu ndiwo ukupanga luso la vilwero. Ghakwamba ghakuti luso la vilwero likwiziska kusintha kwa wupu wa ŵanthu uko kungagegeka yayi, ndipo kuluta panthazi kwake kukulondezga nthowa ya kawiro iyo yingakanizgika yayi.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Deborah G. |author1-link=Deborah G. Johnson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |title=Technology and Society: Building Our Sociotechnical Future |edition=2nd |last2=Wetmore |first2=Jameson M. |date=2021 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-53996-8 |access-date=18 October 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043232/https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|95}} Ghaciŵiri ghakuti luso la vilwero lilije nthowa ya kawiro, ndipo likupangika na midawuko, malango, ndyali, na vyacuma.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dusek |first=Val |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-4051-1162-1|access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184807/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano kwasintha kulaŵiska ndondomeko za ŵanthu na luso pamoza, "kawunjikiro ka vinthu, ŵanthu, kacitiro, na ng'anamulo".<ref name=":9" /> Mususki wa midawuko Neil Postman wakapatula mawupu gha ŵanthu agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero, mawupu gha luso la vilwero, na ivyo wakachema "technopolies", mawupu agho ghakulongozgeka na maghanoghano gha kuluta panthazi kwa luso na kasandiro kwambura kulaŵiska midawuko yinyake na makhalidwe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postman |first=Neil |title=Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology |publisher=Vintage |year=1993 |location=New York}}</ref> Herbert Marcuse na John Zerzan ŵakuti wupu wa luso la vilwero uzamutora wanangwa na uchanda wa mahara wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcuse |first=H. |editor-first1=Douglas |editor-last1=Kellner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |title=Technology, War and Fascism: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse, Volume 1 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-77466-1|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184809/https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live |doi=10.4324/9780203208311}}</ref> == Makhalidwe == Makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero ni cigaŵa ca kasandiro ka makhalidwe ico cikupenda vyakufumapo vya makhalidwe vya luso la vilwero na kupenja nthowa za kucepeska viheni vya luso liphya. Pali nkhani zinandi za makhalidwe pa luso la vilwero, kufuma ku nkhani izo zikukhwaska ŵantchito ŵa luso mpaka ku nkhani zikulu za wupu wa ŵanthu, makhalidwe, na dango.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansson |first=Sven Ove |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |title=The Ethics of Technology: Methods and Approaches |year=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-78348-659-5 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184810/https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphindano zikulu zaŵa pa vyamoyo vyakusintha vyakuhara, kagwiliskiro ka maroboti gha nkhondo, kupendelera kwa ndondomeko za makompyuta, na kukoleranya nkhalo ya vinjeru vyakupangika na makhalidwe gha ŵanthu.<ref name="Al-Rodhan">{{Cite web |last=Al-Rodhan |first=Nayef |title=The Many Ethical Implications of Emerging Technologies |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |access-date=13 December 2019 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=8 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408081948/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero ghali na vigaŵa vinandi: makhalidwe gha vyamoyo ghakulaŵiska nkhani za luso la vyamoyo na ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano; makhalidwe gha makompyuta; makhalidwe gha intaneti, nga ni wanangwa wa maghanoghano, kubisika kwa mauthenga, na kukanizga mauthenga; makhalidwe gha luso la vinthu vicoko comene; na makhalidwe gha ŵazengi ŵa vilwero, kusazgapo ŵapangi ŵa vilwerovipepu na udindo wawo ku ŵanthu. Cigaŵa cikulu ca makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero cikukhwaskana na makhalidwe gha vinjeru vyakupangika: makhalidwe gha maroboti, na kusimikizga nkhalo yiwemi ya vinjeru vyakupangika.<ref name="Veruggio2002">{{cite journal |author=Veruggio, Gianmarco |year=2011 |title=The Roboethics Roadmap |journal=EURON Roboethics Atelier |publisher=Scuola di Robotica |page=2 }}</ref><ref name="Anderson2011">{{Cite book |title=Machine Ethics |date= 2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11235-2 |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Anderson |editor2-first=Susan Leigh}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakulu ghambura kumazgika ni kusimikizga kuti vinjeru vyakupangika vikucita ivyo ŵapangi ŵawo ŵakukhumba, na kucepeska kupendelera. Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵacenjezga za ngozi ya vinjeru vyakupangika kuwusa ŵanthu. == Kusanda Vyamunthazi == Kusanda vyamunthazi ni kusanda kuluta panthazi kwa wupu wa ŵanthu na kwa luso la vilwero. Kukukhumba kupenda vyamunthazi ivyo vingacitika na kusazgamo makhalidwe gha ŵanthu pa kupanga luso liphya.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|54}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|73}} Kukuthemba kupenda kwa manambala na kwa kulongosora kwa nthowa za luso la vilwero za kale na za sono, na kuyezga kulongolera ivyo vizamucitika.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |title=Foundations of Futures Studies, Volume 1: Human Science for a New Era |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-2379-1|access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185315/https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|173}} Nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni kasupe wa maghanoghano.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|187}} === Ngozi ya Kumalira kwa Ŵanthu === Ŵasandi ŵa ngozi iyi ŵakupenda ngozi izo zingamaliska ŵanthu panji kunanga midawuko, ndipo ŵakupenja nthowa za kuzizipizga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=cser.ac.uk |archive-date=30 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230172611/https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gottlieb |first1=Joseph |title=Discounting, Buck-Passing, and Existential Risk Mitigation: The Case of Space Colonization |journal=Space Policy |date=May 2022 |volume=60 |article-number=101486 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101486 |bibcode=2022SpPol..6001486G }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |title=Stanford Existential Risks Initiative |url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=cisac.fsi.stanford.edu |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922150116/https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |url-status=live }}</ref> Luso la munthazi lingasazgira ngozi ya vinjeru vyakupangika vikulu, nkhondo za vyamoyo, nkhondo ya nyukiliya, na kusintha kwa nyengo, nangauli lingovwira so kuvikilira kutimbana kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198570509.001.0001 |title=Global Catastrophic Risks |date=2008 |editor-last1=Bostrom |editor-last2=Cirkovic |editor-first1=Nick |editor-first2=Milan M. |last1=Rees |first1=Martin J. |isbn=978-0-19-857050-9 }}{{pn|date=June 2025}}</ref> Mu 2019, mupenda vinjeru Nick Bostrom wakanjizga ghanoghano la caro ca ngozi, "umo pali kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero uko midawuko yizamunangika", ndipo wakapempha ŵapangi ŵa ndondomeko kukayikira ghanoghano lakuti kuluta panthazi kwa luso nkhwiwemi nyengo zose.<ref name="Bostrom 2019">{{Cite journal |last=Bostrom |first=Nick |date=6 September 2019 |title=The Vulnerable World Hypothesis |journal=Global Policy |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=455–476 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12718 |issn=1758-5880 |s2cid=203169705|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Bostrom 2019" /> == Luso Liphya == [[File:Army invests in 3-D bioprinting to treat injured Soldiers.jpg|thumb|Kuyezga kupanga minofu ya thupi na makina gha 3D|alt=Cithuzi ca msandi wakulaŵiska mu maikulosikopu]] Luso liphya ni luso ilo kupangika panji kagwiliskiro kake kakuwoneka kandafiskike. Likusazgapo luso la vinthu vicoko comene, luso la vyamoyo, maroboti, kudinda vinthu vya mbali zitatu, na ''blockchain''. Mu 2005, Ray Kurzweil wakati kusintha kwakulondezga kwa luso la vilwero kuzamuthemba vyakuhara, luso la vinthu vicoko comene, na maroboti, ndipo maroboti ndigho ghazamukhwaska comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kurzweil |first=Ray |title=The Singularity is Near |publisher=Penguin |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-101-21888-4 |chapter=GNR: Three Overlapping Revolutions}}</ref> Kusintha vyakuhara kuzamuzomerezga kulongozga comene kawiro ka thupi la munthu. Ŵanyake ŵakofya kuti ici cingiziska kupambanyizga ŵanthu kukulu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kompridis |first=N. |year=2009 |title=Technology's challenge to democracy: What of the human |url=http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |journal=Parrhesia |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=20–33 |access-date=21 February 2011 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185314/http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=19 April 2016|title=Ray Kurzweil Predicts Three Technologies Will Define Our Future|url=https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Singularity Hub|last1=McShane|first1=Sveta|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510191934/https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poole |first1=C. P. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfzgEoY9SNkC |title=Introduction to Nanotechnology |last2=Owens |first2=F. J. |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-07935-4}}</ref> Luso la vinthu vicoko comene lizamuzomerezga kusintha vinthu pa ukulu wa vimenyu, ndipo maroboti ghacoko comene ghangagwiliskirika ntchito mu thupi la munthu kunanga tumaselo twa kansa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vince |first=G. |date=3 July 2003 |title=Nanotechnology may create new organs |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=New Scientist |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911220109/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Maroboti agho ghakugwira ntchito ghekha ghaluta panthazi luŵiro, ndipo ghakulindilirika kutora malo gha ŵanthu pa ntchito zinandi za ngozi, kusazgapo kupenja na kuponoska ŵanthu, kuzimiska moto, na nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Sukhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |title=Recent Progress in Robotics: Viable Robotic Service to Human: An Edition of the Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference on Advanced Robotics |last2=Suh |first2=Il Hong |year= 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-76728-2 |page=3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185316/https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Maghanoghano pa kwiza kwa vinjeru vyakupangika vya pose ghakupambana, kweni hafu ya ŵakumanya awo ŵakafumbika mu 2018 ŵakugomezga kuti vinjeru vyakupangika "vizamucita ntchito yiliyose makola na mwambura kudura" kuluska ŵanthu pofika 2063.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grace |first1=K. |last2=Salvatier |first2=J. |last3=Dafoe |first3=A. |last4=Zhang |first4=B. |last5=Evans |first5=O. |date=31 July 2018 |title=Viewpoint: When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts |url=https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |journal=Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research|volume=62 |pages=729–754 |doi=10.1613/jair.1.11222 |issn=1076-9757 |s2cid=8746462 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kusoŵa ntchito uku kwapangiska ŵanthu kupempha kusambizga kunandi kwa makompyuta na mphindano pa ndalama ya pasi ya ŵanthu wose. == Magulu gha Maghanoghano == === Luso Lakwenelera === Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ŵa mu ma 1960 ghakaleka kutemwa umoyo wa mu misumba ndipo ghakatemwa luso la vilwero la malo agho, ilo lingakhalilira, lakuchemeka luso lakwenelera. === Kugomezga Luso la Vilwero === Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero ni ciwemi ndipo kungiziska wupu wa ŵanthu uwemi comene umo malango na ulongozgi vikuteŵetera ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segal |first=H. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |title=Technological Utopianism in American Culture|edition=20th Anniversary|year=2005 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3061-6 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |url-status=live }}</ref> Vilato vyawo vikusazgapo vyacuma vyambura kusoŵa, kutalikiska umoyo, na kupanga vinjeru vyakupangika vikulu comene. Magulu ghakulu ni ''transhumanism'' na ''singularitarianism''. Gulu la ''transhumanism'' likuthemba "kusintha kwakulutilira kwa umoyo wa munthu kujumpha mawonekero ghake gha sono" kwizira mu kasandiro na luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Roots and Core Themes |date=29 April 2013 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |title=The Transhumanist Reader |pages=1–2 |editor-last=More |editor-first=M. |editor-link=Max More |edition= |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |isbn=978-1-118-33429-4 |access-date=11 September 2022 |editor2-last=Vita-More |editor2-first=N. |editor2-link=Natasha Vita-More |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102725/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Likamanyikwa comene pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Istvan |first=Zoltan |date=1 February 2015 |title=A New Generation of Transhumanists Is Emerging |url=https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Interalia Magazine |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102727/https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵa ''singularitarianism'' ŵakugomezga kuti vinjeru vikulu vya makina vizamusazgira comene luŵiro lwa kuluta panthazi kwa luso, ndipo vingiziska kusintha kwa luŵiro uko ŵanthu ŵangapulikiska yayi. Ici cikuchemeka ''singularity'' ya luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blackford |first1=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |title=H±: Transhumanism and Its Critics |last2=Bostrom |first2=N. |last3=Dupuy |first3=J.-P. |date=2011 |publisher=Metanexus Institute |isbn=978-1-4568-1565-3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kususka Luso la Vilwero === Kuzirwa kwa luso la vilwero mu umoyo wa ŵanthu kwawuska kofya na kususka. Kususka uku nkhwa gulu limoza yayi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Steven E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |title=Against Technology: From the Luddites to Neo-Luddism |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-52239-1 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |url-status=live }}</ref> Kususka kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa kukaŵa kwa ŵa Luddite, awo ŵakasuskanga makina ghakwamba gha kupanga nsalu. Makina ghakapangiska kuti ŵantchito ŵacoko ŵakhumbikwe. Pakati pa ma 1970 na ma 1990, Ted Kaczynski wakacita kuphulika kunandi mu Amerika ndipo wakapharazga kalata yakususka vyakufumapo viheni vya luso la vilwero pa kawiro na wanangwa wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelman |first=David |date=1 June 2020 |title=Politics in a Small Room: Subterranean Babel in Piglia's El camino de Ida |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |journal=The Yearbook of Comparative Literature |volume=63 |pages=179–201 |doi=10.3138/ycl.63.005 |s2cid=220494877 |issn=0084-3695 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306190259/https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=Sean |date=7 May 2021 |title=The Unabomber and the origins of anti-tech radicalism |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=207–225 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2021.1921940 |issn=1356-9317 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Magulu ghanyake ghakupempha kuleka luso la vilwero na kuwelera ku kawiro. Gulu la mizi ya malo ghakuzingilizga likukhumba kukoleranya luso la vilwero na kawiro.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vannini|first1=Phillip|author2=Jonathan Taggart|title=Voluntary simplicity, involuntary complexities, and the pull of remove: The radical ruralities of off-grid lifestyles|journal=Environment and Planning A|volume=45|number=2|year=2013|pages=295–311|doi=10.1068/a4564 |bibcode=2013EnPlA..45..295V |s2cid=143970611 }}</ref> == Ubale na Kasandiro na Kazengero ka Vilwero == [[File: Zoom lunette ardente.jpg|thumb|Antoine Lavoisier wakuyezga kupya kwa vinthu na ungweru wa zuŵa wakukuzgika na galasi|alt=Cithuzi ca Lavoisier wakuyezga panthazi pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulaŵiska]] Kazengero ka vilwero ni nthowa iyo luso la vilwero likupangikira. Kanandi kakukhumba kumazga masuzgo mu vikanizgo vikulu.<ref name=":7" /> Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero nkhwa "kucita", apo vinjeru vya kasandiro nvya kulongosora.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Nucci Pearce |first1=M. R. |last2=Pearce |first2=David |year=1989 |title=Technology vs. Science: The Cognitive Fallacy |journal=Synthese |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.1007/BF00869324 |jstor=20116729 |s2cid=46975083 |issn=0039-7857 }}</ref> Mupenda vinjeru wa Poland Henryk Skolimowski wakati: "kasandiro kakukhwaskana na ivyo viliko, luso la vilwero na ivyo vizamuŵako."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skolimowski |first=Henryk |year=1966 |title=The Structure of Thinking in Technology |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.2307/3101935 |jstor=3101935 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref>{{rp|375}} Usange kasandiro ndiko kakwiziska luso la vilwero panji yayi kwaŵa mphindano.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Harvey |title=The relationship between science and technology |journal=Research Policy |date=September 1994 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 }}</ref> Luso linandi likufuma ku kazengero ka vilwero, kuyezgayezga na mwaŵi, kwambura kuthemba vinjeru vya kasandiro.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Taleb |first=Nassim Nicholas |title=Antifragile |year=2012 |publisher=Penguin Random House |oclc=1252833169}}</ref>{{Rp|217–240}}<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Scranton |first=Philip |date=1 May 2006 |title=Urgency, uncertainty, and innovation: Building jet engines in postwar America |journal=Management & Organizational History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=127–157 |doi=10.1177/1744935906064096 |s2cid=143813033 |issn=1744-9359}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mu ma 1940 na 1950, ma''jet engine'' ghakapangika mwa "kwendeska cilwero mpaka cikunangika, kupenda ico canangika, na kuwerezga".<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|217–240}} Malongosoro gha kasandiro kanandi ghakuza pamanyuma pa luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |title=The Birth of Penicillin, and the Disarming of Microbes |date=1970 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-0-04-925005-5 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185318/https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wise |first=George |year=1985 |title=Science and Technology |journal=Osiris |series=2nd Series |volume=1 |pages=229–46 |doi=10.1086/368647 |s2cid=144475553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1-link=David H. Guston |last=Guston |first=David H. |title=Between Politics and Science: Assuring the Integrity and Productivity of Research |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-65318-3 |location=New York}}</ref> Kusanga kunandi kukafuma ku mwaŵi pera, nga ni kusanga ''penicillin''.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Taleb |first=N. N. |date=12 December 2012 |title=Understanding is a Poor Substitute for Convexity (Antifragility) |url=https://fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=fooledbyrandomness.com |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621041454/https://www.fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweni luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano likuthemba comene vinjeru vya kasandiro. Kusanda kwa 2021 kukulongora kuti mapangano gha vyakupangika agho ghakuthemba kasandiro ngakuzirwa na magaŵa 26 pa 100 kuluska ghanyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narin |first1=Francis |last2=Olivastro |first2=Dominic |title=Status report: Linkage between technology and science |journal=Research Policy |date=June 1992 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=237–249 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(92)90018-Y }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Krieger |first1=Joshua L. |last2=Schnitzer |first2=Monika |author2-link=Monika Schnitzer | last3=Watzinger| first3=Martin|date=1 May 2019 |title=Standing on the Shoulders of Science |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |ssrn=3401853 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912192637/https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> == Vinyama Vinyake == [[File:Gorilla tool use cropped.jpg|thumb|Gorila mukulu uyu wakugwiliskira ntchito khuni nga ni ndodo yakwendera kuti wapime kuzika kwa maji.|alt=Cithuzi ca gorila wakwenda mu maji gha kufika pa ciuno, wakukora khuni]] Kugwiliskira ntchito luso la vilwero lipepuka nako kukuwoneka mu vinyama vinyake. Kale kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero kukawonekanga nga ni cimanyikwiro ca ŵanthu pera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oakley |first1=Kenneth Page |title=Man the Tool-maker |date=1976 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-61270-6 }}{{pn|date=June 2025}}</ref> Ghanoghano ili likasintha pamanyuma pa kusanga ukaboni wa kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero mwa ŵankhwele ŵa mtundu wa ''chimpanzee'' na vinyake, ma''dolphin'', na ŵacihoŵe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html |title=Chimpanzee Tool Use |access-date=13 February 2007 |author1=Sagan, Carl |author1-link=Carl Sagan |author2=Druyan, Ann |author2-link=Ann Druyan |author3=Leakey, Richard |author3-link=Ann Druyan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921062716/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=21 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="20050607bbc">{{Cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=7 June 2005|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204093731/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|archive-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=nbcnews21135366>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21135366|title=Crows use tools to find food|last=Schmid|first=Randolph E.|date=4 October 2007|publisher=NBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310185618/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21135366/#.WCYQR9IrLIU|archive-date=10 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rutz, C. |author2=Bluff, L.A. |author3=Weir, A.A.S. |author4=Kacelnik, A. |title=Video cameras on wild birds|journal=Science|date=4 October 2007|doi=10.1126/science.1146788|pmid=17916693 |volume=318|issue=5851|page=765 |bibcode = 2007Sci...318..765R |s2cid=28785984 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=McGrew | first=W. C | year=1992 | title=Chimpanzee Material Culture | publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press | isbn=978-0-521-42371-7 | location=Cambridge u.a.}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, ''chimpanzee'' za mu thengere zikugwiliskira ntchito tumakuni kusodzera viswe, na malibwe kuphwanya mtedza.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Boesch | first=Christophe | title=Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking | year=1984 | journal=Primates | issue=2 | pages=160–170 |author2=Boesch, Hedwige | doi=10.1007/BF02382388 | volume=25| s2cid=24073884 }}</ref><ref name=20090115newscientist>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|title=Nut-cracking monkeys find the right tool for the job|last=Brahic|first=Catherine|date=15 January 2009|work=New Scientist|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115142232/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|archive-date=15 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ndiyo nthowa yekha yayi; mwaciyelezgero, malinga gha maji agho ma''beaver'' ghakuzenga na makuni panji malibwe ni luso la vilwero ilo likukhwaska comene milonga na malo gha vyamoyo.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Müller |first1=G. |last2=Watling |first2=J. |date=24 June 2016 |title=The engineering in beaver dams |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |conference=River Flow 2016: Eighth International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics |location=St. Louis|publisher=University of Southampton Institutional Research Repository |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924081921/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |url-status=live }}</ref> == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=Seth D. |title=Cost–benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations |journal=Space Policy |date=May 2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=75–80 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2009.02.008 |bibcode=2009SpPol..25...75B |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID2807387_code2053183.pdf?abstractid=2807387&mirid=1 }} * {{Cite web |last=Bernstein |first=Jared |date=7 October 2014 |title=It's Not a Skills Gap That's Holding Wages Down: It's the Weak Economy, Among Other Things |url=https://prospect.org/api/content/fd7bf37d-d89e-5e04-b361-5f43c6ba8a25/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=The American Prospect |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043623/https://pandg.tapad.com/tag?us_privacy=1YNY&referrer_url=&page_url=https%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Feconomy%2Fskills-gap-holding-wages-down-weak-economy-among-things%2F&owner=P%26G&bp_id=cafemedia&ch=%7B%22architecture%22%3A%22%22%2C%22bitness%22%3A%22%22%2C%22brands%22%3A%5B%5D%2C%22mobile%22%3Afalse%2C%22model%22%3A%22%22%2C%22platformVersion%22%3A%22%22%7D&initiator=js |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-48402-0_5 |chapter=Feasting, Social Complexity, and the Emergence of the Early Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia: A View from Göbekli Tepe |title=Feast, Famine or Fighting? |series=Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation |date=2017 |last1=Dietrich |first1=Oliver |last2=Notroff |first2=Jens |last3=Schmidt |first3=Klaus |volume=8 |pages=91–132 |isbn=978-3-319-48401-3 }} * {{cite book |first1=Benjamin |last1=Cohen |first2=Gwen |last2=Ottinger |editor-first1=Gwen |editor-last1=Ottinger |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last2=Cohen| chapter=Introduction: Environmental Justice and the Transformation of Science and Engineering |date=2011 |pages=1–18 |title=Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01579-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Heidegger |first=Martin |title=The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1977 |location=New York |pages=25–26 |translator-last=Lovitt |translator-first=W. |chapter=The Question Concerning Technology}} * {{cite book |last1=Huesemann |first1=M.H. |last2=Huesemann |first2=J.A. |date=2011 |url=http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org/ |title=Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment |publisher=New Society Publishers |isbn=978-0-86571-704-6 |access-date=25 November 2013 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802194018/http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=K.|author-link=Kevin Kelly (editor)|title=What Technology Wants|location=New York|publisher=Viking Press|date=2010|isbn=978-0-670-02215-1}} * {{cite journal |author-link=Michael Kremer |last=Kremer |first=M. |year=1993 |title=Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=681–716 |doi=10.2307/2118405 |jstor=2118405 |s2cid=139085606| issn=0033-5533 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kuijt |first=I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-47166-7 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429034748/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=neolithic%20revolution%20social%20organization&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book|title=To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism|last=Morozov|first=Evgeny|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2013|isbn=978-1-61039-139-9|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/tosaveeverything0000moro}} * {{cite book|last=Mumford|first=L.|author-link=Lewis Mumford|date=2010|title=Technics and Civilization|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-55027-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Ord |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aSiDwAAQBAJ |title=The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity |year=2020 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-316-48489-3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429042206/https://books.google.com/books?id=3aSiDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |first1=Gwen |last1= Ottinger |editor-first1=Gwen |editor-last1=Ottinger |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last2=Cohen |title=Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement |date=2011 |pages=229–248 |chapter=Rupturing Engineering Education: Opportunities for Transforming Expert Identities Through Community-Based Projects |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01579-0}} * {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=R.|author-link=Richard Rhodes|date=2000|title=Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-684-86311-1}} * {{cite journal |last=Salomon |first=Jean-Jacques |year=1984 |title=What is technology? The issue of its origins and definitions |journal=History and Technology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=113–156 |doi=10.1080/07341518408581618 |issn=0734-1512 |eissn=1477-2620 |lccn=88656216 |oclc=8682103}} * {{Cite journal | last=Schuurman | first=E. | url=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | year=1997 | title=Philosophical and Ethical Problems of Technicism and Genetic Engineering | journal=Society for Philosophy and Technology Quarterly Electronic Journal | volume=3 | issue=1 | issn=1091-8264 | doi=10.5840/techne19973111 | pages=27–44 | access-date=11 September 2022 | archive-date=11 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911090553/https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | url-status=live | url-access=subscription }} * {{cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=May 2021 |volume=259 |article-number=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |title=A Treatise on Science Technology and Society |date=2020 |last=Sharma |first=M. R. |publisher=Laxmi Publications Pvt Limited |isbn=978-81-318-0667-8 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417100334/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Teich|first=A.H. |date=2008|title=Technology and the Future|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|edition=11th|isbn=978-0-495-57052-3}} * {{cite magazine|last=Tooze|first=A.|author-link=Adam Tooze|title=Democracy and Its Discontents|magazine=The New York Review of Books|volume=LXVI|number=10|date=6 June 2019|pages=52–53, 56–57|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|issn=0028-7504|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201202423/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|url-status=live}} * {{Cite journal |last=Turchin |first=A. |year=2018 |title=Approaches to the Prevention of Global Catastrophic Risks |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |journal=Human Prospect |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=52–65 |s2cid=135224906 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911094554/https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |url-status=live }} * {{cite Q|Q26221492|author=Wilson, G.|mode=cs1}}<!-- What is technology? --> * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=R.T. |date=2008|title=Technology|publisher=Goodheart-Wilcox Company|edition=5th|isbn=978-1-59070-718-0}} {{refend}} 2t4yg8lhmqokt6l5v4aoxluk6ueqons 124402 124401 2026-11-10T20:30:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kufumya {{pn}} (template palije) 124402 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg|alt=Ŵakupanga ŵakugwira ntchito pa turbine ya mvuchi|thumb|Turbine ya mvuchi iyo yili na cakuvikilira cakujulika, ciyelezgero ca luso la vilwero la nkhongono.]] '''Luso la vilwero''' ni kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya maghanoghano kuti vilato vya pa umoyo vifiskike, comene mu nthowa iyo yingacitika so kanandi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skolnikoff |first=Eugene B. |year=1993 |title=The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics |chapter=The Setting |page=13 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-08631-1 |jstor=j.ctt7rpm1 |quote=I find the most useful conceptual definition for this study to be that given by Harvey Brooks, who has defined technology{{nbsp}}...as 'knowledge of how to fulfill certain human purposes in a specifiable and reproducible way.'}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti luso la vilwero lingang'anamula so vinthu ivyo vikufuma mu ntchito iyi, kusazgapo vinthu vyakukhwaskika nga ni vilwero panji makina, na vyambura kukhwaskika nga ni [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|pages=117–118}}: "The first pole, that of the naturalisation of a new discipline within the university curriculum, was presented by Christian Wolff in 1728, in Chapter III of the "Preliminary discourse" to his ''{{lang|la|Philosophia rationalisis sive Logica}}'': "Technology is the science of skills and works of skill, or, if one prefers, the science of things made by man's labour, chiefly through the use of his hands."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mitcham |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Mitcham |year=1994 |title=Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-53196-1}}</ref> Luso la vilwero likugwira ntchito yikulu comene mu [[Kasandiro|kasandiro]], kazengero ka vilwero, na umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The roles of science and technology in national development | url=https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320172737/https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-date=2023-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Technology and Innovation Report 2025: Inclusive artificial intelligence for development {{!}} |url=https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260706031807/https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025 |archive-date=2026-07-06 |access-date=2026-08-04 |website=UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |language=en}}</ref> Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero kwiziska kusintha kukulu mu wupu wa ŵanthu. Luso la vilwero lakwamba ilo likumanyikwa ni cilwero ca malibwe, ico cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pambere mbiri yindalembeke, kulondezgana na kumanya kulaŵilira moto, uko nako kukovwira kukura kwa wongo wa munthu na kupangika kwa ciyowoyero mu Nyengo ya Cikakato, kuyana na ghanoghano la kuphika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. {{!}} Thiru Murugan |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/thiru-murugan-1b362b31a_snsinstitutions-snsdesignthinkers-designthinking-activity-7239857452509278208-7b_e |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> Kupangika kwa gudumu mu Nyengo ya Mkuŵa kukazomerezga maulendo ghanandi na kupanga makina ghakusuzga comene. Vyakupangika vya sonosono vya luso la vilwero, kusazgapo makina gha kudindira, [[Lamya|lamya]], na [[Intaneti|intaneti]], vyacepeska vikanizgo vya kuyowoyerana na kwiziska vyacuma vya vinjeru. Nangauli luso la vilwero likovwira kukura kwa vyacuma na kukhozga usambazi wa ŵanthu, lingaŵa so na vyakufumapo viheni nga ni kunanga malo ghakuzingilizga na kumalizga vyuma, ndipo lingiziska masuzgo mu wupu wa ŵanthu nga ni kusoŵa ntchito cifukwa ca makina agho ghakucita ntchito ghekha. Ntheura, mphindano za filosofi na za ndyali pa ntchito na kagwiliskiro ka luso la vilwero, makhalidwe ghake, na nthowa za kucepeska viheni vyake zikulutilira.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373932-2.00027-2 |chapter=Technology, Ethics of |title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics |date=2012 |last1=Braunack-Mayer |first1=A.J. |last2=Street |first2=J.M. |last3=Palmer |first3=N. |pages=321–327 |isbn=978-0-12-373932-2 }}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''technology'' likwamba pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ndipo likang'anamulanga "kunozga mwandondomeko" (kufuma ku Cigiriki τέχνη, ''tékhnē'', "luso, mahara gha mawoko" na -λογία, "kusanda, vinjeru").<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |author1-link=Henry Liddell |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=Greek-English Lexicon |title-link=Greek-English Lexicon |edition=Abridged |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |orig-date=1891 |isbn=0-19-910205-8 |oclc=38307662}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=technology |encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary |editor1-last=Simpson |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Weiner |editor2-first=Edmund |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-19-861186-8}}</ref> Pambere pa ici, lizgu la Cigiriki ca kale ''tékhnē'' likagwiliskirikanga ntchito kung'anamula "kumanya kupanga vinthu", ilo likasazgapo ntchito nga ni kazengero ka nyumba.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Lesley |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=David |year=2009 |title=The Nicomachean Ethics |page=105 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-921361-0 |lccn=2009005379 |oclc=246896490 |series=Oxford World's Classics}}</ref> Kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵaulaya ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito mazgo ghakuti ''Technik'' (Cijeremani) panji ''technique'' (Cifulenci) kung'anamula "nthowa ya kucitira", iyo yikasazgapo maluso ghose, nga ni kuvina, kwendeska ngalawa, panji kudinda, kwali ghakukhumba vilwero panji yayi.{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|pages=114–115}} Pa nyengo iyo, ''Technologie'' likang'anamulanga cigaŵa ca kasambiro ico cikusanda "nthowa za maluso", panji cigaŵa ca ndyali "ca kupanga malango gha maluso".{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|page=117}} Kupambana pakati pa ''Technik'' na ''Technologie'' kulije mu Cingelezi, ntheura ghose ghakang'anamulika kuti ''technology''. Lizgu ili likaŵa lambura kugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi mu Cingelezi, ndipo comene likang'anamulanga cigaŵa ca kasambiro, nga mu Massachusetts Institute of Technology.<ref name=jstor40061169>{{Cite journal |last=Schatzberg |first=Eric |year=2006 |title="Technik" Comes to America: Changing Meanings of "Technology" before 1930 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=486–512 |doi=10.1353/tech.2006.0201 |jstor=40061169 |s2cid=143784033 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, cifukwa ca kuluta panthazi kwa kasandiro na Kusintha Kwaciŵiri kwa Mafakitale, luso la vilwero likaleka kuwonekera nga ni cigaŵa ca kasambiro capadera, ndipo likamba kung'anamula: kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru mwandondomeko pa vilato vya umoyo.<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|page=119}}: "With the industrial revolution and the important part England played in it, the word technology was to lose this meaning as the subject or thrust of a branch of education, as first in English and then in other languages it embodied all technical activity based on the application of science to practical ends."</ref> == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === [[File:Faustkeil Nachbau, 2020 PD a-7.jpg|thumb|Munthu wakukora mbavi ya libwe ya woko|alt=wonani malongosoro]] Vilwero vikapangika dankha na ŵambuye ŵa ŵanthu kwizira mu kulaŵiska na kuyezgayezga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffer |first=M. B. |title=The Archaeology of Science |chapter=Discovery Processes: Trial Models |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |series=Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique |volume=9 |pages=185–198 |place=Heidelberg |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |isbn=978-3-319-00077-0 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184259/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 2 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵakasambira kupanga vilwero vyakwamba vya malibwe mwa kutimba libwe kuti vigaŵa vifume, kupanga mbavi yakuthwa ya woko.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |author=The British Museum |title=Our earliest technology? |url=https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902015829/https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=smarthistory.org}}</ref> Nthowa iyi yikanozgeka vyaka 75,000 ivyo vyajumpha kuŵa nthowa ya kukanikizga, iyo yikazomerezga ntchito yakunozgeka comene.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minogue |first=K. |date=28 October 2010 |title=Stone Age Toolmakers Surprisingly Sophisticated |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=science.org |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910174555/https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated }}</ref> Kusanga moto kukalongosoreka na Charles Darwin nga ni "panyake kusanga kukulu comene ako munthu wandacitepo".<ref>{{cite book | last=Crump | first=Thomas | title=A Brief History of Science | year=2001 | publisher=Constable & Robinson | isbn=978-1-84119-235-2 | page=9}}</ref> Ukaboni wa vya kale, wa vyakulya, na wa ŵanthu ukulongora "kugwiliskira ntchito moto kwakulutilira" pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 1.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gowlett |first1=J. A. J. |last2=Wrangham |first2=R. W. |date=1 March 2013 |title=Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 |s2cid=163033909 |issn=0067-270X}}</ref> Moto, wa nkhuni na makala, ukazomerezga ŵanthu ŵa kale kuphika vyakulya vyawo kuti vigayike makola, kusazgira vyakukhozga thupi na kusazgira unandi wa vyakulya ivyo vingarika.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stahl | first= Ann B. | author-link= Ann B. Stahl | year=1984 | title=Hominid dietary selection before fire | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=25 | pages= 151–68 | doi=10.1086/203106 | issue=2 | jstor=2742818| s2cid= 84337150 }}</ref> Ghanoghano la kuphika likuti kumanya kuphika kukasazgira ukulu wa wongo wa ŵambuye ŵa ŵanthu, nangauli ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵakuti ukaboni ndambura kukwana.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrangham |first=R. |date=1 August 2017 |title=Control of Fire in the Paleolithic: Evaluating the Cooking Hypothesis |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=S16 |pages=S303–S313 |doi=10.1086/692113 |s2cid=148798286 |issn=0011-3204 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910190830/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ukaboni wa vya kale wa malo gha moto ngwa vyaka 790,000 ivyo vyajumpha; ŵasandi ŵakugomezga kuti ici cikasazgira kukolerana kwa ŵanthu na cingaŵa kuti cikovwira kupangika kwa ciyowoyero.<ref name=worldcat1124046527>{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=Lucy to Language: The Benchmark Papers |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965259-4 |editor-last=Dunbar |editor-first=R. I. M. |oclc=1124046527 |editor-last2=Gamble |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Gowlett |editor-first3=J. A. J. }}</ref><ref name=20030715nytimes-science>{{Cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=15 July 2003 |title=Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312091336/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |archive-date=12 March 2017 }}</ref> Kuluta panthazi kunyake mu nyengo ya Malibwe gha Kale kukusazgapo vyakuvwara na nyumba.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=May 2021 |volume=259 |article-number=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S }}</ref> Palije kuzomerezgana pa nyengo iyo vikamba, kweni ŵasandi ŵa vya kale ŵasanga ukaboni wa vyakuvwara vya vyaka 90,000–120,000 ivyo vyajumpha na wa nyumba wa vyaka 450,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hallett |first1=Emily Y. |last2=Marean |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Steele |first3=Teresa E. |last4=Álvarez-Fernández |first4=Esteban |last5=Jacobs |first5=Zenobia |author5-link=Zenobia Jacobs |last6=Cerasoni |first6=Jacopo Niccolò |last7=Aldeias |first7=Vera |last8=Scerri |first8=Eleanor M. L. |last9=Olszewski |first9=Deborah I. |last10=Hajraoui |first10=Mohamed Abdeljalil El |last11=Dibble |first11=Harold L. |date=24 September 2021 |title=A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco |journal=iScience |volume=24 |issue=9 |article-number=102988 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988 |issn=2589-0042 |pmc=8478944 |pmid=34622180|bibcode=2021iSci...24j2988H }}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Apo nyengo iyi yikalutilira, nyumba zikaŵa zakunozgeka comene; kufuma vyaka 380,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakazenganga vigoŵa vya makuni.<ref>{{cite web |author=O'Neil, Dennis |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Archaic Homo sapiens Culture |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404130017/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |archive-date=4 April 2007 |access-date=31 March 2007 |publisher=Palomar College }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Villa |first=Paola |title=Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-09662-2 |location=Berkeley |page=303}}</ref> Vyakuvwara, ivyo vikapangika na sisi na vipapa vya vinyama vyakusakika, vikovwira ŵanthu kuthandazgika ku malo ghakuzizima; ŵanthu ŵakamba kufuma mu Afilika pafupifupi vyaka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha, pakwamba kuya ku Yurasiya.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cordaux |first=Richard |author2=Stoneking, Mark |year=2003 |title=South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an 'Early' Human Dispersal out of Africa |url=http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=1586–1590; author reply 1590–93 |doi=10.1086/375407 |pmc=1180321 |pmid=12817589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001022940/http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2009 |access-date=22 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=phys.org |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711124429/https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Harvati | first1=Katerina | author-link=Katerina Harvati | last2=Röding | first2=Carolin | last3=Bosman | first3=Abel M. | last4=Karakostis | first4=Fotios A. | last5=Grün | first5=Rainer | last6=Stringer | first6=Chris | last7=Karkanas | first7=Panagiotis | last8=Thompson | first8=Nicholas C. | last9=Koutoulidis | first9=Vassilis | last10=Moulopoulos | first10=Lia A. | last11=Gorgoulis | first11=Vassilis G. | last12=Kouloukoussa | first12=Mirsini | title=Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=571 | issue=7766 | year=2019 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z | pages=500–504 | pmid=31292546 | bibcode=2019Natur.571..500H | hdl=10072/397334 | s2cid=195873640 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | access-date=17 September 2022 | archive-date=1 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801132212/https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | url-status=live | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya === [[File:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|Vinthu vya Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya, nga ni vibangiri, mitu ya mbavi, vyakusemera, na vyakusalazgira|alt=Cithuzi ca vilwero vya libwe vya Nyengo ya Libwe Liphya]] Kusintha kwa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya (panji Kusintha Kwakwamba kwa Ulimi) kukasazgira luŵiro lwa kupanga vinthu viphya, ndipo kukasazgira kusuzga kwa wupu wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |publisher=Springer New York |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-306-47166-7 |editor-last=Kuijt |editor-first=i. |series=Fundamental Issues in Archaeology |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184244/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kupangika kwa mbavi ya libwe lakunozgeka kukaŵa kuluta panthazi kukulu uko kukazomerezga kudumula nkholongo zikulu na kulima.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coghlan |first=H. H. |date=1943 |title=The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=73 |issue=1/2 |pages=27–56 |doi=10.2307/2844356 |jstor=2844356 |issn=0307-3114 }}</ref> Ulimi ukalyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo kuleka kwendakwenda kukazomerezga kulera ŵana ŵanandi pa nyengo yimoza, cifukwa ŵana ŵakanyamulikanga so yayi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Driscoll|first1=Killian|title=The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland|date=2006|url=http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|access-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904110326/http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵana ŵangovwira ntchito ya kulima kuluska kusaka na kutola.<ref name=20060104sciencedaily>{{cite press release |title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Chicago Press Journals |date=4 January 2006 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108133752/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |archive-date=8 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|journal=Current Anthropology|author=Sussman, Robert W. |author2=Hall, Roberta L. |volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|date=April 1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977|s2cid=143449170}}</ref> Na kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu na ŵantchito, ntchito zikamba kugaŵika kuyana na luso.<ref>{{cite book|access-date=17 May 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|title=Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective|publisher=The Thomson Corporation|author=Ferraro, Gary P.|year=2006|isbn=978-0-495-03039-3|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145412/https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|url-status=live}}</ref> Ico cikapangiska kusintha kufuma ku mizi ya Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya kuya ku misumba yakwamba, nga ni Uruk, na midawuko yakwamba, nga ni Sumer, cindamanyikwe makola; kweni kukura kwa wupu wa ŵanthu wa makwelero, ntchito zapadera, malonda na nkhondo pakati pa midawuko ya pafupi, na khumbo la kugwira ntchito pamoza kumazga masuzgo gha malo nga ni kuthilira, vyose vikughanaghanirika kuti vikovwira.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|access-date=17 May 2008|title=The Essentials of Ancient History|publisher=Research & Education Association|author=Patterson, Gordon M.|year=1992|isbn=978-0-87891-704-4|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145419/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref> Kupangika kwa kulemba kukapangiska kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru vya midawuko ndipo kukaŵa maziko gha mbiri, malo gha mabuku, sukulu, na kusanda kwa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goody |first=J. |date=1986 |title=The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Kunozga kwakulutilira kukapangiska ng'anjo na vyakupuzgira moto, ndipo kakwamba ŵanthu ŵakamanya kusungunuska na kufula golide, mkuŵa, siliva, na mtovu, visulo ivyo vikusangika pafupifupi vyakutowa mu kawiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Short History of Metals |journal=Nature |volume=203 |issue=4943 |page=337 |last=Cramb |first=Alan W |bibcode=1964Natur.203Q.337T |year=1964 |doi=10.1038/203337a0 |s2cid=382712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Uwemi wa vilwero vya mkuŵa kuluska vya malibwe, viwanga, na makuni ukawoneka luŵiro ku ŵanthu ŵa kale, ndipo mkuŵa ungaŵa kuti ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito kufuma pafupi na kwamba kwa Nyengo ya Malibwe Ghaphya (pafupifupi vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha).<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Ceramics |volume= 05 | pages = 703–760; see page 708 |last1= Hall |first1= Harry Reginald Holland |author-link= Harry Reginald Holland Hall |quote= The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.).}}</ref> Pakumalira, kufula visulo kukapangiska kusanga visulo vyakusazganika nga ni mkuŵa wa bulonzi (pafupifupi 4,000 pambere Khristu). Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa cisulo cakusazganika nga ni ''steel'' kukwamba pafupifupi 1,800 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Hideo |last=Akanuma |title=The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey |journal=Anatolian Archaeological Studies |volume=14 |publisher=Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology |place=Tokyo}}</ref><ref name=hindu001200903261>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |title=Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel |date=26 March 2009 |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090329111924/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009 |access-date=8 November 2016 }}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kale === [[File:Wheel Iran.jpg|thumb|upright|Gudumu likapangika {{Circa|4,000 pambere Khristu}}.|alt=Cithuzi ca gudumu la khuni la kale]] [[File:Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered).jpg|thumb|upright|Gudumu la ku madambo gha Ljubljana na nthonga yake yapakati (gudumu la khuni la kale comene ilo lasangika pofika 2024)|alt=Cithuzi ca gudumu la khuni na nthonga yake yapakati (gudumu la khuni la kale comene ilo lasangika)]] Pamanyuma pa kulongozga moto, ŵanthu ŵakasanga nkhongono zinyake. Kagwiliskiro kakwamba kakumanyikwa ka nkhongono ya mphepo ni ngalawa ya ngalanyo; kalembero kakwamba ka ngalawa ya ngalanyo ni ka ngalawa ya mlonga wa Nilo pafupifupi 7,000 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-first=Donatella |author1-last=Usai | author2-first=Sandro |author2-last=Salvatori |title=The oldest representation of a Nile boat|journal=Antiquity|volume=81}}</ref> Kufuma kale, Ŵaeguputo ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhongono ya cigumula ca caka ciliconse ca Nilo kuthilira minda yawo, ndipo pacoko pacoko ŵakasambira kucilaŵilira kwizira mu ngalande na madimba ghakuzengeka.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postel |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Postel |url=http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |title=Pillar of Sand: Can the Irrigation Miracle Last? |date=1999 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-31937-8 |chapter=Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119022630/http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵasumeri ŵa kale mu Mesopotamiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ngalande na malinga ghakusuzga kupatula maji kufuma ku milonga ya Tigris na Euphrates pa kuthilira.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Harriet|author-link=Harriet Crawford|date=2013|title=The Sumerian World|location=New York & London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-09660-4|pages=34–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205005423/https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa vya kale ŵakughanaghanira kuti gudumu likapangika paŵekha na pa nyengo yimoza mu Mesopotamiya (Iraq ya sono), Caucasus ya Kumpoto, na Ulaya Yapakati.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|last=Potts|first=D.T.|year=2012|page=285}}</ref> Nyengo yikughanaghanirika kuŵa pakati pa 5,500 na 3,000 pambere Khristu, ndipo ŵakumanya ŵanandi ŵakuyiŵika pafupi na 4,000 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Light on the Most Ancient East|last=Childe|first=V. Gordon|year=1928|page=110}}</ref> Vinthu vya kale comene ivyo vili na vithuzi vya ngolo za magudumu nvya pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World|last=Anthony|first=David A.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-691-05887-0|location=Princeton|page=67}}</ref> Sonosono, gudumu la makuni la kale comene lakumanyikwa mu 2024 likasangika mu dambo la Ljubljana mu Slovenia, ndipo ŵakumanya ŵa Austria ŵakasanga kuti lili na vyaka pakati pa 5,100 na 5,350.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|title=World's Oldest Wheel Found in Slovenia|last=Gasser|first=Aleksander|date=March 2003|publisher=Republic of Slovenia Government Communication Office|access-date=8 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826021129/http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|archive-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> Kupangika kwa gudumu kukasintha comene malonda na nkhondo. Luŵiro ŵanthu ŵakasanga kuti ngolo za magudumu zingagwiliskirika ntchito kunyamula katundu wakuzitika. Ŵasumeri ŵa kale ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito gudumu la ŵaumbi ŵa viŵiya, ndipo ŵangaŵa kuti ndiwo ŵakalipanga.<ref name="Kramer1963">{{cite book|last=Kramer|first=Samuel Noah|year=1971|orig-date=1963|title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-45238-8|page=290|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808201642/http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Sumerians.html?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Gudumu la libwe la ŵaumbi ilo likasangika mu msumba wa Uri ndi la pafupifupi 3,429 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Moorey1994">{{cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger Stuart|date=1999|orig-date=1994|title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-042-2|page=146|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017215042/https://books.google.com/books/about/Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus.html?id=P_Ixuott4doC|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Moorey1994" /> Magudumu gha luŵiro gha ŵaumbi ghakazomerezga kupanga viŵiya vinandi, kweni kagwiliskiro ka gudumu nga ni cakusintha nkhongono (kwizira mu magudumu gha maji, gha mphepo, na gha kuponda) ndiko kukasintha comene kagwiliskiro ka nkhongono zambura kuŵa za ŵanthu. Magaleta ghakwamba gha magudumu ghaŵiri ghakagwiliskirika ntchito dankha mu Mesopotamiya na Iran pafupifupi 3,000 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Lay1992">{{cite book|last=Lay|first=M. G. |title=Ways of the World|publisher=Primavera Press|year=1992|location=Sydney|page=28|isbn=978-1-875368-05-1}}</ref><ref name="Lay1992" /> Misewu ya kale comene yakuzengeka ni misewu ya malibwe ya msumba wa Uri, ya pafupifupi 4,000 pambere Khristu, na misewu ya makuni iyo yikajumphanga mu madambo gha Glastonbury, mu Ungelezi, ya nyengo yakuyana.<ref name="Gregersen2012">{{cite book|last1=Gregersen|first1=Erik|title=The Complete History of Wheeled Transportation: From Cars and Trucks to Buses and Bikes|date=2012|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|location=New York |isbn=978-1-61530-701-2|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145500/https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /> Msewu wakwamba utali, uwo ukamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu, ukaŵa utali makilomita 2,400 kufuma ku Persian Gulf mpaka ku Nyanja ya Mediterranean, kweni ukazengeka na malibwe yayi.<ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Gregersen2012" /><ref name="Aicher1995" /><ref name="Eslamian2014">{{cite book|last1=Eslamian|first1=Saeid|title=Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management|date=2014|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-1-4665-5250-0|pages=171–175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210095408/https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|url-status=live}}</ref> Pafupifupi 2,000 pambere Khristu, Ŵaminoa pa cirwa ca Ŵagiriki ca Krete ŵakazenga msewu wa makilomita 50 kufuma ku nyumba ya fumu ya Gortyn kumwera kwa cirwa, kujumpha mapiri, mpaka ku nyumba ya fumu ya Knossos kumpoto.<ref name="Eslamian2014" /><ref name="Lechner2012">{{cite book|last1=Lechner|first1=Norbert|title=Plumbing, Electricity, Acoustics: Sustainable Design Methods for Architecture|date=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=978-1-118-01475-2|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145421/https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Eslamian2014" /> Kupambana na msewu wa kale, msewu wa Ŵaminoa ukazengeka wose na malibwe.<ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /><ref name="Lechner2012" /> Nyumba za ŵanthu paŵekha za Ŵaminoa ŵa kale zikaŵa na maji ghakwenda. Cakugezeramo cakuyana ndendende na ca mazuŵa ghano cikasangika pa nyumba ya fumu ya Knossos. Nyumba zinyake zikaŵa so na vimbuzi, ivyo vikatozgekanga mwa kuthira maji. Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakaŵa na vimbuzi vinandi vya ŵanthu wose, ivyo vikathiranga mu ndondomeko yikulu ya ngalande za vyakunyanyira. Ngalande yikulu mu Roma yikaŵa Cloaca Maxima; kuzengeka kwake kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu, ndipo yicali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakaŵa so na ndondomeko yakusuzga ya ngalande za maji, izo zikanyamulanga maji mtunda utali.<ref name="Aicher1995">{{cite book|last1=Aicher|first1=Peter J.|title=Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome|date=1995|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc.|location=Wauconda, IL|isbn=978-0-86516-282-2|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205010425/https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aicher1995" /> Ngalande yakwamba ya Ŵaroma yikazengeka mu 312 pambere Khristu.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> Ya khumi na yimoza, yaumaliro, yikazengeka mu 226 mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> Pamoza, ngalande za Ŵaroma zikaŵa zitali kujumpha makilomita 450, kweni pasi pa makilomita 70 ndipo zikaŵa pacanya pa mtunda na kukhazgika na malinga gha mawonekero gha uta.<ref name="Aicher1995" /><ref name="Aicher1995" /> === Pambere pa Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Kupanga vinthu viphya kukalutilira mu nyengo yapakati, na kupanga silika (mu Asiya ndipo pamanyuma Ulaya), cakukoleka ca hachi pa singo, na nsapato za cisulo za mahachi. Makina ghapepuka (nga ni ''lever'', ''screw'', na ''pulley'') ghakasazganika kupanga vilwero vyakusuzga, nga ni wilibala, magudumu gha mphepo, na vipimanyengo.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315588605 |isbn=978-1-317-11653-0 |s2cid=148764971 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315588605/innovation-creativity-late-medieval-early-modern-european-cities-karel-davids-bert-de-munck |editor-last=Davids |editor-first=K. |editor-last2=De Munck |editor-first2=B. |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184255/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315588605/innovation-creativity-late-medieval-early-modern-european-cities-karel-davids-bert-de-munck |url-status=live }}</ref> Ndondomeko ya mayunivesite yikakura ndipo yikathandazga maghanoghano na kacitiro ka kasandiro, kusazgapo Oxford na Cambridge.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |title=Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |date=2000 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-11351-0 |editor-last=Courtenay |editor-first=W. J. |editor-last2=Miethke |editor-first2=J. |editor-last3=Priest |editor-first3=D. B. |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184252/https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Nyengo ya Kuwuka Kwaciŵiri yikapanga vinthu viphya vinandi, kusazgapo kwiza kwa makina gha kudindira gha malembo ghakusamika mu Ulaya, agho ghakapepuska kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru. Luso la vilwero likamba kukhwaskika comene na kasandiro, ndipo ici cikamba ndondomeko ya kovwirana kuluta panthazi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deming |first=D. |url= |title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9086-8}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === [[File:1885Benz.jpg|thumb|Galimoto, apa Benz Patent-Motorwagen yakwamba, yikasintha comene umo ŵanthu ŵakwendera.]] Kwamba mu Ufumu Ubanyi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, kusanga nkhongono ya mvuci kukamba Kusintha kwa Mafakitale, uko kukawona kusanga kunandi kwa luso la vilwero, comene mu ulimi, kupanga vinthu, migodi, kufula visulo, na mayendero, na kuthandazgika kwa ndondomeko ya mafakitale.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stearns |first=P. N. |url= |title=The Industrial Revolution in World History |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-8133-4729-5 }}</ref> Ici cikalondezgeka vyaka 100 pamanyuma na Kusintha Kwaciŵiri kwa Mafakitale, uko kukapangiska kusanga luŵiro kwa kasandiro, kupanga vinthu mwakuyana, na kupanga vinthu vinandi. Luso liphya likapangika, kusazgapo ndondomeko za ngalande za vyakunyanyira, magesi, mababu gha magesi, injini za magesi, njanji za sitima, magalimoto, na ndege. Kuluta panthazi uku kukapangiska kukura kukulu mu kasandiro ka ucizgi, usungunu, kusanda mendero, na kazengero ka vilwero.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mokyr |first=J. |title=The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914 |year=2000 |url=https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910210450/https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kukapelekezgeka na kusintha kukulu mu wupu wa ŵanthu, na kwiza kwa nyumba zitali comene pamoza na kukura luŵiro kwa misumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=B. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |title=To Have and Have Not: Energy in World History |year= 2022 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-0504-7 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184800/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuyowoyerana kukanozgeka na kupangika kwa telegilafu, lamya, wayilesi, na wayilesi ya kanema.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albion |first=Robert G. |date=1 January 1933 |title=The Communication Revolution, 1760–1933 |journal=Transactions of the Newcomen Society |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.1179/tns.1933.002 |issn=0372-0187 }}</ref> Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikiziska vinthu viphya vinandi. Mu kusanda mendero, kusanga kugaŵika kwa mtima wa vimenyu mu Nyengo ya Vimenyu kukapangiska vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya na nkhongono ya nyukiliya. Makompyuta gha ''analog'' ghakapangika ndipo ghakawusa pa kupenda mauthenga ghakusuzga. Nangauli kupangika kwa ma''vacuum tube'' kukazomerezga makompyuta gha digito nga ni ENIAC, ukulu wawo ukakanizga kagwiliskiro kanandi mpaka ''transistor'' yikapangika mu 1947, iyo yikacepeska comene makompyuta na kwiziska kusintha kwa digito. Luso la vilwero vya uthenga, comene ulusi wa ungweru, likazomerezga kuyowoyerana kupepuka na kwa luŵiro kutali, ndipo likiziska Nyengo ya Uthenga na kubabika kwa intaneti. Nyengo ya Mlengalenga yikamba na kutumika kwa Sputnik 1 mu 1957, ndipo pamanyuma maulendo gha ŵanthu ku mwezi mu ma 1960. Ntchito zakunozgeka za kupenja vinjeru vya kuwaro kwa caro capasi zagwiliskira ntchito vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya wayilesi kupenja vimanyikwiro vya luso la vilwero ivyo vikufuma ku midawuko ya kunyake. Mu ucizgi, luso liphya likapangika pa kupima nthenda (kujambura thupi na CT, PET, na MRI), kucizga (nga ni makina gha kutozga ndopa, gha kuwuska mtima, na mankhwala ghaphya ghanandi), na kusanda.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agar |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |title=Science in the 20th Century and Beyond |year=2012 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0-7456-3469-2|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |url-status=live }}</ref> Nthowa zakusuzga za kupanga na kuzenga, na mawupu, ni vyakukhumbikwa kupanga na kusunga luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano, ndipo mafakitale ghose ghapangika kupanga vilwero vyakusuzga comene. Luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano likuthemba comene kusambizga; ŵakulinozga, ŵakulizenga, ŵakulisunga, na ŵakuligwiliskira ntchito kanandi ŵakukhumba kusambira kukulu.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goldin |first1=C. |author1-link=Claudia Goldin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |title=The Race between Education and Technology |last2=Katz |first2=L. F. |author2-link=Lawrence F. Katz |year=2010 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03773-1 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweniso, luso ili laŵa lakusuzga comene mwakuti vigaŵa vyose vya kasambiro vyapangika kulikhozga, kusazgapo kazengero ka vilwero, kasandiro ka ucizgi, na kasandiro ka makompyuta; ndipo vigaŵa vinyake vyaŵa vyakusuzga comene, nga ni kuzenga, mayendero, na kazengero ka nyumba. == Vyakufumapo == [[File:20260425 Technology growth cycle.svg |thumb |Kupanga luso la vilwero liphya, nga ni nkhongono izo zikumala yayi, kukwambiska mzingo uwo ukujisazgira wekha. Mwaciyelezgero, apo vipangizo vinandi vya nkhongono za zuŵa vikuŵikika, mitengo yikucepa cifukwa ca kupanga vinandi, ndipo luso ili likwamba kuŵa la mtengo wakuyana na vinyake, ico cikusazgira so unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakulikhumba.<ref name=OWID_TechGrowthCycle>Chart titled "Technologies that become cheaper with increasing production enter a virtuous cycle" in: {{cite web |last1=Roser |first1=Max |title=Why did renewables become so cheap so fast? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |date=1 December 2020 |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260416161944/https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |archive-date=16 April 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Kusintha kwa luso la vilwero ndico cifukwa cikulu comene ca kukura kwa vyacuma kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Solow |first=Robert M. |date=1957 |title=Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function |journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=312–320 |doi=10.2307/1926047 |jstor=1926047 |issn=0034-6535 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bresnahan |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Trajtenberg |first2=M. |date=1 January 1995 |title=General purpose technologies 'Engines of growth'? |journal=Journal of Econometrics |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=83–108 |doi=10.1016/0304-4076(94)01598-T |bibcode=1995JEcon..65...83B |issn=0304-4076|doi-access=free }}</ref> Mu mbiri yose ya ŵanthu, kupanga nkhongono ndiko kukaŵa cikanizgo cikulu ca kukura kwa vyacuma, ndipo luso liphya likazomerezga ŵanthu kusazgira comene nkhongono iyo yikaŵako. Pakwamba pakiza moto, uwo ukapangiska vyakulya vinandi kurika, na kugaya kwambura kusuzga. Moto ukazomerezga so kusungunuska visulo na kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya ''tin'', mkuŵa, na cisulo, pa kusaka panji pa ntchito za luso. Pamanyuma pakiza kusintha kwa ulimi: ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga so kusaka panji kutola kuti ŵapone yayi, ndipo ŵakamba kukhala mu mizi na misumba, kupanga mawupu gha ŵanthu ghakusuzga, na ŵankhondo na visopa vyakunozgeka.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Wrigley |first=E. A |date=13 March 2013 |title=Energy and the English Industrial Revolution |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=371 |issue=1986 |article-number=20110568 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2011.0568|pmid=23359739 |bibcode=2013RSPTA.37110568W |s2cid=10624423 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Luso la vilwero lovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu kwizira mu usambazi, kupepuka kwa umoyo, na kuluta panthazi kwa ucizgi, kweni lingasokonezga so makwelero gha wupu wa ŵanthu, kunanga malo ghakuzingilizga, na kupweteka ŵanthu panji magulu. Mu vyaka vya sonosono, nthowa za kuyowoyerana pa intaneti zaŵa zakuzirwa comene mu midawuko, ndipo zingakhwaska ulongozgi wa ŵanthu, vyacuma, na umoyo wa wupu wa ŵanthu. Pakwamba, intaneti yikawonekanga nga ni "luso la wanangwa" ilo lingathandazga vinjeru ku wose, kupepuska kufikira kasambiro, na kukhozga ulongozgi wa ŵanthu. Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano kwazgokera ku kusanda viheni vya intaneti, kusazgapo mauthenga ghautesi, kugaŵana kwa ŵanthu, mazgo gha cidani, na kuthandazga maghanoghano gha ndyali.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |title=Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-83555-8 |editor-last=Persily |editor-first=Nathaniel |series=SSRC Anxieties of Democracy |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/9781108890960 |hdl=11245.1/cf2f5b6a-8dc8-4400-bc38-3317b0164499 |s2cid=243715477 |editor-last2=Tucker |editor-first2=Joshua A. |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019091703/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1970, vyakufumapo vya luso la vilwero pa malo ghakuzingilizga vyasuskika, ndipo ici capangiska kusazgikira kwa ndalama mu nkhongono za zuŵa, mphepo, na nkhongono zinyake zakutowa. === Pa Wupu wa Ŵanthu === ==== Ntchito ==== Kufuma pa kupangika kwa gudumu, luso la vilwero lovwira kusazgira vyakupangika vya ŵanthu. Makina gha kale ghakatora malo gha ŵantchito na kuŵovwira; makina ghakatora malo gha ŵanthu pa ntchito zinyake za malipiro ghacoko (mwaciyelezgero, mu ulimi), kweni ntchito ziphya za malipiro ghakulu zikapangika.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Autor|first=D. H.|year=2015|title=Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=29|number=3|pages=3–30|doi=10.1257/jep.29.3.3 |url=https://economics.mit.edu/files/11563|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901060615/http://economics.mit.edu/files/11563 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/109476|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Kusanda kwasanga kuti makompyuta ghandapangiske kusoŵa ntchito kukulu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bessen |first=J. E. |date=3 October 2016 |title=How Computer Automation Affects Occupations: Technology, Jobs, and Skills |journal=Economic Perspectives on Employment & Labor Law EJournal. |volume=15{{hyphen}}49 |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2690435 |ssrn=2690435 |s2cid=29968989 |url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310050823/https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Cifukwa [[Vinjeru vyakupangika|vinjeru vyakupangika]] vili na nkhongono zikulu comene kuluska makompyuta, ndipo vicali viphya, palije kumanya usange vizamulondezga nthowa yakuyana; nkhani iyi yayowoyeka comene na ŵasandi ŵa vyacuma na ŵapangi ŵa ndondomeko. Kufumba kwa mu 2017 kukasanga kuti ŵasandi ŵa vyacuma ŵakazomerezgana yayi usange vinjeru vyakupangika vizamusazgira kusoŵa ntchito kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2017 |title=Robots and Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |access-date=17 September 2022 |website=igmchicago.org |publisher=Initiative on Global Markets |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171212/https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kuyana na lipoti la World Economic Forum la 2020, vinjeru vyakupangika vikulongolereka kutora malo gha ntchito miliyoni 85 pa caro cose na kupanga ntchito ziphya miliyoni 97 pofika 2025. Kufuma 1990 mpaka 2007, kusanda kwa Daron Acemoglu wa MIT mu U.S. kukalongora kuti kusazga roboti limoza pa ŵantchito 1,000 kukacepeska unandi wa ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito na magaŵa 0.2 pa 100, panji ŵantchito pafupifupi 3.3, na kucepeska malipiro na magaŵa 0.42 pa 100.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2020 |title=The Future of Jobs Report 2020 |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=www3.weforum.org |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115173909/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Robots and AI Taking Over Jobs: What to Know {{!}} Built In |url=https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=builtin.com |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171804/https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweni kofya kuti luso la vilwero lingatora malo gha ŵantchito kwaŵa kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How many jobs do robots really replace? |url=https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171803/https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Restrepo |first2=Pascual |date=1 June 2020 |title=Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=128 |issue=6 |pages=2188–2244 |doi=10.1086/705716 |hdl=1721.1/130324 |s2cid=7468879 |issn=0022-3808 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171811/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nga umo Pulezidenti wa U.S. Lyndon Johnson wakayowoyera mu 1964, "Luso la vilwero likutipa mwaŵi uphya na udindo uphya, mwaŵi wa kupanga vinandi na kuluta panthazi; udindo wa kusimikizga kuti palije muntchito panji mbumba iyo yikulipira mtengo wambura urunji pa kuluta panthazi."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Remarks Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress. {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174700/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1966 |title=Technology and the American Economy |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=files.eric.ed.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=If Robots Take Our Jobs, Will They Make It Up to Us? |url=https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=The University of Chicago Booth School of Business |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325132904/https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=GovInfo |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.govinfo.gov n |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1963 |title=H.R.11611 – An Act to establish a National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.congress.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116180845/https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Civikiliro ==== Apo ŵanthu ŵakuthemba comene luso la vilwero, pali kofya pa civikiliro na pa kusunga mauthenga gha munthu mwakubisika. Ŵanthu mabiliyoni ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambana za kulipira pa intaneti kutumizga ndalama. Nangauli pali ndondomeko za civikiliro, ŵapokwa ŵanyake ŵangazijumpha.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Elizabeth |author1-link=Elizabeth Rosenberg |last2=Harrell |first2=Peter E. |last3=Shiffman |first3=Gary M. |last4=Dorshimer |first4=Sam |date=2019 |title=Financial Technology and National Security |publisher=Center for a New American Security |jstor=resrep20404 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |access-date=19 January 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Masika 2022, Korea ya Kumpoto yikagwiliskira ntchito nthowa yinyake ya kubisa kusinthana kwa ndalama za pa intaneti kuti yibise ndalama zakujumpha madola miliyoni 20.5 na kwiba ndalama zakujumpha madola miliyoni 600 kufuma ku mwenecho wa sewero linyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. takes aim at North Korean crypto laundering |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. ties North Korean hacker group to Axie Infinity crypto theft |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140346/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cifukwa ca ici, Unduna wa Ndalama wa U.S. ukalanga nthowa iyi. Kubisika kwa ndalama za pa intaneti kuli mphindano: ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kubisika uku, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuti pakwenera kuŵa kuŵa pakweru na kukhazikika.<ref name=":11" /> === Pa Malo Ghakuzingilizga === Luso la vilwero lingaŵa na vyakufumapo viwemi na viheni pa malo ghakuzingilizga. Luso la malo ghakuzingilizga likulongosora luso lakupambana ilo likuyezga kuwezgera, kucepeska, panji kuleka kunangika kwa malo ghakuzingilizga.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Austin |first1=David |last2=Macauley |first2=Molly K. |author2-link=Molly K. Macauley |date=1 December 2001 |title=Cutting Through Environmental Issues: Technology as a double-edged sword |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=Brookings |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002853/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ici cingasazgapo ndondomeko za kuleka kunanga malo kwizira mu malango, kukora na kusunga vyakunanga, panji kugwiliskira ntchito vyakusyala vyakunanga mu mafakitale ghanyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grainger |first1=Alan |last2=Francisco |first2=Herminia A |last3=Tiraswat |first3=Penporn |title=The impact of changes in agricultural technology on long-term trends in deforestation |journal=Land Use Policy |date=July 2003 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=209–223 |doi=10.1016/S0264-8377(03)00009-7 |bibcode=2003LUPol..20..209G }}</ref> Luso liphya mu cigaŵa ca kusintha nyengo lingaleka panji kuwezgera kufunda kwa caro cose, nangauli ici cicali mphindano yikulu.<ref>{{cite web|author=EPA|date=19 January 2017|title=Climate Impacts on Ecosystems|url=https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127185656/https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|archive-date=27 January 2018|access-date=5 February 2019|quote=Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Union of Concerned Scientists |date=6 November 2017 |title=What is Climate Engineering? |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-climate-engineering |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.ucsusa.org |language=en |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027225649/https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-climate-engineering |url-status=live }}</ref> Apo luso la vilwero lakura, ndimo vyakufumapo viheni pa malo ghakuzingilizga vyasazgikira, na kufumiska kunandi kwa mphepo zakusunga kufunda, kusazgapo metheni na kaboni dayokisayidi, mu mphepo. Ici cikulutilira kufundiska caro capasi pacoko pacoko, kwiziska kufunda kwa caro cose na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chaudhry |first1=Imran Sharif |last2=Ali |first2=Sajid |last3=Bhatti |first3=Shaukat Hussain |last4=Anser |first4=Muhammad Khalid |last5=Khan |first5=Ahmad Imran |last6=Nazar |first6=Raima |title=Dynamic common correlated effects of technological innovations and institutional performance on environmental quality: Evidence from East-Asia and Pacific countries |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |date=October 2021 |volume=124 |pages=313–323 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.007 |bibcode=2021ESPol.124..313C }}</ref> ==== Kunanga Malo ==== Kunanga malo, kuŵapo kwa vinthu viheni mu malo ivyo vikwiziska vyakufumapo viheni, kungaŵa kuti kukaŵako kale mu Ufumu wa Inca. Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mtovu pa kusungunuska visulo, pamoza na ng'anjo za dongo izo zikapuzgikanga na mphepo, ndipo ici cikafumiskanga mtovu mu mphepo na mu dongo la milonga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smol |first=J. P. |title=Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: A Paleoenvironmental Perspective. |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0757-3 |edition=2nd |location=Chichester |page=135 |oclc=476272945 }}</ref> == Filosofi == Filosofi ya luso la vilwero ni cigaŵa ca filosofi ico cikusanda "kacitiro ka kunozga na kupanga vinthu", na "kawiro ka vinthu ivyo vyapangika".<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Franssen |first1=M. |chapter=Philosophy of Technology |year=2018 |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=E. N. |edition=Fall 2018 |access-date=11 September 2022 |last2=Lokhorst |first2=G.-J. |last3=van de Poel |first3=I. |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911061556/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=de Vries |first1=M. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOmPCgAAQBAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction for Technology and Business Students |last2=Verkerk |first2=M. J. |last3=Hoogland |first3=J. |last4=van der Stoep |first4=J. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-44571-5 |location=United Kingdom |oclc=907132694 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184227/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Philosophy_of_Technology/EOmPCgAAQBAJ |archive-date=4 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Yikamba nga ni cigaŵa ca kasambiro mu vyaka 200 vyaumaliro, ndipo yakura comene kufuma mu ma 1970.<ref name=":5" /> Pakwamba, luso la vilwero likawonekanga nga ni kusazgira kwa thupi la munthu ilo likuwerezga panji kukhozga nkhongono za thupi na za mahara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brey |first=P. |year=2000 |editor-last=Mitcham |editor-first=C. |title=Theories of Technology as Extension of Human Faculties |journal=Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Technology. Research in Philosophy and Technology |volume=19 }}</ref> Marx wakaliwona nga ni cilwero ico ŵakapitalisti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kusuzga ŵantchito, kweni wakagomezganga kuti luso la vilwero lizamuŵa nkhongono ya wanangwa para "lawuskika ku kunangika kwa wupu wa ŵanthu". Ŵapenda vinjeru ŵa nyengo yaciŵiri nga ni Ortega ŵakasintha kulaŵiska umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ŵakuti luso la vilwero lingasuzga "nanga ni ŵasambazi awo ŵakawonekanga kuŵa ŵaneco". Ŵapenda vinjeru ŵa nyengo yacitatu nga ni Don Ihde na Albert Borgmann ŵakulaŵiska umo ŵanthu ŵangasambira kukhala na luso la vilwero.<ref name=":8" /> Kusanda kwakwamba kwa luso la vilwero kukagaŵika pakati pa maghanoghano ghaŵiri: lakuti luso la vilwero likusimikizga wupu wa ŵanthu, na lakuti wupu wa ŵanthu ndiwo ukupanga luso la vilwero. Ghakwamba ghakuti luso la vilwero likwiziska kusintha kwa wupu wa ŵanthu uko kungagegeka yayi, ndipo kuluta panthazi kwake kukulondezga nthowa ya kawiro iyo yingakanizgika yayi.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Deborah G. |author1-link=Deborah G. Johnson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |title=Technology and Society: Building Our Sociotechnical Future |edition=2nd |last2=Wetmore |first2=Jameson M. |date=2021 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-53996-8 |access-date=18 October 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043232/https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|95}} Ghaciŵiri ghakuti luso la vilwero lilije nthowa ya kawiro, ndipo likupangika na midawuko, malango, ndyali, na vyacuma.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dusek |first=Val |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-4051-1162-1|access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184807/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano kwasintha kulaŵiska ndondomeko za ŵanthu na luso pamoza, "kawunjikiro ka vinthu, ŵanthu, kacitiro, na ng'anamulo".<ref name=":9" /> Mususki wa midawuko Neil Postman wakapatula mawupu gha ŵanthu agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero, mawupu gha luso la vilwero, na ivyo wakachema "technopolies", mawupu agho ghakulongozgeka na maghanoghano gha kuluta panthazi kwa luso na kasandiro kwambura kulaŵiska midawuko yinyake na makhalidwe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postman |first=Neil |title=Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology |publisher=Vintage |year=1993 |location=New York}}</ref> Herbert Marcuse na John Zerzan ŵakuti wupu wa luso la vilwero uzamutora wanangwa na uchanda wa mahara wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcuse |first=H. |editor-first1=Douglas |editor-last1=Kellner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |title=Technology, War and Fascism: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse, Volume 1 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-77466-1|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184809/https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live |doi=10.4324/9780203208311}}</ref> == Makhalidwe == Makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero ni cigaŵa ca kasandiro ka makhalidwe ico cikupenda vyakufumapo vya makhalidwe vya luso la vilwero na kupenja nthowa za kucepeska viheni vya luso liphya. Pali nkhani zinandi za makhalidwe pa luso la vilwero, kufuma ku nkhani izo zikukhwaska ŵantchito ŵa luso mpaka ku nkhani zikulu za wupu wa ŵanthu, makhalidwe, na dango.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansson |first=Sven Ove |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |title=The Ethics of Technology: Methods and Approaches |year=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-78348-659-5 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184810/https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mphindano zikulu zaŵa pa vyamoyo vyakusintha vyakuhara, kagwiliskiro ka maroboti gha nkhondo, kupendelera kwa ndondomeko za makompyuta, na kukoleranya nkhalo ya vinjeru vyakupangika na makhalidwe gha ŵanthu.<ref name="Al-Rodhan">{{Cite web |last=Al-Rodhan |first=Nayef |title=The Many Ethical Implications of Emerging Technologies |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |access-date=13 December 2019 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=8 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408081948/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero ghali na vigaŵa vinandi: makhalidwe gha vyamoyo ghakulaŵiska nkhani za luso la vyamoyo na ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano; makhalidwe gha makompyuta; makhalidwe gha intaneti, nga ni wanangwa wa maghanoghano, kubisika kwa mauthenga, na kukanizga mauthenga; makhalidwe gha luso la vinthu vicoko comene; na makhalidwe gha ŵazengi ŵa vilwero, kusazgapo ŵapangi ŵa vilwerovipepu na udindo wawo ku ŵanthu. Cigaŵa cikulu ca makhalidwe gha luso la vilwero cikukhwaskana na makhalidwe gha vinjeru vyakupangika: makhalidwe gha maroboti, na kusimikizga nkhalo yiwemi ya vinjeru vyakupangika.<ref name="Veruggio2002">{{cite journal |author=Veruggio, Gianmarco |year=2011 |title=The Roboethics Roadmap |journal=EURON Roboethics Atelier |publisher=Scuola di Robotica |page=2 }}</ref><ref name="Anderson2011">{{Cite book |title=Machine Ethics |date= 2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11235-2 |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Anderson |editor2-first=Susan Leigh}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakulu ghambura kumazgika ni kusimikizga kuti vinjeru vyakupangika vikucita ivyo ŵapangi ŵawo ŵakukhumba, na kucepeska kupendelera. Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵacenjezga za ngozi ya vinjeru vyakupangika kuwusa ŵanthu. == Kusanda Vyamunthazi == Kusanda vyamunthazi ni kusanda kuluta panthazi kwa wupu wa ŵanthu na kwa luso la vilwero. Kukukhumba kupenda vyamunthazi ivyo vingacitika na kusazgamo makhalidwe gha ŵanthu pa kupanga luso liphya.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|54}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|73}} Kukuthemba kupenda kwa manambala na kwa kulongosora kwa nthowa za luso la vilwero za kale na za sono, na kuyezga kulongolera ivyo vizamucitika.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |title=Foundations of Futures Studies, Volume 1: Human Science for a New Era |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-2379-1|access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185315/https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|173}} Nkhani zakupeka za kasandiro kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni kasupe wa maghanoghano.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|187}} === Ngozi ya Kumalira kwa Ŵanthu === Ŵasandi ŵa ngozi iyi ŵakupenda ngozi izo zingamaliska ŵanthu panji kunanga midawuko, ndipo ŵakupenja nthowa za kuzizipizga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=cser.ac.uk |archive-date=30 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230172611/https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gottlieb |first1=Joseph |title=Discounting, Buck-Passing, and Existential Risk Mitigation: The Case of Space Colonization |journal=Space Policy |date=May 2022 |volume=60 |article-number=101486 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101486 |bibcode=2022SpPol..6001486G }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |title=Stanford Existential Risks Initiative |url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=cisac.fsi.stanford.edu |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922150116/https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |url-status=live }}</ref> Luso la munthazi lingasazgira ngozi ya vinjeru vyakupangika vikulu, nkhondo za vyamoyo, nkhondo ya nyukiliya, na kusintha kwa nyengo, nangauli lingovwira so kuvikilira kutimbana kwa malibwe gha mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198570509.001.0001 |title=Global Catastrophic Risks |date=2008 |editor-last1=Bostrom |editor-last2=Cirkovic |editor-first1=Nick |editor-first2=Milan M. |last1=Rees |first1=Martin J. |isbn=978-0-19-857050-9 }}</ref> Mu 2019, mupenda vinjeru Nick Bostrom wakanjizga ghanoghano la caro ca ngozi, "umo pali kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero uko midawuko yizamunangika", ndipo wakapempha ŵapangi ŵa ndondomeko kukayikira ghanoghano lakuti kuluta panthazi kwa luso nkhwiwemi nyengo zose.<ref name="Bostrom 2019">{{Cite journal |last=Bostrom |first=Nick |date=6 September 2019 |title=The Vulnerable World Hypothesis |journal=Global Policy |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=455–476 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12718 |issn=1758-5880 |s2cid=203169705|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Bostrom 2019" /> == Luso Liphya == [[File:Army invests in 3-D bioprinting to treat injured Soldiers.jpg|thumb|Kuyezga kupanga minofu ya thupi na makina gha 3D|alt=Cithuzi ca msandi wakulaŵiska mu maikulosikopu]] Luso liphya ni luso ilo kupangika panji kagwiliskiro kake kakuwoneka kandafiskike. Likusazgapo luso la vinthu vicoko comene, luso la vyamoyo, maroboti, kudinda vinthu vya mbali zitatu, na ''blockchain''. Mu 2005, Ray Kurzweil wakati kusintha kwakulondezga kwa luso la vilwero kuzamuthemba vyakuhara, luso la vinthu vicoko comene, na maroboti, ndipo maroboti ndigho ghazamukhwaska comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kurzweil |first=Ray |title=The Singularity is Near |publisher=Penguin |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-101-21888-4 |chapter=GNR: Three Overlapping Revolutions}}</ref> Kusintha vyakuhara kuzamuzomerezga kulongozga comene kawiro ka thupi la munthu. Ŵanyake ŵakofya kuti ici cingiziska kupambanyizga ŵanthu kukulu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kompridis |first=N. |year=2009 |title=Technology's challenge to democracy: What of the human |url=http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |journal=Parrhesia |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=20–33 |access-date=21 February 2011 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185314/http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=19 April 2016|title=Ray Kurzweil Predicts Three Technologies Will Define Our Future|url=https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Singularity Hub|last1=McShane|first1=Sveta|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510191934/https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poole |first1=C. P. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfzgEoY9SNkC |title=Introduction to Nanotechnology |last2=Owens |first2=F. J. |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-07935-4}}</ref> Luso la vinthu vicoko comene lizamuzomerezga kusintha vinthu pa ukulu wa vimenyu, ndipo maroboti ghacoko comene ghangagwiliskirika ntchito mu thupi la munthu kunanga tumaselo twa kansa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vince |first=G. |date=3 July 2003 |title=Nanotechnology may create new organs |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=New Scientist |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911220109/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Maroboti agho ghakugwira ntchito ghekha ghaluta panthazi luŵiro, ndipo ghakulindilirika kutora malo gha ŵanthu pa ntchito zinandi za ngozi, kusazgapo kupenja na kuponoska ŵanthu, kuzimiska moto, na nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Sukhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |title=Recent Progress in Robotics: Viable Robotic Service to Human: An Edition of the Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference on Advanced Robotics |last2=Suh |first2=Il Hong |year= 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-76728-2 |page=3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185316/https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Maghanoghano pa kwiza kwa vinjeru vyakupangika vya pose ghakupambana, kweni hafu ya ŵakumanya awo ŵakafumbika mu 2018 ŵakugomezga kuti vinjeru vyakupangika "vizamucita ntchito yiliyose makola na mwambura kudura" kuluska ŵanthu pofika 2063.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grace |first1=K. |last2=Salvatier |first2=J. |last3=Dafoe |first3=A. |last4=Zhang |first4=B. |last5=Evans |first5=O. |date=31 July 2018 |title=Viewpoint: When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts |url=https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |journal=Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research|volume=62 |pages=729–754 |doi=10.1613/jair.1.11222 |issn=1076-9757 |s2cid=8746462 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kusoŵa ntchito uku kwapangiska ŵanthu kupempha kusambizga kunandi kwa makompyuta na mphindano pa ndalama ya pasi ya ŵanthu wose. == Magulu gha Maghanoghano == === Luso Lakwenelera === Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ŵa mu ma 1960 ghakaleka kutemwa umoyo wa mu misumba ndipo ghakatemwa luso la vilwero la malo agho, ilo lingakhalilira, lakuchemeka luso lakwenelera. === Kugomezga Luso la Vilwero === Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero ni ciwemi ndipo kungiziska wupu wa ŵanthu uwemi comene umo malango na ulongozgi vikuteŵetera ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segal |first=H. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |title=Technological Utopianism in American Culture|edition=20th Anniversary|year=2005 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3061-6 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |url-status=live }}</ref> Vilato vyawo vikusazgapo vyacuma vyambura kusoŵa, kutalikiska umoyo, na kupanga vinjeru vyakupangika vikulu comene. Magulu ghakulu ni ''transhumanism'' na ''singularitarianism''. Gulu la ''transhumanism'' likuthemba "kusintha kwakulutilira kwa umoyo wa munthu kujumpha mawonekero ghake gha sono" kwizira mu kasandiro na luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Roots and Core Themes |date=29 April 2013 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |title=The Transhumanist Reader |pages=1–2 |editor-last=More |editor-first=M. |editor-link=Max More |edition= |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |isbn=978-1-118-33429-4 |access-date=11 September 2022 |editor2-last=Vita-More |editor2-first=N. |editor2-link=Natasha Vita-More |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102725/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Likamanyikwa comene pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Istvan |first=Zoltan |date=1 February 2015 |title=A New Generation of Transhumanists Is Emerging |url=https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Interalia Magazine |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102727/https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵa ''singularitarianism'' ŵakugomezga kuti vinjeru vikulu vya makina vizamusazgira comene luŵiro lwa kuluta panthazi kwa luso, ndipo vingiziska kusintha kwa luŵiro uko ŵanthu ŵangapulikiska yayi. Ici cikuchemeka ''singularity'' ya luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blackford |first1=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |title=H±: Transhumanism and Its Critics |last2=Bostrom |first2=N. |last3=Dupuy |first3=J.-P. |date=2011 |publisher=Metanexus Institute |isbn=978-1-4568-1565-3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kususka Luso la Vilwero === Kuzirwa kwa luso la vilwero mu umoyo wa ŵanthu kwawuska kofya na kususka. Kususka uku nkhwa gulu limoza yayi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Steven E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |title=Against Technology: From the Luddites to Neo-Luddism |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-52239-1 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |url-status=live }}</ref> Kususka kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa kukaŵa kwa ŵa Luddite, awo ŵakasuskanga makina ghakwamba gha kupanga nsalu. Makina ghakapangiska kuti ŵantchito ŵacoko ŵakhumbikwe. Pakati pa ma 1970 na ma 1990, Ted Kaczynski wakacita kuphulika kunandi mu Amerika ndipo wakapharazga kalata yakususka vyakufumapo viheni vya luso la vilwero pa kawiro na wanangwa wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelman |first=David |date=1 June 2020 |title=Politics in a Small Room: Subterranean Babel in Piglia's El camino de Ida |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |journal=The Yearbook of Comparative Literature |volume=63 |pages=179–201 |doi=10.3138/ycl.63.005 |s2cid=220494877 |issn=0084-3695 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306190259/https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=Sean |date=7 May 2021 |title=The Unabomber and the origins of anti-tech radicalism |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=207–225 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2021.1921940 |issn=1356-9317 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Magulu ghanyake ghakupempha kuleka luso la vilwero na kuwelera ku kawiro. Gulu la mizi ya malo ghakuzingilizga likukhumba kukoleranya luso la vilwero na kawiro.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vannini|first1=Phillip|author2=Jonathan Taggart|title=Voluntary simplicity, involuntary complexities, and the pull of remove: The radical ruralities of off-grid lifestyles|journal=Environment and Planning A|volume=45|number=2|year=2013|pages=295–311|doi=10.1068/a4564 |bibcode=2013EnPlA..45..295V |s2cid=143970611 }}</ref> == Ubale na Kasandiro na Kazengero ka Vilwero == [[File: Zoom lunette ardente.jpg|thumb|Antoine Lavoisier wakuyezga kupya kwa vinthu na ungweru wa zuŵa wakukuzgika na galasi|alt=Cithuzi ca Lavoisier wakuyezga panthazi pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulaŵiska]] Kazengero ka vilwero ni nthowa iyo luso la vilwero likupangikira. Kanandi kakukhumba kumazga masuzgo mu vikanizgo vikulu.<ref name=":7" /> Kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero nkhwa "kucita", apo vinjeru vya kasandiro nvya kulongosora.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Nucci Pearce |first1=M. R. |last2=Pearce |first2=David |year=1989 |title=Technology vs. Science: The Cognitive Fallacy |journal=Synthese |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.1007/BF00869324 |jstor=20116729 |s2cid=46975083 |issn=0039-7857 }}</ref> Mupenda vinjeru wa Poland Henryk Skolimowski wakati: "kasandiro kakukhwaskana na ivyo viliko, luso la vilwero na ivyo vizamuŵako."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skolimowski |first=Henryk |year=1966 |title=The Structure of Thinking in Technology |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.2307/3101935 |jstor=3101935 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref>{{rp|375}} Usange kasandiro ndiko kakwiziska luso la vilwero panji yayi kwaŵa mphindano.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Harvey |title=The relationship between science and technology |journal=Research Policy |date=September 1994 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 }}</ref> Luso linandi likufuma ku kazengero ka vilwero, kuyezgayezga na mwaŵi, kwambura kuthemba vinjeru vya kasandiro.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Taleb |first=Nassim Nicholas |title=Antifragile |year=2012 |publisher=Penguin Random House |oclc=1252833169}}</ref>{{Rp|217–240}}<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Scranton |first=Philip |date=1 May 2006 |title=Urgency, uncertainty, and innovation: Building jet engines in postwar America |journal=Management & Organizational History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=127–157 |doi=10.1177/1744935906064096 |s2cid=143813033 |issn=1744-9359}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mu ma 1940 na 1950, ma''jet engine'' ghakapangika mwa "kwendeska cilwero mpaka cikunangika, kupenda ico canangika, na kuwerezga".<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|217–240}} Malongosoro gha kasandiro kanandi ghakuza pamanyuma pa luso la vilwero.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |title=The Birth of Penicillin, and the Disarming of Microbes |date=1970 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-0-04-925005-5 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185318/https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wise |first=George |year=1985 |title=Science and Technology |journal=Osiris |series=2nd Series |volume=1 |pages=229–46 |doi=10.1086/368647 |s2cid=144475553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1-link=David H. Guston |last=Guston |first=David H. |title=Between Politics and Science: Assuring the Integrity and Productivity of Research |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-65318-3 |location=New York}}</ref> Kusanga kunandi kukafuma ku mwaŵi pera, nga ni kusanga ''penicillin''.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Taleb |first=N. N. |date=12 December 2012 |title=Understanding is a Poor Substitute for Convexity (Antifragility) |url=https://fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=fooledbyrandomness.com |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621041454/https://www.fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kweni luso la vilwero la mazuŵa ghano likuthemba comene vinjeru vya kasandiro. Kusanda kwa 2021 kukulongora kuti mapangano gha vyakupangika agho ghakuthemba kasandiro ngakuzirwa na magaŵa 26 pa 100 kuluska ghanyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narin |first1=Francis |last2=Olivastro |first2=Dominic |title=Status report: Linkage between technology and science |journal=Research Policy |date=June 1992 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=237–249 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(92)90018-Y }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Krieger |first1=Joshua L. |last2=Schnitzer |first2=Monika |author2-link=Monika Schnitzer | last3=Watzinger| first3=Martin|date=1 May 2019 |title=Standing on the Shoulders of Science |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |ssrn=3401853 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912192637/https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> == Vinyama Vinyake == [[File:Gorilla tool use cropped.jpg|thumb|Gorila mukulu uyu wakugwiliskira ntchito khuni nga ni ndodo yakwendera kuti wapime kuzika kwa maji.|alt=Cithuzi ca gorila wakwenda mu maji gha kufika pa ciuno, wakukora khuni]] Kugwiliskira ntchito luso la vilwero lipepuka nako kukuwoneka mu vinyama vinyake. Kale kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero kukawonekanga nga ni cimanyikwiro ca ŵanthu pera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oakley |first1=Kenneth Page |title=Man the Tool-maker |date=1976 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-61270-6 }}</ref> Ghanoghano ili likasintha pamanyuma pa kusanga ukaboni wa kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero mwa ŵankhwele ŵa mtundu wa ''chimpanzee'' na vinyake, ma''dolphin'', na ŵacihoŵe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html |title=Chimpanzee Tool Use |access-date=13 February 2007 |author1=Sagan, Carl |author1-link=Carl Sagan |author2=Druyan, Ann |author2-link=Ann Druyan |author3=Leakey, Richard |author3-link=Ann Druyan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921062716/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=21 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="20050607bbc">{{Cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=7 June 2005|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204093731/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|archive-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=nbcnews21135366>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21135366|title=Crows use tools to find food|last=Schmid|first=Randolph E.|date=4 October 2007|publisher=NBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310185618/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21135366/#.WCYQR9IrLIU|archive-date=10 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rutz, C. |author2=Bluff, L.A. |author3=Weir, A.A.S. |author4=Kacelnik, A. |title=Video cameras on wild birds|journal=Science|date=4 October 2007|doi=10.1126/science.1146788|pmid=17916693 |volume=318|issue=5851|page=765 |bibcode = 2007Sci...318..765R |s2cid=28785984 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=McGrew | first=W. C | year=1992 | title=Chimpanzee Material Culture | publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press | isbn=978-0-521-42371-7 | location=Cambridge u.a.}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, ''chimpanzee'' za mu thengere zikugwiliskira ntchito tumakuni kusodzera viswe, na malibwe kuphwanya mtedza.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Boesch | first=Christophe | title=Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking | year=1984 | journal=Primates | issue=2 | pages=160–170 |author2=Boesch, Hedwige | doi=10.1007/BF02382388 | volume=25| s2cid=24073884 }}</ref><ref name=20090115newscientist>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|title=Nut-cracking monkeys find the right tool for the job|last=Brahic|first=Catherine|date=15 January 2009|work=New Scientist|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115142232/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|archive-date=15 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ndiyo nthowa yekha yayi; mwaciyelezgero, malinga gha maji agho ma''beaver'' ghakuzenga na makuni panji malibwe ni luso la vilwero ilo likukhwaska comene milonga na malo gha vyamoyo.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Müller |first1=G. |last2=Watling |first2=J. |date=24 June 2016 |title=The engineering in beaver dams |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |conference=River Flow 2016: Eighth International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics |location=St. Louis|publisher=University of Southampton Institutional Research Repository |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924081921/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |url-status=live }}</ref> == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=Seth D. |title=Cost–benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations |journal=Space Policy |date=May 2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=75–80 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2009.02.008 |bibcode=2009SpPol..25...75B |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID2807387_code2053183.pdf?abstractid=2807387&mirid=1 }} * {{Cite web |last=Bernstein |first=Jared |date=7 October 2014 |title=It's Not a Skills Gap That's Holding Wages Down: It's the Weak Economy, Among Other Things |url=https://prospect.org/api/content/fd7bf37d-d89e-5e04-b361-5f43c6ba8a25/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=The American Prospect |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043623/https://pandg.tapad.com/tag?us_privacy=1YNY&referrer_url=&page_url=https%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Feconomy%2Fskills-gap-holding-wages-down-weak-economy-among-things%2F&owner=P%26G&bp_id=cafemedia&ch=%7B%22architecture%22%3A%22%22%2C%22bitness%22%3A%22%22%2C%22brands%22%3A%5B%5D%2C%22mobile%22%3Afalse%2C%22model%22%3A%22%22%2C%22platformVersion%22%3A%22%22%7D&initiator=js |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-48402-0_5 |chapter=Feasting, Social Complexity, and the Emergence of the Early Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia: A View from Göbekli Tepe |title=Feast, Famine or Fighting? |series=Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation |date=2017 |last1=Dietrich |first1=Oliver |last2=Notroff |first2=Jens |last3=Schmidt |first3=Klaus |volume=8 |pages=91–132 |isbn=978-3-319-48401-3 }} * {{cite book |first1=Benjamin |last1=Cohen |first2=Gwen |last2=Ottinger |editor-first1=Gwen |editor-last1=Ottinger |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last2=Cohen| chapter=Introduction: Environmental Justice and the Transformation of Science and Engineering |date=2011 |pages=1–18 |title=Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01579-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Heidegger |first=Martin |title=The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1977 |location=New York |pages=25–26 |translator-last=Lovitt |translator-first=W. |chapter=The Question Concerning Technology}} * {{cite book |last1=Huesemann |first1=M.H. |last2=Huesemann |first2=J.A. |date=2011 |url=http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org/ |title=Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment |publisher=New Society Publishers |isbn=978-0-86571-704-6 |access-date=25 November 2013 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802194018/http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=K.|author-link=Kevin Kelly (editor)|title=What Technology Wants|location=New York|publisher=Viking Press|date=2010|isbn=978-0-670-02215-1}} * {{cite journal |author-link=Michael Kremer |last=Kremer |first=M. |year=1993 |title=Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=681–716 |doi=10.2307/2118405 |jstor=2118405 |s2cid=139085606| issn=0033-5533 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kuijt |first=I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-47166-7 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429034748/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=neolithic%20revolution%20social%20organization&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book|title=To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism|last=Morozov|first=Evgeny|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2013|isbn=978-1-61039-139-9|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/tosaveeverything0000moro}} * {{cite book|last=Mumford|first=L.|author-link=Lewis Mumford|date=2010|title=Technics and Civilization|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-55027-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Ord |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aSiDwAAQBAJ |title=The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity |year=2020 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-316-48489-3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429042206/https://books.google.com/books?id=3aSiDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |first1=Gwen |last1= Ottinger |editor-first1=Gwen |editor-last1=Ottinger |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last2=Cohen |title=Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement |date=2011 |pages=229–248 |chapter=Rupturing Engineering Education: Opportunities for Transforming Expert Identities Through Community-Based Projects |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01579-0}} * {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=R.|author-link=Richard Rhodes|date=2000|title=Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-684-86311-1}} * {{cite journal |last=Salomon |first=Jean-Jacques |year=1984 |title=What is technology? The issue of its origins and definitions |journal=History and Technology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=113–156 |doi=10.1080/07341518408581618 |issn=0734-1512 |eissn=1477-2620 |lccn=88656216 |oclc=8682103}} * {{Cite journal | last=Schuurman | first=E. | url=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | year=1997 | title=Philosophical and Ethical Problems of Technicism and Genetic Engineering | journal=Society for Philosophy and Technology Quarterly Electronic Journal | volume=3 | issue=1 | issn=1091-8264 | doi=10.5840/techne19973111 | pages=27–44 | access-date=11 September 2022 | archive-date=11 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911090553/https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | url-status=live | url-access=subscription }} * {{cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=May 2021 |volume=259 |article-number=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |title=A Treatise on Science Technology and Society |date=2020 |last=Sharma |first=M. R. |publisher=Laxmi Publications Pvt Limited |isbn=978-81-318-0667-8 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417100334/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Teich|first=A.H. |date=2008|title=Technology and the Future|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|edition=11th|isbn=978-0-495-57052-3}} * {{cite magazine|last=Tooze|first=A.|author-link=Adam Tooze|title=Democracy and Its Discontents|magazine=The New York Review of Books|volume=LXVI|number=10|date=6 June 2019|pages=52–53, 56–57|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|issn=0028-7504|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201202423/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|url-status=live}} * {{Cite journal |last=Turchin |first=A. |year=2018 |title=Approaches to the Prevention of Global Catastrophic Risks |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |journal=Human Prospect |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=52–65 |s2cid=135224906 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911094554/https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |url-status=live }} * {{cite Q|Q26221492|author=Wilson, G.|mode=cs1}}<!-- What is technology? --> * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=R.T. |date=2008|title=Technology|publisher=Goodheart-Wilcox Company|edition=5th|isbn=978-1-59070-718-0}} {{refend}} izutze2n2dtgg2tx2ulpd65xhlndlc5 0 6885 124381 123603 2026-11-10T20:12:08Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124381 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ŵakhazi''' ni ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu malo ghanyake, ndipo unandi wawo ukusazgikira panji kucepa mu nyengo.<ref name=":0">{{Britannica|id=470303|title=Population|author=Michael S. Teitelbaum}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Elmer S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TJAgAQAAMAAJ&q=%22as+a+group+of+individuals+who+are+more%22 |title=Introduction to Anthropology |last2=Weitz |first2=Charles A. |date=1979 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-13-478008-5 |pages=182 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Kweni mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo vya ŵanthu, ŵakhazi ŵangalongosoreka mwakupimika comene kuŵa "gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakutorana comene pakati pawo kuluska na ŵanyake", ndipo ici cikukhwaskika na vinthu vinandi vya wupu wa ŵanthu na vya mdawuko. Ntheura, ŵakhazi ŵa malo ghakulu ŵangawonekera nga ni magulu ghacoko gha ŵanthu awo ŵakutorana, agho ghakukhala pamoza; kweni pa kacitiro, ŵakhazi kanandi ŵakulongosoreka na malo, agho ghangaŵa muzi, panji malo ghakulu (caro, cigaŵa, msumba, panji caro cose capasi).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite Q|Q138201602}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Relethford |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuSvIa2xNHQC&pg=PA18 |title=Human Population Genetics |date=2012-03-27 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-46467-0 |pages=18 |language=en |quote=geography is a usual starting point in defining a human population}}</ref> Kasandiro ka vyakuhara mu thupi ka ŵakhazi kakusanda kupambana pakati pa magulu gha ŵakhazi na kupambana mukati mwa gulu limoza. Magaŵa 99.9 pa 100 gha vyakuhara vyose vya munthu ngakuyana mu magulu ghose gha ŵanthu, kweni vyakuhara vinyake vingapambana.<ref name=":3" /> Magulu gha ŵakhazi ghakuŵa na vimanyikwiro vyakuwoneka vyakupambana kuyana na malo agho ghakukhala, ndipo ghangaŵa na vyakuhara vyakupambana, kweni vimanyikwiro vya thupi kanandi vikugwiliskirika ntchito yayi kulongosora gulu la ŵakhazi.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serrano Sanchez |first=C. |date=1996-04-01 |title=Introduction: The concept of population |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226825761 |journal=International Journal of Anthropology |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=15–18 |doi=10.1007/BF02441407 |issn=1824-3096|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Kupatula lizgu lakuti "ŵakhazi", ŵanthu ŵangagaŵika so mu mitundu na mafuko.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manglik |first=Mr Rohit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFAzEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=Biological Diversity in Human Population: [9789368751571] |date=2023-11-23 |publisher=EduGorilla Publication |isbn=978-93-6875-157-1 |pages=14 |language=en}}</ref> Kusanda ŵakhazi ni kusanda kwa maŵerengero gha ŵanthu.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> Vinthu vinyake vingagwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora gulu la ŵakhazi panji gulu licoko mukati mwake, nga ni kuŵa mwanalume panji mwanakazi na vyaka, nga mu ŵanakazi ŵakujumpha vyaka 60. Maŵerengero gha ŵakhazi ghangakhwaskana na kapangikiro (nga ni kugaŵika kwa vyaka na kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi), umo ŵathandazgikira mu malo, na unandi wa ŵakhazi, panji na kusintha kwa ŵakhazi (kusintha kwa unandi na vyaka vya ŵakhazi).<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Carey |first=James R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FL2mPHUhrvcC&pg=PA3 |title=Applied Demography for Biologists: with Special Emphasis on Insects |date=1993-02-04 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802314-2 |pages=3–4 |language=en}}</ref> Kweni ŵasandi ŵa ŵakhazi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti "ŵakhazi" mwakupambana na ŵasandi ŵa vyamoyo, nangauli pali kuyana kunyake pakati pa ng'anamulo izi: ŵasandi ŵa vyamoyo ŵakusanda unandi wa vyamoyo mu malo ghanyake na umo ukusinthira mu nyengo mu vyakucitika vyakupambana, apo ŵasandi ŵa ŵakhazi ŵakupenda ŵanthu kuyana na vimanyikwiro vinyake pa nyengo yinyake mu cigaŵa cinyake.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PiIxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=From Birth to Death: A Consumer's Guide to Population Studies |date=2017-07-05 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-51888-8 |pages=1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSZkrxT9aAYC&pg=PA826 |title=Comprehensive Biology XII |publisher=Firewall Media |isbn=978-81-7008-754-0 |pages=826 |language=en}}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''population'' likafuma ku lizgu la Cilatini lakuti ''populus'', ilo likung'anamula "ŵanthu", ndipo pakwamba likagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa ŵenecaro ŵa malo ghanyake.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kreager |first1=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUW0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |title=Population in the Human Sciences: Concepts, Models, Evidence |last2=Winney |first2=Bruce |last3=Ulijaszek |first3=Stanley |last4=Capelli |first4=Cristian |date=2015-03-05 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-151249-0 |pages=25 |language=en}}</ref> Pakwamba, lizgu ili likalongosoranga ndondomeko panji umo vinthu viliri (nga ni kusazgikira kwa ŵakukhalamo), kweni ng'anamulo iyi pamanyuma yikaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito.<ref name=":1" /> Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa lizgu ili kukumanyikwa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/population_n1?tl=true&tab=factsheet |access-date=2025-09-14 |website=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref> Francis Bacon wakuwonekera kuŵa wakwamba kuligwiliskira ntchito mu ng'anamulo yake ya mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=T. Kue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pdnnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=Population Health: Concepts and Methods |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-515854-0 |pages=9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Namboodiri |first=Krishnan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HROkBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |title=A Primer of Population Dynamics |date=2013-06-29 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4757-8994-2 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref> == Maziko == Mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo, ng'anamulo yimoza ya "ŵakhazi" ni ya vyamoyo ivyo vikutorana, ndipo mu kasandiro ka vyakuhara mu thupi, ng'anamulo yingaŵa ya vyakuhara ivyo ŵakugaŵana. Comene comene, mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo lizgu lakuti "ŵakhazi" kanandi likulongosora vyamoyo vya mtundu umoza ivyo vingatorana, ndipo ivyo vyapatukana mu malo na magulu ghanyake gha mtundu wakuyana. == Ng'anamulo == Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu wose ŵali mu mtundu umoza (''Homo sapiens''), wose ŵangatorana. Ndipouli, ŵakupanga magulu ghakupambana gha ŵakhazi, agho ghapatukana cimoza na cinyake mu malo, nangauli kusamira na mayendero gha mazuŵa ghano pa caro cose capasi vikucepeska mphaka pakati pa magulu gha ŵakhazi.<ref name=":3" /> Malo ghamoza ghakwenera kuŵa na gulu limoza pera la ŵakhazi yayi.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Minkoff |first1=Eli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ab69EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |title=Biology Trending: A Contemporary Issues Approach |last2=Hood-DeGrenier |first2=Jennifer K. |date=2023-07-24 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-87794-6 |pages=237–239, 324 |language=en}}</ref> Magulu ghanandi gha ŵakhazi ghangakhala pamoza mu malo ghamoza cifukwa kutorana pakati pawo kungacepeskeka na vinthu nga ni mtundu, masambiro, udindo mu wupu wa ŵanthu, na cisopa.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> Nangauli vyaro na magulu gha ŵakhazi vingasazganikana, mphaka zawo zingapambana.<ref name=":3" /> Mu kasandiro ka ŵanthu ka vyamoyo, ng'anamulo ya "ŵakhazi" yikughanaghanira so mdawuko uwo ŵanthu ŵakugaŵana na nyengo iyo ŵakhazi ŵakakhalanga, cifukwa mdawuko uwo ŵakugaŵana ukukhwaska umo ŵakutoranira.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=DiGangi |first1=Elizabeth A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckV-Xx9kb1sC&dq=population+in+humans,+population+differs+biology+in+humans&pg=PA5 |title=Research Methods in Human Skeletal Biology |last2=Moore |first2=Megan K. |date=2012-09-25 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-385189-5 |pages=5 |language=en}}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vya thupi (nga ni mtundu wa maso) kanandi vikugwiliskirika ntchito yayi na ŵasandi ŵa vyamoyo kulongosora gulu la ŵakhazi, cifukwa kugaŵa ŵanthu na cimanyikwiro cimoza ca thupi kukuŵapangiska kuyana mu vimanyikwiro vinyake yayi. Usange vingaŵa ntheura, munthu yumoza wangaŵa mu magulu ghanandi comene. Mitundu ya ŵanthu nayo yikuwonekera nga ni magulu gha ŵakhazi yayi, cifukwa mitundu yingaŵa na magulu ghacoko gha ŵakhazi mukati mwake, ndipo ng'anamulo za mitundu yinyake pakwamba zikazengeka pa vimanyikwiro vya thupi.<ref name=":3" /> Nangauli pali maghanoghano ghakupambana, agho ghakuwona mtundu nga ni gulu la ŵakhazi ilo lagaŵika mu magulu ghacoko.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vogel |first1=Friedrich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbjtCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA608 |title=Vogel and Motulsky's Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches |last2=Motulsky |first2=Arno G. |date=2013-04-17 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-662-03356-2 |pages=610 |language=en}}</ref> == Kupambana na Vinyama Vinyake == Pali vinthu vitatu vikulu ivyo vikucepeska unandi wa ŵakhazi mu ŵanthu na mu [[Vinyama|vinyama]] vinyake: vyakulya ivyo vilipo, nthenda, na malo ghakuzingilizga. Ŵanthu ŵakupambana na vinyama vinyake cifukwa ŵali na vinthu vya mdawuko, vya wupu wa ŵanthu, na vya luso la vilwero ivyo vikukhwaska kubaba na kukura kwa unandi wa ŵakhazi. Pa vinthu vya luso la vilwero, [[Kasandiro ka ucizgi|kasandiro ka ucizgi]] kawemeska uchanda wa moyo na kucepeska nyifwa.<ref name=":0" /> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} huuv65sqn8flhhk2qjc7ibrj3x22p3s 0 6891 124359 123560 2026-11-10T14:18:48Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kuyana na nkhani ya Cingelezi: vigaŵa vikulu vyose (full mirror) 124359 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Somba''' ni cinyama cakuŵa na fupa la msana ico cikukhala mu [[Maji|maji]], cikupuma na masambo, cilije ''amnion'' (cikumba ico cikuzingilizga mwana mu sumbi), ndipo cili na cigaza cakukhora cakuvikilira wongo. Somba zinandi zili na viskambiro ivyo zikugwiliskira ntchito kuti zilutilire kwenda mu nthowa yakwenelera na kujichika kuya kunthazi. Somba zingagaŵika mu somba zambura mihlati, izo ni za kale comene, na somba za mihlati, izo ndizo zinandi. Somba za mihlati zikusazgapo somba zose za viwanga vipepu na somba za viwanga izo zilipo, kweniso ''placoderm'' na ''acanthodian'' izo zikasoŵa. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (''tetrapod'') vikafuma ku somba. Ntheura, mwakupambana na mdawuko utali wa kuŵika somba zose mu gulu limoza (''Pisces''), kasandiro ka mazuŵa ghano ka ubale wa vyamoyo kakuwona somba nga ni gulu lambura kukwana (''paraphyletic''), ilo likusazgapo vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana kupatula vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. Kuti somba ziŵe gulu lakukwana (''monophyletic''), cingakhumbikwa kuŵika vinyama vya malundi ghanayi nga ni kagulu ka somba zapadera, ndipo apo mazgo ghakuti "somba" na "vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana" ghangang'anamula cinthu cimoza. Mu Cingelezi, unandi wa lizgu lakuti ''fish'' ni ''fish'' para ŵakuyowoya za somba zinandi payekhapayekha, ndipo ni ''fishes'' para ŵakuyowoya za mitundu. Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima: kufunda kwa thupi lawo kukusintha kuyana na maji agho ghazizingilizga. Kweni somba zinyake zikulu izo zikuskamba comene, nga ni shaki mutuŵa na ''tuna'', zingasunga kufunda kwapacanya mukati mwa thupi. Somba zinandi zingayowoyeskana kwizira mu mapokoso, nga ni apo zikusongana. Kusanda somba kukuchemeka kasandiro ka somba (''ichthyology''). Pali mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 33,000 iyo yicalipo. Ili ni gulu likulu comene la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ndipo lili na mitundu yinandi kuluska mitundu yose ya magulu ghanyake gha kale pamoza, ghakuti vinyama vyakukhala mu maji na pa mtunda, vyakukwaŵa, [[Viyuni|viyuni]], na vinyama vyakonkheska. Somba zinandi zili mu gulu la Actinopterygii, somba za viskambiro vya nthonga, izo zili pafupifupi hafu ya vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vilipo. Somba zakwamba zikawoneka mu nyengo ya Cambrian nga ni tusomba tucoko utu tukulya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji; zikalutilira kusintha mu nyengo ya Paleozoic, ndipo zikapambanapambana mu mawonekero ghanandi. Somba zakwamba izo zikaŵa na masambo gha kupumira na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri, ''ostracoderm'', zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuzitu vya viwanga ivyo vikazivikiliranga ku vyakusaka vyambura fupa la msana. Somba zakwamba za mihlati, ''placoderm'', zikawoneka mu Silurian ndipo zikapambanapambana comene mu Devonian, "Nyengo ya Somba". Somba za viwanga, izo zikupambana na zinyake cifukwa zili na kathumba ka mvuci ndipo pamanyuma zikaŵa na viwanga vya mukati, zikaŵa gulu likulu la somba pamanyuma pakuti kusoŵa kwa mitundu ku umaliro wa Devonian kukamazga vyakusaka vyapacanya comene, ''placoderm''. Somba za viwanga zikugaŵika so mu somba za viskambiro vya minofu na somba za viskambiro vya nthonga. Pafupifupi magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya somba iyo yilipo mazuŵa ghano ni ''teleost'', gulu la somba za viskambiro vya nthonga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda, ivyo vyaŵa pacanya comene pa ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji na pa mtunda kufuma ku umaliro wa Paleozoic, vikafuma ku somba za viskambiro vya minofu mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, ndipo vikaŵa na maphapo ghakupumira mvuci agho ghakuyana na kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zaŵa cuma cakuzirwa ca kawiro ku ŵanthu kufuma kale comene, comene nga ni cakulya. Ŵalovi ŵa malonda na ŵalovi ŵakujilyera ŵakukora somba mu maji gha kawiro panji ŵakuziŵeta mu vizima panji mu vikhola vya kuŵetera mu mbwani. Somba zikukoleka pa kujikondweska panji zikuŵetika na ŵakusunga somba nga ni vyakutowa vyakulaŵiska mu nyumba za ŵanthu na mu malo gha ŵanthu wose, mu nyumba za somba za magalasi na mu vizima vya mu minda. Somba zaŵa na malo mu ukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu nyengo zose, nga ni ŵaciuta, vimanyikwiro vya visopa, na nkhani za luso, mabuku, na mafilimu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''fish'' likafuma ku ciyowoyero ca kale ca ''Proto-Germanic'', ndipo likukolerana na lizgu la Cijeremani lakuti ''Fisch'', la Cilatini lakuti ''piscis'', na la Ciayirishi ca kale lakuti ''íasc'', nangauli muzu wake weneco ukumanyikwa yayi. Ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti muzu wa ''Proto-Indo-European'' ukaŵa *''peysk-'', uwo ukusangika pera mu viyowoyero vya Italic, Celtic, na Germanic. Nangauli kanandi ŵanthu ŵakughagwiliskira ntchito nga ni lizgu limoza, mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo mazgo ghakuti ''fish'' na ''fishes'' ghali na ming'anamuro yakupambana. ''Fish'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa somba yimoza, panji pa somba zinandi za mtundu umoza. ''Fishes'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa mitundu yakupambana panji magulu gha mitundu. == Kusintha kwa Vyamoyo == === Mbiri ya Mafosilo === Pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 530 ivyo vyajumpha, pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, vinyama vyakuyana na somba ivyo vikaŵa na nthonga ya msana (''notochord'') na maso kunthazi kwa thupi, nga ni ''Haikouichthys'', vikuwoneka mu mafosilo. Ku umaliro wa Cambrian, vinyama vinyake vyambura mihlati nga ni ''conodont'' vikuwoneka. Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na mihlati vikuwoneka mu Silurian, pamoza na ''placoderm'' zikulu comene izo zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuvikilira, nga ni ''Dunkleosteus''. Somba za mihlati nazo zikawoneka mu Silurian: Chondrichthyes za viwanga vipepu, na Osteichthyes za viwanga. Mu Devonian, mitundu ya somba yikasazgikira comene, kusazgapo ''placoderm'', somba za viskambiro vya minofu, na ŵashaki ŵakwamba, ntheura Devonian yikapika zina lakuti "nyengo ya somba". === Ubale wa Mitundu === Somba ni gulu lambura kukwana, cifukwa gulu lililose ilo lili na somba zose za mihlati (Gnathostomata) panji somba zose za viwanga (Osteichthyes) lili so na gulu la vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na malundi ghanayi, vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda), ivyo kanandi vikupendeka nga ni somba yayi. Vinyama vinyake vya malundi ghanayi, nga ni nyamumba na ''ichthyosaur'', vikaŵa so na thupi lakuyana na la somba kwizira mu kusintha kwakuyana (''convergent evolution''). Kweni buku la ''Fishes of the World'' likuti "ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomera kuti vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kusazgapo ise, ni somba za viwanga izo zikasintha waka, ntheura tikukondwa kugwiliskira ntchito Osteichthyes nga ni gulu lakukwana, ilo sono likusazgapo vinyama vyose vya malundi ghanayi". Mitundu ya somba iyo yilipo yikugaŵika mwakuyana yayi mu magulu ghakupambana; ''teleost'', somba za viwanga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi, ni magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu ya somba. Cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongora ubale wa magulu ghose gha somba izo zilipo (na unandi wa mitundu yawo) na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. Magulu agho ghakasoŵa ghali na cimanyikwiro (†); magulu agho malo ghawo ghakumanyikwa makora yayi ghali na cimanyikwiro ca fumbo (?) na mizere ya tudoti (- - - - -). Magulu agho ghali na mitundu yakujumpha 25,000 ghali na malembo ghakufipa. === Kagaŵiro === Somba (kwambura vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) ni gulu lambura kukwana, ndipo pa cifukwa ici, gulu la Pisces ilo likusangika mu mabuku gha kale likugwiliskirika ntchito so yayi mu kagaŵiro ka kasandiro. Kagaŵiro ka kale kakugaŵa somba mu magulu ghatatu agho ghalipo ("Agnatha", Chondrichthyes, na "Osteichthyes"), ndipo mitundu iyo yikasoŵa nyengo zinyake yikuŵikika mu magulu agha, nyengo zinyake nga ni magulu ghawo ghapadera. Somba ni hafu na kujumpha ya mitundu ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Pofika 2016, pakaŵa mitundu yakujumpha 32,000 ya somba za viwanga iyo yalongosoreka, mitundu yakujumpha 1,100 ya somba za viwanga vipepu, na yakujumpha 100 ya ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey''. Cigaŵa cimoza mwa vitatu ca mitundu iyi cili mu mbumba zinkhondi na zinayi zikulu comene; kufuma ku yikulu comene mpaka ku yicoko, izi ni Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, na Scorpaenidae. Pafupifupi mbumba 64 zili na mtundu umoza pera. === Unandi wa Mitundu === Somba zikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku shaki wa nyamumba (''whale shark''), mukulu comene wa mamita 16, mpaka ku ''teleost'' zinyake zicoko comene za milimita 8 pera mu utali, nga ni ''Paedocypris progenetica'' na ''stout infantfish''. Luŵiro la kuskamba likupambana kufuma ku somba nga ni ''tuna'', ''salmon'', na ''jack'' izo zingaskamba utali wa thupi lawo maulendo 10–20 pa sekondi yimoza, mpaka ku mitundu nga ni nkhungu na ''ray'' izo zikuskamba utali wa thupi lawo kujumpha hafu pa sekondi yimoza yayi. Somba yakuyana na zinyake zose yili na ndopa zakuzizima, thupi lakunozgeka kuti liskambe luŵiro, yikutora okisijeni mu maji na masambo, yili na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri vya mitundu yiŵiri, ciskambiro cimoza panji viŵiri pa msana, ciskambiro cimoza pasi pa msundu na ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, mihlati, cikumba cakuphimbika na mamba, ndipo yikuikira masumbi. Cimanyikwiro cilicose cili na vyakupambana, ndipo ici cikupangiska kupambanapambana kukulu mu mawonekero gha thupi na umoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, somba zinyake izo zikuskamba luŵiro zili na ndopa zakufunda, apo somba zinyake izo zikuskamba pacoko zikaleka thupi lakunozgekera luŵiro na kutora mawonekero ghanyake gha thupi. == Umoyo na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Malo gha Kukhala === Mitundu ya somba yikugaŵikana pafupifupi mwakuyana pakati pa maji ghambura mcere na mbwani; pali mitundu pafupifupi 15,200 ya mu maji ghambura mcere na pafupifupi 14,800 ya mu mbwani. Malibwe gha korali mu Indo-Pacific ndigho malo agho mitundu ya somba za mbwani yili yinandi comene, apo somba za maji ghambura mcere za pa mtunda zili na mitundu yinandi comene mu vigaŵa vikulu vya milonga mu nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki, comene vigaŵa vya Amazon, Congo, na Mekong. Mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 5,600 yikukhala mu maji ghambura mcere gha Neotropiki pera, ntheura somba za Neotropiki ni pafupifupi magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana pa caro capasi. Somba zili zinandi mu maji ghanandi. Zingasangika pafupifupi mu malo ghose gha maji, kufuma ku tumronga twa pacanya pa mapiri (mwaciyelezgero, ''char'' na ''gudgeon'') mpaka ku malo gha pasi comene gha mbwani (mwaciyelezgero, ''cusk-eel'' na ''snailfish''), nangauli palije iyo yasangika mu magaŵa 25 pa 100 gha pasi comene gha mbwani. Somba iyo yasangika pasi comene mu mbwani mpaka sono ni ''cusk-eel'', ''Abyssobrotula galatheae'', iyo yikasangika pasi pa Cigwa ca Puerto Rico pa mamita 8,370. Pa nkhani ya kufunda, ''Jonah's icefish'' zikukhala mu maji ghakuzizima gha Mbwani ya Kumwera, kusazgapo pasi pa cikakato ca Filchner–Ronne pa 79° kumwera, apo ''desert pupfish'' zikukhala mu mbwiwi, tumronga, na madambo gha mu cipalamba, nyengo zinyake vyamcere comene, umo kufunda kwa maji kungafika 36 °C. Somba zicoko waka zikukhala comene pa mtunda panji zikuikira masumbi pa mtunda pafupi na maji. ''Mudskipper'' zikulya na kucezgerana pa malo gha nyata, ndipo zikunjira mu maji kuti zibisame mu madolozi ghawo. Mtundu umoza wa ''Phreatobius'' uwo undalongosoreke ukuchemeka "somba ya pa mtunda" nadi, cifukwa bwankha uyu wakuyana na mphutsi wakukhala pera mukati mwa mahamba ghakuwa agho ghazula na maji. Somba za mu mphako za mbumba zinandi zikukhala mu nyanja za pasi pa dongo, milonga ya pasi pa dongo, panji maji gha pasi. === Vyakuthemba Vinyake na Vyakusaka === Nga ni vinyama vinyake, somba zikusuzgika na vyamoyo ivyo vikuzithemba (vyakuthemba vinyake). Mitundu yinyake yikugwiliskira ntchito somba zakutozga kuti zifumyepo vyakuthemba vinyake vya kuwaro kwa thupi. Izo zikumanyikwa comene ni ''bluestreak cleaner wrasse'' za mu malibwe gha korali mu Mbwani ya India na [[Mbwani ya Pacific]]. Somba zicoko izi zikusunga malo gha kutozgerapo, uko somba zinyake zikuwungana na kucita mendero ghapadera kuti somba zakutozga ziziwone. Kutozgana kwawoneka mu magulu ghanandi gha somba, kusazgapo cakucitika cakuzizika pakati pa ''cichlid'' ziŵiri za mbumba yimoza, ''Etroplus maculatus'', iyo yikutozga, na ''E. suratensis'' iyo njikulu comene. Somba zili pa malo ghanandi mu ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji ghambura mcere na mu mbwani. Somba za pacanya ni vyakusaka, ndipo vinandi mwa ivyo zikusaka ni somba zinyake. Kweniso, vinyama vyakonkheska nga ni ''dolphin'' na ''seal'' vikulya somba, pamoza na viyuni nga ni ''gannet'' na ''cormorant''. == Kapangikiro ka Thupi na Kagwiliro Ntchito Kake == === Kuskamba === Thupi la somba lanozgeka kuti liskambe makora mwa kufyenya minofu ya ku mbali ziŵiri za fupa la msana mwakupokerana. Kufyenyeka uku kukupanga mapindiko gha nga ni S agho ghakwenda kuya kumanyuma kwa thupi. Para lipindiko lililose lafika pa ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, nkhongono zikuchika maji, ndipo somba yikuya kunthazi. Viskambiro vinyake vikugwira ntchito nga ni vigaŵa vyakulongozgera vya ndege, ndipo vikovwira somba kuzgokera ku nthowa yiliyose. Cifukwa thupi lili na uzito kuluska maji gha unandi wakuyana, somba zikwenera kukwaniska kupambana uku, panji zingadodomera. Somba zinandi za viwanga zili na cigaŵa ca mukati ico cikuchemeka kathumba ka mvuci; kathumba aka kakuzovwira kusintha umo zikuyenjamira mwa kusazgira panji kucepeska mvuci uwo uli mukati mwake. Mamba gha somba ghakuzivikilira ku vyakusaka, kweni ghakusazgirako kukhora na uzito. Kanandi mamba gha somba ghakung'azima comene; kung'azima uku kwa nga ni siliva kukuzibisa mu mbwani yikulu. Cifukwa maji ghose kuzingilizga ghali na mtundu umoza, kulongora cithuzi ca maji pa mamba kukupangiska kuti somba yileke kuwoneka makora. === Kuzunguliya kwa Ndopa === Somba zili na ndondomeko yakujalika ya kuzunguliska ndopa. Mtima ukupopa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza yakuzunguliya thupi lose; mwakuyaniska, mtima wa vinyama vyakonkheska uli na nthowa ziŵiri, yimoza ya ku maphapo kuti ndopa zitore okisijeni, yinyake ya ku thupi kuti zipeleke okisijeni. Mu somba, mtima ukupopa ndopa kwizira mu masambo. Pamanyuma ndopa izo zili na okisijeni yinandi zikwenda kuya ku vigaŵa vya thupi kwambura kupopeka so, mwakupambana na vinyama vyakonkheska. Paumaliro, ndopa izo zamazga okisijeni zikuwera ku mtima. === Kupuma === ==== Masambo ==== Somba zikusinthana mvuci na masambo agho ghali ku mbali ziŵiri za cigoromiro. Masambo ghakupangika na vigaŵa vitali vipepu, vyakulondezgana nga ni mino gha ciskakulo, ivyo vikuchemeka tusambo (''filament''). Kasambo kalikose kali na mkwawo wa tukoli tucoko comene (''capillary''), uwo ukupeleka malo ghakulu gha kusinthanirapo okisijeni na kaboni dayokisayidi. Somba zikusinthana mvuci mwa kuguza maji agho ghali na okisijeni yinandi kwizira mu milomo yawo na kughapopa pa masambo ghawo. Ndopa za mu tukoli twa mu masambo zikwenda mu nthowa yakupambana na ya maji, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusinthana makora kwa mendero ghakulimbana (''countercurrent exchange''). Masambo ghakuchika maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko kuya kuwaro kwizira mu tudolozi twa ku mbali za cigoromiro. Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na tudolozi tunandi twa masambo: kanandi ŵashaki ŵali na tudolozi tunkhondi ku mbali yiliyose, nyengo zinyake tunkhondi na kamoza panji tunkhondi na tuŵiri; kanandi ŵakwenera kuskamba kuti masambo ghawo ghatore okisijeni. Somba za viwanga zili na kadolozi kamoza ka masambo ku mbali yiliyose, ako kakubisika pasi pa kaŵale ka ciwanga kakuvikilira (''operculum''). Zingapeleka okisijeni ku masambo ghawo na minofu ya mu mutu. ==== Kupuma Mvuci ==== Mitundu pafupifupi 400 ya somba mu mbumba 50 yingapuma mvuci, ndipo ici cikuyovwira kukhala mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko panji kufuma pa mtunda. Nkhongono ya somba ya kucita ici yingacepeskeka na kuzunguliya kwa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza, cifukwa ndopa za okisijeni kufuma ku cigaŵa cakupumira mvuci zikusazganika na ndopa zambura okisijeni izo zikuwera ku mtima kufuma ku thupi lose. ''Lungfish'', ''bichir'', ''ropefish'', ''bowfin'', ''snakefish'', na ''African knifefish'' zasintha kuti zicepeske kusazgana uku, na kucepeska kutaya okisijeni kufuma ku masambo kuya mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko. ''Bichir'' na ''lungfish'' zili na maphapo ghaŵiri ghakuyana na gha vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, ntheura zikwenera kwiza pacanya pa maji kuti zimilimitizge mvuci, ndipo zikwenera kupuma mvuci nyengo zose. Somba zinyake zinandi, kusazgapo izo zikukhala mu vizima vya mu malibwe na mu malo agho maji gha mbwani ghakufika na kuwera (''intertidal''), zingapuma mvuci para zikukhumba: zingapuma mvuci para zili kuwaro kwa maji, nga umo cingacitikira zuŵa lililose apo maji gha mbwani ghawera, ndipo zikugwiliskira ntchito masambo para zili mu maji. Somba zinyake za m'mphepete mwa mbwani nga ni ''rockskipper'' na ''mudskipper'' zikusankha kufuma mu maji kuti zikalye mu malo agho kwa kanyengo ghali kuwaro kwa maji. Ŵabwankha ŵanyake ŵakufyonta mvuci kwizira mu nthowa ya kugayira cakulya. === Kugaya Cakulya === Ndondomeko ya kugaya cakulya yili na nthowa yitali ya matumbo, iyo yikufuma ku mlomo mpaka ku msundu. Mlomo wa somba zinandi uli na mino gha kukolera ivyo zikusaka, kuluma panji kupala vyakumera, panji kubwanya cakulya. Mumizo ukutora cakulya kuya ku cifu, uko cingasungika na kugayika pacoko. Mphete ya minofu, ''pylorus'', yikufumya cakulya kuya mu matumbo pa nyengo na nyengo. Somba zinandi zili na tuthumba twa nga ni minwe, ''pyloric caeca'', kuzingilizga ''pylorus'', ndipo ntchito yake yikumanyikwa makora yayi. Kapamba kakufumya vinthu vyakugaya (''enzyme'') mu matumbo kuti vigaye cakulya; vinthu vinyake vyakugaya vikufumika na matumbo ghene. Ciŵindi cikupanga ndulu (''bile''), iyo yikovwira kugaŵa mafuta mu tuvigaŵa tucoko comene utu tungafyontheka mu matumbo. === Kufumya Vyakunyanyira === Somba zinandi zikufumya vyakunyanyira vya [[Natrojeni|natrojeni]] nga ni amoniya. Ivi vingafuma kwizira mu masambo panji kusefeka na maiso. Mcere ukufumika na cigaŵa ca pafupi na msundu (''rectal gland''). Somba za mu maji gha mcere kanandi zikutaya maji kwizira mu ''osmosis''; maiso ghawo ghakuwezgera maji mu thupi, ndipo ghakupanga matuzi gha maji ghacoko. Mu somba za maji ghambura mcere cikucitika ivyo vikupambana: zikupokera maji kwizira mu ''osmosis'', ndipo zikupanga matuzi gha maji ghanandi. Somba zinyake zili na maiso agho ghangagwira ntchito mu maji ghambura mcere na mu maji gha mcere. === Wongo === Somba zili na wongo ucoko kuyana na ukulu wa thupi lawo kuluska vinyama vinyake vyakuŵa na fupa la msana; kanandi uzito wa wongo wawo ni cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 15 ca wongo wa ciyuni panji cinyama cakonkheska ca ukulu wakuyana. Kweni somba zinyake zili na wongo ukulu, comene ''mormyrid'' na ŵashaki, izo zili na wongo ukulu kuyana na uzito wa thupi lawo nga ni viyuni na vinyama vya kathumba (''marsupial''). Kunthazi kwa wongo kuli vigaŵa viŵiri vya kunuskira (''olfactory lobe''), ivyo vikupokera na kupenda vimanyikwiro kufuma ku mphenkero kwizira mu mizirwe yiŵiri ya kunuskira. Somba izo zikusaka comene mwa kunuska, nga ni ''hagfish'' na ŵashaki, zili na vigaŵa vikulu comene vya kunuskira. Kumanyuma kwa ivi kuli ''telencephalon'', ico mu somba cikugwira ntchito comene ya kunuska. Pamoza vigaŵa ivi vikupanga wongo wa kunthazi. ''Diencephalon'' ndico cikulumikizga wongo wa kunthazi na wongo wa pakati; cikugwira ntchito na mahomoni na kusunga thupi mu umo likwenera kuŵira (''homeostasis''). ''Pineal body'' cili pacanya pa ''diencephalon''; cikuwona ungweru, cikusunga ndondomeko ya usiku na muhanya, ndipo cikulongozga kusintha kwa mitundu ya thupi. Wongo wa pakati uli na vigaŵa viŵiri vya kuwonera. Ivi ni vikulu comene mu mitundu iyo yikusaka mwa kuwona, nga ni ''trout'' ya ciŵingavula na ''cichlid''. Wongo wa kumanyuma ukulongozga kuskamba na kusunga thupi kuŵa lakunyoloka. ''Cerebellum'', ico cili na cigaŵa cimoza, ndico cigaŵa cikulu comene ca wongo; ni cicoko mu ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey'', kweni ni cikulu comene mu ''mormyrid'', uko cikupenda vimanyikwiro vya magesi ivyo zikupulika. Musisi wa wongo (''myelencephalon'') ukulongozga minofu yinyake na vigaŵa vya thupi, ndipo ukulongozga kupuma na kusunga maji na mcere mu thupi (''osmoregulation''). === Kupulika === Mzere wa ku mbali (''lateral line'') ni mkwawo wa vyakupulikira mu cikumba ivyo vikupulika mendero ghacoko gha maji na kunjenjema, ndipo vikupulika kwenda kwa somba za pafupi, kwali ni vyakusaka panji ivyo zikusaka. Ici cingawonekera kuŵa kupulika kwa kukhwaska na kwa kupulika mapokoso. Somba zambura kuwona za mu mphako zikwenda pafupifupi pera mwa ivyo zikupulika na mzere wa ku mbali. Somba zinyake, nga ni ŵabwankha na ŵashaki, zili na ''ampullae of Lorenzini'', vyakupulikira magesi ivyo vikupulika magesi ghacoko comene gha pa milivoliti. Kuwona ni kupulika kwakuzirwa mu somba. Maso gha somba ghakuyana na gha vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya pa mtunda nga ni viyuni na vinyama vyakonkheska, kweni ghali na kagalasi ka mu jiso (''lens'') kakuzingirizga comene nga ni mpira. Cikumba cakupulikira ungweru (''retina'') kanandi cili na tumaselo twa nthonga na twa cisongo (twa kuwonera mu cisi na mu ungweru); mitundu yinandi yingapambaniska mitundu ya ungweru, kanandi na mitundu yitatu ya tumaselo twa cisongo. ''Teleost'' zingawona ungweru wakulondezga nthowa yimoza (''polarized''); zinyake nga ni ''cyprinid'' zili na mtundu wacinayi wa tumaselo twa cisongo uwo ukuwona ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi. Mu somba zambura mihlati, ''lamprey'' yili na maso ghakukura makora, apo ''hagfish'' yili na tumalo twa kuwonera twa kale waka. Kupulika mapokoso nako nkhwakuzirwa mu somba. Somba zikupulika mapokoso na mizere ya ku mbali na tumalibwe twa mu makutu (''otolith''), mukati mwa mitu yawo. Zinyake zingapulika mapokoso kwizira mu kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zinyake, kusazgapo ''salmon'', zingapulika umagineti; para nthowa ya cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magineti yasinthika kuzingilizga cizima cakuzingirizga ca tusomba tucoko, zikujizgora kulondezga nthowa ya cigaŵa ici. Umo somba zikupulikira umagineti cicali kumanyikwa yayi; mayeso pa viyuni ghakulongora kuti ni nthowa ya ''quantum radical pair''. === Vinjeru === Nkhongono za somba za kughanaghana zikusazgapo kujimanya, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mayeso gha galasi lakujiwonera. ''Manta ray'' na ''wrasse'' izo zaŵikika pamaso pa galasi lakujiwonera zikuwona kanandi usange cithuzi cawo cikucita nga umo thupi lawo likwendera. ''Choerodon wrasse'', ''archerfish'', na ''cod'' ya Atlantic zingamazga masuzgo na kupanga vilwero. ''Cichlid'' ya ''Amatitlania siquia'', iyo yikukhala na munyake yumoza pera, yikulongora kusinginika para yakanizgika kuŵa na munyake. Somba zikumanya uko zili mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vya malo; zingagwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mu wongo agho ghakuthemba vimanyikwiro vinandi. Somba zingasambira kwenda mu nthowa zakupindikapindika, ndipo ici cikulongora kuti zikukumbuka malo na kupambaniska vinthu mwa kuwona. Kusanda kwa nkharo kukulongora kuti somba zikupulika, ndipo zingapulika kupweteka. === Kupanga Magesi === Somba za magesi nga ni ''elephantfish'', ''African knifefish'', na nkhungu za magesi zili na minofu yinyake iyo yanozgeka kupanga vigaŵa vya nkhongono ya magesi. Zikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa ici kusanga na kumanya vinthu nga ni ivyo zikusaka mu maji agho ghazizingilizga, agho ghangaŵa ghambura kuwoneka makora panji gha cisi. Somba za magesi ghanandi nga ni nkhungu ya magesi zingagwiliskira ntchito so vigaŵa vyawo vya magesi kupanga magesi gha nkhongono agho ghangaleska ivyo zikusaka kwenda. === Kufunda kwa Thupi === Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima pera (''ectothermic''). Kweni Scombroidei zili na ndopa zakufunda (''endothermic''), kusazgapo ''billfish'' na ''tuna''. ''Opah'', mtundu wa ''lampriform'', yikufunda thupi lose: yikupanga cithukivu na minofu ya kuskambira kuti yifunde thupi lake, apo kusinthana kwa mendero ghakulimbana kukucepeska kutaya cithukivu. Mu somba za viwanga vipepu, ŵashaki ŵa mbumba ya Lamnidae (nga ni shaki mukulu mutuŵa) na Alopiidae (''thresher shark'') ŵali na ndopa zakufunda. Unandi wa kufunda kwa thupi ukupambana kufuma ku ''billfish'', izo zikufunda maso na wongo pera, mpaka ku ''tuna'' ya ''bluefin'' na ''porbeagle shark'', izo zikusunga kufunda kwa thupi kwakujumpha kwa maji agho ghazizingilizga na 20 °C. === Kuswana na Umoyo === Vigaŵa vikulu vya kuswana ni matongo ghaŵiri na visungiro viŵiri vya masumbi (''ovary''). Masumbi ghakufuma mu cisungiro ca masumbi kuya mu nthowa za masumbi (''oviduct''). Somba zakujumpha magaŵa 97 pa 100, kusazgapo ''salmon'' na ''goldfish'', zikuikira masumbi, kung'anamula kuti masumbi ghakuponyeka mu maji ndipo ghakukulira kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina. Kanandi masumbi ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina: somba yanalume na yanakazi zikufumya tumaselo twa kuswanira mu maji agho ghazizingilizga. Mu somba zicoko izo zikuikira masumbi, nga ni ''skate'', kukumana kwa sumbi na manthyoko kukucitika mukati mwa thupi: yanalume yikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa capadera kunjizga manthyoko mu kadolozi ka kuswanira ka yanakazi. Somba za mbwani zikufumya masumbi ghacoko ghanandi comene mu maji ghakuyaluka. Tusomba twa somba izo zikuikira masumbi, apo twakonkhomoka waka, ni mphutsi izo zikuyenjama mu maji (''plankton''). Zili na kathumba kakulu ka cakulya ca mu sumbi (''yolk sac''), ndipo zikuyana na tusomba twaŵana panji somba zikulu yayi. Nyengo ya mphutsi mu somba izo zikuikira masumbi kanandi ni masabata ghacoko waka, ndipo mphutsi zikukura luŵiro na kusintha kapangikiro kuti ziŵe tusomba twaŵana. Mu nyengo ya kusintha iyi, mphutsi zikwenera kuleka kulya cakulya ca mu kathumba na kwamba kulya tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji (''zooplankton''). Somba zinyake nga ni ''surfperch'', ''splitfin'', na ''lemon shark'' zikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo, kung'anamula kuti nyina wakusunga masumbi mu thupi ndipo wakulyiska ŵana ŵa mu nthumbo kwizira mu cigaŵa ico cikuyana na nyuma, ico cikulumikizga ndopa za nyina na za mwana. === Kunozga DNA === Ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa mitundu ya somba iyo masumbi ghake ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi ŵakukhwaskika comene apo ŵakukura na vinthu vya mu malo ghakuzingilizga ivyo vingananga DNA yawo, nga ni vyakunanga maji, ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi, na mitundu ya okisijeni iyo yikucita luŵiro na vinthu vinyake (''reactive oxygen species''). Kuti ŵamazge kunangika uku kwa DNA, ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa somba ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana za kunozga DNA apo ŵakukura. Mu vyaka ivi, ''zebrafish'' zaŵa ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kupenda vyakunanga malo ivyo vingananga DNA. === Civikiliro ku Nthenda === Somba zili na civikiliro ca nthowa ziŵiri ku nthenda: civikiliro ca wose na civikiliro ca thupi. Civikiliro ca wose cikusazgapo cikumba na mamba, kweniso cipapa ca vyakudyamphuka ico cikumba cikufumya, ico cikukora na kukanizga kukura kwa tuvyamoyo tucoko comene. Usange tuzirombo twa nthenda twajumpha civikiliro ici, civikiliro ca thupi ca kubabikira naco cingapangiska kutupa, uko kukusazgira ndopa izo zikwenda ku cigaŵa ico cakoleka nthenda, na kutumizga tumaselo tutuŵa twa ndopa utu tukuyezga kunanga tuzirombo twa nthenda kwambura kusankha. Civikiliro capadera cikwamuka ku vinthu vyapadera (''antigen''), nga ni purotini pa vikumba vya mabakiteriya gha nthenda, ivyo civikiliro ca thupi cakusambira cikuvimanya. Civikiliro ca thupi cikasintha mu ''deuterostome'', nga umo cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongolera. Vigaŵa vya civikiliro vikupambana kuyana na mtundu wa somba. Somba zambura mihlati zili na minofu ya civikiliro (''lymphoid'') mu cigaŵa ca kunthazi ca iso, na tumaselo twa ''granulocyte'' mu matumbo. Zili na mtundu wawo wa civikiliro cakusambira; cikugwiliskira ntchito vyakupokelera vyakusinthikasinthika vya ''lymphocyte'' (VLR) kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Cakufumapo cikuyana comene na ca somba za mihlati na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kweni cingaŵa kuti cikasintha paŵekha. Somba zose za mihlati zili na civikiliro cakusambira ca ''lymphocyte'' za B na T, izo zili na ''immunoglobulin'' na vyakupokelera vya tumaselo twa T. Ici cikugwiliskira ntchito kusanjika so kwa V(D)J kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Ndondomeko iyi yikasintha kamoza pera ndipo ni maziko gha gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya mihlati. Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera ivyo vili na tumaselo twa civikiliro: vigaŵa vya ''epigonal'' kuzingilizga vigaŵa vya kuswana, cigaŵa ca Leydig mu mumizo, na cijaliro cakuzingazinga mu matumbo ghawo, apo ''thymus'' na cibambara cawo vikugwira ntchito zakuyana na za vigaŵa ivi mu civikiliro ca vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. ''Teleost'' zili na ''lymphocyte'' mu ''thymus'', na tumaselo tunyake twa civikiliro mu cibambara na mu vigaŵa vinyake. == Nkharo == === Kwenda mu Miskambo === Mskambo wa somba ni gulu ilo likukolerana comene yayi, umo somba yiliyose yikuskamba na kupenja cakulya payekha, kweni yikukokeka ku zinyake za mu gulu ndipo yikusintha nkharo yake, nga ni luŵiro la kuskamba, kuti yikhale pafupi na zinyake za mu gulu. Mskambo wakukolerana ni gulu ilo lanozgeka makora comene, ilo likuskamba mwakuyana kuti somba zose ziyende pa luŵiro limoza na mu nthowa yimoza. Nyengo zinyake kwenda mu mskambo wakukolerana ni nthowa ya kujivikilira ku vyakusaka, cifukwa maso ghanandi ghakulaŵiska vyakusaka. Kanandi ncipusu kupenja cakulya mwa kugwira ntchito nga ni gulu, ndipo somba yiliyose yikunozga nthowa zake mwa kusankha kunjira panji kufuma mu mskambo. Para cakusaka cawoneka, somba izo zikusakika zikujivikilira, ndipo ici cikupangiska nkharo ya mskambo wose nga ni kwenda mwakuyana. Kujivikilira uku nkhwa kuyezga kubisama panji kucimbira pera yayi; nthowa za kujivikilira ku vyakusaka zikusazgapo, mwaciyelezgero, kucunkha na kuwungana so. Somba zikuwungana so mu miskambo kuti ziikire masumbi. ''Capelin'' yikusama caka cilicose mu miskambo yikulu pakati pa malo agho yikulyera na malo agho yikuikirapo masumbi. === Kuyowoyeskana === Somba zikuyowoyeskana mwa kutumizgirana vimanyikwiro vya mapokoso. Kanandi ici cikucitika pa kulya, pa kukwiya, panji pa kusongana. Mapokoso agho zikupanga ghakupambana kuyana na mtundu na cifukwa ico cikuzipangiska. Somba zingapanga mapokoso ghakufuma mu kusisitizgana kwa vigaŵa (''stridulatory'') mwa kwendeska vigaŵa vya ciwanga ca thupi, panji zingapanga mapokoso ghanyake mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vyapadera nga ni kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zinyake zikupanga mapokoso mwa kusisitizga panji kugaya viwanga vyawo pamoza. Mapokoso agha ni gha ''stridulatory''. Ici cikucitika mu ''Haemulon flavolineatum'', ''French grunt'', iyo yikupanga congo la kukhama mwa kugaya mino ghake pamoza, comene para yili mu suzgo. Mapokoso agha ghali pa kakwezgero ka pafupifupi 700 Hz, ndipo ghakutora pafupifupi milisekondi 47. ''Seahorse'' wa mlomo utali, ''Hippocampus reidi'', wakupanga mitundu yiŵiri ya mapokoso, ghafupi gha 'tiki' (''click'') na kubwentha (''growl''), mwa kusisita ciwanga ca pa mutu wake pa cigaŵa ca mizere ca cigaza. Mapokoso gha 'tiki' ghakupangika pa kusongana na pa kulya, ndipo tukwezgero twawo tukaŵa pakati pa 50 Hz na 800 Hz. Tukwezgero utu tukaŵa pacanya comene pa nyengo ya kuikira masumbi, apo yanakazi na yanalume zikaŵa pafupi kuluska masentimita 15. Kubwentha kukupangika para ''H. reidi'' ŵali mu suzgo. Mapokoso gha kubwentha ghali na mapokoso ghafupi ghakulondezgana, ndipo ghakupangika pa nyengo yimoza na kunjenjema kwa thupi. Mitundu yinyake ya somba yikupanga congo mwa kugwiliskira ntchito minofu yapadera iyo yikufyenyeka na kupangiska kathumba ka mvuci kunjenjema. ''Oyster toadfish'' zikupanga mapokoso ghakulu gha kukhama mwa kufyenya minofu ya mapokoso ya ku mbali za kathumba ka mvuci. ''Toadfish'' zanakazi na zanalume zikupanga mapokoso ghafupi gha kukhama, kanandi para zopa. Kupatula mapokoso ghafupi agha, ''toadfish'' zanalume zikupanga "nchemo za luvi la ngalaŵa". Nchemo izi zikutora nyengo yitali, zili pa kakwezgero kapasi, ndipo kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kukoka zanakazi. Mapokoso agha ghali pa tukwezgero kufuma 140 Hz mpaka 260 Hz. Tukwezgero twa nchemo tukuthemba luŵiro ilo minofu ya mapokoso yikufyenyekera. ''Red drum'', ''Sciaenops ocellatus'', yikupanga mapokoso gha nga ni ng'oma mwa kunjenjemeska kathumba kake ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupangika na kufyenyeka kwa luŵiro kwa minofu ya mapokoso iyo yikuzingilizga cigaŵa ca pacanya ca kathumba ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupanga mapokoso ghakuwerezgeka gha tukwezgero kufuma 100 mpaka kujumpha 200 Hz. ''S. ocellatus'' yikupanga nchemo zakupambana kuyana na ico cikuyipangiska, nga ni kusongana panji kuwukirika na cakusaka. Zanakazi zikupanga mapokoso yayi, ndipo zilije minofu ya mapokoso. == Kuvikilira Somba == Mndandanda Uswesi wa IUCN wa 2025 uli na mitundu 2,367 ya somba iyo yili pa ngozi panji pa ngozi yikulu comene ya kusoŵa. Mukati muli mitundu nga ni ''cod'' ya Atlantic, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'', ''coelacanth'', na ŵashaki ŵakulu ŵatuŵa. Cifukwa somba zikukhala mu maji, ncakusuzga comene kuzisanda kuluska vinyama na vyakumera vya pa mtunda, ndipo kanandi maruvyo pa unandi wa somba ghakusoŵa. Somba za maji ghambura mcere zikuwoneka kuŵa pa ngozi comene cifukwa kanandi zikukhala mu maji ghacoko. Mwaciyelezgero, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'' yikukhala mu ciziŵa cimoza pera ca mamita 3 pa 6. === Kulowa Comene === Wupu wa Vyakulya na Ulimi (FAO) ukuti "mu 2017, magaŵa 34 pa 100 gha somba za mu malo gha kulowera gha mbwani pa caro cose ghakapendeka kuti ghaloweka comene". Kulowa comene ni ngozi yikulu ku somba izo zikulyeka nga ni ''cod'' na ''tuna''. Paumaliro, kulowa comene kukupangiska somba kumalika, cifukwa izo zasyala zingaswana tusomba twakukwana kuti tuzuzge malo gha izo zakoleka yayi. Kusoŵa uku kwa malonda kukung'anamula kuti mtundu wasoŵa yayi, kweni kuti ŵalovi ŵangalutilira so kuwulowa mtundu uwu yayi. Pa kulowa ''sardine'' za Pacific pafupi na m'mphepete mwa California, somba izo zikakoleka zikacepa pacoko pacoko kufuma ku matani 800,000 mu 1937, apo zikaŵa zinandi comene, mpaka ku matani 24,000 mu 1968, agho ghakapelekanga candulo yayi. Pa kulowa ''cod'' kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Atlantic, kulowa comene kukacepeska unandi wa somba kufika pa gaŵa limoza pa 100 la unandi wake wa kale pofika 1992. Ŵasandi ŵa somba na ŵamalonda ŵa kulowa ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana comene pa umo somba zingalutilira kuŵako apo zikuloweka comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya m'mphepete mwa mbwani, malonda gha kulowa ghakupeleka ntchito ku ŵanthu ŵanandi, ntheura maulongozgi ghakutemwa kughawovwira. Kweni ŵasandi na ŵakuvikilira kawiro ŵakukhumba civikiliro cikulu comene, ŵakucenjezga kuti somba zinandi zingamalika mu vyaka 50. === Ngozi Zinyake === Suzgo likulu ku malo gha maji ghambura mcere na gha mbwani ni kunangika kwa malo gha kukhala, kusazgapo kunangika kwa maji, kuzengeka kwa viliŵa vya kujalira maji, kufumyamo maji kuti ŵanthu ŵaghagwiliskire ntchito, na kunjizga mitundu ya ku vyaro vinyake, kusazgapo vyakusaka. Somba za maji ghambura mcere, comene izo zikusangika mu cigaŵa cimoza pera (zambura kusangika kunyake), zingaŵa pa ngozi ya kusoŵa cifukwa ca vyose ivi, nga umo viliri na mitundu yitatu mwa khumi ya somba za maji ghambura mcere izo zikusangika mu Spain pera. Viliŵa vya kujalira maji pa milonga, comene vikulu nga ni Ciliŵa ca Kariba (Mlonga wa Zambezi) na Ciliŵa ca Aswan (Mlonga wa Nayelo) pa milonga iyo yili na malo ghakuzirwa gha kulowera, vyacepeska comene somba izo zikukoleka. Kulowa kwa mafakitale mwa kuguza makhoka pasi pa mbwani kungananga malo gha kukhala pasi pa mbwani, nga umo kwacitikira pa Georges Bank mu Atlantic ya Kumpoto. Kunjizga mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu maji vyakufuma kunyake ivyo vikunanga malo kwathandazgika comene. Kukusintha malo gha vyamoyo, kukupangiska kucepa kwa mitundu ya vyamoyo, ndipo kungananga malo gha kulowera. Mitundu yakunanga yikusazgapo somba, kweni somba pera yayi; kufika kwa ''comb jelly'' mu Nyanja Yifipa kukananga kulowa kwa ''anchovy'' kwenekura. Kujulika kwa Nthowa ya Maji ya Suez mu 1869 kukapangiska kusama kwa Lessepsian, uko kukazomerezga mitundu ya mbwani yakujumpha mazana gha Indo-Pacific ya somba, koyo, na vinyama vyambura fupa la msana kufika mu Nyanja ya Mediterranean, ndipo kukasintha comene mitundu ya vyamoyo na umoyo wa malo agho. ''Nile perch'', iyo ni cakusaka, yikanjizgika mwakukhumba mu Nyanja ya Victoria mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 nga ni somba ya malonda na ya kulowa pa kujikondweska. Nyanja iyi yikaŵa na mitundu yinandi ya vyamoyo, kusazgapo mitundu pafupifupi 500 ya ''cichlid'' iyo yikusangika mwenumo pera. Yikasintha comene umoyo wa nyanja iyi, ndipo yikacepeska kulowa kufuma ku mitundu yinandi mpaka ku yitatu pera: ''Nile perch'', ''silver cyprinid'', na somba yinyake iyo yikanjizgika, cambo ya Nayelo (''Nile tilapia''). Unandi wa ''cichlid'' za ''haplochromine'' wacepa comene. == Kuzirwa kwa Somba ku Ŵanthu == === Vyacuma === Mu mbiri yose, ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito somba nga ni cakulya ca purotini. Kale na mazuŵa ghano, somba zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵakulya zikufuma mu kukora somba za mu maji gha kawiro. Kweni kuŵeta somba, uko kwacitika kufuma pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu mu China wa kale, kukuŵa kwakuzirwa comene mu vyaro vinandi. Mu 2007, ŵakapima kuti pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 6 ca purotini ya pa caro cose cikafumanga ku somba. Kulowa ni malonda ghakulu pa caro cose agho ghakupeleka ndalama ku ŵanthu mamiliyoni. Mu 2020, matani ghakujumpha miliyoni 65 gha somba za mbwani na matani miliyoni 10 gha somba za maji ghambura mcere ghakakoleka, apo matani pafupifupi miliyoni 50 gha somba, comene za maji ghambura mcere, ghakaŵetika. Mu mitundu ya mbwani iyo yikakoleka mu 2020, ''anchoveta'' yikaŵa matani miliyoni 4.9, ''Alaska pollock'' miliyoni 3.5, ''tuna'' ya ''skipjack'' miliyoni 2.8, ndipo ''herring'' ya Atlantic na ''tuna'' ya ''yellowfin'' miliyoni 1.6 yiliyose; mitundu yinyake 8 yikakoleka kujumpha matani miliyoni 1. === Kujikondweska === Somba zamanyikwa nga ni vinthu vyakutowa kwa nyengo yitali pafupifupi nga umo zagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cakulya: zikuwoneka mu vithuzi vya pa malibwe gha mu mphako, zikuŵetika nga ni somba zakutowa mu vizima, ndipo zikulongoreka mu nyumba za somba za magalasi mu nyumba, mu maofesi, panji mu malo gha ŵanthu wose. Kulowa pa kujikondweska ni kulowa comene cifukwa ca kukondwa panji mphikizgano; kukupambana na kulowa kwa malonda, uko ni kulowa kuti ŵasange candulo, panji kulowa kwa ŵanthu ŵacoko, uko ni kulowa comene kuti ŵasange cakulya. Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya kulowa pa kujikondweska yikugwiliskira ntchito nthonga ya kulowera, cizungulira, uzi, mbeja, na nyambo za mitundu yinandi. Kulowa pa kujikondweska kukutemweka comene mu Amerika ya Kumpoto na [[Europe|Ulaya]]; mawupu gha ulongozgi kanandi ghakulongozga mitundu ya somba iyo ŵalovi ŵakupenja. === Ukhaliro === Somba zili na ng'anamuro ya cimanyikwiro mu visopa vinandi. Mu Mesopotamia ya kale, ŵanthu ŵakapelekanga sembe za somba ku ŵaciuta kufuma ku nyengo zakwambilira comene. Somba zikaŵa so cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Enki, ciuta wa maji. Kanandi somba zikuwoneka nga ni vithuzi vyakuzuzga malo pa vidindo vyakuzingirizga (''cylinder seal'') vya nyengo ya Babuloni wa Kale (pafupifupi 1830 – 1531 pambere Khristu) na ya Asiriya Muphya (911–609 pambere Khristu). Kwamba mu nyengo ya Ŵakasite (pafupifupi 1600 – 1155 pambere Khristu) mpaka ku kwamba kwa nyengo ya Ŵaperesiya (550–30 pambere Khristu), ŵacizgi na ŵakufumya mizimu ŵakavwaranga vyakuvwara vya mwambo ivyo vikayananga na thupi la somba. Mu nyengo ya Seleucid (312–63 pambere Khristu), ŵakuti ngwazi ya ukhaliro wa Ŵababuloni ya mu jandulo, Oannes, yikavwaranga cikumba ca somba. Somba zikaŵa zakupatulika ku Atargatis, ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵasiriya, ndipo pa vyakusekelera vyake, ŵasofi ŵake pera ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga kuzilya. Mu Buku la Yona, munthu mukulu wa nkhani, nchimi zina lake Yona, wakumilika na somba yikulu comene pamanyuma pakuti ŵateŵeti ŵa ngalaŵa iyo wakendangamo ŵamuponya mu maji. Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ''ichthys'', cimanyikwiro ca somba, kwimilira Yesu. Mu ŵaciuta awo ŵakuti ŵakutora mawonekero gha somba muli Ikatere wa Ŵapolinesiya, ciuta wa ŵashaki Kāmohoaliʻi wa Hawaiʻi, na Matsya wa Ŵahindu. Gulu la nyenyezi la Pisces ("Somba") likukolerana na jandulo la Roma ya kale lakuti Venus na mwana wake Cupid ŵakathaskika na somba ziŵiri. Somba zikuwoneka comene mu luso, mu mafilimu nga ni ''Finding Nemo'' na mu mabuku nga ni ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Somba zikulu, comene ŵashaki, kanandi zaŵa nkhani ya mafilimu gha kofya, comene buku la ''Jaws'', ilo likapangika filimu, ndipo filimu iyi yaseŵereka na kuwerezgeka maulendo ghanandi. ''Piranha'' zikulongoreka mwakuyana na ŵashaki mu mafilimu nga ni ''Piranha''. [[Category:Vinyama]] hr44b74oeq6y738tye7jbrxakmvb3sf 124372 124359 2026-11-10T19:39:09Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako vithuzi, bokosi la vyakumanyikwa, na cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Somba | fossil_range = {{Fossilrange|535|0}} Cambrian – sono | image = Balantiocheilos melanopterus - Karlsruhe Zoo 02 (cropped).jpg | image_caption = ''Bala shark'', somba ya viwanga | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | subphylum = Vertebrata | subdivision_ranks = Magulu agho ghali mukati | subdivision = *Agnatha (somba zambura mihlati) *{{Extinct}}Placodermi *{{Extinct}}Acanthodii *Chondrichthyes (somba za viwanga vipepu) *Osteichthyes (somba za viwanga) **Actinopterygii (somba za viskambiro vya nthonga) **Sarcopterygii (somba za viskambiro vya minofu, kusazgapo vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) ''Kwambura:'' Tetrapoda (vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) }} '''Somba''' ni cinyama cakuŵa na fupa la msana ico cikukhala mu [[Maji|maji]], cikupuma na masambo, cilije ''amnion'' (cikumba ico cikuzingilizga mwana mu sumbi), ndipo cili na cigaza cakukhora cakuvikilira wongo. Somba zinandi zili na viskambiro ivyo zikugwiliskira ntchito kuti zilutilire kwenda mu nthowa yakwenelera na kujichika kuya kunthazi. Somba zingagaŵika mu somba zambura mihlati, izo ni za kale comene, na somba za mihlati, izo ndizo zinandi. Somba za mihlati zikusazgapo somba zose za viwanga vipepu na somba za viwanga izo zilipo, kweniso ''placoderm'' na ''acanthodian'' izo zikasoŵa. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (''tetrapod'') vikafuma ku somba. Ntheura, mwakupambana na mdawuko utali wa kuŵika somba zose mu gulu limoza (''Pisces''), kasandiro ka mazuŵa ghano ka ubale wa vyamoyo kakuwona somba nga ni gulu lambura kukwana (''paraphyletic''), ilo likusazgapo vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana kupatula vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. Kuti somba ziŵe gulu lakukwana (''monophyletic''), cingakhumbikwa kuŵika vinyama vya malundi ghanayi nga ni kagulu ka somba zapadera, ndipo apo mazgo ghakuti "somba" na "vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana" ghangang'anamula cinthu cimoza. Mu Cingelezi, unandi wa lizgu lakuti ''fish'' ni ''fish'' para ŵakuyowoya za somba zinandi payekhapayekha, ndipo ni ''fishes'' para ŵakuyowoya za mitundu. Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima: kufunda kwa thupi lawo kukusintha kuyana na maji agho ghazizingilizga. Kweni somba zinyake zikulu izo zikuskamba comene, nga ni shaki mutuŵa na ''tuna'', zingasunga kufunda kwapacanya mukati mwa thupi. Somba zinandi zingayowoyeskana kwizira mu mapokoso, nga ni apo zikusongana. Kusanda somba kukuchemeka kasandiro ka somba (''ichthyology''). Pali mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 33,000 iyo yicalipo. Ili ni gulu likulu comene la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ndipo lili na mitundu yinandi kuluska mitundu yose ya magulu ghanyake gha kale pamoza, ghakuti vinyama vyakukhala mu maji na pa mtunda, vyakukwaŵa, [[Viyuni|viyuni]], na vinyama vyakonkheska. Somba zinandi zili mu gulu la Actinopterygii, somba za viskambiro vya nthonga, izo zili pafupifupi hafu ya vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vilipo. Somba zakwamba zikawoneka mu nyengo ya Cambrian nga ni tusomba tucoko utu tukulya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji; zikalutilira kusintha mu nyengo ya Paleozoic, ndipo zikapambanapambana mu mawonekero ghanandi. Somba zakwamba izo zikaŵa na masambo gha kupumira na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri, ''ostracoderm'', zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuzitu vya viwanga ivyo vikazivikiliranga ku vyakusaka vyambura fupa la msana. Somba zakwamba za mihlati, ''placoderm'', zikawoneka mu Silurian ndipo zikapambanapambana comene mu Devonian, "Nyengo ya Somba". Somba za viwanga, izo zikupambana na zinyake cifukwa zili na kathumba ka mvuci ndipo pamanyuma zikaŵa na viwanga vya mukati, zikaŵa gulu likulu la somba pamanyuma pakuti kusoŵa kwa mitundu ku umaliro wa Devonian kukamazga vyakusaka vyapacanya comene, ''placoderm''. Somba za viwanga zikugaŵika so mu somba za viskambiro vya minofu na somba za viskambiro vya nthonga. Pafupifupi magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya somba iyo yilipo mazuŵa ghano ni ''teleost'', gulu la somba za viskambiro vya nthonga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda, ivyo vyaŵa pacanya comene pa ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji na pa mtunda kufuma ku umaliro wa Paleozoic, vikafuma ku somba za viskambiro vya minofu mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, ndipo vikaŵa na maphapo ghakupumira mvuci agho ghakuyana na kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zaŵa cuma cakuzirwa ca kawiro ku ŵanthu kufuma kale comene, comene nga ni cakulya. Ŵalovi ŵa malonda na ŵalovi ŵakujilyera ŵakukora somba mu maji gha kawiro panji ŵakuziŵeta mu vizima panji mu vikhola vya kuŵetera mu mbwani. Somba zikukoleka pa kujikondweska panji zikuŵetika na ŵakusunga somba nga ni vyakutowa vyakulaŵiska mu nyumba za ŵanthu na mu malo gha ŵanthu wose, mu nyumba za somba za magalasi na mu vizima vya mu minda. Somba zaŵa na malo mu ukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu nyengo zose, nga ni ŵaciuta, vimanyikwiro vya visopa, na nkhani za luso, mabuku, na mafilimu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''fish'' likafuma ku ciyowoyero ca kale ca ''Proto-Germanic'', ndipo likukolerana na lizgu la Cijeremani lakuti ''Fisch'', la Cilatini lakuti ''piscis'', na la Ciayirishi ca kale lakuti ''íasc'', nangauli muzu wake weneco ukumanyikwa yayi. Ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti muzu wa ''Proto-Indo-European'' ukaŵa *''peysk-'', uwo ukusangika pera mu viyowoyero vya Italic, Celtic, na Germanic. Nangauli kanandi ŵanthu ŵakughagwiliskira ntchito nga ni lizgu limoza, mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo mazgo ghakuti ''fish'' na ''fishes'' ghali na ming'anamuro yakupambana. ''Fish'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa somba yimoza, panji pa somba zinandi za mtundu umoza. ''Fishes'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa mitundu yakupambana panji magulu gha mitundu. == Kusintha kwa Vyamoyo == === Mbiri ya Mafosilo === [[File:Dunkleosteus profile.jpg|thumb|''Dunkleosteus'' yikaŵa ''placoderm'' yikulu comene ya mu Devonian, yakuŵa na vikonkholo vyakuvikilira, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 400 ivyo vyajumpha.]] Pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 530 ivyo vyajumpha, pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, vinyama vyakuyana na somba ivyo vikaŵa na nthonga ya msana (''notochord'') na maso kunthazi kwa thupi, nga ni ''Haikouichthys'', vikuwoneka mu mafosilo. Ku umaliro wa Cambrian, vinyama vinyake vyambura mihlati nga ni ''conodont'' vikuwoneka. Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na mihlati vikuwoneka mu Silurian, pamoza na ''placoderm'' zikulu comene izo zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuvikilira, nga ni ''Dunkleosteus''. Somba za mihlati nazo zikawoneka mu Silurian: Chondrichthyes za viwanga vipepu, na Osteichthyes za viwanga. Mu Devonian, mitundu ya somba yikasazgikira comene, kusazgapo ''placoderm'', somba za viskambiro vya minofu, na ŵashaki ŵakwamba, ntheura Devonian yikapika zina lakuti "nyengo ya somba". === Ubale wa Mitundu === Somba ni gulu lambura kukwana, cifukwa gulu lililose ilo lili na somba zose za mihlati (Gnathostomata) panji somba zose za viwanga (Osteichthyes) lili so na gulu la vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na malundi ghanayi, vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda), ivyo kanandi vikupendeka nga ni somba yayi. Vinyama vinyake vya malundi ghanayi, nga ni nyamumba na ''ichthyosaur'', vikaŵa so na thupi lakuyana na la somba kwizira mu kusintha kwakuyana (''convergent evolution''). Kweni buku la ''Fishes of the World'' likuti "ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomera kuti vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kusazgapo ise, ni somba za viwanga izo zikasintha waka, ntheura tikukondwa kugwiliskira ntchito Osteichthyes nga ni gulu lakukwana, ilo sono likusazgapo vinyama vyose vya malundi ghanayi". Mitundu ya somba iyo yilipo yikugaŵika mwakuyana yayi mu magulu ghakupambana; ''teleost'', somba za viwanga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi, ni magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu ya somba. Cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongora ubale wa magulu ghose gha somba izo zilipo (na unandi wa mitundu yawo) na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. Magulu agho ghakasoŵa ghali na cimanyikwiro (†); magulu agho malo ghawo ghakumanyikwa makora yayi ghali na cimanyikwiro ca fumbo (?) na mizere ya tudoti (- - - - -). Magulu agho ghali na mitundu yakujumpha 25,000 ghali na malembo ghakufipa. {{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%; |label1=Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana |1={{clade |1=Cyclostomi (mitundu 118: ''hagfish'', ''lamprey'') [[File:Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus 1758 Fig 106 (Matschie et al. 1909).svg|100px]] |2={{clade |label1= ? |state=dashed |1= †Thelodonti, †Conodonta, †Anaspida [[File:Sphenonectris turnernae white background.jpg|50 px]] [[File:ConodontZICA.png|90px]] [[File:Lasanius NT small.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1=†Galeaspida [[File:A Galeaspid.jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |1=†Osteostraci [[File:Cephalaspis Lyellii.jpg|100px]] |label2=Somba za mihlati |2={{clade |1=†Placodermi [[File:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2024 reconstruction.jpg|80 px]] |2={{clade |label1 = ? |state=dashed |1=†Acanthodii [[File:Diplacanthus reconstructed.jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |label1=Chondrichthyes |1=(mitundu yakujumpha 1,100: ŵashaki, ''ray'', ''chimaera'') [[File:Notorynchus cepedianus (Broadnose sevengill shark).gif|140px]] |label2=Osteichthyes |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=Somba za viskambiro vya minofu |1={{clade |label1=Actinistia |1=(mitundu 2: ''coelacanth'') [[File:Coelacanth-bgiu.png|100px]] |label2=Rhipidistia |2={{clade |1=Dipnoi (mitundu 6: ''lungfish'') [[File:Lepidosiren paradoxa2.jpg|140px]] |2='''Tetrapoda''' (mitundu yakujumpha 38,000 ya pa mtunda, yikupendeka nga ni somba yayi) [[File:Salamender (PSF).png|90px]] }} }} |label2=Somba za viskambiro vya nthonga |2={{clade |label1=Cladistia |1=(mitundu 14: ''bichir'', ''reedfish'') [[File:Polypterus bichir.jpg|130px]] |label2=Actinopteri |2={{clade |label1=Chondrostei |1=(mitundu 27: ''sturgeon'', ''paddlefish'') [[File:Acipenser gueldenstaedtii.jpg|130px]] |label2=Neopterygii |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=Holostei |1={{clade |1=Ginglymodi (mitundu 7: ''gar'', ''alligator gar'') [[File:Lepisosteus platostomus.jpg|130px]] |2=Halecomorphi (mitundu 2: ''bowfin'', ''eyetail bowfin'') [[File:Amia calva.jpg|130px]] }} |label2='''Teleostei''' |2=(mitundu yakujumpha 32,000) [[File:Engraulis ringens.jpg|130px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} === Kagaŵiro === Somba (kwambura vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) ni gulu lambura kukwana, ndipo pa cifukwa ici, gulu la Pisces ilo likusangika mu mabuku gha kale likugwiliskirika ntchito so yayi mu kagaŵiro ka kasandiro. Kagaŵiro ka kale kakugaŵa somba mu magulu ghatatu agho ghalipo ("Agnatha", Chondrichthyes, na "Osteichthyes"), ndipo mitundu iyo yikasoŵa nyengo zinyake yikuŵikika mu magulu agha, nyengo zinyake nga ni magulu ghawo ghapadera. Somba ni hafu na kujumpha ya mitundu ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Pofika 2016, pakaŵa mitundu yakujumpha 32,000 ya somba za viwanga iyo yalongosoreka, mitundu yakujumpha 1,100 ya somba za viwanga vipepu, na yakujumpha 100 ya ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey''. Cigaŵa cimoza mwa vitatu ca mitundu iyi cili mu mbumba zinkhondi na zinayi zikulu comene; kufuma ku yikulu comene mpaka ku yicoko, izi ni Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, na Scorpaenidae. Pafupifupi mbumba 64 zili na mtundu umoza pera. === Unandi wa Mitundu === Somba zikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku shaki wa nyamumba (''whale shark''), mukulu comene wa mamita 16, mpaka ku ''teleost'' zinyake zicoko comene za milimita 8 pera mu utali, nga ni ''Paedocypris progenetica'' na ''stout infantfish''. Luŵiro la kuskamba likupambana kufuma ku somba nga ni ''tuna'', ''salmon'', na ''jack'' izo zingaskamba utali wa thupi lawo maulendo 10–20 pa sekondi yimoza, mpaka ku mitundu nga ni nkhungu na ''ray'' izo zikuskamba utali wa thupi lawo kujumpha hafu pa sekondi yimoza yayi. Somba yakuyana na zinyake zose yili na ndopa zakuzizima, thupi lakunozgeka kuti liskambe luŵiro, yikutora okisijeni mu maji na masambo, yili na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri vya mitundu yiŵiri, ciskambiro cimoza panji viŵiri pa msana, ciskambiro cimoza pasi pa msundu na ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, mihlati, cikumba cakuphimbika na mamba, ndipo yikuikira masumbi. Cimanyikwiro cilicose cili na vyakupambana, ndipo ici cikupangiska kupambanapambana kukulu mu mawonekero gha thupi na umoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, somba zinyake izo zikuskamba luŵiro zili na ndopa zakufunda, apo somba zinyake izo zikuskamba pacoko zikaleka thupi lakunozgekera luŵiro na kutora mawonekero ghanyake gha thupi. <gallery mode="packed" heights=175> File:Rhincodon typus fgbnms (cropped).jpg|Mukulu comene: shaki wa nyamumba (''whale shark'') File:Paedocypris progenetica 001.jpg|Yicoko comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''Paedocypris progenetica'' </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights=100> File:Salmo salar.jpg|Yaluŵiro comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''salmon'', utali wa thupi lake maulendo 10–20 pa sekondi yimoza File:Anguilla japonica 1856.jpg|Yakuskamba pacoko comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''eel'', hafu ya utali wa thupi lake pa sekondi yimoza </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights=120> File:Humpback anglerfish.png|Yikusaka mwakubisama:<br />''anglerfish'' File:Atl mackerel photo3 exp.jpg|Thupi lakunozgeka kuti liskambe luŵiro, ndopa zakufunda pacoko:<br />''mackerel'' File:Hippocampus hippocampus (cropped).jpg|Yikugwiliskira ntchito ciskukupiko pa kuskamba yayi:<br />''seahorse'' File:Phycodurus eques P2023146 (cropped).JPG|Yakubisama:<br />''leafy seadragon'' File:Eastern Cleaner Clingfish (cropped).jpg|Yambura mamba:<br />''clingfish'' File:Cyphotilapia frontosa mouthbrooding.jpg|Yikusunga ŵana mu mlomo: ''cichlid'' ya ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' na ŵana ŵake mu mlomo wake </gallery> == Umoyo na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Malo gha Kukhala === [[File:Fish habitat diversity.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|Mitundu ya somba yakupambanapambana yanozgeka kukhala mu malo ghanandi gha maji ghambura mcere na gha mbwani.]] Mitundu ya somba yikugaŵikana pafupifupi mwakuyana pakati pa maji ghambura mcere na mbwani; pali mitundu pafupifupi 15,200 ya mu maji ghambura mcere na pafupifupi 14,800 ya mu mbwani. Malibwe gha korali mu Indo-Pacific ndigho malo agho mitundu ya somba za mbwani yili yinandi comene, apo somba za maji ghambura mcere za pa mtunda zili na mitundu yinandi comene mu vigaŵa vikulu vya milonga mu nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki, comene vigaŵa vya Amazon, Congo, na Mekong. Mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 5,600 yikukhala mu maji ghambura mcere gha Neotropiki pera, ntheura somba za Neotropiki ni pafupifupi magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana pa caro capasi. Somba zili zinandi mu maji ghanandi. Zingasangika pafupifupi mu malo ghose gha maji, kufuma ku tumronga twa pacanya pa mapiri (mwaciyelezgero, ''char'' na ''gudgeon'') mpaka ku malo gha pasi comene gha mbwani (mwaciyelezgero, ''cusk-eel'' na ''snailfish''), nangauli palije iyo yasangika mu magaŵa 25 pa 100 gha pasi comene gha mbwani. Somba iyo yasangika pasi comene mu mbwani mpaka sono ni ''cusk-eel'', ''Abyssobrotula galatheae'', iyo yikasangika pasi pa Cigwa ca Puerto Rico pa mamita 8,370. Pa nkhani ya kufunda, ''Jonah's icefish'' zikukhala mu maji ghakuzizima gha Mbwani ya Kumwera, kusazgapo pasi pa cikakato ca Filchner–Ronne pa 79° kumwera, apo ''desert pupfish'' zikukhala mu mbwiwi, tumronga, na madambo gha mu cipalamba, nyengo zinyake vyamcere comene, umo kufunda kwa maji kungafika 36 °C. Somba zicoko waka zikukhala comene pa mtunda panji zikuikira masumbi pa mtunda pafupi na maji. ''Mudskipper'' zikulya na kucezgerana pa malo gha nyata, ndipo zikunjira mu maji kuti zibisame mu madolozi ghawo. Mtundu umoza wa ''Phreatobius'' uwo undalongosoreke ukuchemeka "somba ya pa mtunda" nadi, cifukwa bwankha uyu wakuyana na mphutsi wakukhala pera mukati mwa mahamba ghakuwa agho ghazula na maji. Somba za mu mphako za mbumba zinandi zikukhala mu nyanja za pasi pa dongo, milonga ya pasi pa dongo, panji maji gha pasi. === Vyakuthemba Vinyake na Vyakusaka === Nga ni vinyama vinyake, somba zikusuzgika na vyamoyo ivyo vikuzithemba (vyakuthemba vinyake). Mitundu yinyake yikugwiliskira ntchito somba zakutozga kuti zifumyepo vyakuthemba vinyake vya kuwaro kwa thupi. Izo zikumanyikwa comene ni ''bluestreak cleaner wrasse'' za mu malibwe gha korali mu Mbwani ya India na [[Mbwani ya Pacific]]. Somba zicoko izi zikusunga malo gha kutozgerapo, uko somba zinyake zikuwungana na kucita mendero ghapadera kuti somba zakutozga ziziwone. Kutozgana kwawoneka mu magulu ghanandi gha somba, kusazgapo cakucitika cakuzizika pakati pa ''cichlid'' ziŵiri za mbumba yimoza, ''Etroplus maculatus'', iyo yikutozga, na ''E. suratensis'' iyo njikulu comene. Somba zili pa malo ghanandi mu ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji ghambura mcere na mu mbwani. Somba za pacanya ni vyakusaka, ndipo vinandi mwa ivyo zikusaka ni somba zinyake. Kweniso, vinyama vyakonkheska nga ni ''dolphin'' na ''seal'' vikulya somba, pamoza na viyuni nga ni ''gannet'' na ''cormorant''. <gallery mode=packed> File:Initial phase parrotfish feeding at Shaab Marsa Alam, Red Sea, Egypt -SCUBA (6336981391).jpg|''Parrotfish'' yikulya koyo pa malibwe gha korali File:Arothron hispidus is being cleaned by Hawaiian cleaner wrasses, Labroides phthirophagus 1.jpg|Somba yakutozga yikufumyapo vyakuthemba vinyake pa ''pufferfish'' File:Barracuda with prey.jpg|''Barracuda'' yikusaka somba yicoko File:1031 california sealion wright odfw (35281910502).jpg|''Sea lion'', cinyama cakonkheska cakusaka, cikulya ''salmon'' yikulu File:Cormorant with fish (cropped).jpg|''Cormorant'' na somba iyo yakora </gallery> == Kapangikiro ka Thupi na Kagwiliro Ntchito Kake == === Kuskamba === Thupi la somba lanozgeka kuti liskambe makora mwa kufyenya minofu ya ku mbali ziŵiri za fupa la msana mwakupokerana. Kufyenyeka uku kukupanga mapindiko gha nga ni S agho ghakwenda kuya kumanyuma kwa thupi. Para lipindiko lililose lafika pa ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, nkhongono zikuchika maji, ndipo somba yikuya kunthazi. Viskambiro vinyake vikugwira ntchito nga ni vigaŵa vyakulongozgera vya ndege, ndipo vikovwira somba kuzgokera ku nthowa yiliyose. Cifukwa thupi lili na uzito kuluska maji gha unandi wakuyana, somba zikwenera kukwaniska kupambana uku, panji zingadodomera. Somba zinandi za viwanga zili na cigaŵa ca mukati ico cikuchemeka kathumba ka mvuci; kathumba aka kakuzovwira kusintha umo zikuyenjamira mwa kusazgira panji kucepeska mvuci uwo uli mukati mwake. Mamba gha somba ghakuzivikilira ku vyakusaka, kweni ghakusazgirako kukhora na uzito. Kanandi mamba gha somba ghakung'azima comene; kung'azima uku kwa nga ni siliva kukuzibisa mu mbwani yikulu. Cifukwa maji ghose kuzingilizga ghali na mtundu umoza, kulongora cithuzi ca maji pa mamba kukupangiska kuti somba yileke kuwoneka makora. <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=300px> File:Lampanyctodes hectoris (Hector's lanternfish).svg|Kapangikiro ka somba (''lanternfish''):<br />1) kaŵale ka ciwanga kakuvikilira masambo 2) mzere wa ku mbali 3) ciskambiro ca pa msana 4) ciskambiro ca mafuta<br />5) cigaŵa ca pambere pa ciskukupiko 6) ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko 7) ciskambiro ca pasi pa msundu 8) vigaŵa vyakuŵala 9) viskambiro vya pa ciuno 10) viskambiro vya pa cifuwa </gallery> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200px> File:Swim bladder.jpg|Kathumba ka mvuci ka ''rudd'' kakuyovwira kuyenjamira makora mu maji. File:Fish scales.jpg|Mamba gha nga ni siliva gha ''rohu'' ghakuyivikilira na kuyibisa. </gallery> === Kuzunguliya kwa Ndopa === [[File:Fish gill respiration.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mtima wa somba ukupopa ndopa ku masambo, uko zikutora okisijeni. Pamanyuma ndopa zikwenda ku thupi kwambura kupopeka so, ndipo zikuwera ku mtima.]] Somba zili na ndondomeko yakujalika ya kuzunguliska ndopa. Mtima ukupopa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza yakuzunguliya thupi lose; mwakuyaniska, mtima wa vinyama vyakonkheska uli na nthowa ziŵiri, yimoza ya ku maphapo kuti ndopa zitore okisijeni, yinyake ya ku thupi kuti zipeleke okisijeni. Mu somba, mtima ukupopa ndopa kwizira mu masambo. Pamanyuma ndopa izo zili na okisijeni yinandi zikwenda kuya ku vigaŵa vya thupi kwambura kupopeka so, mwakupambana na vinyama vyakonkheska. Paumaliro, ndopa izo zamazga okisijeni zikuwera ku mtima. === Kupuma === ==== Masambo ==== Somba zikusinthana mvuci na masambo agho ghali ku mbali ziŵiri za cigoromiro. Masambo ghakupangika na vigaŵa vitali vipepu, vyakulondezgana nga ni mino gha ciskakulo, ivyo vikuchemeka tusambo (''filament''). Kasambo kalikose kali na mkwawo wa tukoli tucoko comene (''capillary''), uwo ukupeleka malo ghakulu gha kusinthanirapo okisijeni na kaboni dayokisayidi. Somba zikusinthana mvuci mwa kuguza maji agho ghali na okisijeni yinandi kwizira mu milomo yawo na kughapopa pa masambo ghawo. Ndopa za mu tukoli twa mu masambo zikwenda mu nthowa yakupambana na ya maji, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusinthana makora kwa mendero ghakulimbana (''countercurrent exchange''). Masambo ghakuchika maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko kuya kuwaro kwizira mu tudolozi twa ku mbali za cigoromiro. Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na tudolozi tunandi twa masambo: kanandi ŵashaki ŵali na tudolozi tunkhondi ku mbali yiliyose, nyengo zinyake tunkhondi na kamoza panji tunkhondi na tuŵiri; kanandi ŵakwenera kuskamba kuti masambo ghawo ghatore okisijeni. Somba za viwanga zili na kadolozi kamoza ka masambo ku mbali yiliyose, ako kakubisika pasi pa kaŵale ka ciwanga kakuvikilira (''operculum''). Zingapeleka okisijeni ku masambo ghawo na minofu ya mu mutu. ==== Kupuma Mvuci ==== Mitundu pafupifupi 400 ya somba mu mbumba 50 yingapuma mvuci, ndipo ici cikuyovwira kukhala mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko panji kufuma pa mtunda. Nkhongono ya somba ya kucita ici yingacepeskeka na kuzunguliya kwa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza, cifukwa ndopa za okisijeni kufuma ku cigaŵa cakupumira mvuci zikusazganika na ndopa zambura okisijeni izo zikuwera ku mtima kufuma ku thupi lose. ''Lungfish'', ''bichir'', ''ropefish'', ''bowfin'', ''snakefish'', na ''African knifefish'' zasintha kuti zicepeske kusazgana uku, na kucepeska kutaya okisijeni kufuma ku masambo kuya mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko. ''Bichir'' na ''lungfish'' zili na maphapo ghaŵiri ghakuyana na gha vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, ntheura zikwenera kwiza pacanya pa maji kuti zimilimitizge mvuci, ndipo zikwenera kupuma mvuci nyengo zose. Somba zinyake zinandi, kusazgapo izo zikukhala mu vizima vya mu malibwe na mu malo agho maji gha mbwani ghakufika na kuwera (''intertidal''), zingapuma mvuci para zikukhumba: zingapuma mvuci para zili kuwaro kwa maji, nga umo cingacitikira zuŵa lililose apo maji gha mbwani ghawera, ndipo zikugwiliskira ntchito masambo para zili mu maji. Somba zinyake za m'mphepete mwa mbwani nga ni ''rockskipper'' na ''mudskipper'' zikusankha kufuma mu maji kuti zikalye mu malo agho kwa kanyengo ghali kuwaro kwa maji. Ŵabwankha ŵanyake ŵakufyonta mvuci kwizira mu nthowa ya kugayira cakulya. === Kugaya Cakulya === Ndondomeko ya kugaya cakulya yili na nthowa yitali ya matumbo, iyo yikufuma ku mlomo mpaka ku msundu. Mlomo wa somba zinandi uli na mino gha kukolera ivyo zikusaka, kuluma panji kupala vyakumera, panji kubwanya cakulya. Mumizo ukutora cakulya kuya ku cifu, uko cingasungika na kugayika pacoko. Mphete ya minofu, ''pylorus'', yikufumya cakulya kuya mu matumbo pa nyengo na nyengo. Somba zinandi zili na tuthumba twa nga ni minwe, ''pyloric caeca'', kuzingilizga ''pylorus'', ndipo ntchito yake yikumanyikwa makora yayi. Kapamba kakufumya vinthu vyakugaya (''enzyme'') mu matumbo kuti vigaye cakulya; vinthu vinyake vyakugaya vikufumika na matumbo ghene. Ciŵindi cikupanga ndulu (''bile''), iyo yikovwira kugaŵa mafuta mu tuvigaŵa tucoko comene utu tungafyontheka mu matumbo. === Kufumya Vyakunyanyira === Somba zinandi zikufumya vyakunyanyira vya [[Natrojeni|natrojeni]] nga ni amoniya. Ivi vingafuma kwizira mu masambo panji kusefeka na maiso. Mcere ukufumika na cigaŵa ca pafupi na msundu (''rectal gland''). Somba za mu maji gha mcere kanandi zikutaya maji kwizira mu ''osmosis''; maiso ghawo ghakuwezgera maji mu thupi, ndipo ghakupanga matuzi gha maji ghacoko. Mu somba za maji ghambura mcere cikucitika ivyo vikupambana: zikupokera maji kwizira mu ''osmosis'', ndipo zikupanga matuzi gha maji ghanandi. Somba zinyake zili na maiso agho ghangagwira ntchito mu maji ghambura mcere na mu maji gha mcere. === Wongo === [[File:Fish brain.png|thumb|upright=0.5|Cithuzi ca wongo wa ''trout'' ya ciŵingavula, kuwoneka kufuma pacanya]] Somba zili na wongo ucoko kuyana na ukulu wa thupi lawo kuluska vinyama vinyake vyakuŵa na fupa la msana; kanandi uzito wa wongo wawo ni cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 15 ca wongo wa ciyuni panji cinyama cakonkheska ca ukulu wakuyana. Kweni somba zinyake zili na wongo ukulu, comene ''mormyrid'' na ŵashaki, izo zili na wongo ukulu kuyana na uzito wa thupi lawo nga ni viyuni na vinyama vya kathumba (''marsupial''). Kunthazi kwa wongo kuli vigaŵa viŵiri vya kunuskira (''olfactory lobe''), ivyo vikupokera na kupenda vimanyikwiro kufuma ku mphenkero kwizira mu mizirwe yiŵiri ya kunuskira. Somba izo zikusaka comene mwa kunuska, nga ni ''hagfish'' na ŵashaki, zili na vigaŵa vikulu comene vya kunuskira. Kumanyuma kwa ivi kuli ''telencephalon'', ico mu somba cikugwira ntchito comene ya kunuska. Pamoza vigaŵa ivi vikupanga wongo wa kunthazi. ''Diencephalon'' ndico cikulumikizga wongo wa kunthazi na wongo wa pakati; cikugwira ntchito na mahomoni na kusunga thupi mu umo likwenera kuŵira (''homeostasis''). ''Pineal body'' cili pacanya pa ''diencephalon''; cikuwona ungweru, cikusunga ndondomeko ya usiku na muhanya, ndipo cikulongozga kusintha kwa mitundu ya thupi. Wongo wa pakati uli na vigaŵa viŵiri vya kuwonera. Ivi ni vikulu comene mu mitundu iyo yikusaka mwa kuwona, nga ni ''trout'' ya ciŵingavula na ''cichlid''. Wongo wa kumanyuma ukulongozga kuskamba na kusunga thupi kuŵa lakunyoloka. ''Cerebellum'', ico cili na cigaŵa cimoza, ndico cigaŵa cikulu comene ca wongo; ni cicoko mu ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey'', kweni ni cikulu comene mu ''mormyrid'', uko cikupenda vimanyikwiro vya magesi ivyo zikupulika. Musisi wa wongo (''myelencephalon'') ukulongozga minofu yinyake na vigaŵa vya thupi, ndipo ukulongozga kupuma na kusunga maji na mcere mu thupi (''osmoregulation''). === Kupulika === Mzere wa ku mbali (''lateral line'') ni mkwawo wa vyakupulikira mu cikumba ivyo vikupulika mendero ghacoko gha maji na kunjenjema, ndipo vikupulika kwenda kwa somba za pafupi, kwali ni vyakusaka panji ivyo zikusaka. Ici cingawonekera kuŵa kupulika kwa kukhwaska na kwa kupulika mapokoso. Somba zambura kuwona za mu mphako zikwenda pafupifupi pera mwa ivyo zikupulika na mzere wa ku mbali. Somba zinyake, nga ni ŵabwankha na ŵashaki, zili na ''ampullae of Lorenzini'', vyakupulikira magesi ivyo vikupulika magesi ghacoko comene gha pa milivoliti. Kuwona ni kupulika kwakuzirwa mu somba. Maso gha somba ghakuyana na gha vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya pa mtunda nga ni viyuni na vinyama vyakonkheska, kweni ghali na kagalasi ka mu jiso (''lens'') kakuzingirizga comene nga ni mpira. Cikumba cakupulikira ungweru (''retina'') kanandi cili na tumaselo twa nthonga na twa cisongo (twa kuwonera mu cisi na mu ungweru); mitundu yinandi yingapambaniska mitundu ya ungweru, kanandi na mitundu yitatu ya tumaselo twa cisongo. ''Teleost'' zingawona ungweru wakulondezga nthowa yimoza (''polarized''); zinyake nga ni ''cyprinid'' zili na mtundu wacinayi wa tumaselo twa cisongo uwo ukuwona ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi. Mu somba zambura mihlati, ''lamprey'' yili na maso ghakukura makora, apo ''hagfish'' yili na tumalo twa kuwonera twa kale waka. Kupulika mapokoso nako nkhwakuzirwa mu somba. Somba zikupulika mapokoso na mizere ya ku mbali na tumalibwe twa mu makutu (''otolith''), mukati mwa mitu yawo. Zinyake zingapulika mapokoso kwizira mu kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zinyake, kusazgapo ''salmon'', zingapulika umagineti; para nthowa ya cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magineti yasinthika kuzingilizga cizima cakuzingirizga ca tusomba tucoko, zikujizgora kulondezga nthowa ya cigaŵa ici. Umo somba zikupulikira umagineti cicali kumanyikwa yayi; mayeso pa viyuni ghakulongora kuti ni nthowa ya ''quantum radical pair''. === Vinjeru === Nkhongono za somba za kughanaghana zikusazgapo kujimanya, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mayeso gha galasi lakujiwonera. ''Manta ray'' na ''wrasse'' izo zaŵikika pamaso pa galasi lakujiwonera zikuwona kanandi usange cithuzi cawo cikucita nga umo thupi lawo likwendera. ''Choerodon wrasse'', ''archerfish'', na ''cod'' ya Atlantic zingamazga masuzgo na kupanga vilwero. ''Cichlid'' ya ''Amatitlania siquia'', iyo yikukhala na munyake yumoza pera, yikulongora kusinginika para yakanizgika kuŵa na munyake. Somba zikumanya uko zili mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vya malo; zingagwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mu wongo agho ghakuthemba vimanyikwiro vinandi. Somba zingasambira kwenda mu nthowa zakupindikapindika, ndipo ici cikulongora kuti zikukumbuka malo na kupambaniska vinthu mwa kuwona. Kusanda kwa nkharo kukulongora kuti somba zikupulika, ndipo zingapulika kupweteka. === Kupanga Magesi === [[File:Electroreception system in Elephantfish.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Elephantnose fish'' ni somba iyo yikupanga magesi ghacoko. Yikupanga cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magesi kuzingilizga thupi lake, ndipo yikugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vyake vya kupulikira magesi kuti yimanye uko vinthu vili, kufuma ku umo vikusinthira cigaŵa ico.]] Somba za magesi nga ni ''elephantfish'', ''African knifefish'', na nkhungu za magesi zili na minofu yinyake iyo yanozgeka kupanga vigaŵa vya nkhongono ya magesi. Zikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa ici kusanga na kumanya vinthu nga ni ivyo zikusaka mu maji agho ghazizingilizga, agho ghangaŵa ghambura kuwoneka makora panji gha cisi. Somba za magesi zinandi nga ni nkhungu ya magesi zingagwiliskira ntchito so vigaŵa vyawo vya magesi kupanga magesi gha nkhongono agho ghangaleska ivyo zikusaka kwenda. === Kufunda kwa Thupi === Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima pera (''ectothermic''). Kweni Scombroidei zili na ndopa zakufunda (''endothermic''), kusazgapo ''billfish'' na ''tuna''. ''Opah'', mtundu wa ''lampriform'', yikufunda thupi lose: yikupanga cithukivu na minofu ya kuskambira kuti yifunde thupi lake, apo kusinthana kwa mendero ghakulimbana kukucepeska kutaya cithukivu. Mu somba za viwanga vipepu, ŵashaki ŵa mbumba ya Lamnidae (nga ni shaki mukulu mutuŵa) na Alopiidae (''thresher shark'') ŵali na ndopa zakufunda. Unandi wa kufunda kwa thupi ukupambana kufuma ku ''billfish'', izo zikufunda maso na wongo pera, mpaka ku ''tuna'' ya ''bluefin'' na ''porbeagle shark'', izo zikusunga kufunda kwa thupi kwakujumpha kwa maji agho ghazizingilizga na 20 °C. === Kuswana na Umoyo === [[File:Salmonlarvakils.jpg|thumb|upright|Kamwana ka ''salmon'' kakufuma mu sumbi, kali na kathumba ka cakulya ca mu sumbi (''yolk sac'')]] Vigaŵa vikulu vya kuswana ni matongo ghaŵiri na visungiro viŵiri vya masumbi (''ovary''). Masumbi ghakufuma mu cisungiro ca masumbi kuya mu nthowa za masumbi (''oviduct''). Somba zakujumpha magaŵa 97 pa 100, kusazgapo ''salmon'' na ''goldfish'', zikuikira masumbi, kung'anamula kuti masumbi ghakuponyeka mu maji ndipo ghakukulira kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina. Kanandi masumbi ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina: somba yanalume na yanakazi zikufumya tumaselo twa kuswanira mu maji agho ghazizingilizga. Mu somba zicoko izo zikuikira masumbi, nga ni ''skate'', kukumana kwa sumbi na manthyoko kukucitika mukati mwa thupi: yanalume yikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa capadera kunjizga manthyoko mu kadolozi ka kuswanira ka yanakazi. Somba za mbwani zikufumya masumbi ghacoko ghanandi comene mu maji ghakuyaluka. Tusomba twa somba izo zikuikira masumbi, apo twakonkhomoka waka, ni mphutsi izo zikuyenjama mu maji (''plankton''). Zili na kathumba kakulu ka cakulya ca mu sumbi (''yolk sac''), ndipo zikuyana na tusomba twaŵana panji somba zikulu yayi. Nyengo ya mphutsi mu somba izo zikuikira masumbi kanandi ni masabata ghacoko waka, ndipo mphutsi zikukura luŵiro na kusintha kapangikiro kuti ziŵe tusomba twaŵana. Mu nyengo ya kusintha iyi, mphutsi zikwenera kuleka kulya cakulya ca mu kathumba na kwamba kulya tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji (''zooplankton''). Somba zinyake nga ni ''surfperch'', ''splitfin'', na ''lemon shark'' zikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo, kung'anamula kuti nyina wakusunga masumbi mu thupi ndipo wakulyiska ŵana ŵa mu nthumbo kwizira mu cigaŵa ico cikuyana na nyuma, ico cikulumikizga ndopa za nyina na za mwana. === Kunozga DNA === Ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa mitundu ya somba iyo masumbi ghake ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi ŵakukhwaskika comene apo ŵakukura na vinthu vya mu malo ghakuzingilizga ivyo vingananga DNA yawo, nga ni vyakunanga maji, ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi, na mitundu ya okisijeni iyo yikucita luŵiro na vinthu vinyake (''reactive oxygen species''). Kuti ŵamazge kunangika uku kwa DNA, ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa somba ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana za kunozga DNA apo ŵakukura. Mu vyaka ivi, ''zebrafish'' zaŵa ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kupenda vyakunanga malo ivyo vingananga DNA. === Civikiliro ku Nthenda === Somba zili na civikiliro ca nthowa ziŵiri ku nthenda: civikiliro ca wose na civikiliro ca thupi. Civikiliro ca wose cikusazgapo cikumba na mamba, kweniso cipapa ca vyakudyamphuka ico cikumba cikufumya, ico cikukora na kukanizga kukura kwa tuvyamoyo tucoko comene. Usange tuzirombo twa nthenda twajumpha civikiliro ici, civikiliro ca thupi ca kubabikira naco cingapangiska kutupa, uko kukusazgira ndopa izo zikwenda ku cigaŵa ico cakoleka nthenda, na kutumizga tumaselo tutuŵa twa ndopa utu tukuyezga kunanga tuzirombo twa nthenda kwambura kusankha. Civikiliro capadera cikwamuka ku vinthu vyapadera (''antigen''), nga ni purotini pa vikumba vya mabakiteriya gha nthenda, ivyo civikiliro ca thupi cakusambira cikuvimanya. Civikiliro ca thupi cikasintha mu ''deuterostome'', nga umo cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongolera. Vigaŵa vya civikiliro vikupambana kuyana na mtundu wa somba. Somba zambura mihlati zili na minofu ya civikiliro (''lymphoid'') mu cigaŵa ca kunthazi ca iso, na tumaselo twa ''granulocyte'' mu matumbo. Zili na mtundu wawo wa civikiliro cakusambira; cikugwiliskira ntchito vyakupokelera vyakusinthikasinthika vya ''lymphocyte'' (VLR) kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Cakufumapo cikuyana comene na ca somba za mihlati na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kweni cingaŵa kuti cikasintha paŵekha. Somba zose za mihlati zili na civikiliro cakusambira ca ''lymphocyte'' za B na T, izo zili na ''immunoglobulin'' na vyakupokelera vya tumaselo twa T. Ici cikugwiliskira ntchito kusanjika so kwa V(D)J kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Ndondomeko iyi yikasintha kamoza pera ndipo ni maziko gha gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya mihlati. Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera ivyo vili na tumaselo twa civikiliro: vigaŵa vya ''epigonal'' kuzingilizga vigaŵa vya kuswana, cigaŵa ca Leydig mu mumizo, na cijaliro cakuzingazinga mu matumbo ghawo, apo ''thymus'' na cibambara cawo vikugwira ntchito zakuyana na za vigaŵa ivi mu civikiliro ca vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. ''Teleost'' zili na ''lymphocyte'' mu ''thymus'', na tumaselo tunyake twa civikiliro mu cibambara na mu vigaŵa vinyake. == Nkharo == === Kwenda mu Miskambo === [[File:Banco de peces trompeta (Macroramphosus scolopax), islas Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 40.jpg|thumb|Somba nga ni ''snipefish'' izi zikwenda mu mskambo wakukolerana kuti zijivikilire ku vyakusaka, na kuti ziswane.]] Mskambo wa somba ni gulu ilo likukolerana comene yayi, umo somba yiliyose yikuskamba na kupenja cakulya payekha, kweni yikukokeka ku zinyake za mu gulu ndipo yikusintha nkharo yake, nga ni luŵiro la kuskamba, kuti yikhale pafupi na zinyake za mu gulu. Mskambo wakukolerana ni gulu ilo lanozgeka makora comene, ilo likuskamba mwakuyana kuti somba zose ziyende pa luŵiro limoza na mu nthowa yimoza. Nyengo zinyake kwenda mu mskambo wakukolerana ni nthowa ya kujivikilira ku vyakusaka, cifukwa maso ghanandi ghakulaŵiska vyakusaka. Kanandi ncipusu kupenja cakulya mwa kugwira ntchito nga ni gulu, ndipo somba yiliyose yikunozga nthowa zake mwa kusankha kunjira panji kufuma mu mskambo. Para cakusaka cawoneka, somba izo zikusakika zikujivikilira, ndipo ici cikupangiska nkharo ya mskambo wose nga ni kwenda mwakuyana. Kujivikilira uku nkhwa kuyezga kubisama panji kucimbira pera yayi; nthowa za kujivikilira ku vyakusaka zikusazgapo, mwaciyelezgero, kucunkha na kuwungana so. Somba zikuwungana so mu miskambo kuti ziikire masumbi. ''Capelin'' yikusama caka cilicose mu miskambo yikulu pakati pa malo agho yikulyera na malo agho yikuikirapo masumbi. === Kuyowoyeskana === [[File:French grunts - Haemulon flavolineatum.jpg|thumb|''French grunt'' yikupanga mazgu mwa kugaya mino ghake.]] Somba zikuyowoyeskana mwa kutumizgirana vimanyikwiro vya mapokoso. Kanandi ici cikucitika pa kulya, pa kukwiya, panji pa kusongana. Mapokoso agho zikupanga ghakupambana kuyana na mtundu na cifukwa ico cikuzipangiska. Somba zingapanga mapokoso ghakufuma mu kusisitizgana kwa vigaŵa (''stridulatory'') mwa kwendeska vigaŵa vya ciwanga ca thupi, panji zingapanga mapokoso ghanyake mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vyapadera nga ni kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zinyake zikupanga mapokoso mwa kusisitizga panji kugaya viwanga vyawo pamoza. Mapokoso agha ni gha ''stridulatory''. Ici cikucitika mu ''Haemulon flavolineatum'', ''French grunt'', iyo yikupanga congo la kukhama mwa kugaya mino ghake pamoza, comene para yili mu suzgo. Mapokoso agha ghali pa kakwezgero ka pafupifupi 700 Hz, ndipo ghakutora pafupifupi milisekondi 47. ''Seahorse'' wa mlomo utali, ''Hippocampus reidi'', wakupanga mitundu yiŵiri ya mapokoso, ghafupi gha 'tiki' (''click'') na kubwentha (''growl''), mwa kusisita ciwanga ca pa mutu wake pa cigaŵa ca mizere ca cigaza. Mapokoso gha 'tiki' ghakupangika pa kusongana na pa kulya, ndipo tukwezgero twawo tukaŵa pakati pa 50 Hz na 800 Hz. Tukwezgero utu tukaŵa pacanya comene pa nyengo ya kuikira masumbi, apo yanakazi na yanalume zikaŵa pafupi kuluska masentimita 15. Kubwentha kukupangika para ''H. reidi'' ŵali mu suzgo. Mapokoso gha kubwentha ghali na mapokoso ghafupi ghakulondezgana, ndipo ghakupangika pa nyengo yimoza na kunjenjema kwa thupi. Mitundu yinyake ya somba yikupanga congo mwa kugwiliskira ntchito minofu yapadera iyo yikufyenyeka na kupangiska kathumba ka mvuci kunjenjema. ''Oyster toadfish'' zikupanga mapokoso ghakulu gha kukhama mwa kufyenya minofu ya mapokoso ya ku mbali za kathumba ka mvuci. ''Toadfish'' zanakazi na zanalume zikupanga mapokoso ghafupi gha kukhama, kanandi para zopa. Kupatula mapokoso ghafupi agha, ''toadfish'' zanalume zikupanga "nchemo za luvi la ngalaŵa". Nchemo izi zikutora nyengo yitali, zili pa kakwezgero kapasi, ndipo kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kukoka zanakazi. Mapokoso agha ghali pa tukwezgero kufuma 140 Hz mpaka 260 Hz. Tukwezgero twa nchemo tukuthemba luŵiro ilo minofu ya mapokoso yikufyenyekera. ''Red drum'', ''Sciaenops ocellatus'', yikupanga mapokoso gha nga ni ng'oma mwa kunjenjemeska kathumba kake ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupangika na kufyenyeka kwa luŵiro kwa minofu ya mapokoso iyo yikuzingilizga cigaŵa ca pacanya ca kathumba ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupanga mapokoso ghakuwerezgeka gha tukwezgero kufuma 100 mpaka kujumpha 200 Hz. ''S. ocellatus'' yikupanga nchemo zakupambana kuyana na ico cikuyipangiska, nga ni kusongana panji kuwukirika na cakusaka. Zanakazi zikupanga mapokoso yayi, ndipo zilije minofu ya mapokoso. == Kuvikilira Somba == Mndandanda Uswesi wa IUCN wa 2025 uli na mitundu 2,367 ya somba iyo yili pa ngozi panji pa ngozi yikulu comene ya kusoŵa. Mukati muli mitundu nga ni ''cod'' ya Atlantic, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'', ''coelacanth'', na ŵashaki ŵakulu ŵatuŵa. Cifukwa somba zikukhala mu maji, ncakusuzga comene kuzisanda kuluska vinyama na vyakumera vya pa mtunda, ndipo kanandi maruvyo pa unandi wa somba ghakusoŵa. Somba za maji ghambura mcere zikuwoneka kuŵa pa ngozi comene cifukwa kanandi zikukhala mu maji ghacoko. Mwaciyelezgero, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'' yikukhala mu ciziŵa cimoza pera ca mamita 3 pa 6. === Kulowa Comene === [[File:Time series for collapse of Atlantic northwest cod.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Kumara kwa ''cod'' mu malo gha kulowera gha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro kwa Mbwani ya Atlantic.]] Wupu wa Vyakulya na Ulimi (FAO) ukuti "mu 2017, magaŵa 34 pa 100 gha somba za mu malo gha kulowera gha mbwani pa caro cose ghakapendeka kuti ghaloweka comene". Kulowa comene ni ngozi yikulu ku somba izo zikulyeka nga ni ''cod'' na ''tuna''. Paumaliro, kulowa comene kukupangiska somba kumalika, cifukwa izo zasyala zingaswana tusomba twakukwana kuti tuzuzge malo gha izo zakoleka yayi. Kusoŵa uku kwa malonda kukung'anamula kuti mtundu wasoŵa yayi, kweni kuti ŵalovi ŵangalutilira so kuwulowa mtundu uwu yayi. Pa kulowa ''sardine'' za Pacific pafupi na m'mphepete mwa California, somba izo zikakoleka zikacepa pacoko pacoko kufuma ku matani 800,000 mu 1937, apo zikaŵa zinandi comene, mpaka ku matani 24,000 mu 1968, agho ghakapelekanga candulo yayi. Pa kulowa ''cod'' kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Atlantic, kulowa comene kukacepeska unandi wa somba kufika pa gaŵa limoza pa 100 la unandi wake wa kale pofika 1992. Ŵasandi ŵa somba na ŵamalonda ŵa kulowa ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana comene pa umo somba zingalutilira kuŵako apo zikuloweka comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya m'mphepete mwa mbwani, malonda gha kulowa ghakupeleka ntchito ku ŵanthu ŵanandi, ntheura maulongozgi ghakutemwa kughawovwira. Kweni ŵasandi na ŵakuvikilira kawiro ŵakukhumba civikiliro cikulu comene, ŵakucenjezga kuti somba zinandi zingamalika mu vyaka 50. === Ngozi Zinyake === Suzgo likulu ku malo gha maji ghambura mcere na gha mbwani ni kunangika kwa malo gha kukhala, kusazgapo kunangika kwa maji, kuzengeka kwa viliŵa vya kujalira maji, kufumyamo maji kuti ŵanthu ŵaghagwiliskire ntchito, na kunjizga mitundu ya ku vyaro vinyake, kusazgapo vyakusaka. Somba za maji ghambura mcere, comene izo zikusangika mu cigaŵa cimoza pera (zambura kusangika kunyake), zingaŵa pa ngozi ya kusoŵa cifukwa ca vyose ivi, nga umo viliri na mitundu yitatu mwa khumi ya somba za maji ghambura mcere izo zikusangika mu Spain pera. Viliŵa vya kujalira maji pa milonga, comene vikulu nga ni Ciliŵa ca Kariba (Mlonga wa Zambezi) na Ciliŵa ca Aswan (Mlonga wa Nayelo) pa milonga iyo yili na malo ghakuzirwa gha kulowera, vyacepeska comene somba izo zikukoleka. Kulowa kwa mafakitale mwa kuguza makhoka pasi pa mbwani kungananga malo gha kukhala pasi pa mbwani, nga umo kwacitikira pa Georges Bank mu Atlantic ya Kumpoto. Kunjizga mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu maji vyakufuma kunyake ivyo vikunanga malo kwathandazgika comene. Kukusintha malo gha vyamoyo, kukupangiska kucepa kwa mitundu ya vyamoyo, ndipo kungananga malo gha kulowera. Mitundu yakunanga yikusazgapo somba, kweni somba pera yayi; kufika kwa ''comb jelly'' mu Nyanja Yifipa kukananga kulowa kwa ''anchovy'' kwenekura. Kujulika kwa Nthowa ya Maji ya Suez mu 1869 kukapangiska kusama kwa Lessepsian, uko kukazomerezga mitundu ya mbwani yakujumpha mazana gha Indo-Pacific ya somba, koyo, na vinyama vyambura fupa la msana kufika mu Nyanja ya Mediterranean, ndipo kukasintha comene mitundu ya vyamoyo na umoyo wa malo agho. ''Nile perch'', iyo ni cakusaka, yikanjizgika mwakukhumba mu Nyanja ya Victoria mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 nga ni somba ya malonda na ya kulowa pa kujikondweska. Nyanja iyi yikaŵa na mitundu yinandi ya vyamoyo, kusazgapo mitundu pafupifupi 500 ya ''cichlid'' iyo yikusangika mwenumo pera. Yikasintha comene umoyo wa nyanja iyi, ndipo yikacepeska kulowa kufuma ku mitundu yinandi mpaka ku yitatu pera: ''Nile perch'', ''silver cyprinid'', na somba yinyake iyo yikanjizgika, cambo ya Nayelo (''Nile tilapia''). Unandi wa ''cichlid'' za ''haplochromine'' wacepa comene. == Kuzirwa kwa Somba ku Ŵanthu == === Vyacuma === [[File:Trawlers overfishing cod.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Ngalaŵa ya ''purse seiner'' yikuguza matani ghanandi comene gha ''Chilean jack mackerel'', 2016]] Mu mbiri yose, ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito somba nga ni cakulya ca purotini. Kale na mazuŵa ghano, somba zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵakulya zikufuma mu kukora somba za mu maji gha kawiro. Kweni kuŵeta somba, uko kwacitika kufuma pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu mu China wa kale, kukuŵa kwakuzirwa comene mu vyaro vinandi. Mu 2007, ŵakapima kuti pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 6 ca purotini ya pa caro cose cikafumanga ku somba. Kulowa ni malonda ghakulu pa caro cose agho ghakupeleka ndalama ku ŵanthu mamiliyoni. Mu 2020, matani ghakujumpha miliyoni 65 gha somba za mbwani na matani miliyoni 10 gha somba za maji ghambura mcere ghakakoleka, apo matani pafupifupi miliyoni 50 gha somba, comene za maji ghambura mcere, ghakaŵetika. Mu mitundu ya mbwani iyo yikakoleka mu 2020, ''anchoveta'' yikaŵa matani miliyoni 4.9, ''Alaska pollock'' miliyoni 3.5, ''tuna'' ya ''skipjack'' miliyoni 2.8, ndipo ''herring'' ya Atlantic na ''tuna'' ya ''yellowfin'' miliyoni 1.6 yiliyose; mitundu yinyake 8 yikakoleka kujumpha matani miliyoni 1. === Kujikondweska === Somba zamanyikwa nga ni vinthu vyakutowa kwa nyengo yitali pafupifupi nga umo zagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cakulya: zikuwoneka mu vithuzi vya pa malibwe gha mu mphako, zikuŵetika nga ni somba zakutowa mu vizima, ndipo zikulongoreka mu nyumba za somba za magalasi mu nyumba, mu maofesi, panji mu malo gha ŵanthu wose. Kulowa pa kujikondweska ni kulowa comene cifukwa ca kukondwa panji mphikizgano; kukupambana na kulowa kwa malonda, uko ni kulowa kuti ŵasange candulo, panji kulowa kwa ŵanthu ŵacoko, uko ni kulowa comene kuti ŵasange cakulya. Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya kulowa pa kujikondweska yikugwiliskira ntchito nthonga ya kulowera, cizungulira, uzi, mbeja, na nyambo za mitundu yinandi. Kulowa pa kujikondweska kukutemweka comene mu Amerika ya Kumpoto na [[Europe|Ulaya]]; mawupu gha ulongozgi kanandi ghakulongozga mitundu ya somba iyo ŵalovi ŵakupenja. === Ukhaliro === Somba zili na ng'anamuro ya cimanyikwiro mu visopa vinandi. Mu Mesopotamia ya kale, ŵanthu ŵakapelekanga sembe za somba ku ŵaciuta kufuma ku nyengo zakwambilira comene. Somba zikaŵa so cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Enki, ciuta wa maji. Kanandi somba zikuwoneka nga ni vithuzi vyakuzuzga malo pa vidindo vyakuzingirizga (''cylinder seal'') vya nyengo ya Babuloni wa Kale (pafupifupi 1830 – 1531 pambere Khristu) na ya Asiriya Muphya (911–609 pambere Khristu). Kwamba mu nyengo ya Ŵakasite (pafupifupi 1600 – 1155 pambere Khristu) mpaka ku kwamba kwa nyengo ya Ŵaperesiya (550–30 pambere Khristu), ŵacizgi na ŵakufumya mizimu ŵakavwaranga vyakuvwara vya mwambo ivyo vikayananga na thupi la somba. Mu nyengo ya Seleucid (312–63 pambere Khristu), ŵakuti ngwazi ya ukhaliro wa Ŵababuloni ya mu jandulo, Oannes, yikavwaranga cikumba ca somba. Somba zikaŵa zakupatulika ku Atargatis, ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵasiriya, ndipo pa vyakusekelera vyake, ŵasofi ŵake pera ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga kuzilya. Mu Buku la Yona, munthu mukulu wa nkhani, nchimi zina lake Yona, wakumilika na somba yikulu comene pamanyuma pakuti ŵateŵeti ŵa ngalaŵa iyo wakendangamo ŵamuponya mu maji. Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ''ichthys'', cimanyikwiro ca somba, kwimilira Yesu. Mu ŵaciuta awo ŵakuti ŵakutora mawonekero gha somba muli Ikatere wa Ŵapolinesiya, ciuta wa ŵashaki Kāmohoaliʻi wa Hawaiʻi, na Matsya wa Ŵahindu. Gulu la nyenyezi la Pisces ("Somba") likukolerana na jandulo la Roma ya kale lakuti Venus na mwana wake Cupid ŵakathaskika na somba ziŵiri. Somba zikuwoneka comene mu luso, mu mafilimu nga ni ''Finding Nemo'' na mu mabuku nga ni ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Somba zikulu, comene ŵashaki, kanandi zaŵa nkhani ya mafilimu gha kofya, comene buku la ''Jaws'', ilo likapangika filimu, ndipo filimu iyi yaseŵereka na kuwerezgeka maulendo ghanandi. ''Piranha'' zikulongoreka mwakuyana na ŵashaki mu mafilimu nga ni ''Piranha''. <gallery mode=packed widths=150 heights=180> File:Matsya painting.jpg|Vishnu mu mawonekero gha somba (Matsya), India File:Bartolomeo Passerotti - The Fishmonger's Shop - WGA17072.jpg|''The Fishmonger's Shop'', Bartolomeo Passerotti, ma 1580 File:Goldfish Matisse.jpg|''Goldfish'', Henri Matisse, 1912 </gallery> [[Category:Vinyama]] 9vxbm4hhryayq4yv8c6hqnv0bhgjh9b 124373 124372 2026-11-10T19:43:55Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni (references) wose kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi (enwiki 1382054760) 124373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Somba | fossil_range = {{Fossilrange|535|0}} Cambrian – sono | image = Balantiocheilos melanopterus - Karlsruhe Zoo 02 (cropped).jpg | image_caption = ''Bala shark'', somba ya viwanga | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | subphylum = Vertebrata | subdivision_ranks = Magulu agho ghali mukati | subdivision = *Agnatha (somba zambura mihlati) *{{Extinct}}Placodermi *{{Extinct}}Acanthodii *Chondrichthyes (somba za viwanga vipepu) *Osteichthyes (somba za viwanga) **Actinopterygii (somba za viskambiro vya nthonga) **Sarcopterygii (somba za viskambiro vya minofu, kusazgapo vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) ''Kwambura:'' Tetrapoda (vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) }} '''Somba''' ni cinyama cakuŵa na fupa la msana ico cikukhala mu [[Maji|maji]], cikupuma na masambo, cilije ''amnion'' (cikumba ico cikuzingilizga mwana mu sumbi), ndipo cili na cigaza cakukhora cakuvikilira wongo. Somba zinandi zili na viskambiro ivyo zikugwiliskira ntchito kuti zilutilire kwenda mu nthowa yakwenelera na kujichika kuya kunthazi. Somba zingagaŵika mu somba zambura mihlati, izo ni za kale comene, na somba za mihlati, izo ndizo zinandi. Somba za mihlati zikusazgapo somba zose za viwanga vipepu na somba za viwanga izo zilipo, kweniso ''placoderm'' na ''acanthodian'' izo zikasoŵa. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (''tetrapod'') vikafuma ku somba. Ntheura, mwakupambana na mdawuko utali wa kuŵika somba zose mu gulu limoza (''Pisces''), kasandiro ka mazuŵa ghano ka ubale wa vyamoyo kakuwona somba nga ni gulu lambura kukwana (''paraphyletic''), ilo likusazgapo vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana kupatula vinyama vya malundi ghanayi. Kuti somba ziŵe gulu lakukwana (''monophyletic''), cingakhumbikwa kuŵika vinyama vya malundi ghanayi nga ni kagulu ka somba zapadera, ndipo apo mazgo ghakuti "somba" na "vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana" ghangang'anamula cinthu cimoza. Mu Cingelezi, unandi wa lizgu lakuti ''fish'' ni ''fish'' para ŵakuyowoya za somba zinandi payekhapayekha, ndipo ni ''fishes'' para ŵakuyowoya za mitundu. Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima: kufunda kwa thupi lawo kukusintha kuyana na maji agho ghazizingilizga. Kweni somba zinyake zikulu izo zikuskamba comene, nga ni shaki mutuŵa na ''tuna'', zingasunga kufunda kwapacanya mukati mwa thupi. Somba zinandi zingayowoyeskana kwizira mu mapokoso, nga ni apo zikusongana. Kusanda somba kukuchemeka kasandiro ka somba (''ichthyology''). Pali mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 33,000 iyo yicalipo. Ili ni gulu likulu comene la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana, ndipo lili na mitundu yinandi kuluska mitundu yose ya magulu ghanyake gha kale pamoza, ghakuti vinyama vyakukhala mu maji na pa mtunda, vyakukwaŵa, [[Viyuni|viyuni]], na vinyama vyakonkheska. Somba zinandi zili mu gulu la Actinopterygii, somba za viskambiro vya nthonga, izo zili pafupifupi hafu ya vinyama vyose vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vilipo. Somba zakwamba zikawoneka mu nyengo ya Cambrian nga ni tusomba tucoko utu tukulya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji; zikalutilira kusintha mu nyengo ya Paleozoic, ndipo zikapambanapambana mu mawonekero ghanandi. Somba zakwamba izo zikaŵa na masambo gha kupumira na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri, ''ostracoderm'', zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuzitu vya viwanga ivyo vikazivikiliranga ku vyakusaka vyambura fupa la msana. Somba zakwamba za mihlati, ''placoderm'', zikawoneka mu Silurian ndipo zikapambanapambana comene mu Devonian, "Nyengo ya Somba". Somba za viwanga, izo zikupambana na zinyake cifukwa zili na kathumba ka mvuci ndipo pamanyuma zikaŵa na viwanga vya mukati, zikaŵa gulu likulu la somba pamanyuma pakuti kusoŵa kwa mitundu ku umaliro wa Devonian kukamazga vyakusaka vyapacanya comene, ''placoderm''. Somba za viwanga zikugaŵika so mu somba za viskambiro vya minofu na somba za viskambiro vya nthonga. Pafupifupi magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya somba iyo yilipo mazuŵa ghano ni ''teleost'', gulu la somba za viskambiro vya nthonga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi. Vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda, ivyo vyaŵa pacanya comene pa ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji na pa mtunda kufuma ku umaliro wa Paleozoic, vikafuma ku somba za viskambiro vya minofu mu nyengo ya Carboniferous, ndipo vikaŵa na maphapo ghakupumira mvuci agho ghakuyana na kathumba ka mvuci. Somba zaŵa cuma cakuzirwa ca kawiro ku ŵanthu kufuma kale comene, comene nga ni cakulya. Ŵalovi ŵa malonda na ŵalovi ŵakujilyera ŵakukora somba mu maji gha kawiro panji ŵakuziŵeta mu vizima panji mu vikhola vya kuŵetera mu mbwani. Somba zikukoleka pa kujikondweska panji zikuŵetika na ŵakusunga somba nga ni vyakutowa vyakulaŵiska mu nyumba za ŵanthu na mu malo gha ŵanthu wose, mu nyumba za somba za magalasi na mu vizima vya mu minda. Somba zaŵa na malo mu ukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu nyengo zose, nga ni ŵaciuta, vimanyikwiro vya visopa, na nkhani za luso, mabuku, na mafilimu. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''fish'' likafuma ku ciyowoyero ca kale ca ''Proto-Germanic'', ndipo likukolerana na lizgu la Cijeremani lakuti ''Fisch'', la Cilatini lakuti ''piscis'', na la Ciayirishi ca kale lakuti ''íasc'', nangauli muzu wake weneco ukumanyikwa yayi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DWDS – Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache |url=https://www.dwds.de/wb/Fisch |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=DWDS |language=de |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731172104/https://www.dwds.de/wb/Fisch |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehmann |first1=Winfred Philipp |last2= Hewitt |first2=Helen-Jo J. |last3=Feist |first3=Sigmund |title=A Gothic etymological dictionary |year=1986 |page=118 |publisher=BRILL |url=https://archive.org/details/lehmann-gothic-etymological-dictionary-1986/page/n1/mode/2up|isbn=978-90-04-08176-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=fish, n.1 |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/70646 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-01-21 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010607/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/70646 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |author-link=Carl Darling Buck |title=A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1949 |chapter=section 3.65 |page=184}}</ref> Ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti muzu wa ''Proto-Indo-European'' ukaŵa *''peysk-'', uwo ukusangika pera mu viyowoyero vya Italic, Celtic, na Germanic. Nangauli kanandi ŵanthu ŵakughagwiliskira ntchito nga ni lizgu limoza, mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo mazgo ghakuti ''fish'' na ''fishes'' ghali na ming'anamuro yakupambana. ''Fish'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa somba yimoza, panji pa somba zinandi za mtundu umoza. ''Fishes'' likugwiliskirika ntchito pa mitundu yakupambana panji magulu gha mitundu.<ref name="Pauly2004">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Pauly |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Pauly |title=Fish(es) |encyclopedia=Darwin's Fishes: An Encyclopedia of Ichthyology, Ecology, and Evolution |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lTDa0fM4vQIC&pg=PA77 |date=13 May 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45181-9 |page=77 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160208060837/https://books.google.com/books?id=lTDa0fM4vQIC&pg=PA77 |archive-date=8 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Joseph S. Nelson |last1=Nelson |first1=Joseph S. |last2=Paetz |first2=Martin Joseph |date=1992 |url= http://www.uap.ualberta.ca/images/pdfs/9780888642363.pdf |title=The Fishes of Alberta |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140407085249/http://www.uap.ualberta.ca/images/pdfs/9780888642363.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 |page=400 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=978-0-88864-236-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=5}} == Kusintha kwa Vyamoyo == === Mbiri ya Mafosilo === [[File:Dunkleosteus profile.jpg|thumb|''Dunkleosteus'' yikaŵa ''placoderm'' yikulu comene ya mu Devonian, yakuŵa na vikonkholo vyakuvikilira, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 400 ivyo vyajumpha.]] Pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 530 ivyo vyajumpha, pa kuphulika kwa Cambrian, vinyama vyakuyana na somba ivyo vikaŵa na nthonga ya msana (''notochord'') na maso kunthazi kwa thupi, nga ni ''Haikouichthys'', vikuwoneka mu mafosilo.<ref name="Shu 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Shu |first1=D. G. |title=Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate ''Haikouichthys'' |journal=Nature |first2=S. |last2=Conway Morris |first3=J. |last3=Han |first4=Z. F. |last4=Zhang |first5=K. |last5=Yasui |first6=P. |last6=Janvier |first7=L. |last7=Chen |first8=X. L. |last8=Zhang |first9=J. N. |last9=Liu |last10=Li |first10=Y. |last11=Liu |first11=H.-Q. |display-authors=6 |volume=421 |issue=6922 |doi=10.1038/nature01264 |bibcode=2003Natur.421..526S |pmid=12556891 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10926399 |pages=526–529 |date =2003 |s2cid=4401274 }}</ref> Ku umaliro wa Cambrian, vinyama vinyake vyambura mihlati nga ni ''conodont'' vikuwoneka.<ref name="Donoghue Purnell 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Donoghue |first1=Philip C. J. |last2=Purnell |first2=Mark A. |title=The Evolutionary Emergence of Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless Relatives |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |volume=2 |issue=2 |date=2009 |doi=10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 |pages=204–212 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Miller Clark 1984">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=James F. |last2=Clark |first2=D. L. |title=Cambrian and earliest Ordovician conodont evolution, biofacies, and provincialism |journal=Geological Society of America Special Paper |series=Geological Society of America Special Papers |issue=196 |year=1984 |volume=196 |pages=43–68 |doi=10.1130/SPE196-p43 |isbn=978-0-8137-2196-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGGi7wlAuw4C&pg=PA43|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na mihlati vikuwoneka mu Silurian, pamoza na ''placoderm'' zikulu comene izo zikaŵa na vikonkholo vyakuvikilira, nga ni ''Dunkleosteus''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/science/jaws-of-steel-on-this-fish-tank/2006/11/29/1164777657728.html |title=Monster fish crushed opposition with strongest bite ever |newspaper=Smh.com.au |date=30 November 2006 |access-date=26 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402143409/http://www.smh.com.au/news/science/jaws-of-steel-on-this-fish-tank/2006/11/29/1164777657728.html |archive-date=2 April 2013}}</ref> Somba za mihlati nazo zikawoneka mu Silurian: Chondrichthyes za viwanga vipepu, na Osteichthyes za viwanga.<ref name="Choo Min Wenjin 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Choo |first1=Brian |last2=Zhu |first2=Min |last3=Zhao |first3=Wenjin |last4=Jia |first4=Liaotao |last5=Zhu |first5=You'an |title=The largest Silurian vertebrate and its palaeoecological implications |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2014 |volume=4 |article-number=5242 |doi=10.1038/srep05242 |doi-access=free|pmid=24921626 |pmc=4054400 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4.5242C}}</ref><ref name="Andreev Sansom 2022a">{{cite journal |last1=Andreev |first1=Plamen S. |last2=Sansom |first2=Ivan J. |last3=Li |first3=Qiang |last4=Zhao |first4=Wenjin |last5=Wang |first5=Jianhua |last6=Wang |first6=Chun-Chieh |last7=Peng |first7=Lijian |last8=Jia |first8=Liantao |last9=Qiao |first9=Tuo |last10=Zhu |first10=Min |display-authors=5 |date=September 2022 |title=Spiny chondrichthyan from the lower Silurian of South China |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05233-8 |journal=Nature |volume=609 |issue=7929 |pages=969–974 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05233-8 |pmid=36171377 |bibcode=2022Natur.609..969A |s2cid=252570103|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Andreev Sansom 2022b">{{Cite journal |last1=Andreev |first1=Plamen S. |last2=Sansom |first2=Ivan J. |last3=Li |first3=Qiang |last4=Zhao |first4=Wenjin |last5=Wang |first5=Jianhua |last6=Wang |first6=Chun-Chieh |last7=Peng |first7=Lijian |last8=Jia |first8=Liantao |last9=Qiao |first9=Tuo |last10=Zhu |first10=Min |display-authors=6 |date=September 2022 |title=The oldest gnathostome teeth |journal=Nature |volume=609 |issue=7929 |pages=964–968 |bibcode=2022Natur.609..964A |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05166-2 |pmid=36171375 |s2cid=252569771}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Linda R.|last2=Solomon |first2=Eldra Pearl |last3=Martin |first3=Diana W. |title=Biology |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-534-49276-2 |page=599}}</ref> Mu Devonian, mitundu ya somba yikasazgikira comene, kusazgapo ''placoderm'', somba za viskambiro vya minofu, na ŵashaki ŵakwamba, ntheura Devonian yikapika zina lakuti "nyengo ya somba".{{sfn|Benton|2005|loc=p. 35: Fig 2.10, p. 73: Fig 3.25}}<ref name="Dalton 2006">{{cite journal |last=Dalton |first=Rex |title=Hooked on fossils |journal=Nature |date=January 2006 |volume=439 |issue=7074 |pages=262–263 |doi=10.1038/439262a |pmid=16421540 |s2cid=4357313 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ubale wa Mitundu === Somba ni gulu lambura kukwana, cifukwa gulu lililose ilo lili na somba zose za mihlati (Gnathostomata) panji somba zose za viwanga (Osteichthyes) lili so na gulu la vinyama vya malundi ghanayi (vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana ivyo vili na malundi ghanayi, vinandi vikukhala pa mtunda), ivyo kanandi vikupendeka nga ni somba yayi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Harry W. |date=1998-01-01 |title=We are primates and we are fish: Teaching monophyletic organismal biology |journal=Integrative Biology |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=108–111 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1520-6602(1998)1:3<108::aid-inbi5>3.0.co;2-t }}</ref><ref name="Nelson 2016"/> Vinyama vinyake vya malundi ghanayi, nga ni nyamumba na ''ichthyosaur'', vikaŵa so na thupi lakuyana na la somba kwizira mu kusintha kwakuyana (''convergent evolution'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Davis |first=R. W. |year=2019 |chapter=Return to the Sea: The Evolution of Marine Mammals |pages=7–27 |editor-last=Davis |editor-first=R. W. |title=Marine Mammals: Adaptations for an Aquatic Life |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-3-3199-8278-6}}</ref> Kweni buku la ''Fishes of the World'' likuti "ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomera kuti vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kusazgapo ise, ni somba za viwanga izo zikasintha waka, ntheura tikukondwa kugwiliskira ntchito Osteichthyes nga ni gulu lakukwana, ilo sono likusazgapo vinyama vyose vya malundi ghanayi".<ref name="Nelson 2016"/> Mitundu ya somba iyo yilipo yikugaŵika mwakuyana yayi mu magulu ghakupambana; ''teleost'', somba za viwanga izo zingafumya mihlati yawo kunthazi, ni magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu ya somba.{{sfn|Benton|2005|pp=175–184}}<ref name="Nelson 2016" /> Cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongora ubale wa magulu ghose gha somba izo zilipo (na unandi wa mitundu yawo) na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi.<ref name="Friedman & Sallan 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Matt |last2=Sallan |first2=Lauren Cole |title=Five hundred million years of extinction and recovery: A Phanerozoic survey of large-scale diversity patterns in fishes |journal=Palaeontology |date=June 2012 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=707–742 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2012.01165.x |bibcode=2012Palgy..55..707F |s2cid=59423401 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nelson 2016" /><ref name="IUCN2023">{{cite web |website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |version=2023.1 |title=Summary Statistics |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-statistics |access-date=5 February 2024}} Table 1a: [https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2023-1_RL_Table_1a.pdf Number of species evaluated in relation to the overall number of described species, and numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms]<!--counts 38,595 for tetrapods, using ASW6, RD, Birdlife and MDD--></ref> Magulu agho ghakasoŵa ghali na cimanyikwiro (†); magulu agho malo ghawo ghakumanyikwa makora yayi ghali na cimanyikwiro ca fumbo (?) na mizere ya tudoti (- - - - -).<ref name="Friedman & Sallan 2012" /> Magulu agho ghali na mitundu yakujumpha 25,000 ghali na malembo ghakufipa. {{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%; |label1=Vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana |1={{clade |1=Cyclostomi (mitundu 118: ''hagfish'', ''lamprey'') [[File:Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus 1758 Fig 106 (Matschie et al. 1909).svg|100px]] |2={{clade |label1= ? |state=dashed |1= †Thelodonti, †Conodonta, †Anaspida [[File:Sphenonectris turnernae white background.jpg|50 px]] [[File:ConodontZICA.png|90px]] [[File:Lasanius NT small.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1=†Galeaspida [[File:A Galeaspid.jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |1=†Osteostraci [[File:Cephalaspis Lyellii.jpg|100px]] |label2=Somba za mihlati |2={{clade |1=†Placodermi [[File:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2024 reconstruction.jpg|80 px]] |2={{clade |label1 = ? |state=dashed |1=†Acanthodii [[File:Diplacanthus reconstructed.jpg|50px]] |2={{clade |label1=Chondrichthyes |1=(mitundu yakujumpha 1,100: ŵashaki, ''ray'', ''chimaera'') [[File:Notorynchus cepedianus (Broadnose sevengill shark).gif|140px]] |label2=Osteichthyes |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=Somba za viskambiro vya minofu |1={{clade |label1=Actinistia |1=(mitundu 2: ''coelacanth'') [[File:Coelacanth-bgiu.png|100px]] |label2=Rhipidistia |2={{clade |1=Dipnoi (mitundu 6: ''lungfish'') [[File:Lepidosiren paradoxa2.jpg|140px]] |2='''Tetrapoda''' (mitundu yakujumpha 38,000 ya pa mtunda, yikupendeka nga ni somba yayi) [[File:Salamender (PSF).png|90px]] }} }} |label2=Somba za viskambiro vya nthonga |2={{clade |label1=Cladistia |1=(mitundu 14: ''bichir'', ''reedfish'') [[File:Polypterus bichir.jpg|130px]] |label2=Actinopteri |2={{clade |label1=Chondrostei |1=(mitundu 27: ''sturgeon'', ''paddlefish'') [[File:Acipenser gueldenstaedtii.jpg|130px]] |label2=Neopterygii |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=Holostei |1={{clade |1=Ginglymodi (mitundu 7: ''gar'', ''alligator gar'') [[File:Lepisosteus platostomus.jpg|130px]] |2=Halecomorphi (mitundu 2: ''bowfin'', ''eyetail bowfin'') [[File:Amia calva.jpg|130px]] }} |label2='''Teleostei''' |2=(mitundu yakujumpha 32,000) [[File:Engraulis ringens.jpg|130px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} === Kagaŵiro === Somba (kwambura vinyama vya malundi ghanayi) ni gulu lambura kukwana, ndipo pa cifukwa ici, gulu la Pisces ilo likusangika mu mabuku gha kale likugwiliskirika ntchito so yayi mu kagaŵiro ka kasandiro. Kagaŵiro ka kale kakugaŵa somba mu magulu ghatatu agho ghalipo ("Agnatha", Chondrichthyes, na "Osteichthyes"), ndipo mitundu iyo yikasoŵa nyengo zinyake yikuŵikika mu magulu agha, nyengo zinyake nga ni magulu ghawo ghapadera.<ref>{{cite book |last=Benton |first=M.J. |year=1998 |chapter=The quality of the fossil record of vertebrates |pages= 269–303, Fig. 2 |url=https://bpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/5/537/files/2019/08/1998qualityvfr.pdf|editor1=Donovan, S.K. |editor2=Paul, C.R.C. |title=The adequacy of the fossil record |publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-96988-4}}</ref> Somba ni hafu na kujumpha ya mitundu ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana. Pofika 2016, pakaŵa mitundu yakujumpha 32,000 ya somba za viwanga iyo yalongosoreka, mitundu yakujumpha 1,100 ya somba za viwanga vipepu, na yakujumpha 100 ya ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey''. Cigaŵa cimoza mwa vitatu ca mitundu iyi cili mu mbumba zinkhondi na zinayi zikulu comene; kufuma ku yikulu comene mpaka ku yicoko, izi ni Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, na Scorpaenidae. Pafupifupi mbumba 64 zili na mtundu umoza pera.<ref name="Nelson 2016">{{harvnb|Nelson|2016|p=3}}</ref> === Unandi wa Mitundu === Somba zikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku shaki wa nyamumba (''whale shark''), mukulu comene wa mamita 16, mpaka ku ''teleost'' zinyake zicoko comene za milimita 8 pera mu utali, nga ni ''Paedocypris progenetica'' na ''stout infantfish''.<ref name="McClain Balk Benfield Branch 2015">{{cite journal |last1=McClain |first1=Craig R. |last2=Balk |first2=Meghan A. |last3=Benfield |first3=Mark C. |last4=Branch |first4=Trevor A. |last5=Chen |first5=Catherine |last6=Cosgrove |first6=James |last7=Dove |first7=Alistair D.M. |last8=Gaskins |first8=Leo |last9=Helm |first9=Rebecca R. |last10=Hochberg |first10=Frederick G. |last11=Lee |first11=Frank B. |last12=Marshall |first12=Andrea |last13=McMurray |first13=Steven E. |last14=Schanche |first14=Caroline |last15=Stone |first15=Shane N. |last16=Thaler |first16=Andrew D. |display-authors=5 |title=Sizing ocean giants: patterns of intraspecific size variation in marine megafauna |journal=PeerJ |volume=3 |date=2015-01-13 |doi=10.7717/peerj.715 |doi-access=free |article-number=e715 |pmid=25649000 |pmc=4304853 }}</ref><ref name="Kottelat">{{cite journal |last1=Kottelat |first1=Maurice |last2=Britz |first2=Ralf |last3=Heok Hui|first3=Tan |last4=Witte |first4=Kai-Erik |year=2005 |title=''Paedocypris'', a new genus of Southeast Asian cyprinid fish with a remarkable sexual dimorphism, comprises the world's smallest vertebrate |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=273 |issue=1589 |pages=895–899 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3419 |url=http://www.eurocean.org/np4/file/133/Paedocypris_20__20the_20world_20s_20smal.pdf |access-date=26 October 2012 |pmid=16627273 |pmc=1560243 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712211749/http://www.eurocean.org/np4/file/133/Paedocypris_20__20the_20world_20s_20smal.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2009}}</ref><ref name=fishbase>{{FishBase|genus=Schindleria|species=brevipinguis |year=2017 |month=September}}</ref> Luŵiro la kuskamba likupambana kufuma ku somba nga ni ''tuna'', ''salmon'', na ''jack'' izo zingaskamba utali wa thupi lawo maulendo 10–20 pa sekondi yimoza, mpaka ku mitundu nga ni nkhungu na ''ray'' izo zikuskamba utali wa thupi lawo kujumpha hafu pa sekondi yimoza yayi.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=103}} Somba yakuyana na zinyake zose yili na ndopa zakuzizima, thupi lakunozgeka kuti liskambe luŵiro, yikutora okisijeni mu maji na masambo, yili na viskambiro vyakuŵiriŵiri vya mitundu yiŵiri, ciskambiro cimoza panji viŵiri pa msana, ciskambiro cimoza pasi pa msundu na ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, mihlati, cikumba cakuphimbika na mamba, ndipo yikuikira masumbi. Cimanyikwiro cilicose cili na vyakupambana, ndipo ici cikupangiska kupambanapambana kukulu mu mawonekero gha thupi na umoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, somba zinyake izo zikuskamba luŵiro zili na ndopa zakufunda, apo somba zinyake izo zikuskamba pacoko zikaleka thupi lakunozgekera luŵiro na kutora mawonekero ghanyake gha thupi.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=3, 33–36}} <gallery mode="packed" heights=175> File:Rhincodon typus fgbnms (cropped).jpg|Mukulu comene: shaki wa nyamumba (''whale shark'') File:Paedocypris progenetica 001.jpg|Yicoko comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''Paedocypris progenetica'' </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights=100> File:Salmo salar.jpg|Yaluŵiro comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''salmon'', utali wa thupi lake maulendo 10–20 pa sekondi yimoza File:Anguilla japonica 1856.jpg|Yakuskamba pacoko comene: mwaciyelezgero, ''eel'', hafu ya utali wa thupi lake pa sekondi yimoza </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights=120> File:Humpback anglerfish.png|Yikusaka mwakubisama:<br />''anglerfish'' File:Atl mackerel photo3 exp.jpg|Thupi lakunozgeka kuti liskambe luŵiro, ndopa zakufunda pacoko:<br />''mackerel'' File:Hippocampus hippocampus (cropped).jpg|Yikugwiliskira ntchito ciskukupiko pa kuskamba yayi:<br />''seahorse'' File:Phycodurus eques P2023146 (cropped).JPG|Yakubisama:<br />''leafy seadragon'' File:Eastern Cleaner Clingfish (cropped).jpg|Yambura mamba:<br />''clingfish'' File:Cyphotilapia frontosa mouthbrooding.jpg|Yikusunga ŵana mu mlomo: ''cichlid'' ya ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' na ŵana ŵake mu mlomo wake </gallery> == Umoyo na Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Malo gha Kukhala === [[File:Fish habitat diversity.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|Mitundu ya somba yakupambanapambana yanozgeka kukhala mu malo ghanandi gha maji ghambura mcere na gha mbwani.]] Mitundu ya somba yikugaŵikana pafupifupi mwakuyana pakati pa maji ghambura mcere na mbwani; pali mitundu pafupifupi 15,200 ya mu maji ghambura mcere na pafupifupi 14,800 ya mu mbwani.<ref name="Manel Guerin Mouillot Blanchet 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Manel |first1=Stéphanie |last2=Guerin |first2=Pierre-Edouard |last3=Mouillot |first3=David |last4=Blanchet |first4=Simon |last5=Velez |first5=Laure |last6=Albouy |first6=Camille |last7=Pellissier |first7=Loïc |title=Global determinants of freshwater and marine fish genetic diversity |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2020-02-10 |page=692 |pmid=32041961 |pmc=7010757 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14409-7 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020NatCo..11..692M }}</ref> Malibwe gha korali mu Indo-Pacific ndigho malo agho mitundu ya somba za mbwani yili yinandi comene, apo somba za maji ghambura mcere za pa mtunda zili na mitundu yinandi comene mu vigaŵa vikulu vya milonga mu nkholongo za vula za ku tropiki, comene vigaŵa vya Amazon, Congo, na Mekong.<ref name="Hubert Meyer Bruggemann Guérin 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Hubert |first1=Nicolas |last2=Meyer |first2=Christopher P. |last3=Bruggemann |first3=Henrich J. |last4=Guérin |first4=Fabien |last5=Komeno |first5=Roberto J. L. |last6=Espiau |first6=Benoit |last7=Causse |first7=Romain |last8=Williams |first8=Jeffrey T. |last9=Planes |first9=Serge |display-authors=5 |title=Cryptic Diversity in Indo-Pacific Coral-Reef Fishes Revealed by DNA-Barcoding Provides New Support to the Centre-of-Overlap Hypothesis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=3 |date=2012-03-15 |pmid=22438862 |pmc=3305298 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0028987 |doi-access=free |article-number=e28987 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...728987H }}</ref><ref name="van der Sleen Albert 2022">{{cite book |last1=van der Sleen |first1=Peter |last2=Albert |first2=James S. |title=Encyclopedia of Inland Waters |chapter=Patterns in Freshwater Fish Diversity |publisher=Elsevier |date=2022 |isbn=978-0-12-822041-2 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-819166-8.00056-6 |pages=243–255}}</ref> Mitundu ya somba yakujumpha 5,600 yikukhala mu maji ghambura mcere gha Neotropiki pera, ntheura somba za Neotropiki ni pafupifupi magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana pa caro capasi.<ref name="Albert Carvalho Petry 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Albert |first1=James S. |last2=Carvalho |first2=Tiago P. |last3=Petry |first3=Paulo |title=Aquatic Biodiversity in the Amazon: Habitat Specialization and Geographic Isolation Promote Species Richness |journal=Animals |date=June 2011 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=205–241 |doi=10.3390/ani1020205 |doi-access=free |pmid=26486313|pmc=4513461 }}</ref> Somba zili zinandi mu maji ghanandi. Zingasangika pafupifupi mu malo ghose gha maji, kufuma ku tumronga twa pacanya pa mapiri (mwaciyelezgero, ''char'' na ''gudgeon'') mpaka ku malo gha pasi comene gha mbwani (mwaciyelezgero, ''cusk-eel'' na ''snailfish''), nangauli palije iyo yasangika mu magaŵa 25 pa 100 gha pasi comene gha mbwani.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yancey |first1=P.H. |last2=Gerringer |first2=M.E. |last3=Drazen |first3=J.C. |last4=Rowden |first4=A.A. |last5=Jamieson |first5=A. |title=Marine fish may be biochemically constrained from inhabiting the deepest ocean depths |year=2014 |journal=PNAS |pmc=3970477 |pmid=24591588 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1322003111 |volume=111 |issue=12 |pages=4461–4465 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.4461Y |doi-access=free }}</ref> Somba iyo yasangika pasi comene mu mbwani mpaka sono ni ''cusk-eel'', ''Abyssobrotula galatheae'', iyo yikasangika pasi pa Cigwa ca Puerto Rico pa mamita 8,370.<ref name="EoF">{{cite book |editor1=Paxton, J.R. |editor2=Eschmeyer, W.N. |last=Nielsen |first=Jørgen G. |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of Fishes |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |page=134 |isbn=0-12-547665-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=What is the deepest-living fish? |url=http://australianmuseum.net.au/what-is-the-deepest-living-fish |work=Australian Museum |date=23 December 2014 |access-date=18 September 2015 }}</ref> Pa nkhani ya kufunda, ''Jonah's icefish'' zikukhala mu maji ghakuzizima{{efn|Kufunda kwa maji kanandi kuli pafupi na 0 °C. Maji gha mbwani pacanya ghakukakata pa −1.85 °C, ndipo pa kuzika kwa mamita 1,000 ghakukakata pa −2.62 °C. Kweni maji ghangazizima pacoko kuluska apa kwambura kukakata.<ref name="Haumann Moorman Riser Smedsrud 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Haumann |first1=F. Alexander |last2=Moorman |first2=Ruth |last3=Riser |first3=Stephen C. |last4=Smedsrud |first4=Lars H. |last5=Maksym |first5=Ted |last6=Wong |first6=Annie P.S. |last7=Wilson |first7=Earle A. |last8=Drucker |first8=Robert |last9=Talley |first9=Lynne D. |last10=Johnson |first10=Kenneth S. |last11=Key |first11=Robert M. |last12=Sarmiento |first12=Jorge L. |display-authors=5 |title=Supercooled Southern Ocean Waters |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=47 |issue=20 |date=2020-10-28 |article-number=e2020GL090242 |doi=10.1029/2020GL090242 |bibcode=2020GeoRL..4790242H |hdl=1912/26495 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>}} gha Mbwani ya Kumwera, kusazgapo pasi pa cikakato ca Filchner–Ronne pa 79° kumwera, apo ''desert pupfish'' zikukhala mu mbwiwi, tumronga, na madambo gha mu cipalamba, nyengo zinyake vyamcere comene, umo kufunda kwa maji kungafika 36 °C.<ref name="Purser Hehemann 2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Purser |first1=Autun |last2=Hehemann |first2=Laura |last3=Boehringer |first3=Lilian |last4=Tippenhauer |first4=Sandra |last5=Wege |first5=Mia |last6=Bornemann |first6=Horst |last7=Pineda-Metz |first7=Santiago E. A. |last8=Flintrop |first8=Clara M. |last9=Koch |first9=Florian |last10=Hellmer |first10=Hartmut H. |last11=Burkhardt-Holm |first11=Patricia |last12=Janout |first12=Markus |last13=Werner |first13=Ellen |last14=Glemser |first14=Barbara |last15=Balaguer |first15=Jenna |display-authors=5 |date=2022 |title=A vast icefish breeding colony discovered in the Antarctic |journal=Current Biology |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=842–850.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.022 |pmid=35030328 |s2cid=245936769 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CBio...32E.842P |hdl=2263/90796 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="USFWS 1993">{{cite web |publisher=United States Fish and Wildlife Service |year=1993 |title=Desert Pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius) Recovery Plan |first1=Paul C. |last1=Marsh |first2=Donald W |last2=Sada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017200006/https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/931208b.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-17 |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/931208b.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Shrode Gerking 1977">{{Cite journal |last1=Shrode |first1=Joy B. |last2=Gerking |first2=Shelby D. |year=1977 |title=Effects of Constant and Fluctuating Temperatures on Reproductive Performance of a Desert Pupfish, ''Cyprinodon n. nevadensis'' |journal=Physiological Zoology |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1086/physzool.50.1.30155710 |bibcode=1977PhysZ..50....1S |s2cid=82166135 }}</ref> Somba zicoko waka zikukhala comene pa mtunda panji zikuikira masumbi pa mtunda pafupi na maji.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=K.L.M. |title=Beach-Spawning Fishes: Reproduction in an Endangered Ecosystem |year=2014 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4822-0797-2}}</ref> ''Mudskipper'' zikulya na kucezgerana pa malo gha nyata, ndipo zikunjira mu maji kuti zibisame mu madolozi ghawo.<ref>{{FishBase |genus=Periophthalmus |species=barbarus |year=2006 |month=November |id=12803}}</ref> Mtundu umoza wa ''Phreatobius'' uwo undalongosoreke ukuchemeka "somba ya pa mtunda" nadi, cifukwa bwankha uyu wakuyana na mphutsi wakukhala pera mukati mwa mahamba ghakuwa agho ghazula na maji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetcatfish.com/catelog/species.php?species_id=646 |title=Cat-eLog: Heptapteridae: ''Phreatobius'': ''Phreatobius'' sp. (1) |website=Planet Catfish |access-date=26 November 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023092123/http://www.planetcatfish.com/catelog/species.php?species_id=646 |archive-date=23 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henderson |first1=P.A. |last2=Walker |first2=I. |year=1990 |title=Spatial organization and population density of the fish community of the litter banks within a central Amazonian blackwater stream |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=401–411 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990.tb05871.x |bibcode=1990JFBio..37..401H }}</ref> Somba za mu mphako za mbumba zinandi zikukhala mu nyanja za pasi pa dongo, milonga ya pasi pa dongo, panji maji gha pasi.<ref name="Helfman 2007">{{cite book |last=Helfman |first=G.S. |year=2007 |title=Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources |pages=41–42 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-55963-595-0}}</ref> === Vyakuthemba Vinyake na Vyakusaka === Nga ni vinyama vinyake, somba zikusuzgika na vyamoyo ivyo vikuzithemba (vyakuthemba vinyake). Mitundu yinyake yikugwiliskira ntchito somba zakutozga kuti zifumyepo vyakuthemba vinyake vya kuwaro kwa thupi. Izo zikumanyikwa comene ni ''bluestreak cleaner wrasse'' za mu malibwe gha korali mu Mbwani ya India na [[Mbwani ya Pacific]]. Somba zicoko izi zikusunga malo gha kutozgerapo, uko somba zinyake zikuwungana na kucita mendero ghapadera kuti somba zakutozga ziziwone.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=380}} Kutozgana kwawoneka mu magulu ghanandi gha somba, kusazgapo cakucitika cakuzizika pakati pa ''cichlid'' ziŵiri za mbumba yimoza, ''Etroplus maculatus'', iyo yikutozga, na ''E. suratensis'' iyo njikulu comene.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wyman |first1=Richard L. |last2=Ward |first2=Jack A. |year=1972 |title=A Cleaning Symbiosis between the Cichlid Fishes ''Etroplus maculatus'' and ''Etroplus suratensis''. I. Description and Possible Evolution |journal=Copeia |volume=1972 |issue=4 |pages=834–838 |doi=10.2307/1442742 |jstor=1442742 |bibcode=1972Copei1972..834W }}</ref> Somba zili pa malo ghanandi mu ndondomeko ya vyakulya mu maji ghambura mcere na mu mbwani. Somba za pacanya ni vyakusaka, ndipo vinandi mwa ivyo zikusaka ni somba zinyake.<ref name="Myers Worm 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Ransom A. |last2=Worm |first2=Boris |title=Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |volume=423 |issue=6937 |year=2003|doi=10.1038/nature01610 |pages=280–283|pmid=12748640 |bibcode=2003Natur.423..280M }}</ref> Kweniso, vinyama vyakonkheska nga ni ''dolphin'' na ''seal'' vikulya somba, pamoza na viyuni nga ni ''gannet'' na ''cormorant''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Predation |url=https://www.nwcouncil.org/fish-and-wildlife/fw-topics/predation/ |publisher=Northwest Power and Conservation Council |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> <gallery mode=packed> File:Initial phase parrotfish feeding at Shaab Marsa Alam, Red Sea, Egypt -SCUBA (6336981391).jpg|''Parrotfish'' yikulya koyo pa malibwe gha korali File:Arothron hispidus is being cleaned by Hawaiian cleaner wrasses, Labroides phthirophagus 1.jpg|Somba yakutozga yikufumyapo vyakuthemba vinyake pa ''pufferfish'' File:Barracuda with prey.jpg|''Barracuda'' yikusaka somba yicoko File:1031 california sealion wright odfw (35281910502).jpg|''Sea lion'', cinyama cakonkheska cakusaka, cikulya ''salmon'' yikulu File:Cormorant with fish (cropped).jpg|''Cormorant'' na somba iyo yakora </gallery> == Kapangikiro ka Thupi na Kagwiliro Ntchito Kake == === Kuskamba === Thupi la somba lanozgeka kuti liskambe makora mwa kufyenya minofu ya ku mbali ziŵiri za fupa la msana mwakupokerana. Kufyenyeka uku kukupanga mapindiko gha nga ni S agho ghakwenda kuya kumanyuma kwa thupi. Para lipindiko lililose lafika pa ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko, nkhongono zikuchika maji, ndipo somba yikuya kunthazi. Viskambiro vinyake vikugwira ntchito nga ni vigaŵa vyakulongozgera vya ndege, ndipo vikovwira somba kuzgokera ku nthowa yiliyose.<ref name=Sfakiotakis>{{cite journal |last1=Sfakiotakis |first1=M. |last2=Lane |first2=D. M. |last3=Davies |first3=J. B. C. |date=1999 |url=http://www.mor-fin.com/Science-related-links_files/http___www.ece.eps.hw.ac.uk_Research_oceans_people_Michael_Sfakiotakis_IEEEJOE_99.pdf |title=Review of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic Locomotion |journal=IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=237–252 |doi=10.1109/48.757275 |bibcode=1999IJOE...24..237S |s2cid=17226211 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091124/http://www.mor-fin.com/Science-related-links_files/http___www.ece.eps.hw.ac.uk_Research_oceans_people_Michael_Sfakiotakis_IEEEJOE_99.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-24 }}</ref> Cifukwa thupi lili na uzito kuluska maji gha unandi wakuyana, somba zikwenera kukwaniska kupambana uku, panji zingadodomera. Somba zinandi za viwanga zili na cigaŵa ca mukati ico cikuchemeka kathumba ka mvuci; kathumba aka kakuzovwira kusintha umo zikuyenjamira mwa kusazgira panji kucepeska mvuci uwo uli mukati mwake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Actinopterygii: More on Morphology |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/actinopterygii/actinomm.html |publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> Mamba gha somba ghakuzivikilira ku vyakusaka, kweni ghakusazgirako kukhora na uzito.<ref name="Quan Yang Lapeyriere Schaible 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Quan |first1=Haocheng |last2=Yang |first2=Wen |last3=Lapeyriere |first3=Marine |last4=Schaible |first4=Eric |last5=Ritchie |first5=Robert O. |last6=Meyers |first6=Marc A. |title=Structure and Mechanical Adaptability of a Modern Elasmoid Fish Scale from the Common Carp |journal=Matter |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=2020 |doi=10.1016/j.matt.2020.05.011 |pages=842–863}}</ref> Kanandi mamba gha somba ghakung'azima comene; kung'azima uku kwa nga ni siliva kukuzibisa mu mbwani yikulu. Cifukwa maji ghose kuzingilizga ghali na mtundu umoza, kulongora cithuzi ca maji pa mamba kukupangiska kuti somba yileke kuwoneka makora.<ref name="Herring 2002">{{cite book |last=Herring |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Herring |year=2002 |title=The Biology of the Deep Ocean |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-854956-7 |pages=192–195}}</ref> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=300px> File:Lampanyctodes hectoris (Hector's lanternfish).svg|Kapangikiro ka somba (''lanternfish''):<br />1) kaŵale ka ciwanga kakuvikilira masambo 2) mzere wa ku mbali 3) ciskambiro ca pa msana 4) ciskambiro ca mafuta<br />5) cigaŵa ca pambere pa ciskukupiko 6) ciskambiro ca ciskukupiko 7) ciskambiro ca pasi pa msundu 8) vigaŵa vyakuŵala 9) viskambiro vya pa ciuno 10) viskambiro vya pa cifuwa </gallery> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200px> File:Swim bladder.jpg|Kathumba ka mvuci ka ''rudd'' kakuyovwira kuyenjamira makora mu maji. File:Fish scales.jpg|Mamba gha nga ni siliva gha ''rohu'' ghakuyivikilira na kuyibisa. </gallery> === Kuzunguliya kwa Ndopa === [[File:Fish gill respiration.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mtima wa somba ukupopa ndopa ku masambo, uko zikutora okisijeni. Pamanyuma ndopa zikwenda ku thupi kwambura kupopeka so, ndipo zikuwera ku mtima.]] Somba zili na ndondomeko yakujalika ya kuzunguliska ndopa. Mtima ukupopa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza yakuzunguliya thupi lose; mwakuyaniska, mtima wa vinyama vyakonkheska uli na nthowa ziŵiri, yimoza ya ku maphapo kuti ndopa zitore okisijeni, yinyake ya ku thupi kuti zipeleke okisijeni. Mu somba, mtima ukupopa ndopa kwizira mu masambo. Pamanyuma ndopa izo zili na okisijeni yinandi zikwenda kuya ku vigaŵa vya thupi kwambura kupopeka so, mwakupambana na vinyama vyakonkheska. Paumaliro, ndopa izo zamazga okisijeni zikuwera ku mtima.<ref>{{cite web |title=Animal Circulatory Systems |url=https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/nutrition-transport-and-homeostasis/animal-circulatory-systems/ |publisher=Georgia Tech |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> === Kupuma === ==== Masambo ==== Somba zikusinthana mvuci na masambo agho ghali ku mbali ziŵiri za cigoromiro. Masambo ghakupangika na vigaŵa vitali vipepu, vyakulondezgana nga ni mino gha ciskakulo, ivyo vikuchemeka tusambo (''filament''). Kasambo kalikose kali na mkwawo wa tukoli tucoko comene (''capillary''), uwo ukupeleka malo ghakulu gha kusinthanirapo okisijeni na kaboni dayokisayidi. Somba zikusinthana mvuci mwa kuguza maji agho ghali na okisijeni yinandi kwizira mu milomo yawo na kughapopa pa masambo ghawo. Ndopa za mu tukoli twa mu masambo zikwenda mu nthowa yakupambana na ya maji, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusinthana makora kwa mendero ghakulimbana (''countercurrent exchange''). Masambo ghakuchika maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko kuya kuwaro kwizira mu tudolozi twa ku mbali za cigoromiro. Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na tudolozi tunandi twa masambo: kanandi ŵashaki ŵali na tudolozi tunkhondi ku mbali yiliyose, nyengo zinyake tunkhondi na kamoza panji tunkhondi na tuŵiri; kanandi ŵakwenera kuskamba kuti masambo ghawo ghatore okisijeni. Somba za viwanga zili na kadolozi kamoza ka masambo ku mbali yiliyose, ako kakubisika pasi pa kaŵale ka ciwanga kakuvikilira (''operculum''). Zingapeleka okisijeni ku masambo ghawo na minofu ya mu mutu.<ref name="Romer 1977">{{cite book |last1=Romer |first1=Alfred Sherwood |author1-link=Alfred Romer |last2=Parsons |first2=Thomas S. |year=1977 |title=The Vertebrate Body |publisher=Holt-Saunders International |location=Philadelphia |pages=316–327 |isbn=0-03-910284-X}}</ref> ==== Kupuma Mvuci ==== Mitundu pafupifupi 400 ya somba mu mbumba 50 yingapuma mvuci, ndipo ici cikuyovwira kukhala mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko panji kufuma pa mtunda.<ref name="Graham Wegner 2010">{{cite book |last1=Graham |first1=Jeffrey B. |last2=Wegner |first2=N.C. |chapter=6. Breathing air in water and in air: the air-breathing fishes |editor-last=Nilsson |editor-first=Göran E. |title=Respiratory Physiology of Vertebrates |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-87854-8 |pages=174–221 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511845178.007 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263929585}}</ref> Nkhongono ya somba ya kucita ici yingacepeskeka na kuzunguliya kwa ndopa mu nthowa yimoza, cifukwa ndopa za okisijeni kufuma ku cigaŵa cakupumira mvuci zikusazganika na ndopa zambura okisijeni izo zikuwera ku mtima kufuma ku thupi lose. ''Lungfish'', ''bichir'', ''ropefish'', ''bowfin'', ''snakefish'', na ''African knifefish'' zasintha kuti zicepeske kusazgana uku, na kucepeska kutaya okisijeni kufuma ku masambo kuya mu maji agho ghali na okisijeni yicoko.<ref name="Graham Wegner 2010"/> ''Bichir'' na ''lungfish'' zili na maphapo ghaŵiri ghakuyana na gha vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, ntheura zikwenera kwiza pacanya pa maji kuti zimilimitizge mvuci, ndipo zikwenera kupuma mvuci nyengo zose. Somba zinyake zinandi, kusazgapo izo zikukhala mu vizima vya mu malibwe na mu malo agho maji gha mbwani ghakufika na kuwera (''intertidal''), zingapuma mvuci para zikukhumba: zingapuma mvuci para zili kuwaro kwa maji, nga umo cingacitikira zuŵa lililose apo maji gha mbwani ghawera, ndipo zikugwiliskira ntchito masambo para zili mu maji. Somba zinyake za m'mphepete mwa mbwani nga ni ''rockskipper'' na ''mudskipper'' zikusankha kufuma mu maji kuti zikalye mu malo agho kwa kanyengo ghali kuwaro kwa maji.<ref name="Graham Wegner 2010"/> Ŵabwankha ŵanyake ŵakufyonta mvuci kwizira mu nthowa ya kugayira cakulya.<ref name="Armbruster1998">{{cite journal |last=Armbruster |first=Jonathan W. |year=1998 |title=Modifications of the Digestive Tract for Holding Air in Loricariid and Scoloplacid Catfishes |url=http://www.auburn.edu/academic/science_math/res_area/loricariid/fish_key/Air.pdf |journal=Copeia |volume=1998 |issue=3 |pages=663–675 |doi=10.2307/1447796 |jstor=1447796 |bibcode=1998Copei1998..663A |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326130527/http://www.auburn.edu/academic/science_math/res_area/loricariid/fish_key/Air.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=25 June 2009}}</ref> === Kugaya Cakulya === Ndondomeko ya kugaya cakulya yili na nthowa yitali ya matumbo, iyo yikufuma ku mlomo mpaka ku msundu. Mlomo wa somba zinandi uli na mino gha kukolera ivyo zikusaka, kuluma panji kupala vyakumera, panji kubwanya cakulya. Mumizo ukutora cakulya kuya ku cifu, uko cingasungika na kugayika pacoko. Mphete ya minofu, ''pylorus'', yikufumya cakulya kuya mu matumbo pa nyengo na nyengo. Somba zinandi zili na tuthumba twa nga ni minwe, ''pyloric caeca'', kuzingilizga ''pylorus'', ndipo ntchito yake yikumanyikwa makora yayi. Kapamba kakufumya vinthu vyakugaya (''enzyme'') mu matumbo kuti vigaye cakulya; vinthu vinyake vyakugaya vikufumika na matumbo ghene. Ciŵindi cikupanga ndulu (''bile''), iyo yikovwira kugaŵa mafuta mu tuvigaŵa tucoko comene utu tungafyontheka mu matumbo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Digestive System |url=http://web.utk.edu/~rstrange/wfs550/html-con-pages/v-digest-sys.html |publisher=University of Tennessee |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> === Kufumya Vyakunyanyira === Somba zinandi zikufumya vyakunyanyira vya [[Natrojeni|natrojeni]] nga ni amoniya. Ivi vingafuma kwizira mu masambo panji kusefeka na maiso. Mcere ukufumika na cigaŵa ca pafupi na msundu (''rectal gland'').<ref name="Burton Burton 2017">{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Derek |last2=Burton |first2=Margaret |title=Oxford Scholarship Online |chapter=Excretion |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2017-12-21 |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198785552.003.0008}}</ref> Somba za mu maji gha mcere kanandi zikutaya maji kwizira mu ''osmosis''; maiso ghawo ghakuwezgera maji mu thupi, ndipo ghakupanga matuzi gha maji ghacoko. Mu somba za maji ghambura mcere cikucitika ivyo vikupambana: zikupokera maji kwizira mu ''osmosis'', ndipo zikupanga matuzi gha maji ghanandi. Somba zinyake zili na maiso agho ghangagwira ntchito mu maji ghambura mcere na mu maji gha mcere.<ref name="The Royal Society 1971">{{cite journal | title=Fish gills: mechanisms of salt transfer in fresh water and sea water | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B | volume=262 | issue=842 | date=1971-08-20| doi=10.1098/rstb.1971.0090 | pages=209–249| bibcode=1971RSPTB.262..209M | last1=Maetz | first1=J. }}</ref> === Wongo === [[File:Fish brain.png|thumb|upright=0.5|Cithuzi ca wongo wa ''trout'' ya ciŵingavula, kuwoneka kufuma pacanya]] Somba zili na wongo ucoko kuyana na ukulu wa thupi lawo kuluska vinyama vinyake vyakuŵa na fupa la msana; kanandi uzito wa wongo wawo ni cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 15 ca wongo wa ciyuni panji cinyama cakonkheska ca ukulu wakuyana.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=48–49}} Kweni somba zinyake zili na wongo ukulu, comene ''mormyrid'' na ŵashaki, izo zili na wongo ukulu kuyana na uzito wa thupi lawo nga ni viyuni na vinyama vya kathumba (''marsupial'').{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=191}} Kunthazi kwa wongo kuli vigaŵa viŵiri vya kunuskira (''olfactory lobe''), ivyo vikupokera na kupenda vimanyikwiro kufuma ku mphenkero kwizira mu mizirwe yiŵiri ya kunuskira.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=48–49}} Somba izo zikusaka comene mwa kunuska, nga ni ''hagfish'' na ŵashaki, zili na vigaŵa vikulu comene vya kunuskira. Kumanyuma kwa ivi kuli ''telencephalon'', ico mu somba cikugwira ntchito comene ya kunuska. Pamoza vigaŵa ivi vikupanga wongo wa kunthazi. ''Diencephalon'' ndico cikulumikizga wongo wa kunthazi na wongo wa pakati; cikugwira ntchito na mahomoni na kusunga thupi mu umo likwenera kuŵira (''homeostasis''). ''Pineal body'' cili pacanya pa ''diencephalon''; cikuwona ungweru, cikusunga ndondomeko ya usiku na muhanya, ndipo cikulongozga kusintha kwa mitundu ya thupi.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=48–49}} Wongo wa pakati uli na vigaŵa viŵiri vya kuwonera. Ivi ni vikulu comene mu mitundu iyo yikusaka mwa kuwona, nga ni ''trout'' ya ciŵingavula na ''cichlid''. Wongo wa kumanyuma ukulongozga kuskamba na kusunga thupi kuŵa lakunyoloka. ''Cerebellum'', ico cili na cigaŵa cimoza, ndico cigaŵa cikulu comene ca wongo; ni cicoko mu ''hagfish'' na ''lamprey'', kweni ni cikulu comene mu ''mormyrid'', uko cikupenda vimanyikwiro vya magesi ivyo zikupulika. Musisi wa wongo (''myelencephalon'') ukulongozga minofu yinyake na vigaŵa vya thupi, ndipo ukulongozga kupuma na kusunga maji na mcere mu thupi (''osmoregulation'').{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=48–49}} === Kupulika === Mzere wa ku mbali (''lateral line'') ni mkwawo wa vyakupulikira mu cikumba ivyo vikupulika mendero ghacoko gha maji na kunjenjema, ndipo vikupulika kwenda kwa somba za pafupi, kwali ni vyakusaka panji ivyo zikusaka.<ref name="Bleckmann Zelick 2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Bleckmann |first1=Horst |last2=Zelick |first2=Randy |date=2009-03-01 |title=Lateral line system of fish |journal=Integrative Zoology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00131.x |pmid=21392273 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ici cingawonekera kuŵa kupulika kwa kukhwaska na kwa kupulika mapokoso. Somba zambura kuwona za mu mphako zikwenda pafupifupi pera mwa ivyo zikupulika na mzere wa ku mbali.<ref>{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Godfrey-Smith |title=Metazoa |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |isbn=978-0-374-20794-6 |chapter=Kingfish |date=2020 }}</ref> Somba zinyake, nga ni ŵabwankha na ŵashaki, zili na ''ampullae of Lorenzini'', vyakupulikira magesi ivyo vikupulika magesi ghacoko comene gha pa milivoliti.<ref name="Albert Crampton 2006">{{cite book |last1=Albert |first1=J. S. |last2=Crampton |first2=W. G. |year=2006 |chapter=Electroreception and Electrogenesis |editor=Lutz, P. L. |title=The Physiology of Fishes |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-2022-4 |pages=429–470}}</ref> Kuwona ni kupulika kwakuzirwa mu somba.<ref name="Guthrie 1986">{{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=D. M. |title=The Behaviour of Teleost Fishes |chapter=Role of Vision in Fish Behaviour |publisher=Springer |publication-place=Boston, Massachusetts |date=1986 |isbn=978-1-4684-8263-8 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8261-4_4 |pages=75–113}}</ref> Maso gha somba ghakuyana na gha vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya pa mtunda nga ni viyuni na vinyama vyakonkheska, kweni ghali na kagalasi ka mu jiso (''lens'') kakuzingirizga comene nga ni mpira.<ref name="Guthrie 1986"/> Cikumba cakupulikira ungweru (''retina'') kanandi cili na tumaselo twa nthonga na twa cisongo (twa kuwonera mu cisi na mu ungweru); mitundu yinandi yingapambaniska mitundu ya ungweru, kanandi na mitundu yitatu ya tumaselo twa cisongo.<ref name="Guthrie 1986"/> ''Teleost'' zingawona ungweru wakulondezga nthowa yimoza (''polarized''); zinyake nga ni ''cyprinid'' zili na mtundu wacinayi wa tumaselo twa cisongo uwo ukuwona ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi.<ref name="Hawryshyn 2010">{{cite journal |last=Hawryshyn |first=Craig W. |title=Ultraviolet Polarization Vision and Visually Guided Behavior in Fishes |journal=Brain, Behavior and Evolution |volume=75 |issue=3 |date=2010 |doi=10.1159/000314275 |pages=186–194 |pmid=20733294 }}</ref><ref name="Guthrie 1986"/> Mu somba zambura mihlati, ''lamprey'' yili na maso ghakukura makora, apo ''hagfish'' yili na tumalo twa kuwonera twa kale waka.<ref name="Meyer-Rochow 1996">{{cite journal |last1=Meyer-Rochow |first1=V. Benno |last2=Stewart |first2=Duncan |title=Review of larval and postlarval eye ultrastructure in the lamprey (cyclostomata) with special emphasis on ''Geotria australis'' (gray) |journal=Microscopy Research and Technique |date=1996 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=431–444 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19961215)35:6<431::AID-JEMT3>3.0.CO;2-L |pmid=9016447 |s2cid=22940203 }}</ref><ref name="Lamb Collin Pugh 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Lamb |first1=Trevor D. |last2=Collin |first2=Shaun P. |last3=Pugh |first3=Edward N. |title=Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=8 |issue=12 |date=2007 |pmid=18026166 |pmc=3143066 |doi=10.1038/nrn2283 |pages=960–976}} See also [https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12052-008-0091-2.pdf Lamb et al.'s "The origin of the Vertebrate Eye", 2008.]</ref> Kupulika mapokoso nako nkhwakuzirwa mu somba. Somba zikupulika mapokoso na mizere ya ku mbali na tumalibwe twa mu makutu (''otolith''), mukati mwa mitu yawo. Zinyake zingapulika mapokoso kwizira mu kathumba ka mvuci.<ref name="Hawkins 1981">{{cite book |last=Hawkins |first=A. D. |editor1-last=Tavolga |editor1-first=William N. |editor2-last=Popper |editor2-first=Arthur N. |editor3-last=Fay |editor3-first=Richard R. |title=Hearing and Sound Communication in Fishes |date=1981 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4615-7188-9 |pages=109–138 |chapter=6. The Hearing Abilities of Fish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egP3BwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Somba zinyake, kusazgapo ''salmon'', zingapulika umagineti; para nthowa ya cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magineti yasinthika kuzingilizga cizima cakuzingirizga ca tusomba tucoko, zikujizgora kulondezga nthowa ya cigaŵa ici.<ref name="Quinn 1980">{{cite journal |last=Quinn |first=Thomas P. |date=1980 |title=Evidence for celestial and magnetic compass orientation in lake migrating sockeye salmon fry |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=137 |issue=3 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.1007/bf00657119 |s2cid=44036559 }}</ref><ref name="Taylor 1986">{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=P. B. |date=May 1986 |title=Experimental evidence for geomagnetic orientation in juvenile salmon, ''Oncorhynchus tschawytscha'' Walbaum |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=607–623 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb05196.x |bibcode=1986JFBio..28..607T }}</ref> Umo somba zikupulikira umagineti cicali kumanyikwa yayi; mayeso pa viyuni ghakulongora kuti ni nthowa ya ''quantum radical pair''.<ref name="Formicki Korzelecka‐Orkisz Tański 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Formicki |first1=Krzysztof |last2=Korzelecka-Orkisz |first2=Agata |last3=Tański |first3=Adam |title=Magnetoreception in fish |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=95 |issue=1 |date=2019|doi=10.1111/jfb.13998 |pages=73–91|pmid=31054161 |bibcode=2019JFBio..95...73F }}</ref><ref name="Hore Mouritsen 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Hore |first1=Peter J. |author1-link=Peter Hore (chemist) |last2=Mouritsen |first2=Henrik |title=The Quantum Nature of Bird Migration |journal=Scientific American |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-migrating-birds-use-quantum-effects-to-navigate/ |date=April 2022 |pages=24–29}}</ref> === Vinjeru === Nkhongono za somba za kughanaghana zikusazgapo kujimanya, nga umo kukuwonekera mu mayeso gha galasi lakujiwonera. ''Manta ray'' na ''wrasse'' izo zaŵikika pamaso pa galasi lakujiwonera zikuwona kanandi usange cithuzi cawo cikucita nga umo thupi lawo likwendera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ari |first1=Csilla |last2=D'Agostino |first2=Dominic P. |date=2016-05-01 |title=Contingency checking and self-directed behaviors in giant manta rays: Do elasmobranchs have self-awareness? |journal=Journal of Ethology |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=167–174 |doi=10.1007/s10164-016-0462-z |s2cid=254134775}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kohda |first1=Masanori |last2=Hotta |first2=Takashi |last3=Takeyama |first3=Tomohiro |last4=Awata |first4=Satoshi |last5=Tanaka |first5=Hirokazu |last6=Asai |first6=Jun-ya |last7=Jordan |first7=L. Alex |date=2018-08-21 |journal=PLOS Biology |title=Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals? |volume=17 |issue=2 |page=397067 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000021|doi-access=free |pmid=30730878 |pmc=6366756 |biorxiv=10.1101/397067 |s2cid=91375693}}</ref> ''Choerodon wrasse'', ''archerfish'', na ''cod'' ya Atlantic zingamazga masuzgo na kupanga vilwero.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Balcombe |first=Jonathan |title=Fishes Use Problem-Solving and Invent Tools |magazine=Scientific American |date=1 May 2017 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fishes-use-problem-solving-and-invent-tools1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010617/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fishes-use-problem-solving-and-invent-tools1/ |url-status=live |archive-date=17 March 2023}}</ref> ''Cichlid'' ya ''Amatitlania siquia'', iyo yikukhala na munyake yumoza pera, yikulongora kusinginika para yakanizgika kuŵa na munyake.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Chloé |last1=Laubu |first2=Philippe |last2=Louâpre |first3=François-Xavier |last3=Dechaume-Moncharmont |date=2019 |title=Pair-bonding influences affective state in a monogamous fish species |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=286 |issue=1904 |at=20190760 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.0760 |doi-access=free |pmid=31185864 |pmc=6571461}}</ref> Somba zikumanya uko zili mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vya malo; zingagwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mu wongo agho ghakuthemba vimanyikwiro vinandi. Somba zingasambira kwenda mu nthowa zakupindikapindika, ndipo ici cikulongora kuti zikukumbuka malo na kupambaniska vinthu mwa kuwona.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chung |first=Seraphina |journal=Journal of Undergraduate Life Sciences |url=http://juls.sa.utoronto.ca/Issues/JULS-Vol2Iss1/JULS-Vol2Iss1-Review3.pdf |title=Appropriate maze methodology to study learning in fish |access-date=28 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706211428/http://juls.sa.utoronto.ca/Issues/JULS-Vol2Iss1/JULS-Vol2Iss1-Review3.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Kusanda kwa nkharo kukulongora kuti somba zikupulika, ndipo zingapulika kupweteka.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Woodruff |first=Michael |date=3 July 2020 |title=The face of the fish |url=https://aeon.co/essays/fish-are-nothing-like-us-except-that-they-are-sentient-beings |access-date=28 July 2024 |website=Aeon}}</ref> === Kupanga Magesi === [[File:Electroreception system in Elephantfish.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Elephantnose fish'' ni somba iyo yikupanga magesi ghacoko. Yikupanga cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magesi kuzingilizga thupi lake, ndipo yikugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vyake vya kupulikira magesi kuti yimanye uko vinthu vili, kufuma ku umo vikusinthira cigaŵa ico.<ref name="von der Emde 1999">{{cite journal |last=von der Emde |first=G. |title=Active electrolocation of objects in weakly electric fish |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=202 |issue=10 |date=15 May 1999 |doi=10.1242/jeb.202.10.1205 |pages=1205–1215|pmid=10210662 |bibcode=1999JExpB.202.1205V }}</ref>]] Somba za magesi nga ni ''elephantfish'', ''African knifefish'', na nkhungu za magesi zili na minofu yinyake iyo yanozgeka kupanga vigaŵa vya nkhongono ya magesi. Zikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa ici kusanga na kumanya vinthu nga ni ivyo zikusaka mu maji agho ghazizingilizga, agho ghangaŵa ghambura kuwoneka makora panji gha cisi.<ref name="Albert Crampton 2006"/> Somba za magesi zinandi nga ni nkhungu ya magesi zingagwiliskira ntchito so vigaŵa vyawo vya magesi kupanga magesi gha nkhongono agho ghangaleska ivyo zikusaka kwenda.<ref name="Catania 2015 high-voltage">{{cite journal |last1=Catania |first1=Kenneth C. |title=Electric eels use high-voltage to track fast-moving prey |journal=Nature Communications |date=20 October 2015 |volume=6 |article-number=8638 |doi=10.1038/ncomms9638 |doi-access=free|pmid=26485580 |pmc=4667699 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.8638C}}</ref> === Kufunda kwa Thupi === Somba zinandi zili na ndopa zakuzizima pera (''ectothermic''). Kweni Scombroidei zili na ndopa zakufunda (''endothermic''), kusazgapo ''billfish'' na ''tuna''.<ref name="Block1993">{{cite journal |last1=Block |first1=B.A. |last2=Finnerty |first2=JR |year=1993 |title=Endothermy in fishes: a phylogenetic analysis of constraints, predispositions, and selection pressures |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226138605 |format=PDF |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=283–302 |doi=10.1007/BF00002518 |s2cid=28644501 |access-date=1 October 2018 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106144640/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226138605 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Opah'', mtundu wa ''lampriform'', yikufunda thupi lose: yikupanga cithukivu na minofu ya kuskambira kuti yifunde thupi lake, apo kusinthana kwa mendero ghakulimbana kukucepeska kutaya cithukivu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wegner |first1=Nicholas C. |last2=Snodgrass |first2=Owyn E. |last3=Dewar |first3=Heidi |last4=Hyde |first4=John R. |date=2015-05-15 |title=Whole-body endothermy in a mesopelagic fish, the opah, Lampris guttatus |journal=Science |volume=348 |issue=6236 |pages=786–789 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa8902|pmid=25977549 |bibcode=2015Sci...348..786W |s2cid=17412022 }}</ref> Mu somba za viwanga vipepu, ŵashaki ŵa mbumba ya Lamnidae (nga ni shaki mukulu mutuŵa) na Alopiidae (''thresher shark'') ŵali na ndopa zakufunda. Unandi wa kufunda kwa thupi ukupambana kufuma ku ''billfish'', izo zikufunda maso na wongo pera, mpaka ku ''tuna'' ya ''bluefin'' na ''porbeagle shark'', izo zikusunga kufunda kwa thupi kwakujumpha kwa maji agho ghazizingilizga na 20 °C.<ref name="Block1993"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Goldman |first=K.J. |title=Regulation of body temperature in the white shark, ''Carcharodon carcharias'' |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology |year=1997 |volume=167 |series=B Biochemical Systemic and Environmental Physiology |issue=6 |pages=423–429 |doi=10.1007/s003600050092 |s2cid=28082417 |url=http://www.mendeley.com/research/temperature-and-activities-of-a-white-shark-carcharodon-carcharias/ |access-date=12 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406114844/http://www.mendeley.com/research/temperature-and-activities-of-a-white-shark-carcharodon-carcharias/ |archive-date=6 April 2012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=F.G. |last2=Lawson |first2=K.D. |title=Temperature regulation in free-swimming bluefin tuna |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |date=February 1973 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=375–392 |doi=10.1016/0300-9629(73)90490-8 |pmid=4145757 }}</ref> === Kuswana na Umoyo === [[File:Salmonlarvakils.jpg|thumb|upright|Kamwana ka ''salmon'' kakufuma mu sumbi, kali na kathumba ka cakulya ca mu sumbi (''yolk sac'')]] Vigaŵa vikulu vya kuswana ni matongo ghaŵiri na visungiro viŵiri vya masumbi (''ovary'').<ref name="Guimaraes">{{cite journal |last1=Guimaraes-Cruz |first1=Rodrigo J. |author2=dos Santos, José E. |author3=Santos, Gilmar B. |title=Gonadal structure and gametogenesis of ''Loricaria lentiginosa'' Isbrücker (Pisces, Teleostei, Siluriformes) |journal=Rev. Bras. Zool. |date=July–September 2005 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=556–564 |doi=10.1590/S0101-81752005000300005 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Masumbi ghakufuma mu cisungiro ca masumbi kuya mu nthowa za masumbi (''oviduct'').<ref name="Brito">{{cite journal |title=Reproduction of the surubim catfish (Pisces, Pimelodidae) in the São Francisco River, Pirapora Region, Minas Gerais, Brazil |last=Brito |first=M.F.G. |author2=Bazzoli, N. |journal=Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia |volume=55 |issue=5 |year=2003 |doi=10.1590/S0102-09352003000500018 |pages=624–633 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Somba zakujumpha magaŵa 97 pa 100, kusazgapo ''salmon'' na ''goldfish'', zikuikira masumbi, kung'anamula kuti masumbi ghakuponyeka mu maji ndipo ghakukulira kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina.<ref name="Scott">{{cite book |last=Scott |first=Peter |title=Livebearing Fishes |page=13 |publisher=Tetra Press |year=1997 |isbn=1-56465-193-2}}</ref> Kanandi masumbi ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi la nyina: somba yanalume na yanakazi zikufumya tumaselo twa kuswanira mu maji agho ghazizingilizga. Mu somba zicoko izo zikuikira masumbi, nga ni ''skate'', kukumana kwa sumbi na manthyoko kukucitika mukati mwa thupi: yanalume yikugwiliskira ntchito cigaŵa capadera kunjizga manthyoko mu kadolozi ka kuswanira ka yanakazi.<ref name="Miller Kendall 2009"/> Somba za mbwani zikufumya masumbi ghacoko ghanandi comene mu maji ghakuyaluka. Tusomba twa somba izo zikuikira masumbi, apo twakonkhomoka waka, ni mphutsi izo zikuyenjama mu maji (''plankton''). Zili na kathumba kakulu ka cakulya ca mu sumbi (''yolk sac''), ndipo zikuyana na tusomba twaŵana panji somba zikulu yayi. Nyengo ya mphutsi mu somba izo zikuikira masumbi kanandi ni masabata ghacoko waka, ndipo mphutsi zikukura luŵiro na kusintha kapangikiro kuti ziŵe tusomba twaŵana. Mu nyengo ya kusintha iyi, mphutsi zikwenera kuleka kulya cakulya ca mu kathumba na kwamba kulya tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji (''zooplankton'').<ref name="Miller Kendall 2009"/> Somba zinyake nga ni ''surfperch'', ''splitfin'', na ''lemon shark'' zikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo, kung'anamula kuti nyina wakusunga masumbi mu thupi ndipo wakulyiska ŵana ŵa mu nthumbo kwizira mu cigaŵa ico cikuyana na nyuma, ico cikulumikizga ndopa za nyina na za mwana.<ref name="Miller Kendall 2009">{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Bruce |last2=Kendall |first2=Arthur W. |title=Early Life History of Marine Fishes |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24972-1 |pages=11–37 |chapter-url=https://content.ucpress.edu/chapters/9317.ch01.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307042241/https://content.ucpress.edu/chapters/9317.ch01.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2016 |chapter=1. Fish Reproduction}}</ref> === Kunozga DNA === Ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa mitundu ya somba iyo masumbi ghake ghakukumana na manthyoko kuwaro kwa thupi ŵakukhwaskika comene apo ŵakukura na vinthu vya mu malo ghakuzingilizga ivyo vingananga DNA yawo, nga ni vyakunanga maji, ungweru wapacanya pa uswesi, na mitundu ya okisijeni iyo yikucita luŵiro na vinthu vinyake (''reactive oxygen species'').<ref name="Dey2023">{{cite journal|last1= Dey|first1= Abhipsha|last2= Flajšhans|first2= Martin|last3= Pšenička|first3= Martin|last4= Gazo|first4= Ievgeniia|title= DNA repair genes play a variety of roles in the development of fish embryos|journal= Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology|date= 2023|volume= 11|article-number= 1119229|doi=10.3389/fcell.2023.1119229|doi-access= free|pmid= 36936683|pmc=10014602}}</ref> Kuti ŵamazge kunangika uku kwa DNA, ŵana ŵa mu masumbi ŵa somba ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana za kunozga DNA apo ŵakukura.<ref name = Dey2023/> Mu vyaka ivi, ''zebrafish'' zaŵa ciyelezgero ciwemi ca kupenda vyakunanga malo ivyo vingananga DNA.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Canedo|first1= Aryelle|last2= Rocha|first2= Thiago Lopes|title= Zebrafish (Danio rerio) using as model for genotoxicity and DNA repair assessments: Historical review, current status and trends|journal= Science of the Total Environment|date= 2021|volume= 762|article-number= 144084|doi= 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144084|pmid= 33383303|bibcode= 2021ScTEn.76244084C}}</ref> === Civikiliro ku Nthenda === Somba zili na civikiliro ca nthowa ziŵiri ku nthenda: civikiliro ca wose na civikiliro ca thupi. Civikiliro ca wose cikusazgapo cikumba na mamba, kweniso cipapa ca vyakudyamphuka ico cikumba cikufumya, ico cikukora na kukanizga kukura kwa tuvyamoyo tucoko comene. Usange tuzirombo twa nthenda twajumpha civikiliro ici, civikiliro ca thupi ca kubabikira naco cingapangiska kutupa, uko kukusazgira ndopa izo zikwenda ku cigaŵa ico cakoleka nthenda, na kutumizga tumaselo tutuŵa twa ndopa utu tukuyezga kunanga tuzirombo twa nthenda kwambura kusankha. Civikiliro capadera cikwamuka ku vinthu vyapadera (''antigen''), nga ni purotini pa vikumba vya mabakiteriya gha nthenda, ivyo civikiliro ca thupi cakusambira cikuvimanya.{{sfn |Helfman |Collette |Facey |1997 |pp=95–96}} Civikiliro ca thupi cikasintha mu ''deuterostome'', nga umo cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cikulongolera.<ref name="Flajnik Kasahara 2010"/> Vigaŵa vya civikiliro vikupambana kuyana na mtundu wa somba. Somba zambura mihlati zili na minofu ya civikiliro (''lymphoid'') mu cigaŵa ca kunthazi ca iso, na tumaselo twa ''granulocyte'' mu matumbo. Zili na mtundu wawo wa civikiliro cakusambira; cikugwiliskira ntchito vyakupokelera vyakusinthikasinthika vya ''lymphocyte'' (VLR) kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Cakufumapo cikuyana comene na ca somba za mihlati na vinyama vya malundi ghanayi, kweni cingaŵa kuti cikasintha paŵekha.<ref name="Flajnik Kasahara 2010"/> Somba zose za mihlati zili na civikiliro cakusambira ca ''lymphocyte'' za B na T, izo zili na ''immunoglobulin'' na vyakupokelera vya tumaselo twa T. Ici cikugwiliskira ntchito kusanjika so kwa V(D)J kupanga civikiliro ku vinthu vyapadera vyakupambanapambana. Ndondomeko iyi yikasintha kamoza pera ndipo ni maziko gha gulu la vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana vya mihlati.<ref name="Flajnik Kasahara 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Flajnik |first1=M. F. |last2=Kasahara |first2=M. |year=2010 |title=Origin and evolution of the adaptive immune system: genetic events and selective pressures |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1038/nrg2703 |pmid=19997068 |pmc=3805090}}</ref> Somba za viwanga vipepu zili na vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera ivyo vili na tumaselo twa civikiliro: vigaŵa vya ''epigonal'' kuzingilizga vigaŵa vya kuswana, cigaŵa ca Leydig mu mumizo, na cijaliro cakuzingazinga mu matumbo ghawo, apo ''thymus'' na cibambara cawo vikugwira ntchito zakuyana na za vigaŵa ivi mu civikiliro ca vinyama vya malundi ghanayi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zapata |first1=A.G. |last2=Chiba |first2=A. |last3=Vara |first3=A. |chapter=Cells and tissues of the immune system of fish |doi=10.1016/S1546-5098(08)60271-X|title=The Fish Immune System: Organism, Pathogen and Environment |series=Fish Immunology |editor1=Iwama, G. Iwama |editor2=Nakanishi, T. |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |year=1996 |volume=15 |pages=1–55 |isbn=978-0-12-350439-5 }}</ref> ''Teleost'' zili na ''lymphocyte'' mu ''thymus'', na tumaselo tunyake twa civikiliro mu cibambara na mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chilmonczyk |first=S. |title=The thymus in fish: development and possible function in the immune response |journal=Annual Review of Fish Diseases |volume=2 |year=1992 |pages=181–200 |doi=10.1016/0959-8030(92)90063-4 |bibcode=1992AnFD....2..181C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=J.D. |last2=Zapata |first2=A.G. |year=1998 |title=''Lymphocyte development in fish and amphibians'' |journal=Immunological Reviews |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=199–220 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-065x.1998.tb01264.x |pmid=9914914 |bibcode=1998ImRv..166..199H |s2cid=7965762 }}</ref> == Nkharo == === Kwenda mu Miskambo === [[File:Banco de peces trompeta (Macroramphosus scolopax), islas Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 40.jpg|thumb|Somba nga ni ''snipefish'' izi zikwenda mu mskambo wakukolerana kuti zijivikilire ku vyakusaka, na kuti ziswane.<ref name="Pitcher 1986"/>]] Mskambo wa somba ni gulu ilo likukolerana comene yayi, umo somba yiliyose yikuskamba na kupenja cakulya payekha, kweni yikukokeka ku zinyake za mu gulu ndipo yikusintha nkharo yake, nga ni luŵiro la kuskamba, kuti yikhale pafupi na zinyake za mu gulu. Mskambo wakukolerana ni gulu ilo lanozgeka makora comene, ilo likuskamba mwakuyana kuti somba zose ziyende pa luŵiro limoza na mu nthowa yimoza.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=375}} Nyengo zinyake kwenda mu mskambo wakukolerana ni nthowa ya kujivikilira ku vyakusaka, cifukwa maso ghanandi ghakulaŵiska vyakusaka.<ref name="Pitcher 1986"/> Kanandi ncipusu kupenja cakulya mwa kugwira ntchito nga ni gulu, ndipo somba yiliyose yikunozga nthowa zake mwa kusankha kunjira panji kufuma mu mskambo. Para cakusaka cawoneka, somba izo zikusakika zikujivikilira, ndipo ici cikupangiska nkharo ya mskambo wose nga ni kwenda mwakuyana. Kujivikilira uku nkhwa kuyezga kubisama panji kucimbira pera yayi; nthowa za kujivikilira ku vyakusaka zikusazgapo, mwaciyelezgero, kucunkha na kuwungana so. Somba zikuwungana so mu miskambo kuti ziikire masumbi.<ref name="Pitcher 1986">{{cite book |last=Pitcher |first=Tony J. |chapter=12. Functions of Shoaling Behaviour in Teleosts |title=The Behaviour of Teleost Fishes |publisher=Springer |year=1986 |pages=294–337 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8261-4_12 |isbn=978-1-4684-8263-8}}</ref> ''Capelin'' yikusama caka cilicose mu miskambo yikulu pakati pa malo agho yikulyera na malo agho yikuikirapo masumbi.<ref name="Gjøsæter 1998">{{cite journal |last=Gjøsæter |first=H. |title=The population biology and exploitation of capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') in the Barents Sea |journal=Sarsia |year=1998 |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=453–496 |doi=10.1080/00364827.1998.10420445 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230660010}}</ref> === Kuyowoyeskana === [[File:French grunts - Haemulon flavolineatum.jpg|thumb|''French grunt'' yikupanga mazgu mwa kugaya mino ghake.]] Somba zikuyowoyeskana mwa kutumizgirana vimanyikwiro vya mapokoso. Kanandi ici cikucitika pa kulya, pa kukwiya, panji pa kusongana.<ref name="Bioacoustics">{{cite journal |last1=Weinmann |first1=S.R. |last2=Black |first2=A.N. |last3=Richter |first3=M.L. |last4=Itzkowitz |first4=M. |last5=Burger |first5=R.M. |title=Territorial vocalization in sympatric damselfish: acoustic characteristics and intruder discrimination |journal=Bioacoustics |date=February 2017 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=87–102 |doi=10.1080/09524622.2017.1286263 |s2cid=89625932}}</ref> Mapokoso agho zikupanga ghakupambana kuyana na mtundu na cifukwa ico cikuzipangiska. Somba zingapanga mapokoso ghakufuma mu kusisitizgana kwa vigaŵa (''stridulatory'') mwa kwendeska vigaŵa vya ciwanga ca thupi, panji zingapanga mapokoso ghanyake mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vyapadera nga ni kathumba ka mvuci.<ref name="Journal">{{cite journal |last1=Bertucci |first1=F. |last2=Ruppé |first2=L. |last3=Wassenbergh |first3=S.V. |last4=Compère |first4=P. |last5=Parmentier |first5=E. |date=29 October 2014 |title=New Insights into the Role of the Pharyngeal Jaw Apparatus in the Sound-Producing Mechanism of ''Haemulon flavolineatum'' (Haemulidae) |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=217 |issue=21 |pages=3862–3869 |doi=10.1242/jeb.109025 |pmid=25355850 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014JExpB.217.3862B |hdl=10067/1197840151162165141|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Somba zinyake zikupanga mapokoso mwa kusisitizga panji kugaya viwanga vyawo pamoza. Mapokoso agha ni gha ''stridulatory''. Ici cikucitika mu ''Haemulon flavolineatum'', ''French grunt'', iyo yikupanga congo la kukhama mwa kugaya mino ghake pamoza, comene para yili mu suzgo. Mapokoso agha ghali pa kakwezgero ka pafupifupi 700 Hz, ndipo ghakutora pafupifupi milisekondi 47.<ref name="Journal"/> ''Seahorse'' wa mlomo utali, ''Hippocampus reidi'', wakupanga mitundu yiŵiri ya mapokoso, ghafupi gha 'tiki' (''click'') na kubwentha (''growl''), mwa kusisita ciwanga ca pa mutu wake pa cigaŵa ca mizere ca cigaza.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colson |first1=D.J. |last2=Patek |first2=S.N. |last3=Brainerd |first3=E.L. |last4=Lewis |first4=S.M. |title=Sound production during feeding in Hippocampus seahorses (Syngnathidae) |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |date=February 1998 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=221–229 |doi=10.1023/A:1007434714122 |bibcode=1998EnvBF..51..221C |s2cid=207648816}}</ref> Mapokoso gha 'tiki' ghakupangika pa kusongana na pa kulya, ndipo tukwezgero twawo tukaŵa pakati pa 50 Hz na 800 Hz. Tukwezgero utu tukaŵa pacanya comene pa nyengo ya kuikira masumbi, apo yanakazi na yanalume zikaŵa pafupi kuluska masentimita 15. Kubwentha kukupangika para ''H. reidi'' ŵali mu suzgo. Mapokoso gha kubwentha ghali na mapokoso ghafupi ghakulondezgana, ndipo ghakupangika pa nyengo yimoza na kunjenjema kwa thupi.<ref name="Zoology">{{cite journal |last1=Oliveira |first1=T.P.R. |last2=Ladich |first2=F. |last3=Abed-Navandi |first3=D. |last4=Souto |first4=A.S. |last5=Rosa |first5=I.L. |title=Sounds produced by the longsnout seahorse: a study of their structure and functions|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=26 June 2014|volume=294 |issue=2 |pages=114–121 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12160}}</ref> Mitundu yinyake ya somba yikupanga congo mwa kugwiliskira ntchito minofu yapadera iyo yikufyenyeka na kupangiska kathumba ka mvuci kunjenjema. ''Oyster toadfish'' zikupanga mapokoso ghakulu gha kukhama mwa kufyenya minofu ya mapokoso ya ku mbali za kathumba ka mvuci.<ref name="Experimental">{{cite journal|last1=Fine |first1=L.F. |last2=King |first2=C.B. |last3=Cameron |first3=T.M. |title=Acoustical properties of the swimbladder in the oyster toadfish ''Opsanus tau'' |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|date=16 October 2009 |volume=212 |issue=21 |pages=3542–3552|doi=10.1242/jeb.033423|pmid=19837896|pmc=2762879|bibcode=2009JExpB.212.3542F }}</ref> ''Toadfish'' zanakazi na zanalume zikupanga mapokoso ghafupi gha kukhama, kanandi para zopa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=M.L. |last2=Waybright |first2=T.D. |title=Grunt variation in the oyster toadfish ''Opsanus tau'': effect of size and sex |journal=PeerJ |date=15 October 2015 |volume=3 |issue=1330 |article-number=e1330 |doi=10.7717/peerj.1330 |pmid=26623178 |pmc=4662586 |bibcode=2015PeerJ...3e1330F |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kupatula mapokoso ghafupi agha, ''toadfish'' zanalume zikupanga "nchemo za luvi la ngalaŵa".<ref name="plos" /> Nchemo izi zikutora nyengo yitali, zili pa kakwezgero kapasi, ndipo kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito kukoka zanakazi.<ref name="plos" /> Mapokoso agha ghali pa tukwezgero kufuma 140 Hz mpaka 260 Hz.<ref name="plos">{{cite journal|last1=Ricci |first1=S.W. |last2=Bohnenstiehl |first2=D. R. |last3=Eggleston |first3=D.B. |last4=Kellogg |first4=M.L. |last5=Lyon |first5=R.P. |title=Oyster toadfish (''Opsanus tau'') boatwhistle call detection and patterns within a large-scale oyster restoration site |journal=PLOS ONE |date=8 August 2017 |volume=12 |issue=8 |article-number=e0182757 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0182757|pmid=28792543|pmc=5549733 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1282757R |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tukwezgero twa nchemo tukuthemba luŵiro ilo minofu ya mapokoso yikufyenyekera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=C.R. |title=Functional analysis of swimbladder muscles engaged in sound productivity of the toadfish |journal=Journal of Cell Biology |date=1 August 1961 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=187–200 |doi=10.1083/jcb.10.4.187 |pmid=19866593 |pmc=2225107}}</ref><ref name="Experimental"/> ''Red drum'', ''Sciaenops ocellatus'', yikupanga mapokoso gha nga ni ng'oma mwa kunjenjemeska kathumba kake ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupangika na kufyenyeka kwa luŵiro kwa minofu ya mapokoso iyo yikuzingilizga cigaŵa ca pacanya ca kathumba ka mvuci. Kunjenjema uku kukupanga mapokoso ghakuwerezgeka gha tukwezgero kufuma 100 mpaka kujumpha 200 Hz. ''S. ocellatus'' yikupanga nchemo zakupambana kuyana na ico cikuyipangiska, nga ni kusongana panji kuwukirika na cakusaka. Zanakazi zikupanga mapokoso yayi, ndipo zilije minofu ya mapokoso.<ref name="Elsevier">{{cite journal|last1=Parmentier|first1=E. |last2=Tock|first2=J. |last3=Falguière|first3=J.C. |last4=Beauchaud|first4=M.|title=Sound production in Sciaenops ocellatus: Preliminary study for the development of acoustic cues in aquaculture |journal=Aquaculture |date=22 May 2014|volume=432|pages=204–211|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.05.017|bibcode=2014Aquac.432..204P |url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00190/30127/28589.pdf|access-date=21 January 2019|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603172200/https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00190/30127/28589.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> == Kuvikilira Somba == Mndandanda Uswesi wa IUCN wa 2025 uli na mitundu 2,367 ya somba iyo yili pa ngozi panji pa ngozi yikulu comene ya kusoŵa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=Fishes&searchType=species&redListCategory=cr,en |title=Search for 'Fishes' (Global, CR-Critically Endangered, En-Endangered, Species) |access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref> Mukati muli mitundu nga ni ''cod'' ya Atlantic, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'', ''coelacanth'', na ŵashaki ŵakulu ŵatuŵa.<ref>{{cite iucn |last=Sobel 0|first=J. |year=1996 |title=''Gadus morhua'' |article-number=e.T8784A12931575 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T8784A12931575.en}}</ref><ref>{{cite iucn |author=NatureServe |year=2014 |title=''Cyprinodon diabolis'' |article-number=e.T6149A15362335 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-3.RLTS.T6149A15362335.en}}</ref><ref>{{cite iucn |last=Musick |first=J.A. |year=2000 |title=''Latimeria chalumnae'' |article-number=e.T11375A3274618 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2000.RLTS.T11375A3274618.en}}</ref><ref>{{cite iucn |author=Rigby, C.L. |author2=Barreto, R. |author3=Carlson, J. |author4=Fernando, D. |author5=Fordham, S. |author6=Francis, M.P. |author7=Herman, K. |author8=Jabado, R.W. |author9=Jones, G.C.A. |author10=Liu, K.M. |author11=Lowe, C.G. |author12= Marshall, A. |author13=Pacoureau, N. |author14=Romanov, E. |author15=Sherley, R.B. |author16=Winker, H. |year=2022 |amends=2019 |title=''Carcharodon carcharias'' |article-number=e.T3855A212629880 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T3855A212629880.en |language=en}}</ref> Cifukwa somba zikukhala mu maji, ncakusuzga comene kuzisanda kuluska vinyama na vyakumera vya pa mtunda, ndipo kanandi maruvyo pa unandi wa somba ghakusoŵa. Somba za maji ghambura mcere zikuwoneka kuŵa pa ngozi comene cifukwa kanandi zikukhala mu maji ghacoko. Mwaciyelezgero, ''Devil's Hole pupfish'' yikukhala mu ciziŵa cimoza pera ca mamita 3 pa 6.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|pp=449–450}} === Kulowa Comene === [[File:Time series for collapse of Atlantic northwest cod.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Kumara kwa ''cod'' mu malo gha kulowera gha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro kwa Mbwani ya Atlantic.<ref name="Hamilton 2001"/>]] Wupu wa Vyakulya na Ulimi (FAO) ukuti "mu 2017, magaŵa 34 pa 100 gha somba za mu malo gha kulowera gha mbwani pa caro cose ghakapendeka kuti ghaloweka comene".<ref name="FAO 2020">{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020 |date=2020 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-132692-3 |doi=10.4060/ca9229en |hdl=10535/3776 |s2cid=242949831 |page=54}}</ref> Kulowa comene ni ngozi yikulu ku somba izo zikulyeka nga ni ''cod'' na ''tuna''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6234881.stm |title=Call to halt cod 'over-fishing' |access-date=18 January 2006 |work=BBC News |date=5 January 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117142906/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6234881.stm |archive-date=17 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6301187.stm |title=Tuna groups tackle overfishing |access-date=18 January 2006 |work=BBC News |date=26 January 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121111204/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6301187.stm |archive-date=21 January 2009}}</ref> Paumaliro, kulowa comene kukupangiska somba kumalika, cifukwa izo zasyala zingaswana tusomba twakukwana kuti tuzuzge malo gha izo zakoleka yayi. Kusoŵa uku kwa malonda kukung'anamula kuti mtundu wasoŵa yayi, kweni kuti ŵalovi ŵangalutilira so kuwulowa mtundu uwu yayi. Pa kulowa ''sardine'' za Pacific pafupi na m'mphepete mwa California, somba izo zikakoleka zikacepa pacoko pacoko kufuma ku matani 800,000 mu 1937, apo zikaŵa zinandi comene, mpaka ku matani 24,000 mu 1968, agho ghakapelekanga candulo yayi.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=462}} Pa kulowa ''cod'' kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Atlantic, kulowa comene kukacepeska unandi wa somba kufika pa gaŵa limoza pa 100 la unandi wake wa kale pofika 1992.<ref name="Hamilton 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Lawrence C. |last2=Butler |first2=M. J. |title=Outport adaptations: Social indicators through Newfoundland's Cod crisis |journal=Human Ecology Review |date=January 2001 |volume=8 |issue=2|pages=1–11 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247089244}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa somba na ŵamalonda ŵa kulowa ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana comene pa umo somba zingalutilira kuŵako apo zikuloweka comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya m'mphepete mwa mbwani, malonda gha kulowa ghakupeleka ntchito ku ŵanthu ŵanandi, ntheura maulongozgi ghakutemwa kughawovwira.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6112352.stm |title=UK 'must shield fishing industry' |access-date=18 January 2006 |work=BBC News |date=3 November 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130055349/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6112352.stm |archive-date=30 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6197433.stm |title=EU fish quota deal hammered out |access-date=18 January 2006 |work=BBC News |date=21 December 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061226234953/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6197433.stm |archive-date=26 December 2006}}</ref> Kweni ŵasandi na ŵakuvikilira kawiro ŵakukhumba civikiliro cikulu comene, ŵakucenjezga kuti somba zinandi zingamalika mu vyaka 50.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ocean study predicts the collapse of all seafood fisheries by 2050|url=http://www.physorg.com/news81778444.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315014325/http://www.physorg.com/news81778444.html|archive-date=15 March 2007|access-date=13 January 2006|website=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/europe/what_we_do/mediterranean/about/marine/bluefin_tuna/tuna_at_risk/index.cfm |title=Atlantic bluefin tuna could soon be commercially extinct |publisher=WWF |access-date=18 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430205610/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/europe/what_we_do/mediterranean/about/marine/bluefin_tuna/tuna_at_risk/index.cfm |archive-date=30 April 2007 }}</ref> === Ngozi Zinyake === Suzgo likulu ku malo gha maji ghambura mcere na gha mbwani ni kunangika kwa malo gha kukhala, kusazgapo kunangika kwa maji, kuzengeka kwa viliŵa vya kujalira maji, kufumyamo maji kuti ŵanthu ŵaghagwiliskire ntchito, na kunjizga mitundu ya ku vyaro vinyake, kusazgapo vyakusaka.{{sfn|Helfman|Collette|Facey|1997|p=463}} Somba za maji ghambura mcere, comene izo zikusangika mu cigaŵa cimoza pera (zambura kusangika kunyake), zingaŵa pa ngozi ya kusoŵa cifukwa ca vyose ivi, nga umo viliri na mitundu yitatu mwa khumi ya somba za maji ghambura mcere izo zikusangika mu Spain pera.<ref name="Elvira 1995">{{cite journal |last=Elvira |first=Benigno |title=Conservation status of endemic freshwater fish in Spain |journal=Biological Conservation |publisher=Elsevier |volume=72 |issue=2 |year=1995 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(94)00076-3 |pages=129–136|bibcode=1995BCons..72..129E }}</ref> Viliŵa vya kujalira maji pa milonga, comene vikulu nga ni Ciliŵa ca Kariba (Mlonga wa Zambezi) na Ciliŵa ca Aswan (Mlonga wa Nayelo) pa milonga iyo yili na malo ghakuzirwa gha kulowera, vyacepeska comene somba izo zikukoleka.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Donald C. |last2=Marmulla |first2=Gerd |title=The influence of dams on river fisheries |publisher=FAO Fisheries |volume=Technical paper 419 |date=2001 |pages=1–44 |url=http://www.friendsofmerrymeetingbay.org/cybrary/pages/20010000_UN_FAO_Dams,%20fish%20and%20fisheries.pdf#page=6 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Kulowa kwa mafakitale mwa kuguza makhoka pasi pa mbwani kungananga malo gha kukhala pasi pa mbwani, nga umo kwacitikira pa Georges Bank mu Atlantic ya Kumpoto.<ref name="Duplisea Frisk Trenkel 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Duplisea |first1=Daniel E. |last2=Frisk |first2=Michael G. |last3=Trenkel |first3=Verena M. |title=Extinction Debt and Colonizer Credit on a Habitat Perturbed Fishing Bank |journal=PLOS ONE |publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) |volume=11 |issue=11 |date=2016|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0166409 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0166409 |pmid=27893775 |pmc=5125594 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1166409D }}</ref> Kunjizga mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu maji vyakufuma kunyake ivyo vikunanga malo kwathandazgika comene. Kukusintha malo gha vyamoyo, kukupangiska kucepa kwa mitundu ya vyamoyo, ndipo kungananga malo gha kulowera. Mitundu yakunanga yikusazgapo somba, kweni somba pera yayi; kufika kwa ''comb jelly'' mu Nyanja Yifipa kukananga kulowa kwa ''anchovy'' kwenekura.<ref name="Lovell Stone 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Lovell |first1=Sabrina J. |last2=Stone |first2=Susan F. |last3=Fernandez |first3=Linda |title=The economic impacts of aquatic invasive species: a review of the literature |journal=Agricultural and Resource Economics Review |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=195–208 |doi=10.1017/S1068280500010157|url=https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/280839/files/NCEE2005-02.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Knowler |first1=D. |last2=Barbier |first2=E.B. |chapter=The Economics of an Invading Species: a Theoretical Model and Case Study Application |title=The Economics of Biological Invasions |editor1=Perrings, C. |editor2=Williamson, M. |editor3=Dalmazzone, S. |year=2000 |publisher=Edward Elgar |location=Cheltenham |pages=70–93|doi=10.4337/9781781008645.00013|isbn=978-1-78100-864-5}}</ref><ref name="Lovell Stone 2006"/> Kujulika kwa Nthowa ya Maji ya Suez mu 1869 kukapangiska kusama kwa Lessepsian, uko kukazomerezga mitundu ya mbwani yakujumpha mazana gha Indo-Pacific ya somba, koyo, na vinyama vyambura fupa la msana kufika mu Nyanja ya Mediterranean, ndipo kukasintha comene mitundu ya vyamoyo na umoyo wa malo agho.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ciesm.org/catalog/index.php?article=2021 |title=Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea|edition= 2nd |year= 2021|editor=Briand, F. |publisher=CIESM Publishers|place= Paris, Monaco}}</ref><ref name="Golani 1998">{{cite journal |last=Golani |first=Daniel |title=Impact of Red Sea fish migrants through the Suez Canal on the aquatic environment of the Eastern Mediterranean |journal=Bulletin Series Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies |issue=103 |year=1998 |pages=375–387|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242311439}}</ref> ''Nile perch'', iyo ni cakusaka, yikanjizgika mwakukhumba mu Nyanja ya Victoria mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 nga ni somba ya malonda na ya kulowa pa kujikondweska. Nyanja iyi yikaŵa na mitundu yinandi ya vyamoyo, kusazgapo mitundu pafupifupi 500 ya ''cichlid'' iyo yikusangika mwenumo pera. Yikasintha comene umoyo wa nyanja iyi, ndipo yikacepeska kulowa kufuma ku mitundu yinandi mpaka ku yitatu pera: ''Nile perch'', ''silver cyprinid'', na somba yinyake iyo yikanjizgika, cambo ya Nayelo (''Nile tilapia''). Unandi wa ''cichlid'' za ''haplochromine'' wacepa comene.<ref name="Coulter Allanson Bruton 1986">{{cite journal |last1=Coulter |first1=George W. |last2=Allanson |first2=Brian R. |last3=Bruton |first3=Michael N. |last4=Greenwood |first4=P. Humphry |last5=Hart |first5=Robert C. |last6=Jackson |first6=Peter B. N. |last7=Ribbink |first7=Anthony J. |title=Unique qualities and special problems of the African Great Lakes |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |volume=17 |issue=3 |year=1986 |doi=10.1007/bf00698196 |pages=161–183|bibcode=1986EnvBF..17..161C }}</ref><ref name="Achieng 1990">{{cite journal |last=Achieng |first=A. P. |year=1990 |title=The impact of the introduction of the Nile Perch, ''Lates niloticus'' (L.), on the fisheries of Lake Victoria |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=37, Suppl. A |pages=17–23 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990.tb05016.x |bibcode=1990JFBio..37S..17A }}</ref> == Kuzirwa kwa Somba ku Ŵanthu == === Vyacuma === [[File:Trawlers overfishing cod.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Ngalaŵa ya ''purse seiner'' yikuguza matani ghanandi comene gha ''Chilean jack mackerel'', 2016]] Mu mbiri yose, ŵanthu ŵagwiliskira ntchito somba nga ni cakulya ca purotini. Kale na mazuŵa ghano, somba zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵakulya zikufuma mu kukora somba za mu maji gha kawiro. Kweni kuŵeta somba, uko kwacitika kufuma pafupifupi 3,500 pambere Khristu mu China wa kale, kukuŵa kwakuzirwa comene mu vyaro vinandi.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Spalding |first1=Mark |title=Sustainable Ancient Aquaculture |url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/07/11/sustainable-ancient-aquaculture/ |magazine=National Geographic |access-date=13 August 2015 |date=11 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518210243/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/07/11/sustainable-ancient-aquaculture/ |archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> Mu 2007, ŵakapima kuti pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa 6 ca purotini ya pa caro cose cikafumanga ku somba.<ref name="Helfman">{{cite book |last1=Helfman |first1=Gene S. |title=Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources |date=2007 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-59726-760-1 |page=11}}</ref> Kulowa ni malonda ghakulu pa caro cose agho ghakupeleka ndalama ku ŵanthu mamiliyoni.<ref name="Helfman"/> Mu 2020, matani ghakujumpha miliyoni 65 gha somba za mbwani na matani miliyoni 10 gha somba za maji ghambura mcere ghakakoleka, apo matani pafupifupi miliyoni 50 gha somba, comene za maji ghambura mcere, ghakaŵetika. Mu mitundu ya mbwani iyo yikakoleka mu 2020, ''anchoveta'' yikaŵa matani miliyoni 4.9, ''Alaska pollock'' miliyoni 3.5, ''tuna'' ya ''skipjack'' miliyoni 2.8, ndipo ''herring'' ya Atlantic na ''tuna'' ya ''yellowfin'' miliyoni 1.6 yiliyose; mitundu yinyake 8 yikakoleka kujumpha matani miliyoni 1.<ref>{{cite book |year=2022 |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards Blue Transformation |location=Rome |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |doi=10.4060/cc0461en |hdl=10535/3776 |isbn=978-92-5-136364-5 }}</ref> === Kujikondweska === Somba zamanyikwa nga ni vinthu vyakutowa kwa nyengo yitali pafupifupi nga umo zagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cakulya: zikuwoneka mu vithuzi vya pa malibwe gha mu mphako, zikuŵetika nga ni somba zakutowa mu vizima, ndipo zikulongoreka mu nyumba za somba za magalasi mu nyumba, mu maofesi, panji mu malo gha ŵanthu wose. Kulowa pa kujikondweska ni kulowa comene cifukwa ca kukondwa panji mphikizgano; kukupambana na kulowa kwa malonda, uko ni kulowa kuti ŵasange candulo, panji kulowa kwa ŵanthu ŵacoko, uko ni kulowa comene kuti ŵasange cakulya. Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya kulowa pa kujikondweska yikugwiliskira ntchito nthonga ya kulowera, cizungulira, uzi, mbeja, na nyambo za mitundu yinandi. Kulowa pa kujikondweska kukutemweka comene mu Amerika ya Kumpoto na [[Europe|Ulaya]]; mawupu gha ulongozgi kanandi ghakulongozga mitundu ya somba iyo ŵalovi ŵakupenja.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Angler in the Environment: Social, Economic, Biological, and Ethical Dimensions |publisher=American Fisheries Society |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-934874-24-0 |editor-last=Beard |editor-first=T. Douglas|location=Bethesda, Maryland |page=365}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Recreational Fisheries: Social, Economic and Management Aspects |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-852-38248-6 |editor-last=Hickley |editor-first=Phil |page=328 |editor-last2=Tompkins |editor-first2=Helena}}</ref> === Ukhaliro === Somba zili na ng'anamuro ya cimanyikwiro mu visopa vinandi. Mu Mesopotamia ya kale, ŵanthu ŵakapelekanga sembe za somba ku ŵaciuta kufuma ku nyengo zakwambilira comene.<ref name="BlackGreen1992">{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |first2=Anthony |last2=Green |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana |publisher=The British Museum Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8 |pages=82–83 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana |archive-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> Somba zikaŵa so cimanyikwiro cikulu ca Enki, ciuta wa maji.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Kanandi somba zikuwoneka nga ni vithuzi vyakuzuzga malo pa vidindo vyakuzingirizga (''cylinder seal'') vya nyengo ya Babuloni wa Kale (pafupifupi 1830 – 1531 pambere Khristu) na ya Asiriya Muphya (911–609 pambere Khristu).<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Kwamba mu nyengo ya Ŵakasite (pafupifupi 1600 – 1155 pambere Khristu) mpaka ku kwamba kwa nyengo ya Ŵaperesiya (550–30 pambere Khristu), ŵacizgi na ŵakufumya mizimu ŵakavwaranga vyakuvwara vya mwambo ivyo vikayananga na thupi la somba.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Mu nyengo ya Seleucid (312–63 pambere Khristu), ŵakuti ngwazi ya ukhaliro wa Ŵababuloni ya mu jandulo, Oannes, yikavwaranga cikumba ca somba.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Somba zikaŵa zakupatulika ku Atargatis, ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵasiriya, ndipo pa vyakusekelera vyake, ŵasofi ŵake pera ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga kuzilya.<ref name="Hyde2008">{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=Walter Woodburn |date=2008 |orig-date=1946 |title=Paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_VLAwAAQBAJ&q=Atargatis |location=Eugene, Oregon |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-60608-349-9 |pages=57–58 |access-date=12 December 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010624/https://books.google.com/books?id=H_VLAwAAQBAJ&q=Atargatis |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hyde2008"/> Mu Buku la Yona, munthu mukulu wa nkhani, nchimi zina lake Yona, wakumilika na somba yikulu comene pamanyuma pakuti ŵateŵeti ŵa ngalaŵa iyo wakendangamo ŵamuponya mu maji.<ref name="Sherwood">{{cite book |last=Sherwood |first=Yvonne |date=2000 |title=A Biblical Text and Its Afterlives: The Survival of Jonah in Western Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kivijc6ZX5QC&q=Jonah |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79561-6 |pages=1–8 |access-date=12 December 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010619/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kivijc6ZX5QC&q=Jonah |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ''ichthys'', cimanyikwiro ca somba, kwimilira Yesu.<ref name="Hyde2008"/><ref name="Coffman2008">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/asktheexpert/oct26.html |first=Elesha |last=Coffman |title=What is the origin of the Christian fish symbol? |magazine=Christianity Today |date=8 August 2008 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130092733/http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/asktheexpert/oct26.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu ŵaciuta awo ŵakuti ŵakutora mawonekero gha somba muli Ikatere wa Ŵapolinesiya, ciuta wa ŵashaki Kāmohoaliʻi wa Hawaiʻi, na Matsya wa Ŵahindu.<ref name="TeAra">{{cite web| url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/ngarara-reptiles/page-2| title='Ngārara – reptiles, Page 2. From sea to land', Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand| publisher=Bradford Haami | access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Thrum |first=Thomas |title=Hawaiian Folk Tales |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/pac/hft/hft27.htm |publisher=A. C. McClurg |year=1907 |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bandyopadhyaya |first=Jayantanuja |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwUF11NRyT4C&dq=matsya+avatar+Purana&pg=PA136 |title=Class and Religion in Ancient India |date=2007 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-332-8 |page=136 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008120302/https://books.google.com/books?id=gwUF11NRyT4C&dq=matsya+avatar+Purana&pg=PA136 |url-status=live }}</ref> Gulu la nyenyezi la Pisces ("Somba") likukolerana na jandulo la Roma ya kale lakuti Venus na mwana wake Cupid ŵakathaskika na somba ziŵiri.<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' 2.457ff</ref> Somba zikuwoneka comene mu luso, mu mafilimu nga ni ''Finding Nemo'' na mu mabuku nga ni ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<ref name=Moyle>{{cite journal |last1=Moyle |first1=Peter B. |author1-link=Peter B. Moyle |last2=Moyle |first2=Marilyn A. |title=Introduction to fish imagery in art |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |date=May 1991 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=5–23 |doi=10.1007/bf00002153 |bibcode=1991EnvBF..31....5M |s2cid=33458630 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tidwell |first=Christy |title='Fish Are Just like People, Only Flakier': Environmental Practice and Theory in ''Finding Nemo'' |journal=Americana: The Journal of American Popular Culture |issue=8 |year=2009 |url=https://www.americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/spring_2009/tidwell.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Durga |first1=P. |last2=Sai |first2=Kanaka |title=Nature of Existential Struggle in ''The Old Man and the Sea'' |journal=Journal of English Language and Literature JOELL |volume=4 |issue=4 |year=2017 |pages=19–21|url=https://joell.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/NATURE-OF-EXISTENTIAL-STRUGGLE-IN-THE-OLD-MAN-AND-THE-SEA.pdf}}</ref> Somba zikulu, comene ŵashaki, kanandi zaŵa nkhani ya mafilimu gha kofya, comene buku la ''Jaws'', ilo likapangika filimu, ndipo filimu iyi yaseŵereka na kuwerezgeka maulendo ghanandi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alabaster |first1=Jay |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Kathy Merlock |editor2-last=Simpson |editor2-first=Philip L. |title=This shark, swallow you whole": Essays on the Cultural Influence of Jaws |date=2023 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-7745-3 |pages=124– |chapter=The Goofy Great White: Jaws and Our Love for an Apex Predator}}</ref> ''Piranha'' zikulongoreka mwakuyana na ŵashaki mu mafilimu nga ni ''Piranha''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zollinger |first1=Sue Anne |title=Piranha – Ferocious Fighter or Scavenging Softie? |url=http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/piranhaferocious-fighter-scavenging-softie/ |website=A Moment of Science |publisher=Indiana Public Media |access-date=1 November 2015 |date=3 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017010303/http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/piranhaferocious-fighter-scavenging-softie/ |archive-date=17 October 2015}}</ref> <gallery mode=packed widths=150 heights=180> File:Matsya painting.jpg|Vishnu mu mawonekero gha somba (Matsya), India File:Bartolomeo Passerotti - The Fishmonger's Shop - WGA17072.jpg|''The Fishmonger's Shop'', Bartolomeo Passerotti, ma 1580 File:Goldfish Matisse.jpg|''Goldfish'', Henri Matisse, 1912 </gallery> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Benton |first=M. J. |date=2005 |ref=CITEREFBenton2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VThUUUtM8A4C |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=3rd |isbn=978-1-4051-4449-0 }} * {{cite book |last1=Helfman |first1=G. |last2=Collette |first2=B. |last3=Facey |first3=D. |ref=CITEREFHelfmanColletteFacey1997 |title=The Diversity of Fishes |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-86542-256-8 |edition=1st}} * {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Joseph S. |chapter=Taxonomic Diversity |ref=CITEREFNelson2016 |title=Fishes of the World |year=2016 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-34233-6}} {{refend}} [[Category:Vinyama]] ivktkhz0wnl23jdfd96cwqji5krr15g 0 7133 124357 124011 2026-11-10T14:18:42Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124357 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Pacific Ocean - en.png|thumb|330x330px]] '''Mbwani ya Pacific''' ni yikulu comene na yakuzika comene mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vya [[Mbwani|mbwani]] ya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Yikufuma ku [[Arctic Ocean|Mbwani ya Arctic]] kumpoto mpaka ku Mbwani ya Kumwera, panji, kuyana na ng'anamulo, ku Antarctica kumwera, ndipo yikuzingilizgika na [[Asia|Asiya]] na Australia kumanjiliro, na Amerika kumafumiro. Pa makilomita gha mbali zinayi 165,250,000, Mbwani ya Pacific ndiyo cigaŵa cikulu comene ca mbwani ya caro cose capasi, ndipo yikuphimba pafupifupi magaŵa 46 pa 100 gha maji gha caro capasi na pafupifupi magaŵa 32 pa 100 gha caro cose capasi, kuluska mtunda wose pamoza (makilomita gha mbali zinayi 148,940,000). Pakati pa cigaŵa ca maji ca caro capasi na pakati pa cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro ca caro capasi, na malo ghakutali comene na mtunda mu mbwani, vyose vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific. Kwenda kwa maji (uko kukufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi) kukuyigaŵa mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikulu vya maji agho ghakukumana pa mzere wapakati: Mbwani ya Pacific ya Kumpoto na Mbwani ya Pacific ya Kumwera. Mbwani ya Pacific yingagaŵika so na Mzere wa Mazuŵa wa Pakati pa Vyaro mu Pacific ya Kumafumiro na Pacific ya Kumanjiliro, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kugaŵa so mu vigaŵa vinayi: kumpoto-kumafumiro pafupi na Amerika ya Kumpoto, kumwera-kumafumiro pafupi na Amerika ya Kumwera, kumpoto-kumanjiliro pafupi na Asiya ya Kumafumiro, na kumwera-kumanjiliro kuzunguliya Oceania. Kuzika kwapakati kwa Mbwani ya Pacific ni mamita 4,000. Challenger Deep mu Mariana Trench, ku kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, ndiyo malo ghakuzika comene ghakumanyikwa pa caro cose, ghakufika mamita 10,928. Pacific yili so na malo ghakuzika comene mu cigaŵa ca kumwera ca caro capasi, Horizon Deep mu Tonga Trench, pa mamita 10,823. Malo ghacitatu pa kuzika pa caro capasi, Sirena Deep, nagho ghali mu Mariana Trench. Pacific yili na nyanja zikulu zinandi za mphepete, kusazgapo Nyanja ya Philippines, Nyanja ya China ya Kumwera, Nyanja ya China ya Kumafumiro, Nyanja ya Japani, Nyanja ya Okhotsk, Nyanja ya Bering, Gulf ya Alaska, Gulf ya California, Nyanja ya Tasman, na Nyanja ya Korali. == Muzu wa Zina == Mu 1513, mu Nyengo ya Kusanga, mukupenja wa Spain Vasco Núñez de Balboa wakajumpha mtunda mufupi wa Panama ndipo wakawona "Nyanja ya Kumwera" yikulu, iyo wakayithya zina lakuti ''Mar del Sur'' (mu Cisipanya). Pamanyuma, zina la sono la mbwani likapangika na mukupenja wa Portugal Ferdinand Magellan pa ulendo wa Spain wa kuzunguliya caro cose mu 1520, apo wakasanga mphepo ziwemi pa kufika pa mbwani iyi. Wakayichema ''Mar Pacífico'', ilo mu Cipwitikizi na Cisipanya likung'anamula "nyanja ya mtendere". == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === Pakati pa Asiya, Australia na Amerika, virwa vyakujumpha 25,000, vikulu na vicoko, vikuwoneka pacanya pa Mbwani ya Pacific. Virwa vinandi ni vyakusyala vya mapiri gha moto gha kale agho ghaŵa ghakugona kwa vyaka masauzandi. Pafupi na mzere wapakati pali ma''atoll'' agho ghakapangika mu nyengo yitali na tuvirwa tucoko twa korali utu tukuzunguliya kanyanja ka pakati. === Maulendo Ghakwamba gha Ŵanthu === Maulendo ghakuzirwa gha ŵanthu ghakacitika mu Pacific pambere mbiri yindalembeke. Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakafika dankha ku Pacific ya kumanjiliro pafupifupi vyaka 60,000 mpaka 70,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kufuma ku ulendo wa ŵanthu wa mu mphepete ya kumwera kufuma mu Afilika, ŵakafika ku Asiya ya Kumafumiro, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, Philippines, New Guinea, ndipo pamanyuma Australia mwa kujumpha nyanja ya makilomita 80 panji kujumpha. Palije kumanya makola luso la ngalawa ilo magulu agha ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito; kukughanaghanirika kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ngalawa zikulu za nsungwi, panyake na ngalanyo. Kucepa kwa mphepo ziwemi za kujumpha kuya ku Australia pamanyuma pa vyaka 80,000 ivyo vyajumpha kukukolerana na nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu Australia. Luso la kwenda pa nyanja la ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro likusimikizgika na kukhala pa Buka pofika vyaka 32,000 ivyo vyajumpha na Manus pofika vyaka 25,000 ivyo vyajumpha, maulendo gha makilomita 180 na 230. Ŵana ŵa maulendo agha mazuŵa ghano ni Ŵanegrito, Ŵamelanesia, na ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Australia. Ŵanthu ŵawo mu virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na Melanesia pamanyuma ŵakatorana na Ŵaaustronesia awo ŵakiza kufuma ku Taiwan na kumpoto kwa Philippines, ndipo ici cikapanga ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵa virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na Oceania. Ulendo unyake wa pa nyanja wa pamanyuma ni kuthandazgika kwa Ŵaaustronesia. Ŵaaustronesia ŵakafuma pa cirwa ca Taiwan pafupifupi 3000–1500 pambere Khristu. Ŵakumanyikwa na luso lawo lapadera la ngalawa (comene ngalawa za vyakukhazgira ku mbali, ngalawa za ntonga ziŵiri, na ngalanyo za mawonekero gha nyara za nkhala) – panyake luso ili likakura apo ŵakalutilira kukhala mu Oceania ya pafupi na ya kutali. Kwamba pafupifupi 2200 pambere Khristu, Ŵaaustronesia ŵakenda kumwera kukhala mu Philippines. Ŵakajumpha Pacific ya kumanjiliro kufuma ku virwa vya Bismarck kufika ku Virwa vya Mariana pofika 1500 pambere Khristu, na Palau na Yap pofika 1000 pambere Khristu. Ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba kufika ku Oceania ya kutali, na ŵakwamba kujumpha mtunda utali wa maji ghakujulika. Ŵakalutilira kuthandazgika kumwera, kufika ku Indonesia na Malaysia pofika 1500 pambere Khristu, ndipo kumanjiliro ku Madagascar na Comoros mu Mbwani ya India pafupifupi 500 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Pafupifupi 1300 mpaka 1200 pambere Khristu, cigaŵa ca Ŵaaustronesia cakuchemeka mdawuko wa Lapita cikafika ku virwa vya Bismarck, Solomon, Vanuatu, Fiji, na New Caledonia. Kufuma kuko, ŵakakhala mu Tonga na Samoa pofika 900 mpaka 800 pambere Khristu. Ŵanyake ŵakawelera kumpoto mu 200 pambere Khristu kukhala mu virwa vya Micronesia ya kumafumiro. Ici cikaŵa kutali comene uko Ŵaaustronesia ŵakafika mu Polynesia mpaka pafupifupi 700 mumuwilo wa Khristu, apo kupenja virwa kunyake kukamba. Ŵakafika ku Virwa vya Cook, Tahiti, na Marquesas pofika 700; Hawaiʻi pofika 900; Rapa Nui pofika 1000; ndipo pakumalira New Zealand pofika 1200. Ŵaaustronesia ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakafika nanga ni ku Amerika, nangauli ukaboni wa ici ngwambura kukwana. === Kupenja kwa Ŵaulaya === Kukumana kwakwamba kwa Ŵaulaya na mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya Mbwani ya Pacific kukacitika na maulendo gha Portugal gha António de Abreu na Francisco Serrão ku Virwa vya Maluku mu 1512, na ulendo wa Jorge Álvares ku China ya kumwera mu 1513. Mbali ya kumafumiro ya mbwani yikawoneka na Vasco Núñez de Balboa mu 1513 pamanyuma pakuti ulendo wake wajumpha Panama na kufika ku mbwani yiphya. Wakayithya zina lakuti ''Mar del Sur'' ("Nyanja ya Kumwera") cifukwa mbwani yikaŵa kumwera kwa mphepete ya mtunda uwo wakayiwonera dankha. Mu 1520, Ferdinand Magellan na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kujumpha Pacific mu mbiri yakulembeka. Ŵakaŵa cigaŵa ca ulendo wa Spain ku Virwa vya Vyakununkhira uwo pakumalira ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa kuzunguliya caro cose. Magellan wakachema mbwani kuti ''Pacífico'' ("ya mtendere") cifukwa, pamanyuma pa kwenda mu nyanja za mphepo zikulu za Cape Horn, ŵakasanga maji ghakupumula. Mbwani iyi kanandi yikachemekanga Nyanja ya Magellan mpaka vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Magellan wakaima pa cirwa cimoza cambura ŵanthu pambere wandaime pa Guam mu Masika 1521. Magellan wekha wakafwa mu Philippines mu 1521. Juan Sebastián Elcano wakawezgera ŵakusyala ku Spain kujumpha Mbwani ya India na kuzunguliya Cape of Good Hope, ndipo wakamalizga ulendo wakwamba wa kuzunguliya caro cose mu 1522. Pakati pa 1525 na 1527, maulendo gha Portugal ghakasanga Virwa vya Caroline, Virwa vya Aru, na Papua New Guinea. Mu 1542–43 Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafika so ku Japani. Mu 1564, ngalawa zinkhondi za Spain izo zikanyamula ŵankhondo 379 zikajumpha Pacific kufuma ku Mexico, zakulongozgeka na Miguel López de Legazpi, ndipo zikapoka Philippines na Virwa vya Mariana. Mu vyaka vyakusyala vya m'ma 1500, Spain yikalongozganga ŵankhondo na malonda, na ngalawa izo zikenda kufuma ku Mexico na Peru kujumpha Mbwani ya Pacific kuya ku Philippines kwizira mu Guam. Ngalawa za Manila zikenda kwa vyaka 250, kukoleranya Manila na Acapulco, mu nthowa yimoza ya malonda yitali comene mu mbiri. Maulendo gha Spain ghakafika so ku Tuvalu, Marquesas, Virwa vya Cook, Virwa vya Solomon, Vanuatu, Marshall, na Admiralty mu Pacific ya Kumwera. Pamanyuma, pa kupenja ''Terra Australis'' ("Caro Cikulu ca Kumwera"), maulendo gha Spain mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, nga ni ulendo wa Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, ghakafika ku Pitcairn na Vanuatu, ndipo ghakajumpha Torres Strait pakati pa Australia na New Guinea. Ŵakupenja ŵa Netherlands, awo ŵakazunguliyanga Afilika ya kumwera, nawo ŵakapenjanga na kucita malonda; Willem Janszoon wakaŵa Muulaya wakwamba kufika mu Australia mwakulembeka makola (1606), ndipo Abel Tasman wakafika ku Tasmania na New Zealand mu 1642. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, Spain yikawonanga Mbwani ya Pacific nga ni nyanja yakujalika ku vyaro vinyake. Nga ni mlomo wekha wakumanyikwa kufuma ku Atlantic, Strait of Magellan nyengo zinyake yikalindikanga na ngalawa za nkhondo kukanizga ngalawa zinyake. Ku mbali ya kumanjiliro, Ŵadachi ŵakaopskanga Philippines ya Spain. Vyaka vya m'ma 1700 vikawona kwamba kwa kupenja kukulu kwa Ŵarasha mu Alaska na Virwa vya Aleutian, kulongozgeka na Vitus Bering. Spain yikatuma so maulendo ku kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, kufika ku Cirwa ca Vancouver na Alaska. Ŵafulenci ŵakapenja na kupoka Polynesia, ndipo Ŵabritoni ŵakacita maulendo ghatatu na James Cook ku Pacific ya Kumwera, Australia, Hawaii, na kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto. Mu 1768, Pierre-Antoine Véron wakapima kakwamba mu mbiri usani wa Pacific mwakulunjika. Ulendo umoza mwa yakwamba ya kupenja kwa kasandiro ukanozgeka na Spain mu ulendo wa Malaspina wa 1789–1794. Ukenda mu vigaŵa vikulu vya Pacific, kufuma ku Cape Horn mpaka ku Alaska, Guam, Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, na Pacific ya Kumwera. === Ufumu Uphya wa Kuthandazga Mazaza === Kukura kwa ufumu wa kuthandazga mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 kukapangiska kuti vyaro vya Ulaya, ndipo pamanyuma Japani na United States, vipoke vigaŵa vinandi vya Oceania. Maulendo gha HMS Beagle mu ma 1830, na Charles Darwin, HMS Challenger mu ma 1870, na ghanyake ghakovwira comene kumanya kwa mbwani. Mu Oceania, France yikaŵa na mazaza ghakulu pamanyuma pa kupanga Tahiti na New Caledonia kuŵa vyaro vyakuvikilirika mu 1842 na 1853. Pamanyuma pa kuyendera Cirwa ca Easter mu 1875 na 1887, mulongozgi wa ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji wa Chile Policarpo Toro wakadumba na ŵanthu ŵa Rapanui kuti cirwa cinjire mu Chile mu 1888. Pofika 1900, pafupifupi virwa vyose vya Pacific vikaŵa pasi pa Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japani, na Chile. Mu 1898 (nkhondo ya Spain na Amerika), United States yikapoka Guam na Philippines kufuma ku Spain. === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === Pambere pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose, United States yikayezga kugula panji kuzenga malo gha ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji pa Virwa vya Galápagos. Kukana kwa Ecuador kukovwirika na Chile, iyo nayo yikakhozgeka na Britain na Germany. Umaliro wa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose ukakhozga Japani na United States mu Pacific. Vyaro vya mphepete ya Pacific nga ni Colombia, Ecuador na Peru vikamba kuwona United States nga ni mazaza ghakulu, kanandi vikupempha kuti yovwire mu mphindano. Chile yikayezga kususka kukhwaska kwa United States. Phangano la ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji la Washington la 1921 likakolerana na vyakufumapo vinandi mu Pacific, kusazgapo umaliro wa ubwezi wa Ŵangelezi na Ŵajapani. Ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa Britain ŵakafuma so mu Pacific ya Kumwera mu caka cenecico, ndipo ici cikanozga ubwezi wa kale wa Britain, Chile, ndipo cikasazgira kukhwaska kwa United States mu Amerika. Japani yikapoka virwa vinandi vya Pacific mu Nkhondo ya Pacific (1941–1945); kweni pakumalira kwa nkhondo, Japani yikatondeka, ndipo ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa U.S. ŵakaŵa ŵaneco ŵa mbwani. Virwa vya Mariana ya Kumpoto ivyo vikalongozgekanga na Japani vikanjira pasi pa United States. Kufuma umaliro wa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, vyaro vinandi vya kale vya ŵakoloni mu Pacific vyaŵa vyakujilongozga. == Malo == Pacific yikupatula Asiya na Australia kufuma ku Amerika. Yingagaŵika na mzere wapakati mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto (Pacific ya Kumpoto) na ca kumwera (Pacific ya Kumwera). Yikufuma ku cigaŵa ca Antarctica kumwera mpaka ku Arctic kumpoto. Mbwani ya Pacific yikuphimba pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vitatu ca caro capasi, makilomita gha mbali zinayi 165,250,000, kuluska mtunda wose wa caro capasi pamoza. Yitali makilomita pafupifupi 15,600 kufuma ku Nyanja ya Bering mu Arctic mpaka ku Mbwani ya Kumwera, Pacific yili yisani comene pafupifupi pa makona 5 kumpoto, uko yikufika makilomita pafupifupi 19,800 kufuma ku Indonesia mpaka ku mphepete ya Colombia, hafu ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, kujumpha kankhondi ukulu wa mwezi. Pakati pake pa malo pali ku kumafumiro kwa Kiribati. Malo ghapasi comene ghakumanyikwa pa caro capasi, Mariana Trench, ghali mamita 10,911 pasi pa maji gha mbwani. Kuzika kwapakati ni mamita 4,280, ntheura maji ghose ngakwana makilomita gha mbali zitatu pafupifupi 710,000,000. Cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, Mbwani ya Pacific sono yikucepa na masentimita pafupifupi 2.5 pa caka ku mbali zitatu. Kweni Mbwani ya Atlantic yikukura. Mu mphepete za kumanjiliro za Pacific pali nyanja zinandi, zikulu comene ni Nyanja ya Celebes, Nyanja ya Korali, Nyanja ya China ya Kumafumiro, Nyanja ya Philippines, Nyanja ya Japani, Nyanja ya China ya Kumwera, Nyanja ya Sulu, Nyanja ya Tasman, na Nyanja ya Cikasu. Nthowa za maji za Indonesia (kusazgapo Strait of Malacca na Torres Strait) zikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya India kumanjiliro, ndipo Drake Passage na Strait of Magellan zikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya Atlantic kumafumiro. Kumpoto, Bering Strait yikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya Arctic. Pakuti Pacific yikujumpha mzere wa makona 180, Pacific ya Kumanjiliro (pafupi na Asiya) yili mu cigaŵa ca kumafumiro ca caro capasi, apo Pacific ya Kumafumiro (pafupi na Amerika) yili mu cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro. Pacific ya Kumwera yili na mapiri gha pasi pa maji agho ghakufuma kumwera kwa Australia kuya pakati pa Pacific na Antarctica, ndipo ghakukolerana na ghanyake kupanga East Pacific Rise. Pa ulendo unandi wa Magellan kufuma ku Strait of Magellan kuya ku Philippines, mukupenja wakasanga mbwani nadi yamtendere; kweni Pacific njamtendere nyengo zose yayi. Mphepo zikulu zinandi za ku tropiki zikutimba virwa vya Pacific. Mitunda ya kuzunguliya Pacific yili na mapiri gha moto ghanandi ndipo kanandi yikuŵa na cindindindi. Mayigha ghakulu agho ghakufuma ku cindindindi ca pasi pa maji ghananga virwa vinandi, ndipo nyengo zinyake ghananga misumba yose. Mapu gha Martin Waldseemüller gha 1507 ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba kulongora Amerika ikupatula mbwani ziŵiri. Pamanyuma, mapu gha Diogo Ribeiro gha 1529 ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba kulongora Pacific pafupifupi pa ukulu wake wakwenelera. === Vyaro vya Mphepete === Vyaro vinandi vya Asiya, Oceania, na Amerika vili mu mphepete ya Mbwani ya Pacific, kusazgapo Russia, Japani, China, Korea, Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, vyaro vya virwa vya Pacific, Canada, United States, Mexico, vyaro vya Amerika Yapakati, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, na Chile. === Mitunda na Virwa === Mbwani ya Pacific yili na virwa vinandi comene vya caro capasi. Pali virwa pafupifupi 25,000 mu Mbwani ya Pacific. Virwa ivyo vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific pera vingagaŵika mu magulu ghatatu ghakulu: Micronesia, Melanesia na Polynesia. Micronesia, iyo yili kumpoto kwa mzere wapakati na kumanjiliro kwa Mzere wa Mazuŵa, yikusazgapo Virwa vya Mariana kumpoto-kumanjiliro, Virwa vya Caroline pakati, Virwa vya Marshall kumafumiro, na virwa vya Kiribati kumwera-kumafumiro. Melanesia, ku kumwera-kumanjiliro, yikusazgapo New Guinea, cirwa caciŵiri pa ukulu pa caro cose pamanyuma pa Greenland, ndipo cikulu comene pa virwa vya Pacific. Magulu ghanyake ghakulu gha Melanesia kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera ni virwa vya Bismarck, Virwa vya Solomon, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji na New Caledonia. Cigaŵa cikulu comene, Polynesia, kufuma ku Hawaii kumpoto mpaka ku New Zealand kumwera, cikusazgapo so Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga na Virwa vya Kermadec kumanjiliro, Virwa vya Cook, Society na Austral pakati, na Virwa vya Marquesas, Tuamotu, Mangareva, na Cirwa ca Easter kumafumiro. Virwa mu Mbwani ya Pacific vili na mitundu yinayi: virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, virwa vitali, malibwe gha korali, na malibwe gha korali ghakukwezgeka. Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vili kuwaro kwa mzere wa ''andesite'' ndipo vikusazgapo New Guinea, virwa vya New Zealand, na Philippines. Virwa vinyake ivi vikukolerana na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vya pafupi. Virwa vitali vikafuma ku mapiri gha moto, ndipo vinandi vili na mapiri gha moto ghamoyo. Mwa ivi muli Bougainville, Hawaii, na Virwa vya Solomon. Malibwe gha korali gha Pacific ya Kumwera ni vigaŵa vyapasi ivyo vyakura pacanya pa mwala wakusungunuka pasi pa maji gha mbwani. Cimoza mwa vyakuzizwiska comene ni Great Barrier Reef pafupi na kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Australia. Mtundu waciŵiri wa cirwa ca korali ni malibwe gha korali ghakukwezgeka, agho kanandi ngakulu pacoko kuluska virwa vya korali vyapasi. Viyelezgero ni Banaba na Makatea. == Vimanyikwiro vya Maji == Maji gha Mbwani ya Pacific, pafupifupi magaŵa 50.1 pa 100 gha maji gha mbwani zose za caro capasi, ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa makilomita gha mbali zitatu pafupifupi miliyoni 714. Kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya mu Pacific kungasintha kufuma −1.4 °C, apo maji gha mbwani ghakukhwimira, ku vigaŵa vya mphaka mpaka pafupifupi 30 °C pafupi na mzere wapakati. Mcere nawo ukusintha kuyana na malo, kufika pa magaŵa 37 pa 1,000 ku kumwera-kumafumiro. Maji pafupi na mzere wapakati, agho ghangaŵa na mcere wa magaŵa 34 pa 1,000 pera, ngambura mcere unandi kuluska gha vigaŵa vyapakati cifukwa ca vula yinandi caka cose. Mcere ucoko comene, pasi pa magaŵa 32 pa 1,000, ukusangika kumpoto comene cifukwa maji ghacoko ghakufumbuka mu malo ghakuzizima agha. Kwenda kwa maji gha Pacific kanandi nkhwa kuzunguliya nga ni cipimanyengo mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto na kwakususkana mu cigaŵa ca kumwera. Kwenda kwa maji kwa North Equatorial Current, uko kukukankhika kumanjiliro na mphepo za malonda, kukuzgokera kumpoto pafupi na Philippines kuŵa kwenda kwa maji ghakufunda kwa Kuroshio. Kuzgokera kumafumiro pafupifupi pa makona 45 kumpoto, Kuroshio yikugaŵika ndipo maji ghanyake ghakwenda kumpoto nga ni Aleutian Current, apo ghanyake ghakuzgokera kumwera kuwelera ku North Equatorial Current. Aleutian Current yikugaŵika apo yikuza pafupi na Amerika ya Kumpoto, ndipo cigaŵa cake ca kumwera cikuŵa California Current yakuzizima iyo yikwenda pacoko kumwera. South Equatorial Current, iyo yikwenda kumanjiliro pa mzere wapakati, yikuzgokera kumwera kumafumiro kwa New Guinea, yikuzgokera kumafumiro pafupifupi pa makona 50 kumwera, ndipo yikunjira mu kwenda kukulu kwa Pacific ya Kumwera, kusazgapo kwenda kwa maji kwa Antarctic uko kukuzunguliya caro cose. Apo yikuza pafupi na mphepete ya Chile, yikugaŵika; cigaŵa cimoza cikwenda kuzunguliya Cape Horn ndipo cinyake cikuzgokera kumpoto kupanga Humboldt Current. == Nyengo == Nyengo za cigaŵa ca kumpoto na ca kumwera kanandi zikuyana. Mphepo za malonda za kumwera na kumafumiro kwa Pacific nzakukhazikika comene apo nyengo ya Pacific ya Kumpoto yikupambana comene; mwaciyelezgero, kuzizima kwa nyengo ya kuzizima mu mphepete ya kumafumiro kwa Russia kukupambana na nyengo yakupepuka ya British Columbia cifukwa ca kwenda kwa maji gha mbwani. Mu Pacific ya ku tropiki na pafupi na tropiki, El Niño na La Niña vikukhwaska nyengo. Kuti ŵamanye nyengo iyo yilipo, kufunda kwapakati kwa maji gha pacanya kwa myezi yitatu yaumaliro mu cigaŵa ca makilomita pafupifupi 3,000 kumwera-kumafumiro kwa Hawaii kukupimika, ndipo usange cigaŵa ici cili pacanya panji pasi pa kufunda kwa nyengo zose na kujumpha 0.5 °C, El Niño panji La Niña yikuwonekera kuŵa yikucitika. Mu Lupya 2025, NOAA yikati kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya gha mbwani za caro cose kukaŵa pafupi na mbiri, ndipo Zizima mpaka Mpupulu 2025 yikaŵa nyengo yacitatu pa kufunda mu vyaka 176 vya malemba. Mu Pacific ya kumanjiliro ya ku tropiki, vula ya nyengo ya kufunda yikupambana na mphepo zakomira mu nyengo ya kuzizima izo zikufuma ku Asiya. Pa caro cose, vimphepo vya ku tropiki vikuŵa vinandi pakumalira kwa nyengo ya kufunda. Pacific yili na vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vili na vimphepo vya ku tropiki vinandi comene: kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific na kumafumiro kwa Pacific. Mphepo zikulu za Pacific zikupangika kumwera kwa Mexico, nyengo zinyake zikutimba mphepete ya Mexico, pakati pa Zizima na Thukila, apo izo zikupangika kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific zikwenda ku Asiya kufuma Vula mpaka Zimya. Mphepo zikulu za ku tropiki zikupangika so mu Pacific ya Kumwera, uko nyengo zinyake zikukhwaska vyaro vya virwa. Mu Arctic, cikakato kufuma Thukila mpaka Vula cingaŵa ngozi ku ngalawa, apo nyathutwe wa nyengo zose ukuŵako kufuma Zizima mpaka Zimya. Mphepo za kumanjiliro zingaŵa zankhongono comene, comene mu cigaŵa ca kumwera, cifukwa ca kupambana kwa kufunda pakati pa tropiki na Antarctica. Mu cigaŵa ca kumwera, cifukwa ca vimphepo na maŵingu, mphepo izi zikuchemeka "Makumi Ghanayi Ghakubangula", "Makumi Ghankhondi Ghakukwiya", na "Makumi Ghankhondi na Limoza Ghakulira", kuyana na makona. == Kasandiro ka Pasi == Mbwani yikapangika mapu dankha na Abraham Ortelius; wakayichema ''Maris Pacifici'' kuyana na malongosoro gha Magellan gha "nyanja ya mtendere". Mzere wa ''andesite'' ndiwo kupambana kukulu comene mu Pacific. Ni mphaka ya malibwe iyo yikupatula malibwe ghakuzika gha dimba la pakati la Pacific na vigaŵa vya mtunda ivyo vyabira pacoko mu mphepete. Mzere uwu ukulondezga mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya virwa pafupi na California, ukujumpha kumwera kwa Aleutian, mu mphepete ya kumafumiro ya Kamchatka, Virwa vya Kuril, Japani, Virwa vya Mariana, Virwa vya Solomon, na Cirwa ca Kumpoto ca New Zealand. Kupambana uku kukulutilira kumpoto-kumafumiro mu mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya mapiri gha Andes kufuma ku Amerika ya Kumwera mpaka ku Mexico. Indonesia, Philippines, Japani, New Guinea, na New Zealand vili kuwaro kwa mzere uwu. Mukati mwa mzere uwu muli maboŵa ghakuzika, mapiri gha moto gha pasi pa maji, na virwa vya mapiri gha moto ivyo vikumanyiska dimba la Pacific. Apa mwala wakusungunuka ukufuma pacoko pacoko mu mphanyiko kuzenga mapiri ghakulu gha moto. Kuwaro kwa mzere uwu, mapiri gha moto ngakuphulika, ndipo Mphete ya Moto ya Pacific ndiyo lamba likulu comene la mapiri gha moto ghakuphulika pa caro cose. Likuthyika zina la mapiri gha moto ghamoyo mahandiredi agho ghali pacanya pa malo agho vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vikunjirana. Mbwani ya Pacific ndiyo mbwani yekha iyo yazingilizgika comene na malo agho vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vikunjirana. === Mbiri ya Kapangikiro === Mbwani ya Pacific yikapangika vyaka miliyoni 750 ivyo vyajumpha apo cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Rodinia cikaphwanyika, nangauli kanandi yikuchemeka Panthalassa mpaka Pangea yikaphwanyika, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 200 ivyo vyajumpha. Pasi pa Pacific pa kale comene ndi pa vyaka miliyoni pafupifupi 180 pera, cifukwa cikopa ca kale canjira pasi. === Minjololo ya Mapiri gha Pasi pa Maji === Mbwani ya Pacific yili na minjololo yitali ya mapiri gha pasi pa maji, iyo yikapangika na mapiri gha moto gha malo ghakotcha. Iyi yikusazgapo mnjololo wa Hawaii–Emperor na Louisville Ridge. == Vyacuma == Kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya pasi vya Pacific kukusuzgika na kuzika kukulu kwa mbwani. Mu maji ghambura kuzika gha mphepete za Australia na New Zealand, mafuta na mphepo za pasi vikufumyika, ndipo ngale zikuwunjikika mu mphepete za Australia, Japani, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, na Philippines, nangauli unandi wacepa comene mu malo ghanyake. === Kulowa Somba === Somba ni cuma cakuzirwa mu Pacific. Maji ghambura kuzika gha mphepete na virwa ghakupeleka ''herring'', ''salmon'', ''sardine'', ''swordfish'', na ''tuna'', na somba za vikoko. Kulowa comene kwaŵa suzgo likulu mu malo ghanyake, ndipo kukupangiska kucepa kwa somba na kujalika kwa malo gha kulowa, uko kukukhwaska vyacuma na malo gha vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, somba izo zikuloweka mu Nyanja ya Okhotsk zacepa na hafu panji kujumpha kufuma mu ma 1990 cifukwa ca kulowa comene. == Malo Ghakuzingilizga == Pacific ya kumpoto-kumanjiliro njakunangika comene na tuvigaŵa tucoko twa pulasitiki cifukwa yili pafupi na vyaro vya ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni Japani na China. Unandi wa tuvigaŵa tucoko twa pulasitiki mu Pacific ya kumpoto-kumafumiro ukasazgikira kahandiredi pakati pa 1972 na 2012. Malo ghakukura gha vyakutaya pakati pa California na Japani ngakulu katatu nga ni France. Matani pafupifupi 80,000 gha pulasitiki ghali kuko, vigaŵa trilioni 1.8. Kunanga mbwani ni kunjira kwiheni kwa vinthu vya usungunu panji tuvinthu mu mbwani. Ŵakunanga ŵakulu ni awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito milonga kutaya vyakusyala vyawo. Milonga yikuthira mu mbwani, kanandi pamoza na feteleza wa ulimi. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikucepeska okisijeni mu maji vikupangiska malo ghambura okisijeni umo vyamoyo vingakhala yayi. Vyakutaya vya mu mbwani ni vyakutaya vyakupangika na ŵanthu ivyo vikuyandama mu nyanja, mbwani, panji milonga. Vikuwunjikana pakati pa kwenda kwa maji kwa cizungulizgo na mu mphepete. Kweniso, Mbwani ya Pacific yaŵa malo agho ma''satellite'' ghakuwira, kusazgapo Mars 96 na Fobos-Grunt. === Vyakusyala vya Nyukiliya === Kufuma 1946 mpaka 1958, Virwa vya Marshall vikaŵa malo gha kuyezgera vilwero vya nyukiliya vya United States, ndipo kuyezga 67 kukacitika pa ma''atoll'' ghakupambana. Vilwero vinyake vya nyukiliya vikataika mu Mbwani ya Pacific, kusazgapo cimoza ca nkhongono yikulu ico cikataika mu Nyanja ya Philippines mu 1965. Mu 2021, ulongozgi wa Japani ukazomerezga kuthira maji gha nyukiliya kufuma ku nyumba ya nyukiliya ya Fukushima mu Mbwani ya Pacific mu vyaka 30. Ulongozgi ukati maji ghazamuŵa ghakusazganika mpaka kuŵa ghakumwa. Kupatula kuthira uku, kuvuza kwa ''tritium'' mu Pacific kukaghanaghanirika kuŵa kukulu kufuma 2011 mpaka 2013. === Kukumba Migodi pasi pa Mbwani === Ngozi yiphya ku Mbwani ya Pacific ni kukumba migodi pasi pa mbwani. Kukumba uku kukukhumba kufumya mpira ya ''manganese'' iyo yili na vyuma nga ni magnesiyamu, nickel, mkuŵa, zinki na cobalt. Vyuma vinandi comene vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific pakati pa Mexico na Hawaii. Kukumba uku kukuwoneka kuŵa na vyakufumapo viheni comene ku mbwani. Kukusokonezga malo gha vyamoyo gha pasi pa mbwani ndipo kungananga malo agha kwa muyirayira. Kusambasamba kwa dongo na kunanga na vinthu vya usungunu vikuopska vinyama vinandi vya mu mbwani. Kweniso, kukumba kungafumiska mphepo zakusunga kufunda na kusazgira kusintha kwa nyengo. Ntheura kukanizga kukumba uku nkhwakuzirwa kuti mbwani yikhale makola kwa nyengo yitali. [[Category:Pacific Ocean]] az8nl85q5g3evs60vxwuhfsrtktdl2b 124410 124357 2026-11-10T20:41:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124410 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Mbwani ya Pacific | image = Pacific Ocean - en.png | alt = Mapu gha Mbwani ya Pacific | coordinates = {{Coord|0|N|160|W|region:XP_type:waterbody_dim:20000000|display=inline,title}} | area = {{convert|165250000|km2|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|4280|m|abbr=on}} | max_depth = {{convert|10911|m|abbr=on}} | volume = {{circa}} {{convert|710000000|km3|abbr=on}} | islands = Virwa vya Pacific }} [[File:Pacific Ocean - en.png|thumb|330x330px]] '''Mbwani ya Pacific''' ni yikulu comene na yakuzika comene mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vya [[Mbwani|mbwani]] ya [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Yikufuma ku [[Arctic Ocean|Mbwani ya Arctic]] kumpoto mpaka ku Mbwani ya Kumwera, panji, kuyana na ng'anamulo, ku Antarctica kumwera, ndipo yikuzingilizgika na [[Asia|Asiya]] na Australia kumanjiliro, na Amerika kumafumiro. Pa makilomita gha mbali zinayi 165,250,000, Mbwani ya Pacific ndiyo cigaŵa cikulu comene ca mbwani ya caro cose capasi, ndipo yikuphimba pafupifupi magaŵa 46 pa 100 gha maji gha caro capasi na pafupifupi magaŵa 32 pa 100 gha caro cose capasi, kuluska mtunda wose pamoza (makilomita gha mbali zinayi 148,940,000).<ref name="ebc">"[https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean Pacific Ocean]". ''Britannica Concise.'' 2008: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</ref> Pakati pa cigaŵa ca maji ca caro capasi na pakati pa cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro ca caro capasi, na malo ghakutali comene na mtunda mu mbwani, vyose vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific. Kwenda kwa maji (uko kukufuma ku kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi) kukuyigaŵa mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikulu vya maji agho ghakukumana pa mzere wapakati: Mbwani ya Pacific ya Kumpoto na Mbwani ya Pacific ya Kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents1.html|title=The Coriolis Effect|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|accessdate=8 April 2022}}</ref> Mbwani ya Pacific yingagaŵika so na Mzere wa Mazuŵa wa Pakati pa Vyaro mu Pacific ya Kumafumiro na Pacific ya Kumanjiliro, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kugaŵa so mu vigaŵa vinayi: kumpoto-kumafumiro pafupi na Amerika ya Kumpoto, kumwera-kumafumiro pafupi na Amerika ya Kumwera, kumpoto-kumanjiliro pafupi na Asiya ya Kumafumiro, na kumwera-kumanjiliro kuzunguliya Oceania. Kuzika kwapakati kwa Mbwani ya Pacific ni mamita 4,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/pacific-size.html|title=How big is the Pacific Ocean?|website=US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|language=EN-US|access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref> Challenger Deep mu Mariana Trench, ku kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, ndiyo malo ghakuzika comene ghakumanyikwa pa caro cose, ghakufika mamita 10,928.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fivedeeps.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/FDE-Challenger-Release-FINAL-5132019.pdf|title=Deepest Submarine Dive in History, Five Deeps Expedition Conquers Challenger Deep}}</ref> Pacific yili so na malo ghakuzika comene mu cigaŵa ca kumwera ca caro capasi, Horizon Deep mu Tonga Trench, pa mamita 10,823.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fivedeeps.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2019-06-11-FDE-Press-Release-Tonga.pdf|title=CONFIRMED: Horizon Deep Second Deepest Point on the Planet}}</ref> Malo ghacitatu pa kuzika pa caro capasi, Sirena Deep, nagho ghali mu Mariana Trench. Pacific yili na nyanja zikulu zinandi za mphepete, kusazgapo Nyanja ya Philippines, Nyanja ya China ya Kumwera, Nyanja ya China ya Kumafumiro, Nyanja ya Japani, Nyanja ya Okhotsk, Nyanja ya Bering, Gulf ya Alaska, Gulf ya California, Nyanja ya Tasman, na Nyanja ya Korali. == Muzu wa Zina == Mu 1513, mu Nyengo ya Kusanga, mukupenja wa Spain Vasco Núñez de Balboa wakajumpha mtunda mufupi wa Panama ndipo wakawona "Nyanja ya Kumwera" yikulu, iyo wakayithya zina lakuti ''Mar del Sur'' (mu Cisipanya). Pamanyuma, zina la sono la mbwani likapangika na mukupenja wa Portugal Ferdinand Magellan pa ulendo wa Spain wa kuzunguliya caro cose mu 1520, apo wakasanga mphepo ziwemi pa kufika pa mbwani iyi. Wakayichema ''Mar Pacífico'', ilo mu Cipwitikizi na Cisipanya likung'anamula "nyanja ya mtendere".<ref>{{Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Ferdinand Magellan |inline=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Evan |last=Andrews |title=10 Surprising Facts About Magellan's Circumnavigation of the Globe |url=https://www.history.com/news/10-surprising-facts-about-magellans-circumnavigation-of-the-globe |date=17 October 2023 |website=history.com |publisher=A&E Networks |access-date=27 September 2024}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Pambere pa Mbiri Yakulembeka === Pakati pa Asiya, Australia na Amerika, virwa vyakujumpha 25,000, vikulu na vicoko, vikuwoneka pacanya pa Mbwani ya Pacific. Virwa vinandi ni vyakusyala vya mapiri gha moto gha kale agho ghaŵa ghakugona kwa vyaka masauzandi. Pafupi na mzere wapakati pali ma''atoll'' agho ghakapangika mu nyengo yitali na tuvirwa tucoko twa korali utu tukuzunguliya kanyanja ka pakati. === Maulendo Ghakwamba gha Ŵanthu === [[File:Fijian double canoe, model, Otago Museum, 2016-01-29.jpg|thumb|Cikozgo ca ngalawa ya ''drua'' ya ku Fiji, ciyelezgero ca ngalawa ya Ŵaaustronesia yakuŵa na matupi ghaŵiri na nsalu ya mphepo ya mawonekero gha cikhoko ca nkhala]] Maulendo ghakuzirwa gha ŵanthu ghakacitika mu Pacific pambere mbiri yindalembeke. Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakafika dankha ku Pacific ya kumanjiliro pafupifupi vyaka 60,000 mpaka 70,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kufuma ku ulendo wa ŵanthu wa mu mphepete ya kumwera kufuma mu Afilika, ŵakafika ku Asiya ya Kumafumiro, Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, Philippines, New Guinea, ndipo pamanyuma Australia mwa kujumpha nyanja ya makilomita 80 panji kujumpha. Palije kumanya makola luso la ngalawa ilo magulu agha ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito; kukughanaghanirika kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ngalawa zikulu za nsungwi, panyake na ngalanyo. Kucepa kwa mphepo ziwemi za kujumpha kuya ku Australia pamanyuma pa vyaka 80,000 ivyo vyajumpha kukukolerana na nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu Australia. Luso la kwenda pa nyanja la ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro likusimikizgika na kukhala pa Buka pofika vyaka 32,000 ivyo vyajumpha na Manus pofika vyaka 25,000 ivyo vyajumpha, maulendo gha makilomita 180 na 230.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Connor |first1=Sue |last2=Hiscock |first2=Peter |editor1-last=Cochrane |editor1-first=Ethan E |editor2-last=Hunt |editor2-first=Terry L. |title=The Oxford handbook of prehistoric Oceania |date=2018 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199925070 |chapter=The Peopling of Sahul and Near Oceania}}</ref> Ŵana ŵa maulendo agha mazuŵa ghano ni Ŵanegrito, Ŵamelanesia, na ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Australia. Ŵanthu ŵawo mu virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na Melanesia pamanyuma ŵakatorana na Ŵaaustronesia awo ŵakiza kufuma ku Taiwan na kumpoto kwa Philippines, ndipo ici cikapanga ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵa virwa vya Asiya ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro na Oceania.<ref name="Jett2017">{{cite book |last1=Jett |first1=Stephen C. |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0817319397 |pages=168–171 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726125617/https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Waruno2017">{{cite book|author =Mahdi, Waruno|editor =Acri, Andrea|editor2 =Blench, Roger|editor3 =Landmann, Alexandra|title =Spirits and Ships: Cultural Transfers in Early Monsoon Asia|chapter =Pre-Austronesian Origins of Seafaring in Insular Southeast Asia|publisher =ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute|year =2017|pages =325–440|isbn =978-9814762755|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=uJsnDwAAQBAJ|access-date =4 June 2020|archive-date =26 July 2020|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20200726134025/https://books.google.com/books?id=uJsnDwAAQBAJ|url-status =live}}</ref> [[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|upright=2|Mapu agho ghakulongora umo Ŵaaustronesia ŵakasamira]] Ulendo unyake wa pa nyanja wa pamanyuma ni kuthandazgika kwa Ŵaaustronesia. Ŵaaustronesia ŵakafuma pa cirwa ca Taiwan pafupifupi 3000–1500 pambere Khristu. Ŵakumanyikwa na luso lawo lapadera la ngalawa (comene ngalawa za vyakukhazgira ku mbali, ngalawa za ntonga ziŵiri, na ngalanyo za mawonekero gha nyara za nkhala) – panyake luso ili likakura apo ŵakalutilira kukhala mu Oceania ya pafupi na ya kutali. Kwamba pafupifupi 2200 pambere Khristu, Ŵaaustronesia ŵakenda kumwera kukhala mu Philippines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Winter |first1=Olaf |last2=Clark |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Anderson |first3=Atholl |last4=Lindahl |first4=Anders |title=Austronesian sailing to the northern Marianas, a comment on Hung et al. (2011) |journal=Antiquity |date=September 2012 |volume=86 |issue=333 |pages=898–910 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00047992 }}</ref> Ŵakajumpha Pacific ya kumanjiliro kufuma ku virwa vya Bismarck kufika ku Virwa vya Mariana pofika 1500 pambere Khristu, na Palau na Yap pofika 1000 pambere Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heiske|first1=Margit|last2=Alva|first2=Omar|last3=Pereda-Loth|first3=Veronica|last4=Van Schalkwyk|first4=Matthew|last5=Radimilahy|first5=Chantal|last6=Letellier|first6=Thierry|last7=Rakotarisoa|first7=Jean-Aimé|last8=Pierron|first8=Denis|date=22 January 2021|title=Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|volume=30|issue=R1|pages=R72–R78|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddab018|pmid=33481023 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gray-et-al2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gray RD, Drummond AJ, Greenhill SJ | title = Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement | journal = Science | volume = 323 | issue = 5913 | pages = 479–483 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19164742 | doi = 10.1126/science.1166858 | bibcode = 2009Sci...323..479G }}</ref><ref name="Pawley2002">{{cite book | vauthors = Pawley A |chapter=The Austronesian dispersal: languages, technologies and people |editor1-first=Peter S. |editor1-last=Bellwood |editor2-first=Colin |editor2-last=Renfrew |title=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis |publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge |year=2002 |isbn=978-1902937205 |pages=251–273 }}</ref> Ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba kufika ku Oceania ya kutali, na ŵakwamba kujumpha mtunda utali wa maji ghakujulika. Ŵakalutilira kuthandazgika kumwera, kufika ku Indonesia na Malaysia pofika 1500 pambere Khristu, ndipo kumanjiliro ku Madagascar na Comoros mu Mbwani ya India pafupifupi 500 mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larena |first=Maximilian |date= 22 March 2021|title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=13 |article-number=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |pmid=33753512 |pmc=8020671 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Pafupifupi 1300 mpaka 1200 pambere Khristu, cigaŵa ca Ŵaaustronesia cakuchemeka mdawuko wa Lapita cikafika ku virwa vya Bismarck, Solomon, Vanuatu, Fiji, na New Caledonia. Kufuma kuko, ŵakakhala mu Tonga na Samoa pofika 900 mpaka 800 pambere Khristu. Ŵanyake ŵakawelera kumpoto mu 200 pambere Khristu kukhala mu virwa vya Micronesia ya kumafumiro. Ici cikaŵa kutali comene uko Ŵaaustronesia ŵakafika mu Polynesia mpaka pafupifupi 700 mumuwilo wa Khristu, apo kupenja virwa kunyake kukamba. Ŵakafika ku Virwa vya Cook, Tahiti, na Marquesas pofika 700; Hawaiʻi pofika 900; Rapa Nui pofika 1000; ndipo pakumalira New Zealand pofika 1200.<ref name="Gray-et-al2009"/><ref name="Stanley2004">{{cite book|last=Stanley|first=David|title=South Pacific|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EDGapfBX-CAC|date=2004|publisher=Avalon Travel |isbn=978-1-56691-411-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EDGapfBX-CAC/page/n38 19]}}</ref><ref name="gibbons">{{cite web |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title='Game-changing' study suggests first Polynesians voyaged all the way from East Asia |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |website=Science |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413063912/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/10/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵaaustronesia ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakafika nanga ni ku Amerika, nangauli ukaboni wa ici ngwambura kukwana.<ref>Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. 1994. ''Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture.'' Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press</ref><ref>Langdon, Robert. The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in Prehistoric Polynesia, ''The Journal of Pacific History'', Vol. 36, No. 1, 2001</ref> === Kupenja kwa Ŵaulaya === [[File:Waldseemuller map 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''Universalis Cosmographia'', yakumanyikwa so kuti mapu gha Waldseemüller, gha 1507, ndigho ghakaŵa mapu ghakwamba kulongora Amerika yikupatula mbwani ziŵiri zakupambana. Amerika ya Kumwera kanandi yikapendekanga kuŵa Caro Ciphya, ndipo zina lakuti "America" likawoneka pa mapu agha kakwamba, kuyana na Amerigo Vespucci]] Kukumana kwakwamba kwa Ŵaulaya na mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya Mbwani ya Pacific kukacitika na maulendo gha Portugal gha António de Abreu na Francisco Serrão ku Virwa vya Maluku mu 1512, na ulendo wa Jorge Álvares ku China ya kumwera mu 1513.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hannard|first=Willard A.|title=Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands|publisher=Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Naira|year=1991|location=Bandanaira|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Milton|first=Giles|author-link=Giles Milton|title=Nathaniel's Nutmeg|publisher=Sceptre|date=1999|location=London|pages=5, 7|isbn= 978-0-340-69676-7}}</ref><ref name="Porter, Jonathan 1996">Porter, Jonathan. (1996). ''Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present''. Westview Press. {{ISBN|0-8133-3749-6}}</ref> Mbali ya kumafumiro ya mbwani yikawoneka na Vasco Núñez de Balboa mu 1513 pamanyuma pakuti ulendo wake wajumpha Panama na kufika ku mbwani yiphya.<ref name="Ober">{{cite book|last=Ober|first=Frederick Albion|title=Vasco Nuñez de Balboa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98zUIbdvAYgC&pg=PT129|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-4655-7034-5|page=129|year=2010}}</ref> Wakayithya zina lakuti ''Mar del Sur'' ("Nyanja ya Kumwera") cifukwa mbwani yikaŵa kumwera kwa mphepete ya mtunda uwo wakayiwonera dankha. Mu 1520, Ferdinand Magellan na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kujumpha Pacific mu mbiri yakulembeka. Ŵakaŵa cigaŵa ca ulendo wa Spain ku Virwa vya Vyakununkhira uwo pakumalira ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba wa kuzunguliya caro cose. Magellan wakachema mbwani kuti ''Pacífico'' ("ya mtendere") cifukwa, pamanyuma pa kwenda mu nyanja za mphepo zikulu za Cape Horn, ŵakasanga maji ghakupumula. Mbwani iyi kanandi yikachemekanga Nyanja ya Magellan mpaka vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Magellan wakaima pa cirwa cimoza cambura ŵanthu pambere wandaime pa Guam mu Masika 1521. Magellan wekha wakafwa mu Philippines mu 1521. Juan Sebastián Elcano wakawezgera ŵakusyala ku Spain kujumpha Mbwani ya India na kuzunguliya Cape of Good Hope, ndipo wakamalizga ulendo wakwamba wa kuzunguliya caro cose mu 1522.<ref>Camino, Mercedes Maroto. ''Producing the Pacific: Maps and Narratives of Spanish Exploration (1567–1606)'', p. 76. 2005.</ref> Pakati pa 1525 na 1527, maulendo gha Portugal ghakasanga Virwa vya Caroline, Virwa vya Aru, na Papua New Guinea.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madrid |first1=Carlos |title=Ferdinand Magellan - Guampedia |url=https://www.guampedia.com/ferdinand-magellan/ |website=guampedia.com |date=30 September 2009}}</ref><ref name=oceanario>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141014024402/http://oceanario.pt/cms/1316/ "Life in the sea: Pacific Ocean"], Oceanário de Lisboa. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Mu 1542–43 Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafika so ku Japani.<ref>{{cite book|last=Galvano|first=Antonio|title=The Discoveries of the World from Their First Original Unto the Year of Our Lord 1555, issued by the Hakluyt Society|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|orig-year=1563|date=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XivHTiZoMycC&pg=1|isbn=978-0-7661-9022-1|ref=Galvano 1563|author-link=António Galvão|page=168}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kratoska |first=Paul H. |title=South East Asia, Colonial History: Imperialism before 1800, Volume 1 de South East Asia, Colonial History |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2001 |pages=52–56}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9U-FUPS3DkC]</ref><ref name=Whiteway>{{cite book|last=Whiteway|first=Richard Stephen|title=The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550|publisher=A. Constable|date=1899|location=Westminster|url=https://archive.org/details/riseportuguesep00whitgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/riseportuguesep00whitgoog/page/n353 333]}}</ref><ref>Steven Thomas, {{cite web|url=http://balagan.info/portuguese-in-japan|title=Portuguese in Japan|publisher=Steven's Balagan|access-date=22 May 2015|date=25 April 2006}}</ref> Mu 1564, ngalawa zinkhondi za Spain izo zikanyamula ŵankhondo 379 zikajumpha Pacific kufuma ku Mexico, zakulongozgeka na Miguel López de Legazpi, ndipo zikapoka Philippines na Virwa vya Mariana.<ref name="HendersonDelpar2000">{{cite book|last1=Henderson|first1=James D.|last2=Delpar|first2=Helen|last3=Brungardt|first3=Maurice Philip|author4=Weldon, Richard N.|title=A Reference Guide to Latin American History|url=https://archive.org/details/referenceguideto00hend|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-1-56324-744-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/referenceguideto00hend/page/28 28]}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307">{{cite book|last=Fernandez-Armesto|first=Felipe|title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration|date=2006|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-06259-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305 305–307]|url=https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyakusyala vya m'ma 1500, Spain yikalongozganga ŵankhondo na malonda, na ngalawa izo zikenda kufuma ku Mexico na Peru kujumpha Mbwani ya Pacific kuya ku Philippines kwizira mu Guam. Ngalawa za Manila zikenda kwa vyaka 250, kukoleranya Manila na Acapulco, mu nthowa yimoza ya malonda yitali comene mu mbiri. Maulendo gha Spain ghakafika so ku Tuvalu, Marquesas, Virwa vya Cook, Virwa vya Solomon, Vanuatu, Marshall, na Admiralty mu Pacific ya Kumwera. Pamanyuma, pa kupenja ''Terra Australis'' ("Caro Cikulu ca Kumwera"), maulendo gha Spain mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, nga ni ulendo wa Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, ghakafika ku Pitcairn na Vanuatu, ndipo ghakajumpha Torres Strait pakati pa Australia na New Guinea. Ŵakupenja ŵa Netherlands, awo ŵakazunguliyanga Afilika ya kumwera, nawo ŵakapenjanga na kucita malonda; Willem Janszoon wakaŵa Muulaya wakwamba kufika mu Australia mwakulembeka makola (1606), ndipo Abel Tasman wakafika ku Tasmania na New Zealand mu 1642.<ref>J.P. Sigmond and L.H. Zuiderbaan (1979) ''Dutch Discoveries of Australia''.Rigby Ltd, Australia. pp. 19–30 {{ISBN|0-7270-0800-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Primary Australian History: Book F [B6] Ages 10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6|date=2008|publisher=R.I.C. Publications|isbn=978-1-74126-688-7|page=6}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, Spain yikawonanga Mbwani ya Pacific nga ni nyanja yakujalika ku vyaro vinyake. Nga ni mlomo wekha wakumanyikwa kufuma ku Atlantic, Strait of Magellan nyengo zinyake yikalindikanga na ngalawa za nkhondo kukanizga ngalawa zinyake. Ku mbali ya kumanjiliro, Ŵadachi ŵakaopskanga Philippines ya Spain.<ref name=lytle>{{Citation|last=Lytle Schurz|first=William|title=The Spanish Lake|journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=5|issue=2|date=1922|pages=181–194|jstor=2506024|doi=10.2307/2506024}}</ref> Vyaka vya m'ma 1700 vikawona kwamba kwa kupenja kukulu kwa Ŵarasha mu Alaska na Virwa vya Aleutian, kulongozgeka na Vitus Bering. Spain yikatuma so maulendo ku kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific, kufika ku Cirwa ca Vancouver na Alaska. Ŵafulenci ŵakapenja na kupoka Polynesia, ndipo Ŵabritoni ŵakacita maulendo ghatatu na James Cook ku Pacific ya Kumwera, Australia, Hawaii, na kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto. Mu 1768, Pierre-Antoine Véron wakapima kakwamba mu mbiri usani wa Pacific mwakulunjika.<ref name="Williams2004">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Glyndwr|title=Captain Cook: Explorations And Reassessments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqDHGru-zcIC&pg=PA143|date=2004|publisher=Boydell Press|isbn=978-1-84383-100-6|page=143}}</ref> Ulendo umoza mwa yakwamba ya kupenja kwa kasandiro ukanozgeka na Spain mu ulendo wa Malaspina wa 1789–1794. Ukenda mu vigaŵa vikulu vya Pacific, kufuma ku Cape Horn mpaka ku Alaska, Guam, Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, na Pacific ya Kumwera.<ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307" /> === Ufumu Uphya wa Kuthandazga Mazaza === <gallery mode="packed"> File:Carta universal en que se contiene todo lo que del mundo se ha descubierto fasta agora hizola Diego Ribero cosmographo de su magestad, ano de 1529, en Sevilla.jpg|Ghakupangika mu 1529, mapu gha Diogo Ribeiro ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba kulongora Pacific pafupifupi pa ukulu wake weneco File:A compleat chart of the coast of Asia and America with the great South Sea - R.W. Seale del. et sculp. NYPL465242.tiff|Mapu gha Mbwani ya Pacific pa nyengo ya kupenja kwa Ŵaulaya, {{circa|1754}}. File:Ortelius - Maris Pacifici 1589.jpg|''Maris Pacifici'' ya Ortelius (1589). Limoza mwa mapu ghakwamba ghakusindikizgika agho ghakalongora Mbwani ya Pacific<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-01-093/|title=Library Acquires Copy of 1507 Waldseemüller World Map – News Releases (Library of Congress)|publisher=Loc.gov|access-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref> File:A generall chart of the South Sea ... NYPL481132.tiff|Mapu gha Mbwani ya Pacific pa nyengo ya kupenja kwa Ŵaulaya, {{circa|1702–1707}} </gallery> [[File:Trieste (23 Jan 1960).jpeg|thumb|Ngalawa ya pasi pa maji ''Trieste'' pambere yindanjire mpaka pasi comene pa Mariana Trench, 23 Januwale 1960]] [[File:TahitiDupetitThouars.jpg|thumb|Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars wakutora Tahiti pa 9 Seputembala 1842]] Kukura kwa ufumu wa kuthandazga mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 kukapangiska kuti vyaro vya Ulaya, ndipo pamanyuma Japani na United States, vipoke vigaŵa vinandi vya Oceania. Maulendo gha HMS Beagle mu ma 1830, na Charles Darwin, HMS Challenger mu ma 1870, na ghanyake ghakovwira comene kumanya kwa mbwani.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/charles-darwins-travel-beagle/|title=Charles Darwin's Travels on the HMS Beagle|last=Marty|first=Christoph|work=Scientific American|access-date=23 March 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.interactiveoceans.washington.edu/story/HMS_Challenger|title=The Voyage of HMS Challenger|website=interactiveoceans.washington.edu|access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP9BAAAAYAAJ&q=dab|title=A Synopsis of the Cruise of the U.S.S. "Tuscarora": From the Date of Her Commission to Her Arrival in San Francisco, Cal. Sept. 2d, 1874|date=1874|publisher=Cosmopolitan printing Company|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE0pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101|title=A Physical, Historical, Political, & Descriptive Geography|journal=Nature|volume=22|issue=553|page=95|last=Johnston|first=Keith|date=1881|language=en|bibcode=1880Natur..22Q..95.|doi=10.1038/022095a0 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mu Oceania, France yikaŵa na mazaza ghakulu pamanyuma pa kupanga Tahiti na New Caledonia kuŵa vyaro vyakuvikilirika mu 1842 na 1853.<ref name=Asiapacific>Bernard Eccleston, Michael Dawson. 1998. ''The Asia-Pacific Profile''. Routledge. p. 250.</ref> Pamanyuma pa kuyendera Cirwa ca Easter mu 1875 na 1887, mulongozgi wa ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji wa Chile Policarpo Toro wakadumba na ŵanthu ŵa Rapanui kuti cirwa cinjire mu Chile mu 1888.<ref name="sater">William Sater, ''Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict'', 1990 by the University of Georgia Press, {{ISBN|0-8203-1249-5}}</ref>{{rp|page=53}} Pofika 1900, pafupifupi virwa vyose vya Pacific vikaŵa pasi pa Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japani, na Chile.<ref name=Asiapacific /> Mu 1898 (nkhondo ya Spain na Amerika), United States yikapoka Guam na Philippines kufuma ku Spain.<ref name="TewariAlvarez2008">{{cite book|last1=Tewari|first1=Nita|last2=Alvarez|first2=Alvin N.|title=Asian American Psychology: Current Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8qgAi0LVj8C&pg=PA161|year=2008|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-84169-749-9|page=161}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === Pambere pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose, United States yikayezga kugula panji kuzenga malo gha ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji pa Virwa vya Galápagos. Kukana kwa Ecuador kukovwirika na Chile, iyo nayo yikakhozgeka na Britain na Germany.<ref name="Fischer2008">{{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Ferenc |title=La expansión (1885–1918) del modelo militar alemán y su pervivencia (1919–1933) en América Latina |journal=Revista del CESLA |date=21 April 2008 |volume=11 |pages=135–160 |url=https://www.revistadelcesla.com/index.php/revistadelcesla/article/view/196/193 |access-date=25 February 2021 |trans-title=The expansion (1885–1918) of the German military model and its survival (1919–1933) in Latin America |publisher=University of Warsaw |language=es}}</ref> Umaliro wa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose ukakhozga Japani na United States mu Pacific. Vyaro vya mphepete ya Pacific nga ni Colombia, Ecuador na Peru vikamba kuwona United States nga ni mazaza ghakulu, kanandi vikupempha kuti yovwire mu mphindano.{{sfn|Mares|2001|p=68}} Chile yikayezga kususka kukhwaska kwa United States.{{sfn|Mares|2001|p=69}} Phangano la ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji la Washington la 1921 likakolerana na vyakufumapo vinandi mu Pacific, kusazgapo umaliro wa ubwezi wa Ŵangelezi na Ŵajapani.<ref>{{Citation | last = Howarth | first = Stephen | title = The Fighting Ships of the Rising Sun | publisher = Atheneum | year = 1983 | isbn = 978-0-689-11402-1 |page=167}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Nish |first=Ian H. |title=Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23 |location=London |publisher=The Athlone Press |date=1972 |page=334 |isbn=0-485-13133-1 }}</ref> Ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa Britain ŵakafuma so mu Pacific ya Kumwera mu caka cenecico, ndipo ici cikanozga ubwezi wa kale wa Britain, Chile, ndipo cikasazgira kukhwaska kwa United States mu Amerika.<ref name=Sater91>{{Cite book |title=Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict |last=Sater |first=William F. |publisher=The University of Geargia Press |year=1990 |location=Athens and London |pages=91}}</ref><ref name=Sater91/>{{sfn|Mares|2001|p=65}} Japani yikapoka virwa vinandi vya Pacific mu Nkhondo ya Pacific (1941–1945); kweni pakumalira kwa nkhondo, Japani yikatondeka, ndipo ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa U.S. ŵakaŵa ŵaneco ŵa mbwani. Virwa vya Mariana ya Kumpoto ivyo vikalongozgekanga na Japani vikanjira pasi pa United States.<ref>''The Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Political Union With the United States of America'', Pub. L. 94–241, 90 Stat. 263</ref> Kufuma umaliro wa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, vyaro vinandi vya kale vya ŵakoloni mu Pacific vyaŵa vyakujilongozga. == Malo == [[File:Iss007e10807.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Zuŵa likunjira pacanya pa Mbwani ya Pacific nga umo likuwonekera kufuma ku International Space Station. Pacanya pa maŵingu gha vula ya mphezi napo pakuwoneka.]] [[File:Pacific Basin Island Geography.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Kaŵikiro ka virwa mu Mbwani ya Pacific]] [[File:Pacific Culture Areas.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Vigaŵa vitatu vikulu vya midawuko vya virwa vya Mbwani ya Pacific: Micronesia, Melanesia na Polynesia]] Pacific yikupatula Asiya na Australia kufuma ku Amerika. Yingagaŵika na mzere wapakati mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto (Pacific ya Kumpoto) na ca kumwera (Pacific ya Kumwera). Yikufuma ku cigaŵa ca Antarctica kumwera mpaka ku Arctic kumpoto.<ref name=ebc /> Mbwani ya Pacific yikuphimba pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vitatu ca caro capasi, makilomita gha mbali zinayi 165,250,000, kuluska mtunda wose wa caro capasi pamoza.<ref name="ebc" /><ref>[http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/DanielChen.shtml "Area of Earth's Land Surface"], ''The Physics Factbook''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Yitali makilomita pafupifupi 15,600 kufuma ku Nyanja ya Bering mu Arctic mpaka ku Mbwani ya Kumwera, Pacific yili yisani comene pafupifupi pa makona 5 kumpoto, uko yikufika makilomita pafupifupi 19,800 kufuma ku Indonesia mpaka ku mphepete ya Colombia, hafu ya kuzunguliya caro capasi, kujumpha kankhondi ukulu wa mwezi.<ref name="Nuttall2005">{{cite book|last=Nuttall|first=Mark|title=Encyclopedia of the Arctic: A–F|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcucDSk4w3YC&pg=PA1461|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-436-8|page=1461}}</ref> Pakati pake pa malo pali ku kumafumiro kwa Kiribati.<ref>{{cite web | title=International Journal of Oceans and Oceanography, Volume 15 Number 1, 2021, Determining the Areas and Geographical Centers of Pacific Ocean and its Northern and Southern Halves, pp 25–31, Arjun Tan| website=Research India Publications| url=https://www.ripublication.com/Volume/ijoov15n1.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804032647/https://ripublication.com/Volume/ijoov15n1.htm | url-status=usurped | archive-date=4 August 2021 | ref={{sfnref}} | access-date=18 July 2022}}</ref> Malo ghapasi comene ghakumanyikwa pa caro capasi, Mariana Trench, ghali mamita 10,911 pasi pa maji gha mbwani. Kuzika kwapakati ni mamita 4,280, ntheura maji ghose ngakwana makilomita gha mbali zitatu pafupifupi 710,000,000.<ref name=ebc /> Cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, Mbwani ya Pacific sono yikucepa na masentimita pafupifupi 2.5 pa caka ku mbali zitatu. Kweni Mbwani ya Atlantic yikukura.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.bucknell.edu/x17758.xml |title = Plate Tectonics |publisher = Bucknell University |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140225224202/http://www.bucknell.edu/x17758.xml |archive-date = 25 February 2014 |access-date = 9 June 2013 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Young2009">{{cite book|last=Young|first=Greg|title=Plate Tectonics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqTxe74R5LwC&pg=PT9|date=2009|publisher=Capstone|isbn=978-0-7565-4232-0|page=9}}</ref> Mu mphepete za kumanjiliro za Pacific pali nyanja zinandi, zikulu comene ni Nyanja ya Celebes, Nyanja ya Korali, Nyanja ya China ya Kumafumiro, Nyanja ya Philippines, Nyanja ya Japani, Nyanja ya China ya Kumwera, Nyanja ya Sulu, Nyanja ya Tasman, na Nyanja ya Cikasu. Nthowa za maji za Indonesia (kusazgapo Strait of Malacca na Torres Strait) zikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya India kumanjiliro, ndipo Drake Passage na Strait of Magellan zikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya Atlantic kumafumiro. Kumpoto, Bering Strait yikukoleranya Pacific na Mbwani ya Arctic.<ref name="Organization1953">{{cite journal|author=International Hydrographic Organization|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas|journal=Nature|volume=172|issue=4376|page=484|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wD0dAQAAIAAJ|date=1953|bibcode=1953Natur.172R.484.|doi=10.1038/172484b0 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pakuti Pacific yikujumpha mzere wa makona 180, Pacific ya Kumanjiliro (pafupi na Asiya) yili mu cigaŵa ca kumafumiro ca caro capasi, apo Pacific ya Kumafumiro (pafupi na Amerika) yili mu cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro.<ref name="Lydia">{{cite book|author-last1=Agno|author-first1= Lydia|title=Basic Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HofX9zL4YQEC&pg=PA25|date=1998|publisher=Goodwill Trading Co., Inc.|isbn=978-971-11-0165-7|page=25}}</ref> Pacific ya Kumwera yili na mapiri gha pasi pa maji agho ghakufuma kumwera kwa Australia kuya pakati pa Pacific na Antarctica, ndipo ghakukolerana na ghanyake kupanga East Pacific Rise. Pa ulendo unandi wa Magellan kufuma ku Strait of Magellan kuya ku Philippines, mukupenja wakasanga mbwani nadi yamtendere; kweni Pacific njamtendere nyengo zose yayi. Mphepo zikulu zinandi za ku tropiki zikutimba virwa vya Pacific.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437703/Pacific-Ocean/36086/The-trade-winds "Pacific Ocean: The trade winds"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Mitunda ya kuzunguliya Pacific yili na mapiri gha moto ghanandi ndipo kanandi yikuŵa na cindindindi. Mayigha ghakulu agho ghakufuma ku cindindindi ca pasi pa maji ghananga virwa vinandi, ndipo nyengo zinyake ghananga misumba yose.<ref name="Bryant2008">{{cite book|last=Bryant|first=Edward|title=Tsunami: The Underrated Hazard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lvl6i7r2CcC&pg=PR26|date=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-74274-6|page=26}}</ref> Mapu gha Martin Waldseemüller gha 1507 ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba kulongora Amerika ikupatula mbwani ziŵiri.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Map That Named America|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0309/maps.html|website=loc.gov|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> Pamanyuma, mapu gha Diogo Ribeiro gha 1529 ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba kulongora Pacific pafupifupi pa ukulu wake wakwenelera.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ribero|first=Diego|title=Carta universal en que se contiene todo lo que del mundo se ha descubierto fasta agora / hizola Diego Ribero cosmographo de su magestad, ano de 1529, e[n] Sevilla|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-230692844|publisher=W. Griggs|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> === Vyaro vya Mphepete === [[File:Map of the Territorial Waters of the Pacific Ocean.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Mapu gha vigaŵa vya mbwani ivyo caro cilicose cili na wanangwa wa kugwiliskira ntchito cuma cake (EEZ) mu Pacific]] Vyaro vinandi vya Asiya, Oceania, na Amerika vili mu mphepete ya Mbwani ya Pacific, kusazgapo Russia, Japani, China, Korea, Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, vyaro vya virwa vya Pacific, Canada, United States, Mexico, vyaro vya Amerika Yapakati, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, na Chile. === Mitunda na Virwa === [[File:South Tarawa from the air.jpg|thumb|Tarawa Atoll mu Kiribati]] Mbwani ya Pacific yili na virwa vinandi comene vya caro capasi. Pali virwa pafupifupi 25,000 mu Mbwani ya Pacific.<ref>{{cite web|last1=K|first1=Harsh|title=This ocean has most of the islands in the world|url=http://mysticalroads.com/pacific-ocean-facts/|website=Mysticalroads|access-date=6 April 2017|date=19 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802153519/http://mysticalroads.com/pacific-ocean-facts/|archive-date=2 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ishihara|first1=Masahide|last2=Hoshino|first2=Eiichi|last3=Fujita|first3=Yoko|title=Self-determinable Development of Small Islands|date=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-981-10-0132-1|page=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hNkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|last2=Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council|title=Toward an Ecosystem Approach for the Western Pacific Region: from Species-based Fishery Management Plans to Place-based Fishery Ecosystem Plans: Environmental Impact Statement|date=2009|publisher=Northwestern University|location=Evanston, IL|page=60|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Tw3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA60|language=en|author2-link=Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council}}</ref> Virwa ivyo vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific pera vingagaŵika mu magulu ghatatu ghakulu: Micronesia, Melanesia na Polynesia. Micronesia, iyo yili kumpoto kwa mzere wapakati na kumanjiliro kwa Mzere wa Mazuŵa, yikusazgapo Virwa vya Mariana kumpoto-kumanjiliro, Virwa vya Caroline pakati, Virwa vya Marshall kumafumiro, na virwa vya Kiribati kumwera-kumafumiro.<ref name="AAE">{{cite book|title=Academic American encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ|date=1997|publisher=Grolier Incorporated|isbn=978-0-7172-2068-7|page=8}}</ref><ref name="LalFortune2000p63">{{cite book|last1=Lal|first1=Brij Vilash|last2=Fortune|first2=Kate|title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63|date=2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1|page=63}}</ref> Melanesia, ku kumwera-kumanjiliro, yikusazgapo New Guinea, cirwa caciŵiri pa ukulu pa caro cose pamanyuma pa Greenland, ndipo cikulu comene pa virwa vya Pacific. Magulu ghanyake ghakulu gha Melanesia kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera ni virwa vya Bismarck, Virwa vya Solomon, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji na New Caledonia.<ref name="West2009">{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7|page=521}}</ref> Cigaŵa cikulu comene, Polynesia, kufuma ku Hawaii kumpoto mpaka ku New Zealand kumwera, cikusazgapo so Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga na Virwa vya Kermadec kumanjiliro, Virwa vya Cook, Society na Austral pakati, na Virwa vya Marquesas, Tuamotu, Mangareva, na Cirwa ca Easter kumafumiro.<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996">{{cite book|last1=Dunford|first1=Betty|last2=Ridgell|first2=Reilly|title=Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC|date=1996|publisher=Bess Press|isbn=978-1-57306-022-6|page=125}}</ref> Virwa mu Mbwani ya Pacific vili na mitundu yinayi: virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, virwa vitali, malibwe gha korali, na malibwe gha korali ghakukwezgeka. Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vili kuwaro kwa mzere wa ''andesite'' ndipo vikusazgapo New Guinea, virwa vya New Zealand, na Philippines. Virwa vinyake ivi vikukolerana na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vya pafupi. Virwa vitali vikafuma ku mapiri gha moto, ndipo vinandi vili na mapiri gha moto ghamoyo. Mwa ivi muli Bougainville, Hawaii, na Virwa vya Solomon.<ref name="GillespieClague2009">{{cite book|last1=Gillespie|first1=Rosemary G.|last2=Clague|first2=David A.|title=Encyclopedia of Islands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706|date=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25649-1|page=706}}</ref> Malibwe gha korali gha Pacific ya Kumwera ni vigaŵa vyapasi ivyo vyakura pacanya pa mwala wakusungunuka pasi pa maji gha mbwani. Cimoza mwa vyakuzizwiska comene ni Great Barrier Reef pafupi na kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Australia. Mtundu waciŵiri wa cirwa ca korali ni malibwe gha korali ghakukwezgeka, agho kanandi ngakulu pacoko kuluska virwa vya korali vyapasi. Viyelezgero ni Banaba na Makatea.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island "Coral island"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm |title =Nauru|website = Charting the Pacific|publisher = ABC Radio Australia|date = 2005}}</ref> == Vimanyikwiro vya Maji == <gallery widths="180px" heights="120px"> File:Ladrilleros Beach Colombia.jpg|Mphepete ya mbwani ya Ladrilleros mu Colombia, mu cigaŵa ca Chocó File:Tahuna maru islet Raroia.jpg|Kacirwa ka Tahuna maru, French Polynesia File:Los Molinos.JPG|Los Molinos pa mphepete ya mbwani ya kumwera kwa Chile </gallery> [[File:Sunset Marina.JPG|thumb|Zuŵa likunjira mu Monterey County, California, U.S.]] Maji gha Mbwani ya Pacific, pafupifupi magaŵa 50.1 pa 100 gha maji gha mbwani zose za caro capasi, ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa makilomita gha mbali zitatu pafupifupi miliyoni 714.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwlf.org/pacific.htm |title=PWLF.org – The Pacific WildLife Foundation – The Pacific Ocean |access-date=23 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421015555/http://www.pwlf.org/pacific.htm |archive-date=21 April 2012 }}</ref> Kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya mu Pacific kungasintha kufuma −1.4 °C, apo maji gha mbwani ghakukhwimira, ku vigaŵa vya mphaka mpaka pafupifupi 30 °C pafupi na mzere wapakati.<ref name="Mongillo2000">{{cite book|last=Mongillo|first=John F.|title=Encyclopedia of Environmental Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozAN5vLbssgC&pg=PA255|date=2000|publisher=University Rochester Press|isbn=978-1-57356-147-1|page=255}}</ref> Mcere nawo ukusintha kuyana na malo, kufika pa magaŵa 37 pa 1,000 ku kumwera-kumafumiro. Maji pafupi na mzere wapakati, agho ghangaŵa na mcere wa magaŵa 34 pa 1,000 pera, ngambura mcere unandi kuluska gha vigaŵa vyapakati cifukwa ca vula yinandi caka cose. Mcere ucoko comene, pasi pa magaŵa 32 pa 1,000, ukusangika kumpoto comene cifukwa maji ghacoko ghakufumbuka mu malo ghakuzizima agha.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437703/Pacific-Ocean/36092/Salinity "Pacific Ocean: Salinity"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Kwenda kwa maji gha Pacific kanandi nkhwa kuzunguliya nga ni cipimanyengo mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto na kwakususkana mu cigaŵa ca kumwera. Kwenda kwa maji kwa North Equatorial Current, uko kukukankhika kumanjiliro na mphepo za malonda, kukuzgokera kumpoto pafupi na Philippines kuŵa kwenda kwa maji ghakufunda kwa Kuroshio.<ref>[http://oceanmotion.org/html/background/equatorial-currents.htm "Wind Driven Surface Currents: Equatorial Currents Background"], Ocean Motion. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Kuzgokera kumafumiro pafupifupi pa makona 45 kumpoto, Kuroshio yikugaŵika ndipo maji ghanyake ghakwenda kumpoto nga ni Aleutian Current, apo ghanyake ghakuzgokera kumwera kuwelera ku North Equatorial Current.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/325346/Kuroshio "Kuroshio"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Aleutian Current yikugaŵika apo yikuza pafupi na Amerika ya Kumpoto, ndipo cigaŵa cake ca kumwera cikuŵa California Current yakuzizima iyo yikwenda pacoko kumwera. South Equatorial Current, iyo yikwenda kumanjiliro pa mzere wapakati, yikuzgokera kumwera kumafumiro kwa New Guinea, yikuzgokera kumafumiro pafupifupi pa makona 50 kumwera, ndipo yikunjira mu kwenda kukulu kwa Pacific ya Kumwera, kusazgapo kwenda kwa maji kwa Antarctic uko kukuzunguliya caro cose.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13933/Aleutian-Current "Aleutian Current"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> Apo yikuza pafupi na mphepete ya Chile, yikugaŵika; cigaŵa cimoza cikwenda kuzunguliya Cape Horn ndipo cinyake cikuzgokera kumpoto kupanga Humboldt Current.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437770/Pacific-South-Equatorial-Current "South Equatorial Current"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 June 2013.</ref> == Nyengo == [[File:El nino north american weather.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Umo El Niño na La Niña vikukhwaskira Amerika ya Kumpoto]] [[File:Tip 1979-10-12 0533Z.png|thumb|Cimphepo ca Tip apo cikaŵa ca nkhongono comene pa 12 Okutobala 1979]] Nyengo za cigaŵa ca kumpoto na ca kumwera kanandi zikuyana. Mphepo za malonda za kumwera na kumafumiro kwa Pacific nzakukhazikika comene apo nyengo ya Pacific ya Kumpoto yikupambana comene; mwaciyelezgero, kuzizima kwa nyengo ya kuzizima mu mphepete ya kumafumiro kwa Russia kukupambana na nyengo yakupepuka ya British Columbia cifukwa ca kwenda kwa maji gha mbwani.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437703/Pacific-Ocean/36083/Islands#toc36085 "Pacific Ocean: Islands"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 June 2013.</ref> Mu Pacific ya ku tropiki na pafupi na tropiki, El Niño na La Niña vikukhwaska nyengo. Kuti ŵamanye nyengo iyo yilipo, kufunda kwapakati kwa maji gha pacanya kwa myezi yitatu yaumaliro mu cigaŵa ca makilomita pafupifupi 3,000 kumwera-kumafumiro kwa Hawaii kukupimika, ndipo usange cigaŵa ici cili pacanya panji pasi pa kufunda kwa nyengo zose na kujumpha 0.5 °C, El Niño panji La Niña yikuwonekera kuŵa yikucitika.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf|title=ENSO: Recent Evolution, Current Status and Predictions|pages=5, 19–20|author=Climate Prediction Center |author-link=Climate Prediction Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=30 June 2014|access-date=30 June 2014}}</ref> Mu Lupya 2025, NOAA yikati kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya gha mbwani za caro cose kukaŵa pafupi na mbiri, ndipo Zizima mpaka Mpupulu 2025 yikaŵa nyengo yacitatu pa kufunda mu vyaka 176 vya malemba.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2025 |title=Assessing the Global Climate in August 2025 |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/global-climate-202508 |access-date=2025-10-02 |publisher=NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> Mu Pacific ya kumanjiliro ya ku tropiki, vula ya nyengo ya kufunda yikupambana na mphepo zakomira mu nyengo ya kuzizima izo zikufuma ku Asiya.<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (2009). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon&submit=Search Monsoon.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322122025/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon&submit=Search |date=22 March 2008 }} American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.</ref> Pa caro cose, vimphepo vya ku tropiki vikuŵa vinandi pakumalira kwa nyengo ya kufunda. Pacific yili na vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vili na vimphepo vya ku tropiki vinandi comene: kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific na kumafumiro kwa Pacific.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season?|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=25 July 2006|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html|author1 = Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory – Hurricane Research Division|author-link1=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory}}</ref> Mphepo zikulu za Pacific zikupangika kumwera kwa Mexico, nyengo zinyake zikutimba mphepete ya Mexico, pakati pa Zizima na Thukila, apo izo zikupangika kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Pacific zikwenda ku Asiya kufuma Vula mpaka Zimya. Mphepo zikulu za ku tropiki zikupangika so mu Pacific ya Kumwera, uko nyengo zinyake zikukhwaska vyaro vya virwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chand |first1=Savin S. |last2=Dowdy |first2=Andrew |last3=Bell |first3=Samuel |last4=Tory |first4=Kevin |title=Climate Change and Impacts in the Pacific |chapter=A Review of South Pacific Tropical Cyclones: Impacts of Natural Climate Variability and Climate Change |series=Springer Climate |date=2020 |pages=251–273 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-32878-8_6 |isbn=978-3-030-32877-1 }}</ref> Mu Arctic, cikakato kufuma Thukila mpaka Vula cingaŵa ngozi ku ngalawa, apo nyathutwe wa nyengo zose ukuŵako kufuma Zizima mpaka Zimya.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20260115154309/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/pacific-ocean/ "Pacific Ocean"], ''World Factbook'', CIA. Retrieved 13 June 2013.</ref> Mphepo za kumanjiliro zingaŵa zankhongono comene, comene mu cigaŵa ca kumwera, cifukwa ca kupambana kwa kufunda pakati pa tropiki na Antarctica.<ref name="Stimac">John P. Stimac. [http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/pressure_wind.html Air pressure and wind.] Retrieved on 8 May 2008.</ref> Mu cigaŵa ca kumwera, cifukwa ca vimphepo na maŵingu, mphepo izi zikuchemeka "Makumi Ghanayi Ghakubangula", "Makumi Ghankhondi Ghakukwiya", na "Makumi Ghankhondi na Limoza Ghakulira", kuyana na makona.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Stuart|title=The sailor's wind |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/sailorswind00walk/page/91 91]|isbn=978-0-393-04555-0|url=https://archive.org/details/sailorswind00walk|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Pasi == [[File:Pacific Ring of Fire.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|Mzingo wa Moto; Pacific yazingilizgika na mapiri ghanandi gha moto na malo ghakuzika comene pasi pa mbwani. Mapu agha ghakulongora yayi Cascadia, kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto, uko malo ghake ghakuzika ghabisika ghose pasi pa dongo.]] [[File:Ulawun.jpg|thumb|Phiri la moto la Ulawun pa cirwa ca New Britain mu Papua New Guinea]] [[File:Mount Saint Helens, June 2020.jpg|thumb|Phiri la St. Helens mu Skamania County, Washington, U.S. mu 2020]] Mbwani yikapangika mapu dankha na Abraham Ortelius; wakayichema ''Maris Pacifici'' kuyana na malongosoro gha Magellan gha "nyanja ya mtendere".<ref name="Library2006">{{cite book|author-last1=Turnbull|author-first1= Alexander |title=Map New Zealand: 100 Magnificent Maps from the Collection of the Alexander Turnbull Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=227gAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Godwit|isbn=978-1-86962-126-1|page=8}}</ref> Mzere wa ''andesite'' ndiwo kupambana kukulu comene mu Pacific. Ni mphaka ya malibwe iyo yikupatula malibwe ghakuzika gha dimba la pakati la Pacific na vigaŵa vya mtunda ivyo vyabira pacoko mu mphepete.<ref name="TrentHazlett2010">{{cite book|last1=Trent|first1=D. D.|last2=Hazlett|first2=Richard|last3=Bierman|first3=Paul|title=Geology and the Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TbGOhr9Po9IC&pg=PA133|date=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-538-73755-5|page=133}}</ref> Mzere uwu ukulondezga mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya virwa pafupi na California, ukujumpha kumwera kwa Aleutian, mu mphepete ya kumafumiro ya Kamchatka, Virwa vya Kuril, Japani, Virwa vya Mariana, Virwa vya Solomon, na Cirwa ca Kumpoto ca New Zealand.<ref name="LalFortune2000p4">{{cite book|last1=Lal|first1=Brij Vilash|last2=Fortune|first2=Kate|title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA4|year=2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1|page=4}}</ref><ref name="Mueller-Dombois1998">{{cite book|last=Mueller-Dombois|first=Dieter|title=Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UB5d33i8WkC&pg=PA13|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-98313-4|page=13}}</ref> Kupambana uku kukulutilira kumpoto-kumafumiro mu mphepete ya kumanjiliro ya mapiri gha Andes kufuma ku Amerika ya Kumwera mpaka ku Mexico. Indonesia, Philippines, Japani, New Guinea, na New Zealand vili kuwaro kwa mzere uwu. Mukati mwa mzere uwu muli maboŵa ghakuzika, mapiri gha moto gha pasi pa maji, na virwa vya mapiri gha moto ivyo vikumanyiska dimba la Pacific. Apa mwala wakusungunuka ukufuma pacoko pacoko mu mphanyiko kuzenga mapiri ghakulu gha moto. Kuwaro kwa mzere uwu, mapiri gha moto ngakuphulika, ndipo Mphete ya Moto ya Pacific ndiyo lamba likulu comene la mapiri gha moto ghakuphulika pa caro cose.<ref name="AAE" /> Likuthyika zina la mapiri gha moto ghamoyo mahandiredi agho ghali pacanya pa malo agho vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vikunjirana. Mbwani ya Pacific ndiyo mbwani yekha iyo yazingilizgika comene na malo agho vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi vikunjirana. === Mbiri ya Kapangikiro === Mbwani ya Pacific yikapangika vyaka miliyoni 750 ivyo vyajumpha apo cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Rodinia cikaphwanyika, nangauli kanandi yikuchemeka Panthalassa mpaka Pangea yikaphwanyika, pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 200 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="geol.umd.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G102/102prot2.htm |title=GEOL 102 The Proterozoic Eon II: Rodinia and Pannotia |publisher=Geol.umd.edu |date=5 January 2010 |access-date=31 October 2010}}</ref> Pasi pa Pacific pa kale comene ndi pa vyaka miliyoni pafupifupi 180 pera, cifukwa cikopa ca kale canjira pasi.<ref name="MussettKhan2000">{{cite book|last1=Mussett|first1=Alan E.|last2=Khan|first2=M. Aftab|title=Looking into the Earth: An Introduction to Geological Geophysics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzJLiPjHvCQC&pg=PA332|year= 2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78574-7|page=332}}</ref> === Minjololo ya Mapiri gha Pasi pa Maji === Mbwani ya Pacific yili na minjololo yitali ya mapiri gha pasi pa maji, iyo yikapangika na mapiri gha moto gha malo ghakotcha. Iyi yikusazgapo mnjololo wa Hawaii–Emperor na Louisville Ridge. == Vyacuma == Kugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya pasi vya Pacific kukusuzgika na kuzika kukulu kwa mbwani. Mu maji ghambura kuzika gha mphepete za Australia na New Zealand, mafuta na mphepo za pasi vikufumyika, ndipo ngale zikuwunjikika mu mphepete za Australia, Japani, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, na Philippines, nangauli unandi wacepa comene mu malo ghanyake.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437703/Pacific-Ocean/36099/Fisheries "Pacific Ocean: Fisheries"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 12 June 2013.</ref> === Kulowa Somba === Somba ni cuma cakuzirwa mu Pacific. Maji ghambura kuzika gha mphepete na virwa ghakupeleka ''herring'', ''salmon'', ''sardine'', ''swordfish'', na ''tuna'', na somba za vikoko.<ref>[https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/places/other/oceans-continents/pacific-ocean/commerce-and-shipping "Pacific Ocean: Commerce and Shipping"], ''The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia'', 6th edition. Retrieved 14 June 2013.</ref> Kulowa comene kwaŵa suzgo likulu mu malo ghanyake, ndipo kukupangiska kucepa kwa somba na kujalika kwa malo gha kulowa, uko kukukhwaska vyacuma na malo gha vyamoyo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burgess |first=Matthew G |date=16 September 2013 |title=Predicting overfishing and extinction threats in multispecies fisheries |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=40 |pages=15943–15948 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1314472110 |doi-access=free |pmid=24043810 |pmc=3791778 |bibcode=2013PNAS..11015943B }}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, somba izo zikuloweka mu Nyanja ya Okhotsk zacepa na hafu panji kujumpha kufuma mu ma 1990 cifukwa ca kulowa comene.<ref>[http://centerforoceansolutions.org/?q=projects/pacific-ocean-initiative/major-threats-pacific-ocean/overfishing-and-exploitation "Pacific Ocean Threats & Impacts: Overfishing and Exploitation"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512140621/http://www.centerforoceansolutions.org/?q=projects%2Fpacific-ocean-initiative%2Fmajor-threats-pacific-ocean%2Foverfishing-and-exploitation|date=12 May 2013}}, Center for Ocean Solutions. Retrieved 14 June 2013.</ref> == Malo Ghakuzingilizga == [[File:Pacific-garbage-patch-map 2010 noaamdp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kwenda kwa maji mu Mbwani ya Pacific kwapanga virwa vitatu vya vyakutaya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/movement/great-pacific-garbage-patch|title=Great Pacific Garbage Patch|website=Marine Debris Division – Office of Response and Restoration|publisher=NOAA|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417124654/https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/movement/great-pacific-garbage-patch|archive-date=17 April 2014|date=11 July 2013}}</ref>]] [[File:Marine debris on Hawaiian coast.jpg|thumb|Vyakutaya vya mu mbwani pa mphepete ya Hawaii mu 2008]] Pacific ya kumpoto-kumanjiliro njakunangika comene na tuvigaŵa tucoko twa pulasitiki cifukwa yili pafupi na vyaro vya ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni Japani na China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Zhong |last2=Liu |first2=Qianlong |last3=Sun |first3=Yan |last4=Sun |first4=Xiuwu |last5=Lin |first5=Hui |title=Environmental implications of microplastic pollution in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=September 2019 |volume=146 |pages=215–224 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.06.031 |pmid=31426149 |bibcode=2019MarPB.146..215P }}</ref> Unandi wa tuvigaŵa tucoko twa pulasitiki mu Pacific ya kumpoto-kumafumiro ukasazgikira kahandiredi pakati pa 1972 na 2012. Malo ghakukura gha vyakutaya pakati pa California na Japani ngakulu katatu nga ni France.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18099937 Plastic waste in the North Pacific is an ongoing concern] BBC 9 May 2012</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Great Pacific Garbage Patch' is massive floating island of plastic, now 3 times the size of France|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/great-pacific-garbage-patch-massive-floating-island-plastic/story?id=53962147|publisher=ABC News|location=United States|date=23 March 2018}}</ref> Matani pafupifupi 80,000 gha pulasitiki ghali kuko, vigaŵa trilioni 1.8.<ref>{{cite news|title='Great Pacific garbage patch' 16 times bigger than previously thought, say scientists|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/great-pacific-garbage-patch-plastic-pollution-oceans-environment-fish-a8269951.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/great-pacific-garbage-patch-plastic-pollution-oceans-environment-fish-a8269951.html |archive-date=24 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Independent|date=23 March 2018}}</ref> Kunanga mbwani ni kunjira kwiheni kwa vinthu vya usungunu panji tuvinthu mu mbwani. Ŵakunanga ŵakulu ni awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito milonga kutaya vyakusyala vyawo.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/09/photos-giant-ocean-trash-vortex-documented-a-first|title=Photos: Giant Ocean-Trash Vortex Documented – A First|first=Brian|last=Handwerk|publisher=National Geographic|date=4 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119153734/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/09/photogalleries/pacific-garbage-patch-pictures/|archive-date=19 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Milonga yikuthira mu mbwani, kanandi pamoza na feteleza wa ulimi. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikucepeska okisijeni mu maji vikupangiska malo ghambura okisijeni umo vyamoyo vingakhala yayi.<ref>{{cite book|last = Gerlach|first = Sebastian A.|title = Marine Pollution|publisher= Springer|location = Berlin |date =1975|language = de}}</ref> Vyakutaya vya mu mbwani ni vyakutaya vyakupangika na ŵanthu ivyo vikuyandama mu nyanja, mbwani, panji milonga. Vikuwunjikana pakati pa kwenda kwa maji kwa cizungulizgo na mu mphepete.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com" /> Kweniso, Mbwani ya Pacific yaŵa malo agho ma''satellite'' ghakuwira, kusazgapo Mars 96 na Fobos-Grunt. === Vyakusyala vya Nyukiliya === [[File:20200926fukushima01.jpg|thumb|Mu 2020, Nduna Yikulu ya Japani, Suga, wakakana kumwa botolo la maji gha nyukiliya ghakutozgeka gha ku Fukushima ilo wakakora, agho ghakwenera kuthiliskika mu Pacific.<ref name="Asahi Shimbun 20201103">{{cite news|title=原発の処理水、菅首相「飲んでもいい?」 東電の説明は|trans-title=Prime Minister Suga asks if the treated radioactive water is drinkable. Here is TEPCO's response|newspaper=The Asahi Shimbun|date=3 November 2020|last=大月規義|url=https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASNC255HSNBZULZU00G.html}}</ref>]] Kufuma 1946 mpaka 1958, Virwa vya Marshall vikaŵa malo gha kuyezgera vilwero vya nyukiliya vya United States, ndipo kuyezga 67 kukacitika pa ma''atoll'' ghakupambana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/325643/marshall-islands-marks-71-years-since-start-of-us-nuclear-tests-on-bikini|title=Marshall Islands marks 71 years since start of US nuclear tests on Bikini|date=1 March 2017|website=Radio New Zealand|language=en-nz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Renee|last=Lewis|title=Bikinians evacuated 'for good of mankind' endure lengthy nuclear fallout|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/7/28/bikini-nuclear-test-survivors-demand-compensation.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=28 July 2015}}</ref> Vilwero vinyake vya nyukiliya vikataika mu Mbwani ya Pacific, kusazgapo cimoza ca nkhongono yikulu ico cikataika mu Nyanja ya Philippines mu 1965.<ref>{{cite news|last=Thaler|first=Andrew David|title=How many nuclear weapons are at the bottom of the sea. An (almost certainly incomplete) census of broken arrows over water.|url=http://www.southernfriedscience.com/how-many-nuclear-weapons-are-at-the-bottom-of-the-sea-an-almost-certainly-incomplete-census-of-broken-arrows-over-water/|publisher=Southern Fried Science|date=26 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. discloses accidents involving nuclear weapons|first=Richard|last=Halloran|newspaper=The New York Times|date=26 May 1981|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/26/us/us-discloses-accidents-involving-nuclear-weapons.html}}</ref> Mu 2021, ulongozgi wa Japani ukazomerezga kuthira maji gha nyukiliya kufuma ku nyumba ya nyukiliya ya Fukushima mu Mbwani ya Pacific mu vyaka 30. Ulongozgi ukati maji ghazamuŵa ghakusazganika mpaka kuŵa ghakumwa.<ref name="BBC 20210413">{{cite news|title=Fukushima: Japan approves releasing wastewater into ocean|publisher=BBC|date=13 April 2021|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56728068}}</ref> Kupatula kuthira uku, kuvuza kwa ''tritium'' mu Pacific kukaghanaghanirika kuŵa kukulu kufuma 2011 mpaka 2013.<ref name="Scientific American 20130813">{{cite news|title=Radioactive Water Leaks from Fukushima: What We Know|newspaper=Scientific American|date=13 August 2013|last=Hsu|first=Jeremy|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/radioactive-water-leaks-from-fukushima/}}</ref> === Kukumba Migodi pasi pa Mbwani === Ngozi yiphya ku Mbwani ya Pacific ni kukumba migodi pasi pa mbwani. Kukumba uku kukukhumba kufumya mpira ya ''manganese'' iyo yili na vyuma nga ni magnesiyamu, nickel, mkuŵa, zinki na cobalt. Vyuma vinandi comene vili mu Mbwani ya Pacific pakati pa Mexico na Hawaii. Kukumba uku kukuwoneka kuŵa na vyakufumapo viheni comene ku mbwani. Kukusokonezga malo gha vyamoyo gha pasi pa mbwani ndipo kungananga malo agha kwa muyirayira.<ref name="Halfar2007">{{cite journal |last1=Halfar |first1=Jochen |last2=Fujita |first2=Rodney M. |title=Danger of Deep-Sea Mining |journal=Science |date=18 May 2007 |volume=316 |issue=5827 |pages=987–987 |doi=10.1126/science.1138289 |pmid=17510349 }}<!-- auto-translated from Dutch by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Kusambasamba kwa dongo na kunanga na vinthu vya usungunu vikuopska vinyama vinandi vya mu mbwani. Kweniso, kukumba kungafumiska mphepo zakusunga kufunda na kusazgira kusintha kwa nyengo. Ntheura kukanizga kukumba uku nkhwakuzirwa kuti mbwani yikhale makola kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite web|archive-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603005737/http://www.deepseaminingoutofourdepth.org/impacts-of-mining-deep-sea-polymetallic-nodules-in-the-pacific|url=http://www.deepseaminingoutofourdepth.org/impacts-of-mining-deep-sea-polymetallic-nodules-in-the-pacific/|title=Impacts of mining deep sea polymetallic nodules in the Pacific Ocean &#124; Deep Sea Mining: Out of Our Depth|work=Deep Sea Mining: Out Of Our Depth |date=19 May 2020 }}</ref> == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === * {{Cite book|last=Barkley|first=Richard A.|title=Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific Ocean|date=1968|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu}} * {{Cite book|title=Blue Horizons: Paradise Isles of the Pacific|date=1985|publisher=National Geographic Society|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-87044-544-6|author=prepared by the Special Publications Division, National Geographic Society.}} * {{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Ian|title=Lost Paradise: The Exploration of the Pacific|date=1987|publisher=Salem House|location=Topsfield, MA|isbn=978-0-88162-275-1|url=https://archive.org/details/lostparadiseexpl00came}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Couper|editor-first=A.D. |title=Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands|year=1989|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-00917-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Gilbert|first=John|title=Charting the Vast Pacific|year=1971|publisher=Aldus|location=London|isbn=978-0-490-00226-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Igler|first=David|title=The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-991495-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Lower|first=J. Arthur|title=Ocean of Destiny: A Concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978|date=1978|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver|isbn=978-0-7748-0101-0|url=https://archive.org/details/oceanofdestinyco0000lowe}} * {{cite book |last=Mares |first=D.R. |title=Violent peace: Militarized interstate bargaining in Latin America |publisher=Columbia University Press|chapter=The Myth of Hegemonic Management |year=2001 |doi=10.7312/mare11186|pages=}} * {{Cite book|last=Napier|first=W.|author2=Gilbert, J. |author3=Holland, J. |title=Pacific Voyages|year=1973|publisher=Doubleday|location=Garden City, NY|isbn=978-0-385-04335-9}} * {{cite book|last=Nunn|first=Patrick D.|title=Pacific Island Landscapes: Landscape and Geological Development of Southwest Pacific Islands, Especially Fiji, Samoa and Tonga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AN8486A8fMcC&pg=PA15|year=1998|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-982-02-0129-3}} * {{Cite book|last=Oliver|first=Douglas L.|title=The Pacific Islands|year=1989|edition=3rd|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-1233-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Ridgell|first=Reilly|title=Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia|year=1988|edition=2nd|publisher=Bess Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-935848-50-2}} * {{Cite book|last=Soule|first=Gardner|title=The Greatest Depths: Probing the Seas to 20,000 feet and below|year=1970|publisher=Macrae Smith|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8255-8350-6|url=https://archive.org/details/greatestdepthspr00soul}} * {{Cite book|last=Spate|first=O.H.K.|title=Paradise Found and Lost|year=1988|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0-8166-1715-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Terrell|first=John|title=Prehistory in the Pacific Islands: A Study of Variation in Language, Customs, and Human Biology|date=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-30604-1}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Pacific Ocean | volume= 20 |last1= Dickson |first1= Henry Newton |author1-link= Henry Newton Dickson | pages = 434–441 |short=1}} * Samson, Jane. "Pacific/Oceanic History" in {{cite book|editor-first=Kelly|editor-last=Boyd|title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA901|year=1999|publisher=Taylor & Francis|pages=901–902|isbn=978-1-884964-33-6}} [[Category:Pacific Ocean]] 426t785x591xlvguapol33ru61geyx0 0 7134 124338 124013 2026-11-10T14:17:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124338 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Arctic Ocean - en.png|thumb|330x330px]] '''Mbwani ya Arctic''' ni yicoko comene na yambura kuzika comene mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vya [[Mbwani|mbwani]] ya caro cose capasi. Yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,060,000, ndipo njakuzizima comene kuluska mbwani zose. Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kupima Maji (IHO) ukuyiwona nga ni mbwani, nangauli ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mbwani ŵakuyichema Nyanja ya Pakati ya Arctic panji Nyanja ya Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Yalongosoreka so nga ni pafupifupi mlomo wa mlonga wa Mbwani ya Atlantic. Yikuwoneka so nga ni cigaŵa ca kumpoto comene ca mbwani ya caro cose. Mbwani ya Arctic yikusazgapo cigaŵa ca Mphaka ya Kumpoto pakati pa cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi, ndipo yikufika kumwera pafupifupi makona 60 kumpoto. Yikuzingilizgika na Yurasiya na Amerika ya Kumpoto, ndipo mphaka zake zikulondezga mawonekero gha malo: Bering Strait ku mbali ya Pacific na mphiri ya pasi pa maji ya Greenland na Scotland ku mbali ya Atlantic. Yikuphimbika pacoko na cikakato ca mbwani caka cose, ndipo pafupifupi yose mu nyengo ya kuzizima. Kufunda na mcere wa pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic vikusintha mu nyengo apo cikakato cikusungunuka na kukhwima; mcere wake ngucoko comene pakati pa mbwani zinkhondi zikulu, cifukwa ca kufumbuka kucoko, maji ghawemi ghanandi agho ghakufuma ku milonga, na kukolerana kucoko na mbwani zinyake za mcere unandi. Kucepa kwa cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kwayowoyeka kuŵa magaŵa 50 pa 100. Wupu wa U.S. wa Cikakato (NSIDC) ukugwiliskira ntchito ma''satellite'' kupeleka malemba gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic na luŵiro lwa kusungunuka kwake, ndipo ghakulongora kucepa kwakulutilira kwa cikakato. Mu Lupya 2012, cikakato ca Arctic cikafika pa ucoko uphya wa mbiri. Kuyaniska na unandi wapakati (1979–2000), cikakato ca mbwani cikaŵa kuti cacepa na magaŵa 49 pa 100. == Mbiri == === Amerika ya Kumpoto === Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu cigaŵa ca mphaka ca Amerika ya Kumpoto kwa vyaka 17,000–50,000 panji kujumpha, mu nyengo ya cikakato cikulu. Kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani kukazomerezga ŵanthu kujumpha ulalo wa mtunda wa Bering uwo ukakoleranya Siberia na kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto (Alaska), ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanthu kukhala mu Amerika. Magulu ghakwamba gha ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Arctic ghakusazgapo Pre-Dorset (pafupifupi 3200–850 pambere Khristu); mdawuko wa Saqqaq wa Greenland (2500–800 pambere Khristu); midawuko ya Independence I na II ya kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada na Greenland; na Groswater ya Labrador na Nunavik. Mdawuko wa Dorset ukathandazgika mu Arctic ya Amerika ya Kumpoto pakati pa 500 pambere Khristu na 1500 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Ŵanthu ŵa Dorset ŵakaŵa mdawuko ukulu waumaliro wa kale mu Arctic pambere ŵanthu ŵa Thule, ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit ŵa mazuŵa ghano, ŵandasamire kumafumiro kufuma ku Alaska. Mdawuko wa Thule ukaŵako kufuma pafupifupi 200 pambere Khristu mpaka 1600 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ukwamba kuzunguliya Bering Strait ndipo pamanyuma ukathandazgika pafupifupi mu cigaŵa cose ca Arctic ca Amerika ya Kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa Thule ŵakaŵa ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit, awo sono ŵakukhala mu Alaska, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik, Labrador na Greenland. === Ulaya === Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya Ulaya, vigaŵa vya mphaka ya kumpoto vikaŵa vyambura kupendeka ndipo malo ghake ghakaghanaghanirikanga waka. Pytheas wa ku Massilia wakalemba ulendo wakuya kumpoto mu 325 pambere Khristu, ku caro ico wakacichema "Eschate Thule", uko zuŵa likanjiliranga maora ghatatu pera pa zuŵa ndipo maji ghakaŵa cinthu cakukhwima "ico munthu wangendapo yayi panji kwendeskapo ngalawa yayi". Panyake wakalongosoranga cikakato ca mbwani cakupatukana; "Thule" yake panyake yikaŵa Norway, nangauli Virwa vya Faroe panji Shetland navyo vyasacizgika. Cifukwa ca mauthenga ghacoko agho ghakaŵako pa nyengo iyo, ŵapangi ŵa mapu ŵakwamba ŵakamanyanga yayi umo ŵangalongolera vigaŵa vya kuzunguliya Mphaka ya Kumpoto: ŵanyake ŵakaŵikanga mtunda (nga mu mapu gha Johannes Ruysch gha 1507, panji gha Gerardus Mercator gha 1595) panji kulongora cigaŵa cose nga ni maji (nga mu mapu gha Martin Waldseemüller gha 1507). Maulendo ghacoko agho ghakajumpha comene Mzere wa Arctic pa nyengo iyo ghakasanga virwa vicoko pera, nga ni Novaya Zemlya (vyaka vya m'ma 1000) na Spitzbergen (1596). Kufuma pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 mpaka pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, maulendo ku Mbwani ya Arctic ghakaŵa ghanandi, kanandi kupenja nthowa za malonda kufuma ku Ulaya kuya ku Mbwani ya Pacific, ndipo ntheura kumanya malo gha cigaŵa ici kukakura pacoko pacoko. === Vyaka vya m'ma 1800 === Kusoŵa kumanya ico cikaŵa kumpoto kwa cikanizgo ca cikakato cakusintha kukapangiska maghanoghano ghanandi. Mu Ungelezi na mu vyaro vinyake vya Ulaya, jandulo la "Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika" likalutilira. John Barrow, mulembi waciŵiri wa nyengo yitali wa ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa Britain, wakakhozga kupenda cigaŵa ici kufuma 1818 mpaka 1845 kupenja nyanja iyi. Mu United States mu ma 1850 na 1860, ŵakupenja Elisha Kane na Isaac Israel Hayes wose ŵakati ŵakawona cigaŵa ca maji agha. Nanga ni pakumalira kwa vyaka ivyo, mukumanya mukulu Matthew Fontaine Maury wakasazgapo malongosoro gha Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika mu buku lake la kusambizgira (1883). Kweni nga umo ŵakupenja wose awo ŵakafika pafupi na mphaka ŵakayowoyera, cikakato ca mphaka ncakukhwima comene ndipo cikukhalilira caka cose, ndipo ghanoghano la nyanja yakujulika likawonekera kuŵa lautesi pakwamba pa ma 1900. Fridtjof Nansen ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kujumpha Mbwani ya Arctic na ngalawa, mu ulendo wa Fram kufuma 1893 mpaka 1896. === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mbwani pacanya kukalongozgeka na Wally Herbert mu 1969, mu ulendo wa vigaleta vya ncheŵe kufuma ku Alaska mpaka ku Svalbard, na wovwiri wa ndege. Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mphaka ya kumpoto na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1958 na ngalawa ya pasi pa maji USS Nautilus, ndipo kujumpha kwakwamba pacanya na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1977 na ngalawa yakuphwanya cikakato NS Arktika. Kufuma 1937, malo gha ŵanthu gha Soviet na Russia agho ghakuyandama pa cikakato ghakulaŵiska comene Mbwani ya Arctic. Malo gha kasandiro ghakazengeka pa cikakato cakuyandama ndipo ghakanyamulika makilomita masauzandi. Mu Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, cigaŵa ca Ulaya ca Mbwani ya Arctic cikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yikulu: pangano la ŵabwezi ŵa Allies la kupeleka vinthu ku Soviet Union kwizira mu madoko ghake gha kumpoto likasuskika na ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji na ŵa ndege ŵa Germany. Mu 1954, Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) yikamba maulendo ghakwamba gha malonda gha ndege pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic, pakati pa Los Angeles na Copenhagen. === Vyaka vya m'ma 2000 === Mu Mpupulu 2019, Pulezidenti wa U.S. Donald Trump wakasacizga pakweru kugula Greenland. Wakawuska so ghanoghano ili mu Zimya 2024, wakuti kuŵa na Greenland nkhwakukhumbikwa pa civikiliro na vyacuma vya United States. Wakati kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono kwakanizgika yayi. Pa 10 Zimya 2024, Trump wakachema nduna yikulu ya Canada kuti ni mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S. Kale wakayowoyanga kuti kutora Canada kungaŵa kwiwemi pa malonda. Pa 1 Mpupulu 2025, wakamba nkhondo ya malonda. Pa foni na nduna yikulu yiphya ya Canada Mark Carney pa 28 Masika 2025, Trump wakawuska ghanoghano la Canada kuŵa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S. ndipo wakalongosora uwemi uwo wakuwona. Mu mazgo ghanyake, wakalongora khumbo la kulongozga vyuma vya Canada na maji gha mukati gha Canada gha Arctic, agho ghakumanyikwa nga ni Northwest Passage. == Malo == === Ukulu === Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu dimba la mawonekero gha cizungulizgo pafupifupi ndipo yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,056,000, pafupifupi ukulu wa Antarctica. Mphepete yake njitali makilomita 45,390. Ndiyo mbwani yekha iyo njicoko kuluska Russia, iyo yili na mtunda wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi 17,098,246. === Mtunda Wakuzingilizga === Mbwani ya Arctic yikuzingilizgika na mitunda ya Yurasiya (Russia na Norway), Amerika ya Kumpoto (Canada na cigaŵa ca U.S. ca Alaska), Greenland, na Iceland. === Vigaŵa na Kukolerana === Mbwani ya Arctic yikukolerana na Mbwani ya Pacific kwizira mu Bering Strait na Mbwani ya Atlantic kwizira mu Nyanja ya Greenland na Nyanja ya Labrador. (Nyanja ya Iceland nyengo zinyake yikuwonekera kuŵa cigaŵa ca Nyanja ya Greenland, ndipo nyengo zinyake paŵekha.) Ŵakumanya ŵakupambana ŵakuŵika nyanja zinyake za mphepete mu Mbwani ya Arctic panji ya Atlantic, kusazgapo Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Nyanja ya Norway, na Hudson Strait. === Virwa === Virwa vikulu na magulu gha virwa mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kufuma ku mzere wakwamba kuya kumanjiliro, ni: * Jan Mayen (Norway) * Iceland * Greenland (Denmark) * Virwa vya Arctic vya Canada (kusazgapo Virwa vya Queen Elizabeth na Cirwa ca Baffin) * Cirwa ca Wrangel (Russia) * Virwa vya New Siberian (Russia) * Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) * Novaya Zemlya (Russia) * Franz Josef Land (Russia) * Svalbard (Norway) === Madoko === Pali madoko ghanandi pa Mbwani ya Arctic, mu Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Norway, Iceland, na Russia, nga ni Utqiaġvik, Churchill, Nuuk, Longyearbyen, Akureyri, Murmansk, na Arkhangelsk. === Mphepete za Pasi pa Maji === Mphepete za pasi pa maji za Arctic zili na vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo ca Canada na ca Russia, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "Mphepete ya Arctic" cifukwa ndicikulu. Mphepete ya Russia yili na vigaŵa vitatu vicoko: Barents, Nyanja ya Chukchi, na Siberia. Mwa ivi, ya Siberia ndiyo mphepete yikulu comene ya mtundu uwu pa caro cose; yili na mafuta na mphepo za pasi zinandi. Mphepete ya cigaŵa ca Chukchi yikupanga mphaka pakati pa Russia na United States nga umo yikalongosoreka mu phangano la 1990. Cigaŵa cose cili na mphindano za pakati pa vyaro pa malo. === Vimanyikwiro vya Pasi pa Maji === Phiri la pasi pa maji, Lomonosov Ridge, likugaŵa dimba lakuzika la Mphaka ya Kumpoto mu madimba ghaŵiri: dimba la Yurasiya, lakuzika mamita 4,000–4,500, na dimba la Amerasia, lakuzika mamita pafupifupi 4,000. Pasi pa mbwani pali mapiri, malo ghakugonera ghakuzika, na madimba. Kuzika kwapakati kwa Mbwani ya Arctic ni mamita 1,038. Malo ghakuzika comene ni Molloy Hole mu Fram Strait, pa mamita pafupifupi 5,550. Madimba ghaŵiri ghakulu ghakugaŵika so na mapiri kuŵa dimba la Canada, dimba la Makarov, dimba la Amundsen, na dimba la Nansen. == Kasandiro ka Pasi == Malibwe gha pasi gha mapiri gha kuzunguliya Mbwani ya Arctic ghakapangika panji kusintha mu nyengo ya kupangika kwa mapiri ya Ellesmerian mu nyengo ya Paleozoic. Kubira kwa pasi mu nyengo za Triassic na Jurassic kukapangiska kuwunjika kwa dongo kunandi, ndipo kukapanga malo ghanandi agho mafuta na mphepo za pasi zili sono. Mu nyengo ya Cretaceous, dimba la Canada likajulika, ndipo kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi kukapangiska mafuta kusamira ku malo agho sono ni Prudhoe Bay. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, dongo kufuma ku mapiri gha Canadian Rockies agho ghakakweranga likapanga mlomo ukulu wa mlonga wa Mackenzie. Kupatukana kwa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Pangea, kwamba mu nyengo ya Triassic, kukajula Mbwani ya Atlantic yakwamba. Kupatukana kukalutilira kumpoto, kujula Mbwani ya Arctic apo cikopa ca pasi pa mbwani cikafumanga. Dimba la Amerasia lingaŵa kuti likajulika dankha. Kuthandazgika kunyake kukovwira kupanga phiri la Alpha-Mendeleev mu nyengo ya Cretaceous ya pamanyuma. Mu nyengo ya Cenozoic, kunjira pasi kwa cigaŵa ca pasi ca Pacific, kutimbana kwa India na Yurasiya, na kujulika kwakulutilira kwa Atlantic ya Kumpoto vikapanga malo ghaphya agho mafuta ghakusungikira. Pasi pa mbwani pakamba kuthandazgika kufuma ku phiri la Gakkel, ndipo ici cikapangiska Lomonosov Ridge kusamira kutali na mtunda na kubira. Cifukwa ca cikakato ca mbwani na kutali kwake, kasandiro ka pasi ka Mbwani ya Arctic kandapendeke makola. Kuboola kwa Arctic Coring Expedition kukavumbula pacoko Lomonosov Ridge, ilo likuwoneka kuŵa cikopa ca mtunda ico cikapatukana na mphepete ya Barents-Kara. Lingaŵa na mbiya za mafuta mpaka biliyoni 10. Phiri la Gakkel nalo likumanyikwa makola yayi. == Kasandiro ka Mbwani == === Kwenda kwa Maji === Mu vigaŵa vikulu vya Mbwani ya Arctic, cigaŵa ca pacanya (pafupifupi mamita 50) cili na mcere ucoko na kuzizima kuluska maji ghanyake. Cikukhalilira cifukwa vyakufumapo vya mcere pa kukhwima kwa maji ni vikulu kuluska vya kufunda. Cikupokera maji ghawemi gha milonga yikulu ya Siberia na Canada (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), agho ghakuyandama pa maji gha mcere unandi, ghakukhwima, na ghakuzika. Pakati pa cigaŵa ici na maji ghanyake pali cigaŵa umo mcere na kufunda vikusazgikira apo kuzika kukusazgikira. Cifukwa yili paŵekha kuluska mbwani zinyake, Mbwani ya Arctic yili na ndondomeko yapadera na yakusuzga ya kwenda kwa maji. Yikuyana na Nyanja ya Mediterranean, cifukwa maji ghake ghakuzika ghakukolerana pacoko pera na dimba la Atlantic kwizira mu Fram Strait. Mbwani ya Arctic yili na maji gha makilomita gha mbali zitatu 18.07 × 10⁶, pafupifupi magaŵa 1.3 pa 100 gha mbwani yose ya caro capasi. Maji ghakunjira kufuma ku Mbwani ya Pacific na ya Atlantic, ndipo ghangagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera. Cigaŵa cakuzika comene cikuchemeka Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ndipo cikwamba pafupifupi mamita 900. Ni maji ghakukhwima comene mu mbwani ya caro cose, ndipo ghakufuma ku malo ghaŵiri: maji gha mphepete za Arctic na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific ghakujumpha mu Bering Strait yifupi na kufika mu Nyanja ya Chukchi. Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, mphepo zakuzizima za Alaska zikuputa pa Nyanja ya Chukchi, kukhwimiska maji gha pacanya na kukankha cikakato ciphya ici ku Pacific. Ici cikusiya maji ghakukhwima gha mcere mu nyanja agho ghakubira mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya kumanjiliro. Maji agha ghakukumana na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland, agho ghakupangika apo vimphepo vya nyengo ya kuzizima vikujumpha. Apo kuzizima kukusazgikira comene, cikakato cikupangika, ndipo maji ghakukhwima mwakukwana kubira pasi pa maji ghakufunda gha mcere. Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ngakuzirwa comene cifukwa agho ghakufumamo ghakovwira kupanga Maji ghakuzika gha Atlantic. Kuzgokerana kwa maji agha kukugwira ntchito yikulu pa kwenda kwa maji kwa caro cose na kukhazikiska nyengo. Pakati pa mamita 150–900 pali maji agho ghakuchemeka Maji gha Atlantic. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Atlantic ya Kumpoto ghakunjira kwizira mu Fram Strait, ghakuzizima na kubira, ndipo ghakuzunguliya dimba la Arctic. Ndigho maji ghanandi comene agho ghakunjira mu Mbwani ya Arctic, pafupifupi kakhumi kuluska agho ghakufuma ku Pacific. Ghakwenda pacoko pacoko. Maji gha Atlantic ghali na mcere wakuyana na Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic kweni ngakufunda comene (mpaka 3 °C). Nadi, maji agha ngakufunda kuluska maji gha pacanya, ndipo ghakusyala pasi cifukwa ca mcere pera. Para maji ghafika mu dimba, ghakukankhika na mphepo zankhongono mu kwenda kukulu kwa cizungulizgo ako kakuchemeka Beaufort Gyre. Maji mu Beaufort Gyre ghali na mcere ucoko comene kuluska gha Nyanja ya Chukchi cifukwa ca maji gha milonga yikulu ya Canada na Siberia. Cigaŵa caumaliro ca maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic cikuchemeka Maji gha Pacanya gha Arctic ndipo cili pakati pa mamita 150–200. Cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca maji agha ni cigaŵa ca pasi pa pacanya. Cikufuma ku maji gha Atlantic agho ghakunjira kwizira mu migodi ya pasi pa maji ndipo ghakusazganika comene pa mphepete ya Siberia. Apo ghakusazganika, ghakuzizima ndipo ghakuvikilira cigaŵa ca pacanya ku kufunda. Kweni mu vyaka makhumi ghaŵiri ghaumaliro, kufunda na kukwera kwa maji gha Atlantic kukupangiska kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kusungunuska comene cikakato ca mbwani ku kumafumiro kwa Arctic. Kupima kwa sonosono, kwa 2016–2018, kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa mbwani ku pacanya sono kwajumpha kwa mphepo mu dimba la Yurasiya la kumafumiro. Kweni kupima kwakulunjika ku kumanjiliro kwa Arctic kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kukusyala pakati nanga ni pa mphepo yikulu ya Arctic ya 2012. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific na ku Atlantic ghose ghakufuma kwizira mu Fram Strait pakati pa Greenland na Svalbard, iyo njakuzika mamita pafupifupi 2,700 na yisani makilomita 350. Usani wa Fram Strait ndiwo ukuzomerezga maji kunjira na kufuma ku mbali ya Atlantic. Cifukwa ca kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, maji ghakufuma kumanjiliro mu East Greenland Current na kunjira kumafumiro mu Norwegian Current. Maji gha Pacific ghakufuma so mu mphepete ya kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na Hudson Strait, ndipo ghakupeleka vyakulya ku virwa vya Canada. Nga umo tawonera, kupangika na kwenda kwa cikakato ni cifukwa cikulu ca kwenda kwa maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic na kupangika kwa vigaŵa vya maji. Ntheura Mbwani ya Arctic yikusintha cifukwa ca kusintha kwa cikakato mu nyengo. Kwenda kwa cikakato kukufuma ku mphepo, izo zikukolerana na vyakucitika vya nyengo vinandi vya Arctic mu caka. Mwaciyelezgero, kukanikizga kukulu kwa mphepo kwa Beaufort kukwendeska Beaufort Gyre. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, kukanikizga uku kukusamira pafupi na Siberia na Canada. Kweniso, kukanikizga kukulu pacanya pa Greenland kukwiziska mphepo zankhongono zakufuma kumpoto kwizira mu Fram Strait, kovwira kufumiska cikakato. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, mphepo izi nzicoko. Kukanikizga kucoko pacanya pa nyanja za Nordic na Barents kukupanga kwenda kwa maji kwa cizungulizgo mu cigaŵa ici. Kusintha kose uku kukupangiska kwenda kwa cikakato kuŵa kucoko comene mu myezi ya nyengo ya kufunda. === Cikakato ca Mbwani === Cigaŵa cikulu ca Mbwani ya Arctic caphimbika na cikakato ca mbwani ico cikusintha mu unandi na kukhwima mu nyengo. Unandi wapakati wa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic ukulutilira kucepa mu vyaka makhumi vyaumaliro, pa luŵiro lwa magaŵa 12.85 pa 100 pa vyaka khumi kufuma 1980. Kusintha kwa nyengo kuli pafupifupi makilomita gha mbali zinayi 7,000,000, ndipo cikakato cinandi comene ni mu Masika na cicoko comene mu Lupya. Cikakato ca mbwani cikukhwaskika na mphepo na kwenda kwa maji, ivyo vingasamiska na kuzunguliya vigaŵa vikulu comene vya cikakato. Malo gha kukanikizgana nagho ghakupangika, umo cikakato cikuwunjikana. Mapiri gha cikakato nyengo zinyake ghakuphwanyika kufuma ku Cirwa ca Ellesmere, ndipo ghakupangika so kufuma ku cikakato cikulu cakwenda ca kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada. Mapiri gha cikakato ni cikakato ca mbwani yayi kweni ghangakakika mu cikakato ca mbwani. Ghali pa ngozi ku ngalawa, ndipo Titanic ni yimoza mwa izo zikumanyikwa comene. Mbwani yikujalika na cikakato pafupifupi kufuma Thukila mpaka Zizima, ndipo vigaŵa vya pacanya vya ngalawa vikuphimbika na cikakato kufuma Thukila mpaka Vula. Pambere ngalawa zakuphwanya cikakato za mazuŵa ghano zindize, ngalawa izo zikenda pa Mbwani ya Arctic zikaŵa pa ngozi ya kukakika panji kuphwanyika na cikakato (nangauli ngalawa ya Baychimo yikayandama mu Mbwani ya Arctic kwambura ŵanthu kwa vyaka makhumi). == Nyengo == Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu nyengo ya mphaka, iyo yili na kuzizima kwakulutilira na kusintha kucoko kwa kufunda mu caka. Nyengo ya kuzizima yili na usiku wa mphaka, kuzizima kukulu comene, na nyengo yakukhazikika. Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi ku mbali ya Atlantic pera. Nyengo ya kufunda yili na ungweru wa zuŵa nyengo zose (zuŵa la pakati pa usiku), ndipo kufunda kwa mphepo kungakwera pacoko pacanya pa 0 °C. Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi mu nyengo ya kufunda ndipo zingiziska vula panji cikakato. Kuli maŵingu caka cose, kufuma magaŵa 60 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kuzizima mpaka kujumpha 80 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kufunda. Kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya gha Mbwani ya Arctic kukuyana pafupifupi nyengo zose pa −1.8 °C, pafupi na apo maji gha mbwani ghakukhwimira. Kukhwima kwa maji gha mbwani, kupambana na maji ghawemi, kukusazgikira apo ghakuza pafupi na kukhwima, ntheura ghakubira. Kanandi nchakukhumbikwa kuti mamita 100–150 gha pacanya gha mbwani ghazizime mpaka kukhwima kuti cikakato ca mbwani cipangike. Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, maji gha mbwani agho ghakufunda pacoko ghakucepeska kuzizima, nanga ni apo ghaphimbika na cikakato. Ici ni cifukwa cimoza ico Arctic yilije kuzizima kukulu comene uko kukuwoneka pa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Antarctica. Pali kusintha kukulu mu nyengo pa unandi wa cikakato ico cikuphimba Mbwani ya Arctic. Cigaŵa cikulu ca cikakato ici caphimbika so na cizizimu kwa myezi pafupifupi 10 pa caka. Cikakato ca kuthambo cinandi comene cikuŵa mu Mpupulu panji Masika, pafupifupi masentimita 20–50 pacanya pa mbwani yakukhwima. Nyengo ya cigaŵa ca Arctic yasintha comene mu mbiri ya caro capasi. Mu nyengo ya kufunda kukulu vyaka miliyoni 55 ivyo vyajumpha, apo nyengo ya caro cose yikafunda na pafupifupi 5–8 °C, cigaŵa ici cikafika pa kufunda kwapakati kwa caka kwa 10–20 °C. Maji gha pacanya gha kumpoto comene gha Mbwani ya Arctic ghakafunda, pacoko mu nyengo zinyake, mwakukwana kusunga vyamoyo vya ku tropiki ivyo vikukhumba kufunda kwa pacanya kwakujumpha 22 °C. Sono, cigaŵa ca Arctic cikufunda kaŵiri luŵiro kuluska caro capasi cose. == Vyamoyo == Cifukwa ca kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo kwa myezi 2–6 ya zuŵa la pakati pa usiku na usiku wa mphaka mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kupanga kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo vya usanisinuru nga ni vyakumera vicoko vya pa cikakato na vya mu maji kukucitika mu myezi ya Masika mpaka Lupya pera. Ŵakurya ŵakuzirwa ŵa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati na nyanja za mphepete ni tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji, comene twa mitundu yinyake, pamoza na vinyama vya pa cikakato. Ŵakurya ŵakwamba aŵa ni ulalo wakuzirwa pakati pa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba na vinyama vya pacanya. Kapangikiro ka vinyama vya pacanya mu Mbwani ya Arctic kakupambana kuyana na cigaŵa (mbali ya Atlantic panji ya Pacific) na cikakato. Ŵakurya ŵaciŵiri mu Nyanja ya Barents, nyanja ya mphepete ya Arctic iyo yikukhwaskika na Atlantic, comene ni somba za pafupi na Arctic nga ni ''herring'', ''cod'' yiphya, na ''capelin''. Mu vigaŵa vya cikakato vya Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati, ''cod'' ya mphaka ndiyo cakusaka cikulu ca ŵakurya ŵakwamba. Vyakusaka vya pacanya comene mu Mbwani ya Arctic, vinyama vyakonkheska vya mu mbwani nga ni ''seal'', nyamumba, na ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa, vikusaka somba. Vinyama vya mu mbwani ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Mbwani ya Arctic ni ''walrus'' na nyamumba. Cigaŵa ici cili na malo gha vyamoyo ghakunangika luŵiro, ndipo ghali pa ngozi comene ya kusintha kwa nyengo, cifukwa cikufunda luŵiro kuluska caro cose. ''Jellyfish'' yikulu ya mtundu wa ''lion's mane'' njinandi mu maji gha Arctic. == Vyuma vya Kawiro == Mafuta na mphepo za pasi, vyuma vya mu mcenga, vyuma vya visulo vinandi, mcenga na tumalibwe, somba, ''seal'' na nyamumba vyose vingasangika vinandi mu cigaŵa ici. Malo ghambura mwenecho pa ndyali pafupi na pakati pa nyanja ni nkhani ya mphindano yikulu pakati pa United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, na Denmark. Ngakuzirwa ku msika wa nkhongono wa caro cose cifukwa ghangaŵa na magaŵa 25 pa 100 panji kujumpha gha mafuta na mphepo za pasi agho ghandasangike pa caro cose. == Masuzgo gha Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kusungunuka kwa Cikakato ca Arctic === Cikakato ca Arctic cikucepa, ndipo bowo la nyengo zinyake mu cigaŵa ca ozone likucitika kanandi. Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic kukucepeska kuwezga ungweru kwa caro capasi, ndipo kungapangiska kufunda kwa caro cose kusazgikira. Kusanda kukulongora kuti Arctic yingaŵa yambura cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kakwamba mu mbiri ya ŵanthu pofika 2040. Maghanoghano pa nyengo yaumaliro iyo Arctic yikaŵa yambura cikakato ghakupambana: vyaka miliyoni 65 ivyo vyajumpha apo mafosilo ghakulongora kuti vyakumera vikaŵako, mpaka vyaka 5,500 pera ivyo vyajumpha. Kufunda mu Arctic kungapangiska maji ghanandi ghawemi gha cikakato cakusungunuka kunjira mu Atlantic ya kumpoto, ndipo kungasokonezga kwenda kwa maji gha mbwani ya caro cose. Kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo ya caro capasi kungalondezga. Apo cikakato ca mbwani cikucepa na maji gha mbwani ghakukwera, vyakufumapo vya vimphepo nga ni ca 2012 pa maji ghakujulika vikusazgikira, nga umo kunangika kwa vyakumera vya mphepete na maji gha mcere kukusazgikira mu malo nga ni mlomo wa mlonga wa Mackenzie. Kufunda kwa caro cose kwasazgira kukumana pakati pa ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa na ŵanthu. Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani kukupangiska ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa kupenja vyakulya kunyake. Kwamba mu Zimya 2018 mpaka Mpupulu 2019, ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakanjira mu virwa vya Novaya Zemlya, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa malo agho ŵakapharazga ngozi. Ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakawoneka ŵakunjira mu nyumba, nyumba za ulongozgi, na malo gha ŵanthu. === Kunangika kwa Metheni wa pa Cikakato === Cikakato ca mbwani, na kuzizima uko cikusunga, vikusunga metheni uwo uli pafupi na mphepete, ndipo vikukanizga kuti uleke kufuma mu mphepo na kusazgira kufunda. Kusungunuka kwa cikakato ici kungafumiska metheni munandi, mphepo yankhongono yakusunga kufunda, mu mphepo, ndipo kungasazgira kufunda na kupangiska mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu mbwani kumalira. === Masuzgo Ghanyake === Masuzgo ghanyake gha malo ghakuzingilizga ni kunangika kwa Mbwani ya Arctic na vinthu vya nyukiliya, mwaciyelezgero kufuma ku malo gha Russia gha kutaya vyakusyala vya nyukiliya mu Nyanja ya Kara, malo gha kuyezga vilwero vya nyukiliya vya nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Mtima nga ni Novaya Zemlya, vyakunanga vya Camp Century mu Greenland, na vyakunanga vya ngozi ya nyukiliya ya Fukushima Daiichi. Pa 16 Vuna 2015, vyaro vinkhondi (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) vikasayina kalata ya pangano la kusunga ngalawa zawo za kulowa somba kuwaro kwa malo gha makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 2.8 mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati pafupi na Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Phangano ili likupempha vyaro ivi kuleka kulowa kuko mpaka pazamuŵa vinjeru viwemi vya kasandiro pa vyuma vya mu mbwani na ndondomeko ya kuvivikilira. [[Category:Arctic Ocean]] pbgqynqkbee1hhm18afmezdmp6ycmhi 124406 124338 2026-11-10T20:34:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124406 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Arctic Ocean - en.png|thumb|330x330px]] '''Mbwani ya Arctic''' ni yicoko comene na yambura kuzika comene mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vya [[Mbwani|mbwani]] ya caro cose capasi.<ref name=Pidwirny>{{cite web | title=Introduction to the Oceans | work=physicalgeography.net | url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | author=Pidwirny, Michael | date=2006 | access-date=7 December 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209125035/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | archive-date=9 December 2006 }}</ref> Yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,060,000, ndipo njakuzizima comene kuluska mbwani zose. Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kupima Maji (IHO) ukuyiwona nga ni mbwani, nangauli ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mbwani ŵakuyichema Nyanja ya Pakati ya Arctic panji Nyanja ya Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Yalongosoreka so nga ni pafupifupi mlomo wa mlonga wa Mbwani ya Atlantic.<ref>{{Cite book |title=General oceanography: an introduction |date=1980 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-02102-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=501 |oclc=6200221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Chart of the North Polar Sea |url=https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/agdm/id/5249/ |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=collections.lib.uwm.edu |language=en}}</ref> Yikuwoneka so nga ni cigaŵa ca kumpoto comene ca mbwani ya caro cose. Mbwani ya Arctic yikusazgapo cigaŵa ca Mphaka ya Kumpoto pakati pa cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi, ndipo yikufika kumwera pafupifupi makona 60 kumpoto. Yikuzingilizgika na Yurasiya na Amerika ya Kumpoto, ndipo mphaka zake zikulondezga mawonekero gha malo: Bering Strait ku mbali ya Pacific na mphiri ya pasi pa maji ya Greenland na Scotland ku mbali ya Atlantic. Yikuphimbika pacoko na cikakato ca mbwani caka cose, ndipo pafupifupi yose mu nyengo ya kuzizima.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5677/|title='Arctic Sea Ice Minimum 2026'|access-date=29 Oct 2026|quote=Every summer the Arctic ice cap melts down to what scientists call its "minimum" before colder weather begins to cause ice cover to increase. An analysis of satellite data by NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) at the University of Colorado Boulder shows that the 2026 minimum extent, which was likely reached on Sept. 12, measured 1.78 million square miles (4.60 million square kilometers).}}</ref> Kufunda na mcere wa pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic vikusintha mu nyengo apo cikakato cikusungunuka na kukhwima; mcere wake ngucoko comene pakati pa mbwani zinkhondi zikulu, cifukwa ca kufumbuka kucoko, maji ghawemi ghanandi agho ghakufuma ku milonga, na kukolerana kucoko na mbwani zinyake za mcere unandi. Kucepa kwa cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kwayowoyeka kuŵa magaŵa 50 pa 100.<ref>[http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108092457/http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf |date=8 November 2017 }} K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref> Wupu wa U.S. wa Cikakato (NSIDC) ukugwiliskira ntchito ma''satellite'' kupeleka malemba gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic na luŵiro lwa kusungunuka kwake, ndipo ghakulongora kucepa kwakulutilira kwa cikakato.<ref name=Pidwirny /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arctic Sea Ice News and Analysis {{!}} Sea ice data updated daily with one-day lag|url=https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/|access-date=2020-09-01|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-18 |title=Climate Change: Arctic sea ice summer minimum {{!}} NOAA Climate.gov |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-arctic-sea-ice-summer-minimum |access-date=2026-01-08 |website=www.climate.gov |language=en}}</ref> Mu Lupya 2012, cikakato ca Arctic cikafika pa ucoko uphya wa mbiri. Kuyaniska na unandi wapakati (1979–2000), cikakato ca mbwani cikaŵa kuti cacepa na magaŵa 49 pa 100.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Understanding the Arctic sea ice: Polar Portal|url=http://polarportal.dk/en/sea-ice-and-icebergs/understanding-the-arctic-sea-ice/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=polarportal.dk}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Amerika ya Kumpoto === Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu cigaŵa ca mphaka ca Amerika ya Kumpoto kwa vyaka 17,000–50,000 panji kujumpha, mu nyengo ya cikakato cikulu. Kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani kukazomerezga ŵanthu kujumpha ulalo wa mtunda wa Bering uwo ukakoleranya Siberia na kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto (Alaska), ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanthu kukhala mu Amerika.<ref name=Goebel>{{cite journal |title=The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas |url=http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf |year=2008 |doi=10.1126/science.1153569 |pmid=18339930 |volume=319 |issue=5869 |journal=Science |pages=1497–502 |vauthors=Goebel T, Waters MR, O'Rourke DH|bibcode=2008Sci...319.1497G |s2cid=36149744 }}</ref> [[File:Cambridge Bay Thule Site 1998-06-28.jpg|left|thumb|Malo gha ŵanthu ŵa Thule gha kale]] Magulu ghakwamba gha ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Arctic ghakusazgapo Pre-Dorset (pafupifupi 3200–850 pambere Khristu); mdawuko wa Saqqaq wa Greenland (2500–800 pambere Khristu); midawuko ya Independence I na II ya kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada na Greenland; na Groswater ya Labrador na Nunavik. Mdawuko wa Dorset ukathandazgika mu Arctic ya Amerika ya Kumpoto pakati pa 500 pambere Khristu na 1500 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Ŵanthu ŵa Dorset ŵakaŵa mdawuko ukulu waumaliro wa kale mu Arctic pambere ŵanthu ŵa Thule, ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit ŵa mazuŵa ghano, ŵandasamire kumafumiro kufuma ku Alaska.<ref>[http://www.natmus.dk/sw18630.asp "The Prehistory of Greenland"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516102219/http://www.natmus.dk/sw18630.asp |date=16 May 2008 }}, Greenland Research Centre, National Museum of Denmark, accessed 14 April 2010.</ref> Mdawuko wa Thule ukaŵako kufuma pafupifupi 200 pambere Khristu mpaka 1600 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ukwamba kuzunguliya Bering Strait ndipo pamanyuma ukathandazgika pafupifupi mu cigaŵa cose ca Arctic ca Amerika ya Kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa Thule ŵakaŵa ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit, awo sono ŵakukhala mu Alaska, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik, Labrador na Greenland.<ref name="waterloo">{{cite web |last=Park |first=Robert W. |title=Thule Tradition |website=Arctic Archaeology |publisher=Department of Anthropology, University of Waterloo |url=http://anthropology.uwaterloo.ca/ArcticArchStuff/thule.html |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> === Ulaya === Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya Ulaya, vigaŵa vya mphaka ya kumpoto vikaŵa vyambura kupendeka ndipo malo ghake ghakaghanaghanirikanga waka. Pytheas wa ku Massilia wakalemba ulendo wakuya kumpoto mu 325 pambere Khristu, ku caro ico wakacichema "Eschate Thule", uko zuŵa likanjiliranga maora ghatatu pera pa zuŵa ndipo maji ghakaŵa cinthu cakukhwima "ico munthu wangendapo yayi panji kwendeskapo ngalawa yayi". Panyake wakalongosoranga cikakato ca mbwani cakupatukana; "Thule" yake panyake yikaŵa Norway, nangauli Virwa vya Faroe panji Shetland navyo vyasacizgika.<ref>[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html Pytheas] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918073035/http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html |date=18 September 2008 }} Andre Engels. Retrieved 16 December 2006.</ref> [[File:Map of the Arctic, 1780s - B&W.jpeg|thumb|left|Mapu gha Arctic gha Emanuel Bowen gha m'ma 1780 ghakulongora "Mbwani ya Kumpoto".]] [[File:Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage, and bathymetry.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Cigaŵa ca Arctic cakulongora Northeast Passage, Northern Sea Route mukati mwake, na Northwest Passage kwizira mu maji gha mukati gha Canada.]] Cifukwa ca mauthenga ghacoko agho ghakaŵako pa nyengo iyo, ŵapangi ŵa mapu ŵakwamba ŵakamanyanga yayi umo ŵangalongolera vigaŵa vya kuzunguliya Mphaka ya Kumpoto: ŵanyake ŵakaŵikanga mtunda (nga mu mapu gha Johannes Ruysch gha 1507, panji gha Gerardus Mercator gha 1595) panji kulongora cigaŵa cose nga ni maji (nga mu mapu gha Martin Waldseemüller gha 1507).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Netten |first1=Djoeke |title=Known unknowns in the North. Uncertain maps of the Arctic in early modern times |journal=International Journal of Cartography |date=2 October 2025 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=489–508 |doi=10.1080/23729333.2025.2478270|doi-access=free |bibcode=2025IJCar..11..489V }}</ref> Maulendo ghacoko agho ghakajumpha comene Mzere wa Arctic pa nyengo iyo ghakasanga virwa vicoko pera, nga ni Novaya Zemlya (vyaka vya m'ma 1000) na Spitzbergen (1596).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hiatt |first1=Fred |title=Cold, Dark Arctic Isle is Home to the Hardiest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/10/18/cold-dark-arctic-isle-is-home-to-the-hardiest/756a2fc6-ceb1-47e4-8935-2934916a9729/ |access-date=2 February 2026 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 October 1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arlov |first1=Thor B. |title=The Discovery and Early Exploitation of Svalbard. Some Historiographical Notes |journal=Acta Borealia |date=August 2005 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=3–19 |doi=10.1080/08003830510020343}}</ref> Kufuma pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 mpaka pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, maulendo ku Mbwani ya Arctic ghakaŵa ghanandi, kanandi kupenja nthowa za malonda kufuma ku Ulaya kuya ku Mbwani ya Pacific, ndipo ntheura kumanya malo gha cigaŵa ici kukakura pacoko pacoko.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rennison |first1=Nick |title=A Short History of Polar Exploration |date=2014 |publisher=Oldcastle Books |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-84344-090-1 |pages=13–23 |chapter=Chapter One: The Arctic Pre-1900}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1800 === Kusoŵa kumanya ico cikaŵa kumpoto kwa cikanizgo ca cikakato cakusintha kukapangiska maghanoghano ghanandi. Mu Ungelezi na mu vyaro vinyake vya Ulaya, jandulo la "Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika" likalutilira.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yuan Woon |first1=Chih |last2=Dodds |first2=Klaus |title='Observing' the Arctic: Asia in the Arctic council and beyond |date=2020 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |location=Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA, USA |isbn=978-1-83910-821-1 |page=90}}</ref> John Barrow, mulembi waciŵiri wa nyengo yitali wa ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa Britain, wakakhozga kupenda cigaŵa ici kufuma 1818 mpaka 1845 kupenja nyanja iyi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nuttall |first1=Mark |title=Encyclopedia of the Arctic |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-57958-436-8 |page=206 |chapter=Barrow, Sir John}}</ref> Mu United States mu ma 1850 na 1860, ŵakupenja Elisha Kane na Isaac Israel Hayes wose ŵakati ŵakawona cigaŵa ca maji agha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fjågesund |first1=Peter |title=The dream of the North: a cultural history to 1920 |date=2014 |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam, NL ; New York, NY, USA |isbn=978-90-420-3837-0 |pages=339–340}}</ref> Nanga ni pakumalira kwa vyaka ivyo, mukumanya mukulu Matthew Fontaine Maury wakasazgapo malongosoro gha Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika mu buku lake la kusambizgira (1883).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katrine |first1=Nanna |last2=Kaalund |first2=Lüders |last3=Woitkowitz |first3=John |title='Ancient lore with modern appliances': networks, expertise, and the making of the Open Polar Sea, 1851–1853 |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |date=September 2021 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=277–299 |doi=10.1017/S0007087421000522 |pmid=34291728 }}</ref> Kweni nga umo ŵakupenja wose awo ŵakafika pafupi na mphaka ŵakayowoyera, cikakato ca mphaka ncakukhwima comene ndipo cikukhalilira caka cose, ndipo ghanoghano la nyanja yakujulika likawonekera kuŵa lautesi pakwamba pa ma 1900.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luedtke |first1=Brandon |title=An ice-free Arctic Ocean: history, science, and scepticism |journal=Polar Record |date=March 2015 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=130–139 |doi=10.1017/S0032247413000636 |bibcode=2015PoRec..51..130L }}</ref> Fridtjof Nansen ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kujumpha Mbwani ya Arctic na ngalawa, mu ulendo wa Fram kufuma 1893 mpaka 1896.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Max |title=Exploration, Celebrity, and the Making of a Transnational Hero: Fridtjof Nansen and the Fram Expedition |journal=The Journal of Modern History |date=1 March 2021 |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=68–108 |doi=10.1086/712637 |url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/dab9a7c6-d730-41d2-ab7e-7ca5f5ae752c }}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mbwani pacanya kukalongozgeka na Wally Herbert mu 1969, mu ulendo wa vigaleta vya ncheŵe kufuma ku Alaska mpaka ku Svalbard, na wovwiri wa ndege.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/uk/sir+wally+herbert+dies/558357|title=Channel 4, "Sir Wally Herbert dies" 13 June 2007}}</ref> Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mphaka ya kumpoto na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1958 na ngalawa ya pasi pa maji USS Nautilus, ndipo kujumpha kwakwamba pacanya na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1977 na ngalawa yakuphwanya cikakato NS Arktika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hollingham |first1=Richard |title=The record-breaking dive under the Arctic ice |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/future/article/20220503-the-record-breaking-dive-under-the-arctic-ice |access-date=8 February 2026 |work=BBC |date=2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brigham |first1=LW |title=From Arktika to the next millennium |journal=Naval History |date=1998 |volume=12 |issue=4 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/1998/august/arktika-next-millennium}}</ref> Kufuma 1937, malo gha ŵanthu gha Soviet na Russia agho ghakuyandama pa cikakato ghakulaŵiska comene Mbwani ya Arctic. Malo gha kasandiro ghakazengeka pa cikakato cakuyandama ndipo ghakanyamulika makilomita masauzandi.<ref>[http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html North Pole drifting stations (1930s–1980s)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113023915/http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html |date=13 November 2017 }}. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</ref> Mu Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, cigaŵa ca Ulaya ca Mbwani ya Arctic cikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yikulu: pangano la ŵabwezi ŵa Allies la kupeleka vinthu ku Soviet Union kwizira mu madoko ghake gha kumpoto likasuskika na ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji na ŵa ndege ŵa Germany.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenyon |first1=David |title=Arctic convoys: Bletchley Park and the war for the seas |date=2024 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT, USA; London, UK |isbn=978-0-300-27935-1 |pages=3–10}}</ref> Mu 1954, Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) yikamba maulendo ghakwamba gha malonda gha ndege pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic, pakati pa Los Angeles na Copenhagen.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Cold War and Beyond |url=https://sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/online-exhibit-page/polar-express-the-cold-war-and-beyond |website=sandiegoairandspace.org |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 2000 === Mu Mpupulu 2019, Pulezidenti wa U.S.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Neuman |first=Scott |date=2019-08-19 |title=No Joke: Trump Really Does Want To Buy Greenland |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752274659/no-joke-trump-really-does-want-to-buy-greenland |access-date=2025-09-27 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sorensen |first1=Martin Selsoe |date=2019-08-16 |title='Greenland Is Not for Sale': Trump's Talk of a Purchase Draws Derision (Published 2019) |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/16/world/europe/trump-greenland.html |access-date=2025-09-27 |language=en}}</ref> Donald Trump wakasacizga pakweru kugula Greenland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c74x4m71pmjo|title=Why does Trump want Greenland and what do its people think?|date=24 March 2025|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/939c0199b5f647afb3b579e72ac20e6d|title=Trump likens buying Greenland to 'a large real estate deal'|date=18 August 2019|website=AP News}}</ref> Wakawuska so ghanoghano ili mu Zimya 2024, wakuti kuŵa na Greenland nkhwakukhumbikwa pa civikiliro na vyacuma vya United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/video/mar-a-lago-panama-canal-greenland-national-security-171103e2cef241d8821e6749fdf3f5b8|title=Trump won't rule out use of military force to take control of Greenland and the Panama Canal|via=apnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.military.com/daily-news/2025/01/07/trump-refuses-rule-out-use-of-military-force-take-control-of-greenland-and-panama-canal.html|title=Trump Refuses to Rule Out Use of Military Force to Take Control of Greenland and the Panama Canal|first1=Will|last1=Weissert|first2=Zeke|last2=Miller|date=7 January 2025|website=Military.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarah |first=Fortinsky |date=2025-05-05 |title=Trump does not rule out taking Greenland by force |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5282488-trump-greenland-military-threat/ |website=The Hill}}</ref> Wakati kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono kwakanizgika yayi. Pa 10 Zimya 2024, Trump wakachema nduna yikulu ya Canada kuti ni mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-trolls-justin-trudeau-governor-canada/|title=Trump trolls Justin Trudeau as "governor" of the "great state" of Canada - CBS News|date=10 December 2024|website=www.cbsnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgx1ezpx52o|title=Trump takes jab at 'governor' Trudeau|date=10 December 2024|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> Kale wakayowoyanga kuti kutora Canada kungaŵa kwiwemi pa malonda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveforbes/2025/03/18/the-canadian-takeover-why-trumps-annexation-goal-could-backfire-spectacularly/|title=The Canadian Takeover: Why Trump's Annexation Goal Could Backfire Spectacularly|first=Steve|last=Forbes|website=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-canada-border-annex-trump-tariffs-b2712916.html|title=The US has tried to annex Canada before - here's why it didn't work|date=11 March 2025|website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5072926-trump-annexation-canada-trade-threat/|title=What to know about Trump's calls to make Canada the '51st state'|first=Julia|last=Mueller|work=The Hill |date=8 January 2025}}</ref> Pa 1 Mpupulu 2025, wakamba nkhondo ya malonda.<ref>{{cite web | title=Trump launches trade war with tariffs on Mexico, Canada and China | work=Reuters | url=https://www.reuters.com/business/trump-readies-order-steep-tariffs-goods-mexico-canada-china-2025-02-01/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/tariffs-timeline-trade-war-trump-canada-mexico-china-97819f94e424c0e7bba2812e09a721a7|title=Trump has begun another trade war. Here's a timeline of how we got here|date=25 March 2025|website=AP News}}</ref> Pa foni na nduna yikulu yiphya ya Canada Mark Carney pa 28 Masika 2025, Trump wakawuska ghanoghano la Canada kuŵa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S. ndipo wakalongosora uwemi uwo wakuwona. Mu mazgo ghanyake, wakalongora khumbo la kulongozga vyuma vya Canada na maji gha mukati gha Canada gha Arctic, agho ghakumanyikwa nga ni Northwest Passage. == Malo == === Ukulu === [[File:IBCAO betamap.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|Mapu gha kuzika kwa Mbwani ya Arctic na mawonekero gha mitunda iyo yikuyizingilizga.]] [[File:Arctic.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Cigaŵa ca Arctic; mphaka ya kumwera ya cigaŵa ici pa mapu agha yikulongoreka na mzere wakuswesi, ndipo malo ghose gha kumpoto kwa mzere uwu ghali na kufunda kwapakati kwapasi pa {{Convert|10|C}} mu Julayi.]] Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu dimba la mawonekero gha cizungulizgo pafupifupi ndipo yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,056,000, pafupifupi ukulu wa Antarctica.<ref name=nyt>{{cite book |editor-first=John W. |editor-last=Wright | date=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac |url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig |url-access=registration | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York | isbn=978-0-14-303820-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig/page/455 455]}}</ref><ref name="Oceans of the World">{{cite web|url=http://mset.rst2.edu/portfolios/d/drewes_c/Integrating%20Technologies/Oceans%20of%20the%20World.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719035421/http://mset.rst2.edu/portfolios/d/drewes_c/Integrating%20Technologies/Oceans%20of%20the%20World.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |title=Oceans of the World |publisher=rst2.edu |access-date=28 October 2010 }}</ref> Mphepete yake njitali makilomita 45,390.<ref name=nyt /><ref name="Arctic Ocean Fast Facts">{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/area/species/polarbear/habitat/|title=Arctic Ocean Fast Facts|publisher=wwf.pandora.org (World Wildlife Foundation)|access-date=28 October 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101029234119/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/area/species/polarbear/habitat/| archive-date= 29 October 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> Ndiyo mbwani yekha iyo njicoko kuluska Russia, iyo yili na mtunda wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi 17,098,246.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia country profile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 |access-date=11 February 2026 |work=BBC News |date=26 April 2012}}</ref> === Mtunda Wakuzingilizga === Mbwani ya Arctic yikuzingilizgika na mitunda ya Yurasiya (Russia na Norway), Amerika ya Kumpoto (Canada na cigaŵa ca U.S. ca Alaska), Greenland, na Iceland. === Vigaŵa na Kukolerana === Mbwani ya Arctic yikukolerana na Mbwani ya Pacific kwizira mu Bering Strait na Mbwani ya Atlantic kwizira mu Nyanja ya Greenland na Nyanja ya Labrador.<ref name=Pidwirny /> (Nyanja ya Iceland nyengo zinyake yikuwonekera kuŵa cigaŵa ca Nyanja ya Greenland, ndipo nyengo zinyake paŵekha.) Ŵakumanya ŵakupambana ŵakuŵika nyanja zinyake za mphepete mu Mbwani ya Arctic panji ya Atlantic, kusazgapo Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Nyanja ya Norway, na Hudson Strait.<ref name="Wright2001">{{cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=The New York Times Almanac 2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G81HonU81pAC&pg=PA459 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=30 November 2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-57958-348-4 |page=459}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|title=IHO Publication S-23 Limits of Oceans and Seas; Chapter 9: Arctic Ocean|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|date=2002|access-date=2017-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105534/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|archive-date=2014-02-02}}</ref><ref name="Calow1999">{{cite book |last=Calow |first=Peter |title=Blackwell's concise encyclopedia of environmental management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0E0LP-pPCWwC&pg=PA7 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=12 July 1999 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-632-04951-6 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="LewisJones2000">{{cite book |editor-last1=Lewis |editor-first1=Edward Lyn |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=E. Peter |display-editors=etal |title=The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZX_p5IKAxUC&pg=PA282|access-date=26 November 2010|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-6439-9|pages=101, 282–283}}</ref><ref name="McColl2005">{{cite book |last=McColl |first=R.W. |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA57 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="EarleGlover2008">{{cite book |last1=Earle |first1=Sylvia A. |last2=Glover |first2=Linda K. |title=Ocean: An Illustrated Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluNhV-8pbwC&pg=PA112 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2008 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-1-4262-0319-0 |page=112}}</ref><ref name="Reddy2001">{{cite book |last=Reddy |first=M. P. M. |title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-90-5410-706-4 |page=8}}</ref><ref name="DayGarratt2006">{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Trevor |last2=Garratt |first2=Richard |title=Oceans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VY9mCXOXIvQC&pg=PA21 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5327-8 |page=21}}</ref> === Virwa === Virwa vikulu na magulu gha virwa mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kufuma ku mzere wakwamba kuya kumanjiliro, ni: * Jan Mayen (Norway) * Iceland * Greenland (Denmark) * Virwa vya Arctic vya Canada (kusazgapo Virwa vya Queen Elizabeth na Cirwa ca Baffin) * Cirwa ca Wrangel (Russia) * Virwa vya New Siberian (Russia) * Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) * Novaya Zemlya (Russia) * Franz Josef Land (Russia) * Svalbard (Norway) === Madoko === Pali madoko ghanandi pa Mbwani ya Arctic, mu Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Norway, Iceland, na Russia, nga ni Utqiaġvik, Churchill, Nuuk, Longyearbyen, Akureyri, Murmansk, na Arkhangelsk.<ref name=CIA>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/arctic-ocean/ Arctic Ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204191036/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/arctic-ocean/ |date=4 December 2022 }}. CIA World Fact Book</ref> === Mphepete za Pasi pa Maji === Mphepete za pasi pa maji za Arctic zili na vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo ca Canada na ca Russia, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "Mphepete ya Arctic" cifukwa ndicikulu.<ref>{{cite news |title=Canada extends continental shelf claim, increasing overlaps with Russia in Arctic |url=https://www.thebarentsobserver.com/arctic/canada-extends-continental-shelf-claim-increasing-overlaps-with-russia-in-arctic/118511 |access-date=11 February 2026 |work=The Barents Observer |date=23 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=IBRU's new Arctic maps show new continental shelves for Russia and USA - Durham University |url=https://www.durham.ac.uk/research/institutes-and-centres/ibru-borders-research/news-and-events/boundary-news/ibrus-new-arctic-maps-show-new-continental-shelves-for-russia-and-usa/ |website=www.durham.ac.uk |publisher=Durham University |access-date=11 February 2026 |language=en-gb}}</ref> Mphepete ya Russia yili na vigaŵa vitatu vicoko: Barents, Nyanja ya Chukchi, na Siberia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shakhova |first1=N |last2=Semiletov |first2=I |last3=Sergienko |first3=V |last4=Lobkovsky |first4=L |last5=Yusupov |first5=V |last6=Salyuk |first6=A |last7=Salomatin |first7=A |last8=Chernykh |first8=D |last9=Kosmach |first9=D |last10=Panteleev |first10=G |last11=Nicolsky |first11=D |last12=Samarkin |first12=V |last13=Joye |first13=S |last14=Charkin |first14=A |last15=Dudarev |first15=O |last16=Meluzov |first16=A |last17=Gustafsson |first17=O |title=The East Siberian Arctic Shelf: towards further assessment of permafrost-related methane fluxes and role of sea ice. |journal=Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences |date=13 October 2015 |volume=373 |issue=2052 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2014.0451 |pmid=26347539|pmc=4607703 |bibcode=2015RSPTA.37340451S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinbach |first1=J |last2=Holmstrand |first2=H |last3=Shcherbakova |first3=K |last4=Kosmach |first4=D |last5=Brüchert |first5=V |last6=Shakhova |first6=N |last7=Salyuk |first7=A |last8=Sapart |first8=CJ |last9=Chernykh |first9=D |last10=Noormets |first10=R |last11=Semiletov |first11=I |last12=Gustafsson |first12=Ö |title=Source apportionment of methane escaping the subsea permafrost system in the outer Eurasian Arctic Shelf. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=9 March 2021 |volume=118 |issue=10 |article-number=e2019672118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2019672118 |doi-access=free |pmid=33649226|pmc=7958249 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11819672S }}</ref> Mwa ivi, ya Siberia ndiyo mphepete yikulu comene ya mtundu uwu pa caro cose; yili na mafuta na mphepo za pasi zinandi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boulègue |first1=Mathieu |title=The militarization of Russian polar politics {{!}} 04 The Pacific Arctic, the Bering Strait and northeast Asia |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/06/militarization-russian-polar-politics/04-pacific-arctic-bering-strait-and-northeast-asia |access-date=22 February 2026 |work=Chatham House |date=June 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Mphepete ya cigaŵa ca Chukchi yikupanga mphaka pakati pa Russia na United States nga umo yikalongosoreka mu phangano la 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Macalister |first1=Terry |title=Rush for Arctic's resources provokes territorial tussles |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/06/arctic-resources-territorial-dispute |access-date=22 February 2026 |work=The Guardian |date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Cigaŵa cose cili na mphindano za pakati pa vyaro pa malo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hegewald |first1=Anne |last2=Jokat |first2=Wilfried |title=Tectonic and sedimentary structures in the northern Chukchi region, Arctic Ocean |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=July 2013 |volume=118 |issue=7 |pages=3285–3296 |doi=10.1002/jgrb.50282 |bibcode=2013JGRB..118.3285H }}</ref> === Vimanyikwiro vya Pasi pa Maji === Phiri la pasi pa maji, Lomonosov Ridge, likugaŵa dimba lakuzika la Mphaka ya Kumpoto mu madimba ghaŵiri: dimba la Yurasiya, lakuzika mamita 4,000–4,500, na dimba la Amerasia, lakuzika mamita pafupifupi 4,000. Pasi pa mbwani pali mapiri, malo ghakugonera ghakuzika, na madimba. Kuzika kwapakati kwa Mbwani ya Arctic ni mamita 1,038.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Mariana Trench – Oceanography| work=marianatrench.com | url=http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm | date=4 April 2003| access-date=2 December 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061207210451/http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm| archive-date= 7 December 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> Malo ghakuzika comene ni Molloy Hole mu Fram Strait, pa mamita pafupifupi 5,550.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fivedeeps.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Molloy-Press-Release-final.pdf|title=Five Deeps Expedition is complete after historic dive to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean}}</ref> Madimba ghaŵiri ghakulu ghakugaŵika so na mapiri kuŵa dimba la Canada, dimba la Makarov, dimba la Amundsen, na dimba la Nansen. == Kasandiro ka Pasi == Malibwe gha pasi gha mapiri gha kuzunguliya Mbwani ya Arctic ghakapangika panji kusintha mu nyengo ya kupangika kwa mapiri ya Ellesmerian mu nyengo ya Paleozoic. Kubira kwa pasi mu nyengo za Triassic na Jurassic kukapangiska kuwunjika kwa dongo kunandi, ndipo kukapanga malo ghanandi agho mafuta na mphepo za pasi zili sono. Mu nyengo ya Cretaceous, dimba la Canada likajulika, ndipo kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi kukapangiska mafuta kusamira ku malo agho sono ni Prudhoe Bay. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, dongo kufuma ku mapiri gha Canadian Rockies agho ghakakweranga likapanga mlomo ukulu wa mlonga wa Mackenzie. Kupatukana kwa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Pangea, kwamba mu nyengo ya Triassic, kukajula Mbwani ya Atlantic yakwamba. Kupatukana kukalutilira kumpoto, kujula Mbwani ya Arctic apo cikopa ca pasi pa mbwani cikafumanga. Dimba la Amerasia lingaŵa kuti likajulika dankha. Kuthandazgika kunyake kukovwira kupanga phiri la Alpha-Mendeleev mu nyengo ya Cretaceous ya pamanyuma. Mu nyengo ya Cenozoic, kunjira pasi kwa cigaŵa ca pasi ca Pacific, kutimbana kwa India na Yurasiya, na kujulika kwakulutilira kwa Atlantic ya Kumpoto vikapanga malo ghaphya agho mafuta ghakusungikira. Pasi pa mbwani pakamba kuthandazgika kufuma ku phiri la Gakkel, ndipo ici cikapangiska Lomonosov Ridge kusamira kutali na mtunda na kubira. Cifukwa ca cikakato ca mbwani na kutali kwake, kasandiro ka pasi ka Mbwani ya Arctic kandapendeke makola. Kuboola kwa Arctic Coring Expedition kukavumbula pacoko Lomonosov Ridge, ilo likuwoneka kuŵa cikopa ca mtunda ico cikapatukana na mphepete ya Barents-Kara. Lingaŵa na mbiya za mafuta mpaka biliyoni 10. Phiri la Gakkel nalo likumanyikwa makola yayi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Geological History of the Arctic Ocean|year=2007|publisher=GEO ExPro|url=https://assets.geoexpro.com/legacy-files/articles/A%20Brief%20Geological%20History%20of%20the%20Arctic%20Ocean.pdf|author=Whaley, Jane|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003232453/https://assets.geoexpro.com/legacy-files/articles/A%20Brief%20Geological%20History%20of%20the%20Arctic%20Ocean.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-s1fDwAAQBAJ&q=geology+of+the+arctic+ocean |title=Geologic Structures of the Arctic Basin |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-319-77742-9 |editor-last=Piskarev |editor-first=Alexey |editor-last2=Poselov |editor-first2=Victor |editor-last3=Kaminsky |editor-first3=Valery}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Mbwani == === Kwenda kwa Maji === [[File:BrnBld BeringToFram.svg|right|upright=2.15|thumb|Umo maji ghakupambana ghathandazgikira mu Mbwani ya Arctic. Cithuzi cikulongora maji ghakupambana kuya pasi kufuma ku Bering Strait, kujumpha Kumpoto Comene, mpaka ku Fram Strait. Cifukwa maji ghakupatukana mu vigaŵa vyakukhazikika, maji gha pasi ngakuzitika kuluska agho ghali pacanya.]] [[File:Temperature and salinity profiles in the Arctic Ocean.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Kuzitika kwa maji mu mamita {{convert|1200|m|abbr=on}} gha pacanya mu Mbwani ya Arctic. Kufunda na mcere vya Amundsen Basin, Canadian Basin, na Greenland Sea vikulongoreka.]] Mu vigaŵa vikulu vya Mbwani ya Arctic, cigaŵa ca pacanya (pafupifupi mamita 50) cili na mcere ucoko na kuzizima kuluska maji ghanyake. Cikukhalilira cifukwa vyakufumapo vya mcere pa kukhwima kwa maji ni vikulu kuluska vya kufunda. Cikupokera maji ghawemi gha milonga yikulu ya Siberia na Canada (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), agho ghakuyandama pa maji gha mcere unandi, ghakukhwima, na ghakuzika. Pakati pa cigaŵa ici na maji ghanyake pali cigaŵa umo mcere na kufunda vikusazgikira apo kuzika kukusazgikira. Cifukwa yili paŵekha kuluska mbwani zinyake, Mbwani ya Arctic yili na ndondomeko yapadera na yakusuzga ya kwenda kwa maji. Yikuyana na Nyanja ya Mediterranean, cifukwa maji ghake ghakuzika ghakukolerana pacoko pera na dimba la Atlantic kwizira mu Fram Strait.<ref name=Tomczak>[Regional Oceanography: An Introduction. Tomczak, Godfrey. Retrieved 18 November 2013.]</ref> Mbwani ya Arctic yili na maji gha makilomita gha mbali zitatu 18.07 × 10⁶, pafupifupi magaŵa 1.3 pa 100 gha mbwani yose ya caro capasi.<ref name=Talley>{{cite book|title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography|author= Pickard, George L. |author2=Emery, William J. |publisher=Pergamon|isbn=978-1-4832-7877-3|year=1982 }}</ref> Maji ghakunjira kufuma ku Mbwani ya Pacific na ya Atlantic, ndipo ghangagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera. Cigaŵa cakuzika comene cikuchemeka Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ndipo cikwamba pafupifupi mamita 900.<ref name=Tomczak /> Ni maji ghakukhwima comene mu mbwani ya caro cose, ndipo ghakufuma ku malo ghaŵiri: maji gha mphepete za Arctic na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific ghakujumpha mu Bering Strait yifupi na kufika mu Nyanja ya Chukchi.<ref name=Nature>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/arctic-ocean-circulation-going-around-at-the-102811553 |title=Arctic Ocean Circulation: Going Around at the Top of the World. Retrieved 2 November 2013. |access-date=12 November 2013 |archive-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112042040/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/arctic-ocean-circulation-going-around-at-the-102811553 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, mphepo zakuzizima za Alaska zikuputa pa Nyanja ya Chukchi, kukhwimiska maji gha pacanya na kukankha cikakato ciphya ici ku Pacific.<ref name=Talley /> Ici cikusiya maji ghakukhwima gha mcere mu nyanja agho ghakubira mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya kumanjiliro.<ref name=Polar>[http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/circulation.html Arctic Ocean Circulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040516/http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/circulation.html |date=15 January 2013 }}. Polar Discovery</ref> Maji agha ghakukumana na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland, agho ghakupangika apo vimphepo vya nyengo ya kuzizima vikujumpha. Apo kuzizima kukusazgikira comene, cikakato cikupangika, ndipo maji ghakukhwima mwakukwana kubira pasi pa maji ghakufunda gha mcere.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ngakuzirwa comene cifukwa agho ghakufumamo ghakovwira kupanga Maji ghakuzika gha Atlantic. Kuzgokerana kwa maji agha kukugwira ntchito yikulu pa kwenda kwa maji kwa caro cose na kukhazikiska nyengo. [[File:Nares strait border (Kennedy channel).png|thumb|left| Kennedy Channel.]] Pakati pa mamita 150–900 pali maji agho ghakuchemeka Maji gha Atlantic. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Atlantic ya Kumpoto ghakunjira kwizira mu Fram Strait, ghakuzizima na kubira, ndipo ghakuzunguliya dimba la Arctic. Ndigho maji ghanandi comene agho ghakunjira mu Mbwani ya Arctic, pafupifupi kakhumi kuluska agho ghakufuma ku Pacific.<ref name=Nature /> Ghakwenda pacoko pacoko.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Atlantic ghali na mcere wakuyana na Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic kweni ngakufunda comene (mpaka 3 °C). Nadi, maji agha ngakufunda kuluska maji gha pacanya, ndipo ghakusyala pasi cifukwa ca mcere pera.<ref name=Tomczak /> Para maji ghafika mu dimba, ghakukankhika na mphepo zankhongono mu kwenda kukulu kwa cizungulizgo ako kakuchemeka Beaufort Gyre. Maji mu Beaufort Gyre ghali na mcere ucoko comene kuluska gha Nyanja ya Chukchi cifukwa ca maji gha milonga yikulu ya Canada na Siberia.<ref name=Polar /> Cigaŵa caumaliro ca maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic cikuchemeka Maji gha Pacanya gha Arctic ndipo cili pakati pa mamita 150–200. Cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca maji agha ni cigaŵa ca pasi pa pacanya. Cikufuma ku maji gha Atlantic agho ghakunjira kwizira mu migodi ya pasi pa maji ndipo ghakusazganika comene pa mphepete ya Siberia.<ref name=Tomczak /><ref>Lenn, Y., Rippeth, T. P., Old, C., Bacon, S., Polyakov, I., Ivanov, V. & Holemann, J (2011). Journal of Physical Oceanography. 41(3), 531–547</ref> Apo ghakusazganika, ghakuzizima ndipo ghakuvikilira cigaŵa ca pacanya ku kufunda.<ref>Lenn, Y. D., Wiles, P. J., Torres-Valdes, S., Abrahamsen, E. P., Rippeth, T. P., Simpson, J. H., Bacon, S., Laxon, S. W., Polyakov, I., Ivanov, V. & Kirillov, S. (2009). Vertical mixing at intermediate depths in the Arctic boundary current. Geophysical Research Letters. 36, p. L05601</ref><ref>Fer, I. (2009). Weak vertical diffusion allows maintenance of cold halocline in the central Arctic. Atmospheric and Oceanic Science Letters 2(3):148–152.</ref> Kweni mu vyaka makhumi ghaŵiri ghaumaliro, kufunda na kukwera kwa maji gha Atlantic kukupangiska kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kusungunuska comene cikakato ca mbwani ku kumafumiro kwa Arctic.<ref>Barton, B., Lenn, Y-D. & Lique, C. (2018). Observed atlantification of the Barents Sea causes the Polar Front to limit the expansion of winter sea ice, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 28(8), 1849–1866</ref><ref>Igor V. Polyakov1, Andrey V. Pnyushkov, Matthew B. Alkire, Igor M. Ashik, Till M. Baumann, Eddy C. Carmack, Ilona Goszczko, John Guthrie, Vladimir V. Ivanov, Torsten Kanzow, Richard Krishfield, Ronald Kwok, Arild Sundfjord, James Morison, Robert Rember, Alexander Yulin (2017). Greater role for Atlantic inflows on sea-ice loss in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Science, 356(6335), 285–291</ref> Kupima kwa sonosono, kwa 2016–2018, kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa mbwani ku pacanya sono kwajumpha kwa mphepo mu dimba la Yurasiya la kumafumiro.<ref>Polyakov, I., Rippeth, T., Fer, I., Alkire, M., Baumann, T., Carmack, E., Ivanov, V., Janout, M. A., Padman, L., Pnyushkov, A. & Rember, R (2020). Weakening of the cold halocline layer exposes sea ice to oceanic heat in the eastern Arctic Ocean. Journal of Climate, 33(18), 8107-8123</ref><ref>Polyakov, I., Rippeth, T., Fer, I., Baumann, T., Carmack, E., Ivanov, V., Janout, M. A., Padman, L., Pnyushkov, A. & Rember, R (2020). Intensification of Near-Surface Currents and Shear in the Eastern Arctic Ocean: A More Dynamic Eastern Arctic Ocean, Geophysical Research Letters, 47(16), e2020GL089469</ref> Kweni kupima kwakulunjika ku kumanjiliro kwa Arctic kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kukusyala pakati nanga ni pa mphepo yikulu ya Arctic ya 2012.<ref>Lincoln, B., Rippeth, T., Lenn, Y-D., Timmermans, M-L., Williams, W. & Bacon, S (2016). Wind-driven mixing at intermediate depths in an ice-free Arctic Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(18), 9749-9756</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific na ku Atlantic ghose ghakufuma kwizira mu Fram Strait pakati pa Greenland na Svalbard, iyo njakuzika mamita pafupifupi 2,700 na yisani makilomita 350. Usani wa Fram Strait ndiwo ukuzomerezga maji kunjira na kufuma ku mbali ya Atlantic.<ref name=Nature /> Cifukwa ca kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, maji ghakufuma kumanjiliro mu East Greenland Current na kunjira kumafumiro mu Norwegian Current.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Pacific ghakufuma so mu mphepete ya kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na Hudson Strait, ndipo ghakupeleka vyakulya ku virwa vya Canada.<ref name=Nature /> Nga umo tawonera, kupangika na kwenda kwa cikakato ni cifukwa cikulu ca kwenda kwa maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic na kupangika kwa vigaŵa vya maji. Ntheura Mbwani ya Arctic yikusintha cifukwa ca kusintha kwa cikakato mu nyengo. Kwenda kwa cikakato kukufuma ku mphepo, izo zikukolerana na vyakucitika vya nyengo vinandi vya Arctic mu caka.<ref name=Talley /> Mwaciyelezgero, kukanikizga kukulu kwa mphepo kwa Beaufort kukwendeska Beaufort Gyre. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, kukanikizga uku kukusamira pafupi na Siberia na Canada. Kweniso, kukanikizga kukulu pacanya pa Greenland kukwiziska mphepo zankhongono zakufuma kumpoto kwizira mu Fram Strait, kovwira kufumiska cikakato. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, mphepo izi nzicoko. Kukanikizga kucoko pacanya pa nyanja za Nordic na Barents kukupanga kwenda kwa maji kwa cizungulizgo mu cigaŵa ici. Kusintha kose uku kukupangiska kwenda kwa cikakato kuŵa kucoko comene mu myezi ya nyengo ya kufunda.<ref name=Talley /> === Cikakato ca Mbwani === [[File:2007 Arctic Sea Ice.jpg|thumb|Cikakato ca mbwani mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kulongora cikakato capakati, ca 2005, na ca 2007<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 |title=Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007164907/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 |archive-date=7 October 2006 |author1=Robert Simmon |author2=Walt Meier |author3=Nathaniel B. Palmer |access-date=7 December 2006}}</ref>]] [[File:Refueling Twin Otter.jpg|thumb|Pa cikakato ca Mbwani ya Arctic ŵangaŵika malo gha kanyengo gha kovwira maulendo. Apa, ndege ya Twin Otter yikuthiliskika mafuta pa cikakato pa 86°N, 76°43'W pa 16 Epulelo 1990 pa ulendo wa kuya ku Kumpoto Comene]] Cigaŵa cikulu ca Mbwani ya Arctic caphimbika na cikakato ca mbwani ico cikusintha mu unandi na kukhwima mu nyengo. Unandi wapakati wa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic ukulutilira kucepa mu vyaka makhumi vyaumaliro, pa luŵiro lwa magaŵa 12.85 pa 100 pa vyaka khumi kufuma 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Change|first=NASA Global Climate|title=Arctic Sea Ice Minimum {{!}} NASA Global Climate Change|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice|access-date=2020-09-10|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet}}</ref> Kusintha kwa nyengo kuli pafupifupi makilomita gha mbali zinayi 7,000,000, ndipo cikakato cinandi comene ni mu Masika na cicoko comene mu Lupya. Cikakato ca mbwani cikukhwaskika na mphepo na kwenda kwa maji, ivyo vingasamiska na kuzunguliya vigaŵa vikulu comene vya cikakato. Malo gha kukanikizgana nagho ghakupangika, umo cikakato cikuwunjikana.<ref>[http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/ Sea Ice Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202220337/http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/ |date=2 February 2020 }}. Nsidc.org. Retrieved on 6 March 2011.</ref><ref>[http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere/ Polar Sea Ice Cap and Snow – Cryosphere Today] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223161943/http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere/ |date=23 February 2011 }}. Arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu (23 September 2007). Retrieved on 2011-03-06.</ref><ref name="Buixade Farre 2014">{{cite journal|first1=Albert |last1=Buixadé Farré |first2=Scott R. |last2=Stephenson |first3=Linling |last3=Chen |first4=Michael |last4=Czub |first5=Ying |last5=Dai |first6=Denis |last6=Demchev |first7=Yaroslav |last7=Efimov |first8=Piotr |last8=Graczyk |first9=Henrik |last9=Grythe |first10=Kathrin |last10=Keil |first11=Niku |last11=Kivekäs |first12=Naresh |last12=Kumar |first13=Nengye |last13=Liu |first14=Igor |last14=Matelenok |first15=Mari |last15=Myksvoll |first16=Derek |last16=O'Leary |first17=Julia |last17=Olsen |first18=Sachin |last18=Pavithran .A.P. |first19=Edward |last19=Petersen |first20=Andreas |last20=Raspotnik |first21=Ivan |last21=Ryzhov |first22=Jan |last22=Solski |first23=Lingling |last23=Suo |first24=Caroline |last24=Troein |first25=Vilena |last25=Valeeva |first26=Jaap |last26=van Rijckevorsel |first27=Jonathan |last27=Wighting |date=16 October 2014 |title=Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage: Routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure |journal=Polar Geography |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=298–324 |doi=10.1080/1088937X.2014.965769 |bibcode=2014PolGe..37..298B |doi-access=free |hdl=2440/112024 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mapiri gha cikakato nyengo zinyake ghakuphwanyika kufuma ku Cirwa ca Ellesmere, ndipo ghakupangika so kufuma ku cikakato cikulu cakwenda ca kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada. Mapiri gha cikakato ni cikakato ca mbwani yayi kweni ghangakakika mu cikakato ca mbwani. Ghali pa ngozi ku ngalawa, ndipo Titanic ni yimoza mwa izo zikumanyikwa comene. Mbwani yikujalika na cikakato pafupifupi kufuma Thukila mpaka Zizima, ndipo vigaŵa vya pacanya vya ngalawa vikuphimbika na cikakato kufuma Thukila mpaka Vula.<ref name=CIA /> Pambere ngalawa zakuphwanya cikakato za mazuŵa ghano zindize, ngalawa izo zikenda pa Mbwani ya Arctic zikaŵa pa ngozi ya kukakika panji kuphwanyika na cikakato (nangauli ngalawa ya Baychimo yikayandama mu Mbwani ya Arctic kwambura ŵanthu kwa vyaka makhumi). == Nyengo == [[File:North Pole Sea Ice 1990-1999.ogv|thumb|Kusintha kwa cikakato pakati pa 1990 na 1999]] Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu nyengo ya mphaka, iyo yili na kuzizima kwakulutilira na kusintha kucoko kwa kufunda mu caka. Nyengo ya kuzizima yili na usiku wa mphaka, kuzizima kukulu comene, na nyengo yakukhazikika.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Serreze|first1=Mark C|last2=Barry|first2=Roger G|title=The Arctic Climate System|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-107-03717-5|pages=168–172|edition=2nd}}</ref> Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi ku mbali ya Atlantic pera.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Simmonds|first1=Ian|last2=Burke|first2=Craig|last3=Keay|first3=Kevin|title=Arctic climate change as manifest in cyclone behavior|journal=Journal of Climate|date=2008|volume=21|issue=22|page=5777|doi=10.1175/2008JCLI2366.1|bibcode=2008JCli...21.5777S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nyengo ya kufunda yili na ungweru wa zuŵa nyengo zose (zuŵa la pakati pa usiku), ndipo kufunda kwa mphepo kungakwera pacoko pacanya pa 0 °C. Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi mu nyengo ya kufunda ndipo zingiziska vula panji cikakato.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Kuli maŵingu caka cose, kufuma magaŵa 60 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kuzizima mpaka kujumpha 80 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kufunda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Serreze|first1=Mark C|last2=Barry|first2=Roger G|title=The Arctic Climate System|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-107-03717-5|pages=56–59|edition=2nd}}</ref> Kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya gha Mbwani ya Arctic kukuyana pafupifupi nyengo zose pa −1.8 °C, pafupi na apo maji gha mbwani ghakukhwimira. Kukhwima kwa maji gha mbwani, kupambana na maji ghawemi, kukusazgikira apo ghakuza pafupi na kukhwima, ntheura ghakubira. Kanandi nchakukhumbikwa kuti mamita 100–150 gha pacanya gha mbwani ghazizime mpaka kukhwima kuti cikakato ca mbwani cipangike.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nsidc.org/seaice/intro.html |title=NSIDC sea ice |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117114629/http://nsidc.org/seaice/intro.html |archive-date=17 January 2010 }}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, maji gha mbwani agho ghakufunda pacoko ghakucepeska kuzizima, nanga ni apo ghaphimbika na cikakato. Ici ni cifukwa cimoza ico Arctic yilije kuzizima kukulu comene uko kukuwoneka pa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Antarctica. Pali kusintha kukulu mu nyengo pa unandi wa cikakato ico cikuphimba Mbwani ya Arctic. Cigaŵa cikulu ca cikakato ici caphimbika so na cizizimu kwa myezi pafupifupi 10 pa caka. Cikakato ca kuthambo cinandi comene cikuŵa mu Mpupulu panji Masika, pafupifupi masentimita 20–50 pacanya pa mbwani yakukhwima. Nyengo ya cigaŵa ca Arctic yasintha comene mu mbiri ya caro capasi. Mu nyengo ya kufunda kukulu vyaka miliyoni 55 ivyo vyajumpha, apo nyengo ya caro cose yikafunda na pafupifupi 5–8 °C, cigaŵa ici cikafika pa kufunda kwapakati kwa caka kwa 10–20 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McInerney|first1=Francesca A.|last2=Wing|first2=Scott L.|date=2011-04-25|title=The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: A Perturbation of Carbon Cycle, Climate, and Biosphere with Implications for the Future|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133431|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|volume=39|issue=1|pages=489–516|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133431|bibcode=2011AREPS..39..489M|issn=0084-6597|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nunes|first1=Flavia|last2=Norris|first2=Richard D.|date=2006-01-01|title=Abrupt reversal in ocean overturning during the Palaeocene/Eocene warm period|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.439...60N|journal=Nature|volume=439|issue=7072|pages=60–63|doi=10.1038/nature04386|pmid=16397495|bibcode=2006Natur.439...60N|s2cid=4301227}}</ref><ref name=Shellito2003>{{cite journal| author = Shellito, C.J.| author2= Sloan, L.C.|author3= Huber, M.| date = 2003| title = Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric CO2 levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene| journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology| volume = 193| issue = 1| pages = 113–123| doi = 10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6| bibcode = 2003PPP...193..113S}}</ref> Maji gha pacanya gha kumpoto comene gha Mbwani ya Arctic ghakafunda, pacoko mu nyengo zinyake, mwakukwana kusunga vyamoyo vya ku tropiki ivyo vikukhumba kufunda kwa pacanya kwakujumpha 22 °C.<ref>Drill cores were recovered from the Lomonosov Ridge, presently at 87°N</ref><ref name=Sluijs2006>{{cite journal| author = Sluijs, A. |author2=Schouten, S. |author3=Pagani, M. |author4=Woltering, M. |author5=Brinkhuis, H. |author6=Damsté, J.S.S. |author7=Dickens, G.R. |author8=Huber, M. |author9=Reichart, G.J. |author10=Stein, R.| date = 2006| title = Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum| journal = Nature| volume = 441| issue = 7093| pages = 610–613| doi = 10.1038/nature04668| pmid = 16752441|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2006Natur.441..610S|hdl=11250/174280 |s2cid=4412522 |url=https://brage.npolar.no/npolar-xmlui/bitstream/11250/174280/1/SluijsNature2006.pdf}}</ref> Sono, cigaŵa ca Arctic cikufunda kaŵiri luŵiro kuluska caro capasi cose.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pierre-Louis|first=Kendra|date=2019-12-10|title=Climate Change Is Ravaging the Arctic, Report Finds|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/10/climate/climate-change-arctic-warming.html|access-date=2020-09-11|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Crew|first=Bec|title=The Arctic Is Warming Twice as Fast as The Rest of The Planet|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-arctic-is-warming-twice-as-fast-as-the-rest-of-the-planet|access-date=2020-09-11|website=ScienceAlert|date=15 December 2016 |language=en-gb}}</ref> == Vyamoyo == [[File:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|''Polar bear'' zitatu zikufika pafupi na ngalawa ya pasi pa maji ya USS ''Honolulu'' pafupi na Kumpoto Comene.]] Cifukwa ca kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo kwa myezi 2–6 ya zuŵa la pakati pa usiku na usiku wa mphaka mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kupanga kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo vya usanisinuru nga ni vyakumera vicoko vya pa cikakato na vya mu maji kukucitika mu myezi ya Masika mpaka Lupya pera.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Berge|first1= J.|last2= Renaud|first2= P. E.|display-authors= 1|date= 2015|title= In the dark: A review of ecosystem processes during the Arctic polar night|journal= Progress in Oceanography|volume= 139|pages= 258–271|doi= 10.1016/j.pocean.2015.08.005|bibcode= 2015PrOce.139..258B|doi-access= free|hdl= 10037/8602|hdl-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Leu|first1= E.|last2= Søreide|first2= J. E.|last3= Hessen|first3= D. O.|display-authors= 2|date= 2011|title= Consequences of changing sea-ice cover for primary and secondary producers in the European Arctic shelf seas: Timing, quantity, and quality|journal= Progress of Oceanography|volume= 90|issue= 1–4|pages= 18–32|doi= 10.1016/j.pocean.2011.02.004|bibcode= 2011PrOce..90...18L}}</ref> Ŵakurya ŵakuzirwa ŵa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati na nyanja za mphepete ni tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji, comene twa mitundu yinyake, pamoza na vinyama vya pa cikakato.<ref name="Kosobokova-2011">{{Cite journal|last1= Kosobokova|first1= K. N.|last2= Hopcroft|first2= R. R.|date= 2011|title= Patterns of zooplankton diversity through the depths of the Arctic's central basins|journal= Marine Biodiversity|volume= 41|issue= 1|pages= 29–50|doi= 10.1007/s12526-010-0057-9|bibcode= 2011MarBd..41...29K|s2cid= 23452656}}</ref><ref name="Dalpadado-2012">{{Cite journal|last1= Dalpadado|first1= P.|last2= Ingvaldsen|first2= R. B.|display-authors= 1|date= 2012|title= Climate effects on Barents Sea ecosystem dynamics|journal= ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume= 69|issue= 7|pages= 1303–1316|doi= 10.1093/icesjms/fss063|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name="Kosobokova-2011" /> Ŵakurya ŵakwamba aŵa ni ulalo wakuzirwa pakati pa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba na vinyama vya pacanya. Kapangikiro ka vinyama vya pacanya mu Mbwani ya Arctic kakupambana kuyana na cigaŵa (mbali ya Atlantic panji ya Pacific) na cikakato. Ŵakurya ŵaciŵiri mu Nyanja ya Barents, nyanja ya mphepete ya Arctic iyo yikukhwaskika na Atlantic, comene ni somba za pafupi na Arctic nga ni ''herring'', ''cod'' yiphya, na ''capelin''.<ref name="Dalpadado-2012" /> Mu vigaŵa vya cikakato vya Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati, ''cod'' ya mphaka ndiyo cakusaka cikulu ca ŵakurya ŵakwamba. Vyakusaka vya pacanya comene mu Mbwani ya Arctic, vinyama vyakonkheska vya mu mbwani nga ni ''seal'', nyamumba, na ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa, vikusaka somba. Vinyama vya mu mbwani ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Mbwani ya Arctic ni ''walrus'' na nyamumba. Cigaŵa ici cili na malo gha vyamoyo ghakunangika luŵiro, ndipo ghali pa ngozi comene ya kusintha kwa nyengo, cifukwa cikufunda luŵiro kuluska caro cose. ''Jellyfish'' yikulu ya mtundu wa ''lion's mane'' njinandi mu maji gha Arctic. == Vyuma vya Kawiro == <gallery mode=packed heights=150> File:Minke Whale (NOAA).jpg|Nyamumba wa ''minke'' File:Walruses on ice floes.jpg|''Walrus'' pa vigaŵa vya cikakato vya Arctic File:Calanus hyperboreus 750x750.jpg|''Calanus hyperboreus'' </gallery> Mafuta na mphepo za pasi, vyuma vya mu mcenga, vyuma vya visulo vinandi, mcenga na tumalibwe, somba, ''seal'' na nyamumba vyose vingasangika vinandi mu cigaŵa ici.<ref name=CIA /><ref name="Buixade Farre 2014" /> Malo ghambura mwenecho pa ndyali pafupi na pakati pa nyanja ni nkhani ya mphindano yikulu pakati pa United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, na Denmark.<ref>Reynolds, Paul (25 October 2005) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405015017/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map |date=5 April 2018 }}. ''BBC''.</ref> Ngakuzirwa ku msika wa nkhongono wa caro cose cifukwa ghangaŵa na magaŵa 25 pa 100 panji kujumpha gha mafuta na mphepo za pasi agho ghandasangike pa caro cose.<ref>Yenikeyeff, Shamil and Krysiek, Timothy Fenton (August 2007) [http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407110248/http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf |date=7 April 2012 }}. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.</ref> == Masuzgo gha Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kusungunuka kwa Cikakato ca Arctic === Cikakato ca Arctic cikucepa, ndipo bowo la nyengo zinyake mu cigaŵa ca ozone likucitika kanandi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Linking_Today_into_Tomorrow-WS4D339983-1_En.htm|title=Erreur HTTP 404 - Non trouvé|website=ec.gc.ca}}</ref> Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic kukucepeska kuwezga ungweru kwa caro capasi, ndipo kungapangiska kufunda kwa caro cose kusazgikira.<ref name="Buixade Farre 2014" /><ref name="R.Black">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm Earth – melting in the heat?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630003659/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm |date=30 June 2018 }} Richard Black, 7 October 2005. BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref> Kusanda kukulongora kuti Arctic yingaŵa yambura cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kakwamba mu mbiri ya ŵanthu pofika 2040.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Peter |title=Russia the next climate recalcitrant |date=17 November 2008 |work=The Australian |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/business-old/russia-the-next-climate-recalcitrant/news-story/26a8cb7871099d194c882e4a46c91c30}}</ref><ref name="nsidc2011">{{cite web | url=https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/icelights/2011/05/when-will-arctic-lose-its-sea-ice | title=When will the Arctic lose its sea ice? | publisher=National Snow & Ice Data Center | date=May 2011 | access-date=3 November 2016}}</ref> Maghanoghano pa nyengo yaumaliro iyo Arctic yikaŵa yambura cikakato ghakupambana: vyaka miliyoni 65 ivyo vyajumpha apo mafosilo ghakulongora kuti vyakumera vikaŵako, mpaka vyaka 5,500 pera ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Nsidc">{{cite web | url=http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/faq/#summer_ice | title=Has the Arctic Ocean always had ice in summer? | publisher=National Snow & Ice Data Center | date=February 2012 | access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref> Kufunda mu Arctic kungapangiska maji ghanandi ghawemi gha cikakato cakusungunuka kunjira mu Atlantic ya kumpoto, ndipo kungasokonezga kwenda kwa maji gha mbwani ya caro cose. Kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo ya caro capasi kungalondezga.<ref name="R.Black" /> Apo cikakato ca mbwani cikucepa na maji gha mbwani ghakukwera, vyakufumapo vya vimphepo nga ni ca 2012 pa maji ghakujulika vikusazgikira, nga umo kunangika kwa vyakumera vya mphepete na maji gha mcere kukusazgikira mu malo nga ni mlomo wa mlonga wa Mackenzie.<ref name=CC03513>{{cite news|title=Warmer Arctic with Less Ice Increases Storm Surge|url=http://www.climatecentral.org/news/warmer-arctic-with-less-ice-increases-storm-surge-15689|access-date=8 March 2013|newspaper=Climate Central|date=5 March 2013|author=Lauren Morello}}</ref> Kufunda kwa caro cose kwasazgira kukumana pakati pa ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa na ŵanthu. Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani kukupangiska ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa kupenja vyakulya kunyake.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brackett |first1=Ron |title=Arctic Russian Town Declares Polar Bear Invasion Emergency After 52 Wander In |url=https://weather.com/news/news/2019-02-11-russian-archipelago-invaded-polar-bears-emergency |website=weather.com |publisher=The Weather Company |access-date=3 March 2019 |date=11 February 2019 |ref=bearinvasion |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043253/https://weather.com/news/news/2019-02-11-russian-archipelago-invaded-polar-bears-emergency }}</ref> Kwamba mu Zimya 2018 mpaka Mpupulu 2019, ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakanjira mu virwa vya Novaya Zemlya, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa malo agho ŵakapharazga ngozi. Ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakawoneka ŵakunjira mu nyumba, nyumba za ulongozgi, na malo gha ŵanthu.<ref name='A3'>{{cite news |last1=Abellan Matamoros |first1=Cristina |title=Watch: Polar bear in Russian archipelago peeks inside a house |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/02/12/watch-polar-bear-in-russian-archipelago-peaks-inside-a-house |access-date=14 February 2019 |agency=Euronews |publisher=euronews.com |date=13 February 2019}}</ref><ref name='A4'>{{cite news |last1=Stambaugh |first1=Alex |title=Polar bear invasion: Parents scared to send children to school in remote Russian archipelago |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/02/11/asia/polar-bears-russia-intl/index.html |access-date=15 February 2019 |agency=CNN |publisher=CNN |date=12 February 2019}}</ref> === Kunangika kwa Metheni wa pa Cikakato === {{annotated image/Extinction|float=right|caption=Kumalika kwa vyamoyo kwa Permian–Triassic kungaŵa kuti kukapangika na kufuma kwa metheni uwo ukaŵa wakusungika mu cikakato. Pafupifupi magaŵa 52 pa 100 gha mbumba za vyamoyo vya mu mbwani zikamalika, ico ni magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya mu mbwani.}} Cikakato ca mbwani, na kuzizima uko cikusunga, vikusunga metheni uwo uli pafupi na mphepete, ndipo vikukanizga kuti uleke kufuma mu mphepo na kusazgira kufunda.<ref name="independent2008">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html |title=Exclusive: The methane time bomb |author=Connor, Steve |date=23 September 2008 |access-date=14 May 2009 |work=The Independent |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403201120/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html |archive-date=3 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusungunuka kwa cikakato ici kungafumiska metheni munandi, mphepo yankhongono yakusunga kufunda, mu mphepo, ndipo kungasazgira kufunda na kupangiska mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu mbwani kumalira.<ref name="independent2008" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,547976,00.html |title=A Storehouse of Greenhouse Gases Is Opening in Siberia |author=Mrasek, Volker |newspaper=Spiegel Online |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=14 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501174420/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0%2C1518%2C547976%2C00.html |archive-date=1 May 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Masuzgo Ghanyake === Masuzgo ghanyake gha malo ghakuzingilizga ni kunangika kwa Mbwani ya Arctic na vinthu vya nyukiliya, mwaciyelezgero kufuma ku malo gha Russia gha kutaya vyakusyala vya nyukiliya mu Nyanja ya Kara, malo gha kuyezga vilwero vya nyukiliya vya nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Mtima nga ni Novaya Zemlya, vyakunanga vya Camp Century mu Greenland, na vyakunanga vya ngozi ya nyukiliya ya Fukushima Daiichi.<ref>[http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016195202/http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 |date=16 October 2007 }} Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, 24 August 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202051233/http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html |date=2 February 2017 }} Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A Top-Secret US Military Base Will Melt Out of the Greenland Ice Sheet |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/cold-war-era-nuclear-base-camp-century-melting-climate-change-greenland/ |work=VICE Magazine |date=9 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Radioactive contamination from Fukushima found as far north as Alaska's Bering Strait |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/radioactive-contamination-from-fukushima-found-as-far-north-as-alaskas-bering-strait |work=The Straits Times |date=28 March 2019}}</ref> Pa 16 Vuna 2015, vyaro vinkhondi (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) vikasayina kalata ya pangano la kusunga ngalawa zawo za kulowa somba kuwaro kwa malo gha makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 2.8 mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati pafupi na Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Phangano ili likupempha vyaro ivi kuleka kulowa kuko mpaka pazamuŵa vinjeru viwemi vya kasandiro pa vyuma vya mu mbwani na ndondomeko ya kuvivikilira.<ref>{{cite news|title=Arctic deal bans North Pole fishing|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33549606|access-date=16 July 2015|work=BBC News|date=16 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Rosen|first1=Yereth|title=5 nations sign declaration to protect Arctic 'donut hole' from unregulated fishing|url=https://www.adn.com/article/20150716/5-nations-sign-declaration-protect-arctic-donut-hole-unregulated-fishing|access-date=16 July 2015|publisher=Alaska Dispatch News|date=16 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717122523/https://www.adn.com/article/20150716/5-nations-sign-declaration-protect-arctic-donut-hole-unregulated-fishing|archive-date=2015-07-17}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Arctic Ocean]] kiqgv9xmgkrrqlfhesqjuwabr0sxqd8 124428 124406 2026-11-11T01:51:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124428 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Arctic Ocean - en.png|thumb|330x330px]] '''Mbwani ya Arctic''' ni yicoko comene na yambura kuzika comene mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi vya [[Mbwani|mbwani]] ya caro cose capasi.<ref name=Pidwirny>{{cite web | title=Introduction to the Oceans | work=physicalgeography.net | url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | author=Pidwirny, Michael | date=2006 | access-date=7 December 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209125035/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | archive-date=9 December 2006 }}</ref> Yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,060,000, ndipo njakuzizima comene kuluska mbwani zose. Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kupima Maji (IHO) ukuyiwona nga ni mbwani, nangauli ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mbwani ŵakuyichema Nyanja ya Pakati ya Arctic panji Nyanja ya Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Yalongosoreka so nga ni pafupifupi mlomo wa mlonga wa Mbwani ya Atlantic.<ref>{{Cite book |title=General oceanography: an introduction |date=1980 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-02102-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=501 |oclc=6200221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Chart of the North Polar Sea |url=https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/agdm/id/5249/ |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=collections.lib.uwm.edu |language=en}}</ref> Yikuwoneka so nga ni cigaŵa ca kumpoto comene ca mbwani ya caro cose. Mbwani ya Arctic yikusazgapo cigaŵa ca Mphaka ya Kumpoto pakati pa cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi, ndipo yikufika kumwera pafupifupi makona 60 kumpoto. Yikuzingilizgika na Yurasiya na Amerika ya Kumpoto, ndipo mphaka zake zikulondezga mawonekero gha malo: Bering Strait ku mbali ya Pacific na mphiri ya pasi pa maji ya Greenland na Scotland ku mbali ya Atlantic. Yikuphimbika pacoko na cikakato ca mbwani caka cose, ndipo pafupifupi yose mu nyengo ya kuzizima.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5677/|title='Arctic Sea Ice Minimum 2026'|access-date=29 Oct 2026|quote=Every summer the Arctic ice cap melts down to what scientists call its "minimum" before colder weather begins to cause ice cover to increase. An analysis of satellite data by NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) at the University of Colorado Boulder shows that the 2026 minimum extent, which was likely reached on Sept. 12, measured 1.78 million square miles (4.60 million square kilometers).}}</ref> Kufunda na mcere wa pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic vikusintha mu nyengo apo cikakato cikusungunuka na kukhwima; mcere wake ngucoko comene pakati pa mbwani zinkhondi zikulu, cifukwa ca kufumbuka kucoko, maji ghawemi ghanandi agho ghakufuma ku milonga, na kukolerana kucoko na mbwani zinyake za mcere unandi. Kucepa kwa cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kwayowoyeka kuŵa magaŵa 50 pa 100.<ref>[http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108092457/http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf |date=8 November 2017 }} K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref> Wupu wa U.S. wa Cikakato (NSIDC) ukugwiliskira ntchito ma''satellite'' kupeleka malemba gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic na luŵiro lwa kusungunuka kwake, ndipo ghakulongora kucepa kwakulutilira kwa cikakato.<ref name=Pidwirny /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arctic Sea Ice News and Analysis {{!}} Sea ice data updated daily with one-day lag|url=https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/|access-date=2020-09-01|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-18 |title=Climate Change: Arctic sea ice summer minimum {{!}} NOAA Climate.gov |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-arctic-sea-ice-summer-minimum |access-date=2026-01-08 |website=www.climate.gov |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014112538/https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-arctic-sea-ice-summer-minimum |archive-date=2021-10-14}}</ref> Mu Lupya 2012, cikakato ca Arctic cikafika pa ucoko uphya wa mbiri. Kuyaniska na unandi wapakati (1979–2000), cikakato ca mbwani cikaŵa kuti cacepa na magaŵa 49 pa 100.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Understanding the Arctic sea ice: Polar Portal|url=http://polarportal.dk/en/sea-ice-and-icebergs/understanding-the-arctic-sea-ice/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=polarportal.dk}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Amerika ya Kumpoto === Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu cigaŵa ca mphaka ca Amerika ya Kumpoto kwa vyaka 17,000–50,000 panji kujumpha, mu nyengo ya cikakato cikulu. Kucepa kwa maji gha mbwani kukazomerezga ŵanthu kujumpha ulalo wa mtunda wa Bering uwo ukakoleranya Siberia na kumpoto-kumanjiliro kwa Amerika ya Kumpoto (Alaska), ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanthu kukhala mu Amerika.<ref name=Goebel>{{cite journal |title=The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas |url=http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf |year=2008 |doi=10.1126/science.1153569 |pmid=18339930 |volume=319 |issue=5869 |journal=Science |pages=1497–502 |vauthors=Goebel T, Waters MR, O'Rourke DH|bibcode=2008Sci...319.1497G |s2cid=36149744 }}</ref> [[File:Cambridge Bay Thule Site 1998-06-28.jpg|left|thumb|Malo gha ŵanthu ŵa Thule gha kale]] Magulu ghakwamba gha ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Arctic ghakusazgapo Pre-Dorset (pafupifupi 3200–850 pambere Khristu); mdawuko wa Saqqaq wa Greenland (2500–800 pambere Khristu); midawuko ya Independence I na II ya kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada na Greenland; na Groswater ya Labrador na Nunavik. Mdawuko wa Dorset ukathandazgika mu Arctic ya Amerika ya Kumpoto pakati pa 500 pambere Khristu na 1500 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Ŵanthu ŵa Dorset ŵakaŵa mdawuko ukulu waumaliro wa kale mu Arctic pambere ŵanthu ŵa Thule, ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit ŵa mazuŵa ghano, ŵandasamire kumafumiro kufuma ku Alaska.<ref>[http://www.natmus.dk/sw18630.asp "The Prehistory of Greenland"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516102219/http://www.natmus.dk/sw18630.asp |date=16 May 2008 }}, Greenland Research Centre, National Museum of Denmark, accessed 14 April 2010.</ref> Mdawuko wa Thule ukaŵako kufuma pafupifupi 200 pambere Khristu mpaka 1600 mumuwilo wa Khristu, ukwamba kuzunguliya Bering Strait ndipo pamanyuma ukathandazgika pafupifupi mu cigaŵa cose ca Arctic ca Amerika ya Kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa Thule ŵakaŵa ŵambuye ŵa Ŵainuit, awo sono ŵakukhala mu Alaska, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik, Labrador na Greenland.<ref name="waterloo">{{cite web |last=Park |first=Robert W. |title=Thule Tradition |website=Arctic Archaeology |publisher=Department of Anthropology, University of Waterloo |url=http://anthropology.uwaterloo.ca/ArcticArchStuff/thule.html |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> === Ulaya === Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya Ulaya, vigaŵa vya mphaka ya kumpoto vikaŵa vyambura kupendeka ndipo malo ghake ghakaghanaghanirikanga waka. Pytheas wa ku Massilia wakalemba ulendo wakuya kumpoto mu 325 pambere Khristu, ku caro ico wakacichema "Eschate Thule", uko zuŵa likanjiliranga maora ghatatu pera pa zuŵa ndipo maji ghakaŵa cinthu cakukhwima "ico munthu wangendapo yayi panji kwendeskapo ngalawa yayi". Panyake wakalongosoranga cikakato ca mbwani cakupatukana; "Thule" yake panyake yikaŵa Norway, nangauli Virwa vya Faroe panji Shetland navyo vyasacizgika.<ref>[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html Pytheas] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918073035/http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html |date=18 September 2008 }} Andre Engels. Retrieved 16 December 2006.</ref> [[File:Map of the Arctic, 1780s - B&W.jpeg|thumb|left|Mapu gha Arctic gha Emanuel Bowen gha m'ma 1780 ghakulongora "Mbwani ya Kumpoto".]] [[File:Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage, and bathymetry.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Cigaŵa ca Arctic cakulongora Northeast Passage, Northern Sea Route mukati mwake, na Northwest Passage kwizira mu maji gha mukati gha Canada.]] Cifukwa ca mauthenga ghacoko agho ghakaŵako pa nyengo iyo, ŵapangi ŵa mapu ŵakwamba ŵakamanyanga yayi umo ŵangalongolera vigaŵa vya kuzunguliya Mphaka ya Kumpoto: ŵanyake ŵakaŵikanga mtunda (nga mu mapu gha Johannes Ruysch gha 1507, panji gha Gerardus Mercator gha 1595) panji kulongora cigaŵa cose nga ni maji (nga mu mapu gha Martin Waldseemüller gha 1507).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Netten |first1=Djoeke |title=Known unknowns in the North. Uncertain maps of the Arctic in early modern times |journal=International Journal of Cartography |date=2 October 2025 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=489–508 |doi=10.1080/23729333.2025.2478270|doi-access=free |bibcode=2025IJCar..11..489V }}</ref> Maulendo ghacoko agho ghakajumpha comene Mzere wa Arctic pa nyengo iyo ghakasanga virwa vicoko pera, nga ni Novaya Zemlya (vyaka vya m'ma 1000) na Spitzbergen (1596).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hiatt |first1=Fred |title=Cold, Dark Arctic Isle is Home to the Hardiest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/10/18/cold-dark-arctic-isle-is-home-to-the-hardiest/756a2fc6-ceb1-47e4-8935-2934916a9729/ |access-date=2 February 2026 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 October 1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arlov |first1=Thor B. |title=The Discovery and Early Exploitation of Svalbard. Some Historiographical Notes |journal=Acta Borealia |date=August 2005 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=3–19 |doi=10.1080/08003830510020343}}</ref> Kufuma pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 mpaka pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, maulendo ku Mbwani ya Arctic ghakaŵa ghanandi, kanandi kupenja nthowa za malonda kufuma ku Ulaya kuya ku Mbwani ya Pacific, ndipo ntheura kumanya malo gha cigaŵa ici kukakura pacoko pacoko.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rennison |first1=Nick |title=A Short History of Polar Exploration |date=2014 |publisher=Oldcastle Books |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-84344-090-1 |pages=13–23 |chapter=Chapter One: The Arctic Pre-1900}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1800 === Kusoŵa kumanya ico cikaŵa kumpoto kwa cikanizgo ca cikakato cakusintha kukapangiska maghanoghano ghanandi. Mu Ungelezi na mu vyaro vinyake vya Ulaya, jandulo la "Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika" likalutilira.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yuan Woon |first1=Chih |last2=Dodds |first2=Klaus |title='Observing' the Arctic: Asia in the Arctic council and beyond |date=2020 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |location=Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA, USA |isbn=978-1-83910-821-1 |page=90}}</ref> John Barrow, mulembi waciŵiri wa nyengo yitali wa ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji ŵa Britain, wakakhozga kupenda cigaŵa ici kufuma 1818 mpaka 1845 kupenja nyanja iyi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nuttall |first1=Mark |title=Encyclopedia of the Arctic |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-57958-436-8 |page=206 |chapter=Barrow, Sir John}}</ref> Mu United States mu ma 1850 na 1860, ŵakupenja Elisha Kane na Isaac Israel Hayes wose ŵakati ŵakawona cigaŵa ca maji agha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fjågesund |first1=Peter |title=The dream of the North: a cultural history to 1920 |date=2014 |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam, NL ; New York, NY, USA |isbn=978-90-420-3837-0 |pages=339–340}}</ref> Nanga ni pakumalira kwa vyaka ivyo, mukumanya mukulu Matthew Fontaine Maury wakasazgapo malongosoro gha Nyanja ya Mphaka Yakujulika mu buku lake la kusambizgira (1883).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katrine |first1=Nanna |last2=Kaalund |first2=Lüders |last3=Woitkowitz |first3=John |title='Ancient lore with modern appliances': networks, expertise, and the making of the Open Polar Sea, 1851–1853 |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |date=September 2021 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=277–299 |doi=10.1017/S0007087421000522 |pmid=34291728 }}</ref> Kweni nga umo ŵakupenja wose awo ŵakafika pafupi na mphaka ŵakayowoyera, cikakato ca mphaka ncakukhwima comene ndipo cikukhalilira caka cose, ndipo ghanoghano la nyanja yakujulika likawonekera kuŵa lautesi pakwamba pa ma 1900.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luedtke |first1=Brandon |title=An ice-free Arctic Ocean: history, science, and scepticism |journal=Polar Record |date=March 2015 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=130–139 |doi=10.1017/S0032247413000636 |bibcode=2015PoRec..51..130L }}</ref> Fridtjof Nansen ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kujumpha Mbwani ya Arctic na ngalawa, mu ulendo wa Fram kufuma 1893 mpaka 1896.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Max |title=Exploration, Celebrity, and the Making of a Transnational Hero: Fridtjof Nansen and the Fram Expedition |journal=The Journal of Modern History |date=1 March 2021 |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=68–108 |doi=10.1086/712637 |url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/dab9a7c6-d730-41d2-ab7e-7ca5f5ae752c }}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 1900 === Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mbwani pacanya kukalongozgeka na Wally Herbert mu 1969, mu ulendo wa vigaleta vya ncheŵe kufuma ku Alaska mpaka ku Svalbard, na wovwiri wa ndege.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/uk/sir+wally+herbert+dies/558357|title=Channel 4, "Sir Wally Herbert dies" 13 June 2007}}</ref> Kujumpha kwakwamba kwa mphaka ya kumpoto na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1958 na ngalawa ya pasi pa maji USS Nautilus, ndipo kujumpha kwakwamba pacanya na ngalawa kukacitika mu 1977 na ngalawa yakuphwanya cikakato NS Arktika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hollingham |first1=Richard |title=The record-breaking dive under the Arctic ice |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/future/article/20220503-the-record-breaking-dive-under-the-arctic-ice |access-date=8 February 2026 |work=BBC |date=2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brigham |first1=LW |title=From Arktika to the next millennium |journal=Naval History |date=1998 |volume=12 |issue=4 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/1998/august/arktika-next-millennium}}</ref> Kufuma 1937, malo gha ŵanthu gha Soviet na Russia agho ghakuyandama pa cikakato ghakulaŵiska comene Mbwani ya Arctic. Malo gha kasandiro ghakazengeka pa cikakato cakuyandama ndipo ghakanyamulika makilomita masauzandi.<ref>[http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html North Pole drifting stations (1930s–1980s)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113023915/http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html |date=13 November 2017 }}. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</ref> Mu Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose, cigaŵa ca Ulaya ca Mbwani ya Arctic cikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yikulu: pangano la ŵabwezi ŵa Allies la kupeleka vinthu ku Soviet Union kwizira mu madoko ghake gha kumpoto likasuskika na ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji na ŵa ndege ŵa Germany.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenyon |first1=David |title=Arctic convoys: Bletchley Park and the war for the seas |date=2024 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT, USA; London, UK |isbn=978-0-300-27935-1 |pages=3–10}}</ref> Mu 1954, Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) yikamba maulendo ghakwamba gha malonda gha ndege pacanya pa Mbwani ya Arctic, pakati pa Los Angeles na Copenhagen.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Cold War and Beyond |url=https://sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/online-exhibit-page/polar-express-the-cold-war-and-beyond |website=sandiegoairandspace.org |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 2000 === Mu Mpupulu 2019, Pulezidenti wa U.S.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Neuman |first=Scott |date=2019-08-19 |title=No Joke: Trump Really Does Want To Buy Greenland |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752274659/no-joke-trump-really-does-want-to-buy-greenland |access-date=2025-09-27 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sorensen |first1=Martin Selsoe |date=2019-08-16 |title='Greenland Is Not for Sale': Trump's Talk of a Purchase Draws Derision (Published 2019) |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/16/world/europe/trump-greenland.html |access-date=2025-09-27 |language=en}}</ref> Donald Trump wakasacizga pakweru kugula Greenland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c74x4m71pmjo|title=Why does Trump want Greenland and what do its people think?|date=24 March 2025|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/939c0199b5f647afb3b579e72ac20e6d|title=Trump likens buying Greenland to 'a large real estate deal'|date=18 August 2019|website=AP News}}</ref> Wakawuska so ghanoghano ili mu Zimya 2024, wakuti kuŵa na Greenland nkhwakukhumbikwa pa civikiliro na vyacuma vya United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/video/mar-a-lago-panama-canal-greenland-national-security-171103e2cef241d8821e6749fdf3f5b8|title=Trump won't rule out use of military force to take control of Greenland and the Panama Canal|via=apnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.military.com/daily-news/2025/01/07/trump-refuses-rule-out-use-of-military-force-take-control-of-greenland-and-panama-canal.html|title=Trump Refuses to Rule Out Use of Military Force to Take Control of Greenland and the Panama Canal|first1=Will|last1=Weissert|first2=Zeke|last2=Miller|date=7 January 2025|website=Military.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarah |first=Fortinsky |date=2025-05-05 |title=Trump does not rule out taking Greenland by force |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5282488-trump-greenland-military-threat/ |website=The Hill}}</ref> Wakati kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono kwakanizgika yayi. Pa 10 Zimya 2024, Trump wakachema nduna yikulu ya Canada kuti ni mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-trolls-justin-trudeau-governor-canada/|title=Trump trolls Justin Trudeau as "governor" of the "great state" of Canada - CBS News|date=10 December 2024|website=www.cbsnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgx1ezpx52o|title=Trump takes jab at 'governor' Trudeau|date=10 December 2024|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> Kale wakayowoyanga kuti kutora Canada kungaŵa kwiwemi pa malonda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveforbes/2025/03/18/the-canadian-takeover-why-trumps-annexation-goal-could-backfire-spectacularly/|title=The Canadian Takeover: Why Trump's Annexation Goal Could Backfire Spectacularly|first=Steve|last=Forbes|website=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-canada-border-annex-trump-tariffs-b2712916.html|title=The US has tried to annex Canada before - here's why it didn't work|date=11 March 2025|website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5072926-trump-annexation-canada-trade-threat/|title=What to know about Trump's calls to make Canada the '51st state'|first=Julia|last=Mueller|work=The Hill |date=8 January 2025}}</ref> Pa 1 Mpupulu 2025, wakamba nkhondo ya malonda.<ref>{{cite web | title=Trump launches trade war with tariffs on Mexico, Canada and China | work=Reuters | url=https://www.reuters.com/business/trump-readies-order-steep-tariffs-goods-mexico-canada-china-2025-02-01/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/tariffs-timeline-trade-war-trump-canada-mexico-china-97819f94e424c0e7bba2812e09a721a7|title=Trump has begun another trade war. Here's a timeline of how we got here|date=25 March 2025|website=AP News}}</ref> Pa foni na nduna yikulu yiphya ya Canada Mark Carney pa 28 Masika 2025, Trump wakawuska ghanoghano la Canada kuŵa cigaŵa ca 51 ca U.S. ndipo wakalongosora uwemi uwo wakuwona. Mu mazgo ghanyake, wakalongora khumbo la kulongozga vyuma vya Canada na maji gha mukati gha Canada gha Arctic, agho ghakumanyikwa nga ni Northwest Passage. == Malo == === Ukulu === [[File:IBCAO betamap.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|Mapu gha kuzika kwa Mbwani ya Arctic na mawonekero gha mitunda iyo yikuyizingilizga.]] [[File:Arctic.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Cigaŵa ca Arctic; mphaka ya kumwera ya cigaŵa ici pa mapu agha yikulongoreka na mzere wakuswesi, ndipo malo ghose gha kumpoto kwa mzere uwu ghali na kufunda kwapakati kwapasi pa {{Convert|10|C}} mu Julayi.]] Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu dimba la mawonekero gha cizungulizgo pafupifupi ndipo yikuphimba makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 14,056,000, pafupifupi ukulu wa Antarctica.<ref name=nyt>{{cite book |editor-first=John W. |editor-last=Wright | date=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac |url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig |url-access=registration | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York | isbn=978-0-14-303820-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig/page/455 455]}}</ref><ref name="Oceans of the World">{{cite web|url=http://mset.rst2.edu/portfolios/d/drewes_c/Integrating%20Technologies/Oceans%20of%20the%20World.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719035421/http://mset.rst2.edu/portfolios/d/drewes_c/Integrating%20Technologies/Oceans%20of%20the%20World.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |title=Oceans of the World |publisher=rst2.edu |access-date=28 October 2010 }}</ref> Mphepete yake njitali makilomita 45,390.<ref name=nyt /><ref name="Arctic Ocean Fast Facts">{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/area/species/polarbear/habitat/|title=Arctic Ocean Fast Facts|publisher=wwf.pandora.org (World Wildlife Foundation)|access-date=28 October 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101029234119/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/area/species/polarbear/habitat/| archive-date= 29 October 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> Ndiyo mbwani yekha iyo njicoko kuluska Russia, iyo yili na mtunda wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi 17,098,246.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia country profile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 |access-date=11 February 2026 |work=BBC News |date=26 April 2012}}</ref> === Mtunda Wakuzingilizga === Mbwani ya Arctic yikuzingilizgika na mitunda ya Yurasiya (Russia na Norway), Amerika ya Kumpoto (Canada na cigaŵa ca U.S. ca Alaska), Greenland, na Iceland. === Vigaŵa na Kukolerana === Mbwani ya Arctic yikukolerana na Mbwani ya Pacific kwizira mu Bering Strait na Mbwani ya Atlantic kwizira mu Nyanja ya Greenland na Nyanja ya Labrador.<ref name=Pidwirny /> (Nyanja ya Iceland nyengo zinyake yikuwonekera kuŵa cigaŵa ca Nyanja ya Greenland, ndipo nyengo zinyake paŵekha.) Ŵakumanya ŵakupambana ŵakuŵika nyanja zinyake za mphepete mu Mbwani ya Arctic panji ya Atlantic, kusazgapo Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Nyanja ya Norway, na Hudson Strait.<ref name="Wright2001">{{cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=The New York Times Almanac 2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G81HonU81pAC&pg=PA459 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=30 November 2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-57958-348-4 |page=459}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|title=IHO Publication S-23 Limits of Oceans and Seas; Chapter 9: Arctic Ocean|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|date=2002|access-date=2017-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105534/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|archive-date=2014-02-02}}</ref><ref name="Calow1999">{{cite book |last=Calow |first=Peter |title=Blackwell's concise encyclopedia of environmental management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0E0LP-pPCWwC&pg=PA7 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=12 July 1999 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-632-04951-6 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="LewisJones2000">{{cite book |editor-last1=Lewis |editor-first1=Edward Lyn |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=E. Peter |display-editors=etal |title=The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZX_p5IKAxUC&pg=PA282|access-date=26 November 2010|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-6439-9|pages=101, 282–283}}</ref><ref name="McColl2005">{{cite book |last=McColl |first=R.W. |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA57 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="EarleGlover2008">{{cite book |last1=Earle |first1=Sylvia A. |last2=Glover |first2=Linda K. |title=Ocean: An Illustrated Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluNhV-8pbwC&pg=PA112 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2008 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-1-4262-0319-0 |page=112}}</ref><ref name="Reddy2001">{{cite book |last=Reddy |first=M. P. M. |title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-90-5410-706-4 |page=8}}</ref><ref name="DayGarratt2006">{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Trevor |last2=Garratt |first2=Richard |title=Oceans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VY9mCXOXIvQC&pg=PA21 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5327-8 |page=21}}</ref> === Virwa === Virwa vikulu na magulu gha virwa mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kufuma ku mzere wakwamba kuya kumanjiliro, ni: * Jan Mayen (Norway) * Iceland * Greenland (Denmark) * Virwa vya Arctic vya Canada (kusazgapo Virwa vya Queen Elizabeth na Cirwa ca Baffin) * Cirwa ca Wrangel (Russia) * Virwa vya New Siberian (Russia) * Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) * Novaya Zemlya (Russia) * Franz Josef Land (Russia) * Svalbard (Norway) === Madoko === Pali madoko ghanandi pa Mbwani ya Arctic, mu Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Norway, Iceland, na Russia, nga ni Utqiaġvik, Churchill, Nuuk, Longyearbyen, Akureyri, Murmansk, na Arkhangelsk.<ref name=CIA>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/arctic-ocean/ Arctic Ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204191036/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/arctic-ocean/ |date=4 December 2022 }}. CIA World Fact Book</ref> === Mphepete za Pasi pa Maji === Mphepete za pasi pa maji za Arctic zili na vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo ca Canada na ca Russia, ico nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "Mphepete ya Arctic" cifukwa ndicikulu.<ref>{{cite news |title=Canada extends continental shelf claim, increasing overlaps with Russia in Arctic |url=https://www.thebarentsobserver.com/arctic/canada-extends-continental-shelf-claim-increasing-overlaps-with-russia-in-arctic/118511 |access-date=11 February 2026 |work=The Barents Observer |date=23 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=IBRU's new Arctic maps show new continental shelves for Russia and USA - Durham University |url=https://www.durham.ac.uk/research/institutes-and-centres/ibru-borders-research/news-and-events/boundary-news/ibrus-new-arctic-maps-show-new-continental-shelves-for-russia-and-usa/ |website=www.durham.ac.uk |publisher=Durham University |access-date=11 February 2026 |language=en-gb}}</ref> Mphepete ya Russia yili na vigaŵa vitatu vicoko: Barents, Nyanja ya Chukchi, na Siberia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shakhova |first1=N |last2=Semiletov |first2=I |last3=Sergienko |first3=V |last4=Lobkovsky |first4=L |last5=Yusupov |first5=V |last6=Salyuk |first6=A |last7=Salomatin |first7=A |last8=Chernykh |first8=D |last9=Kosmach |first9=D |last10=Panteleev |first10=G |last11=Nicolsky |first11=D |last12=Samarkin |first12=V |last13=Joye |first13=S |last14=Charkin |first14=A |last15=Dudarev |first15=O |last16=Meluzov |first16=A |last17=Gustafsson |first17=O |title=The East Siberian Arctic Shelf: towards further assessment of permafrost-related methane fluxes and role of sea ice. |journal=Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences |date=13 October 2015 |volume=373 |issue=2052 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2014.0451 |pmid=26347539|pmc=4607703 |bibcode=2015RSPTA.37340451S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinbach |first1=J |last2=Holmstrand |first2=H |last3=Shcherbakova |first3=K |last4=Kosmach |first4=D |last5=Brüchert |first5=V |last6=Shakhova |first6=N |last7=Salyuk |first7=A |last8=Sapart |first8=CJ |last9=Chernykh |first9=D |last10=Noormets |first10=R |last11=Semiletov |first11=I |last12=Gustafsson |first12=Ö |title=Source apportionment of methane escaping the subsea permafrost system in the outer Eurasian Arctic Shelf. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=9 March 2021 |volume=118 |issue=10 |article-number=e2019672118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2019672118 |doi-access=free |pmid=33649226|pmc=7958249 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11819672S }}</ref> Mwa ivi, ya Siberia ndiyo mphepete yikulu comene ya mtundu uwu pa caro cose; yili na mafuta na mphepo za pasi zinandi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boulègue |first1=Mathieu |title=The militarization of Russian polar politics {{!}} 04 The Pacific Arctic, the Bering Strait and northeast Asia |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/06/militarization-russian-polar-politics/04-pacific-arctic-bering-strait-and-northeast-asia |access-date=22 February 2026 |work=Chatham House |date=June 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Mphepete ya cigaŵa ca Chukchi yikupanga mphaka pakati pa Russia na United States nga umo yikalongosoreka mu phangano la 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Macalister |first1=Terry |title=Rush for Arctic's resources provokes territorial tussles |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/06/arctic-resources-territorial-dispute |access-date=22 February 2026 |work=The Guardian |date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Cigaŵa cose cili na mphindano za pakati pa vyaro pa malo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hegewald |first1=Anne |last2=Jokat |first2=Wilfried |title=Tectonic and sedimentary structures in the northern Chukchi region, Arctic Ocean |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=July 2013 |volume=118 |issue=7 |pages=3285–3296 |doi=10.1002/jgrb.50282 |bibcode=2013JGRB..118.3285H }}</ref> === Vimanyikwiro vya Pasi pa Maji === Phiri la pasi pa maji, Lomonosov Ridge, likugaŵa dimba lakuzika la Mphaka ya Kumpoto mu madimba ghaŵiri: dimba la Yurasiya, lakuzika mamita 4,000–4,500, na dimba la Amerasia, lakuzika mamita pafupifupi 4,000. Pasi pa mbwani pali mapiri, malo ghakugonera ghakuzika, na madimba. Kuzika kwapakati kwa Mbwani ya Arctic ni mamita 1,038.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Mariana Trench – Oceanography| work=marianatrench.com | url=http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm | date=4 April 2003| access-date=2 December 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061207210451/http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm| archive-date= 7 December 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref> Malo ghakuzika comene ni Molloy Hole mu Fram Strait, pa mamita pafupifupi 5,550.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fivedeeps.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Molloy-Press-Release-final.pdf|title=Five Deeps Expedition is complete after historic dive to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean}}</ref> Madimba ghaŵiri ghakulu ghakugaŵika so na mapiri kuŵa dimba la Canada, dimba la Makarov, dimba la Amundsen, na dimba la Nansen. == Kasandiro ka Pasi == Malibwe gha pasi gha mapiri gha kuzunguliya Mbwani ya Arctic ghakapangika panji kusintha mu nyengo ya kupangika kwa mapiri ya Ellesmerian mu nyengo ya Paleozoic. Kubira kwa pasi mu nyengo za Triassic na Jurassic kukapangiska kuwunjika kwa dongo kunandi, ndipo kukapanga malo ghanandi agho mafuta na mphepo za pasi zili sono. Mu nyengo ya Cretaceous, dimba la Canada likajulika, ndipo kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi kukapangiska mafuta kusamira ku malo agho sono ni Prudhoe Bay. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, dongo kufuma ku mapiri gha Canadian Rockies agho ghakakweranga likapanga mlomo ukulu wa mlonga wa Mackenzie. Kupatukana kwa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Pangea, kwamba mu nyengo ya Triassic, kukajula Mbwani ya Atlantic yakwamba. Kupatukana kukalutilira kumpoto, kujula Mbwani ya Arctic apo cikopa ca pasi pa mbwani cikafumanga. Dimba la Amerasia lingaŵa kuti likajulika dankha. Kuthandazgika kunyake kukovwira kupanga phiri la Alpha-Mendeleev mu nyengo ya Cretaceous ya pamanyuma. Mu nyengo ya Cenozoic, kunjira pasi kwa cigaŵa ca pasi ca Pacific, kutimbana kwa India na Yurasiya, na kujulika kwakulutilira kwa Atlantic ya Kumpoto vikapanga malo ghaphya agho mafuta ghakusungikira. Pasi pa mbwani pakamba kuthandazgika kufuma ku phiri la Gakkel, ndipo ici cikapangiska Lomonosov Ridge kusamira kutali na mtunda na kubira. Cifukwa ca cikakato ca mbwani na kutali kwake, kasandiro ka pasi ka Mbwani ya Arctic kandapendeke makola. Kuboola kwa Arctic Coring Expedition kukavumbula pacoko Lomonosov Ridge, ilo likuwoneka kuŵa cikopa ca mtunda ico cikapatukana na mphepete ya Barents-Kara. Lingaŵa na mbiya za mafuta mpaka biliyoni 10. Phiri la Gakkel nalo likumanyikwa makola yayi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Geological History of the Arctic Ocean|year=2007|publisher=GEO ExPro|url=https://assets.geoexpro.com/legacy-files/articles/A%20Brief%20Geological%20History%20of%20the%20Arctic%20Ocean.pdf|author=Whaley, Jane|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003232453/https://assets.geoexpro.com/legacy-files/articles/A%20Brief%20Geological%20History%20of%20the%20Arctic%20Ocean.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-s1fDwAAQBAJ&q=geology+of+the+arctic+ocean |title=Geologic Structures of the Arctic Basin |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-319-77742-9 |editor-last=Piskarev |editor-first=Alexey |editor-last2=Poselov |editor-first2=Victor |editor-last3=Kaminsky |editor-first3=Valery}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Mbwani == === Kwenda kwa Maji === [[File:BrnBld BeringToFram.svg|right|upright=2.15|thumb|Umo maji ghakupambana ghathandazgikira mu Mbwani ya Arctic. Cithuzi cikulongora maji ghakupambana kuya pasi kufuma ku Bering Strait, kujumpha Kumpoto Comene, mpaka ku Fram Strait. Cifukwa maji ghakupatukana mu vigaŵa vyakukhazikika, maji gha pasi ngakuzitika kuluska agho ghali pacanya.]] [[File:Temperature and salinity profiles in the Arctic Ocean.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Kuzitika kwa maji mu mamita {{convert|1200|m|abbr=on}} gha pacanya mu Mbwani ya Arctic. Kufunda na mcere vya Amundsen Basin, Canadian Basin, na Greenland Sea vikulongoreka.]] Mu vigaŵa vikulu vya Mbwani ya Arctic, cigaŵa ca pacanya (pafupifupi mamita 50) cili na mcere ucoko na kuzizima kuluska maji ghanyake. Cikukhalilira cifukwa vyakufumapo vya mcere pa kukhwima kwa maji ni vikulu kuluska vya kufunda. Cikupokera maji ghawemi gha milonga yikulu ya Siberia na Canada (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), agho ghakuyandama pa maji gha mcere unandi, ghakukhwima, na ghakuzika. Pakati pa cigaŵa ici na maji ghanyake pali cigaŵa umo mcere na kufunda vikusazgikira apo kuzika kukusazgikira. Cifukwa yili paŵekha kuluska mbwani zinyake, Mbwani ya Arctic yili na ndondomeko yapadera na yakusuzga ya kwenda kwa maji. Yikuyana na Nyanja ya Mediterranean, cifukwa maji ghake ghakuzika ghakukolerana pacoko pera na dimba la Atlantic kwizira mu Fram Strait.<ref name=Tomczak>[Regional Oceanography: An Introduction. Tomczak, Godfrey. Retrieved 18 November 2013.]</ref> Mbwani ya Arctic yili na maji gha makilomita gha mbali zitatu 18.07 × 10⁶, pafupifupi magaŵa 1.3 pa 100 gha mbwani yose ya caro capasi.<ref name=Talley>{{cite book|title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography|author= Pickard, George L. |author2=Emery, William J. |publisher=Pergamon|isbn=978-1-4832-7877-3|year=1982 }}</ref> Maji ghakunjira kufuma ku Mbwani ya Pacific na ya Atlantic, ndipo ghangagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vyapadera. Cigaŵa cakuzika comene cikuchemeka Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ndipo cikwamba pafupifupi mamita 900.<ref name=Tomczak /> Ni maji ghakukhwima comene mu mbwani ya caro cose, ndipo ghakufuma ku malo ghaŵiri: maji gha mphepete za Arctic na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific ghakujumpha mu Bering Strait yifupi na kufika mu Nyanja ya Chukchi.<ref name=Nature>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/arctic-ocean-circulation-going-around-at-the-102811553 |title=Arctic Ocean Circulation: Going Around at the Top of the World. Retrieved 2 November 2013. |access-date=12 November 2013 |archive-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112042040/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/arctic-ocean-circulation-going-around-at-the-102811553 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, mphepo zakuzizima za Alaska zikuputa pa Nyanja ya Chukchi, kukhwimiska maji gha pacanya na kukankha cikakato ciphya ici ku Pacific.<ref name=Talley /> Ici cikusiya maji ghakukhwima gha mcere mu nyanja agho ghakubira mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya kumanjiliro.<ref name=Polar>[http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/circulation.html Arctic Ocean Circulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040516/http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/circulation.html |date=15 January 2013 }}. Polar Discovery</ref> Maji agha ghakukumana na maji ghakuzika gha Nyanja ya Greenland, agho ghakupangika apo vimphepo vya nyengo ya kuzizima vikujumpha. Apo kuzizima kukusazgikira comene, cikakato cikupangika, ndipo maji ghakukhwima mwakukwana kubira pasi pa maji ghakufunda gha mcere.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic ngakuzirwa comene cifukwa agho ghakufumamo ghakovwira kupanga Maji ghakuzika gha Atlantic. Kuzgokerana kwa maji agha kukugwira ntchito yikulu pa kwenda kwa maji kwa caro cose na kukhazikiska nyengo. [[File:Nares strait border (Kennedy channel).png|thumb|left| Kennedy Channel.]] Pakati pa mamita 150–900 pali maji agho ghakuchemeka Maji gha Atlantic. Maji agho ghakufuma ku Atlantic ya Kumpoto ghakunjira kwizira mu Fram Strait, ghakuzizima na kubira, ndipo ghakuzunguliya dimba la Arctic. Ndigho maji ghanandi comene agho ghakunjira mu Mbwani ya Arctic, pafupifupi kakhumi kuluska agho ghakufuma ku Pacific.<ref name=Nature /> Ghakwenda pacoko pacoko.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Atlantic ghali na mcere wakuyana na Maji gha Pasi gha Arctic kweni ngakufunda comene (mpaka 3 °C). Nadi, maji agha ngakufunda kuluska maji gha pacanya, ndipo ghakusyala pasi cifukwa ca mcere pera.<ref name=Tomczak /> Para maji ghafika mu dimba, ghakukankhika na mphepo zankhongono mu kwenda kukulu kwa cizungulizgo ako kakuchemeka Beaufort Gyre. Maji mu Beaufort Gyre ghali na mcere ucoko comene kuluska gha Nyanja ya Chukchi cifukwa ca maji gha milonga yikulu ya Canada na Siberia.<ref name=Polar /> Cigaŵa caumaliro ca maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic cikuchemeka Maji gha Pacanya gha Arctic ndipo cili pakati pa mamita 150–200. Cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca maji agha ni cigaŵa ca pasi pa pacanya. Cikufuma ku maji gha Atlantic agho ghakunjira kwizira mu migodi ya pasi pa maji ndipo ghakusazganika comene pa mphepete ya Siberia.<ref name=Tomczak /><ref>Lenn, Y., Rippeth, T. P., Old, C., Bacon, S., Polyakov, I., Ivanov, V. & Holemann, J (2011). Journal of Physical Oceanography. 41(3), 531–547</ref> Apo ghakusazganika, ghakuzizima ndipo ghakuvikilira cigaŵa ca pacanya ku kufunda.<ref>Lenn, Y. D., Wiles, P. J., Torres-Valdes, S., Abrahamsen, E. P., Rippeth, T. P., Simpson, J. H., Bacon, S., Laxon, S. W., Polyakov, I., Ivanov, V. & Kirillov, S. (2009). Vertical mixing at intermediate depths in the Arctic boundary current. Geophysical Research Letters. 36, p. L05601</ref><ref>Fer, I. (2009). Weak vertical diffusion allows maintenance of cold halocline in the central Arctic. Atmospheric and Oceanic Science Letters 2(3):148–152.</ref> Kweni mu vyaka makhumi ghaŵiri ghaumaliro, kufunda na kukwera kwa maji gha Atlantic kukupangiska kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kusungunuska comene cikakato ca mbwani ku kumafumiro kwa Arctic.<ref>Barton, B., Lenn, Y-D. & Lique, C. (2018). Observed atlantification of the Barents Sea causes the Polar Front to limit the expansion of winter sea ice, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 28(8), 1849–1866</ref><ref>Igor V. Polyakov1, Andrey V. Pnyushkov, Matthew B. Alkire, Igor M. Ashik, Till M. Baumann, Eddy C. Carmack, Ilona Goszczko, John Guthrie, Vladimir V. Ivanov, Torsten Kanzow, Richard Krishfield, Ronald Kwok, Arild Sundfjord, James Morison, Robert Rember, Alexander Yulin (2017). Greater role for Atlantic inflows on sea-ice loss in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Science, 356(6335), 285–291</ref> Kupima kwa sonosono, kwa 2016–2018, kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa mbwani ku pacanya sono kwajumpha kwa mphepo mu dimba la Yurasiya la kumafumiro.<ref>Polyakov, I., Rippeth, T., Fer, I., Alkire, M., Baumann, T., Carmack, E., Ivanov, V., Janout, M. A., Padman, L., Pnyushkov, A. & Rember, R (2020). Weakening of the cold halocline layer exposes sea ice to oceanic heat in the eastern Arctic Ocean. Journal of Climate, 33(18), 8107-8123</ref><ref>Polyakov, I., Rippeth, T., Fer, I., Baumann, T., Carmack, E., Ivanov, V., Janout, M. A., Padman, L., Pnyushkov, A. & Rember, R (2020). Intensification of Near-Surface Currents and Shear in the Eastern Arctic Ocean: A More Dynamic Eastern Arctic Ocean, Geophysical Research Letters, 47(16), e2020GL089469</ref> Kweni kupima kwakulunjika ku kumanjiliro kwa Arctic kukulongora kuti kufunda kwa maji gha Atlantic kukusyala pakati nanga ni pa mphepo yikulu ya Arctic ya 2012.<ref>Lincoln, B., Rippeth, T., Lenn, Y-D., Timmermans, M-L., Williams, W. & Bacon, S (2016). Wind-driven mixing at intermediate depths in an ice-free Arctic Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(18), 9749-9756</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma ku Pacific na ku Atlantic ghose ghakufuma kwizira mu Fram Strait pakati pa Greenland na Svalbard, iyo njakuzika mamita pafupifupi 2,700 na yisani makilomita 350. Usani wa Fram Strait ndiwo ukuzomerezga maji kunjira na kufuma ku mbali ya Atlantic.<ref name=Nature /> Cifukwa ca kuzunguliya kwa caro capasi, maji ghakufuma kumanjiliro mu East Greenland Current na kunjira kumafumiro mu Norwegian Current.<ref name=Tomczak /> Maji gha Pacific ghakufuma so mu mphepete ya kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na Hudson Strait, ndipo ghakupeleka vyakulya ku virwa vya Canada.<ref name=Nature /> Nga umo tawonera, kupangika na kwenda kwa cikakato ni cifukwa cikulu ca kwenda kwa maji mu Mbwani ya Arctic na kupangika kwa vigaŵa vya maji. Ntheura Mbwani ya Arctic yikusintha cifukwa ca kusintha kwa cikakato mu nyengo. Kwenda kwa cikakato kukufuma ku mphepo, izo zikukolerana na vyakucitika vya nyengo vinandi vya Arctic mu caka.<ref name=Talley /> Mwaciyelezgero, kukanikizga kukulu kwa mphepo kwa Beaufort kukwendeska Beaufort Gyre. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, kukanikizga uku kukusamira pafupi na Siberia na Canada. Kweniso, kukanikizga kukulu pacanya pa Greenland kukwiziska mphepo zankhongono zakufuma kumpoto kwizira mu Fram Strait, kovwira kufumiska cikakato. Mu nyengo ya kufunda, mphepo izi nzicoko. Kukanikizga kucoko pacanya pa nyanja za Nordic na Barents kukupanga kwenda kwa maji kwa cizungulizgo mu cigaŵa ici. Kusintha kose uku kukupangiska kwenda kwa cikakato kuŵa kucoko comene mu myezi ya nyengo ya kufunda.<ref name=Talley /> === Cikakato ca Mbwani === [[File:2007 Arctic Sea Ice.jpg|thumb|Cikakato ca mbwani mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kulongora cikakato capakati, ca 2005, na ca 2007<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 |title=Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007164907/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 |archive-date=7 October 2006 |author1=Robert Simmon |author2=Walt Meier |author3=Nathaniel B. Palmer |access-date=7 December 2006}}</ref>]] [[File:Refueling Twin Otter.jpg|thumb|Pa cikakato ca Mbwani ya Arctic ŵangaŵika malo gha kanyengo gha kovwira maulendo. Apa, ndege ya Twin Otter yikuthiliskika mafuta pa cikakato pa 86°N, 76°43'W pa 16 Epulelo 1990 pa ulendo wa kuya ku Kumpoto Comene]] Cigaŵa cikulu ca Mbwani ya Arctic caphimbika na cikakato ca mbwani ico cikusintha mu unandi na kukhwima mu nyengo. Unandi wapakati wa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic ukulutilira kucepa mu vyaka makhumi vyaumaliro, pa luŵiro lwa magaŵa 12.85 pa 100 pa vyaka khumi kufuma 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Change|first=NASA Global Climate|title=Arctic Sea Ice Minimum {{!}} NASA Global Climate Change|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice|access-date=2020-09-10|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet}}</ref> Kusintha kwa nyengo kuli pafupifupi makilomita gha mbali zinayi 7,000,000, ndipo cikakato cinandi comene ni mu Masika na cicoko comene mu Lupya. Cikakato ca mbwani cikukhwaskika na mphepo na kwenda kwa maji, ivyo vingasamiska na kuzunguliya vigaŵa vikulu comene vya cikakato. Malo gha kukanikizgana nagho ghakupangika, umo cikakato cikuwunjikana.<ref>[http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/ Sea Ice Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202220337/http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/ |date=2 February 2020 }}. Nsidc.org. Retrieved on 6 March 2011.</ref><ref>[http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere/ Polar Sea Ice Cap and Snow – Cryosphere Today] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223161943/http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere/ |date=23 February 2011 }}. Arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu (23 September 2007). Retrieved on 2011-03-06.</ref><ref name="Buixade Farre 2014">{{cite journal|first1=Albert |last1=Buixadé Farré |first2=Scott R. |last2=Stephenson |first3=Linling |last3=Chen |first4=Michael |last4=Czub |first5=Ying |last5=Dai |first6=Denis |last6=Demchev |first7=Yaroslav |last7=Efimov |first8=Piotr |last8=Graczyk |first9=Henrik |last9=Grythe |first10=Kathrin |last10=Keil |first11=Niku |last11=Kivekäs |first12=Naresh |last12=Kumar |first13=Nengye |last13=Liu |first14=Igor |last14=Matelenok |first15=Mari |last15=Myksvoll |first16=Derek |last16=O'Leary |first17=Julia |last17=Olsen |first18=Sachin |last18=Pavithran .A.P. |first19=Edward |last19=Petersen |first20=Andreas |last20=Raspotnik |first21=Ivan |last21=Ryzhov |first22=Jan |last22=Solski |first23=Lingling |last23=Suo |first24=Caroline |last24=Troein |first25=Vilena |last25=Valeeva |first26=Jaap |last26=van Rijckevorsel |first27=Jonathan |last27=Wighting |date=16 October 2014 |title=Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage: Routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure |journal=Polar Geography |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=298–324 |doi=10.1080/1088937X.2014.965769 |bibcode=2014PolGe..37..298B |doi-access=free |hdl=2440/112024 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mapiri gha cikakato nyengo zinyake ghakuphwanyika kufuma ku Cirwa ca Ellesmere, ndipo ghakupangika so kufuma ku cikakato cikulu cakwenda ca kumanjiliro kwa Greenland na kumpoto-kumafumiro kwa Canada. Mapiri gha cikakato ni cikakato ca mbwani yayi kweni ghangakakika mu cikakato ca mbwani. Ghali pa ngozi ku ngalawa, ndipo Titanic ni yimoza mwa izo zikumanyikwa comene. Mbwani yikujalika na cikakato pafupifupi kufuma Thukila mpaka Zizima, ndipo vigaŵa vya pacanya vya ngalawa vikuphimbika na cikakato kufuma Thukila mpaka Vula.<ref name=CIA /> Pambere ngalawa zakuphwanya cikakato za mazuŵa ghano zindize, ngalawa izo zikenda pa Mbwani ya Arctic zikaŵa pa ngozi ya kukakika panji kuphwanyika na cikakato (nangauli ngalawa ya Baychimo yikayandama mu Mbwani ya Arctic kwambura ŵanthu kwa vyaka makhumi). == Nyengo == [[File:North Pole Sea Ice 1990-1999.ogv|thumb|Kusintha kwa cikakato pakati pa 1990 na 1999]] Mbwani ya Arctic yili mu nyengo ya mphaka, iyo yili na kuzizima kwakulutilira na kusintha kucoko kwa kufunda mu caka. Nyengo ya kuzizima yili na usiku wa mphaka, kuzizima kukulu comene, na nyengo yakukhazikika.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Serreze|first1=Mark C|last2=Barry|first2=Roger G|title=The Arctic Climate System|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-107-03717-5|pages=168–172|edition=2nd}}</ref> Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi ku mbali ya Atlantic pera.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Simmonds|first1=Ian|last2=Burke|first2=Craig|last3=Keay|first3=Kevin|title=Arctic climate change as manifest in cyclone behavior|journal=Journal of Climate|date=2008|volume=21|issue=22|page=5777|doi=10.1175/2008JCLI2366.1|bibcode=2008JCli...21.5777S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nyengo ya kufunda yili na ungweru wa zuŵa nyengo zose (zuŵa la pakati pa usiku), ndipo kufunda kwa mphepo kungakwera pacoko pacanya pa 0 °C. Mphepo zikulu zikuzunguliya zikucitika kanandi mu nyengo ya kufunda ndipo zingiziska vula panji cikakato.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Kuli maŵingu caka cose, kufuma magaŵa 60 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kuzizima mpaka kujumpha 80 pa 100 mu nyengo ya kufunda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Serreze|first1=Mark C|last2=Barry|first2=Roger G|title=The Arctic Climate System|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-107-03717-5|pages=56–59|edition=2nd}}</ref> Kufunda kwa maji gha pacanya gha Mbwani ya Arctic kukuyana pafupifupi nyengo zose pa −1.8 °C, pafupi na apo maji gha mbwani ghakukhwimira. Kukhwima kwa maji gha mbwani, kupambana na maji ghawemi, kukusazgikira apo ghakuza pafupi na kukhwima, ntheura ghakubira. Kanandi nchakukhumbikwa kuti mamita 100–150 gha pacanya gha mbwani ghazizime mpaka kukhwima kuti cikakato ca mbwani cipangike.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nsidc.org/seaice/intro.html |title=NSIDC sea ice |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117114629/http://nsidc.org/seaice/intro.html |archive-date=17 January 2010 }}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kuzizima, maji gha mbwani agho ghakufunda pacoko ghakucepeska kuzizima, nanga ni apo ghaphimbika na cikakato. Ici ni cifukwa cimoza ico Arctic yilije kuzizima kukulu comene uko kukuwoneka pa cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Antarctica. Pali kusintha kukulu mu nyengo pa unandi wa cikakato ico cikuphimba Mbwani ya Arctic. Cigaŵa cikulu ca cikakato ici caphimbika so na cizizimu kwa myezi pafupifupi 10 pa caka. Cikakato ca kuthambo cinandi comene cikuŵa mu Mpupulu panji Masika, pafupifupi masentimita 20–50 pacanya pa mbwani yakukhwima. Nyengo ya cigaŵa ca Arctic yasintha comene mu mbiri ya caro capasi. Mu nyengo ya kufunda kukulu vyaka miliyoni 55 ivyo vyajumpha, apo nyengo ya caro cose yikafunda na pafupifupi 5–8 °C, cigaŵa ici cikafika pa kufunda kwapakati kwa caka kwa 10–20 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McInerney|first1=Francesca A.|last2=Wing|first2=Scott L.|date=2011-04-25|title=The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: A Perturbation of Carbon Cycle, Climate, and Biosphere with Implications for the Future|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133431|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|volume=39|issue=1|pages=489–516|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133431|bibcode=2011AREPS..39..489M|issn=0084-6597|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nunes|first1=Flavia|last2=Norris|first2=Richard D.|date=2006-01-01|title=Abrupt reversal in ocean overturning during the Palaeocene/Eocene warm period|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.439...60N|journal=Nature|volume=439|issue=7072|pages=60–63|doi=10.1038/nature04386|pmid=16397495|bibcode=2006Natur.439...60N|s2cid=4301227}}</ref><ref name=Shellito2003>{{cite journal| author = Shellito, C.J.| author2= Sloan, L.C.|author3= Huber, M.| date = 2003| title = Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric CO2 levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene| journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology| volume = 193| issue = 1| pages = 113–123| doi = 10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6| bibcode = 2003PPP...193..113S}}</ref> Maji gha pacanya gha kumpoto comene gha Mbwani ya Arctic ghakafunda, pacoko mu nyengo zinyake, mwakukwana kusunga vyamoyo vya ku tropiki ivyo vikukhumba kufunda kwa pacanya kwakujumpha 22 °C.<ref>Drill cores were recovered from the Lomonosov Ridge, presently at 87°N</ref><ref name=Sluijs2006>{{cite journal| author = Sluijs, A. |author2=Schouten, S. |author3=Pagani, M. |author4=Woltering, M. |author5=Brinkhuis, H. |author6=Damsté, J.S.S. |author7=Dickens, G.R. |author8=Huber, M. |author9=Reichart, G.J. |author10=Stein, R.| date = 2006| title = Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum| journal = Nature| volume = 441| issue = 7093| pages = 610–613| doi = 10.1038/nature04668| pmid = 16752441|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2006Natur.441..610S|hdl=11250/174280 |s2cid=4412522 |url=https://brage.npolar.no/npolar-xmlui/bitstream/11250/174280/1/SluijsNature2006.pdf}}</ref> Sono, cigaŵa ca Arctic cikufunda kaŵiri luŵiro kuluska caro capasi cose.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pierre-Louis|first=Kendra|date=2019-12-10|title=Climate Change Is Ravaging the Arctic, Report Finds|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/10/climate/climate-change-arctic-warming.html|access-date=2020-09-11|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Crew|first=Bec|title=The Arctic Is Warming Twice as Fast as The Rest of The Planet|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-arctic-is-warming-twice-as-fast-as-the-rest-of-the-planet|access-date=2020-09-11|website=ScienceAlert|date=15 December 2016 |language=en-gb}}</ref> == Vyamoyo == [[File:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|''Polar bear'' zitatu zikufika pafupi na ngalawa ya pasi pa maji ya USS ''Honolulu'' pafupi na Kumpoto Comene.]] Cifukwa ca kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo kwa myezi 2–6 ya zuŵa la pakati pa usiku na usiku wa mphaka mu Mbwani ya Arctic, kupanga kwakwamba kwa vyamoyo vya usanisinuru nga ni vyakumera vicoko vya pa cikakato na vya mu maji kukucitika mu myezi ya Masika mpaka Lupya pera.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Berge|first1= J.|last2= Renaud|first2= P. E.|display-authors= 1|date= 2015|title= In the dark: A review of ecosystem processes during the Arctic polar night|journal= Progress in Oceanography|volume= 139|pages= 258–271|doi= 10.1016/j.pocean.2015.08.005|bibcode= 2015PrOce.139..258B|doi-access= free|hdl= 10037/8602|hdl-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Leu|first1= E.|last2= Søreide|first2= J. E.|last3= Hessen|first3= D. O.|display-authors= 2|date= 2011|title= Consequences of changing sea-ice cover for primary and secondary producers in the European Arctic shelf seas: Timing, quantity, and quality|journal= Progress of Oceanography|volume= 90|issue= 1–4|pages= 18–32|doi= 10.1016/j.pocean.2011.02.004|bibcode= 2011PrOce..90...18L}}</ref> Ŵakurya ŵakuzirwa ŵa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati na nyanja za mphepete ni tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji, comene twa mitundu yinyake, pamoza na vinyama vya pa cikakato.<ref name="Kosobokova-2011">{{Cite journal|last1= Kosobokova|first1= K. N.|last2= Hopcroft|first2= R. R.|date= 2011|title= Patterns of zooplankton diversity through the depths of the Arctic's central basins|journal= Marine Biodiversity|volume= 41|issue= 1|pages= 29–50|doi= 10.1007/s12526-010-0057-9|bibcode= 2011MarBd..41...29K|s2cid= 23452656}}</ref><ref name="Dalpadado-2012">{{Cite journal|last1= Dalpadado|first1= P.|last2= Ingvaldsen|first2= R. B.|display-authors= 1|date= 2012|title= Climate effects on Barents Sea ecosystem dynamics|journal= ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume= 69|issue= 7|pages= 1303–1316|doi= 10.1093/icesjms/fss063|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name="Kosobokova-2011" /> Ŵakurya ŵakwamba aŵa ni ulalo wakuzirwa pakati pa ŵakupanga ŵakwamba na vinyama vya pacanya. Kapangikiro ka vinyama vya pacanya mu Mbwani ya Arctic kakupambana kuyana na cigaŵa (mbali ya Atlantic panji ya Pacific) na cikakato. Ŵakurya ŵaciŵiri mu Nyanja ya Barents, nyanja ya mphepete ya Arctic iyo yikukhwaskika na Atlantic, comene ni somba za pafupi na Arctic nga ni ''herring'', ''cod'' yiphya, na ''capelin''.<ref name="Dalpadado-2012" /> Mu vigaŵa vya cikakato vya Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati, ''cod'' ya mphaka ndiyo cakusaka cikulu ca ŵakurya ŵakwamba. Vyakusaka vya pacanya comene mu Mbwani ya Arctic, vinyama vyakonkheska vya mu mbwani nga ni ''seal'', nyamumba, na ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa, vikusaka somba. Vinyama vya mu mbwani ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Mbwani ya Arctic ni ''walrus'' na nyamumba. Cigaŵa ici cili na malo gha vyamoyo ghakunangika luŵiro, ndipo ghali pa ngozi comene ya kusintha kwa nyengo, cifukwa cikufunda luŵiro kuluska caro cose. ''Jellyfish'' yikulu ya mtundu wa ''lion's mane'' njinandi mu maji gha Arctic. == Vyuma vya Kawiro == <gallery mode=packed heights=150> File:Minke Whale (NOAA).jpg|Nyamumba wa ''minke'' File:Walruses on ice floes.jpg|''Walrus'' pa vigaŵa vya cikakato vya Arctic File:Calanus hyperboreus 750x750.jpg|''Calanus hyperboreus'' </gallery> Mafuta na mphepo za pasi, vyuma vya mu mcenga, vyuma vya visulo vinandi, mcenga na tumalibwe, somba, ''seal'' na nyamumba vyose vingasangika vinandi mu cigaŵa ici.<ref name=CIA /><ref name="Buixade Farre 2014" /> Malo ghambura mwenecho pa ndyali pafupi na pakati pa nyanja ni nkhani ya mphindano yikulu pakati pa United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, na Denmark.<ref>Reynolds, Paul (25 October 2005) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405015017/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map |date=5 April 2018 }}. ''BBC''.</ref> Ngakuzirwa ku msika wa nkhongono wa caro cose cifukwa ghangaŵa na magaŵa 25 pa 100 panji kujumpha gha mafuta na mphepo za pasi agho ghandasangike pa caro cose.<ref>Yenikeyeff, Shamil and Krysiek, Timothy Fenton (August 2007) [http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407110248/http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf |date=7 April 2012 }}. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.</ref> == Masuzgo gha Malo Ghakuzingilizga == === Kusungunuka kwa Cikakato ca Arctic === Cikakato ca Arctic cikucepa, ndipo bowo la nyengo zinyake mu cigaŵa ca ozone likucitika kanandi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Linking_Today_into_Tomorrow-WS4D339983-1_En.htm|title=Erreur HTTP 404 - Non trouvé|website=ec.gc.ca}}</ref> Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani ya Arctic kukucepeska kuwezga ungweru kwa caro capasi, ndipo kungapangiska kufunda kwa caro cose kusazgikira.<ref name="Buixade Farre 2014" /><ref name="R.Black">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm Earth – melting in the heat?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630003659/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm |date=30 June 2018 }} Richard Black, 7 October 2005. BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref> Kusanda kukulongora kuti Arctic yingaŵa yambura cikakato mu nyengo ya kufunda kakwamba mu mbiri ya ŵanthu pofika 2040.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Peter |title=Russia the next climate recalcitrant |date=17 November 2008 |work=The Australian |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/business-old/russia-the-next-climate-recalcitrant/news-story/26a8cb7871099d194c882e4a46c91c30}}</ref><ref name="nsidc2011">{{cite web | url=https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/icelights/2011/05/when-will-arctic-lose-its-sea-ice | title=When will the Arctic lose its sea ice? | publisher=National Snow & Ice Data Center | date=May 2011 | access-date=3 November 2016}}</ref> Maghanoghano pa nyengo yaumaliro iyo Arctic yikaŵa yambura cikakato ghakupambana: vyaka miliyoni 65 ivyo vyajumpha apo mafosilo ghakulongora kuti vyakumera vikaŵako, mpaka vyaka 5,500 pera ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Nsidc">{{cite web | url=http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/faq/#summer_ice | title=Has the Arctic Ocean always had ice in summer? | publisher=National Snow & Ice Data Center | date=February 2012 | access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref> Kufunda mu Arctic kungapangiska maji ghanandi ghawemi gha cikakato cakusungunuka kunjira mu Atlantic ya kumpoto, ndipo kungasokonezga kwenda kwa maji gha mbwani ya caro cose. Kusintha kukulu kwa nyengo ya caro capasi kungalondezga.<ref name="R.Black" /> Apo cikakato ca mbwani cikucepa na maji gha mbwani ghakukwera, vyakufumapo vya vimphepo nga ni ca 2012 pa maji ghakujulika vikusazgikira, nga umo kunangika kwa vyakumera vya mphepete na maji gha mcere kukusazgikira mu malo nga ni mlomo wa mlonga wa Mackenzie.<ref name=CC03513>{{cite news|title=Warmer Arctic with Less Ice Increases Storm Surge|url=http://www.climatecentral.org/news/warmer-arctic-with-less-ice-increases-storm-surge-15689|access-date=8 March 2013|newspaper=Climate Central|date=5 March 2013|author=Lauren Morello}}</ref> Kufunda kwa caro cose kwasazgira kukumana pakati pa ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa na ŵanthu. Kucepa kwa cikakato ca mbwani kukupangiska ŵankhalamila ŵatuŵa kupenja vyakulya kunyake.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brackett |first1=Ron |title=Arctic Russian Town Declares Polar Bear Invasion Emergency After 52 Wander In |url=https://weather.com/news/news/2019-02-11-russian-archipelago-invaded-polar-bears-emergency |website=weather.com |publisher=The Weather Company |access-date=3 March 2019 |date=11 February 2019 |ref=bearinvasion |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043253/https://weather.com/news/news/2019-02-11-russian-archipelago-invaded-polar-bears-emergency }}</ref> Kwamba mu Zimya 2018 mpaka Mpupulu 2019, ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakanjira mu virwa vya Novaya Zemlya, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa malo agho ŵakapharazga ngozi. Ŵankhalamila ŵanandi ŵatuŵa ŵakawoneka ŵakunjira mu nyumba, nyumba za ulongozgi, na malo gha ŵanthu.<ref name='A3'>{{cite news |last1=Abellan Matamoros |first1=Cristina |title=Watch: Polar bear in Russian archipelago peeks inside a house |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/02/12/watch-polar-bear-in-russian-archipelago-peaks-inside-a-house |access-date=14 February 2019 |agency=Euronews |publisher=euronews.com |date=13 February 2019}}</ref><ref name='A4'>{{cite news |last1=Stambaugh |first1=Alex |title=Polar bear invasion: Parents scared to send children to school in remote Russian archipelago |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/02/11/asia/polar-bears-russia-intl/index.html |access-date=15 February 2019 |agency=CNN |publisher=CNN |date=12 February 2019}}</ref> === Kunangika kwa Metheni wa pa Cikakato === {{annotated image/Extinction|float=right|caption=Kumalika kwa vyamoyo kwa Permian–Triassic kungaŵa kuti kukapangika na kufuma kwa metheni uwo ukaŵa wakusungika mu cikakato. Pafupifupi magaŵa 52 pa 100 gha mbumba za vyamoyo vya mu mbwani zikamalika, ico ni magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha mitundu yose ya mu mbwani.}} Cikakato ca mbwani, na kuzizima uko cikusunga, vikusunga metheni uwo uli pafupi na mphepete, ndipo vikukanizga kuti uleke kufuma mu mphepo na kusazgira kufunda.<ref name="independent2008">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html |title=Exclusive: The methane time bomb |author=Connor, Steve |date=23 September 2008 |access-date=14 May 2009 |work=The Independent |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403201120/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/exclusive-the-methane-time-bomb-938932.html |archive-date=3 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusungunuka kwa cikakato ici kungafumiska metheni munandi, mphepo yankhongono yakusunga kufunda, mu mphepo, ndipo kungasazgira kufunda na kupangiska mitundu ya vyamoyo vya mu mbwani kumalira.<ref name="independent2008" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,547976,00.html |title=A Storehouse of Greenhouse Gases Is Opening in Siberia |author=Mrasek, Volker |newspaper=Spiegel Online |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=14 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501174420/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0%2C1518%2C547976%2C00.html |archive-date=1 May 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Masuzgo Ghanyake === Masuzgo ghanyake gha malo ghakuzingilizga ni kunangika kwa Mbwani ya Arctic na vinthu vya nyukiliya, mwaciyelezgero kufuma ku malo gha Russia gha kutaya vyakusyala vya nyukiliya mu Nyanja ya Kara, malo gha kuyezga vilwero vya nyukiliya vya nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Mtima nga ni Novaya Zemlya, vyakunanga vya Camp Century mu Greenland, na vyakunanga vya ngozi ya nyukiliya ya Fukushima Daiichi.<ref>[http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016195202/http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 |date=16 October 2007 }} Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, 24 August 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202051233/http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html |date=2 February 2017 }} Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A Top-Secret US Military Base Will Melt Out of the Greenland Ice Sheet |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/cold-war-era-nuclear-base-camp-century-melting-climate-change-greenland/ |work=VICE Magazine |date=9 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Radioactive contamination from Fukushima found as far north as Alaska's Bering Strait |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/radioactive-contamination-from-fukushima-found-as-far-north-as-alaskas-bering-strait |work=The Straits Times |date=28 March 2019}}</ref> Pa 16 Vuna 2015, vyaro vinkhondi (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) vikasayina kalata ya pangano la kusunga ngalawa zawo za kulowa somba kuwaro kwa malo gha makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi miliyoni 2.8 mu Mbwani ya Arctic ya pakati pafupi na Mphaka ya Kumpoto. Phangano ili likupempha vyaro ivi kuleka kulowa kuko mpaka pazamuŵa vinjeru viwemi vya kasandiro pa vyuma vya mu mbwani na ndondomeko ya kuvivikilira.<ref>{{cite news|title=Arctic deal bans North Pole fishing|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33549606|access-date=16 July 2015|work=BBC News|date=16 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Rosen|first1=Yereth|title=5 nations sign declaration to protect Arctic 'donut hole' from unregulated fishing|url=https://www.adn.com/article/20150716/5-nations-sign-declaration-protect-arctic-donut-hole-unregulated-fishing|access-date=16 July 2015|publisher=Alaska Dispatch News|date=16 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717122523/https://www.adn.com/article/20150716/5-nations-sign-declaration-protect-arctic-donut-hole-unregulated-fishing|archive-date=2015-07-17}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Arctic Ocean]] 01fuzpehnkmq9m1nc2uqx6dcnjjs0jd 0 7841 124340 123461 2026-11-10T14:17:56Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124340 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Planet_collage_to_scale.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Vibwe vinkhondi na vitatu vya mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]] kuyana na ukulu wawo (kucanya mpaka pasi, kumazere kuya kumalyero): [[Satani]], [[Jupita]], [[Yurenasi]], [[Neputuni]] (vibwe vya kuwaro), [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|Tera]], [[Vinasi]], [[Aresi]], na [[Mekyuri]] (vibwe vya mukati)]] '''Cibwe''' (panji '''pulaneti''') ni cinthu cikulu ca kuthambo ca mawonekero gha mpira, ico kanandi cikwenera kuzunguliya nyenyezi, ndipo cene ni nyenyezi yayi. Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kali na vibwe vinkhondi na vitatu kuyana na ng'anamulo yakukhwima ya lizgu ili: vibwe vya malibwe [[Mekyuri]], [[Vinasi]], Tera, na [[Aresi]], na vibwe vikulu [[Jupita]], [[Satani]], [[Yurenasi]], na [[Neputuni]]. Fundo yakusacizga yiwemi comene ya kupangika kwa vibwe yikuti bingu la nyenyezi likuwa pamoza na kupanga nyenyezi yiphya iyo yikuzunguliyika na cimbale ca cuvu na mpweya. Vibwe vikukura mu cimbale ici pacoko pacoko apo vyamvimba vikuwunjikana cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''planet'' likufuma ku Cigiriki πλανήται (''planḗtai''), "ŵakwendakwenda". Kale, lizgu ili likang'anamulanga [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], mwezi, na vyakuŵala vinkhondi ivyo vikawonekanga na maso pera na kwenda pakati pa nyenyezi: Mekyuri, Vinasi, Aresi, Jupita, na Satani. Kale vibwe vikakolerananga na visopa: midawuko yinandi yikawonanga vinthu vya kuthambo nga ni ŵaciuta. Caro capasi cikamanyikwa kuŵa cibwe apo fundo yakuti zuŵa ndilo lili pakati yikapoka malo gha fundo yakuti caro capasi ndico cili pakati, mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1600. Apo cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cikapangika, ng'anamulo ya cibwe yikakura kusazgapo vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka pera na wovwiri wa vilwero: myezi ya vibwe vinyake, vibwe vya ayisi Yurenasi na Neputuni, Serisi na vinthu vinyake, na Pulutu. Mu 2006, Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Ŵasandi ŵa Nyenyezi (IAU) ukazomerezga ng'anamulo ya cibwe mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, ndipo ukaŵika vibwe vinayi vya malibwe na vinayi vikulu kuŵa vibwe; Serisi, Pulutu, na Erisi vikaŵikika kuŵa vibwe vicoko. Kuluta panthazi kwa kusanda nyenyezi kwapangiska kusanga vibwe pafupifupi 6,445 kuwaro kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Vibwe vinyake ivi vikuzunguliya mu vigaŵa vya nyenyezi zawo umo maji ghangaŵako, kweni caro capasi cicali cibwe cekha ico cikumanyikwa kuŵa na umoyo. == Kupangika == Kukumanyikwa makola yayi umo vibwe vikupangikira. Fundo yakusacizga yikulu yikuti vikupangika apo bingu la nyenyezi likuwa pamoza kuŵa cimbale cicoko ca mpweya na cuvu. == Vibwe vya mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa == Kuyana na ng'anamulo ya IAU, pali vibwe vinkhondi na vitatu mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, ivyo (kufuma pafupi na zuŵa) ni: Mekyuri, Vinasi, Tera, Aresi, Jupita, Satani, Yurenasi, na Neputuni. Jupita ndico cikulu comene, ndipo Mekyuri ndico cicoko comene. == Vibwe vya Kuwaro == Cibwe ca kuwaro ni cibwe ico cili kuwaro kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Pofika pa 8 Zimya 2026, pakaŵa vibwe vya kuwaro 6,534 ivyo vyasimikizgika. == Vimanyikwiro == Nangauli cibwe ciliconse cili na vimanyikwiro vyake, vibwe vikuyana mu nthowa zinyake. == Mbiri na Muzu wa Lizgu == Ghanoghano la vibwe lasintha mu mbiri ya kusanda nyenyezi, kufuma ku vyakuŵala vya ŵaciuta vya kale mpaka ku vinthu vya kasandiro. == Majandulo na Mazina == Mazina gha vibwe vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa (kupatula caro capasi) mu Cingelezi ghakufuma ku ŴaBabuloni, Ŵagiriki, na Ŵaroma ŵa kale, awo ŵakavithyanga mazina gha ŵaciuta ŵawo. [[category:Chibwe| ]] 92yzopsec00u7n81n7usazzaei0ea5o 0 7903 124368 123602 2026-11-10T14:19:12Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124368 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Howl Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|Zuŵa]] [[file:Sun symbol (planetary color).svg|frameless|upright=0.35|☉]] '''Zuŵa''' ni [[nyenyezi]] iyo yili pakati pa [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]]. Ni mpira ukulu comene wa plasima wakotcha, uwo ukufunda comene mwakuti ukuŵala cifukwa ca kusazganika kwa mitima ya vimenyu mu mtima wake, ndipo ukufumiska nkhongono za ntchito kufuma pa cigaŵa cake ca kuwaro, comene nga ni [[Ungweru|ungweru]] wakuwoneka na ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, na magaŵa 10 pa 100 nga ni ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi. Ndilo kasupe mukulu wa nkhongono za ntchito ku umoyo pa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]]. Zuŵa laŵa cinthu cakucindikika mu midawuko yinandi, ndipo laŵa nkhani yikulu ya kusanda nyenyezi kufuma kale. Zuŵa likuzunguliya pakati pa mlambagombe pa mtunda wa vyaka vya ungweru 24,000 mpaka 28,000. Mtunda wake wapakati kufuma pa caro capasi ni pafupifupi makilomita 149,600,000, panji pafupifupi maminiti 8 gha ungweru. Ndico cinthu cikulu comene na cakuzitika comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa; ukulu wake ni pafupifupi makilomita 1,391,400, kakhumi na kanayi pafupifupi ka caro capasi. Kuzitika kwa zuŵa nkhwa pafupifupi 330,000 kuluska kwa caro capasi, ndipo ni pafupifupi magaŵa 99.86 pa 100 gha kuzitika kose kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca zuŵa cikupangika comene na haidirojeni (pafupifupi 73 pa 100) na heliyamu (pafupifupi 25 pa 100), na visungunu vinyake vyakuzitika ivyo ni vicoko comene, kusazgapo [[Woskejeni|okisijeni]], [[Kaboni (chisungunu)|kaboni]], neoni, na cisulo. Zuŵa likapangika pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 4.6 ivyo vyajumpha, apo vyamvimba mu cigaŵa ca bingu likulu la mamolekyu vikawa pamoza cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza. Vyamvimba vinandi vikawungana pakati; vinyake vikasanduka cimbale cakuzunguliya ico cikaŵa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Vyamvimba vya pakati vikafunda comene na kukhwima comene mwakuti mu mtima wake mukamba kusazganika kwa mitima ya vimenyu. Sekondi yiliyose, mtima wa zuŵa ukusazga makilogalamu pafupifupi biliyoni 600 gha haidirojeni kuŵa heliyamu. Pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni zinayi mpaka zinkhondi na ziŵiri kufuma sono, apo kusazganika kwa haidirojeni mu mtima wa zuŵa kuzamucepa, mtima wake uzamukhwima comene na kufunda comene, ndipo vigaŵa vyake vya kuwaro vizamukura, ndipo zuŵa lizamusanduka nyenyezi yikulu yakucesama. Pamanyuma, likughanaghanirika kuti zuŵa lizamuponya vigaŵa vyake vya kuwaro na kuŵa nyenyezi yicoko yituŵa iyo yikuziziska pacoko pacoko. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''sun'' likafuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''sunne''. == Vimanyikwiro Vikulu == Zuŵa ni nyenyezi ya mtundu wa G iyo yili pakati pa umoyo wake, ndipo ni pafupifupi magaŵa 99.86 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. == Kazengero == Mtima wa zuŵa ukufuma pakati mpaka pafupifupi magaŵa 20–25 pa 100 gha utali wa pakati pa zuŵa. Kufunda kwake nkhwa pafupifupi makelivini miliyoni 15.7. Kweni kufunda kwa cigaŵa ca kuwaro nkhwa pafupifupi makelivini 5,800. == Ungweru na Kulaŵiska == Nkhongono za ntchito za zuŵa zikovwira umoyo pa caro capasi kwizira mu [[Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)|usanisinuru]], zikuzomerezga vinyama kuwona, ndipo zikwendeska nyengo na mphepo za caro capasi. Zuŵa ndilo cinthu cakuŵala comene kuluska vyose kuthambo kwa caro capasi. == Umagineti == Zuŵa lili na cigaŵa ca nkhongono ya magineti ico cikupambana pa cigaŵa cake ca kuwaro. Cigaŵa ici cikusintha kuyana na nyengo na malo. == Nyengo za Umoyo Wake == Mazuŵa ghano zuŵa lili pafupifupi pakati pa umoyo wake. Lindasinthe comene mu vyaka biliyoni zinayi, ndipo lizamulutilira kukhala makola kwa vyaka biliyoni zinkhondi zinyake. == Nkhongono Yakuguza == Zuŵa lili na mapulaneti ghankhondi na ghatatu agho ghakulizunguliya: ghanayi gha malibwe ([[Mekyuri]], [[Vinasi]], [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|Tera]], na [[Aresi]]), ghaŵiri ghakulughakulu gha mpweya ([[Jupita]] na [[Satani]]), na ghaŵiri ghakulughakulu gha ayisi ([[Yurenasi]] na [[Neputuni]]). == Malo Ghake == Zuŵa, pamoza na Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kose, likuzunguliya pakati pa mlambagombe pa luŵiro la pafupifupi makilomita 230 pa liŵiri, ndipo likutora vyaka miliyoni 220–250 kuzunguliya kamoza. == Mbiri ya Kulaŵiska == Mu midawuko yinandi ya kale, zuŵa likaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa ciuta panji cinthu ca uzimu. == Mu Visopa == Ŵaciuta ŵa zuŵa ŵakuzirwa comene mu visopa na majandulo ghanandi. Kusopa zuŵa kukaŵa kwakuzirwa comene kwa ŴaEguputo ŵa kale, Ŵainka ŵa ku Amerika ya Kumwera, na Ŵaazitekoni ŵa ku Mexico. [[Category:Chibwe|*]] pdbvkrfwauceosmvmkz39a7k0im3ajt 0 9670 124352 124012 2026-11-10T14:18:28Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124352 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cirwa''' (vinandi: '''virwa''') ni malo gha mtunda, ghakupambana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, ghakuzingilizgika na [[Maji|maji]] mu mphepete zose. Pali virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, ivyo vikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na virwa vya mbwani, ivyo vindaŵepo cigaŵa ca mtunda ukulu. Virwa vya mbwani vingapangika na mapiri gha moto, kukura kuŵa ma''atoll'' kufuma ku malibwe gha korali, na kupangika kufuma ku mcenga na dongo mu mphepete mwa nyanja, kupanga virwa vya kuvikilira mphepete. Virwa vya mu milonga vingapangika so na mcenga, dongo na vinyake mu milonga. Virwa vyakupangika ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵapanga, kusazgapo tumalibwe tucoko utu tukazengeka mu tunyanja na ntchito zikulu za kupanga mtunda pa maji pa cifukwa ca kuzenga. Pa virwa pali vyakumera na vinyama vya mitundu yinandi. Virwa vya mbwani vili na nyanja nga ni cikanizgo ca kawiro ca kufika kwa mitundu yiphya, ntheura mitundu iyo yikufika pa cirwa yikusintha paŵekha. Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vikugaŵana vinyama na vyakumera na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ico vikapatukanako. Kuyana na kutalika kwa nyengo kufuma apo cirwa ici cikapangikira, vyamoyo pa cirwa ici vingaŵa kuti vyapambana comene na vya cigaŵa cikulu cifukwa ca kusankha kwa kawiro. Ŵanthu ŵakhala pa virwa na kwenda pakati pa virwa kwa vyaka masauzandi. Virwa vinyake vikaŵa na ŵanthu cifukwa ca ulalo wa mtunda panji cifukwa cirwa cikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, panji kwizira mu maulendo gha ngalawa. Ku kumpoto comene panji kumwera comene, virwa vinyake vikukolerana na cikakato ca nyengo zinyake panji ca nyengo zose. Mazuŵa ghano, mpaka magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵa caro cose capasi ŵakukhala pa virwa. Virwa vikukopa ŵalendo ŵanandi cifukwa ca uwemi wawo wa kawiro, kuŵa paŵekha, na midawuko yawo yapadera. Virwa vikaŵa malo gha ukoloni wa Ŵaulaya, ndipo ici cikapangiska virwa vinandi vya mu Pacific kuŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵaulaya. Kuwuskapo ukoloni kwapangiska vyaro vinyake vya virwa, kweni vyose yayi, kujilongozga ŵekha, ndipo pali vyakufumapo vya nyengo yitali vya mafakitale, mitundu yakunanga, kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya, na ŵalendo. Virwa na vyaro vya virwa vili pa ngozi cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo. Kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani kukuopska kubizga vyose vyaro nga ni Maldives, Marshall Islands, na Tuvalu. Kusazgikira kwa unandi na nkhongono za vimphepo vya ku tropiki kungananga comene vyakuzengeka na malo gha vinyama. Mitundu iyo yikukhala pa virwa pera ni yimoza mwa iyo yili pa ngozi yikulu comene ya kumalira. == Ng'anamulo == Cirwa ni malo gha mtunda ghakuzingilizgika na maji mu mphepete zose, agho ghakupambana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda. Palije cipimo ca ukulu ico cikupatula virwa na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vili na ng'anamulo lakuzomerezgeka la kasandiro ka pasi: ni mtunda ukulu comene wa cigaŵa cikulu ca pasi cimoza. Virwa vingaŵa mu maji ghaliwose, kusazgapo nyanja, milonga, na mbwani. Malo gha mtunda agho ghakuwoneka pera apo maji ghacepa, kweni ghakubira apo maji ghakwera, kanandi ghakuwonekera kuŵa virwa yayi. Virwa ivyo vyakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda na ulalo panji na kupanga mtunda nyengo zinyake vikuwonekera kuti "vyaleka kuŵa virwa", kweni nyengo zose yayi. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''island'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca nyengo yapakati ''iland'', kufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''igland'', ilo likufuma ku ''ig'' panji ''ieg'', ilo nalo likang'anamulanga "cirwa" para likugwiliskirika ntchito paŵekha, pamoza na ''-land'' ilo likung'anamula "mtunda". ''Ieg'' ya Cingelezi ca kale likukolerana na Cisweden ''ö'' na Cijeremani ''Aue'', ndipo kutali, na Cilatini ''aqua'' (maji). Kalembero ka lizgu ili na ⟨s⟩ kakasintha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 cifukwa ca kughanaghana kwautesi kuti likukolerana na lizgu la Cifulenci ca kale ''isle'', ilo nalo likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''insula''. == Kasandiro ka Pasi == === Kapangikiro mu Mbwani === Virwa kanandi vikusangika mu magulu gha virwa panji minjololo ya virwa. Minjololo iyi yikughanaghanirika kupangika kufuma ku malo gha moto gha pasi, malo agho cigaŵa ca mukati ca pasi ncakotcha comene kuluska malo ghakuzingilizga. Malo agha ghakwiziska mapiri gha moto agho mwala wake wakusungunuka ukupanga malibwe agho virwa vikupangikira. Pa virwa vinyake, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi pacanya pa malo gha moto ghambura kusamika kukupanga virwa mu mzere, ndipo virwa ivyo vili kutali na malo gha moto nvya kale comene na vyakukokoloka comene, pambere vindabire vyose mu mbwani. Ciyelezgero ni Virwa vya Hawaii: cirwa ca kale comene nca vyaka miliyoni 25, ndipo ciphya comene, Hawaii, cicali phiri la moto lamoyo. Kweni minjololo yose ya virwa yikupangika nthena yayi. Yinyake yingapangika pa nyengo yimoza cifukwa ca kuphwanyika kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, kupanga virwa vinandi pamoza. Ukaboni unyake ni wa Virwa vya Line, ivyo vyose vikughanaghanirika kuŵa vya vyaka miliyoni 8, m'malo mwa kuŵa vya vyaka vyakupambana. Minjololo yinyake ya virwa yikupangika cifukwa ca kupatukana na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Virwa vya Japani vingaŵa kuti vikapatukana na Eurasia cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa pasi pa mbwani, ico cikucitika apo cikopa ciphya ca pasi pa mbwani cikupangika, cikukankha cikopa ca kale. Virwa ivyo vili pa mphepete ya pasi pa maji ya cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda vingachemeka virwa vya cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda. Virwa vinyake, nga ni ivyo vikupanga New Zealand, ni ivyo vyasyala vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda ivyo vikacepa na kubira mu mbwani. Kukaghanaghanirika kuti Zealandia, cigaŵa ca pasi ico New Zealand yili pacanya pake, yabira magaŵa 93 pa 100 gha malo ghake gha kwamba. Virwa vinyake vikupangika apo malibwe gha korali ghakukura pa virwa vya mapiri gha moto ivyo vyabira pasi pa maji. Para virwa ivi vya korali vyazingilizga kanyanja ka pakati, cirwa ici cikuchemeka ''atoll''. Kupangika kwa malibwe gha korali na virwa vyake kukovwirika na kuwunjikana kwa mcenga na dongo mu maji ghambura kuzika. Nyengo zinyake, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi uko kukukwezga malibwe gha korali kufuma mu maji nanga ni mita 1 pera kungapangiska dongo kuwunjikana na cirwa kupangika. Virwa vya kuvikilira mphepete ni mizere mitali ya mcenga iyo yikupangika mu mphepete mwa nyanja cifukwa ca kuwunjika kwa mcenga na mayigha. Virwa ivi vikukokoloka na kukura apo mphepo na mayigha vikusintha. Virwa ivi vikuvikilira malo gha mphepete ku nyengo yiheni cifukwa vikukora nkhongono zinyake za mayigha ghakulu pambere ghandafike ku mphepete. Virwa vya ku Antarctica nyengo zinyake vikukolerana nyengo zose na mtunda unyake kwizira mu cikakato ca mbwani panji ca pa mtunda. Ciyelezgero ni Cirwa ca Ross mu Antarctica. === Kapangikiro mu Maji Ghawemi === Cirwa ca mu mlonga ni cirwa ico cikupangika kufuma ku kukokoloka na kuwunjika kwa dongo na vinyake mu milonga; pafupifupi milonga yose yili na virwa vya mtundu uwu. Virwa ivi vingaŵa vyatali mamita ghacoko pera, ndipo kanandi nvya kanyengo. Kusintha kwa luŵiro lwa maji, unandi wa maji, na unandi wa dongo mu mlonga kungakhwaska kupangika na kumalira kwa virwa vya mu milonga. Virwa vya mu milonga vya nyengo zose navyo vilipo, ndipo cikulu comene (ico cili mukati mwa mtunda pera) ni Cirwa ca Bananal mu mlonga wa Tocantins mu Brazil, ico cili na usani wa makilomita 55. Nyanja zikupangika pa vifukwa vinandi, kusazgapo cikakato cikulu cakwenda, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na mapiri gha moto. Virwa vya mu nyanja vingapangika nga ni cigaŵa ca ndondomeko izi. == Umoyo pa Virwa == Kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo pa virwa kakusanda ndondomeko za vyamoyo izo zikucitika pa virwa, kulaŵiska comene vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska kusintha, kumalira, na unandi wa mitundu. Ŵasandi kanandi ŵakusanda virwa nga ni ciyelezgero cakupatukana ca umo kusankha kwa kawiro kukucitikira. Kasandiro ka vyamoyo vya pa virwa kakusanda vyamoyo pa virwa na malo ghawo. Kapeleka maghanoghano ghakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo kufuma mu nyengo ya Charles Darwin. === Kusangika Malo Ghamoza Pera === Mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo, kusangika malo ghamoza pera ni apo mtundu panji gulu la mitundu likusangika mu cigaŵa cinyake pera. Virwa vikupatula vyamoyo vya pa mtunda ku vinyake na maji, ndipo vikupatula vyamoyo vya mu maji na mtunda. Malo gha vyamoyo gha pa virwa ghali na unandi ukulu comene wa mitundu iyo yikusangika kwekha pera pa caro cose capasi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti virwa vikovwira comene ku kupambanapambana kwa vyamoyo kwa caro cose. Malo agho ghali na kupambanapambana kukulu kwa vyamoyo ghakulaŵiskika comene pa ntchito za kuvikilira, kuti mitundu iyi yileke kumalira. Nangauli pali mitundu yinandi iyo yikusangika kwekha, unandi wose wa mitundu mu cigaŵa ngucoko pa virwa kuluska pa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Unandi wa mitundu pa virwa ukolerana na ukulu wa cirwa ico, ndipo ici cikuchemeka ubale wa mitundu na malo. Ici nchifukwa malo ghakulu ghali na vyuma vinandi, ntheura ghangasunga vyamoyo vinandi. Magulu agho ghangasungika ghanandi ghali so na kupambana kukulu kwa vyakuhara, ico cikovwira kupangika kwa mitundu yiphya. === Kuthandazgika === Virwa vya mbwani, ivyo vindakolerane na mtunda, vikuŵa na vyamoyo ivyo vingajumpha mbwani pera. Ici cikung'anamula kuti vinyama vyose ivyo vili pa cirwa vikwenera kuti vikaduka kufika kuko, pa viyuni panji mleme, vikanyamulika na vinyama ivi, panji vikanyamulika na maji ghakwenda mu mbwani pa ico cikuchemeka "kuyandama pa vinthu". Ici cikuchemeka kuthandazgika kwa mu mbwani. Mphepo zikulu za ku tropiki zingatora mitundu kutali comene. Vinyama nga ni fulu vingakhala masabata kwambura cakulya panji maji, ndipo vingapona kuyandama pa vinthu mu mbwani. Kusanda kunyake kukalongora kuti mu 1995, tuvava 15 tukapona pa ulendo wa makilomita 300 kufika ku Anguilla mu Caribbean, cirwa ico pakaŵavya kavava kale. Tukapona mwa kuyandama pa makuni agho ghakazuka na cimphepo. Mitundu ya vyakumera yikughanaghanirika kuti yingajumpha mtunda utali comene wa mbwani. New Zealand na Australia vikugaŵana mitundu 200 ya vyakumera vya malo agho, nangauli vyapatukana na makilomita 1,500. Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, ivyo kale vikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, vikughanaghanirika kugaŵana mbiri ya vyakumera na vinyama mpaka apo cirwa cikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu. Mwaciyelezgero, kuŵapo kwa somba za maji ghawemi pa cirwa ico cazingilizgika na mbwani kungalongora kuti kale cikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, cifukwa somba izi zingajumpha mbwani paŵekha yayi. Mu nyengo, kusintha na kumalira kukusintha vinyama pa cirwa ca cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, kweni pamanyuma pa kupatukana pera. Ciyelezgero ni khuni la ''southern beech'', ilo lili mu Australia, New Zealand, vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Kumwera, na New Guinea, malo agho mazuŵa ghano ghali kutali. Malongosoro ghanyake ni ghakuti malo agha kale ghakaŵa cigaŵa ca cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Gondwana, ndipo ghakapatukana cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi. Kweni pali maghanoghano ghanyake ghakuti mtundu uwu ungaŵa kuti ukafika ku malo ghakutali kwizira mu kuthandazgika kwa mu mbwani. === Kusintha pa Magulu gha Virwa === Mitundu iyo yikukhala pa magulu gha virwa yikulongora cimanyikwiro capadera ico cikuchemeka kuthandazgika kwa kukolerana na malo. Mu ndondomeko iyi, mtundu uwo ukufika pa gulu la virwa ukupambanapambana luŵiro, kugaŵika kuŵa mitundu yiphya panji mitundu yicoko. Mtundu uwo ukufika pa malo gha vyamoyo gha cirwa ungakumana na kususkana kucoko pa vyuma, panji ungasanga kuti vyuma ivyo ukasanganga kale kulije. Vinthu ivi pamoza vikupangiska minthavi ya kusintha yakupambana na nthowa zakupambana za kupona. Ciyelezgero ca kale ni viyuni vya Darwin, gulu la mitundu mpaka 15 ya viyuni vicoko ivyo vikusangika pa Virwa vya Galápagos pera. Viyuni ivi vikasintha milomo yakupambana kuti virye vyakulya vyakupambana ivyo vili pa virwa. Ciyuni cikulu ca pasi cili na mlomo ukulu uwo cikugwiliskira ntchito kuphwanya mbuto na kurya vipambi. Ciyuni ca Genovesa cikutemwa kurya vyakumera vya minga, ndipo cili na mlomo wakukolerana na kuwuskapo vigaŵa vya mukati na maluŵa gha vyakumera ivi. Ciyuni cinyake cuŵisi cikurya ŵalutatavi na vibenene ivyo vikukhala pa vyakumera. Viyelezgero vinyake vya ici vilipo pa caro cose, kusazgapo mu Hawaii na Madagascar, ndipo vili pa malo gha vyamoyo gha virwa pera yayi. ==== Lamulo la Cirwa ==== Mitundu iyo yikusangika pa virwa pera yikulongora nthowa yakuyana ya kusintha. Lamulo la Foster (ilo likuchemeka so lamulo la cirwa) likuti vinyama vicoko vyakonkheska nga ni mbeŵa vikusintha kuŵa vikulu, ico cikuchemeka ukulu wa pa cirwa. Ciyelezgero ni fulu likulu la Seychelles, nangauli palije uyo wakumanya usange likakura pambere panji pamanyuma pa kufika pa cirwa. Vinyama vikulu nga ni cigwere vikucepa, nga ni cigwere cicoko. Ici cikuchemeka ucoko wa pa cirwa. Pa vinyama vicoko, kukughanaghanirika kuti vinyama pa virwa vingaŵa na vinyama vicoko vyakuvisaka na vyakususkana navyo, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusankhika kwa vinyama vikulu. Vinyama vikulu vingamalizga vyakulya luŵiro cifukwa ca ukulu wawo, kupangiska njara ku ŵana ŵawo, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusankhika kwa vinyama vicoko ivyo vikukhumba vyakulya vicoko. Kuŵa na vinyama vicoko vyakuvisaka kukung'anamula kuti vinyama ivi vikakhumbikwanga kuŵa vikulu yayi kuti vipone. === Darwin, Galápagos, na Kusankha kwa Kawiro === Charles Darwin wakapanga ghanoghano la kusankha kwa kawiro kwizira mu kusanda vyamoyo vya pa virwa. Mitundu iyo wakawona pa Virwa vya Galápagos, kusazgapo viyuni, yikamovwira kumanya umo kusintha kukugwilira ntchito. Wakaluta dankha ku virwa nga ni msandi wa vya kawiro pa ngalawa ya HMS Beagle mu 1835, nga ni cigaŵa ca ulendo wa vyaka vinkhondi kuzunguliya caro capasi. Wakalemba kuti "virwa vyakupambana, mwakukulu, vikukhalika na magulu ghakupambana gha vyamoyo". Kwizira mu kusanda viyuni na vinyama vinyake, wakamanya kuti vyamoyo vikupona mwa kusintha kuti vikolerane na malo ghawo. Vikajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 20 pambere wandapharazge maghanoghano ghake mu ''On the Origin of Species''. == Ŵanthu na Virwa == === Mbiri ya Kupenja === Ukaboni wakwamba wa ŵanthu kukhala pa virwa ungaŵa wa nyengo ya Malibwe gha Kale, vyaka 100,000 mpaka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kufika ku virwa vya Indonesia vya Flores na Timor kukakhumbanga kujumpha maji gha makilomita 29 panji kujumpha. Virwa vinyake, nga ni Honshu, vingaŵa kuti vikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda na ulalo wa mtunda uwo ukazomerezga ŵanthu kukhalako pambere vindaŵe virwa. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba kukhala pa virwa vyakutali vya mbwani ŵakaŵa Ŵapolinesiya. Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵakajumphanga mtunda wa pasi pa makilomita 100, apo Ŵapolinesiya ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakenda makilomita 2,000–3,200 kuti ŵakhale pa virwa nga ni Tahiti. Ŵakatumanga ŵalongozgi ŵa ngalawa kwenda pa mbwani kwambura vilwero vya kulongozgera kuti ŵasange virwa viphya vya kukhalapo. Pakati pa 1100 na 800 pambere Khristu, Ŵapolinesiya ŵakenda kumafumiro kufuma ku New Guinea na Virwa vya Solomon ndipo ŵakafika ku virwa ivyo sono vikupanga Fiji na Samoa. Kutali comene uko ŵakafika ni Cirwa ca Easter ku kumafumiro, na New Zealand ku kumwera, uko ŵakamba kukhala pakati pa 1250 na 1300. Ŵasandi ŵa mbiri ŵayezga kumanya cifukwa ico virwa vinyake vyakutali vyaŵa vyambura ŵanthu nyengo zose, apo vinyake, comene mu Mbwani ya Pacific, vyaŵa na ŵanthu kwa nyengo yitali. Kanandi, virwa vikulu vingasunga ŵanthu makola ntheura vingaŵa kuti vikakhalika. Virwa vicoko ivyo vingasunga ŵanthu paŵekha yayi vingakhalika usange vili pafupi na cirwa ico cili na vyuma vyakukwana. Kuŵapo kwa cirwa kukumanyikwa na viyuni vya mbwani, kupambana kwa maŵingu na nyengo, na kusintha kwa nthowa ya mayigha. Ncakuthekera so kuti ŵanthu ŵakamalira pa virwa, nga umo ŵakupenja ŵasangira virwa ivyo vikulongora ukaboni wa kukhalika kweni palije ŵanthu. Virwa vyose vikaŵa yayi panji vili yayi na ŵanthu ŵa midawuko ya pa mbwani. Kale, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasangika kuti ŵakataya luso lawo la kwenda pa mbwani, nga ni pa Virwa vya Canary, ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa malo agho kufuma apo virwa vikasangika kakwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 mpaka apo vikapokeka na Ufumu wa Spain mu 1496. Kukughanaghanirika kuti cifukwa ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na cifukwa cicoko ca malonda na ŵakakumananga pacoko comene na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, ŵakakhumbanga ngalawa yayi. Cifukwa ca kupenja virwa caŵa nkhani ya kusanda na mphindano. Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵa kale ŵakayowoyanga kuti kukhala pa virwa kwa kale kukaŵa kwambura kukhumba, panyake mwa ngalawa yakupangika na makuni iyo yikatoleka na maji kuya mu mbwani. Ŵanyake ŵakuyaniska vifukwa vya Ŵapolinesiya na ŵakupenja ŵanyake na vya Christopher Columbus, mukupenja uyo wakenda kumanjiliro pa Mbwani ya Atlantic kupenja nthowa yinyake ya kufika ku East Indies. Ŵasandi aŵa ŵakughanaghanira kuti ŵakupenja awo ŵakasanga virwa ŵakapikanga ucindami na usambazi, ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanyake kuyezga maulendo gha ngozi kupenja virwa vinyake, kanandi mwambura kuwona vinandi. === Umoyo === Pafupifupi magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵa caro cose capasi ŵakukhala pa virwa. Kusanda midawuko ya virwa kukuchemeka kasambiro ka virwa. Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kusanda virwa cifukwa ca midawuko yawo yapadera na malo ghawo gha kawiro agho ghakupambana na gha vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Ici nchifukwa ca vifukwa vinandi: Cakwamba, kupatukana kwakuwoneka kwa ndyali na malo kufuma ku midawuko ya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Caciŵiri, vikanizgo vyapadera pa vyuma na malo gha vyamoyo ivyo vikupangiska midawuko ya pa mbwani iyo yikulaŵiska comene kulowa somba na kwenda pa ngalawa. Cacitatu, kuzirwa kwa virwa mu mbiri na mu ndyali kwa nyengo yitali. ==== Vyakulya ==== Vyakulya vya Ŵapolinesiya vikasanganga purotini yinandi kufuma ku kulowa somba. Ŵapolinesiya ŵakalowanga pafupi na mphepete, na mu maji ghakuzika. Kukayowoyeka kuti ŵanthu ŵa Rapa Nui ŵakalowanga mpaka makilomita 500 kufuma ku mphepete pa malibwe gha korali. Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mikondo, mbeza, na maukonde kulowa ''tuna'', shaki, na somba zinyake. Midawuko ya virwa yikulima so mbuto za malo agho na zakufuma kunyake. Ŵapolinesiya ŵakalimanga vikhawo, ''taro'', ''breadfruit'', ntochi, makokonati na vipambi na masamba vinyake. Nyengo zakupambana za virwa zikapangiska vyuma vyakupambana kuŵa vyakuzirwa, nga ni Virwa vya Hawaii kuŵa na minda ya ''taro'' yakuthiliririka, apo pa virwa vinyake, nga ni Tahiti, ''breadfruit'' yikalimikanga comene na kunowetseka kuti yisungike. Pali ukaboni wa vya kale wakuti ŵanthu ŵa Virwa vya Canary ŵakatafunanga misisi ya vyakumera vinyake pa vyakulya, ico cikanangisanga comene mino ghawo gha kumanyuma. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalimanga so balale na kuŵeta viŵeto nga ni mbuzi. === Vyaro na Vigaŵa vya Virwa === Vyaro vinandi vya virwa vili na mtunda ucoko na vyuma vya kawiro vicoko. Kweni vyaro ivi vikulongozga malo ghanyake ghakulu comene gha kulowa somba pa caro cose, vyuma vya mkuŵa, golide, na nickel, na mafuta. Uwemi wa kawiro wa vyaro vya virwa ukupangiska so kuti vikope ŵalendo. Virwa vili so na kuzirwa kwa ndyali pa malo gha ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji, kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo, na kulongozga malo. Ciyelezgero ni French Polynesia, cigaŵa ico cikupokera ndalama zinandi za ŵankhondo na wovwiri kufuma ku France. Vinyake vitatu, Palau, Federated States of Micronesia, na Marshall Islands, ni vyaro vya virwa vya mu Pacific ivyo vili na phangano la kuvikilira, wovwiri, na kunjira mu caro na United States ilo likuchemeka ''Compact of Free Association''. ==== Ukoloni ==== Kufuma apo Ŵakumanjiliro ŵakasanga dankha virwa vya Polynesia, Micronesia, na vinyake, vyaro ivi vyaŵa malo gha ukoloni. Virwa vikaŵa malo gha ŵamishonale ŵa Cikhristu. Ŵamishonale aŵa ŵakasuskika, kweni ŵakawona uwemi apo mafumu ghanyake gha malo agho ghakagwiliskira ntchito wovwiri wa Ŵaulaya kuwunjika mazaza. Kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, vyaro vya Ulaya vikaŵika cigaŵa cikulu ca Oceania pasi pa ulongozgi wa ukoloni. Pohnpei yikapokeka na Spain kufuma mu 1526. Yikasintha mazaza kufuma ku Germany, Japani, na United States pambere yindanjire mu Federated States of Micronesia mu 1982, ndipo yikusunga ubale wa "kukolerana kwa wanangwa" na U.S. Guam yikaŵa cigaŵa ca Spain mpaka 1898, ndipo sono ni cigaŵa ca U.S. cambura kunjizgika mu caro. Nyengo ya kuwuskapo ukoloni yikawona vyaro vinandi vya virwa kusanga wanangwa panji kujilongozga mwanjira yinyake. Kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya pa Marshall Islands kukananga ma''atoll'' ghanandi panji kughapangiska kuŵa ghambura kukhalika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakakizgika kufuma pa virwa vyawo, na kusazgikira kwa nthenda ya kansa cifukwa ca nkhongono za nyukiliya. Ukoloni wapangiska kucepa kwa kulondezga midawuko ya kale mu malo nga ni Hawaii, uko ŵanthu ŵa malo agho sono mbacoko. Maghanoghano gha midawuko pa kuŵa na mtunda pamoza na kusoŵa kwa kusankha kwa munthu yumoza ghangapangiska midawuko yinyake ya virwa kukolerana yayi na vyacuma vya ukapitalisti vya caro cose, ndipo ici cikupangiska vyaro ivi kukura pacoko mu vyacuma. === Ŵalendo === Virwa vyakopa ŵalendo ŵanandi kwa nyengo yitali, cifukwa ca nyengo zawo zapadera, midawuko, na uwemi wa kawiro. Kweni virwa vingaŵa na suzgo la mayendero ghaheni gha ndege na ngalawa, na kunangika kwa vyakuzengeka cifukwa ca ŵalendo. Virwa vya mu nyengo yakuzizima kanandi vikuthemba ŵalendo ŵa nyengo zinyake awo ŵakukhumba kusangwa na kawiro panji midawuko ya malo agho, ndipo ŵalendo ŵangaŵa cigaŵa cimoza pera ca vyacuma vya cirwa. Kweni pa virwa vya ku tropiki, ŵalendo kanandi ndiwo vyacuma vinandi vya malo agho na vyakuzengeka. Virwa ivi nyengo zinyake vikukhumba so wovwiri wa vyaro vinyake nyengo zose kuti vyacuma vikure. Kuthemba uku kungapangiska kupambana kwa ŵanthu na kunangika kwa malo ghakuzingilizga. Apo ŵalendo ŵacepa, vyacuma ivi vikusuzgika kusanga ndalama izo zataika kufuma ku malonda ghanyake. == Ngozi ku Virwa == Kusintha kwa nyengo kukuopska umoyo wa ŵanthu pa virwa cifukwa ca kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani, vimphepo vya ku tropiki vyakofya comene, kutuŵa kwa malibwe gha korali, na kusazgikira kwa mitundu yakunanga. Mwaciyelezgero, mu 2017 cimphepo ca Maria cikananga pafupifupi vyakuzengeka vyose mu Dominica. Kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani na kusintha kunyake kwa nyengo kungacepeska maji ghawemi, ndipo kukwiziska cilala. Ngozi izi zikughanaghanirika kucepeska kukhalika kwa virwa, comene vicoko. Kupatula ngozi ku umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyakumera na vinyama nayo vili pa ngozi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti pafupifupi hafu ya mitundu ya pa mtunda iyo yili pa ngozi ya kumalira yikukhala pa virwa. Mu 2017, kusanda kwa virwa 1,288 kukasanga kuti pakaŵa mitundu 1,189 ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana iyo yili pa ngozi yikulu, magaŵa 41 pa 100 gha caro cose. Kutuŵa kwa malibwe gha korali kukughanaghanirika kucitika kanandi, kuopska malo gha vyamoyo gha mu mbwani, agho vyacuma vinyake vya virwa vikughathemba. Virwa vinyake vya pasi vingaleka kuŵapo usange maji gha mbwani ghakwera comene. Tuvalu yikalaŵiskika comene na nyuzipepara cifukwa ca msonkhano wa ŵalembi wa nkhani uwo ukapharazga kubira kwa caro ici ca virwa. Tuvalu yikasayina phangano na Australia lakuti caka ciliconse ŵanthu ŵake 280 ŵazomerezgeke kuŵa ŵakukhala nyengo zose mu Australia. Marshall Islands, caro ca virwa 1,156, nacho camanyikwa kuŵa pa ngozi ya kumalira cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mbwani. Kusazgikira kwa nkhongono za vimphepo vya ku tropiki kukusazgirapo mtunda na unandi wa kunyamulika kwa mitundu yakunanga ku virwa. Maji gha cigumula gha mphepo izi ghangatora vyakumera kutali mukati mwa mtunda kuluska umo vingafikira paŵekha, kuvinjizga mu malo ghaphya. Ulimi na malonda navyo vyanjizga vyamoyo vyakufuma kunyake pa virwa. Ndondomeko izi zikunjizga mitundu yakunanga mu malo gha vyamoyo agho ngacoko na ghakunangika luŵiro. Ciyelezgero ni nkhono ya ''apple snail'', iyo yikanjizgika dankha ku U.S. na ŵakusunga somba mu magalasi. Kufuma apo yanyamulika na mphepo zikulu mu mphepete ya Gulf na virwa vya pafupi. Mitundu iyi yikususkana pa vyuma na vinyama vya malo agho, ndipo yinyake yingakura comene mwakuti yingafumiska vyamoyo vinyake. == Virwa Vyakupangika == Kwa vyaka mahandiredi, virwa vyapangika kwizira mu kupanga mtunda pa maji. Cimoza mwa viyelezgero vyakwamba vyakulembeka ni apo ŵanthu ŵa Virwa vya Solomon ŵakapanga virwa 80 mwa kuwunjika malibwe gha korali na malibwe mu Kanyanja ka Lau. Kweni cirwa cakwamba cakupangika ca nyengo zose ni Cirwa ca Al-Sayah, mu Bahrain, ico cikapangika vyaka 1,200 ivyo vyajumpha panji kujumpha. Nthowa yimoza ya kale ya kupanga virwa ni kugwiliskira ntchito linga la malibwe. Matumba gha mcenga panji malibwe ghakuponyeka na ngalawa yikulu mu mbwani kuti ghakwezge mtunda pacoko kufuma mu maji. Pamanyuma malo gha cirwa ghakuzuzgika na mcenga panji tumalibwe, ndipo linga likuzengeka kuti likhazge malo agha. Virwa vyazengeka so na cizengo ca nyengo zose ca cisulo panji simenti ico cikuzengeka mu cizungulizgo ndipo pamanyuma cikuzuzgika na mcenga. Virwa vinyake vya mazuŵa ghano vyazengeka mwa kuthira matani miliyoni gha mcenga mu mbwani, nga ni Cirwa ca Pearl mu Qatar panji Virwa vya Palm mu Dubai. Virwa ivi kanandi vikupangika pa cifukwa ca kuzenga nyumba za kuguliska, ndipo vikuguliskika ku ŵanthu paŵekha panji pa kuzenga nyumba. Vyakuzengeka vya kufumiska mafuta mu mbwani navyo vyalongosoreka nga ni mtundu wa cirwa. Ma''atoll'' ghanyake ghaphimbika na simenti kupanga virwa vyakupangika pa vifukwa vya ŵankhondo, nga ni ivyo China yikapanga mu Mbwani ya China ya Kumwera. Ma''atoll'' agha kale ghakaŵa malo agho ghakuwoneka pera apo maji ghacepa. Phangano la Wupu wa Vyaro Vyose pa Dango la Mbwani likulongora kuti virwa ivi vingaŵa na ucindami wa dango wakuyana na wa cirwa ca kawiro yayi, ntheura vingapeleka wanangwa wa dango wakuyana yayi. [[Category:Nkhoska]] t16nf8kevxhp24zn2qh5o30clm3iz78 124405 124352 2026-11-10T20:34:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124405 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg|alt=Virwa vya Hawaii kuwoneka kufuma mu mlengalenga, kumpoto kuli pacanya. Maŵingu ngacoko, ndipo cithuzi cinandi ni maji gha mbwani agho mphepo yikuzunguliska kuzingilizga virwa.|thumb|upright=1.3|Virwa vya Hawaii, gulu likulu la virwa mu Mbwani ya Pacific]] '''Cirwa''' (vinandi: '''virwa''') ni malo gha mtunda, ghakupambana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, ghakuzingilizgika na [[Maji|maji]] mu mphepete zose. Pali virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, ivyo vikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na virwa vya mbwani, ivyo vindaŵepo cigaŵa ca mtunda ukulu. Virwa vya mbwani vingapangika na mapiri gha moto, kukura kuŵa ma''atoll'' kufuma ku malibwe gha korali, na kupangika kufuma ku mcenga na dongo mu mphepete mwa nyanja, kupanga virwa vya kuvikilira mphepete. Virwa vya mu milonga vingapangika so na mcenga, dongo na vinyake mu milonga. Virwa vyakupangika ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵapanga, kusazgapo tumalibwe tucoko utu tukazengeka mu tunyanja na ntchito zikulu za kupanga mtunda pa maji pa cifukwa ca kuzenga. Pa virwa pali vyakumera na vinyama vya mitundu yinandi. Virwa vya mbwani vili na nyanja nga ni cikanizgo ca kawiro ca kufika kwa mitundu yiphya, ntheura mitundu iyo yikufika pa cirwa yikusintha paŵekha. Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vikugaŵana vinyama na vyakumera na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ico vikapatukanako. Kuyana na kutalika kwa nyengo kufuma apo cirwa ici cikapangikira, vyamoyo pa cirwa ici vingaŵa kuti vyapambana comene na vya cigaŵa cikulu cifukwa ca kusankha kwa kawiro. Ŵanthu ŵakhala pa virwa na kwenda pakati pa virwa kwa vyaka masauzandi. Virwa vinyake vikaŵa na ŵanthu cifukwa ca ulalo wa mtunda panji cifukwa cirwa cikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, panji kwizira mu maulendo gha ngalawa. Ku kumpoto comene panji kumwera comene, virwa vinyake vikukolerana na cikakato ca nyengo zinyake panji ca nyengo zose. Mazuŵa ghano, mpaka magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵa caro cose capasi ŵakukhala pa virwa. Virwa vikukopa ŵalendo ŵanandi cifukwa ca uwemi wawo wa kawiro, kuŵa paŵekha, na midawuko yawo yapadera. Virwa vikaŵa malo gha ukoloni wa Ŵaulaya, ndipo ici cikapangiska virwa vinandi vya mu Pacific kuŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵaulaya. Kuwuskapo ukoloni kwapangiska vyaro vinyake vya virwa, kweni vyose yayi, kujilongozga ŵekha, ndipo pali vyakufumapo vya nyengo yitali vya mafakitale, mitundu yakunanga, kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya, na ŵalendo. Virwa na vyaro vya virwa vili pa ngozi cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo. Kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani kukuopska kubizga vyose vyaro nga ni Maldives, Marshall Islands, na Tuvalu. Kusazgikira kwa unandi na nkhongono za vimphepo vya ku tropiki kungananga comene vyakuzengeka na malo gha vinyama. Mitundu iyo yikukhala pa virwa pera ni yimoza mwa iyo yili pa ngozi yikulu comene ya kumalira. == Ng'anamulo == Cirwa ni malo gha mtunda ghakuzingilizgika na maji mu mphepete zose, agho ghakupambana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda. Palije cipimo ca ukulu ico cikupatula virwa na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vili na ng'anamulo lakuzomerezgeka la kasandiro ka pasi: ni mtunda ukulu comene wa cigaŵa cikulu ca pasi cimoza. Virwa vingaŵa mu maji ghaliwose, kusazgapo nyanja, milonga, na mbwani.<ref name=":5" /> Malo gha mtunda agho ghakuwoneka pera apo maji ghacepa, kweni ghakubira apo maji ghakwera, kanandi ghakuwonekera kuŵa virwa yayi.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Continent |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/Continent |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716045120/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/continent/ |archive-date=July 16, 2019 |access-date=June 26, 2024 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}} {{failed verification|date=September 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/tectonic.html |title=What is a tectonic plate? |date=July 11, 2025 |work=US Geologic Survey |access-date=October 14, 2026}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=Island |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/island |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> Virwa ivyo vyakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda na ulalo panji na kupanga mtunda nyengo zinyake vikuwonekera kuti "vyaleka kuŵa virwa", kweni nyengo zose yayi.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Baldacchino |first=Godfrey |title=Bridging islands: the impact of fixed links |date=2007 |publisher=Acorn Press |isbn=978-1-894838-24-5 |location=Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island |oclc=70884504}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pigou-Dennis |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Grydehøj |first2=Adam |date=2014 |title=Accidental and ideal island cities: islanding processes and urban design in Belize City and the urban archipelagos of Europe |journal=Island Studies Journal |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=259–276 |doi=10.24043/isj.305 |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''island'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca nyengo yapakati ''iland'', kufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''igland'', ilo likufuma ku ''ig'' panji ''ieg'', ilo nalo likang'anamulanga "cirwa" para likugwiliskirika ntchito paŵekha, pamoza na ''-land'' ilo likung'anamula "mtunda". ''Ieg'' ya Cingelezi ca kale likukolerana na Cisweden ''ö'' na Cijeremani ''Aue'', ndipo kutali, na Cilatini ''aqua'' (maji).<ref>{{cite Q |Q131605459 |first=Don |last=Ringe |author-link=Donald Ringe |page=109 |mode=cs1}}</ref> Kalembero ka lizgu ili na ⟨s⟩ kakasintha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 cifukwa ca kughanaghana kwautesi kuti likukolerana na lizgu la Cifulenci ca kale ''isle'', ilo nalo likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''insula''.<ref name=":5">{{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Island |title=Island |access-date=March 5, 2007 |dictionary=Dictionary.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307143713/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/island |archive-date=March 7, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wedgwood|first=Hensleigh|author-link=Hensleigh Wedgwood|title=On False Etymologies|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|hdl=2027/uc1.b3924121?urlappend=%3Bseq=76%3Bownerid=9007199256339270-82 |hdl-access=free |year=1855|issue=6|page=66 }}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Pasi == === Kapangikiro mu Mbwani === [[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Cithuzi ico cikulongora umo cigaŵa ca caro capasi cikwendera pacanya pa malo ghakufunda comene pasi, ndipo ici cikupangiska mzere wa virwa kukura.|Cigaŵa ca caro capasi pa malo ghakufunda comene gha Hawaii. Dongo lakusungunuka likuwuka kufuma pasi comene kuya ku cikopa ca caro capasi, ndipo likupanga mzere wa mapiri gha moto apo cikopa ici cikwenda pacanya pa malo agho.]] Virwa kanandi vikusangika mu magulu gha virwa panji minjololo ya virwa. Minjololo iyi yikughanaghanirika kupangika kufuma ku malo gha moto gha pasi, malo agho cigaŵa ca mukati ca pasi ncakotcha comene kuluska malo ghakuzingilizga.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=J. Tuzo |date=June 1963 |title=A Possible Origin of the Hawaiian Islands |journal=Canadian Journal of Physics |language=en |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=863–870 |doi=10.1139/p63-094 |bibcode=1963CaJPh..41..863W }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Malo agha ghakwiziska mapiri gha moto agho mwala wake wakusungunuka ukupanga malibwe agho virwa vikupangikira.<ref name=":1" /> Pa virwa vinyake, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi pacanya pa malo gha moto ghambura kusamika kukupanga virwa mu mzere, ndipo virwa ivyo vili kutali na malo gha moto nvya kale comene na vyakukokoloka comene, pambere vindabire vyose mu mbwani.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Anthony T |date=1993 |title=Review of the chronology of marine terraces in the Hawaiian Archipelago |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=811–823 |doi=10.1016/0277-3791(93)90019-I |bibcode=1993QSRv...12..811J }}</ref> Ciyelezgero ni Virwa vya Hawaii: cirwa ca kale comene nca vyaka miliyoni 25, ndipo ciphya comene, Hawaii, cicali phiri la moto lamoyo.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> Kweni minjololo yose ya virwa yikupangika nthena yayi. Yinyake yingapangika pa nyengo yimoza cifukwa ca kuphwanyika kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, kupanga virwa vinandi pamoza. Ukaboni unyake ni wa Virwa vya Line, ivyo vyose vikughanaghanirika kuŵa vya vyaka miliyoni 8, m'malo mwa kuŵa vya vyaka vyakupambana.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Neall |first1=Vincent E. |last2=Trewick |first2=Steven A. |date=October 27, 2008 |title=The age and origin of the Pacific islands: a geological overview |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=363 |issue=1508 |pages=3293–3308 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0119 |pmc=2607379 |pmid=18768382}}</ref> Minjololo yinyake ya virwa yikupangika cifukwa ca kupatukana na vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda. Virwa vya Japani vingaŵa kuti vikapatukana na Eurasia cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa pasi pa mbwani, ico cikucitika apo cikopa ciphya ca pasi pa mbwani cikupangika, cikukankha cikopa ca kale.<ref name=":0" /> Virwa ivyo vili pa mphepete ya pasi pa maji ya cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda vingachemeka virwa vya cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda.<ref name=":24" /> Virwa vinyake, nga ni ivyo vikupanga New Zealand, ni ivyo vyasyala vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda ivyo vikacepa na kubira mu mbwani.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Wallis |first1=Graham P. |last2=Trewick |first2=Steven A. |date=2009 |title=New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=18 |issue=17 |pages=3548–3580 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x |pmid=19674312 |bibcode=2009MolEc..18.3548W }}</ref> Kukaghanaghanirika kuti Zealandia, cigaŵa ca pasi ico New Zealand yili pacanya pake, yabira magaŵa 93 pa 100 gha malo ghake gha kwamba.<ref name=":3" /> Virwa vinyake vikupangika apo malibwe gha korali ghakukura pa virwa vya mapiri gha moto ivyo vyabira pasi pa maji.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Kumar |first2=Lalit |last3=Eliot |first3=Ian |last4=McLean |first4=Roger F. |date=March 2, 2016 |title=Classifying Pacific islands |journal=Geoscience Letters |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=7 |doi=10.1186/s40562-016-0041-8 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016GSL.....3....7N }}</ref> Para virwa ivi vya korali vyazingilizga kanyanja ka pakati, cirwa ici cikuchemeka ''atoll''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Some Geologists Say Charles Darwin's Theory of Coral Atoll Formation Is Wrong |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-some-geologists-say-charles-darwins-theory-coral-atoll-formation-wrong-180977052/|first=Alexandra |last=Witze |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Kupangika kwa malibwe gha korali na virwa vyake kukovwirika na kuwunjikana kwa mcenga na dongo mu maji ghambura kuzika. Nyengo zinyake, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi uko kukukwezga malibwe gha korali kufuma mu maji nanga ni mita 1 pera kungapangiska dongo kuwunjikana na cirwa kupangika.<ref name=":4" /> Virwa vya kuvikilira mphepete ni mizere mitali ya mcenga iyo yikupangika mu mphepete mwa nyanja cifukwa ca kuwunjika kwa mcenga na mayigha. Virwa ivi vikukokoloka na kukura apo mphepo na mayigha vikusintha. Virwa ivi vikuvikilira malo gha mphepete ku nyengo yiheni cifukwa vikukora nkhongono zinyake za mayigha ghakulu pambere ghandafike ku mphepete.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US Department of Commerce |first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is a barrier island? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/barrier-islands.html |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref> Virwa vya ku Antarctica nyengo zinyake vikukolerana nyengo zose na mtunda unyake kwizira mu cikakato ca mbwani panji ca pa mtunda. Ciyelezgero ni Cirwa ca Ross mu Antarctica. === Kapangikiro mu Maji Ghawemi === Cirwa ca mu mlonga ni cirwa ico cikupangika kufuma ku kukokoloka na kuwunjika kwa dongo na vinyake mu milonga; pafupifupi milonga yose yili na virwa vya mtundu uwu.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Baubinienė |first1=Aldona |last2=Satkūnas |first2=Jonas |last3=Taminskas |first3=Julius |title=Formation of fluvial islands and its determining factors, case study of the River Neris, the Baltic Sea basin |journal=Geomorphology |date=February 2015 |volume=231 |pages=343–352 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.025 |bibcode=2015Geomo.231..343B }}</ref> Virwa ivi vingaŵa vyatali mamita ghacoko pera, ndipo kanandi nvya kanyengo. Kusintha kwa luŵiro lwa maji, unandi wa maji, na unandi wa dongo mu mlonga kungakhwaska kupangika na kumalira kwa virwa vya mu milonga.<ref name=":7" /> Virwa vya mu milonga vya nyengo zose navyo vilipo, ndipo cikulu comene (ico cili mukati mwa mtunda pera) ni Cirwa ca Bananal mu mlonga wa Tocantins mu Brazil, ico cili na usani wa makilomita 55.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bananal Island {{!}} Amazon Rainforest, Wildlife & Conservation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bananal-Island |access-date=June 27, 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Nyanja zikupangika pa vifukwa vinandi, kusazgapo cikakato cikulu cakwenda, kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, na mapiri gha moto.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/lake |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> Virwa vya mu nyanja vingapangika nga ni cigaŵa ca ndondomeko izi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 18, 2021 |title=Largest And Highest Islands Of The World |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/largest-and-highest-islands-of-the-world.html |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref> == Umoyo pa Virwa == Kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo pa virwa kakusanda ndondomeko za vyamoyo izo zikucitika pa virwa, kulaŵiska comene vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska kusintha, kumalira, na unandi wa mitundu. Ŵasandi kanandi ŵakusanda virwa nga ni ciyelezgero cakupatukana ca umo kusankha kwa kawiro kukucitikira.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whittaker |first1=Robert J. |last2=Fernández-Palacios |first2=José María |last3=Matthews |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Borregaard |first4=Michael K. |last5=Triantis |first5=Kostas A. |date=September 2017 |title=Island biogeography: Taking the long view of nature's laboratories |journal=Science |volume=357 |issue=6354 |article-number=eaam8326 |doi=10.1126/science.aam8326 |pmid=28860356 }}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite journal |last1=Graham |first1=Natalie R. |last2=Gruner |first2=Daniel S. |last3=Lim |first3=Jun Y. |last4=Gillespie |first4=Rosemary G. |date=June 27, 2017 |title=Island ecology and evolution: challenges in the Anthropocene |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=323–335 |doi=10.1017/S0376892917000315 |bibcode=2017EnvCo..44..323G }}</ref> Kasandiro ka vyamoyo vya pa virwa kakusanda vyamoyo pa virwa na malo ghawo. Kapeleka maghanoghano ghakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo kufuma mu nyengo ya Charles Darwin.<ref name=":27" /> === Kusangika Malo Ghamoza Pera === [[File:Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) male.jpg|thumb|''Galapagos penguin'' yikusangika pa Virwa vya Galápagos pera.]] Mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo, kusangika malo ghamoza pera ni apo mtundu panji gulu la mitundu likusangika mu cigaŵa cinyake pera. Virwa vikupatula vyamoyo vya pa mtunda ku vinyake na maji, ndipo vikupatula vyamoyo vya mu maji na mtunda.<ref name=":27" /> Malo gha vyamoyo gha pa virwa ghali na unandi ukulu comene wa mitundu iyo yikusangika kwekha pera pa caro cose capasi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti virwa vikovwira comene ku kupambanapambana kwa vyamoyo kwa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Veron |first1=Simon |last2=Haevermans |first2=Thomas |last3=Govaerts |first3=Rafaël |last4=Mouchet |first4=Maud |last5=Pellens |first5=Roseli |date=August 12, 2019 |title=Distribution and relative age of endemism across islands worldwide |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=11693 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47951-6 |doi-access=free|pmid=31406123 |pmc=6690940 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911693V }}</ref> Malo agho ghali na kupambanapambana kukulu kwa vyamoyo ghakulaŵiskika comene pa ntchito za kuvikilira, kuti mitundu iyi yileke kumalira.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Susan |last2=Noss |first2=Reed |date=January 7, 2017 |title=Endemism hotspots are linked to stable climatic refugia |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=119 |issue=2 |pages=207–214 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcw248 |pmc=5321063 |pmid=28064195}}</ref> Nangauli pali mitundu yinandi iyo yikusangika kwekha, unandi wose wa mitundu mu cigaŵa ngucoko pa virwa kuluska pa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kier |first1=Gerold |last2=Kreft |first2=Holger |last3=Lee |first3=Tien Ming |last4=Jetz |first4=Walter |last5=Ibisch |first5=Pierre L. |last6=Nowicki |first6=Christoph |last7=Mutke |first7=Jens |last8=Barthlott |first8=Wilhelm |date=June 9, 2009 |title=A global assessment of endemism and species richness across island and mainland regions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=106 |issue=23 |pages=9322–9327 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0810306106 |doi-access=free |pmc=2685248 |pmid=19470638|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.9322K }}</ref> Unandi wa mitundu pa virwa ukolerana na ukulu wa cirwa ico, ndipo ici cikuchemeka ubale wa mitundu na malo. Ici nchifukwa malo ghakulu ghali na vyuma vinandi, ntheura ghangasunga vyamoyo vinandi. Magulu agho ghangasungika ghanandi ghali so na kupambana kukulu kwa vyakuhara, ico cikovwira kupangika kwa mitundu yiphya.<ref name=":27" /> === Kuthandazgika === [[File:Pteropus seychellensis.jpg|alt=Kasuska wakupachikika mutu pasi pa khuni.|thumb|Kasuska wakulya vipambi wa Seychelles wakovwira comene kuthandazga mbuto za makuni pakati pa virwa, nthowa yimoza ya kuthandazgika kwizira mu mbwani.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerlach |first=Justin |date=2004 |title=The bats of Silhouette Island, Seychelles |url=https://islandbiodiversity.com/Phelsuma%2012-4.pdf |journal=Phelsuma |volume=12 |pages=78–90 |via=Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles}}</ref>]] Virwa vya mbwani, ivyo vindakolerane na mtunda, vikuŵa na vyamoyo ivyo vingajumpha mbwani pera. Ici cikung'anamula kuti vinyama vyose ivyo vili pa cirwa vikwenera kuti vikaduka kufika kuko, pa viyuni panji mleme, vikanyamulika na vinyama ivi, panji vikanyamulika na maji ghakwenda mu mbwani pa ico cikuchemeka "kuyandama pa vinthu". Ici cikuchemeka kuthandazgika kwa mu mbwani.<ref name=":28">{{cite journal |last1=de Queiroz |first1=Alan |title=The resurrection of oceanic dispersal in historical biogeography |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=February 2005 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=68–73 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.11.006 |pmid=16701345 }}</ref> Mphepo zikulu za ku tropiki zingatora mitundu kutali comene.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |date=October 27, 2020 |title=Intensifying hurricanes are helping invasive species spread across the U.S. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/intensifying-hurricanes-spreading-invasive-species-across-the-us |access-date=July 11, 2024 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> Vinyama nga ni fulu vingakhala masabata kwambura cakulya panji maji, ndipo vingapona kuyandama pa vinthu mu mbwani.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 18, 2021 |title=How rafts helped primates rule the world |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210511-how-rafts-helped-primates-rule-the-world |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> Kusanda kunyake kukalongora kuti mu 1995, tuvava 15 tukapona pa ulendo wa makilomita 300 kufika ku Anguilla mu Caribbean, cirwa ico pakaŵavya kavava kale. Tukapona mwa kuyandama pa makuni agho ghakazuka na cimphepo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Censky |first1=Ellen J. |last2=Hodge |first2=Karim |last3=Dudley |first3=Judy |date=1998 |title=Over-water dispersal of lizards due to hurricanes |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=395 |issue=6702 |page=556 |doi=10.1038/26886 |bibcode=1998Natur.395..556C }}</ref> Mitundu ya vyakumera yikughanaghanirika kuti yingajumpha mtunda utali comene wa mbwani. New Zealand na Australia vikugaŵana mitundu 200 ya vyakumera vya malo agho, nangauli vyapatukana na makilomita 1,500.<ref name=":28" /> Virwa vya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda, ivyo kale vikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, vikughanaghanirika kugaŵana mbiri ya vyakumera na vinyama mpaka apo cirwa cikapatukana na cigaŵa cikulu.<ref name=":28" /> Mwaciyelezgero, kuŵapo kwa somba za maji ghawemi pa cirwa ico cazingilizgika na mbwani kungalongora kuti kale cikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, cifukwa somba izi zingajumpha mbwani paŵekha yayi.<ref name=":27" /> Mu nyengo, kusintha na kumalira kukusintha vinyama pa cirwa ca cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, kweni pamanyuma pa kupatukana pera. Ciyelezgero ni khuni la ''southern beech'', ilo lili mu Australia, New Zealand, vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Kumwera, na New Guinea, malo agho mazuŵa ghano ghali kutali. Malongosoro ghanyake ni ghakuti malo agha kale ghakaŵa cigaŵa ca cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda ca Gondwana, ndipo ghakapatukana cifukwa ca kwenda kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi. Kweni pali maghanoghano ghanyake ghakuti mtundu uwu ungaŵa kuti ukafika ku malo ghakutali kwizira mu kuthandazgika kwa mu mbwani.<ref name=":28" /> === Kusintha pa Magulu gha Virwa === [[File:Finchadaptiveradiation.png|thumb|Umo kayuni A (''Geospiza magnirostris'') kakasinthira kuŵa mitundu yinyake yitatu ya tuyuni pa Virwa vya Galápagos. Cifukwa kukaŵavya viyuni vinyake, viyuni vya Darwin vikasintha kuti vikhale mu malo ghaphya. Milomo yawo ya kulya mbuto yikasintha kuti yikwaniske kulya vyakulya nga ni ''nut'', vipambi, na tuvyamoyo.]] Mitundu iyo yikukhala pa magulu gha virwa yikulongora cimanyikwiro capadera ico cikuchemeka kuthandazgika kwa kukolerana na malo. Mu ndondomeko iyi, mtundu uwo ukufika pa gulu la virwa ukupambanapambana luŵiro, kugaŵika kuŵa mitundu yiphya panji mitundu yicoko. Mtundu uwo ukufika pa malo gha vyamoyo gha cirwa ungakumana na kususkana kucoko pa vyuma, panji ungasanga kuti vyuma ivyo ukasanganga kale kulije. Vinthu ivi pamoza vikupangiska minthavi ya kusintha yakupambana na nthowa zakupambana za kupona.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Lovette |first=Irby |date=December 20, 2018 |title=Why Evolution Goes Wild on Islands: The Science of Adaptive Radiation |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/why-evolution-goes-wild-on-islands-the-science-of-adaptive-radiation/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=All About Birds |language=en-US}}</ref> Ciyelezgero ca kale ni viyuni vya Darwin, gulu la mitundu mpaka 15 ya viyuni vicoko ivyo vikusangika pa Virwa vya Galápagos pera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sato |first=Akie |date=March 2001 |title=On the Origin of Darwin's Finches |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=299–311 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003806 |pmid=11230531 }}</ref> Viyuni ivi vikasintha milomo yakupambana kuti virye vyakulya vyakupambana ivyo vili pa virwa. Ciyuni cikulu ca pasi cili na mlomo ukulu uwo cikugwiliskira ntchito kuphwanya mbuto na kurya vipambi. Ciyuni ca Genovesa cikutemwa kurya vyakumera vya minga, ndipo cili na mlomo wakukolerana na kuwuskapo vigaŵa vya mukati na maluŵa gha vyakumera ivi. Ciyuni cinyake cuŵisi cikurya ŵalutatavi na vibenene ivyo vikukhala pa vyakumera.<ref name=":29" /> Viyelezgero vinyake vya ici vilipo pa caro cose, kusazgapo mu Hawaii na Madagascar, ndipo vili pa malo gha vyamoyo gha virwa pera yayi.<ref name=":29" /> ==== Lamulo la Cirwa ==== [[File:Dronte dodo Raphus cucullatus.jpg|alt=Cikozgo ca ciyuni cikulu cakuŵa na mlomo.|thumb|''Dodo'', uwo wakamalika, ni ciyelezgero ca vyamoyo ivyo vikukura comene pa virwa.]] Mitundu iyo yikusangika pa virwa pera yikulongora nthowa yakuyana ya kusintha. Lamulo la Foster (ilo likuchemeka so lamulo la cirwa) likuti vinyama vicoko vyakonkheska nga ni mbeŵa vikusintha kuŵa vikulu, ico cikuchemeka ukulu wa pa cirwa. Ciyelezgero ni fulu likulu la Seychelles, nangauli palije uyo wakumanya usange likakura pambere panji pamanyuma pa kufika pa cirwa. Vinyama vikulu nga ni cigwere vikucepa, nga ni cigwere cicoko. Ici cikuchemeka ucoko wa pa cirwa.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |last=Tyson |first=Peter |date=November 1, 2000 |title=Gigantism & Dwarfism on Islands |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/gigantism-and-dwarfism-islands/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Pa vinyama vicoko, kukughanaghanirika kuti vinyama pa virwa vingaŵa na vinyama vicoko vyakuvisaka na vyakususkana navyo, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusankhika kwa vinyama vikulu. Vinyama vikulu vingamalizga vyakulya luŵiro cifukwa ca ukulu wawo, kupangiska njara ku ŵana ŵawo, ndipo ici cikupangiska kusankhika kwa vinyama vicoko ivyo vikukhumba vyakulya vicoko. Kuŵa na vinyama vicoko vyakuvisaka kukung'anamula kuti vinyama ivi vikakhumbikwanga kuŵa vikulu yayi kuti vipone.<ref name=":30" /> === Darwin, Galápagos, na Kusankha kwa Kawiro === Charles Darwin wakapanga ghanoghano la kusankha kwa kawiro kwizira mu kusanda vyamoyo vya pa virwa.<ref name=":27" /> Mitundu iyo wakawona pa Virwa vya Galápagos, kusazgapo viyuni, yikamovwira kumanya umo kusintha kukugwilira ntchito.<ref>{{Cite web |last=MacPherson |first=Rick |date=February 6, 2017 |title=Darwin's Islands |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/darwins-islands |access-date=July 11, 2024 |website=American Scientist |language=en}}</ref> Wakaluta dankha ku virwa nga ni msandi wa vya kawiro pa ngalawa ya HMS Beagle mu 1835, nga ni cigaŵa ca ulendo wa vyaka vinkhondi kuzunguliya caro capasi. Wakalemba kuti "virwa vyakupambana, mwakukulu, vikukhalika na magulu ghakupambana gha vyamoyo".<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Helmuth |first=Laura |title=Evolution World Tour: Galápagos Islands, Ecuador |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/evolution-world-tour-galapagos-islands-ecuador-5974755/ |access-date=July 14, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Kwizira mu kusanda viyuni na vinyama vinyake, wakamanya kuti vyamoyo vikupona mwa kusintha kuti vikolerane na malo ghawo.<ref name=":22" /> Vikajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 20 pambere wandapharazge maghanoghano ghake mu ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web |last=Stix |first=Gary |date=January 1, 2009 |title=Darwin's Living Legacy--Evolutionary Theory 150 Years Later |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/darwins-living-legacy/ |access-date=July 14, 2024 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> == Ŵanthu na Virwa == === Mbiri ya Kupenja === [[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Umo ŵanthu ŵa Ciaustronesiya ŵakathandazgikira mu nyengo<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoffrey K. |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-470-01617-6 |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2}}</ref>]] Ukaboni wakwamba wa ŵanthu kukhala pa virwa ungaŵa wa nyengo ya Malibwe gha Kale, vyaka 100,000 mpaka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kufika ku virwa vya Indonesia vya Flores na Timor kukakhumbanga kujumpha maji gha makilomita 29 panji kujumpha.<ref name=":9">{{cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William F. |last2=Diamond |first2=Jared M. |title=Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory |chapter=Colonization of Islands by Humans: A Biogeographical Perspective |date=1987 |pages=49–92 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-003110-8.50005-0 |isbn=978-0-12-003110-8 }}</ref> Virwa vinyake, nga ni Honshu, vingaŵa kuti vikakolerana na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda na ulalo wa mtunda uwo ukazomerezga ŵanthu kukhalako pambere vindaŵe virwa.<ref name=":9" /> Ŵanthu ŵakwamba kukhala pa virwa vyakutali vya mbwani ŵakaŵa Ŵapolinesiya.<ref name=":10" /> Ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵakajumphanga mtunda wa pasi pa makilomita 100, apo Ŵapolinesiya ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakenda makilomita 2,000–3,200 kuti ŵakhale pa virwa nga ni Tahiti.<ref name=":9" /> Ŵakatumanga ŵalongozgi ŵa ngalawa kwenda pa mbwani kwambura vilwero vya kulongozgera kuti ŵasange virwa viphya vya kukhalapo.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=February 15, 2000 |title=Polynesia's Genius Navigators |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/polynesia-genius-navigators/ |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Gatty |first=Harold |url=https://archive.org/details/the-raft-book/page/n5/mode/2up |title=The Raft Book |publisher=George Grady Press |year=1943 |edition=2nd |location=New York City |pages=10, 48, 54–56}}</ref> Pakati pa 1100 na 800 pambere Khristu, Ŵapolinesiya ŵakenda kumafumiro kufuma ku New Guinea na Virwa vya Solomon ndipo ŵakafika ku virwa ivyo sono vikupanga Fiji na Samoa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiCCMB6xQJoC&dq=ancient+pacific+exploration&pg=PR13 |title=We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific |date=May 1, 1994 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1582-0 |page=8 |edition=Second |language=en}}</ref> Kutali comene uko ŵakafika ni Cirwa ca Easter ku kumafumiro, na New Zealand ku kumwera, uko ŵakamba kukhala pakati pa 1250 na 1300.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2, 2023 |title=Pacific voyaging and discovery |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/encounters/polynesian-voyaging |access-date=June 26, 2024 |website=New Zealand History |publisher=Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa mbiri ŵayezga kumanya cifukwa ico virwa vinyake vyakutali vyaŵa vyambura ŵanthu nyengo zose, apo vinyake, comene mu Mbwani ya Pacific, vyaŵa na ŵanthu kwa nyengo yitali.<ref name=":9" /> Kanandi, virwa vikulu vingasunga ŵanthu makola ntheura vingaŵa kuti vikakhalika. Virwa vicoko ivyo vingasunga ŵanthu paŵekha yayi vingakhalika usange vili pafupi na cirwa ico cili na vyuma vyakukwana.<ref name=":9" /> Kuŵapo kwa cirwa kukumanyikwa na viyuni vya mbwani, kupambana kwa maŵingu na nyengo, na kusintha kwa nthowa ya mayigha.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":10" /> Ncakuthekera so kuti ŵanthu ŵakamalira pa virwa, nga umo ŵakupenja ŵasangira virwa ivyo vikulongora ukaboni wa kukhalika kweni palije ŵanthu.<ref name=":9" /> Virwa vyose vikaŵa yayi panji vili yayi na ŵanthu ŵa midawuko ya pa mbwani.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Kale, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasangika kuti ŵakataya luso lawo la kwenda pa mbwani, nga ni pa Virwa vya Canary, ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa malo agho kufuma apo virwa vikasangika kakwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 mpaka apo vikapokeka na Ufumu wa Spain mu 1496.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Cornwall |first=Warren |date=February 2024 |title=A thousand years of solitude |journal=Science|volume=383 |issue=6683 |pages=580–584 |doi=10.1126/science.ado5092 |pmid=38330134 |bibcode=2024Sci...383..580C }}</ref> Kukughanaghanirika kuti cifukwa ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na cifukwa cicoko ca malonda na ŵakakumananga pacoko comene na cigaŵa cikulu ca mtunda, ŵakakhumbanga ngalawa yayi.<ref name=":8" /> Cifukwa ca kupenja virwa caŵa nkhani ya kusanda na mphindano. Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵa kale ŵakayowoyanga kuti kukhala pa virwa kwa kale kukaŵa kwambura kukhumba, panyake mwa ngalawa yakupangika na makuni iyo yikatoleka na maji kuya mu mbwani.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Michael I. |last2=Condie |first2=Scott A. |last3=O'Connor |first3=Sue |last4=O'Grady |first4=Damien |last5=Reepmeyer |first5=Christian |last6=Ulm |first6=Sean |last7=Zega |first7=Mojca |last8=Saltré |first8=Frédérik |last9=Bradshaw |first9=Corey J. A. |date=June 17, 2019 |title=Early human settlement of Sahul was not an accident |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=8220 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-42946-9 |doi-access=free|pmid=31209234 |pmc=6579762 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.8220B }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuyaniska vifukwa vya Ŵapolinesiya na ŵakupenja ŵanyake na vya Christopher Columbus, mukupenja uyo wakenda kumanjiliro pa Mbwani ya Atlantic kupenja nthowa yinyake ya kufika ku East Indies.<ref name=":9" /> Ŵasandi aŵa ŵakughanaghanira kuti ŵakupenja awo ŵakasanga virwa ŵakapikanga ucindami na usambazi, ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanyake kuyezga maulendo gha ngozi kupenja virwa vinyake, kanandi mwambura kuwona vinandi.<ref name=":9" /> === Umoyo === Pafupifupi magaŵa 10 pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵa caro cose capasi ŵakukhala pa virwa.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Guoqing |date=October 16, 2020 |title=Islands and the world from an anthropological perspective |journal=International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology |volume=4 |issue=1 |article-number=12 |doi=10.1186/s41257-020-00038-x |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kusanda midawuko ya virwa kukuchemeka kasambiro ka virwa. Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kusanda virwa cifukwa ca midawuko yawo yapadera na malo ghawo gha kawiro agho ghakupambana na gha vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda.<ref name=":11" /> Ici nchifukwa ca vifukwa vinandi: Cakwamba, kupatukana kwakuwoneka kwa ndyali na malo kufuma ku midawuko ya vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda.<ref name=":11" /> Caciŵiri, vikanizgo vyapadera pa vyuma na malo gha vyamoyo ivyo vikupangiska midawuko ya pa mbwani iyo yikulaŵiska comene kulowa somba na kwenda pa ngalawa.<ref name=":11" /> Cacitatu, kuzirwa kwa virwa mu mbiri na mu ndyali kwa nyengo yitali.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Vyakulya ==== [[File:Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), Malaysia.JPG|alt=Vipambi vitatu viŵisi vyakupachikika pa khuni. Ni zuŵa lakuŵala.|thumb|Khuni la ''breadfruit'' mu Malaysia; mu Polynesia vipambi vyake vikugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga cakulya.]] [[File:Cultivated Colocasia esculenta.jpg|alt=Munda wa vyakumera vyakuŵa na mahamba ghaŵisi pa zuŵa.|thumb|Vyakumera vya ''taro'', cakulya cikulu ca ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa pa virwa.]] Vyakulya vya Ŵapolinesiya vikasanganga purotini yinandi kufuma ku kulowa somba.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dewailly |first=Eric |date=2008 |title=Fish consumption and health in French Polynesia |url=https://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/17/1/86.pdf |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=17 |issue=1|pages=86–93 |pmid=18364332 }}</ref> Ŵapolinesiya ŵakalowanga pafupi na mphepete, na mu maji ghakuzika. Kukayowoyeka kuti ŵanthu ŵa Rapa Nui ŵakalowanga mpaka makilomita 500 kufuma ku mphepete pa malibwe gha korali.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=May 8, 2024 |title=Polynesian culture - Kinship, Social Hierarchy {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Polynesia/Kinship-and-social-hierarchy |access-date=July 5, 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mikondo, mbeza, na maukonde kulowa ''tuna'', shaki, na somba zinyake.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Tiare Tuuhia |first=Hakai |date=November 10, 2023 |title=How an Ancient Practice Aids Marine Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/rahui-and-the-art-of-marine-conservation-180983179/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Midawuko ya virwa yikulima so mbuto za malo agho na zakufuma kunyake.<ref name=":8" /> Ŵapolinesiya ŵakalimanga vikhawo, ''taro'', ''breadfruit'', ntochi, makokonati na vipambi na masamba vinyake.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haden |first=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sH7DEAAAQBAJ&dq=foods+grown+on+islands&pg=PP1 |title=Food Culture in the Pacific Islands |date=August 10, 2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-34493-0 |pages=59–67 |language=en}}</ref> Nyengo zakupambana za virwa zikapangiska vyuma vyakupambana kuŵa vyakuzirwa, nga ni Virwa vya Hawaii kuŵa na minda ya ''taro'' yakuthiliririka, apo pa virwa vinyake, nga ni Tahiti, ''breadfruit'' yikalimikanga comene na kunowetseka kuti yisungike.<ref name=":25" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The island fruit that caused a mutiny |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180517-the-island-fruit-that-caused-a-mutiny |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |date=May 18, 2018 |language=en-GB}}</ref> Pali ukaboni wa vya kale wakuti ŵanthu ŵa Virwa vya Canary ŵakatafunanga misisi ya vyakumera vinyake pa vyakulya, ico cikanangisanga comene mino ghawo gha kumanyuma.<ref name=":8" /> Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalimanga so balale na kuŵeta viŵeto nga ni mbuzi.<ref name=":8" /> === Vyaro na Vigaŵa vya Virwa === Vyaro vinandi vya virwa vili na mtunda ucoko na vyuma vya kawiro vicoko. Kweni vyaro ivi vikulongozga malo ghanyake ghakulu comene gha kulowa somba pa caro cose, vyuma vya mkuŵa, golide, na nickel, na mafuta. Uwemi wa kawiro wa vyaro vya virwa ukupangiska so kuti vikope ŵalendo. Virwa vili so na kuzirwa kwa ndyali pa malo gha ŵankhondo ŵa pa maji, kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo, na kulongozga malo. Ciyelezgero ni French Polynesia, cigaŵa ico cikupokera ndalama zinandi za ŵankhondo na wovwiri kufuma ku France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fairbairn |first=Te'o I.J. |title=The Pacific Islands: Politics, Economics, and International Relations |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-86638-140-6 |pages=1–11}}</ref> Vinyake vitatu, Palau, Federated States of Micronesia, na Marshall Islands, ni vyaro vya virwa vya mu Pacific ivyo vili na phangano la kuvikilira, wovwiri, na kunjira mu caro na United States ilo likuchemeka ''Compact of Free Association''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. passes renewed Compact with Marshall Islands, other Pacific nations |url=https://www.kuaf.com/show/ozarks-at-large/2024-03-13/u-s-passes-renewed-compact-with-marshall-islands-other-pacific-nations |access-date=2025-01-31 |website=KUAF 91.3 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Ukoloni ==== [[File:Leaving-bikini.jpg|alt=Cithuzi ca ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakunjira mu ngalawa na katundu wawo.|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bikini Atoll ŵakufumapo cifukwa ca kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya.]] Kufuma apo Ŵakumanjiliro ŵakasanga dankha virwa vya Polynesia, Micronesia, na vinyake, vyaro ivi vyaŵa malo gha ukoloni.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Historical Background: Colonization of Pacific Islands |url=https://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/hawaiian_pacific_islander/fund/historical_background/pi_colonization.html |access-date=July 8, 2024 |website=Geriatrics |language=en-US}}</ref> Virwa vikaŵa malo gha ŵamishonale ŵa Cikhristu. Ŵamishonale aŵa ŵakasuskika, kweni ŵakawona uwemi apo mafumu ghanyake gha malo agho ghakagwiliskira ntchito wovwiri wa Ŵaulaya kuwunjika mazaza. Kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, vyaro vya Ulaya vikaŵika cigaŵa cikulu ca Oceania pasi pa ulongozgi wa ukoloni. Pohnpei yikapokeka na Spain kufuma mu 1526.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia and Oceania: Human Geography |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oceania-human-geography |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> Yikasintha mazaza kufuma ku Germany, Japani, na United States pambere yindanjire mu Federated States of Micronesia mu 1982, ndipo yikusunga ubale wa "kukolerana kwa wanangwa" na U.S. Guam yikaŵa cigaŵa ca Spain mpaka 1898, ndipo sono ni cigaŵa ca U.S. cambura kunjizgika mu caro.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ragone |first1=Diane |last2=Lorence |first2=David H. |last3=Flynn |first3=Timothy |date=2001 |title=History of Plant Introductions to Pohnpei, Micronesia and the Role of the Pohnpei Agriculture Station |journal=Economic Botany |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=290–324 |doi=10.1007/BF02864566 |jstor=4256429 |bibcode=2001EcBot..55..290R }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Herman |first=Doug |date=August 15, 2017 |title=A Brief, 500-Year History of Guam |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/brief-500-year-history-guam-180964508/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Nyengo ya kuwuskapo ukoloni yikawona vyaro vinandi vya virwa kusanga wanangwa panji kujilongozga mwanjira yinyake.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Fairbairn |first=Te'O IJ |date=1991 |title=Pacific Islands: politics, economics, and international relations |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a858afb6-0392-4df1-bd92-cce158270479/content |access-date=July 8, 2024 |website=scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu |pages=15, 42}}</ref> Kuyezga vilwero vya nkhondo vya nyukiliya pa Marshall Islands kukananga ma''atoll'' ghanandi panji kughapangiska kuŵa ghambura kukhalika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakakizgika kufuma pa virwa vyawo, na kusazgikira kwa nthenda ya kansa cifukwa ca nkhongono za nyukiliya.<ref name=":14" /> Ukoloni wapangiska kucepa kwa kulondezga midawuko ya kale mu malo nga ni Hawaii, uko ŵanthu ŵa malo agho sono mbacoko. Maghanoghano gha midawuko pa kuŵa na mtunda pamoza na kusoŵa kwa kusankha kwa munthu yumoza ghangapangiska midawuko yinyake ya virwa kukolerana yayi na vyacuma vya ukapitalisti vya caro cose, ndipo ici cikupangiska vyaro ivi kukura pacoko mu vyacuma.<ref name=":13" /> === Ŵalendo === [[File:Malapascua (island), Tropical beach, Philippines.jpg|alt=Mphepete ya mbwani yakutowa na maji ghakuwoneka makora na makuni gha ku tropiki.|thumb|Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakukopeka na mphepete za mbwani za ku tropiki, nga ni iyi ku Malapascua, Philippines.]] Virwa vyakopa ŵalendo ŵanandi kwa nyengo yitali, cifukwa ca nyengo zawo zapadera, midawuko, na uwemi wa kawiro. Kweni virwa vingaŵa na suzgo la mayendero ghaheni gha ndege na ngalawa, na kunangika kwa vyakuzengeka cifukwa ca ŵalendo.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Keith G. |last2=Cave |first2=Jenny |date=January 1, 2010 |editor-last=G. Brown |editor-first=Keith |editor2-last=Cave |editor2-first=Jenny |title=Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue |journal=International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1108/17506181011045163 }}</ref> Virwa vya mu nyengo yakuzizima kanandi vikuthemba ŵalendo ŵa nyengo zinyake awo ŵakukhumba kusangwa na kawiro panji midawuko ya malo agho, ndipo ŵalendo ŵangaŵa cigaŵa cimoza pera ca vyacuma vya cirwa. Kweni pa virwa vya ku tropiki, ŵalendo kanandi ndiwo vyacuma vinandi vya malo agho na vyakuzengeka. Virwa ivi nyengo zinyake vikukhumba so wovwiri wa vyaro vinyake nyengo zose kuti vyacuma vikure. Kuthemba uku kungapangiska kupambana kwa ŵanthu na kunangika kwa malo ghakuzingilizga. Apo ŵalendo ŵacepa, vyacuma ivi vikusuzgika kusanga ndalama izo zataika kufuma ku malonda ghanyake.<ref name=":15" /> == Ngozi ku Virwa == [[File:Calle Loíza in San Juan, Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria.jpg|alt=Msewu wa msumba mu Puerto Rico uwo wazula maji.|thumb|San Juan, Puerto Rico pamanyuma pa cimphepo ca Maria. Kusintha kwa nyengo kukughanaghanirika kuti kupangiskenge kuzula kwa maji kanandi pa virwa.]] Kusintha kwa nyengo kukuopska umoyo wa ŵanthu pa virwa cifukwa ca kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani, vimphepo vya ku tropiki vyakofya comene, kutuŵa kwa malibwe gha korali, na kusazgikira kwa mitundu yakunanga.<ref name=":16">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability |chapter=Small Islands |date=2023 |pages=2043–2122 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.017 |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 }}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mu 2017 cimphepo ca Maria cikananga pafupifupi vyakuzengeka vyose mu Dominica. Kukwera kwa maji gha mbwani na kusintha kunyake kwa nyengo kungacepeska maji ghawemi, ndipo kukwiziska cilala.<ref name=":16" /> Ngozi izi zikughanaghanirika kucepeska kukhalika kwa virwa, comene vicoko. Kupatula ngozi ku umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyakumera na vinyama nayo vili pa ngozi. Kukughanaghanirika kuti pafupifupi hafu ya mitundu ya pa mtunda iyo yili pa ngozi ya kumalira yikukhala pa virwa.<ref name=":16" /> Mu 2017, kusanda kwa virwa 1,288 kukasanga kuti pakaŵa mitundu 1,189 ya vinyama vyakuŵa na fupa la msana iyo yili pa ngozi yikulu, magaŵa 41 pa 100 gha caro cose.<ref name=Spatz>{{citation |author1=Spatz DR |author2=Zilliacus KM |author3=Holmes ND |author4=Butchart SHM |author5=Genovesi P |author6=Ceballos G |author7=Tershy BR |author8=Croll DA |title=Globally threatened vertebrates on islands with invasive species |journal=Science Advances |year=2017 |volume=25 |number=3 |article-number=e1603080 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1603080|pmid=29075662 |pmc=5656423 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E3080S }}</ref> Kutuŵa kwa malibwe gha korali kukughanaghanirika kucitika kanandi, kuopska malo gha vyamoyo gha mu mbwani, agho vyacuma vinyake vya virwa vikughathemba.<ref name=":16" /> Virwa vinyake vya pasi vingaleka kuŵapo usange maji gha mbwani ghakwera comene. Tuvalu yikalaŵiskika comene na nyuzipepara cifukwa ca msonkhano wa ŵalembi wa nkhani uwo ukapharazga kubira kwa caro ici ca virwa.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Prete |first=Giovanni |date=January 29, 2024 |title=Tuvalu: Why Is the Small Island Nation Sinking? |url=https://earth.org/tuvalus-sinking-reality-how-climate-change-is-threatening-a-small-island-nation/ |access-date=July 9, 2024 |website=Earth.Org |language=en}}</ref> Tuvalu yikasayina phangano na Australia lakuti caka ciliconse ŵanthu ŵake 280 ŵazomerezgeke kuŵa ŵakukhala nyengo zose mu Australia. Marshall Islands, caro ca virwa 1,156, nacho camanyikwa kuŵa pa ngozi ya kumalira cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mbwani.<ref name=":17" /> Kusazgikira kwa nkhongono za vimphepo vya ku tropiki kukusazgirapo mtunda na unandi wa kunyamulika kwa mitundu yakunanga ku virwa. Maji gha cigumula gha mphepo izi ghangatora vyakumera kutali mukati mwa mtunda kuluska umo vingafikira paŵekha, kuvinjizga mu malo ghaphya.<ref name=":23" /> Ulimi na malonda navyo vyanjizga vyamoyo vyakufuma kunyake pa virwa. Ndondomeko izi zikunjizga mitundu yakunanga mu malo gha vyamoyo agho ngacoko na ghakunangika luŵiro. Ciyelezgero ni nkhono ya ''apple snail'', iyo yikanjizgika dankha ku U.S. na ŵakusunga somba mu magalasi. Kufuma apo yanyamulika na mphepo zikulu mu mphepete ya Gulf na virwa vya pafupi.<ref name=":23" /> Mitundu iyi yikususkana pa vyuma na vinyama vya malo agho, ndipo yinyake yingakura comene mwakuti yingafumiska vyamoyo vinyake.<ref name=":23" /> == Virwa Vyakupangika == [[File:Kansai International Airport Aerial photograph.2007.jpg|alt=Cithuzi cakufuma mu mlengalenga ca cirwa cakupangika na ŵanthu ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni malo gha ndege. Misewu yinandi ya ndege yikuwoneka.|thumb|Malo gha ndege gha Kansai International ku Osaka ghazengeka pa cirwa cakupangika na ŵanthu.]] Kwa vyaka mahandiredi, virwa vyapangika kwizira mu kupanga mtunda pa maji.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Richard |last2=Hirschfeld |first2=Javier |date=January 6, 2022 |title=Why we are in 'the age of artificial islands' |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220105-why-were-in-the-age-of-artificial-islands |access-date=July 11, 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> Cimoza mwa viyelezgero vyakwamba vyakulembeka ni apo ŵanthu ŵa Virwa vya Solomon ŵakapanga virwa 80 mwa kuwunjika malibwe gha korali na malibwe mu Kanyanja ka Lau.<ref name=":18" /> Kweni cirwa cakwamba cakupangika ca nyengo zose ni Cirwa ca Al-Sayah, mu Bahrain, ico cikapangika vyaka 1,200 ivyo vyajumpha panji kujumpha.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-12 |title=British archaeologists confirm Muharraq's Al Sayah island is man-made {{!}} THE DAILY TRIBUNE {{!}} KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN |url=https://www.newsofbahrain.com/bahrain/78694.html |access-date=2025-12-15 |website=DT News |language=en-US}}</ref> Nthowa yimoza ya kale ya kupanga virwa ni kugwiliskira ntchito linga la malibwe. Matumba gha mcenga panji malibwe ghakuponyeka na ngalawa yikulu mu mbwani kuti ghakwezge mtunda pacoko kufuma mu maji. Pamanyuma malo gha cirwa ghakuzuzgika na mcenga panji tumalibwe, ndipo linga likuzengeka kuti likhazge malo agha.<ref name=":19">{{cite book |last1=Fang |first1=Huacan |last2=Duan |first2=Menglan |title=Offshore Operation Facilities |chapter=Marine Petroleum (Gas) Engineering and Equipment |date=2014 |pages=341–536 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-396977-4.00003-2 |isbn=978-0-12-396977-4 }}</ref> Virwa vyazengeka so na cizengo ca nyengo zose ca cisulo panji simenti ico cikuzengeka mu cizungulizgo ndipo pamanyuma cikuzuzgika na mcenga.<ref name=":19" /> Virwa vinyake vya mazuŵa ghano vyazengeka mwa kuthira matani miliyoni gha mcenga mu mbwani, nga ni Cirwa ca Pearl mu Qatar panji Virwa vya Palm mu Dubai.<ref name=":18" /> Virwa ivi kanandi vikupangika pa cifukwa ca kuzenga nyumba za kuguliska, ndipo vikuguliskika ku ŵanthu paŵekha panji pa kuzenga nyumba.<ref name=":18" /> Vyakuzengeka vya kufumiska mafuta mu mbwani navyo vyalongosoreka nga ni mtundu wa cirwa. Ma''atoll'' ghanyake ghaphimbika na simenti kupanga virwa vyakupangika pa vifukwa vya ŵankhondo, nga ni ivyo China yikapanga mu Mbwani ya China ya Kumwera.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Mirasola |first=Christopher |date=July 15, 2015 |title=What Makes an Island? Land Reclamation and the South China Sea Arbitration |url=https://amti.csis.org/what-makes-an-island-land-reclamation-and-the-south-china-sea-arbitration/ |access-date=July 11, 2024 |website=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative |language=en-US}}</ref> Ma''atoll'' agha kale ghakaŵa malo agho ghakuwoneka pera apo maji ghacepa. Phangano la Wupu wa Vyaro Vyose pa Dango la Mbwani likulongora kuti virwa ivi vingaŵa na ucindami wa dango wakuyana na wa cirwa ca kawiro yayi, ntheura vingapeleka wanangwa wa dango wakuyana yayi.<ref name=":26" /> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Nkhoska]] lzxtga4eixnc6wmzfju6u2y40zzrliy 0 9772 124354 124019 2026-11-10T14:18:34Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124354 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Lake Malawi seen from orbit.jpg|197px|right]] '''Nyanja ya Malaŵi''', iyo yikuchemekaso '''Nyanja ya Nyasa''' ku [[Tanzania]] na '''Lago Niassa''' ku [[Mozambique]] (mu Ciswahili: ''Ziwa Nyasa''), ni yimoza mwa Nyanja Zikulu za [[Afilika]], ndipo ndiyo nyanja ya kumwera comene mu cigwa cikulu ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Yili pakati pa [[Malawi|Malaŵi]], Mozambique, na Tanzania. Ni nyanja ya maji ghawemi ya cinayi pa ukulu pa caro cose capasi pa unandi wa maji, ya cinkhondi na zinayi pa ukulu wa malo, ndipo ya citatu pa ukulu na ya ciŵiri pa kuzika mu Afilika. Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu ya [[Somba|somba]] yinandi kuluska nyanja yiliyose pa caro cose capasi, kusazgapo mitundu yakujumpha 700 ya mbuna na ŵabali ŵawo (''cichlid''). Cigaŵa ca Mozambique ca nyanja cikapangika malo ghakuvikilirika na ulongozgi wa Mozambique pa 10 Zizima 2011, apo mu Malaŵi cigaŵa cinyake ca nyanja cili mu Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi. Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni nyanja iyo vigaŵa vyake vya maji vikusazganika yayi. Kugaŵika kwa maji kwa nyengo zose na mphaka ya okisijeni vikusungika na kupambana kucoko kwa vyakusazganika na kufunda. == Malo == Nyanja ya Malaŵi njitali makilomita pakati pa 560 na 580, ndipo njisani pafupifupi makilomita 75 pa malo ghasani comene. Nyanja yili na ukulu wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 29,600. Nyanja njakuzika mamita 706 pa malo ghakuzika comene, agho ghali mu dimba likulu ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto-pakati. Dimba linyake licoko ku kumpoto comene likufika pa kuzika kwa mamita 528. Hafu ya kumwera ya nyanja njambura kuzika comene; yambura kufika mamita 400 ku kumwera-pakati, na yambura kufika mamita 200 ku kumwera comene. Nyanja yili na mphepete mu Mozambique ya kumanjiliro, Malaŵi ya kumafumiro, na Tanzania ya kumwera. Mlonga ukulu comene uwo ukuthira mu nyanja ni Ruhuhu, ndipo maji ghakufuma ku kumwera kwake mu [[Mlonga wa Shire]], uwo ukuthira mu mlonga wa Zambezi mu Mozambique. Kufumbuka kukupangiska kutayika kwa maji ghakujumpha magaŵa 80 pa 100 mu nyanja, kujumpha comene agho ghakufuma mu Shire. Maji agho ghakufuma mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi kuya mu Shire ngakuzirwa comene ku vyacuma, cifukwa ghakovwira kupanga magesi, kuthilira minda, na vyamoyo vya pasi pa mlonga. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya za vyakufumapo vya kusintha kwa nyengo pa Nyanja ya Malaŵi mu nyengo ya munthazi, cifukwa ca kucepa kwa maji sonosono na kukoma kwa nyengo. Nyengo mu cigaŵa ca nyanja yikusintha kale, ndipo kufunda kukughanaghanirika kusazgikira mu caro cose. Nyanja yili pafupifupi makilomita 350 kumwera-kumafumiro kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika, yinyake mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili ku kumwera kwa nyanja. == Mbiri ya Kapangikiro == Malaŵi ni yimoza mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa cikulu, ndipo ni nyanja ya kale. Nyanja yili mu dambo ilo likapangika na kupatukana kwa cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, apo cigaŵa cikulu ca pasi ca Afilika cikugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Kanandi Malaŵi likughanaghanirika kuŵa la vyaka miliyoni 1–2, kweni ukaboni wa sonosono ukulongora kuti nyanja nja kale comene, ndipo dimba lake likamba kupangika pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 8.6 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo maji ghakuzika ghakawoneka dankha vyaka miliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha. Unandi wa maji wasintha comene mu nyengo, kufuma pafupifupi mamita 600 pasi pa umo uliri sono mpaka mamita 10–20 pacanya. Mu nyengo zinyake nyanja yikakoma pafupifupi yose, ndipo yikasyala nyanja yimoza panji ziŵiri zicoko za maji gha mcere mu malo agho sono ngakuzika comene. Maji ghakuyana na agho ghaliko sono ghakawoneka pafupifupi vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Pakati pa 1390 na 1860, nyanja yingaŵa kuti yikaŵa mamita 120–150 pasi pa unandi wa maji wa sono. == Vimanyikwiro vya Maji == Maji gha nyanja ngakotcha, ndipo kanandi pacanya ghakufunda pakati pa 24 na 29 °C, apo vigaŵa vyakuzika kanandi vili na pafupifupi 22 °C. Mphaka ya okisijeni yili pa kuzika kwa pafupifupi mamita 250, ndipo somba na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikukhumba okisijeni vikukhala pacanya pera. Maji ngakujulika comene, ndipo munthu wangawona mpaka mamita 20, kweni kanandi pafupifupi hafu ya ici, ndipo pasi pa mamita 3 mu malo gha dongo. Pa myezi ya vula ya Matika mpaka Nyakanyaka, maji ghakuŵa na dongo comene cifukwa ca milonga iyo yikuthira dongo. == Kwiza kwa Ŵaulaya == Mulondezgi wa malonda wa Ŵapwitikizi Candido José da Costa Cardoso wakaŵa Muulaya wakwamba kufika pa nyanja mu 1846. David Livingstone wakafika pa nyanja mu 1859, ndipo wakayithya zina lakuti Nyanja ya Nyasa. Wakayichema so na mazina ghaŵiri: Nyanja ya Nyenyezi na Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu. Zina la Nyanja ya Nyenyezi likafuma apo Livingstone wakawona ungweru wa nyali za ŵalovi ŵa somba mu Malaŵi pa ngalawa zawo, uko kukawonekanga kufuma kutali nga ni nyenyezi kuthambo. Pamanyuma, apo wakakumana na mphepo zikulu zambura kumanyikwa izo zikukunthira mu cigaŵa ici, wakayichema so Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu. Pa 16 Mpupulu 1914, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yifupi ya pa maji mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose. Ngalawa ya nkhondo ya Ŵabritoni, SS Gwendolen, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Kaputeni Rhoades, yikapokera malangulo kuti "yibize, yiwotche, panji yinange" ngalawa yekha ya nkhondo ya Ŵajeremani pa nyanja, Hermann von Wissmann. Ŵantchito ŵa Rhoades ŵakasanga Hermann von Wissmann mu cigaŵa cinyake pafupi na Sphinxhaven. Gwendolen yikanangiska ngalawa ya Ŵajeremani na mzinga umoza kufuma pa mtunda wa mamita pafupifupi 1,800. Nkhondo yifupi iyi yikalumbika na nyuzipepara ya ''The Times'' mu Ungelezi nga ni kupunda kwakwamba kwa pa maji kwa Ŵabritoni mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose. == Mphaka == === Mphindano ya Tanzania na Malaŵi === Kugaŵika kwa nyanja pakati pa Malaŵi na Tanzania ni nkhani ya mphindano. Tanzania yikuti mphaka ya pakati pa vyaro yikwenda pakati pa nyanja. Kweni Malaŵi likuti nyanja yose iyo njya Mozambique yayi ni yake, kusazgapo maji agho ghali pafupi na mphepete ya Tanzania. Malaŵi ndilo likulongozga maji agha sono. Vyaro vyose viŵiri vikuyowoya Phangano la Heligoland la 1890 pakati pa Ufumu Ubanyi na Germany. Mphindano iyi yikamba apo ulongozgi wa Ŵabritoni, pamanyuma pa kupoka Tanganyika kufuma ku Germany, ukaŵika maji ghose gha nyanja pasi pa dera limoza la mazaza, la Nyasaland. Pamanyuma mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, madera ghaŵiri gha mazaza ghakaŵikika. Mphindano iyi yikakula comene mu 1967 apo Tanzania yikasuska kwa Malaŵi, kweni palije ico cikamazgika. Mphindano zikawonekanga nyengo zinyake mu ma 1990 na mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Mu 2012, kupenja mafuta kwa Malaŵi kukawezgera nkhani iyi panthazi, ndipo Tanzania yikakhumba kuti kupenja kuleke mpaka mphindano yimazgike. === Mphaka ya Malaŵi na Mozambique === Mu 1954, phangano likasayinika pakati pa Ŵabritoni na Ŵapwitikizi, ilo likaŵika pakati pa nyanja kuŵa mphaka yawo, kupatula virwa vya Chizumulu na Likoma, ivyo Ŵabritoni ŵakasunga, ndipo sono ni vya Malaŵi. == Mayendero == MV Chauncy Maples yikamba ntchito pa nyanja mu 1901 nga ni SS Chauncy Maples: cipatala na mpingo vyakuyandama vya wupu wa Universities' Mission to Central Africa. Pamanyuma yikaŵa ngalawa ya kunyamula ŵanthu, ndipo sono yikunozgeka kuŵa cipatala cakwenda ku Monkey Bay. MV Mpasa yikamba ntchito mu 1935. MV Ilala yikamba ntchito mu 1951. Mu vyaka vya sonosono kanandi yikugwira ntchito yayi, kweni para yikugwira ntchito, yikwenda kufuma ku Monkey Bay kumwera kwa nyanja mpaka ku Karonga kumpoto, ndipo nyengo zinyake ku Iringa mu Tanzania. MV Mtendere yikamba ntchito mu 1980. Pofika 1982 yikanyamulanga ŵanthu 100,000 pa caka, kweni mu 2014 yikagwiranga ntchito yayi. Ngalawa ya Tanzania MV Songea yikapangika mu 1988, ndipo yikwenda sabata yiliyose pakati pa Liuli na Nkhata Bay kwizira mu Itungi na Mbamba Bay. Ngozi yikulu comene pa nyanja yikaŵa kubira kwa MV Vipya mu 1946, uko kukakoma ŵanthu 145. == Vyamoyo == Vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika mu na kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni ng'wina wa Nilo, vigwere, ŵankhwele, na nkhwazi zinandi za Afilika izo zikurya somba za mu nyanja. === Somba === ==== Kulowa Somba ==== Kwa vyaka vinandi comene, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yapeleka vyakulya vinandi ku ŵanthu ŵa m'mphepete mwake, cifukwa maji ghake ghali na somba zinandi. Zakumanyikwa comene ni mitundu yinayi ya cambo (''Oreochromis karongae'', ''O. lidole'', ''O. saka'', na ''O. squamipinnis''), na ''O. shiranus'' iyo yikukolerana nazo. Mitundu yinyake yakuzirwa ni usipa (''Engraulicypris sardella'') na kampango mukulu (''Bagrus meridionalis''). Somba zinandi zikulyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa pafupi na nyanja, kweni zinyake zikutumizgika kuwaro kwa Malaŵi. Somba za kawiro zili pa ngozi yikulu cifukwa ca kulowa comene na kunanga maji. Kucepa kwa maji gha nyanja ni ngozi yinyake, ndipo kukughanaghanirika kuti kukufuma ku kufumya maji na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusintha kwa nyengo, na kudumula nkholongo. Cambo na kampango zaloweka comene (kampango yikacepa na pafupifupi magaŵa 90 pa 100 kufuma 2006 mpaka 2016, ''O. karongae'' na ''O. squamipinnis'' na pafupifupi 94 pa 100, ndipo ''O. lidole'' yingaŵa kuti yamalira kale), ndipo sono zili pa ngozi yikulu. IUCN yikuwona mitundu 117 ya mbuna za Malaŵi kuŵa pa ngozi. ==== Mbuna na Ŵabali Ŵawo ==== Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa magulu ghanyake gha vinyama, comene somba za ''cichlid'', ghakagaŵika comene mu mitundu yinandi. Pali mitundu ya ''cichlid'' yakujumpha 700 mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakughanaghanira kuti yingafika 1,000. Unandi weneco ukumanyikwa makola yayi cifukwa ca mitundu yinandi yambura kulongosoreka. Kupatula mitundu yinayi, ''cichlid'' zose za mu nyanja zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Malaŵi pera, iyo yikusazgapo [[Nyanja ya Malombe]] na Shire yapacanya. Zinandi mwa izi zatemweka comene na ŵakusunga somba mu magalasi cifukwa ca mitundu yawo yakuŵala. ''Cichlid'' zinandi za Malaŵi zikusangika mu maji ghambura kuzika comene gha m'mphepete, kweni zinyake zikusangika mpaka pa kuzika kwa mamita 200–220. ''Cichlid'' za mu nyanja zikugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri, ndipo zinandi comene ni ''haplochromine''. Izi zikusunga masumbi na ŵana mu milomo yawo. Mu gulu ili pali magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu: ''haps'' na mbuna. ''Haps'' zingagaŵika mu magulu ghatatu: zikulu, kanandi zitali kujumpha masentimita 20, izo zikurya somba zinyake; utaka, izo zikurya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji mu magulu; na zinyake izo zikukolerana na magulu agha yayi. Za ŵanalume zikulu kanandi zili na mitundu yakuŵala. Gulu laciŵiri likulu ni mbuna, zina ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu malo na pa caro cose, ilo likung'anamula "somba za malibwe" mu Citonga. Zikusangika pa malibwe, zikuvikilira malo ghawo, ndipo kanandi nzicoko, zambura kufika masentimita 13. Gulu laciŵiri, ''tilapia'', lili na mitundu yinkhondi na yimoza pera mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi. ''Coptodon rendalli'' ndiyo yekha iyo yikuikira masumbi pasi. Mitundu yinyake yinkhondi ni ya ''Oreochromis''; cambo zinayi izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi pera, na ''O. shiranus'', iyo yikusangika so mu Nyanja ya Chilwa. Izi zikurya tumbuto tucoko twa mu maji, zikufika pa utali wa masentimita 26–42, ndipo kanandi nzakufipa panji za mtundu wa siliva. ==== Somba Zinyake ==== Somba zinandi comene za mu nyanja ni ''cichlid''. Somba zinyake za mu nyanja ni mitundu yinandi ya ''cyprinid'' (kusazgapo usipa), ŵabwankha na kampango, ''Synodontis njassae'', nkhungu, na zinyake. Zinandi mwa izi zikusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Afilika, kweni ''Bathyclarias'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera. === Vyamoyo Vyambura Fupa la Msana === ==== Nkhono ==== Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu 28 ya nkhono za maji ghawemi (16 izo zikusangika kuno pera) na 9 za vikoko viŵiri. Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yinayi ya nkhono za ''Bulinus'', izo zikumanyikwa kunyamula tuzirombo twa lukojo. Kusanda mu Monkey Bay mu 1964 kukasanga mitundu iŵiri ya nkhono iyo yikusangika kuno pera mu nyanja, na iŵiri yinyake mu tumaji twapaŵekha. Mitundu iyi yaciŵiri yikumanyikwa kunyamula lukojo, kweni mu kuyezga, mitundu ya mu nyanja yikakora lukojo yayi. Sonosono, nthenda iyi yaŵa suzgo mu nyanja yeneyiyo, cifukwa ''B. nyassanus'' yamba kunyamula lukojo. Kusintha uku, uko kukawoneka dankha pakati pa ma 1980, kungakolerana na kucepa kwa somba izo zikurya nkhono cifukwa ca kulowa comene, panji mtundu uphya wa lukojo. ==== Nkhala na Vinyake ==== Kupambana na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yicoko ya nkhala na shirimpi. Nkhala ya buluu ya Malaŵi ndiyo nkhala yekha mu nyanja, ndipo yikusangika so kunyake. Shirimpi ''Caridina malawensis'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera, kweni yikumanyikwa makola yayi. Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji tukusazgapo mitundu yinandi. ==== Tumembe twa Nyanja ==== Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca magulu ghakulu comene gha tumembe tucoko twambura kupweteka (''Chaoborus edulis''). Magulu agha, agho kanandi ghakuwoneka kutali pa maji, ghangawoneka nga ni josi, ndipo ghakawoneka so na David Livingstone apo wakafika pa nyanja. Ŵana ŵa tumembe utu ŵakukhala mu maji, ŵakurya tuvinyama tucoko, msana ŵakuŵa pasi na usiku pacanya. Para ŵasanduka, ŵakuyandama pacanya na kusanduka tumembe tukulu. Tumembe tukulu tukukhala nyengo yifupi comene, ndipo magulu, agho ghangaŵa ghatali mamita mahandiredi ghacoko, ni cigaŵa ca kutorana kwawo. Tukuikira masumbi pacanya pa maji ndipo tukufwa. Ŵana ŵawo ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku somba, ndipo tumembe tukulu ntwakuzirwa ku viyuni na ku ŵanthu ŵa malo agho, awo ŵakutuwunjika kupanga makeke gha kungu, cakulya ca malo agho ico cili na purotini yinandi comene. == Kuvuza kwa Mugodi mu 2015 == Mu Matika 2015, thanki ya kulaŵilira dongo yikawa pa mugodi wa uranium wa Paladin Energy kumpoto kwa Malaŵi pamanyuma pa vula yikulu. Kukavumbulika kuti pafupifupi malita 50 gha vinthu vyambura kufumiska nkhongono za ntchito za mtima wa vimenyu ghakavuza mu kamlonga ka pafupi. Nangauli nyuzipepara za mu caro zikayowoya kuti maji ghakanangika, ulongozgi ukapima mwakujiwusa milonga ya pafupi na kusanga kuti malo ghakuzingilizga ghandakhwaskike. == Kusambira == Kusambira kwa munthu yumoza kwa makilomita 25 kujumpha Nyanja ya Malaŵi pakati pa Cape Ngomba na Senga Bay kwafiskika kankhondi na ŵasambiri 16: * 1992: Lewis Pugh, maora 9 maminiti 52 (Ufumu Ubanyi/South Africa), na Otto Thanning (South Africa), maora 10 maminiti 5 * 2010: Abigail Brown (Ufumu Ubanyi), maora 9 maminiti 45 * 2013: Milko van Gool (Netherlands), maora 8 maminiti 46, na Kaitlin Harthoorn (US), maora 9 maminiti 17 * 2016 (mbiri ya sono): Jean Craven, Robert Dunford, Michiel Le Roux, Samantha Whelpton, Greig Bannatyne, Haydn Von Maltitz, na Douglas Livingstone-Blevins, maora 7 maminiti 53 * 2019: Chris Stapley (Eswatini) na Jay Azran (South Africa), maora 8 maminiti 40, Andrew Stevens (Australia), maora 10 maminiti 50, na Ruth Azran (South Africa), maora 11 maminiti 8. Mu caka cenecico, Martin Hobbs (South Africa) wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kusambira utali wose wa Nyanja ya Malaŵi (mazuŵa 54), ndipo wakaŵika mbiri ya caro cose capasi ya kusambira kutali comene mu nyanja. {{Malaŵi}} [[Category:Nyanja za Malaŵi]] lvuvpo9qo0vrumxlz48pv32iuoi91p1 124403 124354 2026-11-10T20:33:52Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124403 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Lake Malawi seen from orbit.jpg|197px|right]] '''Nyanja ya Malaŵi''', iyo yikuchemekaso '''Nyanja ya Nyasa''' ku [[Tanzania]] na '''Lago Niassa''' ku [[Mozambique]] (mu Ciswahili: ''Ziwa Nyasa''), ni yimoza mwa Nyanja Zikulu za [[Afilika]], ndipo ndiyo nyanja ya kumwera comene mu cigwa cikulu ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Yili pakati pa [[Malawi|Malaŵi]], Mozambique, na Tanzania. Ni nyanja ya maji ghawemi ya cinayi pa ukulu pa caro cose capasi pa unandi wa maji, ya cinkhondi na zinayi pa ukulu wa malo, ndipo ya citatu pa ukulu na ya ciŵiri pa kuzika mu Afilika. Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu ya [[Somba|somba]] yinandi kuluska nyanja yiliyose pa caro cose capasi, kusazgapo mitundu yakujumpha 700 ya mbuna na ŵabali ŵawo (''cichlid'').<ref name=unep/><ref name=Turner2001>Turner, Seehausen, Knight, Allender, and Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology'' 10: 793–806.</ref> Cigaŵa ca Mozambique ca nyanja cikapangika malo ghakuvikilirika na ulongozgi wa Mozambique pa 10 Zizima 2011, apo mu Malaŵi cigaŵa cinyake ca nyanja cili mu Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi.<ref name=panda>WWF (10 June 2011). [http://wwf.panda.org/?uNewsID=200583 "Mozambique's Lake Niassa declared reserve and Ramsar site"] Retrieved 17 July 2014.</ref><ref name=unep>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |title=Protected Areas Programme |access-date=2008-06-26 |date=October 1995 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNESCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511101010/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-date=2008-05-11 }}</ref> Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni nyanja iyo vigaŵa vyake vya maji vikusazganika yayi. Kugaŵika kwa maji kwa nyengo zose na mphaka ya okisijeni vikusungika na kupambana kucoko kwa vyakusazganika na kufunda.<ref>Pilskaln, C. H. (2004). "Seasonal and Interannual Particle Export in an African Rift Valley Lake: A 5-Yr Record from Lake Malawi, Southern East Africa". ''Limnology and Oceanography'', 49(4), 964–977. {{doi:10.2307/3597647}}.</ref> == Malo == Nyanja ya Malaŵi njitali makilomita pakati pa 560 na 580, ndipo njisani pafupifupi makilomita 75 pa malo ghasani comene.<ref name=ac>{{Cite web|url= http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/cichlid/malawi.php |title=Malawi Cichlids|access-date=2007-04-02 |work= AC Tropical Fish |publisher=Aquaticcommunity.com}}</ref><ref name=ceonline/> Nyanja yili na ukulu wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 29,600.<ref name=ac/> Nyanja njakuzika mamita 706 pa malo ghakuzika comene, agho ghali mu dimba likulu ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto-pakati.<ref name=Konings/> Dimba linyake licoko ku kumpoto comene likufika pa kuzika kwa mamita 528.<ref name=Konings/> Hafu ya kumwera ya nyanja njambura kuzika comene; yambura kufika mamita 400 ku kumwera-pakati, na yambura kufika mamita 200 ku kumwera comene.<ref name=Konings/> Nyanja yili na mphepete mu Mozambique ya kumanjiliro, Malaŵi ya kumafumiro, na Tanzania ya kumwera. Mlonga ukulu comene uwo ukuthira mu nyanja ni Ruhuhu, ndipo maji ghakufuma ku kumwera kwake mu [[Mlonga wa Shire]], uwo ukuthira mu mlonga wa Zambezi mu Mozambique.<ref name=ceonline>{{Cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lake_Nyasa.aspx#1-1E1:Nyasa-La-full |title=Lake Nyasa |access-date=2011-08-02 |encyclopedia= Columbia Encyclopedia Online|publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Kufumbuka kukupangiska kutayika kwa maji ghakujumpha magaŵa 80 pa 100 mu nyanja, kujumpha comene agho ghakufuma mu Shire.<ref name=Park2011>Park, L.E.; and A.S. Cohen (2011). Paleoecological response of ostracods to early Late Pleistocene lake-level changes in Lake Malawi, East Africa. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 303: 71–80. {{doi|10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.02.038}}</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi kuya mu Shire ngakuzirwa comene ku vyacuma, cifukwa ghakovwira kupanga magesi, kuthilira minda, na vyamoyo vya pasi pa mlonga.<ref>Bhave, A., Vincent, K. and Mkwambisi, D. (2019) Projecting future water availability in Lake Malawi and the Shire River basin, Future Climate for Africa Brief, Cape Town: CDKN. https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/brief-projecting-future-water-availability-inlake-malawi-and-the-shire-river-basin/{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya za vyakufumapo vya kusintha kwa nyengo pa Nyanja ya Malaŵi mu nyengo ya munthazi, cifukwa ca kucepa kwa maji sonosono na kukoma kwa nyengo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhave|first1=Ajay G.|last2=Bulcock|first2=Lauren|last3=Dessai|first3=Suraje|last4=Conway|first4=Declan|last5=Jewitt|first5=Graham|last6=Dougill|first6=Andrew J.|last7=Kolusu|first7=Seshagiri Rao|last8=Mkwambisi|first8=David|date=2020-05-01|title=Lake Malawi's threshold behaviour: A stakeholder-informed model to simulate sensitivity to climate change|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169420301311|journal=Journal of Hydrology|language=en|volume=584|article-number=124671|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124671|bibcode=2020JHyd..58424671B|s2cid=213751778|issn=0022-1694|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Nyengo mu cigaŵa ca nyanja yikusintha kale, ndipo kufunda kukughanaghanirika kusazgikira mu caro cose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How can we improve the use of information for a climate-resilient Malawi? |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/how-can-we-improve-the-use-of-information-for-a-climate-resilient-malawi/ |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=fcfa |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304151018/https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/how-can-we-improve-the-use-of-information-for-a-climate-resilient-malawi/ |archive-date=2021-03-04 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nyanja yili pafupifupi makilomita 350 kumwera-kumafumiro kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika, yinyake mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aghaindum |first=Ajeagah Gideon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8F0nDwAAQBAJ |title=Water as a weapon of international confrontations |date=2017-06-15 |publisher=Editions L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-14-003961-4 |language=en}}</ref> Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili ku kumwera kwa nyanja.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/289/|title=Lake Malawi National Park|work=World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=24 October 2015}}</ref> == Mbiri ya Kapangikiro == <gallery widths="180px"> File:Lake Malawi00.jpg|Nyanja ya Malaŵi (1967) File:Mwaya Beach, Malawi.jpg|Mphepete ya nyanja ku Mwaya File:Monoxylon beach Lake Malawi 1557.jpg|Mphepete ya nyanja ku Cape Maclear pafupi na Monkey Bay </gallery> [[File:FlankMalawi.png|thumb|left|upright=1.75|Cithuzi ca kukwera na kukhira kwa dongo ku mbali ya cigwa ca Nyanja ya Malaŵi]] [[File:Map of Great Rift Valley.svg|thumb|Cigwa cikulu ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa (cakuswesi) na nyanja zake, Malaŵi yili kumwera]] Malaŵi ni yimoza mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa cikulu, ndipo ni nyanja ya kale. Nyanja yili mu dambo ilo likapangika na kupatukana kwa cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, apo cigaŵa cikulu ca pasi ca Afilika cikugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Kanandi Malaŵi likughanaghanirika kuŵa la vyaka miliyoni 1–2, kweni ukaboni wa sonosono ukulongora kuti nyanja nja kale comene, ndipo dimba lake likamba kupangika pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 8.6 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo maji ghakuzika ghakawoneka dankha vyaka miliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001979 | date=Apr 2008 |last1=Wilson |first1=Ab.|last2=Teugels |first2=Gg. |last3=Meyer |first3=A. | title = Marine Incursion: The Freshwater Herring of Lake Tanganyika Are the Product of a Marine Invasion into West Africa| volume = 3| issue = 4| article-number = e1979| pmid = 18431469| pmc = 2292254| journal = PLOS ONE| bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1979W| editor1-last = Moritz| editor1-first = Craig| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Givnish1997>Givnish, T.J.; and K.J. Sytsma, editors (1997). Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, p. 598. ISBN 0-521-57329-7.</ref><ref name=Delvaux1995>Delvaux, D. (1995). Age of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) and water level fluctuations. Mus. roy. Afr. centr., Tervuren (Belg.), Dept. Geol. Min., Rapp. ann. 1993 & 1994: 99–108.</ref><ref name=Sturmbauer2001>Sturmbauer; Baric; Salzburger; Rüber; and Verheyen (2001). Lake Level Fluctuations Synchronize Genetic Divergences of Cichlid Fishes in African Lakes. Mol Biol Evol 18(2): 144–154. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003788}}</ref> Unandi wa maji wasintha comene mu nyengo, kufuma pafupifupi mamita 600 pasi pa umo uliri sono mpaka mamita 10–20 pacanya.<ref name=Cohen2007>Cohen; Stone; Beuning; Park; Reinthal; Dettman; Scholz; Johnson; King; Talbot; Brown; and Ivory (2007). Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(42): 16422-16427. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0703873104}}</ref><ref name=Delvaux1995/> Mu nyengo zinyake nyanja yikakoma pafupifupi yose, ndipo yikasyala nyanja yimoza panji ziŵiri zicoko za maji gha mcere mu malo agho sono ngakuzika comene.<ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Cohen2007/> Maji ghakuyana na agho ghaliko sono ghakawoneka pafupifupi vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=Cohen2007/><ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Sturmbauer2001/> Pakati pa 1390 na 1860, nyanja yingaŵa kuti yikaŵa mamita 120–150 pasi pa unandi wa maji wa sono.<ref name=Givnish1997/> == Vimanyikwiro vya Maji == Maji gha nyanja ngakotcha, ndipo kanandi pacanya ghakufunda pakati pa 24 na 29 °C, apo vigaŵa vyakuzika kanandi vili na pafupifupi 22 °C.<ref name=Staffer2012>Stauffer, J.R.; and H. Madsen (2012). Schistosomiasis in Lake Malawi and the Potential Use of Indigenous Fish for Biological Control. Pp. 119–140 in: Rokni, M.B., editor. Schistosomiasis. ISBN 978-953-307-852-6.</ref> Mphaka ya okisijeni yili pa kuzika kwa pafupifupi mamita 250, ndipo somba na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikukhumba okisijeni vikukhala pacanya pera.<ref name=Park2011/> Maji ngakujulika comene, ndipo munthu wangawona mpaka mamita 20, kweni kanandi pafupifupi hafu ya ici, ndipo pasi pa mamita 3 mu malo gha dongo.<ref name=Lowe2003>Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution. Freshwater Forum 20(1): 4–64.</ref><ref name=Konings>Konings, Ad (1990). ''Ad Konings' Book of Cichlids and all the other Fishes of Lake Malawi.'' ISBN 978-0866225274.</ref> Pa myezi ya vula ya Matika mpaka Nyakanyaka, maji ghakuŵa na dongo comene cifukwa ca milonga iyo yikuthira dongo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-primary-inflows-and-outflows-of-lake-malawi.html|title=What Are The Primary Inflows And Outflows Of Lake Malawi?|website=WorldAtlas|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> == Kwiza kwa Ŵaulaya == Mulondezgi wa malonda wa Ŵapwitikizi Candido José da Costa Cardoso wakaŵa Muulaya wakwamba kufika pa nyanja mu 1846.<ref name=Jeal1973>{{cite book|last=Jeal|first =Tim|title=Livingstone|publisher = G. P. Putnam's Sons|year=1973|location=New York|isbn =978-0-399-11215-7|url=https://archive.org/details/livingstone00jeal|url-access=registration}}</ref> David Livingstone wakafika pa nyanja mu 1859, ndipo wakayithya zina lakuti Nyanja ya Nyasa.<ref name=ceonline/> Wakayichema so na mazina ghaŵiri: Nyanja ya Nyenyezi na Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_wsAwAAQBAJ&q=%22lake+of+stars%22+livingstone&pg=PP170|title=David Livingstone, Africa's Greatest Explorer: The Man, the Missionary and the Myth|last=Bayly|first=Paul|date=2014-03-27|publisher=Fonthill Media|language=en}}</ref> Zina la Nyanja ya Nyenyezi likafuma apo Livingstone wakawona ungweru wa nyali za ŵalovi ŵa somba mu Malaŵi pa ngalawa zawo, uko kukawonekanga kufuma kutali nga ni nyenyezi kuthambo.<ref name="EWG">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2005|volume=1|page=576|author=R. W. McColl}}</ref> Pamanyuma, apo wakakumana na mphepo zikulu zambura kumanyikwa izo zikukunthira mu cigaŵa ici, wakayichema so Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu.<ref name="EWG" /> Pa 16 Mpupulu 1914, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yifupi ya pa maji mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose. Ngalawa ya nkhondo ya Ŵabritoni, SS Gwendolen, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Kaputeni Rhoades, yikapokera malangulo kuti "yibize, yiwotche, panji yinange" ngalawa yekha ya nkhondo ya Ŵajeremani pa nyanja, Hermann von Wissmann. Ŵantchito ŵa Rhoades ŵakasanga Hermann von Wissmann mu cigaŵa cinyake pafupi na Sphinxhaven. Gwendolen yikanangiska ngalawa ya Ŵajeremani na mzinga umoza kufuma pa mtunda wa mamita pafupifupi 1,800. Nkhondo yifupi iyi yikalumbika na nyuzipepara ya ''The Times'' mu Ungelezi nga ni kupunda kwakwamba kwa pa maji kwa Ŵabritoni mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Paice |title=Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa |year=2007 |isbn= 978-0-297-84709-0 |page=not cited|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.clash-of-steel.co.uk/pages/battle_details.php?battle=GUENDOLENV01 |title=The Guendolen v Hermann Von Wissmann |work=Clash of Steel }}</ref> == Mphaka == === Mphindano ya Tanzania na Malaŵi === [[File:Malawi-Tanzania border dispute.png|thumb|Mzere wa tumizere: mphaka ya Malaŵi ya sono <br />Mzere wa tumadontho: mphaka iyo Tanzania yikukhumba]] Kugaŵika kwa nyanja pakati pa Malaŵi na Tanzania ni nkhani ya mphindano. Tanzania yikuti mphaka ya pakati pa vyaro yikwenda pakati pa nyanja.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Govt clarifies on Tanzania-Malawi border | url=http://www.kforumonline.com/viewtopic.php?t=712&sid=6ff7f94b3f06010d9542913ba89b2ac2 | date=1 August 2007 | newspaper=Daily News (via KForum) | location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713145107/http://www.kforumonline.com/viewtopic.php?t=712&sid=6ff7f94b3f06010d9542913ba89b2ac2 | archive-date=13 July 2011 | access-date=26 January 2009 }}</ref> Kweni Malaŵi likuti nyanja yose iyo njya Mozambique yayi ni yake, kusazgapo maji agho ghali pafupi na mphepete ya Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Kamlomo, Gabriel | date=27 August 2012 | title=Malawi optimistic on Tanzania border dispute | newspaper=The Daily Times | location=Malawi | url=http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php/daily-times/headlines/national/11397-malawi-optimistic-on-tanzania-border-dispute | access-date=5 September 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905020520/http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php/daily-times/headlines/national/11397-malawi-optimistic-on-tanzania-border-dispute | archive-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref> Malaŵi ndilo likulongozga maji agha sono. Vyaro vyose viŵiri vikuyowoya Phangano la Heligoland la 1890 pakati pa Ufumu Ubanyi na Germany. Mphindano iyi yikamba apo ulongozgi wa Ŵabritoni, pamanyuma pa kupoka Tanganyika kufuma ku Germany, ukaŵika maji ghose gha nyanja pasi pa dera limoza la mazaza, la Nyasaland. Pamanyuma mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, madera ghaŵiri gha mazaza ghakaŵikika.<ref name="Mayall">{{Cite journal|author=Mayall, James|year=1973|title=The Malawi-Tanzania Boundary Dispute|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=11|number=4|pages=611–628|jstor=161618|doi=10.1017/s0022278x00008776|s2cid=154785268}}</ref> Mphindano iyi yikakula comene mu 1967 apo Tanzania yikasuska kwa Malaŵi, kweni palije ico cikamazgika.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Chitsulo, Kondwani |date=3 September 2012 |title=JB Meets Opposition Leaders On Tanzania Again |newspaper=Malawi Voice |url=http://www.malawivoice.com/2012/09/03/jb-meets-opposition-leaders-on-tanzania-again-journalists-bared-from-asking-questions-after-waiting-for-5-hours-no-food-no-allowance-77011/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130128062051/http://www.malawivoice.com/2012/09/03/jb-meets-opposition-leaders-on-tanzania-again-journalists-bared-from-asking-questions-after-waiting-for-5-hours-no-food-no-allowance-77011/ |archive-date=28 January 2013 |access-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref> Mphindano zikawonekanga nyengo zinyake mu ma 1990 na mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Joel, Lawi|date=15 August 2012|title=Tanzania: Life Continues on Lake Nyasa Despite Border Dispute|newspaper=Daily News|location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208150072.html}}</ref> Mu 2012, kupenja mafuta kwa Malaŵi kukawezgera nkhani iyi panthazi, ndipo Tanzania yikakhumba kuti kupenja kuleke mpaka mphindano yimazgike.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 August 2012|title=Malawi: Old Border Dispute With Tanzania Over Lake Malawi Flares Up Again|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|location=Pretoria, South Africa|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208130878.html}}</ref> === Mphaka ya Malaŵi na Mozambique === Mu 1954, phangano likasayinika pakati pa Ŵabritoni na Ŵapwitikizi, ilo likaŵika pakati pa nyanja kuŵa mphaka yawo, kupatula virwa vya Chizumulu na Likoma, ivyo Ŵabritoni ŵakasunga, ndipo sono ni vya Malaŵi.<ref name="Mayall" /> == Mayendero == [[File:Nkhata Bay, Malawi.jpg|thumb|Dooko lakunjira mu nyanja ku Nkhata Bay]] MV Chauncy Maples yikamba ntchito pa nyanja mu 1901 nga ni SS Chauncy Maples: cipatala na mpingo vyakuyandama vya wupu wa Universities' Mission to Central Africa. Pamanyuma yikaŵa ngalawa ya kunyamula ŵanthu, ndipo sono yikunozgeka kuŵa cipatala cakwenda ku Monkey Bay.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chauncymaples.org/index.html|title=Chauncy Maples: Lake Malawi's Clinic|website=Chauncymaples.org|access-date=12 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912204513/https://chauncymaples.org/index.html|archive-date=12 September 2018}}</ref><ref name=Shipstamps>{{cite web |url=http://www.shipstamps.co.uk/forum/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=10733 |title=Mtendere |last=Sefton |first=John |date=2010-11-09 |work=Community Forum |publisher=ShipStamps.co.uk |access-date=2011-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208181222/https://shipstamps.co.uk/forum/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=10733 |archive-date=2021-02-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> MV Mpasa yikamba ntchito mu 1935. MV Ilala yikamba ntchito mu 1951. Mu vyaka vya sonosono kanandi yikugwira ntchito yayi, kweni para yikugwira ntchito, yikwenda kufuma ku Monkey Bay kumwera kwa nyanja mpaka ku Karonga kumpoto, ndipo nyengo zinyake ku Iringa mu Tanzania.<ref name=Shipstamps/><ref name=Shipstamps/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faceofmalawi.com/2014/03/malawi-shipping-company-set-to-launch-new-passenger-vessel-on-lake-malawi/|title=Malawi Shipping Company set to launch new passenger vessel on Lake Malawi – Face Of Malawi|first=Face of|last=Malawi|date=31 March 2014 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122142310/http://www.faceofmalawi.com/2014/03/malawi-shipping-company-set-to-launch-new-passenger-vessel-on-lake-malawi/|archive-date=2015-01-22}}</ref> MV Mtendere yikamba ntchito mu 1980. Pofika 1982 yikanyamulanga ŵanthu 100,000 pa caka, kweni mu 2014 yikagwiranga ntchito yayi.<ref name=MSC>{{cite web |url=http://mscltz.com/preview_019.htm |title=MV. Songea |work=Vessels |publisher=Marine Services Company Limited |access-date=26 June 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ngalawa ya Tanzania MV Songea yikapangika mu 1988, ndipo yikwenda sabata yiliyose pakati pa Liuli na Nkhata Bay kwizira mu Itungi na Mbamba Bay.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mscltz.com/ |title=Home |work=Vessels |publisher=Marine Services Company Limited |access-date=26 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910031156/http://www.mscltz.com/ |archive-date=10 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name=MSC/> Ngozi yikulu comene pa nyanja yikaŵa kubira kwa MV Vipya mu 1946, uko kukakoma ŵanthu 145.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p034s5kt|title = BBC World Service - African Perspective, MV Vipya Lake Malawi Disaster | date=13 September 1996 }}</ref> == Vyamoyo == [[File:Haliaeetus vocifer -Cape Maclear, Malawi -fishing-8b.jpg|thumb|Nkhwazi ya Afilika yikukora somba mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi]] Vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika mu na kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni ng'wina wa Nilo, vigwere, ŵankhwele, na nkhwazi zinandi za Afilika izo zikurya somba za mu nyanja.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/289|title = Lake Malawi National Park|website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Geography & Wildlife Malawi|url = http://www.our-africa.org/malawi/geography-wildlife|access-date = 2015-09-14|website = Our Africa|publisher = SOS Children's Villages|archive-date = 2018-04-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180421001823/http://www.our-africa.org/malawi/geography-wildlife|url-status = dead}}</ref> === Somba === ==== Kulowa Somba ==== [[File:Pesce ad essiccare sulla riva del lago malawi.JPG|thumb|left|Usipa (''Engraulicypris sardella'') wakuyanika pa mphepete ya nyanja]] Kwa vyaka vinandi comene, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yapeleka vyakulya vinandi ku ŵanthu ŵa m'mphepete mwake, cifukwa maji ghake ghali na somba zinandi. Zakumanyikwa comene ni mitundu yinayi ya cambo (''Oreochromis karongae'', ''O. lidole'', ''O. saka'', na ''O. squamipinnis''), na ''O. shiranus'' iyo yikukolerana nazo.<ref name=Turner1992>Turner, G.F.; and N.C. Mwanyama (July 1992).[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad202e/AD202E00.htm Distribution and Biology of Chambo (Oreochromis spp.) in Lakes Malawi and Malombe.] Food and Agriculture Organization, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, FI:DP/MLW/86/013, Field Document 21. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Mitundu yinyake yakuzirwa ni usipa (''Engraulicypris sardella'') na kampango mukulu (''Bagrus meridionalis'').<ref name=Konings/> Somba zinandi zikulyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa pafupi na nyanja, kweni zinyake zikutumizgika kuwaro kwa Malaŵi. Somba za kawiro zili pa ngozi yikulu cifukwa ca kulowa comene na kunanga maji.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Preserving the Future for Lake Malawi|url = http://web.mit.edu/africantech/www/articles/Lake_Malawi.html|website = web.mit.edu|access-date = 2015-09-14|archive-date = 2019-09-30|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190930173855/http://web.mit.edu/africantech/www/articles/Lake_Malawi.html|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name=Banda2013>{{cite news|author=Banda, M. | title = Rapid drop in Lake Malawi's water levels drives down fish stocks | url = https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/may/22/lake-malawi-water-levels-fish-stocks|newspaper=The Guardian | date = 22 May 2013 | access-date = 11 April 2017}}</ref> Kucepa kwa maji gha nyanja ni ngozi yinyake, ndipo kukughanaghanirika kuti kukufuma ku kufumya maji na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusintha kwa nyengo, na kudumula nkholongo.<ref name=Banda2013/> Cambo na kampango zaloweka comene (kampango yikacepa na pafupifupi magaŵa 90 pa 100 kufuma 2006 mpaka 2016, ''O. karongae'' na ''O. squamipinnis'' na pafupifupi 94 pa 100, ndipo ''O. lidole'' yingaŵa kuti yamalira kale), ndipo sono zili pa ngozi yikulu.<ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Phiri, T.B. | author2 = Gobo, E. | author3 = Tweddle, D. | author4 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | title = ''Bagrus meridionalis'' | amends= 2018 | article-number = e.T60856A155041757 | year= 2019 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T60856A155041757.en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | author2 = Phiri, T.B. | author3 = Shechonge, A. | title = ''Oreochromis karongae'' | errata= 2019 | article-number = e.T61293A148647939 | year= 2018 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T61293A148647939.en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Phiri, T.B. | author2 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | title = ''Oreochromis squamipinnis'' | errata= 2019 | article-number = e.T60760A148648312 | year= 2018 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T60760A148648312.en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author1=McKenzie, D. |author2=B. Swails | title = Rangers struggle to save endangered fish in Lake Malawi | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/27/malawi.overfishing/|publisher=CNN | date = 22 May 2013 | access-date = 11 April 2017}}</ref> IUCN yikuwona mitundu 117 ya mbuna za Malaŵi kuŵa pa ngozi.<ref name=IUCNef>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/freshwater/eastafrica/geographicpatternsea |title=Geographic Patterns|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002175558/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/freshwater/eastafrica/geographicpatternsea|archive-date=2 October 2018 |access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> ==== Mbuna na Ŵabali Ŵawo ==== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | header = Mbuna na somba zinyake za ''cichlid'' za mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi | image1 = Diplotaxodon.jpg | image2 = Adult male livingstonii.png | image3 = Copadichromis azureus.jpg | image4 = Frankfurt Zoo - Aulonocara stuartgranti Usisya.jpg | image5 = Fossorochromis rostratus - mâle en aquarium 01.jpg | image6 = Pseudotropheus saulosi.jpg | image7 = Oreochromis squamipinnis.jpg | caption7 = Kufuma pacanya kuya pasi:<br /> 1. ''Diplotaxodon'', umoza mwa mitundu yicoko ya ''cichlid'' iyo yikusangika kutali na mphepete mu maji ghakuzika.<br /> 2. ''Nimbochromis livingstonii'' ni somba yakulya somba zinyake iyo yikumanyikwa cifukwa cakujipusika kuti yafwa kuti yiguze ivyo yikusaka.<br /> 3. Nga ni utaka unyake, ''Copadichromis azureus'' zanalume ni za camlengalenga cakuŵala (zikuwoneka apa), apo zanakazi ni za siliva na tumabanga twakufipa.<br /> 4. ''Aulonocara stuartgranti'' ni ya gulu la mitundu yambura ukali iyo yikumanyikwa kuti ''peacock cichlid''.<br /> 5. ''Fossorochromis rostratus'' yikusefa mcenga mu mlomo wake kuti yisange tuvyamoyo tucoko twakulya.<br /> 6. Nga ni mbuna zinyake, ''Pseudotropheus saulosi'' ni ''cichlid'' yicoko iyo yanalume (ya camlengalenga na yakufipa) na yanakazi (ya cikasu) zose zili na mitundu yakuŵala.<br /> 7. ''Oreochromis squamipinnis'' ni umoza mwa mitundu yinkhondi na umoza pera ya cambo iyo yikusangika mu nyanja mwakawiro, kweni njakuzirwa comene ku ŵalovi.<ref name=Lowe2003/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Schliewen1992>Schliewen, U. (1992). Aquarium Fish. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref><ref name=Elieson/><ref>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/c_azureus.php Copadichromis azureus.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/peacocks.php The Peacocks of Lake Malawi.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref>O'Brien, R: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/f_rostratus.php Fossorochromis rostratus.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref>Barber, P: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/p_saulosi.php Pseudotropheus saulosi.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/> }} Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa magulu ghanyake gha vinyama, comene somba za ''cichlid'', ghakagaŵika comene mu mitundu yinandi.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Svardal | first1=Hannes | last2=Quah | first2=Fu Xiang | last3=Malinsky | first3=Milan | last4=Ngatunga | first4=Benjamin P | last5=Miska | first5=Eric A | last6=Salzburger | first6=Walter | last7=Genner | first7=Martin J | last8=Turner | first8=George F | last9=Durbin | first9=Richard | title=Ancestral Hybridization Facilitated Species Diversification in the Lake Malawi Cichlid Fish Adaptive Radiation | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=2020-04-01 | issn=0737-4038 | pmid=31821500 | pmc=7086168 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msz294 | pages=1100–1113|biorxiv=10.1101/738633|s2cid=202010546|hdl=1983/40d3dafd-f1d5-4ea4-a447-126df76a0651|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Pali mitundu ya ''cichlid'' yakujumpha 700 mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakughanaghanira kuti yingafika 1,000.<ref name=Turner2001/><ref name=panda/><ref>Kornfield, I.; & P.F. Smith (2000). African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31: 163–196. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> Unandi weneco ukumanyikwa makola yayi cifukwa ca mitundu yinandi yambura kulongosoreka.<ref name=Turner2001/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=OliverTilapia>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10100.htm The Tilapias of Lake Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225232906/https://malawicichlids.com/mw10100.htm |date=2020-02-25 }} MalawiCichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref><ref>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10000.htm The Nonendemic Haplochromine Cichlids of Lake Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225230625/https://malawicichlids.com/mw10000.htm |date=2020-02-25 }} MalawiCichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Kupatula mitundu yinayi, ''cichlid'' zose za mu nyanja zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Malaŵi pera, iyo yikusazgapo [[Nyanja ya Malombe]] na Shire yapacanya. Zinandi mwa izi zatemweka comene na ŵakusunga somba mu magalasi cifukwa ca mitundu yawo yakuŵala.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pardee|first1=Keith|title=African Cichlids, Lake Malawi|url=http://www.aquariumlife.net/profiles/african-cichlids-lake-malawi|website=www.aquariumlife.net|access-date=30 September 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012113129/http://www.aquariumlife.net/profiles/african-cichlids-lake-malawi|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref> ''Cichlid'' zinandi za Malaŵi zikusangika mu maji ghambura kuzika comene gha m'mphepete, kweni zinyake zikusangika mpaka pa kuzika kwa mamita 200–220.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Lowe2003/> ''Cichlid'' za mu nyanja zikugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri, ndipo zinandi comene ni ''haplochromine''. Izi zikusunga masumbi na ŵana mu milomo yawo.<ref name=Genner2015>Genner; Ngatunga; Mzighani; Smith; and Turner (2015). Geographical ancestry of Lake Malawi's cichlid fish diversity. Biol. Lett. 11: 2015023. {{doi|10.1098/rsbl.2015.0232}}</ref><ref name=Genner2015/><ref name=Givnish1997/> Mu gulu ili pali magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu: ''haps'' na mbuna.<ref name=Konings/> ''Haps'' zingagaŵika mu magulu ghatatu: zikulu, kanandi zitali kujumpha masentimita 20, izo zikurya somba zinyake; utaka, izo zikurya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji mu magulu; na zinyake izo zikukolerana na magulu agha yayi.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/haps_vs_mbuna.php Haps Vs. Mbuna.] Retrieved 11 April 2017.</ref><ref name=aquaticcom>Aquaticcommunity (2004–08).[http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/cichlid/haplochromis.php Haplochromis.] Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Za ŵanalume zikulu kanandi zili na mitundu yakuŵala.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Gulu laciŵiri likulu ni mbuna, zina ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu malo na pa caro cose, ilo likung'anamula "somba za malibwe" mu Citonga.<ref>Loiselle, P.V. (1988). A Fishkeepers Guide to African Cichlids, p. 97. Salamander Books, London & New York. ISBN 0-86101-407-3.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Zikusangika pa malibwe, zikuvikilira malo ghawo, ndipo kanandi nzicoko, zambura kufika masentimita 13.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Gulu laciŵiri, ''tilapia'', lili na mitundu yinkhondi na yimoza pera mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi.<ref name=Konings/><ref>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10003.htm Coptodon rendalli.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318085811/http://malawicichlids.com/mw10003.htm |date=2017-03-18 }} Malawicichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> ''Coptodon rendalli'' ndiyo yekha iyo yikuikira masumbi pasi.<ref name=Konings/><ref>{{FishBase | genus = Coptodon | species = rendalli | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref> Mitundu yinyake yinkhondi ni ya ''Oreochromis''; cambo zinayi izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi pera, na ''O. shiranus'', iyo yikusangika so mu Nyanja ya Chilwa.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/><ref name=OliverTilapia/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=OliverTilapia/><ref>{{FishBase genus | genus = Oreochromis | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref> Izi zikurya tumbuto tucoko twa mu maji, zikufika pa utali wa masentimita 26–42, ndipo kanandi nzakufipa panji za mtundu wa siliva.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/> ==== Somba Zinyake ==== [[File:Catfish in Lake Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|Kampango (''Bagrus meridionalis''), umoza mwa ŵabwankha ŵakulu comene, uyo wangafika utali wa {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref>{{FishBase | genus = Bagrus | species = meridionalis | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref>]] Somba zinandi comene za mu nyanja ni ''cichlid''. Somba zinyake za mu nyanja ni mitundu yinandi ya ''cyprinid'' (kusazgapo usipa), ŵabwankha na kampango, ''Synodontis njassae'', nkhungu, na zinyake. Zinandi mwa izi zikusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Afilika, kweni ''Bathyclarias'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera.<ref name=Konings/> === Vyamoyo Vyambura Fupa la Msana === ==== Nkhono ==== Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu 28 ya nkhono za maji ghawemi (16 izo zikusangika kuno pera) na 9 za vikoko viŵiri.<ref>Segers, H.; and Martens, K; editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems.'' p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn |author=Van Damme, D. |year=2018 |title= ''Aspatharia subreniformis'' |article-number= e.T44266A120109809 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T44266A120109809.en}}</ref><ref>Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance.'' p. 571. 2nd edition. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5</ref> Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yinayi ya nkhono za ''Bulinus'', izo zikumanyikwa kunyamula tuzirombo twa lukojo. Kusanda mu Monkey Bay mu 1964 kukasanga mitundu iŵiri ya nkhono iyo yikusangika kuno pera mu nyanja, na iŵiri yinyake mu tumaji twapaŵekha. Mitundu iyi yaciŵiri yikumanyikwa kunyamula lukojo, kweni mu kuyezga, mitundu ya mu nyanja yikakora lukojo yayi. Sonosono, nthenda iyi yaŵa suzgo mu nyanja yeneyiyo, cifukwa ''B. nyassanus'' yamba kunyamula lukojo.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Wright | first = C. A. | author2 = Klein, J. | author3 = Eccles, D. H. | title = Endemic species of ''Bulinus'' (Mollusca: Planorbidae) in Lake Malawi (= Lake Nyasa) | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 151 | issue = 1 | pages = 199–209 | year = 1967 | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122569088/abstract | archive-url = https://archive.today/20121020201249/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122569088/abstract | archive-date = 2012-10-20 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1967.tb02873.x | access-date = 2010-05-22 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> Kusintha uku, uko kukawoneka dankha pakati pa ma 1980, kungakolerana na kucepa kwa somba izo zikurya nkhono cifukwa ca kulowa comene, panji mtundu uphya wa lukojo.<ref name=Staffer2012/> ==== Nkhala na Vinyake ==== Kupambana na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yicoko ya nkhala na shirimpi. Nkhala ya buluu ya Malaŵi ndiyo nkhala yekha mu nyanja, ndipo yikusangika so kunyake. Shirimpi ''Caridina malawensis'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera, kweni yikumanyikwa makola yayi.<ref name=Kivu>Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref><ref name=Dobson>Dobson, M. (2004). ''[https://www.fba.org.uk/journals/index.php/FF/article/viewFile/175/75 Freshwater Crabs of Africa.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623192302/https://www.fba.org.uk/journals/index.php/FF/article/viewFile/175/75 |date=2016-06-23 }}'' Freshwater Forum 21: 3–26.</ref><ref>Richard, J.; and Clark, P.F. (2009). ''African Caridina (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea: Atyidae): redescriptions of C. africana Kingsley, 1882, C. togoensis Hilgendorf, 1893, C. natalensis Bouvier, 1925 and C. roubaudi Bouvier, 1925 with descriptions of 14 new species.'' Zootaxa 1995: 1–75</ref> Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji tukusazgapo mitundu yinandi.<ref name=Darwall2010>Darwall; Allison; Turner; and Irvine (2010). Lake of flies, or lake of fish? A trophic model of Lake Malawi. Ecological Modelling 221: 713–727. {{doi|10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.11.001}}</ref><ref>Martens, K. (2003). On the evolution of Gomphocythere (Crustacea, Ostracoda) in Lake Nyassa/ Malawi (East Africa), with the description of 5 new species. Hydrobiologia 497(1–2): 121–144. {{doi|10.1023/A:1025417822555}}</ref> ==== Tumembe twa Nyanja ==== [[File:Lake flies, Lake Malawi (2499202894).jpg|thumb|left|Nkhungu zinandi comene (''Chaoborus edulis'') pacanya pa maji, izo kufuma kutali zikuwoneka nga ni josi]] Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca magulu ghakulu comene gha tumembe tucoko twambura kupweteka (''Chaoborus edulis'').<ref name=Mortis2004>Morris, B. (2004). Insects and Human Life, pp. 73–76. ISBN 1-84520-075-6</ref> Magulu agha, agho kanandi ghakuwoneka kutali pa maji, ghangawoneka nga ni josi, ndipo ghakawoneka so na David Livingstone apo wakafika pa nyanja.<ref name=Mortis2004/><ref name=Huis2012>van Huis, A.; H. van Gurp; and M. Dicke (2012). The Insect Cookbook: Food for a Sustainable Planet, p. 31. ISBN 978-0-231-16684-3</ref><ref name=MalawiTo>Malawi Tourism: [http://www.malawitourism.com/assets_cm/files/pdf/malawi%2520seasonal%2520highlights.pdf Interesting seasonal highlights of Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812101012/http://www.malawitourism.com/assets_cm/files/pdf/malawi%20seasonal%20highlights.pdf |date=2014-08-12 }} Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> Ŵana ŵa tumembe utu ŵakukhala mu maji, ŵakurya tuvinyama tucoko, msana ŵakuŵa pasi na usiku pacanya.<ref name=Mortis2004/> Para ŵasanduka, ŵakuyandama pacanya na kusanduka tumembe tukulu.<ref name=MalawiTo/> Tumembe tukulu tukukhala nyengo yifupi comene, ndipo magulu, agho ghangaŵa ghatali mamita mahandiredi ghacoko, ni cigaŵa ca kutorana kwawo.<ref name=Mortis2004/><ref name=Andrew2015>Andrew, D. (30 June 2015). [http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/whats-causing-these-strange-looking-clouds/ What Are These Strange Looking "Clouds"?] IFLScience. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> Tukuikira masumbi pacanya pa maji ndipo tukufwa.<ref name=Andrew2015/> Ŵana ŵawo ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku somba, ndipo tumembe tukulu ntwakuzirwa ku viyuni na ku ŵanthu ŵa malo agho, awo ŵakutuwunjika kupanga makeke gha kungu, cakulya ca malo agho ico cili na purotini yinandi comene.<ref name=Darwall2010/><ref name=Mortis2004/><ref>Allison; Irvine; Thompson; and Ngatunga (1996). Diets and food consumption rates of pelagic fish in Lake Malawi, Africa. Freshwater Biology 35(3): 489–515. {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-2427.1996.tb01764.x}}</ref><ref name=Huis2012/><ref name=MalawiTo/> == Kuvuza kwa Mugodi mu 2015 == Mu Matika 2015, thanki ya kulaŵilira dongo yikawa pa mugodi wa uranium wa Paladin Energy kumpoto kwa Malaŵi pamanyuma pa vula yikulu. Kukavumbulika kuti pafupifupi malita 50 gha vinthu vyambura kufumiska nkhongono za ntchito za mtima wa vimenyu ghakavuza mu kamlonga ka pafupi. Nangauli nyuzipepara za mu caro zikayowoya kuti maji ghakanangika, ulongozgi ukapima mwakujiwusa milonga ya pafupi na kusanga kuti malo ghakuzingilizga ghandakhwaskike.<ref>{{Cite web|title = No harm caused by Paladin mine Kayerekera – Malawi govt|url = http://www.nyasatimes.com/2015/03/29/no-harm-caused-by-paladin-mine-kayerekera-malawi-govt/|website = Malawi Nyasa Times – Malawi breaking news in Malawi|access-date = 2016-01-02|archive-date = 2015-04-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150401160954/http://www.nyasatimes.com/2015/03/29/no-harm-caused-by-paladin-mine-kayerekera-malawi-govt/}}</ref><ref>[http://nuclear-news.net/2015/01/02/radioactive-pollution-of-lake-malawi-by-australian-uranium-company-paladin/ Radioactive pollution of Lake Malawi by Australian uranium company Paladin?].</ref> == Kusambira == Kusambira kwa munthu yumoza kwa makilomita 25 kujumpha Nyanja ya Malaŵi pakati pa Cape Ngomba na Senga Bay kwafiskika kankhondi na ŵasambiri 16: * 1992: Lewis Pugh, maora 9 maminiti 52 (Ufumu Ubanyi/South Africa), na Otto Thanning (South Africa), maora 10 maminiti 5 * 2010: Abigail Brown (Ufumu Ubanyi), maora 9 maminiti 45 * 2013: Milko van Gool (Netherlands), maora 8 maminiti 46, na Kaitlin Harthoorn (US), maora 9 maminiti 17 * 2016 (mbiri ya sono): Jean Craven, Robert Dunford, Michiel Le Roux, Samantha Whelpton, Greig Bannatyne, Haydn Von Maltitz, na Douglas Livingstone-Blevins, maora 7 maminiti 53 * 2019: Chris Stapley (Eswatini) na Jay Azran (South Africa), maora 8 maminiti 40, Andrew Stevens (Australia), maora 10 maminiti 50, na Ruth Azran (South Africa), maora 11 maminiti 8. Mu caka cenecico, Martin Hobbs (South Africa) wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kusambira utali wose wa Nyanja ya Malaŵi (mazuŵa 54), ndipo wakaŵika mbiri ya caro cose capasi ya kusambira kutali comene mu nyanja. {{Malaŵi}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Nyanja za Malaŵi]] 4raj8ruafhwhfzlccn02kkkrm3fg8uk 124411 124403 2026-11-10T20:42:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Nyanja ya Malaŵi (Nyanja ya Nyasa) | image = Lake Malawi seen from orbit.jpg | alt = Cithuzi ca nyanja kufuma mu mlengalenga, na maŵingu kunthazi. | caption = Kuwoneka kufuma mu mlengalenga. Kumpoto kuli pacanya ku maryero | pushpin_map = Malawi#Africa | pushpin_alt = Yili kumwera kwa Nyanja Zikulu za Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, pa mphaka za Tanzania, Malaŵi, na Mozambique. | coordinates = {{Coord|12|00|S|34|30|E|type:waterbody_scale:2500000|display=inline,title}} | lake_type = Nyanja ya kale comene, nyanja ya mu cigwa | inflow = Mlonga wa Ruhuhu<ref name=ac/> | outflow = Mlonga wa Shire<ref name=ac/> | countries = [[Malawi|Malaŵi]], [[Mozambique]], na [[Tanzania]] | length = {{convert|560|km|abbr=on}}<ref name=ac/> mpaka 580<ref name=ceonline/> | width = {{convert|75|km|abbr=on}}<ref name=ac/> | area = {{convert|29,600|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name=ac/> | depth = {{convert|292|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=ilec/> | max_depth = {{convert|706|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=ilec/> | volume = {{convert|8640|km3|cumi|abbr=on}}<ref name=ilec/> | elevation = {{convert|468|m|ft}} pacanya pa mphepete ya mbwani<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book|title=Natural Wonders of the World|publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc|year=1980|isbn=0-89577-087-3|editor-last=Scheffel|editor-first=Richard L.|location=United States of America|page=222|editor-last2=Wernet|editor-first2=Susan J.}}</ref> | islands = Virwa vya Likoma na Chizumulu, Cirwa ca Mumbo | reference = <ref name=ac>{{Cite web|url= http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/cichlid/malawi.php |title=Malawi Cichlids|access-date=2007-04-02 |work= AC Tropical Fish |publisher=Aquaticcommunity.com}}</ref><ref name=ilec>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-13.html |title=Lake Malawi |access-date=2007-04-02 |work=World Lakes Database |publisher=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210044454/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-13.html |archive-date=February 10, 2007 }}</ref> }} [[File:Lake Malawi seen from orbit.jpg|197px|right]] '''Nyanja ya Malaŵi''', iyo yikuchemekaso '''Nyanja ya Nyasa''' ku [[Tanzania]] na '''Lago Niassa''' ku [[Mozambique]] (mu Ciswahili: ''Ziwa Nyasa''), ni yimoza mwa Nyanja Zikulu za [[Afilika]], ndipo ndiyo nyanja ya kumwera comene mu cigwa cikulu ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Yili pakati pa [[Malawi|Malaŵi]], Mozambique, na Tanzania. Ni nyanja ya maji ghawemi ya cinayi pa ukulu pa caro cose capasi pa unandi wa maji, ya cinkhondi na zinayi pa ukulu wa malo, ndipo ya citatu pa ukulu na ya ciŵiri pa kuzika mu Afilika. Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu ya [[Somba|somba]] yinandi kuluska nyanja yiliyose pa caro cose capasi, kusazgapo mitundu yakujumpha 700 ya mbuna na ŵabali ŵawo (''cichlid'').<ref name=unep/><ref name=Turner2001>Turner, Seehausen, Knight, Allender, and Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology'' 10: 793–806.</ref> Cigaŵa ca Mozambique ca nyanja cikapangika malo ghakuvikilirika na ulongozgi wa Mozambique pa 10 Zizima 2011, apo mu Malaŵi cigaŵa cinyake ca nyanja cili mu Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi.<ref name=panda>WWF (10 June 2011). [http://wwf.panda.org/?uNewsID=200583 "Mozambique's Lake Niassa declared reserve and Ramsar site"] Retrieved 17 July 2014.</ref><ref name=unep>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |title=Protected Areas Programme |access-date=2008-06-26 |date=October 1995 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNESCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511101010/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-date=2008-05-11 }}</ref> Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni nyanja iyo vigaŵa vyake vya maji vikusazganika yayi. Kugaŵika kwa maji kwa nyengo zose na mphaka ya okisijeni vikusungika na kupambana kucoko kwa vyakusazganika na kufunda.<ref>Pilskaln, C. H. (2004). "Seasonal and Interannual Particle Export in an African Rift Valley Lake: A 5-Yr Record from Lake Malawi, Southern East Africa". ''Limnology and Oceanography'', 49(4), 964–977. {{doi:10.2307/3597647}}.</ref> == Malo == Nyanja ya Malaŵi njitali makilomita pakati pa 560 na 580, ndipo njisani pafupifupi makilomita 75 pa malo ghasani comene.<ref name=ac/><ref name=ceonline/> Nyanja yili na ukulu wa makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 29,600.<ref name=ac/> Nyanja njakuzika mamita 706 pa malo ghakuzika comene, agho ghali mu dimba likulu ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto-pakati.<ref name=Konings/> Dimba linyake licoko ku kumpoto comene likufika pa kuzika kwa mamita 528.<ref name=Konings/> Hafu ya kumwera ya nyanja njambura kuzika comene; yambura kufika mamita 400 ku kumwera-pakati, na yambura kufika mamita 200 ku kumwera comene.<ref name=Konings/> Nyanja yili na mphepete mu Mozambique ya kumanjiliro, Malaŵi ya kumafumiro, na Tanzania ya kumwera. Mlonga ukulu comene uwo ukuthira mu nyanja ni Ruhuhu, ndipo maji ghakufuma ku kumwera kwake mu [[Mlonga wa Shire]], uwo ukuthira mu mlonga wa Zambezi mu Mozambique.<ref name=ceonline>{{Cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lake_Nyasa.aspx#1-1E1:Nyasa-La-full |title=Lake Nyasa |access-date=2011-08-02 |encyclopedia= Columbia Encyclopedia Online|publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Kufumbuka kukupangiska kutayika kwa maji ghakujumpha magaŵa 80 pa 100 mu nyanja, kujumpha comene agho ghakufuma mu Shire.<ref name=Park2011>Park, L.E.; and A.S. Cohen (2011). Paleoecological response of ostracods to early Late Pleistocene lake-level changes in Lake Malawi, East Africa. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 303: 71–80. {{doi|10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.02.038}}</ref> Maji agho ghakufuma mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi kuya mu Shire ngakuzirwa comene ku vyacuma, cifukwa ghakovwira kupanga magesi, kuthilira minda, na vyamoyo vya pasi pa mlonga.<ref>Bhave, A., Vincent, K. and Mkwambisi, D. (2019) Projecting future water availability in Lake Malawi and the Shire River basin, Future Climate for Africa Brief, Cape Town: CDKN. https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/brief-projecting-future-water-availability-inlake-malawi-and-the-shire-river-basin/{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya za vyakufumapo vya kusintha kwa nyengo pa Nyanja ya Malaŵi mu nyengo ya munthazi, cifukwa ca kucepa kwa maji sonosono na kukoma kwa nyengo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhave|first1=Ajay G.|last2=Bulcock|first2=Lauren|last3=Dessai|first3=Suraje|last4=Conway|first4=Declan|last5=Jewitt|first5=Graham|last6=Dougill|first6=Andrew J.|last7=Kolusu|first7=Seshagiri Rao|last8=Mkwambisi|first8=David|date=2020-05-01|title=Lake Malawi's threshold behaviour: A stakeholder-informed model to simulate sensitivity to climate change|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169420301311|journal=Journal of Hydrology|language=en|volume=584|article-number=124671|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124671|bibcode=2020JHyd..58424671B|s2cid=213751778|issn=0022-1694|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Nyengo mu cigaŵa ca nyanja yikusintha kale, ndipo kufunda kukughanaghanirika kusazgikira mu caro cose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How can we improve the use of information for a climate-resilient Malawi? |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/how-can-we-improve-the-use-of-information-for-a-climate-resilient-malawi/ |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=fcfa |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304151018/https://futureclimateafrica.org/resource/how-can-we-improve-the-use-of-information-for-a-climate-resilient-malawi/ |archive-date=2021-03-04 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nyanja yili pafupifupi makilomita 350 kumwera-kumafumiro kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika, yinyake mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aghaindum |first=Ajeagah Gideon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8F0nDwAAQBAJ |title=Water as a weapon of international confrontations |date=2017-06-15 |publisher=Editions L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-14-003961-4 |language=en}}</ref> Paki ya Caro ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili ku kumwera kwa nyanja.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/289/|title=Lake Malawi National Park|work=World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=24 October 2015}}</ref> == Mbiri ya Kapangikiro == <gallery widths="180px"> File:Lake Malawi00.jpg|Nyanja ya Malaŵi (1967) File:Mwaya Beach, Malawi.jpg|Mphepete ya nyanja ku Mwaya File:Monoxylon beach Lake Malawi 1557.jpg|Mphepete ya nyanja ku Cape Maclear pafupi na Monkey Bay </gallery> [[File:FlankMalawi.png|thumb|left|upright=1.75|Cithuzi ca kukwera na kukhira kwa dongo ku mbali ya cigwa ca Nyanja ya Malaŵi]] [[File:Map of Great Rift Valley.svg|thumb|Cigwa cikulu ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa (cakuswesi) na nyanja zake, Malaŵi yili kumwera]] Malaŵi ni yimoza mwa nyanja zikulu za cigwa cikulu, ndipo ni nyanja ya kale. Nyanja yili mu dambo ilo likapangika na kupatukana kwa cigwa ca Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, apo cigaŵa cikulu ca pasi ca Afilika cikugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Kanandi Malaŵi likughanaghanirika kuŵa la vyaka miliyoni 1–2, kweni ukaboni wa sonosono ukulongora kuti nyanja nja kale comene, ndipo dimba lake likamba kupangika pafupifupi vyaka miliyoni 8.6 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo maji ghakuzika ghakawoneka dankha vyaka miliyoni 4.5 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001979 | date=Apr 2008 |last1=Wilson |first1=Ab.|last2=Teugels |first2=Gg. |last3=Meyer |first3=A. | title = Marine Incursion: The Freshwater Herring of Lake Tanganyika Are the Product of a Marine Invasion into West Africa| volume = 3| issue = 4| article-number = e1979| pmid = 18431469| pmc = 2292254| journal = PLOS ONE| bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1979W| editor1-last = Moritz| editor1-first = Craig| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Givnish1997>Givnish, T.J.; and K.J. Sytsma, editors (1997). Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, p. 598. {{ISBN|0-521-57329-7}}.</ref><ref name=Delvaux1995>Delvaux, D. (1995). Age of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) and water level fluctuations. Mus. roy. Afr. centr., Tervuren (Belg.), Dept. Geol. Min., Rapp. ann. 1993 & 1994: 99–108.</ref><ref name=Sturmbauer2001>Sturmbauer; Baric; Salzburger; Rüber; and Verheyen (2001). Lake Level Fluctuations Synchronize Genetic Divergences of Cichlid Fishes in African Lakes. Mol Biol Evol 18(2): 144–154. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003788}}</ref> Unandi wa maji wasintha comene mu nyengo, kufuma pafupifupi mamita 600 pasi pa umo uliri sono mpaka mamita 10–20 pacanya.<ref name=Cohen2007>Cohen; Stone; Beuning; Park; Reinthal; Dettman; Scholz; Johnson; King; Talbot; Brown; and Ivory (2007). Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(42): 16422-16427. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0703873104}}</ref><ref name=Delvaux1995/> Mu nyengo zinyake nyanja yikakoma pafupifupi yose, ndipo yikasyala nyanja yimoza panji ziŵiri zicoko za maji gha mcere mu malo agho sono ngakuzika comene.<ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Cohen2007/> Maji ghakuyana na agho ghaliko sono ghakawoneka pafupifupi vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=Cohen2007/><ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Sturmbauer2001/> Pakati pa 1390 na 1860, nyanja yingaŵa kuti yikaŵa mamita 120–150 pasi pa unandi wa maji wa sono.<ref name=Givnish1997/> == Vimanyikwiro vya Maji == Maji gha nyanja ngakotcha, ndipo kanandi pacanya ghakufunda pakati pa 24 na 29 °C, apo vigaŵa vyakuzika kanandi vili na pafupifupi 22 °C.<ref name=Staffer2012>Stauffer, J.R.; and H. Madsen (2012). Schistosomiasis in Lake Malawi and the Potential Use of Indigenous Fish for Biological Control. Pp. 119–140 in: Rokni, M.B., editor. Schistosomiasis. {{ISBN|978-953-307-852-6}}.</ref> Mphaka ya okisijeni yili pa kuzika kwa pafupifupi mamita 250, ndipo somba na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikukhumba okisijeni vikukhala pacanya pera.<ref name=Park2011/> Maji ngakujulika comene, ndipo munthu wangawona mpaka mamita 20, kweni kanandi pafupifupi hafu ya ici, ndipo pasi pa mamita 3 mu malo gha dongo.<ref name=Lowe2003>Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution. Freshwater Forum 20(1): 4–64.</ref><ref name=Konings>Konings, Ad (1990). ''Ad Konings' Book of Cichlids and all the other Fishes of Lake Malawi.'' {{ISBN|978-0866225274}}.</ref> Pa myezi ya vula ya Matika mpaka Nyakanyaka, maji ghakuŵa na dongo comene cifukwa ca milonga iyo yikuthira dongo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-primary-inflows-and-outflows-of-lake-malawi.html|title=What Are The Primary Inflows And Outflows Of Lake Malawi?|website=WorldAtlas|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> == Kwiza kwa Ŵaulaya == Mulondezgi wa malonda wa Ŵapwitikizi Candido José da Costa Cardoso wakaŵa Muulaya wakwamba kufika pa nyanja mu 1846.<ref name=Jeal1973>{{cite book|last=Jeal|first =Tim|title=Livingstone|publisher = G. P. Putnam's Sons|year=1973|location=New York|isbn =978-0-399-11215-7|url=https://archive.org/details/livingstone00jeal|url-access=registration}}</ref> David Livingstone wakafika pa nyanja mu 1859, ndipo wakayithya zina lakuti Nyanja ya Nyasa.<ref name=ceonline/> Wakayichema so na mazina ghaŵiri: Nyanja ya Nyenyezi na Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_wsAwAAQBAJ&q=%22lake+of+stars%22+livingstone&pg=PP170|title=David Livingstone, Africa's Greatest Explorer: The Man, the Missionary and the Myth|last=Bayly|first=Paul|date=2014-03-27|publisher=Fonthill Media|language=en}}</ref> Zina la Nyanja ya Nyenyezi likafuma apo Livingstone wakawona ungweru wa nyali za ŵalovi ŵa somba mu Malaŵi pa ngalawa zawo, uko kukawonekanga kufuma kutali nga ni nyenyezi kuthambo.<ref name="EWG">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2005|volume=1|page=576|author=R. W. McColl}}</ref> Pamanyuma, apo wakakumana na mphepo zikulu zambura kumanyikwa izo zikukunthira mu cigaŵa ici, wakayichema so Nyanja ya Mphepo Zikulu.<ref name="EWG" /> Pa 16 Mpupulu 1914, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikaŵa malo gha nkhondo yifupi ya pa maji mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose. Ngalawa ya nkhondo ya Ŵabritoni, SS Gwendolen, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Kaputeni Rhoades, yikapokera malangulo kuti "yibize, yiwotche, panji yinange" ngalawa yekha ya nkhondo ya Ŵajeremani pa nyanja, Hermann von Wissmann. Ŵantchito ŵa Rhoades ŵakasanga Hermann von Wissmann mu cigaŵa cinyake pafupi na Sphinxhaven. Gwendolen yikanangiska ngalawa ya Ŵajeremani na mzinga umoza kufuma pa mtunda wa mamita pafupifupi 1,800. Nkhondo yifupi iyi yikalumbika na nyuzipepara ya ''The Times'' mu Ungelezi nga ni kupunda kwakwamba kwa pa maji kwa Ŵabritoni mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro Cose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Paice |title=Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa |year=2007 |isbn= 978-0-297-84709-0 |page=not cited|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.clash-of-steel.co.uk/pages/battle_details.php?battle=GUENDOLENV01 |title=The Guendolen v Hermann Von Wissmann |work=Clash of Steel }}</ref> == Mphaka == === Mphindano ya Tanzania na Malaŵi === [[File:Malawi-Tanzania border dispute.png|thumb|Mzere wa tumizere: mphaka ya Malaŵi ya sono <br />Mzere wa tumadontho: mphaka iyo Tanzania yikukhumba]] Kugaŵika kwa nyanja pakati pa Malaŵi na Tanzania ni nkhani ya mphindano. Tanzania yikuti mphaka ya pakati pa vyaro yikwenda pakati pa nyanja.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Govt clarifies on Tanzania-Malawi border | url=http://www.kforumonline.com/viewtopic.php?t=712&sid=6ff7f94b3f06010d9542913ba89b2ac2 | date=1 August 2007 | newspaper=Daily News (via KForum) | location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713145107/http://www.kforumonline.com/viewtopic.php?t=712&sid=6ff7f94b3f06010d9542913ba89b2ac2 | archive-date=13 July 2011 | access-date=26 January 2009 }}</ref> Kweni Malaŵi likuti nyanja yose iyo njya Mozambique yayi ni yake, kusazgapo maji agho ghali pafupi na mphepete ya Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Kamlomo, Gabriel | date=27 August 2012 | title=Malawi optimistic on Tanzania border dispute | newspaper=The Daily Times | location=Malawi | url=http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php/daily-times/headlines/national/11397-malawi-optimistic-on-tanzania-border-dispute | access-date=5 September 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905020520/http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php/daily-times/headlines/national/11397-malawi-optimistic-on-tanzania-border-dispute | archive-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref> Malaŵi ndilo likulongozga maji agha sono. Vyaro vyose viŵiri vikuyowoya Phangano la Heligoland la 1890 pakati pa Ufumu Ubanyi na Germany. Mphindano iyi yikamba apo ulongozgi wa Ŵabritoni, pamanyuma pa kupoka Tanganyika kufuma ku Germany, ukaŵika maji ghose gha nyanja pasi pa dera limoza la mazaza, la Nyasaland. Pamanyuma mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, madera ghaŵiri gha mazaza ghakaŵikika.<ref name="Mayall">{{Cite journal|author=Mayall, James|year=1973|title=The Malawi-Tanzania Boundary Dispute|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=11|number=4|pages=611–628|jstor=161618|doi=10.1017/s0022278x00008776|s2cid=154785268}}</ref> Mphindano iyi yikakula comene mu 1967 apo Tanzania yikasuska kwa Malaŵi, kweni palije ico cikamazgika.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Chitsulo, Kondwani |date=3 September 2012 |title=JB Meets Opposition Leaders On Tanzania Again |newspaper=Malawi Voice |url=http://www.malawivoice.com/2012/09/03/jb-meets-opposition-leaders-on-tanzania-again-journalists-bared-from-asking-questions-after-waiting-for-5-hours-no-food-no-allowance-77011/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130128062051/http://www.malawivoice.com/2012/09/03/jb-meets-opposition-leaders-on-tanzania-again-journalists-bared-from-asking-questions-after-waiting-for-5-hours-no-food-no-allowance-77011/ |archive-date=28 January 2013 |access-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref> Mphindano zikawonekanga nyengo zinyake mu ma 1990 na mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Joel, Lawi|date=15 August 2012|title=Tanzania: Life Continues on Lake Nyasa Despite Border Dispute|newspaper=Daily News|location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208150072.html}}</ref> Mu 2012, kupenja mafuta kwa Malaŵi kukawezgera nkhani iyi panthazi, ndipo Tanzania yikakhumba kuti kupenja kuleke mpaka mphindano yimazgike.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 August 2012|title=Malawi: Old Border Dispute With Tanzania Over Lake Malawi Flares Up Again|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|location=Pretoria, South Africa|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208130878.html}}</ref> === Mphaka ya Malaŵi na Mozambique === Mu 1954, phangano likasayinika pakati pa Ŵabritoni na Ŵapwitikizi, ilo likaŵika pakati pa nyanja kuŵa mphaka yawo, kupatula virwa vya Chizumulu na Likoma, ivyo Ŵabritoni ŵakasunga, ndipo sono ni vya Malaŵi.<ref name="Mayall" /> == Mayendero == [[File:Nkhata Bay, Malawi.jpg|thumb|Dooko lakunjira mu nyanja ku Nkhata Bay]] MV Chauncy Maples yikamba ntchito pa nyanja mu 1901 nga ni SS Chauncy Maples: cipatala na mpingo vyakuyandama vya wupu wa Universities' Mission to Central Africa. Pamanyuma yikaŵa ngalawa ya kunyamula ŵanthu, ndipo sono yikunozgeka kuŵa cipatala cakwenda ku Monkey Bay.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chauncymaples.org/index.html|title=Chauncy Maples: Lake Malawi's Clinic|website=Chauncymaples.org|access-date=12 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912204513/https://chauncymaples.org/index.html|archive-date=12 September 2018}}</ref><ref name=Shipstamps>{{cite web |url=http://www.shipstamps.co.uk/forum/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=10733 |title=Mtendere |last=Sefton |first=John |date=2010-11-09 |work=Community Forum |publisher=ShipStamps.co.uk |access-date=2011-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208181222/https://shipstamps.co.uk/forum/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=10733 |archive-date=2021-02-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> MV Mpasa yikamba ntchito mu 1935. MV Ilala yikamba ntchito mu 1951. Mu vyaka vya sonosono kanandi yikugwira ntchito yayi, kweni para yikugwira ntchito, yikwenda kufuma ku Monkey Bay kumwera kwa nyanja mpaka ku Karonga kumpoto, ndipo nyengo zinyake ku Iringa mu Tanzania.<ref name=Shipstamps/><ref name=Shipstamps/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faceofmalawi.com/2014/03/malawi-shipping-company-set-to-launch-new-passenger-vessel-on-lake-malawi/|title=Malawi Shipping Company set to launch new passenger vessel on Lake Malawi – Face Of Malawi|first=Face of|last=Malawi|date=31 March 2014 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122142310/http://www.faceofmalawi.com/2014/03/malawi-shipping-company-set-to-launch-new-passenger-vessel-on-lake-malawi/|archive-date=2015-01-22}}</ref> MV Mtendere yikamba ntchito mu 1980. Pofika 1982 yikanyamulanga ŵanthu 100,000 pa caka, kweni mu 2014 yikagwiranga ntchito yayi.<ref name=MSC>{{cite web |url=http://mscltz.com/preview_019.htm |title=MV. Songea |work=Vessels |publisher=Marine Services Company Limited |access-date=26 June 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ngalawa ya Tanzania MV Songea yikapangika mu 1988, ndipo yikwenda sabata yiliyose pakati pa Liuli na Nkhata Bay kwizira mu Itungi na Mbamba Bay.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mscltz.com/ |title=Home |work=Vessels |publisher=Marine Services Company Limited |access-date=26 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910031156/http://www.mscltz.com/ |archive-date=10 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name=MSC/> Ngozi yikulu comene pa nyanja yikaŵa kubira kwa MV Vipya mu 1946, uko kukakoma ŵanthu 145.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p034s5kt|title = BBC World Service - African Perspective, MV Vipya Lake Malawi Disaster | date=13 September 1996 }}</ref> == Vyamoyo == [[File:Haliaeetus vocifer -Cape Maclear, Malawi -fishing-8b.jpg|thumb|Nkhwazi ya Afilika yikukora somba mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi]] Vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika mu na kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Malaŵi ni ng'wina wa Nilo, vigwere, ŵankhwele, na nkhwazi zinandi za Afilika izo zikurya somba za mu nyanja.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/289|title = Lake Malawi National Park|website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Geography & Wildlife Malawi|url = http://www.our-africa.org/malawi/geography-wildlife|access-date = 2015-09-14|website = Our Africa|publisher = SOS Children's Villages|archive-date = 2018-04-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180421001823/http://www.our-africa.org/malawi/geography-wildlife|url-status = dead}}</ref> === Somba === ==== Kulowa Somba ==== [[File:Pesce ad essiccare sulla riva del lago malawi.JPG|thumb|left|Usipa (''Engraulicypris sardella'') wakuyanika pa mphepete ya nyanja]] Kwa vyaka vinandi comene, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yapeleka vyakulya vinandi ku ŵanthu ŵa m'mphepete mwake, cifukwa maji ghake ghali na somba zinandi. Zakumanyikwa comene ni mitundu yinayi ya cambo (''Oreochromis karongae'', ''O. lidole'', ''O. saka'', na ''O. squamipinnis''), na ''O. shiranus'' iyo yikukolerana nazo.<ref name=Turner1992>Turner, G.F.; and N.C. Mwanyama (July 1992).[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad202e/AD202E00.htm Distribution and Biology of Chambo (Oreochromis spp.) in Lakes Malawi and Malombe.] Food and Agriculture Organization, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, FI:DP/MLW/86/013, Field Document 21. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Mitundu yinyake yakuzirwa ni usipa (''Engraulicypris sardella'') na kampango mukulu (''Bagrus meridionalis'').<ref name=Konings/> Somba zinandi zikulyiska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa pafupi na nyanja, kweni zinyake zikutumizgika kuwaro kwa Malaŵi. Somba za kawiro zili pa ngozi yikulu cifukwa ca kulowa comene na kunanga maji.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Preserving the Future for Lake Malawi|url = http://web.mit.edu/africantech/www/articles/Lake_Malawi.html|website = web.mit.edu|access-date = 2015-09-14|archive-date = 2019-09-30|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190930173855/http://web.mit.edu/africantech/www/articles/Lake_Malawi.html|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name=Banda2013>{{cite news|author=Banda, M. | title = Rapid drop in Lake Malawi's water levels drives down fish stocks | url = https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/may/22/lake-malawi-water-levels-fish-stocks|newspaper=The Guardian | date = 22 May 2013 | access-date = 11 April 2017}}</ref> Kucepa kwa maji gha nyanja ni ngozi yinyake, ndipo kukughanaghanirika kuti kukufuma ku kufumya maji na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusintha kwa nyengo, na kudumula nkholongo.<ref name=Banda2013/> Cambo na kampango zaloweka comene (kampango yikacepa na pafupifupi magaŵa 90 pa 100 kufuma 2006 mpaka 2016, ''O. karongae'' na ''O. squamipinnis'' na pafupifupi 94 pa 100, ndipo ''O. lidole'' yingaŵa kuti yamalira kale), ndipo sono zili pa ngozi yikulu.<ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Phiri, T.B. | author2 = Gobo, E. | author3 = Tweddle, D. | author4 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | title = ''Bagrus meridionalis'' | amends= 2018 | article-number = e.T60856A155041757 | year= 2019 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T60856A155041757.en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | author2 = Phiri, T.B. | author3 = Shechonge, A. | title = ''Oreochromis karongae'' | errata= 2019 | article-number = e.T61293A148647939 | year= 2018 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T61293A148647939.en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Phiri, T.B. | author2 = Kanyerere, G.Z. | title = ''Oreochromis squamipinnis'' | errata= 2019 | article-number = e.T60760A148648312 | year= 2018 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T60760A148648312.en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author1=McKenzie, D. |author2=B. Swails | title = Rangers struggle to save endangered fish in Lake Malawi | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/27/malawi.overfishing/|publisher=CNN | date = 22 May 2013 | access-date = 11 April 2017}}</ref> IUCN yikuwona mitundu 117 ya mbuna za Malaŵi kuŵa pa ngozi.<ref name=IUCNef>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/freshwater/eastafrica/geographicpatternsea |title=Geographic Patterns|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002175558/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/freshwater/eastafrica/geographicpatternsea|archive-date=2 October 2018 |access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> ==== Mbuna na Ŵabali Ŵawo ==== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | header = Mbuna na somba zinyake za ''cichlid'' za mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi | image1 = Diplotaxodon.jpg | image2 = Adult male livingstonii.png | image3 = Copadichromis azureus.jpg | image4 = Frankfurt Zoo - Aulonocara stuartgranti Usisya.jpg | image5 = Fossorochromis rostratus - mâle en aquarium 01.jpg | image6 = Pseudotropheus saulosi.jpg | image7 = Oreochromis squamipinnis.jpg | caption7 = Kufuma pacanya kuya pasi:<br /> 1. ''Diplotaxodon'', umoza mwa mitundu yicoko ya ''cichlid'' iyo yikusangika kutali na mphepete mu maji ghakuzika.<br /> 2. ''Nimbochromis livingstonii'' ni somba yakulya somba zinyake iyo yikumanyikwa cifukwa cakujipusika kuti yafwa kuti yiguze ivyo yikusaka.<br /> 3. Nga ni utaka unyake, ''Copadichromis azureus'' zanalume ni za camlengalenga cakuŵala (zikuwoneka apa), apo zanakazi ni za siliva na tumabanga twakufipa.<br /> 4. ''Aulonocara stuartgranti'' ni ya gulu la mitundu yambura ukali iyo yikumanyikwa kuti ''peacock cichlid''.<br /> 5. ''Fossorochromis rostratus'' yikusefa mcenga mu mlomo wake kuti yisange tuvyamoyo tucoko twakulya.<br /> 6. Nga ni mbuna zinyake, ''Pseudotropheus saulosi'' ni ''cichlid'' yicoko iyo yanalume (ya camlengalenga na yakufipa) na yanakazi (ya cikasu) zose zili na mitundu yakuŵala.<br /> 7. ''Oreochromis squamipinnis'' ni umoza mwa mitundu yinkhondi na umoza pera ya cambo iyo yikusangika mu nyanja mwakawiro, kweni njakuzirwa comene ku ŵalovi.<ref name=Lowe2003/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Schliewen1992>Schliewen, U. (1992). Aquarium Fish. Barron's Educational Series. {{ISBN|978-0812013504}}.</ref><ref name=Elieson/><ref>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/c_azureus.php Copadichromis azureus.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/peacocks.php The Peacocks of Lake Malawi.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref>O'Brien, R: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/f_rostratus.php Fossorochromis rostratus.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref>Barber, P: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/p_saulosi.php Pseudotropheus saulosi.] CichlidForum. Retrieved 16 April 2017.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/> }} Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa magulu ghanyake gha vinyama, comene somba za ''cichlid'', ghakagaŵika comene mu mitundu yinandi.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Svardal | first1=Hannes | last2=Quah | first2=Fu Xiang | last3=Malinsky | first3=Milan | last4=Ngatunga | first4=Benjamin P | last5=Miska | first5=Eric A | last6=Salzburger | first6=Walter | last7=Genner | first7=Martin J | last8=Turner | first8=George F | last9=Durbin | first9=Richard | title=Ancestral Hybridization Facilitated Species Diversification in the Lake Malawi Cichlid Fish Adaptive Radiation | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=2020-04-01 | issn=0737-4038 | pmid=31821500 | pmc=7086168 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msz294 | pages=1100–1113|biorxiv=10.1101/738633|s2cid=202010546|hdl=1983/40d3dafd-f1d5-4ea4-a447-126df76a0651|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Pali mitundu ya ''cichlid'' yakujumpha 700 mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakughanaghanira kuti yingafika 1,000.<ref name=Turner2001/><ref name=panda/><ref>Kornfield, I.; & P.F. Smith (2000). African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31: 163–196. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> Unandi weneco ukumanyikwa makola yayi cifukwa ca mitundu yinandi yambura kulongosoreka.<ref name=Turner2001/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=OliverTilapia>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10100.htm The Tilapias of Lake Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225232906/https://malawicichlids.com/mw10100.htm |date=2020-02-25 }} MalawiCichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref><ref>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10000.htm The Nonendemic Haplochromine Cichlids of Lake Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225230625/https://malawicichlids.com/mw10000.htm |date=2020-02-25 }} MalawiCichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Kupatula mitundu yinayi, ''cichlid'' zose za mu nyanja zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Malaŵi pera, iyo yikusazgapo [[Nyanja ya Malombe]] na Shire yapacanya. Zinandi mwa izi zatemweka comene na ŵakusunga somba mu magalasi cifukwa ca mitundu yawo yakuŵala.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pardee|first1=Keith|title=African Cichlids, Lake Malawi|url=http://www.aquariumlife.net/profiles/african-cichlids-lake-malawi|website=www.aquariumlife.net|access-date=30 September 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012113129/http://www.aquariumlife.net/profiles/african-cichlids-lake-malawi|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref> ''Cichlid'' zinandi za Malaŵi zikusangika mu maji ghambura kuzika comene gha m'mphepete, kweni zinyake zikusangika mpaka pa kuzika kwa mamita 200–220.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Lowe2003/> ''Cichlid'' za mu nyanja zikugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri, ndipo zinandi comene ni ''haplochromine''. Izi zikusunga masumbi na ŵana mu milomo yawo.<ref name=Genner2015>Genner; Ngatunga; Mzighani; Smith; and Turner (2015). Geographical ancestry of Lake Malawi's cichlid fish diversity. Biol. Lett. 11: 2015023. {{doi|10.1098/rsbl.2015.0232}}</ref><ref name=Genner2015/><ref name=Givnish1997/> Mu gulu ili pali magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu: ''haps'' na mbuna.<ref name=Konings/> ''Haps'' zingagaŵika mu magulu ghatatu: zikulu, kanandi zitali kujumpha masentimita 20, izo zikurya somba zinyake; utaka, izo zikurya tuvinthu tucoko twa mu maji mu magulu; na zinyake izo zikukolerana na magulu agha yayi.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson>Elieson, M: [http://www.cichlid-forum.com/articles/haps_vs_mbuna.php Haps Vs. Mbuna.] Retrieved 11 April 2017.</ref><ref name=aquaticcom>Aquaticcommunity (2004–08).[http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/cichlid/haplochromis.php Haplochromis.] Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> Za ŵanalume zikulu kanandi zili na mitundu yakuŵala.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Gulu laciŵiri likulu ni mbuna, zina ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu malo na pa caro cose, ilo likung'anamula "somba za malibwe" mu Citonga.<ref>Loiselle, P.V. (1988). A Fishkeepers Guide to African Cichlids, p. 97. Salamander Books, London & New York. {{ISBN|0-86101-407-3}}.</ref><ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Zikusangika pa malibwe, zikuvikilira malo ghawo, ndipo kanandi nzicoko, zambura kufika masentimita 13.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Elieson/> Gulu laciŵiri, ''tilapia'', lili na mitundu yinkhondi na yimoza pera mu Nyanja ya Malaŵi.<ref name=Konings/><ref>Oliver, M.K. (12 April 2015). [http://malawicichlids.com/mw10003.htm Coptodon rendalli.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318085811/http://malawicichlids.com/mw10003.htm |date=2017-03-18 }} Malawicichlids. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> ''Coptodon rendalli'' ndiyo yekha iyo yikuikira masumbi pasi.<ref name=Konings/><ref>{{FishBase | genus = Coptodon | species = rendalli | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref> Mitundu yinyake yinkhondi ni ya ''Oreochromis''; cambo zinayi izo zikusangika mu ndondomeko ya Nyanja ya Malaŵi pera, na ''O. shiranus'', iyo yikusangika so mu Nyanja ya Chilwa.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/><ref name=OliverTilapia/><ref name=Konings/><ref name=OliverTilapia/><ref>{{FishBase genus | genus = Oreochromis | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref> Izi zikurya tumbuto tucoko twa mu maji, zikufika pa utali wa masentimita 26–42, ndipo kanandi nzakufipa panji za mtundu wa siliva.<ref name=Konings/><ref name=Turner1992/> ==== Somba Zinyake ==== [[File:Catfish in Lake Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|Kampango (''Bagrus meridionalis''), umoza mwa ŵabwankha ŵakulu comene, uyo wangafika utali wa {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref>{{FishBase | genus = Bagrus | species = meridionalis | month = April| year = 2017}}</ref>]] Somba zinandi comene za mu nyanja ni ''cichlid''. Somba zinyake za mu nyanja ni mitundu yinandi ya ''cyprinid'' (kusazgapo usipa), ŵabwankha na kampango, ''Synodontis njassae'', nkhungu, na zinyake. Zinandi mwa izi zikusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Afilika, kweni ''Bathyclarias'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera.<ref name=Konings/> === Vyamoyo Vyambura Fupa la Msana === ==== Nkhono ==== Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu 28 ya nkhono za maji ghawemi (16 izo zikusangika kuno pera) na 9 za vikoko viŵiri.<ref>Segers, H.; and Martens, K; editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems.'' p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. {{ISBN|1-4020-3745-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn |author=Van Damme, D. |year=2018 |title= ''Aspatharia subreniformis'' |article-number= e.T44266A120109809 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T44266A120109809.en}}</ref><ref>Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance.'' p. 571. 2nd edition. {{ISBN|0-7484-0026-5}}</ref> Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yinayi ya nkhono za ''Bulinus'', izo zikumanyikwa kunyamula tuzirombo twa lukojo. Kusanda mu Monkey Bay mu 1964 kukasanga mitundu iŵiri ya nkhono iyo yikusangika kuno pera mu nyanja, na iŵiri yinyake mu tumaji twapaŵekha. Mitundu iyi yaciŵiri yikumanyikwa kunyamula lukojo, kweni mu kuyezga, mitundu ya mu nyanja yikakora lukojo yayi. Sonosono, nthenda iyi yaŵa suzgo mu nyanja yeneyiyo, cifukwa ''B. nyassanus'' yamba kunyamula lukojo.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Wright | first = C. A. | author2 = Klein, J. | author3 = Eccles, D. H. | title = Endemic species of ''Bulinus'' (Mollusca: Planorbidae) in Lake Malawi (= Lake Nyasa) | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 151 | issue = 1 | pages = 199–209 | year = 1967 | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122569088/abstract | archive-url = https://archive.today/20121020201249/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122569088/abstract | archive-date = 2012-10-20 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1967.tb02873.x | access-date = 2010-05-22 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> Kusintha uku, uko kukawoneka dankha pakati pa ma 1980, kungakolerana na kucepa kwa somba izo zikurya nkhono cifukwa ca kulowa comene, panji mtundu uphya wa lukojo.<ref name=Staffer2012/> ==== Nkhala na Vinyake ==== Kupambana na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, Nyanja ya Malaŵi yili na mitundu yicoko ya nkhala na shirimpi. Nkhala ya buluu ya Malaŵi ndiyo nkhala yekha mu nyanja, ndipo yikusangika so kunyake. Shirimpi ''Caridina malawensis'' yikusangika mu nyanja iyi pera, kweni yikumanyikwa makola yayi.<ref name=Kivu>Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref><ref name=Dobson>Dobson, M. (2004). ''[https://www.fba.org.uk/journals/index.php/FF/article/viewFile/175/75 Freshwater Crabs of Africa.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623192302/https://www.fba.org.uk/journals/index.php/FF/article/viewFile/175/75 |date=2016-06-23 }}'' Freshwater Forum 21: 3–26.</ref><ref>Richard, J.; and Clark, P.F. (2009). ''African Caridina (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea: Atyidae): redescriptions of C. africana Kingsley, 1882, C. togoensis Hilgendorf, 1893, C. natalensis Bouvier, 1925 and C. roubaudi Bouvier, 1925 with descriptions of 14 new species.'' Zootaxa 1995: 1–75</ref> Tuvinyama tucoko twa mu maji tukusazgapo mitundu yinandi.<ref name=Darwall2010>Darwall; Allison; Turner; and Irvine (2010). Lake of flies, or lake of fish? A trophic model of Lake Malawi. Ecological Modelling 221: 713–727. {{doi|10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.11.001}}</ref><ref>Martens, K. (2003). On the evolution of Gomphocythere (Crustacea, Ostracoda) in Lake Nyassa/ Malawi (East Africa), with the description of 5 new species. Hydrobiologia 497(1–2): 121–144. {{doi|10.1023/A:1025417822555}}</ref> ==== Tumembe twa Nyanja ==== [[File:Lake flies, Lake Malawi (2499202894).jpg|thumb|left|Nkhungu zinandi comene (''Chaoborus edulis'') pacanya pa maji, izo kufuma kutali zikuwoneka nga ni josi]] Nyanja ya Malaŵi yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca magulu ghakulu comene gha tumembe tucoko twambura kupweteka (''Chaoborus edulis'').<ref name=Mortis2004>Morris, B. (2004). Insects and Human Life, pp. 73–76. {{ISBN|1-84520-075-6}}</ref> Magulu agha, agho kanandi ghakuwoneka kutali pa maji, ghangawoneka nga ni josi, ndipo ghakawoneka so na David Livingstone apo wakafika pa nyanja.<ref name=Mortis2004/><ref name=Huis2012>van Huis, A.; H. van Gurp; and M. Dicke (2012). The Insect Cookbook: Food for a Sustainable Planet, p. 31. {{ISBN|978-0-231-16684-3}}</ref><ref name=MalawiTo>Malawi Tourism: [http://www.malawitourism.com/assets_cm/files/pdf/malawi%2520seasonal%2520highlights.pdf Interesting seasonal highlights of Malawi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812101012/http://www.malawitourism.com/assets_cm/files/pdf/malawi%20seasonal%20highlights.pdf |date=2014-08-12 }} Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> Ŵana ŵa tumembe utu ŵakukhala mu maji, ŵakurya tuvinyama tucoko, msana ŵakuŵa pasi na usiku pacanya.<ref name=Mortis2004/> Para ŵasanduka, ŵakuyandama pacanya na kusanduka tumembe tukulu.<ref name=MalawiTo/> Tumembe tukulu tukukhala nyengo yifupi comene, ndipo magulu, agho ghangaŵa ghatali mamita mahandiredi ghacoko, ni cigaŵa ca kutorana kwawo.<ref name=Mortis2004/><ref name=Andrew2015>Andrew, D. (30 June 2015). [http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/whats-causing-these-strange-looking-clouds/ What Are These Strange Looking "Clouds"?] IFLScience. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> Tukuikira masumbi pacanya pa maji ndipo tukufwa.<ref name=Andrew2015/> Ŵana ŵawo ni vyakulya vyakuzirwa ku somba, ndipo tumembe tukulu ntwakuzirwa ku viyuni na ku ŵanthu ŵa malo agho, awo ŵakutuwunjika kupanga makeke gha kungu, cakulya ca malo agho ico cili na purotini yinandi comene.<ref name=Darwall2010/><ref name=Mortis2004/><ref>Allison; Irvine; Thompson; and Ngatunga (1996). Diets and food consumption rates of pelagic fish in Lake Malawi, Africa. Freshwater Biology 35(3): 489–515. {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-2427.1996.tb01764.x}}</ref><ref name=Huis2012/><ref name=MalawiTo/> == Kuvuza kwa Mugodi mu 2015 == Mu Matika 2015, thanki ya kulaŵilira dongo yikawa pa mugodi wa uranium wa Paladin Energy kumpoto kwa Malaŵi pamanyuma pa vula yikulu. Kukavumbulika kuti pafupifupi malita 50 gha vinthu vyambura kufumiska nkhongono za ntchito za mtima wa vimenyu ghakavuza mu kamlonga ka pafupi. Nangauli nyuzipepara za mu caro zikayowoya kuti maji ghakanangika, ulongozgi ukapima mwakujiwusa milonga ya pafupi na kusanga kuti malo ghakuzingilizga ghandakhwaskike.<ref>{{Cite web|title = No harm caused by Paladin mine Kayerekera – Malawi govt|url = http://www.nyasatimes.com/2015/03/29/no-harm-caused-by-paladin-mine-kayerekera-malawi-govt/|website = Malawi Nyasa Times – Malawi breaking news in Malawi|access-date = 2016-01-02|archive-date = 2015-04-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150401160954/http://www.nyasatimes.com/2015/03/29/no-harm-caused-by-paladin-mine-kayerekera-malawi-govt/}}</ref><ref>[http://nuclear-news.net/2015/01/02/radioactive-pollution-of-lake-malawi-by-australian-uranium-company-paladin/ Radioactive pollution of Lake Malawi by Australian uranium company Paladin?].</ref> == Kusambira == Kusambira kwa munthu yumoza kwa makilomita 25 kujumpha Nyanja ya Malaŵi pakati pa Cape Ngomba na Senga Bay kwafiskika kankhondi na ŵasambiri 16: * 1992: Lewis Pugh, maora 9 maminiti 52 (Ufumu Ubanyi/South Africa), na Otto Thanning (South Africa), maora 10 maminiti 5 * 2010: Abigail Brown (Ufumu Ubanyi), maora 9 maminiti 45 * 2013: Milko van Gool (Netherlands), maora 8 maminiti 46, na Kaitlin Harthoorn (US), maora 9 maminiti 17 * 2016 (mbiri ya sono): Jean Craven, Robert Dunford, Michiel Le Roux, Samantha Whelpton, Greig Bannatyne, Haydn Von Maltitz, na Douglas Livingstone-Blevins, maora 7 maminiti 53 * 2019: Chris Stapley (Eswatini) na Jay Azran (South Africa), maora 8 maminiti 40, Andrew Stevens (Australia), maora 10 maminiti 50, na Ruth Azran (South Africa), maora 11 maminiti 8. Mu caka cenecico, Martin Hobbs (South Africa) wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kusambira utali wose wa Nyanja ya Malaŵi (mazuŵa 54), ndipo wakaŵika mbiri ya caro cose capasi ya kusambira kutali comene mu nyanja. {{Malaŵi}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Nyanja za Malaŵi]] pzkubapcs15nuv5onr05wt9odc2g3xf 2 11210 124435 123687 2026-11-11T05:43:21Z ListeriaBot 7225 Wikidata list updated [V2] 124435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item ?from ?to WHERE { ?item p:P39 ?position . ?position ps:P39 wd:Q46624532 OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P580 ?from } OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P582 ?to } } |section= |sort=?from |sort_order=desc |one_row_per_item=no |columns=label:Article,description,P27:Country,?from:Start date,?to:End date,P18:Image |thumb=128 |min_section=2 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! Article ! description ! Country ! Start date ! End date ! Image |- | [[Madalitso Ŵaloyi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-10-30 | | [[File:Madalitso Baloyi in 2024 at Ndodani village (sq cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | [[Atupele Muluzi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-07-16 | 2020-06-01 | [[File:Atupele Muluzi 2025 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29711897|Alec Nyasulu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7857405|Twaibu Sangala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6170933|Jean Kalilani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Jean Kalilani 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5542942|George Ntafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5342119|Edward Bwanali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Edward Bwanali (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4714730|Aleke Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Aleke Banda (crop1).jpg|center|128px]] |} {{Wikidata list end}} i4hz4cb5hzb2xf9jrfsojhgpxfy8sf2 2 11211 124436 123688 2026-11-11T05:43:28Z ListeriaBot 7225 Wikidata list updated [V2] 124436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item ?from ?to WHERE { ?item p:P39 ?position . ?position ps:P39 wd:Q21295990 OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P580 ?from } OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P582 ?to } } |section= |sort=?from |sort_order=desc |one_row_per_item=no |columns=label:Article,description,P27:Country,?from:Start date,?to:End date,P18:Image |thumb=128 |min_section=2 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! Article ! description ! Country ! Start date ! End date ! Image |- | ''[[:d:Q136483776|Tiaone Hendry]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-09-16 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q140775383|Marium Ajida]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Mariums Ajida MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137829391|Phoebe Chikaonda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable MP Phoebe Chiku Chikaonda (2 3 cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137829126|Aida Mchenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Aida Mchenga Honourable MP in Malawi in 2026.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137383306|Rhita Sanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Member of Parliament for Mchinji West, Honourable Rhita Langa Sanga.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137325478|Mutani Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137261326|Khadija Chunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Khadijah Leah Chunga MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136812809|Milliam Jekapu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136661938|Annie Namani Chibwana]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136539393|Stella Warren]]'' | | | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136446086|Dorothy Chikonje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136439603|Martha Munthali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136439458|Mines Ng'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | [[Madalitso Ŵaloyi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Madalitso Baloyi in 2024 at Ndodani village (sq cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136434673|Catherine Mzumara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Mzumara in the video 'African women transforming food systems'.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136434490|Faless Debrah Moyo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable MP in Malawi Falesi Debrah Moyo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136432145|Florence Shapiro Khimbi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Florence Shapiro Khimbi MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781124|Grezelder Jeffrey]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780599|Emily Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Emily Phiri MP (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779780|Beatrice Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Beatrice Roseby Mwale MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q133521589|Wezzie Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | 2021-09-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q132124939|Esther Kathumba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131785023|Ireen Mambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131605225|Abigail Shariff]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131561998|Roseby Gadama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | [[File:Hon. Roseby Gadama MP on Malawi Parliamentary Women’s Caucus (sq cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110732685|Monica Chang’anamuno]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729497|Nancy Chaola Mdooko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106423215|Jacquiline Chikuta]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | 2021-01-27 | |- | [[Nancy Tembo]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | [[File:Nancy Tembo UNFCCC Glasgow Climate Dialogues.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45789837|Ulemu Msungama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45789819|Lawrence Sitolo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | |- | [[Sosten Gwengwe]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | [[File:Sosten Gwengwe 2013 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45787968|Highton L. Jiya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-01-02 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45787953|Bentry Namasasu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-03-06 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45787935|Sam S. Ganda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-05-16 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782850|Zaheer Issa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782837|Yaumi Mpaweni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782819|William Kalima]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782793|Willet Karonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782778|Willard Gwengwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782760|Werani Chilenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782743|Watson Ngozo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782719|Wallace Chawawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782694|Vitus Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782674|Vincent Ghambi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782649|Victor Mbewe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782628|Victor Musowa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782608|Vasco Chimbalu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782584|Trasizio Gowelo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782568|Timothy Solomoni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782546|Thomson Kamangira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782531|Themba Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782504|Susan Ndalama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782484|Shaibu Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782465|Sam Kawale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782440|Rodrick Khumbanyiwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782421|Rodger Sithole]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782405|Richard Chimwendo-Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Richard Chimwendo Banda (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45782388|Rhino Chiphiko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782371|Wilson Ndomondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782354|Malison Ndau]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782334|Christopher Ngwira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782317|Raphael Mhone]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Rachael Zulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782278|Rabson Shaba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782265|Peter Chalera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782245|Peter Mazizi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782235|Peter Bvalani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782216|Peter Dimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782198|Peter Chakhwantha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782180|Pemba Msusa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782169|Paul Chibingu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782154|Patrick Chilondola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782141|Patrick Themu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782101|Patricia Mkanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782075|Patricia Kainga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782054|Olipa Chiluba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782025|Olipa Chimangeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782004|Noel Masangwi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781980|Noah Chimpeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Deputy Health Minister, Honourable Noah Chimpeni MP.webp|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781963|Naomi Kilekwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781951|Mwai Kamuyambeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781929|Mussa Kapichira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781912|Maxwell Thyolera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781893|Mary Navicha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Mary Navicha visiting Edinburgh City Chambers hosted by Scotland Malawi Partnership 2 March 2026.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781872|Mary Maulidi Khembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Mary Maulidi Khembo MP in Malawi 45.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781850|Mary Mpanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781830|Martha Lunji]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781810|Marko Ching'onga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781791|Mark Botomani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781774|Maquenda Chunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781753|Malani Mtonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781733|Mahomed Osman]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781716|Madalitso Kazombo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Madalitso Kazombo at the SMP 2020 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781700|Mac Salijeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781675|Lyana Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781650|Lloyd Malola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Lingson Belekanyama]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2021-01-12 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781611|Leonard Njikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781588|Langton Kamwendo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Khumbize Chiponda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Khumbize Chiponda, Malawi Minister of Health, speaks at the opening of the World Cancer Day 2024 at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria on 1 February 2024 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781556|Kennedy Kachingwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781532|Kennedy Maluwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781515|Kayo Zimchetera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781496|Kassim Liguluwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781481|Kamlepo Kalua]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781461|Justin Majawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781438|Juliana Lunguzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2019-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781413|Joseph Njobvuyalema]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781398|Joseph Mwanamvekha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781379|John Chikalimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781358|Jephter Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781339|Jappie Mhango]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781321|James Munthali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781300|James Kamwambi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781283|Jacqueline Kouwenhoven]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781265|Jacob Hara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781249|Ilyas Karim]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781228|Idi Kalosi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781210|Horace Chipuwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781189|Henry Shaba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781169|Harry Chipeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781150|Harry Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781124|Grezelder Jeffrey]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781099|Grant Ndecha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781080|Godwin Kanjere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781060|Godfrey Mnkhondya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781040|George Kamwanja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781016|Geoffrey Chiwondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780997|Gabu Khamisa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780971|Frank Mwenifumbo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780944|Frank Mphande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780924|Frank Mapondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780901|Francis Billiati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780880|Francis Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780836|Filipo Chinkhondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780812|Felton Mulli]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780788|Felix Jumbe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780763|Ezekiel Ching'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Everton Chimulirenji]] | Munthu wa ndale wa ku Malawi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Everton Chimulirenji.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780722|Everson Makowa-Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780707|Esther Mcheka-Chilenje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780692|Esther Jolobala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780678|Ernest Yahaya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780661|Enoss Chitatanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780638|Enock Luka]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780622|Emmanuel Lozo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780599|Emily Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Emily Phiri MP (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780575|Elias Kamanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780554|Edmans Kaduya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780531|Uladi Mussa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780507|Peter Kumpalume]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780487|Patrick Makina]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780444|Joseph Malunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780403|Francis Mkungula]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780387|Emmanuel Fabiano]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Ministerial Roundtable LDCs and Business Executive (30597140897).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780367|Elias Chakwera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780352|Clement Chiwaya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780336|Allan Chiyembekeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780313|Divelias Zaipa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780291|Deus Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780268|Dennis Namachekecha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780254|Davies Kadzinja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780239|David Lally]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780220|David Bisnowaty]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780202|Daudi Chida]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780179|Daniel Chiwere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780157|Damson Chimalira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780134|Commodius Nyirenda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780116|Collings Kajawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780095|Clement Mlombwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Clement Fukumele Mukumbwa]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780053|Clarke Lowe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780029|Christopher Mnyenyembe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780004|Chrissy Tembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779982|Chizamsoka Mulwafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779958|Charles Mchacha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779939|Charles Tikhiwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779916|Cecilia Chazama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779894|Canaan Kaphamtengo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779875|Boniface Kadzamira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779853|Bonex Malunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779828|Bon Kalindo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779804|Benedicto Chambo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779780|Beatrice Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Beatrice Roseby Mwale MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779759|Baudeni Mtonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779733|Assan Lipande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779717|Angie Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779701|Amos Mailosi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779688|Amon Nkhata]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779667|Allan Ngumuya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779646|Alice Ngoma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779624|Alexander Dzonzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779603|Alex Chakwanila Mvula Major]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779582|Alex Chitete]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779554|Alekeni Menyani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779534|Akajuwe Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779512|Aisha Adams]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Aisha Mambo-Adams (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Agnes Nyalonje]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Hon Agnes Nyalonje Minister for Education via Zoom (sq cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779467|Aggrey Masi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779442|Adbul Gaffar]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779418|Abubakar M'baya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779063|Aboo Naliwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q40039690|Francis Kasaila]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Francis Kasaila 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29982289|Grace Chiumia]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18390332|Richard Msowoya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16733055|Henry Mussa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Henry Mussa (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Ralph Jooma]] | wandale | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145836|Patricia Shanil Muluzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2024-06-10 | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6697476|Lucius Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6429058|Kondwani Nakhumwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6187716|Jessie Kabwila-Kapasula]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Jessie Kabwila in 2017 (sq cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6170933|Jean Kalilani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Jean Kalilani 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Harry Thomson (wandale)]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2019-06-06 | |- | ''[[:d:Q5537823|George Chaponda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:George Chaponda 2016 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5382250|Ephraim Chiume]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Ephraim Mganda Chiume - 2014 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Enoch Chihana]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5241922|Davis Katsonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Davis Katsonga 2006 (profile).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Atupele Muluzi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Atupele Muluzi 2025 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4662402|Aaron Sangala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Khumbo Kachali]] | Munthu wa ndale wa ku Malawi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Khumbo-kachali1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Lazarus Chakwera]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2010-01-01 | | [[File:Lazarus Chakwera 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q139718480|Gloria Ireen Ntopi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136513486|Mwalone Jangiya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | 2014-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053162|Vera Chilewani Faramenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053140|Gladys Benson Tembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053130|Bernadetta Mlaka Maliro]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053113|Eunice Napolo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053064|Juliana Nanyoni Mphande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052907|Philomena Mononga Kasambwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052737|Joyce Azizi Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052645|Grace Zinenani Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134051543|Jenipher Deborah Chilunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134042481|Olivia Anita Thundu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134041510|Hyacinta Palingana Chikaonda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134040754|Maureen Katani Bondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134039924|Ellen Thokozani Solomon Chisale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134038686|Deriah Kankhwani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134038049|Mandebvu Agness Chatipwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Ntchisi District Hospital hosts Agnes Mandebvu Chatipwa (2 3 cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134037250|Grenner Nkhata]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134004357|Christina Chiwoko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131725522|Lonnie Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Lonnie Chijere Phiri Chairing the Parliamentary Women's Caucus (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q123694802|Annie Lemani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729519|Jean Muonaowauza Sendeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Sendeza 2025.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Rachael Zulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779916|Cecilia Chazama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17285561|Gertrude Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Gertrude Maseko.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16116111|Theresa Gloria Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Theresa Mwale 2011 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7306925|Reen Kachere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Reen Kachere (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7109043|Otria Moyo Jere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967325|Nasrin Pillane]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6759847|Margaret Roka Mauwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6170933|Jean Kalilani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Kalilani 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5409759|Eunice Kazembe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Eunice Kazembe in New Delhi on March 15, 2010 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5099300|Chimango Mughogho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4765557|Anita Kalinde]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4693103|Agnes Penemulungu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | [[Joyce Banda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Joyce Banda Department for International Development photo crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134136950|Gertrude Nya Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134136431|Papano Patricia Mwafulirwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134070095|Joyce Chiyendausiku Ng'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134068546|Alice Ntodwa Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053446|Gertrude Andilimbira Kamange Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053398|Elvey Kalonga-Mtafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053319|Olive Masanza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053307|Inna Mezalumo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053301|Trifonia Dafter]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053295|Juliana Josephine Guga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053276|Bertha Masiku]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053233|Angela Kachepa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053228|Ettinor Pamela Koloviko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053214|Elizabeth Aipiran]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133294441|Ebbie Mathanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q123694750|Marjory Ngaunje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729519|Jean Muonaowauza Sendeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Sendeza 2025.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781830|Martha Lunji]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780707|Esther Mcheka-Chilenje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Nancy Tembo]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Nancy Tembo UNFCCC Glasgow Climate Dialogues.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6692314|Loveness Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Callista Chimombo]] | Mwanakazi wa Pulezidenti wakale wa Malaŵi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Callista Chimombo (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Joyce Banda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Joyce Banda Department for International Development photo crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134302067|Lizzy Alpha Mpinganjira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301856|Gillian Loveness Mulombe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301821|Anne Mary Fletcher]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | 2004-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301185|Martha Nasho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134300865|Mary Kaphwereza Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134297371|Elizabeth Talumba Kumakanga Lamba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134297272|Honesta Msola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053398|Elvey Kalonga-Mtafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053301|Trifonia Dafter]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008585|Alice Sumani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133294441|Ebbie Mathanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781675|Lyana Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6692314|Loveness Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134008607|Lizzie Lossa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008585|Alice Sumani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008495|Margaret Perpetual Maimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005779|L. M. Changwamnjira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005722|Lillian Kapanda Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005678|M. M. Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104794304|Edda Ella Chitalo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6754140|Mapopa Chipeta]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | 1999-01-01 | [[File:Mapopa O.J. Chipeta (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5052586|Catherine Chipembere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine (Ajizinga) Chipembere 1950s (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q133972260|Janet Longwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1968-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60198059|Michael Hill Blackwood]]'' | | [[Ufumu Ubanyi]] | 1966-01-01 | 1973-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q136341089|Margaret Ali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133521589|Wezzie Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20731772|Colin Cameron]]'' | | [[Ufumu Ubanyi]]<br/>[[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Colin Cameron lawyer and Malawian minister.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17285561|Gertrude Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Gertrude Maseko.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17037425|Friday Jumbe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Hon- Friday Anderson Jumbe 2014-06-21 14-39.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16731106|Moses Kunkuyu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Moses Kunkuyu 2023 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7412241|Samuel Mpasu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967631|Nasser Kara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967325|Nasrin Pillane]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Kenneth Thindwa]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6211102|Joe Manduwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5984656|Ibrahim Matola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5720163|Henry Dama Phoya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Geoffrey Du Mhango]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5296903|Donton Samuel Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Dindi Gowa Nyasulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5232353|David Chiwanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5099455|Chimunthu Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:H.F. Chimunthu Banda (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5099300|Chimango Mughogho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4912820|Billy Kaunda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Bazuka Mhango]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4765557|Anita Kalinde]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4762593|Angela Zachepa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4714730|Aleke Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Aleke Banda (crop1).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4693103|Agnes Penemulungu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 70c6hz7csasab2qvw7p88kiygc26u0m 0 11212 124437 123689 2026-11-11T05:43:35Z ListeriaBot 7225 Wikidata list updated [V2] 124437 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ẇadangilili ŵa Mphala ya Malango Ya Malaŵi''' ni mndandanda wa ŵadangilili ŵa Mphala ya Malango ya Malaŵi, pachizungu ikuchemeka ''Members of the National Assembly of Malawi.''{{Wikidata list|sparql=SELECT ?item ?from ?to WHERE { ?item p:P39 ?position . ?position ps:P39 wd:Q21295990 OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P580 ?from } OPTIONAL { ?position pq:P582 ?to } }|section=|sort=?from|sort_order=desc|one_row_per_item=no|columns=label:Article,description,P27:Country,?from:Start date,?to:End date,P18:Image|thumb=128|min_section=2}} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! Article ! description ! Country ! Start date ! End date ! Image |- | ''[[:d:Q136483776|Tiaone Hendry]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-09-16 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q140775383|Marium Ajida]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Mariums Ajida MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137829391|Phoebe Chikaonda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable MP Phoebe Chiku Chikaonda (2 3 cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137829126|Aida Mchenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Aida Mchenga Honourable MP in Malawi in 2026.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137383306|Rhita Sanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Member of Parliament for Mchinji West, Honourable Rhita Langa Sanga.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137325478|Mutani Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137261326|Khadija Chunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Khadijah Leah Chunga MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136812809|Milliam Jekapu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136661938|Annie Namani Chibwana]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136539393|Stella Warren]]'' | | | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136446086|Dorothy Chikonje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136439603|Martha Munthali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136439458|Mines Ng'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | [[Madalitso Ŵaloyi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Madalitso Baloyi in 2024 at Ndodani village (sq cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136434673|Catherine Mzumara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Mzumara in the video 'African women transforming food systems'.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136434490|Faless Debrah Moyo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable MP in Malawi Falesi Debrah Moyo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q136432145|Florence Shapiro Khimbi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Florence Shapiro Khimbi MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781124|Grezelder Jeffrey]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780599|Emily Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Emily Phiri MP (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779780|Beatrice Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Honourable Beatrice Roseby Mwale MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2025-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q133521589|Wezzie Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | 2021-09-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q132124939|Esther Kathumba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131785023|Ireen Mambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131605225|Abigail Shariff]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131561998|Roseby Gadama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | [[File:Hon. Roseby Gadama MP on Malawi Parliamentary Women’s Caucus (sq cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110732685|Monica Chang’anamuno]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729497|Nancy Chaola Mdooko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106423215|Jacquiline Chikuta]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | 2021-01-27 | |- | [[Nancy Tembo]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2019-01-01 | | [[File:Nancy Tembo UNFCCC Glasgow Climate Dialogues.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45789837|Ulemu Msungama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45789819|Lawrence Sitolo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | |- | [[Sosten Gwengwe]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2017-10-17 | | [[File:Sosten Gwengwe 2013 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45787968|Highton L. Jiya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-01-02 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45787953|Bentry Namasasu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-03-06 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45787935|Sam S. Ganda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2017-05-16 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782850|Zaheer Issa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782837|Yaumi Mpaweni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782819|William Kalima]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782793|Willet Karonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782778|Willard Gwengwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782760|Werani Chilenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782743|Watson Ngozo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782719|Wallace Chawawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782694|Vitus Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782674|Vincent Ghambi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782649|Victor Mbewe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782628|Victor Musowa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782608|Vasco Chimbalu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782584|Trasizio Gowelo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782568|Timothy Solomoni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782546|Thomson Kamangira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782531|Themba Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782504|Susan Ndalama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782484|Shaibu Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782465|Sam Kawale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782440|Rodrick Khumbanyiwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782421|Rodger Sithole]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782405|Richard Chimwendo-Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Richard Chimwendo Banda (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45782388|Rhino Chiphiko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782371|Wilson Ndomondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782354|Malison Ndau]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782334|Christopher Ngwira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782317|Raphael Mhone]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Rachael Zulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782278|Rabson Shaba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782265|Peter Chalera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782245|Peter Mazizi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782235|Peter Bvalani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782216|Peter Dimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782198|Peter Chakhwantha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782180|Pemba Msusa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782169|Paul Chibingu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782154|Patrick Chilondola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782141|Patrick Themu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782101|Patricia Mkanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782075|Patricia Kainga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782054|Olipa Chiluba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782025|Olipa Chimangeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45782004|Noel Masangwi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781980|Noah Chimpeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Deputy Health Minister, Honourable Noah Chimpeni MP.webp|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781963|Naomi Kilekwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781951|Mwai Kamuyambeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781929|Mussa Kapichira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781912|Maxwell Thyolera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781893|Mary Navicha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Mary Navicha visiting Edinburgh City Chambers hosted by Scotland Malawi Partnership 2 March 2026.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781872|Mary Maulidi Khembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Mary Maulidi Khembo MP in Malawi 45.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781850|Mary Mpanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781830|Martha Lunji]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781810|Marko Ching'onga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781791|Mark Botomani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781774|Maquenda Chunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781753|Malani Mtonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781733|Mahomed Osman]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781716|Madalitso Kazombo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Madalitso Kazombo at the SMP 2020 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781700|Mac Salijeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781675|Lyana Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781650|Lloyd Malola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Lingson Belekanyama]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2021-01-12 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781611|Leonard Njikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781588|Langton Kamwendo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Khumbize Chiponda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Khumbize Chiponda, Malawi Minister of Health, speaks at the opening of the World Cancer Day 2024 at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria on 1 February 2024 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781556|Kennedy Kachingwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781532|Kennedy Maluwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781515|Kayo Zimchetera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781496|Kassim Liguluwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781481|Kamlepo Kalua]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781461|Justin Majawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781438|Juliana Lunguzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2019-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781413|Joseph Njobvuyalema]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781398|Joseph Mwanamvekha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781379|John Chikalimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781358|Jephter Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781339|Jappie Mhango]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781321|James Munthali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781300|James Kamwambi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781283|Jacqueline Kouwenhoven]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781265|Jacob Hara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781249|Ilyas Karim]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781228|Idi Kalosi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781210|Horace Chipuwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781189|Henry Shaba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781169|Harry Chipeni]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781150|Harry Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781124|Grezelder Jeffrey]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781099|Grant Ndecha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781080|Godwin Kanjere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781060|Godfrey Mnkhondya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781040|George Kamwanja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781016|Geoffrey Chiwondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780997|Gabu Khamisa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780971|Frank Mwenifumbo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780944|Frank Mphande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780924|Frank Mapondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780901|Francis Billiati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780880|Francis Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780836|Filipo Chinkhondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780812|Felton Mulli]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780788|Felix Jumbe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780763|Ezekiel Ching'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Everton Chimulirenji]] | Munthu wa ndale wa ku Malawi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Everton Chimulirenji.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780722|Everson Makowa-Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780707|Esther Mcheka-Chilenje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780692|Esther Jolobala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780678|Ernest Yahaya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780661|Enoss Chitatanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780638|Enock Luka]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780622|Emmanuel Lozo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780599|Emily Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Emily Phiri MP (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780575|Elias Kamanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780554|Edmans Kaduya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780531|Uladi Mussa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780507|Peter Kumpalume]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780487|Patrick Makina]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780444|Joseph Malunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780403|Francis Mkungula]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780387|Emmanuel Fabiano]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Ministerial Roundtable LDCs and Business Executive (30597140897).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45780367|Elias Chakwera]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780352|Clement Chiwaya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780336|Allan Chiyembekeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780313|Divelias Zaipa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780291|Deus Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780268|Dennis Namachekecha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780254|Davies Kadzinja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780239|David Lally]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780220|David Bisnowaty]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780202|Daudi Chida]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780179|Daniel Chiwere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780157|Damson Chimalira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780134|Commodius Nyirenda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780116|Collings Kajawa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780095|Clement Mlombwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Clement Fukumele Mukumbwa]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780053|Clarke Lowe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780029|Christopher Mnyenyembe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780004|Chrissy Tembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779982|Chizamsoka Mulwafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779958|Charles Mchacha]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779939|Charles Tikhiwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779916|Cecilia Chazama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779894|Canaan Kaphamtengo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779875|Boniface Kadzamira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779853|Bonex Malunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779828|Bon Kalindo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779804|Benedicto Chambo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779780|Beatrice Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Honourable Beatrice Roseby Mwale MP in Malawi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779759|Baudeni Mtonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779733|Assan Lipande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779717|Angie Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779701|Amos Mailosi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779688|Amon Nkhata]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779667|Allan Ngumuya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779646|Alice Ngoma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779624|Alexander Dzonzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779603|Alex Chakwanila Mvula Major]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779582|Alex Chitete]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779554|Alekeni Menyani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779534|Akajuwe Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779512|Aisha Adams]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Aisha Mambo-Adams (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Agnes Nyalonje]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Hon Agnes Nyalonje Minister for Education via Zoom (sq cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45779467|Aggrey Masi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779442|Adbul Gaffar]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779418|Abubakar M'baya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779063|Aboo Naliwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q40039690|Francis Kasaila]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Francis Kasaila 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29982289|Grace Chiumia]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18390332|Richard Msowoya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16733055|Henry Mussa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Henry Mussa (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Ralph Jooma]] | wandale | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145836|Patricia Shanil Muluzi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2024-06-10 | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6697476|Lucius Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6429058|Kondwani Nakhumwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6187716|Jessie Kabwila-Kapasula]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Jessie Kabwila in 2017 (sq cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6170933|Jean Kalilani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Jean Kalilani 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Harry Thomson (wandale)]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | 2019-06-06 | |- | ''[[:d:Q5537823|George Chaponda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:George Chaponda 2016 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5382250|Ephraim Chiume]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Ephraim Mganda Chiume - 2014 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Enoch Chihana]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5241922|Davis Katsonga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Davis Katsonga 2006 (profile).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Atupele Muluzi]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Atupele Muluzi 2025 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4662402|Aaron Sangala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | |- | [[Khumbo Kachali]] | Munthu wa ndale wa ku Malawi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2014-05-20 | | [[File:Khumbo-kachali1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Lazarus Chakwera]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2010-01-01 | | [[File:Lazarus Chakwera 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q139718480|Gloria Ireen Ntopi]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136513486|Mwalone Jangiya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | 2014-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053162|Vera Chilewani Faramenga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053140|Gladys Benson Tembo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053130|Bernadetta Mlaka Maliro]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053113|Eunice Napolo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053064|Juliana Nanyoni Mphande]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052907|Philomena Mononga Kasambwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052737|Joyce Azizi Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134052645|Grace Zinenani Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134051543|Jenipher Deborah Chilunga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134042481|Olivia Anita Thundu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134041510|Hyacinta Palingana Chikaonda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134040754|Maureen Katani Bondo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134039924|Ellen Thokozani Solomon Chisale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134038686|Deriah Kankhwani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134038049|Mandebvu Agness Chatipwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Ntchisi District Hospital hosts Agnes Mandebvu Chatipwa (2 3 cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134037250|Grenner Nkhata]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134004357|Christina Chiwoko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131725522|Lonnie Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Lonnie Chijere Phiri Chairing the Parliamentary Women's Caucus (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q123694802|Annie Lemani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729519|Jean Muonaowauza Sendeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Sendeza 2025.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Rachael Zulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45779916|Cecilia Chazama]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17285561|Gertrude Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Gertrude Maseko.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16116111|Theresa Gloria Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Theresa Mwale 2011 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7306925|Reen Kachere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Reen Kachere (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7109043|Otria Moyo Jere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967325|Nasrin Pillane]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6759847|Margaret Roka Mauwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6170933|Jean Kalilani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Kalilani 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5409759|Eunice Kazembe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Eunice Kazembe in New Delhi on March 15, 2010 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5099300|Chimango Mughogho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4765557|Anita Kalinde]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4693103|Agnes Penemulungu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | |- | [[Joyce Banda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2009-01-01 | | [[File:Joyce Banda Department for International Development photo crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134136950|Gertrude Nya Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134136431|Papano Patricia Mwafulirwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134070095|Joyce Chiyendausiku Ng'oma]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134068546|Alice Ntodwa Mwale]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053446|Gertrude Andilimbira Kamange Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053398|Elvey Kalonga-Mtafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053319|Olive Masanza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053307|Inna Mezalumo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053301|Trifonia Dafter]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053295|Juliana Josephine Guga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053276|Bertha Masiku]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053233|Angela Kachepa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053228|Ettinor Pamela Koloviko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053214|Elizabeth Aipiran]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133294441|Ebbie Mathanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q123694750|Marjory Ngaunje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109729519|Jean Muonaowauza Sendeza]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Jean Sendeza 2025.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45781830|Martha Lunji]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45780707|Esther Mcheka-Chilenje]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Nancy Tembo]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Nancy Tembo UNFCCC Glasgow Climate Dialogues.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6692314|Loveness Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Callista Chimombo]] | Mwanakazi wa Pulezidenti wakale wa Malaŵi | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Callista Chimombo (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4767130|Anna Kachikho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Mrs. Anna Kachikho (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[Joyce Banda]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | 2004-01-01 | | [[File:Joyce Banda Department for International Development photo crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134302067|Lizzy Alpha Mpinganjira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301856|Gillian Loveness Mulombe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301821|Anne Mary Fletcher]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | 2004-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q134301185|Martha Nasho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134300865|Mary Kaphwereza Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134297371|Elizabeth Talumba Kumakanga Lamba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134297272|Honesta Msola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053398|Elvey Kalonga-Mtafu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134053301|Trifonia Dafter]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008585|Alice Sumani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133294441|Ebbie Mathanda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781675|Lyana Tambala]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7145664|Patricia Kaliati]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | [[File:Patricia Kaliati (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6692314|Loveness Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1999-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q134008607|Lizzie Lossa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008585|Alice Sumani]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134008495|Margaret Perpetual Maimba]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005779|L. M. Changwamnjira]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005722|Lillian Kapanda Phiri]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134005678|M. M. Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133972447|Kate Kainja]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104794304|Edda Ella Chitalo]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6754140|Mapopa Chipeta]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | 1999-01-01 | [[File:Mapopa O.J. Chipeta (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6547705|Lilian Patel]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | [[File:Foreign Minister Lilian Estella Patel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5052586|Catherine Chipembere]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1994-01-01 | | [[File:Catherine (Ajizinga) Chipembere 1950s (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q133972260|Janet Longwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | 1968-01-01 | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60198059|Michael Hill Blackwood]]'' | | [[Ufumu Ubanyi]] | 1966-01-01 | 1973-01-01 | |- | ''[[:d:Q136341089|Margaret Ali]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133521589|Wezzie Gondwe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20731772|Colin Cameron]]'' | | [[Ufumu Ubanyi]]<br/>[[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Colin Cameron lawyer and Malawian minister.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17285561|Gertrude Maseko]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Gertrude Maseko.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17037425|Friday Jumbe]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Hon- Friday Anderson Jumbe 2014-06-21 14-39.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16731106|Moses Kunkuyu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Moses Kunkuyu 2023 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7412241|Samuel Mpasu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967631|Nasser Kara]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6967325|Nasrin Pillane]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Kenneth Thindwa]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6211102|Joe Manduwa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5984656|Ibrahim Matola]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5720163|Henry Dama Phoya]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Geoffrey Du Mhango]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5296903|Donton Samuel Mkandawire]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Dindi Gowa Nyasulu]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5232353|David Chiwanga]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5099455|Chimunthu Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:H.F. Chimunthu Banda (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5099300|Chimango Mughogho]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Catherine Gotani Hara]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Catherine Gotani Hara at the U.S. Embassy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4912820|Billy Kaunda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | [[Bazuka Mhango]] | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4765557|Anita Kalinde]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4762593|Angela Zachepa]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4714730|Aleke Banda]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | [[File:Aleke Banda (crop1).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4693103|Agnes Penemulungu]]'' | | [[Malaŵi]] | | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} kyru36qsce0tqglligb065g5142rnst 2 11216 124439 123698 2026-11-11T05:44:07Z ListeriaBot 7225 Wikidata list updated [V2] 124439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q2989398 } |section= |sort=P131 |sort_order=asca |columns=label:Article,description,P17:Country,P131:In administrative entity,P625:Geo Coordinate,P18:Image,P242:Locator map image |thumb=128 |min_section=2 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! Article ! description ! Country ! In administrative entity ! Geo Coordinate ! Image ! Locator map image |- | ''[[:d:Q6382556|Keddara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | | {{Coord|36.616667|3.483333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12697618|Menaâ]]'' | | [[France]] | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16208640|Barhoum]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17009816|Mechtat Mehedia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | | {{Coord|35.881111|0.776389|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q304704|Abadla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019410|Abadla District]]'' | {{Coord|31.016667|-2.733333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Guir in Abadla.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-17-Abadla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215144|Erg Ferradj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019410|Abadla District]]'' | {{Coord|31.034722|-2.791389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-02-Erg Ferradj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215182|Méchraâ Houari Boumédienne]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019410|Abadla District]]'' | {{Coord|30.932222|-2.7375|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-09-Mechraa Houari Boumedienne.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q283326|Abalessa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211075|Abalessa District]]'' | {{Coord|22.89|4.847222|display=inline}} | [[File:Tombeau Tin Hinan.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-11 Abalessa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650025|Tadjena]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4668530|Abou El Hassan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316667|1.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Tadjena (le 11-05-2007).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Tadjena.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2821729|Abou El Hassen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4668530|Abou El Hassan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.417864|1.195056|display=inline}} | [[File:The eastern entrance to Abu el-Hassan.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Abou El Hassan.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514436|Talassa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4668530|Abou El Hassan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.424321|1.09108|display=inline}} | [[File:Vieux olivier au montagne près de Talassa Chlef Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Talassa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2822975|Achacha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4673344|Achacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.246272|0.634267|display=inline}} | [[File:Achaacha barrage.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Achaacha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3195934|Khadra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4673344|Achacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.25|0.5833|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.25|0.566667|display=inline}} | [[File:Khadra.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-18 Khadra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3337879|Nékmaria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4673344|Achacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1667|0.616667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 27 Nekmaria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358205|Ouled Boughalem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4673344|Achacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.320381|0.672884|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Boughalem, Mostaganem Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Ouled Boughalem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1034220|Taourirt Ighil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006001|Adekar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7|4.7|display=inline}} | [[File:Tinqicht.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Taourirt Ighil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657273|Beni Ksila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006001|Adekar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8825|4.661944|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Ksila city.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Beni Ksila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215123|Adekar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006001|Adekar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.683333|4.666667|display=inline}} | [[File:Assif El Hammam.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Adekar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701208|Ouled Ahmed Timmi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083018|Adrar District]]'' | {{Coord|27.851111|-0.281389|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Ahmed - Adrar اولاد احمد - ادرار (30690954971).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Ouled Ahmed Timmi (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2704152|Bouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083018|Adrar District]]'' | {{Coord|28.005278|-0.4225|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Bouda (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q131624555|Adrar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083018|Adrar District]]'' | {{Coord|27.9|-0.283333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Adrar (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055216|Sebgag]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019413|Aflou District]]'' | {{Coord|34.02958|1.92798|display=inline}} | [[File:SEBGAG.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Sebgag.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483208|Sidi Bouzid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019413|Aflou District]]'' | {{Coord|34.342778|2.261389|display=inline}} | [[File:La mairie de Sidi Bouzid مقر بلدية سيدي بوزيد.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Sidi Bouzid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q500560|Aflou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q136956694|Aflou Province]]'' | {{Coord|34.112778|2.102222|display=inline}} | [[File:Marché d'Aflou, 1973.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Aflou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2376161|Ahmar El Ain]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019408|Ahmer El Aïn District]]'' | {{Coord|36.478172|2.563934|display=inline}} | [[File:Ahmeur El Ain حمر العين - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-27 - Ahmar El Ain - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922390|Bourkika]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019408|Ahmer El Aïn District]]'' | {{Coord|36.493112|2.475915|display=inline}} | [[File:Bourkika بورقيقة - panoramio (7).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-05 - Bourkika - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483283|Sidi Rached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019408|Ahmer El Aïn District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5625|2.533333|display=inline}} | [[File:Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-34 - Sidi Rached - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q761817|Madna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019589|Ain Kermes District]]'' | {{Coord|34.75303|0.98281|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Madna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649010|Aïn Kermes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019589|Ain Kermes District]]'' | {{Coord|34.908176|1.108074|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Aïn Kermes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649054|Djebilet Rosfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019589|Ain Kermes District]]'' | {{Coord|34.864167|0.835|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Djebilet Rosfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649250|Medrissa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019589|Ain Kermes District]]'' | {{Coord|34.895858|1.23991|display=inline}} | [[File:Plane de medrissa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Medrissa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483159|Sidi Abderrahmane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019589|Ain Kermes District]]'' | {{Coord|34.798611|1.130278|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sidi Abderahmane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649492|Ain Tarik]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019476|Ain Tarik District]]'' | {{Coord|35.766667|1.116667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Ain Tarik.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125517|Had Echkalla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019476|Ain Tarik District]]'' | {{Coord|35.679167|1.147222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Had Echkala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649100|Chelata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005992|Akbou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.486667|4.510278|display=inline}} | [[File:Magical landscape.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Chellata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215840|Ighram]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005992|Akbou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.46295|4.50532|display=inline}} | [[File:Ighrem اغرام.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ighram.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217816|Tamokra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005992|Akbou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.39322|4.66446|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamokra, Béjaïa Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tamokra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2828968|Akbou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005992|Akbou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466667|4.533333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie d'Akbou, Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Akbou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215424|Zéralda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q141026|Algiers Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.711944|2.840833|display=inline}} | [[File:Zeralda plage.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1646.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1765273|Semaoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710616|Amizour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.608333|4.8225|display=inline}} | [[File:Semaoun, Béjaïa Province (Algéria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Semaoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214578|Amizour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710616|Amizour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.644147|4.90561|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie d'Amizour.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Amizour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215098|Feraoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710616|Amizour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.556944|4.866389|display=inline}} | [[File:Feraoun1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ferraoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895888|Beni Djellil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710616|Amizour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.572778|4.810556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tala ougrou beni djellil algerie.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Beni Djellil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2843623|Ammari]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325485|Ammari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.57713|1.66226|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Ammari.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273641|Maacem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325485|Ammari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.65967|1.55326|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Maacem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483164|Sidi Abed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325485|Ammari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.745278|1.705|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Sidi Abed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049956|El Hassi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019432|Ammi Moussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.733333|1.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 El Hassi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050151|El Ouldja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019432|Ammi Moussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.910833|1.120833|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar El Koua Ammi Moussa2012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 El Ouldja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324819|Ouled Aiche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019432|Ammi Moussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.826389|0.961111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Ouled Aiche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4747238|Ammi Moussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019432|Ammi Moussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.86667|1.11667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ammi Moussa 152.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Ammi Moussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650258|Tizi N'Bechar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2264031|Amoucha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4311|5.36|display=inline}} | [[File:Tizi N'Bechar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Tizi N'Bechar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2843951|Amoucha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2264031|Amoucha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.38802|5.410767|display=inline}} | [[File:Amoucha.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Amoucha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358015|Oued El Barad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2264031|Amoucha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.478889|5.402222|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued El Bared - Setif واد البارد - سطيف (48374569152).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Oued El Barad.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Annaba]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710629|Annaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.9|7.766667|display=inline}} | [[File:Annaba, algeria04.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Annaba Location.PNG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215851|Seraïdi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710629|Annaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.916667|7.666667|display=inline}} | [[File:Hotel el Mountazah,Seraïdi (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Seraïdi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214081|Aokas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019434|Aokas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.633333|5.25|display=inline}} | [[File:Aokas.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Aokas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529992|Tizi N'Berber]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019434|Aokas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6125|5.216944|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Tizi N"Berber.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tizi N'Berber.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2857994|Aouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019428|Aouf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.097861|0.355854|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29-Aouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895928|Beniane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019428|Aouf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.099336|0.229425|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Beniane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3104786|Gharrous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019428|Aouf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.19574|0.40084|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Gharrous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215260|Metarfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083511|Aougrout District]]'' | {{Coord|28.589167|-0.149722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Metarfa (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2642071|Aougrout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083511|Aougrout District]]'' | {{Coord|28.705556|0.338889|display=inline}} | [[File:Aougrout.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Aougrout (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2757182|Deldoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2083511|Aougrout District]]'' | {{Coord|28.770724|0.054345|display=inline}} | [[File:Deldoul دلدول - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Deldoul (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q602548|Aoulef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004741|Aoulef District]]'' | {{Coord|26.973611|1.081111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Aoulef - Adrar مدينة اولف - ادرار.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Aoulef (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2353819|Akabli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004741|Aoulef District]]'' | {{Coord|26.708611|1.368889|display=inline}} | [[File:Akabli اقبلي - ادرار.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Timekten (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2704101|Timokten]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004741|Aoulef District]]'' | {{Coord|27.021667|1.015|display=inline}} | [[File:Aoulef.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Timekten (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529471|Tit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004741|Aoulef District]]'' | {{Coord|26.9508|1.48367|display=inline}} | [[File:Tit تيط - ادرار.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Tit (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1388056|Arris]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970545|Arris District]]'' | {{Coord|35.258333|6.344444|display=inline}} | [[File:6527-vue-sur-le-pont-de-arris.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-16 Arris - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215807|Tighanimine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970545|Arris District]]'' | {{Coord|35.211111|6.302778|display=inline}} | [[File:Tighanimine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-26 Tighanimine - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2084446|Arzew]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019442|Arzew District]]'' | {{Coord|35.85|-0.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Arzew.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Arzew.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483197|Sidi Ben Yebka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019442|Arzew District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8294|-0.394682|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 Sidi Benyebka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1581873|Asla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211169|Asla District]]'' | {{Coord|33.016667|-0.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Asla 1 عسلة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Asla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1895391|Freha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019433|Azazga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.757547|4.319444|display=inline}} | [[File:Freha.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Freha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2875118|Azazga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019433|Azazga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.745278|4.371111|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur Azazga 2016.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Azazga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3571365|Yakouren]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019433|Azazga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.734757|4.438648|display=inline}} | [[File:Yakouren.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Yakouren.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575120|Zekri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019433|Azazga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.780278|4.589444|display=inline}} | [[File:Lac de lhed.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Zekri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10772723|Ifigha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019433|Azazga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.671389|4.413889|display=inline}} | [[File:Bubhir, Jmadi, ifigha.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Ifigha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q209443|Azeffoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q208830|Azeffoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.893056|4.420278|display=inline}} | [[File:Plage Sidi Khlifa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Azeffoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648638|Aghrib]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q208830|Azeffoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.802206|4.322691|display=inline}} | [[File:Aghribs view.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aghribs.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2828985|Akerrou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q208830|Azeffoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.796111|4.418333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mont Tamgout.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Akerrou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876476|Aït Chafâa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q208830|Azeffoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8225|4.525556|display=inline}} | [[File:Azzefoun 4.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Chafâa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2875145|Aziz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019440|Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.823861|2.451694|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Aziz مقر بلدية عزيز - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Aziz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3023970|Derrag]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019440|Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.90861|2.38778|display=inline}} | [[File:Derrag - entée sud دراق.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Derrag.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358293|Oum El Djalil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019440|Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8275|2.623889|display=inline}} | [[File:Oum el Djellil ام الجليل - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Oum El Djellil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648592|Aïn Charchar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629093|Azzaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.731111|7.219722|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo ain cherchar 22052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Aïn Charchar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648899|Djendel Saadi Mohamed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629093|Azzaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.780556|7.170833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Djendel Saadi Mohamed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649535|El Ghedir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629093|Azzaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.688333|6.977778|display=inline}} | [[File:El ghedir.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - El Ghedir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214091|Azzaba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629093|Azzaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.733333|7.1|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo azzaba 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Azzaba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3057617|Essebt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629093|Azzaba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6624|7.07743|display=inline}} | [[File:Boutayeb Essebt.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Es Sebt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876252|Aïn Abid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019447|Aïn Abid District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q232043|Constantine Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.2325|6.944167|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.231944|6.943333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Abid.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-07 Aïn Abid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3147437|Ben Badis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019447|Aïn Abid District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3173|6.83195|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.95|-0.916667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ben Badis, ex Clemanceau.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-03 Ibn Badis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876247|Aïn Abessa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621448|Aïn Arnat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3|5.295|display=inline}} | [[File:صورة لمدينة عين عباسة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Abessa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876253|Aïn Arnat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621448|Aïn Arnat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.183333|5.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue aérienne de l'aéroport de Sétif (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Arnat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050153|El Ouricia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621448|Aïn Arnat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.283889|5.409444|display=inline}} | [[File:El Ouricia.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - El Ouricia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3307759|Mezloug]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621448|Aïn Arnat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.10782|5.336909|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Mezloug.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214101|Aïn Azel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263981|Aïn Azel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.817778|5.511111|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Azel - jardin public.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Azel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876350|Aïn Lahdjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263981|Aïn Azel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.940278|5.540833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Lahdjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2893951|Beidha Bordj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263981|Aïn Azel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.891667|5.668611|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beidha Bordj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904343|Bir Haddada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263981|Aïn Azel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.962863|5.430851|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bir Haddada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876255|Aïn Babouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019409|Aïn Babouche District]]'' | {{Coord|35.941111|7.185556|display=inline}} | [[File:Les hautes plaines sous la neige (Ain Babouche).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Babouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876282|Aïn Diss]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019409|Aïn Babouche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.033333|7.002778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Diss.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876261|Aïn Beida Harriche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833262|Aïn Beida Harriche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.394536|5.89325|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Beida Harriche Wilaya de Mila Algérie 2013.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Aïn Beida Harriche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050473|Elayadi Barbes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833262|Aïn Beida Harriche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.440386|5.880946|display=inline}} | [[File:AYADI BERBES.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Elayadi Barbes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876271|Aïn Bessem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156899|Aïn Bessem District]]'' | {{Coord|36.296667|3.67|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain bessam.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aïn Bessem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876303|Ain El Hadjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156899|Aïn Bessem District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3393|3.80638|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain el Hadjar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aïn El Hadjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876351|Ain Laloui]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156899|Aïn Bessem District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316667|3.75|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Laloui Ex Ain Boudhib عين العلوي عين بوذيب سابقا - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aïn Laloui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2088349|Aïn Beïda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019417|Aïn Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.796389|7.392778|display=inline}} | [[File:عين البيضاء 1.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Beida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2899127|Berriche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019417|Aïn Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.916443|7.376804|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Berriche بلدية بريش.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Berriche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3576102|Zorg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019417|Aïn Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.787778|7.468056|display=inline}} | [[File:Boughouas بوغواص.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Zorg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1702800|Aïn Boucif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1702779|Aïn Boucif District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q235810|Médéa Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.89123|3.1585|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.891111|3.158611|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Boucif عين بوسيف - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ain Boucif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050148|El Ouinet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1702779|Aïn Boucif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.893889|3.035556|display=inline}} | [[File:El Aouinet - El Kharza الخرزة ببلدية العوينات - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 El Ouinet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3194649|Kef Lakhdar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1702779|Aïn Boucif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.923333|3.2875|display=inline}} | [[File:Kef Lakhdar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Kef Lakhdar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358240|Ouled Maaref]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1702779|Aïn Boucif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.816667|3.033333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Mareuf اولاد امعرف - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Maaref.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483222|Sidi Damed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1702779|Aïn Boucif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.869444|3.254444|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Demed بلدية سيدي دمد - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sidi Damed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q168846|Aïn Deflaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019449|Aïn Defla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.258333|1.958333|display=inline}} | [[File:Daira de Ain Defla دائرة عين الدفلة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Defla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q285281|Chehaima]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019451|Aïn Deheb District]]'' | {{Coord|34.899061|1.306601|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Chehaima.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649496|Aïn Deheb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019451|Aïn Deheb District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233258|Tiaret Province]]'' | {{Coord|34.844444|1.549167|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.842222|1.546944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Aïn Deheb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3335204|Naima]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019451|Aïn Deheb District]]'' | {{Coord|35.090833|1.4775|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Naima.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214604|Aïn Djasser]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970345|Aïn Djasser District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8611|6.0012|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain-Abessa - Energie Solaire à Batna Aïn Djasser.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-19 Ain Djasser - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049963|El Hassi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970345|Aïn Djasser District]]'' | {{Coord|35.801111|5.939722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-57 El Hassi - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648951|Ain El Berd]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833272|Aïn El Berd District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q235714|Sidi Bel Abbès Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.365833|-0.512778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ain El Berd.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650068|gambetta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833272|Aïn El Berd District]]'' | {{Coord|35.260556|-0.5675|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Brahim (Sidi Bel Abbès, Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Brahim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650247|Sidi Hamadouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833272|Aïn El Berd District]]'' | {{Coord|35.299167|-0.548889|display=inline}} | [[File:بلدية سيدي حمادوش.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Hamadouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3280742|Makedra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833272|Aïn El Berd District]]'' | {{Coord|35.440953|-0.431385|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Makedra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214591|Aïn Berda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5061402|Aïn El Berda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.65|7.583333|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo ain berda 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Aïn Berda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962895|Chorfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5061402|Aïn El Berda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.72057|7.55407|display=inline}} | [[File:Chorfa شرفة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Cheurfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3060336|Eulma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5061402|Aïn El Berda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.73875|7.46163|display=inline}} | [[File:Annaba Tarf عنابة الطارف - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Eulma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876297|Aïn El Hadjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110035|Aïn El Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.271667|0.260833|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.758333|0.145278|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain el Hadjar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Aïn El Hadjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325548|Moulay Larbi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110035|Aïn El Hadjar District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3044682|Saïda Department]]'' | {{Coord|34.65|0.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Moulay Larbi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483167|Sidi Ahmed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110035|Aïn El Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|34.55|0.259722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Sidi Ahmed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649776|Aïn El Hadjel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3271922|Aïn El Hadjel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.673889|3.881667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain el Hadjel.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Aïn El Hadjel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483235|Sidi Hadjeres]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3271922|Aïn El Hadjel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.671944|4.035278|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Hadjres سيدي هجرس 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Sidi Hadjeres.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q276935|Aïn El Hammam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019450|Aïn El Hammam District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233645|Tizi Ouzou Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.570556|4.311111|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Ain El Hammam.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Ain El Hammam.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648557|Abi Youcef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019450|Aïn El Hammam District]]'' | {{Coord|36.538333|4.343889|display=inline}} | [[File:At-Bu-Yusef.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Abi-Youcef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2828962|Akbil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019450|Aïn El Hammam District]]'' | {{Coord|36.522778|4.303056|display=inline}} | [[File:Village perché (Djurdjura).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Akbil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876538|Aït Yahia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019450|Aïn El Hammam District]]'' | {{Coord|36.581111|4.330278|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Ait Yahia.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Yahia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q599887|Aïn El Ibel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833274|Aïn El Ibil District]]'' | {{Coord|34.355|3.223889|display=inline}} | [[File:La mairie de Ain el Bell مقر بلدية عين الابل (24339000468).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Aïn El Ibel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325431|Mouadjebara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833274|Aïn El Ibil District]]'' | {{Coord|34.503692|3.470435|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Moudjebara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513736|Tadmit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833274|Aïn El Ibil District]]'' | {{Coord|34.286652|2.988539|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Tadmit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3574490|Zaccar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833274|Aïn El Ibil District]]'' | {{Coord|34.430806|3.327313|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Zaccar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q731378|Ouled Addouane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019453|Aïn El Kébira District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3375|5.4375|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Ouled Addouane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648920|Aïn El Kebira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019453|Aïn El Kébira District]]'' | {{Coord|36.364722|5.501944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn El Kebira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021292|Dehamcha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019453|Aïn El Kébira District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3821|5.5953|display=inline}} | [[File:Dehamcha.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Dehamcha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648562|Aïn Errich]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272347|Aïn El Melh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.680833|4.096944|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn ErRich.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Aïn Errich.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649756|Aïn El Melh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272347|Aïn El Melh District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q240870|M'Sila Province]]'' | {{Coord|34.848333|4.161111|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.841389|4.163889|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn El Melh.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Aïn El Melh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876321|Aïn Fares]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272347|Aïn El Melh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.700556|4.429167|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Ain fares بلدية عين فارس - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Aïn Fares.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904340|Bir Foda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272347|Aïn El Melh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.82013|3.76063|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Bir Foda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483253|Sidi M'Hamed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272347|Aïn El Melh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.735833|4.285833|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Belkherif.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Sidi M'Hamed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q31085|Mers El Kebir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019462|Aïn El Turk District]]'' | {{Coord|35.728611|-0.706944|display=inline}} | [[File:MOts Murdjajou surplombant Oran (13).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Mers el-Kebir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q740498|Aïn El Turk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019462|Aïn El Turk District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q68277370|arrondissement of Oran]]'' | {{Coord|35.740833|-0.749167|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain turck, Oran Province (Algeria).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Ain El Turk.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649264|Bousfer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019462|Aïn El Turk District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7108|-0.810556|display=inline}} | [[File:2leglisetransformee.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Bousfer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049709|El Ançor]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019462|Aïn El Turk District]]'' | {{Coord|35.683333|-0.866667|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue vers la partie côtière de la région El-ançor.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 El Anssor.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876323|Aïn Fakroun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019419|Aïn Fakroun District]]'' | {{Coord|35.966667|6.866667|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Ain Fakroun مقر بلدية عين فكرون.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Fakroun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049852|El Fedjoudj Boughrara Saoudi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019419|Aïn Fakroun District]]'' | {{Coord|35.70805|6.817017|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - El Fedjouz Boughrara Saoudi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3285064|Mamounia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019456|Aïn Farès District]]'' | {{Coord|35.424798|0.140634|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Mamounia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4833277|Aïn Fares]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019456|Aïn Farès District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4799|0.244875|display=inline}} | [[File:Noureddine - Ain Fares نور الدين - عين فارس - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Aïn Fares.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q586071|Aïn Fekan]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833278|Aïn Fekan District]]'' | {{Coord|35.225|-0.001667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Aïn Fekan.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876332|Aïn Fras]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833278|Aïn Fekan District]]'' | {{Coord|35.206389|-0.1575|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Aïn Fras.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q593739|Aïn Kercha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019945|Aïn Kechra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.916667|6.7|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Kercha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648989|Aïn Kechra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833282|Aïn Kechra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.748333|6.4325|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo ain kechra 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Aïn Kechra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049951|El Harmilia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019945|Aïn Kechra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.923532|6.619263|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - El Harmilia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126682|Hanchir Toumghani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019945|Aïn Kechra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.934722|6.741111|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Hanchir Toumghani.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358185|Ouldja Boulballout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833282|Aïn Kechra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.786111|6.373056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Ouldja Boulballout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q652161|Aghlal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019421|Aïn Kihel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.201648|-1.06923|display=inline}} | [[File:مزرعة في بلدية أغلال ، عين تموشنت ، الجزائر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Aghlal (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649048|Aoubellil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019421|Aïn Kihel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.136467|-0.992578|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Aoubellil (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649071|Aïn Kihal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019421|Aïn Kihel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.204444|-1.196111|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Aïn Kihal (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657300|Aïn Tolba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019421|Aïn Kihel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.248333|-1.248889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Aïn Tolba (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649088|Aïn El Arbaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019458|Aïn Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4075|-0.881667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Aïn El Arbaa (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657440|Oued Sabah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019458|Aïn Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.3725|-0.811389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Oued Sabah (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217839|Tamzoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019458|Aïn Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.416667|-0.65|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Tamzoura (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324659|Sidi Boumedienne]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019458|Aïn Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.354167|-0.893056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Sidi Boumedienne (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q863819|Oued Djemaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019464|Aïn Lechiakh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|2.3|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued el Djemaa - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Oued Djemaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649082|Aïn Lechiakh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019464|Aïn Lechiakh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.156944|2.404167|display=inline}} | [[File:Jardin AinLechiekh.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Lechiekh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876374|Aïn Soltane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019464|Aïn Lechiakh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.133056|4.733333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Soltane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q722562|Aïn M'lila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019471|Aïn M'Lila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.036667|6.571944|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Mlila عين مليلة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn M'lila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1920157|Ouled Hamla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019471|Aïn M'Lila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.083333|6.466667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled hamla.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Ouled Hamla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358228|Ouled Gacem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019471|Aïn M'Lila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.034167|6.665833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Ouled Gacem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876355|Aïn Madhi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019473|Aïn Madhi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.8|2.3|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Madhi عين ماضي - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Aïn Madhi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049975|El Houaita]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019473|Aïn Madhi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.645278|2.445833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - El Houaita.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055042|Tadjemout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019473|Aïn Madhi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.879573|2.523422|display=inline}} | [[File:TADJEMOUT.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Tadjemout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196152|Kheneg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019473|Aïn Madhi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.744611|2.794132|display=inline}} | [[File:الخنق الأغواط 3.JPEG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Kheneg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513732|Tadjrouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019473|Aïn Madhi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.504043|2.101908|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Tadjrouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876353|Aïn Larbi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019935|Aïn Makhlouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.265833|7.397778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Aïn Larbi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876356|Aïn Makhlouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019935|Aïn Makhlouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.243333|7.250833|display=inline}} | [[File:سد بعين مخلوف بقالمة.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Aïn Makhlouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3271939|Tamlouka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019935|Aïn Makhlouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.155556|7.141667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamlouka1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Tamlouka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q374598|Ain Merane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710590|Aïn Merane District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q236758|Relizane Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.162778|0.970556|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.162778|0.970278|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Merane, Chlef Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Ain Merane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3127420|Harenfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710590|Aïn Merane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.24521|1.0457|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Harenfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2404804|Fornaka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211175|Aïn Nouïssy District]]'' | {{Coord|35.752642|-0.016994|display=inline}} | [[File:Fornaka.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-03 Fornaka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876359|Aïn Nouïssy]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211175|Aïn Nouïssy District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8|0.05|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Nouissy.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Ain Nouissi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049946|El Hassaine-Béni Yahi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211175|Aïn Nouïssy District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7667|-0.033333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-27-32 El Hassaine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649139|Ouled Si Ahmed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019463|Aïn Oulmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.901111|5.191667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Ouled Si Ahmed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649530|Ksar El Abtal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019463|Aïn Oulmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9742|5.2881|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Ksar El Abtal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876362|Aïn Oulmene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019463|Aïn Oulmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.916667|5.3|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain-Oulmène, Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Oulmene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118868|Guelal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019463|Aïn Oulmane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.033889|5.338889|display=inline}} | [[File:Guellal mosque.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Guelal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q651497|Aïn Oussera]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833293|Aïn Oussera District]]'' | {{Coord|35.448889|2.904444|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain oussera.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Aïn Oussara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209181|Guernini]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833293|Aïn Oussera District]]'' | {{Coord|35.19992|2.68203|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Guernini.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1582877|Tiout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325306|Aïn Séfra District]]'' | {{Coord|30.38949|-8.692585|display=inline}} | [[File:Tiout, Algeria - panoramio (6).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Tiout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2745712|Aïn Sefra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325306|Aïn Séfra District]]'' | {{Coord|32.75|-0.583333|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue d Ain Sefra, Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Ain Sefra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650263|Tixter]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019465|Aïn Taghrout District]]'' | {{Coord|36.047121|5.079889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Tixter.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876379|Aïn Taghrout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019465|Aïn Taghrout District]]'' | {{Coord|36.128889|5.076667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Ain Taghrout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649342|Aïn Tallout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833295|Aïn Talout District]]'' | {{Coord|34.923889|-0.954444|display=inline}} | [[File:شارع عين تالوت ولاية تلمسان الجزائر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-03 - Ain Tallout - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876358|Aïn Nehala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833295|Aïn Talout District]]'' | {{Coord|35.027222|-0.932222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-25 - Aïn Nehala - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876392|Aïn Touila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324509|Aïn Touila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.443611|7.466667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Aïn Touila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272302|M'Toussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324509|Aïn Touila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.599392|7.244968|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 M'Toussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214625|Ben Foudhala El Hakania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970604|Aïn Touta District]]'' | {{Coord|35.32|5.977222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-32 Ben Foudhala El Hakania - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215698|Maâfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970604|Aïn Touta District]]'' | {{Coord|35.266667|5.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Grottes Maafa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-03 Maafa - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215830|Ouled Aouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970604|Aïn Touta District]]'' | {{Coord|35.455556|5.756944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-40 Ouled Aouf - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876412|Aïn Touta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970604|Aïn Touta District]]'' | {{Coord|35.383333|5.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Touta.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-45 Aïn Touta - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358016|Oued El Kheïr]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833298|Aïn Tédelès District]]'' | {{Coord|35.950278|0.380833|display=inline}} | [[File:APC OUED EL KHEIR.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Oued El Kheir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483193|Sidi Bellater]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833298|Aïn Tédelès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.026667|0.269444|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Belattar.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Sidi Belattar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491847|Sour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833298|Aïn Tédelès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.000556|0.341389|display=inline}} | [[File:Sour Mosta.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Sour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4833297|Aïn Tédelès]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4833298|Aïn Tédelès District]]'' | {{Coord|35.994722|0.295556|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.9965|0.297747|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain tadles.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-07 Aïn Tedles.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q770504|Aïn Témouchent]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019481|Aïn Témouchent District]]'' | {{Coord|35.304444|-1.14|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Temouchent.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Aïn Témouchent (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657415|Sidi Ben Adda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019481|Aïn Témouchent District]]'' | {{Coord|35.3|-1.183333|display=inline}} | [[File:El Ward.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Sidi Ben Adda (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q731749|Souani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4837217|Bab El Assa District]]'' | {{Coord|34.921218|-1.916272|display=inline}} | [[File:Souani السواني - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-08 - Souani - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2877665|Bab El Assa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4837217|Bab El Assa District]]'' | {{Coord|34.966106|-2.0318|display=inline}} | [[File:Bab El Assa بلدية باب العسة (51930866378).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-18 - Bab El Assa - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491586|Souk Tlata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4837217|Bab El Assa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.023889|-2|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-33 - Souk Tlata - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q312019|Bab El Oued]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004601|Bab El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.790833|3.053056|display=inline}} | [[File:Bab El Oued Algiers 2008.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1605.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q370406|Bologhine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004601|Bab El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.804722|3.0425|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur St. Eugéne-Bologhine depuis le téléphérique NDA (6881395339).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1606.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2940826|Casbah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004601|Bab El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.784444|3.057778|display=inline}} | [[File:Alger Kasbah02.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1607.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3181020|Oued Koriche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004601|Bab El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.785833|3.043889|display=inline}} | [[File:2012-Climat de france 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1608.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3421420|Raïs Hamidou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004601|Bab El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8175|3.011389|display=inline}} | [[File:La grande reserve plage. 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1625.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2877771|Babar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14629457|Babar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.169167|7.101389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Babar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2877944|Babor]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263394|Babor District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4904|5.5399|display=inline}} | [[File:EL BABOR Mountains.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Babor.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3479128|Serdj El Ghoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263394|Babor District]]'' | {{Coord|36.478|5.5771|display=inline}} | [[File:صورة من بلدية سرج الغول.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Serdj El Ghoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q311809|Sidi Daoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710679|Baghlia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.85|3.85|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi-Daoud-Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Sidi Daoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q311943|Baghlia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710679|Baghlia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.815568|3.861244|display=inline}} | [[File:Baghlia rue aibda said.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Baghlia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q970231|Taourga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710679|Baghlia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.79378|3.946345|display=inline}} | [[File:Aiintounga 38.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Taourga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q648163|Les Eucalyptus]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004318|Baraki District]]'' | {{Coord|36.663889|3.145|display=inline}} | [[File:Annexe APC Eucalyptus ملحقة بلدية الكاليتوس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Wilaya alger communes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215533|Sidi Moussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004318|Baraki District]]'' | {{Coord|36.604722|3.088889|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidimoussa1950.jpeg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1637.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2736044|Baraki]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004318|Baraki District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6662|3.09162|display=inline}} | [[File:Jardin Parc Central de baraki.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1614.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657242|Kendira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019609|Barbacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.540556|5.0275|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Kendira (localité de Tizi Tindjit).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Kendira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214633|Barbacha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019609|Barbacha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.56667|4.96667|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Barbacha.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Barbacha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q648253|Barika]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970331|Barika District]]'' | {{Coord|35.388889|5.365833|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Barika.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-42 Barika - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1523317|Amdoukal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970331|Barika District]]'' | {{Coord|35.129722|5.171944|display=inline}} | [[File:M'doukal.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-55 M'Doukal - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215164|Bitam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970331|Barika District]]'' | {{Coord|35.3075|5.372222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-14 Bitam - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q645812|Bellas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q514573|Bathia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9821|1.8512|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Belaas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657263|El Hassania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q514573|Bathia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.946389|1.916944|display=inline}} | [[File:LAndscape from Hassania, Ain el defla.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 El Hassania.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657378|Bathia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q514573|Bathia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.916111|1.839167|display=inline}} | [[File:Bathia.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Bathia.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Batna]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970519|Batna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.55|6.166667|display=inline}} | [[File:Théâtre de Batna.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-01 Batna - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q964100|Oued Chaaba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970519|Batna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.504722|6.077778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-37 Oued Chaaba - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214735|Fesdis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970519|Batna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.617744|6.247401|display=inline}} | [[File:Apc de Fesdis.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-23 Fesdis - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1309744|Castra Lambaesis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q215452|Batna Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.488889|6.255833|display=inline}} | [[File:Lambaesis-etching.png|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q5304572|Draa Etine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q215452|Batna Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2892189|Bayadha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019600|Bayadha District]]'' | {{Coord|33.327778|6.888889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Bayadha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483288|Sidi Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019600|Bayadha District]]'' | {{Coord|33.833333|1.730556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Slimane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Sidi Slimane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921611|Bouiche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2893467|Bechloul]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233655|Bouira Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3049685|El Adjiba]]'' | {{Coord|36.322222|4.111111|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2827426|Ahl El Ksar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156867|Bechloul District]]'' | {{Coord|36.253056|4.039444|display=inline}} | [[File:Ahl El Ksar, Wilaya de Bouira, Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Ahl El Ksar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2893467|Bechloul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156867|Bechloul District]]'' | {{Coord|36.312222|4.075|display=inline}} | [[File:Bechloul بشلول - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Bechloul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049685|El Adjiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156867|Bechloul District]]'' | {{Coord|36.329444|4.158611|display=inline}} | [[File:El Adjiba العجيبة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Adjiba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049718|El Asnam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156867|Bechloul District]]'' | {{Coord|36.321111|4.013889|display=inline}} | [[File:Lesnam.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Asnam.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358246|Ouled Rached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156867|Bechloul District]]'' | {{Coord|36.211944|4.110556|display=inline}} | [[File:Assiflekhmis.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Ouled Rached.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649315|Bekkouche Lakhdar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211130|Ben Azzouz District]]'' | {{Coord|36.701045|7.306252|display=inline}} | [[File:Villagegastucopyjanv07.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Bekkouche Lakhdar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895323|Benazouz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211130|Ben Azzouz District]]'' | {{Coord|36.86111|7.29254|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.46|7.13|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3050052|El Marsa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211130|Ben Azzouz District]]'' | {{Coord|37.03|7.253056|display=inline}} | [[File:2013-08-27 17.13.57 plage El Marsa Skikda.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - El Marsa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649488|Badredine El Mokrani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4885255|Ben Badis District]]'' | {{Coord|35.008909|-0.850153|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Badredine El Mokrani.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895336|Ben Badis, Sid Bel Abbés]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4885255|Ben Badis District]]'' | {{Coord|34.952778|-0.914444|display=inline}} | [[File:Ben badis 3 in 2005.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Ben Badis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962888|Chettouane Belaila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4885255|Ben Badis District]]'' | {{Coord|34.95|-0.836389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Chetouane Belaila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128230|Hassi Zehana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4885255|Ben Badis District]]'' | {{Coord|35.025833|-0.890278|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassi Zehana.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q253342|Ben Mehidi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019605|Ben M'Hidi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.77203|7.90535|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Kaci سيدي قاسي.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-Ben Mehidi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2899136|Berrihane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019605|Ben M'Hidi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.83725|8.12385|display=inline}} | [[File:Kids at the beach.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-Berrihane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3046940|Echatt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019605|Ben M'Hidi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.830172|7.875137|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Beni Amar (Echatt).svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q636617|Zarzour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272156|Ben S'Rour District]]'' | {{Coord|35.08494|4.83371|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Zarzour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895563|Ben Srour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272156|Ben S'Rour District]]'' | {{Coord|35.040257|4.563789|display=inline}} | [[File:Ben S'rour.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ben Srour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358005|Mohammed Boudiaf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272156|Ben S'Rour District]]'' | {{Coord|34.894167|4.428611|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune Mohamed Boudiaf Msila.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Mohammed Boudiaf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358268|Ouled Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272156|Ben S'Rour District]]'' | {{Coord|34.916111|4.736944|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Slimane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876508|Aït Mahmoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019602|Beni Douala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.608333|4.1125|display=inline}} | [[File:Taguemount Azouz Rachid ath said.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Mahmoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895858|Beni Aissi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019602|Beni Douala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.656895|4.078744|display=inline}} | [[File:Tighzert - Ath Aissi.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Beni Aïssi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895885|Beni Douala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019602|Beni Douala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.618889|4.0825|display=inline}} | [[File:Tizi 5 - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Beni Douala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895921|Béni-Zmenzer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019602|Beni Douala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.636944|4.039167|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Zmenzer depuis Betrouna (Wilaya de Tizi Ouzou - Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Zmenzer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223529|Iboudraren]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019616|Beni Yenni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.514722|4.242778|display=inline}} | [[File:Villages Tassaft et Ath Eurvah.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Iboudraren.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223602|Aït Yenni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019616|Beni Yenni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.575192|4.207644|display=inline}} | [[File:Ath Yenni بني يني.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Beni Yenni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3572005|Yattafène]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019616|Beni Yenni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.552224|4.256086|display=inline}} | [[File:Ait Daoud, Tizi Ouzou, Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Yatafen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q282544|Bensekrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4890203|Bensekrane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.070278|-1.227222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-24 -Bensekrane - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483155|Sidi Abdelli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4890203|Bensekrane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.066667|-1.133333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-34 - Sidi Abdelli - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1127306|Treat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710716|Berrahal District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8975|7.428056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 23 - Treat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649131|Berrahal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710716|Berrahal District]]'' | {{Coord|36.833333|7.45|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.5|7.27|display=inline}} | [[File:Berrahal.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Barrahel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215289|Oued El Aneb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710716|Berrahal District]]'' | {{Coord|36.883333|7.483333|display=inline}} | [[File:Chetaibi vue de nuit.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Oued El Aneb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214965|Berrouaghia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2379121|Berrouaghia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.133333|2.916667|display=inline}} | [[File:Berrouaghia-03.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Berrouaghia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358218|Ouled Deide]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2379121|Berrouaghia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.112778|3.012778|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Dhayed اولاد ذايد - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Deid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3421670|Rebaia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2379121|Berrouaghia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.02783|3.13812|display=inline}} | [[File:بلدية الربعية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Rebaia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649000|Asfour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019627|Besbes District]]'' | {{Coord|36.67403|7.97646|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Asfour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649634|Besbes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019627|Besbes District]]'' | {{Coord|36.70222|7.84722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Besbes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575268|Zerizer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019627|Besbes District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7273|7.8946|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Zerizer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649251|Bethioua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019633|Bethioua District]]'' | {{Coord|35.80471|-0.259573|display=inline}} | [[File:Arzew vignes.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Bethioua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876293|Aïn Bya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019633|Bethioua District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8167|-0.283333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 Ain El Bia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3294984|Mers El Hadjadj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019633|Bethioua District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7833|-0.166667|display=inline}} | [[File:Marsat el Hadjadj.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Marsat El Hadjadj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650837|Zouabi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019626|Bir Bouhouche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.065|7.453611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Zouabi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904331|Bir Bouhouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019626|Bir Bouhouche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.05|7.466667|display=inline}} | [[File:Lac bir bouhouch souk ahras algerie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Bir Bou Haouch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3461267|Safel El Ouiden]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019626|Bir Bouhouche District]]'' | {{Coord|35.929167|7.490278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Safel El Ouiden.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894187|Belaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263412|Bir El Arch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.20259|5.853653|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Belaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904333|Bir El Arch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263412|Bir El Arch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.130278|5.839167|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bir El Arch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513618|Tachouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263412|Bir El Arch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.262373|5.713062|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Tachouda بلدية تاشودة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Tachouda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12194949|El Ouldja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263412|Bir El Arch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.0637|5.95369|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q401759|Bir El Djir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019636|Bir El Djir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.736667|-0.554167|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Bir El Djir, 2013.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-3103-Bir El Djir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128217|Hassi Ben Okba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019636|Bir El Djir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.729444|-0.465833|display=inline}} | [[File:ISS048-E-5911 - View of Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Hassi Ben Okba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128219|Hassi Bounif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019636|Bir El Djir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7|-0.5|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 Hassi Bounif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904370|Bir el-Ater]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019639|Bir el-Ater District]]'' | {{Coord|34.748524|8.057957|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Bir el-Ater.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3349798|El Ogla el Malha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019639|Bir el-Ater District]]'' | {{Coord|34.991389|7.941389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Ogla Melha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649483|Bir Ghbalou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q11078369|Bir Ghbalou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2631|3.5866|display=inline}} | [[File:Bir Ghbalou.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Bir Ghbalou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050006|El Khabouzia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q11078369|Bir Ghbalou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316389|3.600833|display=inline}} | [[File:Khabouzia entree.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Khabouzia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3419336|Raouraoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q11078369|Bir Ghbalou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.23546|3.64704|display=inline}} | [[File:Raouraoua.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Raouraoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q578440|Sidi Embarek]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019631|Bir Kasd Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.103889|4.911944|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Sidi Embarek.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q980903|Khelil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019631|Bir Kasd Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.175643|5.029077|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Khellil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649730|Bir Kasdali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019631|Bir Kasd Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.15|5.033333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Bir Kasdali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904342|Bir El Mokadem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q508411|Bir Mokadem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.37245|7.8074|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Bir Mokkadem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3120926|Guorriguer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q508411|Bir Mokadem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.42278|7.59333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Guorriguer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126511|Hammamet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q508411|Bir Mokadem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.448333|7.953056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Hammamet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q335744|Gué de Constantine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019634|Bir Mourad Raïs District]]'' | {{Coord|36.696944|3.095278|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo aadl ain naadja 27052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1626.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1010749|Hydra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019634|Bir Mourad Raïs District]]''<br/>[[Algiers]] | {{Coord|36.747222|3.040278|display=inline}} | [[File:Val d'Hydra.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1628.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884982|Saoula]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019634|Bir Mourad Raïs District]]'' | {{Coord|36.702778|3.023889|display=inline}} | [[File:1890 vignes de Saoula Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1657.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2534015|Bir Mourad Rais]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019634|Bir Mourad Raïs District]]'' | {{Coord|36.739444|3.05|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo bir mourad rais ancienne mairie 29052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1609.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904515|Birkhadem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019634|Bir Mourad Raïs District]]'' | {{Coord|36.716111|3.049722|display=inline}} | [[File:شامخة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1612.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649303|Birine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4916362|Birine District]]'' | {{Coord|35.633333|3.216667|display=inline}} | [[File:مسجد عبد الحفيظ القاسمي وساحة أول نوفمبر البيرين.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Birine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895844|Benhar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4916362|Birine District]]'' | {{Coord|35.48473|3.00984|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Benhar - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Benhar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358214|Ouled Chebel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019648|Birtouta District]]'' | {{Coord|36.598056|2.995|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-1636.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3519005|Tessala El Merdja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019648|Birtouta District]]'' | {{Coord|36.630833|2.945556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tassala El Merdja - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1635.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4917124|Birtouta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019648|Birtouta District]]'' | {{Coord|36.645833|2.998611|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.649691|2.998753|display=inline}} | [[File:Bir Touta بئرتوتة - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1634.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q312759|Biskra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q943844|Biskra District]]'' | {{Coord|34.85|5.733333|display=inline}} | [[File:Biskra 1.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Biskra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049927|El Hadjeb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q943844|Biskra District]]'' | {{Coord|34.790278|5.596944|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hadjeb, l'université الجامعة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 El Hadjeb.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Blida]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019637|Blida District]]'' | {{Coord|36.472222|2.833333|display=inline}} | [[File:Blida centre.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-01 - Blida - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911971|Bouarfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019637|Blida District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466944|2.816389|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouarfa, Algeria (2010-03-08).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-24 - Bouarfa - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649016|Boghni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019641|Boghni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.54371|3.95233|display=inline}} | [[File:Boghni devant le Djurdjua.jpeg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Boghni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2867151|Assi Youcef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019641|Boghni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.505556|4.014444|display=inline}} | [[File:Assi Youcef, Tizi Ouzou Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Assi Youcef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922209|Bounouh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019641|Boghni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.499444|3.936389|display=inline}} | [[File:Bounouh Boghni 22Mar.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Bounouh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3303859|Mechtras]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019641|Boghni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.543889|4.011111|display=inline}} | [[File:Mechtras - Tizi-Ouzou- Tazroute.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Mechtras.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2535214|Bordj Badji Mokhtar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004766|Bordj Badji Mokhtar District]]'' | {{Coord|21.328889|0.954167|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj-Mokhtar (1990).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Bordj Badji Mokhtar (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701565|Timiaouine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004766|Bordj Badji Mokhtar District]]'' | {{Coord|20.437222|1.810556|display=inline}} | [[File:Hotel de ville de Timiaouine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Timiaouine (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q544733|Bordj Bou Arréridj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019644|Bordj Bou Arreridj District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|4.766667|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Bou Arreridj مدينة برج بوعريريج.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Bordj Bou Arreridj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q614809|Beni Lahcene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325314|Bordj Bou Naâma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.81298|1.68954|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Beni Lahcene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q941583|Bordj Bounaama]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325314|Bordj Bou Naâma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.85|1.616667|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Bounaama.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Bordj Bou Naama.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895873|Beni Chaib]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325314|Bordj Bou Naâma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.82014|1.79953|display=inline}} | [[File:بحيرة بني شعيب.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Beni Chaib.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483292|Sidi Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325314|Bordj Bou Naâma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.86|1.681111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Sidi Slimane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649117|Bordj Emir Khaled Chikh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q168877|Bordj El Amir Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1222|2.2056|display=inline}} | [[File:Bord Emir Khaled.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Bordj Emir Khaled.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904350|Bir Ould Khelifa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q168877|Bordj El Amir Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|36.183333|2.233333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Bir Ouled Khelifa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3327636|Tarik Ibn Ziad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q168877|Bordj El Amir Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|36|2.15|display=inline}} | [[File:Tarik Ibn Ziad طارق بن زياد - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Tarik Bin Ziad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910766|Bordj El Emir Abdelkader]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325268|Bordj Emir Abdelkader District]]'' | {{Coord|35.812757|2.209009|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Emir Abdelkader برج الامير عبد القادر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Bordj El Emir Abdelkader.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12195041|Youssoufia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325268|Bordj Emir Abdelkader District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9481|2.11275|display=inline}} | [[File:El Youssoufia اليوسفية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Youssoufia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q628038|El Anseur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019643|Bordj Ghedir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.041667|4.816667|display=inline}} | [[File:أحجار داخل غابة "بومرقد" بلدية العناصر ولاية برج بوعريريج.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 El Anasser.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q647705|Taglait]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019643|Bordj Ghedir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.77164|4.99974|display=inline}} | [[File:Forêt de Bitam.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Taglait.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894485|Belimour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019643|Bordj Ghedir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.98045|4.87984|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2910772|Bordj Ghédir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019643|Bordj Ghedir District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q266411|Bordj Bou Arréridj Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.9|4.89|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.901111|4.898056|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Chemissa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Bordj Ghedir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3104853|Ghilassa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019643|Bordj Ghedir District]]'' | {{Coord|35.87175|4.90625|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Ghilassa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910781|Bordj Menaïel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q9303989|Bordj Ménaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.741667|3.723056|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Ménaiel.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Bordj Menaiel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3033013|Djinet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q9303989|Bordj Ménaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.876977|3.723121|display=inline}} | [[File:Djinet air view.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Djinet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3183565|Zemmouri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q9303989|Bordj Ménaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.783333|3.6|display=inline}} | [[File:Zemmouri 11092012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Zemmouri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3229078|Legata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q9303989|Bordj Ménaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.74902|3.6831|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Leghata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910774|Bordj Okhriss]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156670|Bordj Okhriss District]]'' | {{Coord|36.083333|3.975556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Bordj Okhriss.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125560|Hadjera Zerga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156670|Bordj Okhriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.957778|3.849444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Hadjera Zerga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3307743|Mezdour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156670|Bordj Okhriss District]]'' | {{Coord|36.07987|4.07058|display=inline}} | [[File:المزدور.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Mezdour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513862|Taguedit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156670|Bordj Okhriss District]]'' | {{Coord|36.01759|3.99462|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Taguedit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648662|Bordj Zemoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019645|Bordj Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.292991|4.855957|display=inline}} | [[File:Khubayb ibn Adiy Mosque, Bordj Bou Arréridj, Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Bordj Zemmoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358215|Ouled Dahmane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019645|Bordj Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.22284|4.770027|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Dahmane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Ouled Dahman.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3515965|Tassamert]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019645|Bordj Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.269293|4.823041|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Tassameurt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1438489|Bou Ismaïl]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019649|Bou Ismaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.65|2.7|display=inline}} | [[File:Bou Ismaïl.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-26 - Bou Ismail - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876381|Ain Tagourait]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019649|Bou Ismaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.603611|2.609444|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Tagourait.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-17 - Ain Tagourait - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921597|Bouharoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019649|Bou Ismaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.623381|2.654829|display=inline}} | [[File:Bou Haroun.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-30 - Bouharoun - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196147|Khemisti]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019649|Bou Ismaïl District]]'' | {{Coord|36.625833|2.680833|display=inline}} | [[File:Chiffalo.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-06 - Khemisti - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q401741|Bou Saada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272172|Bou Saâda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.208333|4.173889|display=inline}} | [[File:Bousaayel.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-28-20 - Bou-Saâda - Wilaya M'Sila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049938|El Hamel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272172|Bou Saâda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.133333|4.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville d'El Hamel مدينة الهامل - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - El Hamel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358286|Oultene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272172|Bou Saâda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.11952|4.37306|display=inline}} | [[File:Village oultem.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Oultem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2784515|Sidi Ameur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019651|Boualem District]]'' | {{Coord|33.7682|1.43303|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Ameur سيدي عامر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Sidi Ameur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911916|Boualem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019651|Boualem District]]'' | {{Coord|33.729051|1.534138|display=inline}} | | [[File:DA - 32-06 - Boualem - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483296|Sidi Taifour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019651|Boualem District]]'' | {{Coord|33.7172|1.68271|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 32 Sidi Tifour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3499559|Stitten]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019651|Boualem District]]'' | {{Coord|33.757992|1.223345|display=inline}} | [[File:Lever du soleil depuis Stitten d'El-bayadh.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Stitten.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q32477|Ait Tizi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019653|Bouandas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.558889|5.127222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aït Tizi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876517|Ait Naoual Mezada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019653|Bouandas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.545833|5.083333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aït Naoual Mezada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911931|Bouandas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019653|Bouandas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.494699|5.101948|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouandas centre , vue générale.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bouandas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922508|Bousselam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019653|Bouandas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.498889|5.037778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bousselam.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648628|Aïn Ben Beida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949281|Bouchegouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.617778|7.695278|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Aïn Ben Beida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921360|Boughouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949281|Bouchegouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.47172|7.72976|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouchegouf بوشقوف.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Bouchegouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3271986|Medjez Sfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949281|Bouchegouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.45|7.766667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Medjez Sfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272169|Oued Fragha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949281|Bouchegouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.555833|7.713056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Oued Fragha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q311984|Boudouaou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2007521|Boudouaou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.731319|3.404781|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo marche boudouaou 03062016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Boudouaou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648978|Bouzegza Keddara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2007521|Boudouaou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.62541|3.47934|display=inline}} | [[File:Tunnels de Bouzegza انفاق بوزقزة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Bouzegza Keddara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921497|Boudouaou-El-Bahri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2007521|Boudouaou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.772222|3.405556|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo boudouaou marine 08102014.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Boudouaou El Bahri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050007|El Kharrouba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2007521|Boudouaou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.657778|3.406389|display=inline}} | [[File:Barrage de Keddara سد قدارة - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 El Kharrouba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3056457|Ouled Hedadj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2007521|Boudouaou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.72|3.35|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Ouled Hedadj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649886|Soumaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019656|Boufarik District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233637|Blida Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.51833|2.90528|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.518333|2.905278|display=inline}} | [[File:Vers Ecole de police مدرسة الشرطة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-14 - Soumaa - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2344308|Boufarik]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019656|Boufarik District]]'' | {{Coord|36.575|2.909722|display=inline}} | [[File:Mosquée à Boufarik.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-20 - Boufarik - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118934|Guerrouaou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019656|Boufarik District]]'' | {{Coord|36.522222|2.883333|display=inline}} | [[File:Guerrouaou 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-27 - Guerouaou - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q925894|Ouled Selama]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q537884|Bougara District]]'' | {{Coord|36.548333|3.11|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Slama - ISUZU - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-19 - Ouled Slama - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649228|Hammam Melouane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q537884|Bougara District]]'' | {{Coord|36.486667|3.045|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam melouane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-12 - Hammam Melouane - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2573679|Bougara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q537884|Bougara District]]'' | {{Coord|36.541667|3.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Bougara (Rovigo) بوقرة - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-26 - Bougara - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876366|Aïn Roua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263424|Bougaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.334444|5.180556|display=inline}} | [[File:عين الروى ولاية سطيف 16.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Roua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895890|Beni Hocine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263424|Bougaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.27229|5.12743|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Hocine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921542|Bougaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263424|Bougaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.332413|5.088515|display=inline}} | [[File:The city of Bougaa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bougaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650268|Tousmouline]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019658|Bougtob District]]'' | {{Coord|33.651565|0.308733|display=inline}} | | [[File:DA - 32-20 - Tousmouline - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921589|Bougtob]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019658|Bougtob District]]'' | {{Coord|34.042419|0.089264|display=inline}} | [[File:Bougtob بلدية بوقطب (48390171382).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Bougtob.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050008|El Kheiter]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019658|Bougtob District]]'' | {{Coord|34.1434|0.073247|display=inline}} | [[File:El Kheiter الخيثر (31322218115).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 El Kheiter.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q728433|Souaflia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949453|Bouguirat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.85|0.333333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 27 Souaflia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921590|Bouguirat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949453|Bouguirat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.751528|0.2532|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouguirat بوقيراط - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Bouguirat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3461301|Safsaf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949453|Bouguirat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.075278|0.428333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-27-30 Safsaf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3485239|Sirat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4949453|Bouguirat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.78|0.19194|display=inline}} | [[File:Sirat سيرات - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Sirat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876345|Aïn Kerma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q607231|Bouhadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.593889|8.201111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Aïn Kerma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921594|Bouhadjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q607231|Bouhadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.503013|8.105164|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Bouhadjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126492|Hammam Béni Salah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q607231|Bouhadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.519722|8.034167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Hammam Beni Salah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358058|Oued Zitoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q607231|Bouhadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466111|8.0575|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Oued Zitoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q757243|Hacine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019646|Bouhanifia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.456944|-0.0025|display=inline}} | [[File:Hacine.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Hacine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911890|Bou Hanifia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019646|Bouhanifia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.316111|-0.048333|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouhnifia بوحنيفية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Bou Hanifia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049894|Guittena]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019646|Bouhanifia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.408333|-0.05|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- El Guettana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921610|Bouhmama]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324914|Bouhmama District]]'' | {{Coord|35.32034|6.74657|display=inline}} | [[File:Chelia 4.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Bouhmama.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2972032|Chélia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324914|Bouhmama District]]'' | {{Coord|35.36431|6.77868|display=inline}} | [[File:الغروب من الأوراس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Chelia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272298|M'Sara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324914|Bouhmama District]]'' | {{Coord|35.23857|6.57315|display=inline}} | [[File:3azza-Msara 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 M'Sara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3571239|Yabous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324914|Bouhmama District]]'' | {{Coord|35.40815|6.64184|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Yabous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649700|Chébli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019660|Bouinan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.577778|3.008333|display=inline}} | [[File:Chebli شبلي - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-02 - Chebli - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921643|Bouinan]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019660|Bouinan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.53167|2.99194|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Bouinane بوينان - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-03 - Bouinan - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648911|Boukadir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710756|Boukadir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.063611|1.124444|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie BOUKADIR.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Boukadir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649555|Oued Sly]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710756|Boukadir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1|1.2|display=inline}} | [[File:واد سلي.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Oued Sly.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7549961|Sobha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710756|Boukadir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.109167|1.109722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz-02-Sobha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921601|Boukhatem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325337|Boukhatem District]]'' | {{Coord|36.303851|6.014113|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Bouhatem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3023967|Derrahi Bousselah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325337|Boukhatem District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3125|5.927778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Derradji Bousselah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649043|Boumedfaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004785|Boumedfaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.370278|2.476389|display=inline}} | [[File:Boumedfaa بومدفع - panoramio (5).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Boumedfaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657341|Hoceinia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004785|Boumedfaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316667|2.4|display=inline}} | [[File:Houcinia (Ex Bouhalouane) الحسينية - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Hoceinia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1895428|Tidjelabine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q580145|Boumerdès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.727778|3.497222|display=inline}} | [[File:Tidjelabine تيجلابين - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Tidjellabine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2998044|Corso]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q580145|Boumerdès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7565|3.43333|display=inline}} | [[File:Tidjellabine - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Corso.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q311960|Ben Choud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q236752|Boumerdès Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.862352|3.880577|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Ben Choud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2826124|Aafir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q236752|Boumerdès Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.767596|3.7029|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Afir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q599165|Bounoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4950031|Bounoura District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17601|Ghardaïa Province]]'' | {{Coord|32.4825|3.703611|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar de Bounoura.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Bounoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884169|El Atteuf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4950031|Bounoura District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17601|Ghardaïa Province]]'' | {{Coord|32.4775|3.747778|display=inline}} | [[File:El-Atteuf Ghardaia Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 El Atteuf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649516|Boussemghoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019665|Boussemghoun District]]'' | {{Coord|32.866667|0.016667|display=inline}} | [[File:Boussemghoune.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Boussemghoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649478|Bouteldja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q584100|Bouthéldja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.502875|8.10482|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouteldja rue principal.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-Bouteldja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962063|Chefia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q584100|Bouthéldja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.661667|8.106389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Chefia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3215674|Lac des Oiseaux]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q584100|Bouthéldja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.783333|8.116667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Lac des Oiseaux.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648956|Misserghin]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019667|Boutlélis District]]'' | {{Coord|35.619444|-0.729722|display=inline}} | [[File:Misserghin01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Misserghin.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876312|Aïn El Kerma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019667|Boutlélis District]]'' | {{Coord|35.648889|-0.975833|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Ain El-Kerma.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Ain El Kerma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922617|Boutlélis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019667|Boutlélis District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q231331|Oran Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.572955|-0.899924|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.572778|-0.899722|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Boutlelis.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Boutlelis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q612537|Bouzareah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019671|Bouzaréah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.78988|3.01772|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouzareah Downtown.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1611.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2673474|El Biar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019671|Bouzaréah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.768333|3.030556|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue d'El biar sur la baie d'Alger.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1610.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895321|Ben Aknoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019671|Bouzaréah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.756389|3.008333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ben aknoun.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1622.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895900|Béni Messous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019671|Bouzaréah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.78|2.974444|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Messous بني مسوس - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1632.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q674163|Beni-Zekki]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019669|Bouzguen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.56493|4.50535|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Beni Zekki.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q778239|Illoula Oumalou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019669|Bouzguen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.578889|4.442778|display=inline}} | [[File:Tabuda de illuyen umalu.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Illoula Oumalou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215269|Bouzeguene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019669|Bouzguen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.616705|4.47985|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouzeguene, Tizi Ouzou Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Bouzeguène.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3147876|Idjeur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019669|Bouzguen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.666428|4.518645|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune d'Idjeur (Tizi Ouzou, Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Idjeur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649021|Bouzina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970621|Bouzina District]]'' | {{Coord|35.264722|6.098611|display=inline}} | [[File:بوزينة القديمة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-35 Bouzina - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6488718|Larbaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970621|Bouzina District]]'' | {{Coord|35.355278|6.145|display=inline}} | [[File:قرية ثاعزونت.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-61 Larbaa - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q722522|Bouïra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156908|Bouïra District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233655|Bouira Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.378333|3.8925|display=inline}} | [[File:BOUIRA.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Bouira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876493|Ait Laziz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156908|Bouïra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.444722|3.908611|display=inline}} | [[File:Adrar amelal, ait laziz.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aït Laziz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4833301|Aïn Turk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156908|Bouïra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.393333|3.824722|display=inline}} | [[File:Scenery - panoramio - stone wu (12).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aïn El Turc.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648965|Hadj Mechri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14624811|Brida District]]'' | {{Coord|33.95715|1.59879|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Hadj Mechri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649391|Brida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14624811|Brida District]]'' | {{Coord|33.906111|1.784444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Brida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3515420|Taouila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q14624811|Brida District]]'' | {{Coord|33.868883|1.860595|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Taouila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649308|Ghassoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019666|Brézina District]]'' | {{Coord|33.377272|1.203089|display=inline}} | [[File:El Ghassoul الغاسول.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Ghassoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2924791|Brezina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019666|Brézina District]]'' | {{Coord|33.099379|1.260767|display=inline}} | [[File:La mairie Brezina بلدية بريزينة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Brezina.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3054778|Krakda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019666|Brézina District]]'' | {{Coord|33.319269|0.95727|display=inline}} | | [[File:DA - 32-15 - Kraakda - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Béchar]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2019699|Béchar District]]'' | {{Coord|31.616389|-2.218333|display=inline}} | [[File:Gourai.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-01-Bechar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59975|Béjaïa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005720|Béjaïa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.751111|5.064167|display=inline}} | [[File:Béjaia بجاية 11.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Bejaia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649069|Oued Ghir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005720|Béjaïa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.710556|4.978333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Oued Ghir.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Oued Ghir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3148138|Ighzer Amokrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q233665|Béjaïa Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2005689|Ifri-Ouzellaguen District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3358841|Ouzellaguen]]'' | {{Coord|36.5286|4.60164|display=inline}} | [[File:Ighzer Amokrane.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q130246|Béni Abbès]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005787|Béni Abbès District]]'' | {{Coord|30.131667|-2.169167|display=inline}} | [[File:Béni-Abbés Oued saoura.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-07-Beni Abbes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215797|Tamtert]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005787|Béni Abbès District]]'' | {{Coord|29.910278|-1.890278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-20-Tamtert.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876368|Aïn Sebt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632630|Béni Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|36.486389|5.711389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Sebt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895864|Beni Aziz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632630|Béni Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466667|5.65|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Aziz.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Aziz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273694|Maaouia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632630|Béni Aziz District]]'' | {{Coord|36.38899|5.70995|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Maaouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649892|Sidi Medjahed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5005048|Béni Boussaïd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.775278|-1.636667|display=inline}} | [[File:El Kef - Tlemcen الكاف - تلمسان (51936806963).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-37 - Sidi Medjahed - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895870|Beni Boussaid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5005048|Béni Boussaïd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.648056|-1.753056|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-38 - Beni Boussaid - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648908|Beni Haoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710775|Béni Haoua District]]'' | {{Coord|36.533333|1.566667|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Haoua.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Beni Haoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2924353|Breira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710775|Béni Haoua District]]'' | {{Coord|36.44868|1.61514|display=inline}} | [[File:Breira (Chlef) بريرة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Breira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358018|Oued Gousine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710775|Béni Haoua District]]'' | {{Coord|36.525556|1.494444|display=inline}} | [[File:Village de Oued Goussine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Oued Goussine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223580|Beni Maouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019614|Béni Maouche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.507222|4.756111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ait maouche Beni maouche vue génerale.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Beni Maouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648984|Béni Ounif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019615|Béni Ounif District]]'' | {{Coord|32.05|-1.25|display=inline}} | [[File:133 Beni Ounif.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-21-Beni Ounif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2263714|Béni Ourtilane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019607|Béni Ourtilane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.442222|4.855833|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Ourtilane, Sétif Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Ouartilene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876352|Aïn Legraj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019607|Béni Ourtilane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4096|4.891|display=inline}} | [[File:Cascade de Aïn Legradj à Bordj Bou Arreredj.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Aïn Legraj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895875|Beni Chebana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019607|Béni Ourtilane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.468333|4.868333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Chebana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3382219|Beni Mouhli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019607|Béni Ourtilane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.516111|4.909722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Mouhli.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q80408|Beni Saf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019618|Béni Saf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.302222|-1.383611|display=inline}} | [[File:Lettres sur la ville de Beni-Saf, Algérie. DZ.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Beni Saf (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657331|Sidi Safi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019618|Béni Saf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.283333|-1.3|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Sidi Safi (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049839|El Emir Abdelkader]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019618|Béni Saf District]]'' | {{Coord|35.224444|-1.403333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - El Emir Abdelkader (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649441|Bouskene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019622|Béni Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.191127|3.236225|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouskene.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Bouskane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895913|Beni Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019622|Béni Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.22703|3.30596|display=inline}} | [[File:Béni Slimane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Beni Slimane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483229|Sidi Errabia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019622|Béni Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.275556|3.306667|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Rabie سيدي الربيع.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sidi Errabie.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649234|Azails]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5005051|Béni Snous District]]'' | {{Coord|34.687778|-1.465556|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-21 - Azaïls - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895867|Beni Bahdel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5005051|Béni Snous District]]'' | {{Coord|34.693889|-1.518611|display=inline}} | [[File:Paysage à l'entrée de la commune de Beni Bahdel, région de Tlemcen.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-42 - Beni Bahdel - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895909|Beni Snous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5005051|Béni Snous District]]'' | {{Coord|34.6625|-1.5425|display=inline}} | [[File:Benisnous 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-17 - Beni Snous - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649062|Berriane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019630|Bérianne District]]'' | {{Coord|32.133333|4.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:Berriane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Berriane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q748765|Bou Aiche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019680|Chahbounia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.55267|2.35868|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouaiche البواعيش.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Bouaiche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921560|Boughezoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019680|Chahbounia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6997|2.84779|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 26 Boughzoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2947598|Chahbounia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019680|Chahbounia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.54472|2.60333|display=inline}} | [[File:Chahbounia الشهبونية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Chahbounia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649151|Charef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5074220|Charef District]]'' | {{Coord|34.618023|2.801042|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Charef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209170|El Guedid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5074220|Charef District]]'' | {{Coord|34.646944|2.615|display=inline}} | [[File:El Gueddid بلدية القديد - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - El Guedid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895915|Beni Yagoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5074220|Charef District]]'' | {{Coord|34.466443|2.785077|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Beni Yagoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2642041|Charouine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004777|Charouine District]]'' | {{Coord|29.016667|-0.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:Charouine Adrar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Charouine (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701541|Talmine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004777|Charouine District]]'' | {{Coord|29.329722|-0.498611|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Talmin (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2757193|Ouled Aissa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004777|Charouine District]]'' | {{Coord|29.4184|-0.0876|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Ouled Aissa (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q374800|Chechar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324499|Chechar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.03799|7.00404|display=inline}} | [[File:Khenchela chechar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Cherchar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032874|Djellal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324499|Chechar District]]'' | {{Coord|34.916667|6.9|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Djellal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050146|El Oueldja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324499|Chechar District]]'' | {{Coord|34.915556|6.680556|display=inline}} | [[File:El-Oualdja-Khenchela-Algerie1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 El Oueldja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196179|Khirane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324499|Chechar District]]'' | {{Coord|34.99861|6.76045|display=inline}} | [[File:Khirenne-9.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Khirane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649364|Chekfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579044|Chekfa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.771308|5.959525|display=inline}} | [[File:Street in Chekfa, Jijel Province (Algeria).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Chekfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650017|Sidi Abdelaziz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579044|Chekfa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.853333|6.051389|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur Sidi Abdelaziz, Jijel (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Sidi Abdelaziz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884153|El Kennar Nouchfi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579044|Chekfa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.824722|5.959167|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Mairie d'El Kennar (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 El Kennar Nouchfi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910782|Bordj T'har]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579044|Chekfa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.746941|6.034279|display=inline}} | [[File:Bodj Thar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Bordj Thar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215445|Chelghoum Laïd]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5089868|Chelghoum Laïd District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q235723|Mila Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.166667|6.166667|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.162778|6.166389|display=inline}} | [[File:Chelghoum Laid.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Chelghoum Laid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876357|Aïn Mellouk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5089868|Chelghoum Laïd District]]'' | {{Coord|36.274991|6.176435|display=inline}} | [[File:Temda 4.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Aïn Mellouk.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324813|Oued Athmania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5089868|Chelghoum Laïd District]]'' | {{Coord|36.249722|6.286111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Oued Athmania.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962198|Chellal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272354|Chellal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.516667|4.383333|display=inline}} | [[File:Chellal - M'sila الشلال - المسيلة 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Chellal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196166|Khettouti Sed El Djir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272354|Chellal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6303|4.17676|display=inline}} | [[File:Khattouti Sed El Djir خطوطي سد الجير.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Khettouti Sed El Djir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273702|Maarif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272354|Chellal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.415278|4.344167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-28-29 - Maarif - Wilaya M'Sila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358241|Ouled Madhi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272354|Chellal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.576667|4.508333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Madhi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649540|Chellala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019672|Chellala District]]'' | {{Coord|33.033132|0.055618|display=inline}} | [[File:Algérie (3562123227).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Chellala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050067|El Maharra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019672|Chellala District]]'' | {{Coord|33.311667|0.364444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DA - 32-19 - El Mehara - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q961923|Tafraout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118343|Chellalat El Adhaoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9715|3.35195|display=inline}} | [[File:بلدية تافراوت المدية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Tafraout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876361|Aïn Ou Ksir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118343|Chellalat El Adhaoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.851944|3.470556|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Ouksir عين اوقصير - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ain Ouksir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962199|Challalat El Adhaoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118343|Chellalat El Adhaoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.94|3.41|display=inline}} | [[File:Chellalet El Adhaoura.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Chellalet El Adhaoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962653|Cheniguel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118343|Chellalat El Adhaoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.922222|3.566667|display=inline}} | [[File:Chniguel.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Cheniguel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1885068|Tibane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1118209|Chemini District]]'' | {{Coord|36.613333|4.650833|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Tibane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tibane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223592|Akfadou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1118209|Chemini District]]'' | {{Coord|36.628611|4.623611|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie d'Akfadou.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Akfadou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962465|Chemini]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1118209|Chemini District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6|4.61667|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Chemini.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Chemini.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3087355|Souk-Oufella]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1118209|Chemini District]]'' | {{Coord|36.606111|4.638889|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie-de-souk-oufella.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Souk-Oufella.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215192|Chemora]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970558|Chemora District]]'' | {{Coord|35.666667|6.65|display=inline}} | [[File:Chemorar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-36 Chemora - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215207|Boulhilat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970558|Chemora District]]'' | {{Coord|35.724444|6.6625|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-60 Boulhilat - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1617666|Cherchell]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019675|Cherchell District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6075|2.19|display=inline}} | [[File:Cherchell's fountain place.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-22 - Cherchell - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650062|Sidi Ghiles]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019675|Cherchell District]]'' | {{Coord|36.583333|2.116667|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Ghiles.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-32 - Sidi Ghiles - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125559|Hadjeret Ennous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019675|Cherchell District]]'' | {{Coord|36.573333|2.051944|display=inline}} | [[File:Hadjret Ennous.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-42 - Hadjeret Ennous - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483287|Sidi Semiane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019675|Cherchell District]]'' | {{Coord|36.508611|2.063889|display=inline}} | [[File:Le Mausolé de Sidi Semiane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-40 - Sidi Semiane - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q736205|Cheria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019684|Cheria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.270359|7.75197|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Cheria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3530066|Tlidjene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019684|Cheria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.117592|7.767334|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Tlidjene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649293|Chetaibi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710811|Chetaïbi District]]'' | {{Coord|37.0661|7.3803|display=inline}} | [[File:Chetaibi vue Aerienne.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Chetaïbi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649520|Amieur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019678|Chetouane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.035197|-1.240082|display=inline}} | [[File:الغروب.jp.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-14 - Amieur - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876331|Aïn Fezza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019678|Chetouane District]]'' | {{Coord|34.877222|-1.235278|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Fezzaa عين فزة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-12 - Ain Fezza - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962883|Chetouane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019678|Chetouane District]]'' | {{Coord|34.920308|-1.289767|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouest ainelhout.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-50 - Chetouane - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q849561|Chlef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710823|Chlef District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q73516530|arrondissement of Orleansville]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2017661|Department of Algiers]]'' | {{Coord|36.164722|1.331667|display=inline}} | [[File:Chlef-rue-20-août.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Chlef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649324|Oum Drou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710823|Chlef District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2|1.383333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Oum Drou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649902|Sendjas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710823|Chlef District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|1.4|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Sendjas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12710244|Tadjna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q231752|Chlef Province]]'' | No/unknown value | | |- | ''[[:d:Q335751|Cheraga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019689|Chéraga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.766944|2.960278|display=inline}} | [[File:Cheraga centre ville.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1650.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215680|Ouled Fayet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019689|Chéraga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.733333|2.95|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled fayet 02072013.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1651.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876264|Aïn Bénian]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019689|Chéraga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.803056|2.921667|display=inline}} | [[File:La Madrague.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1644.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021980|Dély Ibrahim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019689|Chéraga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.751944|2.981389|display=inline}} | [[File:Dely Ibrahim.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1623.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5645553|El Hammamet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019689|Chéraga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.813889|2.971389|display=inline}} | [[File:APC d'El Hammamet بلدية الحمامات.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1624.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q428519|Beni Zid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5147526|Collo District]]'' | {{Coord|36.807979|6.505623|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Beni Zid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649260|Cheraia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5147526|Collo District]]'' | {{Coord|37.001833|6.512876|display=inline}} | [[File:Image from tamanart.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Cheraia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2983525|Collo]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5147526|Collo District]]'' | {{Coord|37.0065|6.5609|display=inline}} | [[File:Collo skikda.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Collo.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648601|Aïn Bouchekif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019687|Dahmouni District]]'' | {{Coord|35.355833|1.510556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Aïn Bouchekif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649360|Dahmouni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019687|Dahmouni District]]'' | {{Coord|35.416684|1.476288|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Dahmouni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q628315|Beni Milleuk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019681|Damous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.444444|1.716667|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Mileuk بني ميلك - panoramio (6).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-41 - Beni Milleuk - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3012978|Damous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019681|Damous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.549466|1.704297|display=inline}} | [[File:Damous.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-23 - Damous - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3217918|Larhat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019681|Damous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.55867|1.801414|display=inline}} | [[File:Larhat.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-03 - Larhat - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q619294|Mouilha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5221881|Dar Chioukh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.75|3.48333|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Mouilah.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - M'Liliha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3015935|Dar Chioukh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5221881|Dar Chioukh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.897222|3.489722|display=inline}} | [[File:Dar Chioukh دار الشيوخ (24338880538).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Dar Chioukh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483191|Sidi Baizid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5221881|Dar Chioukh District]]'' | {{Coord|35.058056|3.430556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Baizid سيدي بايزيد 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Sidi Baizid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59419|Dar El Beïda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.714167|3.2125|display=inline}} | [[File:Aéroport Alger 2011.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1620.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59579|Bab Ezzouar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.721944|3.185556|display=inline}} | [[File:Bab Ezzouar باب الزوار.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1184993|Bordj El Kiffan]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.747222|3.190833|display=inline}} | [[File:Fortdeleaubougara.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1630.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215503|Bordj El Bahri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.790556|3.249722|display=inline}} | [[File:Algiers Airport Karakas-1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1639.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2741121|Mohammadia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.728889|3.146944|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo grande mosquee 30112016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1629.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876387|Aïn Taya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.791389|3.2925|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo ain taya vue aerienne 13012016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1638.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050046|El Marsa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019697|Dar El Beïda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.809167|3.254722|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamentfoust-vue-port.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1640.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649721|Darguina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019701|Darguina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.566667|5.3|display=inline}} | [[File:Lota Ouzemour - Darguina لوطة اوزمور - درقينة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Darguina.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214545|Aït Smaïl]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019701|Darguina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.54626|5.229664|display=inline}} | [[File:Maire d'Aït-Smaïl (village de Taregregt).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ait-Smail.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215307|Taskriout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019701|Darguina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.547565|5.273352|display=inline}} | [[File:Kafrida.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Taskriout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3025708|Dayet Ben dahoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019691|Daïa Ben Dahoua District]]'' | {{Coord|32.536944|3.605556|display=inline}} | [[File:Dhayet Bendhahoua ضاية بن ضحوة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Dhayet Bendhahoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Constantine (Algeria)|Constantine]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019686|Daïra of Constantine]]'' | {{Coord|36.365|6.614722|display=inline}} | [[File:Magnia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Constantine location.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3020835|Debila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019692|Debila District]]'' | {{Coord|33.506334|6.937995|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Debila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128195|Hassani Abdelkrim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019692|Debila District]]'' | {{Coord|33.477222|6.895|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassani, El Oued Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Hassani Abdelkrim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021755|Dellys]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710859|Dellys District]]'' | {{Coord|36.916667|3.883333|display=inline}} | [[File:Dellys - Tadelles.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Dellys.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884817|El Djazia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019703|Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.663154|7.507954|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Djazia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3025681|D'hala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019703|Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.461111|7.547222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - El Dhelala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032751|Djamaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019698|Djamaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|33.531379|5.990982|display=inline}} | [[File:ISS020-E-9248 - View of Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 Djamaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272294|M'Rara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019698|Djamaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|33.476667|5.660278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 57 M'Rara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325140|Sidi Amrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019698|Djamaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|33.5|6.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 57 Sidi Amrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325168|Tendla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019698|Djamaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|33.675211|6.033769|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 57 Tendla.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Djanet]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2368801|Djanet District]]'' | {{Coord|24.555|9.485278|display=inline}} | [[File:Djanet.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 56 Djanet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910767|Bordj El Houasse]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2368801|Djanet District]]'' | {{Coord|24.878889|8.443056|display=inline}} | [[File:Vallée d'Iherir, commune de Bordj El Haouas, wilaya d'Illizi, Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 56 Bordj El Haouas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2982706|Colla, Bordj Bou Arreridj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019695|Djaâfra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.262778|4.661944|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Colla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032726|Djaafra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019695|Djaâfra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.29294|4.66361|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Djaafra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050042|El-Maïn]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019695|Djaâfra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.366667|4.75|display=inline}} | [[File:El Main in snow.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 El Main.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7674990|Tafreg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019695|Djaâfra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.305556|4.713889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Teffreg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032841|Djebel Messaad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272153|Djebel Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.991111|4.0925|display=inline}} | [[File:Djebel messaad.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Djebel Messaad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3486672|Slim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272153|Djebel Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.896944|3.734722|display=inline}} | [[File:Slim.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Slim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2794758|Djelfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211095|Djelfa District]]'' | {{Coord|34.666667|3.25|display=inline}} | [[File:Djelfabul.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Djelfa location.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021530|Deldoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q233233|Djelfa Province]]'' | {{Coord|34.205278|3.253056|display=inline}} | [[File:Deldoul دلدول - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Deldoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649112|Djelida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004351|Djelida District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2|2.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Djelida جليدة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Djelida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922230|Bourached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004351|Djelida District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1691|1.9292|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Bourached.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032884|Djemaa Ouled cheikh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004351|Djelida District]]'' | {{Coord|36.077931|2.005|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Djemaa Ouled Cheikh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649245|Branis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095738|Djemourah District]]'' | {{Coord|35|5.775|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Branis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032882|Djemorah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095738|Djemourah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.069556|5.844212|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Djemorah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649075|Djendel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004360|Djendel District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2017661|Department of Algiers]]'' | {{Coord|36.218611|2.408889|display=inline}} | [[File:Djendel جندل - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Djendel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649122|Barbouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004360|Djendel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1|2.483333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Birbouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215749|Oued Chorfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004360|Djendel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.165278|2.554722|display=inline}} | [[File:واد الشرفة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Oued Chorfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215082|Abdelkader Azil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019716|Djezzar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.430556|5.126944|display=inline}} | [[File:مقر البلدية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-15 Metkaouak - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215165|Ouled Ammar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019716|Djezzar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.462222|5.156111|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-56 Ouled Ammar - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032929|Djezzar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019716|Djezzar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.509444|5.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Djezar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-43 Djezzar - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032949|Djidioua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019718|Djidiouia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.929371|0.830669|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Djidioua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126593|Hamri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019718|Djidiouia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.019167|0.69|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 El Hamri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325228|Ouled Sidi Mihoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019718|Djidiouia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.973889|0.691667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Ouled Sidi Mihoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2390470|Djimla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579002|Djimla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.58|5.884167|display=inline}} | [[File:Djimla000.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Djimla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921507|Boudriaa Ben Yadjis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579002|Djimla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.599208|5.807171|display=inline}} | [[File:DSC 0258 بحيرة أم لحناش بمنطقة تيمزڨدة ببني ياجيس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Boudria Ben Yadjis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q747462|Beni Fouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019702|Djémila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.286073|5.607147|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Fouda.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Beni Fouda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032880|Djemila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019702|Djémila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3171|5.73521|display=inline}} | [[File:Djemila 0610510.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Djemila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q544912|Baba Hassen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541527|Draria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.694444|2.971944|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-1655.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649106|Douéra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541527|Draria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.669444|2.942222|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo douera 06102017.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1654.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215090|El Achour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541527|Draria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.733889|2.991944|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo les cascades el achour 30052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1652.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2423749|Khraïcia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541527|Draria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.677058|2.981019|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.683333|2.983333|display=inline}} | [[File:Khraicia خرايسية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1656.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3039143|Draria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541527|Draria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.713889|2.997778|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo chateau draria 30052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1653.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483275|Sidi Nâamane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019706|Draâ Ben Khedda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.758056|3.983889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Sidi Naamane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513734|Tadmaït]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019706|Draâ Ben Khedda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.742736|3.901863|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue Tadmaït.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tadmaït.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529393|Tirmitine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019706|Draâ Ben Khedda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.66|3.984722|display=inline}} | [[File:Zerrouda2010 024.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tirmitine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5306152|Draâ Ben Khedda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019706|Draâ Ben Khedda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7349|3.95559|display=inline}} | [[File:La ville de Draa Ben Khedda (Mirabeau).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Draa Ben Khedda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649218|Aït Yahia Moussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019707|Draâ El Mizan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.641111|3.888333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Yahia Moussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876399|Aïn Zaouia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019707|Draâ El Mizan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5483|3.89416|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain zaouia algerie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aïn Zaouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3087858|Frikat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019707|Draâ El Mizan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.513333|3.885556|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Frikat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4119323|Draâ El Mizan]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019707|Draâ El Mizan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.533333|3.833333|display=inline}} | [[File:Draa El Mizan.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Draa El Mizan.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1924629|Dréan]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019714|Dréan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.68333|7.75|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo drean 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-Dréan.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2961908|Chebaita Mokhtar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019714|Dréan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.755833|7.741667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Chebaita Mokhtar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2963539|Chihani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019714|Dréan District]]'' | {{Coord|36.646936|7.77566|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Chihani.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649058|El Abadia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004792|El Abadia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.266667|1.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:El Abadia العبادية ترحب بكم - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 El Abadia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884634|Tacheta Zougagha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004792|El Abadia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.35|1.65|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue generale de Tacheta Zougagha - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Tacheta Zougagha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876274|Aïn Bouyahia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004792|El Abadia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.283333|1.766667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Bouyahia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2859625|Arbaouet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2367960|El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh District]]'' | {{Coord|33.088265|0.58124|display=inline}} | [[File:La mairie de Arbaouat بلدية أربوات.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Arbaouat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876302|Aïn El Orak]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2367960|El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh District]]'' | {{Coord|33.4101|0.73853|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Orak عين العراك.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Ain El Orak.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049673|El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2367960|El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh District]]'' | {{Coord|32.898611|0.544444|display=inline}} | [[File:Mausolée de Sidi Cheikh ضريح سيدي الشيخ 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049743|El Bnoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2367960|El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh District]]'' | {{Coord|32.3121|0.244381|display=inline}} | [[File:Benoud البنود.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DA - 32-16 - El Bnoud - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649274|Oued Djer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019474|El Affroun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.426389|2.561111|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Djer واد جر - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-22 - Oued Djer - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049687|El Affroun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019474|El Affroun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466667|2.633333|display=inline}} | [[File:El Afroun العفرون - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-10 - El Affroun - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649292|Mekhatria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541083|El Amra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3025|1.959722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Mekhatria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2861226|Arib]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541083|El Amra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.283333|2.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:AinDefla arib.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Arib.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5350753|El Amra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q541083|El Amra District]]'' | {{Coord|36.297222|1.85|display=inline}} | [[File:El Amra et Djebel Tsili (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 El Amra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649064|Ouled Boudjemaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019484|El Amria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.473056|-1.1925|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Ouled Boudjemaa (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649280|El Messaid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019484|El Amria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.541944|-1.121944|display=inline}} | [[File:Plage Cap figalo , Wilaya de Ain Temouchent.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - El Messaid (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657351|El Amria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019484|El Amria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.533333|-1.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - El Amria (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657465|Hassi El Ghella]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019484|El Amria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.45|-1.05|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Hassi El Ghella (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215105|Bou Zedjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019484|El Amria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.407778|-1.166944|display=inline}} | [[File:Plage Bouzedjar à Ain temouchent.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Bou Zedjar (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649329|Bouraoui Belhadef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579695|El Ancer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.698825|6.102025|display=inline}} | [[File:غابة الزان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Bouraoui Belhadef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649451|Djemaa Beni Habibi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579695|El Ancer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8075|6.1235|display=inline}} | [[File:Djemaa-Beni-Habibi-01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Djemaa Beni Habibi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649524|El Ancer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579695|El Ancer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8|6.158889|display=inline}} | [[File:Ezzaouia - Vue générale - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 El Ancer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196168|Kheïri Oued Adjoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579695|El Ancer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.859722|6.143889|display=inline}} | [[File:المحمية الطبيعية بني بلعيد ولاية جيجل.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Kheiri Oued Adjoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q312108|El Aouana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579023|El Aouana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.771667|5.611389|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur El Aouana, Jijel (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 El Aouana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3056449|Selma Benziada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579023|El Aouana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.627222|5.646667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 18 Selma Ben Ziada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q921801|El Aouinet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019487|El Aouïnet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.866667|7.883333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Aouinet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649743|Boukhadra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019487|El Aouïnet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.744562|8.032379|display=inline}} | [[File:Ici boukhadra هنا بوخضرة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 12 - Boukhadra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1029528|El Attaf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q955743|El Attaf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.216667|1.666667|display=inline}} | [[File:El Attaf - Bonne route العطاف - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1657489|Tiberkanine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q955743|El Attaf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.174444|1.627222|display=inline}} | [[File:Tiberkanine تيبركانين - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Tiberkanine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1847129|El Azizia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019489|El Azizia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2866|3.49412|display=inline}} | [[File:El Azizia 1.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 El Azizia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3276830|Maghraoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019489|El Azizia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.351389|3.535278|display=inline}} | [[File:Maghraoua مغراوة - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Meghraoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3313082|Mihoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019489|El Azizia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.353085|3.475757|display=inline}} | [[File:ميهوب.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Mihoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q648784|El Bayadh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019483|El Bayadh District]]'' | {{Coord|33.683056|1.019167|display=inline}} | [[File:Rond point principal El Bayadh centre ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 El Bayadh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049752|El Bordj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019486|El Bordj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.515833|0.301667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- El Bordj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050075|El Menaouer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019486|El Bordj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.540278|0.371389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- El Menaouer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196046|Khalouia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019486|El Bordj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.461928|0.296974|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29-Khalouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2413817|El Borma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019491|El Borma District]]'' | {{Coord|31.656389|9.179167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 El Borma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2418278|El Bouni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710884|El Bouni District]]'' | {{Coord|36.850556|7.743889|display=inline}} | [[File:Hippone.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Daïra d'El Bouni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q401747|El Eulma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351251|El Eulma District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q73648147|arrondissement of Saint-Arnaud]]'' | {{Coord|36.152778|5.69|display=inline}} | [[File:El Eulma City, Snow.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - El Eulma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2892409|Bazer Sakhra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351251|El Eulma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.116667|5.711111|display=inline}} | [[File:Sebkhet Bazer.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Bazer Sakhra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118876|Guelta Zerka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351251|El Eulma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.208889|5.687778|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Guelta Zerga بلدية القلتة الزرقة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Guelta Zerka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884159|El Ghicha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019499|El Ghicha District]]'' | {{Coord|33.933333|2.15|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued El Ghicha Laghouat.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - El Ghicha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1441796|Ouled El Djemaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019505|El H'Madna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.797222|0.681389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Oued Djemaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049937|El Hamadna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019505|El H'Madna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9|0.75|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hamadna.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 El Hmadna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q517133|Oued El Berdi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156859|El Hachimia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.288889|3.918889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Oued El Berdi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648962|El Hachimia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156859|El Hachimia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.219444|3.816111|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hachimia.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Hachimia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q606479|Bouchtata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351370|El Hadaik District]]'' | {{Coord|36.792481|6.79719|display=inline}} | [[File:المعلم التذكاري المخلد لذكرى مؤتمر الزّٓمان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Bouchtata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649026|Aïn Zouit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351370|El Hadaik District]]'' | {{Coord|36.890278|6.785556|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Bibi -Skikda-.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Aïn Zouit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049911|El Hadaik]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351370|El Hadaik District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8256|6.88826|display=inline}} | | [[File:Algeria-21-El Hadaik.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3043115|El Hadjar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710885|El Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8|7.733333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 23 - El Hadjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3503823|Sidi Amar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710885|El Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8175|7.717778|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi amar, Wilaya d'Annaba (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 23 - Sidi Amar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049695|El Allia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019495|El Hadjira District]]'' | {{Coord|32.6975|5.425556|display=inline}} | [[File:El Alia Ouargla - panoramio (38).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 El Alia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049930|El Hadjira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019495|El Hadjira District]]'' | {{Coord|32.616667|5.516667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 El Hadjira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049932|El Hamadia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710886|El Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.983333|4.75|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 El Hammadia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3200166|Ksour, Bordj Bou Arreridj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710886|El Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9911|4.59791|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.983333|4.516667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksour (Bordj Bou Arréridj Province).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Ksour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3415972|Rabta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710886|El Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.922768|4.750128|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Rabta.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12190223|El Ach]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710886|El Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.95|4.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:ببلدية العش دائرة الحمادية ولاية برج بوعريريج.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 El Euch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q672190|El Hamma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324967|El Hamma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.463611|7.0825|display=inline}} | [[File:La piscine circulaire Hammam essalhine khenchela aures.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 El Hamma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2879031|Baghai]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324967|El Hamma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.521923|7.114334|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Baghai.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3054950|Ensigha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324967|El Hamma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.39729|7.14298|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Ensigha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514902|Tamza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324967|El Hamma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.252778|7|display=inline}} | [[File:The wonderful aïn mimoune.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Tamza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q335442|Oued Smar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019507|El Harrach District]]'' | {{Coord|36.703611|3.172222|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo oued smar 29112016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1615.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1021018|El Harrach]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019507|El Harrach District]]'' | {{Coord|36.721111|3.1375|display=inline}} | [[File:El-Harrach city hall.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1613.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215522|Bourouba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019507|El Harrach District]]'' | {{Coord|36.714722|3.106389|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo cite el istiqlal bourouba 28052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1619.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2878250|Bachdjerrah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019507|El Harrach District]]'' | {{Coord|36.72|3.112778|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo apc bachdjarah 28052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1616.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q947333|El Harrouch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351378|El Harrouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.653056|6.836389|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo el harrouch 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - El Harrouch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650111|Salah Bouchaour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351378|El Harrouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7|6.85|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo salah bouchaour 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Salah Bouchaour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3052141|Emdjez Edchich]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351378|El Harrouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.703611|6.856389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Emdjez Edchich.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358232|Ouled Habeba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351378|El Harrouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.503333|6.9575|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Ouled Hbaba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8069381|Zerdazas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351378|El Harrouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.586751|6.928446|display=inline}} | [[File:جبل 'سبعة رڨود' ببلدية زردازة الجزائر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Zerdaza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876370|Aïn Sekhouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2109980|El Hassasna District]]'' | {{Coord|34.505556|0.849722|display=inline}} | [[File:عين السخونة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Aïn Sekhouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049957|El Hassasna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2109980|El Hassasna District]]'' | {{Coord|34.824167|0.323056|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hassasna الحساسنة (49065417096).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - El Hassasna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273688|Maamora]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2109980|El Hassasna District]]'' | {{Coord|34.6818|0.500264|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Maamora.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884792|El Idrissia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351419|El Idrissia District]]'' | {{Coord|34.45|2.533333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - El Idrissia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209202|Bordj Douis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351419|El Idrissia District]]'' | {{Coord|34.366571|2.702165|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Douis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876279|Aïn Chouhada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351419|El Idrissia District]]'' | {{Coord|34.241111|2.521944|display=inline}} | [[File:Aïn Chouhada88.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Aïn Chouhada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049682|El Aïoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019504|El Kala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.826389|8.6|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-El Aioun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050005|El Kala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019504|El Kala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.9|8.45|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue du port d'El-Kala en 2014.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-El Kala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3418500|Raml Souk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019504|El Kala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7861|8.53556|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Raml Souk.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10820264|Souarekh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019504|El Kala District]]'' | {{Coord|36.88199|8.5642|display=inline}} | [[File:Souarekh السوارخ.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-Souarekh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214646|Ain Zaatout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095193|El Kantara District]]'' | {{Coord|35.146389|5.8375|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Frah.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Ain Zaatout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050002|El Kantara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095193|El Kantara District]]'' | {{Coord|35.225278|5.706389|display=inline}} | [[File:Calceus Herculis.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-06 El Kantara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649510|El Karimia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710888|El Karimia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.116667|1.55|display=inline}} | [[File:El Karimia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 El Karimia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895866|Beni Bouateb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710888|El Karimia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.993333|1.620833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Beni Bouateb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3127321|Harchoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710888|El Karimia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.113889|1.505556|display=inline}} | [[File:Harchoun حرشون.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Harchoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q391129|El Khroub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019512|El Khroub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.263333|6.693611|display=inline}} | [[File:Tomb of Massinissa 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-06 El Khroub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876376|Aïn Smara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019512|El Khroub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.266667|6.5|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-25-10 Ain Smara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358247|Ouled Rahmoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019512|El Khroub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.180278|6.705|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-25-10 Ouled Rahmoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q961879|Boulhaf Dir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019514|El Kouif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4885|8.0717|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Boulhaf Dir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894102|Bekkaria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019514|El Kouif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.372115|8.242149|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Bekkaria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5351493|El Kouif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019514|El Kouif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.5|8.316667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Kouif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649095|El-Kseur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019516|El Kseur District]]'' | {{Coord|36.684444|4.852222|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie EL Kseur.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 El Kseur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1894468|Toudja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019516|El Kseur District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7525|4.897222|display=inline}} | [[File:Toudja توجة 03 - Wilaya de Béjaïa (2018).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Toudja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215199|Ifenain Ilmathen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019516|El Kseur District]]'' | {{Coord|36.665833|4.768611|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie Fenaïa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Fenaïa Ilmaten.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050032|El M'Ghair]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019511|El M'Ghair District]]'' | {{Coord|33.950556|5.924167|display=inline}} | [[File:The desert of albarqajia elmeghaier.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 El M'Ghair.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055304|Oum Touyour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019511|El M'Ghair District]]'' | {{Coord|34.153333|5.833333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oum Touyour.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 Oum Touyour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324543|Sidi Khellil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019511|El M'Ghair District]]'' | {{Coord|33.837778|5.958889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 57 Sidi Khellil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3499461|Still]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019511|El M'Ghair District]]'' | {{Coord|34.2594|5.91382|display=inline}} | [[File:Still.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 Still.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049976|Lahouidjbet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019519|El Ma Labiodh District]]'' | {{Coord|35.293889|8.28|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Houidjbet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050027|El Ma El Biodh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019519|El Ma Labiodh District]]'' | {{Coord|35.205556|8.17|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Ma Labiodh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214568|Aïn Yagout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970569|El Madher District]]'' | {{Coord|35.783333|6.416667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain yagout 3.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-22 Ain Yagout - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214701|El Madher]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970569|El Madher District]]'' | {{Coord|35.623333|6.369722|display=inline}} | [[File:El Madher village.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-07 El Madher - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215114|Djerma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970569|El Madher District]]'' | {{Coord|35.662336|6.309722|display=inline}} | [[File:Entré de la ville de Djerma.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-13 Djerma - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215173|Boumia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970569|El Madher District]]'' | {{Coord|35.678333|6.482778|display=inline}} | [[File:Medracenar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-59 Boumia - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q788029|Chaabet El Ham]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019522|El Malah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.336111|-1.101111|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Chaabet El Ham.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Chaabat El Leham (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649052|Ouled Kihal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019522|El Malah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.368611|-1.235556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Ouled Kihal (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649298|El Malah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019522|El Malah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.388333|-1.094444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - El Malah (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1962437|Terga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019522|El Malah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.416667|-1.183333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Terga (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649322|Moussadek]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710890|El Marsa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.35|1.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Moussadek.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050053|El Marsa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3710890|El Marsa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.401579|0.916586|display=inline}} | [[File:El Marsa (Chlef).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 El Marsa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649028|El Matmar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019524|El Matmar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.733333|0.466667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 El Matmar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894233|Belassel Bouzegza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019524|El Matmar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.84067|0.4989|display=inline}} | [[File:Belassel Bouzegza بلعسل بوزقزة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Belaassel Bouzegza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324780|Sidi Khettab]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019524|El Matmar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.916667|0.516667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Sidi Khettab.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7508772|Sidi M'hamed Benaouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019524|El Matmar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6041|0.58874|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Mhammed Benaouda 1792 (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Sidi MHamed Benaouda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215434|El Milia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351595|El Milia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.751389|6.274444|display=inline}} | [[File:Place des Martyrs à El Milia (Algerie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 El Milia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358273|Ouled Yahia Khedrouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5351595|El Milia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.711389|6.200833|display=inline}} | [[File:Achbou, Ouled Yahia Khadrouch, Jijel.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Ouled Yahia Khadrouch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1324185|El Menia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019518|El Ménia District]]'' | {{Coord|30.6|2.9|display=inline}} | [[File:El Goléa.1..jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 El Menia (El Golea).svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128227|Hassi Gara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019518|El Ménia District]]'' | {{Coord|30.552222|2.915|display=inline}} | [[File:Station services El Menea محطة خدمات - المنيعة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Hassi Gara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650106|Stah Guentis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019530|El Ogla District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9984|7.30829|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Stah Guentis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2893575|Bedjene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019530|El Ogla District]]'' | {{Coord|35.348841|7.47169|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Bedjene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050079|El Mezerra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019530|El Ogla District]]'' | {{Coord|35.266667|7.577778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Mezeraa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050135|El Ogla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019530|El Ogla District]]'' | {{Coord|35.188611|7.468889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Ogla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649202|Ouled Brahim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019534|El Omaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.244444|2.933611|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Brahim اولاد ابراهيم - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Brahim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2877650|Baata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019534|El Omaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.346389|3.110278|display=inline}} | [[File:Baata sud بعطة جنوب - panoramio (4).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Baata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050133|El Omaria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019534|El Omaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.266667|3.033333|display=inline}} | [[File:El Omaria العمارية - panoramio (4).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 El Omaria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q581185|El Ouata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019535|El Ouata district]]'' | {{Coord|29.860833|-1.849722|display=inline}} | [[File:El Ouata - Béchar الواتة - بشار (49065387748).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-14-El Ouata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1642636|El Oued]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019526|El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|33.368333|6.8675|display=inline}} | [[File:El Oued.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 El Oued.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3199259|Kouinine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019526|El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|33.404264|6.826286|display=inline}} | [[File:Une ancienne ferme de palmier abondonner à kouinine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Kouinine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050155|El Outaya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095209|El Outaya District]]'' | {{Coord|35.0333|5.6|display=inline}} | [[File:El Outaya.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 El Outaya.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q770653|El Taref]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019527|El Taref District]]'' | {{Coord|36.766944|8.313611|display=inline}} | [[File:El tarf الطارف - مقر الولاية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-36-El Tarf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876295|Aïn El Assel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019527|El Taref District]]'' | {{Coord|36.786389|8.3825|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Aïn El Assel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921579|Bougous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019527|El Taref District]]'' | {{Coord|36.659469|8.36935|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Bougous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575622|Zitouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019527|El Taref District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6681|8.2346|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-36-Zitouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q616858|El Kerma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019538|Es Sénia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.616667|-0.583333|display=inline}} | [[File:Entrée d'Oran via El Karma.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 El Kerma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q649874|Es Senia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019538|Es Sénia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.647778|-0.623889|display=inline}} | [[File:Oran Es senia (by the university by winter).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Es Senia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2621177|Sidi Chami]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019538|Es Sénia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.658889|-0.521667|display=inline}} | [[File:ISS048-E-5905 - View of Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Sidi Chami.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3073186|Fkirina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019725|F'Kirina District]]'' | {{Coord|35.663782|7.298698|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Fkirina.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358046|Oued Nini]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019725|F'Kirina District]]'' | {{Coord|35.572222|7.348889|display=inline}} | [[File:Oudnini.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Oued Nini.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649726|Amourah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5429641|Faidh El Botma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.35431|3.87086|display=inline}} | [[File:Amoura à Djelfa عمورة بالجلفة (37481099024).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Amourah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209190|Faidh El Botma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5429641|Faidh El Botma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.527778|3.781944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Faidh El Botma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358294|Oum Laadham]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5429641|Faidh El Botma District]]'' | {{Coord|33.720278|4.530556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Oum Laadham.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876330|Aïn Fetah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5441628|Felaoucene District]]'' | {{Coord|34.965556|-1.638611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-31 - Aïn Fetah - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876341|Aïn Kebira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5441628|Felaoucene District]]'' | {{Coord|35.030556|-1.675278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-53 - Ain Kebir - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3068186|Fellaoucene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5441628|Felaoucene District]]'' | {{Coord|35.035057|-1.605892|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-20 - Fellaoucene - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701549|Tamest]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3064502|Fenoughil District]]'' | {{Coord|27.423889|-0.2375|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamesset.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Tamest (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701570|Fenoughil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3064502|Fenoughil District]]'' | {{Coord|27.602778|-0.305556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Fenoughil (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701585|Tamentit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3064502|Fenoughil District]]'' | {{Coord|27.766667|-0.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:TAMANTIT 10.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Tamantit (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649348|Ferdjioua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324905|Ferdjioua District]]'' | {{Coord|36.408919|5.945749|display=inline}} | [[File:Ferdjioua, Mila Province (Algéria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Ferdjioua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325080|Yahia Beniguecha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324905|Ferdjioua District]]'' | {{Coord|36.392222|5.992222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Yahia Beniguecha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049877|El Ghrous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095749|Foughala District]]'' | {{Coord|34.705278|5.285278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 El Ghrous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3079875|Foughala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095749|Foughala District]]'' | {{Coord|34.730556|5.325139|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Foughala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3037408|Douaouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019719|Fouka District]]'' | {{Coord|36.666667|2.783333|display=inline}} | [[File:Douaouda, Tipaza Province, Algeria (2013).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-04 - Douaouda - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3079891|Fouka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019719|Fouka District]]'' | {{Coord|36.666667|2.75|display=inline}} | [[File:Fouka Marine.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-25 - Fouka - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q740664|Aïn El Hadid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019726|Frenda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.058056|0.883333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Aïn El Hadid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215495|Frenda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019726|Frenda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.066667|1.05|display=inline}} | [[File:Jedars.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Frenda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217482|Takhemaret]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019726|Frenda District]]'' | {{Coord|35.107165|0.683298|display=inline}} | [[File:ولاية تيارت معلم شهداء بلدية تاخمارت.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Takhemaret.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q582107|Ben Freha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019727|Gdyel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.693374|-0.419176|display=inline}} | [[File:Château FLEURUS SIDAHMED 08-2013 - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Ben Freha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128229|Hassi Mefsoukh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019727|Gdyel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.783333|-0.333333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 Hassi Mefsoukh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5529400|Gdyel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019727|Gdyel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.783333|-0.433333|display=inline}} | [[File:Gdyel قديل (48390046786).jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q622841|Ghardaia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019723|Ghardaïa District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17601|Ghardaïa Province]]'' | {{Coord|32.483333|3.666667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar Ghardaia place marché 1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Ghardaïa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1521492|Ghazaouet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019724|Ghazaouet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.093858|-1.86038|display=inline}} | [[File:Ghazaouet - 20240425 065403.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-07 - Ghazaouet - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649386|Dar Yaghmouracene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019724|Ghazaouet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.100556|-1.800833|display=inline}} | [[File:Port de pêche Sidi Youchaa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-19 - Dar Yaghmouracene - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650235|Souahlia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019724|Ghazaouet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.040833|-1.888056|display=inline}} | [[File:Tounane et son Jardin.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-29 - Souahlia - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3528212|Tienet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019724|Ghazaouet District]]'' | {{Coord|35.049462|-1.838837|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-45 - Tienet - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209212|Ghriss]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019729|Ghriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.248143|0.161362|display=inline}} | [[File:Ghriss غريس - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Ghriss.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3280683|Makdha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019729|Ghriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.17265|0.2974|display=inline}} | [[File:Mascara -Makda 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29-Makdha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3287214|Maoussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019729|Ghriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.378833|0.245948|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Maoussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3298418|Matemore]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019729|Ghriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.32574|0.21359|display=inline}} | [[File:Matemore مطمور - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- El Matmor.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483207|Sidi Boussaid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019729|Ghriss District]]'' | {{Coord|35.290556|0.296389|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Boussaid سيدي بوسعيد (26533958733).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Sidi Boussaid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648642|Aghbal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019731|Gouraya District]]'' | {{Coord|36.502778|1.845833|display=inline}} | [[File:Aghbal.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-10 - Aghbal - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3111694|Gouraya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019731|Gouraya District]]'' | {{Coord|36.566667|1.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Gouraya.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-14 - Gouraya - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3307029|Messelmoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019731|Gouraya District]]'' | {{Coord|36.563186|2.002387|display=inline}} | [[File:Messelmoun.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-33 - Messelmoun - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1149771|Grarem Gouga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5597384|Grarem Gouga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.516667|6.333333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de grarem gouga.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Grarem Gouga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126328|Hamala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5597384|Grarem Gouga District]]'' | {{Coord|36.571631|6.33997|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Hamala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649113|Boumahra Ahmed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.460053|7.514949|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Boumahra Ahmed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2377594|Nechmaya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.61149|7.51331|display=inline}} | [[File:Nechmaya النشماية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Nechmaya.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894563|Belkheir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.460847|7.479287|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Belkheir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895902|Beni Mezline]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.480932|7.603097|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Beni Mezline.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032814|Djeballah Khemissi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4645|7.56891|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Djeballah Khemissi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118865|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5614756|Guelaât Bou Sbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.545833|7.475278|display=inline}} | [[File:Guelaat Bousbaa قلعة بوصبع.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Guellat Bou Sbaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649076|Bir Ben Abed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019502|Guelb El Kébir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.21758|3.42672|display=inline}} | [[File:Bir ben aabed بئر بن عابد.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Bir Ben Abed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049895|El Guelbelkebir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019502|Guelb El Kébir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.256389|3.416111|display=inline}} | [[File:El Guelb el Kebir القلب الكبير - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 El Guelb Elkbir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3477636|Sedraia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019502|Guelb El Kébir District]]'' | {{Coord|36.24278|3.52871|display=inline}} | [[File:Sedraia السدراية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sedraia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q609871|Guelma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272095|Guelma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.461944|7.425833|display=inline}} | [[File:GM Guelma Center01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Guelma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895404|Ben Djarah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272095|Guelma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.432125|7.368565|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.432222|7.368611|display=inline}} | [[File:Ben Djerrah 2.jpeg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Ben Djerrah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3011981|Dahouara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q235727|Guelma Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3272076|Hammam N'Bails District]]'' | {{Coord|36.351564|7.732744|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Dahouara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12690114|Kheraza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q235727|Guelma Province]]'' | No/unknown value | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28220904|Hammam Ouled Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q235727|Guelma Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.574619|7.380483|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2876364|Aïn Sidi Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019744|Gueltet Sidi Saâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.156944|1.541667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Aïn Sidi Ali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2893944|Beidha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019744|Gueltet Sidi Saâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.47475|2.17408|display=inline}} | [[File:مكتبة البلدية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Beidha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118877|Gueltat Sidi Saad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019744|Gueltet Sidi Saâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.3|1.95|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Gueltat Sidi Saad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118881|Guemar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019733|Guemar District]]'' | {{Coord|33.491967|6.797194|display=inline}} | [[File:Ghamra mosquée.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Guemar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325125|Ourmes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019733|Guemar District]]'' | {{Coord|33.41364|6.780839|display=inline}} | [[File:ورماس الجزائر Oùrmes.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Ourmas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513839|Taghzout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019733|Guemar District]]'' | {{Coord|33.4748|6.79582|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Taghzout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118895|Guenzet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263842|Guenzet District]]'' | {{Coord|36.319167|4.836944|display=inline}} | [[File:Guenzet sunset.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Guenzet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3127303|Harbil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263842|Guenzet District]]'' | {{Coord|36.32488|4.92641|display=inline}} | [[File:Titest (Harbil, Sétif Province) (124409019).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Harbil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049902|El Guerrara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019741|Guerrara District]]'' | {{Coord|32.790278|4.492222|display=inline}} | [[File:Guerrara.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Guerara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3119405|Guidjel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263618|Guidjel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.090833|5.487222|display=inline}} | [[File:مقام سيدي مسعود.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Guidjel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358250|Ouled Sabor]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263618|Guidjel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.198333|5.518333|display=inline}} | [[File:صورة من أولاد صابر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Ouled Sabor.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125442|Hachem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019738|Hachem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.366667|0.483333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Hachem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3338391|Nesmoth]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019738|Hachem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.254167|0.380278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Nesmoth.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575150|Zelameta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019738|Hachem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.29108|0.47622|display=inline}} | [[File:Zelamta زلامطة (26532416254).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Zelmata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876327|Aïn Feka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5637544|Had Sahary District]]'' | {{Coord|35.426667|3.5775|display=inline}} | [[File:Ainfekkah.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Aïn Feka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921650|Bouira Lahdab]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5637544|Had Sahary District]]'' | {{Coord|35.243937|3.142262|display=inline}} | [[File:Sguiaa الصقيعة - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Bouira Lahdab.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125512|Had-Sahary]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5637544|Had Sahary District]]'' | {{Coord|35.35168|3.36089|display=inline}} | [[File:Had Sahary حد الصحاري - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Had-Sahary.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125565|Hadjout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019742|Hadjout District]]'' | {{Coord|36.51257|2.41382|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.516667|2.416667|display=inline}} | [[File:Centre de la ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-12 - Hadjout - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3306250|Meurad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019742|Hadjout District]]'' | {{Coord|36.476239|2.426777|display=inline}} | [[File:Meurad - Bourkika - Boumedfaa - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-24 - Merad - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921548|Bougara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4116538|Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.553353|1.967282|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Bougara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126310|Hamadia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4116538|Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.459444|1.874722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Hamadia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3421885|Rechaiga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4116538|Hamadia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.40808|1.973419|display=inline}} | [[File:Rechaiga رشايقة - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Rechaiga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3027257|Didouche Mourad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1649235|Hamma Bouziane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4484|6.63394|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.45|6.633333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-25-05 Didouche Mourad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126488|Hamma Bouziane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1649235|Hamma Bouziane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.412|6.59603|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.533333|6.716667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-25-02 Hamma Bouziane.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Hammam Bou Hadjar]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019754|Hammam Bou Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.379167|-0.970556|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam Bou Hadjar-Le Rocher.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Hammam Bouhadjar (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657291|Hassasna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019754|Hammam Bou Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.272222|-0.987222|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hassasna الحساسنة (49065417096).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Hassasna (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657310|Oued Berkeche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019754|Hammam Bou Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.216667|-0.816667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Oued Berkeche (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657324|Chentouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019754|Hammam Bou Hadjar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.303611|-1.029444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Chentouf (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1235954|Roknia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272165|Hammam Debagh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5481|7.22963|display=inline}} | [[File:GM Guelma Roknia01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Roknia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921596|Bou Hamdane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272165|Hammam Debagh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.462849|7.111158|display=inline}} | [[File:Taya guelma.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Bouhamdane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126494|Hammam Debagh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272165|Hammam Debagh District]]'' | {{Coord|36.461111|7.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam Debagh حمام دباغ 02.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Hammam Debagh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126500|Hammam Dhalaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272071|Hammam Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.928056|4.374444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Hammam Dhalaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3357932|Ouanougha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272071|Hammam Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.98075|4.186134|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouanougha 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouanougha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358242|Ouled Mansour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272071|Hammam Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.729397|4.396094|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Mansour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3515755|Tarmount]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272071|Hammam Dhalaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.820833|4.2875|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Tarmount.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3038464|Draa Kebila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621452|Hammam Guergour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.436389|4.995556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Draa Kebila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126502|Hammam Guergour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q621452|Hammam Guergour District]]'' | {{Coord|36.322222|5.054722|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam Guergour.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Hammam Guergour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649505|Oued Cheham]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272076|Hammam N'Bails District]]'' | {{Coord|36.383333|7.766667|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Cheham, Algeria01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Oued Cheham.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2262942|Hammam N'bail]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272076|Hammam N'Bails District]]'' | {{Coord|36.325833|7.643611|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam N'bails, 24220.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Hammam N'Bail.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649044|Hammam Righa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004389|Hammam Righa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.383333|2.4|display=inline}} | [[File:Hamame Righa vers le sud S-Ah - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Hammam Righa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876262|Aïn Bénian]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004389|Hammam Righa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.351944|2.388611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Benian.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876388|Aïn Torki]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004389|Hammam Righa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.332778|2.301389|display=inline}} | [[File:Plaque SNTF de la gare de Aïn Torki.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Ain Torki.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126503|Hammam Soukhna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263855|Hammam Souhna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9768|5.80894|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Hammam Soukhna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3517374|Tella]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263855|Hammam Souhna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.0069|5.7179|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Tella.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7689736|Taya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263855|Hammam Souhna District]]'' | {{Coord|35.958461|5.96759|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Taya.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q619886|Hassi El Euch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5680047|Hassi Bahbah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.153056|3.248333|display=inline}} | [[File:مقر بلدية حاسي العش.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Hassi El Euch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q649908|Hassi Bahbah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5680047|Hassi Bahbah District]]'' | {{Coord|35.070833|3.029722|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassi Bahbah, Djelfa Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Hassi Bahbah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649157|Aïn Maabed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5680047|Hassi Bahbah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.8|3.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Maabed RN 1 عين معبد ط و - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Aïn Maabed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3574435|Zaafrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5680047|Hassi Bahbah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.85076|2.85705|display=inline}} | [[File:Zaafrane بلدية الزعفران - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Zaafrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q682141|Hassi Khelifa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019533|Hassi Khelifa District]]'' | {{Coord|33.562222|6.990278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Hassi Khalifa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3539121|Trifaoui]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019533|Hassi Khelifa District]]'' | {{Coord|33.423239|6.93572|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Trifaoui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649899|Stidia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211147|Hassi Mamèche District]]'' | {{Coord|35.833333|0|display=inline}} | [[File:Stidia Wilaya de Mostaganem Algerie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Stidia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2371825|Mazagran]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211147|Hassi Mamèche District]]'' | {{Coord|35.8956|0.071433|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.901944|0.726944|display=inline}} | [[File:Mazagran 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Mezghrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055128|Hassi Mamèche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211147|Hassi Mamèche District]]'' | {{Coord|35.860278|0.073056|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassi Mameche.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Hassi Mameche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1000139|Hassi Messaoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019536|Hassi Messaoud District]]'' | {{Coord|31.7|6.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:Algerian desert, Hassi Messaoud.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Hassi Messaoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1408322|Hassi R'Mel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019756|Hassi R'Mel District]]'' | {{Coord|32.928|3.271|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassi Rmel حاسي الرمل.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Hassi R'Mel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128220|Hassi Delaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019756|Hassi R'Mel District]]'' | {{Coord|33.41742|3.55021|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|33.41688|3.556|display=inline}} | [[File:Hassi-Delaa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Hassi Delaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q735694|Haizer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156885|Haïzer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.39702|3.99917|display=inline}} | [[File:Haizer.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Haizer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513832|Taghzout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156885|Haïzer District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4085|3.95937|display=inline}} | [[File:Village de Tassala..commune taghzout.. Ville Bouira-Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Taghzout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649004|Khedara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019753|Heddada District]]'' | {{Coord|36.283859|8.317938|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Khedara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649437|Ouled Moumen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019753|Heddada District]]'' | {{Coord|36.34|8.315833|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Moumen 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Ouled Moumen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q14413280|Heddada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019753|Heddada District]]'' | {{Coord|36.230696|8.337747|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Heddada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3130297|Hennaya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5714790|Hennaya District]]'' | {{Coord|34.95|-1.366667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-26 -Hennaya - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358254|Ouled Riyah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5714790|Hennaya District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9625|-1.497222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-46 - Ouled Riyah - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575193|Zenata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5714790|Hennaya District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9844|-1.45844|display=inline}} | [[File:Zenata, Tlemcen, Route Nationale 98.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-16 - Zenata - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q286134|Beni Khellad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019752|Honaïne District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233632|Tlemcen Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.172581|-1.557226|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-48 - Beni Khellad - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q953471|Honaine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019752|Honaïne District]]'' | {{Coord|35.176483|-1.65503|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.183333|-1.65|display=inline}} | [[File:Port de Honaïne.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-44- Honaine - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q867542|Aïn Hessania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5912690|Houari Boumédienne District]]'' | {{Coord|36.416111|7.286111|display=inline}} | [[File:Houari Boumedienne village in Guelma Province.jpeg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Houari Boumédiène.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650088|Ras El Agba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5912690|Houari Boumédienne District]]'' | {{Coord|36.373056|7.223333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Ras El Agba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1764621|Salaoua Announa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5912690|Houari Boumédienne District]]'' | {{Coord|36.386944|7.250556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sellaoua Announa سلاوة عنونة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Sellaoua Announa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3304079|Medjez Amar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5912690|Houari Boumédienne District]]'' | {{Coord|36.445278|7.310556|display=inline}} | [[File:GM Seybouse01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Medjez Amar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q634748|Belouizdad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q661043|Hussein Dey District]]'' | {{Coord|36.744444|3.077778|display=inline}} | [[File:Belouizdad-vue-generale-1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1604.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1252682|Hussein Dey]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q661043|Hussein Dey District]]'' | {{Coord|36.743056|3.094167|display=inline}} | [[File:Algiers,near Hussein dey park.(trablouss plaza).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1617.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050050|El Magharia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q661043|Hussein Dey District]]'' | {{Coord|36.731389|3.108889|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo universite kharouba 30052016.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1631.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3086863|Kouba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q661043|Hussein Dey District]]'' | {{Coord|36.733611|3.086389|display=inline}} | [[File:La Mairie de Kouba.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1618.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911936|Bouati Mahmoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5964216|Héliopolis District]]'' | {{Coord|36.592256|7.328095|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Bouati Mahmoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049855|El Fedjoudj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5964216|Héliopolis District]]'' | {{Coord|36.516667|7.4|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - El Fedjoudj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3144664|Héliopolis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q5964216|Héliopolis District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5|7.45|display=inline}} | [[File:Héliopolis.jpeg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Héliopolis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3147465|Ibn Ziad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019758|Ibn Ziad District]]'' | {{Coord|36.383333|6.466667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-25-12 Ibn Zaid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3306984|Messaoud Boudjeriou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019758|Ibn Ziad District]]'' | {{Coord|36.424444|6.4725|display=inline}} | [[File:Ainkerma good photo.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-11 Messouda Boudjria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215209|Foum Toub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970665|Ichmoul District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4|6.55|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-31 Foum Toub - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215279|Ichmoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970665|Ichmoul District]]'' | {{Coord|35.310694|6.508889|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Ichmoul.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-30 Ichmoul - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215786|Inoughissen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970665|Ichmoul District]]'' | {{Coord|35.286389|6.541111|display=inline}} | [[File:Cap Béar Inoughissen Batna Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-11 Inoughissen - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3148092|Iferhounene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019537|Iferhounene District]]'' | {{Coord|36.533754|4.37012|display=inline}} | [[File:Iferhunen.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Iferhounène.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3148723|Illilten]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019537|Iferhounene District]]'' | {{Coord|36.516111|4.394444|display=inline}} | [[File:Tuddar de Illilten.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Illilten.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3149574|Imsouhal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019537|Iferhounene District]]'' | {{Coord|36.56926|4.38786|display=inline}} | [[File:Imsouhal.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Imsouhel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358841|Ouzellaguen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005689|Ifri-Ouzellaguen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.541944|4.612778|display=inline}} | [[File:Ighzer Amokrane.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ouzellaguen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q193945|Ighil Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005732|Ighil Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.333333|4.466667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ighil Ali ايغيل علي.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ighil Ali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214615|Aït Rizine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005732|Ighil Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.371667|4.486944|display=inline}} | [[File:Guendouze.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Ait Rzine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214881|Igli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019551|Igli District]]'' | {{Coord|30.453194|-2.291417|display=inline}} | [[File:Igli.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-11-Igli.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q640740|Illizi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019542|Illizi District]]'' | {{Coord|26.508028|8.482944|display=inline}} | [[File:Illizi مركز الوثائق و المحفوضات - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 33 Illizi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649127|Debdeb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019540|In Amenas District]]'' | {{Coord|29.9675|9.423889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 33 Debdeb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910777|Bordj Omar Driss]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019540|In Amenas District]]'' | {{Coord|28.123333|6.821667|display=inline}} | [[File:Thatching Algerian Desert.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 33 Bordj Omar Driss.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118424|In Amenas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019540|In Amenas District]]'' | {{Coord|28.05|9.55|display=inline}} | [[File:Monument - In Amenas ان اميناس - ذكرى الاستقلال - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 33 In Amenas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649190|In Ghar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211079|In Ghar District]]'' | {{Coord|27.103056|1.910278|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Inghar مدينة اينغر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 In Ghar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1655182|In Guezzam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211176|In Guezzam District]]'' | {{Coord|19.568611|5.772222|display=inline}} | [[File:ASC Leiden - van Achterberg Collection - 01 - 05 - La rue principale d'In Guezzam, le dernier endroit avant la frontière avec le Niger - Guezzam, dans la province de Tamanrasset (wilaya), en Algérie, février 1985.tif|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-58 In Guezzam.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q255251|In Salah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6010604|In Salah District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q76593022|In Salah Province]]'' | {{Coord|27.195|2.4825|display=inline}} | [[File:InSalah(1991).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 57 In Salah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2041151|Foggaret Ezzaou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6010604|In Salah District]]'' | {{Coord|27.363333|2.848056|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 57 Foggaret Ezzaouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q311886|Si-Mustapha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2013121|Isser District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7247|3.6153|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue à Si Mustapha.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Si Mustapha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4119097|Issers]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2013121|Isser District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q236752|Boumerdès Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.7234|3.668|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.718611|3.669167|display=inline}} | [[File:Nouvelle Gare ferroviaire d'Isser.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Isser.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q37926868|Chabet el Ameur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2013121|Isser District]]'' | {{Coord|36.633333|3.7|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Chabet El Ameur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q37928948|Timezrit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2013121|Isser District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6734|3.80625|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue d'un village de Timezrit.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Timezrit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q402726|Jijel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579714|Jijel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.820556|5.766667|display=inline}} | [[File:Jijel 39, Wilaya de Jijel (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Jijel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649201|Kadiria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156863|Kadiria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.533333|3.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:CENTRE VILLE KADIRIA.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Kadiria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649310|Djebahia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156863|Kadiria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.476377|3.757839|display=inline}} | [[File:Djebahia panorama.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Djebahia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223561|Aomar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156863|Kadiria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4925|3.771111|display=inline}} | [[File:Small town - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aomar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q767005|Taouzient]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6381847|Kaïs District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q213950|Khenchela Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.511111|6.808333|display=inline}} | [[File:Taouzient - Khenchela تاوزيانت - خنشلة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Fais.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3191996|Kaïs]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6381847|Kaïs District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q213950|Khenchela Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.494722|6.924167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Kais.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3424517|Remila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6381847|Kaïs District]]'' | {{Coord|35.569444|6.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Rmila-3.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Remila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214557|Béni Ikhlef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005672|Kerzaz District]]'' | {{Coord|29.575|-1.609167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-08-Beni Ikhlef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215343|Timoudi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005672|Kerzaz District]]'' | {{Coord|29.316667|-1.133333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-05-Timoudi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3120375|Kerzaz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005672|Kerzaz District]]'' | {{Coord|29.45|-1.416667|display=inline}} | [[File:Kerzzaz-saoura.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-18-Kerzaz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649334|Larbatache]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711061|Khemis El Khechna District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q236752|Boumerdès Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.63644|3.37201|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.637778|3.371389|display=inline}} | [[File:Larbatach1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Larbatache.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055250|Ouled Moussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711061|Khemis El Khechna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.683056|3.368056|display=inline}} | [[File:La 2eme rocade - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Ouled Moussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126515|Hammadi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711061|Khemis El Khechna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.677|3.2676|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Hammedi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3142813|Khemis El-Khechna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711061|Khemis El Khechna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.65|3.330556|display=inline}} | [[File:KHEMIS EL KHECHNA BARRAGE HAMIZ1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Khemis El Khechna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q954285|Khemis Miliana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711060|Khemis Miliana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.26|2.2|display=inline}} | [[File:Khemis Miliana 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Khemis Miliana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324751|Sidi Lakhdar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711060|Khemis Miliana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2654|2.16173|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi lakhdar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Sidi Lakhdar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649570|Khenchela]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325291|Khenchela District]]'' | {{Coord|35.416667|7.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mosquée Ben Badis à Khenchela, (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 Khenchela.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215859|Kherrata]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005759|Kherrata District]]'' | {{Coord|36.493611|5.277222|display=inline}} | [[File:Kherrata.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Kherrata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3039191|Draâ El-Kaïd]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005759|Kherrata District]]'' | {{Coord|36.416944|5.227222|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Draa El Gaïd بلدية ذراع القايد - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Draa El-Kaid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2209220|Bou Hachana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272362|Khezaras District]]'' | {{Coord|36.30626|7.50832|display=inline}} | [[File:Belle nature entré de Bouhachana wilaya de guelma.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Bouhachana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876367|Aïn Sandel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272362|Khezaras District]]'' | {{Coord|36.244722|7.5125|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Aïn Sandel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196167|Khezara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272362|Khezaras District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3694|7.5293|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Khezarra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876275|Aïn Boudinar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6401534|Kheïr Eddine District]]'' | {{Coord|36.016667|0.183333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 27 Ain Boudinar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196129|Kheïr Eddine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6401534|Kheïr Eddine District]]'' | {{Coord|35.981201|0.168829|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.981111|0.168611|display=inline}} | [[File:Kheireddine.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-11 Kheireddine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3474709|Sayada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6401534|Kheïr Eddine District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9513|0.13072|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.95|0.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sayada, Mostaganem Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-02 Sayada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049980|El Houamed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3271927|Khoubana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.214722|4.291944|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - El Houamed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196216|Khoubana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3271927|Khoubana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.33895|4.56686|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Khoubana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272276|M'Cif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3271927|Khoubana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.32559|4.79093|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - M'Cif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q632916|Khemisti]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324974|Khémisti District]]'' | {{Coord|35.666667|1.95|display=inline}} | [[File:Khemisti 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Khemisti.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3219984|Laayoune]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324974|Khémisti District]]'' | {{Coord|35.694598|1.998181|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.7|2|display=inline}} | [[File:Layoune, Tissemsilt Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Layoune.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2869935|Attatba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019762|Koléa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.573354|2.675257|display=inline}} | [[File:Attatba - marché de gros سوق الجملة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-36 - Attatba - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2947619|Chaiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019762|Koléa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.624535|2.729287|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 42-16 - Chaiba - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3198497|Koléa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019762|Koléa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.640556|2.765|display=inline}} | [[File:Koléa - la mairie دار البلدية - القليعة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-35 - Kolea - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648944|Ksar Chellala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019760|Ksar Chellala District]]'' | {{Coord|35.216667|2.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar Chellala قصر الشلالة 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Ksar Chellala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650075|Serghine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019760|Ksar Chellala District]]'' | {{Coord|35.254444|2.485556|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam Serguine حمام سرقين.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Serghine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650876|Zmalet El Emir Abdelkader]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019760|Ksar Chellala District]]'' | {{Coord|34.8934|2.30998|display=inline}} | [[File:Zmalet El Emir Abdelkader (Taguine) زمالة الامير عبد القادر (طاقين) 3.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Zmalet El Emir Abdelkader.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q338820|Saneg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019769|Ksar El Boukhari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.851389|2.838889|display=inline}} | [[File:Entrée de Saneg سانق.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Saneg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3200144|Ksar Boukhari]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019769|Ksar El Boukhari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.885556|2.750833|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar el Boukhari قصر البخاري.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ksar El Boukhari.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3304190|Mefatha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019769|Ksar El Boukhari District]]'' | {{Coord|35.88373|2.9317|display=inline}} | [[File:Bienvenue a Mfatha المفاتحة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Mfatha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2896326|Bennasser Benchohra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019770|Ksar El Hirane District]]'' | {{Coord|33.75284|3.00287|display=inline}} | [[File:Benaceur بن ناصر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Bennasser Benchohra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3200129|Ksar El Hirane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019770|Ksar El Hirane District]]'' | {{Coord|33.783333|3.15|display=inline}} | [[File:قصر الحيران ksar el hirane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Ksar El Hirane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3200137|Ksar Sbahi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019772|Ksar Sbahi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.083333|7.25|display=inline}} | [[File:Les hautes plaines sous la neige1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Ksar Sbahi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q390925|Kénadsa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005744|Kénadsa District]]'' | {{Coord|31.554444|-2.432778|display=inline}} | [[File:Ksar Kenadsa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-10-Kenadsa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215728|Méridja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005744|Kénadsa District]]'' | {{Coord|31.55|-2.95|display=inline}} | [[File:Meridja supérieure - Meridja - Médiathèque de l'architecture et du patrimoine - AP62T178446.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-04-Meridjar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q402733|Laghouat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019775|Laghouat District]]'' | {{Coord|33.8|2.865|display=inline}} | [[File:Musé Communal de Laghouat.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Laghouat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12697543|Mekhareg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q231748|Laghouat Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85804882|Tadjemout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q231748|Laghouat Province]]'' | {{Coord|33.879444|2.523333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1649172|Mogheul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q736283|Lahmar District]]'' | {{Coord|32.0225|-2.218056|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-16-Mougheul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215193|Lahmar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q736283|Lahmar District]]'' | {{Coord|31.931389|-2.258333|display=inline}} | [[File:Lahmar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-06-Lahmar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921673|Boukaïs]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q736283|Lahmar District]]'' | {{Coord|31.923333|-2.463611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-15-Boukais.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2522066|Lakhdaria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.564444|3.596667|display=inline}} | [[File:Lakhdaria-Town.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Lakhdaria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921466|Bouderbala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.57988|3.50895|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouderbala, Bouira (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Bouderbala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921680|Boukram]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5414|3.3973|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Boukram.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3119214|Guerrouma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.433385|3.427219|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Guerrouma بلدية قرومة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Guerrouma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273671|Maala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.492889|3.573611|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Maala.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Maala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3574993|Zbarbar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156653|Lakhdaria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.48473|3.52588|display=inline}} | [[File:Zbarbar الزبربر 3.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Zbarbar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3217833|Larbaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005659|Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.565278|3.153889|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.56522|3.153934|display=inline}} | [[File:Larbaa bni moussa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-21 - Larbaa - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491561|Souhane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005659|Larbaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|36.506389|3.2375|display=inline}} | [[File:Souhane.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-17- Souhane - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q588461|Aït Aggouacha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019771|Larbaâ Nath Irathen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6178|4.23249|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Aggouacha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q764741|Larbaâ Nath Irathen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019771|Larbaâ Nath Irathen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.636667|4.206667|display=inline}} | [[File:Place Abane Ramdane à Larbaâ Nath Irathen (2009).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Larbaâ Nath Irathen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3154300|Irdjen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019771|Larbaâ Nath Irathen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.661297|4.149642|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Irdjen.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Irdjen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q772927|Sidi Lantri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325330|Lardjem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.701389|1.402222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Sidi Lantri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3217877|Lardjem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325330|Lardjem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.74954|1.54845|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Lardjem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3304871|Melaab]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325330|Lardjem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.716667|1.333333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Melaab.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514629|Tamalaht]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325330|Lardjem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.812611|1.623724|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouarsenis 2012, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Tamalaht.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q975914|Lazharia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019773|Lazharia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.93729|1.55999|display=inline}} | [[File:Lazharia en 2006, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Lazharia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2912148|Boucaid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019773|Lazharia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.89026|1.61978|display=inline}} | [[File:La Mairie de Boucaïd, Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Boucaid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3217834|Larbaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019773|Lazharia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.913056|1.475278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Larbaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649223|Ath Mansour Taourirt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.328044|4.317222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Ath Mansour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2826832|Aghbalou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233655|Bouira Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.41831|4.33897|display=inline}} | [[File:Takerboust (c) .jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Aghbalou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2964506|Chorfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233655|Bouira Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.359722|4.323611|display=inline}} | [[File:Chorfa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Chorfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126778|Ahnif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.335833|4.261944|display=inline}} | [[File:Pénétrante de Bejaia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Ahnif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272271|M'Chedallah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233655|Bouira Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.365181|4.270935|display=inline}} | [[File:M'chedallah امشد الله.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - M'Chedallah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3461519|Saharidj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156745|M'Chedellah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.39707|4.24858|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Saharidj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272274|M'Chouneche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095780|M'Chouneche District]]'' | {{Coord|34.936944|5.990556|display=inline}} | [[File:Baniane.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 M'Chouneche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q54205|M'Daourouch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019781|M'Daourouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.0759|7.8201|display=inline}} | [[File:Madaure17.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Mdaourouch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649240|Ragouba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019781|M'Daourouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.125|7.666667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Ragouba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3026665|Tiffech]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019781|M'Daourouch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.191667|7.786111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Tiffech.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q402825|M'Sila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211114|M'Sila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.705833|4.541944|display=inline}} | [[File:M'sila Eucalyptus.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - M'Sila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q179604|Maghnia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2786394|Maghnia District]]'' | {{Coord|34.849444|-1.7275|display=inline}} | [[File:Maghnia مغنية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-27 - Maghnia - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126496|Hammam Boughrara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2786394|Maghnia District]]'' | {{Coord|34.893611|-1.638333|display=inline}} | [[File:Hammam Boughrara حمام بوغرارة (29706053813).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-28 - Hammam Boughrara - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648932|Berhoum]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272180|Magra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.654855|5.034485|display=inline}} | [[File:En route vers Berhoum 2 - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Berhoum.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876348|Aïn Khadra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272180|Magra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.540556|4.970278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Aïn Khadra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894197|Belaiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272180|Magra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.52797|5.15422|display=inline}} | [[File:منزل طيني.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Belaiba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021289|Dehahna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272180|Magra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.73312|5.00884|display=inline}} | [[File:La mosquée de Dehahna - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Dehahna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3277385|Magra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3272180|Magra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6|5.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:Magra.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Magra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3277387|Magrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019776|Magrane District]]'' | {{Coord|33.562222|6.930278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Magrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325073|Sidi Aoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019776|Magrane District]]'' | {{Coord|33.542222|6.905|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Sidi Aoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649140|Aïn Zarit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019784|Mahdia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.352778|1.668889|display=inline}} | [[File:حديقة البلدية لعين زاريت تيارت.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Aïn Zarit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649167|Nadorah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019784|Mahdia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.2882|1.8905|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Nadorah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3277676|Mahdia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019784|Mahdia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.430556|1.755|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Mahdia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3476931|Sebaïne]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019784|Mahdia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.45623|1.60349|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sebaine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921489|Boudjima]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2374784|Makouda district]]'' | {{Coord|36.81398|4.158798|display=inline}} | [[File:Figure rupestre.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Boudjima.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3280947|Makouda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2374784|Makouda district]]'' | {{Coord|36.791944|4.0625|display=inline}} | [[File:Aït Farés.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Makouda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q950358|Mansoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019778|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|31.979444|3.746111|display=inline}} | [[File:Dunes Aïn Loussig Mansoura.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Mansoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649238|Beni Mester]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6751871|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.866667|-1.416667|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue les environs de beni mester.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-02 - Beni Mester - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876337|Aïn Ghoraba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6751871|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.713889|-1.389167|display=inline}} | [[File:Mémorial du 1er novembre 1954, à Ahfir Tlemcen - 53112346639.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-49 - Ain Ghoraba - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895395|Ben Daoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019780|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.05|4.183333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Ben Daoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050030|El M'hir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019780|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.118333|4.383889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 El Mehir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3127302|Haraza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019780|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.15647|4.22347|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Herraza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128226|Hassi Fehal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019778|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|31.605278|3.674167|display=inline}} | [[File:Zoubir ibn Alawam Mosque 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Hassi Fehal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3286577|Mansoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019780|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.081944|4.46|display=inline}} | [[File:Mansoura1000.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Mansoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3286584|Mansourah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6751871|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.87099|-1.339087|display=inline}} | [[File:Murailles de la Médina de Mansourah datant du 14ème siècle.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-51 - Mansourah - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358256|Ouled Sidi Brahim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019780|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2281|4.33458|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain El Heneche - Ouled Sidi Brahim عين الحنش - اولاد سيدي ابراهيم - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q3518499|Terny Beni Hdiel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6751871|Mansourah District]]'' | {{Coord|34.7958|-1.35812|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-23 - Terny Beni Hdiel - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q41325|Maoklane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2262977|Maoklane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.3971|5.0753|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Margoun, Maoklane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Maoklane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514419|Talaifacene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2262977|Maoklane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.458333|5.088889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Tella.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649716|Bir El Hammam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6760866|Marhoum District]]'' | {{Coord|34.41902|-0.49923|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Bir El Hammam.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3290834|Marhoum]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6760866|Marhoum District]]'' | {{Coord|34.446004|-0.195024|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Marhoum بلدية مرحوم (48390033811).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Marhoum.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483218|Sidi Chaib]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6760866|Marhoum District]]'' | {{Coord|34.593333|-0.548611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Chaib.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3294976|Marsa Ben M'Hidi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6773199|Marsa Ben M'Hidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.0834|-2.20449|display=inline}} | [[File:Marsa Ben M'Hidi - 20240222 110124.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-39 - Marsa Ben M'Hidi - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6930167|Msirda Fouaga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6773199|Marsa Ben M'Hidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.019722|-2.065|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue de Boukanoun.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-30 - MSirda Fouaga - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q545707|Mascara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019792|Mascara District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4|0.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Mascara مدينة معسكر - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Mascara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q978267|Mazouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019798|Mazouna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.125674|0.876503|display=inline}} | [[File:Mazouna.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Mazouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049900|El Guettar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019798|Mazouna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.087778|0.815833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 El Guettar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q673791|Djillali Ben Omar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q784050|Mechraa Safa district]]'' | {{Coord|35.4445|0.849681|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Djillali Ben Amar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649372|Mechraa Safa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q784050|Mechraa Safa district]]'' | {{Coord|35.383889|1.053333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Mechraa Safa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650254|Tagdemt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q784050|Mechraa Safa district]]'' | {{Coord|35.33543|1.22727|display=inline}} | [[File:Tagdemt 1838.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Tagdemt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126673|Hanancha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019795|Mechroha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.21667|7.83333|display=inline}} | [[File:Le barrage de Ain Dalia (Wilaya de Souk-Ahras, Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Hanancha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3303853|Mechroha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019795|Mechroha District]]'' | {{Coord|36.357232|7.835441|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.35|7.833333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Mechroha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649448|Medjana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019788|Medjana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.131567|4.668074|display=inline}} | [[File:Medjana ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Medjana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049676|El Achir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019788|Medjana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|4.633333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 El Achir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3128105|Hasnaoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019788|Medjana District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q266411|Bordj Bou Arréridj Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.15246|4.79579|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouchref 0250.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Hasnaoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3518092|Teniet En-Nasr]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019788|Medjana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2315|4.60123|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Teniet Ennasr.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3304075|Medjedel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211186|Medjedel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.14588|3.682308|display=inline}} | [[File:Medjedel امجدل - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Medjedel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358191|Ouled Atia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211186|Medjedel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.144444|3.694444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Atia (Menaa).svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649268|Medroussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019796|Medroussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.177253|1.203611|display=inline}} | [[File:Jedars.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Medroussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650021|Sidi Bakhti]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019796|Medroussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.241111|0.978333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sidi Bakhti.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3305160|Mellakou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019796|Medroussa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.253084|1.234374|display=inline}} | [[File:بابينيار.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Mellakou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649286|Djebabra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2396304|Meftah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.584163|3.270538|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ - 09-29 - Djebabra - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215400|Meftah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2396304|Meftah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.619444|3.222222|display=inline}} | [[File:Meftah city, Blida Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-18 - Meftah - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649119|Meghila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019800|Meghila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.596389|1.413611|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Meghila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649900|Sidi Hosni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019800|Meghila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.466667|1.516667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sidi Hosni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884800|Sebt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019800|Meghila District]]'' | {{Coord|35.619444|1.351389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sebt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649145|Mekla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019799|Mekla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.687639|4.268118|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi M'hamed Ouali à Bouzahrir Mekla.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Mekla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876498|Aït-Khellili]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019799|Mekla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6579|4.30839|display=inline}} | [[File:Ait Khellili.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Khellili.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491437|Souamâa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019799|Mekla District]]'' | {{Coord|36.64169|4.34162|display=inline}} | [[File:Souamaâ, Tizi Ouzou, Grande Kabylie, Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Souamaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3193678|Kasdir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325356|Mekmen Ben Amar District]]'' | {{Coord|33.709722|-1.358333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ - 45 Kasdir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3280871|Mekmen Ben Amar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325356|Mekmen Ben Amar District]]'' | {{Coord|33.716667|-0.733333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2215228|Menaâ]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970635|Menaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.166667|6|display=inline}} | [[File:Le village de Menâa, 3 (Wilaya de Batna).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-06 Menaa - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3528325|Tigherghar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970635|Menaâ District]]'' | {{Coord|35.160278|5.969722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-21 Tigherghar - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3305767|Mendes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019810|Mendes District]]'' | {{Coord|35.65|0.866667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Mendes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325096|Oued Essalem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019810|Mendes District]]'' | {{Coord|35.583333|0.916667|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Essalem la rue principale.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Oued Essalem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483254|Sidi Lazreg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019810|Mendes District]]'' | {{Coord|35.65|0.783333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi lezrag relizane 5.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Sidi Lazreg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649706|Merahna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019811|Merahna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1975|8.155|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Merahna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884809|Ouillen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019811|Merahna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.227778|8.064722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Ouillen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483231|Sidi Fredj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019811|Merahna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1537|8.19528|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Sidi Fredj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215226|Ksar Bellezma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019813|Merouana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.675556|5.903333|display=inline}} | [[File:آثار قصر بلزمة.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-28 Ksar Bellezma - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215250|Oued El Ma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019813|Merouana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.645278|5.994722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-33 Oued El Ma - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215265|Hidoussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019813|Merouana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.528333|5.9375|display=inline}} | [[File:Summer In The Hills.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-46 Hidoussa - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3174992|Merouana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019813|Merouana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.628611|5.911667|display=inline}} | [[File:Merouana.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-04 Merouana - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2893899|Behir Chergui]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019816|Meskiana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.790804|7.717896|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Behir Chergui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049740|El Belala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019816|Meskiana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.665278|7.788333|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Blalla بلدية بلالة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - El Belala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3306857|Meskiana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019816|Meskiana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.627721|7.666912|display=inline}} | [[File:Meskiana مسكيانة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Meskiana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3417568|Rahia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019816|Meskiana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.763508|7.645111|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Rahia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q431108|Aïn Sidi Chérif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821697|Mesra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.833056|0.125278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 27 Ain Sidi Cherif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3286579|Mansourah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821697|Mesra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.843611|0.231667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 27 Mansourah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3306944|Mesra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821697|Mesra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.837341|0.169785|display=inline}} | [[File:Mesra ماسرة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Mesra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3532765|Touahria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821697|Mesra District]]'' | {{Coord|35.810644|0.209341|display=inline}} | [[File:El Arbad Ibn Sariya.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Touahria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q609487|Messaâd]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821855|Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.154167|3.496944|display=inline}} | [[File:Nouvelle Zaouia de Sidi Nael زاوية سيدي نائل الجديدة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Messad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q619091|Sed Rahal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821855|Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|33.9425|3.231111|display=inline}} | [[File:Guemamer قمامر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Sed Rahal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3056310|Selmana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821855|Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|34.176589|3.601027|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Selmana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3119232|Guettara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6821855|Messaâd District]]'' | {{Coord|33.1586|4.6852|display=inline}} | [[File:Guettara قطارة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Guettara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3313049|Mih Ouensa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019808|Mih Ouensa District]]'' | {{Coord|33.196944|6.705278|display=inline}} | [[File:Mih Ouensa اميه ونسة 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Mih Ouansa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358010|Oued El Alenda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019808|Mih Ouensa District]]'' | {{Coord|33.228889|6.757222|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued El Alenda واد العلندة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Oued El Alenda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q335676|Mila]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6850348|Mila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.448056|6.262222|display=inline}} | [[File:Mila ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Mila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876394|Aïn Tine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6850348|Mila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.396667|6.325|display=inline}} | [[File:Azeba.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Aïn Tine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483245|Sidi Khelifa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6850348|Mila District]]'' | {{Coord|36.34969|6.300383|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Sidi Khelifa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q48468|Miliana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004820|Miliana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.308446|2.222141|display=inline}} | [[File:Miliana.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Miliana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895313|Ben Allal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004820|Miliana District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316667|2.166667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Ben Allel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032892|Djéniane Bourzeg]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325323|Moghrar District]]'' | {{Coord|32.366667|-0.816667|display=inline}} | [[File:134 Djeniene Bourezg.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Djenien Bou Rezg.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3318248|Moghrar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325323|Moghrar District]]'' | {{Coord|32.516667|-0.583333|display=inline}} | [[File:Moghrar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Moghrar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q787640|Mocta Douz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6|-0.05|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Mactaa Douz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214777|Mohammadia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.583333|0.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:Mohammadia, Mascara Algeria 08.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Mohammadia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049881|El Ghomri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.683333|0.2|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- El Ghomri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3069619|Ferraguig]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.533064|0.155139|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Ferraguig.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3477618|Sedjerara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.630556|0.213889|display=inline}} | [[File:Entrée de la commune de sedjerara.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Sedjerara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483156|Sidi Abdelmoumen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019814|Mohammedia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.652778|0.013889|display=inline}} | [[File:Un homme assis sur un banc à l'entrée de la zaouia de Sidi Abd el-Moumen, rue des Tanneurs.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Sidi Abdelmoumen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904327|Bir Dheb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019828|Morsott District]]'' | {{Coord|35.5248|7.9384|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Fadha عين الفضة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 12 - Bir Dheheb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324442|Morsott]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019828|Morsott District]]'' | {{Coord|35.668333|8.007222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Morsott.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q849524|Mostaganem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211187|Mostaganem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.933333|0.090278|display=inline}} | [[File:Le vieux quartier de Tijdit.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Mostaganem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q593522|Tilmouni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6916918|Mostefa Ben Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|35.17407|-0.54848|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Tilmouni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648915|Belarbi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6916918|Mostefa Ben Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|35.151495|-0.456791|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Belarbi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650844|Zerouala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6916918|Mostefa Ben Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|35.242325|-0.522194|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Zerouala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324981|Mostefa Ben Brahim, Sid Bel Abbés]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6916918|Mostefa Ben Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|35.1925|-0.358257|display=inline}} | [[File:Mostefa Ben Brahim مصطفى بن براهيم (48906146567).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Mostafa Ben Brahim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649318|El Hacaiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6918969|Moulay Slissen District]]'' | {{Coord|34.7|-0.766667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 El Hacaiba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649356|Ain Tindamine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6918969|Moulay Slissen District]]'' | {{Coord|34.689722|-0.720556|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ain Tindamine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649394|Moulay Slissen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6918969|Moulay Slissen District]]'' | {{Coord|34.816667|-0.766667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Moulay Slissen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648596|Aïn Romana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019818|Mouzaïa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.406667|2.691111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Romana et Mouzaia en bas - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-28 - Ain Romana - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649746|Mouzaïa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019818|Mouzaïa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466667|2.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:Mouzaia.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-16 - Mouzaia - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2963503|Chiffa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019818|Mouzaïa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.4625|2.741111|display=inline}} | [[File:Pond chefa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-11 - Chiffa - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491580|Souk El Thenine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019819|Mâatkas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.594167|4.008611|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk Lethnine سوق لثنين - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Souk El Thenine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6949882|Mâatkas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019819|Mâatkas District]]'' | {{Coord|36.612083|3.987781|display=inline}} | [[File:Maatkas souk el khemis.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Mâatkas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648584|Aïn Ben Khelil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325301|Mécheria District]]'' | {{Coord|33.29|-0.763889|display=inline}} | [[File:Haoudh Edaïra 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Ain Ben Khelil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1653613|El Biodh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325301|Mécheria District]]'' | {{Coord|33.766667|-0.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Paysage désertique saharien el biodh sidi cheikh w d'el bayadh.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 El Biodh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2606114|Mécheria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325301|Mécheria District]]'' | {{Coord|33.55|-0.283333|display=inline}} | [[File:Lycée Azouzi ^Assoun - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Mecheria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3038466|Draa Smar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019831|Médéa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.273611|2.716944|display=inline}} | [[File:Draa Essamar à la Wilaya de Médéa (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Draa Essamar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514798|Tamesguida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019831|Médéa District]]'' | {{Coord|36.324029|2.689505|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamesguida.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Tamesguida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5212383|Damiat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q235810|Médéa Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2384877|Megarine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019805|Mégarine District]]'' | {{Coord|33.192623|6.093464|display=inline}} | [[File:Megarine Lake Megarine ouasis Ouergla 3.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Megarine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483291|Sidi Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019805|Mégarine District]]'' | {{Coord|33.288611|6.094722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Sidi Slimane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648972|Oued Taourira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6950116|Mérine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.619722|-0.338889|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Taourira واد تاوريرة (48390178842).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Oued Taourira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649208|Merine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6950116|Mérine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.780747|-0.45104|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Djohar - Merine مرين - عين الجوهر (48390182152).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Merine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650101|Tafissour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6950116|Mérine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.69277|-0.20271|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Tafissour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650293|Taoudmout]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6950116|Mérine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.587644|-0.110164|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Taoudmout.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3307398|Metlili chaanba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019807|Métlili District]]'' | {{Coord|32.27291|3.627548|display=inline}} | [[File:Metlili Ghardaïa Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Metlili.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325033|Sebseb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019807|Métlili District]]'' | {{Coord|32.158333|3.608333|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Sebseb بلدية سبسب.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Sebseb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214684|Boumagueur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970463|N'Gaous District]]'' | {{Coord|35.505506|5.552644|display=inline}} | [[File:Boumagueur.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-41 Boumague - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215689|Sefiane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970463|N'Gaous District]]'' | {{Coord|35.441389|5.558056|display=inline}} | [[File:Pont sur cw37A à sofiane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-24 Sefiane - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3178467|N'Gaous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970463|N'Gaous District]]'' | {{Coord|35.555|5.610556|display=inline}} | [[File:RAS el-Ain N'gaous.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-09 N'Gaous - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3334101|N'Goussa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019825|N'Goussa District]]'' | {{Coord|32.14088|5.308285|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Ngoussa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q798212|Naâma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211117|Naama district]]'' | {{Coord|33.267778|-0.311111|display=inline}} | [[File:Naama 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Naama.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358195|Ouled Aissa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q312171|Naciria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.806667|3.814444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 35 Ouled Aissa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6957278|Naciria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q312171|Naciria District]]'' | {{Coord|36.75|3.833333|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.7475|3.82889|display=inline}} | [[File:IrafƐen - Aït Bourouba - Ieɣmracen.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Naciria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2670516|Nedroma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6986337|Nedroma District]]'' | {{Coord|35.013057|-1.747534|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Nedroma مقر بلدية ندرومة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-40 - Nedroma - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032819|Djebala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6986337|Nedroma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.976423|-1.795063|display=inline}} | [[File:Djebala.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-09 - Djebala - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649736|Negrine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019834|Negrine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.485689|7.520528|display=inline}} | [[File:The Old Town Of Negrine Tébessa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 12 - Negrine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3068813|Ferkane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019834|Negrine District]]'' | {{Coord|34.554074|7.412252|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Ferkane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2830738|Alaimia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019543|Oggaz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.67492|-0.21943|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Alaimia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3349780|Oggaz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019543|Oggaz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.566667|-0.266667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Oggaz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3419770|Ras Ain Amirouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019543|Oggaz District]]'' | {{Coord|35.5925|-0.2125|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Ras Ain Amirouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Oran]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211195|Oran District]]'' | {{Coord|35.696944|-0.633056|display=inline}} | [[File:ORAN City & Coast.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Oran.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2423922|Aït Boumahdi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019547|Ouacif District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5009|4.20003|display=inline}} | [[File:AitAR.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Boumahdi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876520|Aït Toudert]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019547|Ouacif District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5201|4.18511|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Toudert.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3357887|Ouacifs]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019547|Ouacif District]]'' | {{Coord|36.523611|4.205556|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouacifar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Ouacif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q522369|Agouni Gueghrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019555|Ouadhia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.515|4.113889|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur le village ait el kaid Cne Agouni-gueghrane wilaya de tizi-ouzou ALGERIE classé patrimoine national.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Agouni Gueghrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648974|Aït Bouadou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019555|Ouadhia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.508333|4.058333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ait Irane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Bouaddou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2087312|Ouadhia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019555|Ouadhia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.55|4.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouadhia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Ouadhia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529987|Tizi N'Tleta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019555|Ouadhia District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q233645|Tizi Ouzou Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.5457|4.05712|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.545556|4.057222|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Tizi NTleta.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tizi N'Tleta.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649382|Ouaguenoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019548|Ouaguenoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.769965|4.174654|display=inline}} | [[File:Centre de Tikobain.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Ouaguenoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032817|Ath Aissa Mimoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019548|Ouaguenoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.730556|4.125|display=inline}} | [[File:Montaignes Akaoudj.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Aïssa Mimoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529010|Timizart]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019548|Ouaguenoun District]]'' | {{Coord|36.797778|4.246111|display=inline}} | [[File:Timizart n'Sidi Mansour.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Timizart.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126831|Hannacha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019562|Ouamri District]]'' | {{Coord|36.183333|2.566667|display=inline}} | [[File:حناشة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Hannacha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3357921|Ouamri]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019562|Ouamri District]]'' | {{Coord|36.233333|2.566667|display=inline}} | [[File:Village de Sidi Youm à Ouamri (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouamri.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358024|Oued Harbil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019562|Ouamri District]]'' | {{Coord|36.233333|2.633333|display=inline}} | [[File:واد حربيل.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Oued Harbil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q852469|Ouargla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019553|Ouargla District]]'' | {{Coord|31.95|5.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouargla.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Ouargla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649802|Rouissat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019553|Ouargla District]]'' | {{Coord|31.936576|5.335407|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Rouissat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650188|Sidi Abdeldjebar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019558|Oued El Abtal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.442778|0.523333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Sidi Abdeldjebar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876329|Aïn Ferah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019558|Oued El Abtal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.381111|0.783889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Aïn Ferah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358012|Oued El Abtal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019558|Oued El Abtal District]]'' | {{Coord|35.45|0.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued El Abtal واد الابطال - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Oued El Abtal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q941199|Oued El Alleug]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019556|Oued El Alleug District]]'' | {{Coord|36.55|2.783333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued El Alleug واد العلايق - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-04 - Oued Alleug - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1653142|Ben Khéllil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019556|Oued El Alleug District]]'' | {{Coord|36.588333|2.836944|display=inline}} | [[File:Benchabane بن شعبان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-13 - Benkhelil - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895916|Beni Tamou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019556|Oued El Alleug District]]'' | {{Coord|36.536467|2.815976|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Tamou - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-23 - Beni Tamou - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649130|Oued Endja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110278|Oued Endja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5|6.071389|display=inline}} | [[File:Redjas vue générale 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Oued Endja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2827640|Ahmed Rachedi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110278|Oued Endja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.390508|6.125338|display=inline}} | [[File:Ahmed Rachedi Mila Algerie 2012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Ahmed Rachedi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575101|Zeghaia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110278|Oued Endja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.467949|6.172538|display=inline}} | [[File:Zeraia wilaya de mila Algérie 2012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Zeghaia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q783462|Ouled Abbes]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711306|Oued Fodda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.216667|1.483333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Cheliff à Ouled Abbes.png|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz-02-Ouled Abbes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358021|Oued Fodda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711306|Oued Fodda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.183333|1.533333|display=inline}} | [[File:Pont Baarge de Oued Fooda.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Oued Fodda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4887908|Beni Rached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711306|Oued Fodda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.280607|1.516027|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Beni Rached.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649256|Oued Lilli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019564|Oued Lilli District]]'' | {{Coord|35.511944|1.271389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Oued Lilli.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650241|Sidi Ali Mellal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019564|Oued Lilli District]]'' | {{Coord|35.563333|1.225556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sidi Ali Mellal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650299|Tidda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019564|Oued Lilli District]]'' | {{Coord|35.582414|1.266239|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Tidda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358034|Oued M'Zi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019838|Oued Morra District]]'' | {{Coord|33.92422|2.43695|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - Oued M'Zi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358042|Oued Morra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019838|Oued Morra District]]'' | {{Coord|34.166667|2.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:El djedar - Oued Morra الجدر - واد مرة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Oued Morra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q736347|Merdja Sidi Abed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1571433|Oued Rhiou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.003333|1.010278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Merdja Sidi Abed.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1528316|Ouarizane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1571433|Oued Rhiou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.045421|0.899076|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouarizane 04.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Ouarizane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1571443|Oued Rhiou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1571433|Oued Rhiou District]]'' | {{Coord|35.966667|0.916667|display=inline}} | [[File:Barrage Gargar.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Oued Rhiou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3216330|Lahlef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1571433|Oued Rhiou District]]'' | {{Coord|35.892805|0.980701|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Lahlef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649134|Oued Taria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019560|Oued Taria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.116667|0.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Taria واد التاغية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Oued Taria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3118917|Guerdjoum]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019560|Oued Taria District]]'' | {{Coord|35.178754|0.072055|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Guerdjoum.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650295|Tafraoui]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019566|Oued Tlélat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.483333|-0.516667|display=inline}} | [[File:World War II in Africa (3495231056).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Tafraoui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921527|Boufatis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019566|Oued Tlélat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.67961|-0.411301|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 Boufatis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049760|El Braya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019566|Oued Tlélat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.633333|-0.516667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 31 El Braya.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358055|Oued Tlélat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019566|Oued Tlélat District]]'' | {{Coord|35.55|-0.45|display=inline}} | [[File:Tlelat.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 31 Oued Tlelat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q598729|Aïn Raggad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q620335|Oued Zenati District]]'' | {{Coord|36.259444|7.073889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 24 - Aïn Reggada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215467|Oued Zenati]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q620335|Oued Zenati District]]'' | {{Coord|36.316667|7.166667|display=inline}} | [[File:Oued Zenati واد الزناتي.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Oued Zenati.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910778|Bordj Sabath]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q620335|Oued Zenati District]]'' | {{Coord|36.40302|7.04557|display=inline}} | [[File:Bordj Sabath mountain.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 24 - Bordj Sabat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215410|Ouenza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019572|Ouenza District]]'' | {{Coord|35.95|8.133333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouenza Station.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 12 - Ouenza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876398|Aïn Zerga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019572|Ouenza District]]'' | {{Coord|35.648611|8.259722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Aïn Zerga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050080|El Meridj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019572|Ouenza District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7931|8.22951|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.8|8.233333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - El Meridj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649485|Ouled Hellal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019575|Ouled Antar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.966667|2.530556|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled helal اولاد هلال.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Hellal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2379821|Ouled Antar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019575|Ouled Antar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.94725|2.60231|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled antar اولاد عنتر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Antar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2908678|Boghar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019575|Ouled Antar District]]'' | {{Coord|35.91139|2.71667|display=inline}} | [[File:Boghar بوغار.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Boghar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649314|Ouled Attia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3013554|Ouled Attia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.533333|2.166667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Ouled Attia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196154|Kheneg Mayoum]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3013554|Ouled Attia District]]'' | {{Coord|37.008333|6.284167|display=inline}} | [[File:Akhnak mayoune.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Kheneg Mayoum.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358054|Oued Zehour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3013554|Ouled Attia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.926944|6.315556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Oued Zehour.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649177|El Hadjadj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711309|Ouled Ben Abdelkader District]]'' | {{Coord|36.015833|1.378333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz-02-El Hadjadj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358199|Ouled Ben Abdelkader]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711309|Ouled Ben Abdelkader District]]'' | {{Coord|36.025833|1.276389|display=inline}} | [[File:Massina-chlef.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Ouled Ben Abdelkader.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876371|Aïn Soltane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110354|Ouled Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9679|0.30221|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Aïn Soltane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358203|Ouled Brahim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110354|Ouled Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|34.99|0.47726|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Ouled Brahim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529351|Tircine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110354|Ouled Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|34.901348|0.554638|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Tircine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2585679|Maadid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211077|Ouled Derradj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.81482|4.79558|display=inline}} | [[File:Qal'at Bani Hammad, Maadid, M'Sila Province, Algeria 2008.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Maadid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272300|M'Tarfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211077|Ouled Derradj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.6994|4.6176|display=inline}} | [[File:حقل الشعير.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - M'Tarfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358190|Ouled Addi Guebala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211077|Ouled Derradj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.670556|4.877778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Addi Guebala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358219|Ouled Derradj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211077|Ouled Derradj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.683333|4.783333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Derradj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491435|Souamaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211077|Ouled Derradj District]]'' | {{Coord|35.58704|4.66897|display=inline}} | [[File:Souamaa - M'sila السوامع - المسيلة 07.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Souamaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3037852|Doucen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095171|Ouled Djellal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.5975|5.103056|display=inline}} | [[File:Doucen الدوسن.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Doucen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3046938|Ech Chaïba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095171|Ouled Djellal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.8408|4.92218|display=inline}} | [[File:Ech Chaïba.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Ouled Rahma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4118338|Ouled Djellal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095171|Ouled Djellal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.416667|5.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Djellal.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Ouled Djellal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648928|Ain Zana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118192|Ouled Driss District]]'' | {{Coord|36.400556|8.191111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Ain Zana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358222|Ouled Driss]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118192|Ouled Driss District]]'' | {{Coord|36.35|8.016667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Ouled Driss.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649346|Ouled Fares]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711310|Ouled Farès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.230833|1.234444|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Fares 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Ouled Fares.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649545|Labiod Medjadja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711310|Ouled Farès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.25|1.4|display=inline}} | [[File:Yarmoul يارمول.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Labiod Medjadja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962891|Chettia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711310|Ouled Farès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.176389|1.247778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz-02-Chettia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215707|Ksabi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006013|Ouled Khodeïr District]]'' | {{Coord|29.097778|-0.98|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-19-Ksabi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215761|Ouled Khoudir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006013|Ouled Khodeïr District]]'' | {{Coord|29.248889|-1.072222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-08-03-Ouled Khoudir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2110236|Ouled Mimoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019582|Ouled Mimoun District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9|-1.033333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-13 - Ouled Mimoun - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895908|Beni Semiel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019582|Ouled Mimoun District]]'' | {{Coord|34.81678|-1.02665|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-52 - Beni Semiel - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358033|Oued lakhdar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019582|Ouled Mimoun District]]'' | {{Coord|34.876111|-1.132222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-11 - Oued Lakhdar - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649445|El Mahmal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110454|Ouled Rechache District]]'' | {{Coord|35.373889|7.213056|display=inline}} | [[File:El Mahmal wilaya de Khenchela Alg.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-40 El Mahmal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358249|Ouled Rechache]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110454|Ouled Rechache District]]'' | {{Coord|35.298056|7.353056|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-40 Ouled Rechache.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217800|Talkhamt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970491|Ouled Salem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.666944|5.788889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-34 Talkhamt - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358263|Ouled Sellam]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970491|Ouled Salem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.825556|5.882222|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-20 Ouled Sellam - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3417565|Rahbat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970491|Ouled Salem District]]'' | {{Coord|35.712222|5.655278|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-25 Rahbat - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q278682|Lemsane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019578|Ouled Si Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.656111|5.796667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-27 Lemsane - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215183|Ouled Si Slimane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019578|Ouled Si Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.610833|5.632778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-53 Ouled Si Slimane - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217827|Taxlent]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019578|Ouled Si Slimane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.605556|5.8|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-38 Taxlent - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2896808|Benzouh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211080|Ouled Sidi Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|35.423154|4.023743|display=inline}} | [[File:Benzouh.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Benzouh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358258|Ouled Sidi Brahim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211080|Ouled Sidi Brahim District]]'' | {{Coord|36.366667|3.716667|display=inline}} | [[File:Locaux du president محلات الرئيس - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Ouled Sidi Brahim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q648795|Ouled Yaïch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019574|Ouled Yaïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.496111|2.861111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Yaïch اولاد يعيش - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-07 - Ouled Yaich - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q959927|Chrea]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019574|Ouled Yaïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.425556|2.876667|display=inline}} | [[File:Chréa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-08- Chrea - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895897|Beni Mered]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019574|Ouled Yaïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.523333|2.861667|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Mered - la mairie - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 09-25 - Beni Mered - Wilaya de Blida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657453|Oulhaça El Gheraba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019587|Oulhassa Gheraba District]]'' | {{Coord|35.233056|-1.504444|display=inline}} | [[File:Siga, general view 2026.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Oulhaça El Gheraba (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483278|Sidi Ouriache]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019587|Oulhassa Gheraba District]]'' | {{Coord|35.188889|-1.506389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Sidi Ouriache (wilaya de Aïn Témouchent) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649739|Oum Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019588|Oum Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|35.0107|8.30094|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Oum Ali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3461303|Safsaf El Ouesra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019588|Oum Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|34.956667|8.207778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 12 - Safsaf El Ouesra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649300|Oum El Adhaim]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019590|Oum El Adhaïm District]]'' | {{Coord|36.033889|7.6025|display=inline}} | [[File:Oum ladhaiem.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Oum El Adhaim.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650306|Terraguelt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019590|Oum El Adhaïm District]]'' | {{Coord|35.883333|7.597222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Terraguelt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358032|Oued Keberit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019590|Oum El Adhaïm District]]'' | {{Coord|35.933333|7.916667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Oued Keberit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876402|Aïn Zitoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019593|Oum El Bouaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.684444|6.935556|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain Zitoune vu du ciel.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Aïn Zitoun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5478122|Oum El Bouaghi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019593|Oum El Bouaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.870556|7.115|display=inline}} | [[File:Oum el bouaghi.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Oum el Bouaghi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649213|Oum Toub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7110491|Oum Toub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.683333|6.566667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Oum Toub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1887805|M'Lili]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711316|Ourlal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.667992|5.564444|display=inline}} | [[File:Habitat à Mlili.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 M'Lili.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055115|Mekhadma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711316|Ourlal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.65|5.483333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Mekhadma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3242103|Lioua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711316|Ourlal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.639167|5.400833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Lioua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358295|Oumache]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711316|Ourlal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.694485|5.700531|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Oumache.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4118676|Ourlala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711316|Ourlal District]]'' | {{Coord|34.65542|5.51136|display=inline}} | [[File:DJEDI River.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Ourlal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q788815|El Hamdania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019599|Ouzera District]]'' | {{Coord|36.36175|2.766389|display=inline}} | [[File:El Hamdania الحمدانية 5.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 El Hamdania.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895687|Benchicao]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019599|Ouzera District]]'' | {{Coord|36.19962|2.84865|display=inline}} | [[File:Benchicao - بن شكاو - panoramio (6).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ben Chicao.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358838|Ouzera]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019599|Ouzera District]]'' | {{Coord|36.25|2.85|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouzera وزرة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouzera.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529986|Tizi Mahdi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019599|Ouzera District]]'' | {{Coord|36.2028|2.77591|display=inline}} | [[File:Tizi mahdi تيزي المهدي.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Tizi Mahdi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649565|Guertoufa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019832|Rahouia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.393038|1.256089|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Guertoufa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649911|Rahouia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019832|Rahouia District]]'' | {{Coord|35.530271|1.022158|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Rahouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q601410|Ramdane Djamel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211151|Ramdane Djamel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.75|6.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo ramdane djamel 16112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Ramdane Djamel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648658|Beni Bechir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211151|Ramdane Djamel District]]'' | {{Coord|36.783333|6.933333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Beni Bechir.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1527459|Ramka]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019846|Ramka District]]'' | {{Coord|35.866667|1.283333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Ramka.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491576|Souk El Had]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019846|Ramka District]]'' | {{Coord|35.956389|1.248056|display=inline}} | [[File:C360 2015-04-28-16-25-59 - Copie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Souk El Had.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q982735|Ras El Aioun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2014853|Ras El Aioun District]]'' | {{Coord|35.675|5.653333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ras el Aïoun.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-51 Ras El Aioun - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215245|Gosbat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2014853|Ras El Aioun District]]'' | {{Coord|35.647222|5.459722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-39 Gosbat- Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3119500|Guigba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2014853|Ras El Aioun District]]'' | {{Coord|35.734167|5.590833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-10 Guigba - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649222|Oued Sebaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7294656|Ras El Ma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.586667|-0.708889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Oued Sbaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650034|Redjem Demouche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7294656|Ras El Ma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.427222|-0.809722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Redjem Demouche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3419771|Ras El Ma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7294656|Ras El Ma District]]'' | {{Coord|34.4974|-0.819511|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ras El Ma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q655669|Ras El Oued]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019842|Ras El Oued District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q266411|Bordj Bou Arréridj Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.949722|5.035833|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.944167|5.031111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ras El Oued.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Ras El Oued.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876384|Aïn Tesra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019842|Ras El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|36.036944|5.002222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 34 Ain Tassera.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358209|Ouled Brahem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019842|Ras El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|35.872222|5.074722|display=inline}} | [[File:OULED BRAHEM.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 34 Ouled Brahem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q582905|Reggane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q377364|Reggane District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3518825|Territoires du Sud]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q75708332|Arrondissement of Adrar]]'' | {{Coord|26.7|0.166667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tanezrouft-Reggane(1990).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Reggane (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2757170|Sali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q377364|Reggane District]]'' | {{Coord|26.983333|-0.033333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Sali (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126588|Hamraia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019839|Reguiba District]]'' | {{Coord|34.110952|6.230578|display=inline}} | [[File:Hamraïa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 39 Hamraia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325064|Reguiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019839|Reguiba District]]'' | {{Coord|33.564212|6.712303|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Reguiba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q402738|Relizane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q526323|Relizane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.737222|0.555833|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Relizane.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Relizane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649195|Bendaoud]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q526323|Relizane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.71914|0.52024|display=inline}} | [[File:Bendaoud بن داود - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Ben Daoud.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648923|Aïn Youcef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4119246|Remchi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.047222|-1.373889|display=inline}} | [[File:Ain youcef (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-15 - Ain Youcef - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649207|El Fehoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4119246|Remchi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.116667|-1.294444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-05 - El Fehoul - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895907|Beni Ouarsous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4119246|Remchi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.083323|-1.557312|display=inline}} | [[File:Un apercu sur les forêts de Béni Ouarsous.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-36 - Beni Ouarsous - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3424477|Remchi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4119246|Remchi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.05|-1.43333|display=inline}} | [[File:Remchi الرمشي 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-04 - Remchi - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3476838|Sebaa Chioukh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4119246|Remchi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.156111|-1.355833|display=inline}} | [[File:SBAA CHIOUKH.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-22 - Sebaa - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2364827|Robbah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019844|Robbah District]]'' | {{Coord|33.280997|6.910744|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Robbah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5351716|El Ogla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019844|Robbah District]]'' | {{Coord|33.25|6.95|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 El Ogla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6960586|Nakhla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019844|Robbah District]]'' | {{Coord|33.277301|6.951513|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Nakhla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649215|Cheguig]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019847|Rogassa District]]'' | {{Coord|34.16897|1.22814|display=inline}} | | [[File:DA - 32-17 - Cheguig - Wilaya d'El Bayadh map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649896|Rogassa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019847|Rogassa District]]'' | {{Coord|34.018376|0.925941|display=inline}} | [[File:سيدي أحمد بن يوسف.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 32 Rogassa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3194648|Kef Lahmar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019847|Rogassa District]]'' | {{Coord|33.85|0.6325|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 32 Kef El Ahmar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649916|Rouached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324924|Rouached District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q235723|Mila Province]]'' | {{Coord|36.458333|6.039722|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.457778|6.042778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Rouached.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324766|Tiberguent]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324924|Rouached District]]'' | {{Coord|36.40954|6.039734|display=inline}} | [[File:Tiberguent Mila Province Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Tiberguent.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649126|El Maine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004811|Rouina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.050833|1.758333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 El Maine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1885134|Rouina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004811|Rouina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.25|1.816667|display=inline}} | [[File:Rouina الروينة - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 44 Rouina.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217793|Zeddine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004811|Rouina District]]'' | {{Coord|36.163889|1.838889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 44 Zeddine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649935|Réghaïa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004837|Rouïba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.738889|3.342222|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo aérienne de Reghaia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1643.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215980|Rouiba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004837|Rouïba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.736389|3.282778|display=inline}} | [[File:Algérie Rouïba Mosquée Er Rahma 2020 3 SU-HS.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1642.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3124660|H'raoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004837|Rouïba District]]'' | {{Coord|36.772778|3.308611|display=inline}} | [[File:Hraoua 09012012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1641.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3108345|Sabra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3818104|Sabra District]]'' | {{Coord|34.8274|-1.52826|display=inline}} | [[File:Sabra tlemcen 11092012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-06 - Sabra - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16845185|Bouhlou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3818104|Sabra District]]'' | {{Coord|34.773889|-1.573056|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-47 - Bouhlou - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922580|Boutaleb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263866|Salah Bey District]]'' | {{Coord|35.66024|5.32103|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.812778|5.101389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Boutaleb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126482|Hamma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263866|Salah Bey District]]'' | {{Coord|35.680556|5.372778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 19 - Hamma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358270|Ouled Tebben]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263866|Salah Bey District]]'' | {{Coord|35.812778|5.101389|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur Ouled Tebben.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Ouled Tebben.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3419807|Rasfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263866|Salah Bey District]]'' | {{Coord|35.81021|5.26536|display=inline}} | [[File:BIR Zouawcha et la mosquée en construction - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Rasfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3469526|Salah Bey]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2263866|Salah Bey District]]'' | {{Coord|35.854167|5.291667|display=inline}} | [[File:Salah Bey.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Salah Bey.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q401452|Saida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211156|Saïda District]]'' | {{Coord|34.830278|0.151667|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Saida مدينة سعيدة - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Saïda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q532797|El Gor]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7442738|Sebdou District]]'' | {{Coord|34.633333|-1.15|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-10- El Gor - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649930|Sebdou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7442738|Sebdou District]]'' | {{Coord|34.639444|-1.326944|display=inline}} | [[File:Mosquée Saad Ibn abi Wakas Sebdou.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-35 - Sebdou - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049715|Aricha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7442738|Sebdou District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q139936248|El Aricha Province]]'' | {{Coord|34.222778|-1.255833|display=inline}} | [[File:El Aricha - Tlemcen العريشة - تلمسان (48390068131).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-32 - El Aricha - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657281|Amalou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019863|Seddouk District]]'' | {{Coord|36.477778|4.633333|display=inline}} | [[File:Amalou.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Amalou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215134|Bouhamza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019863|Seddouk District]]'' | {{Coord|36.445|4.685556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tichi-Haf.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Bouhamza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223541|Seddouk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019863|Seddouk District]]'' | {{Coord|36.55|4.683333|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue generale , Seddouk.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Seddouk.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272316|Mecisna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019863|Seddouk District]]'' | {{Coord|36.564082|4.71262|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de M'cisna بلدية مسيسنة (51988238042).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Mcisna.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Sedrata]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019862|Sedrata District]]'' | {{Coord|36.128447|7.531471|display=inline}} | [[File:Sedrata.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Sedrata.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876378|Aïn Soltane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019862|Sedrata District]]'' | {{Coord|36.178333|7.369167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Ain Soltane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196148|Khemissa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019862|Sedrata District]]'' | {{Coord|36.193056|7.653333|display=inline}} | [[File:GM Khamissa Roman Theatre01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Khemissa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657425|Seggana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970381|Seggana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.365556|5.569444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-29 Seggana - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215772|Tilatou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970381|Seggana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.329167|5.793056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-18 Tilatou - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650042|Seghouane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019865|Seghouane District]]'' | {{Coord|36|2.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Seghouane RN 1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Seghouane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325434|Medjebar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019865|Seghouane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.95064|2.8227|display=inline}} | [[File:Moudjebeur مجبر - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Medjebar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3530064|Tlatet Eddouair]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019865|Seghouane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.9808|2.96326|display=inline}} | [[File:Telatat douairs ثلاثة الدواير.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Tletat Ed Douair.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3576157|Zoubiria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019865|Seghouane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|2.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Zoubiria الزبيرية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Zoubiria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214722|Seriana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970320|Seriana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.683333|6.183333|display=inline}} | [[File:Taga - Seriana الطاقة - سريانة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-05 Seriana - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215239|Lazrou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970320|Seriana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.843056|6.216667|display=inline}} | [[File:Lazrou.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-58 Lazrou - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3574752|Zana El Beida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970320|Seriana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.809722|6.133056|display=inline}} | [[File:Zana ruines romaines.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-54 Zanat El Beida - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q674616|Settara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579706|Settara District]]'' | {{Coord|36.719554|6.335506|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 18 Settara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3104820|Ghebala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579706|Settara District]]'' | {{Coord|36.627506|6.389693|display=inline}} | [[File:La vallée de Adjissa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Ghebala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648648|Aïn Adden]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7459729|Sfisef District]]'' | {{Coord|35.329444|-0.261389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ain Adden.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649089|Boudjebaa El Bordj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7459729|Sfisef District]]'' | {{Coord|35.351256|-0.324633|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Boudjebaa El Bordj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649181|M'Cid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7459729|Sfisef District]]'' | {{Coord|35.138283|-0.246087|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Mcid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3481104|Sfisef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7459729|Sfisef District]]'' | {{Coord|35.234403|-0.243416|display=inline}} | [[File:Sfisef -la foret.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sfisef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324726|Sfissifa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211164|Sfissifa district]]'' | {{Coord|32.733333|-0.866667|display=inline}} | [[File:Sfissifa صفيصيفة 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 45 Sfissifa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911918|Bouaichoune]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019867|Si Mahdjoub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.162409|2.675858|display=inline}} | [[File:بوعيشون - مقر البلدية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Bouaichoune.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358201|Ouled Bouachra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019867|Si Mahdjoub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.101667|2.711944|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Bouachra - la mairie اولاد بوعشرة - البلدية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Ouled Bouachra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3482811|Sidi Mahdjoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019867|Si Mahdjoub District]]'' | {{Coord|36.166667|2.716667|display=inline}} | [[File:Si El Mahdjoub سي المحجوب - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Si Mahdjoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650029|Sidi Ali Benyoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508644|Sidi Ali Benyoub District]]'' | {{Coord|34.945556|-0.719444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Ali Benyoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921665|Boukhanafis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508644|Sidi Ali Benyoub District]]'' | {{Coord|35.066114|-0.723381|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Boukhanafis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3512757|Tabia, Sidi Bel Abbès]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508644|Sidi Ali Benyoub District]]'' | {{Coord|35.017837|-0.733852|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Tabia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648959|Aïn Kada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211159|Sidi Ali Boussidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.136944|-0.855833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ain Kada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650046|Sidi Ali Boussidi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211159|Sidi Ali Boussidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.1|-0.833333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Yacoub - Sidi Ali Boussidi سيدي يعقوب - سيدي علي بوسيدي - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Ali Boussidi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3216882|Lamtar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211159|Sidi Ali Boussidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.070627|-0.79814|display=inline}} | [[File:Lamtar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Lamtar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483219|Sidi Dahou el Zairs]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211159|Sidi Ali Boussidi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.116389|-0.909722|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Daho des Zairs.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483174|Sidi Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508646|Sidi Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.104722|0.423333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Ali (Mostaganem).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Sidi Ali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3516519|Tazgait]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508646|Sidi Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.0833|0.55|display=inline}} | [[File:Tazgait.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Tazgait.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7110452|Ouled Malah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508646|Sidi Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.0068|0.59191|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-27-26 Ouled Maallah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q607367|Sidi Amar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019858|Sidi Amar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5425|2.306389|display=inline}} | [[File:Barrage de Sidi Amar "Boukerdane" سد بوكردان - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-13 - Sidi Amar - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3305719|Menaceur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019858|Sidi Amar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.494734|2.240524|display=inline}} | [[File:Menaceur dz.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-02 - Menaceur - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325575|Nador]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019858|Sidi Amar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.569722|2.393056|display=inline}} | [[File:Nador (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-15 - Nador - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483187|Sidi Ameur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211158|Sidi Ameur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.366667|3.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Ameur سيدي عامر - panoramio (6).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Sidi Ameur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514888|Tamsa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211158|Sidi Ameur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.17374|3.92553|display=inline}} | [[File:Temsa تامسة - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Tamsa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657359|El-Flaye]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019869|Sidi Aïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.609167|4.671389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 06 Leflaye.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657386|Tifra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019869|Sidi Aïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.66639|4.69722|display=inline}} | [[File:Tifra.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tifra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657475|Sidi Aïch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019869|Sidi Aïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.613056|4.688333|display=inline}} | [[File:Le pont qui traverse la rivière de la soummam à Sidi-Aïch, construit avant 1960.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Sidi-Aïch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483186|Sidi-Ayad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019869|Sidi Aïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.611944|4.715278|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Sidi Ayad (Béjaïa).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Sidi Ayad.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529143|Tinabdher]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019869|Sidi Aïch District]]'' | {{Coord|36.62525|4.68101|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Tinebdher.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tinebdar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1583070|Bouti Sayah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211161|Sidi Aïssa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.642371|3.694367|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.642222|3.694167|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouti Sayeh بوطي السايح 04.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Bouti Sayah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648903|Beni Ilmane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211161|Sidi Aïssa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.949245|4.119101|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ- 28 - Beni Ilmane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214999|Sidi Aïssa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211161|Sidi Aïssa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.886389|3.775556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi aissa.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ- 28 - Sidi Aïssa.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Sidi bel Abbès]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2264451|Sidi Bel Abbès District]]'' | {{Coord|35.2|-0.633333|display=inline}} | [[File:Aerial view of Sidi Bel Abbès (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Bel Abbes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3141310|Hounet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110339|Sidi Boubekeur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.116667|-0.15|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Hounet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358235|Ouled Khaled]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110339|Sidi Boubekeur District]]'' | {{Coord|34.876667|0.152778|display=inline}} | [[File:APC Ouled Khaled دار البلدية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Ouled Khaled.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483183|Sidi Amar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110339|Sidi Boubekeur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.025278|0.107222|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Amar مسجد عمرو بن العاص - سيدي اعمر - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Sidi Amar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483205|Sidi Boubekeur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110339|Sidi Boubekeur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.028889|0.056944|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Boubkeur سيدي بوبكر - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 20 - Sidi Boubekeur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049754|El Bouihi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019861|Sidi Djillali District]]'' | {{Coord|34.413889|-1.685833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-13-43 - El Bouihi - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483225|Sidi Djillali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019861|Sidi Djillali District]]'' | {{Coord|34.444722|-1.566389|display=inline}} | [[File:L'arbre généreux.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-41 - Sidi Djillali - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q256820|Ouled Sassi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095160|Sidi Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|34.184722|4.449444|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Ras El Miad مقر بلدية راس الميعاد.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Ouled Sassi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215511|Sidi Khaled]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095160|Sidi Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|34.383333|4.983333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Khaled.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Sidi Khaled.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2899849|Ouled Harkat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095160|Sidi Khaled District]]'' | {{Coord|34.150099|4.990711|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Besbes بلدية البسباس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-06 Ouled Harkat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q728663|Hassi Ben Abdellah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019870|Sidi Khouïled District]]'' | {{Coord|32.025833|5.468611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Hassi Ben Abdellah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876256|Ain Beida]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019870|Sidi Khouïled District]]'' | {{Coord|31.938333|5.400278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Ain Beida.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483248|Sidi Khouiled]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019870|Sidi Khouïled District]]'' | {{Coord|31.979722|5.418333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Sidi Khouiled.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649459|Hassi Fedoul]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118475|Sidi Ladjel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.436667|2.214167|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk de Hassi Fedoul حاسي فدول.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - Hassi Fedoul.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1884835|El Khemis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118475|Sidi Ladjel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.288056|2.595|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Khemis بلدية الخميس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 17 - El Khemis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11222139|Sidi Ladjel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q4118475|Sidi Ladjel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.438056|2.515833|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 17 - Sidi Ladjel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649961|Sidi Yacoub]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508756|Sidi Lahcène District]]'' | {{Coord|35.133333|-0.783333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi yacoub algérie 1905 96342.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Yacoub.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650058|Sidi Lahcene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508756|Sidi Lahcène District]]'' | {{Coord|35.163333|-0.695833|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Lahcene.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Lahcene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2841244|Amarnas]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508756|Sidi Lahcène District]]'' | {{Coord|35.135422|-0.622787|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Amarnas.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483243|Sidi Khaled, Sid Bel Abbés]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508756|Sidi Lahcène District]]'' | {{Coord|35.113|-0.71954|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|35.1131|0.719444|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Sidi Khaled.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3125557|Hadjadj]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508758|Sidi Lakhdar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1|0.333333|display=inline}} | [[File:Hadjadj.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Hadjadj.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483250|Sidi Lakhdar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508758|Sidi Lakhdar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1428|0.460556|display=inline}} | [[File:سيدي لخضر. صورة ملتقة من الغابة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 27 Sidi Lakhdar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4886789|Benabdelmalek Ramdane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508758|Sidi Lakhdar District]]'' | {{Coord|36.1025|0.274167|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.1035|0.275988|display=inline}} | [[File:Phare de Ouillis - Mostaganem.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-27-13 Abdelmalek Ramdane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895922|Beni Zentis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019880|Sidi M'Hamed Ben Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.111486|0.663621|display=inline}} | [[File:Beni Zentis.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Beni Zentis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3304056|Mediouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019880|Sidi M'Hamed Ben Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.123611|0.747222|display=inline}} | [[File:Mediouna.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Mediouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483256|Sidi M'hamed Ben Ali]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019880|Sidi M'Hamed Ben Ali District]]'' | {{Coord|36.144722|0.843056|display=inline}} | [[File:Smb plaine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Sidi MHamed Benali.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649753|El Madania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019879|Sidi M'Hamed District]]'' | {{Coord|36.742778|3.065|display=inline}} | [[File:Alger Memorial-du-Martyr IMG 1137.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1603.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650084|Sidi M'Hamed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019879|Sidi M'Hamed District]]'' | {{Coord|36.764444|3.049722|display=inline}} | [[File:La Place 1er Mai, Alger..jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1602.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2835683|Alger Centre]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019879|Sidi M'Hamed District]]'' | {{Coord|36.776111|3.058333|display=inline}} | [[File:Algiers waterfront (15708676388).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1601.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2918742|El Mouradia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019879|Sidi M'Hamed District]]'' | {{Coord|36.747222|3.050556|display=inline}} | [[File:El-Mouradia.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1627.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649500|Ouled Rabah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579737|Sidi Maarouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.599167|6.167778|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Rabah (Khelil).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Ouled Rabah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483265|Sidi Maarouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579737|Sidi Maarouf District]]'' | {{Coord|36.64|6.274167|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Sidi Maarouf.png|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Sidi Maarouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649018|El Assafia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019882|Sidi Makhlouf District]]'' | {{Coord|33.833333|2.983333|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 03 - El Assafia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649921|Sidi Makhlouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019882|Sidi Makhlouf District]]'' | {{Coord|34.133333|3.016667|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Makhlouf سيدي مخلوف - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 03 - Sidi Makhlouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649330|Chigara]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324899|Sidi Merouane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.56008|6.22238|display=inline}} | [[File:Chigara Wilaya de Mila Algérie 2013.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Chigara.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483273|Sidi Merouane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324899|Sidi Merouane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5216|6.2624|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.533333|1.333333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Merouane سيدي مروان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Sidi Mérouane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q954558|Beni Oulbane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508787|Sidi Mezghiche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.62683|6.63888|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Beni Oulbane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648570|Aïn Bouziane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508787|Sidi Mezghiche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.598056|6.751389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Aïn Bouziane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483268|Sidi Mezghiche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7508787|Sidi Mezghiche District]]'' | {{Coord|36.683333|6.716667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Sidi Mezghiche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921393|Bouchrahil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019881|Sidi Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.252882|3.158751|display=inline}} | [[File:Bouchrahil.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Bouchrahil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196055|Khams Djouamaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019881|Sidi Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.158333|3.140278|display=inline}} | [[File:Khams Djouamaa خمس جوامع - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Khams Djouamaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483276|Sidi Naamane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019881|Sidi Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.215056|3.123937|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Naamane - Nord سيدي نعمان - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sidi Naamane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215485|Sidi Okba]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095186|Sidi Okba District]]'' | {{Coord|34.75|5.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi-Okba2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Sidi Okba.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876360|Aïn Naga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095186|Sidi Okba District]]'' | {{Coord|34.688333|6.088611|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Aïn Naga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2962881|Chetma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095186|Sidi Okba District]]'' | {{Coord|34.844722|5.793889|display=inline}} | [[File:Chetma - Biskra شتمة - بسكرة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Chetma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049949|El Haouch]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095186|Sidi Okba District]]'' | {{Coord|34.561944|6.051389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 El Haouch.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q375670|Chorfa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019872|Sig District]]'' | {{Coord|35.431944|-0.245278|display=inline}} | [[File:Environnement de Chorfa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Chorfa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2744832|Sig]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019872|Sig District]]'' | {{Coord|35.527|-0.185|display=inline}} | [[File:Ville de Sig.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Sig.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2911895|Bou Henni]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019872|Sig District]]'' | {{Coord|35.560474|-0.084329|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Bou Henni.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049701|El Amiria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019884|Sigus District]]'' | {{Coord|36.111944|6.9025|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - El Amiria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483742|Sigus]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019884|Sigus District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1270670|Constantine Department]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q73645527|arrondissement of Constantine]]'' | {{Coord|36.116667|6.783333|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Sigus مقر بلدية سيقوس.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Sigus.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649336|Hamadi Krouma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7535162|Skikda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.846389|6.930556|display=inline}} | [[File:Unnamed Road, Skikda, Algeria - panoramio (1).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Hamadi Krouma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2292517|Skikda]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7535162|Skikda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.866667|6.9|display=inline}} | [[File:Centre ville Skikda.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Skikda.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3071808|Filfla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7535162|Skikda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.8985|7.0525|display=inline}} | [[File:Plage de Filfila, Skikda (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Filfila.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q596382|Djouab]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019892|Souaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.133333|3.433333|display=inline}} | [[File:Djouab جواب - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Djouab.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2377660|Sidi Zahar]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019892|Souaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.066667|3.333333|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Zahar.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sidi Zahar.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483306|Sidi Ziane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019892|Souaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.993333|3.255556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi ziane سيدي زيان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Sidi Ziane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491433|Souagui]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019892|Souaghi District]]'' | {{Coord|36.125|3.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:Souagui.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Souagui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1483423|Sougueur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019889|Sougueur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.18349|1.495857|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Sougueur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649285|Faidja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019889|Sougueur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.102778|1.705556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Faidja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650052|Si Abdelghani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019889|Sougueur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.231944|1.634722|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Si Abdelghani.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650287|Tousnina]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019889|Sougueur District]]'' | {{Coord|35.111111|1.276389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 14 - Tousnina.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q402992|Souk Ahras]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019890|Souk Ahras District]]'' | {{Coord|36.286389|7.951111|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk Ahras 41.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Souk Ahras.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q512323|El Mokrani]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156893|Souk El Khemis District]]'' | {{Coord|36.425|3.611944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Mokrani.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491578|Souk El Khemis]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156893|Souk El Khemis District]]'' | {{Coord|36.388056|3.635|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Souk El Khemis.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1657401|Melbou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006007|Souk El Tenine District]]'' | {{Coord|36.639722|5.360833|display=inline}} | [[File:Melbou.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Melbou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217785|Tamridjet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006007|Souk El Tenine District]]'' | {{Coord|36.572|5.3738|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 06 Tamridjet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491584|Souk El-Thenine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2006007|Souk El Tenine District]]'' | {{Coord|36.625164|5.336067|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk el Tenine.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Souk El Tenine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q666830|Ouled Zouaï]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019894|Souk Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.836111|6.506667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 04 - Ouled Zaoui.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2904336|Bir Chouhada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019894|Souk Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.894335|6.28993|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Bir Chouhada بلدية بئر الشهداء 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Bir Chouhada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491587|Souk Naamane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019894|Souk Naâmane District]]'' | {{Coord|35.895833|6.389444|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk naamane 1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 04 - Souk Naamane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q312000|Sour El-Ghozlane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.147222|3.690556|display=inline}} | [[File:Sour El-Ghozlane.Ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Sour El Ghouzlane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649926|Ridane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.07389|3.46208|display=inline}} | [[File:Ridane ريدان - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Ridane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3021001|Dechmia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.13002|3.57656|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Dechmia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3029712|Dirrah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.000316|3.753355|display=inline}} | [[File:Dirah, Bouira Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 10 - Dirrah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3049933|El Hakimia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.091111|3.780556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - El Hakimia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3273686|Maamora]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2156660|Sour El Ghozlane District]]'' | {{Coord|36.033056|3.551389|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 10 - Maamora.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q244004|Sétif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019888|Sétif District]]'' | {{Coord|36.19|5.41|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue aérienne de Sétif (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 19 - Sétif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3104799|Ghassira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970686|T'Kout District]]'' | {{Coord|35.096944|6.222778|display=inline}} | [[File:Ghassira غسيرة 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-02 Ghassira - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196906|Kimmel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970686|T'Kout District]]'' | {{Coord|35.216667|6.544444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 05-17 Kimmel - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3511821|Tkoutt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970686|T'Kout District]]'' | {{Coord|35.139167|6.308611|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de T'Kout.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-44 T'Kout - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2302870|Tabelbala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019902|Tabelbala District]]'' | {{Coord|29.4|-3.25|display=inline}} | [[File:تبلبالة 2025.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-12-Tabelbala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649457|Aissaouia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019904|Tablat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.419055|3.216001|display=inline}} | [[File:El aissaouia - la mairie العيساوية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Aissaouia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649907|Tablat]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019904|Tablat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.41282|3.31007|display=inline}} | [[File:Tablart.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Tablat.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3024885|Deux Bassins]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019904|Tablat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.469444|3.299444|display=inline}} | [[File:Deux Bassins الحوضان - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Deux Bassins.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3307744|Mezerana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019904|Tablat District]]'' | {{Coord|36.360999|3.358083|display=inline}} | [[File:Mizerana.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 26 Mezghana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649162|Benyahia Abderrahmane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324958|Tadjenanet District]]'' | {{Coord|36.232937|6.012912|display=inline}} | [[File:Photo benyahia abderrahmane 19112015.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Benyahia Abderrahmane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215457|Tadjenanet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324958|Tadjenanet District]]'' | {{Coord|36.116667|5.983333|display=inline}} | [[File:Tadjenanet.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Tadjenanet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358236|Ouled Khalouf]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324958|Tadjenanet District]]'' | {{Coord|36.055556|6.125|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Ouled Khalouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3052604|Taghit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019907|Taghit District]]'' | {{Coord|30.916667|-2.033333|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue de Taghit.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-08-13-Taghit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q312095|Taher]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579595|Taher District]]'' | {{Coord|36.772004|5.898211|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Mairie de Taher (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Taher.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q680713|Emir Abdelkader]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579595|Taher District]]'' | {{Coord|36.751944|5.848611|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Mairie d'Emir Abdelkader (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Emir Abdelkader.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648938|Chahna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579595|Taher District]]'' | {{Coord|36.679374|5.957203|display=inline}} | [[File:Chahna, Wilaya de Jijel (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Chahna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921395|Boucif Ouled Askeur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579595|Taher District]]'' | {{Coord|36.642704|6.019189|display=inline}} | [[File:IMG-20200511-WA0001river.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Boussif Ouled Askeur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3357896|Ouadjana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579595|Taher District]]'' | {{Coord|36.707316|5.89489|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Mairie de Oudjana (Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Oudjana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q546210|Ben Guecha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019896|Taleb Larbi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.998027|7.336121|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.205278|7.615278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Beni Guecha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3037409|Douar El Ma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019896|Taleb Larbi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.372222|7.686111|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Douar El Ma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514460|Taleb Larbi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019896|Taleb Larbi District]]'' | {{Coord|33.7276|7.51731|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 39 Taleb Larbi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649432|Kerkera]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7680597|Tamalous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.929723|6.582871|display=inline}} | [[File:Kerkera.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Kerkera.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650231|Tamalous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7680597|Tamalous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.836111|6.641667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tamalous.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Tamalous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2903877|Bin El Ouiden]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7680597|Tamalous District]]'' | {{Coord|36.807979|6.565619|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Bin El Ouiden.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Tamanrasset]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7919221|Tamanrasset District]]'' | {{Coord|22.785|5.522778|display=inline}} | [[File:Rue de tamanrasset 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-11 Tamanrasset.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3123591|In Amguel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7919221|Tamanrasset District]]'' | {{Coord|23.691111|5.150833|display=inline}} | [[File:In Amguel - Tamanrasset ان امقل - تمنراست 01.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-11 In Amguel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650273|Taougrit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711516|Taougrit District]]'' | {{Coord|36.244273|0.922852|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Taougrite.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3011993|Dahra]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711516|Taougrit District]]'' | {{Coord|36.255278|0.851667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Dahra.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1648968|Drea]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019908|Taoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.116667|7.883333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Drea.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650300|Zaarouria]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019908|Taoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.227208|7.957706|display=inline}} | [[File:الزعرورية.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 41 Zaarouria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4120469|Taoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019908|Taoura District]]'' | {{Coord|36.17|8.042778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 41 Taoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3314727|Minar Zarza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325277|Tassadane Haddada District]]'' | {{Coord|36.529167|5.9|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Minar Zarza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324794|Tassadane Haddada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325277|Tassadane Haddada District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5|5.877778|display=inline}} | [[File:تيزيمان.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Tassadane Haddada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q588117|Aït Mellikeche]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019916|Tazmalt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.441944|4.417778|display=inline}} | [[File:The ruins of THOUDA Biskra Algeria 04.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Beni Mellikeche.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2214606|Boudjellil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019916|Tazmalt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.35|4.414167|display=inline}} | [[File:Thala M'ghisa2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Boudjellil.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3141810|Tazmalt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019916|Tazmalt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.384393|4.399273|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie taz.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tazmalt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215216|Ouyoun El Assafir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970650|Tazoult District]]'' | {{Coord|35.555556|6.308333|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouyoun El Assafir عيون العصافير.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-12 Ouyoun El Assafir - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3516526|Tazoult]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970650|Tazoult District]]'' | {{Coord|35.486111|6.252778|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de la commune de Tazoult.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-08 Tazoult - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650305|Tazrouk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6591124|Tazrouk District]]'' | {{Coord|23.420278|6.265556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tazrouk , The highest twon in Algeria.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-11 Tazrouk.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215277|Idlès]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q6591124|Tazrouk District]]'' | {{Coord|23.82|5.936111|display=inline}} | [[File:Ideles1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-11 Idles.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895635|Benaceur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019903|Taïbet District]]'' | {{Coord|33.11073|6.44105|display=inline}} | [[File:Bennacer بن ناصر - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Benaceur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272287|M'Naguer]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019903|Taïbet District]]'' | {{Coord|33.126111|6.351944|display=inline}} | [[File:M'Naguer 2.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Mnaguer.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3513962|Taibet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019903|Taïbet District]]'' | {{Coord|33.083919|6.399965|display=inline}} | [[File:El Khobna - Taibet الخبنة - الطيبات.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Taibet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q525205|El Mechira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7696186|Teleghma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.010247|6.231267|display=inline}} | [[File:Commune de Mchira بلدية مشيرة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- El Mechira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649377|Oued Seguen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7696186|Teleghma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.170991|6.419985|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Oued Seguen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3517295|Telerghma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7696186|Teleghma District]]'' | {{Coord|36.115278|6.364167|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Telerghma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2843496|Amira Arras]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325284|Terrai Bainen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5375|6.065278|display=inline}} | | [[File:Amira Arrès.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3325119|Terrai Bainen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325284|Terrai Bainen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.530833|6.122222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-43- Terrai Bainen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3519006|Tessala Lemtai]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3325284|Terrai Bainen District]]'' | {{Coord|36.569167|5.985833|display=inline}} | [[File:عين الكبيرة تسالة .jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-43- Tessala Ldematai.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2739507|Texenna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579729|Texenna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.660571|5.790978|display=inline}} | [[File:Texena (Wilaya de Jijel - Algérie).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Texenna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3057080|Kaous]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579729|Texenna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.770172|5.813617|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Mairie de Kaous (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Kaous.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223551|Ammal]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711536|Thénia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.634712|3.590419|display=inline}} | [[File:Ammal - Boumerdes عمال - بومرداس - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Ammal.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2223571|Beni Amrane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711536|Thénia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.66855|3.5922|display=inline}} | [[File:Railway Viaduct of Beni Amrane on the Algiers-Constantine Line.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Beni Amrane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2225013|Thénia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711536|Thénia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.727778|3.553889|display=inline}} | [[File:Thenia 11092012.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Thenias.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491571|Souk El Had]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711536|Thénia District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6909|3.58891|display=inline}} | [[File:Souk El Had - Chabet El Ameur سوق الحد - شعبة العامر 1.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 35 Souk El Had.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q972717|Chir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970477|Théniet El Abed District]]'' | {{Coord|35.226944|6.131667|display=inline}} | [[File:Chirmasjed.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-52 Chir - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215676|Teniet El Abed]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970477|Théniet El Abed District]]'' | {{Coord|35.246944|6.190556|display=inline}} | [[File:Région de Thniet el Abed.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-47 Teniet El Abed - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215821|Oued Taga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970477|Théniet El Abed District]]'' | {{Coord|35.433333|6.416667|display=inline}} | [[File:Siège de la Commune Oued Taga6.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-48 Oued Taga - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q946333|Sidi Boutouchent]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324929|Théniet El Had District]]'' | {{Coord|35.825278|1.951389|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Sidi Boutouchent.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3054256|Theniet El Had]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324929|Théniet El Had District]]'' | {{Coord|35.871|2.02878|display=inline}} | [[File:147 LE CEDRE DU VILLAGE DE THENIET EL HAD.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Theniet El Had.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q565568|Tiaret]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019917|Tiaret District]]'' | {{Coord|35.366667|1.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tiaret at night.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 14 - Tiaret.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17013255|Ouled Djerad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q233258|Tiaret Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1657369|Boukhelifa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005701|Tichy District]]'' | {{Coord|36.614444|5.087222|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue générale de Boukhelifa depuis Aith Guendouz, Yemma Gouraya au fond.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Boukhelifa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215739|Tichy]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005701|Tichy District]]'' | {{Coord|36.667483|5.160085|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Tichy.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tichy.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217809|Tala Hamza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005701|Tichy District]]'' | {{Coord|36.7053|5.03755|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Tala Hamza.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Tala Hamza.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3477769|Sehaîlia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019914|Tighenif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.456111|0.395278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29- Sehailia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483241|Sidi Kada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019914|Tighenif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.333333|0.341389|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Kada سيدي قادة - panoramio (3).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Sidi Kada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3528317|Tighennif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019914|Tighenif District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4167|0.333|display=inline}} | [[File:Tighennif.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Tighennif.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3173842|Tigzirt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019912|Tigzirt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.893056|4.1225|display=inline}} | [[File:Tigzirt - Tizi Ouzou Province (Algeria).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tigzirt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3317342|Mizrana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019912|Tigzirt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.845125|4.096183|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue en hauteur Mizrana.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Mizrana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5991212|Iflissen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019912|Tigzirt District]]'' | {{Coord|36.863611|4.220278|display=inline}} | [[File:IrafƐen - Aït Bourouba - Ieɣmracen.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Iflissen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q938943|Timezrit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2005817|Timezrit District]]'' | {{Coord|36.615556|4.773889|display=inline}} | [[File:Timezrit-(Béjaïa)—Vue-générale.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 06 Timezrit.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q459629|Timgad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3528992|Timgad]]'' | {{Coord|35.484237|6.468666|display=inline}} | [[File:Timgad Ruins Panorama.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q3358230|Ouled Fadel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970589|Timgad District]]'' | {{Coord|35.484167|6.624722|display=inline}} | [[File:Ouled Fadel, Taher (Algérie).JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-49 Ouled Fadel - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3528992|Timgad]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q970589|Timgad District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4958|6.46724|display=inline}} | [[File:Timgad ville.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 05-50 Timgad - Wilaya de Batna map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1021173|Timimoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2087324|Timimoun District]]'' | {{Coord|29.25|0.233333|display=inline}} | [[File:Entrée de Timimoun تيميمون.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Timimoun (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2642053|Ouled Said]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2087324|Timimoun District]]'' | {{Coord|29.446111|0.266944|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Ouled Said (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Tin Zaouatine]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q12211144|Tin Zaouatine District]]'' | {{Coord|19.953333|2.966667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tinzaouaten tinza.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-58 Tinzaouten.svg|center|128px]] |- | [[Tindouf]] | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019918|Tindouf District]]'' | {{Coord|27.675278|-8.128611|display=inline}} | [[File:Tindouf تندوف 3.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 37 - 01 Tindouf.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2222648|Oum El Assel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019918|Tindouf District]]'' | {{Coord|28.6125|-6.978889|display=inline}} | [[File:Oum El Assel - Tindouf ام العسل - تندوف.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ - 37 - 02 Oum El Assel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q777457|Tinerkouk]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004760|Tinerkouk District]]'' | {{Coord|29.7|0.716667|display=inline}} | [[File:البرج 4.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - Tinerkouk (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2702132|Ksar Kaddour]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004760|Tinerkouk District]]'' | {{Coord|29.5775|0.373889|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Ksar Kaddour (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q214843|Tipaza]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019920|Tipaza District]]'' | {{Coord|36.594181|2.443022|display=inline}} | [[File:Mzafran مزفران - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 42-01 - Tipaza - Wilaya de Tipaza map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25418293|Tiranë]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q201073|Tirana District]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q770447|Tissemsilt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324937|Tissemsilt District]]'' | {{Coord|35.607222|1.810556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tissemsilt تيسمسيلت - panoramio (10).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 38 Tissemsilt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3358198|Ouled Bessem]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3324937|Tissemsilt District]]'' | {{Coord|35.683333|1.866667|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 38 Ouled Bessem.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050004|El Keurt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019922|Tizi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.383333|0.083333|display=inline}} | [[File:DZ-29- El Keurt.svg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- El Keurt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3088224|Froha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019922|Tizi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.303533|0.127029|display=inline}} | [[File:142 Froha.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- Froha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529982|Tizi]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019922|Tizi District]]'' | {{Coord|35.314845|0.071583|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-29-Tizi.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3272283|M'Kira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019923|Tizi Gheniff District]]'' | {{Coord|36.625249|3.792488|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 M'Kira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529984|Tizi Ghenif]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019923|Tizi Gheniff District]]'' | {{Coord|36.587222|3.774167|display=inline}} | [[File:TIZI GHENIFF 2.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tizi Gheniff.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q277201|Tizi-Ouzou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019924|Tizi Ouzou District]]'' | {{Coord|36.716944|4.049722|display=inline}} | [[File:Tizi Ouzou.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tizi Ouzou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2828792|Ait Ali Ouyahia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q233645|Tizi Ouzou Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3019537|Iferhounene District]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3148092|Iferhounene]]'' | {{Coord|36.5398|4.38191|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2876514|Aït Oumalou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019926|Tizi Rached District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6516|4.22198|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 15 Aït Oumalou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3529993|Tizi Rached]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019926|Tizi Rached District]]'' | {{Coord|36.678889|4.208611|display=inline}} | [[File:Tizi raced0.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 15 Tizi Rached.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q185134|Tlemcen]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019927|Tlemcen District]]'' | {{Coord|34.882778|-1.316667|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur Tlemcen depuis les hauteurs de Lalla Setti.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-13-01 - Tlemcen - Wilaya Tlemcen.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23788916|Souhalia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q233632|Tlemcen Province]]'' | {{Coord|35.041028|-1.890444|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2280394|Tolga]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095202|Tolga District]]'' | {{Coord|34.728889|5.380556|display=inline}} | [[File:Tolga centre.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-06 Tolga.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2910765|Bordj Ben Azzouz]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095202|Tolga District]]'' | {{Coord|34.6972|5.3628|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-06 Bordj Ben Azzouz.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2921336|Bouchagroune]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095202|Tolga District]]'' | {{Coord|34.72161|5.46555|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Bouchagroune.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3238081|Lichana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095202|Tolga District]]'' | {{Coord|34.724722|5.4325|display=inline}} | [[File:الدشرة القديمة ببلدة ليشانة دائرة طولقة ولاية بسكرة - الجزائر.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-07 Lichana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q601174|Tebesbest]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632583|Touggourt District]]'' | {{Coord|33.120013|6.080074|display=inline}} | [[File:Tabesbest تبسبست.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Tebesbest.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q852515|Touggourt]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632583|Touggourt District]]'' | {{Coord|33.1|6.066667|display=inline}} | [[File:Les environs de Touggourt - Tamelaht (SNED) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Touggourt.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650278|Nezla]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632583|Touggourt District]]'' | {{Coord|33.083333|6.05|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Nezla.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3574795|Zaouia El Abidia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q632583|Touggourt District]]'' | {{Coord|33.1374|6.0821|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Zaouia El Abidia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701217|Tsabit]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004301|Tsabit District]]'' | {{Coord|28.350833|-0.216111|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Tsabit (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2701577|Sebaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004301|Tsabit District]]'' | {{Coord|28.211944|-0.175|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Sebaa (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q984575|Tébessa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019933|Tébessa District]]'' | {{Coord|35.4|8.116667|display=inline}} | [[File:Tébessa Province.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 12 - Tébessa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649368|Mezaourou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019915|Télagh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.817327|-0.623319|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de mezaourou.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Mezaourou.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215476|Telagh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019915|Télagh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.784906|-0.573177|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Telagh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3025699|Dhaya]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019915|Télagh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.675359|-0.620727|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|34.683333|-0.616667|display=inline}} | [[File:Panorama - Dhaya الضاية - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Dhaya.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3517138|Teghalimet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019915|Télagh District]]'' | {{Coord|34.882833|-0.560002|display=inline}} | [[File:Teghalimet بلدية تيغاليمات (48390183527).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Teghalimet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2906568|Balidat Ameur]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019905|Témacine District]]'' | {{Coord|32.951389|5.980556|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 30 Balidate Ameur.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3514622|Tamacine]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019905|Témacine District]]'' | {{Coord|33.021978|6.022654|display=inline}} | [[File:Temacine 1.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 30 Tamacine.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q942200|Oued Sefioun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862215|Ténira District]]'' | {{Coord|34.996111|-0.093333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Oued Sefioun.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649152|Hassi Dahou]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862215|Ténira District]]'' | {{Coord|35.071944|-0.542778|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Hassi Daho.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650283|Tenira]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862215|Ténira District]]'' | {{Coord|35.019664|-0.532064|display=inline}} | [[File:Fantasia à Tenira Sidi bel abbes 2014 0106.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Tenira.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895636|Benachiba Chelia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862215|Ténira District]]'' | {{Coord|34.9625|-0.563889|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Benachiba Chelia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q860307|Ténès]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711556|Ténès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.508056|1.306389|display=inline}} | [[File:Ténès.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Tenes.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650037|Sidi Akkacha]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711556|Ténès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.466667|1.3|display=inline}} | [[File:181 Sidi Akkacha.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Sidi Akkacha.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3483160|Sidi Abderrahmane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711556|Ténès District]]'' | {{Coord|36.492778|1.094167|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi Abderrahmane, Algeria - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 02 Sidi Abderrahmane.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650094|Sehala Thaoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862227|Téssala District]]'' | {{Coord|35.201111|-0.831667|display=inline}} | [[File:Sehala firm.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Sehala Thaoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2381247|Tessala]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862227|Téssala District]]'' | {{Coord|35.243|-0.773163|display=inline}} | [[File:Tessala atouche.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 22 Tessala.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2876386|Ain Thrid]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q7862227|Téssala District]]'' | {{Coord|35.284722|-0.675833|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 22 Ain Trid.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649450|Aïn Rahma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019937|Yellel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.624722|0.392778|display=inline}} | [[File:Tliouanet تليوانت - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Ain Rahma.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649454|Kalaa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019937|Yellel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.58062|0.32838|display=inline}} | [[File:Kalaa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Kalaa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650079|Sidi Saada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019937|Yellel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.677778|0.342222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Sidi Saada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650228|Yellel]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019937|Yellel District]]'' | {{Coord|35.721944|0.353611|display=inline}} | [[File:Mosquée مسجد - panoramio (2).jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 48 Yellel.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3038080|Doui Thabet]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110043|Youb District]]'' | {{Coord|34.893056|-0.077778|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Doui Thabet.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3572780|Youb]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2110043|Youb District]]'' | {{Coord|34.92|-0.209444|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 20 - Youb.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649185|El-Gaada]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019928|Zahana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.425278|-0.315|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie d'El Gaada.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29- El Gaada.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1650864|Zahana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019928|Zahana District]]'' | {{Coord|35.518325|-0.410877|display=inline}} | [[File:Mairie de Zahana.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-29-30 Zahana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q672105|In Zghmir]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004729|Zaouiet Kounta District]]'' | {{Coord|27.093889|-0.120556|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - In ZGhmir (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2702097|Zaouiet Kounta]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q2004729|Zaouiet Kounta District]]'' | {{Coord|27.2167|-0.2|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - Zaouiet Kounta (wilaya d'Adrar) location map.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649549|Benairia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711627|Zeboudja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.356111|1.375|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz-02-Bénairia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2922675|Bouzghaia]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711627|Zeboudja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.338835|1.239696|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Bouzeghaia.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575061|Zeboudja]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3711627|Zeboudja District]]'' | {{Coord|36.350527|1.430283|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 02 Zeboudja.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575136|Zelfana]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019931|Zelfana District]]'' | {{Coord|32.397211|4.226131|display=inline}} | [[File:Daira de Zelfana زلفانة - الدائرة - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-47 Zelfana.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895876|Beni Dergoun]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019939|Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.78|0.8|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Beni Dergoune.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3015925|Dar Ben Abdellah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019939|Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.7|0.683333|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Dar Ben Abdellah.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3324824|Zemmoura]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019939|Zemmoura District]]'' | {{Coord|35.716667|0.75|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ 48 Zemmoura.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649560|El Feidh]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095769|Zeribet El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|34.521389|6.522222|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 El Feidh.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050087|Meziraa]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095769|Zeribet El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|34.7216|6.29278|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 El Mizaraa.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3196153|Khenguet Sidi Nadjil]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095769|Zeribet El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|34.8058|6.70698|display=inline}} | [[File:COUPOLE du mosquée.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-06 Khenguet Sidi Nadji.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575264|Zeribet El Oued]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q1095769|Zeribet El Oued District]]'' | {{Coord|34.6831|6.50228|display=inline}} | | [[File:DZ-07 Zeribet El Oued.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3055956|Erraguene]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579031|Ziama Mansouriah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.586157|5.580647|display=inline}} | [[File:Barrage d'Erraguene (3) ; wilaya de Jijel ; Algérie.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Erraguene.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575466|Ziama Mansouriah]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q579031|Ziama Mansouriah District]]'' | {{Coord|36.6737|5.4811|display=inline}} | [[File:Vue sur ziama mansouria port et village.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ 18 Ziama Mansouria.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q166370|Zighoud Youcef]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q166187|Zighoud Youcef District]]'' | {{Coord|36.5331|6.71238|display=inline}} | [[File:مدينة زيغود يوسف.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-04 Zighoud Youcef.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2895881|Béni Hamidane]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q166187|Zighoud Youcef District]]'' | {{Coord|36.50556|6.54972|display=inline}} | [[File:Bni hmiden, constantine.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-25-08 Beni Hamiden.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1649381|Kanoua]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q8072849|Zitouna District]]'' | {{Coord|37.0375|6.405556|display=inline}} | [[File:Kenouaa.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:Dz - 21 - Kanoua.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575625|Zitouna]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q8072849|Zitouna District]]'' | {{Coord|36.9888|6.45824|display=inline}} | | [[File:Dz - 21 - Zitouna.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215331|Mahelma]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019941|Zéralda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.682778|2.878333|display=inline}} | [[File:City hall Mahelma - معالمة.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1647.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2215718|Souidania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019941|Zéralda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.708611|2.911667|display=inline}} | [[File:Souidania 02072013.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1649.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2217496|Staouéli]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019941|Zéralda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.753333|2.888056|display=inline}} | [[File:Sidi fredj complexe.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1645.svg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7283491|Rahmania]]'' | | [[Algeria]] | ''[[:d:Q3019941|Zéralda District]]'' | {{Coord|36.680833|2.906389|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|36.680763|2.906431|display=inline}} | [[File:APC de Rahmania مقر بلدية الرحمانية.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:DZ-1648.svg|center|128px]] |} {{Wikidata list end}} pwo2dvt3i47hxbhk296s6fxvualw25l 2 11219 124438 123692 2026-11-11T05:43:54Z ListeriaBot 7225 Wikidata list updated [V2] 124438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q378508 } |section= |sort=P131 |sort_order=asca |columns=label:Article,description,P17:Country,P131:In administrative entity,P625:Geo Coordinate,P18:Image,P242:Locator map image |thumb=128 |min_section=2 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! Article ! description ! Country ! In administrative entity ! Geo Coordinate ! Image ! Locator map image |- | ''[[:d:Q10394241|Xandele]]'' | | [[Angola]] | | {{Coord|-9.2|17.3|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1152298|Quilamba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q727233|Belas]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.998056|13.265278|display=inline}} | [[File:Vista aérea da cidade do Quilamba (Belas), em maio de 2011.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q777971|Dande]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.583333|13.657222|display=inline}} | [[File:Igreja Caxito.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q979174|Bula Atumba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.675282|14.794926|display=inline}} | | [[File:Municipalità Bula Atumba.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1617496|Dembos]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.501328|14.59251|display=inline}} | | [[File:Municipalità Dembos.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1617503|Nambuangongo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.016667|14.2|display=inline}} | | [[File:Municipalità Nambuangongo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2338202|Pango Aluquém]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.716667|14.466667|display=inline}} | | [[File:Municipalità Pango Aluquem.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3613801|Ambriz]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.85|13.1167|display=inline}} | | [[File:Municipalità Ambriz.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7197977|Piri]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.516667|14.416667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7876811|Úcua]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.6616|14.1485|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10314293|Quibaxe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.5|14.583333|display=inline}} | [[File:Igreja - Missão Católica dos Dembos - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q10334065|Muxiluando]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.016667|14.2|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17122408|Barra do Dande]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.466667|13.366667|display=inline}} | [[File:Street in Barra do Dande, Angola.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q136401475|Panguila]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q191299|Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.67801|13.472876|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q287756|Bocoio]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.466667|14.133333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q524469|Chongorói]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.566667|13.95|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q805495|Balombo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.35|14.766667|display=inline}} | [[File:Kutokota.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q812706|Baía Farta]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.612801|13.198693|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1009496|Caimbambo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.024357|14.003655|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1024050|Ganda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.016667|14.633333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1051360|Catumbela]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.416667|13.533333|display=inline}} | [[File:Catumbela station.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1142891|Cubal]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.033333|14.233333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3638179|Benguela]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.58|13.407778|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3835944|Lobito]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q212786|Benguela Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.366667|13.533333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q660412|Cunhinga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.233333|16.783333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q843980|Kuito]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.383333|16.933333|display=inline}} | [[File:Cidade do kuito.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:AO-Kuito.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q931987|Cuemba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.15|18.083333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1027956|Camacupa]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q378508|municipality of Angola]]'' | {{Coord|-12.016667|17.483333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2341822|Catabola]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.14094|17.24148|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342438|Chitembo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.513829|16.754135|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342456|Chinguar]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.55|16.333333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342542|Nharea]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.166667|17.25|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2571244|Andulo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q213977|Bié Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.492555|16.703491|display=inline}} | [[File:Angolan honey farmers (5686640641).jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q459360|Cabinda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-5.566667|12.2|display=inline}} | [[File:Cabinda VOA.png|center|128px]] | [[File:AO-Cabinda.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q815642|Belize]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-4.65|12.766667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1000367|Buco-Zau]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-4.795|12.546667|display=inline}} | [[File:Buco-Zau, Angola Map.jpeg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1025053|Cacongo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-5.221709|12.142431|display=inline}} | [[File:Municipalità Cacongo.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q10378107|Tando Zinze]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-5.377|12.49|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135476320|Angoio]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135476336|Liambo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q168787|Cabinda Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q899515|Cuito Cuanavale]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.163889|19.173056|display=inline}} | | [[File:Angola Cuito Cuanavale.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1106933|Mucusso]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-18.023|21.4279|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619260|Dirico]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.985|20.776944|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10336361|Dima]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.3725|20.142222|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55607466|Xipundo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.75|22|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q818731|Menongue]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q215268|Cuando Cubango Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.6556|17.6842|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619904|Rivungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q215268|Cuando Cubango Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.333333|22.033333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620590|Mavinga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q215268|Cuando Cubango Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.793537|20.361746|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10320465|Luengue]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q215268|Cuando Cubango Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.741944|20.3775|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10320502|Luiana]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q215268|Cuando Cubango Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131753762|Cuando Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.383333|23|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q302566|Samba Cajú]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.1|15.55|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1003771|Cambambe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.743056|14.491389|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619445|Quiculungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.517091|15.311174|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619507|Golungo Alto]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.133333|14.766667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619683|Cazengo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.3|14.912921|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619833|Ambaca]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.183333|15.366667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619869|Gonguembo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.913275|14.725093|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2227542|Banga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.733333|15.166667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351321|Lucala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.26135|15.24131|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351409|Bolongongo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.466667|15.25|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10327178|Massangano]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216834|Cuanza Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.633333|14.233333|display=inline}} | [[File:Niños poblado Angola.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q591126|Cassongue]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.85383|15.046349|display=inline}} | [[File:Sandula Hill (10.3897-zse.93.10915) Figure 2.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q602772|Quibala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.733611|14.98|display=inline}} | [[File:QUIBALA.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q695397|Cela]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.358333|15.119444|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q928298|Mussende]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.510252|16.010721|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1018592|Porto Amboim]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.732563|13.760203|display=inline}} | [[File:Porto Amboim.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619913|Quilenda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.641769|14.33608|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619922|Ebo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.046167|14.696192|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619974|Conda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.108091|14.336538|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342256|Libolo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.001198|14.895845|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2572141|Seles]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.404722|14.300556|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3613789|Amboim]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.85|14.3667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3976898|Sumbe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216998|Cuanza Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.216667|13.85|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q203050|Cuangar]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.6|18.616667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619321|Nancova]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.386944|18.986944|display=inline}} | [[File:Rainbow in Nancova.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619493|Calai]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.88827|19.77052|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2944829|Cuchi]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.65|16.9|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4215389|Longa]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.606944|18.479167|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10313620|Caiundo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.7|17.466667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10314848|Cutato]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.37|16.49|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10327712|Mavengue]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10368670|Savate]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.383333|16.633333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18464088|Chinguanja]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131759114|Cubango Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.05|16.95|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q942273|Ombadja]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.700556|14.888056|display=inline}} | [[File:Brücke Xangango.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619295|Namakunde]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.3|15.85|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619947|Kuvelai]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.666667|15.8|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619967|Kuroka]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.656921|13.427714|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2350857|Cahama]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-16.283333|14.316667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3817632|Kwanyama]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216987|Cunene Province]]'' | {{Coord|-17.066667|15.733333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1026734|Londuimbali]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.241944|15.313333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1052090|Caála]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.85|15.55|display=inline}} | [[File:Rock formation Caála.jpg|center|128px]] | [[File:AO-Caala.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1619845|Bailundo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.195833|15.855556|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619881|Cachiungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.566667|16.233333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619894|Chicala-Choloanga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.634002|16.045899|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619927|Tchindjenje]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.817222|14.931111|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619933|Ecunha]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.683063|15.507476|display=inline}} | [[File:Charcoal at market Ekunha Angola.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1619956|Mungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.837284|16.221676|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342492|Longonjo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.911352|15.250934|display=inline}} | [[File:Elundi near Bongo Angola.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351378|Ucuma]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.85|15.066667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3787366|Huambo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q218848|Huambo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-12.766667|15.733333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q598594|Quilengues]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.081389|14.076389|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q774789|Quipungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.816667|14.55|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q931694|Caluquembe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.783333|14.683333|display=inline}} | | [[File:AO-Caluquembe.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q956860|Chicomba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.133333|14.916667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q992695|Chipindo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.824444|15.8|display=inline}} | [[File:Cities in Angola, Chipindo Huila Angola 2004-12-13.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1010646|Humpata]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.010695|13.374661|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1016739|Matala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.73057|15.03669|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2343092|Kuvango]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.466667|16.3|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2343957|Caconda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.739321|15.060674|display=inline}} | [[File:Laboratory-anchieta.gif|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q2346746|Chibia]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.183333|13.7|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3806439|Jamba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.7|16.066667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3837953|Lubango]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.923056|13.491667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9672114|Cacula]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.493611|14.121944|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29353007|Gambos]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214572|Huíla Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.735495|13.890519|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1617461|Quiçama]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747739|Icolo e Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.518611|13.956944|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55606370|Cabo Ledo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747739|Icolo e Bengo Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.65|13.233333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135476065|Sequele]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747739|Icolo e Bengo Province]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q291729|Ícolo e Bengo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.11297|13.689816|display=inline}} | [[File:Centro Cultural Agostinho Neto in Catete, Angola.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:Municipalità Icolo e Bengo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q727233|Belas]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.058333|13.153889|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q985130|Maianga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.836667|13.225833|display=inline}} | [[File:View over Luanda 6.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1003727|Rangel]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.831642|13.259133|display=inline}} | [[File:Rangel Skyline.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1005770|Cacuaco]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.783333|13.366667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1005786|Cazenga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.838889|13.295833|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1006431|Samba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.879444|13.194722|display=inline}} | [[File:Morro da Samba - panoramio.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1021218|Sambizanga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.8125|13.262222|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1741227|Quilamba Quiaxi]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.875|13.266667|display=inline}} | [[File:António Agostinho Neto.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q2304294|Viana]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.91166|13.371025|display=inline}} | [[File:Viana-Estacao-Transporte-rodoviario IMG1018.JPG|center|128px]] | [[File:AO-Luanda.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9675019|Camama]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.9356|13.2629|display=inline}} | [[File:New campus (6177681401) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q14633813|Luanda Municipality]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.84708|13.27148|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16497771|Mussulo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.867167|13.149639|display=inline}} | [[File:Mussulo, Angola.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q31075278|Hoji Ya Henda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.8081|13.2907|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60999936|Talatona]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.916667|13.183333|display=inline}} | [[File:Talatona - panoramio - Rogério Melo.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q135250830|Mulenvos]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q190066|Luanda Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.881111|13.376111|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q432530|Capenda-Camulemba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.423333|18.432778|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q620866|Lucapa]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.4228|20.7393|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620694|Cuilo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.23712|19.52384|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620710|Cuango]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.144444|18.046389|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620718|Chitato]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.34496|20.8198|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620728|Caungula]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.431621|18.632812|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620892|Xá-Muteba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.516667|17.816667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351441|Lubalo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.15|19.283333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3651209|Cambulo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.721944|21.264722|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10322220|Lóvua]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.346989|20.175085|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q635017|Saurimo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219648|Lunda Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.6589|20.3934|display=inline}} | [[File:Interior da cidade de saurimo.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q972373|Dala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219648|Lunda Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.034167|20.203611|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620876|Muconda]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219648|Lunda Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.6|21.316667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620901|Cacolo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219648|Lunda Sul Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.13652|19.2865|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q383610|Cacuso]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.423|15.737833|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q577901|Luquembo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.746667|17.401111|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q584657|Calandula]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.090278|15.954722|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621354|Cuaba Nzogo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.043889|16.573889|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621362|Cangandala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.783333|16.433333|display=inline}} | [[File:Cangandala.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621369|Marimba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.366667|17.016667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621393|Cambundi-Catembo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.075556|17.556944|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621535|Mucari]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.483728|16.852506|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621589|Cunda-Dia-Baze]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.916667|17.066667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621738|Caombo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q214221|Lunda Norte Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.7|16.516667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621776|Quela]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.265944|17.072831|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1637941|Quirima]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-10.9|18.083333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2342754|Massango]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-8.03451|16.348391|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3843776|Malanje]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q219072|Malanje Province]]'' | {{Coord|-9.5469|16.3387|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620686|Luacano]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747679|Moxico Leste]]'' | {{Coord|-11.216667|21.65|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1872804|Luau]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747679|Moxico Leste]]'' | {{Coord|-10.7|22.233333|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3840597|Cameia]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747679|Moxico Leste]]'' | {{Coord|-11.555278|20.779722|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|-11.56345|20.83145|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10320104|Lovua]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747679|Moxico Leste]]'' | {{Coord|-11.55|23.55|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10322802|Macondo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q131747679|Moxico Leste]]'' | {{Coord|-12.58299|23.75721|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1033167|Cangamba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-13.716667|19.866667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620735|Bundas]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.112222|21.435278|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620853|Léua]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.655278|20.446389|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2343269|Alto Zambeze]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.905833|22.921667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351418|Camanongue]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.433|20.167|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3326972|Moxico]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q173988|Moxico Province]]'' | {{Coord|-11.768655|19.948122|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q950638|Bibala]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216819|Namibe Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.766667|13.35|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2346656|Virei]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216819|Namibe Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.7167|12.95|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3651110|Camacuio]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216819|Namibe Province]]'' | {{Coord|-14.114269|13.241272|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3870058|Namibe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216819|Namibe Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.187|12.1561|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4001307|Tômbua]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216819|Namibe Province]]'' | {{Coord|-15.8032|11.8459|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q529876|Buengas]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.660278|15.856667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q748830|Negage]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.766667|15.266667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q911191|Uíge]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.60874|15.06131|display=inline}} | [[File:Rua Uige.JPG|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q967726|Songo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.133611|14.789444|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620841|Ambuila]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.433333|14.65|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621358|Mucaba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.261329|15.080437|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621546|Maquela do Zombo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.066667|15.1|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621564|Sanza Pombo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.333333|16|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621596|Quimbele]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.516667|16.216667|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621601|Damba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.684106|15.134444|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1621604|Quitexe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.941777|15.041503|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351393|Bembe]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.029031|14.305692|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2361232|Puri]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.69286|15.652528|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3647027|Bungo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.3|15.25|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3858101|Milunga]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.984234|16.133595|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4736782|Alto Cauale]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q216972|Uíge Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.973948|15.850365|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1015108|Soyo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.133333|12.366667|display=inline}} | [[File:Soyo Kwanda base.jpg|center|128px]] | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620741|Tomboco]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.8|13.3|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620763|Cuimba]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.117778|14.617222|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1620885|Noqui]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-5.868056|13.4325|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2351452|N'zeto]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-7.228974|12.86499|display=inline}}<br/>{{Coord|-7.316389|13.409722|display=inline}} | | [[File:AO-N'zeto.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3853313|Mbanza Congo]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q196674|Zaire Province]]'' | {{Coord|-6.27|14.24|display=inline}} | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1050728|Catete]]'' | | [[Angola]] | ''[[:d:Q291729|Ícolo e Bengo]]'' | {{Coord|-9.111389|13.6875|display=inline}} | [[File:Centro Cultural Agostinho Neto in Catete, Angola.JPG|center|128px]] | |} {{Wikidata list end}} lo7xaz9wcy032zppvanpcs9uqjujeej 0 12023 124399 123608 2026-11-10T20:29:24Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124399 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes.jpg|thumb|right|Kalasi la kwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Japani]] [[File:ZŠ Višňové.JPG|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Višňové (Slovakia)]] [[File:An aerial photo of a primary school in Hayesville, North Carolina.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca kwamasambiro ghakwamba ku Hayesville, North Carolina, cakutolekera kufuma mu mlengalenga]] [[File:Empty_classroom.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro, na mipando pacanya pa vitebulu, mu Netherlands]] '''Kwamasambiro ghakwamba''' (panji '''Sukulu yakwamba'''; mu Cingelezi ''primary school'' panji ''elementary school'') ni kwamasambiro gha masambiro ghakwamba gha ŵana, awo kanandi ŵali na vyaka 3 mpaka 11.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary education (3 to 11 years) |url=https://cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/children-and-families/schools-learning/education-system/elementary-education-4-to-11-years |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Cambridgeshire County Council |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Technology|first=Elcom|title=Education system overview|url=https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/education-system|access-date=2021-02-21|website=www.studyinaustralia.gov.au|language=en|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930200146/https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/education-system|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Changes to schools and the network: Options for managing changes in growth|url=https://www.education.govt.nz/school/new-zealands-network-of-schools/about/changes-to-schools-and-the-network/options-for-managing-changes-in-growth/#classify|access-date=2023-05-25|website=www.education.govt.nz|date=16 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Singapore |url=https://ncee.org/country/singapore/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=National Center on Education and the Economy |date=January 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/primary/index.html|lang=en-HK|access-date=2026-07-06|title=Primary School Education|website=Education Bureau of the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> Masambiro ghakwamba ghakwiza pamanyuma pa masambiro gha ŵana ŵacoko, ndipo pambere pa masambiro gha sekondale. Ndondomeko ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Kugaŵa Masambiro (ISCED) yikuwona masambiro ghakwamba nga ni nyengo yimoza umo masambiro kanandi ghakunozgeka kuti ghapeleke luso lakwamba la kuŵazga, kulemba, na masamu, na kuŵika maziko ghakukhora gha kusambira. Iyi ni Mbondolo ya 1 ya ISCED: masambiro ghakwamba, panji nyengo yakwamba ya masambiro gha maziko.<ref name= 2011en>[http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf Annex III in the ISCED 2011 English.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225071153/http://uis.unesco.org/ |date=25 December 2018 }} Navigate to International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)</ref> ==Mazgo== Mazgo gha Cingelezi ghakuti "primary school" ghakang'anamulika kufuma ku ''école primaire'' ya Cifurenci, ndipo ghakagwiliskirika ntchito dankha mu nyuzipepara ya [[London Times]] mu Masika 1802.<ref>http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=primary</ref> === Kwamasambiro Ghakwamba === [[File:St Pats Primary school 2021 b.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro gha St Patrick ku Murrumbeena, Victoria, Australia: limoza mwa makwamasambiro ghakwamba ghanandi gha mipingo pa caro capasi.]] [[File:Orbe - Chantemerle - salle de classe 1.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro ca ŵana ŵa vyaka 6–7 mu Switzerland, 2015]] [[File:Grundschule Haus St Marien Neumarkt - Klassenzimmer 06.JPG|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro ca kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha Ŵakatolika ku Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz]] Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, masambiro ghakwamba ni nyengo yakwamba ya masambiro agho dango likukakizga, ndipo kanandi ghakupelekeka kwambura malipiro, kweni ghangapelekeka so na makwamasambiro gha ŵanthu paŵekha agho ghakulipiska. Mu United States, lizgu lakuti ''grade school'' nyengo zinyake likugwiliskirika ntchito, nangauli ili na lakuti ''elementary school'' ghangang'anamula magiredi ghankhondi na ghatatu ghakwamba, ndiko kuti masambiro ghakwamba na masambiro ghapasi gha sekondale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 April 2024 |title=Definition of GRADE SCHOOL |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grade+school |website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2024 |title=Definition of ELEMENTARY SCHOOL |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elementary+school |website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=American Heritage Dictionary Entry |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=E5086600 |accessdate=2022-02-12 |publisher=Ahdictionary.com}}</ref> Mu Ufumu Ubanyi, "masambiro ghakwamba" ghakasambizgikanga mu "makwamasambiro ghakwamba" mpaka 1944, apo masambiro ghakwamba ghambura malipiro ghakasacizgika ku ŵasambiri ŵakujumpha vyaka 11: pakwenera kuŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba gha pasi na gha sekondale; agha ghakaŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba na makwamasambiro gha sekondale.{{efn|'''Secondary elementary school''': Lizgu ilo London County Council likagwiliskiranga ntchito kufuma mu 1921 pa makwamasambiro ghanyake gha ŵana ŵa vyaka 11–14, ndipo likucali kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Florida, Ohio, na Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hadow Report (1926) |url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html |publisher=educationengland.org.uk |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=25 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625221806/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} Lizgu lakuti ''primary school'' ndilo likutemweka comene mu Ufumu Ubanyi, Ayalandi, na vyaro vinandi vya Commonwealth, na mu malemba ghanandi gha Wupu wa Umoza wa Vyaro wa Masambiro, Kasandiro, na Mdawuko (UNESCO). ''Elementary school'' likung'anamula cinthu cimoza, kweni likugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu United States. === Makwamasambiro gha ''Elementary'' === Nangauli kanandi likugwiliskirika ntchito m'malo mwa linyake, lizgu lakuti "elementary school" lili na ng'anamulo zapadera mu malo ghakupambana. Makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'', agho ghakuchemekaso ''board schools'', ghakajalikiskika dankha mu Ungelezi na Wales na Dango la Masambiro Ghakwamba la 1870. Ghanandi mwa agha ghakaŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba pakumalira kwa ma 1940, pamanyuma pa phangano lakumanyikwa mu Dango la Masambiro la 1944. Makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'' mu United States ghakakhozgeka dankha mu 1647 mu Caro ca Massachusetts Bay. Mazuŵa ghano, pali makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'' pafupifupi 92,858 (68,173 gha ulongozgi, 24,685 gha ŵanthu paŵekha). Mu United States, makwamasambiro agha kanandi ghali na magiredi ghankhondi na ghamoza, ŵasambiri ŵali na vyaka pakati pa 5 na 11. Dango la Masambiro Ghakwamba na gha Sekondale la 1965 likanozgeka kuti lipeleke ndalama ku masambiro ghakwamba na gha sekondale. Likakhozga so kufikira masambiro mwakuyana, ndipo likaŵika vyakwenelera vyapacanya na kuzgolera. Makwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Japani ghakajalikiskika dankha pofika 1875. Mu Japani, ŵasambiri ŵa kwamasambiro ghakwamba ŵali na vyaka 6 mpaka 12, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakunjira mu sekondale yapasi. === Mu Viyowoyero Vinyake === ==== Cicayina ==== Mu caro ca ŵakuyowoya Cicayina, lizgu lakuti ''xiǎo xué'' (小学; 小學) likugwiliskirika ntchito. 國小 ndilo likumanyikwa comene mu Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=國民小學 |script-title= |url=https://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/dictView.jsp?ID=72032 |quote=我國實施前六年國民義務教育的學校。 |trans-quote=The school for the former six years national obligated education in our country (Taiwan).}}</ref> Mu malemba gha kale, lingang'anamula kasandiro ka viyowoyero, kusazgapo kusanda vyongo, kulemba, na ng'anamulo za mazgo. ==== Cijeremani ==== ''Grundschule'' ("kwamasambiro gha maziko") ndilo lizgu mu Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grundschule, die |url=https://www.dwds.de/wb/Grundschule |website=DWDS |language=de}}</ref> ''Primarschule'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu Liechtenstein na Switzerland. ''Volksschule'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu Austria na Switzerland. == Kuyaniska Magulu gha Ŵasambiri == Mu vyaro vya Cingelezi, pali nthowa zitatu zakumanyikwa zakulongosolera vyaka vya ŵana mu gulu: * "Vyaka vyakuyana" * Vyaro ivyo masambiro ghawo ghakuthemba "ndondomeko ya Ungelezi" vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yimoza mwa ziŵiri kumanyira gulu la caka. * Vyaro ivyo masambiro ghawo ghakuthemba "ndondomeko ya Amerika ya K–12" vikuchema magulu gha vyaka ghawo kuti "magiredi". Canada nayo yikulondezga ndondomeko ya Amerika, nangauli mazina gha magulu ghakupelekeka nga ni nambala pamanyuma pa giredi: mwaciyelezgero, "Giredi 1" mu Canada, m'malo mwa "Giredi Lakwamba" mu United States. Mu Canada, masambiro ni udindo wa cigaŵa ciliconse, wa ulongozgi wa caro cose yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, cigaŵa ca Ontario cikaŵa na "Giredi 13", iyo yikanozgeka kovwira ŵasambiri kunjira mu ntchito panji mu masambiro ghapacanya, kweni yikawuskika mu 2003. == Fundo za Kunozga Nyumba za Kwamasambiro Ghakwamba == Kunozga nyumba za kwamasambiro kukucitika paŵekha yayi. Nyumba (panji malo gha kwamasambiro) yikwenera kukolerana na: * Ivyo vikusambizgika * Nthowa za kusambizgira * Ndalama * Masambiro mu ndondomeko ya ndyali * Kagwiliskiro ka nyumba ya kwamasambiro (kusazgapo na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa) * Vikanizgo vya malo * Maghanoghano gha kunozga Caro ciliconse cizamuŵa na ndondomeko ya masambiro na vyakuzirwa vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Liew Kok-Pun|first1=Michael |first2=Pang |last2=Kia Seng |last3=Singh |first3=Harbans |title=The design of secondary schools:Singapore a case study|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000443/044397EB.pdf|website=Educational Building reports|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=3 April 2017|page=37|date=1981|series=17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404132431/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000443/044397EB.pdf|archive-date=2017-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Makwamasambiro ghakwenera kuŵa na malo gha ŵasambiri, ŵantchito, kusungira vinthu, vilwero vya magesi na vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakovwira, na ulongozgi. Unandi wa vipinda ivyo vikukhumbikwa ungasimikizgika kuyana na unandi wa ŵasambiri awo ŵakughanaghanirika na malo agho ghakukhumbikwa. Kuyana na vyakwenelera ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu Ufumu Ubanyi, cipinda ca masambiro ca ŵasambiri 30 ŵacoko cikwenera kuŵa mamita gha mbali zinayi 62, panji 55 pa ŵasambiri ŵakulirapo.<ref name="area guidelines">{{cite web |title=Mainstream schools: area guidelines |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mainstream-schools-area-guidelines |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418090755/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mainstream-schools-area-guidelines |url-status=live }}</ref> Pali viyelezgero vya umo ivi vingacitikira pa kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha malo 210 na malo gha ŵana ŵacoko 26.<ref name="210place">{{cite web |title=Baseline design: 210 place primary school with a 26 place nursery |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-210-place-primary-school-with-a-26-place-nursery |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418093330/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-210-place-primary-school-with-a-26-place-nursery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="420place">{{cite web |title=Baseline design: 420 place primary school with 26 place nursery |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-420-place-primary-school-with-26-place-nursery |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418093328/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-420-place-primary-school-with-26-place-nursery |url-status=live }}</ref> == Vyakukhumbikwa pa Kunozga Nyumba == [[File:First American Public School, Dedham, Massachusetts.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha boma agho ghakalipirika na msonkho wa ŵanthu mu United States ghakaŵa ku Dedham, Massachusetts.]] [[File:Sandakan Sabah SJKC-Chi-Hwa-06.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha SJK (C) Chi Hwa Eco-Nature ku Sandakan, Malaysia]] [[File:ClassroomLibrary.jpg|thumb|Mabuku gha kalasi ku United States]] Nyumba iyo masambiro ghakucitikira yikwenera kufiska vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵasambiri, ŵasambizgi, ŵantchito ŵanyake, ŵalongozgi, na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa. Yikwenera kulondezga malongozgero gha ulongozgi gha kuzenga, vyakukhumbikwa vya uchanda, vyakukhumbikwa vicoko vya vipinda vya masambiro, vimbuzi, malo gha kusambira, magesi, na kusungira mabuku na vyakusambizgira.<ref name=za>{{cite web|title=Guidelines relating to planning for public school infrastructure|url=http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=cWhHzzzCo1w%3D&tabid=93&mid=2598|access-date=3 April 2017|date=2012|publisher=Department of Basic Education, Republic of South Africa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907024942/http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=cWhHzzzCo1w%3d&tabid=93&mid=2598|archive-date=2015-09-07|url-status=live}}</ref> Kwamasambiro kawemi kakufiska vyakukhumbikwa vicoko, ndipo kali na: * vipinda vya masambiro vya ukulu wakwenelera (mamita gha mbali zinayi 60 ndigho ghawemi, kweni 80 pa ŵana ŵacoko) * malo ghapadera gha kusambizgira * cipinda ca ŵasambizgi ca kunozgekera * malo gha kupwelelera ŵantchito * nyumba ya ulongozgi * vipinda vya masambiro vya ntchito zinandi * vimbuzi vya ŵasambiri * holo ya kwamasambiro * vilwero vyakukwana * malo gha kusungira * nyumba ya mabuku panji mabuku agho ghakusinthika nyengo zose * vipinda vya mirangura * vipinda vya ulongozgi, vya ŵalwari, na vya kupima uchanda Ŵapenduzgi ŵa ndalama ŵa ulongozgi, pamanyuma pakuŵazga ulongozgi uwu, ŵakulemba malongozgero ghacoko gha makwamasambiro. Ivi vikovwira kupima malo na ndalama za kuzenga. Ndondomeko za kunozga za munthazi zikupendeka kuti zifiske vyakwenelera ivi, kweni kuvijumpha yayi. Mawunduna gha ulongozgi ghakulutilira kukakizga kuti vyakwenelera vicoko vya malo na ndalama vicepeskeke. Ulongozgi wa Ufumu Ubanyi ukalemba ndondomeko iyi ya malo yakucepeskeka ya makwamasambiro ghakwamba mu 2014. Ukati malo ghakwenera kuŵa mamita gha mbali zinayi 350 na 4.1 pa msambiri yumoza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Baseline designs for schools: guidance - GOV.UK|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance|website=www.gov.uk|publisher=Education Funding Agency|access-date=3 April 2017|language=en|date=11 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404134821/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance|archive-date=2017-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> == Ulongozgi na Ndalama == Pali nthowa zinandi zikulu za kupeleka ndalama ku kwamasambiro: na caro kwizira mu misonkho, na wupu wa cisopa nga ni mzikiti panji mpingo, na wupu wa lusungu, na ŵapapi, panji pamoza. Kulaŵilira kwamasambiro zuŵa na zuŵa kungacitika na wupu wa ŵalongozgi, wupu uwo ukupeleka ndalama, panji mwenecho. Ufumu Ubanyi ukuzomerezga masambiro ghakwamba kupelekeka mu makwamasambiro gha mpingo, apo mu France ici nchakukanizgika na dango, cifukwa pali kupatulana kwakukhwima pakati pa mpingo na caro. == Kuzgolera == Ici cingacitika kwizira mu kupima kwambura ndondomeko na ŵantchito na ŵalongozgi, nga mu Finland, panji kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mayeso ya caro, nga ni Ofsted mu Ufumu Ubanyi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/standards-and-testing-agency|title=Standards and Testing Agency|website=GOV.UK|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318131353/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/standards-and-testing-agency|archive-date=18 March 2020|access-date=2020-01-28}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Sukulu]] qt5lkdu850figg82r75lae99fro3qmm 124427 124399 2026-11-11T01:13:12Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124427 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes.jpg|thumb|right|Kalasi la kwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Japani]] [[File:ZŠ Višňové.JPG|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Višňové (Slovakia)]] [[File:An aerial photo of a primary school in Hayesville, North Carolina.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca kwamasambiro ghakwamba ku Hayesville, North Carolina, cakutolekera kufuma mu mlengalenga]] [[File:Empty_classroom.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro, na mipando pacanya pa vitebulu, mu Netherlands]] '''Kwamasambiro ghakwamba''' (panji '''Sukulu yakwamba'''; mu Cingelezi ''primary school'' panji ''elementary school'') ni kwamasambiro gha masambiro ghakwamba gha ŵana, awo kanandi ŵali na vyaka 3 mpaka 11.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary education (3 to 11 years) |url=https://cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/children-and-families/schools-learning/education-system/elementary-education-4-to-11-years |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Cambridgeshire County Council |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Technology|first=Elcom|title=Education system overview|url=https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/education-system|access-date=2021-02-21|website=www.studyinaustralia.gov.au|language=en|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930200146/https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/education-system|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Changes to schools and the network: Options for managing changes in growth|url=https://www.education.govt.nz/school/new-zealands-network-of-schools/about/changes-to-schools-and-the-network/options-for-managing-changes-in-growth/#classify|access-date=2023-05-25|website=www.education.govt.nz|date=16 April 2019|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240722012235/https://www.education.govt.nz/school/new-zealands-network-of-schools/about/changes-to-schools-and-the-network/options-for-managing-changes-in-growth/#classify|archive-date=2024-07-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Singapore |url=https://ncee.org/country/singapore/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=National Center on Education and the Economy |date=January 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/primary/index.html|lang=en-HK|access-date=2026-07-06|title=Primary School Education|website=Education Bureau of the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> Masambiro ghakwamba ghakwiza pamanyuma pa masambiro gha ŵana ŵacoko, ndipo pambere pa masambiro gha sekondale. Ndondomeko ya Pakati pa Vyaro ya Kugaŵa Masambiro (ISCED) yikuwona masambiro ghakwamba nga ni nyengo yimoza umo masambiro kanandi ghakunozgeka kuti ghapeleke luso lakwamba la kuŵazga, kulemba, na masamu, na kuŵika maziko ghakukhora gha kusambira. Iyi ni Mbondolo ya 1 ya ISCED: masambiro ghakwamba, panji nyengo yakwamba ya masambiro gha maziko.<ref name= 2011en>[http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf Annex III in the ISCED 2011 English.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225071153/http://uis.unesco.org/ |date=25 December 2018 }} Navigate to International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)</ref> ==Mazgo== Mazgo gha Cingelezi ghakuti "primary school" ghakang'anamulika kufuma ku ''école primaire'' ya Cifurenci, ndipo ghakagwiliskirika ntchito dankha mu nyuzipepara ya [[London Times]] mu Masika 1802.<ref>http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=primary</ref> === Kwamasambiro Ghakwamba === [[File:St Pats Primary school 2021 b.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro gha St Patrick ku Murrumbeena, Victoria, Australia: limoza mwa makwamasambiro ghakwamba ghanandi gha mipingo pa caro capasi.]] [[File:Orbe - Chantemerle - salle de classe 1.jpg|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro ca ŵana ŵa vyaka 6–7 mu Switzerland, 2015]] [[File:Grundschule Haus St Marien Neumarkt - Klassenzimmer 06.JPG|thumb|Cipinda ca masambiro ca kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha Ŵakatolika ku Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz]] Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi, masambiro ghakwamba ni nyengo yakwamba ya masambiro agho dango likukakizga, ndipo kanandi ghakupelekeka kwambura malipiro, kweni ghangapelekeka so na makwamasambiro gha ŵanthu paŵekha agho ghakulipiska. Mu United States, lizgu lakuti ''grade school'' nyengo zinyake likugwiliskirika ntchito, nangauli ili na lakuti ''elementary school'' ghangang'anamula magiredi ghankhondi na ghatatu ghakwamba, ndiko kuti masambiro ghakwamba na masambiro ghapasi gha sekondale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 April 2024 |title=Definition of GRADE SCHOOL |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grade+school |website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2024 |title=Definition of ELEMENTARY SCHOOL |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elementary+school |website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=American Heritage Dictionary Entry |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=E5086600 |accessdate=2022-02-12 |publisher=Ahdictionary.com}}</ref> Mu Ufumu Ubanyi, "masambiro ghakwamba" ghakasambizgikanga mu "makwamasambiro ghakwamba" mpaka 1944, apo masambiro ghakwamba ghambura malipiro ghakasacizgika ku ŵasambiri ŵakujumpha vyaka 11: pakwenera kuŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba gha pasi na gha sekondale; agha ghakaŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba na makwamasambiro gha sekondale.{{efn|'''Secondary elementary school''': Lizgu ilo London County Council likagwiliskiranga ntchito kufuma mu 1921 pa makwamasambiro ghanyake gha ŵana ŵa vyaka 11–14, ndipo likucali kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Florida, Ohio, na Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hadow Report (1926) |url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html |publisher=educationengland.org.uk |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=25 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625221806/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} Lizgu lakuti ''primary school'' ndilo likutemweka comene mu Ufumu Ubanyi, Ayalandi, na vyaro vinandi vya Commonwealth, na mu malemba ghanandi gha Wupu wa Umoza wa Vyaro wa Masambiro, Kasandiro, na Mdawuko (UNESCO). ''Elementary school'' likung'anamula cinthu cimoza, kweni likugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu United States. === Makwamasambiro gha ''Elementary'' === Nangauli kanandi likugwiliskirika ntchito m'malo mwa linyake, lizgu lakuti "elementary school" lili na ng'anamulo zapadera mu malo ghakupambana. Makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'', agho ghakuchemekaso ''board schools'', ghakajalikiskika dankha mu Ungelezi na Wales na Dango la Masambiro Ghakwamba la 1870. Ghanandi mwa agha ghakaŵa makwamasambiro ghakwamba pakumalira kwa ma 1940, pamanyuma pa phangano lakumanyikwa mu Dango la Masambiro la 1944. Makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'' mu United States ghakakhozgeka dankha mu 1647 mu Caro ca Massachusetts Bay. Mazuŵa ghano, pali makwamasambiro gha ''elementary'' pafupifupi 92,858 (68,173 gha ulongozgi, 24,685 gha ŵanthu paŵekha). Mu United States, makwamasambiro agha kanandi ghali na magiredi ghankhondi na ghamoza, ŵasambiri ŵali na vyaka pakati pa 5 na 11. Dango la Masambiro Ghakwamba na gha Sekondale la 1965 likanozgeka kuti lipeleke ndalama ku masambiro ghakwamba na gha sekondale. Likakhozga so kufikira masambiro mwakuyana, ndipo likaŵika vyakwenelera vyapacanya na kuzgolera. Makwamasambiro ghakwamba mu Japani ghakajalikiskika dankha pofika 1875. Mu Japani, ŵasambiri ŵa kwamasambiro ghakwamba ŵali na vyaka 6 mpaka 12, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakunjira mu sekondale yapasi. === Mu Viyowoyero Vinyake === ==== Cicayina ==== Mu caro ca ŵakuyowoya Cicayina, lizgu lakuti ''xiǎo xué'' (小学; 小學) likugwiliskirika ntchito. 國小 ndilo likumanyikwa comene mu Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=國民小學 |script-title= |url=https://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/dictView.jsp?ID=72032 |quote=我國實施前六年國民義務教育的學校。 |trans-quote=The school for the former six years national obligated education in our country (Taiwan).}}</ref> Mu malemba gha kale, lingang'anamula kasandiro ka viyowoyero, kusazgapo kusanda vyongo, kulemba, na ng'anamulo za mazgo. ==== Cijeremani ==== ''Grundschule'' ("kwamasambiro gha maziko") ndilo lizgu mu Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grundschule, die |url=https://www.dwds.de/wb/Grundschule |website=DWDS |language=de}}</ref> ''Primarschule'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu Liechtenstein na Switzerland. ''Volksschule'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu Austria na Switzerland. == Kuyaniska Magulu gha Ŵasambiri == Mu vyaro vya Cingelezi, pali nthowa zitatu zakumanyikwa zakulongosolera vyaka vya ŵana mu gulu: * "Vyaka vyakuyana" * Vyaro ivyo masambiro ghawo ghakuthemba "ndondomeko ya Ungelezi" vikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yimoza mwa ziŵiri kumanyira gulu la caka. * Vyaro ivyo masambiro ghawo ghakuthemba "ndondomeko ya Amerika ya K–12" vikuchema magulu gha vyaka ghawo kuti "magiredi". Canada nayo yikulondezga ndondomeko ya Amerika, nangauli mazina gha magulu ghakupelekeka nga ni nambala pamanyuma pa giredi: mwaciyelezgero, "Giredi 1" mu Canada, m'malo mwa "Giredi Lakwamba" mu United States. Mu Canada, masambiro ni udindo wa cigaŵa ciliconse, wa ulongozgi wa caro cose yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, cigaŵa ca Ontario cikaŵa na "Giredi 13", iyo yikanozgeka kovwira ŵasambiri kunjira mu ntchito panji mu masambiro ghapacanya, kweni yikawuskika mu 2003. == Fundo za Kunozga Nyumba za Kwamasambiro Ghakwamba == Kunozga nyumba za kwamasambiro kukucitika paŵekha yayi. Nyumba (panji malo gha kwamasambiro) yikwenera kukolerana na: * Ivyo vikusambizgika * Nthowa za kusambizgira * Ndalama * Masambiro mu ndondomeko ya ndyali * Kagwiliskiro ka nyumba ya kwamasambiro (kusazgapo na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa) * Vikanizgo vya malo * Maghanoghano gha kunozga Caro ciliconse cizamuŵa na ndondomeko ya masambiro na vyakuzirwa vyakupambana.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Liew Kok-Pun|first1=Michael |first2=Pang |last2=Kia Seng |last3=Singh |first3=Harbans |title=The design of secondary schools:Singapore a case study|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000443/044397EB.pdf|website=Educational Building reports|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=3 April 2017|page=37|date=1981|series=17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404132431/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000443/044397EB.pdf|archive-date=2017-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Makwamasambiro ghakwenera kuŵa na malo gha ŵasambiri, ŵantchito, kusungira vinthu, vilwero vya magesi na vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakovwira, na ulongozgi. Unandi wa vipinda ivyo vikukhumbikwa ungasimikizgika kuyana na unandi wa ŵasambiri awo ŵakughanaghanirika na malo agho ghakukhumbikwa. Kuyana na vyakwenelera ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu Ufumu Ubanyi, cipinda ca masambiro ca ŵasambiri 30 ŵacoko cikwenera kuŵa mamita gha mbali zinayi 62, panji 55 pa ŵasambiri ŵakulirapo.<ref name="area guidelines">{{cite web |title=Mainstream schools: area guidelines |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mainstream-schools-area-guidelines |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418090755/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mainstream-schools-area-guidelines |url-status=live }}</ref> Pali viyelezgero vya umo ivi vingacitikira pa kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha malo 210 na malo gha ŵana ŵacoko 26.<ref name="210place">{{cite web |title=Baseline design: 210 place primary school with a 26 place nursery |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-210-place-primary-school-with-a-26-place-nursery |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418093330/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-210-place-primary-school-with-a-26-place-nursery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="420place">{{cite web |title=Baseline design: 420 place primary school with 26 place nursery |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-420-place-primary-school-with-26-place-nursery |website=GOV.UK |access-date=18 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418093328/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-design-420-place-primary-school-with-26-place-nursery |url-status=live }}</ref> == Vyakukhumbikwa pa Kunozga Nyumba == [[File:First American Public School, Dedham, Massachusetts.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha boma agho ghakalipirika na msonkho wa ŵanthu mu United States ghakaŵa ku Dedham, Massachusetts.]] [[File:Sandakan Sabah SJKC-Chi-Hwa-06.jpg|thumb|Kwamasambiro ghakwamba gha SJK (C) Chi Hwa Eco-Nature ku Sandakan, Malaysia]] [[File:ClassroomLibrary.jpg|thumb|Mabuku gha kalasi ku United States]] Nyumba iyo masambiro ghakucitikira yikwenera kufiska vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵasambiri, ŵasambizgi, ŵantchito ŵanyake, ŵalongozgi, na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa. Yikwenera kulondezga malongozgero gha ulongozgi gha kuzenga, vyakukhumbikwa vya uchanda, vyakukhumbikwa vicoko vya vipinda vya masambiro, vimbuzi, malo gha kusambira, magesi, na kusungira mabuku na vyakusambizgira.<ref name=za>{{cite web|title=Guidelines relating to planning for public school infrastructure|url=http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=cWhHzzzCo1w%3D&tabid=93&mid=2598|access-date=3 April 2017|date=2012|publisher=Department of Basic Education, Republic of South Africa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907024942/http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=cWhHzzzCo1w%3d&tabid=93&mid=2598|archive-date=2015-09-07|url-status=live}}</ref> Kwamasambiro kawemi kakufiska vyakukhumbikwa vicoko, ndipo kali na: * vipinda vya masambiro vya ukulu wakwenelera (mamita gha mbali zinayi 60 ndigho ghawemi, kweni 80 pa ŵana ŵacoko) * malo ghapadera gha kusambizgira * cipinda ca ŵasambizgi ca kunozgekera * malo gha kupwelelera ŵantchito * nyumba ya ulongozgi * vipinda vya masambiro vya ntchito zinandi * vimbuzi vya ŵasambiri * holo ya kwamasambiro * vilwero vyakukwana * malo gha kusungira * nyumba ya mabuku panji mabuku agho ghakusinthika nyengo zose * vipinda vya mirangura * vipinda vya ulongozgi, vya ŵalwari, na vya kupima uchanda Ŵapenduzgi ŵa ndalama ŵa ulongozgi, pamanyuma pakuŵazga ulongozgi uwu, ŵakulemba malongozgero ghacoko gha makwamasambiro. Ivi vikovwira kupima malo na ndalama za kuzenga. Ndondomeko za kunozga za munthazi zikupendeka kuti zifiske vyakwenelera ivi, kweni kuvijumpha yayi. Mawunduna gha ulongozgi ghakulutilira kukakizga kuti vyakwenelera vicoko vya malo na ndalama vicepeskeke. Ulongozgi wa Ufumu Ubanyi ukalemba ndondomeko iyi ya malo yakucepeskeka ya makwamasambiro ghakwamba mu 2014. Ukati malo ghakwenera kuŵa mamita gha mbali zinayi 350 na 4.1 pa msambiri yumoza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Baseline designs for schools: guidance - GOV.UK|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance|website=www.gov.uk|publisher=Education Funding Agency|access-date=3 April 2017|language=en|date=11 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404134821/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance/baseline-designs-for-schools-guidance|archive-date=2017-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> == Ulongozgi na Ndalama == Pali nthowa zinandi zikulu za kupeleka ndalama ku kwamasambiro: na caro kwizira mu misonkho, na wupu wa cisopa nga ni mzikiti panji mpingo, na wupu wa lusungu, na ŵapapi, panji pamoza. Kulaŵilira kwamasambiro zuŵa na zuŵa kungacitika na wupu wa ŵalongozgi, wupu uwo ukupeleka ndalama, panji mwenecho. Ufumu Ubanyi ukuzomerezga masambiro ghakwamba kupelekeka mu makwamasambiro gha mpingo, apo mu France ici nchakukanizgika na dango, cifukwa pali kupatulana kwakukhwima pakati pa mpingo na caro. == Kuzgolera == Ici cingacitika kwizira mu kupima kwambura ndondomeko na ŵantchito na ŵalongozgi, nga mu Finland, panji kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mayeso ya caro, nga ni Ofsted mu Ufumu Ubanyi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/standards-and-testing-agency|title=Standards and Testing Agency|website=GOV.UK|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318131353/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/standards-and-testing-agency|archive-date=18 March 2020|access-date=2020-01-28}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Sukulu]] 8qv0j0r64yveeeq7h01hbiy2scj2rs2 0 17772 124389 123671 2026-11-10T20:18:22Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124389 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_A_1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Malo agho nyengo za ku tropiki zikusangika, pamoza na mitundu yake, na vilembo vyake vya ndondomeko ya Köppen, na mzere wapakati wa caro capasid: '''Nyengo ya mphepo ya ku tropiki''' (panji '''Tropical climate''') ni yakwamba mwa magulu ghankhondi ghakulu gha nyengo za mphepo mu ndondomeko ya Köppen, ndipo yikumanyikwa na cilembo '''A'''. Nyengo izi zikumanyikwa na kufunda kwapakati kwa mwezi uliwose kwa 18 °C panji kujumpha, nanga ni mu mwezi wakuzizima comene, ndipo kukufunda comene na kukuŵa unyowe caka cose. Vula ya caka kanandi njinandi mu nyengo za ku tropiki, ndipo yikwiza mu nyengo zake, kweni pangaŵa cilala ca nyengo mwakupambana. Kanandi pali nyengo ziŵiri pera mu nyengo za ku tropiki: nyengo ya vula na nyengo ya cilala. Kusintha kwa kufunda mu caka kanandi nkhucoko comene. Ungweru wa zuŵa ngwankhongono comene mu nyengo izi. Pali mitundu yitatu yikulu ya nyengo za ku tropiki: nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af), nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki (Am), na nyengo ya madambo gha utheka panji ya vula na cilala ya ku tropiki (Aw para cilala cili mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, na As para cilala cili mu nyengo ya kotcha).<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2011 |title=tropics |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/tropics/ |website=Resource Library |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418063759/http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/tropics/ |archive-date=18 April 2022}}</ref> Mitundu iyi yikugaŵika na kupambanyizgika na unandi wa vula mu mwezi wakomira comene mu vigaŵa ivyo. == Kagaŵiro ka Nyengo ka Köppen == Kagaŵiro ka nyengo ka Köppen ndiyo ndondomeko ya kugaŵa nyengo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito comene.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bigladdersoftware.com/epx/docs/9-4/auxiliary-programs/k-ppen-climate-classification.html#:~:text=The%20modified%20K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification,averages%20of%20temperature%20and%20precipitation | title=Köppen Climate Classification: Auxiliary Programs — EnergyPlus 9.4 }}</ref> Yikulongosora nyengo ya ku tropiki nga ni cigaŵa umo kufunda kwapakati kwa mwezi wakuzizima comene kuli 18 °C panji kujumpha, ndipo cikukolerana yayi na vyakukhumbikwa vya nyengo za gulu B, ntheura cikugaŵika mu gulu A (gulu la nyengo za ku tropiki).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kottek|first1=Markus|last2=Grieser|first2=Jürgen|last3=Beck|first3=Christoph|last4=Rudolf|first4=Bruno|last5=Rubel|first5=Franz|date=2006-07-10|title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated|journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift|volume=15|issue=3|pages=259–263|doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130|bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K|issn=0941-2948|url=https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/docId/40083 |bibcode-access=free |doi-access=free |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124111757/https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/docId/40083 |archive-date= Jan 24, 2024 }}</ref> Vigaŵa vya gulu A kanandi vikusangika mu tropiki, pasi pa digiri 23.5 kumpoto na kumwera kwa mzere wapakati wa caro capasi; vikusazgapo malo ghakuzingilizga mzere wapakati, Amerika ya Pakati, vigaŵa vya kumpoto na pakati pa Amerika ya Kumwera, Afilika ya pakati, vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Asiya, na vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Australia na virwa vya Mbwani ya Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Maps of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at |year=2023 |publisher= Climate Change & Infectious Diseases Group, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208021903/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/ |archive-date=8 Feb 2024 }}</ref> Mu gulu A, pali mitundu yitatu ya nyengo iyi: nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af), nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki (Am), na nyengo ya vula na cilala panji ya madambo gha utheka (Aw panji As). Yose yitatu yikugaŵika na Pdry (vula ya mwezi wakomira comene). Pdry ya nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula yikwenera kuŵa 60 mm panji kujumpha. Pdry ya nyengo ya mphepo za vula yikwenera kuŵa pakati pa (100 − vula ya caka pakati mu mm ÷ 25) na 60 mm. Pdry ya nyengo ya vula na cilala panji ya madambo gha utheka yikwenera kuŵa pasi pa (100 − vula ya caka pakati mu mm ÷ 25).<ref name=":0" /> == Vyamoyo vya Nyengo ya ku Tropiki == [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Af 1991–2020.svg|alt=Malo gha nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Malo gha nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki]] [[File:Tamshiyacu Tahuayo Regional Conservation Area Iquitos Amazon Rainforest Peru.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Nkholongo ya vula ya Amazon pafupi na Iquitos, Peru.]] Nyengo za ku tropiki kanandi zili na nyengo ziŵiri pera, nyengo ya vula na nyengo ya cilala. Kuyana na malo gha cigaŵa, nyengo ya vula na ya cilala zingaŵa za utali wakupambana. Kusintha kwa kufunda mu caka mu tropiki nkhucoko. Cifukwa ca kufunda kukulu na vula yinandi, vyakumera vinandi vikukura caka cose. Kufunda kukulu na unyowe ndivyo vikovwira comene vyakumera ivyo vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=epiphyte {{!}} Definition, Adaptations, Examples, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/epiphyte |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> Mu nyengo zinandi za ku tropiki, vyakumera vikukura mu vigaŵa: tumakuni pasi pa makuni ghatali, viswa pasi pa tumakuni, na utheka pasi pa viswa. Vyakumera vya ku tropiki vili na vyuma vinandi, kusazgapo khofi, kakawo, na mgwalangwa wa mafuta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/rainforest.php|title= Rainforest Biome|website=Blue Planet Biomes |first1=Michael |last1=G. |date=2001 |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna.php|title= Savanna Biome|website=Blue Planet Biomes |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Pasi apa pali mitundu ya vyakumera iyo yili mu nyengo yiliyose mwa zitatu izi. === Vyakumera vya Kawiro === * Vyakumera vya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki: nsungwi ya Bengal, bougainvillea, curare, mgwalangwa wa kokonati, durian, na nthoci. * Vyakumera vya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki: teak, deodar, rosewood, sandalwood, na nsungwi. * Vyakumera vya vula na cilala panji vya madambo gha utheka: acacia senegal, utheka wa zgovu, khuni la jarrah, bulugamu, na minga ya muluzi. == Nyengo ya Nkholongo ya Vula ya ku Tropiki == Kagaŵiro ka Köppen kakuwona nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af: ''f'' = ''feucht'', "unyowe" mu Cijeremani) nga ni iyo kanandi yili pa digiri 5–10 pera kumpoto na kumwera kwa mzere wapakati.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/koppen-climate-classification-system/|title=Köppen Climate Classification System|date=2019-10-24|website=National Geographic Society|language=en|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=McKnight|first1=Tom L. (Tom Lee)|url=http://archive.org/details/physicalgeographmckn|title=Physical geography : a landscape appreciation|last2=Hess|first2=Darrel|date=2000|publisher=Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall|others=Internet Archive}}</ref> Nyengo izi zili na kufunda kukulu: kufunda kwapakati kwa caka kanandi kuli pakati pa 21 na 30 °C.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://php.radford.edu/~swoodwar/biomes/?page_id=100|title=Tropical Rainforest {{!}} Biomes of the World|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/tropical-rainforest-biome.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327154455/http://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/tropical-rainforest-biome.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=March 27, 2015|title=Tropical Rainforest Biome - Tropical Moist Climates (Af) {{!}} The Tropical Climate {{!}} The Köppen Climate Classification System {{!}} Resources|website=ISC-Audubon|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref> Vula yingajumpha mainchesi 100 pa caka.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Nyengo zikuyana caka cose, ndipo pafupifupi palije nyengo ya cilala.<ref name=":1" /> Vigaŵa ivyo vili na nyengo iyi ni comene cigaŵa ca pacanya ca dambo la Amazon mu Amerika ya Kumwera, cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca dambo la Zaire (Congo) mu Afilika, na virwa vya East Indies.<ref name=":1" /> Nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki yikupambana na nyengo zinyake za ku tropiki cifukwa yili na mitundu yinandi ya makuni cifukwa ca vula yake.<ref name=":3" /> Makuni ghanandi ghakuwezgera unyowe mu nyengo kwizira mu kufuma kwa maji mu mahamba, uko ni maji agho ghakufumbuka kufuma pa vyakumera vyamoyo kuya mu mphepo. Kufunda na vula yinandi vikovwira comene kupambana na vimanyikwiro vya vyakumera mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=":2" /> Vyakumera vikukura mu vigaŵa vya pacanya na pasi na mu mawonekero ghakupambana kuti visange ungweru wa zuŵa wakukwana, ico nchambura kuwoneka kanandi mu nyengo zinyake.<ref name=":2" /> == Nyengo ya Mphepo za Vula ya ku Tropiki == Kagaŵiro ka Köppen kakuwona nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki nga ni iyo yili na kusintha kucoko kwa kufunda mu caka, kufunda kukulu, na vula yinandi. Nyengo iyi yili so na nyengo yifupi ya cilala iyo pafupifupi nyengo zose yikucitika mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/tropical-monsoon-and-trade-wind-littoral-climate|title=Tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate {{!}} meteorology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Nyengo ya mphepo za vula kanandi yikusangika mu vyaro vya kumwera na kumwera-kuvuma kwa Asiya, pakati pa digiri 10 kumpoto na mzere wa Cancer. Yingasangika so mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa na Amerika ya Kumwera. Kufunda kwa caka mu vigaŵa ivi nako nkhwakukhazikika. Nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki yili na vimanyikwiro ivi vikulu. Kufunda kwapakati kwa caka nkhwa pafupifupi 27.05 °C, ndipo kusintha kwapakati kwa kufunda mu caka nkhwa pafupifupi 3.6 °C.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/climate_systems/tropical_monsoon_1.html |title=Tropical Monsoon Climate |website=www.earthonlinemedia.com|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref> Pa kupambana kwa nyengo ya vula na ya cilala, nyengo iyi yikupambana na nyengo zinyake za ku tropiki cifukwa vula yake yikwiza mwambura kuyana caka cose. Pali nyengo zitatu zikulu mu nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki: nyengo ya cilala yakuzizima kufuma ku nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba mpaka kumalira kwa nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, nyengo ya cilala yakotcha mu nyengo ya kumera, na nyengo ya vula kufupi panji mukati mwa myezi ya nyengo ya kotcha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/climate-geography/seasons-of-tropical-monsoon-climate/77692|title=Seasons of Tropical Monsoon Climate|date=2016-03-08|website=Your Article Library|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref> Nkholongo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki yili na vigaŵa vitatu vikulu. Cigaŵa cakwamba ni ca pasi, ico ni ca tumakuni na utheka vyakukhora comene. Caciŵiri ni ca pakati, na makuni gha mamita pafupifupi 15. Ca pacanya ni ca makuni gha mamita 25 mpaka 40 agho ghakumera pafupi na pafupi, ndipo pacanya pake pali makuni ghanyake gha apa na apo ghatali kujumpha mamita 35.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-01-23 |title=Rainforest layers |url=https://www.rainforestjournal.com/rainforest-layers/ |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www.rainforestjournal.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Nyengo ya Madambo gha Utheka panji ya Vula na Cilala == Nyengo za madambo gha utheka ya ku tropiki, panji nyengo za vula na cilala za ku tropiki, comene zili pakati pa digiri 10 na 25 kumpoto na kumwera, ndipo kanandi zikusangika ku mphepete za kuwaro za tropiki. Vigaŵa vyakumanyikwa ni Afilika ya pakati, vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Kumwera, na kumpoto na kumafumiro gha zuŵa kwa Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-characteristics-of-a-tropical-savanna-type-of-climate.html|title=What Are The Characteristics Of A Tropical Savanna Type Of Climate?|website=WorldAtlas|date=22 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Kufunda kwa nyengo iyi kuli pakati pa 20 na 30 °C. Mu nyengo ya kotcha, kufunda kuli pakati pa 25 na 30 °C, apo mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima kuli pakati pa 20 na 30 °C, kweni kukukhala pacanya pa 18 °C pakati. Vula ya caka yili pakati pa 700 na 1000 mm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna_climate.php|title=Blue Planet Biomes - Savanna Climate|website=www.blueplanetbiomes.org|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Myezi yakomira comene kanandi yili mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, ndipo yili na vula yambura kufika 60 mm (kanandi yicoko comene).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The grassland biome |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/grasslands.php |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vili na nyengo ya madambo gha utheka kanandi vili na malo ghakuphimbika na utheka wakusalala, na malo gha tumakuni. Madambo agha gha utheka ghakuphimba pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha caro capasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/savanna-biome.php|title=Savanna Biome: Location, Climate, Temperature, Plants and Animals|date=2018-08-26|website=Conserve Energy Future|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Mitundu ya utheka yikusazgapo utheka wa Rhodes, utheka wa red oats, utheka wa nyenyezi, na utheka wa ndimu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kids.nceas.ucsb.edu/biomes/savanna.html|title=KDE Santa Barbara|website=kids.nceas.ucsb.edu|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} 84wejttbqydlgllsue751mon0gatc3j 124433 124389 2026-11-11T03:08:00Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124433 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_A_1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Malo agho nyengo za ku tropiki zikusangika, pamoza na mitundu yake, na vilembo vyake vya ndondomeko ya Köppen, na mzere wapakati wa caro capasid: '''Nyengo ya mphepo ya ku tropiki''' (panji '''Tropical climate''') ni yakwamba mwa magulu ghankhondi ghakulu gha nyengo za mphepo mu ndondomeko ya Köppen, ndipo yikumanyikwa na cilembo '''A'''. Nyengo izi zikumanyikwa na kufunda kwapakati kwa mwezi uliwose kwa 18 °C panji kujumpha, nanga ni mu mwezi wakuzizima comene, ndipo kukufunda comene na kukuŵa unyowe caka cose. Vula ya caka kanandi njinandi mu nyengo za ku tropiki, ndipo yikwiza mu nyengo zake, kweni pangaŵa cilala ca nyengo mwakupambana. Kanandi pali nyengo ziŵiri pera mu nyengo za ku tropiki: nyengo ya vula na nyengo ya cilala. Kusintha kwa kufunda mu caka kanandi nkhucoko comene. Ungweru wa zuŵa ngwankhongono comene mu nyengo izi. Pali mitundu yitatu yikulu ya nyengo za ku tropiki: nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af), nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki (Am), na nyengo ya madambo gha utheka panji ya vula na cilala ya ku tropiki (Aw para cilala cili mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, na As para cilala cili mu nyengo ya kotcha).<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2011 |title=tropics |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/tropics/ |website=Resource Library |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418063759/http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/tropics/ |archive-date=18 April 2022}}</ref> Mitundu iyi yikugaŵika na kupambanyizgika na unandi wa vula mu mwezi wakomira comene mu vigaŵa ivyo. == Kagaŵiro ka Nyengo ka Köppen == Kagaŵiro ka nyengo ka Köppen ndiyo ndondomeko ya kugaŵa nyengo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito comene.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bigladdersoftware.com/epx/docs/9-4/auxiliary-programs/k-ppen-climate-classification.html#:~:text=The%20modified%20K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification,averages%20of%20temperature%20and%20precipitation | title=Köppen Climate Classification: Auxiliary Programs — EnergyPlus 9.4 }}</ref> Yikulongosora nyengo ya ku tropiki nga ni cigaŵa umo kufunda kwapakati kwa mwezi wakuzizima comene kuli 18 °C panji kujumpha, ndipo cikukolerana yayi na vyakukhumbikwa vya nyengo za gulu B, ntheura cikugaŵika mu gulu A (gulu la nyengo za ku tropiki).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kottek|first1=Markus|last2=Grieser|first2=Jürgen|last3=Beck|first3=Christoph|last4=Rudolf|first4=Bruno|last5=Rubel|first5=Franz|date=2006-07-10|title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated|journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift|volume=15|issue=3|pages=259–263|doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130|bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K|issn=0941-2948|url=https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/docId/40083 |bibcode-access=free |doi-access=free |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124111757/https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/docId/40083 |archive-date= Jan 24, 2024 }}</ref> Vigaŵa vya gulu A kanandi vikusangika mu tropiki, pasi pa digiri 23.5 kumpoto na kumwera kwa mzere wapakati wa caro capasi; vikusazgapo malo ghakuzingilizga mzere wapakati, Amerika ya Pakati, vigaŵa vya kumpoto na pakati pa Amerika ya Kumwera, Afilika ya pakati, vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Asiya, na vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Australia na virwa vya Mbwani ya Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Maps of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at |year=2023 |publisher= Climate Change & Infectious Diseases Group, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208021903/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/ |archive-date=8 Feb 2024 }}</ref> Mu gulu A, pali mitundu yitatu ya nyengo iyi: nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af), nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki (Am), na nyengo ya vula na cilala panji ya madambo gha utheka (Aw panji As). Yose yitatu yikugaŵika na Pdry (vula ya mwezi wakomira comene). Pdry ya nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula yikwenera kuŵa 60 mm panji kujumpha. Pdry ya nyengo ya mphepo za vula yikwenera kuŵa pakati pa (100 − vula ya caka pakati mu mm ÷ 25) na 60 mm. Pdry ya nyengo ya vula na cilala panji ya madambo gha utheka yikwenera kuŵa pasi pa (100 − vula ya caka pakati mu mm ÷ 25).<ref name=":0" /> == Vyamoyo vya Nyengo ya ku Tropiki == [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Af 1991–2020.svg|alt=Malo gha nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Malo gha nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki]] [[File:Tamshiyacu Tahuayo Regional Conservation Area Iquitos Amazon Rainforest Peru.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Nkholongo ya vula ya Amazon pafupi na Iquitos, Peru.]] Nyengo za ku tropiki kanandi zili na nyengo ziŵiri pera, nyengo ya vula na nyengo ya cilala. Kuyana na malo gha cigaŵa, nyengo ya vula na ya cilala zingaŵa za utali wakupambana. Kusintha kwa kufunda mu caka mu tropiki nkhucoko. Cifukwa ca kufunda kukulu na vula yinandi, vyakumera vinandi vikukura caka cose. Kufunda kukulu na unyowe ndivyo vikovwira comene vyakumera ivyo vikumera pa vyakumera vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |title=epiphyte {{!}} Definition, Adaptations, Examples, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/epiphyte |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> Mu nyengo zinandi za ku tropiki, vyakumera vikukura mu vigaŵa: tumakuni pasi pa makuni ghatali, viswa pasi pa tumakuni, na utheka pasi pa viswa. Vyakumera vya ku tropiki vili na vyuma vinandi, kusazgapo khofi, kakawo, na mgwalangwa wa mafuta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/rainforest.php|title= Rainforest Biome|website=Blue Planet Biomes |first1=Michael |last1=G. |date=2001 |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna.php|title= Savanna Biome|website=Blue Planet Biomes |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Pasi apa pali mitundu ya vyakumera iyo yili mu nyengo yiliyose mwa zitatu izi. === Vyakumera vya Kawiro === * Vyakumera vya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki: nsungwi ya Bengal, bougainvillea, curare, mgwalangwa wa kokonati, durian, na nthoci. * Vyakumera vya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki: teak, deodar, rosewood, sandalwood, na nsungwi. * Vyakumera vya vula na cilala panji vya madambo gha utheka: acacia senegal, utheka wa zgovu, khuni la jarrah, bulugamu, na minga ya muluzi. == Nyengo ya Nkholongo ya Vula ya ku Tropiki == Kagaŵiro ka Köppen kakuwona nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki (Af: ''f'' = ''feucht'', "unyowe" mu Cijeremani) nga ni iyo kanandi yili pa digiri 5–10 pera kumpoto na kumwera kwa mzere wapakati.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/koppen-climate-classification-system/|title=Köppen Climate Classification System|date=2019-10-24|website=National Geographic Society|language=en|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=McKnight|first1=Tom L. (Tom Lee)|url=http://archive.org/details/physicalgeographmckn|title=Physical geography : a landscape appreciation|last2=Hess|first2=Darrel|date=2000|publisher=Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall|others=Internet Archive}}</ref> Nyengo izi zili na kufunda kukulu: kufunda kwapakati kwa caka kanandi kuli pakati pa 21 na 30 °C.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://php.radford.edu/~swoodwar/biomes/?page_id=100|title=Tropical Rainforest {{!}} Biomes of the World|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/tropical-rainforest-biome.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327154455/http://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/tropical-rainforest-biome.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=March 27, 2015|title=Tropical Rainforest Biome - Tropical Moist Climates (Af) {{!}} The Tropical Climate {{!}} The Köppen Climate Classification System {{!}} Resources|website=ISC-Audubon|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref> Vula yingajumpha mainchesi 100 pa caka.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Nyengo zikuyana caka cose, ndipo pafupifupi palije nyengo ya cilala.<ref name=":1" /> Vigaŵa ivyo vili na nyengo iyi ni comene cigaŵa ca pacanya ca dambo la Amazon mu Amerika ya Kumwera, cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca dambo la Zaire (Congo) mu Afilika, na virwa vya East Indies.<ref name=":1" /> Nyengo ya nkholongo ya vula ya ku tropiki yikupambana na nyengo zinyake za ku tropiki cifukwa yili na mitundu yinandi ya makuni cifukwa ca vula yake.<ref name=":3" /> Makuni ghanandi ghakuwezgera unyowe mu nyengo kwizira mu kufuma kwa maji mu mahamba, uko ni maji agho ghakufumbuka kufuma pa vyakumera vyamoyo kuya mu mphepo. Kufunda na vula yinandi vikovwira comene kupambana na vimanyikwiro vya vyakumera mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=":2" /> Vyakumera vikukura mu vigaŵa vya pacanya na pasi na mu mawonekero ghakupambana kuti visange ungweru wa zuŵa wakukwana, ico nchambura kuwoneka kanandi mu nyengo zinyake.<ref name=":2" /> == Nyengo ya Mphepo za Vula ya ku Tropiki == Kagaŵiro ka Köppen kakuwona nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki nga ni iyo yili na kusintha kucoko kwa kufunda mu caka, kufunda kukulu, na vula yinandi. Nyengo iyi yili so na nyengo yifupi ya cilala iyo pafupifupi nyengo zose yikucitika mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/tropical-monsoon-and-trade-wind-littoral-climate|title=Tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate {{!}} meteorology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Nyengo ya mphepo za vula kanandi yikusangika mu vyaro vya kumwera na kumwera-kuvuma kwa Asiya, pakati pa digiri 10 kumpoto na mzere wa Cancer. Yingasangika so mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa na Amerika ya Kumwera. Kufunda kwa caka mu vigaŵa ivi nako nkhwakukhazikika. Nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki yili na vimanyikwiro ivi vikulu. Kufunda kwapakati kwa caka nkhwa pafupifupi 27.05 °C, ndipo kusintha kwapakati kwa kufunda mu caka nkhwa pafupifupi 3.6 °C.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |url=https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/climate_systems/tropical_monsoon_1.html |title=Tropical Monsoon Climate |website=www.earthonlinemedia.com |access-date=2020-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414235557/https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/climate_systems/tropical_monsoon_1.html |archive-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> Pa kupambana kwa nyengo ya vula na ya cilala, nyengo iyi yikupambana na nyengo zinyake za ku tropiki cifukwa vula yake yikwiza mwambura kuyana caka cose. Pali nyengo zitatu zikulu mu nyengo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki: nyengo ya cilala yakuzizima kufuma ku nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba mpaka kumalira kwa nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, nyengo ya cilala yakotcha mu nyengo ya kumera, na nyengo ya vula kufupi panji mukati mwa myezi ya nyengo ya kotcha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/climate-geography/seasons-of-tropical-monsoon-climate/77692|title=Seasons of Tropical Monsoon Climate|date=2016-03-08|website=Your Article Library|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref> Nkholongo ya mphepo za vula ya ku tropiki yili na vigaŵa vitatu vikulu. Cigaŵa cakwamba ni ca pasi, ico ni ca tumakuni na utheka vyakukhora comene. Caciŵiri ni ca pakati, na makuni gha mamita pafupifupi 15. Ca pacanya ni ca makuni gha mamita 25 mpaka 40 agho ghakumera pafupi na pafupi, ndipo pacanya pake pali makuni ghanyake gha apa na apo ghatali kujumpha mamita 35.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-01-23 |title=Rainforest layers |url=https://www.rainforestjournal.com/rainforest-layers/ |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www.rainforestjournal.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Nyengo ya Madambo gha Utheka panji ya Vula na Cilala == Nyengo za madambo gha utheka ya ku tropiki, panji nyengo za vula na cilala za ku tropiki, comene zili pakati pa digiri 10 na 25 kumpoto na kumwera, ndipo kanandi zikusangika ku mphepete za kuwaro za tropiki. Vigaŵa vyakumanyikwa ni Afilika ya pakati, vigaŵa vya Amerika ya Kumwera, na kumpoto na kumafumiro gha zuŵa kwa Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-characteristics-of-a-tropical-savanna-type-of-climate.html|title=What Are The Characteristics Of A Tropical Savanna Type Of Climate?|website=WorldAtlas|date=22 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Kufunda kwa nyengo iyi kuli pakati pa 20 na 30 °C. Mu nyengo ya kotcha, kufunda kuli pakati pa 25 na 30 °C, apo mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima kuli pakati pa 20 na 30 °C, kweni kukukhala pacanya pa 18 °C pakati. Vula ya caka yili pakati pa 700 na 1000 mm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna_climate.php|title=Blue Planet Biomes - Savanna Climate|website=www.blueplanetbiomes.org|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Myezi yakomira comene kanandi yili mu nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima, ndipo yili na vula yambura kufika 60 mm (kanandi yicoko comene).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The grassland biome |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/grasslands.php |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vili na nyengo ya madambo gha utheka kanandi vili na malo ghakuphimbika na utheka wakusalala, na malo gha tumakuni. Madambo agha gha utheka ghakuphimba pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha caro capasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/savanna-biome.php|title=Savanna Biome: Location, Climate, Temperature, Plants and Animals|date=2018-08-26|website=Conserve Energy Future|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> Mitundu ya utheka yikusazgapo utheka wa Rhodes, utheka wa red oats, utheka wa nyenyezi, na utheka wa ndimu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kids.nceas.ucsb.edu/biomes/savanna.html|title=KDE Santa Barbara|website=kids.nceas.ucsb.edu|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} 653idbyeg00kdq44pqzhrghhplppkw3 0 17884 124377 123606 2026-11-10T20:11:57Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124377 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vilwero vya mkwawo''' (panji '''Makina ya Kaŵilo kakukhoma ya Mipilingizgo''') ni vilwero vya malekitironi ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa kuyowoyerana na kukolerana kwa vilwero pa [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|mkwawo wa mirangura]]. Comene, vikulongozga kutumizgika kwa vyakumanyikwa mu mkwawo wa mirangura.<ref name="IEEE 802.3-2012 Clause 9.1">IEEE 802.3-2012 Clause 9.1</ref> Vilwero ivyo vikupokera vyakumanyikwa pakumalira panji kuvipanga vikuchemeka vyakupokera, ndondomeko za kumalizgira, panji vilwero vya kumalizgira kwa vyakumanyikwa. == Ukulu Wake == Vilwero vya mkwawo vikusazgapo vilwero vinandi, ivyo vikugaŵika nga ni vigaŵa vyapakati vya mkwawo ivyo vikulumikizga vigaŵa vinyake, vigaŵa vyakusazganika ivyo vingasangika pakati panji pa mphepete ya mkwawo, na vilwero panji vilwerovipepu ivyo kanandi vili pa malo agho mikwawo yakupambana yikukumanira.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.netwrix.com/network-devices-explained|title=Common Types of Network Devices & Their Functions|access-date=2025-02-06|archive-date=2025-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250312004923/https://blog.netwrix.com/network-devices-explained|url-status=live}}</ref> Cimoza mwa vilwero vya mkwawo vyakumanyikwa comene mazuŵa ghano ni cilwero ca Ethernet ca mkuŵa, ico cikuŵa mu mirangura yinandi ya mazuŵa ghano. Mikwawo yambura ŵaya yakumanyikwa comene, comene pa vilwero vyakunyamulika na vyakukora mu woko.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.silicom-usa.com/pr/server-adapters/networking-adapters/gigabit-ethernet-networking-server-adapters/pe2g4i35l-server-adapter/|title=Silicom Ltd. &#124; PE2G4I35L Quad port Copper 1G Network Interface Card|access-date=2025-02-06|archive-date=2025-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317200653/https://www.silicom-usa.com/pr/server-adapters/networking-adapters/gigabit-ethernet-networking-server-adapters/pe2g4i35l-server-adapter/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/understanding-common-wifi-standards-technology-explained/|title=The Most Common Wi-Fi Standards and Types, Explained|first=Gavin|last=Phillips|date=March 13, 2019|website=MUO|access-date=February 6, 2025|archive-date=November 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111004326/https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/understanding-common-wifi-standards-technology-explained/|url-status=live}}</ref> Vilwero vinyake vya mkwawo ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu mirangura ni vilwero vya malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa (nga ni maseva gha mafayilo na gha vyakumanyikwa, na malo gha kusungira), uteŵeti wa mkwawo (nga ni DNS, DHCP, imelo, na vinyake), na vilwero ivyo vikuwoneseska kuti vyakumanyikwa vikufika.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://encoradvisors.com/data-center-equipment/|title=Data Center Equipment - The Complete Guide [2024]|first=Jeff|last=Howell|date=October 23, 2024}}</ref> Para tikulaŵiska comene, lamya za m'manja, mirangura ya tableti, na vilwero vya intaneti ya vinthu vingawonekera so nga ni vilwero vya mkwawo. Apo luso la vilwero likuluta panthazi ndipo mikwawo ya IP yikunjizgika mu nyumba na mu vilwero vya pa nyumba, lizgu lakuti vilwero vya mkwawo lizamuŵa lambura kumanyikwa makola cifukwa ca kusazgikira comene kwa vilwero ivyo vingalumikizgika ku mkwawo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Articles/gsm-mobile-phone-basics.html|title=Mobile Hardware and Software: Key Parts, Components, Functions|website=www.rfwireless-world.com|access-date=2025-02-06|archive-date=2025-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120135004/https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Articles/gsm-mobile-phone-basics.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eitc.org/research-opportunities/future-internet-and-optical-quantum-communications/internet-networks-and-tcp-ip/internet-infrastructure/networking-hardware/networking-hardware|title=Networking Hardware — EITC|website=eitc.org|access-date=2025-02-06|archive-date=2025-02-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212004345/http://eitc.org/research-opportunities/future-internet-and-optical-quantum-communications/internet-networks-and-tcp-ip/internet-infrastructure/networking-hardware/networking-hardware|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://builtin.com/articles/iot-devices|title=24 IoT Devices Connecting the World|website=Built In|access-date=2025-02-06|archive-date=2025-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250403023711/https://builtin.com/articles/iot-devices|url-status=live}}</ref> == Vilwero Vyapadera == Vilwero vya mkwawo vingagaŵika kuyana na malo na ntchito yawo mu mkwawo. === Vyapakati === Vigaŵa vyapakati vya mkwawo vikulumikizga vigaŵa vinyake vya mkwawo. * Khomo la mkwawo (''gateway''): cilwero ico cikuzomerezga mikwawo kukolerana mwa kusintha luŵiro la kutumizga, malamulo gha kuyowoyerana, makhodi, panji nthowa za civikiliro. * Malawuta (''router''): cilwero ca mkwawo ico cikutumizga tumapaketi twa vyakumanyikwa pakati pa mikwawo ya mirangura. Malawuta ghakulongozga kwenda kwa vyakumanyikwa pa intaneti. Kapaketi ka vyakumanyikwa kanandi kakutumizgika kufuma ku malawuta yimoza kuya ku yinyake kwizira mu mikwawo mpaka kafike pa findu iyo kakulutako. Yikugwira ntchito pa cigaŵa ca 3 ca OSI. * Suwichi (''switch''): cilwero ca makomo ghanandi ico cikulumikizga vilwero pamoza pa luŵiro lakuyana panji lakupambana pa mkwawo wa mirangura, mwa kupokera, kupenda, na kutumizga vyakumanyikwa ku cilwero ico vikulutako. Kupambana na mahabu, suwichi yikutumizga vyakumanyikwa ku cilwero cimoza panji vinandi ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuvipokera pera, m'malo mwa kuvithandazga pa makomo ghake ghose. Yikugwira ntchito pa cigaŵa ca 2 ca OSI. * Bulijji (''bridge''): cilwero ico cikulumikizga vigaŵa vinandi vya mkwawo. Cikugwira ntchito pa vigaŵa 1 na 2 vya OSI. * Cakuwezgerapo vimanyikwiro (''repeater''): cilwero ca malekitironi ico cikupokera cimanyikwiro na kucitumizga so na nkhongono yikulu, panji kumphepete kunyake kwa cikanizgo, kuti cimanyikwiro cifike kutali comene. * Habu (''repeater hub''): ya kulumikizga vilwero vinandi vya Ethernet pamoza pa luŵiro lakuyana, kuti vigwire ntchito nga ni cigaŵa cimoza ca mkwawo. Yili na makomo ghanandi, ndipo cimanyikwiro ico canjira pa khomo limoza cikufuma pa makomo ghanyake ghose. Mahabu sono ghakugwiliskirika ntchito comene yayi, cifukwa masuwichi ghapoka malo ghawo. * Malo gha kunjilira pa mkwawo kwambura ŵaya * Ŵaya zakunozgeka mwandondomeko === Vyakusazganika === Vigaŵa vyakusazganika vingasangika pakati panji pa mphepete ya mkwawo. * Suwichi ya vigaŵa vinandi: suwichi iyo, kusazgirapo kugwira ntchito pa cigaŵa ca 2 ca OSI, yikugwira ntchito so pa vigaŵa vyapacanya. * Cakusinthira malamulo gha kuyowoyerana: cilwero ico cikusintha pakati pa mitundu iŵiri ya kutumizga kuti vikolerane. * Bulijji-malawuta (''brouter''): cilwero ico cikugwira ntchito nga ni bulijji kweniso nga ni malawuta. === Vya pa Mphepete === Vilwero panji vilwerovipepu ivyo kanandi vili pa malo agho mikwawo yakupambana yikukumanira (mwaciyelezgero, pakati pa mkwawo wa mukati na mkwawo wa kuwaro) ni: * Seva ya pakati (''proxy server''): uteŵeti wa mkwawo uwo ukuzomerezga ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kulumikizgika ku uteŵeti unyake kwizira mu iyo. * Linga la moto (''firewall''): cilwero panji cilwerocipepu ico caŵikika pa mkwawo kuti cikanizge kuyowoyerana kunyake uko kwakanizgika na malango gha mkwawo. Kanandi likuŵika cikanizgo pakati pa mkwawo wa mukati wakugomezgeka na mkwawo wa kuwaro, nga ni intaneti, uwo ukuwonekera kuŵa wambura kugomezgeka. * Cakusinthira maadiresi gha mkwawo (NAT): uteŵeti wa mkwawo uwo ukusintha maadiresi gha mukati kuŵa gha kuwaro, na gha kuwaro kuŵa gha mukati. * Khomo la pa nyumba: cilwero ico cikulumikizga mkwawo wa pa nyumba ku wakupeleka uteŵeti wa intaneti. * Seva ya vilwero: yikulumikizga vilwero vya khomo la ''serial'' ku mkwawo wa malo ghacoko. === Vya Kumalizgira === Vilwero vinyake ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga mikwawo panji kulumikizgika kwizira mu lamya ni: * Cilwero ca kulumikizgira ku mkwawo (NIC): cilwero ico cikulumikizga mrangura ku mkwawo wa mirangura. * Cilwero ca kulumikizgira ku mkwawo kwambura ŵaya: cilwero ico cikulumikizga mrangura ku mkwawo wa wayilesi. * Modemu: cilwero ico cikusintha cimanyikwiro (nga ni congo) kuti cinyamule vyakumanyikwa vya digito, ndipo cikucisintha so kuti cipulikiske vyakumanyikwa ivyo vyatumizgika. Cikugwiliskirika ntchito (mwaciyelezgero) para mrangura ukuyowoyerana na mrangura unyake kwizira mu mkwawo wa lamya. * Cakulumikizgira ku ISDN (TA): khomo lapadera la ISDN. * Cakukhozgera vimanyikwiro: cilwero ico cikukhozga cimanyikwiro kuti cifike kutali. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} cdi527zktk8i80704rfm1s84ythy1mi 0 19858 124424 123360 2026-11-10T23:37:00Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|National economy}} {{nkhani iwemi}} {{Infobox economy|country=Malawi|image=|image_size=300px|caption=[[Lilongwe]], the [[financial centre]] of Malawi|currency=[[Malawian kwacha]] (MWK)|year=1 July - 30 June|organs=[[African Union|AU]], [[African Continental Free Trade Area|AfCFTA]] (signed), [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]], [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa|COMESA]]|group={{plainlist| *[[Least developed countries|Least Developed]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2200&sg=All+countries+%2f+Emerging+market+and+developing+economies |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref> *Low-income economy<ref>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref>}}|gdp={{plainlist| *{{increase}} $7.522 billion (nominal, 2019 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOMW">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=37&pr.y=17&sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=676&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIPCH&grp=0&a= |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> *{{increase}} $25.167 billion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]], 2019 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOMW"/>}}|gdp rank={{plainlist| *[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|144th (nominal, 2019)]] *[[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|138th (PPP, 2019)]]}}|growth={{plainlist| *4.0%&nbsp;(2017) 3.5%&nbsp;(2018) *4.4%&nbsp;(2019e) 4.8%&nbsp;(2020f)<ref name="World Bank">{{cite web |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33044/9781464814693.pdf |title=Global Economic Prospects, January 2020 : Slow Growth, Policy Challenges |page=147 |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=openknowledge.worldbank.org |access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref>}}|per capita={{plainlist| *{{increase}} $371 (nominal, 2019 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOMW"/> *{{increase}} $1,240 (PPP, 2019 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOMW"/>}}|per capita rank={{plainlist| *[[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|183rd (nominal, 2019)]] *[[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|182nd (PPP, 2018)]]}}|sectors=agriculture 29.4%, industry 15.8%, services 56.1% (2016 est.)|inflation=8.4% (2020 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOMW"/>|poverty={{plainlist| *51.5% (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - Malawi |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=MW&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731003039/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=MW&name_desc=false |archive-date=31 July 2020}}</ref> *70.3% on less than $1.90/day (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - Malawi |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=MW&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205095235/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY%3Flocations%3DMW%26name_desc%3Dfalse |archive-date=5 February 2020}}</ref>}}|gini=44.7 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Malawi |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=MW&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731100302/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=MW&name_desc=false |archive-date=31 July 2020}}</ref>|hdi={{plainlist| *{{increase}} 0.485 {{color|red|low}} (2018)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506 |title=Human Development Index (HDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|172nd]]) *0.346 [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|IHDI]] (2018)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-3-inequality-adjusted-human-development-index-ihdi |title=Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref>}}|labor={{plainlist| *{{increase}} 8,156,049 (2019)<ref>{{cite web |title=Labor force, total - Malawi |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=MW&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank & [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113151402/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=MW&name_desc=false |archive-date=13 November 2020}}</ref> *39.1% employment rate (2017)<ref>{{cite web |title=Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (national estimate) - Malawi |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locations=MW&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref>}}|occupations=agriculture: 76.9%, industry: 4.1%, services: 19% (2013 est.)|unemployment rate=20.4% (2013 est.)|edbr={{increase}} [[Ease of doing business index#Ranking|109th (medium, 2020)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/malawi |title=Ease of Doing Business in Malawi |publisher=Doingbusiness.org |access-date=2017-01-24 }}</ref>|industries=|exports=$1.443 billion (2017 est.)|export-goods=tobacco (55%), dried legumes (8.8%), sugar (6.7%), tea (5.7%), cotton (2%), peanuts, coffee, soy (2015 est.)|export-partners=Zimbabwe 13.1%, Mozambique 11.8%, Belgium 10.7%, South Africa 6.3%, Netherlands 5%, UK 4.7%, Germany 4.3%, US 4.2% (2017)|imports=$2.388 billion (2017 est.)|import-goods=food, petroleum products, semi-manufactures, consumer goods, transportation equipment|import-partners=South Africa 20.7%, China 14.2%, India 11.6%, UAE 7%, Netherlands 4.4% (2017)|FDI=$129.5 million (2014)|debt=50.8% of GDP (2013 est.)|gross external debt=$1.861 billion (2017 est.)|revenue=$1.347 billion (2013 est.)|expenses=$1.4 billion (2013 est.)|reserves=$364.2 million (31 December 2013 est.)|credit=|aid=$1.174 million (2012)|cianame=south-africa|spelling=UK}} [[File:Lilongwe_market_closeup.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lilongwe_market_closeup.JPG|thumb|300x300px|[[:en:Lilongwe|Lilongwe]] market.]] '''Chuma cha Malawi c'''hili na ndalama zakukwana $7.522 billion pa GDP pa chaka cha 2019, ndipo chikupangika chomene na ulimi, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 80% ŵakukhala ku mizi. Charu ichi chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili pakati pa vyaru ivyo vindapulikiske makora. Mu 2017, vyakurya vikapangiska pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya GDP na pafupifupi 80% ya ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Chuma cha charu ichi chikuthemba pa ndalama zinandi izo zikufuma ku wupu wa IMF, World Bank, na vyaru vinyake. Boma lili na masuzgo ghakuru comene: kukhozga vyakurya ivyo vikuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake, kunozga masukulu na maofesi gha munkhwala, kumazga masuzgo gha makuni, na HIV/AIDS mu Africa. Malaŵi ni caru cambura kukura comene kuyana na wupu wa United Nations. == Ulimi == {{main|Ulimi mu Malaŵi}} {{see also|Tobacco industry}} Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico Malawi wakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni hona, uyo wakapangiska pafupifupi cigaŵa cacitatu (30%) ca ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake mu 2012. Mu 2000, caru ici cikaŵa pa nambara 10 pa vyakurya vikuruvikuru pa caru cose. Cifukwa cakuti caru ici cikuthemba comene hona, cuma cikusuzgika comene cifukwa cakuti mitengo ya hona pa caru cose yikukhizga ndipo caru cose cikuphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kukhweŵa comene. Malaŵi wakuthemba chomene hona, ndipo kufuma mu 2007 m'paka 2008, hona wakwera kufuma pa 53% kufika pa 70% pa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska.<ref>CIA World Factbook</ref><ref>J. Tyler Dickovick, ''Africa 2008'', 43rd edition, Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post Publications, 2008. p. 278</ref> [[File:Malawi_Tea_Estate.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malawi_Tea_Estate.jpg|thumb|240x240px|A Malawi [[:en:Tea|tea]] estate]] Charu ichi chikuthemba chomene pa tiyi, mkaka na khofi, ndipo vyakurya ivi pamoza na hona vikupangiska kuti Malawi wapokere ndalama zinandi chomene. Mu 1878, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumwa tiyi. Viŵeto vinandi vikulimika mu Mulanje na Thyolo. Vyakumera vinyake ni katoni, mbuto, mbuto za mbuto, ng'ombe na mbuzi. Makampani gha hona na gha shuga ndigho ghakupanga vinthu vinandi. Kwamba kale, charu cha Malawi chikuthemba chomene pa vyakurya, ndipo mu ma 1980, chikaguliskanga vyakurya vinandi ku vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na charu ichi. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 90 pa 100 ŵali mu vyaru ivi ŵakulima. Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko ŵakupanda vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, nga ni chimanga, nyungu, mpunga, maniyu, hona, na phere. Usambazi wa ndalama ukuŵa mu mawoko gha ŵanthu ŵachoko waka. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangika mu Malawi vili kuzingilizga msumba wa Blantyre. Nyanja ya Malawi na ya Chilwa ni zinandi chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakutemwa chomene somba. Somba zakomira zikupelekekaso ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuloŵa somba na mawoko. Ndipouli, Maldeco Fisheries yili na maboti ghanandi ghakuloŵeska somba ndipo yikuliska viŵeto vya somba kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Malawi. Somba zakomira pa cirwa ca Likoma Malaŵi walije vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi. Wupu unyake wa ku South Africa na Australia ukulima uranium mu migodi kufupi na Karonga. Ku chigaŵa cha Mzimba, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito malasha. Charu cha Malawi chikuthemba chomene pa vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ndalama zinandi izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakuguliska vinthu, izo zingaŵa kuti ni 30 peresenti ya ndalama izo ŵakuguliska, zikovwira kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora. Malaŵi wakwenera kwiza na mafuta ghose agho wakuguliska. Vinyake ivyo vikusuzga ni ukavu wa ŵantchito ŵakumanya nchito, suzgo la kusanga vyakuzomerezga ŵanthu awo ŵafuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵagwirenge nchito, maburoko, vimbundi, kweniso misewu, magesi, maji, na mawupu agho ghakovwira kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu Malawi. Ndipouli, vinthu ivyo boma lacita sonosono apa kuti liŵawovwire kunozga misewu, pamoza na cigaŵa ca ŵekha mu vyalo vya njanji na vya kwendera matelefoni, vyapangiska kuti malo gha ndalama ghaŵe ghakutowa comene. Munthu wakuguliska vinthu mumphepete mwa msewu ku Blantyre Ivi ni vigaŵa 20 vya viŵelengero vya vyakurya vya ku Malawi mu 2009. (Maukaboni ghambura kuzomerezgeka ghafuma ku FAO) <ref name="faostat.fao.org">{{Cite web |title=Faostat |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |access-date=2023-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |archive-date=2011-07-13}}</ref> {| class="sortable wikitable" !Mbewu !Ndalam mu [[:en:Geary–Khamis_dollar|International dollars]] (1000) !Production in [[:en:Ton|tonnes]] ![[:en:FAO|FAO]] source |- |[[:en:Maize|Maize]] |462,330 |3,582,500 | |- |[[:en:Cassava|Cassava]] |404,764 |3,823,240 | |- |[[:en:Tobacco|Tobacco]] |331,542 |208,155 | |- |[[:en:Peanut|Groundnuts]] |116,638 |275,176 | |- |[[:en:Banana|Bananas]] (excluding plantains) |95,152 |400,000 |F |- |[[:en:Sugar_cane|Sugar cane]] |82,093 |2,500,000 |F |- |Indigenous [[:en:Beef_cattle|cattle meat]] |80,688 |0 | |- |[[:en:Pigeon_pea|Pigeon peas]] |80,274 |184,156 | |- |[[:en:Pulse_(legume)|Beans, dry]] |75,706 |164,712 | |- |[[:en:Fruit|Fresh fruit]] |74,456 |213,321 |Im |- |[[:en:Plantain_(cooking)|Plantains]] |72,634 |351,812 |Im |- |Indigenous [[:en:Pork|pig meat]] |68,788 |0 | |- |[[:en:Tea|Tea]] |55,895 |52,559 |P |- |Indigenous [[:en:Goat_meat|goat meat]] |53,512 |0 | |- |[[:en:Mango|Mangoes]], [[:en:Mangosteen|mangosteens]] and [[:en:Guava|guavas]] |49,527 |82,659 |Im |- |[[:en:Cotton#Uses|Cotton lint]] |39,017 |27,300 |F |- |[[:en:Rice|Paddy rice]] |36,896 |135,988 | |- |[[:en:Vegetables|Fresh vegetables]] |30,530 |162,012 |Im |- |Indigenous [[:en:Chicken|chicken meat]] |25,713 |0 | |- |[[:en:Cowpea|Cow peas]] |18,073 |72,082 | |} <small>Key: F : FAO estimate, Im: FAO data based on imputation methodology, P : Provisional official data</small> == Kachimbililo ka malonda == Pa chithuzithuzi ichi pali vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo vikachitika mu 1980 na 2017.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=1980&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=676&s=NGDP_RPCH,PPPGDP,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,GGXWDG_NGDP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=12&pr.y=11 |access-date=2018-08-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Chaka !1980 !1985 !1990 !1995 !2000 !2005 !2006 !2007 !2008 !2009 !2010 !2011 !2012 !2013 !2014 !2015 !2016 !2017 |- |GDP in $ <small>(PPP)</small> |2.42 bil. |3.46 bil. |4.52 bil. |5.75 bil. |7.73 bil. |9.76 bil. |10.53 bil. |11.85 bil. |13.00 bil. |14.19 bil. |15.35 bil. |16.43 bil. |17.05 bil. |18.22 bil. |19.61 bil. |20.40 bil. |21.13 bil. |22.37 bil. |- |GDP per capita in $ <small>(PPP)</small> |368 |449 |450 |539 |640 |714 |750 |820 |876 |929 |977 |1,016 |1,025 |1,065 |1,114 |1,127 |1,134 |1,167 |- |GDP growth <small>(real)</small> |0.4 % |4.6 % |5.7 % |13.8 % |0.8 % |3.3 % |4.7 % |9.6 % |7.6 % |8.3 % |6.9 % |4.9 % |1.9 % |5.2 % |5.7 % |3.0 % |2.3 % |4.0 % |- |Inflation <small>(in Percent)</small> |19.2 % |10.6 % |11.9 % |83.1 % |29.6 % |15.4 % |13.9 % |8.0 % |8.7 % |8.4 % |7.4 % |7.6 % |21.3 % |28.3 % |23.8 % |21.9 % |21.7 % |11.5 % |- |Government debt <small>(Pct. of GDP)</small> |... |... |... |... |... |107 % |28 % |28 % |36 % |36 % |30 % |31 % |44 % |59 % |55 % |61 % |60 % |59 % |} == Industry == Mu 2013, viŵaro vya Malawi vikaŵa 10.7% pa GDP. Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru ni vyakurya, vyakuzenga, vinthu vyakugwiliskira nchito, simenti, vyakurya vyakuguliska vyakurya, kupanga vinthu vyakuguliska vyakurya, kupanga vinthu vya mu nyumba na hona. Ivyo boma likucita kuti liŵike vinthu vinandi mu vyakurya na kwambiska malonda pa caru cose, vikutimbanizgika comene cifukwa ca vinthu viheni ivyo vikucitika, ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira makora, ndiposo suzgo la malonda. Kuti viŵawovwire kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito nthowa na matekinoloje ghaphya, ndondomeko ya vyamalonda iyo yikapelekeka mu 2013, yikovwira kuti ŵagwirenge makora ntchito pa kafukufuku wa pa charu chose kweniso kuti ŵamanye makora vya matekinoloje agho ghalipo. Pa nyengo yeneiyo pera, boma la Russia lakwezga ndalama izo likugwiliskira nchito pa kafukufuku na vyakupangapanga kufika pa 1% ya GDP. === Food and beverages === Vipasi na vipasi vinandi vikuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake, kweni vyakurya vyakunozgeka vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 1965, Carlsberg yikajura kampani yake yakwamba ya kupanga moŵa kuwaro kwa Denmark mu msumba wa Blantyre. Kweniso kampani iyi yikupanga mabotolo gha vyakurya vya Coca-Cola. Mu 2013, ku Salima kukajulika malo ghakupangira mango kuti ghapange vipasi. Universal Industries yikugwira nchito mu mafakitale ghanandi gha vyakurya mu Blantyre, uko yikupanga maswiti, chips, mabisiketi, mkaka, vyakurya vya soya na vyakurya vya ŵana. Khofi na tiyi vikupangika na makampani ghaŵiri mu vigaŵa vya Thyolo, Mulanje na kuzingilizga Mzuzu. === Pharmaceutical companies === Malaŵi wali na makampani ghanayi gha vyakurya. Ŵakupanga minkhwala yinandi yayi, comenecomene iyo yikukhumbikwa comene pa msika. Makampani agha ni Pharmanova Ltd., agho ndigho ghakupanga munkhwala ukuru comene mu Malawi, ndipo ghakulondezgapo ni SADM, Malawi Pharmacies (Pharmaceuticals Limited) na Kentam Products Limited.<ref name="who.int">[https://www.who.int/hiv/amds/countries/mwi_SurveyUseTRIPs.pdf A Survey of Policy and Practice on the Use of Access to MedicinesRelated TRIPs Flexibilities in Malawi]</ref> === Forestry === [[File:Lady_carrying_solar_panel.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_carrying_solar_panel.jpg|thumb|Lady carrying a solar panel.]] Nkhorongo zikuruzikuru izo ŵanthu ŵakuzenga zili mu mapiri gha Viphya, kuzingilizga Mulanje na Zomba. Makuni agho ghakugwiliskirika nchito pakuzenga na kupanga vinthu vya mu nyumba ni nchito yakuzirwa comene mu vigaŵa ivi. Ndipouli, vigaŵa vinandi mu Malaŵi vikuparanyika cifukwa ca kukora makuni mwambura kuzomerezgeka na boma kuti ŵapange malasha. === Electricity === Boma la Malawi ndilo likupeleka magesi ku charu ichi. Malire agho ghalipo ghali pafupifupi 351MW. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 12 pa 100 ŵali na magesi, kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka na World Bank mu 2014. Charu ichi chikuŵa na suzgo la kuŵavya magesi chifukwa cha chilangalanga icho chapangiska kuti magesi ghachepe chomene. Mlonga uwu ukupangiska magesi ghakukwana 300MW, ndipo ukupeleka 98 peresenti ya magesi ghose gha mu Malawi. Ndipouli, kuyana na fundo za wupu wa ESCOM, chilangalanga chikapangiska kuti nkhongono iyi yichepe kufika pa 160 MW..<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/08/malawi-blackouts-drought-hydro-power|title=Malawi suffers blackouts as drought exposes 98% reliance on hydro power|last=France-Presse|first=Agence|date=2017-12-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-08|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Services == Vigaŵa vya mautumiki vikupangiska 51.7% ya GDP ya Malawi. Makampani agho ghakumanyikwa comene ni gha vyaulendo, malonda, kwendeska vinthu, masambiro, maofesi gha munkhwala, kwendera mawoko, na mabanki. Boma la Malawi lili na masheya mu makampani ghanandi ghakuzirwa, nga ni Malawian Airlines (51%) na Press Corporation Limited. Press Corporation Ltd. ni kampani yikuru comene ya mu caru ici, ndipo yili na mabungwe ghanyake mu vyaru nga ni hona, banki, shuga, somba, kupanga ethanol, kupanga njere, malonda, kwendera mawoko na mafuta. == International support == Kwambira mu 1981, Malawi wachita ndondomeko ya kunozga vinthu mu vyaru ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa ndondomeko iyi ni kukhwimiska nchito za boma na kucitako vinthu vinyake mwa kulekeska kwendeska mitengo na kupeleka malayisensi ku makampani, kulekeska malonda gha vyamalonda na kusinthiska ndalama, kunozga misonkho, kupanikizgira mabungwe gha boma, na kunozga uteŵeti wa boma. Malaŵi wakeneranga kupokera wovwiri wa kuchepeska ngongoli ya vyaru vikavu ivyo vili na ngongoli zinandi (HIPC) ndipo pasono wakunozgaso ndondomeko yake ya kuchepeska ukavu. Malaŵi wali na mapangano gha malonda na vyaru viŵiri vikuruvikuru, vya South Africa na Zimbabwe. Boma likukumana na masuzgo nga nkhupanga makora masukulu na maofesi gha vyaumoyo mu Malaŵi - ivyo ni vyakuzirwa comene cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa HIV/AIDS - kweniso masuzgo gha cilengiwa nga nkhutema makuni, kunangika kwa dongo, na dongo ilo ndakughanda. [[File:Bingu_Wa_Mutharika_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_Africa_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bingu_Wa_Mutharika_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_Africa_2008.jpg|thumb|240x240px|Former President [[:en:Bingu_wa_Mutharika|Bingu wa Mutharika]] of Malawi spoke about the country's recent unilateral agricultural reforms at the [[:en:World_Economic_Forum|World Economic Forum]] on Africa at the [[:en:United_Nations|United Nations]], September 2008.]] === Move towards economic independence === Mu 2006, cifukwa ca kucepa kwa vyakurya, Malawi, kwizira mwa pulezidenti Bingu Mutharika, uyo wakaŵa nkhwantha ya vya cuma, wakambiska pulogiramu ya kupeleka vyakurya vyakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵambeso kulima. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ndondomeko iyi, iyo yikukhozgeka na pulezidenti wa caru ici, yikovwira kuti ulimi wa ku Malawi uŵe uwemi comene, ndipo yikupangiska kuti Malawi waŵe wakuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vyapafupi. Ndipouli, masuzgo gha vyachuma ghakachepa chomene mu nyengo ya Mutharika. Vyakudandawura vya vyachuma ndivyo vikapangiska kuti mu Julayi 2011, ku Malawi kuŵe vivulupi vya vyachuma. == Economic indicators == Viŵelengero ivi vyafuma mu buku la CIA World Factbook, pekha usange pali vinyake. '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity = $22.37 billion (2017 est.) [[File:Malawi_interest_rates.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malawi_interest_rates.JPG|thumb|240x240px|Interest rates advertised by Malawi Savings Bank in Nchalo, Malawi on 30 September 2008]] [[File:Malawi_Kwacha_xchg_rates.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malawi_Kwacha_xchg_rates.JPG|thumb|240x240px|Exchange rates advertised by a currency trader in [[:en:Lilongwe|Lilongwe]] on 7 October 2008]] [[File:Malawi_Holiday_100.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malawi_Holiday_100.JPG|thumb|240x240px|Reserve Bank of Malawi Mzuzu Branch under construction in [[:en:Mzuzu|Mzuzu]], a fast-growing city. July 2008]] '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 4% (2017 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $1200 (2017 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' ''agriculture:'' 28.1% ''industry:'' 15.8% ''services:'' 56.1% (2016 est.) '''Population below poverty line:''' 50.7% (2010 est.) '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 23% (2014 est.) '''Labor force:''' 7 million (2013 est.) '''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture 76.9%, industry and services 23.1% (2013 est.) '''Unemployment rate:''' NA% '''Budget:''' ''revenues:'' $1.346 billion (2017 est.) ''expenditures:'' $1.556 billion (2017 est.) '''Public Debt''' 59.3% of GDP (2017 est.) '''Industries:''' [[:en:Tobacco|tobacco]], [[:en:Tea|tea]], [[:en:Sugar|sugar]], sawmill products, [[:en:Cement|cement]], consumer goods, cotton, consumer goods, uranium and coal mining '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 2.8% (2013 est.) '''Electricity - production:''' 1.973 billion kWh (2010 est.) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 1.835 billion kWh (2010 est.) '''Agriculture - products:''' [[:en:Tobacco|tobacco]], [[:en:Sugar_cane|sugar cane]], [[:en:Cotton|cotton]], [[:en:Tea|tea]], [[:en:Maize|maize]], [[:en:Potato|potatoes]], [[:en:Cassava|cassava]] ([[:en:Tapioca|tapioca]]), [[:en:Sorghum|sorghum]], [[:en:Legume|pulses]]; [[:en:Cattle|cattle]], [[:en:Goat|goats]] '''Exports:''' $1.427 billion (2013 est.) '''Exports - commodities:''' [[:en:Tobacco|tobacco]], [[:en:Tea|tea]], [[:en:Sugar|sugar]], [[:en:Cotton|cotton]], [[:en:Coffee|coffee]], [[:en:Peanut|peanuts]], wood products, apparel, uranium and its compounds '''Exports - partners:''' Canada 10.6%, Zimbabwe 9.3%, Germany 7.3%, South Africa 6.6%, Russia 6.5%, US 6.1%, China 4.2% (2012) '''Imports:''' $2.42 billion (2013 est.) '''Imports - commodities:''' food, petroleum products, semimanufactures, consumer goods, transportation equipment '''Imports - partners:''' South Africa 27%, China 16.6%, India 8.7%, Zambia 8.5%, Tanzania 5.1%, US 4.3% (2012) '''Current account balance''' - $280.1 million (2013 est.) '''Debt - external:''' $1.556 billion (31 December 2013 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $575.3 million (2005) '''Foreign direct investment - inflow''' $129.5 million (2014) '''Currency:''' 1 Malawian kwacha (MK) = 100 tambala '''Exchange rates:''' Malawian kwachas per US dollar -730.00 (20/June/2016), 460.00 (20/Jan/2015), 360.00 (6/Feb/2013), 165.961 (1/Sep/2011), 145.179 (2009), 135.96 (2006), 108.894 (2005), 108.898 (2004), 97.433 (2003), 76.687 (2002) '''Fiscal year:''' 1 July - 30 June {{Commons category}} == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Transportation_in_Malawi|Transportation in Malawi]] * [[:en:List_of_companies_based_in_Malawi|List of companies based in Malawi]] * [[:en:Science_and_technology_in_Malawi|Science and technology in Malawi]] * [[:en:Economy_of_Mozambique|Economy of Mozambique]] * [[:en:Economy_of_South_Africa|Economy of South Africa]] * [[:en:Economy_of_Botswana|Economy of Botswana]] * [[:en:The_International_Monetary_Fund_and_Malawi|The International Monetary Fund and Malawi]] * [[:en:United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Africa|United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> {{CIA World Factbook}} == Lutizgani kufufuza == * Anthony and Doreen Young, ''A Geography of Malawi'', Second edition. Evans Brothers, Limited, London (1978) {{ISBN|0-237-50296-8}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080226140807/http://www.malawi.gov.mw/Finance/Home%20Finance.htm Official site - Ministry of Finance of Malawi] * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Malawi/Business_and_Economy/Economic_Development}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060919060219/http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/ma/p0005.htm MBendi Malawi overview] * [http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceed=true&reporter=454 Malawi latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] {{portalbar|Malawi|Business and economics|Africa}}{{World Trade Organization}}{{Africa in topic|Economy of}} {{Economy of Malawi}}{{Malaŵi}} 1ie4pmkcxbu7v4n1lf71kli4pd5xama 0 20642 124344 123495 2026-11-10T14:18:06Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124344 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Eye |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption"> [[Human eye|Jiso la munthu]]</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Krilleyekils.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">[[Compound eye|Jiso la vigaŵa vinandi]] la [[Antarctic krill|krill wa ku Antarctica]]</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Organ system|Ndondomeko ya thupi]] | class="infobox-data" |[[Nervous system|Mizirwe]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Mazina |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin]] | class="infobox-data" |''Oculus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Terminologia Anatomica|TA98]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/15.2.00.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm A15.2.00.001]<br /><br /> [https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/01.1.00.007%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm A01.1.00.007] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Terminologia Anatomica|TA2]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=113 113], [https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=6734 6734] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-below" |[[Anatomical terminology|Mazina gha viŵaro]] <div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">&#x5B;[[wikidata:Q7364|edit on Wikidata]]]</small></div> |} '''Jiso''' (vinandi: '''maso''') ni ciŵaro ca kupulikira ico cikuzomerezga camoyo kuwona. Likupulika [[Ungweru|ungweru]] na kuusandura kuŵa vimanyikwiro vya magesi na usungunu mu mizirwe. Ni cigaŵa ca ndondomeko ya kuwona ya camoyo. Mu vyamoyo vyapacanya, jiso ni ndondomeko yakusuzga ya ungweru iyo yikuwunjika ungweru kufuma ku malo ghakuzingilizga, kulaŵilira unandi wake, kuuwunjika mwa magalasi gha mukati kuti lipange cithuzi, kusandura cithuzi ici kuŵa vimanyikwiro vya magesi, na kutumizga vimanyikwiro ivi ku wongo kwizira mu mzirwe wa kuwonera. Maso agho ghangawona makola ghali mu mitundu khumi yakupambana, iyo yikugaŵika mu maso gha vigaŵa vinandi na maso gha cigaŵa cimoza. Maso gha vigaŵa vinandi ghakupangika na tumaso tucoko tunandi, ndipo ghakusangika comene pa vibenene. Maso gha cigaŵa cimoza ghali na galasi limoza, ndipo ghakusangika comene pa vinyama vyakonkheska, kusazgapo ŵanthu. 9ax1a5intyvxbvydsovceq0k2a9qkf5 0 24669 124404 123997 2026-11-10T20:33:56Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124404 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:Canya la ''Eris''}} [[File:Eris and dysnomia2.jpg|thumb|Canya la ''Eris'' na [[mwezi]] wake ''Dysnomia'']] [[file:Eris symbol (planetary color).svg|frameless|upright=0.35|⯰]] '''Canya la ''Eris''''' (panji '''Erisi'''; nambala ya cibwe cicoko 136199; cimanyikwiro: [[file:Eris symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|⯰]]) ni [[Chibwe|cibwe cicoko]] cakuzitika comene, ndipo ca ciŵiri pa ukulu ico cikumanyikwa, mu [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]].<ref name=CSA>{{Cite web |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/solar-system/dwarf-planets.asp |title=Dwarf Planets |date=March 12, 2020 |access-date=January 1, 2023 |publisher=Canadian Space Agency |archive-date=November 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126072537/https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/solar-system/dwarf-planets.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> Ni cinthu ca kuwaro kwa [[Neputuni]] mu cigaŵa ca vinthu vyakuthandazgika, ndipo nthowa yake yakuzunguliya [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]] njakutalikilapo comene. Erisi cikasangika mu Matika 2005 na gulu la ŵasandi la ku Palomar ilo likalongozgeka na Mike Brown, ndipo cikasimikizgika pamanyuma mu caka cenecico. Cikathyika zina mu Lupya 2006, zina la ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma wa mphindano na kususkana. Erisi ni cinthu ca cinkhondi na zinayi pa kuzitika ico cikuzunguliya zuŵa, ndipo ca khumi na cinkhondi na cimoza mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa (kupendapo myezi).<ref name="unitoday">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Matthew |title=The Dwarf Planet Eris |url=https://www.universetoday.com/articles/dwarf-planet-eris |access-date=January 20, 2026 |date=2015 |website=Universe Today }}</ref> Ni cinthu cikulu comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ico combo ca mlengalenga cindafikepo. Ukulu wa Erisi (kufuma mphepete yinyake mpaka yinyake) ni makilomita 2,326 ± 12; kuzitika kwake ni magaŵa 0.28 pa 100 gha kuzitika kwa caro capasi, ndipo nkhukulu kuluska kwa Pulutu na magaŵa 27 pa 100, nangauli Pulutu ni yikulu pacoko pa unandi wa malo.<ref name="sicardy">{{cite journal | title = Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation | journal = European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts | volume = 6 | date = 2011 | url = http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf | access-date = September 14, 2011 | bibcode = 2011epsc.conf..137S | last1 = Sicardy | first1 = B. | last2 = Ortiz | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Assafin | first3 = M. | last4 = Jehin | first4 = E. | last5 = Maury | first5 = A. | last6 = Lellouch | first6 = E. | last7 = Gil-Hutton | first7 = R. | last8 = Braga-Ribas | first8 = F. | last9 = Colas | first9 = F. | page = 137 | author10 = Widemann | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111018043926/http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf | archive-date = October 18, 2011 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Brown Schaller 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Michael E. |last2=Schaller |first2=Emily L. |title=The mass of dwarf planet Eris |journal=Science |date=15 June 2007 |volume=316 |issue=5831 |pages=1585 |doi=10.1126/science.1139415 |pmid=17569855 |bibcode=2007Sci...316.1585B }} <!--{{sfn|Brown Schaller|2007}} --></ref><ref name="070614_eris_mass">{{cite web | title = Dwarf Planet Outweighs Pluto | url = http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070614_eris_mass.html | work = space.com | date = 2007 | access-date = June 14, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070617175259/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070614_eris_mass.html | archive-date = June 17, 2007 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="NASA Pluto larger 2015">{{cite news |last1=Talbert |first1=Tricia |title=How Big Is Pluto? New Horizons Settles Decades-Long Debate |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/how-big-is-pluto-new-horizons-settles-decades-long-debate/ |work=NASA |date=13 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713175323/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/how-big-is-pluto-new-horizons-settles-decades-long-debate/ |archive-date=13 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pacanya pa Erisi na pa Pulutu pakuyana mu ukulu na Russia panji Amerika ya Kumwera. Erisi ili na mwezi umoza ukulu uwo wasimikizgika, Dysnomia, ndipo yingaŵa na unyake ukulu comene.<ref name="Ortiz2025">{{Cite journal |last1=Ortiz |first1=J. L. |last2=Morales |first2=N. |last3=Gutiérrez |first3=P. J. |title=Analysis of the Gaia DR3 photometry of the dwarf planet Eris |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |publication-date=March 2025 |volume=538 |issue=1 |pages=L37–L42 |bibcode=2025MNRAS.538L..37O |doi=10.1093/mnrasl/slaf005 |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/380065 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mu Mpupulu 2016, mtunda wa Erisi kufuma ku zuŵa ukaŵa AU 96.3 (makilomita mabiliyoni 14.41), kujumpha katatu mtunda wa Neputuni panji Pulutu.<ref name="AstDys">{{cite web | title = AstDys (136199) Eris Ephemerides | publisher = Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy | url = https://newton.spacedys.com/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.3.0&n=Eris | access-date = February 28, 2016 | archive-date = June 12, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210612104326/https://newton.spacedys.com/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.3.0&n=Eris | url-status = live }}</ref> Kupatula nyenyezi za mcira za nyengo yitali, Erisi na Dysnomia vikaŵa vinthu vya kawiro vyakutali comene mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ivyo vikamanyikwanga, mpaka 2018 AG37 na 2018 VG18 vikasangika mu 2018.<ref name="AstDys"/> Cifukwa Erisi cikawonekanga kuŵa cikulu kuluska Pulutu, NASA pakwamba yikacilongosora nga ni cibwe ca khumi ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Ici, pamoza na ivyo vinthu vinyake vya ukulu wakuyana vingasangika munthazi, vikapangiska Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Kasandiro ka Nyenyezi (IAU) kulongosora ng'anamulo la lizgu lakuti cibwe kakwamba. Kuyana na ng'anamulo la IAU ilo likazomerezgeka pa 24 Mpupulu 2006, Erisi, Pulutu na Ceres ni "vibwe vicoko", ndipo ici cikacepeska unandi wa vibwe vyakumanyikwa mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kuŵa vinkhondi na vitatu, nga umo vikaŵira pambere Pulutu yindasangike mu 1930.<ref name="IAUPressRelease2006"> {{cite press release|publisher=IAU |date=August 16, 2006 |title=The IAU draft definition of "planet" and "plutons" |url=http://www.iau2006.org/mirror/www.iau.org/iau0601/iau0601_release.html |access-date=August 16, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820075858/http://www.iau2006.org/mirror/www.iau.org/iau0601/iau0601_release.html |archive-date=August 20, 2006 }} </ref> Kulaŵiska apo Erisi cikabisa nyenyezi yinyake mu 2010 kukalongora kuti nchicoko pacoko kuluska Pulutu, iyo New Horizons yikapima kuti ukulu wake ni makilomita 2,377 ± 2 mu Vuna 2015.<ref name="Brown2010-occult">{{cite web | last = Brown | first = Mike | date = 2010 | title = The shadowy hand of Eris | publisher = Mike Brown's Planets | url = http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2010/11/shadowy-hand-of-eris.html | access-date = November 7, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101111112050/http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2010/11/shadowy-hand-of-eris.html | archive-date = November 11, 2010 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Brown2010-Plutosize">{{cite web | last = Brown | first = Mike | date = November 22, 2010 | title = How big is Pluto, anyway? | publisher = Mike Brown's Planets | url = http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2010/11/how-big-is-pluto-anyway.html | access-date = November 23, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721064541/http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2010/11/how-big-is-pluto-anyway.html | archive-date = July 21, 2011 | url-status = live }} [http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/mpml/message/24568 (Franck Marchis on 2010-11-08)]{{dead link|date=December 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="NASA Pluto larger 2015"/><ref name="Pluto System after New Horizons">{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=S. Alan |last2=Grundy |first2=William M. |last3=McKinnon |first3=William B. |last4=Weaver |first4=Harold A. |last5=Young |first5=Leslie A. |date=September 2018 |title=The Pluto System After ''New Horizons'' |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=357–392 |arxiv=1712.05669 |bibcode=2018ARA&A..56..357S |doi=10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935 }}</ref> == Kusangika == Erisi cikasangika na gulu la Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo na David Rabinowitz pa 5 Matika 2005, kufuma ku vithuzi ivyo vikatoreka pa 21 Thukila 2003.<ref name="New Planet">{{cite web | title = The discovery of 2003 UB313 Eris, the largest known dwarf planet | url = http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ | last = Brown | first = Mike | publisher = California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences | date = 2006 | access-date = May 3, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110719163702/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ | archive-date = July 19, 2011 | url-status = live }}{{self-published inline|date=October 2026}}</ref><ref name="Brown-AJ2005-635"> {{cite journal | title = Discovery of a Planetary-sized Object in the Scattered Kuiper Belt | author1-link= Michael E. Brown | author1= M. E. Brown | author2-link= Chadwick A. Trujillo | author2= C. A. Trujillo | author3-link= David L. Rabinowitz | author3= D. L. Rabinowitz | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | date = 2005 | volume = 635 | issue = 1 | pages = L97–L100 | doi = 10.1086/499336 | arxiv = astro-ph/0508633 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...635L..97B }} </ref> Kusangika kukapharazgika pa 29 Mpupulu 2005, zuŵa limoza na Makemake na mazuŵa ghaŵiri pamanyuma pa Haumea, cifukwa cigaŵa ca vyakucitika ivyo pamanyuma vikiziska mphindano pa Haumea.<ref name="MaughJohnson">{{cite news | title = His Stellar Discovery Is Eclipsed | last1 =Maugh |first1=Thomas H. II | last2=Johnson |first2=John Jr. | work = Los Angeles Times | url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-oct-16-me-planet16-story.html | access-date = July 14, 2008 | date = October 16, 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121012075527/http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/16/local/me-planet16 | archive-date = October 12, 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref> Gulu ili likapenjanga vinthu vikulu vya kutali vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo likasanga vinthu vinyake vikulu, kusazgapo vibwe vicoko Quaoar, Orcus na Sedna.<ref name="Schilling2008"> {{cite book | last = Schilling | first = Govert | date = 2008 | title = The Hunt For Planet X | publisher = Springer | page = 214 | isbn = 978-0-387-77804-4 }} </ref> Gulu likalaŵiska kanandi pa 21 Thukila 2003, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca Samuel Oschin ca mamita 1.2 ku Palomar, California, kweni cithuzi ca Erisi cindasangike pa nyengo iyo cifukwa cikendanga pacoko comene kuthambo: vilwerovipepu vya gulu vya kupenja vithuzi vikasiyanga vinthu vyose ivyo vikendanga pacoko kuluska makona 1.5 gha liŵiri pa ora, kuti vicepeske vinthu vyautesi.<ref name="Brown-AJ2005-635"/> Apo Sedna yikasangika mu 2003, yikendanga makona 1.75 gha liŵiri pa ora, ntheura gulu likapendaso vithuzi vyawo vya kale na mphaka ya pasi, ndipo likalaŵiska na maso vithuzi ivyo vikasiyika kale. Mu Matika 2005, kupendaso uku kukavumbula kwenda kwapacoko kwa Erisi pakati pa nyenyezi za kumanyuma.<ref name="Brown-AJ2005-635"/> Kulaŵiska kunyake kukacitika kuti ŵamanye nthowa ya Erisi, ndipo ici cikazomerezga kumanya mtunda wake.<ref name="Brown-AJ2005-635"/> Gulu likakhumbanga kulindilira kupharazga kusangika kwa Erisi na Makemake mpaka kulaŵiska na kupima kuthe, kweni likavipharazga vyose pa 29 Mpupulu apo kusangika kwa cinthu cinyake cikulu, Haumea, ico ŵakalondezganga, kukapharazgika pa 27 Mpupulu na gulu linyake la ku Spain, mwa nthowa iyo yikiziska mphindano.<ref name="New Planet"/> Vithuzi vya Erisi vya pambere pa kusangika vyasangika mpaka pa 3 Lupya 1954.<ref name="jpldata">{{cite web | type = xxxx, solution date | title = JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 136199 Eris (2003 UB313) | url = https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=136199 | access-date = 2025-04-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160412115622/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=136199 | archive-date = April 12, 2016 | url-status = live }}</ref> Kulaŵiska kunyake uko kukafumiskika mu Thukila 2005 kukavumbula kuti Erisi cili na mwezi, uwo pamanyuma ukathyika zina lakuti Dysnomia. Kulaŵiska nthowa ya Dysnomia kukazomerezga ŵasandi kumanya kuzitika kwa Erisi, uko mu Zizima 2007 kukapimika kuŵa (1.66±0.02)×10²² kg, magaŵa 27 pa 100 kuluska kwa Pulutu.<ref name="Brown Schaller 2007"/> == Zina == Erisi cikathyika zina la ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵagiriki Eris (Cigiriki Ἔρις), uyo wakwimira mphindano na kususkana.<ref name="USGS-UB-313">{{cite web |last = Blue |first = Jennifer |title = 2003 UB 313 named Eris |date = September 14, 2006 |work = USGS Astrogeology Research Program |url = https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php?/archives/211-2003-UB313-named-Eris.html |access-date = January 3, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061018120634/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php?%2Farchives%2F211-2003-UB313-named-Eris.html |archive-date = October 18, 2006 }}</ref> Zina ili likasacizgika na gulu la Caltech pa 6 Lupya 2006, ndipo likaŵikika pa 13 Lupya 2006, pamanyuma pa nyengo yitali comene iyo cinthu ici cikamanyikwanga na zina la kanyengo 2003 UB313, ilo IAU yikapeleka mwa kawiro kuyana na malango ghake gha kuthya mazina vibwe vicoko.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/|title=New Planet|first=Mike|last=Brown |access-date=January 5, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517130215/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/|archive-date=May 17, 2012|url-status=live|author-link=Michael E. Brown}}{{self-published inline|date=October 2026}}</ref> Zina lakuti Eris lili na nthowa ziŵiri za kulitchula mu Cingelezi, na "e" yitali panji yifupi.<ref name="dictcom">Dictionary.com: Eris</ref><ref name="pluggd.tv-2007"> {{cite web | title = Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown | work = Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast | url = http://www.pluggd.tv/audio/channels/kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/episodes/2h10l | date = 2007 | access-date = October 1, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081006182705/http://www.pluggd.tv/audio/channels/kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/episodes/2h10l <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archive-date = October 6, 2008 }} </ref><ref name=Lex>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Eris |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731013201/https://www.lexico.com/definition/eris |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |title=Eris |dictionary=Lexico UK English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press}}<br />{{MW|Eris}}</ref> Brown na ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakulitchula na "e" yifupi, kweni katchulikiro ka kale ka Cingelezi ka zina la ciuta ni na "e" yitali.<ref name=MW>Noah Webster (1884) ''A Practical Dictionary of the English Language''</ref> Muzu wa zina mu Cigiriki na Cilatini ni ''Erid-'', nga umo kukuwonekera mu Ciitaliya ''Eride'' na Cirasha ''Erida'', ntheura lizgu lakulongosora mu Cingelezi ni ''Eridian''.<ref>Lewis & Short, A Latin Dictionary: �</ref><ref name="Morrison">{{Cite web |last=Morrison |first=David |date=2008 |title=''Ask an Astrobiologist'' |url=http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/ask-an-astrobiologist/question/?id=2971 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425125638/http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/ask-an-astrobiologist/question/?id=2971 |archive-date=April 25, 2009 |website=NASA}}</ref><ref name=ID>{{cite book |first1=Ian |last1=Douglas |date=2013 |title=Semper Human }}</ref> === Xena === Cifukwa ŵakamanyanga yayi usange cinthu ici cizamuŵa cibwe panji cibwe cicoko, ndipo malango gha kuthya mazina ghakupambana pa magulu agha, ŵakalindilira kuthya zina mpaka pamanyuma pa cisankho ca IAU ca 24 Mpupulu 2006.<ref name="IAU-2003-UB313"> {{cite web | title = International Astronomical Association homepage | url = http://www.iau.org/IAU/FAQ/2003_UB313.html/ | access-date = January 5, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930155414/http://www.iau.org/IAU/FAQ/2003_UB313.html/ | archive-date = September 30, 2007 }} </ref><ref name="IAUC 8747"> {{cite journal |last=Green |first=Daniel W. E. |title=(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia) |date=September 13, 2006 |journal=IAU Circular |issue=8747 |page=1 |url=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08700/08747.html |access-date=January 12, 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|IAUC 8747}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205035336/http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/special/08747.pdf |archive-date=February 5, 2007 |bibcode=2006IAUC.8747....1G }} </ref> Kwa kanyengo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanyanga cinthu ici kuti "Xena". "Xena" likaŵa zina la pakati pa gulu lekha, ilo likafuma ku muntu mukulu wa sewero la pa wayilesi ya kanema ''Xena: Warrior Princess''. Gulu likasungilira zina ili ku cinthu cakwamba ico lingasanga cikulu kuluska Pulutu. Brown wakati ŵakalisankha cifukwa likwamba na X (cibwe "X"), likupulikikwa nga ni la majandulo, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kusazga mazina gha ŵaciuta ŵanakazi. Wakati so pa nyengo iyo sewero ili likaŵa pa wayilesi ya kanema, ico cikulongora kutalika kwa kupenja kwawo. Brown wakati mu kufumbika kuti kuthya zina kukaleka. Mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya ''The New York Times'', Ken Chang, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wake kufuma ku sukulu, wakamufumba zina ilo ŵakasacizga. Brown wakakana kuyowoya. Kweni apo wakafumbika kuti ŵakuchema cinthu ici kuti uli para ŵakuyowoyerana ŵekha, wakayowoya kuti "Xena", ndipo zina ili likathandazgika kose. Brown wakati wakatemwanga zina ili. === Kusankha Zina Lakuzomerezgeka === [[File:Animation showing movement of 2003 UB313-2-.gif|thumb|left|Vithuzi ivyo vikulongora kwenda kwa Erisi pa vithuzi ivyo vikagwiliskirika ntchito kuti cisangike. Muvi ukulongora Erisi. Vithuzi vitatu vikatolekera mu nyengo ya maora ghatatu.]] Kuyana na mulembi wa vya kasandiro Govert Schilling, pakwamba Brown wakakhumbanga kuchema cinthu ici kuti "Lila", ghanoghano la mu majandulo gha Cihindu ilo likulongosora caro cose nga ni cakufumapo ca sewero la Brahman.<ref name="Schilling2008"/> Zina ili likatchulikanga nga ni "Lilah", zina la mwana msungwana wa Brown uyo wakababika sonosono. Brown wakapwelelera kuti waleke kupharazga zina pambere lindazomerezgeke. Wakacita nthena na Sedna caka cimoza pambere, ndipo wakasuskika comene. Kweni palije uyo wakasuska zina la Sedna kupatula kuphwanya malango, ndipo palije zina linyake ilo likasacizgika. Wakaŵika malo gha pa intaneti gha webusayiti yake iyo yikapharazga kusangika kuŵa /~mbrown/planetlila, ndipo mu cisokonezgo pamanyuma pa mphindano ya kusangika kwa Haumea, wakaluwa kughasintha. M'malo mwa kukwiyiska ŵasandi ŵanyake, wakayowoya waka kuti webusayiti yikathyika zina la mwana wake, ndipo wakaleka zina lakuti "Lila".<ref name="Schilling2008"/> Brown wakaghanaghanira so Persephone, muwoli wa ciuta Pulutu, nga ni zina.<ref name="New Planet"/> Zina ili likagwiliskirika ntchito kanandi pa vibwe mu nkhani za kasandiro zakupeka, ndipo likatemweka na ŵanthu, likapunda mu kusankha uko kukacitika na magazini ya ''New Scientist'' ("Xena" likaŵa la cinayi).<ref name="TechRepublic2006">{{cite web | title = Planet X Marks the Spot | work = TechRepublic | date = 2006 | url = http://www.sunflower-astronomy.com/KCKCC_Docs/NewsArticles/Geek_Trivia_Planet_X_marks_the_spot.pdf | access-date = July 13, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080910074246/http://www.sunflower-astronomy.com/KCKCC_Docs/NewsArticles/Geek_Trivia_Planet_X_marks_the_spot.pdf | archive-date = September 10, 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="O'Neill2005-NewScientist">{{cite web | last = O'Neill | first = Sean | date = 2005 | title = Your top 10 names for the tenth planet | work = NewScientist | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7811-your-top-10-names-for-the-tenth-planet/ | access-date = 2024-09-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080501025106/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7811 | archive-date = May 1, 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref> Kweni likakhozgeka yayi cifukwa pakaŵa kale cibwe cicoko ca zina ili, 399 Persephone, ndipo Erisi cikathyikanga zina nga ni cibwe cicoko.<ref name="New Planet"/> Gulu likasacizga Eris pa 6 Lupya 2006. Brown wakasankha kuti, cifukwa cinthu ici cikaghanaghanirika kuŵa cibwe kwa nyengo yitali, cikwenera zina la majandulo gha Ŵagiriki panji Ŵaroma nga ni vibwe vinyake. Vibwe vicoko vya malibwe vikatora kale mazina ghanandi comene gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma. Eris, uyo Brown wakamulongosora nga ni ciuta mwanakazi uyo wakumutemwa comene, wakaŵa kuti wandatorike.<ref name="WGBH"> {{cite web |last = Brown |first = Mike |date = 2007 |title = Lowell Lectures in Astronomy |work = WGBH |url = http://forum.wgbh.org/content/forum/3710-2007_04_11.mp3 |access-date = July 13, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080716035615/http://forum.wgbh.org/content/forum/3710-2007_04_11.mp3 |archive-date = July 16, 2008 }} </ref> Brown wakati mu 2006, "Eris wakiziskanga mphindano na kususkana mwa kupangiska ŵanthu kunyozgana, ndipo ici ndico cinthu ici nacho cacita."<ref>{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andy |year=2006 |title=Xena renamed Eris in planet shuffle |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/09/15/1741585.htm |access-date=January 29, 2020 |publisher=Reuters |archive-date=January 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128124714/http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/09/15/1741585.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Zina likazomerezgeka na IAU pa 13 Lupya 2006.<ref name="caltech">{{cite web | title = The Discovery of Eris, the Largest Known Dwarf Planet | publisher = California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences | url = http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ | access-date = January 5, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110719163702/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ | archive-date = July 19, 2011 | url-status = live }}{{self-published inline|date=October 2026}}</ref><ref name="IAU0605"> {{cite web |title = IAU0605: IAU Names Dwarf Planet Eris |date = September 14, 2006 |work = International Astronomical Union News |url = http://www.iau.org/iau0605_Eris.409.0.html |access-date = January 5, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070104194022/http://www.iau.org/iau0605_Eris.409.0.html |archive-date = January 4, 2007 }} </ref> Nangauli kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vya vibwe kukutemweka yayi mu kasandiro ka nyenyezi, NASA yagwiliskira ntchito Woko la Eris, ⯰, pa Erisi. Cimanyikwiro ici cikafuma ku Discordianism, cisopa ico cikukhwaska ciuta mwanakazi Eris. Wupu wa Kasandiro ka Nyenyezi wa Sternberg pa Yunivesite ya Moscow wagwiliskira ntchito cimanyikwiro cinyake, ico cingaŵa kuti cikafuma ku buku la Discordianism panji ku cithuzi ca apulo la mphindano. Ŵakulongosora vya nyenyezi ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Woko la Eris, nangauli vimanyikwiro vinyake navyo vikuwoneka. == Kagaŵiro == Erisi ni cibwe cicoko ca kuwaro kwa Neputuni. Vimanyikwiro vya nthowa yake vikucigaŵa makora nga ni cinthu ca cigaŵa ca vinthu vyakuthandazgika, panji cinthu ico "cakathandazgika" kufuma ku lamba la Kuiper kuya ku nthowa zakutali na zachilendo, pamanyuma pa kukwekana kwa nkhongono ya kukoka na Neputuni apo Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kakapangikanga. Nangauli kupendama kwakukulu kwa nthowa yake nkhwachilendo pakati pa vinthu vya cigaŵa ici, maghanoghano gha kasandiro ghakuti vinthu ivyo pakwamba vikaŵa pafupi na mphepete ya mukati ya lamba la Kuiper vikathandazgika ku nthowa zakupendama comene.<ref name="GallardoBrunini"> {{cite journal | title = On the origin of the High-Perihelion Scattered Disk: the role of the Kozai mechanism and mean motion resonances |author1=Gomes R. S. |author2=Gallardo T. |author3=Fernández J. A. |author4=Brunini A. | journal = Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy | date = 2005 | volume = 91 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 109–129 | doi = 10.1007/s10569-004-4623-y | bibcode = 2005CeMDA..91..109G | hdl = 11336/38379 | hdl-access = free }} </ref> Cifukwa pakwamba Erisi cikaghanaghanirika kuŵa cikulu kuluska Pulutu, cikalongosoreka nga ni "cibwe ca khumi" na NASA na mu nkhani za kusangika kwake.<ref name="JPL-2005-126">{{cite web | title = NASA-Funded Scientists Discover Tenth Planet | url = http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-126 | work = Jet Propulsion Laboratory | date = 2005 | access-date = May 3, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070514171359/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-126 | archive-date = May 14, 2007 | url-status = live }}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kumanya ivyo cili, na cifukwa ca mphindano iyo yikalutilizganga usange Pulutu yikwenera kuŵa cibwe, IAU yikaŵika gulu la ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi kuti lipange ng'anamulo lakulunjika la lizgu lakuti cibwe. Ili likapharazgika nga ni Ng'anamulo la IAU la Cibwe mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, ilo likazomerezgeka pa 24 Mpupulu 2006. Pa nyengo iyi, Erisi na Pulutu vikagaŵika nga ni vibwe vicoko, gulu lakupambana na ng'anamulo liphya la cibwe.<ref name="IAU 2006 5&6"> {{cite news | url = http://www.iau.org/fileadmin/content/pdfs/Resolution_GA26-5-6.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060928081931/http://www.iau.org/fileadmin/content/pdfs/Resolution_GA26-5-6.pdf | archive-date = September 28, 2006 | title = IAU 2006 General Assembly: Resolutions 5 and 6 | date = August 24, 2006 | publisher = IAU }} </ref> Kufuma apo Brown wakuti wakuzomerezga kagaŵiro aka.<ref name="Britt2006"> {{cite web |title = Pluto Demoted: No Longer a Planet in Highly Controversial Definition |author = Robert Roy Britt |url = http://space.com/scienceastronomy/060824_planet_definition.html |work = space.com |date = 2006 |access-date = May 3, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101227092545/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060824_planet_definition.html |archive-date = December 27, 2010 }} </ref> Pamanyuma IAU yikasazga Erisi mu buku lake la vibwe vicoko, na zina lakuti (136199) Eris.<ref name="IAUC 8747"/> == Nthowa == [[file:Eris Orbit.svg|thumb|center|upright=3|Nthowa ya kuzunguliya ya Erisi (ya camlengalenga) kuyaniska na za Saturn, Uranus, Neputuni na Pluto (zituŵa/za caphuvyu). Vigaŵa vya pasi pa mzere wa nthowa ya zuŵa vili na mitundu yakufipa, ndipo kadontho kakuswesi ni zuŵa. Cithuzi ca ku mazere cikulongora kufuma pacanya, apo vithuzi vya ku maryero vikulongora kufuma ku mbali zakupambanapambana.]] [[file:Eris skypath 1940-2060.png|thumb|upright=2|Kufuma pa caro capasi, Erisi cikuwoneka kupanga tuvizingo tucoko mu mlengalenga mu gulu la nyenyezi la Cetus.]] Erisi cikutora vyaka 558 kuzunguliya zuŵa kamoza, kujumpha kaŵiri nyengo ya Pulutu.<ref name="barycenter">{{cite web |title=Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Eris (20136199) |author=Horizons output |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%2720136199%27&TABLE_TYPE=%27ELEMENTS%27&START_TIME=%272025-11-21%27&STOP_TIME=%272026-01-01%27&STEP_SIZE=%271%20year%27&CENTER=%27@0%27&OUT_UNITS=%27AU-D%27 |access-date=1 November 2025}} (Solution using the Solar System's barycenter (Sun+Jupiter). Select Ephemeris Type:Elements and Center:@0)<br />period (PR) = 2.0394E+05 / 365.25 days = 558.4 years</ref>{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name=period|Nyengo iyo Erisi cikutora kuzunguliya zuŵa yingasintha comene mu vyaka 12 ivyo Jupita yikutora kuzunguliya zuŵa, cifukwa nthowa yake njakutambalala. Kupima kwakuthemba pakati pa zuŵa na Jupita pamoza kukukhazikika comene, ndipo kukupeleka zgoro limoza lakwenelera.}} Mtunda wake ukulu comene kufuma ku zuŵa ni AU 97.7, ndipo mtunda wake mufupi comene ni AU 38.4.<ref name="jpldata"/> Kupima kwa malo kukulongora kuti Erisi cikaŵa pafupi comene na zuŵa pafupifupi 1699, kutali comene pafupifupi 1977, ndipo cizamuwelera pafupi comene na zuŵa pa 6 Zimya 2257. Kupambana na vibwe vinkhondi na vitatu, ivyo nthowa zawo zose zili pafupifupi pa ndondomeko yimoza na ya caro capasi, nthowa ya Erisi njakupendama comene: yapendama pa makona pafupifupi 44 kufuma ku ndondomeko ya caro capasi.<ref name="Horizons1699">{{cite web |title=Horizons Batch for 136199 Eris on 1699-Jul-27 |publisher=JPL Horizons |type=Perihelion occurs when rdot flips from negative to positive |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/api/horizons.api?format=text&COMMAND=%27136199%27&START_TIME=%271699-Jul-10%27&STOP_TIME=%271699-Aug-10%27&STEP_SIZE=%271%20day%27&QUANTITIES=%2719%27 |access-date=October 23, 2026 |archive-date=August 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828091850/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/api/horizons.api?format=text&COMMAND=%27136199%27&START_TIME=%271699-Jul-01%27&STOP_TIME=%271699-Jul-31%27&STEP_SIZE=%271%20day%27&QUANTITIES=%2719%27 |url-status=live }} (JPL#103/Soln.date: 2026-Jun-06)</ref><ref name="Horizons2257">{{cite web |title=Horizons Batch for 136199 Eris on 2257-Dec-06 |publisher=JPL Horizons |type=Perihelion occurs when rdot flips from negative to positive |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/api/horizons.api?format=text&COMMAND=%27136199%27&START_TIME=%272257-Dec-05%2012:13%27&STOP_TIME=%272257-Dec-08%27&STEP_SIZE=%276%20h%27&QUANTITIES=%2719%27 |access-date=October 23, 2026}} (JPL#103/Soln.date: 2026-Jun-06)</ref> Apo cikasangika, Erisi na mwezi wake vikaŵa vinthu vyakutali comene ivyo vikamanyikwanga mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, kupatula nyenyezi za mcira za nyengo yitali na vyombo vya mlengalenga.<ref name="jpldata"/><ref name="New Planet"/><ref name="Peat-Heavens-Above">{{cite web | last = Peat | first = Chris | title = Spacecraft escaping the Solar System | publisher = Heavens-Above | url = http://www.heavens-above.com/SolarEscape.aspx | access-date = January 25, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180511013456/http://www.heavens-above.com/SolarEscape.aspx | archive-date = May 11, 2018 | url-status = live }}</ref> Cikaŵa na ucindami uwu mpaka 2018 VG18 yikasangika mu 2018.<ref name=Carnegie2018>{{cite web |title=Discovered: The Most-Distant Solar System Object Ever Observed |url=https://carnegiescience.edu/news/discovered-most-distant-solar-system-object-ever-observed |publisher=Carnegie Science |access-date=December 18, 2018 |quote=The second-most-distant observed Solar System object is Eris, at about 96 AU. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217235028/https://carnegiescience.edu/news/discovered-most-distant-solar-system-object-ever-observed |archive-date=December 17, 2018 |url-status=live |date=December 17, 2018 }}</ref> [[File:Hubble Dysnomia orbit overlay.jpg|thumb|left|Erisi na mwezi wake Dysnomia, vyakujambulika na Hubble Space Telescope pa 30 Ogasiti 2006. Nthowa ya Dysnomia kuzunguliya Erisi yalembeka.]] Nthowa ya Erisi njakutalikilapo comene, ndipo yikuciza mpaka pa AU 37.9 kufuma ku zuŵa.<ref name="tjl2000">{{cite journal |first1=Chadwick A. |last1=Trujillo |first2=David C. |last2=Jewitt |author2-link=David C. Jewitt |first3=Jane X. |last3=Luu |author3-link=Jane X. Luu |title=Population of the Scattered Kuiper Belt |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=529 |issue=2 |pages=L103–L106 |date=February 2000 |doi=10.1086/312467 |pmid=10622765 |bibcode=2000ApJ...529L.103T |arxiv=astro-ph/9912428 }}</ref> Ici nchamukati mwa nthowa ya Pulutu, kweni cicali kutali na kukwekana kwakulunjika na Neputuni (pafupifupi AU 37).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lykawka |first1=Patryk Sofia |last2=Mukai |first2=Tadashi |date=July 2007 |title=Dynamical classification of trans-neptunian objects: Probing their origin, evolution, and interrelation |journal=Icarus |volume=189 |issue=1 |pages=213–232 |bibcode=2007Icar..189..213L |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.01.001 }}</ref> Kweni Pulutu, yikulondezga nthowa yambura kupendama comene na yambura kutalikilapo comene, ndipo cifukwa ca kukolerana kwa nyengo za nthowa, yingajumpha nthowa ya Neputuni.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jewitt |first=David |author-link=David C. Jewitt |title=The Plutinos |url=http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/kb/plutino.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419234021/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~jewitt/kb/plutino.html |archive-date=April 19, 2007 |access-date=January 29, 2020 |work=UCLA}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa vyaka pafupifupi 800, Erisi cizamuŵa pafupi na zuŵa kuluska Pulutu kwa kanyengo. Mu 2007, ungweru wakuwoneka wa Erisi ukaŵa 18.7, ntheura ungawoneka na vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵambura kuŵa ŵasandi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=H.-W. |last2=Wu |first2=Y.-L. |last3=Ip |first3=W.-H. |title=Observations of dwarf planet (136199) Eris and other large TNOs on Lulin Observatory |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=2007 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2007.06.009 |bibcode=2007AdSpR..40..238L }}</ref> Cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca milimita 200 cingawona Erisi pa nyengo yiwemi.<ref group="lower-alpha">For an example of an amateur image of Eris, see [http://www.moonglow.net/ccd/pictures/pc/index.html#tnos Fred Bruenjes' Astronomy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051102025526/http://moonglow.net/ccd/pictures/pc/index.html#tnos |date=November 2, 2005 }}</ref> Cifukwa ico cindawoneke mpaka 2005 ni kupendama kwakukulu kwa nthowa yake; kupenja vinthu vikulu vya kutali kukulaŵiska comene pa ndondomeko ya caro capasi, uko vinthu vinandi vikusangika.<ref>{{cite episode|title=Bye-Bye Planet Pluto|series=Horizon|network=BBC|date= June 22, 2006}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kupendama kwakukulu kwa nthowa yake, Erisi cikujumpha mu magulu ghacoko pera gha nyenyezi gha kale; mu 2026 cili mu gulu la nyenyezi la Cetus. Cikaŵa mu Sculptor kufuma 1876 mpaka 1929 na mu Phoenix kufuma pafupifupi 1840 mpaka 1875. Mu 2036, cizamunjira mu Pisces ndipo cizamukhalamo mpaka 2065, apo cizamunjira mu Aries.<ref name="horizons">{{cite web |title = Horizons Eris |url = https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons/app.html#/ |work = JPL Horizons |access-date = September 13, 2021 |archive-date = March 28, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070328180634/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons#/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Pamanyuma cizamuya kuthambo la kumpoto, kunjira mu Perseus mu 2128 na Camelopardalis mu 2173. == Ukulu, Kuzitika na Kukhwima == {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | image1 = Eris, Earth & Moon size comparison.png | width1 = 250 | caption1 = Kuyaniska ukulu: Erisi (''pasi ku mazere'') na mwezi na caro capasi (''pacanya na ku maryero'') | image2 = The occultation of the dwarf planet Eris in November 2010.jpg | width2 = 250 | caption2 = Cithuzi ca Erisi apo cikabisa nyenyezi mu Novembala 2010. Mizere iyo yikapimika yikulongora kuti Erisi ni ca mpira ca kuthwasa kwa {{cvt|2326|km}}. }} [[File:Hubble ACS image of Eris.jpg|thumb|right|Erisi nga umo Hubble Space Telescope yikacijambulira. Cithuzi ici ni cimoza mwa vithuzi vyakuwoneka makora vya Erisi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Mike |title=New planet |url=https://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ |access-date=14 August 2026 |website=Homepage of Astronomer Mike Brown at Caltech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517130215/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ |archive-date=May 17, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Mu Mpupulu 2010, Erisi cikabisa nyenyezi yinyake, cimoza mwa vyakucitika vya mtundu uwu vyakutali comene ivyo vyalaŵiskika kufuma pa caro capasi.<ref name="Beatty2010-NewScientist">{{cite web | last = Beatty | first = Kelly | title = Former 'tenth planet' may be smaller than Pluto | publisher = Sky and Telescope | work = NewScientist.com | date = November 2010 | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19697-former-tenth-planet-may-be-smaller-than-pluto.html | access-date = October 17, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120223213839/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19697-former-tenth-planet-may-be-smaller-than-pluto.html | archive-date = February 23, 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref> Vyakusangika vyakwamba vikawuska ukaboni pa ukulu uwo ukapimika kale.<ref name="Beatty2010-NewScientist"/> Magulu ghakapharazga vyakusangika vyaumaliro mu Thukila 2011: ukulu wa makilomita 2,326±12.<ref name="sicardy"/> Ici cikulongora kuti Erisi nchicoko pacoko kuluska Pulutu, iyo njikulu makilomita 2,376.6±1.6, nangauli Erisi nchakuzitika kuluska. Cikulongora so kuti Erisi cikuwezga magaŵa 96 pa 100 gha ungweru. Ŵakughanaghanira kuti ici cikufuma ku cikakato ca pacanya ico cikuŵa ciphya so cifukwa ca kusintha kwa kufunda, apo nthowa ya Erisi yikucitora pafupi na kutali na zuŵa.<ref name="Brown-2003-UB313">{{cite journal | title = Direct measurement of the size of 2003 UB313 from the Hubble Space Telescope | author1-link = Michael E. Brown | author1 = M. E. Brown | author2 = E.L. Schaller | author3 = H.G. Roe | author4-link = David L. Rabinowitz | author4 = D. L. Rabinowitz | author5-link = Chadwick A. Trujillo | author5 = C. A. Trujillo | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | date = 2006 | volume = 643 | issue = 2 | pages = L61–L63 | doi = 10.1086/504843 | bibcode = 2006ApJ...643L..61B | arxiv = astro-ph/0604245 }}</ref> Kuzitika kwa Erisi kungapimika makola comene. Kuyana na nyengo ya Dysnomia iyo yikazomerezgeka pa nyengo iyo, mazuŵa 15.774, Erisi nchakuzitika kuluska Pulutu na magaŵa 27 pa 100.<ref name="Brown Schaller 2007"/><ref name="Brown-planetlila-moon">{{cite web | last = Brown | first = Mike | date = 2007 | title = Dysnomia, the moon of Eris | work = Caltech | url = http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/moon/index.html | access-date = June 14, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120717010420/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/moon/index.html | archive-date = July 17, 2012 | url-status = live }}{{self-published inline|date=October 2026}}</ref> Kuyana na vyakusangika vya 2011, kukhwima kwa Erisi ni magalamu 2.52±0.07 pa sentimita ya mbali zitatu, kukhwima comene kuluska Pulutu, ntheura cikwenera kuŵa cakupangika comene na malibwe.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name=densitynote|Kwapendeka mwa kugaŵa uzito wakulembeka na ukulu wakulembeka}}<ref name="sicardy"/> Maghanoghano gha kufunda kwa mukati kwa kunangika kwa vinthu vya mtima wa vimenyu ghakulongora kuti Erisi cingaŵa na nyanja ya maji pasi pa pacanya.<ref name="Hussman2006">{{cite journal |last1=Hussmann |first1=H |last2=Sohl |first2=F |last3=Spohn |first3=T |title=Subsurface oceans and deep interiors of medium-sized outer planet satellites and large trans-neptunian objects |journal=Icarus |date=November 2006 |volume=185 |issue=1 |pages=258–273 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.06.005 |bibcode=2006Icar..185..258H }}</ref> Kufunda kwa Erisi uko kukufuma ku kukoka kwa mwezi wake Dysnomia nako kungovwira kusunga nyanja iyi.<ref name="Saxena2018">{{cite journal |first1 = Prabal |last1 = Saxena |first2 = Joe P. |last2 = Renaud |first3 = Wade G. |last3 = Henning |first4 = Martin |last4 = Jutzi |first5 = Terry |last5 = Hurford |title = Relevance of tidal heating on large TNOs |journal = Icarus |date = March 2018 |volume = 302 |pages = 245–260 |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2017.11.023 |arxiv = 1706.04682 |bibcode = 2018Icar..302..245S }}</ref> Kusanda kunyake kukasanga kuti Erisi, Pulutu na Makemake vingaŵa na nyanja za pasi pa pacanya na kufunda kwa mukati.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Astronomers Uncover Surprising Activity on the Dwarf Planets Eris and Makemake |url=https://scitechdaily.com/astronomers-uncover-surprising-activity-on-the-dwarf-planets-eris-and-makemake/ |work=SciTechDaily |publisher=Southwest Research Institute |date=20 February 2024 }}</ref> Mu Vuna 2015, pamanyuma pa pafupifupi vyaka khumi ivyo Erisi cikaghanaghanirika kuŵa ca cinkhondi na zinayi pa ukulu pa vinthu ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa, vithuzi vya pafupi vya New Horizons vikalongora kuti Pulutu njikulu pacoko kuluska Erisi.<ref name="NBC2015-Pluto-n391321">{{cite web | url = http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/new-horizons-probe-finds-out-plutos-bigger-icier-we-thought-n391321 | title = New Horizons Probe Finds Out Pluto's Bigger (and Icier) Than We Thought | work = NBC News | date = July 13, 2015 | access-date = July 13, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150713221741/http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/new-horizons-probe-finds-out-plutos-bigger-icier-we-thought-n391321 | archive-date = July 13, 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> Ntheura Erisi ni ca khumi pa ukulu, ndipo ca cinkhondi na zinayi pa kuzitika.<ref name=CSA/> == Pacanya na Mphepo == [[File:2003 UB313 near-infrared spectrum.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Ungweru wa ''infrared'' wa Erisi, kuyaniska na wa Pluto, ukulongora kuyana kukulu pakati pa viŵiri ivi. Mivi yikulongora mizere ya metheni.]] Gulu ilo likasanga Erisi likalaŵiska ungweru wake na cilaŵiskiro ca kutali ca Gemini North ca mamita 8 ku Hawaii pa 25 Matika 2005. Ungweru wakufipa wa pasi pa uswesi wakufuma ku cinthu ici ukalongora kuti pali cikakato ca metheni, ico cikulongora kuti pacanya pangaŵa pakuyana na pa Pulutu, iyo pa nyengo iyo yikaŵa yekha pa vinthu vya kuwaro kwa Neputuni iyo yikamanyikwa kuŵa na metheni pacanya, na pa mwezi wa Neputuni Triton.<ref name="gemini.edu.tenth">{{cite web | title = Gemini Observatory Shows That "10th Planet" Has a Pluto-Like Surface | url = http://www.gemini.edu/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=142 | work = Gemini Observatory | date = 2005 | access-date = May 3, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070311021046/http://www.gemini.edu/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=142 | archive-date = March 11, 2007 | url-status = live }}</ref> Mu 2022, Cilaŵiskiro ca Kutali ca Mlengalenga ca James Webb (JWST) cikasanga cikakato ca metheni ya mtundu unyake pacanya pa Erisi, ico cikulongora kuti metheni yake njya kale yayi, kweni yingaŵa kuti yikapangika na vyakucitika vya pasi pa pacanya.<ref name="Grundy2023">{{cite conference |last1=Grundy |first1=W. M. |last2=Wong |first2=I. |last3=Glein |first3=C. R. |last4=Protopapa |first4=S. |last5=Holler |first5=B. J. |last6=Cook |first6=J. C. |last7=Stansberry |first7=J. A. |last8=Parker |first8=A. H. |last9=Lunine |first9=J. I. |last10=Pinilla-Alonso |first10=N. |last11=De Souza Feliciano |first11=A. C. |title=JWST NIRSpec Spectrum of Eris: Methane, Deuterated Methane, and Nitrogen |conference=Asteroids, Comets, Meteors Conference 2023 |date=June 2023 |volume=2851 |page=2437 |bibcode=2023LPICo2851.2437G |bibcode-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Grundy2023"/> JWST yikasanga so cikakato cinandi ca naitirojeni pa Erisi, ico cikughanaghanirika kufuma ku vyakucitika vyakuyana.<ref name="Grundy2023"/> Unandi wa cikakato ca naitirojeni ni cigaŵa cimoza pa vitatu ca metheni.<ref name="Grundy2023"/> Kupambana na pacanya pakufiira na pa mitundu yakupambana pa Pulutu na Triton, pacanya pa Erisi pakuwoneka pafupifupi pakutuŵa na pakuyana pose.<ref name="New Planet"/> Ŵakughanaghanira kuti mtundu wakufiira wa Pulutu ukufuma ku vinthu vyakufiira ivyo vyawunjikana pacanya, ndipo apo vikufipiska pacanya, pakufunda comene ndipo metheni yikuzgoka mphepo. Kweni Erisi cili kutali comene na zuŵa mwakuti metheni yingazgoka cikakato pacanya nanga ni apo pali pakufipa.<ref name="Brown-AJ2005-635"/> Kuzgoka cikakato kwa metheni pose pacanya kukuphimba vinthu vyakufiira.<ref name="Hofgartner2019">{{cite journal |first1 = Jason D. |last1 = Hofgartner |first2 = Bonnie J. |last2 = Buratti |first3 = Paul O. |last3 = Hayne |first4 = Leslie A. |last4 = Young |title = Ongoing resurfacing of KBO Eris by volatile transport in local, collisional, sublimation atmosphere regime |journal = Icarus |date = December 2019 |volume = 334 |pages = 52–61 |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2018.10.028 |arxiv = 1811.02677 |bibcode = 2019Icar..334...52H }}</ref><ref name="Grundy2023"/><ref name="Grundy2017">{{cite conference |first1 = William M. |last1 = Grundy |first2 = Orkan M. |last2 = Umurhan |title = Are Makemake and Eris Sputnik Planets? |date = October 2017 |conference = 49th DPS Meeting |publisher = American Astronomical Society |id = 202.02 |bibcode = 2017DPS....4920202G}}</ref><ref name="Grundy2023"/> Kusanda kwa JWST kukukhozga ghanoghano lakuti pacanya pa Erisi pakuŵa paphya nyengo zose.<ref name="Grundy2023"/> Cifukwa ca nthowa ya kutali na yakutalikilapo ya Erisi, kufunda kwa pacanya kukughanaghanirika kusintha kufuma pafupifupi −243 mpaka −217 °C.<ref name="New Planet"/> Nangauli Erisi cingaŵa kutali na zuŵa katatu kuluska Pulutu, cikuza pafupi mwakuti cikakato cinyake ca pacanya cingafunda na kuzgoka mphepo. Cifukwa metheni na naitirojeni vikuzgoka mphepo luŵiro, kuŵapo kwake kukulongora kuti Erisi cakhala nyengo zose mu vigaŵa vya kutali vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, uko kuli kuzizima mwakuti cikakato ici cingakhalilira, panji kuti cili na kasupe wa mukati uwo ukuwezgeramo mphepo iyo yikufuma.<ref name="Hofgartner2019"/> Ici cikupambana na Haumea, iyo yili na cikakato ca maji kweni metheni yayi.<ref name="Licandro-AA2006-458">{{cite journal | title = Visible spectroscopy of {{mp|2003 UB|313}}: evidence for N₂ ice on the surface of the largest TNO | author1 = J. Licandro | author2 = W. M. Grundy | author3 = N. Pinilla-Alonso | author4 = P. Leisy | journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics | date = 2006 | volume = 458 | issue = 1 | pages = L5–L8 | doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20066028 | doi-access = free| url = http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2006/40/aa6028-06.pdf | bibcode = 2006A&A...458L...5L | arxiv = astro-ph/0608044 | access-date = November 14, 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081121031341/http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2006/40/aa6028-06.pdf | archive-date = November 21, 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref> == Kuzunguliya == Ungweru wa Erisi ukusintha pacoko comene apo cikuzunguliya cifukwa pacanya pake pakuyana pose, ndipo ici cikusuzga kupima nyengo ya kuzunguliya kwake.<ref name="Duffard2008">{{cite journal |first1 = R. |last1 = Duffard |first2 = J. L. |last2 = Ortiz |first3 = P. |last3 = Santos-Sanz |first4 = A. |last4 = Mora |first5 = P. J. |last5 = Gutiérrez |first6 = N. |last6 = Morales |first7 = D. |last7 = Guirado |title = A study of photometric variations on the dwarf planet (136199) Eris |journal = Astronomy & Astrophysics |date = March 2008 |volume = 479 |issue = 3 |pages = 877–881 |doi-access = free |doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20078619 |bibcode = 2008A&A...479..877D }}</ref><ref name="Szakats2022">{{cite journal |last1=Szakáts |first1=R. |last2=Kiss |first2=Cs. |last3=Ortiz |first3=J. L. |last4=Morales |first4=N. |last5=Pál |first5=A. |last6=Müller |first6=T. G. |last7=Greiner |first7=J. |last8=Santos-Sanz |first8=P. |last9=Marton |first9=G. |last10=Duffard |first10=R. |last11=Sági |first11=P. |last12=Forgács-Dajka |first12=E. |title=Tidally locked rotation of the dwarf planet (136199) Eris discovered via long-term ground-based and space photometry |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=January 2023 |volume=669 |pages=L3 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202245234 |arxiv=2211.07987 |bibcode=2023A&A...669L...3S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kulaŵiska kwa nyengo yitali kukulongora kuti Erisi cakakika na mwezi wake Dysnomia, ndipo cikuzunguliya kamoza mu mazuŵa 15.78, nyengo yakuyana na iyo Dysnomia yikuzunguliyira Erisi.<ref name="Szakats2022"/> Dysnomia nayo yakakika na Erisi, ntheura Erisi na Dysnomia ni ciyelezgero caciŵiri ico cikumanyikwa ca kuzunguliya kwakuyana kwa vyose viŵiri, pamanyuma pa Pulutu na Charon. Kupima kwa kale kukapeleka nyengo zambura kusimikizgika kufuma ku maora makumi mpaka mazuŵa ghanandi.<ref name="Duffard2008"/><ref name="Roe2008">{{cite journal |first1 = Henry G. |last1 = Roe |first2 = Rosemary E. |last2 = Pike |first3 = Michael E. |last3 = Brown |title = Tentative detection of the rotation of Eris |journal = Icarus |date = December 2008 |volume = 198 |issue = 2 |pages = 459–464 |arxiv = 0808.4130 |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2008.08.001 |bibcode = 2008Icar..198..459R }}</ref><ref name="Holler2020">{{cite conference |first1 = B. J. |last1 = Holler |first2 = S. D. |last2 = Benecchi |first3 = M. |last3 = Mommert |first4 = J. |last4 = Bauer |title = The Not-Quite-Synchronous Rotation Periods of Eris and Dysnomia |url = https://baas.aas.org/pub/2020n6i307p06/release/1 |date = October 2020 |conference = 52nd DPS Meeting |publisher = American Astronomical Society |volume = 52 |number = 6 |id = 307.06 |bibcode = 2020DPS....5230706H |access-date = April 27, 2022 |archive-date = January 26, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220126121231/https://baas.aas.org/pub/2020n6i307p06/release/1 |url-status = live }}</ref> Kupendama kwa Erisi kundapimike, kweni kungaŵa kwakuyana na kupendama kwa nthowa ya Dysnomia, pafupifupi makona 78.<ref name="Holler2021">{{cite journal |last1 = Holler |first1 = Bryan J. |last2 = Grundy |first2 = William M. |last3 = Buie |first3 = Marc W. |last4 = Noll |first4 = Keith S. |title = The Eris/Dysnomia system I: The orbit of Dysnomia |journal = Icarus |date = February 2021 |volume = 355 |article-number = 114130 |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114130 |arxiv = 2009.13733 |bibcode = 2021Icar..35514130H }}</ref><ref name="Holler2018">{{cite conference |first1 = Bryan J. |last1 = Holler |first2 = William |last2 = Grundy |first3 = Marc W. |last3 = Buie |first4 = Keith |last4 = Noll |title = Breaking the degeneracy of Eris' pole orientation |date = October 2018 |conference = 50th DPS Meeting |publisher = American Astronomical Society |id = 509.03 |bibcode = 2018DPS....5050903H}}</ref> Usange ni nthena, cigaŵa cinandi ca kumpoto ca Erisi cikaŵa na ungweru wa zuŵa, ndipo magaŵa 30 pa 100 gha cigaŵa ici ghakaŵa na ungweru nyengo zose mu 2018.<ref name="Holler2018"/> == Myezi == === Dysnomia === [[File:ESO-L. Calçada - Eso1142c (by).jpg|thumb|alt=Dysnomia|Cithuzi ca wakujambula ca Erisi na mwezi wake wakufipa Dysnomia]] Mu 2005, gulu la ku vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya Keck ku Hawaii likalaŵiska vinthu vinayi vyakuŵala comene vya kuwaro kwa Neputuni (Pulutu, Makemake, Haumea na Erisi), mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yiphya ya ungweru wa laser.<ref name="Brown Van Dam et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1086/501524| last1 = Brown| first1 = M. E.| author-link1 = Michael E. Brown| last2 = Van Dam| first2 = M. A.| last3 = Bouchez| first3 = A. H.| last4 = Le Mignant| first4 = D.| last5 = Campbell| first5 = R. D.| last6 = Chin| first6 = J. C. Y.| last7 = Conrad| first7 = A.| last8 = Hartman| first8 = S. K.| last9 = Johansson| first9 = E. M.| last10 = Lafon| first10 = R. E.| last11 = Rabinowitz| first11 = D. L. | last12 = Stomski| first12 = P. J. Jr.| last13 = Summers| first13 = D. M.| last14 = Trujillo| first14 = C. A.| last15 = Wizinowich| first15 = P. L. | year = 2006| title = Satellites of the Largest Kuiper Belt Objects| journal = The Astrophysical Journal| volume = 639| issue = 1| pages = L43–L46| arxiv = astro-ph/0510029| bibcode = 2006ApJ...639L..43B | ref = {{sfnRef|Brown Van Dam et al.|2006}} }} <!--{{sfn|Brown Van Dam et al.|2006}} --></ref> Vithuzi ivyo vikatoreka pa 10 Lupya vikavumbula mwezi uwo ukuzunguliya Erisi. Kuyana na zina lakuti "Xena" ilo likagwiliskirikanga pa Erisi, gulu la Brown likachema mwezi kuti "Gabrielle", zina la mubwezi wa Xena mu sewero la pa wayilesi ya kanema. Apo Erisi cikapokera zina lakuzomerezgeka kufuma ku IAU, mwezi ukapokera zina lakuti Dysnomia, ciuta mwanakazi wa Ŵagiriki wa kwambura malango, mwana wa Eris. Brown wakuti wakalisankha cifukwa likuyana na zina la muwoli wake, Diane. Zina ili likusunga so ubale na zina la kale la Erisi, Xena, uyo wakasewereka pa wayilesi ya kanema na Lucy Lawless (''lawless'' ni "kwambura malango" mu Cingelezi), nangauli ubale uwu ukaŵa wambura kukhumbika.<ref name="Tytell-ST2006">{{cite news | last = Tytell | first = David | date = 2006 | title = All Hail Eris and Dysnomia | work = Sky and Telescope | url = http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/all-hail-eris-and-dysnomia/ | access-date = January 5, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141227115433/http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/all-hail-eris-and-dysnomia/ | archive-date = December 27, 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref> === Mwezi Waciŵiri Uwo Ungaŵapo === Kusanda kwa mu 2021 uko kukalongozgeka na Bryan Holler na ŵanyake kukasanga kuti nthowa ya Dysnomia yikuŵa ndondomeko yimoza yakukhazikika yayi.<ref name="Holler2021"/> Ici cikulongora kuti nthowa ya Dysnomia yikusintha-sintha, cifukwa ca kukoka kwa cinthu cinyake cambura kumanyikwa.<ref name="Holler2021"/> Holler na ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghanira kuti ici cingafuma ku Erisi kuŵa na mawonekero ghambura kuŵa gha mpira, Dysnomia kuŵa na mawonekero ghambura kuŵa gha mpira, panji mwezi wambura kuwoneka uwo ukuzunguliya pafupi na Erisi.<ref name="Holler2021"/> Mu 2023, Marina Brozović na Robert Jacobson ŵakasanda nthowa ya Dysnomia ndipo ŵakati cakwiziska comene ni mwezi wa mukati wambura kuwoneka.<ref name="Brozovic2023">{{Cite conference |last1=Brozovic |first1=Marina |last2=Jacobson |first2=Robert |title=Revisiting orbit fits for the Eris-Dysnomia system |url=https://baas.aas.org/pub/2023n5i503p02/release/1 |conference=AAS Division on Dynamical Astronomy meeting #54 |publisher=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |date=September 2023 |volume=55 |issue=5 |page=503.02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250528153740/https://baas.aas.org/pub/2023n5i503p02/release/1 |archive-date=May 28, 2025 |access-date=June 15, 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kulaŵiska kwa combo ca mlengalenga ca Gaia kwalongora kuti ungweru wa Erisi ukusintha pacoko nyengo yiliyose ya maora 18.853 ± 0.015.<ref name="Ortiz2025"/> Ico cikwiziska kusintha uku kwa maora 18.85 nchambura kumanyikwa, cifukwa kungalongosoreka na kuzunguliya kwa Erisi panji Dysnomia yayi.<ref name="Ortiz2025"/> Kusanda kwa mu 2025 uko kukalongozgeka na Jose-Luis Ortiz na ŵanyake kukaghanaghanira kuti kusintha uku kungafuma ku mwezi ukulu comene wambura kuwoneka uwo ukuzunguliya pafupi na Erisi: mwezi uwu ungaŵa wa makilomita pafupifupi 1,000 ndipo ungazunguliya pa mtunda wa makilomita 5,050 panji 8,010 kufuma ku Erisi.<ref name="Ortiz2025"/> Nangauli mwezi uwu ungalongosora nthowa ya Dysnomia na kukhwima kwa Erisi uko kukapimika comene, ukulongosora yayi cifukwa ico Erisi cakakika na Dysnomia yicoko m'malo mwa mwezi uwu ukulu.<ref name="Ortiz2025"/> Pangaŵa so malongosoro ghanyake gha kusintha kwa maora 18.85.<ref name="Ortiz2025"/> == Kupenda == Erisi cikalaŵiskika kufuma kutali na combo ca mlengalenga ca New Horizons mu Vula 2020, nga ni cigaŵa ca ntchito yake yakusazgika pamanyuma pa kujumpha Pulutu mu 2015.<ref name="Verbiscer2022">{{cite journal |last1=Verbiscer |first1=Anne J. |last2=Helfenstein |first2=Paul |last3=Porter |first3=Simon B. |last4=Benecchi |first4=Susan D. |last5=Kavelaars |first5=J. J. |last6=Lauer |first6=Tod R. |last7=Peng |first7=Jinghan |last8=Protopapa |first8=Silvia |last9=Spencer |first9=John R. |last10=Stern |first10=S. Alan |last11=Weaver |first11=Harold A. |last12=Buie |first12=Marc W. |last13=Buratti |first13=Bonnie J. |last14=Olkin |first14=Catherine B. |last15=Parker |first15=Joel |last16=Singer |first16=Kelsi N. |last17=Young |first17=Leslie A. |last18=The New Horizons Science Team |title=The Diverse Shapes of Dwarf Planet and Large KBO Phase Curves Observed from New Horizons |journal=The Planetary Science Journal |date=April 2022 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=95 |doi=10.3847/PSJ/ac63a6 |bibcode=2022PSJ.....3...95V |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nangauli New Horizons (AU 112) yikaŵa kutali na Erisi kuluska Erisi kufuma ku caro capasi (AU 96), malo ghake mukati mwa lamba la Kuiper ghakayizomerezga kulaŵiska Erisi pa makona agho ghangawoneka kufuma pa caro capasi yayi, ndipo ici cikovwira kumanya umo pacanya pa Erisi pakuthandazgira ungweru.<ref name="Verbiscer2022"/> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010, pakaŵa kusanda kunandi kwa ntchito za kupenda lamba la Kuiper, ndipo Erisi cikapendeka nga ni malo gha kuyako.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.astrobio.net/also-in-news/swri-team-makes-breakthroughs-studying-pluto-orbiter-mission/|title=SwRI team makes breakthroughs studying Pluto orbiter mission |date=October 25, 2018|work=Astrobiology Magazine|access-date=October 27, 2018|language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028035159/https://www.astrobio.net/also-in-news/swri-team-makes-breakthroughs-studying-pluto-orbiter-mission/ |archive-date=October 28, 2018 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Kukapimika kuti ntchito ya kujumpha pafupi na Erisi yingatora vyaka 24.66, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya kukoka ya Jupita, usange combo cingatuma pa 3 Masika 2032 panji 7 Masika 2044. Erisi cingaŵa AU 92.03 panji 90.19 kufuma ku zuŵa apo combo cingafika.<ref name="McGranaghan">{{cite journal | author1 = McGranaghan, R. | author2 = Sagan, B. | author3 = Dove, G. | author4 = Tullos, A. | author5 = Lyne, J. E. | author6 = Emery, J. P. | date = 2011 | title = A Survey of Mission Opportunities to Trans-Neptunian Objects | journal = Journal of the British Interplanetary Society | volume = 64 | pages = 296–303 | bibcode = 2011JBIS...64..296M}}</ref> == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Chibwe|Eris]] 3jc1o4b224syk58tkjufgu8rkh44tzt 0 25279 124398 123621 2026-11-10T20:29:20Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124398 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:NatronGelai.jpg|497px|thumb|right|[[Phiri la Gelai]], ku [[Tanzania]].]] [[File:Everest North Face toward Base Camp Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Everest, phiri litali comene pa caro capasi]] '''Phiri''' (vinandi: '''mapiri''') ni cigaŵa cakutunthuka ca pasi pa [[Chibwe|cibwe]], ico kanandi cili na mphepete zakuwima umo malibwe ghanandi ghakuwoneka. Nangauli palije ng'anamulo iyo yikuzomerezgeka na wose, phiri kanandi likuwoneka kuŵa litali kuluska kaphiri. Kuyana na ng'anamulo zinyake, mapiri kanandi ghakuwonekera nga ni malo agho ngatali kujumpha mamita 610.<ref>''World Book Encyclopedia'', 2025 ed., s.v. "Mountain"</ref> Phiri lingaŵa na cigaŵa ca pacanya cicoko, panji lingaŵa phiri la thawali licoko ilo litali comene na mphepete zakuwima. Mapiri ghacoko ghali ghekha, kweni ghanandi ghali mu migaza ya mapiri.<ref name="agi-1997">{{Cite book |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Julia A. |year=1997 |chapter=Mountain |title=Glossary of Geology|edition=4th |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=American Geological Institute |isbn=0922152349 }}</ref> Mapiri ghakupangika cifukwa ca nkhongono za kusunthira kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi, kukokoloka, panji mapiri gha moto, izo zikugwira ntchito mu nyengo za vyaka mpaka miliyoni makumi ghanandi.<ref name="agi-1997" /><ref name="levin-2010-83">{{Cite book |last=Levin |first=Harold L. |title=The Earth Through Time |publisher=Wiley |year=2010 |isbn=978-0470387740 |edition=9th |location=Hoboken, NJ |page=83}}</ref> Para kupangika kwa mapiri kwaleka, mapiri ghakucepa pacoko pacoko cifukwa ca kunangika kwa malibwe na nyengo, kugwa kwa dongo na malibwe, na kukokoloka na milonga na ayisi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Cooke |first1=Ronald Urwick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXub68YhovAC&dq=mountains+are+slowly+leveled+through+weathering&pg=PA212 |title=Geomorphology in Deserts |last2=Warren |first2=Andrew |publisher=University of California Press |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-520-02280-5}}</ref> Utali ukulu wa mapiri ukupangiska nyengo za kuzizima comene kuluska pa mphepete ya nyanja pa malo ghakuyana. Nyengo izi za kuzizima zikukhwaska comene vyamoyo vya mapiri: pa utali wakupambana pali vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambana. Cifukwa ca malo na nyengo yakusuzga, mapiri ghakugwiliskirika ntchito comene yayi pa ulimi, kweni comene pa kufumya vyuma, nga ni kukumba migodi na kudumula makuni, na pa kusanguluska, nga ni kukwera mapiri na kuterereka pa sinowu. Phiri litali comene pa [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]] ni Everest mu mapiri gha Himalaya mu [[Asia|Asiya]], ilo cigaŵa cake ca pacanya cili pa mamita 8,850 kujumpha mphepete yapakati ya nyanja. Phiri litali comene ilo likumanyikwa pa cibwe ciliconse ca [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]] ni Olympus Mons pa [[Aresi]], pa mamita 21,171. Phiri litali comene pa caro capasi kufuma pasi pake mpaka pacanya ni Mauna Kea mu Hawaii, ilo litali mamita 9,330 kufuma pasi pake pa mphepete ya pasi pa nyanja; ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵakuliwona kuŵa litali comene pa caro capasi.<ref name=":0" /> == Ng'anamulo == [[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo" (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Chimborazo, Ecuador, uko nsonga yake ndiyo yili kutali comene na pakati pa caro capasi<ref name="Krulwich2007">{{Cite web |date=7 April 2007 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130164111/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |archive-date=30 January 2013 |access-date=31 July 2012 |publisher=Npr.org}}</ref>]] Palije ng'anamulo ya phiri iyo yikuzomerezgeka na wose. Utali, ukulu, kupambana kwa utali, kuwima, mtunda pakati pa mapiri, na kulutilira vyagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakupimira phiri.<ref name="Gerrard1990">{{Cite book |last=Gerrard |first=A. J. |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr |title=Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains |publisher=MIT Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |location=Cambridge, MA |url-access=registration}}</ref> Mu madikishonale gha Oxford, phiri likulongosoreka kuŵa "cigaŵa ca kawiro cakutunthuka ca caro capasi ico cikukwera luŵiro kufuma ku malo ghakucizunguliya ndipo cikufika pa utali uwo, kuyaniska na malo gha pafupi, ngwakuzizwiska panji wakuwoneka comene."<ref name=Gerrard1990/> Usange malo ghakuchemeka phiri panji yayi kungathemba kagwiliskiro ka mazgo mu malo agho. Dikishonale ya Nkhuzgo ya Kawiro ya John Whittow yikuyowoya kuti "Ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵakuwona malo ghatali kujumpha mamita 600 nga ni mapiri, ndipo agho ghali pasi pa apo ghakuchemeka tuphiri."<ref name="whittow">{{Cite book |last=Whittow |first=John |title=Dictionary of Physical Geography |publisher=Penguin |year=1984 |isbn=0-14-051094-X |location=London |page=352}}</ref><ref>''World Book Encyclopedia'', 2018 ed., s.v. "Mountain"</ref> Kweniso, migaza yinyake ya mapiri yapasi iyo utali wake wapakati uli pakati pa mamita 1,500 na 2,000 yingachemeka tuphiri, nga ni Tuphiri twa Sivalik mu Himalaya na Black Hills mu United States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Balfour |first1=Edward |title=Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial, Industrial and Scientific |date=1873 |publisher=Scottish and Adelphi Press |page=373 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Cyclopaedia_of_India_and_of_Eastern_and/kJRaAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=sivalik+hills+called+hills+rather+than+mountains&pg=RA3-PA373&printsec=frontcover |access-date=24 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dowling |first=Sarah |year=2019 |title=Property, Priority, Place: Rethinking the Poetics of Appropriation |url= |journal=Contemporary Literature |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=98–125 |doi=10.3368/cl.60.1.98 |access-date=}}</ref> Mu Ufumu Ubanyi na Ayalandi, phiri kanandi likulongosoreka kuŵa cigaŵa ca pacanya ciliconse ca utali wa mamita 610 panji kujumpha, ico cikukolerana na ng'anamulo ya ulongozgi wa Ufumu Ubanyi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nuttall |first=John & Anne |title=England |publisher=Cicerone |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85284-037-2 |edition=3rd |series=The Mountains of England & Wales |volume=2 |location=Milnthorpe, Cumbria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Survey turns hill into a mountain |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_west/7623904.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002232825/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_west/7623904.stm |archive-date=2 October 2013 |access-date=3 February 2013 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Mountain is a Mountain – isn't it? |url=http://www.go4awalk.com/uk-mountains-and-hills/a-mountain-is-a-mountain.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208122551/http://www.go4awalk.com/uk-mountains-and-hills/a-mountain-is-a-mountain.php |archive-date=8 February 2013 |access-date=3 February 2013 |website=www.go4awalk.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=mountain |encyclopedia=Dictionary.reference.com |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mountain |access-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205033435/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Mountain |archive-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=Peter |year=2001 |title=Listing the Irish hills and mountains |url=http://www.ucd.ie/gsi/pdf/34-1/hills.pdf |journal=Irish Geography |location=Coleraine |publisher=University of Ulster |volume=34 |issue=1 |page=89 |doi=10.1080/00750770109555778 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510145742/http://www.ucd.ie/gsi/pdf/34-1/hills.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a "Mountain"? Mynydd Graig Goch and all that... |url=http://metricviews.org.uk/2008/09/what-is-a-mountain-mynydd-graig-goch-and-all-that/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330062754/https://metricviews.org.uk/2008/09/what-is-a-mountain-mynydd-graig-goch-and-all-that/ |archive-date=30 March 2013 |access-date=3 February 2013 |website=Metric Views}}</ref><ref>''World Book Encyclopedia'', 2025 ed., s.v. "Mountain"</ref> Kusazgirapo, ng'anamulo zinyake zikukhumba so kuti phiri litunthuke mamita 300 kujumpha malo ghakulizunguliya.<ref name="agi-1997" /> Nyengo yinyake, Wupu wa United States wa Mazina gha Malo ukalongosoranga phiri kuŵa la mamita 305 panji kujumpha, kweni ukaleka ng'anamulo iyi kufuma mu ma 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the difference between "mountain", "hill", and "peak"; "lake" and "pond"; or "river" and "creek?" |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-difference-between-mountain-hill-and-peak-lake-and-pond-or-river-and-creek |website=US Geological Survey |date=31 December 2019 }}</ref> Malo ghaliwose ghakuyana agho ghakaŵa pasi pa utali uwu ghakawonekeranga nga ni kaphiri. Kweni mazuŵa ghano, United States Geological Survey yikuti mazgo agha ghalije ng'anamulo za luso mu United States.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the difference between lake and pond; mountain and hill; or river and creek? |url=https://gallery.usgs.gov/audios/127 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509082833/http://gallery.usgs.gov/audios/127 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=USGS}}</ref> [[File:Mountain regions identified by UNEP.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Umo mapiri ghathandazgikira kuyana na malo na utali wake]] Ng'anamulo ya Ndondomeko ya Umoza wa Vyaro ya Malo Ghakuzingilizga ya "malo gha mapiri" yikusazgapo cimoza ciliconse mwa ivi:<ref name="Blyth2002">{{Cite web |last1=Blyth |first1=S. |last2=Groombridge |first2=B. |last3=Lysenko |first3=I. |last4=Miles |first4=L. |last5=Newton |first5=A. |year=2002 |title=Mountain Watch |url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/mountains/mountain_watch/pdfs/WholeReport.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080511044709/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/mountains/mountain_watch/pdfs/WholeReport.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2008 |access-date=17 February 2009 |publisher=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre |location=Cambridge}}</ref>{{rp|74}} * Gulu 1: Utali wakujumpha mamita 4,500. * Gulu 2: Utali pakati pa mamita 3,500 na 4,500. * Gulu 3: Utali pakati pa mamita 2,500 na 3,500. * Gulu 4: Utali pakati pa mamita 1,500 na 2,500, na kuwima kwakujumpha madigiri 2. * Gulu 5: Utali pakati pa mamita 1,000 na 1,500, na kuwima kwakujumpha madigiri 5, panji kupambana kwa utali kwa mamita 300 mu makilomita 7. * Gulu 6: Utali pakati pa mamita 300 na 1,000, na kupambana kwa utali kwa mamita 300 mu makilomita 7. * Gulu 7: Madambo na mapiri gha thawali gha mukati ghekha agho ngacoko kuluska makilomita gha mbali zinayi 25, agho ghazingilizgika cose na mapiri gha Gulu 1 mpaka 6, kweni gheneco ghakufiska yayi vyakukhumbikwa vya Gulu 1 mpaka 6. Kuyana na ng'anamulo izi, mapiri ghakuphimba magaŵa 33 pa 100 gha Yurasiya, 19 pa 100 gha Amerika ya Kumwera, 24 pa 100 gha Amerika ya Kumpoto, na 14 pa 100 gha [[Afilika]].<ref name=Blyth2002/>{{rp|14}} Pamoza, magaŵa 24 pa 100 gha mtunda wa caro capasi ni gha mapiri.<ref name="panos">{{Cite web |last=Panos |year=2002 |title=High Stakes |url=http://panos.org.uk/wp-content/files/2011/03/high_stakeshVwvcI.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603173156/http://panos.org.uk/wp-content/files/2011/03/high_stakeshVwvcI.pdf |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=17 February 2009}}</ref> == Kasandiro ka Caro Capasi == Pali mitundu yitatu yikulu ya mapiri: gha moto, ghakupindika, na gha vigaŵa.<ref name="literacy">{{Cite book |title=Science matters: earth and beyond; module 4 |publisher=Pearson South Africa |year=2002 |isbn=0-7986-6059-7 |page=75 |chapter=Mountain building |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoZftjymxFsC&pg=PA75}}</ref> Yose yitatu yikupangika cifukwa ca kusunthira kwa vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi: apo vigaŵa vya cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca caro capasi vikwenda, kupindikana, na kunjira pasi. Nkhongono za kukanikizga, kukwera kwa pasi, na kunjira kwa dongo lakusungunuka vikukankhira malibwe gha pacanya kuya pacanya, ndipo vikupanga malo ghatali kuluska agho ghakughazunguliya. Utali wa malo agha ukughapangiska kuŵa kaphiri panji, para ngatali comene na ghakuwima comene, phiri. Mapiri ghakulu kanandi ghali mu migaza yitali, ndipo ici cikulongora mphaka na vyakucitika vya vigaŵa vikulu vya pasi. === Mapiri gha Moto === [[File:080103 hakkai fuji.jpg|thumb|Phiri la moto la Fuji]] Mapiri gha moto ghakupangika apo cigaŵa cimoza cikulu ca pasi cikukankhirika pasi pa cinyake, panji pa mzere wapakati pa nyanja panji pa malo ghakotcha.<ref name="Butz">{{Cite book |last=Butz |first=Stephen D. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 |title=Science of Earth Systems |publisher=Thompson |year=2004 |isbn=0-7668-3391-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 136] |chapter=Plate tectonics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4ArbvXXDEC&pg=PA136}}</ref> Pa kuzika kwa makilomita pafupifupi 100, malibwe ghakusungunuka (cifukwa ca kusazgika kwa maji), ndipo ghakupanga dongo lakusungunuka ilo likufika pacanya. Para dongo ili lafika pacanya, kanandi likuzenga phiri la moto.<ref name=Gerrard1990/>{{rp|194}} Viyelezgero vya mapiri gha moto ni Phiri la Fuji mu Japani na Phiri la Pinatubo mu Philippines. Dongo lakusungunuka likwenera kufika pacanya yayi kuti lipange phiri: dongo ilo likukhwima pasi lingapanga mapiri gha mawonekero gha nyumba ya mpira, nga ni Navajo Mountain mu United States. Mapiri gha moto ghakuphulika so apo pasi pakupatukana, nga umo kuliri ku Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fillmore |first=Robert |title=Geological evolution of the Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah and western Colorado, including the San Juan River, Natural Bridges, Canyonlands, Arches, and the Book Cliffs |date=2010 |publisher=University of Utah Press |isbn=978-1607810049 |location=Salt Lake City |page=430}}</ref> === Mapiri Ghakupindika === [[File:Lewis overthrust fault nh10f.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca mapiri agho ghakapangika pa malo apo dongo likapindika na kukankhika pacanya pa linyake]] Mapiri ghakupindika ghakupangika apo vigaŵa viŵiri vikulu vya pasi vikutimbana: cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca caro capasi cikufupikiska na kukhora comene.<ref name="Hatcher">{{Cite book |last=Searle |first=Michael P. |title=4-D framework of continental crust |publisher=Geological Society of America |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8137-1200-0 |editor-last=Hatcher |editor-first=Robert D. |editor-link=Robert D. Hatcher |pages=41 ff |chapter=Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts |editor-last2=Carlson |editor-first2=M. P. |editor-last3=McBride |editor-first3=J. H. |editor-last4=Martinez Catalán |editor-first4=J. R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jD-zXhTfJuMC&pg=PA41}}</ref> Pakuti cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca mtunda, ico ncambura kuzitika comene, "cikuyandama" pa malibwe ghakuzitika comene gha pasi pake, kuzitika kwa vigaŵa vyose ivyo vyakankhirika pacanya kuti vipange tuphiri, mapiri gha thawali, panji mapiri kukwenera kuyana na nkhongono ya kuyandama ya vigaŵa vikulu comene ivyo vyakankhirika pasi. Ntheura cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca mtunda kanandi ncakukhora comene pasi pa mapiri, kuyaniska na malo ghapasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Press |first1=Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/earth0004pres/page/413 |title=Earth |last2=Siever |first2=Raymond |publisher=W.H. Freeman |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7167-1743-0 |edition=4th |page=[https://archive.org/details/earth0004pres/page/413 413]}}</ref> Malibwe ghangapindika mwakuyana panji mwambura kuyana. Mapindiko gha pacanya na gha pasi ghali na mazina ghapadera. Mapiri gha Balkan na gha Jura ni viyelezgero vya mapiri ghakupindika.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hsü |first1=Kenneth J. |last2=Nachev |first2=Ivan K. |last3=Vuchev |first3=Vassil T. |date=July 1977 |title=Geologic evolution of Bulgaria in light of plate tectonics |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=40 |issue=3–4 |pages=245–256 |bibcode=1977Tectp..40..245H |doi=10.1016/0040-1951(77)90068-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Becker |first=Arnfried |date=June 2000 |title=The Jura Mountains — an active foreland fold-and-thrust belt? |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=321 |issue=4 |pages=381–406 |bibcode=2000Tectp.321..381B |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00089-5}}</ref> === Mapiri gha Vigaŵa === Mapiri gha vigaŵa ghakwiziskika na mipata mu cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca caro capasi: malo agho malibwe ghajumphana. Para malibwe gha ku mphepete yimoza ya mpata ghakwera kuyaniska na gha ku mphepete yinyake, ghangapanga phiri.<ref name="Ryan">{{Cite book |last=Ryan |first=Scott |url=https://archive.org/details/cliffsquickrevie0000ryan |title=CliffsQuickReview Earth Science |publisher=Wiley |year=2006 |isbn=0-471-78937-2 |chapter=Figure 13-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PV_BabxTTkcC&pg=PA94 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vyakwera ni mapiri gha vigaŵa. Vigaŵa ivyo vyawira pakati pake vingaŵa vicoko panji kupanga madambo ghakulu. Malo gha mtundu uwu ghakuwoneka mu Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, Vosges na dambo la Rhine, na Basin and Range mu Amerika ya Kumpoto.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chorowicz |first=Jean |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziegler |first1=P. A. |last2=Dèzes |first2=P. |date=July 2007 |title=Cenozoic uplift of Variscan Massifs in the Alpine foreland: Timing and controlling mechanisms |journal=Global and Planetary Change |volume=58 |issue=1–4 |pages=237–269 |bibcode=2007GPC....58..237Z |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.12.004}}</ref>{{sfn|Levin|2010|pp=474-478}} Malo agha kanandi ghakupangika apo cigaŵa cikutambasulika ndipo cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca caro capasi cikuwonda.{{sfn|Levin|2010|pp=474-478}} === Kukokoloka === [[File:Valle Trebbia-(scaled-and-sharpened).jpg|thumb|right|Mapiri gha Apennine na mlonga wa Trebbia, Italy]] Pa nyengo na pamanyuma pa kukwera, mapiri ghakukhwaskika na vyakukokolora (maji, mphepo, ayisi, na nkhongono yakuguza) ivyo pacoko pacoko vikucepeska malo ghakwera. Kukokoloka kukupangiska cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca mapiri kuŵa caŵana kuluska malibwe agho ghakupanga mapiri ghene.<ref name="Fraknoi2004">{{Cite book |last1=Fraknoi |first1=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5keAQAAIAAJ |title=Voyages to the Planets |last2=Morrison |first2=D. |last3=Wolff |first3=S. |publisher=Thomson |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-534-39567-4 |edition=3rd |location=Belmont}}</ref>{{rp|160}} Ayisi ukupanga mawonekero ghapadera gha malo, nga ni nsonga zakuthwa na malo gha mawonekero gha mbale agho ghangaŵa na nyanja.<ref name="thornbury-1969">{{Cite book |last=Thornbury |first=William D. |title=Principles of geomorphology |publisher=Wiley |year=1969 |isbn=0471861979 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=358–376}}</ref> Mapiri gha thawali, nga ni Catskills, ghakupangika na kukokoloka kwa phiri la thawali ilo likakwera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ver Straeten |first=Charles A. |date=July 2013 |title=Beneath it all: bedrock geology of the Catskill Mountains and implications of its weathering: Bedrock geology and weathering of the Catskills |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1298 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1111/nyas.12221 |pmid=23895551 |s2cid=19940868}}</ref> == Nyengo == [[File:Ural_mountains_3_448122223_93fa978a6d_b.jpg|thumb|Kumpoto kwa mapiri gha Ural, uko kuli kutali na mzere wapakati na kwapacanya, kuli nyengo ya mapiri ghatali na dongo lambura vyakumera.]] Nyengo pa mapiri yikuzizima comene pa utali ukulu, cifukwa ca kukolerana kwa ungweru wa zuŵa na kwenda kwa mphepo yakotcha. Ungweru wa zuŵa ukufika pasi na kupafundiska. Pasi pakufundiska mphepo ya pafupi. Usange ungweru ukaŵa nthowa yekha ya kusunthira kufunda kufuma pasi kuya ku mlengalenga, mvuci ukali wa mu mphepo ukatenge usunge pasi pa kufunda kwa pafupifupi 60 °C, ndipo kufunda kukatenge kucepe comene na utali.<ref name="goodywilson">{{Cite book |last1=Goody |first1=Richard M. |title=Atmospheres |last2=Walker |first2=James C. G. |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1972 |chapter=Atmospheric Temperatures |chapter-url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3720/GoodyWalker/AtmosCh3sm.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729075851/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3720/GoodyWalker/AtmosCh3sm.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kweni para mphepo njakotcha, yikukura, ndipo ici cikucepeska kukhwima kwake. Ntheura mphepo yakotcha yikukwera na kusamizgira kufunda pacanya. Ndondomeko iyi yikuchemeka kwenda kwa mphepo yakotcha. Kukufika pa kuyana para cigaŵa ca mphepo pa utali unyake cili na kukhwima kwakuyana na ka mphepo yakucizunguliya. Mphepo nja kuyendeska kufunda makola yayi, ntheura cigaŵa ca mphepo cikukwera na kwika kwambura kusinthana kufunda. Ici cikuchemeka ndondomeko yambura kusinthana kufunda, iyo yili na ubale wapadera wa kukanikizga na kufunda. Apo kukanikizga kukucepa, kufunda nako kukucepa. Luŵiro la kucepa kwa kufunda na utali likuchemeka luŵiro la kucepa kwa kufunda, ilo lili pafupifupi 9.8 °C pa kilomita yiliyose ya utali.<ref name="goodywilson" /> Kuŵapo kwa maji mu mphepo kukusuzga ndondomeko iyi. Mvuchi ya maji yili na kufunda kwakubisika. Apo mphepo yikukwera na kuzizima, pakumalira yikuzura ndipo yingakora so mvuchi yose yayi. Mvuchi ya maji yikusanduka maŵingu na kufumiska kufunda, ndipo ici cikusintha luŵiro la kucepa kwa kufunda kuŵa pafupifupi 5.5 °C pa kilomita. Luŵiro leneilo la kucepa kwa kufunda lingapambana kuyana na utali na malo. Ntheura, kukwera mamita 100 pa phiri nkhwakuyana pafupifupi na kwenda makilomita 80 kuya ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto comene panji kumwera comene ca pafupi. Kweni ubale uwu ngwakupimapima waka, cifukwa vinthu vya malo nga ni kuŵa pafupi na nyanja zikulu (nga ni [[Arctic Ocean|Mbwani ya Arctic]]) vingasintha comene nyengo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate |url=http://meteorologytraining.tpub.com/14312/css/14312_47.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603041448/http://meteorologytraining.tpub.com/14312/css/14312_47.htm |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=2 May 2016 |website=tpub.com}}</ref><ref name="Blyth2002" />{{rp|15}} Apo utali ukusazgikira, vula yikuŵa comene sinowu, ndipo mphepo zikusazgikira.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Factors affecting climate |url=http://www.ecn.ac.uk/Education/factors_affecting_climate.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163841/http://www.ecn.ac.uk/Education/factors_affecting_climate.htm |archive-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=The United Kingdom Environmental Change Network}}</ref><ref name="Blyth2002" />{{rp|12}} Vyakufumapo vya nyengo pa vyamoyo pa utali unyake vingalongoreka makola na unandi wa vula na kufunda kwa vyamoyo, nga umo Leslie Holdridge wakalongosolera mu 1947.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lugo |first1=Ariel E. |last2=Brown |first2=Sandra L. |last3=Dodson |first3=Rusty |last4=Smith |first4=Tom S. |last5=Shugart |first5=Hank H. |year=1999 |title=The Holdridge Life Zones of the conterminous United States in relation to ecosystem mapping |url=http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/publications/abstracts/archived/lugo.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=1025–1038 |bibcode=1999JBiog..26.1025L |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x |s2cid=11733879 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428164559/http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/publications/abstracts/archived/lugo.htm |archive-date=28 April 2013|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kufunda kwa vyamoyo ni kufunda kwapakati, umo kufunda kose kwapasi pa 0 °C kukuwonekera kuŵa 0 °C. Para kufunda kuli pasi pa 0 °C, vyakumera vikugona, ntheura kufunda kweneko nkhwakuzirwa yayi. Nsonga za mapiri izo zili na sinowu nyengo zose zingaŵa na kufunda kwa vyamoyo kwapasi pa 1.5 °C. === Kusintha kwa Nyengo === Malo gha mapiri ghakukhwaskika comene na kusintha kwa nyengo uko kukwiziskika na ŵanthu, ndipo sono ghakusintha mu nthowa iyo yindawoneke mu vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knight |first=Jasper |date=24 October 2022 |title=Scientists' warning of the impacts of climate change on mountains |journal=PeerJ |volume=10 |article-number=e14253 |doi=10.7717/peerj.14253 |pmc=9610668 |pmid=36312749 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakufumapo vya kufunda kwa caro cose capasi pa vigaŵa vya mapiri (kuyaniska na malo ghapasi) vicali kusandika. Kusanda kwa kulaŵiska kukulongora kuti malo ghatali ghakufunda luŵiro kuluska malo ghapasi gha pafupi, kweni para tayaniska pa caro cose capasi, ici cikuwoneka yayi.<ref name="Pepin">{{Cite journal |last1=Pepin |first1=N. C. |last2=Arnone |first2=E. |last3=Gobiet |first3=A. |last4=Haslinger |first4=K. |display-authors=et al |year=2022 |title=Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World |url=https://boris.unibe.ch/169026/ |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=60 |issue=1 |article-number=e2020RG000730 |bibcode=2022RvGeo..6000730P |doi=10.1029/2020RG000730 |s2cid=247008935 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2318/1842344 |archive-date=3 December 2024 |access-date=27 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203235542/https://boris.unibe.ch/169026/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vula mu malo ghatali yikusazgikira luŵiro yayi nga mu malo ghapasi.<ref name="Pepin" /> Kuyezga nyengo na mirangura kukupeleka vimanyikwiro vyakupambana pa usange malo ghanyake ghatali ghazamuŵa na vula yinandi panji yicoko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Derouin |first=Sarah |date=7 November 2023 |title=Carbon Dioxide's Effect on Mountain Climate Systems |url=https://eos.org/research-spotlights/carbon-dioxides-effect-on-mountain-climate-systems |website=Eos}}</ref> Kusintha kwa nyengo kwamba kukhwaska ndondomeko za kawiro na za vyamoyo za mapiri. Mu vyaka makumi ghakumanyuma ivi, ayisi wa pa mapiri ukumala luŵiro comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pelto |first=Mauri |title=Recent Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Glaciers |publisher=Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=9781119068143}}</ref> Kusungunuka kwa ayisi, dongo lakukhwima nyengo zose, na sinowu kwapangiska malo gha pasi pake kuŵa ghambura kukhazikika. Ngozi za kugwa kwa dongo zasazgikira mu unandi na ukulu cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Deline |first1=Philip |title=Snow and Ice-Related Hazards, Risks, and Disasters |last2=Gruber |first2=Stephan |last3=Amann |first3=Florian |last4=Bodin |first4=Xavier |publisher=Elsevier |year=2021 |isbn=9780128171295 |editor-last=Haeberli |editor-first=Wilfried |edition=2nd |series=Hazards and Disasters |pages=501–540 |chapter=Ice loss from glaciers and permafrost and related slope instability in high-mountain regions |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-817129-5.00015-9 |display-authors=et al |editor-last2=Whiteman |editor-first2=Colin |s2cid=234301790}}</ref> Kuthika kwa milonga nako kuzamukhwaskika comene na kusintha kwa nyengo, ndipo ici cizamukhwaska comene ŵanthu awo ŵakuthemba maji ghakufuma ku mapiri. Pafupifupi hafu ya malo gha mapiri ghakupeleka maji ghakuzirwa panji ghakovwira, comene ku ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba, comene mu nyengo ya cilala na mu malo ghakomira pacoko nga ni Asiya ya pakati.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Viviroli |first1=D. |last2=Kummu |first2=M. |last3=Meybeck |first3=M. |last4=Kallio |first4=M. |last5=Wada |first5=Y. |year=2020 |title=Increasing dependence of lowland populations on mountain water resources |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=917–928 |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..917V |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0559-9 |s2cid=220375949 |url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/45519 }}</ref> Vyamoyo vya mapiri ghatali vingaŵa vyakukhwaskika comene na nyengo. Mapiri ghanandi gha pakati ghakuŵa malo gha kubisamamo vyamoyo vya nyengo yakuzizima, ndipo vyamoyo vikukhala mu malo ghacoko. Kupatula vyakufumapo vyakulunjika vya kusintha kwa nyengo pa vyamoyo, pali so vyambura kulunjika pa dongo, cifukwa ca kusintha kwa kukhazikika na kukura kwa dongo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chersich |first1=S |last2=Rejšek |first2=K |last3=Vranová |first3=V. |last4=Bordoni |first4=M. |last5=Meisina |first5=C. |year=2015 |title=Climate change impacts on the Alpine ecosystem: an overview with focus on the soil |journal=J. For. Sci. |volume=61 |issue=11 |pages=496–514 |doi=10.17221/47/2015-JFS |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Vyamoyo == [[File:GlarusAlps.jpg|thumb|Dambo la mu mapiri gha Alps gha ku Switzerland]] Nyengo yakuzizima pa mapiri yikukhwaska vyakumera na vinyama ivyo vikukhala pa mapiri. Vyakumera na vinyama vinyake vikukolerana na nyengo yicoko pera. Ntheura, vyamoyo vikukhala mu vigaŵa vya utali umo nyengo njakuyana.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Daubenmire |first=R. F. |date=June 1943 |title=Vegetational Zonation in the Rocky Mountains |journal=Botanical Review |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=325–393 |bibcode=1943BotRv...9..325D |doi=10.1007/BF02872481 |s2cid=10413001}}</ref> Ici cikuchemeka kugaŵika kuyana na utali.<ref name=Blyth2002/><ref name="Merriam">{{Cite web |title=Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: C. Hart Merriam and the Life Zones Concept |url=http://cpluhna.nau.edu/Biota/merriam.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114113402/http://www.cpluhna.nau.edu/Biota/merriam.htm |archive-date=14 January 2013 |access-date=30 January 2010}}</ref> Mu vigaŵa vya nyengo yakomira, mapiri kanandi ghali na vula yinandi na kuzizima, ndipo ici cikupeleka vyakucitika vyakupambana, ivyo vikukhozga kugaŵika uku. Vyakumera na vinyama vinyake vya mu vigaŵa vya utali vikuŵa paŵekha, cifukwa vyakucitika pacanya na pasi pa cigaŵa cawo vikuŵa viheni, ndipo vikuvikanizga kwenda panji kuthandazgika. Ndondomeko izi za vyamoyo izo zili paŵekha zikuchemeka virwa vya kuthambo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tweit |first=Susan J. |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsouthwestna0000twei/page/209 |title=The Great Southwest Nature Factbook |publisher=Alaska Northwest Books |year=1992 |isbn=0-88240-434-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatsouthwestna0000twei/page/209 209–210]}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya utali kanandi vikulondezga ndondomeko yakumanyikwa. Pa utali ukulu comene, makuni ghangakura yayi, ndipo umoyo uliwose uwo ulipo ngwa mapiri ghatali, ukuyana na wa vigaŵa vya kumpoto comene.<ref name="Merriam" /> Pasi pa malo agho makuni ghakumalira, pali nkholongo za makuni gha mahamba gha singano, agho ghakukhora pa kuzizima na kukoma.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2002 |title=Tree |encyclopedia=Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation |id=60210-442-1635445-74407 |orig-date=1993}}</ref> Pasi pake, pali nkholongo za mapiri. Mu vigaŵa vya nyengo yapakati ya caro capasi, nkholongo izi kanandi nza makuni gha mahamba gha singano, apo mu tropiki zingaŵa za makuni gha mahamba ghakulu mu nkholongo ya vula. == Mapiri na Ŵanthu == Utali ukulu comene uwo ŵanthu ŵangakhalako nyengo zose ni mamita 5,950.<ref name="highestHabitation">{{Cite journal |last=West |first=J. B. |year=2002 |title=Highest permanent human habitation |journal=High Altitude Medical Biology |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=401–407 |doi=10.1089/15270290260512882 |pmid=12631426}}</ref> Pa utali ukulu comene, kucepa kwa kukanikizga kwa mphepo kukung'anamula kuti okisijeni wa kupuma ngucoko, ndipo pali civikiliro cicoko ku ungweru wa pacanya pa uswesi wa zuŵa.<ref name="Blyth2002" /> Pacanya pa mamita 8,000, palije okisijeni wakukwana kusunga umoyo wa munthu. Ici nyengo zinyake cikuchemeka "cigaŵa ca nyifwa".<ref name="PBS">{{Cite web |date=24 February 1998 |title=Everest: The Death Zone |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2506everest.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618221529/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2506everest.html |archive-date=18 June 2017 |website=Nova |publisher=PBS}}</ref> Nsonga za Everest na K2 zili mu cigaŵa ca nyifwa. === Ŵanthu na Vyacuma vya Mapiri === Mapiri kanandi ngakutemweka comene yayi na ŵanthu pa kukhala kuluska malo ghapasi, cifukwa ca nyengo yakusuzga na malo ghacoko ghakusalala agho ghangalimika. Nangauli magaŵa 7 pa 100 gha mtunda wa caro capasi ghali pacanya pa mamita 2,500, ŵanthu miliyoni 140 pera ndiwo ŵakukhala pacanya pa utali uwu, ndipo miliyoni 20–30 pera pacanya pa mamita 3,000.<ref name="Blyth2002" />{{rp|14}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Lorna G. |year=2001 |title=Human Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude |journal=High Alt Med Biol |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=257–279 |doi=10.1089/152702901750265341 |pmid=11443005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=James D. |last2=Boy |first2=Erick |last3=Flowers |first3=Carol |last4=del Carmen Daroca |first4=Maria |year=2005 |title=The influence of high-altitude living on body iron |url=http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/106/4/1441.long |journal=Blood |volume=106 |issue=4 |pages=1441–1446 |doi=10.1182/blood-2004-12-4782 |pmid=15870179 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa mapiri ŵakukhala mu Andes, Asiya ya pakati, na Afilika.<ref name="panos" /> [[File:La Paz Skyline.jpg|thumb|Msumba wa La Paz ukufika pa utali wa {{convert|4000|m|ft}}. Phiri la Illimani likuwoneka comene pacanya pa msumba.]] Cifukwa ca vyakuzengera vicoko, magulu ghacoko pera gha ŵanthu ghali pacanya pa mamita 4,000. Ghanandi ngacoko, ndipo ghali na vyacuma vyapadera, kanandi ghakuthemba ulimi, kukumba migodi, na ŵalendo.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Alps – The economy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps/The-economy |access-date=2022-07-13}}</ref> Ciyelezgero ca tawuni ya mtundu uwu ni La Rinconada mu Peru, tawuni ya migodi ya golide, iyo ndiyo malo ghatali comene agho ŵanthu ŵakukhalako, pa mamita 5,100.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Finnegan |first=William |date=20 April 2015 |title=Tears of the Sun |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/20/tears-of-the-sun |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323032031/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/20/tears-of-the-sun |url-status=live }}</ref> Ciyelezgero ca kupambana ni El Alto mu Bolivia, pa mamita 4,150, iyo yili na vyacuma vya uteŵeti na kupanga vinthu vyakupambanapambana, na ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni yimoza.<ref>{{Cite web |title=El Alto, Bolivia: A New World Out of Differences |url=http://upsidedownworld.org/elalto.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516032048/http://upsidedownworld.org/elalto.htm |archive-date=16 May 2015}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mapiri ŵa mdawuko ŵakuthemba ulimi, ndipo pali ngozi yikulu ya kutondeka kwa mbuto kuluska mu malo ghapasi. Malibwe gha vyuma kanandi ghakusangika mu mapiri, ndipo kukumba migodi ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca vyacuma vya ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mapiri. Sonosono, ŵalendo ŵaŵa ŵakuzirwa comene ku vyacuma vya ŵanthu ŵa mapiri, na kuzenga kuzingilizga malo ghakukopa ŵanthu nga ni mapaki gha caro na malo gha kuterereka pa sinowu.<ref name="Blyth2002" />{{rp|17}} Pafupifupi magaŵa 80 pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵa mapiri ŵakukhala mu ukavu.<ref name="panos" /> Milonga yinandi ya caro capasi yikufuma ku mapiri, ndipo sinowu ukusunga maji gha ŵanthu ŵa pasi.<ref name="Blyth2002" />{{rp|22}} Kujumpha hafu ya ŵanthu ŵakuthemba mapiri pa maji.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Year of Freshwater 2003 |url=http://www.wateryear2003.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3903&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007104411/http://www.wateryear2003.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D3903%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date=7 October 2006 |access-date=7 December 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mountain Institute |url=http://www.mountain.org/mountains/whymtns.cfm?slidepage=water |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709060421/http://www.mountain.org/mountains/whymtns.cfm?slidepage=water |archive-date=9 July 2006 |access-date=7 December 2006}}</ref> Mu ndyali ya vyaro, mapiri kanandi ghakuwonekera nga ni mphaka za kawiro pakati pa vyaro.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kolossov |first=V. |year=2005 |title=Border studies: changing perspectives and theoretical approaches |journal=Geopolitics |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=606–632 |doi=10.1080/14650040500318415 |s2cid=143213848}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Houtum |first=H. |year=2005 |title=The geopolitics of borders and boundaries |journal=Geopolitics |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=672–679 |doi=10.1080/14650040500318522}}</ref> === Mapiri nga ni Malo Ghakupatulika === Mapiri kanandi ghakugwira ntchito yikulu mu visopa. Mwaciyelezgero, pali mapiri ghanandi ghakupatulika mu Girisi, nga ni Olympus, ilo likaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa nyumba ya ŵaciuta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mt. Olympus |url=https://sacredsites.com/europe/greece/mt_olympus.html |website=Sacred Sites: World Pilgrimage Guide |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=3 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203064021/https://sacredsites.com/europe/greece/mt_olympus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu mdawuko wa Japani, phiri la moto la Fuji la mamita 3,776 nalo ndakupatulika, ndipo Ŵajapani masauzandi makumi ghanandi ŵakulikwera caka ciliconse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2019 |title=How Mount Fuji became Japan's most sacred symbol |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/asia/japan/climbing-mount-fuji/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209081345/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/asia/japan/climbing-mount-fuji/ |archive-date=9 February 2019 |website=National Geographic}}</ref> Phiri la Kailash mu China likuwonekera kuŵa lakupatulika mu visopa vinayi: Cihindu, Bon, Cibuda, na Cijaini. Mu Ayalandi, Ŵakatolika ŵakuya pa maulendo gha cisopa pa Phiri la Brandon la mamita 952.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2016 |title=Mount Brandon |url=https://pilgrimagemedievalireland.com/tag/mount-brandon/ |website=Pilgrimage in Medieval Ireland |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=11 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211000002/https://pilgrimagemedievalireland.com/tag/mount-brandon/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Nsonga ya Nanda Devi mu Himalaya yikukolerana na ŵaciuta ŵanakazi ŵa Cihindu, Nanda na Sunanda; ŵakukwera mapiri ŵakanizgika kuyikwera kufuma mu 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 August 2015 |title=Nanda Devi |url=https://thecompletepilgrim.com/nanda-devi/ |website=Complete Pilgrim}}</ref> Phiri la Ararati ndakupatulika, cifukwa likughanaghanirika kuŵa malo agho cingalawa ca Nowa cikakhazikira, kuyana na Baibolo. Mu Ulaya, comene mu Alps, mphambano zikuŵikika kanandi pa nsonga za mapiri ghakumanyikwa.<ref name="Eppacher">{{Cite book |last=Eppacher |first=Wilhelm |title=Berg- und Gipfelkreuze in Tirol |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |year=1957 |editor-last=Klebelsberg |editor-first=Raimund |series=Schlern-Schriften |volume=178 |location=Innsbruck |pages=5–9 |language=de}}</ref> == Mapiri Ghakujumpha Ghanyake == [[File:Comparison of Earth farthest points.svg|thumb|Everest ndilo litali comene kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja (mtundu wa ''green''), Mauna Kea ndilo litali comene kufuma pasi pake (''orange''), Cayambe ndilo lili kutali comene na msumbu wa caro capasi (''pink''), ndipo Chimborazo ndilo lili kutali comene na pakati pa caro capasi (''blue'')]] Utali wa mapiri kanandi ukupimika kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja. Pa nthowa iyi, Everest ndilo phiri litali comene pa caro capasi, pa mamita 8,848.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 April 2010 |title=Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8608913.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303133522/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8608913.stm |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=22 August 2010 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Pali mapiri pafupifupi 100 ghatali kujumpha mamita 7,200 kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja, ndipo ghose ghali mu Asiya ya pakati na ya kumwera. Mapiri ghatali comene kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja kanandi ngatali comene yayi kufuma pa malo agho ghakughazunguliya. Palije ng'anamulo yakupimika ya pasi pa phiri, kweni Denali, Kilimanjaro, na Nanga Parbat ghangaŵa mapiri ghatali comene pa mtunda pa nthowa iyi.<ref name="helman">{{Cite book |last=Helman |first=Adam |title=The Finest Peaks: Prominence and Other Mountain Measures |publisher=Trafford |year=2005 |isbn=1-4122-3664-9 |page=9 |quote=the base to peak rise of Denali is the largest of any mountain that lies entirely above sea level, some 18,000 feet.}}</ref> Pasi pa mapiri gha virwa pali pasi pa mphepete ya nyanja, ndipo pa ici, Mauna Kea (mamita 4,207 kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja) ndilo phiri litali comene na phiri la moto litali comene pa caro capasi, ilo litali mamita pafupifupi 10,203 kufuma pasi pa [[Pacific Ocean|Mbwani ya Pacific]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mountains: Highest Points on Earth |url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/mountains-article/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703123427/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/mountains-article |archive-date=3 July 2010 |access-date=19 September 2010 |publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref> Mapiri ghatali comene kanandi ngakulu comene yayi. Mauna Loa (mamita 4,169) ndilo phiri likulu comene pa caro capasi pa ukulu wa pasi pake (makilomita gha mbali zinayi pafupifupi 5,200) na ukulu wose (makilomita gha mbali zitatu pafupifupi 75,000).<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Kaye |first=G. D. |year=2002 |title=Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii |url=http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002CD/finalprogram/abstract_34712.htm |conference=Geological Society of America |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125194545/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002CD/finalprogram/abstract_34712.htm |archive-date=25 January 2009 |book-title=98th Annual Meeting |url-status=live}}</ref> Kilimanjaro ndilo phiri likulu comene la moto ilo nla mawonekero gha cikopa yayi, pa ukulu wa pasi (makilomita gha mbali zinayi 635) na ukulu wose. Phiri la Logan ndilo phiri likulu comene ilo nla moto yayi pa ukulu wa pasi (makilomita gha mbali zinayi 311). Mapiri ghatali comene kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja ndigho ghali kutali comene yayi na pakati pa caro capasi, cifukwa caro capasi nca mawonekero gha mpira wakufikapo yayi. Mphepete ya nyanja pafupi na mzere wapakati wa caro capasi yili kutali comene na pakati pa caro capasi. Nsonga ya Chimborazo, phiri litali comene la Ecuador, kanandi likuwonekera kuŵa malo ghakutali comene na pakati pa caro capasi, nangauli nsonga ya kumwera ya Huascarán, phiri litali comene la Peru, nayo yingaŵa.<ref name="Krulwich2007" /> Ghose ghaŵiri ngafupi kufuma pa mphepete ya nyanja kuluska Everest na makilomita ghakujumpha ghaŵiri. == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} 13fvttr8d7mx9bf86y6j1dzbwe047ee 0 29191 124379 123552 2026-11-10T20:12:02Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Central Bank of Malawi}} {{Infobox Central bank|image=|caption=Wofesi ya Rizevu Banki ya Malaŵi mu msumba wa [[Mzuzu]].|logo=Reserve Bank of Malawi logo.png|logo_size=150px|bank_name_in_local=|ownership=100% [[state ownership]]<ref name="dnbinfo">{{cite web |last1=Weidner |first1=Jan |title=The Organisation and Structure of Central Banks |url=https://d-nb.info/1138787981/34 |website=Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek|year=2017|format=PDF}}</ref>|headquarters=|established=July 1964|president=George Partridge|leader_title=Governor|bank_of=[[Malawi]]|currency=[[Malawian kwacha]]|currency_iso=MWK|reserves=|website={{URL|https://www.rbm.mw/}}|preceded=|succeeded=|footnotes=}}'''Rizevu Banki ya Malaŵi''' ni banki yikulu ya [[Malawi|Malaŵi]], iyo yikajalikiskika mu 1964, ndipo yili ku [[Lilongwe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserver Bank of Malawi - Contacts |url=https://www.rbm.mw/Home/Contact/ |access-date=2016-09-20 |website=www.rbm.mw}}</ref> Kazembe wa sono ni George Partridge. Banki iyi yikukhozga comene ndondomeko ya kufikira uteŵeti wa vyacuma kwa ŵanthu wose, ndipo ni yimoza mwa ŵalongozgi ŵa wupu wa Alliance for Financial Inclusion. Kweniso ni yimoza mwa mawupu 17 ghakwamba ghakulaŵilira agho ghakalayizga vinthu vyapadera pa kufikira uteŵeti wa vyacuma pasi pa Phangano la Maya pa ungano wa Global Policy Forum wa mu 2011 ku Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/maya-declaration-urges-financial-inclusion-for-worlds-unbanked-populations-130887928.html |title=Maya Declaration Urges Financial Inclusion for World's Unbanked Populations - RIVIERA MAYA, Mexico, Sept. 30, 2011 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ |location=Mexico |publisher=Prnewswire.com |date= |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref> Rizevu Banki ya Malaŵi ndiyo yekha iyo yili na wanangwa wa kupeleka ndalama ya kwacha ya Malaŵi, iyo yikapoka malo gha pawundi ya Malaŵi mu 1971. == Ŵakazembe == * [[:en:Alan_G._Perrin|Alan G. Perrin]], 1964-1968 * [[:en:D._E._Thomson|D. E. Thomson]], 1968-1971 * [[John Tembo]], 1971-1984 * [[:en:Chakakala_Chaziya|Chakakala Chaziya]], 1984-1986 * [[:en:Stephen_Chimwemwe_Hara|Stephen Chimwemwe Hara]], 1986-1988 * [[:en:Hans_Joachim_Lesshafft|Hans Joachim Lesshafft]], 1988-1992 * [[:en:Francis_Perekamoya|Francis Perekamoya]], 1992-1995 * [[:en:Mathews_Chikaonda|Mathews Chikaonda]], 1995-2000<ref name="madise">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvCODwAAQBAJ|title=The Regulation of Mobile Money: Law and Practice in Sub-Saharan Africa|isbn=9783030138318|last1=Madise|first1=Sunduzwayo|date=26 March 2019}}</ref> * [[:en:Elias_Ngalande|Elias Ngalande]], 2000-2005<ref name="madise" /> * [[:en:Victor_Mbewe|Victor Mbewe]], 2005-2009<ref name="madise" /> * [[:en:Perks_Ligoya|Perks Ligoya]], 2009-2012<ref name="madise" /> * [[:en:Charles_Chuka|Charles Chuka]], 2012-2017<ref name="madise" /> * [[:en:Dr._Dalitso_Kabambe|Dr. Dalitso Kabambe]], 2017-2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=About - Reserve Bank of Malawi |url=https://www.rbm.mw/about/}}</ref> * [[:en:Dr._Wilson_Banda|Dr. Wilson Banda]], 2020-2025<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/malawi-cenbank-idUSL8N2EF5HP|title=Malawi appoints Wilson Banda as new central bank governor|newspaper=Reuters|date=8 July 2020}}</ref> * MacDonald Mafuta Mwale, 2025-2026 * George Partridge, 2026- == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Economy_of_Malawi|Economy of Malawi]] * [[:en:List_of_central_banks_of_Africa|List of central banks of Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_central_banks|List of central banks]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * [https://www.rbm.mw/ Reserve Bank of Malawi] {{Portal|Banks}}{{Authority control}}{{Central banks|state=autocollapse}}{{coord missing|Malawi}} {{Malawi-stub}} {{Africa-bank-stub}} qt8mp7es0ptmx2roijqsfnlmnzs1xb6 0 29197 124383 123726 2026-11-10T20:17:59Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malawian public referral hospital}} {{Infobox hospital|name=Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu|org/group=|logo=|logo_size=|image=|image_size=225|alt=|caption=|coordinates={{coord|13|58|37|S|33|47|11|E|display=inline, title}}|location=[[Lilongwe]], [[Malawi]]|region=|state=|country=|pushpin_map=Malawi|map_caption=Malo agho kuli Lilongwe|healthcare=<!-- UK: NHS; AU/CA: Medicare; ELSE free-form text, e.g. Private -->|funding=|type=|affiliation=[[University of North Carolina]]|patron=|network=|standards=|emergency=Yes|beds=780|speciality= |image = Kamuzu Central Hospital.jpg |helipad=No|h1-number=|h1-length-f=|h1-length-m=|h1-surface=<!-- up to h12 -->|founded={{start date and years ago|1977}}|closed=|demolished=|website=<!-- {{URL|www.example.com}} -->|other_links=[[List of hospitals in Malawi]]|module=}}'''Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu''' (mu Cingelezi ''Kamuzu Central Hospital'') ni cipatala cikulu cakupokera ŵalwari ŵakutumika kufuma ku vipatala vinyake mu msumba wa [[Lilongwe]], likulu la [[Malaŵi]]. Cili na mabedi pafupifupi 780, kweni ŵalwari ŵakujumpha unandi wa mabedi. Cikuteŵetera ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 5, ŵakutumika kufuma ku vipatala vinkhondi vya maboma na vigaŵa vinyake vya Malaŵi, na vigaŵa vinyake vya Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, na Zimbabwe.<ref name="1R">{{cite web |author=World Health Organization |date=May 2020 |title=About Kamuzu Central Hospital |url=https://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/apps/first_wave/malawi_middlesbrough/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005533/http://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/apps/first_wave/malawi_middlesbrough/en/ |archive-date=February 22, 2015 |access-date=12 May 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |location=Geneva Switzerland}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{cite web |author=The Electives Network |date=12 May 2020 |title=Profile of Kamuzu Central Hospital |url=https://www.electives.net/hospital/4879/preview |access-date=12 May 2020 |publisher=Electives.net |location=Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918112347/https://www.electives.net/hospital/4879/preview |archive-date=18 September 2021}}</ref> == Malo == Cipatala ici cili mu cigaŵa ca msumba wa Lilongwe ico cikuchemeka Area 33 (panji Nangwagwa), kumwera kwa Nkholongo ya Lingazi Namilomba na Lilongwe Wildlife Centre, pafupi na Kamuzu College of Nursing. Malo gha cipatala ni: 13°58'37.0"S, 33°47'11.0"E.<ref name="3R">{{google maps|title=Location of Kamuzu Central Hospital|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/13%C2%B058'37.0%22S+33%C2%B047'11.0%22E/@-13.9769444,33.7863889,381m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x0!8m2!3d-13.9769444!4d33.7863889|access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref> == Mwakufupikiska == Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu ni cipatala cikulu cakupokera ŵalwari ŵakutumika, ndipo ndico cipatala cakupokera ŵalwari ŵakutumika ca Cigaŵa ca Pakati ca Malaŵi. Ni cipatala cakupokera ŵalwari ŵakutumika ca ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 5. Mu Vuna 2020, cikaŵa na ŵadokotala pafupifupi 60 na ŵanesi pafupifupi 300.<ref name="en-1R">{{cite web|publisher=World Health Organization | url=https://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/apps/first_wave/malawi_middlesbrough/en/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005533/http://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/apps/first_wave/malawi_middlesbrough/en/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2015 |title=About Kamuzu Central Hospital |date=May 2020 |author=World Health Organization |access-date=12 May 2020 | location=Geneva Switzerland}}</ref> Mu 2019, cipatala ici cikapokeranga ŵana ŵakufika 25,000 pa caka, ndiko kuti ŵana pafupifupi 70 pa zuŵa limoza pakati.<ref name="4R">{{cite web|date=15 November 2019 | url=https://www.med.unc.edu/pediatrics/unc-project-malawi-celebrates-opening-of-kamuzu-central-hospital-pediatric-laboratory-in-lilongwe-malawi/ |title=UNC Project Malawi Celebrates Opening of Kamuzu Central Hospital Pediatric Laboratory in Lilongwe, Malawi |publisher=University of North Carolina School of Medicine |access-date=12 May 2020 |author=UNC School of Medicine |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States}}</ref> Mu Masika 2012, ŵacipondi Bingu wa Mutharika (24 Muswela 1934 – 5 Masika 2012), Mulongozgi wa Caro wacitatu wa Malaŵi, wakapokereka ku Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu, ndipo ŵakamusanga na kuleka kugwira ntchito kwa mtima.<ref name="5R">{{cite web |author=Agencies |date=6 April 2012 |title=Malawi president 'in critical condition' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/201245175737562122.html |access-date=12 May 2020 |publisher=[[Aljazeera.com]] |location=Doha}}</ref> == Mbiri == Cipatala ici cikazengeka mu 1977 na wupu wa Denmark wa kovwira cikuliro (DANIDA), na ndalama izo ulongozgi wa Denmark ukapeleka. Masuzgo gha ndyali ghakawoneka pambere cipatala cindamale. Cigaŵa cakwamba pera ndico cikamala.<ref name="en-6R">{{cite web|publisher=World Health Organization | url=https://www.who.int/management/country/mwi/kamuzu_hospital.pdf |title=The Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology at Kamuzu Central Hospital and Bottom Hospital, Malawi: A Situation Analysis |date=January 2005 |author=Tarek Meguid and Elled Mwenyekonde |accessdate=12 May 2020 |location=Lilongwe}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivyo vikaleka kuzengeka vikaŵa (a) ca nthumbo na nthenda za ŵanakazi, kusazgapo kupwelelera ŵanakazi ŵa nthumbo, (b) ca viwanga, (c) ca nthenda za mahara, na (d) ca TB.<ref name="en-6R"/> Kufuma mu 1977 mpaka 2004, cipatala ici cikachemekanga Lilongwe Central Hospital. Mu 2004, cikathyika zina lake la sono.<ref name="6R">{{cite web |author=Tarek Meguid and Elled Mwenyekonde |date=January 2005 |title=The Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology at Kamuzu Central Hospital and Bottom Hospital, Malawi: A Situation Analysis |url=https://www.who.int/management/country/mwi/kamuzu_hospital.pdf |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |location=Lilongwe |accessdate=12 May 2020}}</ref> == Kugwilira Ntchito Pamoza == [[file:MEDREACH 11 Cataract Surgery - Kamuzu Central Hospital.jpg|thumb|Ŵadokotala ŵa ŵasilikali ŵa Amerika ŵakucita kujula-thupi pa maso (''cataract'') mu 2011]] Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu cikugwilira ntchito pamoza na Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha North Carolina. Cilato ca kugwilira ntchito pamoza uku ni "kusanga nthowa ziphya, zakuzomerezgeka mu mdawuko, na zakuguliskika makola za kuwemeska uchanda wa moyo wa ŵanthu ŵa Malaŵi, kwizira mu kusanda, kukhozga nkhongono, na kupwelelera ŵalwari".<ref name="7R">{{cite web |url=https://www.med.unc.edu/medicine/infdis/malawi/ |title=About UNC-Project Malawi |publisher=University of North Carolina School of Medicine |date=12 May 2020 |author=UNC School of Medicine |access-date=12 May 2020 |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States |archive-date=30 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430073059/https://www.med.unc.edu/medicine/infdis/malawi/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cipatala ici cikapokera wovwiri kufuma ku Baylor Pediatric AIDS Initiative (BIPAI). Wovwiri unyake ukafuma ku German Hospital Partnership MAGNET, uwo ukalongozgekanga na German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH (GIZ). Ndalama izi zikamba mu 2008 na kulutilira mpaka 2015.<ref name="9R">{{cite web |author=Esther–Magnet Organisation |date=4 July 2011 |title=Esther–Magnet: Malawi German Networking for Capacity Building in Treatment, Training and Research at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH), Lilongwe, Malawi |url=http://esther-magnet.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801102326/http://esther-magnet.org/ |archive-date=1 August 2015 |access-date=12 May 2020 |publisher=Esther–Magnet Organisation © Institute of Public Health, University Hospital Heidelberg |format=Archived from the original on 1 August 2015}}</ref> Wupu wa lusungu wa Olivia Giles wakuchemeka 500 Miles ukamba kugwilira ntchito pamoza na cipatala mu 2009, na ŵantchito ŵaŵiri awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu makontena gha kunyamulira katundu, kuti ŵapeleke uteŵeti wa malundi na mawoko ghakupangika na wa viwanga pa cipatala. Pamanyuma pa vyaka 16, uteŵeti uwu ukaŵa cigaŵa ca Lilongwe Institute of Orthopaedics and Neurosurgery mu 2024, apo ukapelekeka ku Unduna wa Vya Umoyo na layizgo la kulutilira kovwira.<ref name=smp25>{{Cite web |title=Official handover of 500 Miles' Prosthetic and Orthotic Service in Lilongwe |url=https://www.scotland-malawipartnership.org/news/official-handover-of-500-miles-prosthetic-and-orthotic-service-in-lilongwe |access-date=2025-04-11 |website=www.scotland-malawipartnership.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> Cipatala Cikulu ca Kamuzu cikugwilira ntchito pamoza na SIGN Fracture Care International kuti kupwelelera viwanga kufikike makola kwa ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Malawi SIGN Programs |url=https://www.signfracturecare.org/malawi |website=signfracturecare.org}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[:en:List_of_hospitals_in_Malawi|List of hospitals in Malawi]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Milumikizgi yakuwaro == * [https://www.malawiproject.org/the-halls-of-kamuzu-central-hospital/ The Halls of Kamuzu Central Hospital] As of 4 August 2007. * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272165912_Self-directed_e-learning_at_a_tertiary_hospital_in_Malawi_-_A_qualitative_Evaluation_and_Lessons_learnt Self-directed e-learning at a tertiary hospital in Malawi – A qualitative Evaluation and Lessons learnt] Article (PDF Available) in German medical science : GMS e-journal 32(1) · February 2015 with 635 Reads.  * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273832159_Hospital_Partnership_MAGNET_Malawi_German_Networking_for_Capacity_Building_in_Treatment_Training_and_Research_at_Kamuzu_Central_Hospital_KCH_Lilongwe_Malawi Hospital Partnership MAGNET: Malawi German Networking for Capacity Building in Treatment, Training and Research at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH), Lilongwe, Malawi] Conference Paper (PDF Available) · November 2014 with 444 Reads.  {{Authority control}} g8dchpdlfklg3g70j7pjfmtz5irg0b8 0 29211 124380 123614 2026-11-10T20:12:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox university|name=Mzuzu University|native_name=|image_name=Mzuzu university logo.jpg|image_size=150px|caption=Mzuni logo|latin_name=|motto=Self Reliance, Perfection Service|mottoeng=|established=1997|closed=|type=[[Public university|Public]]|endowment=|chancellor=[[Lazarus Chakwera]]|vice_chancellor=[[John Saka]]|chairman=[[Hawa Ndilowe]]|faculty=|staff=|students=8,500 <small>(2021)</small>|undergrad=|postgrad=|doctoral=|other=|city=[[Mzuzu]]|province=|country=[[Malawi]]|coor={{coord|11.422|S|33.993|E|region:MW-MZ_type:edu}}|campus=|former_names=|free_label=|free=|sports=|colours=|nickname=Mzuni|mascot=|affiliations=|website={{URL|https://www.mzuni.ac.mw}}|logo=|footnotes=}} '''Yunivesite ya Mzuzu''' (panji '''Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Mzuzu''') ni kwamasambiro ghakulu gha ulongozgi mu [[Malaŵi]]. Ghali ku Luwinga, mu msumba wa [[Mzuzu]], kumpoto kwa Malaŵi. == Mbiri == Kwamasambiro agha ghakajalikiskika mu 1997, apo ghakasinthika kufuma ku kwamasambiro gha ŵasambizgi agho ghakajalikiskika mu ma 1970. Ghakapokera ŵasambiri ŵakwamba mu 1999. Apo ghakajuranga milyango yawo, Mulara wawo wakaŵa [[Bakili Muluzi]], Mulongozgi wa Caro wakale wa Malaŵi, ndipo Wakuovwira Mulara wakwamba wakaŵa Pulofesa [[Terrence Davis]].<ref name=PressTrust/> Pulofesa [[Peter Mwanza]], uyo pamanyuma wakanjira mu ndyali na kuŵa nduna, wakawovwira comene pa kwambiska kwamasambiro agha. Wakaŵa Mulara wa Wupu wa Yunivesite, ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa Wakuovwira Mulara.<ref name="PressTrust">{{cite web |title=Profile: PROFESSOR PETER N. MWANZA, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. |url=http://www.presstrust.org.mw/profile-professor-peter-n.-mwanza-b.sc.-m.sc.-ph.d.html |url-status=dead |publisher=Press Trust |accessdate=2011-03-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722222930/http://www.presstrust.org.mw/profile-professor-peter-n.-mwanza-b.sc.-m.sc.-ph.d.html |archivedate=2011-07-22}}</ref> Robert Ridley wakaŵa Wakuovwira Mulara. Wakakolera kusazgirapo malipiro gha masambiro pa Kwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Mzuzu pamanyuma pakuti ŵasambiri ŵakacita viwonetsero mu 2016.<ref name=fees>{{Cite web |date=2016-06-12 |title=Mzuzu University in a fix over fees hike after students protest |url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/mzuzu-university-fix-fees-hike-students-protest/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=www.nyasatimes.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> Mu 2018 wakafuma ku Mzuzu, apo wakasankhika kuŵa waciŵiri kwa Wakuovwira Mulara pa Unicaf University ku Lilongwe.<ref name="jobnews">{{Cite web |date=2018-10-01 |title=Unicaf University Malawi appoints ex- Mzuni vice chancellor as new DVC|url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/unicaf-university-malawi-appoints-ex-mzuni-vice-chancellor-as-new-dvc/ |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=www.nyasatimes.com |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=jobunicaf>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-03 |title=Dr Robert Ridley Appointed Deputy Vice Chancellor at Unicaf University Malawi |url=https://university.unicaf.org/dr-robert-ridley-appointed-deputy-vice-chancellor-at-unicaf-university-malawi/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=Unicaf University |language=en-US}}</ref> == Masambiro == MZUNI ni kwamasambiro ghakulu gha nthowa ziŵiri. Wupu wa ODeL ukupeleka masambiro pamaso pa msambizgi kweniso masambiro gha kutali na gha pa intaneti. Masambiro ghanyake ghakupelekeka mu nyengo za masambiro ghakulondezgana, kumalira kwa sabata, na mu nyengo za kupumula. === Vigaŵa vya Masambiro === Kwamasambiro agha ghali na vigaŵa ivi: * Faculty of Education ** Educational Foundations ** Teaching, Learning and Curriculum Studies ** Inclusive Education * Faculty of Environmental Science ** Agri-Sciences ** Built Environment ** Fisheries and Aquatic Science ** Forestry and Environmental Management ** Geo-Science ** Water Resources Management * Faculty of Health Sciences ** Biomedical Sciences ** Nursing and Midwifery ** Optometry Faculty of Humanities and Social Science ** Language, Cultural and Creative Studies ** Communication Studies ** Theology and Religious Studies ** History and Heritage Studies ** Information Science ** Governance, Peace, and Security Studies * Faculty of Science, Technology and Innovation ** Mathematics and Statistics *{{in lang|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123095819/http://www.mzuzu.org/maths/ Mzuzu University mathematics department] ** Physics and Electronics ** Biological Sciences ** Renewable Energy Technologies ** Chemistry ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20230403042352/https://ict.mzuni.ac.mw/ Information and Communication Technology] * Faculty of Tourism, Hospitality and Management Studies ** Tourism ** Hospitality Management ** Management and Entrepreneurial Studies ** ** Malo gha Masambiro gha Kutali gha Mzuzu (ODL) ndigho ghakupeleka masambiro kuwaro kwa malo gha kwamasambiro, kusazgapo masambiro ghakulondezgapo. '''Masambiro gha Digri Yakwamba''' Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Education (Languages) • Bachelor of Education (Arts) • Bachelor of Education (Science) • Bachelor of Education (Information Communication Technology) Faculty of Humanities and Health Sciences • Bachelor of Arts Communication Studies • Bachelor of Arts (Theology and Religious Studies) • Bachelor of Arts Library and Information Science • Bachelor of Arts Security Studies • Bachelor of Arts Politics and Governance • Bachelor of Arts Development Studies • Bachelor of Arts International Relations and Diplomacy • Bachelor of Arts (History and Heritage Studies) Faculty of Health Sciences • Bachelor of Science (Biomedical Sciences) • Bachelor of Science (Optometry) • Bachelor of Science (Nursing and Midwifery) === Malo gha Masambiro gha Kutali === Malo gha Masambiro gha Kutali pa kwamasambiro agha ghakajulika mu 2006, ndipo ghakapokera ŵasambiri ŵakwamba mu 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Online and distance centres advance tertiary access |url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210309062800338 |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=University World News |language=en}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakukhumba comene masambiro gha kutali na gha pa intaneti (ODeL) mu Afilika ya Kumwera. Nthowa iyi yikuwonekera comene nga ni nthowa yinyake iyo ŵenecaro ŵa Malaŵi ŵangafikira masambiro ghapacanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chawinga |first1=Winner Dominic |last2=Zozie |first2=Paxton Andrew |date=2016-07-08 |title=Increasing Access to Higher Education Through Open and Distance Learning: Empirical Findings From Mzuzu University, Malawi |url=https://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/2409 |journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |doi=10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2409 |issn=1492-3831 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Wupu wa Caro wa Masambiro Ghapacanya ukulongozga kunjira mu mawupu ghankhondi na ghamoza kwizira mu ndondomeko ya kusankha ŵasambiri ŵa makwamasambiro ghakulu gha ulongozgi.<ref>https://pus.nche.ac.mw/</ref> ODeL yikupeleka ku ŵakumalizga masambiro gha sekondale na ku ŵara nthowa yinyake ya kunjira mu masambiro ghapacanya. Cigaŵa ca ODeL cili na malo ghankhondi gha ODeL, mu Mzuzu, Lilongwe, Balaka, Mulanje, na Karonga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Online and distance centres advance tertiary access |url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210309062800338 |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=University World News |language=en}}</ref> Makwamasambiro ghakulu ghanyake gha ulongozgi ghalondezga MZUNI. Mwaciyelezgero, mu 2016, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) yikajalikiska cigaŵa ca ODL. === Kusanda === Kwamasambiro agha ghakwendeska malo gha kusanda agha: * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230330173119/http://mzuniwatsan.com/ Centre of Excellence in Water and Sanitation] * [https://tcret.weebly.com/ The Test and Training Centre for Renewable Energy Technologies (TCRET)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191228020918/http://mzuni.ac.mw/cie/index.html Centre for Inclusive Education] * [https://www.ehealthmalawi.org/ Malawi eHealth Research Centre (MERC)] == Ŵanthu Ŵakumanyikwa == === Ŵakumalizga Masambiro Ŵakumanyikwa === * Rachel Sibande, munthu waluso pa luso la vilwero na musandi wa mirangura * Tonthoza Uganja, wamalonda wa malo ghakuzingilizga, waluso pa ulimi na makuni, na musandi wa malo ghakuzingilizga == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Milumikizgi yakuwaro == * {{official website|http://www.mzuni.ac.mw}} {{in lang|en}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200703124319/https://www.sarua.org/ Southern African Regional Universities Association] {{coord|11.422|S|33.993|E|region:MW-MZ_type:edu|display=title}}{{Authority control}}{{Universities in Malawi}}{{Malawi-university-stub}} smeaxmnqcpp0qvavl71kygyacfkxosj 0 34361 124335 88717 2026-11-10T13:41:31Z Watisoni Banda 10141 124335 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mbiri ya Madagascar''' ni mbili iyo njakupambana chomene chifukwa cha kulekeka kwa chirwa ichi na chirwa-chilala chamuchiyamwaka cha [[Pangaea]], icho kupatula pa kuŵa na virwa vyanji chikaŵa pamoza na Chirwa cha [[Africa]] na Chirwarwa cha [[India]], ndiposo chifukwa cha sumbikizgika na ŵanthu mwakuchedwa kufuma ku virwa vya Sunda(Kipelego ka Malay), Africa na India. Vifukwa viŵiri ivi vikapangiska kuti kusinthika na kupona kwakuyana-na-kuko-pela, ndipo vinyakhe mwa ivi vili kufwilathu panjiso pa chiofyi chakufwililathu. Malonda mu nyanja ya India pa nyengo iyo Madagascar yika sumbikizgikanga pakudanga yikadangizgika na ngalaŵa za ku Indonesia nga nthe ngalaŵa ya [[:en:Borobudur_ship|Borobudur]] na [[:en:K'un-lun_po|K'un-lun po]] qxllrnel5iv4fk2z0n4kh5lueu9k207 124336 124335 2026-11-10T13:42:42Z Watisoni Banda 10141 Kulumikiziska 124336 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mbiri ya Madagascar''' ni mbili iyo njakupambana chomene chifukwa cha kulekeka kwa [[chirwa]] ichi na chirwa-chilala chamuchiyamwaka cha [[Pangaea]], icho kupatula pa kuŵa na virwa vyanji chikaŵa pamoza na Chirwa cha [[Africa]] na Chirwarwa cha [[India]], ndiposo chifukwa cha sumbikizgika na ŵanthu mwakuchedwa kufuma ku virwa vya Sunda(Kipelego ka Malay), Africa na India. Vifukwa viŵiri ivi vikapangiska kuti kusinthika na kupona kwakuyana-na-kuko-pela, ndipo vinyakhe mwa ivi vili kufwilathu panjiso pa chiofyi chakufwililathu. Malonda mu nyanja ya India pa nyengo iyo Madagascar yika sumbikizgikanga pakudanga yikadangizgika na ngalaŵa za ku Indonesia nga nthe ngalaŵa ya [[:en:Borobudur_ship|Borobudur]] na [[:en:K'un-lun_po|K'un-lun po]] p4d1cubkse5b089bsbwb54dkoq4vuxi 124337 124336 2026-11-10T13:45:10Z Watisoni Banda 10141 Mitundu 124337 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mbiri ya Madagascar''' ni mbili iyo njakupambana chomene chifukwa cha kulekeka kwa [[chirwa]] ichi na chirwa-chilala chamuchiyamwaka cha [[Pangaea]], icho kupatula pa kuŵa na virwa vyanji chikaŵa pamoza na Chirwa cha [[Africa]] na Chirwarwa cha [[India]], ndiposo chifukwa cha sumbikizgika na ŵanthu mwakuchedwa kufuma ku virwa vya Sunda(Kipelego ka Malay), Africa na India. Vifukwa viŵiri ivi vikapangiska kuti kusinthika na kupona kwakuyana-na-kuko-pela, ndipo vinyakhe mwa ivi vili kufwilathu panjiso pa chiofyi chakufwililathu. Malonda mu nyanja ya India pa nyengo iyo Madagascar yika sumbikizgikanga pakudanga yikadangizgika na ngalaŵa za ku Indonesia nga nthe ngalaŵa ya [[:en:Borobudur_ship|Borobudur]] na [[:en:K'un-lun_po|K'un-lun po]] [[Mitundu:Mbili ya Madagascar]] [[Mitundu:Mbili]] ov7ijuh9eibgctel6n5g4qjvynpz3rv 0 34983 124382 123630 2026-11-10T20:12:59Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124382 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Legal_Systems_-_Global.svg|thumb|Ndondomeko za dango za caro cose capasi. Vyaro vya Dango la Malemba vili na mtundu wa buluu wakutuŵa.]] '''Dango la Malemba''' (mu Cingelezi ''civil law'') ni ndondomeko ya dango iyo muzu wake uli mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo yikalembeka pamoza mwakukwana na kuthandazgika kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, comene kwizira mu Malemba gha Napoleon gha France (1804) na ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' ya Germany (1900).<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |title=Introduction to Civil Law Legal Systems |last=Carlson |first=Scott |author-link= |date=May 2009 |publisher=INPROL |pages=1, 4 |access-date=2024-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216203600/https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-16 |series= |type=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal Traditions {{!}} Judiciaries Worldwide |url=https://judiciariesworldwide.fjc.gov/legal-traditions |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=judiciariesworldwide.fjc.gov |quote="Civil law predates common law by nearly 1500 years. Its origins can be seen in written laws as early as the fifth century BC in ancient Rome. These laws were meant to be comprehensive and authoritative; they were meant to address every conceivable issue, and the answer derived from a centralized imperial authority. Civil law takes its name from the Corpus Juris Civilis, the first effort to codify all of the Roman law, compiled under the rule of Justinian in the sixth century AD."}}</ref> Kupambana na ndondomeko za [[Dango la Viweruzgo]], izo zikuthemba comene viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zikuthemba malemba gha dango nga ni malo ghakulu agho dango likufumira.<ref name="Civil Law">{{cite web |year=2016 |title=The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions |url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122081109/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |archive-date=2024-11-22 |access-date=2024-12-03 |publisher=Berkeley Law |quote="Common law is generally uncodified. This means that there is no comprehensive compilation of legal rules and statutes. While common law does rely on some scattered statutes, which are legislative decisions, it is largely based on precedent, meaning the judicial decisions that have already been made in similar cases. These precedents are maintained over time through the records of the courts as well as historically documented in collections of case law known as yearbooks and reports. The precedents to be applied in the decision of each new case are determined by the presiding judge."}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |title=Introduction to Civil Law Legal Systems |last=Carlson |first=Scott |author-link= |date=May 2009 |publisher=INPROL |page=6 |access-date=2024-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216203600/https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-16 |series= |type=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2016 |title=The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions |url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122081109/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |archive-date=2024-11-22 |access-date=2024-12-03 |publisher=Berkeley Law |page=1 |quote="Civil Law, in contrast, is codified. Countries with civil law systems have comprehensive, continuously updated legal codes that specify all matters capable of being brought before a court, the applicable procedure, and the appropriate punishment for each offense."}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, Dango la Malemba ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango yakumanyikwa comene pa caro cose capasi, iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro pafupifupi 150.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal system - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116052206/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 16, 2026 |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.cia.gov |quote="Civil Law - the most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately 150 countries."}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba kanandi yikuyaniskika na ndondomeko ya Dango la Viweruzgo, iyo yikafuma mu Ungelezi wa nyengo yapakati. Apo Dango la Malemba lili mu malemba gha dango, Dango la Viweruzgo likufuma ku viweruzgo vya mphara vyambura kulembeka pamoza, ndipo likuwona viweruzgo vya kale vya mphara nga ni vyakulongozgera ivyo vikukakizga.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Husa|first=Jaakko|title=Oxford Handbook Topics in Law |chapter-url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935352-e-26|chapter=The Future of Legal Families|date=2016-05-02|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.013.26|isbn=978-0-19-993535-2}}</ref> Mu mbiri, Dango la Malemba ni maghanoghano na ndondomeko za dango izo zikafuma ku ''Corpus Juris Civilis'', kweni zikakhwaskika comene na malango gha Napoleon, gha Ŵajeremani, gha mpingo, gha ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo, na midawuko ya vigaŵa, kweniso na fundo nga ni dango la kawiro, kulemba malango pamoza, na fundo yakuti dango ni ilo lakuŵikika pera.<ref>Charles Arnold Baker, ''The Companion to British History'', s.v. "Civilian" (London: Routledge, 2001), 308.</ref> Mu maghanoghano, Dango la Malemba likuŵika fundo zikulu, ndipo likupatula malango gha nkhani yeneyiyo na malango gha ndondomeko.<ref>Michel Fromont, ''Grands systèmes de droit étrangers'', 4th edn. (Paris: Dalloz, 2001), 8.</ref> Likuwona viweruzgo vya mphara kuŵa vyaciŵiri, pasi pa malango gha mphala. Dango la Malemba kanandi likwenda pamoza na ndondomeko ya kupenda ya ŵeruzgi, kweni mazgo agha ghakung'anamula cinthu cimoza yayi. Pali kupambana kukulu pakati pa lamulo limoza la mphala na malemba gha dango.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Steiner|first=Eva|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001/oso-9780198790884|title=French Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-879088-4|volume=1|language=en|chapter=Codification|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001}}</ref> Cimanyikwiro cikulu ca ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba ni malemba ghawo gha dango, agho ghali na mazgo ghafupi agho ghakugwira ntchito pa nkhani zinandi, ndipo kanandi ghakuleka kuyowoya za vyakucitika vyapadera.<ref>"The role of legislation is to set, by taking a broad approach, the general propositions of the law, to establish principles which will be fertile in application, and not to get down to the details. . . ." Alain Levasseur, Code Napoleon or Code Portalis?, 43 Tul. L. Rev. 762, 769 (1969).</ref><ref name=":12" /> Vigaŵa vifupi vya malemba gha Dango la Malemba vikuyowoya fundo zikulu, ndipo vikupambana na malango ghanyake gha mphala, agho kanandi ngatali comene na ghakulongosora comene.<ref name=":12" /> == Kulaŵiska Kose == Ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango iyo yathandazgika comene pa caro cose capasi, ndipo yikugwira ntchito mu mitundu yakupambana mu vyaro pafupifupi 150.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100|work=cia.gov|access-date=2010-12-11|archive-date=2017-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Muzu na Vimanyikwiro === Dango la Malemba nyengo zinyake likuchemeka dango la Ŵaroma liphya, dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵajeremani, panji dango la Ulaya. Mazgo ghakuti "civil law" ni kung'anamulika kwa Cilatini ''jus civile'', panji "dango la ŵanthu ŵa caro", ilo likaŵa zina la pamanyuma la ufumu la ndondomeko yake ya dango, kupambana na malango agho ghakalongozganga ŵanthu ŵakupokeka nkhondo (''jus gentium''); ndico cifukwa malemba gha Justinian ghakuchemeka ''Corpus Juris Civilis''. Kweni ŵakugwira ntchito ya Dango la Malemba kale ŵakuchema ndondomeko yawo mu ng'anamulo yikulu kuti ''jus commune''. Likuthemba comene dango la Ŵaroma, ilo panyake likaŵa ndondomeko ya dango yakusuzga comene pambere pa nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano. Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba umo muli malemba gha dango, malo ghakulu agho dango likufumira ni malemba gha dango, kawunjikiro kakunozgeka ka vigaŵa vyakukolerana, ivyo vyanozgeka kuyana na nkhani mu ndondomeko yakumanyikwa.<ref name="Neubauer, David W. 2007, pg.28">Neubauer, David W., and Stephen S. Meinhold''. Judicial Process: Law, Courts, and Politics in the United States''. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, p. 28.</ref><ref>"Glossary of Legal Terms", ''12th District Court – Jackson, County, MI'', retrieved on 12 June 2009: [https://web.archive.org/web/20061024211358/http://www.d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm]</ref> Malemba ghakulongosora fundo za dango, wanangwa, na vyakwenelera, na umo ndondomeko zikulu za dango zikugwilira ntchito. Cilato ca kulemba malango pamoza ni kupeleka ku ŵanthu wose ŵa caro kawunjikiro kakulembeka ka malango agho ghakuŵakhwaska na agho ŵeruzgi ŵakwenera kulondezga. Malemba gha dango ni malango agho ghapangika na mphala, nanga ni kuti kanandi ngatali comene kuluska malango ghanyake. M'malo mwa kuŵa kawunjikiro ka malango gha mphala panji ka viweruzgo, malemba ghakuŵika fundo zikulu nga ni malango gha dango.<ref name="Neubauer, David W. 2007, pg.28" /> Apo viweruzgo vya mphara zapacanya comene vya vyaro vya Cifulenci kanandi nvifupi, ndipo vilije malongosoro, mu Ulaya ya Ŵajeremani mphara zapacanya comene zikulemba maghanoghano ghatali, ghakukhozgeka na malongosoro gha dango.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Viweruzgo vinandi vyakuyana, nangauli nvyakulongozgera yayi, vikupanga ''jurisprudence constante''.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Nangauli mu Dango la Malemba ŵakuthemba comene viweruzgo vya mphara yayi, ŵakupanga maghanoghano ghanandi comene gha dango agho ghakulembeka.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Kweni ici kanandi cikulaŵilirika yayi, cifukwa palije lamulo lakuti mlandu uliwose ulembeke panji upharazgike, kupatula ku mawupu gha caro na mphara za malango ghakulu gha caro.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Kupatula mphara zapacanya comene, kupharazga kose kwa maghanoghano gha dango nkhwambura kuzomerezgeka na ulongozgi panji nkhwa malonda.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=59}} === Magulu Ghacoko === Ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zingagaŵika kuŵa: * izo dango la Ŵaroma likucali kugwira ntchito, kweni palije kuyezga kupanga malemba gha Dango la Malemba: Andorra na San Marino * izo zili na ndondomeko zakusazganika zambura kulembeka pamoza, umo Dango la Malemba ni kasupe wa ŵasambiri, kweni Dango la Viweruzgo nalo likukhwaska comene: Scotland na vyaro vya dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka na Guyana) * izo zili na ndondomeko zakusazganika zakulembeka pamoza, umo Dango la Malemba ndilo dango la pasi, kweni malango gha ulongozgi ghakhwaskika comene na Dango la Viweruzgo: Puerto Rico, Philippines, Quebec na Louisiana * ndondomeko za dango za Scandinavia, izo nza kusazganika cifukwa dango lawo la pasi ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba na malango gha midawuko gha Scandinavia, ndipo zalembeka pamoza pacoko. Nga ni nthena, malango gha Virwa vya Channel (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) ghakusazga malango gha midawuko gha Ŵanormani na Dango la Malemba la France. * izo zili na malemba ghakukwana agho ghakujumpha malemba ghamoza gha Dango la Malemba, nga ni France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japani, Chile, Mexico, Russia, na Spain: gulu ili laumaliro ndilo kanandi likuwonekera kuŵa ciyelezgero ca ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, ndipo likuyowoyeka mu nkhani iyi yose. === Malemba gha Dango la Malemba Ghakumanyikwa === Ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa ca malemba gha Dango la Malemba ni Malemba gha Napoleon (1804), agho ghakathyika zina la fumu yikulu ya France Napoleon. Malemba gha Napoleon ghali na vigaŵa vitatu: * dango la ŵanthu * dango la vyuma, na * dango la malonda. Malemba ghanyake ghakumanyikwa gha Dango la Malemba ni Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Germany (''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' panji BGB), agho ghakamba kugwira ntchito mu ufumu wa Germany mu 1900.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=German Civil Code {{!}} German law code|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/German-Civil-Code|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> Malemba gha Germany ghakhwaska comene, ndipo ghakovwira kupanga malemba gha Dango la Malemba mu vyaro nga ni Japani, Korea ya Kumwera na Switzerland (1907). Ghakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vinkhondi:<ref name=":0" /> * Cigaŵa ca Pose, ico cikulongosora ng'anamulo na maghanoghano, nga ni wanangwa wa munthu na kuŵa munthu pa dango. * Vyakwenera kucita, kusazgapo maghanoghano gha ngongoli, kugulika, na phangano; * Vinthu (dango la vyuma), kusazgapo vyuma vyambura kusamika na vyakusamika; * Ubale wa pa nyumba (dango la mbumba); na * Vyakuhara (dango la vyuma vya munthu wakufwa). == Mbiri == Dango la Malemba likuthemba comene dango la Ŵaroma la kale (mumuwilo wa Khristu 1–250), comene dango la Justinian (mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 mumuwilo wa Khristu), ndipo likakura so mu nyengo yapakati pasi pa dango la mpingo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0859206.html |title=Roman Law and Its Influence |publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=2011-08-18}}</ref> Fundo za malemba gha Justinian zikapeleka ciyelezgero cakunozgeka ca mapangano, malango gha ndondomeko, dango la mbumba, mapangano gha vyakuhara, na ndondomeko ya malango ghakulu ya ufumu yankhongono.<ref>Kenneth Pennington, "Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages", ''Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide'', edd. F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of America, 1996), 254–266; [html], available at {{cite web |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/law508/histlaw.htm |title=Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages |access-date=2011-08-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927014718/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/histlaw.htm |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}, retrieved 27 August 2011.</ref> Dango la Ŵaroma likapokereka mwakupambana mu vyaro vyakupambana. Mu vinyake likamba kugwira ntchito lose kwizira mu lamulo la mphala, apo mu vinyake likathandazgika mu ŵanthu kwizira mu ŵakumanya dango na ŵasambiri awo ŵakakhwaskanga comene. Dango la Ŵaroma likalutilira kwambura kuleka mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa mpaka pa kuwa kwake kwaumaliro mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400. Kweni cifukwa ca kukhwaska kwa ufumu uwu pa Ulaya mu nyengo ya kale, na pamanyuma kunjira kunandi na kupoka kwa mazaza gha Ulaya ya Kumanjiliro mu nyengo yapakati, malango ghake ghakagwiliskirika ntchito comene ku Kumanjiliro. Likapokereka dankha mu Ufumu Wakupatulika wa Ŵaroma cigaŵa cifukwa likawonekanga nga ni dango la ufumu, ndipo likathandazgika mu Ulaya comene cifukwa ŵasambiri ŵake ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakumanya dango pera ŵakusambira. Likaŵa maziko gha dango la Scotland, nangauli likasuskananga na dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo la Ŵanormani. Mu Ungelezi, likasambizgikanga ku mayunivesite gha Oxford na Cambridge, kweni likaŵa maziko gha dango la vyakuhara na la nthengwa pera, cifukwa vyose viŵiri vikafuma ku dango la mpingo, na dango la pa nyanja. Ntheura, palije mphepo yimoza mwa ziŵiri za kukhwaska kwa Ŵaroma iyo yikawusa Ulaya yose. Dango la Ŵaroma likaŵa kasupe waciŵiri uwo ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito pera apo midawuko na malango gha malo ghakasoŵanga pa nkhani yinyake. Kweni pamanyuma pa nyengo, nanga ni malango gha malo ghakamba kung'anamulika na kupendeka comene kuyana na dango la Ŵaroma, cifukwa likaŵa nga ni mdawuko wa dango wa Ulaya yose, ndipo ntheura nalo likakhwaska kasupe mukulu wa dango. Pakumalira, ntchito ya ŵasambiri ŵa Dango la Malemba yikapangiska kukura kwa dango lakugaŵana na malemba gha dango, ciyowoyero cakugaŵana ca dango, na nthowa yakugaŵana ya kusambizga na kusambira, vyose vikuchemeka ''jus commune'', panji dango lakugaŵana la Ulaya, ilo likasazga dango la mpingo na dango la Ŵaroma, na pacoko dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo. == Kulemba Pamoza == Cimanyikwiro cikulu cakugaŵana ca Dango la Malemba, kupatula muzu wake mu dango la Ŵaroma, ni kulemba pamoza mwakukwana dango la Ŵaroma ilo likapokereka, ndiko kuti kulisazga mu malemba gha Dango la Malemba. Malemba ghakwamba agho ghakumanyikwa ni Malemba gha Hammurabi, agho ghakalembeka mu Babuloni wa kale mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 pambere Khristu. Kweni agha, na malemba ghanandi agho ghakalondezga, ghakaŵa comene mindandanda ya vyakwananga vya ŵanthu na vya cigeŵenga na vilango vyawo. Kulemba pamoza kwa mtundu wa ndondomeko za mazuŵa ghano kukawoneka dankha mu malemba gha Justinian. Malemba gha Ŵajeremani ghakawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600 kuti ghapatule makola dango ilo likagwiranga ntchito pa magulu ghakucindikika gha Ŵajeremani na ŵanthu ŵawo ŵa Ŵaroma. Pasi pa dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo, mabuku ghanandi gha midawuko ghakawunjikika, dankha pasi pa ufumu wa Ŵanormani (''Très ancien coutumier'', 1200–1245), pamanyuma kunyake, kuti ghalembe midawuko ya malo, viweruzgo vya mphara, na fundo za dango izo zikuvikhozga. Mabuku agha ghakapangiskika na ŵafumu awo ŵakaŵanga ŵeruzgi mu mphara za malo ghawo, kuti ŵajimanyiske ndondomeko ya mphara. Kugwiliskira ntchito mabuku gha midawuko gha misumba yakukhwaska kukathandazgika luŵiro mu vigaŵa vikulu. Kuyana na ici, ŵafumu ŵanyake ŵakakhozga maufumu ghawo mwa kuyezga kuwunjika mabuku gha midawuko agho ghangaŵa dango la caro cawo, nga ni apo Charles VII wa France mu 1454 wakapangiska buku lakuzomerezgeka la midawuko la dango la ufumu. Viyelezgero viŵiri vyakumanyikwa ni ''Coutume de Paris'' (lakulembeka 1510; lakunozgeka so 1580), ilo likaŵa maziko gha Malemba gha Napoleon, na ''Sachsenspiegel'' (pafupifupi 1220) la vigaŵa vya mabishopu ŵa Magdeburg na Halberstadt, ilo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito ku kumpoto kwa Germany, Poland, na Vyaro vya Pasi. Ghanoghano la kulemba malango pamoza likakura so mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1700, nga ni kulongora kwa dango la kawiro na maghanoghano gha Nyengo ya Ungweru wa Vinjeru. Maghanoghano gha ndyali gha nyengo iyo ghakalongoreka mu ulongozgi wa ŵanthu, kuvikilira vyuma, na kuwusa kwa dango. Maghanoghano agha ghakakhumbanga dango lakusimikizgika; dango lakulembeka na lakuyana pose. Ntheura, kusazganika kwa dango la Ŵaroma na malango gha midawuko na gha malo kukapeleka malo ku kulemba malango pamoza. Kweniso, ghanoghano la caro ca mtundu umoza likang'anamulanga dango lakulembeka ilo lingagwira ntchito mu caro ico. Pakaŵa so kususka kulemba malango pamoza. Awo ŵakakhozganga ŵakawonanga kuti kukupeleka kusimikizgika, umoza, na kulemba dango mwakunozgeka; kweni ŵakususka ŵakayowoyanga kuti kulemba pamoza kungapangiska dango kuŵa lakukhwima, lambura kusintha. Pakumalira, nangauli pakaŵa kususka, kulemba pamoza malango gha ŵanthu paŵekha gha Ulaya kukalutilira. Kulemba pamoza kukamalizgika na Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), France (1804), na Austria (1811). Malemba gha France ghakatoleka ku vigaŵa ivyo Napoleon wakapoka, ndipo pamanyuma ghakazomerezgeka na kusintha mu Poland (1806/1825), Louisiana (1807), Vaud mu Switzerland (1819), Netherlands (1838), Serbia (1844), Italy na Romania (1865), Portugal (1867) na Spain (1888). Germany (1900) na Switzerland (1912) vikazomerezga malemba ghawo. Malemba agha nagho ghakatoleka ku vyaro vya ŵakoloni na vyaro vinandi mwa ivi. Malemba gha Switzerland ghakazomerezgeka mu Brazil (1916) na Turkey (1926). Louisiana ndiyo cigaŵa cekha ca United States ico dango lake la ŵanthu paŵekha likuthemba comene malemba gha France na Spain, m'malo mwa Dango la Viweruzgo la Ungelezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8/29 |title=How the Code Napoleon makes Louisiana law different |publisher=LA-Legal |access-date=2006-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031041737/http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8%2F29 |archive-date=2006-10-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mu Louisiana, dango la ŵanthu paŵekha likalembeka pamoza mu Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Louisiana. Dango la Louisiana la mazuŵa ghano layana comene na dango la Amerika, comene mu dango la ulongozgi, ndondomeko ya mphara, na kuzomerezga Malemba gha Malonda Ghakuyana Pose (kupatula Cigaŵa 2) na nthowa zinyake za dango za Dango la Viweruzgo la Amerika.<ref>{{cite web|title=Louisiana – Judicial system |publisher=City-data.com |access-date=2011-08-18}}</ref> Nadi, kusintha kuliko kose, kwa ŵanthu paŵekha panji kwa ulongozgi, kwafuma ku Dango la Viweruzgo. Mu maghanoghano, malemba agho ghakupangika mu Dango la Malemba ghakwenera kujumpha kuwunjika kwa malango ghakupambana, ndipo m'malo mwake ghakwenera kulongosora dango mu lamulo limoza lakukolerana na lakukwana, nyengo zinyake kwiziska kusintha kukulu panji kwamba so luphya.<ref name=":12"/> Pa ici, malemba gha Dango la Malemba ghakuyana comene na malemba gha ku United States nga ni ''Restatements of the Law'', Malemba gha Malonda Ghakuyana Pose (agho ghakatora maghanoghano gha Ulaya), na Malemba gha Vilango gha Ciyelezgero. Mu United States, vigaŵa vya caro vikamba kulemba malango pamoza na Malemba gha Field gha New York mu 1850 (agho ghakaŵika malango gha ndondomeko ya milandu ya ŵanthu ndipo ghakafuma ku malemba gha Ulaya na Louisiana).<ref>Clark, David S. (2019), Reimann, Mathias; Zimmermann, Reinhard (eds.), "Development of Comparative Law in the United States", ''The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law'', Oxford University Press, pp. 147–180, {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198810230.013.6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-881023-0}}</ref> Viyelezgero vinyake ni malemba gha California (1872), malango ghakunozgeka gha ulongozgi wa caro (1874) na Malemba gha United States gha mazuŵa ghano (1926), agho ghakuyana comene na kawunjikiro ka malango gha mphala kuluska malongosoro ghakunozgeka gha dango nga ni malemba gha Dango la Malemba. Pa ndondomeko ya dango ya Japani, kwamba mu Nyengo ya Meiji, ndondomeko za dango za Ulaya, comene Dango la Malemba la Germany na France, zikaŵa viyelezgero vikulu. Mu China, Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Germany ghakanjizgika mu vyaka vya pamanyuma vya ufumu wa Qing, mwa kulondezga Japani. Kweniso, ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la Republic of China, ilo likucali kugwira ntchito mu Taiwan. Taiwan na Korea, ivyo kale vikaŵa vyaro vya ŵakoloni ŵa Japani, vyakhwaskika comene na ndondomeko ya dango ya Japani.<ref>Wang, Tay-Sheng (2014), Haley, O. John; Takenaka, Toshiko (eds.) 4.1 "The influence of Japanese law on Taiwan law," ''Legal Innovations in Asia'', pp. 233-242 {{ISBN|9781783472789}}</ref> == Kuyaniska na Ndondomeko Zinyake za Dango == Dango la Malemba kanandi likuyaniskika na Dango la Viweruzgo la Ungelezi, ilo likakhwaska midawuko ya dango ya vyaro vya Cingelezi. Kupambana kukulu pakati pa ndondomeko ziŵiri izi ni ntchito ya viweruzgo vyakulembeka na vyakulongozgera nga ni kasupe wa dango (cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vikulu vya ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo).<ref name="BlacksLawDict">{{cite book|title=Black's Law Dictionary – Common law|date=2014|edition=10th|page=334}}</ref> Apo ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo zikupeleka uzito ukulu ku viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, ŵeruzgi ŵa Dango la Malemba ŵakuvipeleka uzito ucoko.<ref>It is characteristic of the common law to adopt an approach based "on precedent, and on the development of the law incrementally and by analogy with established authorities". {{cite web |title=Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police [2018] UKSC 4 |url=https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2018/4.html |website=BAILII |at=para. 21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garoupa |first1=Nuno |last2=Liguerre |first2=Carlos Gomez |title=The Syndrome of the Efficiency of the Common Law |journal=Boston University International Law Journal |date=2011 |volume=29 |page=298}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, Malemba gha Napoleon ghakakanizga mwakulunjika ŵeruzgi ŵa France kuyowoya fundo zikulu za dango.<ref>"5. The judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and legislative determination, on the causes submitted to them." [http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/book1/c_preliminary.html ''Code of Napoleon'', Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5]</ref> Mu mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba la France mulije fundo ya ''stare decisis''. Mu France muli malemba ghawemi gha milandu agho ghakupharazgika nyengo zose, kweni ici nchakucitika nyengo zose yayi mu malo ghanandi gha Dango la Malemba. Mu Afilika ya ŵakoloni ya Cifulenci mukaŵavya malemba gha milandu, ndipo ico cikumanyikwa pacoko pa milandu ya kale iyo cikufuma ku magazini.<ref>{{cite journal |title=An Introduction to Law in French-Speaking Africa |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=1971 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00025064 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/an-introduction-to-law-in-frenchspeaking-africa-volume-i-africa-south-of-the-sahara-by-jeswald-w-salacuse-charlottesville-the-michie-company-1969-pp-xxii-616-20/8AEEC417BAA2D98EC42D82379D47403D|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Malemba gha Dango la Malemba ghakwenera kusinthika nyengo zose cifukwa viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vya mphara vikukakizga yayi, na cifukwa mphara zilije mazaza gha kucita kanthu usange palije lamulo la mphala.<ref>''The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions'', Robbins Collection, University of California at Berkeley.[https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422031516/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> Mu malo ghanyake gha Dango la Malemba, mphara zilije mazaza gha kuwuska malango gha mphala.<ref>[https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=4697&context=lalrev Judicial Discretion in the Civil Law] In the common talk among lawyers, it has even been said that in the Civil Law system legislators are almost like gods, and judges not even men."</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa Soviet Union, Mphala ya Armenia, na wovwiri ukulu wa USAID, yikazomerezga malemba ghaphya gha dango. Malemba ghanyake ghakiziska masuzgo agho mphara zikaŵavya mazaza gha kughaweruzga kuyana na fundo za Dango la Viweruzgo la mapangano; zikamanyanga kugwiliskira ntchito malemba nga umo ghalembekera pera.<ref name=usaid>"In some cases, according to some expert observers, important principles were not included in the legislation because the drafters, not having any experience in commerce, could not appreciate the importance of the principles and the advisors could not convince them of the necessity of certain principles. For example, under legislation adopted, boards of directors can be held criminally and civilly liable if the corporation does not turn a profit, not exactly a great incentive to risk-taking. It illustrates the difficulty of changing societal norms. At the same time, in deciding commercial cases, the judges are not to examine the prevailing practices regarding what agreements mean within the trade at the time the contract was entered into, a fundamental concept in western commerce and judicial practice [https://web.archive.org/web/20061001154237/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADC206.pdf Rule of Law Assistance Impact Assessment: Armenia]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| title = The Advantages of the Civil Law Judicial Design as the Model for Emerging Legal Systems |journal=Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies| access-date = 2024-05-10| url = https://ijgls.indiana.edu/volume-11-number-1/the-advantages-of-the-civil-law-judicial-design-as-the-model-for-emerging-legal-systems/}}</ref> Kweni kulemba pamoza nchimanyikwiro ca ndondomeko zose za Dango la Malemba yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba za vyaro vya Nordic zapambana comene na viyelezgero vyawo vya kale vya Ŵaroma na Ŵajeremani. M'malo mwake, vyaro vya Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, na Denmark) pamoza na Finland, Virwa vya Faroe, Greenland, Åland na Iceland vingayowoyeka kuŵa na mtundu wapadera wa "Nordic" wa dango, uwo nchanadi Dango la Malemba yayi, ndiposo ni cigaŵa ca Dango la Viweruzgo ilo likafuma ku Ŵabritoni yayi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sv.uio.no/arena/english/research/publications/arena-publications/workingpapers/working-papers2002/wp02_15.htm|title=Rawls in the Nordic Countries – ARENA Centre for European Studies|author=Andreas Føllesdal|date=20 April 2002}}</ref> Mu kacitiro, viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vikunjira comene mu Dango la Malemba, ndipo vikuwoneka comene mu mphara zapacanya comene za vyaro vinandi.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakuwona Dango la Malemba kuŵa maziko gha dango la socialism ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya comyunizimu, ilo mu ghanoghano ili lingaŵa Dango la Malemba pamoza na maghanoghano gha Marx na Lenin. Nanga ni kuti ni nthena, Dango la Malemba kanandi likaŵa ndondomeko ya dango pambere dango la socialism lindize, ndipo vyaro vinyake vya Ulaya ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa vikawelera ku Dango la Malemba la pambere pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa socialism, apo vinyake vikalutilira kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko ya dango la socialism. == Magulu == Mazgo ghakuti ''civil law'' ghakufuma ku kasambiro ka dango ka Ungelezi, ndipo ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya Cingelezi kuwunjika pamoza ndondomeko zose za dango za mdawuko wa ''jus commune''. Kweni ŵakuyaniska madango na ŵa vyacuma awo ŵakukhozga ghanoghano la muzu wa madango ŵakukhumba kugaŵa malo gha Dango la Malemba mu magulu ghakupambana: * Gha Napoleon: France, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Chile, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Brazil, Mexico, vyaro vinyake vya Cipwitikizi, Macau, vigaŵa vya kale vya ŵakoloni ŵa Ŵapwitikizi mu India, Malta, Romania, na vyaro vinandi vya Ŵaarabu (mwaciyelezgero Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Lebanon) para dango la Cisilamu likugwiliskirika ntchito yayi. Vyaro vya kale vya ŵakoloni vikusazgapo Quebec (Canada) na Louisiana (U.S.). ** Malemba gha Chile ni ntchito ya Andrés Bello, mukumanya dango na mupangi wa malango. Kale, Malemba gha Napoleon ghakawonekanga nga ni kasupe mukulu wa Malemba gha Chile. Kweni ici nchaunenesko pa dango la vyakwenera kucita na dango la vinthu pera, apo nchaunenesko yayi pa nkhani za mbumba na vyakuhara. Malemba agha ghakazomerezgeka ghose na Ecuador, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Colombia, Panama na Venezuela (kwa caka cimoza pera). Kuyana na ŵakumanya ŵanyake ŵa Amerika ya Ŵalatini ŵa nyengo iyo, ndiyo ntchito yikulu comene ya dango ya Amerika ya Ŵalatini. ** Cameroon, caro ca kale ca ŵakoloni ŵa France na Ufumu Ubanyi, cili na madango ghaŵiri ghakusazganika. * Gha Ŵajeremani: Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi, Czech Republic, Russia, Lithuania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bosnia na Herzegovina, Greece, Ukraine, Turkey, Japani, Korea ya Kumwera, Taiwan na Thailand ** South Africa, caro ca kale ca ŵakoloni ŵa Netherlands na pamanyuma Ufumu Ubanyi, cikakhwaskika comene na ŵakoloni ŵa Ŵangelezi, ntheura cili na madango ghaŵiri ghakusazganika. * Gha Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, na Sweden * Gha China (kupatula Hong Kong na Macau) ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba na dango la socialism. Sono, malango gha China ghakutora vimanyikwiro vinyake vya Dango la Viweruzgo, comene ivyo vikukhwaska malonda na vyakucitika vya pakati pa vyaro. Hong Kong, nangauli ni cigaŵa ca China, yikugwiliskira ntchito Dango la Viweruzgo. Dango Likulu la Hong Kong likusimikizga kugwiliskirika ntchito kwa Dango la Viweruzgo mu Hong Kong. Macau yikucali na ndondomeko ya dango ya Cipwitikizi ya Dango la Malemba. Kweni ndondomeko zinyake za dango izi zikuyowoyeka makola kuŵa zakusazganika: * Kufuma ku Napoleon kuya ku Ŵajeremani: Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Italy gha 1942 ghakatora malo gha malemba gha 1865, ndipo ghakanjizga vigaŵa vya Ŵajeremani cifukwa ca kukolerana kwawo mu Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose. Nthowa iyi yalondezgeka na vyaro vinyake, kusazgapo Portugal (1966), Netherlands (1992), Brazil (2002) na Argentina (2014). Vinandi mwa ivi vili na kusintha uko kukanjizgika na malango gha Italy, kusazgapo kusazga pamoza malemba gha Dango la Malemba na gha malonda. * Kufuma ku Ŵajeremani kuya ku Napoleon: Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Switzerland ghakuwonekera kukhwaskika comene na malemba gha Germany na pacoko na gha France. Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Turkey ni malemba gha Switzerland ghakusintha pacoko, agho ghakazomerezgeka mu 1926 mu ulongozgi wa Mustafa Kemal Atatürk nga ni cigaŵa ca kusintha kwa ulongozgi. * Ndondomeko zakusazganika: Ndondomeko zinyake za Dango la Malemba zikunjira makola mu magulu agha yayi. Dango la Poland likakura nga ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba la France na la Germany mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Pamanyuma pa kuwungana so kwa Poland mu 1918, ndondomeko zinkhondi za dango zikasazgika kuŵa yimoza. Nga ni nthena, dango la Netherlands, nangauli pakwamba likalembeka pamoza mu mdawuko wa Napoleon, lasinthika comene na mdawuko wa Ŵadachi wa dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi. Mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba wa Scotland ukatora comene ku dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi. Dango la Switzerland likugaŵika nga ni la Ŵajeremani, kweni lakhwaskika comene na mdawuko wa Napoleon, ndipo lili na vigaŵa vinyake vya malo agho. Dango la Quebec, ilo dango lake la ŵanthu paŵekha nalo likafuma ku Dango la Malemba la France, lakura mwakuyana, ndipo lasintha nga ni Louisiana kukolerana na dango la ulongozgi na ndondomeko ya mphara ya Dango la Viweruzgo la Canada. Kweni dango la ŵanthu paŵekha la Quebec lasintha comene kufuma ku makasupe gha Dango la Malemba. Pacoko, vigaŵa vinyake ivyo kale vikaŵa vya Ufumu wa Spain, nga ni Texas na California, navyo vyasunga vigaŵa vinyake vya Dango la Malemba la Spain, mwaciyelezgero vyuma vyakugaŵana vya pa nthengwa. Ndondomeko ya dango ya Puerto Rico yikuyana na ya Louisiana: malemba gha Dango la Malemba agho kung'anamulika kwake kukuthemba Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo. Cifukwa Malemba gha Puerto Rico ghakuthemba Malemba gha Spain gha 1889, viweruzgo vyathemba comene kusintha kwa Dango la Viweruzgo cifukwa malemba ngakale. Vyaro vinyake vya Cisilamu vili na ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba izo zili na vigaŵa vya dango la Cisilamu.<ref>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565815/Civil_Law.html Civil Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028055844/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565815/Civil_Law.html |date=2009-10-28 }}". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Egypt gha 1949, agho ghakucali kugwira ntchito mu Egypt na ndigho maziko gha Dango la Malemba mu vyaro vinandi vya Ŵaarabu, ghakuthemba Malemba gha Napoleon, kweni mulembi wake mukulu Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri wakayezga kusazgamo fundo za dango la Cisilamu cifukwa ca vyakucitika vyapadera vya ŵanthu ŵa Egypt. Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Japani ghakuwonekera kuŵa kusazganika: pafupifupi magaŵa 60 pa 100 kufuma ku malemba gha Germany, pafupifupi 30 pa 100 kufuma ku gha France, 8 pa 100 kufuma ku malango gha midawuko gha Japani, na 2 pa 100 kufuma ku dango la Ungelezi.<ref>和仁陽「岡松参太郎 – 法比較と学理との未完の綜合 – 」「法学教室」No.183 {{in lang|ja}} p. 79</ref> == Vyaro Ivyo Vili na Dango la Malemba == Vyaro vinyake umo Dango la Malemba likugwiliskirika ntchito ni:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.lsu.edu/clo/civil-law-online/what-is-the-civil-law/|title=What is the Civil Law? &#124; LSU Law – Civil Law Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116052206/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 16, 2026|title=Legal system - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> * Ulaya (kupatula Andorra, kusazgapo Armenia, Azerbaijan, na Georgia) * Asiya ya Kumafumiro, Asiya Yapakati, na Vuma Lapakati (nga ni China, Indonesia, Japani, Kyrgyzstan, na Turkey) * Amerika Yapakati na ya Kumwera (kupatula Guyana, Belize, Cuba na Virwa vya Falkland) * Afilika ya Kumpoto, Afilika ya Cipwitikizi, na Afilika ya Cifulenci (nga ni Egypt, Angola, na Cote d'Ivoire) === Colombia === Mu Colombia, ndondomeko ya dango yikulondezga mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba, umo malango gha mphala ndigho kasupe mukulu wa mazaza gha dango. Ndondomeko iyi yikuthemba Malango Ghakulu gha Ndyali gha 1991, agho ghakuŵika kuwusa kwa Malango Ghakulu na fundo ya kuwusa kwa dango.<ref>{{cite web |title=Political Constitution of Colombia (1991) |url=https://www.constitucioncolombia.com |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Malango gha mphala, comene malemba, ghakugwira ntchito yikulu, kusazgapo Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Colombia na Malemba Ghakulu gha Ndondomeko, agho ghakulongozga wanangwa na ndondomeko za mphara.<ref>{{cite web |title=Código Civil Colombiano |url=https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=39535 |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Función Pública}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Código General del Proceso |url=https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=74174 |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Función Pública}}</ref> Pasi pa dango la Colombia, ŵeruzgi ŵakulongozgeka comene na Malango Ghakulu na malango gha mphala nga ni makasupe ghakulu gha mazaza gha dango. Kweni viweruzgo vya kale, viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, na maghanoghano gha ŵasambiri gha dango vikugwira ntchito nga ni vyakovwira pa kung'anamula na kugwiliskira ntchito malango, nga umo Cigaŵa 230 ca Malango Ghakulu cikuyowoyera na umo Mphara ya Malango Ghakulu yikucing'anamulira.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Mu cheruzgo cake cakuzirwa C-836/01, Mphara ya Malango Ghakulu yikalongosora kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakukakika na Malango Ghakulu na dango nga ni makasupe ghakulu, kweni ŵakwenera so kusimikizga kuti viweruzgo vikuyana mwa kulaŵiska viweruzgo vya kale. Mphara yikakhozga kuti kuyana kwa ŵanthu pa ntchito ya mphara kukukhumba kuti milandu yakuyana yiweruzgike mwakuyana, ndipo kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakwenera kulaŵiska mwakulunjika viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vyakukhwaska.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Mphara yikayowoya so kuti kuleka kulondezga viweruzgo vya kale kukuzomerezgeka pera usange kwalongosoreka makola na mazgo ghakuwonekera na ghakupenda makola, ndipo ici cikukhozga ntchito ya viweruzgo vyakulongozgera mu ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba kwambura kutora malo gha malango gha mphala nga ni kasupe mukulu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === * Beaulac, Stéphane & Jean-François Gaudreault-DesBiens. ''Common law and civil law: a comparative primer''. Montreal: Thémis, 2017. * De Vries, Henry P., George A. Schneider, & René David. ''Civil law and the Anglo-American lawyer: a case-illustrated introduction to civil law institutions and method''. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceania Publications, 1975. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Carozza, Paolo G., & Colin B. Picker. ''Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2015. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Carozza, Paolo G., & Colin B. Picker. ''Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases on Western Law'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2014. * Glenn, H. Patrick. ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 (1st edn 2000). * Hamza, Gábor. ''Origine e sviluppo degli ordinamenti giusprivatistici moderni in base alla tradizione del diritto romano''. Santiago de Compostela: Andavira, 2013. * Jansen, Nils. ''The development and making of legal doctrine''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. * Kischel, Uwe. ''Comparative Law''. Trans. Andrew Hammel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. * Lundmark, Thomas W. ''Charting the Divide Between Common and Civil Law''. NY: Oxford University Press, 2012. * {{cite book | title= Romance Legal Family | last= Lydorf | first= Claudia. | year= 2011| publisher=Institute of European History | location = Mainz | url= http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060604 }} * MacQueen, Hector L. "[http://www.ejcl.org/44/art44-1.html Scots Law and the Road to the New Ius Commune]." ''Electronic Journal of Comparative Law'' 4, no.&nbsp;4 (December 2000). * Moreno Navarrete, M. A. [https://medium.com/@mmnavarrete/the-concept-of-civil-law-historical-dimension-96db20b74da0 ''The Concept of Civil Law. Historical Dimension''.] Revista de Derecho Actual, vol. III, 2017. * John Henry Merryman & Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo. ''The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America'', 4th edn. Palo Alto, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 2018. * Moustaira, Elina N. ''Comparative Law: University Courses'' {{in lang|el}}, Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, {{ISBN|960-15-1267-5}} * {{cite book | title= Accidental Tourist on the New Frontier: An Introductory Guide to Global Legal Research | last= Reynolds | first= Thomas H. | chapter= Introduction to Foreign and Comparative Law | year= 1998 | pages= 47–86 | publisher= F.B. Rothman | editor1-first= Jeanne | editor1-last= Rehberg | editor2-first= Radu D | editor2-last= Popa | isbn= 978-0-837-71075-4 | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&pg=PA57 }} * Arthur T. von Mehren & James Gordley. ''The civil law system'', 2nd edn. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1977. * Zimmermann, Reinhard. ''Roman law, contemporary law, European law: The civilian tradition today''. NY: Oxford University Press, 2001. oiz2c4pzygq9x1gp69gq3varqxpvu6a 124425 124382 2026-11-10T23:43:58Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124425 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Legal_Systems_-_Global.svg|thumb|Ndondomeko za dango za caro cose capasi. Vyaro vya Dango la Malemba vili na mtundu wa buluu wakutuŵa.]] '''Dango la Malemba''' (mu Cingelezi ''civil law'') ni ndondomeko ya dango iyo muzu wake uli mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo yikalembeka pamoza mwakukwana na kuthandazgika kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, comene kwizira mu Malemba gha Napoleon gha France (1804) na ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' ya Germany (1900).<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |title=Introduction to Civil Law Legal Systems |last=Carlson |first=Scott |author-link= |date=May 2009 |publisher=INPROL |pages=1, 4 |access-date=2024-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216203600/https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-16 |series= |type=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal Traditions {{!}} Judiciaries Worldwide |url=https://judiciariesworldwide.fjc.gov/legal-traditions |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=judiciariesworldwide.fjc.gov |quote="Civil law predates common law by nearly 1500 years. Its origins can be seen in written laws as early as the fifth century BC in ancient Rome. These laws were meant to be comprehensive and authoritative; they were meant to address every conceivable issue, and the answer derived from a centralized imperial authority. Civil law takes its name from the Corpus Juris Civilis, the first effort to codify all of the Roman law, compiled under the rule of Justinian in the sixth century AD."}}</ref> Kupambana na ndondomeko za [[Dango la Viweruzgo]], izo zikuthemba comene viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zikuthemba malemba gha dango nga ni malo ghakulu agho dango likufumira.<ref name="Civil Law">{{cite web |year=2016 |title=The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions |url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122081109/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |archive-date=2024-11-22 |access-date=2024-12-03 |publisher=Berkeley Law |quote="Common law is generally uncodified. This means that there is no comprehensive compilation of legal rules and statutes. While common law does rely on some scattered statutes, which are legislative decisions, it is largely based on precedent, meaning the judicial decisions that have already been made in similar cases. These precedents are maintained over time through the records of the courts as well as historically documented in collections of case law known as yearbooks and reports. The precedents to be applied in the decision of each new case are determined by the presiding judge."}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |title=Introduction to Civil Law Legal Systems |last=Carlson |first=Scott |author-link= |date=May 2009 |publisher=INPROL |page=6 |access-date=2024-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216203600/https://www.inprol.org/system/files_force/publications/2011/cr09002.pdf |archive-date=2024-02-16 |series= |type=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2016 |title=The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions |url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122081109/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.pdf |archive-date=2024-11-22 |access-date=2024-12-03 |publisher=Berkeley Law |page=1 |quote="Civil Law, in contrast, is codified. Countries with civil law systems have comprehensive, continuously updated legal codes that specify all matters capable of being brought before a court, the applicable procedure, and the appropriate punishment for each offense."}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, Dango la Malemba ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango yakumanyikwa comene pa caro cose capasi, iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro pafupifupi 150.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal system - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116052206/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 16, 2026 |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.cia.gov |quote="Civil Law - the most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately 150 countries."}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba kanandi yikuyaniskika na ndondomeko ya Dango la Viweruzgo, iyo yikafuma mu Ungelezi wa nyengo yapakati. Apo Dango la Malemba lili mu malemba gha dango, Dango la Viweruzgo likufuma ku viweruzgo vya mphara vyambura kulembeka pamoza, ndipo likuwona viweruzgo vya kale vya mphara nga ni vyakulongozgera ivyo vikukakizga.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Husa|first=Jaakko|title=Oxford Handbook Topics in Law |chapter-url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935352-e-26|chapter=The Future of Legal Families|date=2016-05-02|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.013.26|isbn=978-0-19-993535-2}}</ref> Mu mbiri, Dango la Malemba ni maghanoghano na ndondomeko za dango izo zikafuma ku ''Corpus Juris Civilis'', kweni zikakhwaskika comene na malango gha Napoleon, gha Ŵajeremani, gha mpingo, gha ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo, na midawuko ya vigaŵa, kweniso na fundo nga ni dango la kawiro, kulemba malango pamoza, na fundo yakuti dango ni ilo lakuŵikika pera.<ref>Charles Arnold Baker, ''The Companion to British History'', s.v. "Civilian" (London: Routledge, 2001), 308.</ref> Mu maghanoghano, Dango la Malemba likuŵika fundo zikulu, ndipo likupatula malango gha nkhani yeneyiyo na malango gha ndondomeko.<ref>Michel Fromont, ''Grands systèmes de droit étrangers'', 4th edn. (Paris: Dalloz, 2001), 8.</ref> Likuwona viweruzgo vya mphara kuŵa vyaciŵiri, pasi pa malango gha mphala. Dango la Malemba kanandi likwenda pamoza na ndondomeko ya kupenda ya ŵeruzgi, kweni mazgo agha ghakung'anamula cinthu cimoza yayi. Pali kupambana kukulu pakati pa lamulo limoza la mphala na malemba gha dango.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Steiner|first=Eva|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001/oso-9780198790884|title=French Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-879088-4|volume=1|language=en|chapter=Codification|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001}}</ref> Cimanyikwiro cikulu ca ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba ni malemba ghawo gha dango, agho ghali na mazgo ghafupi agho ghakugwira ntchito pa nkhani zinandi, ndipo kanandi ghakuleka kuyowoya za vyakucitika vyapadera.<ref>"The role of legislation is to set, by taking a broad approach, the general propositions of the law, to establish principles which will be fertile in application, and not to get down to the details. . . ." Alain Levasseur, Code Napoleon or Code Portalis?, 43 Tul. L. Rev. 762, 769 (1969).</ref><ref name=":12" /> Vigaŵa vifupi vya malemba gha Dango la Malemba vikuyowoya fundo zikulu, ndipo vikupambana na malango ghanyake gha mphala, agho kanandi ngatali comene na ghakulongosora comene.<ref name=":12" /> == Kulaŵiska Kose == Ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango iyo yathandazgika comene pa caro cose capasi, ndipo yikugwira ntchito mu mitundu yakupambana mu vyaro pafupifupi 150.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100|work=cia.gov|access-date=2010-12-11|archive-date=2017-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Muzu na Vimanyikwiro === Dango la Malemba nyengo zinyake likuchemeka dango la Ŵaroma liphya, dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵajeremani, panji dango la Ulaya. Mazgo ghakuti "civil law" ni kung'anamulika kwa Cilatini ''jus civile'', panji "dango la ŵanthu ŵa caro", ilo likaŵa zina la pamanyuma la ufumu la ndondomeko yake ya dango, kupambana na malango agho ghakalongozganga ŵanthu ŵakupokeka nkhondo (''jus gentium''); ndico cifukwa malemba gha Justinian ghakuchemeka ''Corpus Juris Civilis''. Kweni ŵakugwira ntchito ya Dango la Malemba kale ŵakuchema ndondomeko yawo mu ng'anamulo yikulu kuti ''jus commune''. Likuthemba comene dango la Ŵaroma, ilo panyake likaŵa ndondomeko ya dango yakusuzga comene pambere pa nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano. Mu ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba umo muli malemba gha dango, malo ghakulu agho dango likufumira ni malemba gha dango, kawunjikiro kakunozgeka ka vigaŵa vyakukolerana, ivyo vyanozgeka kuyana na nkhani mu ndondomeko yakumanyikwa.<ref name="Neubauer, David W. 2007, pg.28">Neubauer, David W., and Stephen S. Meinhold''. Judicial Process: Law, Courts, and Politics in the United States''. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, p. 28.</ref><ref>"Glossary of Legal Terms", ''12th District Court – Jackson, County, MI'', retrieved on 12 June 2009: [https://web.archive.org/web/20061024211358/http://www.d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm]</ref> Malemba ghakulongosora fundo za dango, wanangwa, na vyakwenelera, na umo ndondomeko zikulu za dango zikugwilira ntchito. Cilato ca kulemba malango pamoza ni kupeleka ku ŵanthu wose ŵa caro kawunjikiro kakulembeka ka malango agho ghakuŵakhwaska na agho ŵeruzgi ŵakwenera kulondezga. Malemba gha dango ni malango agho ghapangika na mphala, nanga ni kuti kanandi ngatali comene kuluska malango ghanyake. M'malo mwa kuŵa kawunjikiro ka malango gha mphala panji ka viweruzgo, malemba ghakuŵika fundo zikulu nga ni malango gha dango.<ref name="Neubauer, David W. 2007, pg.28" /> Apo viweruzgo vya mphara zapacanya comene vya vyaro vya Cifulenci kanandi nvifupi, ndipo vilije malongosoro, mu Ulaya ya Ŵajeremani mphara zapacanya comene zikulemba maghanoghano ghatali, ghakukhozgeka na malongosoro gha dango.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Viweruzgo vinandi vyakuyana, nangauli nvyakulongozgera yayi, vikupanga ''jurisprudence constante''.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Nangauli mu Dango la Malemba ŵakuthemba comene viweruzgo vya mphara yayi, ŵakupanga maghanoghano ghanandi comene gha dango agho ghakulembeka.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Kweni ici kanandi cikulaŵilirika yayi, cifukwa palije lamulo lakuti mlandu uliwose ulembeke panji upharazgike, kupatula ku mawupu gha caro na mphara za malango ghakulu gha caro.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Kupatula mphara zapacanya comene, kupharazga kose kwa maghanoghano gha dango nkhwambura kuzomerezgeka na ulongozgi panji nkhwa malonda.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=59}} === Magulu Ghacoko === Ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba zingagaŵika kuŵa: * izo dango la Ŵaroma likucali kugwira ntchito, kweni palije kuyezga kupanga malemba gha Dango la Malemba: Andorra na San Marino * izo zili na ndondomeko zakusazganika zambura kulembeka pamoza, umo Dango la Malemba ni kasupe wa ŵasambiri, kweni Dango la Viweruzgo nalo likukhwaska comene: Scotland na vyaro vya dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka na Guyana) * izo zili na ndondomeko zakusazganika zakulembeka pamoza, umo Dango la Malemba ndilo dango la pasi, kweni malango gha ulongozgi ghakhwaskika comene na Dango la Viweruzgo: Puerto Rico, Philippines, Quebec na Louisiana * ndondomeko za dango za Scandinavia, izo nza kusazganika cifukwa dango lawo la pasi ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba na malango gha midawuko gha Scandinavia, ndipo zalembeka pamoza pacoko. Nga ni nthena, malango gha Virwa vya Channel (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) ghakusazga malango gha midawuko gha Ŵanormani na Dango la Malemba la France. * izo zili na malemba ghakukwana agho ghakujumpha malemba ghamoza gha Dango la Malemba, nga ni France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japani, Chile, Mexico, Russia, na Spain: gulu ili laumaliro ndilo kanandi likuwonekera kuŵa ciyelezgero ca ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba, ndipo likuyowoyeka mu nkhani iyi yose. === Malemba gha Dango la Malemba Ghakumanyikwa === Ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa ca malemba gha Dango la Malemba ni Malemba gha Napoleon (1804), agho ghakathyika zina la fumu yikulu ya France Napoleon. Malemba gha Napoleon ghali na vigaŵa vitatu: * dango la ŵanthu * dango la vyuma, na * dango la malonda. Malemba ghanyake ghakumanyikwa gha Dango la Malemba ni Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Germany (''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' panji BGB), agho ghakamba kugwira ntchito mu ufumu wa Germany mu 1900.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=German Civil Code {{!}} German law code|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/German-Civil-Code|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> Malemba gha Germany ghakhwaska comene, ndipo ghakovwira kupanga malemba gha Dango la Malemba mu vyaro nga ni Japani, Korea ya Kumwera na Switzerland (1907). Ghakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vinkhondi:<ref name=":0" /> * Cigaŵa ca Pose, ico cikulongosora ng'anamulo na maghanoghano, nga ni wanangwa wa munthu na kuŵa munthu pa dango. * Vyakwenera kucita, kusazgapo maghanoghano gha ngongoli, kugulika, na phangano; * Vinthu (dango la vyuma), kusazgapo vyuma vyambura kusamika na vyakusamika; * Ubale wa pa nyumba (dango la mbumba); na * Vyakuhara (dango la vyuma vya munthu wakufwa). == Mbiri == Dango la Malemba likuthemba comene dango la Ŵaroma la kale (mumuwilo wa Khristu 1–250), comene dango la Justinian (mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 mumuwilo wa Khristu), ndipo likakura so mu nyengo yapakati pasi pa dango la mpingo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0859206.html |title=Roman Law and Its Influence |publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=2011-08-18}}</ref> Fundo za malemba gha Justinian zikapeleka ciyelezgero cakunozgeka ca mapangano, malango gha ndondomeko, dango la mbumba, mapangano gha vyakuhara, na ndondomeko ya malango ghakulu ya ufumu yankhongono.<ref>Kenneth Pennington, "Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages", ''Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide'', edd. F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of America, 1996), 254–266; [html], available at {{cite web |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/law508/histlaw.htm |title=Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages |access-date=2011-08-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927014718/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/histlaw.htm |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}, retrieved 27 August 2011.</ref> Dango la Ŵaroma likapokereka mwakupambana mu vyaro vyakupambana. Mu vinyake likamba kugwira ntchito lose kwizira mu lamulo la mphala, apo mu vinyake likathandazgika mu ŵanthu kwizira mu ŵakumanya dango na ŵasambiri awo ŵakakhwaskanga comene. Dango la Ŵaroma likalutilira kwambura kuleka mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa mpaka pa kuwa kwake kwaumaliro mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400. Kweni cifukwa ca kukhwaska kwa ufumu uwu pa Ulaya mu nyengo ya kale, na pamanyuma kunjira kunandi na kupoka kwa mazaza gha Ulaya ya Kumanjiliro mu nyengo yapakati, malango ghake ghakagwiliskirika ntchito comene ku Kumanjiliro. Likapokereka dankha mu Ufumu Wakupatulika wa Ŵaroma cigaŵa cifukwa likawonekanga nga ni dango la ufumu, ndipo likathandazgika mu Ulaya comene cifukwa ŵasambiri ŵake ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakumanya dango pera ŵakusambira. Likaŵa maziko gha dango la Scotland, nangauli likasuskananga na dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo la Ŵanormani. Mu Ungelezi, likasambizgikanga ku mayunivesite gha Oxford na Cambridge, kweni likaŵa maziko gha dango la vyakuhara na la nthengwa pera, cifukwa vyose viŵiri vikafuma ku dango la mpingo, na dango la pa nyanja. Ntheura, palije mphepo yimoza mwa ziŵiri za kukhwaska kwa Ŵaroma iyo yikawusa Ulaya yose. Dango la Ŵaroma likaŵa kasupe waciŵiri uwo ukagwiliskirikanga ntchito pera apo midawuko na malango gha malo ghakasoŵanga pa nkhani yinyake. Kweni pamanyuma pa nyengo, nanga ni malango gha malo ghakamba kung'anamulika na kupendeka comene kuyana na dango la Ŵaroma, cifukwa likaŵa nga ni mdawuko wa dango wa Ulaya yose, ndipo ntheura nalo likakhwaska kasupe mukulu wa dango. Pakumalira, ntchito ya ŵasambiri ŵa Dango la Malemba yikapangiska kukura kwa dango lakugaŵana na malemba gha dango, ciyowoyero cakugaŵana ca dango, na nthowa yakugaŵana ya kusambizga na kusambira, vyose vikuchemeka ''jus commune'', panji dango lakugaŵana la Ulaya, ilo likasazga dango la mpingo na dango la Ŵaroma, na pacoko dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo. == Kulemba Pamoza == Cimanyikwiro cikulu cakugaŵana ca Dango la Malemba, kupatula muzu wake mu dango la Ŵaroma, ni kulemba pamoza mwakukwana dango la Ŵaroma ilo likapokereka, ndiko kuti kulisazga mu malemba gha Dango la Malemba. Malemba ghakwamba agho ghakumanyikwa ni Malemba gha Hammurabi, agho ghakalembeka mu Babuloni wa kale mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 pambere Khristu. Kweni agha, na malemba ghanandi agho ghakalondezga, ghakaŵa comene mindandanda ya vyakwananga vya ŵanthu na vya cigeŵenga na vilango vyawo. Kulemba pamoza kwa mtundu wa ndondomeko za mazuŵa ghano kukawoneka dankha mu malemba gha Justinian. Malemba gha Ŵajeremani ghakawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600 kuti ghapatule makola dango ilo likagwiranga ntchito pa magulu ghakucindikika gha Ŵajeremani na ŵanthu ŵawo ŵa Ŵaroma. Pasi pa dango la ŵafumu na ŵalimi ŵawo, mabuku ghanandi gha midawuko ghakawunjikika, dankha pasi pa ufumu wa Ŵanormani (''Très ancien coutumier'', 1200–1245), pamanyuma kunyake, kuti ghalembe midawuko ya malo, viweruzgo vya mphara, na fundo za dango izo zikuvikhozga. Mabuku agha ghakapangiskika na ŵafumu awo ŵakaŵanga ŵeruzgi mu mphara za malo ghawo, kuti ŵajimanyiske ndondomeko ya mphara. Kugwiliskira ntchito mabuku gha midawuko gha misumba yakukhwaska kukathandazgika luŵiro mu vigaŵa vikulu. Kuyana na ici, ŵafumu ŵanyake ŵakakhozga maufumu ghawo mwa kuyezga kuwunjika mabuku gha midawuko agho ghangaŵa dango la caro cawo, nga ni apo Charles VII wa France mu 1454 wakapangiska buku lakuzomerezgeka la midawuko la dango la ufumu. Viyelezgero viŵiri vyakumanyikwa ni ''Coutume de Paris'' (lakulembeka 1510; lakunozgeka so 1580), ilo likaŵa maziko gha Malemba gha Napoleon, na ''Sachsenspiegel'' (pafupifupi 1220) la vigaŵa vya mabishopu ŵa Magdeburg na Halberstadt, ilo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito ku kumpoto kwa Germany, Poland, na Vyaro vya Pasi. Ghanoghano la kulemba malango pamoza likakura so mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1700, nga ni kulongora kwa dango la kawiro na maghanoghano gha Nyengo ya Ungweru wa Vinjeru. Maghanoghano gha ndyali gha nyengo iyo ghakalongoreka mu ulongozgi wa ŵanthu, kuvikilira vyuma, na kuwusa kwa dango. Maghanoghano agha ghakakhumbanga dango lakusimikizgika; dango lakulembeka na lakuyana pose. Ntheura, kusazganika kwa dango la Ŵaroma na malango gha midawuko na gha malo kukapeleka malo ku kulemba malango pamoza. Kweniso, ghanoghano la caro ca mtundu umoza likang'anamulanga dango lakulembeka ilo lingagwira ntchito mu caro ico. Pakaŵa so kususka kulemba malango pamoza. Awo ŵakakhozganga ŵakawonanga kuti kukupeleka kusimikizgika, umoza, na kulemba dango mwakunozgeka; kweni ŵakususka ŵakayowoyanga kuti kulemba pamoza kungapangiska dango kuŵa lakukhwima, lambura kusintha. Pakumalira, nangauli pakaŵa kususka, kulemba pamoza malango gha ŵanthu paŵekha gha Ulaya kukalutilira. Kulemba pamoza kukamalizgika na Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), France (1804), na Austria (1811). Malemba gha France ghakatoleka ku vigaŵa ivyo Napoleon wakapoka, ndipo pamanyuma ghakazomerezgeka na kusintha mu Poland (1806/1825), Louisiana (1807), Vaud mu Switzerland (1819), Netherlands (1838), Serbia (1844), Italy na Romania (1865), Portugal (1867) na Spain (1888). Germany (1900) na Switzerland (1912) vikazomerezga malemba ghawo. Malemba agha nagho ghakatoleka ku vyaro vya ŵakoloni na vyaro vinandi mwa ivi. Malemba gha Switzerland ghakazomerezgeka mu Brazil (1916) na Turkey (1926). Louisiana ndiyo cigaŵa cekha ca United States ico dango lake la ŵanthu paŵekha likuthemba comene malemba gha France na Spain, m'malo mwa Dango la Viweruzgo la Ungelezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8/29 |title=How the Code Napoleon makes Louisiana law different |publisher=LA-Legal |access-date=2006-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031041737/http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8%2F29 |archive-date=2006-10-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mu Louisiana, dango la ŵanthu paŵekha likalembeka pamoza mu Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Louisiana. Dango la Louisiana la mazuŵa ghano layana comene na dango la Amerika, comene mu dango la ulongozgi, ndondomeko ya mphara, na kuzomerezga Malemba gha Malonda Ghakuyana Pose (kupatula Cigaŵa 2) na nthowa zinyake za dango za Dango la Viweruzgo la Amerika.<ref>{{cite web|title=Louisiana – Judicial system |publisher=City-data.com |access-date=2011-08-18}}</ref> Nadi, kusintha kuliko kose, kwa ŵanthu paŵekha panji kwa ulongozgi, kwafuma ku Dango la Viweruzgo. Mu maghanoghano, malemba agho ghakupangika mu Dango la Malemba ghakwenera kujumpha kuwunjika kwa malango ghakupambana, ndipo m'malo mwake ghakwenera kulongosora dango mu lamulo limoza lakukolerana na lakukwana, nyengo zinyake kwiziska kusintha kukulu panji kwamba so luphya.<ref name=":12"/> Pa ici, malemba gha Dango la Malemba ghakuyana comene na malemba gha ku United States nga ni ''Restatements of the Law'', Malemba gha Malonda Ghakuyana Pose (agho ghakatora maghanoghano gha Ulaya), na Malemba gha Vilango gha Ciyelezgero. Mu United States, vigaŵa vya caro vikamba kulemba malango pamoza na Malemba gha Field gha New York mu 1850 (agho ghakaŵika malango gha ndondomeko ya milandu ya ŵanthu ndipo ghakafuma ku malemba gha Ulaya na Louisiana).<ref>Clark, David S. (2019), Reimann, Mathias; Zimmermann, Reinhard (eds.), "Development of Comparative Law in the United States", ''The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law'', Oxford University Press, pp. 147–180, {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198810230.013.6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-881023-0}}</ref> Viyelezgero vinyake ni malemba gha California (1872), malango ghakunozgeka gha ulongozgi wa caro (1874) na Malemba gha United States gha mazuŵa ghano (1926), agho ghakuyana comene na kawunjikiro ka malango gha mphala kuluska malongosoro ghakunozgeka gha dango nga ni malemba gha Dango la Malemba. Pa ndondomeko ya dango ya Japani, kwamba mu Nyengo ya Meiji, ndondomeko za dango za Ulaya, comene Dango la Malemba la Germany na France, zikaŵa viyelezgero vikulu. Mu China, Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Germany ghakanjizgika mu vyaka vya pamanyuma vya ufumu wa Qing, mwa kulondezga Japani. Kweniso, ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la Republic of China, ilo likucali kugwira ntchito mu Taiwan. Taiwan na Korea, ivyo kale vikaŵa vyaro vya ŵakoloni ŵa Japani, vyakhwaskika comene na ndondomeko ya dango ya Japani.<ref>Wang, Tay-Sheng (2014), Haley, O. John; Takenaka, Toshiko (eds.) 4.1 "The influence of Japanese law on Taiwan law," ''Legal Innovations in Asia'', pp. 233-242 {{ISBN|9781783472789}}</ref> == Kuyaniska na Ndondomeko Zinyake za Dango == Dango la Malemba kanandi likuyaniskika na Dango la Viweruzgo la Ungelezi, ilo likakhwaska midawuko ya dango ya vyaro vya Cingelezi. Kupambana kukulu pakati pa ndondomeko ziŵiri izi ni ntchito ya viweruzgo vyakulembeka na vyakulongozgera nga ni kasupe wa dango (cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vikulu vya ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo).<ref name="BlacksLawDict">{{cite book|title=Black's Law Dictionary – Common law|date=2014|edition=10th|page=334}}</ref> Apo ndondomeko za Dango la Viweruzgo zikupeleka uzito ukulu ku viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, ŵeruzgi ŵa Dango la Malemba ŵakuvipeleka uzito ucoko.<ref>It is characteristic of the common law to adopt an approach based "on precedent, and on the development of the law incrementally and by analogy with established authorities". {{cite web |title=Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police [2018] UKSC 4 |url=https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2018/4.html |website=BAILII |at=para. 21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garoupa |first1=Nuno |last2=Liguerre |first2=Carlos Gomez |title=The Syndrome of the Efficiency of the Common Law |journal=Boston University International Law Journal |date=2011 |volume=29 |page=298}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, Malemba gha Napoleon ghakakanizga mwakulunjika ŵeruzgi ŵa France kuyowoya fundo zikulu za dango.<ref>"5. The judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and legislative determination, on the causes submitted to them." [http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/book1/c_preliminary.html ''Code of Napoleon'', Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5]</ref> Mu mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba la France mulije fundo ya ''stare decisis''. Mu France muli malemba ghawemi gha milandu agho ghakupharazgika nyengo zose, kweni ici nchakucitika nyengo zose yayi mu malo ghanandi gha Dango la Malemba. Mu Afilika ya ŵakoloni ya Cifulenci mukaŵavya malemba gha milandu, ndipo ico cikumanyikwa pacoko pa milandu ya kale iyo cikufuma ku magazini.<ref>{{cite journal |title=An Introduction to Law in French-Speaking Africa |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=1971 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00025064 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/an-introduction-to-law-in-frenchspeaking-africa-volume-i-africa-south-of-the-sahara-by-jeswald-w-salacuse-charlottesville-the-michie-company-1969-pp-xxii-616-20/8AEEC417BAA2D98EC42D82379D47403D|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Malemba gha Dango la Malemba ghakwenera kusinthika nyengo zose cifukwa viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vya mphara vikukakizga yayi, na cifukwa mphara zilije mazaza gha kucita kanthu usange palije lamulo la mphala.<ref>''The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions'', Robbins Collection, University of California at Berkeley.[https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422031516/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> Mu malo ghanyake gha Dango la Malemba, mphara zilije mazaza gha kuwuska malango gha mphala.<ref>[https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=4697&context=lalrev Judicial Discretion in the Civil Law] In the common talk among lawyers, it has even been said that in the Civil Law system legislators are almost like gods, and judges not even men."</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa Soviet Union, Mphala ya Armenia, na wovwiri ukulu wa USAID, yikazomerezga malemba ghaphya gha dango. Malemba ghanyake ghakiziska masuzgo agho mphara zikaŵavya mazaza gha kughaweruzga kuyana na fundo za Dango la Viweruzgo la mapangano; zikamanyanga kugwiliskira ntchito malemba nga umo ghalembekera pera.<ref name=usaid>"In some cases, according to some expert observers, important principles were not included in the legislation because the drafters, not having any experience in commerce, could not appreciate the importance of the principles and the advisors could not convince them of the necessity of certain principles. For example, under legislation adopted, boards of directors can be held criminally and civilly liable if the corporation does not turn a profit, not exactly a great incentive to risk-taking. It illustrates the difficulty of changing societal norms. At the same time, in deciding commercial cases, the judges are not to examine the prevailing practices regarding what agreements mean within the trade at the time the contract was entered into, a fundamental concept in western commerce and judicial practice [https://web.archive.org/web/20061001154237/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADC206.pdf Rule of Law Assistance Impact Assessment: Armenia]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| title = The Advantages of the Civil Law Judicial Design as the Model for Emerging Legal Systems |journal=Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies| access-date = 2024-05-10| url = https://ijgls.indiana.edu/volume-11-number-1/the-advantages-of-the-civil-law-judicial-design-as-the-model-for-emerging-legal-systems/}}</ref> Kweni kulemba pamoza nchimanyikwiro ca ndondomeko zose za Dango la Malemba yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba za vyaro vya Nordic zapambana comene na viyelezgero vyawo vya kale vya Ŵaroma na Ŵajeremani. M'malo mwake, vyaro vya Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, na Denmark) pamoza na Finland, Virwa vya Faroe, Greenland, Åland na Iceland vingayowoyeka kuŵa na mtundu wapadera wa "Nordic" wa dango, uwo nchanadi Dango la Malemba yayi, ndiposo ni cigaŵa ca Dango la Viweruzgo ilo likafuma ku Ŵabritoni yayi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sv.uio.no/arena/english/research/publications/arena-publications/workingpapers/working-papers2002/wp02_15.htm|title=Rawls in the Nordic Countries – ARENA Centre for European Studies|author=Andreas Føllesdal|date=20 April 2002}}</ref> Mu kacitiro, viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vikunjira comene mu Dango la Malemba, ndipo vikuwoneka comene mu mphara zapacanya comene za vyaro vinandi.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakuwona Dango la Malemba kuŵa maziko gha dango la socialism ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya comyunizimu, ilo mu ghanoghano ili lingaŵa Dango la Malemba pamoza na maghanoghano gha Marx na Lenin. Nanga ni kuti ni nthena, Dango la Malemba kanandi likaŵa ndondomeko ya dango pambere dango la socialism lindize, ndipo vyaro vinyake vya Ulaya ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa vikawelera ku Dango la Malemba la pambere pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa socialism, apo vinyake vikalutilira kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko ya dango la socialism. == Magulu == Mazgo ghakuti ''civil law'' ghakufuma ku kasambiro ka dango ka Ungelezi, ndipo ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya Cingelezi kuwunjika pamoza ndondomeko zose za dango za mdawuko wa ''jus commune''. Kweni ŵakuyaniska madango na ŵa vyacuma awo ŵakukhozga ghanoghano la muzu wa madango ŵakukhumba kugaŵa malo gha Dango la Malemba mu magulu ghakupambana: * Gha Napoleon: France, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Chile, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Brazil, Mexico, vyaro vinyake vya Cipwitikizi, Macau, vigaŵa vya kale vya ŵakoloni ŵa Ŵapwitikizi mu India, Malta, Romania, na vyaro vinandi vya Ŵaarabu (mwaciyelezgero Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Lebanon) para dango la Cisilamu likugwiliskirika ntchito yayi. Vyaro vya kale vya ŵakoloni vikusazgapo Quebec (Canada) na Louisiana (U.S.). ** Malemba gha Chile ni ntchito ya Andrés Bello, mukumanya dango na mupangi wa malango. Kale, Malemba gha Napoleon ghakawonekanga nga ni kasupe mukulu wa Malemba gha Chile. Kweni ici nchaunenesko pa dango la vyakwenera kucita na dango la vinthu pera, apo nchaunenesko yayi pa nkhani za mbumba na vyakuhara. Malemba agha ghakazomerezgeka ghose na Ecuador, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Colombia, Panama na Venezuela (kwa caka cimoza pera). Kuyana na ŵakumanya ŵanyake ŵa Amerika ya Ŵalatini ŵa nyengo iyo, ndiyo ntchito yikulu comene ya dango ya Amerika ya Ŵalatini. ** Cameroon, caro ca kale ca ŵakoloni ŵa France na Ufumu Ubanyi, cili na madango ghaŵiri ghakusazganika. * Gha Ŵajeremani: Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi, Czech Republic, Russia, Lithuania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bosnia na Herzegovina, Greece, Ukraine, Turkey, Japani, Korea ya Kumwera, Taiwan na Thailand ** South Africa, caro ca kale ca ŵakoloni ŵa Netherlands na pamanyuma Ufumu Ubanyi, cikakhwaskika comene na ŵakoloni ŵa Ŵangelezi, ntheura cili na madango ghaŵiri ghakusazganika. * Gha Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, na Sweden * Gha China (kupatula Hong Kong na Macau) ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba na dango la socialism. Sono, malango gha China ghakutora vimanyikwiro vinyake vya Dango la Viweruzgo, comene ivyo vikukhwaska malonda na vyakucitika vya pakati pa vyaro. Hong Kong, nangauli ni cigaŵa ca China, yikugwiliskira ntchito Dango la Viweruzgo. Dango Likulu la Hong Kong likusimikizga kugwiliskirika ntchito kwa Dango la Viweruzgo mu Hong Kong. Macau yikucali na ndondomeko ya dango ya Cipwitikizi ya Dango la Malemba. Kweni ndondomeko zinyake za dango izi zikuyowoyeka makola kuŵa zakusazganika: * Kufuma ku Napoleon kuya ku Ŵajeremani: Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Italy gha 1942 ghakatora malo gha malemba gha 1865, ndipo ghakanjizga vigaŵa vya Ŵajeremani cifukwa ca kukolerana kwawo mu Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caro Cose. Nthowa iyi yalondezgeka na vyaro vinyake, kusazgapo Portugal (1966), Netherlands (1992), Brazil (2002) na Argentina (2014). Vinandi mwa ivi vili na kusintha uko kukanjizgika na malango gha Italy, kusazgapo kusazga pamoza malemba gha Dango la Malemba na gha malonda. * Kufuma ku Ŵajeremani kuya ku Napoleon: Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Switzerland ghakuwonekera kukhwaskika comene na malemba gha Germany na pacoko na gha France. Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Turkey ni malemba gha Switzerland ghakusintha pacoko, agho ghakazomerezgeka mu 1926 mu ulongozgi wa Mustafa Kemal Atatürk nga ni cigaŵa ca kusintha kwa ulongozgi. * Ndondomeko zakusazganika: Ndondomeko zinyake za Dango la Malemba zikunjira makola mu magulu agha yayi. Dango la Poland likakura nga ni kusazganika kwa Dango la Malemba la France na la Germany mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Pamanyuma pa kuwungana so kwa Poland mu 1918, ndondomeko zinkhondi za dango zikasazgika kuŵa yimoza. Nga ni nthena, dango la Netherlands, nangauli pakwamba likalembeka pamoza mu mdawuko wa Napoleon, lasinthika comene na mdawuko wa Ŵadachi wa dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi. Mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba wa Scotland ukatora comene ku dango la Ŵaroma na Ŵadachi. Dango la Switzerland likugaŵika nga ni la Ŵajeremani, kweni lakhwaskika comene na mdawuko wa Napoleon, ndipo lili na vigaŵa vinyake vya malo agho. Dango la Quebec, ilo dango lake la ŵanthu paŵekha nalo likafuma ku Dango la Malemba la France, lakura mwakuyana, ndipo lasintha nga ni Louisiana kukolerana na dango la ulongozgi na ndondomeko ya mphara ya Dango la Viweruzgo la Canada. Kweni dango la ŵanthu paŵekha la Quebec lasintha comene kufuma ku makasupe gha Dango la Malemba. Pacoko, vigaŵa vinyake ivyo kale vikaŵa vya Ufumu wa Spain, nga ni Texas na California, navyo vyasunga vigaŵa vinyake vya Dango la Malemba la Spain, mwaciyelezgero vyuma vyakugaŵana vya pa nthengwa. Ndondomeko ya dango ya Puerto Rico yikuyana na ya Louisiana: malemba gha Dango la Malemba agho kung'anamulika kwake kukuthemba Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo. Cifukwa Malemba gha Puerto Rico ghakuthemba Malemba gha Spain gha 1889, viweruzgo vyathemba comene kusintha kwa Dango la Viweruzgo cifukwa malemba ngakale. Vyaro vinyake vya Cisilamu vili na ndondomeko za Dango la Malemba izo zili na vigaŵa vya dango la Cisilamu.<ref>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565815/Civil_Law.html Civil Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028055844/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565815/Civil_Law.html |date=2009-10-28 }}". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Egypt gha 1949, agho ghakucali kugwira ntchito mu Egypt na ndigho maziko gha Dango la Malemba mu vyaro vinandi vya Ŵaarabu, ghakuthemba Malemba gha Napoleon, kweni mulembi wake mukulu Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri wakayezga kusazgamo fundo za dango la Cisilamu cifukwa ca vyakucitika vyapadera vya ŵanthu ŵa Egypt. Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Japani ghakuwonekera kuŵa kusazganika: pafupifupi magaŵa 60 pa 100 kufuma ku malemba gha Germany, pafupifupi 30 pa 100 kufuma ku gha France, 8 pa 100 kufuma ku malango gha midawuko gha Japani, na 2 pa 100 kufuma ku dango la Ungelezi.<ref>和仁陽「岡松参太郎 – 法比較と学理との未完の綜合 – 」「法学教室」No.183 {{in lang|ja}} p. 79</ref> == Vyaro Ivyo Vili na Dango la Malemba == Vyaro vinyake umo Dango la Malemba likugwiliskirika ntchito ni:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.lsu.edu/clo/civil-law-online/what-is-the-civil-law/|title=What is the Civil Law? &#124; LSU Law – Civil Law Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116052206/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 16, 2026|title=Legal system - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> * Ulaya (kupatula Andorra, kusazgapo Armenia, Azerbaijan, na Georgia) * Asiya ya Kumafumiro, Asiya Yapakati, na Vuma Lapakati (nga ni China, Indonesia, Japani, Kyrgyzstan, na Turkey) * Amerika Yapakati na ya Kumwera (kupatula Guyana, Belize, Cuba na Virwa vya Falkland) * Afilika ya Kumpoto, Afilika ya Cipwitikizi, na Afilika ya Cifulenci (nga ni Egypt, Angola, na Cote d'Ivoire) === Colombia === Mu Colombia, ndondomeko ya dango yikulondezga mdawuko wa Dango la Malemba, umo malango gha mphala ndigho kasupe mukulu wa mazaza gha dango. Ndondomeko iyi yikuthemba Malango Ghakulu gha Ndyali gha 1991, agho ghakuŵika kuwusa kwa Malango Ghakulu na fundo ya kuwusa kwa dango.<ref>{{cite web |title=Political Constitution of Colombia (1991) |url=https://www.constitucioncolombia.com |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Malango gha mphala, comene malemba, ghakugwira ntchito yikulu, kusazgapo Malemba gha Dango la Malemba gha Colombia na Malemba Ghakulu gha Ndondomeko, agho ghakulongozga wanangwa na ndondomeko za mphara.<ref>{{cite web |title=Código Civil Colombiano |url=https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=39535 |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Función Pública}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Código General del Proceso |url=https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=74174 |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Función Pública}}</ref> Pasi pa dango la Colombia, ŵeruzgi ŵakulongozgeka comene na Malango Ghakulu na malango gha mphala nga ni makasupe ghakulu gha mazaza gha dango. Kweni viweruzgo vya kale, viweruzgo vyakulongozgera, na maghanoghano gha ŵasambiri gha dango vikugwira ntchito nga ni vyakovwira pa kung'anamula na kugwiliskira ntchito malango, nga umo Cigaŵa 230 ca Malango Ghakulu cikuyowoyera na umo Mphara ya Malango Ghakulu yikucing'anamulira.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Mu cheruzgo cake cakuzirwa C-836/01, Mphara ya Malango Ghakulu yikalongosora kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakukakika na Malango Ghakulu na dango nga ni makasupe ghakulu, kweni ŵakwenera so kusimikizga kuti viweruzgo vikuyana mwa kulaŵiska viweruzgo vya kale. Mphara yikakhozga kuti kuyana kwa ŵanthu pa ntchito ya mphara kukukhumba kuti milandu yakuyana yiweruzgike mwakuyana, ndipo kuti ŵeruzgi ŵakwenera kulaŵiska mwakulunjika viweruzgo vyakulongozgera vyakukhwaska.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> Mphara yikayowoya so kuti kuleka kulondezga viweruzgo vya kale kukuzomerezgeka pera usange kwalongosoreka makola na mazgo ghakuwonekera na ghakupenda makola, ndipo ici cikukhozga ntchito ya viweruzgo vyakulongozgera mu ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba kwambura kutora malo gha malango gha mphala nga ni kasupe mukulu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentencia C-836 de 2001 |url=https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2001/c-836-01.htm |access-date=2026-04-22 |publisher=Constitutional Court of Colombia}}</ref> == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === * Beaulac, Stéphane & Jean-François Gaudreault-DesBiens. ''Common law and civil law: a comparative primer''. Montreal: Thémis, 2017. * De Vries, Henry P., George A. Schneider, & René David. ''Civil law and the Anglo-American lawyer: a case-illustrated introduction to civil law institutions and method''. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceania Publications, 1975. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Carozza, Paolo G., & Colin B. Picker. ''Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2015. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Carozza, Paolo G., & Colin B. Picker. ''Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases on Western Law'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2014. * Glenn, H. Patrick. ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 (1st edn 2000). * Hamza, Gábor. ''Origine e sviluppo degli ordinamenti giusprivatistici moderni in base alla tradizione del diritto romano''. Santiago de Compostela: Andavira, 2013. * Jansen, Nils. ''The development and making of legal doctrine''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. * Kischel, Uwe. ''Comparative Law''. Trans. Andrew Hammel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. * Lundmark, Thomas W. ''Charting the Divide Between Common and Civil Law''. NY: Oxford University Press, 2012. * {{cite book | title= Romance Legal Family | last= Lydorf | first= Claudia. | year= 2011| publisher=Institute of European History | location = Mainz | url= http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060604 }} * MacQueen, Hector L. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20180825073848/http://www.ejcl.org/44/art44-1.html Scots Law and the Road to the New Ius Commune]." ''Electronic Journal of Comparative Law'' 4, no.&nbsp;4 (December 2000). * Moreno Navarrete, M. A. [https://medium.com/@mmnavarrete/the-concept-of-civil-law-historical-dimension-96db20b74da0 ''The Concept of Civil Law. Historical Dimension''.] Revista de Derecho Actual, vol. III, 2017. * John Henry Merryman & Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo. ''The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America'', 4th edn. Palo Alto, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 2018. * Moustaira, Elina N. ''Comparative Law: University Courses'' {{in lang|el}}, Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, {{ISBN|960-15-1267-5}} * {{cite book | title= Accidental Tourist on the New Frontier: An Introductory Guide to Global Legal Research | last= Reynolds | first= Thomas H. | chapter= Introduction to Foreign and Comparative Law | year= 1998 | pages= 47–86 | publisher= F.B. Rothman | editor1-first= Jeanne | editor1-last= Rehberg | editor2-first= Radu D | editor2-last= Popa | isbn= 978-0-837-71075-4 | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&pg=PA57 }} * Arthur T. von Mehren & James Gordley. ''The civil law system'', 2nd edn. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1977. * Zimmermann, Reinhard. ''Roman law, contemporary law, European law: The civilian tradition today''. NY: Oxford University Press, 2001. r3poeg0f7944iebbq6lgsn2w71erd1x 0 34984 124385 123624 2026-11-10T20:18:07Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124385 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Map of the Legal systems of the world (en).png|thumb|upright=1|Ndondomeko za dango mu vyaru: ''common law'', ''civil law'', dango la Cisilamu, dango la Ŵayuda, panji kusazgana]] '''Dango la cisopa''' likusazgapo malango gha nkhalo yiwemi agho ghakusambizgika na midawuko ya visopa. Viyelezgero vya malango agho ghakufuma ku visopa ni [[Dango la mpingo|dango la mpingo]] la Ŵakhristu (ilo likugwira ntchito mu ghanoghano likulu la kasandiro ka Ciuta mu mpingo, kweni mu mazuŵa ghano lili paŵekha na dango la caro lambura cisopa), ''halakha'' ya Ŵayuda, ''sharia'' ya Cisilamu, na dango la Ŵahindu.<ref>"In history, systems of law have almost always been based on religion: decisions regarding what was to be lawful among men were taken with reference to the divinity. Unlike other great religions, Christianity has never proposed a revealed law to the State and to society, that is to say a juridical order derived from revelation. Instead, it has pointed to nature and reason as the true sources of law" ({{Cite web |title=Address of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI to the Reichstag |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/speeches/2011/september/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20110922_reichstag-berlin.html |access-date=2019-12-16}}).</ref> Mu madera ghanyake gha mazaza, dango la cisopa lingagwira ntchito pera pa ŵanthu ŵa cisopa ico; mu ghanyake, lingalondezgeskeka na ulongozgi pa ŵanthu wose. == Visopa vya Caro na Mawupu gha Visopa == Cisopa ca caro (panji mpingo wa caro) ni wupu wa cisopa uwo caro cazomerezga mwa dango. Ulongozgi wa Ciuta ni mtundu wa ulongozgi umo Ciuta panji ciuta wakuwonekera nga ni wakuwusa wapacanya wa caro. Mu maulongozgi gha Ciuta na mu madera ghanyake gha mazaza gha cisopa, ŵanthu awo ŵakukana kucita vinthu vinyake cifukwa ca njuŵi yawo ŵangawonekera kuŵa kunanga cisopa. Ndondomeko za dango zakupambana ni vyaro vyambura cisopa panji mawupu gha ŵanthu gha midawuko yinandi, umo ulongozgi ukusankha cisopa cimoza yayi, kweni ungakanizga vyakucita vyose vya visopa panji kukakizga kuzomerezgana kwa visopa vyakupambana. == Baháʼí == Malango gha Baháʼí ni malango agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu cisopa ca Baháʼí, ndipo ni cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kacitiro ka Baháʼí.<ref name="PSmith158">*{{cite book |last = Smith |first = Peter |title = An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher = Cambridge University Press |place = Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C |date = 2008 |page=158}}</ref> Malango agha ghakuthemba malemba ghakusimikizgika gha Bahá'u'lláh, uyo wakambiska cisopa ca Baháʼí, malongosoro gha pamanyuma gha `Abdu'l-Bahá na Shoghi Effendi, na malango gha Nyumba ya Caro Cose ya Ulunji.<ref name="PSmith159">{{Harvnb|Smith|2008|p=159}}</ref> Dango la Baháʼí likupelekeka nga ni fundo na malongozgero ghakulu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kughagwiliskira ntchito nga umo ŵakuwonera kuti nkhwakwenelera.<ref name="PSmith159"/> Nangauli malango ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghakulondezgeskeka na mawupu gha Baháʼí, ŵanthu ŵakukhozgeka kulondezga malango kuyana na njuŵi, kupulikiska, na vinjeru vyawo. Ŵa Baháʼí ŵakwenera kulondezga malango agha cifukwa ca citemwa ca Bahá'u'lláh.<ref name="PSmith159"/> Malango agha ghakuwonekera nga ni nthowa ya kusungira cimango na civikiliro pa caro capasi.<ref name="PSmith158"/> Viyelezgero vicoko vya malango na vyakucita vya cisopa vya ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' ivyo vikuwonekera kuŵa vyakukakizgika ku ŵa Baháʼí ni: * Kuromba lurombo lwakukakizgika zuŵa lililose. Pali malurombo ghatatu, ndipo limoza lingasankhika zuŵa lililose. * Kuzizipizga kulya kwa Mazuŵa Khumi na Ghankhondi na Ghanayi kufuma apo zuŵa likufuma mpaka apo likunjira, kufuma pa 2 mpaka 20 Nyakanyaka. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵa Baháʼí ŵa uchanda uwemi ŵa vyaka 15 mpaka 70 ŵakuleka kulya na kumwa. * Kuyowoyera ŵanyake vyautesi na kuŵanyoza kumanyuma kwawo kwakanizgika, ndipo kukuwonekera kuŵa kwakunanga comene munthu na ubale wake. == Cibuda == Mu Cibuda, ''Patimokkha'' ni malango na fundo 227 izo ŵasofi ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵa Cibuda ŵakulondezga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pāṭimokkha {{!}} The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volumes I & II |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/vinaya/bmc/Section0007.html |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=www.dhammatalks.org |language=en}}</ref> == Cikhristu == [[File:Graverat titelblad till "Kanonisk rätt" - Skoklosters slott - 93238.tif|thumb|''Corpus Juris Canonici'', unandi wa malango gha mpingo wa Katolika uwo ukagwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 750]] Mu Cikhristu, pali ng'anamulo zinandi za dango la cisopa. Yimoza ni Dango la Mozesi (kufuma mu ivyo Ŵakhristu ŵakuchema Phangano Lakale), ilo likuchemekaso dango la Ciuta panji [[Dango la Baibolo|dango la Baibolo]]; ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene ni Malango Khumi. Yinyake ni malangulo gha Yesu wa ku Nazareti ku ŵasambiri ŵake mu Evangeli (agho kanandi ghakuchemeka Dango la Khristu, Lulangulo Luphya, panji Phangano Liphya, kupambana na Phangano Lakale). Yinyake ni Lulangulo lwa Ŵapositole lwa mu Milimo 15, ulo lucali kulondezgeka na Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Ŵagiriki.<ref>Karl Josef von Hefele's [https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html commentary on canon II of Gangra] notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamon also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third Apostolic Canon, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by St. Augustine in his work Contra Faustum, where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed Ecumenical Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."</ref> Yinyake ni dango la mpingo mu mipingo ya Katolika, Angilikani, na Ortodokisi. Mu mipingo yinyake ya Ŵakhristu, dango kanandi likuyaniskika na lusungu: kupambana uku kukung'anamula kuyezga kusanga uponoski mwa kulondezga malango, kupambana na kupenja uponoski kwizira mu cipulikano mu sembe iyo Yesu wakapeleka pa mphinjika. Kufuma mu Evangeli ya Yohane: Yohane 1:16-18. === Dango la Baibolo panji la Mozesi === Maghanoghano gha Ŵakhristu pa Phangano Lakale ghakupambana, ndipo ghakwenera kupatulika na kasandiro ka Ciuta, nkhalo yiwemi, na kacitiro ka Ŵakhristu. Lizgu lakuti "Phangano Lakale", ilo likuchemekaso phangano la Mozesi na Dango la Mozesi, likung'anamula malango na fundo za dango la cisopa na nkhalo yiwemi ya cisopa izo zili mu mabuku ghankhondi ghakwamba gha Phangano Lakale. Maghanoghano pa Phangano Lakale ghakusangika mu Phangano Liphya, nga ni pa umo Yesu wakalongosolera dango, kususkana pa mdulidwe mu Cikhristu cakwamba, na cakucitika ca ku Antiyoke. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti vigaŵa vinyake pera ndivyo vikugwira ntchito, apo Ŵaprotestanti ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti palije cigaŵa ico cikugwira ntchito. Ŵasandi ŵa Ciuta ŵa maphangano ghaŵiri ŵakuwona kuti Malango gha Nowa pera ndigho ghakugwira ntchito ku ŵambura kuŵa Ŵayuda. Gulu la Ŵakhristu ŵa Ciyuda pafupifupi lamalira. Kuyana na Phangano Liphya, Ŵakhristu ŵakuwonekera so nga ni ŵambura kuŵa Ŵayuda yayi (Ŵaroma 8:28–29). === Dango la Mpingo === Dango la mpingo ni malango na malongozgero agho ghakupangika panji kuzomerezgeka na mazaza gha mpingo kuti ghalongozge wupu wa Ŵakhristu na ŵanthu ŵake. Ni dango la mukati la mpingo ilo likuwusa Mpingo wa Katolika wa Roma, Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa na ya Kumafumiro, na Mipingo ya Angilikani.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm|title=Canon law|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=2024-11-07}}</ref> Umo dango ili likupangikira, kung'anamulikira, na nyengo zinyake kweruzgikira, vikupambana comene pakati pa magulu agha ghatatu gha mipingo. Mu midawuko yose yitatu, ''canon'' pakwamba likaŵa dango ilo wungano wa mpingo wazomerezga (kufuma ku Cigiriki ''kanon'' / κανών, Ciheberi ''kaneh'' / קנה, "dango, cakwenelera, panji cakupimira"); malango agha ndigho ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la mpingo. ==== Malango gha Ŵapositole ==== Malango gha Ŵapositole ni malango gha mpingo wa kale (85 mu Mpingo wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, 50 mu Mpingo wa Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa) agho ghakukhwaskana na ulongozgi na ndondomeko ya Mpingo wa Ŵakhristu ŵakwamba, ndipo ghasazgika mu Madango gha Ŵapositole.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03279a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostolic Canons|publisher=New Advent|access-date=2024-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sacred-texts.com/chr/ecf/007/0070471.htm|title=The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles|publisher=Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol VII|access-date=2024-11-07}}</ref> ==== Mpingo wa Katolika ==== Dango la mpingo la Mpingo wa Katolika (mu Cilatini ''jus canonicum'') ni ndondomeko ya malango na fundo za dango izo zikupangika na kulondezgeskeka na ŵalongozgi ŵa Mpingo kuti zilongozge kapangikiro na ulongozgi wa Mpingo wa kuwaro, na kunozga na kulongozga vyakucita vya Ŵakatolika ku cilato ca Mpingo.<ref>Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum"</ref><ref>Della Rocca, ''Manual of Canon Law'', pg. 3</ref> Ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango yakwamba ya mazuŵa ghano ya Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa, ndipo ndiyo ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito kwambura kuleka, yakwambilira midawuko ya [[Dango la Viweruzgo]] na [[Dango la Malemba]] ya Ulaya. Ico cikamba na malango agho Ŵapositole ŵakazomerezga pa Wungano wa Yerusalemu mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 caŵa ndondomeko ya dango yakusuzga comene, iyo yili na malango gha Phangano Liphya, na vigaŵa vinyake vya midawuko ya dango ya Ciheberi, Ŵaroma, Ŵavisigoti, Ŵasakisoni, na Ŵakelitiki.<ref>Berman, Harold J. ''Law and Revolution'', pg. 86 & pg. 115</ref><ref>Dr. Edward N. Peters, [https://canonlaw.info CanonLaw.info Home Page], accessed November-07-2024</ref> Midawuko yapadera ya dango la mpingo la Ŵakatolika ŵa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa yikulongozga mipingo 23 ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa yakujiwusa. Malango ghakuŵikika gha mpingo ghakusanga mazaza ghawo, pa malango gha caro cose, kufuma ku wakupanga malango wapacanya, Papa, uyo wali na mazaza ghose gha kupanga malango, kufiska malango, na kweruzga mwa iyo yekha; apo malango gha vigaŵa ghakusanga mazaza kufuma ku wakupanga malango wapasi.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM Canon 331], 1983 Code of Canon Law</ref> Nkhani za malango agha nzambura kuŵa za fundo zakugomezgeka panji nkhalo yiwemi pera, kweni zikukhwaska umoyo wose wa munthu. Lili na vigaŵa vyose vya ndondomeko ya dango yakukura: malango, mphara, ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, ŵeruzgi, malemba gha dango ghakufikapo gha Mpingo wa Cilatini na gha Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, fundo za kung'anamulira dango, na vilango vyakukakizga.<ref name=clinfocat/><ref name="clinfocat">Edward N. Peters, [http://www.canonlaw.info/a_catechistintro.htm "A Catechist's Introduction to Canon Law"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022083647/http://www.canonlaw.info/a_catechistintro.htm |date=2022-10-22 }}, CanonLaw.info, accessed June-11-2013</ref><ref name="Manual of Canon Law, pg. 49">Manual of Canon Law, pg. 49</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2.HTM|title=Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT|website=www.intratext.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}</ref><ref>[https://stjosephcanonlaw.com/sites/default/files/newsletter-preview-pdfs/christifidelis30.7.pdf St. Joseph Foundation newsletter, Vol. 30 No. 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714200828/https://stjosephcanonlaw.com/sites/default/files/newsletter-preview-pdfs/christifidelis30.7.pdf |date=2014-07-14 }}, pg. 3</ref> Lilije nkhongono ya kukakizga mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza ghambura cisopa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya na ŵali na luso pa dango la mpingo, na ŵasambizgi ŵake, ŵakuchemeka ŵamanyi ŵa dango la mpingo.<ref>Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 187: "Canonist"</ref><ref>Berman, ''Law and Revolution'', pg. 288</ref> Dango la mpingo nga ni kasandiro kakupatulika likuchemeka kasandiro ka dango la mpingo. Kasandiro ka malango ka dango la mpingo la Katolika ni fundo na midawuko ya dango umo dango la mpingo likugwilira ntchito, apo kasandiro ka vinjeru, kasandiro ka Ciuta, na fundo zakusacizga zakwamba za dango la mpingo la Katolika ni vigaŵa vya kusanda ivyo vikupeleka maziko gha fundo kuti dango la mpingo liŵe ndondomeko ya dango na dango lenecho. Mu Mpingo wakwamba, malango ghakwamba ghakaŵikika na ŵabishopu awo ŵakawungananga mu maungano gha "caro cose" (themba likachemanga ŵabishopu wose ŵa caro ico cikamanyikwanga) panji maungano gha "vigaŵa" (ŵabishopu ŵa cigaŵa). Mu nyengo, malango agha ghakasazgikirika na vilangulo vya Ŵabishopu ŵa Roma, ivyo vikaŵa mazgoro ku mafumbo panji masuzgo, kuyana na mazgo ghakuti ''Roma locuta est, causa finita est'' ("Roma yayowoya, nkhani yamala"). Pamanyuma, ghakawunjikika mu mabuku, gha dango na ghambura kuŵa gha dango. Buku lakwamba lakunozgeka makola likawunjikika na musofi Gratian mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ilo likumanyikwa nga ni ''Decretum Gratiani''. Papa Gregory IX ndiyo wakufumya buku lakwamba la dango la malango gha mpingo, ''Liber Extra'' (1234). Pamanyuma pakiza ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) ya Boniface VIII, ''Clementines'' (1317) ya Clement V, na mabuku ghanyake. Mabuku ghose agha, pamoza na ''Decretum Gratiani'', ghakuchemeka ''Corpus Juris Canonici''. Pamanyuma, malango gha ŵapapa ghakafumyikanga mu mabuku ghakuchemeka ''Bullaria''. Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 1800, malango agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi 10,000, ndipo ghanandi ghakaŵa ghakusuzga kuyaniska cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu. Ici cikapangiska Papa Pius X kulangulira kuti Malemba ghakwamba gha Dango la Mpingo ghapangike, buku limoza la malango ghakulongosoreka makola. Pasi pa Kadinala Pietro Gasparri, ntchito iyi yikamalizgika pasi pa Benedict XV, uyo wakafumya Malemba agha, agho ghakamba kugwira ntchito mu 1918. Ghakuchemeka Malemba gha 1917. Papa Yohane XXIII wakachema Sinodi ya Dayosizi ya Roma, Wungano wa caro cose, na kusintha Malemba gha 1917. Pamanyuma pa Wungano Waciŵiri wa Vatican (1965), kukawoneka kuti Malemba ghakwenera kusinthika kuyana na vikalata na kasandiro ka Ciuta ka Vatican II. Pamanyuma pa vyaka vinandi vya kudumbiskana, Papa Yohane Paulosi II wakafumya Malemba ghakusinthika gha Dango la Mpingo mu 1983. Ghali na malango 1752, ndipo ndigho ghakugwira ntchito sono mu Mpingo wa Cilatini. Dango la mpingo la Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa likalembeka pamoza paŵekha, ndipo ici cikiziska Malemba gha Malango gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa agho Papa Yohane Paulosi II wakafumya mu 1990. Mawupu na kacitiro ka dango la mpingo vikakura pamoza na dango la vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya, ntheura Dango la Malemba na Dango la Viweruzgo vyose viŵiri vili na vyakukhwaska vya dango la mpingo. Edson Luiz Sampel, mumanyi wa ku Brazil wa dango la mpingo, wakuti dango la mpingo lili mu kwambilira kwa vigaŵa vinandi vya Dango la Malemba, ndipo likukhwaska comene wupu wa ŵanthu wa mazuŵa ghano. Sono, ŵasambiri wose ŵa kwamasambiro gha ŵasofi ŵa Katolika ŵa Cilatini ŵakwenera kusambira dango la mpingo. Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mpingo ŵakwenera kuŵa na digri ya dokotala (JCD) panji digri ya wanangwa (JCL) mu dango la mpingo kuti ŵagwire ntchito zawo, nga ni ŵeruzgi. Kanandi, ŵabishopu ŵakwenera kuŵa na madigri ghapacanya mu malemba ghakupatulika, kasandiro ka Ciuta, panji dango la mpingo. Raymond wa ku Penyafort (1175–1275), musofi wa ku Spain, ni wakupatulika wakuvikilira ŵamanyi ŵa dango la mpingo, cifukwa ca ntchito yake yikulu mu kasandiro ka dango la mpingo. ==== Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ==== Ŵa Ortodokisi ŵakuyowoya Cigiriki ŵawunjika malango na malongosoro ghake mu buku lakuchemeka ''Pēdálion'' ("Cakwendeskera ngalawa"), cifukwa likwenera "kwendeska" Mpingo. Mdawuko wa Ŵakhristu ŵa Ortodokisi kanandi ukuwona malango ghawo nga ni malongozgero kuluska malango, ndipo ŵabishopu ŵakughasintha kuyana na mdawuko na vinyake vya malo. Ŵamanyi ŵanyake ŵa malango gha Ortodokisi ŵakuyowoya kuti, usange Maungano gha caro cose (agho ghakadumbiskananga mu Cigiriki) ghakakhumbanga kuti malango ghagwiliskirike nga ni malango gha dango, ghakatenge ghaghachema ''nómoi'' (malango gha dango) m'malo mwa ''kanónes'' (malamulo), kweni pafupifupi Ŵaortodokisi wose ŵakughalondezga. Kweni fundo zakugomezgeka izo Maungano ghakasimikizga zikwenera kupulikirika, kuluska kuwonekera nga ni malongozgero, cifukwa nzakuzirwa pa umoza wa Mpingo. ==== Mipingo ya Angilikani ==== Mu Mpingo wa Ungelezi, mphara za mpingo, izo kale zikeruzganga nkhani zinandi nga ni mphindano za nthengwa, kupatukana kwa nthengwa, vikalata vya vyakuhara, na kunanga mbiri ya munthu, zicali na mazaza pa nkhani zinyake za mpingo (mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko ya ŵasofi, kusintha cuma ca mpingo, na nkhani za malo gha kuŵikamo ŵakufwa gha mpingo). Kupatukana kwawo kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000, apo Ŵanoromani ŵakazipatula ku mphara za vigaŵa zakusazganika za Ŵasakisoni. Kupambana na mphara zinyake za Ungelezi, dango la nkhani za mpingo ni cigaŵa cinyake ca ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba, Dango la Viweruzgo yayi, nangauli likulongozgeka comene na malango gha mphala. Kufuma pa Kusintha kwa Mpingo, mphara za mpingo mu Ungelezi zaŵa mphara za kalonga. Kusambizga dango la mpingo pa Oxford na Cambridge kukawuskika na Henry VIII; kufuma apo, ŵakugwira ntchito mu mphara za mpingo ŵakasambiranga Dango la Malemba, ndipo ŵakapokeranga madigri gha D.C.L. kufuma ku Oxford panji LL.D. kufuma ku Cambridge. Ŵimiliri ŵa milandu aŵa ŵakaŵa ku "Doctors' Commons" mu London, apo ŵakaŵa ŵekha pa milandu ya vyakuhara, nthengwa, na nyanja mpaka mazaza ghawo ghakasamizgika ku mphara za Dango la Viweruzgo pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. (Dango la nyanja nalo likazengeka pa Dango la Malemba, ntheura likalongozgekanga na ŵanthu aŵa.) Charles I wakawuskapo Dango la Mpingo mu Scotland mu 1638 pamanyuma pa viwukira vya Ŵakovenanta kususka Ŵabishopu ŵa Aberdeen. Mipingo yinyake ya Angilikani pa caro cose capasi (mwaciyelezgero, Mpingo wa Episcopal mu United States na Mpingo wa Angilikani wa Canada) yicali kugwira ntchito pasi pa ndondomeko zawo za dango la mpingo. ==== Mipingo ya Presbiteriya na ya Ŵakonzeka ==== Mu Mipingo ya Presbiteriya na ya Ŵakonzeka, dango la mpingo likuchemeka "kacitiro na ndondomeko" panji "ndondomeko ya mpingo", ndipo likusazgapo malango gha mpingo pa ulongozgi wake, ndondomeko, kacitiro ka dango, na kusopa. ==== Ciluteri ==== Buku la Kuzomerezgana ni malongosoro gha kale gha fundo zakugomezgeka za Mpingo wa Ŵaluteri, ilo lili na vikalata khumi vya cipulikano ivyo vyazomerezgeka kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.<ref>F. Bente, ed. and trans., ''Concordia Triglotta'', (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1921), p. i</ref> Kweni Buku la Kuzomerezgana ni cikalata ca kuzomerezga cipulikano, buku la malango gha mpingo yayi. Mpingo uliwose wa Ŵaluteri wa caro ukujiŵikira ndondomeko yake ya mpingo, nangauli malango agha ghakuchemeka "canons" yayi. ==== Mpingo wa United Methodist ==== Buku la Ndondomeko lili na malango, malamulo, ndondomeko, na malongozgero gha Mpingo wa United Methodist. Likusinthika pa vyaka vinayi viliyose na Wungano Ukulu, wupu wa kupanga malango wa Mpingo wa United Methodist.<ref>Book of Discipline (United Methodist)</ref> == Cihindu == Dango la Ŵahindu, lizgu ilo likafuma mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, likufuma ku malemba gha Ŵahindu nga ni ma Veda, ma Upanishad, ma Dharmashastra, ma Purana, ma Itihasa, ma Dharmasutra, ma Grihya Sutra, Arthashastra, na ma Niti Shastra. == Cisilamu == [[Image:Ibnhanbal.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Buku lakulembeka na woko la malemba gha dango gha Ibn Hanbal, lakulembeka mu Okutobala 879]] [[File:Use of Sharia by country updated.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Umo vyaru vikugwiliskira ntchito malango gha ''sharia''ry ''Sharia'', ilo likuchemekaso dango la Cisilamu, ni malango gha nkhalo yiwemi na dango la cisopa la Cisilamu. ''Sharia'' likufuma ku malo ghaŵiri ghakulu: malango agho ghali mu Kurani, na ciyelezgero ca mprofeti wa Cisilamu Muhammad mu ''sunnah''. Kasandiro ka malango ka Cisilamu (''fiqh'') kakung'anamula na kukuzga kagwiliskiro ka ''sharia'' pa mafumbo agho ghakulongosoreka mwakulunjika mu Kurani na ''sunnah'' yayi, mwa kusazgamo malo ghaciŵiri. Malo agha kanandi ghakusazgapo kuzomerezgana kwa ''sahabah'' (ŵabwezi ŵa mprofeti) na ''ulama'' (ŵamanyi ŵa cisopa) mu ''ijma'', kweniso kuyaniska na Kurani na ''sunnah'' kwizira mu ''qiyas''. Mu sukulu ya dango ya Maliki, kacitiro ka ŵanthu ŵa Medina nako kakusazgika. Ŵasilamu ŵakugomezga kuti ''sharia'' ni dango la Allah, kweni ŵakupambana pa ivyo likusazgapo nadi.<ref>Otto, Jan Michiel (2008). p. 7. "When people refer to ''the'' sharia, they are in fact referring to ''their'' sharia, in the name of ''the'' eternal will of the Almighty God."</ref> Ŵa maghanoghano gha mazuŵa ghano, ŵa midawuko, na ŵakukhwima pa maziko wose ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana gha ''sharia'', nga umo ŵalili ŵa masukulu ghakupambana gha maghanoghano gha Cisilamu. Vyaro, mawupu gha ŵanthu, na midawuko yakupambana nayo yili na ng'anamulo zakupambana za ''sharia''. ''Sharia'' likukhwaska nkhani zinandi izo dango lambura cisopa nalo likukhwaska, kusazgapo milandu, ndyali, na vyacuma, kweniso nkhani za munthu paŵekha nga ni kugonana, ucanda wa thupi, vyakulya, kuromba, vyakuhara, na kuzizipizga kulya. Apo lili na udindo wa dango, ''sharia'' likugwiliskirika ntchito na ŵeruzgi ŵa Cisilamu, panji ma ''qadi''. Imamu wali na maudindo ghakupambana kuyana na ng'anamulo ya ''sharia''; nangauli lizgu ili kanandi likugwiliskirika ntchito pa mulongozgi wa kuromba kwa pamoza, imamu wangaŵa so mumanyi, mulongozgi wa cisopa, panji mulongozgi wa ndyali. Kuwezgeramo ''sharia'' ni cilato ca kale ca magulu gha ndyali ya Cisilamu mu vyaro vya Ŵasilamu. Magulu ghanyake ghacoko gha Ŵasilamu mu Asiya (mwaciyelezgero, mu India) ghasunga kuzomerezgeka kwa ''sharia'' pa kweruzga nkhani zawo za munthu paŵekha na za wupu wawo. Mu vyaro vya Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa, umo Ŵasilamu ŵasamirako sonosono, magulu ghacoko gha Ŵasilamu ghanjizga dango la ''sharia'' la mabanja pa mphindano zawo, ndipo ghafiska mwakupambana. Kuyezga kwa Ŵasilamu kukakizga ''sharia'' pa ŵambura kuŵa Ŵasilamu mu vyaro umo muli Ŵasilamu ŵanandi kwiziska kususkana, nkhaza, na nanga nkhondo.<ref>Hamann, Katie (December 29, 2009). [https://www.voanews.com/a/acehs-sharia-law-still-controversial-in-indonesia-80257482/369606.html "Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia"]. Voice of America. Retrieved November 7, 2024.</ref><ref>Iijima, Masako (January 13, 2010). [https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60D07420100114 "Islamic Police Tighten Grip on Indonesia's Aceh"]. Reuters. Retrieved September 18, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/02/08/aceh-sharia-police-loved-and-hated.html "Aceh Sharia Police Loved and Hated"]. ''The Jakarta Post''.</ref><ref>Staff (January 3, 2003). [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2632939.stm "Analysis: Nigeria's Sharia Split"]. BBC News. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years".</ref><ref>Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008) p. 16. "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead" (p. 189). "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200?, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill."</ref><ref>Mshelizza, Ibrahim (July 28, 2009). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/fight-for-sharia-leaves-dozens-dead-in-nigeria-1763253.html "Fight for Sharia Leaves Dozens Dead in Nigeria&nbsp;&ndash; Islamic Militants Resisting Western Education Extend Their Campaign of Violence"]. ''The Independent''. Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html "Nigeria in Transition: Recent Religious Tensions and Violence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105223207/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html |date=2013-11-05 }}. PBS.</ref><ref>Staff (December 28, 2010). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/201012314018187505.html "Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria&nbsp;&ndash; A Look at the Country's Bouts of Inter-Religious and Ethnic Clashes and Terror Attacks"]. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna".</ref><ref>Ibrahimova, Roza (July 27, 2009). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/2009727182749635965.html "Dozens Killed in Violence in Northern Nigeria"] (video (requires Adobe Flash; 00:01:49)). Al Jazeera English. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches."</ref><ref>''[http://countrystudies.us/sudan/63.htm Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan:]''. "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south. ...Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/sudan/facts.html|title=FRONTLINE/WORLD . Sudan - The Quick and the Terrible . Facts and Stats|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2020-03-19}}</ref> == Cijaini == Dango la Ŵajaini likung'anamula ng'anamulo ya mazuŵa ghano ya Dango la Ŵajaini la kale, ilo lili na malango gha kutora mwana wa munyake kuŵa wako, nthengwa, vyakuhara, na nyifwa ku ŵa cisopa ca Cijaini.<ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN6UAAAAMAAJ|title=Selections from the Jaina law|last1=Jain|first1=Champat Rai|year=2004|author-link=Champat Rai Jain| publisher= Jaina Vidyā Saṁsthāna|isbn=9788188677016}}</ref> == Ciyuda == ''Halakha'' (Ciheberi: הלכה; "kwenda") ni malango ghose gha cisopa ca Ŵayuda agho ghakufuma ku ''Torah'' yakulembeka na ya pa mlomo, kusazgapo ''Mishnah'', ''Midrash'' ya dango, ''Talmud'', na malongosoro ghake. Pamanyuma pa kunangika kwa Tempele Laciŵiri na Ŵaroma mu caka 70 pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵayuda na Ŵaroma, Dango la pa Mlomo likakura kwizira mu kung'anamula kukulu kwa ''Torah'' yakulembeka. ''Halakha'' yakura pacoko pacoko kwizira mu nthowa zinandi za dango, kusazgapo viweruzgo, malango ghakupangika, na dango la mdawuko. Malemba gha mafumbo ku ŵarabi na mazgoro ghawo ghakuchemeka ''Responsa''. Mu nyengo, apo kacitiro kakukura, malemba gha dango la Ŵayuda ghakalembeka kuyana na malemba gha ''Talmud'' na ''Responsa''. Malemba agho ghakukhwaska comene, ''Shulchan Aruch'', ghakulongozga kacitiro ka cisopa ka Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵa Ortodokisi na ŵanyake ŵa Conservative. Kuyana na mdawuko wa ŵarabi, pali malango 613 mu ''Torah'' yakulembeka. Malango gha mu ''Torah'' (agho ghakuchemekaso Dango la Mozesi) ghakukhwaska pafupifupi cigaŵa ciliconse ca umoyo wa munthu. Malango ghanyake ngaŵanalume pera panji ŵanakazi pera, ghanyake ngaŵasofi ŵa kale pera (ŵa fuko la Levi), ghanyake ngaŵalimi ŵa mu Caro ca Israeli pera. Malango ghanyake ghakugwira ntchito pera para pali Tempele mu Yerusalemu. == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} bt3d631z53l5edc5ksb59pihblzzqiu 0 34986 124374 123613 2026-11-10T20:11:48Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124374 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dango la Baibolo''' ni malango agho ghali mu ''Tanakh'' ya Ŵayuda, ndipo nyengo zinyake malongosoro gha Ŵakhristu pa malango agha mu Phangano Liphya. [[Baibolo]] ni malemba ghakupatulika gha Cikhristu na Ciyuda. Cikhristu na Ciyuda vili na nthowa zakupambana pa dango la Ŵayuda.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Law |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199843312 |editor-last=Strawn |editor-first=Brent A. |chapter=Biblical Law}}</ref> == Ciyuda == * Dango la Mozesi * ''Mitzvah'', lulangulo lwa Ciuta * Malango Khumi * Malango 613 * Malango Ghankhondi na Ghaŵiri gha Nowa, malango agho ghakugwira ntchito ku ŵanthu wose, kusazgapo ŵambura kuŵa Ŵayuda == Cikhristu == * Kumazgika kwa malango gha Phangano Lakale * Maghanoghano gha Ŵakhristu pa Phangano Lakale, kudumbiskana kwa kasandiro ka Ciuta pa usange malango gha Baibolo la Ciheberi ghakugwira ntchito kwa Ŵakhristu * "Cikhristu ca kusankha", lizgu lakunyoza ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito kususka Ŵakhristu panji mipingo inyake kuti yikusankha fundo za Cikhristu izo yikulondezga na izo yikulondezga yayi * Malango gha uwemi wakufikapo mu Cikhristu: kujisunga, ukavu (panji lusungu lwakufikapo), na kupulikira * Malongosoro gha Dango agho Yesu wakapeleka, kuyana na Evangeli ya Mateyu * Lulangulo Lukulu * Dango na Evangeli, ubale pakati pa Dango la Ciuta na Evangeli ya Yesu Khristu, nkhani yikulu mu kasandiro ka Ciuta ka Ŵaluteri na Ŵakonzeka * Dango la Khristu, mazgo gha Paulosi agho ghakung'anamula kutemwa muzengezgani na fundo na malango gha Phangano Liphya gha Yesu Mesiya, agho ng'anamulo yake yikupambana mu magulu na mipingo yakupambana ya Ŵakhristu * Lulangulo Luphya lwa Yesu, kuyana na Evangeli ya Yohane * Wanangwa wa Paulosi pa nthengwa * Dango la cipulikano la Paulosi Mpositole * Ulongozgi wa pa Phiri ukupeleka malango gha nkhalo yiwemi agho kanandi ghakujumpha kulondezga dango kwa kuwaro pera * Kwananga kwambura kugowokereka * Malango gha nyumba gha mu Phangano Liphya, malangulo mu malemba gha ŵapositole Paulosi na Petrosi ku Ŵakhristu ŵa mu maudindo ghakupambana mu nyumba na mu wupu wa ŵanthu == Kasandiro ka Ciuta == * Kususka malango gha Baibolo (''antinomianism'') * Dango la Ciuta, dango lililose ilo likuwoneka kuti likufuma kwa Ciuta panji ŵaciuta, kupambana na malango gha ŵanthu * Ulongozgi wa dango la Ciuta, mtundu wa ulongozgi wa maghanoghano uwo ukuzengeka pa dango la Ciuta == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} 0hohj8p3g6531i14j60qpi98k2px86g 0 34988 124384 123617 2026-11-10T20:18:03Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124384 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dango la mpingo''' ni vilangulo na malongozgero agho ghakupangika na mazaza gha mpingo (ŵalongozgi ŵa mpingo), kuti ghawuse wupu wa Ŵakhristu panji mpingo na ŵanthu ŵake.<ref>Boudinhon, Auguste. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm "Canon Law." ] The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 9 August 2013</ref> Dango la mpingo likusazgapo dango la mukati la mpingo, panji ndondomeko ya ntchito, ilo likuwusa Mpingo wa Katolika (Mpingo wa Cilatini na Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa), Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa na Mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro, na mipingo ya caro ciliconse mu Mipingo ya Angilikani.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Canon Law |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Umo dango la mpingo ili likupangikira, kung'anamulikira, na nyengo zinyake kweruzgikira, vikupambana comene pakati pa magulu agha ghanayi gha mipingo. Mu midawuko yose yitatu, ''canon'' pakwamba likaŵa dango ilo wungano wa mpingo wazomerezga; malango agha ndigho ghakaŵa maziko gha dango la mpingo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Gender in History: Global Perspectives|last=Wiesner-Hanks|first=Merry|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|year=2011|page=37}}</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Mu Cigiriki ''kanon'' (κανών), mu Ciarabu ''qaanoon'' (قانون), mu Ciheberi ''kaneh'' (קָנֶה), "cakunyoloka"; dango, malango, cakwenelera, panji cakupimira; ng'anamulo ya muzu mu viyowoyero vyose ivi ni "bango".<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Canon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=BENET |first1=SULA |title=Columbus Qaneh/Kaneh Bosm קנה בשם Cannabis Ministry |url=https://www.alignable.com/columbus-in/columbus-kaneh-bosm-ministry/columbus-qaneh-kaneh-bosm-cannabis-ministry |website=Alignable |publisher=Cannabis and Culture," Rubin, Vera & Comitas, Lambros, (eds.) 1975. 39-49 |access-date=April 6, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2583. kanón |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2583.htm |website=Biblehub |access-date=April 16, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Szczesny |first1=Mike |title=[Greek] κανών (kanōn), [Latin] regulae |url=https://resoundingthefaith.com/2018/07/29/%E2%80%8Egreek-%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD-kanon |website=Resounding The Faith |access-date=April 16, 2024 |date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300, Wungano Wakwamba wa Nicaea (325) ukachema malango gha ndondomeko ya mpingo kuti ''canons'': lizgu lakuti ''canon'', κανὠν, mu Cigiriki likung'anamula dango. Kufuma kale comene, pakaŵa kupambana pakati pa malango agho mpingo ukupanga na malango agho caro cikupanga, agho ghakuchemeka ''leges'', "malango" mu Cilatini.<ref name="Metz" /> == Malango gha Ŵapositole == Malango gha Ŵapositole, panji Malango gha Mpingo gha Ŵapositole Ŵakupatulika, ni vilangulo vya mpingo wa kale (85 mu Mpingo wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, 50 mu Mpingo wa Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa) ivyo vikukhwaskana na ulongozgi na ndondomeko ya Mpingo wa Ŵakhristu ŵakwamba, ndipo vyasazgika mu Madango gha Ŵapositole, agho ni cigaŵa ca malemba gha Ŵapapi ŵa Mpingo pambere pa Nicaea.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Shahan|first=Thomas|title=Apostolic Canons|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia|volume= 3|location= New York|publisher= Robert Appleton Company|year=1908|access-date=2024-11-15|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03279a.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sacred-texts.com/chr/ecf/007/0070471.htm|title=The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles|publisher=Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol VII|access-date=2024-11-15}}</ref><ref name="Metz">{{cite encyclopedia| first=René |last=Metz |title= What Is Canon Law?|volume= 80 |encyclopedia= The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Section VIII: The Organization of the Church. |year= 1960 |publisher= Hawthorn Books Inc|location= New York}}</ref> == Mpingo wa Katolika == Mu Mpingo wa Katolika, dango la mpingo ni ndondomeko ya malango na fundo za dango izo zikupangika na kulondezgeskeka na ŵalongozgi ŵa mpingo kuti zilongozge kapangikiro na ulongozgi wa mpingo wa kuwaro, na kunozga na kulongozga vyakucita vya Ŵakatolika ku cilato ca mpingo.<ref name="Ramstein">{{cite book|title=Manual of Canon Law|first=Fr. Matthew |last=Ramstein|publisher=Terminal Printing & Pub. Co|year=1948}}, p. 3</ref> Ndiyo ndondomeko ya dango yakwamba ya mazuŵa ghano ya Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa, ndipo ndiyo ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito kwambura kuleka mu caro ca Kumanjiliro gha Zuŵa.<ref>Berman, Harold J. ''Law and Revolution'', pg. 86 & pg. 115</ref><ref name="clinfomain">Dr. Edward N. Peters, [https://canonlaw.info CanonLaw.info Home Page], accessed 2024-11-15</ref><ref>Raymond Wacks, ''Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed.'' (Oxford University Press, 2015) pg. 13.</ref> Mu Mpingo wa Cilatini, malango ghakuŵikika gha mpingo, agho ghakuthemba mwakulunjika panji mwambura kulunjika dango la Ciuta lambura kusinthika panji dango la kawiro, ghakusanga mazaza ghawo, pa malango gha caro cose, kufuma ku wakupanga malango wapacanya (ndiko kuti Papa), uyo wali na mazaza ghose gha kupanga malango, kufiska malango, na kweruzga mwa iyo yekha; apo malango gha vigaŵa ghakusanga mazaza kufuma ku wakupanga malango wapasi.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/cod-iuris-canonici/eng/documents/cic_lib2-cann330-367_en.html#Art._1. Canon 331], 1983 Code of Canon Law</ref> Nkhani za malango agha nzambura kuŵa za fundo zakugomezgeka panji nkhalo yiwemi pera, kweni zikukhwaska umoyo wose wa munthu, ndipo zikujumpha ivyo vikuwonekera nga ni unenesko wakuvumbulika.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vatican Archive |title=Code of Canon Law |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/cod-iuris-canonici/cic_index_en.html |publisher=Vatican.va |access-date=2024-11-15}}</ref> Mpingo wa Katolika ukusazgapo so magulu ghankhondi ghakulu gha mipingo agho ghali mu umoza wakufikapo na Holy See na Mpingo wa Cilatini: * Mipingo ya Mdawuko wa Alexandria, kusazgapo Mpingo wa Katolika wa Ŵakoputi, Mpingo wa Katolika wa Eritrea, na Mpingo wa Katolika wa Ethiopia. * Mdawuko wa Siriya wa Kumanjiliro, kusazgapo Mpingo wa Ŵamaroni, Mpingo wa Katolika wa Siriya, na Mpingo wa Katolika wa Syro-Malankara. * Mpingo wa Mdawuko wa Armenia, kusazgapo Mpingo wa Katolika wa Armenia. * Mipingo ya Mdawuko wa Byzantine, kusazgapo mipingo ya Katolika ya Ŵagiriki ya Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia na Serbia, Hungary, Italiya na Albania, Macedonia, Ŵamelkite, Romania, Russia, Ruthenia, Slovakia, na Ukraine. * Mipingo ya Mdawuko wa Siriya wa Kumafumiro, kusazgapo Mpingo wa Katolika wa Ŵakaldiya na Mpingo wa Syro-Malabar. Magulu ghose agha gha mipingo ghali mu umoza wakufikapo na Papa, ndipo ghali pasi pa Malemba gha Malango gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. === Mbiri, Malo agho Dango Likufumira, na Kulemba Pamoza === [[File:Extract from Burchard of Worms' Decretum.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Mapepala gha ''Decretum'' ca Burchard wa Worms, buku la dango la mpingo la mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000]] Mpingo wa Katolika uli na ndondomeko ya dango ya mukati iyo yikuyowoyeka kuŵa ya kale comene iyo yalutilira kugwira ntchito mu Ulaya ya Kumanjiliro, ya pamanyuma comene kuluska dango la Ŵaroma, kweni yakwambilira kukura kwa midawuko ya [[Dango la Malemba]] ya Ulaya ya mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="White">{{cite web|last=Peters |first= Dr. Edward, JD, JCD, Ref. Sig. Ap. |url=https://canonlaw.info |publisher=CanonLaw.info|title=Home Page}}</ref> Mbiri ya dango la mpingo la Cilatini yingagaŵika mu nyengo zinayi: ''jus antiquum'', ''jus novum'', ''jus novissimum'', na Malemba gha Dango la Mpingo.<ref name="Manual113">Ramstein, pg. 13, #8</ref> Kuyana na Malemba, mbiri yingagaŵika mu ''jus vetus'' (dango lose pambere pa Malemba) na ''jus novum'' (dango la Malemba, panji ''jus codicis'').<ref name=Manual113/> Dango la mpingo la Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, ilo likaŵa na ndondomeko na kacitiro kakupambana, likalembeka pamoza paŵekha, ndipo ici cikiziska Malemba gha Malango gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa agho Papa Yohane Paulosi II wakafumya mu 1990.<ref>{{cite web|author=Blessed John Paul II, Ap. Const.|url=https://archive.org/stream/ApostolicConstitutionSacriCanonesJohnPaulIi1990/Sacri_Canones_Apostolic_Constitution_John_Paul_II_1990#page/n7/mode/2up |title=Apostolic Constitution Sacri Canones John Paul II 1990|year=1990}}</ref> === Dango la Mpingo wa Katolika nga ni Ndondomeko ya Dango === Dango la mpingo la Katolika ni ndondomeko ya dango yakukura makola, iyo yili na vyose ivyo vikukhumbikwa: mphara, ŵimiliri ŵa milandu, ŵeruzgi, malemba gha dango ghakufikapo, fundo za kung'anamulira dango, na vilango vyakukakizga, nangauli lilije nkhongono ya kukakizga mu madera ghanandi gha mazaza ghambura cisopa.<ref>Ramstein, pg. 49</ref> Ciyelezgero cimoza cha kususkana pakati pa dango lambura cisopa na dango la mpingo cikaŵa mu ndondomeko ya dango ya Ungelezi, na ndondomeko zinyake, nga ni ya United States, izo zikafuma ku iyo. Kuno ŵakunanga ŵakapempheranga wanangwa wa ŵasofi. Kuŵa musofi, panji kujiyowoya mwautesi kuŵa musofi, kukang'anamula kuti wakunanga wangasankha kweruzgika mu mphara za mpingo m'malo mwa mphara zambura cisopa. Mphara za mpingo kanandi zikaŵa na lusungu comene. Pasi pa ŵafumu ŵa Tudor, wanangwa uwu wa ŵasofi ukacepeskeka pacoko pacoko na Henry VII, Henry VIII, na Elizabeth I. Ŵapapa ŵakasuskanga mazaza gha mphara zambura cisopa pa milandu ya ŵasofi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clericale privilegium |url=https://www.lsd.law/define/clericale-privilegium |website=LSD Law |access-date=19 October 2024}}</ref> Wanangwa wa ŵasofi ukawuskika pacoko pacoko mu ndondomeko za dango za Ungelezi mu vyaka 200 vyakulondezgapo, nangauli ukacitika so ku South Carolina mu 1855. Mu Dango la Ungelezi, kagwiliskiro ka nthowa iyi, iyo pa nyengo iyo yikaŵa nkhani ya dango yakupangika pa ŵakunanga ŵakwamba, kakawuskika na Dango la Ukana-malango la 1827. Madigri gha masambiro mu dango la mpingo la Katolika ni J.C.B. (''Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus'', Digri Yakwamba ya Dango la Mpingo), J.C.L. (''Juris Canonici Licentiatus'', Digri ya Wanangwa wa Dango la Mpingo), na J.C.D. (''Juris Canonici Doctor'', Digri ya Dokotala wa Dango la Mpingo). Cifukwa ca kuŵa kasandiro kapadera, madigri ghapacanya mu Dango la Malemba panji mu kasandiro ka Ciuta kanandi ghakukhumbikwa pambere munthu wandasambire dango la mpingo. Kalembero kanandi ka malango gha dango la mpingo la Katolika kakafuma ku Malemba gha Ŵaroma gha Justinian. Ntheura, mphara za mpingo za Ŵaroma kanandi zikulondezga nthowa ya dango la Ŵaroma la Ulaya, na kusintha kucoko, ndipo zili na magulu gha ŵeruzgi na nthowa ya kweruzga ya kupenduzga, yakuchemeka "inquisitorial", kufuma ku Cilatini ''inquirere'', "kufumba". Ici cikupambana na nthowa ya kususkana iyo yili mu [[Dango la Viweruzgo]] la Ungelezi na United States, ilo lili na vinthu nga ni mawupu gha ŵakweruzga na mweruzgi yumoza. Mawupu na kacitiro ka dango la mpingo la Katolika vikakura pamoza na dango la vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya, ntheura Dango la Malemba la mazuŵa ghano na Dango la Viweruzgo vyose viŵiri vili na vyakukhwaska vya dango la mpingo. Nga umo Edson Luiz Sampel, mumanyi wa ku Brazil wa dango la mpingo la Katolika, wakuyowoyera, dango la mpingo lili mu kwambilira kwa vigaŵa vinandi vya Dango la Malemba, nga ni dango la Ulaya na la vyaro vya Amerika ya Ŵalatini. Mwambura kulunjika, dango la mpingo likukhwaska comene wupu wa ŵanthu wa mazuŵa ghano.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/canon-law "canon law."] Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 9 August 2013.</ref> Fundo zakusacizga za kasandiro ka malango ka dango la mpingo la Katolika kanandi zikulondezga fundo za kasandiro ka vinjeru ka dango ka Aristotle na Thomas Aquinas.<ref name=White/> Nangauli lizgu lakuti "dango" likulongosoreka yayi mu Malemba gha Dango la Mpingo la Katolika, Katekisima wa Mpingo wa Katolika ukuyowoya mazgo gha Aquinas pa kulongosora dango kuŵa "lulangulo lwa vinjeru ku uwemi wa ŵanthu wose, ulo lwafumyika na uyo wakulongozga wupu", ndipo ukulisandura kuŵa "dango la nkhalo ilo lapangika na mazaza ghakwenelera ku uwemi wa ŵanthu wose".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jgray.org/comps/book1.html |publisher=JGray.org |first=Msgr. Jason |last=Gray |access-date=2024-11-15|title=Home Page}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P6X.HTM |work=Catechism of the Catholic Church|title= In Brief §1976|year=2006|quote=''Summa Theologica'' I-II, 90, 4|publisher=USCCB Publishing|isbn=9781574557251}}</ref><ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', The Moral Law§1951</ref> === Malemba gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa === Dango la Mipingo ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa iyo yili mu umoza wakufikapo na Papa wa Roma likaŵa pafupifupi nga ni la Mpingo wa Cilatini pambere 1917; pakaŵa kupambana kukulu kwa malango mu Mipingo yakupambana ya Katolika ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Waliyose ukaŵa na dango lake lapadera, umo mdawuko ukacali kuŵa wakuzirwa. Kupambana kukulu mu Ulaya ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, comene mu mipingo ya Ortodokisi ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, kukaŵa pa kupatukana kwa nthengwa. Kupatukana kwa nthengwa kukamba kuzomerezgeka pacoko pacoko pa vyakucitika vinyake, nga ni ureŵi, kunozgera munthu nkhaza, kumuleka, kutondeka kugonana, na kuleka kubaba, ivyo vikaŵa vifukwa vikulu vya kupatukana. Pamanyuma, mpingo ukamba kuzomerezga kutorana so (kwa ŵatoranyi wose ŵaŵiri) pamanyuma pa kupatukana.<ref name=":0" /> Mu 1929 Pius XI wakaphalira Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa khumbo lake la kupanga Malemba gha Mpingo wose wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa. Kufumyika kwa Malemba agha gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa pa dango la ŵanthu kukacitika pakati pa 1949 na 1958, kweni kukamalizgika pafupifupi vyaka 30 pamanyuma.<ref>"In 1959, John XXIII, announced for the first time his decision to reform the existing corpus of canonical legislation"https://www.vatican.va/archive/cod-iuris-canonici/cic_index_en.html</ref><ref name=Metz /> Malemba ghakwamba gha Dango la Mpingo (1917) ghakaŵa gha Mpingo wa Cilatini pera, ndipo ghakagwiranga ntchito ku Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa "pa nkhani izo zikukhwaskana na kawiro kawo" pera.<ref>Canon 1, 1917 Code of Canon Law.</ref> Pamanyuma pa Wungano Waciŵiri wa Vatican (1962–1965), Vatican yikapanga Malemba gha Malango gha Mipingo ya Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, agho ghakaŵa malemba ghakwamba gha dango la mpingo la Katolika la Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Canon_Law.html|first=Don|last=Ford|title=Canon Law Research Guide|work=GlobaLex|date=June 2007|access-date=2024-11-15}}</ref> == Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa == Mpingo wa Ortodokisi wa Kumafumiro gha Zuŵa, comene kwizira mu ntchito ya mumanyi wa nyumba ya ŵasofi wa ku Athos wa vyaka vya m'ma 1700, Nicodemus wa ku Phiri Lakupatulika, wawunjika malango gha mpingo na malongosoro ghake mu buku lakuchemeka ''Pēdálion'' ("Cakwendeskera ngalawa"), cifukwa likwenera "kwendeska" mpingo mu ndondomeko yake. Fundo zakugomezgeka izo Maungano ghakasimikizga zikwenera kulondezgeka mwakukhwima cifukwa zikuwonekera kuŵa zakuzirwa pa umoza wa mpingo na pa kusunga mwakugomezgeka Evangeli.<ref name="Pastavos">{{cite web|url=https://www.goarch.org/-/the-canonical-tradition-of-the-orthodox-church |title=The Canonical Tradition of the Orthodox Church |publisher=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America |year=2013 |access-date=2024-11-15 |first=Lewis J. |last=Patsavos }}</ref> == Mipingo ya Angilikani == Mu Mpingo wa Ungelezi, mphara za mpingo, izo kale zikeruzganga nkhani zinandi nga ni mphindano za nthengwa, kupatukana kwa nthengwa, vikalata vya vyakuhara, na kunanga mbiri ya munthu, zicali na mazaza pa nkhani zinyake za mpingo (mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko ya ŵasofi, kusintha cuma ca mpingo, na nkhani za malo gha kuŵikamo ŵakufwa gha mpingo). Kupatukana kwawo kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100, apo Ŵanoromani ŵakazipatula ku mphara za vigaŵa zakusazganika za cisopa na zambura cisopa izo Ŵasakisoni ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito. Kupambana na mphara zinyake za Ungelezi, dango ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito pa nkhani za mpingo ni cigaŵa cinyake ca ndondomeko ya Dango la Malemba, Dango la Viweruzgo yayi, nangauli likulongozgeka comene na malango gha mphala. Kufuma pa Kusintha kwa Mpingo, mphara za mpingo mu Ungelezi zaŵa mphara za kalonga. Kusambizga dango la mpingo pa Makwamasambiro Ghakulu gha Oxford na Cambridge kukawuskika na Henry VIII; kufuma apo, ŵakugwira ntchito mu mphara za mpingo ŵakasambiranga Dango la Malemba, ndipo ŵakapokeranga Digri ya Dokotala wa Dango la Malemba (D.C.L.) kufuma ku Oxford, panji Digri ya Dokotala wa Malango (LL.D.) kufuma ku Cambridge. Ŵimiliri ŵa milandu aŵa (ŵakuchemeka "ŵadokotala" na "ŵa Dango la Malemba") ŵakaŵa ku "Doctors' Commons", misewu yicoko kumwera kwa St Paul's Cathedral mu London, apo ŵakaŵa ŵekha pa milandu ya vyakuhara, nthengwa, na nyanja mpaka mazaza ghawo ghakasamizgika ku mphara za Dango la Viweruzgo pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mipingo yinyake ya Angilikani pa caro cose capasi (mwaciyelezgero, Mpingo wa Episcopal mu United States na Mpingo wa Angilikani wa Canada) yicali kugwira ntchito pasi pa ndondomeko zawo za dango la mpingo. Mu 2002, ungano wa ŵapangizgi ŵa malango ku Canterbury ukasimikizga kuti: (1) Pali fundo za dango la mpingo izo mipingo ya Angilikani yikugaŵana; (2) Kuŵapo kwawo kungasimikizgika; (3) Cigaŵa ciliconse panji mpingo uliwose ukuwovwira kwizira mu ndondomeko yake ya dango ku fundo za dango la mpingo izo mipingo yikugaŵana; (4) Fundo izi zili na mazaza ghakulu gha kunyengelera, ndipo ngakuzirwa ku umo mpingo uliwose ukujipulikiskira; (5) Fundo izi zili na nkhongono yamoyo, ndipo zingakura so; na (6) Kuŵapo kwa fundo izi kukulongora na kukhozga umoza wa mipingo.<ref>Doe, Norman, "The Contribution of Common Principles of Canon to Ecclesial Communion in Anglicanism", [https://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/124862/AC-Principles-of-Canon-Law.pdf ''The Principles of Canon Law Common to the Churches of the Anglican Communion''], London: The Anglican Communion Office, 2008, p. 97.</ref> == Mipingo ya Presbiteriya na ya Ŵakonzeka == Mu mipingo ya Presbiteriya na ya Ŵakonzeka, dango la mpingo likuchemeka "kacitiro na ndondomeko" panji "ndondomeko ya mpingo", ndipo likusazgapo malango gha mpingo pa ulongozgi wake, ndondomeko, kacitiro ka dango, na kusopa. Dango la mpingo la Ŵaroma likasuskika na Ŵapresbiteriya kale mu 1572 mu ''Admonition to Parliament''. Kususka uku kukaŵa pa cifukwa ico ŵanthu ŵakapelekanga cakuti dango la mpingo lingasungika para likususkana na dango lambura cisopa yayi. Kuyana na Polly Ha, ulongozgi wa mpingo wa Ŵakonzeka ukakana ici, ukuyowoya kuti ŵabishopu ŵakaŵa kuti ŵalondezgeska dango la mpingo kwa vyaka 1500.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWDMb0sW-hoC&pg=PA34 |title=English Presbyterianism, 1590-1640 |isbn=9780804759878 |access-date=2013-08-09 |last=Ha |first=Polly |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2010}}</ref> == Ciluteri == Buku la Kuzomerezgana ni malongosoro gha kale gha fundo zakugomezgeka za Mpingo wa Ŵaluteri, ilo lili na vikalata khumi vya cipulikano ivyo vyazomerezgeka mu Ciluteri kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.<ref>Bente, Friedrich., ed. and trans., ''Concordia Triglotta'', (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1921), p. i</ref> Kweni Buku la Kuzomerezgana ni cikalata ca kuzomerezga cipulikano, buku la malango gha mpingo panji ndondomeko yayi, nga ni dango la mpingo. Mpingo uliwose wa Ŵaluteri wa caro ukujiŵikira ndondomeko yake ya mpingo, nangauli malango agha ghakuchemeka "canons". == Mpingo wa United Methodist == Buku la Ndondomeko lili na malango, malamulo, ndondomeko, na malongozgero gha Mpingo wa United Methodist. Mtundu wake waumaliro ukafumyika mu 2024. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} hpuanfx89jdhmlc55zi8no01xp7xmdj 0 35543 124432 123379 2026-11-11T03:01:26Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124432 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in East Africa}} {{Redirect|Sudanese Republic|other uses|Sudan (disambiguation)}} {{Distinguish|Sudan (region)|the Sudans}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Sudan | common_name = Sudan | native_name = {{native name|ar|جمهورية سودان|italics=off}}<br />''{{transliteration|ar|Jumhūriyyat Sūdān}}'' | image_flag = Flag of Sudan.svg | flag_type = [[Flag of Sudan|Flag]] | religion_year = 2020 | image_coat = Emblem of Sudan.svg | symbol_type = [[Emblem of Sudan|Chidindo cha boma]] | national_motto = {{lang|ar|النصر لنا}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|an-Naṣr lanā}}<br />"Victory is ours" | national_anthem = {{lang|ar|نحن جند الله، جند الوطن}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|[[Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan|Naḥnu jund Allah, jund al-waṭan]]}}<br />"We are the soldiers of God, the soldiers of the Nation"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Sudanese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band (instrumental).oga]]}} | image_map = File:Sudan (orthographic projection) highlighted.svg | map_caption = Sudan displayed in dark green color, claimed territories in light green | image_map2 = | capital = [[Khartoum]] | coordinates = {{coord|15.5007|N|32.5599|E|type:city_region:SD}} | largest_city = [[Omdurman]] | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Arabic]]|[[English_language|English]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |79% [[Sudanese Arab]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/| title = People and Society CIA world factbook| date = 10 May 2022| access-date = 7 June 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/| archive-date = 11 January 2021}}</ref> |5.5% [[Beja people|Beja]] |2.5% [[Nuba peoples|Nuba]] |2% [[Fur people|Fur]] |2% [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf| title = الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء}}</ref> |1% [[Hausa people|Hausa]] |0.5% [[Fula people|Fulani]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11774/SU| title = Sudanese Fulani in Sudan}}</ref> |17.3% [[Demographics of Sudan|other]] }} | government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] republic under a [[military junta]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gavin |first1=Michelle |title=Junta and Public at Odds in Sudan |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/junta-and-public-odds-sudan |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=8 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Jack |title=Analysis: Year post-coup, cracks in Sudan's military junta |url=https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-africa-cairo-sudan-democracy-2b87ee19685ec2667ac05acff8b4ed9e |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=23 October 2022 |location=[[Cairo, Egypt]]}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Transitional Sovereignty Council]] | leader_name1 = {{indented plainlist| *[[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] (Chairman) *[[Malik Agar]] (Deputy chairman) }} {{Collapsible list |title=Others<ref>{{cite news |title=Sudan coup leader restores restructured Sovereignty Council |url=https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/sudan-coup-leader-restores-restructured-transitional-sovereignty-council |access-date=26 March 2023 |work=[[Radio Dabanga]] |date=11 November 2021 |location=[[Khartoum]]}}</ref> |bullets = true |1=Shams al-Din Khabbashi |2=Yasser al-Atta |3=Ibrahim Jabir Karim |5=El Hadi Idris Yahya |6=El Tahrir Abubakr Hajar |7=[[Raja Nicola]] |8=Abdulgasim Bortom |9=Yousef Jad Karim |10=Abdelbagi al-Zubeir |11=Salma Abdeljabbar }} | leader_title2 = [[List of heads of government of Sudan|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = {{indented plainlist|*[[Osman Hussein (politician)|Osman Hussein]] (acting)}} | legislature = [[Transitional Legislative Council (Sudan)|Transitional Legislative Council]] | religion = {{ublist||90.7% [[Islam in Sudan|Islam]] |5.5% [[Christianity in Sudan|Christianity]] |3.5% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional Faiths]] |1.0% [[Religion in Sudan|Others]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History of Sudan|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Kerma culture|Kingdom of Kerma]] | established_date1 = 2500 BC | established_event2 = [[Kingdom of Kush]] | established_date2 = 1070 BC | established_event3 = [[Mahdist State]] | established_date3 = 1885 | established_event4 = [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium]] | established_date4 = 1899 | established_event5 = Independence from the United Kingdom and the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] | established_date5 = 1 January 1956 | established_event6 = Secession of [[South Sudan]] | established_date6 = 9 July 2011 | established_event7 = [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|2019 coup d'état]] | established_date7 = 11 April 2019 | established_event8 = [[2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy#Draft Constitutional Declaration|2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration]] effective | established_date8 = 20 August 2019 | established_event9 = [[2021 Sudan coup d'état|2021 coup d'état]] | established_date9 = 25 October 2021 | area_km2 = 1886068 | area_rank = 15th | area_sq_mi = 728215 | percent_water = | population_estimate = 49,197,555<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Sudan|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 30th | population_density_km2 = 21.3 | population_density_sq_mi = 55.3 | population_density_rank = 202nd | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}}$207.7&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= 23 December 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 71st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}}$4,450<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151st | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}}$42.7&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 96th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}}$916<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 171st | Gini = 34.2 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2014 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.508 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 172nd | currency = [[Sudanese pound]] | currency_code = SDG | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy <!--numeric dates (dd-mm-yyyy, yyyy.mm.dd, etc.) plus era (AD, AH, etc.)--> | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[+249]] | iso3166code = SD | cctld = [[.sd]]<br />[[سودان.]] | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=National Profiles |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=211c |access-date=8 October 2022 |website=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref> | demonym = [[Demographics of Sudan|Sudanese]] }} '''Sudan''' ([[Chingelezi]]: /suːˈdɑːn/ panji /suːˈdæn/; Arabic: سودان, romanized: Sūdān), mwalamulo '''Republic of Sudan''' (Arabic: جمهورية سودان, romanized: Jumhūriyyat Sūdān), ni chalo icho chili ku [[North East Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Central African Republic]], kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Chad, kumpoto kwa [[Egypt]], kumpoto kwa [[Eritrea]], kumwera kwa [[Ethiopia]], kumwera kwa [[Libya]], kumwera kwa [[South Sudan]], na ku [[Nyanja Yiswesi]]. Mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 45.7 miliyoni<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan-population/ |title=Sudan Population 2021 (Live) |website=worldpopulationreview.com |access-date=26 July 2021 }}</ref> Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), ndipo ntchigaŵa chachitatu mu Africa. Charu ichi chikaŵa chikuru chomene pa vyaru vya mu [[Afilika|Africa]] na vyaru vya [[Arab League]] m'paka apo South Sudan yikapatukira mu 2011. Msumba wake ukuru ni Khartoum, ndipo msumba wake ukuru ni [[Omdurman]]. Mbiri yikulongora kuti Ufumu wa Kerma (c. 2500-1500 B.C.E.), Ufumu Waphya wa Eguputo (c. 1500 BC~1070 BC), na Ufumu wa Kush (c. 785 BC~350 AD). Pamanyuma pakuti Kush wabwangandulika, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakamba kulamulira mu maufumu ghatatu gha Ŵakhristu gha Nobatia, Makuria, na Alodia. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Sudan. Kwambira mu ma 1500 m'paka m'ma 1800, chigaŵa chapakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Funj, apo Darfur wakaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo Ottomans kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu 1811, Mamluks ŵakakhazikiska boma ku Dunqulah, ilo likaŵa likuru la malonda gha ŵazga. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Ŵaeguputo na Ŵaturuki mu charu cha Sudan, mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto na kumwera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Terence |url=https://oxfordre.com/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-8 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 |chapter=Egyptian‐Sudanese Trade in the Ottoman Period to 1882 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.8}}</ref> Kwambira mu ma 1800, caru cose ca Sudan cikathereskeka na Ŵaegupto awo ŵakalongozgekanga na ufumu wa Muhammad Ali. Nkhondo iyi yikati yacitika, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo na Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Egypt|Eguputo]]. Mu 1899, ku Britain, Eguputo wakazomera kugaŵana mazaza pa Sudan na Britain. Nakuti charu cha Sudan chikaŵa pasi pa Britain.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henehan |first=Alva D. Jr.|title=For Want Of A Camel: The Story of Britain's Failed Sudan Campaign, 1883–1885|date=2016|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=978-1-4787-6562-2|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=1007048089}}</ref>Nkhondo ya ku Eguputo ya mu 1952 yikawuskapo muwuso wa ufumu ndipo yikati ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵafumemo mu Eguputo na Sudan. Muhammad Naguib, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵaciŵiri ŵa cigaluka ici, ndiposo pulezidenti wakwamba wa Egupto, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Sudan ndipo wakakulira mu Sudan, wakaŵika pakwamba kuti boma la Sudan liŵe na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Chaka chakulondezgapo, ku Eguputo na ku Sudan, United Kingdom yikakolerana na ivyo Eguputo wakakhumbanga. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1956, charu cha Sudan chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Boma la Jaafar Nimeiry likamba kulamulira charu cha Sudan. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pakati pa boma la kumpoto kwa caru ici, na ŵavisopa vya [[Cisilamu]] na Ŵakhristu ŵa kumwera. Nkhondo iyi yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma, awo ŵakakolerananga na gulu la National Islamic Front (NIF), na ŵakugaluka ŵa ku South Sudan, awo gulu lawo likuru chomene ni Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA).<ref>Collins, Robert O. (2008). ''A History of Modern Sudan''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-85820-5}}.</ref> Pakati pa 1989 na 2019, muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa vyaka 30 uwo ukalongozgekanga na Omar al-Bashir ndiwo ukalamuliranga Sudan ndipo ukachitanga viheni vinandi pa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kutambuzga, kutambuzga ŵanthu ŵachoko waka, kutemwera vigeŵenga pa caru cose, na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Darfur kwambira mu 2003 mpaka 2020. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti boma ili likakoma ŵanthu pakati pa 300,000 na 400,000. Chiwonetsero chinabuka mu 2018, chofuna kuti Bashir achoke, zomwe zinapangitsa kuti boma liwonongeke pa 11 April 2019 ndipo Bashir anamangidwa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/10/world/africa/omar-al-bashir---fast-facts/index.html|title=Omar al-Bashir Fast Facts|website=CNN|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> Chisilamu chikaŵa chisopa cha boma la Sudan ndipo malango gha Chisilamu ghakaŵako kwambira mu 1983 m'paka mu 2020 apo charu chikazgoka charu cha charu.<ref name="sudan.gov.sd">{{cite web |title=عن السودان |url=http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902160838/http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=14 July 2017 |language=Arabic}}</ref> Sudan ni yimoza mwa vyaru vyakutukuka yayi ndipo yili pa malo 172 pa Human Development Index mu 2022. Chuma chake chimadalira kwambiri ulimi chifukwa cha ziletso zapadziko lonse lapansi komanso kudzipatula, komanso mbiri yakusakhazikika kwamkati ndi ziwawa zamagulu. Charu chose cha Sudan ntchakomira ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 35 peresenti mbakavu. Charu cha Sudan chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Arab League, African Union, COMESA, Movement of Non-Aligned and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. ==Kwiza kwa zina== Zina lakuti Sudan ni zina ilo likapelekeka ku chigaŵa chikuru cha Sahel, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Sudan. Pakwamba, zina lakuti Sudan likang'anamuranga chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kufupi na nyanja ya Atlantic kufuma ku Senegal m'paka kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Zina ili lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chiarabu lakuti bilād as-sūdān (بلاد السودان), panji "Charu cha Ŵachibulumutira".<ref>{{citation |author=International Association for the History of Religions |title=Numen |publisher=EJ Brill |place=Leiden |year=1959 |page=131 |quote=West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the West to the Cameroons in the East; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the ''Bilad as-Sūdan'', 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs}}</ref> Ili ni zina linyake la malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pambere ivi vindachitike, Ŵaeguputo ŵakale ŵakachemanga charu cha Sudan kuti Nubia na Ta Nehesi panji Ta Seti. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Sudan}} === Charu cha Sudan (pambere c. 8000 B.C.E.) === [[File:Western Deffufa - Kerma.jpg|thumb|Tempile likuru la mathabwa, lakucemeka Deffufa wa ku Western, mu msumba wakale wa Kerma]] [[File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Linga la Buhen, la mu Ufumu wapakati, likazengekaso mu Ufumu uphya (pafupifupi 1200 BC)]] Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vyakukhora vya mathipa, ndipo ŵakalondezganga vyakurya na viŵeto.<ref name=locearlyhist>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/sudan |title=Sudan A Country Study |publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as [[R12 (cemetery)|R12]]. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries which became the [[Kingdom of Kush]] (with the capital at Kerma) at 1700 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.<ref name="Keita, S.O.Y. 1993 129–54">{{cite journal|title = Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships| author = Keita, S.O.Y. |year = 1993| journal=History in Africa|volume=20| issue = 7 |pages=129–54|jstor=317196|doi = 10.2307/3171969| s2cid = 162330365 }}</ref> === Ufumu wa Kush (c. 1070 BC~350 AD) === {{main|Ufumu wa Kush|Ufumu wa Ŵaeguputo wa 25}} [[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG|thumb|[[Nubian pyramids]] ku [[Meroë]]]] [[File:Xerxes detail Ethiopian.jpg|thumb|Msilikari wa ku Kušiya wa ŵasilikari ŵa Achaemenid, c. 480 B.C.E. Ivyo vili pa dindi la Xerxes I.]] Ufumu wa Kush ukaŵa ufumu wakale wa ku Nubia uwo ukaŵa pa malo agho mukakumananga Mlonga wa Blue Nile na White Nile, kweniso Mlonga wa Atbarah na Nile. Likakhazikiskika mu nyengo ya Bronze apo ufumu uphya wa Eguputo ukamara. Fumu Kashta ("Mkhushite") yikati yaluta ku Eguputo mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., mathemba gha Kushite ghakawusa nga ni mafaro gha muwuso wa Ŵaeguputo wa vyaka pafupifupi 100 pambere Ŵaasiriya ŵandaŵathereske. Pa nyengo iyo Ŵakushi ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene, ŵakathereska ufumu uwo ukafumanga ku caru ico sono cikucemeka South Kordofan m'paka ku Sinayi. Farawo Piye wakayezga kusazgirako ufumu wake mu vyaru vya ku Near East, kweni themba la ku Asiriya, Sarigoni II, likamutondeska. Pakati pa 800 B.C.E. na 100 C.E. ŵakazenga mapiramidi gha Nubian, pakati pawo pali El-Kurru, Kashta, Piye, Tantamani, Shabaka, mapiramidi gha Gebel Barkal, mapiramidi gha Meroe (Begarawiyah), mapiramidi gha Sedeinga, na mapiramidi gha Nuri.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Takacs |first1=Sarolta Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&q=%22in+fact%2C+there+are+twice+as+many+Nubian+pyramids%22&pg=PA15 |title=The Ancient World |last2=Cline |first2=Eric H. |date=17 July 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-45839-5 |language=en}}</ref> Baibolo likuyowoya za ufumu wa Kush kuti ndiwo ukaponoska Ŵaisrayeli ku ukali wa Ŵaasiriya. Nkhondo iyo yikacitika pakati pa Farawo Taharqa na Senakeribu themba la Asiriya yikaŵa yakuzirwa comene mu mbiri ya caru ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Esarihadoni, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Senakeribu, wakaluta patali comene ndipo wakawukira Egupto kuti wawuske caru ca Levant. Wakacita nthena cifukwa wakacimbizga Taharqa mu caru ca Lower Egypt. Taharqa wakachimbilira ku Upper Egypt na Nubia, uko wakafwira pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri. Ŵaegupto ŵakamba kulamulirika na Ŵaasiriya, kweni ŵakaleka kupulikira. Kufuma apo, themba Tantamani, ilo likakanjira mu malo gha Taharqa, likayezgapo kaumaliro kupoka caru ca Lower Egypt kwa Neko I, uyo wakaŵa kuti wawelerapo ku ufumu wake. Wakathereska msumba wa Memfisi na kukoma Neko. Ashurbanipal, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Esarhaddon, wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku Egupto kuti ŵakambeso kuwusa. Wakathereska Tantamani kufupi na Memfisi ndipo wakati wamulondezga, wakapoka msumba wa Thebes. Nangauli Ŵaasiriya ŵakafumako mwaluŵiro ku Upper Egypt pamanyuma pa vinthu ivi, kweni Thebes wakajipeleka kwa Psamtik I, mwana wa Neko. Ici cikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Nubia uleke kuwuskika, ndipo ukalutilira kuŵa ufumu ucoko uwo ukaŵa ku Napata. Msumba uwu ukaparanyika na Ŵaeguputo ca. 590 B.C.E., ndipo nyengo yichoko waka pamanyuma paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 300 B.C.E., Ŵakushi ŵakasamukira ku Meroë.<ref name=Kelsey>{{cite book|chapter=A Cultural History of Kush: Politics, Economy, and Ritual Practice|url=https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/kelsey-assets/kelsey-publications/pdfs/Graffiti-as-Devotion.pdf|title=Graffiti as Devotion along the Nile and Beyond|last1=Emberling|first1=Geoff|last2=Davis|first2=Suzanne|publisher=[[Kelsey Museum of Archaeology]]|date=2019|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=5–6, 10–11|isbn=978-0-9906623-9-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh4GBNLsCUsC|title=Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology|last=Connah|first=Graham|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=2004|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=52–53|isbn=0-415-30590-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Semantic Shift on a Geographical Term|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bible-translator_1998-07_49_3/page/323|last=Unseth|first=Peter|journal=[[The Bible Translator]]|date=1 July 1998|volume=49|issue=3|pages=323–324|doi=10.1177/026009359804900302|s2cid=131916337}}</ref> ===Medieval Christian Nubian kingdoms (c. 350–1500)=== {{main|Nobatia|Makuria|Alodia|Daju kingdom}} [[File:Christian Nubia.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Maufumu ghatatu gha Cikhristu gha ku Nubia. Mphaka ya kumpoto ya Alodia yikumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni yikwenera kuti yikaŵa kumpoto, pakati pa chigodobu chachinayi na chachisanu cha Nile.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=26}}]] Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E., Ŵablemmyes ŵakakhazikiska ufumu uwo ukakhala nyengo yichoko waka mu Upper Egypt na Lower Nubia, ndipo panyake ukaŵa kuzingilizga Talmis (Kalabsha). Kweni pambere chaka cha 450 C.E. chindafike, Ŵanobatiya ŵakaŵachimbizga kale mu Dambo la Nayelo. Paumaliro ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kuwusa mu ufumu wawo wa Nobatia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E., pakaŵa maufumu ghatatu gha ku Nubia: Nobatia kumpoto, ilo likaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Pachoras (Faras); ufumu wapakati, Makuria uwo ukaŵa ku Tungul (Old Dongola), makilomita 13 kumwera kwa Dongola; na Alodia, uwo ukaŵa mu ufumu wakale wa Kushitic, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Soba (uno ni tawuni ya Khartoum). Ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E., panyake pakati pa 628 na 642, Nobatia wakazgoka chigaŵa cha Makuria.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=77}} Pakati pa 639 na 641, Ŵaarabu ŵa mu ufumu wa Rashidun ŵakathereska charu cha Byzantium. Mu 641 panji 642 kweniso mu 652 ŵakanjira mu Nubia, kweni ŵakaŵachimbizga. Pamanyuma, fumu ya Makuria na Ŵaarabu ŵakakolerana kuti ŵaleke kuwukira caru cawo. Nangauli Ŵaarabu ŵakatondeka kuthereska Nubia, kweni ŵakamba kukhala kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=77–78}} [[File:Queen Mother Repeatedly Mistaken as King.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Mozesi George, fumu ya Makuria na Alodia]] Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 700 m'paka m'ma 1100, ufumu wa Chikhristu wa Nubia ukaŵa na nkhongono chomene. Mu 747, Makuria wakawukira Eguputo, uyo pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa wa Ŵaumaliyadi, ndipo wakawuskaso ufumu uwu mu ma 960, apo ukafika kumpoto kwa Akhmim. Makuria wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na Alodia, ndipo panji ici cikapangiska kuti maufumu ghaŵiri agha ghaŵe ufumu umoza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo yakale ŵakachemekanga "Afro-Byzantine", kweni ŵakakhwaskikanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia. Gulu la boma ili likaŵa lapakati chomene, ndipo likajintha pa ŵamazaza ŵa ku Byzantine ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenta vinthu vya ku dongo, chomenechomene vithuzithuzi vya ku viliŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakalemba vilembo vya chiyowoyero chawo, Old Nobiin, ivyo vikajintha pa vilembo vya Chigiriki, Chigiriki, Chigiriki, na Chiarabu. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na udindo wapachanya: ŵakasambiranga, ŵakaguranga, kugura na kuguliska malo, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chuma chawo kuti ŵapeleke ndalama ku matchalitchi. Nanga mphapu ya fumu yingaŵa ya mu mbumba ya amama ŵake, ndipo mwana wa mudumbu wa fumu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa muhaliri. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100 na 1200, msumba ukuru wa Makuria, Dongola, ukamba kuchepa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, mafuko gha Ŵabedouin ghakaŵa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Sudan, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Butana, Gezira, Kordofan, na Darfur. Mu 1365, nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Makuria kuti ŵachimbilire ku Gebel Adda ku Lower Nubia. Kufuma apo, Makuria wakalutilira kuŵa ufumu ucoko waka. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo themba Joel likawusira, charu cha Makuria chikamara. Malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja kufuma kumwera kwa Sudan m'paka ku tawuni ya Suakin ghakaŵa gha Adal Sultanate mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Kumwera, ufumu wa Alodia ukathereskeka na Ŵaarabu, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Abdallah Jamma, panji Funj, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafuma kumwera. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. (c. 1396~1494 C.E.), mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., 1504 m'paka 1509. Ufumu wa alodian ungapona mu ufumu wa Fazughli, uwo ukakhalapo m'paka mu 1685.{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|pp=12–30}} === Ufumu wa Sennar na Darfur (c. 1500–1821) === {{main|Sultanate of Sennar|Tunjur kingdom|Sultanate of Darfur}} [[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|Mzikiti ukuru wa Sennar, uwo ukazengeka mu 17th century{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]] Mu 1504 Ŵafunj ŵakakhazikiska Ufumu wa Sennar, uwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha Abdallah Jamma. Mu 1523, apo Muyuda munyake zina lake David Reubeni wakaluta ku Sudan, caru ca Funj cikafika ku Dongola. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Nile ŵakamba kupharazga vya cisopa ca Cisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakalutilira kusunga mitheto iyo yikaŵa ya chisopa chautesi, nga nkhutora ufumu wa Chiuta panji kumwa moŵa m'paka mu 1800. Chisilamu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan chikasungilira maluso ghanandi agho ghakafuma ku Chikhristu m'paka sono.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177–184}} Mwaluŵiro Ŵafunj ŵakanjira mu nkhondo na Ŵaotomu, awo ŵakakora Suakin mu 1526 ndipo pamasinda ŵakaluta kumwera mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, m'paka ŵakafika ku chigaŵa chachitatu mu 1583/1584. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman ŵakayezga kupoka Dongola mu 1585. Pamanyuma pake, Hannik, uyo wakaŵa kumwera kwa nthenda ya katara, ndiyo wakaŵa mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Ŵaotomu, ŵakayezga kupoka ufumu wa Ajib, themba lichoko la kumpoto kwa Nubia. Nangauli Funj ŵakamukoma mu 1611/1612, kweni Abdallab, awo ŵakamulondezganga, ŵakapika mazaza ghakulongozga vinthu vyose kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakukumana. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Funj ukafika paheni chomene, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukamba kuchepa. Kuwukira boma mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti muwuso wa mafuko usinthe, ndipo mu 1761 panji 1762, boma la Hamaj likamba kulamulira. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ufumu uwu ukamba kupasuka; ndipo kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukaŵa waka mu chigaŵa cha Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}[[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|Kumwera kwa Sudan mu c. 1800. Vikuwoneka kuti mazuŵa ghano pali mphaka.]] Kuwukira boma kwa mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulondezga chisopa cha Cisilamu, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵambe kuŵa Ŵarabu. Kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, Funj ŵakamba kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Umayyad. Kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakusanganirana, kufupi na Al Dabbah, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakasankha mtundu wa Aarabu ŵa ku Jaalin. M'paka m'ma 1800, Chiarabu ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero chikuru chomene mu chigaŵa chapakati pa milonga ya Sudan na mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Kordofan. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, ku Darfur, nyengo ya Chisilamu yikati yakwana, ufumu wa Tunjur ukawuka, uwo ukasintha ufumu wakale wa Daju mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ŵakwenera kuti ŵakaŵa Ŵaarabu ŵa mtundu wa Berber ndipo awo ŵakalongozganga ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Fur Keira ukachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur. Boma la Keira, ilo likaŵa la Chisilamu kufuma mu nyengo ya Solomoni Solong (uyo wakawusa mu 1660 m'paka mu 1680), likaŵa ufumu uchoko kumpoto kwa Jebel Marra, kweni likakura kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na kumafumiro gha dazi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Muhammad Tayrab (uyo wakawusa mu 1751 m'paka mu 1786). Ufumu uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene, ndipo ukaŵa ukuru wakuyana na wa Nigeria wa mazuŵa ghano.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} === Turkiyah na Mahdist Sudan (1821-1899) === {{Main|Mbili ya Sudan (1821-1885)|Mahdist Sudan|Kuwukira kwa Anglo-Egypt kwa Sudan}} [[File:Ismail Pacha.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|Ismail Pasha, Khedive wa Ottoman wa Egypt na Sudan kufuma 1863 mpaka 1879]] [[File:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Muhammad Ahmad, muwusi wa Sudan (1881-1885)]] Mu 1821, muwusi wa ku Eguputo, Muhammad Ali, wakawukira na kuwukira kumpoto kwa Sudan. Nangauli Muhammad Ali wakaŵa fumu ya Eguputo mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ottoman, kweni wakajiwonanga kuti ni khedive wa Eguputo. Pakukhumba kuti Sudan nayo waŵe chigaŵa chake, wakatuma mwana wake wacitatu Ismail (uyo wakwenera kutimbanizgika yayi na Isma'il Pasha uyo wazunulika kunthazi) kuti wakawuske caru ici, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakaciŵika mu Eguputo. Padera pa Shaiqiya na Darfur sultanate mu Kordofan, ŵakamususka yayi. Mwana wa Ibrahim Pasha, Ismaʻil, ndiyo wakalutilira kuthereska Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, charu cha Sudan chikathereskeka. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Egypt ŵakanozga vinthu vinandi mu caru ca Sudan, comenecomene kumpoto kwa caru ici, comenecomene pa nkhani ya ulimi wa milonga na ulimi wa katoni. Mu 1879, maufumu ghakuru ghakachimbizga Ismail na kwimika mwana wake Tewfik Pasha. Uheni wa Tewfik ukapangiska kuti 'Urabi wagomezge kuti Khedive wafwa. Tewfik wakapempha ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kuti ŵamovwire. Charu cha Sudan chikakhala mu mawoko gha boma la Khedivial, na maboma agho ghakacitanga vinthu mwambura kwenelera ndiposo uheni. Mu nyengo ya Khedivial, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususkika chifukwa cha msonkho ukuru uwo ŵakakhomanga pa milimo yinandi. Malipiro gha msonkho pa visimi vya maji na vyakurya ghakaŵa ghanandi comene mwakuti ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda yawo na viŵeto. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1870, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakasuskanga malonda gha ŵazga ŵakakhwaska chomene chuma cha kumpoto kwa Sudan. Muhammad ibn Abd Allah, Mahdi (Uyo Wakulongozgeka), wakapeleka mwaŵi ku Ansars (ŵalondezgi ŵake) na awo ŵakamupulikira kuti ŵasankhepo yumoza pakati pa kupokelera cisopa ca Ciisilamu panji kukomeka. Ufumu wa Mahdiyah ukakhazikiska malango gha Chisilamu. Pa Ogasiti 12, 1881, pakacitika cinthu cinyake pa cirwa ca Aba, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya Mahdist. Kufuma apo wakapharazgira vya Mahdiyya mu Juni 1881 m'paka apo msumba wa Khartoum ukaparanyikira mu Janyuwale 1885, Muhammad Ahmad wakalongozga nkhondo yakuluska ya nkhondo yakwimikana na boma la Turk-Egypt ku Sudan, ilo likamanyikwanga kuti Turkiyah. Muhammad Ahmad wakafwa pa Juni 22, 1885, myezi 6 pera kufuma apo ŵakathereskera Khartoum. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵake, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, na wovwiri wa Baggara ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sudan, wakathereska ŵakususka ŵanyake na kuŵa mulongozgi wa Mahdiyah. Wakati wakhozga mazaza ghake, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad wakatora udindo wa Khalifa (wakulondezgapo) wa Mahdi, wakambiska boma, ndipo wakasora Ansar (ŵeneawo kanandi ŵakaŵa Baggara) kuŵa ma emirs pa chigaŵa chilichose.[[File:Battle of Omdurman-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Kuthawa kwa Khalifa wati wathereskeka ku Nkhondo ya Omdurman mu 1898]] Mu nyengo ya Mahdiyah, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi mu chigaŵa ichi, chifukwa cha nkhaza izo Khalifa wakachitanga kuti wawuse charu chose. Mu 1887, ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ŵakukwana 60,000 ŵakanjira mu Etiyopiya, ndipo ŵakafika m'paka ku Gondar. Mu Malichi 1889, fumu Yohannes IV ya ku Etiyopiya yikaluta ku Metemma. Kweni Yohannes wakati wafwa pa nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakawerako. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Khalifa, wakayezga kuti wawukire Eguputo mu 1889, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ku Tushkah. Cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa nkhondo ya Ŵaegupto, ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ŵakathera. Ŵa Belgian ŵakalekeska ŵanthu ŵa Mahdi kuwukira Equatoria, ndipo mu 1893, ŵa Italiya ŵakathereska ŵalwani ŵa Ansar ku Agordat (mu Eritrea) na kuŵachichizga kuti ŵafumemo mu Ethiopia. Mu ma 1890, ŵa ku Britain ŵakayezga kuwezgerapo mazaza ghawo pa Sudan, mwantheura ŵakambaso kulamulira mu zina la Khedive wa ku Egypt, kweni mu unenesko ŵakacitanga vinthu nga ni caru ca Britain. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1890, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, France, na Belgium ŵakamba kudokera maji gha Nile. Britain wakafipanga mtima kuti maboma ghanyake ghacitenge vinthu mwambura kwenelera mu Sudan na kupoka malo agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Eguputo. Padera pa fundo za ndyali izi, Britain wakakhumbanga kuti wakhozge Nile kuti waleke kunanga chiziŵa cha Aswan. Herbert Kitchener wakalongozga nkhondo yakwimikana na Mahdist Sudan kufuma mu 1896 mpaka 1898. Nkhondo ya Kitchener yikamalira pa Nkhondo ya Omdurman pa Seputembala 2, 1898. Chaka chimoza pamanyuma, Nkhondo ya Umm Diwaykarat pa 25 November 1899 yikapangiska kuti Abdallahi ibn Muhammad wafwe, ndipo nkhondo ya Mahdist yikamara. ===Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)=== {{Main|Anglo-Egyptian Sudan}} [[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|Nkhondo ya Mahdist yikacitika pakati pa gulu la Ŵasilamu ŵakucemeka Mahdists, awo ŵakathereska caru cose ca Sudan, na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain.]] Mu 1899, Britain na Egypt ŵakakolerana kuti Sudan walongozgekenge na kazembe uyo wakimikika na Eguputo. Nakuti caru ca Sudan cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa boma. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵakukhumbisiska kuti ŵamazge ndondomeko iyo yikamba mu muwuso wa Muhammad Ali Pasha ya kuwunganya Nile Valley pasi pa ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Eguputo. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vya ku Sudan ŵakasuzgikanga kuti ŵamanye mphaka ya charu ichi na Abisini. Mu 1905, mulongozgi wa chigaŵa ichi, Sultan Yambio, wakaleka kurwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain awo ŵakakhalira mu chigaŵa cha Kordofan. Boma la Britain likalutilira kulamulira mu Sudan, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma la Egypt. Mu 1914, boma la Ottoman likati lamara, Sir Reginald Wingate wakatumika ku Sudan mu Disembala. Hussein Kamel wakapharazgika kuŵa Sultan wa ku Egypt na Sudan, nga umo vikaŵira na mubali wake Fuad I. Ŵakalutilira kukhumba boma limoza la ku Egypt na Sudan nanga ni apo ufumu wa Egypt ukasinthika zina kuŵa Ufumu wa Egypt na Sudan, kweni Saad Zaghloul ndiyo wakalutilira kukhuŵara na ivyo ŵakakhumbanga mpaka apo wakafwira mu 1927.{{sfn|Daly|p=346}}[[File:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan camel soldier of the British army.jpg|thumb|right|Msilikari wa ngamila wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain, kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1900]] From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate tMalo gha kumpoto na kumwera. Kukomeka kwa kazembe wa Anglo-Egyptian Sudan ku Cairo ndiko kukacitiska kuti boma la Wafd ilo likasoleka liŵe na ŵasilikari. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri mu msumba wa Khartoum likasinthika zina kuŵa Sudan Defence Force (SDF) ilo likateŵeteranga pasi pa boma la Sudan. Ŵa Wafist ŵakakana fundo yakuti Sarwat Pasha wakhalenge na Austen Chamberlain ku London. Kweni Cairo wakakhumbikwiranga ndalama. Ndalama za boma la Sudan zikafika pachanya mu 1928 pa £6.6 million, pamanyuma pa kusinthasintha kwa Wafdist, na kupoka kwa mphaka za Italy kufuma ku Somaliland, London wakadumura kuchepeska ndalama mu nyengo ya suzgo yikuru. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Britain vikapangiska kuti ku Khartoum kuŵe suzgo la ndalama. Mu Julayi 1936, mulongozgi wa Liberal Constitutional, Muhammed Mahmoud wakanyengelereka kuti wize na nthumwi za Wafd ku London kuti zizakasayine phangano la Anglo-Egypt, "kwamba kwa nyengo yiphya mu ubwezi wa Anglo-Egypt", wakalemba Anthony Eden. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakazomerezgeka kuwelera ku Sudan kuti ŵavikilire cigaŵa ca Canal. Ŵakasanga malo ghakusambizgirako ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakendanga mwakufwatuka mu Eguputo. Ndipouli, likamazga yayi suzgo la ku Sudan: ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan ŵakamba kucitiska kuti boma la msumba uwu liwelere, ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵantchito ŵa ku Germany. Mussolini wakalongosora makora kuti wangakananga yayi kuwukira Abyssinia kwambura kuwukira Eguputo na Sudan. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakanozgekera kuti ŵavikilire cigaŵa ici, ico cikaŵa cakusuzga comene. Mthenga wa ku Britain wakajandizga Italy kuti waleke kukolerana na Egypt na Sudan. Kweni Mahmoud wakaŵa movwiri wa Mufti Mukuru wa ku Yerusalemu.{{sfn|Morewood|pp=164–165}} Boma la Sudan likacitako nkhondo ya ku East Africa. Gulu la Sudan Defence Force likakhazikiskika mu 1925. Mu 1940, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakakora Kassala na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Somaliland. Mu 1942, SDF yikawovwiraso pa nkhondo ya ku Italy iyo yikacitika na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵa Commonwealth. Kazembe waumaliro wa Britain wakaŵa Robert George Howe. Nkhondo ya ku Eguputo iyo yikacitika mu 1952, yikalongora kuti caru ca Sudan capokera wanangwa. Pakumazga muwuso wa ufumu mu 1953, ŵalongozgi ŵaphya ŵa ku Eguputo, Mohammed Naguib, uyo nyina wakaŵa wa ku Sudan, na Gamal Abdel Nasser, ŵakagomezganga kuti nthowa yimoza pera ya kumazgira muwuso wa Britain mu Sudan yikaŵa yakuti Eguputo waleke kujilambika. Kweniso Nasser wakamanyanga kuti cikaŵa cakusuzga kuti Eguputo wambe kuwusa caru cikavu ca Sudan para capokera wanangwa. Kweni ŵa ku Britain ŵakalutilira kovwira mu ndyali na vya ndyali muhaliri wa Mahdist, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, uyo ŵakagomezganga kuti walekelerenge kuyuzgika na Ŵaeguputo kuti charu cha Sudan chiŵe na wanangwa wa kusankha. Rahman wakaŵa wakwenelera kucita nthena, kweni boma lake likaŵa lambura mahara pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵaegupto na Britain wose ŵakamanya kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi, ntheura ŵakasankha kuzomerezga vigaŵa vyose vya Sudan, kumpoto na kumwera kuti viŵe na wanangwa wa kuvota usange vikukhumba kujiyimira paŵekha panji kufumamo kwa Britain.. === Kujiyimira (1956~pano) === {{Main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}} [[File:Sudan independence 2.png|upright=1.05|thumb|Ndembera ya Sudan yikakwezgeka pa ciphikiro ca kujithemba pa 1 Janyuwale 1956 na nduna yikuru Ismail al-Azhari ndipo pakunozgekera mulongozgi wakususka Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub.]] Kuvota kukacitika ndipo pakapangika nyumba ya malango ya demokilase ndipo Ismail al-Azhari wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba na kulongozga boma lakwamba la ku Sudan. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1956, pa ciphikiro capadera ico cikacitikira mu Nyumba ya Ufumu, ndembera za Eguputo na Britain zikakhira ndipo ndembera yiphya ya Sudan, yakuŵa na viyuni, vyamabuluu na vyafipa, yikakwezgeka na nduna yikuru Ismail al-Azhari. Ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitika ndipo pa Meyi 25, 1969, boma likapoka boma laciŵiri. Mulongozgi wa boma, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry, wakazgoka nduna yikuru, ndipo boma liphya likamazga Nyumba ya Malamulo na kukanizga vipani vyose vya ndyali. Mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa Marxist na ŵambura Marxist mukati mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ku muwuso wa ŵasilikari, zikapangiska kuti boma lipoke boma mu July 1971. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghacoko waka, ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Communist ŵakawezgerapo Nimeiry ku mazaza. Mu 1972, phangano la Addis Ababa likawovwira kuti nkhondo ya kumpoto na kumwera yimare. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhondo ya pawenenawene yimare kwa vyaka 10, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ŵakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama pa mulimo wa kuzenga Jonglei Canal. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene kuti maji gha mu chigaŵa cha Upper Nile ghaleke kunjira mu maji, kweniso kuti paleke kuŵa suzgo la vinthu vyakuthupi kweniso kuti paleke kuŵa njara yikuru pakati pa mafuko gha ku malo agha, chomenechomene Dinka. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikati yacitika, caru cawo cikapokeka, kupokeka, na kotcheka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa fuko ili ŵakakomeka pa nkhondo ya pa cikaya iyo yikatora vilimika vyakujumpha 20.[[File:Hashem al Atta, 1971 Sudanese coup d'état.jpg|thumb|[[1971 Sudanese coup d'état]]]] M'paka m'ma 1970, vyakurya vinandi vya ku Sudan vikagwiliskirika ntchito mu charu. Mu 1972, boma la Sudan likamba kutemwera vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo likakhumbanga kuti vyakurya na vyakurya vinyake vifumiskike mu vyaru vinyake. Kweni mu ma 1970, mitengo ya vinthu yikakhira, ndipo vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Sudan. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakunozga vyakurya zikakwera. Mu 1978, IMF yikadumbiskana na boma za ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu. Ici cikakhozga comene vyakurya ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa ku Sudan ŵasuzgikenge comene (wonani ŵanthu ŵa ku Nuba). Mu 1976, gulu la Ansars likayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweni likatondeka. Kweni mu Julayi 1977, Pulezidenti Nimeiry wakakumana na mulongozgi wa Ansar, Sadiq al-Mahdi, ndipo ivi vikajura nthowa yakuti paŵe mtende. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali ŵakafwatulika, ndipo mu Ogasiti, ŵanthu wose ŵakususkana na boma ŵakafwatulika. ====Bashir era (1989–2019)==== [[File:Omar al-Bashir (2017-11-23) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Omar al-Bashir in 2017]] {{further|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)}} Pa Juni 30, 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir wakalongozga boma la nkhondo kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Boma liphya la ŵasilikari likakanizga vyaru vinyake vya ndyali ndipo likambiska dango la chisopa cha Cisilamu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, al-Bashir wakayezga kukanizga magulu gha ŵasilikari, vyaru vya ndyali, na manyuzipepara ghakujiyimira pawekha, kweniso wakakaka ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ndyali na ŵamutolamakani. Pa Okutobala 16, 1993, al-Bashir wakajiŵika kuŵa "Mukuru wa Boma" ndipo wakasesa wupu wa Revolutionary Command Council. Al-Bashir ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza gha kuwusa na kusora malango. Mu 1996, iyo wakaŵa yekha uyo wakaŵa wakwenelera kusankhapo. Charu cha Sudan chikaŵa na chipani chimoza icho chikaŵa pasi pa National Congress Party (NCP). Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, Hassan al-Turabi, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa Nyumba ya Malango, wakawungana na magulu gha chisopa cha Cisilamu ndipo wakachema Osama bin Laden kuti wize mu caru ici. Pamanyuma pake, boma la United States likalemba kuti Sudan ni boma ilo likuwovwira vigeŵenga. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Al-Qaeda ŵaponya mabomba pa ofesi ya ufumiskiri wa ku United States ku Kenya na Tanzania, ŵasilikari ŵa United States ŵakamba ntchito ya Operation Infinite Reach ndipo ŵakakoma fakitare ya Al-Shifa, iyo boma la United States likagomezganga kuti yikupanga vilwero vya vyamizimu. Nkhongono ya Al-Turabi yikamba kuchepa, ndipo ŵanji awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora ŵakayezga kusintha umo charu cha Sudan chikaŵira. Charu ichi chikagwiranga nchito kuti cikhozge ŵakususka ŵake mwa kufumiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Egypt ŵa Islamic Jihad na kukhuŵilizga bin Laden kuti wafumeko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Lawrence|title=The Looming Tower|url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig|url-access=registration|date=2006|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-26608-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig/page/221 221]–223}}</ref>[[File:Government Militia in Darfur.PNG|thumb|Gulu la boma ku Darfur]] Pambere chisankho cha 2000 chindachitike, al-Turabi wakapeleka dango lakukanizga mazaza gha pulezidenti, ndipo al-Bashir wakalangura kuti boma lileke kugwira ntchito. Apo al-Turabi wakaciskanga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kucita nawo phangano na gulu la Sudan People's Liberation Army, al-Bashir wakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukhumba kuwuskapo boma. Hassan al-Turabi ŵakamujalira mu jele mu chaka chenechicho. Mu Febuluwale 2003, gulu la Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) na Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) mu Darfur ŵakanyamura vilwero, ŵakasuska boma la Sudan kuti likusuzga ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakaŵa Ŵarabu yayi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, nkhondo iyi yikucemeka kuti ni kukoma ŵanthu, ndipo Khoti la ku Hague (ICC) lili kupeleka malango ghaŵiri kuti al-Bashir wakomeke. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Janjaweed, ilo likuyowoya Ciarabu, likuyuyulika cifukwa ca vinthu viheni ivyo likucita. Pa 9 Janyuwale 2005, boma likasaina phangano la Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement na Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) na chilato cha kumazga Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan. Wupu wa United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) ukakhazikiskika na UN Security Council Resolution 1590 kuti uwovwire pakugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko iyi. Phangano la mtende likaŵa chakukhumbikwa kuti paŵe referendum ya mu 2011: chilato chake chikaŵa chakuti South Sudan yipatulike.[[File:Southern Sudan Referendum1.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Sudan ŵakulindilira kuvota pa 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum.]] Gulu la Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa Eastern Front. Pambuyo pa mgwirizano wamtendere, malo awo adatengedwa mu February 2004 pambuyo pa kuphatikiza kwa Fulani wamkulu ndi Beja Congress ndi Rashaida Free Lions yaying'ono. Pa Okutobala 14, 2006, boma la Sudan likasaina phangano la mtende na gulu la Eastern Front ku Asmara. Pa Meyi 5, 2006, pakalembeka phangano la mtende la ku Darfur, ilo likakhumbanga kumazga nkhondo iyo yikatora vyaka vitatu. Nkhondo ya Chad na Sudan (2005-2007) yikamba pamanyuma pakuti nkhondo ya Adré yikapangiska kuti Chad yipharazge nkhondo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Sudan na Chad ŵakalembeska phangano ku Saudi Arabia pa 3 May 2007 kuti ŵaleke kurwa nkhondo ya ku Darfur iyo yikaŵa pa mphaka ya makilomita 1,000. Mu Julayi 2007, mu caru ici mukaŵa maji ghanandi agho ghakatimba ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 400,000. Kwambira mu 2009, nkhondo izo zikuchitika pakati pa mafuko gha visopa ku Sudan na South Sudan zakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. ==== Kugaŵa na kuwezgerapo ==== Nkhondo ya ku Sudan ku South Kordofan na Blue Nile mu ma 2010s pakati pa Army of Sudan na Sudan Revolutionary Front yikamba nga nkhukwesana pa chigaŵa cha Abyei icho chili na mafuta ghanandi mu myezi yakulondezgapo pambere South Sudan yindaŵe na wanangwa mu 2011, nangauli yikukolerana na nkhondo ya ku Darfur iyo yili kumalizgika. Ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pake vikacemeka kuti Sudanese Intifada, ndipo vikamara mu 2013 apo al-Bashir wakalayizga kuti wazamusankhikaso yayi mu 2015. Pamanyuma wakaleka kufiska ivyo wakalayizga ndipo wakakhumba kuwuskika mu 2015, ndipo wakawina cifukwa cakuti ŵakususka ŵakazomerezga yayi kuti mavoti ghaŵenge ghakufwatuka yayi. Kuvota kukaŵa kwacoko comene, 46%. Pa January 13, 2017, pulezidenti wa ku United States, Barack Obama, wakalembapo dango ilo likawuskapo vyeruzgo vinandi ivyo boma la Sudan likakanizga. Pa 6 Okutobala 2017, purezidenti wa US Donald Trump wakamazga vyeruzgo vinandi ivyo vikaŵapo pa charu ichi na mafuta, katundu wakunjira na kunjilira mu vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick|last2=Gebre|first2=Samuel|title=Trump Moves to Lift Most Sudan Sanctions|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-06/u-s-lifting-most-sudan-sanctions-on-progress-in-terrorism-fight|access-date=6 October 2017|work=Bloomberg Politics|date=6 October 2017}}</ref> ====2019 Sudanese Revolution and transitional government==== {{main|Sudanese Revolution|2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy}} {{see also|Sovereignty Council of Sudan}} [[File:Sudanese protestors celebrate signing of political agreement.png|thumb|Awo ŵakwimira boma la Sudan ŵakukondwelera kusazgikira kwa ndondomeko ya malango gha chalo pa 17 August 2019.]] Pa Disembala 19, 2018, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likadumura vyakuti mitengo ya vinthu yikwane katatu. Kweniso, Pulezidenti al-Bashir, uyo wakaŵa pa mazaza kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 30, wakakana kufumapo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti magulu gha ŵakususka ghaŵe pamoza. Boma likawezgera na kukora ŵanthu ŵakuwukira boma ŵakujumpha 800 na awo ŵakasuskanga, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 40 ŵakafwa, kuyana na wupu wa Human Rights Watch. Chiwonetserochi chinapitilizidwa pambuyo pa kugonjetsedwa kwa boma lake pa 11 Epulo 2019 pambuyo pa chiwonetsero chachikulu kutsogolo kwa likulu la Sudanese Armed Forces, pambuyo pake atsogoleri a nduna adaganiza kulowererapo ndipo adalamula kumangidwa kwa Purezidenti al-Bashir ndikulengeza miyezi itatu yachilendo.<ref name="Sudan military coup topples Bashir">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47891470|title=Sudan military coup topples Bashir|date=11 April 2019|access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/sudan-crowds-rally-bashir-police-tear-gas-rival-protest-190109115845545.html |title=Sudan's Omar al-Bashir vows to stay in power as protests rage &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Arwa Ibrahim|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/future-unclear-sudan-protesters-president-loggerheads-190108135021310.html |title=Future unclear as Sudan protesters and president at loggerheads &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=8 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100 ŵakafwa pa Juni 3 pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵabwangandura ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pasi na kugwiliskira nchito mafuta gha masozi na vilwero vyeneco. Ŵawukirano ŵa ku Sudan ndiwo ŵakapelekanga ulongozgi pa viyezgo ivi. Ungano uwu ukamara apo gulu la Forces for Freedom and Change (bungwe la magulu agho ghakachitiska ungweru uwu) na Transitional Military Council (boma la ŵasilikari) ŵakasaina chiphangano cha Julayi 2019.<ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec" /><ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial" /> Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe wupu wa ŵasilikari na ŵanthu wose wa ku Sudan, kweniso kuti paŵe mulara wa boma, kweniso kuti paŵe mulara wa boma, Nemat Abdullah Khair. Mulara wa boma wakale, Abdalla Hamdok, wa vyaka 61, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku wupu wa UN Economic Commission for Africa, wakapika nchito pa Ogasiti 21. Wakamba kudumbiskana na wupu wa IMF na World Bank kuti ŵamazge suzgo la vyakurya, mafuta na ndalama. Hamdok wakati ndalama zakukwana madola 10 biliyoni mu vyaka viŵiri zingamazga wofi. Maboma gha Saudi Arabia na United Arab Emirates ghakaŵika ndalama zinandi pakovwira wupu wa ŵasilikari kufuma apo Bashir wakathereskekera. Pa 3 Seputembala, Hamdok wakasora ŵanalume 14 kuŵa nduna za boma, kusazgapo mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa nduna ya vyaru vinyake na Mkhristu wakwamba wa ku Coptic, uyo nayo wakaŵa mwanakazi. Mu Ogasiti 2021, chalo chikalongozgekanga na Chairman wa Transitional Sovereign Council, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, na Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3136536/sudan-threatens-use-military-option-regain-control-over-border-ethiopia |title=Sudan Threatens to Use Military Option to Regain Control over Border with Ethiopia |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |date=17 August 2021 |access-date=23 August 2021 }}</ref> ====2021 coup and the al-Burhan regime ==== {{main|October–November 2021 Sudanese coup d'état}} Boma la Sudan likapharazga pa 21 Seputembala 2021 kuti pakaŵa chiyezgo chakutondeka cha boma kufuma ku ŵasilikari icho chikapangiska kuti ŵapolisi 40 ŵakakike. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza kufuma apo boma likayezga kutimbanizga boma, ŵasilikari ŵakambaso kuwukira boma pa Okutobala 25, 2021. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgeka na Jenerale Abdel Fattah al-Burhan uyo pamasinda wakapharazga kuti kuli suzgo. Pa Novembala 21, 2021, Hamdok wakambaso kuŵa nduna yikuru pamanyuma pakuti Abdel Fattah al-Burhan wasayina phangano la ndyali kuti wawezgepo muwuso wa ŵanthu (nangauli Burhan wakalutilira kuwusa). Phangano la vigaŵa 14 likati ŵakayidi wose ŵa ndyali awo ŵakakakika pa nyengo ya vimbundi ŵafwatulike. Hamdok wakachimbizga mulara wa ŵapolisi Khaled Mahdi Ibrahim al-Emam na wachiŵiri wake Ali Ibrahim. Pa Janyuwale 2, 2022, Hamdok wakapharazga kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wake wa nduna yikuru pamanyuma pa umoza wa viphikiro ivyo vyapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kufwa. Kufika mu Malichi 2022 ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1,000 kusazgapo ŵana 148 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakakika cifukwa ca kukana boma la boma, ndipo pakaŵa milandu 25 yakucicizga ndipo ŵanthu 87 ŵakakomeka kusazgapo ŵana 11.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bachelet |first=Michelle |date=7 March 2022 |title=Oral update on the situation of human rights in the Sudan – Statement by United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/oral-update-situation-human-rights-sudan |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ReliefWeb/ 49th Session of the UN Human Rights Council |language=en}}</ref> ====2023 internal conflict==== {{main|2023 Sudan conflict}} Mu Epulero chaka cha 2023, apo ŵanthu ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakadumbiskananga za ndondomeko ya kusinthira boma ku boma la ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu, nkhondo ya mazaza yikakura pakati pa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari (na mulongozgi wa charu) Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, na movwiri wake, Mohamed Hamdan Daglo, mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵasilikari la Rapid Support Forces & Rapid Strike Force ("RSF"), ilo likapangika kufuma ku Janjaweed. Pa 15 Epulero, 2023, nkhondo yawo yikazgoka nkhondo zaciwawa comene mu misewu ya mu Khartoum pakati pa ŵasilikari na RSF na ŵasilikari, matangi na ndege. Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, pa zuŵa lacitatu, ŵanthu 400 ŵakafwa ndipo 3,500 ŵakapwetekeka. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa, pakaŵa ŵantchito ŵatatu ŵa WFP, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wupu uwu uleke kugwira nchito mu Sudan, nangauli mu caru cose muli njara. Mulembi-mulongozgi wa UN, António Guterres, wakapempha "urunji" mwaluŵiro cifukwa ca kukoma ŵanthu aŵa, ndipo wakapempha kuti nkhondo yimare. Ŵadipuloma ŵa African Union na Saudi Arabia ŵaluta ku Sudan kuti ŵakayezge kuwezgerapo mtende. Ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵaleke kuwombera ŵanthu awo ŵapwetekeka, kweni nkhondo yikalutilira.<ref name="fighting_2023_04_16_france27_com">[https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230416-death-toll-mounts-in-sudan-as-army-paramilitary-fight-for-power "Fighting continues in Sudan despite humanitarian pause,"] 16 April 2023, [[France24]], retrieved 16 April 2023</ref><ref name="clashes_2023_04_16_abc_news">[https://abcnews.go.com/International/clashes-erupt-sudan-army-paramilitary-group-government-transition/story?id=98607846 "Clashes erupt in Sudan between army, paramilitary group over government transition,"] 16 April 2023, [[ABC News]], retrieved 16 April 2023</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Sudan}} [[File:Map of Sudan (New).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Mapu gha Sudan. Chigaŵa cha Hala'ib Triangle chili pasi pa boma la Egypt kwambira mu 2000.]] [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map SDN present.svg|thumb|Mapu gha charu cha Sudan]] Charu cha Sudan chili kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita 853 kufupi na Nyanja Yiswesi. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na vyaru nga ni Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Central African Republic, Chad, na Libya. Na malo ghakukwana 1,886,068 km2 (728,215 sq mi), ni chalo chachitatu pakukura mu Africa (panyuma pa Algeria na Democratic Republic of Congo) na cha 15 pa vyaru vyose. Charu cha Sudan chili pakati pa 8° na 23°N. Malo agha ngakutowa chomene ndipo ghali na mapiri ghanandi. Kumanjiliro gha dazi, Deriba Caldera (3,042 m), iyo yili mu mapiri gha Marrah, ndiyo ni malo ghapacanya comene mu Sudan. Kumafumiro gha dazi kuli mapiri gha ku Nyanja Yiswesi. Mlonga wa Blue Nile na White Nile ukukumana ku Khartoum kuti uŵe Mlonga wa Nile, uwo ukufuma kumpoto kujumpha mu Eguputo kuya ku Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Mlonga wa Blue Nile ukujumpha mu Sudan ndipo uli na utali wa makilomita pafupifupi 800. Mlonga wa White Nile mu Sudan ulije milonga yinandi. Pali madamu ghanandi pa Mlonga wa Blue na White Nile. Zina mwa madamu agha ni madamu gha Sennar na Roseires agho ghali pa Mlonga wa Blue Nile, kweniso madamu gha Jebel Aulia agho ghali pa Mlonga wa White Nile. Paliso Nyanja ya Nubia pa mphaka ya Sudan na Eguputo. Mu Sudan muli vinthu vinandi vyakukhumbikwa nga ni asibesiti, chromite, cobalt, mkuwa, golide, granite, gypsum, chisulo, kaolin, lead, manganese, mica, gasi, nikele, mafuta, siliva, tini, uranium na zinki..<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050930235450/http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-date=30 September 2005 |title=Geography of Sudan |publisher=Sudan Embassy in London |date=n.d.}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Geography of Sudan#Climate|l1=Climate of Sudan}} Mvula yikukhilira kumwera. Ku chigaŵa chapakati na kumpoto kuli malo ghakomira chomene nga ni chipalamba cha Nubia kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi. Nyengo ya vula ku Sudan yikutora myezi yinayi (June m'paka September) kumpoto, ndipo myezi 6 (May m'paka October) kumwera. Ku vigaŵa vyakomira, kukuchitika chimphepo chikuru cha mchenga, icho chikuchemeka haboob. Ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kuli mapopa ghacoko, ŵanthu ŵakuthemba comene vula izo zikulokwa yayi kuti ŵambe kulima. Pafupi na Mlonga wa Nayelo, pali minda iyo yili na maji ghanandi. Mu vyaru vinandi, zuŵa likuŵala nyengo yitali comene, kweni comenecomene mu mapopa uko likuŵala maora 4,000 pa caka..<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121001164348/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-date= 1 October 2012 |title=Sudan – Geography & Environment |publisher=[[Oxfam GB]] |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ===Environmental issues=== Kuzgoka mapopa ni suzgo likuru comene mu Sudan. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakufipa mtima na kunangika kwa dongo. Vyaru vinandi vya boma na vya ŵanthu ŵekha vyalutilira kukura kwambura kuvikilirika. Vinthu ivi vyapangiska kuti makuni ghaphyoleke, dongo liwomire, kweniso kuti maji gha mu dongo ghaleke kuŵa ghawemi. Vinyama vyamuthondo vya mu caru ici vili pangozi cifukwa ca ulovi. Kuzakafika mu 2001, vyamoyo 21 vya vinyama na vyamoyo 9 vya viyuni vikaŵa pangozi. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vili pangozi ni: waldrapp, northern white rhinoceros, tora hartebeest, gazela wa masengwe ghafupi, na hawksbill turtle. Nyama ya Sahara oryx yili kumara mu ciŵaya.<ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2011|reason=appear to be user-generated site; how are entries vetted?}} {{cite encyclopedia |url= http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sudan-ENVIRONMENT.html |title=Sudan – Environment |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Nations |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Sudan}} Ndyali za ku Sudan zikaŵa za boma la Islamic Republic m'paka mu April 2019, apo boma la President Omar al-Bashir likathereskeka na boma la ŵasilikari. Pakwamba wakambiska wupu wa Transitional Military Council kuti uwuse vyalo vya mukati. Kweniso wakalekeska malango gha boma na kumazga nyumba za malango izo zikaŵanga na nyumba ziŵiri. Kweni Ibn Auf wakakhalako zuŵa limoza pera ndipo wakafumapo, ndipo Abdel Fattah al-Burhan ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa Transitional Military Council. Pa 4 Ogasiti 2019, chikalata chiphya cha Constitution chikalembeka pakati pa ŵimiliri ŵa Transitional Military Council na Forces of Freedom and Change, ndipo pa 21 Ogasiti 2019 Transitional Military Council yikasinthika mwalamulo kuŵa mutu wa boma na wupu wa 11 wa Sovereignty Council, ndipo nga mutu wa boma na nduna yikuru. ===Sharia law=== ====Under al-Bashir==== Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Omar al-Bashir, malango gha mu Sudan ghakajintha pa Sharia. Mu 2005, pakaŵa phangano la Naivasha ilo likamazga nkhondo pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sudan. Dango la Chisilamu la ku Sudan ndakupambana na vyaru vinyake. Ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵakakomeranga munthu na malibwe. Pakati pa 2009 na 2012, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na malibwe. Dango likatenge munthu wakwenera kukomeka. Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 2009 na 2014, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalangika kuti ŵapike chilango cha kuŵatimba na mafayiti 40. Mu Ogasiti 2014, ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵa ku Sudan ŵakafwira mu jele chifukwa cha kutambuzgika. Mu 2001, Ŵakhristu 53 ŵakatimbika. Dango la boma la Sudan likazomerezganga ŵapolisi kuti ŵathyapure ŵanakazi awo ŵakuti ŵakuchita vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Kweniso dango likalanganga munthu para wakhomeka pa khuni. Mu 2002, ŵanthu 88 ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke cifukwa ca kukoma ŵanthu, kwiba na vilwero, na kurwa nkhondo. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukalemba kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵangakomeka na kukhomeka panji kukhomeka pa khuni. Khoti la pa caru cose likuzomera kuti ndise ŵakwenelera kweruzga. Kuyana na phangano la Naivasha, dango la Chisilamu likagwiranga nchito yayi mu South Sudan. Kufuma waka apo South Sudan yikapatukira, pakaŵa kukayika usange dango la Sharia lizamugwira nchito ku ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo Mbasilamu yayi mu Sudan. Boma la Sudan lili na khoti la malango ilo lili na ŵeruzgi 9, Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti la Cassation, na makhoti ghanyake gha mu charu ichi..<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12033185 |title= Sharia law to be tightened if Sudan splits – president |work=BBC News |date=19 December 2010 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> ====After al-Bashir==== {{Main|2019–2024 Sudanese transition to democracy}} Following the ouster of al-Bashir, the interim constitution signed in August 2019 contained no mention of Sharia law.<ref name="MOM 09-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200907-sudan-separates-religion-from-state-ending-30-years-of-islamic-rule/|title=Sudan separates religion from state ending 30 years of Islamic rule|date=7 September 2020}}</ref> As of 12 July 2020, Sudan abolished the apostasy law, public flogging and alcohol ban for non-Muslims. The draft of a new law was passed in early July. Sudan also criminalized [[female genital mutilation]] with a punishment of up to 3 years in jail.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53379733|title=Sudan scraps apostasy law and alcohol ban for non-Muslims|work=BBC News|date=12 July 2020|access-date=12 July 2020}}</ref> An accord between the transitional government and rebel group leadership was signed in September 2020, in which the government agreed to officially separate the state and religion, ending three decades of rule under Islamic law. It also agreed that no official state religion will be established.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/africa/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state-1.1599359147751|title=Sudan ends 30 years of Islamic law by separating religion, state}}</ref><ref name="MOM 09-2020"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/islamic-world-at-decisive-point-in-history-will-it-take-the-path-of-emirates-or-turkey-8789981.html|title=Islamic world at decisive point in history: Will it take the path of Emirates or Turkey?|date=6 September 2020}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Sudan}} [[File:Al bashir1.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Bashir (right) and U.S. Deputy Secretary of State [[Robert Zoellick]], 2005]] Pakuti charu cha Sudan chili na visambizgo vya chisopa chautesi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, charu cha Uganda, Kenya, na Ethiopia, vikaŵa mu wupu wa ad hoc uwo ukachemekanga "Front Line States" na wovwiri wa United States kuti uwonenge umo boma la National Islamic Front likuchitira. Boma la Sudan likapeleka wovwiri ku magulu gha ŵakugaluka gha ku Uganda nga ni Lord's Resistance Army (LRA). Apo boma la National Islamic Front ku Khartoum likamba kuwoneka nga ni suzgo ku chigaŵa ichi na caru cose, boma la United States likamba kuŵika Sudan pa ndondomeko ya vyaru ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵacite vinthu vyakofya. Pamanyuma pakuti boma la United States lalemba kuti Sudan ni boma ilo likupeleka wovwiri ku vigeŵenga, wupu uwu ukaghanaghana vyakuti wambiske ubwezi na Iraq, ndipo pamanyuma Iran, vyaru viŵiri ivyo vili na mphindano mu cigaŵa ici. Kwamba m'ma 1990, Sudan yikamba kuchepeskako maghanoghano ghake cifukwa ca kukhuŵilizgika na boma la United States pamanyuma pa kuphulika kwa maboma gha United States mu 1998, ku Tanzania na Kenya, kweniso cifukwa ca kunozgaso malo gha mafuta agho ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha ŵakugaluka. Sudan nayo wali na mphindano na Egypt pa nkhani ya Hala'ib Triangle. Kufuma mu 2003, maubwezi gha ku vyaru vinyake gha Sudan ghakaŵa ghakuthemba pa wovwiri wa kumazga Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan na kususka wovwiri wa boma ku magulu gha nkhondo mu Darfur. Charu cha Sudan chili paubwezi wakukhora na China. Charu cha China chikupokera mafuta 10 pa 100 gha mu Sudan. Kuyana na uyo wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Sudan, caru ca China ndico cikupeleka vilwero vinandi comene ku Sudan. Mu Disembala 2005, Sudan yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vichoko ivyo vikazomera mazaza gha Morocco pa Western Sahara.<ref>{{cite news |archive-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060226210429/http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |url=http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |title=Sudan supports Moroccan sovereignty over Southern Provinces |newspaper=Morocco Times |location=Casablanca |date=26 December 2005}}</ref>[[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets with Sudanese Sovereign Council Chair General Fattah el-Burhan (50267527813).jpg|thumb|The chairman of Sudan's sovereign council, General [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], with U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]], 2020]] Mu 2015, Sudan yikawovwirapo pa nkhondo ya Saudi Arabia ku Yemen kwimikana na ma Houthi na ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka kwa pulezidenti wakale Ali Abdullah Saleh, uyo wakathereskeka mu 2011. Mu Juni 2019, charu cha Sudan chikalekeka kunjira mu wupu wa African Union chifukwa chakuti pakaŵavya icho chikachitika pakukhazikiska wupu wakulongozgeka na ŵanthu. Mu Julayi 2019, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru 37 ku UN, kusazgapo Sudan, ŵakasaina kalata yakukolerana ku UNHRC kuvikilira umo China yikuchitira na ma Uyghur mu chigaŵa cha Xinjiang. Pa 23 Okutobala 2020, U.S. Pulezidenti Donald Trump wakapharazga kuti Sudan yikwamba kuwezgerapo ubwezi wake na Israel, ndipo yikaŵa chalo chachitatu cha ma Arab kuchita nthena mu chigaŵa cha Abraham Accords icho chikalembeka na United States. Pa Disembala 14 mu U.S. Boma la Sudan likawuskamo boma ili pa ndondomeko ya boma ilo likovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵachitenge vinthu vyakofya. Mkangano pakati pa Sudan na Ethiopia pa Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam ukakura mu 2021. Munthu munyake uyo wakupeleka ulongozgi kwa mulongozgi wa Sudan, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, wakayowoya kuti nkhondo ya maji "yiŵenge yakofya comene kuluska umo munthu wangaghanaghanira". Mu Febuluwale 2022, ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Sudan ŵakaluta ku Israel kukakhozga ubwezi pakati pa vyaru ivi. Mu myezi yakwambilira ya 2023, nkhondo yikambaso, comenecomene pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari na mulongozgi wa boma, pamoza na gulu la ŵasilikari la Rapid Support Forces ilo likulongozgeka na mulwani wake, Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo. Pa cifukwa ici, boma la United States na vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe vyajara maboma ghawo mu Khartoum na kuyezga kufumiska ŵanthu. Mu 2023, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ku Sudan kukaŵa ŵanthu 16,000 ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhumbikwiranga kufumamo. Pakuti ku United States kulije ndondomeko ya kufumiskako ŵanthu, Ku ofesi ya boma, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku America ŵakeneranga kuluta ku maboma gha vyaru vinyake kukapempha ulongozgi, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakachimbilira ku Nairobi. Vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa na mawupu ghanyake ghakovwira ŵanthu, ghakayezga kovwira. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Turkey ŵati ŵazomerezga ŵanthu ŵa ku America kuti ŵafumemo mu charu chawo. TRAKboys, gulu la ndyali la ku South Africa ilo likususkana na Wagner Group, kampani yaku Russia iyo yikugwira ntchito ya usilikari mu Sudan kwambira mu 2017, yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵa ku America na ku Sudan ŵafumemo mu charu ichi na kuluta ku malo ghakukhora mu South Africa.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Americans and other foreigners struggle to flee Sudan amid fierce fighting |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/26/sudan-fighting-evacuation-americans-british/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDS8IQSdZ-E | title=Trakboys David Mbatha, Blose begin peaceful talks w/ Mayor Kaunda about Durban Port tariff increase | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Sudanese Armed Forces}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sudan ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Sudan ndipo lili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi: Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan, Navy ya Sudan (kukusazgapo Marine Corps), Air Force ya Sudan, Border Patrol na Internal Affairs Defence Force. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sudan laŵa na vilwero viwemi comene; cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vilwero vizito na vyapacanya. Gulu ili likulongozgeka na wupu wa National Assembly ndipo fundo zake ni za kuvikilira mphaka za Sudan na kuvikilira wanangwa wa mukati. Kufuma waka pa suzgo la Darfur mu 2004, kuvikilira boma lapakati pa caru ku ŵanthu awo ŵakulimbana na gulu la ŵakugaluka nga ni Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) na Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) ni vyakuzirwa comene. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sudan ŵakugwira ntchito yayi, kweni ŵakugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha ŵasilikari, ndipo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Janjaweed. Pakati pa 200,000 na 400,000<ref name="cia">{{cite web|title=Sudan|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|access-date=10 July 2011|work=The World Factbook|publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency|issn=1553-8133|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|archive-date=11 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="peopledaily1">{{cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200511/28/eng20051128_224254.html |title=Darfur Peace Talks To Resume in Abuja on Tuesday: AU |agency=Xinhua News Agency |newspaper=[[People's Daily]] |location =Beijing |date=28 November 2005 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/10/AR2007041001775.html |agency= Associated Press |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=Hundreds Killed in Attacks in Eastern Chad – U.N. Agency Says Sudanese Militia Destroyed Villages |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali kufwa cifukwa ca nkhondo. ===International organisations ku Sudan=== Mabungwe ghanandi gha UN ghakugwira ntchito mu Sudan nga ni World Food Programme (WFP); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); United Nations Mine Service (UNMAS), United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) na World Bank. Kweniso pali wupu wa International Organization for Migration (IOM).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |title=Sudan |publisher=International Organisation for Migration |date=2 May 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310183842/http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |archive-date=10 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/Eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |title=The Sudans |publisher=Canadian International Development Agency |location=Gatineau, Quebec |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528183621/http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |archive-date=28 May 2013 }}</ref> Pakuti mu Sudan muli nkhondo ya pawenenawene kwa vyaka vinandi, mabungwe ghanandi ghambura kwendera boma (NGO) ghakovwiraso ŵanthu awo ŵafumamo mu vikaya vyawo. Mabungwe ghambura vya boma ghakugwira nchito mu vigaŵa vyose vya Sudan, comenecomene kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene, mawupu gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana nga ni Red Cross ghakacitanga milimo yawo comene mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, kweni ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Khartoum. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kughanaghanira chomene nkhondo iyo yikacitika ku Darfur, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sudan. Wupu wakuwoneka comene mu South Sudan ni Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS). Wupu unyake wa vyamalonda ukuwona kuti charu cha Sudan chili ku chigaŵa cha Great Horn of Africa Nangauli mawupu ghanandi gha pa caru cose ghali mu vigaŵa vya South Sudan na Darfur, kweni ghanyake ghakugwira nchito mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Mwaciyerezgero, wupu wa United Nations Industrial Development Organization ukucita makora nchito yake mu msumba wa Khartoum. Ndimo viliriso na sukulu zinyake za ku Europe. Wupu wa Canada wakuwona vya Vyakusazgirako Vinthu pa Caru Cose ukucitako milimo yinandi kumpoto kwa Sudan.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615200234/http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 June 2013 |title=EU, UNIDO set up Centre in Sudan to develop industrial skills, entrepreneurship for job creation |publisher=UN Industrial Development Organisation |date=8 February 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Sudan|Freedom of religion in Sudan|Slavery in Sudan|Child marriage in Sudan}} SKwambira mu 1983, nkhondo ya pawenenawene na njara vyakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 2 miliyoni mu Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 ŵakakoleka wuzga pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa Reporters Without Borders, charu cha Sudan chili pa nambara 172 pa vyaru 180. Ŵakukhumba kuti ŵapharazgi ŵaleke kutangwanika na nkhani za vimbundi. Ŵasilamu awo ŵakung'anamukira ku Cikristu ŵangalangika na nyifwa cifukwa ca kusopa kwautesi, wonani Kutambuzgika kwa Ŵakristu mu Sudan na cilango ca nyifwa kwa Mariam Yahia Ibrahim Ishag (uyo wakakulira mu Cikristu). Lipoti la wupu wa UNICEF la mu 2013, likati ŵanakazi 88 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Sudan ŵakomeka. Dango la ku Sudan lakukhwaskana na nthengwa likususkika cifukwa ca kukanizga wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na kuzomerezga nthengwa za ŵana. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵanakazi ŵakomeke, comenecomene ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi kweniso awo ŵakusambira comene yayi. Kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakukanizgika; kwambira mu Julayi 2020 kulije chilango cha nyifwa. Lipoti la wupu wa Human Rights Watch ilo likalembeka mu 2018 likulongora kuti charu cha Sudan chindachitepo kanthu kuti ŵanthu ŵeruzgike chifukwa cha vinthu viheni ivyo vikachitikanga kale kweniso ivyo vikuchitika sono. Lipoti ili likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakusuzgikira mu Darfur, kumwera kwa Kordofan, na Blue Nile. Mu 2018, wupu wa National Intelligence and Security Service (NISS) ukagwiliskira nchito nkhongono zinandi pakupatura ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sudan ŵakakanizga mawupu gha United Nations-African Union Hybrid Operation na mawupu ghanyake gha pa caru cose kuti ghasangire ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika mu Darfur.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/sudan|title=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Sudan|chapter=Sudan: Events of 2018 |date=17 January 2019 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref> ====Darfur==== {{Main|War in Darfur|International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur}} [[File:Darfur refugee camp in Chad.jpg|right|thumb|Darfur refugee camp ku [[Chad]], 2005]] Kalata yakufuma kwa mulara wa wupu wa Human Rights Watch ya pa Ogasiti 14, 2006, yikati boma la Sudan ndakutondeka kuvikilira ŵanthu ŵake mu Darfur kweniso likukhumba yayi kuvikilira ŵanthu ŵake. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵake ŵali na mulandu wa kuswa malango gha boma. Kalata iyi yikayowoyaso kuti ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa uwu kwambira mu 2004. Malipoti ghanyake ghakulongora kuti ŵakugaluka, boma, na gulu la Janjaweed ndiwo ŵakuswa malango. U.S. Lipoti la Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu ilo likalembeka mu Malichi 2007, likati: "Ŵanthu wose awo ŵakanjilirapo pa nkhondo iyi ŵakachitanga vinthu viheni chomene, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuyuzga ŵanalume na ŵanakazi, kutambuzga ŵanthu, kwiba na kulemba ŵana ŵankhondo". Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.8 miliyoni ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo ndipo ŵanthu 300,000 ŵali kufwa. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵasilikari awo ŵakukolerana na boma ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakuwukira ŵanthu bweka yayi mu Darfur, kweniso awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana na magulu gha ŵakugaluka ŵakukakika mwambura kwenelera, nga mba nyuzipepara ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ŵana ŵa sukulu, na ŵanthu awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vya mu msumba wa Khartoum na vigaŵa vyapafupi. Lipoti linyake la boma la United States likayowoya kuti gulu la ŵakugaluka likuwukira awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu na kukoma ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Wupu wa UNICEF ukati mu 2008, mu Darfur mukaŵa ŵana 6,000 awo ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7796507.stm|title=Africa – Sudan 'has 6,000 child soldiers'|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> ===Disputed areas and zones of conflict=== * In April 2012, the South Sudanese army captured the [[Heglig]] oil field from Sudan, which the Sudanese army later recaptured. * [[Kafia Kingi]] and [[Radom National Park]] was a part of [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]] in 1956.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415073643/http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2012|page=xii |title=Memorial of the Government of Sudan |publisher=Permanent Court of Arbitration |location=The Hague |date=18 December 2008}}</ref> Sudan has recognised South Sudanese independence according to the borders for 1 January 1956.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |title=South Sudan ready to declare independence |publisher=Menas Associates |date=8 July 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529175404/http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |archive-date=29 May 2013 }}</ref> * The [[Abyei Area]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[South Sudan]]. It is currently under Sudanese rule. * The states of [[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] are to hold "popular consultations" to determine their constitutional future within Sudan. * The [[Hala'ib Triangle]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[Egypt]]. It is currently under Egyptian administration. * [[Bir Tawil]] is a [[terra nullius]] occurring on the border between Egypt and Sudan, claimed by neither state. ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|States of Sudan|List of current state governors in Sudan|Districts of Sudan}} Sudan is divided into [[States of Sudan|18 states]] (''[[wilaya]]t'', [[Grammatical number|sing.]] ''[[wilayah]]''). They are further divided into 133 [[Districts of Sudan|districts]]. [[File:Political Regions of Sudan, July 2010.svg|thumb|{{legend|#f7931d|Central and northern states}} {{legend|#8cc63f|[[Darfur]]}} {{legend|#800080|[[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]]}} {{legend|#FFFF00|[[Abyei|Abyei Area]]}} {{legend|#fb6282|[[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] states}}]] {{div col|colwidth=10em|content= * [[Gezira (state)|Gezira]] * [[Al Qadarif (state)|Al Qadarif]] * [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] * [[Central Darfur]] * [[East Darfur]] * [[Kassala (state)|Kassala]] * [[Khartoum (state)|Khartoum]] * [[North Darfur]] * [[North Kordofan]] * [[Northern state, Sudan|Northern]] * [[Red Sea (state)|Red Sea]] * [[River Nile (state)|River Nile]] * [[Sennar (state)|Sennar]] * [[South Darfur]] * [[South Kordofan]] * [[West Darfur]] * [[West Kordofan]] * [[White Nile (state)|White Nile]] }} ===Regional bodies=== Padera pa maboma, paliso maboma ghanyake agho ghakaŵako cifukwa ca mtende uwo ukaŵako pakati pa boma na gulu la ŵakugaluka. * Boma la Darfur likakhazikiskika na phangano la mtende la Darfur kuti liŵe wupu wakulongozga vyaru ivyo vili mu Darfur. * Wupu wakuwona vya vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan ukakhazikiskika na Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement pakati pa boma la Sudan na gulu la rebels la Eastern Front. * Chigaŵa cha Abyei, icho chili pa mphaka ya South Sudan na Republic of Sudan, pasono chili na mazaza ghapadera ndipo chikulongozgeka na boma la Abyei. Mu 2011, boma la Sudan likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoyepo maghanoghano ghawo pa nkhani yakuti charu ichi chiŵe chigaŵa cha South Sudan panji cha Republic of Sudan. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Sudan}} {{See also|Telecommunications in Sudan|Transport in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Sudan exports, 2019]] [[File:Sudan Map Oelgas (2004).png|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] concessions in Sudan – 2004]] [[File:GDP per capita development in Sudan.svg|thumb|GDP per capita development in Sudan]] Mu 2010, charu cha Sudan chikaŵa pa nambara 17 pa vyaru ivyo vili na chuma chakukwera luŵiro chomene pa charu chose. Chifukwa cha kupatukana kwa South Sudan, komwe kunali pafupifupi 75 peresenti ya malo opangira mafuta ku Sudan, Sudan idalowa gawo la stagflation, kukula kwa GDP kudatsika mpaka 3.4 peresenti mu 2014, 3.1 peresenti mu 2015 ndipo zikuyembekezeka kuchira pang'onopang'ono mpaka 3.7 peresenti mu 2016 pomwe kukwera kwamitengo kudakhalabe kokwera mpaka 21.8% kuyambira 2015. GDP ya Sudan yikakhira kufuma pa US$123.053 billion mu 2017 kufika pa US$40.852 billion mu 2018. Nanga ni apo charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa kuti chindapatuke, chikaŵa na masuzgo ghakuru gha vyachuma. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma cha ku Sudan chikakura chomene, ndipo lipoti la World Bank likati GDP yikakura chomene mu 2010. Kukura uku kukalutilira nanga ni mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Darfur kweniso apo charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Mafuta ndigho ghakaŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo Sudan wakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake. Chifukwa cha kunjira kwa mafuta, chuma cha Sudan chikakura chomene, ndipo mu 2007 chikakura na 9 peresenti. Kweni chifukwa chakuti charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa na mafuta ghanandi, chikaleka kulamulira boma la Sudan. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, mulimo wa kunozga vyakurya wawelera pa malo ghake ndipo pa chaka cha 2014-15 wafika pa 40,000 m3/d. Kuti charu cha South Sudan chipeleke mafuta, chikuthemba pa chitoliro icho chikulongozgera ku Port Sudan mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi. Mu Ogasiti 2012, Sudan na South Sudan ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagulire mafuta ku South Sudan kwizira mu mapaipi gha ku Sudan. Boma la China ndilo likwendeska malonda ku Sudan, ndipo China yili na masheya 40 pa 100 gha Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Charu ichi chikuguliskaso ku Sudan vilwero vichoko, ivyo vyagwiliskirika nchito pa nkhondo nga ni nkhondo za ku Darfur na South Kordofan. Nangauli kale vyakurya na vyakurya ndivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan, ndipo vikawovwira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 pa 100 pa caru cose. Pasono, wupu wa International Monetary Fund (IMF) ukuteŵetera lumoza na boma la Khartoum kuti viwovwire pakunozga vinthu. Ivi vikacitika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980 apo caru ca Sudan cikaŵa na suzgo la ngongoli, ndipo ubwezi wake na IMF na World Bank ukakhira. Lipoti linyake likati mu charu cha Sudan ndimo vimbundi vyazara chomene. Kuyana na Global Hunger Index ya 2013, charu cha Sudan chili na chiŵerengero cha GHI cha 27.0 icho chikulongora kuti charu ichi chili na 'njara yikuru.' Charu ichi chili pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na njara chomene pa charu chose. Kuyana na 2015 Human Development Index (HDI), charu cha Sudan chili pa malo 167. Ichi chikulongora kuti charu ichi chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2014, ŵanthu 45 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala na ndalama zakuchepera pa madola 3.20 gha ku United States pa zuŵa..<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) – Sudan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=SD|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=22 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807205748/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=SD|archive-date=7 August 2020}}</ref> === Science and research === Ku Sudan kuli ma yunivesite pafupifupi 25-30 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu ciarabu panji Cingelezi. Masambiro gha ku sekondare na ku yunivesite ghakutimbanizgika comene cifukwa cakuti ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakukhumbikwira kunjira usilikari pambere ŵandafike ku malizgo gha masambiro ghawo. Kweniso, "Chisisilamu" ico pulezidenti Al-Bashir wakakhwimiska cikapangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵaleke kusambira Baibolo. Ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda vya sayansi zikumara. Wupu wa UNESCO ukati pakati pa 2002 na 2014, ŵanthu ŵakufufuza ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵa ku Sudan ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu 2013, caru ici cikaŵa na ŵasayansi 19 pera pa ŵanthu 100,000, panji 1/30 ya ciŵelengero ca ku Eguputo, kuyana na Sudan National Center for Research. Mu 2015, ku Sudan kukalembeka nkhani za sayansi pafupifupi 500. Kuyaniska na caru ici, caru ca Poland, ico cili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, cikupanga manyuzipepara pafupifupi 10,000 pa caka. Ndondomeko ya vya mu mlengalenga ya ku Sudan yili kupanga mapulaneti ghanandi gha CubeSat, ndipo yili na mapulani gha kupanga mapulaneti gha kudumbiskirana gha ku Sudan (SUDASAT-1) na mapulaneti gha kudumbiskirana gha ku Sudan (SRSS-1). Boma la Sudan likapeleka ndalama zakugulira satellite yakuwona malo ya boma ya Arabsat 6A iyo yikugwira ntchito pachanya pa Sudan, iyo yikatoleka makora pa 11 April 2019, kufuma ku Kennedy Space Centre. Pulezidenti wa ku Sudan Omar Hassan al-Bashir wakapempha kuti mu 2012 paŵe wupu wakuwona vya mlengalenga wa ku Africa, kweni ivi vikamara yayi.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Smith |first1=David |last2=correspondent |first2=Africa |date=6 September 2012 |title=Sudanese president calls for African space agency |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/06/sudanese-president-african-space-agency |access-date=7 March 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Sudan}} {{see also|List of cities in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan 2010 population density2.png|thumb|Sudan 2010 estimated population density]] Ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 30 miliyoni ŵakukhala kumpoto, kumanjiliro gha dazi, na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu cha Sudan kufuma apo charu cha South Sudan chikapatukira ŵalipo 30 miliyoni. Ichi ntchiŵelengero icho chikukwera comene mu vyaka 20 ivyo vyajumpha, cifukwa pa kalembera wa mu 1983, ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Sudan, kusazgapo awo sono ŵakucemeka South Sudan, ŵakaŵa 21.6 miliyoni. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu msumba wa Greater Khartoum (ukusazgapo Khartoum, Omdurman, na Khartoum North) ŵakukura mwaluŵiro ndipo ŵalipo 5.2 miliyoni. Padera pa kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo, mu Sudan muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake. Kuyana na kafukufuku wa UNHCR, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.1 miliyoni awo ŵakacimbira kwawo na awo ŵakapempha civikiliro ŵakakhalanga mu Sudan mu Ogasiti 2019. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku South Sudan (ŵanthu 858,607), Eritrea (123,413), Syria (93,502), Ethiopia (14,201), Central African Republic (11,713) na Chad (3,100). Padera pa ŵanthu aŵa, wupu wa UNHCR ukayowoya kuti pali ŵanthu 1,864,195 awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo. Charu cha Sudan chili kunjilirapo pa phangano la mu 1951 lakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo. ===Ethnic groups=== [[File:Eisa shikawi.JPG|thumb|[[Sudanese Arab]] of [[manasir|Al-Manasir]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ciarabu ŵakukwana 70 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa Mbasilamu ndipo ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic. Mitundu yinyake ni Beja, Fur, Nubians, Armenians, na Copts. Ŵanthu awo Mbambura Ciarabu kanandi ŵakupambana mitundu, viyowoyero, na mitheto. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Beja (ŵanandi chomene), Fur (ŵanandi chomene), Nuba (ŵanandi chomene), Moro, Masalit, Bornu, Tama, Fulani, Hausa, Songhay, Nubians, Berta, Zaghawa, Nyimang, Ingessana, Daju, Koalib, Gumuz, Midob na Tagale. Chi Hausa chikugwiliskirika ntchito nga chiyowoyero cha malonda. Paliso Ŵagiriki ŵachoko waka, kweni ŵakumanyikwa chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Arabia ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Awadia na Fadnia, na Bani Arak, awo ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic cha Najdi. Ŵabedouin ŵachoko waka ŵa kumpoto kwa Rizeigat ŵakuyowoya Chiarabu cha ku Sudan ndipo ŵali na mitheto yakuyana na ya Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Baggara na Tunjur ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakukhala kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Eguputo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko gha Ŵaarabu ku Sudan ŵakasamukira ku Sudan mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., ndipo ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa. Kweniso, mafuko ghaciarabu agho ghakaŵako pambere Chisilamu cindafike ghakaŵako mu Sudan kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira mu caru ici kufuma ku Arabia. Mu mabuku ghanandi agho ghakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan ŵakazgoka Ŵaarabu, ŵanthu ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakudumbiskana za umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakawonekeranga. Mwaciyelezgero, Elena Vezzadini wakulemba mdauko wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Sudan ŵakuthemba pa umo ŵakulongosolera nkhani iyi. Mwakudumura, iyo wakuti "Ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yira, ndipo ŵakazgoka "Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan". Mu nkhani yinyake yakulongosora za mbumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan, Claude Rilly, uyo wakumanya vya mipukutu ya ŵanthu ŵa ku France, wakati Ŵarabu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, ŵakumanya yayi kuti DNA yawo yikupangika na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Africa na ŵana ŵawo.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Rilly |author-first=Claude |title=Le Soudan, de la Préhistoire à la conquête de Méhémet Ali |publisher=Soleb Bleu autour |year=2021 |isbn=978-2-35848-186-1 |editor-last=Rilly |editor-first=Claude |publication-place=Paris |pages=543–544 |language=fr |chapter=Aux racines de la population soudanaise |oclc=1298202018 |editor-last2=Francigny |editor-first2=Vincent |editor-last3=Maillot |editor-first3=Marc |editor-last4=Cabon |editor-first4=Olivier}}</ref><ref>See also: Spaulding, J. (2000) ''The chronology of Sudanese Arabic genealogical tradition''. In History in Africa 27, Cambridge University Press, pp. 325–337</ref> ===Urban areas=== {{Further|List of cities in Sudan}} {{Largest cities of Sudan|Osman=}} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Sudan}} Ku Sudan kuli viyowoyero pafupifupi 70. Mu charu cha Sudan muli viyowoyero vinandi vya mawoko ivyo vikupulikikwa yayi. Mu 2009, pakaŵa ndondomeko yakuti paŵe chiyowoyero chimoza cha mawoko cha ku Sudan. Pambere chaka cha 2005 chindafike, Chiarabic ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma. Mu 2005, Dango la Charu cha Sudan likati viyowoyero vya boma ni Chiarabic na Chingelezi. Ŵanalume ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ni 79.6%, ŵanakazi 60.8%.<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|archive-date=11 January 2021}}</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Sudan}} Mu 2011, apo charu cha South Sudan chikagaŵikana, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 97% ŵakasopanga Chisilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵali kugaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Ŵasilamu ŵa Sufi na Salafi. Magulu ghaŵiri agho ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu ŵanandi, Ansar na Khatmia, ghakukolerana na chipani cha Umma na Democratic Unionist. Malo gha Darfur pera ndigho ghakaŵavya magulu gha Sufi agho ghakusangika mu vyaru vinyake. Mu msumba wa Khartoum na misumba yinyake ya kumpoto, muli Ŵakhristu ŵa Coptic Orthodox na Greek Orthodox. Mu Khartoum na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan, mu vyaru ivi muli ŵanthu ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox la Ethiopia na Eritrea. Tchalitchi la Armenian Apostolic nalo lilipo ndipo likuteŵetera ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan. Tchalitchi la Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian nalo lili na ŵanthu awo ŵali mu tchalitchi ili. Chisopa ndicho chikupangiska kuti mu charu ichi muŵe kugaŵikana. Ŵasilamu ŵa kumpoto na ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ndiwo ŵakulongozga ndyali na vyachuma mu charu ichi kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Chipani cha NCP chikukhozgeka chomene na ŵa Islam, Salafis/Wahhabis na Ŵaarabu ŵanyake ŵa ku mpoto. Chipani cha Umma chakopa ŵalondezgi ŵa Aarabu ŵa gulu la Ansar la Sufism pamoza na Ŵasilamu ŵambura Aarabu kufuma ku Darfur na Kordofan. Chipani cha Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) chili na Ŵaarabu na Ŵasilamu ŵanyake ŵa kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, comenecomene awo ŵali mu cisopa ca Khatmia Sufi. ===Health=== {{Main|Health in Sudan}} Sudan has a [[life expectancy]] of 65.1 years according to the latest data for the year 2019 from macrotrends.net<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/SDN/sudan/life-expectancy|title=Sudan Life Expectancy) {{!}} Data|website=macrotrends.net|access-date=25 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807153431/https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/SDN/sudan/life-expectancy|archive-date=7 August 2020}}</ref> Infant mortality in 2016 was 44.8 per 1,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=SD&year_high_desc=true|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=25 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826005216/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=SD&year_high_desc=true|archive-date=26 August 2018}}</ref> [[UNICEF]] estimates that 87% of Sudanese females between the ages of 15 to 49 have had [[female genital mutilation]] performed on them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf|title=UNICEF FGM country profile for Sudan|website=UNICEF|access-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503130618/https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf|archive-date=3 May 2019}}</ref> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Sudan}} [[File:Faculty of Science (University of Khartoum) 002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[University of Khartoum]], established as [[Gordon Memorial College]] in 1902]] Sukulu mu Sudan njambura kulipira ndipo njakukakamira ku ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 13, nangauli ŵana ŵakujumpha 40% ŵakuluta yayi ku sukulu cifukwa ca suzgo la vya cuma. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikupangiska kuti ŵana ŵasungwana ŵasuzgikenge kuluta ku sukulu. Masambiro gha ku pulayimale ghakukhala vyaka 8, ndipo gha sekondare ghakwenda vyaka vitatu. Mu 1990, masambiro ghakaŵa gha 6 + 3 + 3. Chiarabu ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa vigaŵa vyose. Masukulu ghanandi ghali mu matawuni, ndipo ghanyake gha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ghatimbanizgika panji kunangika cifukwa ca nkhondo ya pa cikaya. Mu 2001, Banki ya Caru Cose yikati ŵana 46 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakeneranga kusambira masambiro gha ku pulayimale, ndipo 21 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakasambiranga masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ŵanandi ŵakunjira sukulu izi, ndipo mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵakujumpha 20 peresenti. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ni 70.2%, ŵanalume 79.6%, ŵanakazi 60.8%.<ref name="cia" /> ==Culture== {{Further|Visual arts of Sudan|Architecture of Sudan|Sudanese literature}} Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko pafupifupi 578 ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa. Ukaboni wasono ukulongora kuti nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakutemwa chomene vinthu vya ku Sudan na chisopa chawo, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na ku Africa ŵakutemwana chomene..<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|title=Hamilton, A. and Hudson, J. (2014) Bribery and Identity: Evidence from Sudan. Bath Economic Research Papers, No 21/14|access-date=30 April 2014|archive-date=2 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502003707/http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Music=== {{main|Music of Sudan}} [[File:Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque (8625532075).jpg|thumb|A [[Sufi]] [[dervish]] drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in [[Omdurman]].]] Charu cha Sudan chili na mitheto ya sumu iyo yikasuzga chomene ŵanthu. Pakwamba na kukhazikiskika kwa dango la Salafi la Sharia mu 1983, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa mu charu ichi nga ni Mahjoub Sharif ŵakakakika apo ŵanyake nga ni Mohammed el Amin (uyo wakawelera ku Sudan pakati pa ma 1990s) na Mohammed Wardi (uyo wakawelera ku Sudan mu 2003), ŵakachimbilira ku Cairo. Sumu za mu nyengo yakale nazo zikapwetekeka, ndipo viphikiro vya mu nyengo yakale vya Zār vikamara. Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe ŵakayambiska sumu za ku Sudan. Chiyelezgero ni ungano wa Shulkawi No. 1. Kumpoto kwa Sudan kuli sumu zakupambana na zinyake. Mu sumu yinyake iyo yikuchemeka Aldlayib, ŵakugwiliskira nchito cakwimbira cakucemeka Tambur. Chiŵiya ichi chili na vingwe vinkhondi, chili kupangika na khuni ndipo chikulizga sumu pamoza na ŵanthu awo ŵakwimba. ===Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Sudan|Photography of Sudan}} Sinema ya ku Sudan yikamba na vithuzithuzi ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1956, filimu yakulongosora vya mdauko yikaŵa yakukhora, kweni boma la Chisilamu likapangiska kuti mafilimu ghachepe mu ma 1990. Kwambira mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuwoneseska kuti mafilimu ghaŵaso ghakunozga kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mafilimu. Kugwiliskira nchito vithuzi mu Sudan kukamba mu ma 1880 apo ufumu wa Britain na Eguputo ukalamuliranga. Nga ni umo vikaŵira mu vyaru vinyake, kucindikwa kwa vithuzithuzi pa nkhani za ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni manyuzipepara, kweniso vya ŵanthu awo ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi, kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya vithuzithuzi mu Sudan mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu charu cha Sudan, chomenechomene chifukwa cha vithuzi vya digito. ===Clothing=== [[File:Bedscha.jpg|thumb|Bejia men wearing galabiyas]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Sudan ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya ku Europe na vyakumwera. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Sudan ŵakutemwa kuvwara malaya ghakuchemeka jalabiya. Kanandi jalabiya wakuvwara chisoti chikuru na chigudulu, ndipo chakuvwara ichi chingaŵa chituŵa, cha mitundu yakupambanapambana, cha mikwawu, ndiposo chakuvwara chakupambanapambana, kuyana na nyengo ya chaka na ivyo munthu wakukhumba. Chovala chofala kwambiri cha akazi a ku Sudan ndi thobe kapena thawb, chomwe chimatchulidwa kuti tobe m'chinenero cha ku Sudan. Thube ni salu yitali yituŵa panji ya mitundu yakupambanapambana iyo ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara mu malaya ghawo, ndipo kanandi ŵakubisa mutu na sisi. Chifukwa cha dango la milandu ilo likaŵako mu 1991, ŵanakazi ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuvwara mathalauza pa wumba. Munthu uyo wakavwara mathalauza wakalangikanga kuti wapwetekenge na nthonga 40. Kweni mu 2009, mwanakazi munyake wakapika ndalama zakukwana madola 200.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/2009/09/06/woman_faces_40_lashes_for_wearing_trousers.html|title=Woman faces 40 lashes for wearing trousers|date=6 September 2009|newspaper=The Toronto Star|last1=Ross|first1=Oakland}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/08/world/africa/08sudan.html?_r=0| work=The New York Times |first1=Jeffrey |last1=Gettleman |first2=Waleed |last2=Arafat |title=Sudan Court Fines Woman for Wearing Trousers |date=8 September 2009}}</ref> ===Sport=== {{Main articles|Sudan national football team |Sudan women's national football team}} Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi, mpira ndiwo ngwakuzirwa comene mu Sudan. Bungwe la mpira la Sudan Football Association likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 1936 ndipo ndi umo likakhalira limoza mwa mabungwe ghakale chomene mu Africa. Ndipouli, pambere wupu wa football Association undaŵeko, chalo cha Sudan chikamba kuseŵera mpira uwo ukatoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kufuma ku Egypt. Mabungwe ena a ku Sudan omwe adakhazikitsidwa panthawiyo akuphatikizapo Al-Hilal Omdurman, Al-Merrikh, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti mpira ukhale wotchuka mdzikolo. Khartoum League ndiyo yikaŵa ligi yakwamba ku Sudan. Kufuma mu Seputembala 2019, pakaŵa ligi ya ŵanakazi ya mpira iyo yikamba kufuma ku magulu gha ŵanakazi ghambura kulembeka. Mu chaka cha 2021, timu ya mpira ya ku Sudan yikwenela kakwamba mu chiphalizgano cha Arab Women's Cup, icho chikachitikira ku Cairo, Egypt. Chikwata cha mpira wa m'mphepete mwa nyanja cha ku Sudan chikapikisana pa CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup ya 2018-2020 mu chigawo cha azimayi ndi amuna. Mu Juni 2022, Patricia Seif El Din El Haj, mwanakazi wakwamba wa ku Sudan uyo wakachitako maseŵero gha ku Africa, wakatoleka vithuzi na Mohamed Nureldin Abdallah wa ku Reuters, apo wakanozgekeranga kuluta ku Nigeria kunozgekera maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu 2024..<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2022 |title=Reuters Pictures – Sudan-Women/Martial art |url=https://pictures.reuters.com/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2C0BXZ1THRXCM&SMLS=1&RW=1498&RH=904&POPUPPN=25&POPUPIID=2C0FQED8J07WH |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=pictures.reuters.com}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{Portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Sudan]] * [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Sudan]] ==Ukaboni== {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial">{{cite web |last = Reeves |first = Eric |author-link = Eric Reeves |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]], [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|IDEA]] |title = Sudan: Draft Constitutional Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period |website= sudanreeves.org |date = 10 August 2019 |url = https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |access-date = 10 August 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190810213233/https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |archive-date= 10 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec">{{cite web |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]] |title = (الدستوري Declaration (العربية)) |trans-title = (Constitutional Declaration) |language = ar |website= raisethevoices.org |date =4 August 2019 |url = http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |access-date = 5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805170905/http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |archive-date= 5 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> }} ==Vyamu mabuku== {{Scholia}} ; Mabuku * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=William Y. |title=Nubia. Corridor to Africa |year=1977 |publisher=Princeton University |isbn=978-0691093703}} * Berry, LaVerle B., ed. (2015). ''[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo63176 Sudan: A Country Study]''. [[Library of Congress]] (Washington, D.C.) {{ISBN|978-0-8444-0750-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Beswick |first=Stephanie |title=Sudan's Blood Memory |url=https://archive.org/details/sudansbloodmemor0000besw |year=2004 |publisher=University of Rochester |isbn=978-1580462310}} * {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Richard P. C.|year=1992|title=Public Debt and Private Wealth: Debt, Capital Flight and the IMF in Sudan |url=https://archive.org/details/publicdebtprivat00brow|publisher=Macmillan Publishers |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-57543-7}} * [[Winston Churchill|Churchill, Winston]] (1899; 2000). ''[[The River War|The River War: An Historical Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan]]''. Carroll & Graf (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-7867-0751-5}}. * {{cite book|last=Churchill|first=Winston|year=1902|title=The River War |chapter=The Rebellion of the Mahdi |edition=New and Revised |url=https://archive.org/stream/riverwarhistoric00chur}} * [[Paul Clammer|Clammer, Paul]] (2005). ''Sudan: The Bradt Travel Guide''. [[Bradt Travel Guides]] (Chalfont St. Peter); Globe Pequot Press. (Guilford, Connecticut). {{ISBN|978-1-84162-114-2}}. * {{cite book |last=Daly |title=Empire on the Nile|year=1986 |url=https://archive.org/details/empireonnileangl0000daly }}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * Evans-Pritchard, Blake; Polese, Violetta (2008). ''Sudan: The City Trail Guide''. City Trail Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-9559274-0-9}}. * {{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan |url=https://archive.org/details/nubianpastarchae0000edwa |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415369879}} * [[Mandour Elmahdi|El Mahdi, Mandour]]. (1965). A Short History of the Sudan. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-913158-9}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2005). ''The Problem of Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-36502-9}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2004). ''Short History of Sudan''. iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-31425-6}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2007). ''UN Intervention in Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-42979-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Yusuf Fadl| title=The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century |url=https://archive.org/details/arabssudanfromse0000hass |year=1967 |publisher=Edinburgh University |oclc=33206034}} * {{cite book |last=Hesse |first=Gerhard |title=Die Jallaba und die Nuba Nordkordofans. Händler, Soziale Distinktion und Sudanisierung |year=2002 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3825858902 |language=de}} * {{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=P. M. |last2=Daly |first2=M. W. |title=History of the Sudan: From the coming of Islam to the present Day |year=2000 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0582368866 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780582368866 }} * Jok, Jok Madut (2007). ''Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence''. Oneworld Publications (Oxford). {{ISBN|978-1-85168-366-6}}. * Köndgen, Olaf (2017). ''The Codification of Islamic Criminal Law in the Sudan. Penal Codes and Supreme Court Case Law under Numayri and al-Bashir''. Brill (Leiden, Boston). {{ISBN|9789004347434}}. * {{cite book |editor-last1=Levtzion |editor-first1=Nehemia |editor-last2=Pouwels |editor-first2=Randall |year=2000 |title=The History of Islam in Africa |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=9780821444610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC}} * {{cite book |last=Loimeier |first=Roman |title=Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsocietiesi0000loim |year=2013 |publisher=Indiana University |isbn=9780253007889}} * {{cite book |last=Morewood |year=1940 |title=The British Defence of Egypt 1935–40 |publisher=Suffolk}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * {{cite book |last=Morewood |year=2005 |title=The British of Egypt |publisher=Suffolk}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * [[Godfrey Mwakikagile|Mwakikagile, Godfrey]] (2001). ''Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan: The State Against Blacks'', in ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation''. Nova Science Publishers (Huntington, New York). {{ISBN|978-1-56072-936-5}}. * {{cite book |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R.S. |last2=Spaulding |first2=Jay L. |title=Kingdoms of the Sudan |year=1974 |publisher=Methuen Young Books |isbn=978-0416774504}} * Peterson, Scott (2001). ''Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda—A Journalist Reports from the Battlefields of Africa''. Routledge (London; New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-203-90290-5}}. * [[Gérard Prunier|Prunier, Gérard]] (2005). ''Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide''. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, New York). {{ISBN|978-0-8014-4450-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Ruffini|first=Giovanni R. |year=2012 |title=Medieval Nubia. A Social and Economic History |publisher=Oxford University}} * {{cite book |last=Shackelford|first=Elizabeth |year=2020 |title=The Dissent Channel: American Diplomacy in a Dishonest Age |publisher=Public Affairs |isbn=978-1-5417-2448-8}} * {{cite book |last=Shinnie |first=P.L. |title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory02fage |chapter=Christian Nubia. |editor=J.D. Fage |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University |year=1978 |pages=556–588 |isbn=978-0-521-21592-3}} * {{cite book |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Heroic Age in Sennar |year=1985 |publisher=Red Sea |isbn=978-1569022603}} * {{cite book |last=Suliman |first=Osman |year=2010 |title=The Darfur Conflict: Geography or Institutions? |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-83616-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hrn-dkM00koC}} * {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Oriental Sources concerning Nubia |year=1975 |publisher=Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=http://www.medievalnubia.info/dev/index.php/Giovanni_Vantini%27s_Oriental_Sources_Concerning_Nubia |oclc=174917032}} * {{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalkingdoms0000wels |year=2002 |publisher=British Museum |place=London |isbn=978-0714119472}} * {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |year=2013 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12196-7|language=de}} * Zilfū, ʻIṣmat Ḥasan (translation: Clark, Peter) (1980). ''Karari: The Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman''. Frederick Warne & Co (London). {{ISBN|978-0-7232-2677-2}}. ; Articles * "Sudan." Background Notes, U.S. Department of State, 2009. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A194470122/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=bb340529 online] * "Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution". ''Law in Africa'' ([[Cologne]]; 2005). Vol. 8, pp.&nbsp;63–82. {{ISSN|1435-0963}}. * {{cite book |last=Lajtar |first=Adam |chapter=Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225) |title=Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5857688}} * {{cite journal |last=Martens-Czarnecka |first=Malgorzata |year=2015 |title=The Christian Nubia and the Arabs |url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_18404 |journal=Studia Ceranea |volume=5 |pages=249–265 |issn=2084-140X|doi=10.18778/2084-140X.05.08 |doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=McGregor |first=Andrew |journal=Sudan&Nubia |volume=15 |year=2011 |title=Palaces in the Mountains: An Introduction to the Archaeological Heritage of the Sultanate of Darfur |url=https://issuu.com/sudarchrs/docs/s_n15_mcgregor |pages=129–141}} * {{cite journal |last=Peacock |first=A.C.S. |title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries |year=2012 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=75| issue=1 |pages=87–11 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X11000838}} * {{cite journal |last=Sharkey |first=Heather J. |title=Arab Identity and Ideology in Sudan: The Politics of Language, Ethnicity and Race |year=2007 |url=http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf |pages=21–43 |journal=African Affairs |volume=107 |issue=426 |doi=10.1093/afraf/adm068 |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012152657/http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Fate of Alodia |journal=Meroitic Newsletter |volume=15 |year=1974 |url=http://www.meroiticnewsletter.org/MeroNews15.pdf#page=13&zoom=125(0,0) |pages=12–30 |issn=1266-1635}} * {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Acta Nubica. Proceedings of the X International Conference of Nubian Studies Rome 9–14 September 2002 |editor= Alessandro Roccati and Isabella Caneva |year=2006 |chapter=Some new light on the end of Soba |pages=487–491 |publisher=Libreria Dello Stato |isbn=978-88-240-1314-7}} ; Intaneti * {{cite web |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R. S. |last2=Tubiana |first2=Jérôme |year=2007 |title=Darfur. Historical and Contemporary Aspects |url=https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228022400/https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |url-status=dead }} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Sudan|voy=Sudan}} * [http://www.sudan.gov.sd/index.php/en Government of Sudan] website * [https://rainerebert.com/2017/08/25/archaeological-sites-in-sudan/ Archaeological sites in Sudan] * {{GovPubs|sudan}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Sudan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Sudan}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192789}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ Sudan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Sudan |volume= 26 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= |pages = 9–19 ||short= 1}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094995 Sudan profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.scribd.com/doc/127199474/CIMIC-activities-int-he-African-Union-Mission-in-Sudan%20 CIMIC activities in the African Union Mission in Sudan] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAYxXu53m04 The conflict in South Sudan] – ''[[The Economist]]'' * [https://unamid.unmissions.org/ UNAMID {{!}} UNITED NATIONS – AFRICAN UNION HYBRID OPERATION IN DARFUR] {{Sudan topics|state=collapsed}} {{coord|15|N|032|E|region:SD_type:country|display=title}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sudan]] <!--Keep at top (category corresponding to article), with a blank space, to keep this article at the top of the category.--> [[Category:1956 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Military dictatorships]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1956]] 6prkkkwz840u5larkndk2noxbx0spib 0 40391 124386 123652 2026-11-10T20:18:10Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124386 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sabata''' (mu nkhani za Kumanjiliro na za pakati pa vyaro) ni cipimo ca nyengo ca mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. Ndiyo nyengo ya pa kalendala iyo yili pakati pa [[Dazi|zuŵa]] na mwezi mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi. Mu caka cimoza muli masabata ghakujumpha pacoko 52, panji pakati masabata 4⅓ mu mwezi umoza. Mazuŵa gha sabata kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuŵika mazuŵa gha ntchito, mazuŵa gha kupumula, na mazuŵa ghakupatulika. Lizgu lakuti "sabata" likugwiliskirika ntchito so pa cigaŵa ca sabata, nga ni mazuŵa gha ntchito na umaliro wa sabata. Masabata ghanyake mu caka ghangaŵikika pa vilato vyapadera, nga ni Sabata la Golide mu China na Japani. Mwambura kunozgeka comene, magulu ghanyake ghangakhozga masabata gha kumanyiska ŵanthu, nga ni Sabata la Mbumba la Caro mu Canada, agho ghakunozgeka kuti ŵanthu ŵalaŵiske nkhani yinyake. Midawuko yinyake ya kale na ya mdawuko yikaŵa panji yili na masabata gha utali wakupambana, kusazgapo mazuŵa khumi mu Eguputo, sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu la Ŵaetruska na Ŵaroma ŵa kale, na masabata gha mazuŵa ghanayi panji ghankhondi pakati pa mazuŵa gha msika mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro ya mazuŵa ghano. Pamanyuma Ŵaroma ŵakasintha kuya ku sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. Ili pakwamba likaŵa sabata la vibwe, ndondomeko iyo kwambilira kwake kuli mphindano, iyo yikathya zuŵa liliwose zina la cibwe ca kale na ciuta uyo wakakolerananga na cibwe ico.<ref>Zerubavel (1989: 14–15)</ref><ref>Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 22–38)</ref> Cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa Cikhristu, sabata la vibwe la Ŵaroma likasazganika na sabata la Cikhristu la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ilo likalaŵiskanga Sabata (zuŵa la kuwuka kwa Khristu), ilo likafuma ku sabata la Ŵayuda la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ilo likalaŵiskanga Cisulo.<ref>Cf. (Bultrighini & Stern 2021: 22–27) vs Zerubavel (1989: 12–19)</ref><ref>Zerubavel (1989: 23–24)</ref><ref>Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 47)</ref> Sabata la vibwe na sabata la Ŵayuda vingaŵa kuti vikafuma ku ndondomeko za mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu kalendala ya Ŵababuloni, nangauli ukaboni wa ici ngucoko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ring |first=Rosanna |date=22 January 2021 |title=A history of time – the story behind our days, weeks, and months |url=https://www.stneotsmuseum.org.uk/articles/a-history-of-time-the-story-behind-our-days-weeks-and-months/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=St Neots Museum |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":3">[https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/why-are-there-seven-days-in-a-week Why Are There Seven Days in a Week?]. ''Discover'' (15 January 2020). Retrieved 2022-10-22.</ref><ref>Baker, Nick and Joey Watson. [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-05/how-did-the-seven-day-week-come-to-govern-our-lives/100672194 Where does the seven-day week come from and why does it govern our lives?] ABC Radio National. 4 Jan 2022</ref> Mu 321 mumuwilo wa Khristu, Fumu Yikulu Constantine wakalangura sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, kusazgapo kupanga Sabata kuŵa zuŵa la kupumula la ŵanthu wose. Ici cikathandazgika mu Ulaya yose, ndipo pamanyuma pa caro cose.<ref name=":3" /> [[File:First Day of Week World Map.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Mapu gha caro capasi agho ghakulongora zuŵa lakwamba la sabata mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana, kuyana na Common Locale Data Repository{{legend|#fdc086|Lakwamba}} {{legend|#f0027f|Cinkhondi (Maldives pera)}} {{legend|#6fa96f|Cisulo}} {{legend|#386cb0|Sabata}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Territory Information |url=https://www.unicode.org/cldr/charts/45/supplemental/territory_information.html |access-date=12 July 2024 |website=www.unicode.org}}</ref>]] Mu Cingelezi, mazuŵa ghakugwiliskira ntchito mazina gha Ŵajeremani ghakuyana na gha Ŵaroma, kupatula Cisulo, ico cikaŵavya lakuyana: ''Sunday'' (zuŵa la zuŵa), ''Monday'' (zuŵa la mwezi), ''Tuesday'' (zuŵa la Aresi/Tiw), ''Wednesday'' (zuŵa la Mekyuri/Woden), ''Thursday'' (zuŵa la Jupita/Thor), ''Friday'' (zuŵa la Venasi/Frigg), na ''Saturday'' (zuŵa la Satani).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Lagasse|first=Paul|title=Week|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2018|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|location=New York, NY, USA|edition=8}}</ref> Ni mazuŵa nicigha gha sabata agho ghakuŵa ghakwamba na ghaumaliro kukupambana kuyana na mdawuko, nangauli pafupifupi yose yikuŵika Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba kuŵa zuŵa lakwamba.<ref name="firstday">{{Cite web |title=Territory Information |url=https://unicode-org.github.io/cldr-staging/charts/38/supplemental/territory_information.html |access-date=6 November 2020 |website=www.unicode.org}}</ref> Visopa vitatu vya Abraham vikupatula mazuŵa ghakupambana gha sabata nga ni zuŵa lakupatulika.<ref name="ReferenceA">''World Book Encyclopedia'', 2018 ed., s.v. "Jerusalem"</ref> Ŵakhristu ŵakusunga Sabata pa zuŵa la Sabata, kale zuŵa lakwamba la sabata, kucindika kuwuka kwa Yesu.<ref>{{cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |pages=2190|page-end=2191|access-date=25 October 2025|}}</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵakusunga Cinkhondi, cifukwa cikalongosoreka mu Quran nga ni zuŵa lakupatulika la kusopera pamoza.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aslan |first1=Rose |title=What is the significance of Friday prayers in Islam? |url=https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-significance-of-friday-prayers-in-islam-113702 |website=The Conversation |date=19 March 2019 |access-date=10 March 2023}}</ref> Ŵayuda ŵakusunga Cisulo (''Shabbat''), zuŵa la cinkhondi na ciŵiri, kucindika kulenga kwa Ciuta caro mu mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza na kupumula pa la cinkhondi na ciŵiri.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Leiman |first=Sid Z. |title=The Sabbath |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jewish-religious-year/The-Sabbath |access-date=28 October 2025 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> == Zina == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''week'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''wice'', ilo pakumalira likufuma ku muzu wa Ŵajeremani ''*wik-'' "kuzgoka, kusamira, kusintha".<ref name=worldwidewords>[http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww-sen1.htm sennight] at worldwidewords.org (retrieved 12 January 2017)</ref> Lizgu la Ŵajeremani panyake likaŵa na ng'anamulo likulu pambere kalendala ya Ŵaroma yindazomerezgeke, panyake "kalondezgero". Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likuthyika zina mu viyowoyero vinandi na lizgu ilo likufuma ku "cinkhondi na ciŵiri". Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''sabata'' likufuma ku Ciheberi ''shabbat'' kwizira mu viyowoyero vinyake, ndipo likung'anamula so zuŵa la Sabata. == Ng'anamulo na Utali == Sabata likulongosoreka nga ni nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ndendende, ntheura:{{efn|1=In pre-modern times, days were measured either from sunset to sunset, or from sunrise to sunrise so that the length of the week (and the day) would be subject to slight variations depending upon the time of year and the observer's geographical latitude.}} : sabata limoza = mazuŵa 7 = maora 168 = maminiti 10,080 = maliŵiri 604,800. Kuyana na kalendala ya Gregory: : caka cimoza ca kalendala ya Gregory = masabata 52 + zuŵa limoza (mazuŵa ghaŵiri mu caka ca mazuŵa 366) : sabata limoza ≈ magaŵa 22.9984 pa 100 gha mwezi wapakati wa Gregory Mu caka capakati ca Gregory, pali mazuŵa 365.2425, ntheura masabata 52.1775 ndendende. Pali masabata 20,871 ndendende mu vyaka 400 vya Gregory, ntheura 2 Thukila 1626 likaŵa Lakwamba, nga ni 2 Thukila 2026. Kuyaniska na kwenda kwa mwezi, sabata ni magaŵa 23.659 pa 100 gha mwezi wapakati, panji 94.637 pa 100 gha cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca mwezi. Mu mbiri, ndondomeko ya malembo gha A mpaka G yagwiliskirika ntchito kupepuska kupima zuŵa la sabata. Zuŵa la sabata lingapimika makola usange nambala ya zuŵa la Julian yikumanyikwa: kusazga cimoza ku ivyo vikusyala pamanyuma pa kugaŵa nambala iyi na 7 kukupeleka zuŵa la sabata kuyana na ISO 8601. Mwaciyelezgero, nambala ya zuŵa la Julian la 2 Thukila 2026 ni 2461347; 2461347 mod 7 + 1 ni 1, ilo ni Lakwamba.<ref>Richards, E. G. (2013). "Calendars". In S. E. Urban & P. K. Seidelmann, eds. ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'', 3rd ed. (pp. 585–624). Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. 2013, pp. 592, 618. This is equivalent to saying that JD0, i.e. 1 January 4713 BCE of the proleptic Julian calendar, was a Monday.</ref> Mu 1973, John Conway wakapanga lamulo la "Doomsday" la kupima mu mutu zuŵa la sabata la zuŵa liliwose. === Kwamba na Umaliro === Midawuko yikupambana pa mazuŵa agho ghakuŵa ghakwamba na ghaumaliro pa makalendala ghawo, nangauli pafupifupi yose yikuŵika Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba kuŵa zuŵa lakwamba.{{efn|The first day of the ''work week'' is not always the "first day of the week" on calendars, see Workweek and weekend for more information.}} Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Vipimo (ISO) ukugwiliskira ntchito Lakwamba nga ni zuŵa lakwamba la sabata mu ISO 8601.{{efn|"ISO 8601 Data elements and interchange formats – Information interchange – Representation of dates and times" is an international standard covering the exchange of date- and time-related data.}} Vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya, China, Afilika ya Kumanjiliro na ya Pakati, na Oceania vikupenda Lakwamba nga ni zuŵa lakwamba, apo vigaŵa vinandi vya Amerika, Asiya ya Kumwera na ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, na Afilika ya Kumwera vikupenda Sabata nga ni lakwamba. Vyaro vinandi vya Ciarabu na Cipersia vikugwiliskira ntchito Cisulo nga ni zuŵa lakwamba, nangauli vinyake vikugwiliskira ntchito Lakwamba panji Sabata. Mu Citumbuka, mazina gha mazuŵa ghakulongora kuti Sabata ndilo lakumalira ndipo Lakwamba ndilo lakwamba la ntchito.<ref name="firstday"/> == Mazuŵa gha Sabata == [[File: Italian - Bracelet - Walters 41269.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Cibangiri ca Ŵaitaliya ico cikulongora mazuŵa gha sabata na vikozgo vya ŵaciuta awo mazuŵa ghakathya mazina ghawo (pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Walters Art Museum)]] [[File: Weekday heptagram.svg|thumb|Kuyaniska ndondomeko ya vibwe vya kale (vyakuŵikika mu cizingo) na ndondomeko ya mazuŵa gha sabata (agho ghakupanga nyenyezi ya mphepete 7 mukati mwa cizingo)]] Mazuŵa gha sabata ghakathyika mazina gha vibwe 7 vya kale, ivyo vikasazgangapo zuŵa na mwezi. Ndondomeko iyi yikalutilira pamoza na mdawuko wa mpingo wa kupenda mazuŵa mu Cilatini ca mpingo kwamba na ''Dominica'' (Zuŵa la Fumu) nga ni zuŵa lakwamba. Ŵaciuta ŵa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma awo ŵakakolerananga na vibwe ŵakasinthika kuŵa ŵaciuta ŵa Ŵajeremani pakumalira kwa Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo ici cikapangiska mazina gha Ŵajeremani gha ŵaciuta ŵawo. Kalondezgero ka mazina gha mazuŵa nkhwa vibwe nga umo vikaŵikikiranga kale yayi (kuyana na mtunda: mwezi, Mekyuri, Venasi, zuŵa, Aresi, Jupita, Satani). M'malo mwake, ndondomeko ya maora gha vibwe yikapangiska mazuŵa ghakulondezgana kuthyika mazina gha vibwe ivyo vili malo ghatatu pakati pake mu kalondezgero kawo ka kale. Plutarch wakayowoya za ici mu buku ilo likalembeka pafupifupi 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu (ilo lataika).<ref>E. G. Richards, ''Mapping Time, the Calendar and History'', Oxford 1999. p. 269.</ref> Dio Cassius (pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 200) wakapeleka malongosoro ghaŵiri.<ref name=Dio>{{cite book |last1=Dio Cassius |title=Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία |url=http://www.poesialatina.it/_ns/Greek/testi/Cassius/Historiae_Romanae37.html}} Book 37, Sections 16–19. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#note11 English translation].</ref> Ndondomeko ya mpingo, yambura kukolerana na nyenyezi, ya kupenda mazuŵa gha sabata yikazomerezgeka mu nyengo ya pamanyuma ya kale. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhwaska so kuchema Citatu kuti "pakati pa sabata" mu Cijeremani ca kale na Cislavonic ca mpingo ca kale. Ndondomeko ya mpingo yikaŵa yinandi mu Cikhristu ca Kumafumiro, kweni ku Kumanjiliro yicali mu Ciisilandi, Cigalisiya, na Cipwitikizi pera. Mazina gha Citumbuka gha mazuŵa (Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu, Cinayi, Cinkhondi) nagho ghakupenda mazuŵa nga ni ndondomeko iyi.<ref>Max Vasmer, {{lang|de|Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch}}, s.v. {{lang|ru|понедельник}}. However, the Slavic languages later introduced a secondary numbering system that names Tuesday as the "second day".<!-- Wiktionary claims "въторъкъ" as OCS, but Vasmer does not recognize an OCS precedent to Russian вторник, so it is unclear when this system was introduced.--></ref> {| class="wikitable" | |Sabata |Lakwamba |Ciŵiri |Citatu |Cinayi |Cinkhondi |Cisulo |- |Cakuthambo |[[Zuŵa]] |[[Mwezi]] |[[Aresi]] |[[Mekyuri]] |[[Jupita]] |[[Vinasi]] |[[Satani]] |- |Ciuta wa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma |Helios-Sol |Selene-Luna |Ares-Mars |Hermes-Mercury |Zeus-Jupiter |Aphrodite-Venus |Cronus-Saturn |- |Cigiriki:{{dubious|date=April 2021}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἡλίου}}{{dubious|date=April 2021}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Σελήνης}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἄρεως}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἑρμοῦ}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Διός}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἀφροδίτης}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Κρόνου}} |- |Cilatini: |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Solis|dies Sōlis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Lunae|dies Lūnae]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Martis|dies Martis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Mercurii|dies Mercuriī]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Iovis|dies Iovis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Veneris|dies Veneris]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Saturni|dies Saturnī]]|cat=0}} |- |{{Lang|la|[[interpretatio germanica]]|cat=0}} |Sun |Moon |Tiwaz |Wodanaz |Þunraz |Frige |— |- |Cingelezi ca kale |{{Lang|ang|sunnandæg}} |{{Lang|ang|mōnandæg}} |{{Lang|ang|tiwesdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|wōdnesdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|þunresdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|frīgedæg}} |{{Lang|ang|sæterndæg}} |- |Ca India (Navagraha) |Suryavāra/ Ravivāra/ Bhānuvāsara |Chandravāra/ Somavāra/ Induvāsara |Mangalavāra/ Bhaumavāsara |Budhavāra/ Saumyavāsara |Guruvāra/Bṛhaspativāsara |Shukravāra/ Bhṛguvāsara |Shanivāra/ Sthiravāsara |} == Mbiri == === Vuma Lapakati la Kale === [[File:CLM 14456 71r detail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Vithuzi vya vizingo ivyo vikulongora kagaŵiro ka zuŵa na ka sabata, kufuma mu buku lakulembeka na woko la nyengo ya Ŵakarolingiya (Clm 14456 fol. 71r) la ku St. Emmeram Abbey. Sabata likugaŵika mu mazuŵa 7, ndipo zuŵa lililose likugaŵika mu maora 24]] Ukaboni wakwamba wa kuzirwa kwa nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri pa nyenyezi ni lamulo la fumu Sargon wa Akkad pafupifupi 2300 pambere Khristu. Ŵakkadi ŵakacindikanga nambala 7, ndipo vinthu vikulu vya kumwamba ivyo vikuwoneka na maso vikaŵa 7 (zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe vinkhondi vya pafupi).<ref>{{cite web |title=How we divide time |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/why-12-months-year-seven-days-week-or-60-minutes-hour |website=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=12 September 2024}}</ref> Gudea, wasembe-fumu wa Lagash mu Sumer (pafupifupi 2100 pambere Khristu), wakazenga tempele la vipinda 7, ilo wakapatula na cisangalalo ca mazuŵa 7. Mu nkhani ya cigumula ya Gilgamesh, mphepo yikulu yikatora mazuŵa 7, nkhunda yikatumika pamanyuma pa mazuŵa 7 (nga mu Genesis), ndipo Utnapishtim, uyo wakuyana na Nowa, wakafuma mu cingalawa mazuŵa 7 pamanyuma pakuti cafika pa mtunda.{{efn|1=Copeland (1939) states as the date for Gudea "as early as 2600 BC";<ref>{{cite journal |last=Copeland |first=Leland S. |title=Sources of the Seven-Day Week |journal=Popular Astronomy |date=1939 |volume=47 |issue=4 |page=176 |bibcode=1939PA.....47..175C}}</ref> the modern estimate according to the short chronology places Gudea in the 22nd century BC. By contrast, Anthony R. Michaelis claims that "the first great empire builder, King Sargon I of Akkad ([ruled] 2335 to 2279 BC [viz., middle chronology]), decreed a seven-day week in his empire. He lived for 56 years, established the first Semitic Dynasty, and defeated the Sumerian City-States. Thus the Akkadian language spread, it was adopted by the Babylonians, and the seven-day week was similarly inherited from him."<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Enigmatic Seven |url=https://garfield.library.upenn.edu/michaelis/title310.pdf |journal=Interdisciplinary Science Reviews |volume=7 |page=373 |last=Michaelis |first=Anthony R.|year=1982 |issue=1 |doi=10.1179/030801882789801278 |bibcode=1982ISRv....7....1M }}</ref> The number seven is significant in Sumerian mythology.<ref>{{cite news |title=The power of seven |date=20 December 2001 |url=https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2001/12/20/the-power-of-seven |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><!--surely(!) we can come up with a better source for whatever we want to say with this.-->}} Kupenda kufuma pa mwezi uphya, Ŵababuloni ŵakasekeleranga zuŵa la 7, 14, 21, na 28 la mwezi wa mazuŵa pafupifupi 29 panji 30 nga ni "mazuŵa ghakupatulika", ghakuchemeka so "mazuŵa ghaheni" (ghambura mwaŵi pa ntchito zinyake). Pa mazuŵa agha, ŵalongozgi ŵakakanizgikanga ntchito zinyake ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukhumbanga "kupempha" yayi, ndipo la 28 likaŵa "zuŵa la kupumula".<ref name="ere">{{cite book|author=Pinches, T.G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVNqXDz4CE8C|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|others=Selbie, John A., contrib|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7661-3698-4|editor=Hastings, James|volume=20|pages=889–891|chapter=Sabbath (Babylonian)|access-date=17 March 2009}} <!--it turns out this ERE article just summarizes a century-old Assyriologist theory, but we don't know whose it is, or how scholars have judged it--></ref> Pa zuŵa lililose, sembe zikaperekekanga ku ciuta wakupambana. Nangauli vikuyana, mdawuko wa pamanyuma wa kukoleranya mazuŵa gha sabata na ŵaciuta panji vibwe ukafuma ku Ŵababuloni yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emil Schürer |title=Die siebentägige Woche im Gebrauche der christlichen Kirchen der ersten. Jahrhunderte |journal=Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft |date=1905 |pages=1–66 |url=https://dlibra.bibliotekaelblaska.pl/Content/56671/01.pdf |author1-link=Emil Schürer }}</ref> Vimbale vya nyengo ya Achaemenid vikulongora kuti mwezi wa mazuŵa 29 panji 30 ukaŵa na masabata ghatatu gha mazuŵa 7 na sabata laumaliro la mazuŵa 8 panji 9, ntheura ndondomeko ya mazuŵa 7 yikalutiliranga kwambura kuleka yayi.<ref name="ere" /> Ŵababuloni ŵakasekelera so zuŵa la 19 nga ni "zuŵa liheni" lapadera, "zuŵa la kukwiya", cifukwa likaŵa pafupifupi zuŵa la 49 la mwezi wakajumpha, kumalizga "sabata la masabata".<ref name="ere" /> === Persia ya Achaemenid === Kalendala ya Zoroaster yikulondezga ya Ŵababuloni pa kukoleranya zuŵa la 7, 14, 21, na 28 la mwezi na Ahura Mazda.<ref name="TSZ">Boyce, Mary (ed. & trans.). ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism''. University of Chicago Press, 1984, pp. 19–20.</ref> Kalendala yakwamba ya Zoroaster yikaŵa ndondomeko iyo yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Ufumu wa Persia, iyo yikatoleka ku kalendala ya Ŵababuloni pofika vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu. === Cisopa ca Ŵayuda === Ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yakulutilira mu mbiri yose kwambura kukolerana na mwezi yikacitika dankha mu Cisopa ca Ŵayuda, pafupifupi mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA11 p. 11]}} Pali maghanoghano ghanandi pa kwambilira kwa ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya mu Baibolo. Friedrich Delitzsch na ŵanyake ŵakasacizga kuti sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, pakuti ni pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca mwezi, ndico kwambilira kwake kwa kuthambo, ndipo nadi kalendala ya Ŵababuloni yikasazganga mazuŵa kuti sabata laumaliro la mwezi likolerane na mwezi uphya. Kuyana na ghanoghano ili, sabata la Ŵayuda likatoleka ku Ŵababuloni ndipo likawuskikapo kuthemba mwezi. Mu buku lake, Frank Senn wakulongora ukaboni wa kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri na Ŵayuda pa nyengo ya ukapolo wa ku Babuloni mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu, pamanyuma pa kunangika kwa Tempele la Solomoni.<ref name="Senn 1997">{{cite book | last = Senn | first = Frank C. | title = Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical | publisher = Fortress Press | year = 1997 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g5c7C2rQzU0C | isbn = 978-0-8006-2726-3}}</ref> Nangauli sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Cisopa ca Ŵayuda likukolerana na nkhani ya kulengeka mu Buku la Genesis, palije kumanya usange nkhani ya Genesis yikalembeka pambere pa ukapolo uwu. Kufuma nyengo ya Tempele Laciŵiri pasi pa ulongozgi wa Persia, Cisopa ca Ŵayuda cikagwiliskiranga ntchito ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya Masabata ghakuwerezgeka.<ref name="Senn 1997" /> George Aaron Barton wakaghanaghana kuti nkhani ya kulengeka kwa mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Genesis yikukolerana na nkhani ya kulengeka ya Ŵababuloni ''Enûma Eliš'', iyo yikalembeka pa vimbale 7.<ref>"Each account is arranged in a series of sevens, the Babylonian in seven tablets, the Hebrew in seven days. Each of them places the creation of man in the sixth division of its series." cited after Albert T. Clay, ''The Origin of Biblical Traditions: Hebrew Legends in Babylonia and Israel'', 1923, [https://books.google.com/books?id=JKBLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 p. 74].</ref> Mu ghanoghano lakuyowoyeka kanandi la pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Sabata la Ciheberi likuyaniskika na lizgu la Ŵasumeri ''sa-bat'', "kupumula kwa pakati", lizgu la mwezi wakuzura. Eviatar Zerubavel wakuti Sabata la mu Baibolo lingaŵa kuti likafuma ku midawuko ya Ŵababuloni pa nyengo ya ukapolo. Kweni wakuwona ndondomeko iyo yikuthemba Sabata pera kwambura kukolerana na kuthambo kuŵa caphya ca Ŵayuda. Wakuti, "kuŵika sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kuyana na kusunga Sabata nyengo zose ni ciperekero capadera ca Ŵayuda ku midawuko ya ŵanthu. Kusankha nambala 7 kungaŵa kuti kukafuma ku Ŵaasiriya panji Ŵababuloni, kweni ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Mesopotamiya ŵekha ŵakaŵavya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri."{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA14 p. 9]}} Niels-Erik Andreasen, Jeffrey H. Tigay, na ŵanyake ŵakuti Sabata la mu Baibolo likuyowoyeka nga ni zuŵa la kupumula mu vigaŵa vya kale comene vya mabuku ghankhondi ghakwamba gha Baibolo, gha vyaka vya m'ma 800 pambere Khristu, vyaka mahandiredi pambere pa ukapolo wa ku Babuloni. Ŵakusanga so kuti kuyana pakati pa Sabata la mu Baibolo na ndondomeko ya Ŵababuloni nkhucoko. Ntheura ŵakuti Sabata, na sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, vingaŵa vyakupangika na Ŵaisraeli ŵekha.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0YAAAAIAAJ |title=The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-historical Investigation |last=Andreasen |first=Niels-Erik A. |date=1972 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=9780891306832 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shafer |first=Byron E. |date=1974 |title=Reviewed Work: ''The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-Historical Investigation'' by Niels-Erik A. Andreasen |jstor=3263102 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=300–301 |doi=10.2307/3263102}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Tigay |first=Jeffery H. |date=1998 |title=Shavua |journal=Mo'adei Yisra'el: Time and Holy Days in the Biblical and Second Commonwealth Periods (Heb.), ed. Jacob S. Licht|pages=22–23 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=23506909 |title=New Moons and Sabbaths: A Case-Study in the Contrastive Approach |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=48 |year=1977 |pages=1–18 |last=Hallo |first=William W.}}</ref> Tigay wakulemba kuti pakati pa mitundu ya pafupi iyo yikakhwaska Israeli, palije ciyelezgero cakuyana ndendende na sabata la Ŵaisraeli, ntheura sabata ili ni ciphya ca Ŵaisraeli. Masuzgo ghanyake na ghanoghano la Delitzsch ni kumazga kupambana pakati pa sabata lambura kuleka na sabata la mwezi, na kulongosora cifukwa ico palije malemba agho ghakuchema sabata la mwezi kuti ''Shabbat'' mu ciyowoyero ciliconse. Mu malemba gha Ŵayuda gha nyengo ya Septuagint, lizgu lakuti "Sabata" likang'anamulanga so sabata lose la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, nyengo pakati pa Masabata ghaŵiri.<ref>''Strong's Concordance'', ''4521''.</ref> Ntharika ya Yesu ya Mfarisi na mulipiriska msonkho yikuti Mfarisi wakufunga "kaŵiri mu sabata". Mu nkhani ya ŵanakazi awo ŵakasanga thumbo lambura kanthu, ŵakulongosoreka kuti ŵakiza "pa zuŵa lakwamba la masabata"; kung'anamulika kukulemba "sabata" m'malo mwa "masabata". Apo Ŵayuda ŵakakhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambana vya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, midawuko yawo yikamanyikwa comene, ndipo ŵalembi ŵa Ŵaroma nga ni Seneca na Ovid ŵakuyowoya za Sabata la Ŵayuda.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3ijDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |title=Jesus in Q: The Sabbath and Theology of the Bible and Extracanonical Texts |last=So |first=Ky-Chun |date=6 April 2017 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=9781498282116 |language=en}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma === Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ''nundinum'' ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu. Kweni pamanyuma pakuti kalendala ya Julian yamba kugwira ntchito mu 45 pambere Khristu, sabata la vibwe la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito comene. Likakoleranyanga mazuŵa gha sabata na zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe vinkhondi ivyo vikuwoneka na maso.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA45 p. 45]}}<ref name="Senn 1997" /> Ghanoghano la maora gha vibwe ni caphya ca kulongolera mwa nyenyezi kwa Ŵagiriki, panyake mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA14 p. 14]}} Ntheura, kwambilira kwa sabata la vibwe kukaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa kwa Ŵagiriki.<ref>Zerubavel (1989: 12–19)</ref><ref name=":4">Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 22-27)</ref> Kweni Ilaria Bultrighini na Sascha Stern ŵakuti mdawuko uwu ukawoneka dankha mu Italy ya Ŵaroma, ndipo ŵakughanaghana kuti ghanoghano ili lingaŵa kuti likafuma pacoko ku kumanya kwa Ŵaroma sabata la Ŵayuda.<ref name=":4" /> Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamanyikwa comene mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma pofika vyaka vya m'ma 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeVLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|title=Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BCE to 300 CE |last1=Keegan |first1=Peter |last2=Sears |first2=Gareth |last3=Laurence |first3=Ray |date=12 September 2013 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9781441123046|language=en}}</ref> Kwa kanyengo, sabata na ''nundinum'' vikaŵako pamoza, kweni apo Constantine wakazomerezga sabata mu 321 na Zuŵa la Zuŵa (''dies Solis'') likaŵa zuŵa la kupumula la dango, ''nundinum'' yikaŵa kuti yaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schaff |first1=Philip |title=History of the Christian Church Vol. III |date=1884 |publisher=T&T Clark |location=Edinburgh |page=[https://archive.org/details/historychristia01schagoog/page/n299 380] |url=https://archive.org/details/historychristia01schagoog|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref> Ndondomeko yakulutilira ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya sabata yikwamba mu ulongozgi wa Augustus; zuŵa lakwamba lakumanyikwa ilo likulembeka pamoza na zuŵa la sabata ni 6 Mpupulu 60 mumuwilo wa Khristu, lakulembeka nga ni Sabata mu kalembero ka pa linga ku Pompeii. Kweni kuyana na kalendala ya Julian, 6 Mpupulu 60 likaŵa Citatu. Ici cikulongosoreka na kuŵapo kwa nthowa ziŵiri za kuthya mazina mazuŵa gha sabata kuyana na maora gha vibwe: 6 Mpupulu likaŵa Sabata kuyana na nthowa ya kunjira kwa zuŵa na Citatu kuyana na nthowa ya kufuma kwa zuŵa.<ref>'' Nerone Caesare Augusto Cosso Lentulo Cossil fil. Cos. VIII idus Febr(u)Arius dies solis, luna XIIIIX nun(dinae) Cumis, V (idus Februaries) nun(dinae) Pompeis''.<br />{{cite book |author=Robert Hannah |chapter=Time in Written Spaces |editor1=Peter Keegan |editor2=Gareth Sears |editor3=Ray Laurence |title=Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BCE to 300 CE |publisher=A&C Black |year=2013 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PeVLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]}}</ref> === Ulaya ya Cikhristu === Ndondomeko ya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yindaleke mu Cikhristu, na ntheura mu mbiri ya Kumanjiliro, kwa pafupifupi vyaka 2,000, nangauli makalendala gha Coptic, Julian, na Gregory ghakasintha, nga umo kukulongorekera na zuŵa la Pasika ilo lalondezgeka kuwelera mu mindandanda yinandi mpaka ku mndandanda wa kale wa ku Alexandria wakwamba na Pasika ya 311 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Mdawuko wa kulongolera vyamunthazi kuyana na mazuŵa gha sabata agho visekelero vinyake vikuwira ukakura pakwamba pa nyengo yapakati. Mitundu yinyake ya pamanyuma yikasazgapo mabuku gha mu Germany na Ungelezi, na gha Ŵaslavi ŵa kumwera na kumafumiro.<ref name="Ryan380">William Francis Ryan, ''The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia'', Penn State Press, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=S3qJMMYH6VYC&pg=PA380 p. 380].</ref> Midawuko ya Cikhristu ya nyengo yapakati ya mwaŵi panji kusoŵa mwaŵi kwa mazuŵa ghanyake gha sabata yikalutilira mpaka mazuŵa ghano. Ici comene cikukhwaska Cinkhondi, ico cikukolerana na kupayikika kwa Yesu. Sabata, nyengo zinyake lakulongoreka nga ni Mutuŵa Anastasia, likasopeka mu Russia, mdawuko uwo ukasuskika mu cisambizgo ca vyaka vya m'ma 1300.<ref name="Ryan383">William Francis Ryan, ''The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia'', Penn State Press, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=S3qJMMYH6VYC&pg=PA383 p. 383].</ref> Mu ndondomeko ya mpingo ya kupenda, Sabata likapendekanga so nga ni zuŵa lakwamba la sabata; kweniso, likuwonekera nga ni "zuŵa la cinkhondi na citatu" ndipo nyengo zinyake likuchemeka nthena mu kusopa kwa Cikhristu.{{efn|1=This is just a reflection of the system of ordinal numbers in the Greek and Latin languages, where today is the "first" day, tomorrow the "second" day, etc. Compare the nundinal cycle (literally "nine-days" cycle, describing an eight-day week) of the Roman calendar, or the Resurrection of Jesus (after a period of less than 48 hours) being described (in texts derived from Latin) as happening on the "third day".}} Justin Martyr wakalemba kuti: "zuŵa lakwamba pamanyuma pa Sabata, lakusyala lakwamba pa mazuŵa ghose, likuchemeka la cinkhondi na citatu, kuyana na unandi wa mazuŵa ghose gha ndondomeko, ndipo likusyala lakwamba."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html |author=Peter Kirby |title=Saint Justin Martyr: Dialogue with Trypho |website=Early Christian Writings}}</ref> Nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu, kanandi (kweni nyengo zose yayi) yakwamba na kumalira pa Sabata, yikuchemeka ''octave'', comene mu kusopa kwa Katolika. Mu Cijeremani, mazgo ghakuti "lero mu mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu" ghangang'anamula so "sabata limoza kufuma lero". Ndimo viliri so mu Ciitaliya, Cifulenci, na Cisipanya. === Kuzomerezgeka mu Asiya === ==== China na Japani ==== Kuyowoya kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa mu malemba gha Ŵacayina kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kukufuma kwa Fan Ning, uyo wakaŵako pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 300 mu ufumu wa Jin, apo kuthandazgika kufuma ku Ŵamanikeya kukulembeka mu malemba gha ŵamonke ŵa Cibuda Yi Jing na Bu Kong mu vyaka vya m'ma 600.{{efn|1=It was transmitted to China in the 8th century by Manichaeans, via the country of Kang (a Central Asian polity near Samarkand). Tang-era adoption is documented in the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese Buddhist monk Bu Kong. According to the Chinese encyclopedia ''Cihai'', there is some evidence that the system had been adopted twice, the first time already in the 4th century (Jin dynasty), based on a reference by a Jin-era astrologer, Fan Ning. The ''Cihai'' under the entry for "seven luminaries calendar" has: <blockquote>method of recording days according to the seven luminaries [{{Lang|zh|七曜}} ''qī yào'']. China normally observes the following order: Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn. Seven days make one week, which is repeated in a cycle. Originated in ancient Babylon (or ancient Egypt according to one theory). Used by the Romans at the time of the 1st century AD, later transmitted to other countries. This method existed in China in the 4th century. It was also transmitted to China by Manichaeans in the 8th century from the country of Kang ({{Lang|zh|康}}) in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Days of the Week: the 'Seven Luminaries' |url=http://www.cjvlang.com/Dow/dowjpn.html |website=Days of the Week in Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese & Mongolian |publisher=cjvlang}}</ref></blockquote>}} Ndondomeko ya vibwe ya Ŵacayina yikatoleka ku Japani mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na mumonke wa Japani Kūkai. Mabuku gha mazuŵa gha mulongozgi wa Japani Fujiwara Michinaga ghakulongora kuti ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Japani pofika 1007. Mu Japani, ndondomeko iyi yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa kulongolera mwa nyenyezi mpaka yikaŵa maziko gha kalendala ya Kumanjiliro mu nyengo ya Meiji (1868–1912). ==== India ==== Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamanyikwanga mu India pofika vyaka vya m'ma 500, ndipo likuyowoyeka mu ''Pañcasiddhāntikā''. Shashi (2000) wakuyowoya ''Garga Samhita'', ilo wakuliŵika mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere panji pamanyuma pa Khristu, nga ni kuyowoya kwakwamba kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu India. === Ghanoghano la Cisilamu === Kuyana na Cisilamu, sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamba na kulengeka kwa caro cose na Allah. Abu Huraira wakayowoya kuti Muhammad wakati: "Allah wakalenga dongo pa Cisulo, mapiri pa Sabata, makuni pa Lakwamba, vinthu vya ntchito pa Ciŵiri, ungweru pa Citatu, wakathandazga vinyama pa Cinayi, ndipo wakalenga Adamu pamanyuma pa ''Asr'' pa Cinkhondi; cakulengeka caumaliro pa ora laumaliro la Cinkhondi, pakati pa msana na usiku."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sahih Muslim 2789 - Characteristics of the Day of Judgment, Paradise, and Hell - كتاب صفة القيامة والجنة والنار - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim:2789|access-date=17 July 2021|website=sunnah.com}}</ref> == Kupenda Masabata == Masabata mu caka ca kalendala ya Gregory ghangapendeka caka ciliconse. Kupenda uku kanandi kukugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya Ulaya na Asiya. Kuli kucoko mu U.S. na kunyake. === Ndondomeko ya ISO === Ndondomeko ya kupenda masabata ni ndondomeko ya ISO, iyo yili mu ISO 8601. Ndondomeko iyi yikuti sabata lililose likwamba pa Lakwamba ndipo likukolerana na caka ico cili na Cinayi ca sabata ilo. ==== Kusanga Sabata 1 ==== Mu kacitiro, sabata 1 (W01) la caka ciliconse lingamanyikwa nthena: * Usange 1 Matika likuwira pa Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu panji Cinayi, sabata la 1 Matika ndilo Sabata 1. Kupatula para 1 Matika ni Lakwamba, Sabata 1 ili likusazgapo zuŵa (mazuŵa) ghaumaliro gha caka ca kumanyuma. * Usange 1 Matika likuwira pa Cinkhondi, Cisulo, panji Sabata, 1 Matika ni cigaŵa ca sabata laumaliro la caka ca kumanyuma. Sabata 1 lizamwamba pa Lakwamba lakwamba pamanyuma pa 1 Matika. Mwaciyelezgero, Sabata 1 la 2015 likamba pa Lakwamba, 29 Zimya 2014, cifukwa 1 Matika 2015 likaŵa Cinayi; Sabata 1 la 2021 likamba pa Lakwamba, 4 Matika 2021, cifukwa 1 Matika 2021 likaŵa Cinkhondi. ==== Sabata 52 na 53 ==== Ncakuthekera so kumanya usange sabata laumaliro la caka ca kumanyuma likaŵa Sabata 52 panji 53: * Usange 1 Matika ni Cinkhondi, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 53 la caka ca kumanyuma. * Usange 1 Matika ni Cisulo, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 53 usange caka ca kumanyuma cikaŵa ca mazuŵa 366, panji Sabata 52 usange yayi. * Usange 1 Matika ni Sabata, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 52 la caka ca kumanyuma. === Ndondomeko Zinyake za Kupenda === Mu vyaro vinyake, ndondomeko ya kupenda yikupambana na ya ISO. Pali ndondomeko zinkhondi na yimoza panji kujumpha. Cifukwa sabata likwamba pa Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba mu ndondomeko zose izi, mazuŵa gha ntchito, Lakwamba mpaka Cinkhondi, ghali na nambala yimoza ya sabata mu ndondomeko yiliyose. Kanandi, ndondomeko izi zikuzomerezgana pa nambala ya sabata ya zuŵa lililose la ntchito: mu vyaka umo 1 Matika ni Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu, panji Cinayi, ndondomeko zose zikuzomerezgana; mu vyaka vinyake, yimoza panji ziŵiri zikupambana. Sabata la ''epi'' (sabata la kupenda nthenda) likugwiliskirika ntchito kupharazga viŵerengero vya uchanda, nga ni ŵalwari ŵa COVID-19. Likwamba pa Sabata na kumalira pa Cisulo. Sabata lakwamba la caka likumalira pa Cisulo lakwamba la Matika, usange likuwira pa zuŵa la cinayi panji kujumpha la mwezi. Ntheura sabata lakwamba lingamba mu Zimya la caka ca kumanyuma. ==== Kagwiliskiro ==== Nambala ya zuŵa la kupangika kwa vigaŵa vya magesi kanandi ni manambala ghanayi YYWW, apo YY ni manambala ghaŵiri ghaumaliro gha caka ndipo WW ni nambala ya sabata.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Texas Instrument |url=http://focus.ti.com/quality/docs/gencontent.tsp?templateId=5909&navigationId=12626&contentId=153966 |title=Quality & Lead-free (Pb-free): Marking Convention |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405090712/http://focus.ti.com/quality/docs/gencontent.tsp?templateId=5909&navigationId=12626&contentId=153966 |archive-date=5 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Fairchild Semiconductor |url=http://www.fairchildsemi.com/support/packaging/topmark/dateCode4/ |title=Top Mark Convention – 4-Digit Date Code |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714111530/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/support/packaging/topmark/dateCode4/ |archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> Nambala ya zuŵa la kupangika kwa matayala iyo yikukhumbikwa na ulongozgi wa U.S. ni WWYY. == "Masabata" mu Makalendala Ghanyake == Lizgu lakuti "sabata" nyengo zinyake likugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyengo zinyake za mazuŵa ghacoko. "Masabata" gha mazuŵa ghanayi mpaka khumi ghagwiliskirika ntchito mu malo ghanandi mu mbiri.<ref>OED s.v. "week ''n.''", entry 1.c.: "Sometimes applied ''transf.'' to other artificial cycles of a few days that have been employed various peoples"</ref> Nyengo zakujumpha mazuŵa khumi kanandi zikuchemeka "masabata" yayi. === Pambere pa Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Makalendala ghambura kukolerana na midawuko ya Ŵakaldeya, Ŵagiriki, Ŵakhristu, panji Ŵayuda kanandi ghali na nyengo pakati pa zuŵa na mwezi za utali wakupambana, nyengo zinyake zikuchemeka "masabata". Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Roma wa kale na panyake mu kalendala ya Ŵakelti pambere pa Cikhristu. Vimanyikwiro vya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghanayi vikusangika mu viyowoyero vya Baltic na mu Ciwelesi. Kalendala ya kale ya Ŵacayina yikaŵa na sabata la mazuŵa khumi, nga ni kalendala ya Eguputo wa kale (na kalendala ya Republic ya France, iyo yikagaŵa myezi yake ya mazuŵa 30 mu vigaŵa vitatu). Midawuko yinyake mu Ghana na Nigeria yasunga ndondomeko za mazuŵa gha msika kuyana na masabata gha mazuŵa ghanayi na ndondomeko za masabata ghankhondi na ghatatu. Mizi yakupambana yasankha nthowa zakupambana pa kuzomerezga sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri la Cisilamu na Cikhristu.<ref>p. 152, Hodder, B. W. "Rural periodic day markets in part of Yorubaland." ''Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers)'' 29 (1961): 149–159.</ref><ref>p. 142. Adile, Emmanuel Uchechukwu. ''Application of Igbo Proverbs, Wise Sayings and Riddles: Understanding African Cultural Pattern in Communication.'' Marketed via online retailers, 2022.</ref> Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu kalendala ya Akan na mdawuko wa Kabiye mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro mpaka 1981. Midawuko yinandi yikagwiliskiranga ntchito sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi, kusazgapo kalendala ya Java na ndondomeko ya kale ya mazuŵa gha msika mu Korea. Ŵaigbo ŵali na "sabata la msika" la mazuŵa ghanayi.<ref name="Knorr">''[http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/fichero_articulo?articulo=26362&orden=59718 Astronomy and Basque Language]'', Henrike Knörr, ''Oxford VI and SEAC 99 "Astronomy and Cultural Diversity"'', La Laguna, June 1999. It references Alessandro Bausani, 1982, ''The prehistoric Basque week of three days: archaeoastronomical notes'', ''The Bulletin of the Center for Archaeoastronomy'' (Maryland), v. 2, 16–22. 1. ''astelehena'' ("week-first", Monday), 2. ''asteartea'' ("week-between", Tuesday), 3. ''asteazkena'' ("week-last", Wednesday).</ref> Ŵaaztec na Ŵamaya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito makalendala gha Amerika Yapakati. Ilo likaŵa lakuzirwa comene likagaŵa ndondomeko ya kusopa ya mazuŵa 260 mu masabata 20 gha mazuŵa 13. Ŵakagaŵa so caka ca zuŵa mu nyengo 18 za mazuŵa 20 na mazuŵa ghankhondi ghambura mazina, ndipo ici cikapanga mwezi wa mazuŵa 20 wakugaŵika mu masabata ghanayi gha mazuŵa ghankhondi. Umaliro wa sabata lililose la mazuŵa ghankhondi ukaŵa zuŵa la msika.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA50 pp. 50–54]}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-calendar-stone.html |title=Aztec calendar stone |website=aztec-history.com}}</ref> Kalendala ya Pawukon ya Bali ni kalendala ya mazuŵa 210 iyo yili na masabata khumi ghakupambana agho ghakwenda pamoza, gha mazuŵa 1 mpaka 10. === Kusintha kwa Mazuŵa Ghano === Kalendala Yakukhazikika ya Pakati pa Vyaro yikasunga sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kweni yikaŵika caka ca myezi 13 ya mazuŵa 28 (mazuŵa 364). Zuŵa lililose la kalendala likawiranga pa zuŵa limoza la sabata nyengo zose. Sabata la mazuŵa khumi, ilo likuchemeka ''décade'', likagwiliskirika ntchito mu France ya kusintha kwa vyaka 9 na hafu, kufuma Thukila 1793 mpaka Masika 1802.<ref>{{cite book |author=Antoine Augustin Renouard |title=Manuel pour la concordance des calendriers républicain et grégorien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUoMAAAAIAAJ |access-date=14 September 2009 |edition=2 |date=1822 |publisher=A. A. Renouard}}</ref> Paris Commune yikazomerezga kalendala iyi kwa mazuŵa 18 mu 1871. Kalendala ya Bahá'í yili na nyengo ya mazuŵa 19 iyo ŵanyake ŵakuyichema mwezi ndipo ŵanyake sabata.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Seven-Day Circle |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |publisher=The Free Press |year=1985 |isbn=0029346800 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/48 48–50] |author-link=Eviatar Zerubavel |url=https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/48 }}</ref> ==== Soviet Union ==== {{Multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | width = 150 | image1 = Soviet calendar 1930 color.jpg | caption1 = Kalendala ya Soviet Union, 1930.<br/>Mitundu yinkhondi ya sabata la ntchito la mazuŵa ghankhondi yikuwerezgeka. | image2 = Soviet calendar 1933 color.jpg | caption2 = Kalendala ya Soviet Union, 1933.<br/>Zuŵa la kupumula la sabata la ntchito la mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza ndilo la camlengalenga. | footer = Mazuŵa gha mwezi uliwose mu makalendala ghose ghaŵiri ghakuŵikika pamoza kuya pasi mu masabata gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. }} Mu Soviet Union pakati pa 1929 na 1940, ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa mafakitale na makampani, kweni ŵa minda ya pamoza yayi, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito masabata gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghankhondi na limoza, apo caro cose cikalutilira kugwiliskira ntchito sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri.<ref name=Foss>{{cite journal |first=Clive |last=Foss |title=Stalin's topsy-turvy work week |journal=History Today |volume=54 |issue=9 |date=September 2004 |pages=46–47}}</ref><ref name=Russie>{{cite web |website=iCalendrier |url=http://icalendrier.fr/calendriers-saga/etudes-thematiques/reforme-gregorienne#russie |title=La réforme en Russie: Il faudra attendre ... plus de trois siècles |language=fr |trans-title=The reform in Russia: It will be necessary to wait ... more than three centuries}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Eviatar Zerubavel |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |chapter=The Soviet five-day ''Nepreryvka'' |title=The Seven Day Circle |isbn=0029346800 |location=New York |publisher=Free Press |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/35 35–43] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/35 }}</ref> Kufuma 1929 mpaka 1951, mazuŵa ghankhondi gha visekelero vya caro ghakaŵa mazuŵa gha kupumula. Kufuma nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba 1929 mpaka nyengo ya kufunda 1931, mazuŵa 360 ghakusyala gha caka ghakagaŵika mu masabata 72 gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi. Ŵantchito ŵakapikanga limoza mwa mazuŵa ghankhondi nga ni zuŵa lawo la kupumula, nanga ni para ŵanthu ŵa nthengwa panji ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵakapika zuŵa linyake. Pa 1 Thukila 1930, magaŵa 72 pa 100 gha ŵantchito ŵa mafakitale ŵakaŵa pa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi. Kufuma nyengo ya kufunda 1931 mpaka 26 Zizima 1940, mwezi uliwose ukagaŵika mu masabata ghankhondi gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza, ndipo zuŵa la cinkhondi na cimoza likaŵa zuŵa la kupumula la wose. Kalendala ya Gregory na sabata la kale la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Soviet Union nyengo zose, kusazgapo 1929–1940, mwaciyelezgero pa nyuzipepara ya ''Pravda''. Mazina gha kale gha mazuŵa ghakalutilira kugwiliskirika ntchito, kusazgapo "Kuwuka" pa Sabata na "Sabata" pa Cisulo, nangauli ulongozgi ukakananga Ciuta. == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === *{{cite book |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |title=The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week |date=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-98165-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Bultrighini |first1=Ilaria |title=Calendars in the Making. The Origins of Calendars from the Roman Empire to the Later Middle Ages |last2=Stern |first2=Sascha |date=2021 |publisher=Brill |chapter=The Seven-Day Week in the Roman Empire Origins, Standardization, and Diffusion}} 8kr3oeyp7bmrpok98e5uq4jkkdkqdwr 124390 124386 2026-11-10T20:26:39Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124390 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sabata''' (mu nkhani za Kumanjiliro na za pakati pa vyaro) ni cipimo ca nyengo ca mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. Ndiyo nyengo ya pa kalendala iyo yili pakati pa [[Dazi|zuŵa]] na mwezi mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro capasi. Mu caka cimoza muli masabata ghakujumpha pacoko 52, panji pakati masabata 4⅓ mu mwezi umoza. Mazuŵa gha sabata kanandi ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuŵika mazuŵa gha ntchito, mazuŵa gha kupumula, na mazuŵa ghakupatulika. Lizgu lakuti "sabata" likugwiliskirika ntchito so pa cigaŵa ca sabata, nga ni mazuŵa gha ntchito na umaliro wa sabata. Masabata ghanyake mu caka ghangaŵikika pa vilato vyapadera, nga ni Sabata la Golide mu China na Japani. Mwambura kunozgeka comene, magulu ghanyake ghangakhozga masabata gha kumanyiska ŵanthu, nga ni Sabata la Mbumba la Caro mu Canada, agho ghakunozgeka kuti ŵanthu ŵalaŵiske nkhani yinyake. Midawuko yinyake ya kale na ya mdawuko yikaŵa panji yili na masabata gha utali wakupambana, kusazgapo mazuŵa khumi mu Eguputo, sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu la Ŵaetruska na Ŵaroma ŵa kale, na masabata gha mazuŵa ghanayi panji ghankhondi pakati pa mazuŵa gha msika mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro ya mazuŵa ghano. Pamanyuma Ŵaroma ŵakasintha kuya ku sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. Ili pakwamba likaŵa sabata la vibwe, ndondomeko iyo kwambilira kwake kuli mphindano, iyo yikathya zuŵa liliwose zina la cibwe ca kale na ciuta uyo wakakolerananga na cibwe ico.<ref>Zerubavel (1989: 14–15)</ref><ref>Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 22–38)</ref> Cifukwa ca kuthandazgika kwa Cikhristu, sabata la vibwe la Ŵaroma likasazganika na sabata la Cikhristu la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ilo likalaŵiskanga Sabata (zuŵa la kuwuka kwa Khristu), ilo likafuma ku sabata la Ŵayuda la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ilo likalaŵiskanga Cisulo.<ref>Cf. (Bultrighini & Stern 2021: 22–27) vs Zerubavel (1989: 12–19)</ref><ref>Zerubavel (1989: 23–24)</ref><ref>Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 47)</ref> Sabata la vibwe na sabata la Ŵayuda vingaŵa kuti vikafuma ku ndondomeko za mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu kalendala ya Ŵababuloni, nangauli ukaboni wa ici ngucoko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ring |first=Rosanna |date=22 January 2021 |title=A history of time – the story behind our days, weeks, and months |url=https://www.stneotsmuseum.org.uk/articles/a-history-of-time-the-story-behind-our-days-weeks-and-months/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=St Neots Museum |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":3">[https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/why-are-there-seven-days-in-a-week Why Are There Seven Days in a Week?]. ''Discover'' (15 January 2020). Retrieved 2022-10-22.</ref><ref>Baker, Nick and Joey Watson. [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-05/how-did-the-seven-day-week-come-to-govern-our-lives/100672194 Where does the seven-day week come from and why does it govern our lives?] ABC Radio National. 4 Jan 2022</ref> Mu 321 mumuwilo wa Khristu, Fumu Yikulu Constantine wakalangura sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, kusazgapo kupanga Sabata kuŵa zuŵa la kupumula la ŵanthu wose. Ici cikathandazgika mu Ulaya yose, ndipo pamanyuma pa caro cose.<ref name=":3" /> [[File:First Day of Week World Map.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Mapu gha caro capasi agho ghakulongora zuŵa lakwamba la sabata mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana, kuyana na Common Locale Data Repository{{legend|#fdc086|Lakwamba}} {{legend|#f0027f|Cinkhondi (Maldives pera)}} {{legend|#6fa96f|Cisulo}} {{legend|#386cb0|Sabata}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Territory Information |url=https://www.unicode.org/cldr/charts/45/supplemental/territory_information.html |access-date=12 July 2024 |website=www.unicode.org}}</ref>]] Mu Cingelezi, mazuŵa ghakugwiliskira ntchito mazina gha Ŵajeremani ghakuyana na gha Ŵaroma, kupatula Cisulo, ico cikaŵavya lakuyana: ''Sunday'' (zuŵa la zuŵa), ''Monday'' (zuŵa la mwezi), ''Tuesday'' (zuŵa la Aresi/Tiw), ''Wednesday'' (zuŵa la Mekyuri/Woden), ''Thursday'' (zuŵa la Jupita/Thor), ''Friday'' (zuŵa la Venasi/Frigg), na ''Saturday'' (zuŵa la Satani).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Lagasse|first=Paul|title=Week|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2018|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|location=New York, NY, USA|edition=8}}</ref> Ni mazuŵa nicigha gha sabata agho ghakuŵa ghakwamba na ghaumaliro kukupambana kuyana na mdawuko, nangauli pafupifupi yose yikuŵika Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba kuŵa zuŵa lakwamba.<ref name="firstday">{{Cite web |title=Territory Information |url=https://unicode-org.github.io/cldr-staging/charts/38/supplemental/territory_information.html |access-date=6 November 2020 |website=www.unicode.org}}</ref> Visopa vitatu vya Abraham vikupatula mazuŵa ghakupambana gha sabata nga ni zuŵa lakupatulika.<ref name="ReferenceA">''World Book Encyclopedia'', 2018 ed., s.v. "Jerusalem"</ref> Ŵakhristu ŵakusunga Sabata pa zuŵa la Sabata, kale zuŵa lakwamba la sabata, kucindika kuwuka kwa Yesu.<ref>{{cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |pages=2190|page-end=2191|access-date=25 October 2025|}}</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵakusunga Cinkhondi, cifukwa cikalongosoreka mu Quran nga ni zuŵa lakupatulika la kusopera pamoza.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aslan |first1=Rose |title=What is the significance of Friday prayers in Islam? |url=https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-significance-of-friday-prayers-in-islam-113702 |website=The Conversation |date=19 March 2019 |access-date=10 March 2023}}</ref> Ŵayuda ŵakusunga Cisulo (''Shabbat''), zuŵa la cinkhondi na ciŵiri, kucindika kulenga kwa Ciuta caro mu mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza na kupumula pa la cinkhondi na ciŵiri.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Leiman |first=Sid Z. |title=The Sabbath |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jewish-religious-year/The-Sabbath |access-date=28 October 2025 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> == Zina == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''week'' likufuma ku Cingelezi ca kale ''wice'', ilo pakumalira likufuma ku muzu wa Ŵajeremani ''*wik-'' "kuzgoka, kusamira, kusintha".<ref name=worldwidewords>[http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww-sen1.htm sennight] at worldwidewords.org (retrieved 12 January 2017)</ref> Lizgu la Ŵajeremani panyake likaŵa na ng'anamulo likulu pambere kalendala ya Ŵaroma yindazomerezgeke, panyake "kalondezgero". Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likuthyika zina mu viyowoyero vinandi na lizgu ilo likufuma ku "cinkhondi na ciŵiri". Mu Citumbuka, lizgu lakuti ''sabata'' likufuma ku Ciheberi ''shabbat'' kwizira mu viyowoyero vinyake, ndipo likung'anamula so zuŵa la Sabata. == Ng'anamulo na Utali == Sabata likulongosoreka nga ni nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ndendende, ntheura:{{efn|Kale comene, mazuŵa ghakapimikanga kufuma apo zuŵa likunjira mpaka apo likunjira so, panji kufuma apo likufuma mpaka apo likufuma so, ntheura utali wa sabata (na wa zuŵa) ukasinthanga pacoko kuyana na nyengo ya caka na malo agho munthu wali pa caro capasi.}} : sabata limoza = mazuŵa 7 = maora 168 = maminiti 10,080 = maliŵiri 604,800. Kuyana na kalendala ya Gregory: : caka cimoza ca kalendala ya Gregory = masabata 52 + zuŵa limoza (mazuŵa ghaŵiri mu caka ca mazuŵa 366) : sabata limoza ≈ magaŵa 22.9984 pa 100 gha mwezi wapakati wa Gregory Mu caka capakati ca Gregory, pali mazuŵa 365.2425, ntheura masabata 52.1775 ndendende. Pali masabata 20,871 ndendende mu vyaka 400 vya Gregory, ntheura 2 Thukila 1626 likaŵa Lakwamba, nga ni 2 Thukila 2026. Kuyaniska na kwenda kwa mwezi, sabata ni magaŵa 23.659 pa 100 gha mwezi wapakati, panji 94.637 pa 100 gha cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca mwezi. Mu mbiri, ndondomeko ya malembo gha A mpaka G yagwiliskirika ntchito kupepuska kupima zuŵa la sabata. Zuŵa la sabata lingapimika makola usange nambala ya zuŵa la Julian yikumanyikwa: kusazga cimoza ku ivyo vikusyala pamanyuma pa kugaŵa nambala iyi na 7 kukupeleka zuŵa la sabata kuyana na ISO 8601. Mwaciyelezgero, nambala ya zuŵa la Julian la 2 Thukila 2026 ni 2461347; 2461347 mod 7 + 1 ni 1, ilo ni Lakwamba.<ref>Richards, E. G. (2013). "Calendars". In S. E. Urban & P. K. Seidelmann, eds. ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'', 3rd ed. (pp. 585–624). Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. 2013, pp. 592, 618. This is equivalent to saying that JD0, i.e. 1 January 4713 BCE of the proleptic Julian calendar, was a Monday.</ref> Mu 1973, John Conway wakapanga dango la "Doomsday" la kupima mu mutu zuŵa la sabata la zuŵa liliwose. === Kwamba na Umaliro === Midawuko yikupambana pa mazuŵa agho ghakuŵa ghakwamba na ghaumaliro pa makalendala ghawo, nangauli pafupifupi yose yikuŵika Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba kuŵa zuŵa lakwamba.{{efn|Zuŵa lakwamba la sabata la ntchito nyengo zose ndilo "zuŵa lakwamba la sabata" pa makalendala yayi.}} Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Vipimo (ISO) ukugwiliskira ntchito Lakwamba nga ni zuŵa lakwamba la sabata mu ISO 8601.{{efn|"ISO 8601 Data elements and interchange formats – Information interchange – Representation of dates and times" ni dango la vyaru vyose ilo likukhwaskana na kupelekana mauthenga gha madeti na nyengo.}} Vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya, China, Afilika ya Kumanjiliro na ya Pakati, na Oceania vikupenda Lakwamba nga ni zuŵa lakwamba, apo vigaŵa vinandi vya Amerika, Asiya ya Kumwera na ya Kumwera-Kumafumiro, na Afilika ya Kumwera vikupenda Sabata nga ni lakwamba. Vyaro vinandi vya Ciarabu na Cipersia vikugwiliskira ntchito Cisulo nga ni zuŵa lakwamba, nangauli vinyake vikugwiliskira ntchito Lakwamba panji Sabata. Mu Citumbuka, mazina gha mazuŵa ghakulongora kuti Sabata ndilo lakumalira ndipo Lakwamba ndilo lakwamba la ntchito.<ref name="firstday"/> == Mazuŵa gha Sabata == [[File: Italian - Bracelet - Walters 41269.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Cibangiri ca Ŵaitaliya ico cikulongora mazuŵa gha sabata na vikozgo vya ŵaciuta awo mazuŵa ghakathya mazina ghawo (pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Walters Art Museum)]] [[File: Weekday heptagram.svg|thumb|Kuyaniska ndondomeko ya vibwe vya kale (vyakuŵikika mu cizingo) na ndondomeko ya mazuŵa gha sabata (agho ghakupanga nyenyezi ya mphepete 7 mukati mwa cizingo)]] Mazuŵa gha sabata ghakathyika mazina gha vibwe 7 vya kale, ivyo vikasazgangapo zuŵa na mwezi. Ndondomeko iyi yikalutilira pamoza na mdawuko wa mpingo wa kupenda mazuŵa mu Cilatini ca mpingo kwamba na ''Dominica'' (Zuŵa la Fumu) nga ni zuŵa lakwamba. Ŵaciuta ŵa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma awo ŵakakolerananga na vibwe ŵakasinthika kuŵa ŵaciuta ŵa Ŵajeremani pakumalira kwa Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, ndipo ici cikapangiska mazina gha Ŵajeremani gha ŵaciuta ŵawo. Kalondezgero ka mazina gha mazuŵa nkhwa vibwe nga umo vikaŵikikiranga kale yayi (kuyana na mtunda: mwezi, Mekyuri, Venasi, zuŵa, Aresi, Jupita, Satani). M'malo mwake, ndondomeko ya maora gha vibwe yikapangiska mazuŵa ghakulondezgana kuthyika mazina gha vibwe ivyo vili malo ghatatu pakati pake mu kalondezgero kawo ka kale. Plutarch wakayowoya za ici mu buku ilo likalembeka pafupifupi 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu (ilo lataika).<ref>E. G. Richards, ''Mapping Time, the Calendar and History'', Oxford 1999. p. 269.</ref> Dio Cassius (pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 200) wakapeleka malongosoro ghaŵiri.<ref name=Dio>{{cite book |last1=Dio Cassius |title=Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία |url=http://www.poesialatina.it/_ns/Greek/testi/Cassius/Historiae_Romanae37.html}} Book 37, Sections 16–19. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#note11 English translation].</ref> Ndondomeko ya mpingo, yambura kukolerana na nyenyezi, ya kupenda mazuŵa gha sabata yikazomerezgeka mu nyengo ya pamanyuma ya kale. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhwaska so kuchema Citatu kuti "pakati pa sabata" mu Cijeremani ca kale na Cislavonic ca mpingo ca kale. Ndondomeko ya mpingo yikaŵa yinandi mu Cikhristu ca Kumafumiro, kweni ku Kumanjiliro yicali mu Ciisilandi, Cigalisiya, na Cipwitikizi pera. Mazina gha Citumbuka gha mazuŵa (Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu, Cinayi, Cinkhondi) nagho ghakupenda mazuŵa nga ni ndondomeko iyi.<ref>Max Vasmer, {{lang|de|Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch}}, s.v. {{lang|ru|понедельник}}. However, the Slavic languages later introduced a secondary numbering system that names Tuesday as the "second day".<!-- Wiktionary claims "въторъкъ" as OCS, but Vasmer does not recognize an OCS precedent to Russian вторник, so it is unclear when this system was introduced.--></ref> {| class="wikitable" | |Sabata |Lakwamba |Ciŵiri |Citatu |Cinayi |Cinkhondi |Cisulo |- |Cakuthambo |[[Zuŵa]] |[[Mwezi]] |[[Aresi]] |[[Mekyuri]] |[[Jupita]] |[[Vinasi]] |[[Satani]] |- |Ciuta wa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma |Helios-Sol |Selene-Luna |Ares-Mars |Hermes-Mercury |Zeus-Jupiter |Aphrodite-Venus |Cronus-Saturn |- |Cigiriki:{{dubious|date=April 2021}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἡλίου}}{{dubious|date=April 2021}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Σελήνης}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἄρεως}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἑρμοῦ}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Διός}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Ἀφροδίτης}} |{{Lang|grc|ἡμέρα Κρόνου}} |- |Cilatini: |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Solis|dies Sōlis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Lunae|dies Lūnae]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Martis|dies Martis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Mercurii|dies Mercuriī]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Iovis|dies Iovis]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Veneris|dies Veneris]]|cat=0}} |{{Lang|la|[[:la:Dies Saturni|dies Saturnī]]|cat=0}} |- |{{Lang|la|[[interpretatio germanica]]|cat=0}} |Sun |Moon |Tiwaz |Wodanaz |Þunraz |Frige |— |- |Cingelezi ca kale |{{Lang|ang|sunnandæg}} |{{Lang|ang|mōnandæg}} |{{Lang|ang|tiwesdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|wōdnesdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|þunresdæg}} |{{Lang|ang|frīgedæg}} |{{Lang|ang|sæterndæg}} |- |Ca India (Navagraha) |Suryavāra/ Ravivāra/ Bhānuvāsara |Chandravāra/ Somavāra/ Induvāsara |Mangalavāra/ Bhaumavāsara |Budhavāra/ Saumyavāsara |Guruvāra/Bṛhaspativāsara |Shukravāra/ Bhṛguvāsara |Shanivāra/ Sthiravāsara |} == Mbiri == === Vuma Lapakati la Kale === [[File:CLM 14456 71r detail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Vithuzi vya vizingo ivyo vikulongora kagaŵiro ka zuŵa na ka sabata, kufuma mu buku lakulembeka na woko la nyengo ya Ŵakarolingiya (Clm 14456 fol. 71r) la ku St. Emmeram Abbey. Sabata likugaŵika mu mazuŵa 7, ndipo zuŵa lililose likugaŵika mu maora 24]] Ukaboni wakwamba wa kuzirwa kwa nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri pa nyenyezi ni dango la fumu Sargon wa Akkad pafupifupi 2300 pambere Khristu. Ŵakkadi ŵakacindikanga nambala 7, ndipo vinthu vikulu vya kumwamba ivyo vikuwoneka na maso vikaŵa 7 (zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe vinkhondi vya pafupi).<ref>{{cite web |title=How we divide time |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/why-12-months-year-seven-days-week-or-60-minutes-hour |website=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=12 September 2024}}</ref> Gudea, wasembe-fumu wa Lagash mu Sumer (pafupifupi 2100 pambere Khristu), wakazenga tempele la vipinda 7, ilo wakapatula na cisangalalo ca mazuŵa 7. Mu nkhani ya cigumula ya Gilgamesh, mphepo yikulu yikatora mazuŵa 7, nkhunda yikatumika pamanyuma pa mazuŵa 7 (nga mu Genesis), ndipo Utnapishtim, uyo wakuyana na Nowa, wakafuma mu cingalawa mazuŵa 7 pamanyuma pakuti cafika pa mtunda.{{efn|Copeland (1939) wakuti Gudea wakaŵako "kale comene nga ni 2600 pambere Khristu"; kupima kwa mazuŵa ghano kukuŵika Gudea mu vyaka vya m'ma 2100 pambere Khristu. Kweni Anthony R. Michaelis wakuti "wakuzenga ufumu mukulu wakwamba, Fumu Sargon I wa Akkad (wakawusa kufuma 2335 mpaka 2279 pambere Khristu), wakaŵika dango la sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu ufumu wake. Wakakhala vyaka 56, wakamba mzere wakwamba wa mafumu gha Ŵasemiti, ndipo wakathereska vyaru vya misumba vya Ŵasumeri. Ntheura ciyowoyero ca Ŵakkadi cikathandazgika, Ŵababuloni ŵakaciponkha, ndipo sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri nalo ŵakaliponkha kwa iyo." Nambala 7 njakuzirwa mu nthanthi za Ŵasumeri.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Copeland |first=Leland S. |title=Sources of the Seven-Day Week |journal=Popular Astronomy |date=1939 |volume=47 |issue=4 |page=176 |bibcode=1939PA.....47..175C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Enigmatic Seven |url=https://garfield.library.upenn.edu/michaelis/title310.pdf |journal=Interdisciplinary Science Reviews |volume=7 |page=373 |last=Michaelis |first=Anthony R.|year=1982 |issue=1 |doi=10.1179/030801882789801278 |bibcode=1982ISRv....7....1M }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The power of seven |date=20 December 2001 |url=https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2001/12/20/the-power-of-seven |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>}} Kupenda kufuma pa mwezi uphya, Ŵababuloni ŵakasekeleranga zuŵa la 7, 14, 21, na 28 la mwezi wa mazuŵa pafupifupi 29 panji 30 nga ni "mazuŵa ghakupatulika", ghakuchemeka so "mazuŵa ghaheni" (ghambura mwaŵi pa ntchito zinyake). Pa mazuŵa agha, ŵalongozgi ŵakakanizgikanga ntchito zinyake ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukhumbanga "kupempha" yayi, ndipo la 28 likaŵa "zuŵa la kupumula".<ref name="ere">{{cite book|author=Pinches, T.G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVNqXDz4CE8C|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|others=Selbie, John A., contrib|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7661-3698-4|editor=Hastings, James|volume=20|pages=889–891|chapter=Sabbath (Babylonian)|access-date=17 March 2009}} <!--it turns out this ERE article just summarizes a century-old Assyriologist theory, but we don't know whose it is, or how scholars have judged it--></ref> Pa zuŵa lililose, sembe zikaperekekanga ku ciuta wakupambana. Nangauli vikuyana, mdawuko wa pamanyuma wa kukoleranya mazuŵa gha sabata na ŵaciuta panji vibwe ukafuma ku Ŵababuloni yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emil Schürer |title=Die siebentägige Woche im Gebrauche der christlichen Kirchen der ersten. Jahrhunderte |journal=Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft |date=1905 |pages=1–66 |url=https://dlibra.bibliotekaelblaska.pl/Content/56671/01.pdf |author1-link=Emil Schürer }}</ref> Vimbale vya nyengo ya Achaemenid vikulongora kuti mwezi wa mazuŵa 29 panji 30 ukaŵa na masabata ghatatu gha mazuŵa 7 na sabata laumaliro la mazuŵa 8 panji 9, ntheura ndondomeko ya mazuŵa 7 yikalutiliranga kwambura kuleka yayi.<ref name="ere" /> Ŵababuloni ŵakasekelera so zuŵa la 19 nga ni "zuŵa liheni" lapadera, "zuŵa la kukwiya", cifukwa likaŵa pafupifupi zuŵa la 49 la mwezi wakajumpha, kumalizga "sabata la masabata".<ref name="ere" /> === Persia ya Achaemenid === Kalendala ya Zoroaster yikulondezga ya Ŵababuloni pa kukoleranya zuŵa la 7, 14, 21, na 28 la mwezi na Ahura Mazda.<ref name="TSZ">Boyce, Mary (ed. & trans.). ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism''. University of Chicago Press, 1984, pp. 19–20.</ref> Kalendala yakwamba ya Zoroaster yikaŵa ndondomeko iyo yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Ufumu wa Persia, iyo yikatoleka ku kalendala ya Ŵababuloni pofika vyaka vya m'ma 300 pambere Khristu. === Cisopa ca Ŵayuda === Ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yakulutilira mu mbiri yose kwambura kukolerana na mwezi yikacitika dankha mu Cisopa ca Ŵayuda, pafupifupi mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA11 p. 11]}} Pali maghanoghano ghanandi pa kwambilira kwa ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya mu Baibolo. Friedrich Delitzsch na ŵanyake ŵakasacizga kuti sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, pakuti ni pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vinayi ca mwezi, ndico kwambilira kwake kwa kuthambo, ndipo nadi kalendala ya Ŵababuloni yikasazganga mazuŵa kuti sabata laumaliro la mwezi likolerane na mwezi uphya. Kuyana na ghanoghano ili, sabata la Ŵayuda likatoleka ku Ŵababuloni ndipo likawuskikapo kuthemba mwezi. Mu buku lake, Frank Senn wakulongora ukaboni wa kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri na Ŵayuda pa nyengo ya ukapolo wa ku Babuloni mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 pambere Khristu, pamanyuma pa kunangika kwa Tempele la Solomoni.<ref name="Senn 1997">{{cite book | last = Senn | first = Frank C. | title = Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical | publisher = Fortress Press | year = 1997 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g5c7C2rQzU0C | isbn = 978-0-8006-2726-3}}</ref> Nangauli sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Cisopa ca Ŵayuda likukolerana na nkhani ya kulengeka mu Buku la Genesis, palije kumanya usange nkhani ya Genesis yikalembeka pambere pa ukapolo uwu. Kufuma nyengo ya Tempele Laciŵiri pasi pa ulongozgi wa Persia, Cisopa ca Ŵayuda cikagwiliskiranga ntchito ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya Masabata ghakuwerezgeka.<ref name="Senn 1997" /> George Aaron Barton wakaghanaghana kuti nkhani ya kulengeka kwa mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu Genesis yikukolerana na nkhani ya kulengeka ya Ŵababuloni ''Enûma Eliš'', iyo yikalembeka pa vimbale 7.<ref>"Each account is arranged in a series of sevens, the Babylonian in seven tablets, the Hebrew in seven days. Each of them places the creation of man in the sixth division of its series." cited after Albert T. Clay, ''The Origin of Biblical Traditions: Hebrew Legends in Babylonia and Israel'', 1923, [https://books.google.com/books?id=JKBLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 p. 74].</ref> Mu ghanoghano lakuyowoyeka kanandi la pakwamba pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Sabata la Ciheberi likuyaniskika na lizgu la Ŵasumeri ''sa-bat'', "kupumula kwa pakati", lizgu la mwezi wakuzura. Eviatar Zerubavel wakuti Sabata la mu Baibolo lingaŵa kuti likafuma ku midawuko ya Ŵababuloni pa nyengo ya ukapolo. Kweni wakuwona ndondomeko iyo yikuthemba Sabata pera kwambura kukolerana na kuthambo kuŵa caphya ca Ŵayuda. Wakuti, "kuŵika sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kuyana na kusunga Sabata nyengo zose ni ciperekero capadera ca Ŵayuda ku midawuko ya ŵanthu. Kusankha nambala 7 kungaŵa kuti kukafuma ku Ŵaasiriya panji Ŵababuloni, kweni ŵanthu ŵa kale ŵa Mesopotamiya ŵekha ŵakaŵavya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri."{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA14 p. 9]}} Niels-Erik Andreasen, Jeffrey H. Tigay, na ŵanyake ŵakuti Sabata la mu Baibolo likuyowoyeka nga ni zuŵa la kupumula mu vigaŵa vya kale comene vya mabuku ghankhondi ghakwamba gha Baibolo, gha vyaka vya m'ma 800 pambere Khristu, vyaka mahandiredi pambere pa ukapolo wa ku Babuloni. Ŵakusanga so kuti kuyana pakati pa Sabata la mu Baibolo na ndondomeko ya Ŵababuloni nkhucoko. Ntheura ŵakuti Sabata, na sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, vingaŵa vyakupangika na Ŵaisraeli ŵekha.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0YAAAAIAAJ |title=The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-historical Investigation |last=Andreasen |first=Niels-Erik A. |date=1972 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=9780891306832 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shafer |first=Byron E. |date=1974 |title=Reviewed Work: ''The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-Historical Investigation'' by Niels-Erik A. Andreasen |jstor=3263102 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=300–301 |doi=10.2307/3263102}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Tigay |first=Jeffery H. |date=1998 |title=Shavua |journal=Mo'adei Yisra'el: Time and Holy Days in the Biblical and Second Commonwealth Periods (Heb.), ed. Jacob S. Licht|pages=22–23 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=23506909 |title=New Moons and Sabbaths: A Case-Study in the Contrastive Approach |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=48 |year=1977 |pages=1–18 |last=Hallo |first=William W.}}</ref> Tigay wakulemba kuti pakati pa mitundu ya pafupi iyo yikakhwaska Israeli, palije ciyelezgero cakuyana ndendende na sabata la Ŵaisraeli, ntheura sabata ili ni ciphya ca Ŵaisraeli. Masuzgo ghanyake na ghanoghano la Delitzsch ni kumazga kupambana pakati pa sabata lambura kuleka na sabata la mwezi, na kulongosora cifukwa ico palije malemba agho ghakuchema sabata la mwezi kuti ''Shabbat'' mu ciyowoyero ciliconse. Mu malemba gha Ŵayuda gha nyengo ya Septuagint, lizgu lakuti "Sabata" likang'anamulanga so sabata lose la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri, nyengo pakati pa Masabata ghaŵiri.<ref>''Strong's Concordance'', ''4521''.</ref> Ntharika ya Yesu ya Mfarisi na mulipiriska msonkho yikuti Mfarisi wakufunga "kaŵiri mu sabata". Mu nkhani ya ŵanakazi awo ŵakasanga thumbo lambura kanthu, ŵakulongosoreka kuti ŵakiza "pa zuŵa lakwamba la masabata"; kung'anamulika kukulemba "sabata" m'malo mwa "masabata". Apo Ŵayuda ŵakakhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambana vya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, midawuko yawo yikamanyikwa comene, ndipo ŵalembi ŵa Ŵaroma nga ni Seneca na Ovid ŵakuyowoya za Sabata la Ŵayuda.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3ijDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |title=Jesus in Q: The Sabbath and Theology of the Bible and Extracanonical Texts |last=So |first=Ky-Chun |date=6 April 2017 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=9781498282116 |language=en}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma === Ŵaroma ŵa kale ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ''nundinum'' ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu. Kweni pamanyuma pakuti kalendala ya Julian yamba kugwira ntchito mu 45 pambere Khristu, sabata la vibwe la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito comene. Likakoleranyanga mazuŵa gha sabata na zuŵa, mwezi, na vibwe vinkhondi ivyo vikuwoneka na maso.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA45 p. 45]}}<ref name="Senn 1997" /> Ghanoghano la maora gha vibwe ni caphya ca kulongolera mwa nyenyezi kwa Ŵagiriki, panyake mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere Khristu.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA14 p. 14]}} Ntheura, kwambilira kwa sabata la vibwe kukaghanaghanirikanga kuŵa kwa Ŵagiriki.<ref>Zerubavel (1989: 12–19)</ref><ref name=":4">Bultrighini & Stern (2021: 22-27)</ref> Kweni Ilaria Bultrighini na Sascha Stern ŵakuti mdawuko uwu ukawoneka dankha mu Italy ya Ŵaroma, ndipo ŵakughanaghana kuti ghanoghano ili lingaŵa kuti likafuma pacoko ku kumanya kwa Ŵaroma sabata la Ŵayuda.<ref name=":4" /> Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamanyikwa comene mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma pofika vyaka vya m'ma 100 mumuwilo wa Khristu.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeVLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|title=Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BCE to 300 CE |last1=Keegan |first1=Peter |last2=Sears |first2=Gareth |last3=Laurence |first3=Ray |date=12 September 2013 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9781441123046|language=en}}</ref> Kwa kanyengo, sabata na ''nundinum'' vikaŵako pamoza, kweni apo Constantine wakazomerezga sabata mu 321 na Zuŵa la Zuŵa (''dies Solis'') likaŵa zuŵa la kupumula la dango, ''nundinum'' yikaŵa kuti yaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schaff |first1=Philip |title=History of the Christian Church Vol. III |date=1884 |publisher=T&T Clark |location=Edinburgh |page=[https://archive.org/details/historychristia01schagoog/page/n299 380] |url=https://archive.org/details/historychristia01schagoog|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref> Ndondomeko yakulutilira ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ya sabata yikwamba mu ulongozgi wa Augustus; zuŵa lakwamba lakumanyikwa ilo likulembeka pamoza na zuŵa la sabata ni 6 Mpupulu 60 mumuwilo wa Khristu, lakulembeka nga ni Sabata mu kalembero ka pa linga ku Pompeii. Kweni kuyana na kalendala ya Julian, 6 Mpupulu 60 likaŵa Citatu. Ici cikulongosoreka na kuŵapo kwa nthowa ziŵiri za kuthya mazina mazuŵa gha sabata kuyana na maora gha vibwe: 6 Mpupulu likaŵa Sabata kuyana na nthowa ya kunjira kwa zuŵa na Citatu kuyana na nthowa ya kufuma kwa zuŵa.<ref>'' Nerone Caesare Augusto Cosso Lentulo Cossil fil. Cos. VIII idus Febr(u)Arius dies solis, luna XIIIIX nun(dinae) Cumis, V (idus Februaries) nun(dinae) Pompeis''.<br />{{cite book |author=Robert Hannah |chapter=Time in Written Spaces |editor1=Peter Keegan |editor2=Gareth Sears |editor3=Ray Laurence |title=Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BCE to 300 CE |publisher=A&C Black |year=2013 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PeVLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]}}</ref> === Ulaya ya Cikhristu === Ndondomeko ya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yindaleke mu Cikhristu, na ntheura mu mbiri ya Kumanjiliro, kwa pafupifupi vyaka 2,000, nangauli makalendala gha Coptic, Julian, na Gregory ghakasintha, nga umo kukulongorekera na zuŵa la Pasika ilo lalondezgeka kuwelera mu mindandanda yinandi mpaka ku mndandanda wa kale wa ku Alexandria wakwamba na Pasika ya 311 mumuwilo wa Khristu. Mdawuko wa kulongolera vyamunthazi kuyana na mazuŵa gha sabata agho visekelero vinyake vikuwira ukakura pakwamba pa nyengo yapakati. Mitundu yinyake ya pamanyuma yikasazgapo mabuku gha mu Germany na Ungelezi, na gha Ŵaslavi ŵa kumwera na kumafumiro.<ref name="Ryan380">William Francis Ryan, ''The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia'', Penn State Press, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=S3qJMMYH6VYC&pg=PA380 p. 380].</ref> Midawuko ya Cikhristu ya nyengo yapakati ya mwaŵi panji kusoŵa mwaŵi kwa mazuŵa ghanyake gha sabata yikalutilira mpaka mazuŵa ghano. Ici comene cikukhwaska Cinkhondi, ico cikukolerana na kupayikika kwa Yesu. Sabata, nyengo zinyake lakulongoreka nga ni Mutuŵa Anastasia, likasopeka mu Russia, mdawuko uwo ukasuskika mu cisambizgo ca vyaka vya m'ma 1300.<ref name="Ryan383">William Francis Ryan, ''The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia'', Penn State Press, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=S3qJMMYH6VYC&pg=PA383 p. 383].</ref> Mu ndondomeko ya mpingo ya kupenda, Sabata likapendekanga so nga ni zuŵa lakwamba la sabata; kweniso, likuwonekera nga ni "zuŵa la cinkhondi na citatu" ndipo nyengo zinyake likuchemeka nthena mu kusopa kwa Cikhristu.{{efn|Ici cikulongora waka kapendero ka manambala gha ndondomeko (wakwamba, waciŵiri) mu viyowoyero vya Cigiriki na Cilatini, umo lero ni zuŵa "lakwamba", macero ni zuŵa "laciŵiri", na vinyake. Yaniskani na ''nundinum'' ("mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghanayi" mu lizgu, kweni ni sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu) la kalendala ya Ŵaroma, panji kuwuka kwa Yesu (pamanyuma pa nyengo yicoko kuluska maora 48) uko kukulongosoreka (mu malemba agho ghakafuma mu Cilatini) kuti kukacitika pa "zuŵa lacitatu".}} Justin Martyr wakalemba kuti: "zuŵa lakwamba pamanyuma pa Sabata, lakusyala lakwamba pa mazuŵa ghose, likuchemeka la cinkhondi na citatu, kuyana na unandi wa mazuŵa ghose gha ndondomeko, ndipo likusyala lakwamba."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html |author=Peter Kirby |title=Saint Justin Martyr: Dialogue with Trypho |website=Early Christian Writings}}</ref> Nyengo ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu, kanandi (kweni nyengo zose yayi) yakwamba na kumalira pa Sabata, yikuchemeka ''octave'', comene mu kusopa kwa Katolika. Mu Cijeremani, mazgo ghakuti "lero mu mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu" ghangang'anamula so "sabata limoza kufuma lero". Ndimo viliri so mu Ciitaliya, Cifulenci, na Cisipanya. === Kuzomerezgeka mu Asiya === ==== China na Japani ==== Kuyowoya kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa mu malemba gha Ŵacayina kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kukufuma kwa Fan Ning, uyo wakaŵako pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 300 mu ufumu wa Jin, apo kuthandazgika kufuma ku Ŵamanikeya kukulembeka mu malemba gha ŵamonke ŵa Cibuda Yi Jing na Bu Kong mu vyaka vya m'ma 600.{{efn|Ŵamanikeya ŵakaliza nalo ku China mu vyaka vya m'ma 700, kwizira mu caro ca Kang (caro ca mu Asia ya Pakati pafupi na Samarkand). Kuponkheka kwake mu nyengo ya Tang kukulembeka mu malemba gha wakusopa wa Buddha wa ku China Yi Jing, na wakusopa wa Buddha wa ku Ceylon Bu Kong. Kuyana na buku la vyakumanyikwa la ku China ''Cihai'', pali ukaboni unyake wakuti ndondomeko iyi yikaponkheka kaŵiri, kwakwamba kale mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 (ufumu wa Jin), kuyana na ivyo wakulaŵiska nyenyezi wa nyengo ya Jin, Fan Ning, wakalemba. ''Cihai'' pa lizgu lakuti "kalendala ya viŵalo vinkhondi na viŵiri" likuti: <blockquote>nthowa ya kulemba mazuŵa kuyana na viŵalo vinkhondi na viŵiri [{{Lang|zh|七曜}} ''qī yào'']. Ku China kanandi ndondomeko iyi yikulondezgeka: Zuŵa, Mwezi, Aresi, Mekyuri, Jupita, Venasi, na Saturn. Mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ghakupanga sabata limoza, ilo likuwerezgeka. Likafuma ku Babuloni wa kale (panji ku Egipiti wa kale kuyana na ghanoghano linyake). Ŵaroma ŵakaligwiliskiranga ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pamanyuma pa Khristu, ndipo pamanyuma likathandazgika ku vyaru vinyake. Nthowa iyi yikaŵako ku China mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Ŵamanikeya nawo ŵakaliza nalo ku China mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 kufuma ku caro ca Kang ({{Lang|zh|康}}) mu Asia ya Pakati.</blockquote><ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Days of the Week: the 'Seven Luminaries' |url=http://www.cjvlang.com/Dow/dowjpn.html |website=Days of the Week in Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese & Mongolian |publisher=cjvlang}}</ref>}} Ndondomeko ya vibwe ya Ŵacayina yikatoleka ku Japani mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na mumonke wa Japani Kūkai. Mabuku gha mazuŵa gha mulongozgi wa Japani Fujiwara Michinaga ghakulongora kuti ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Japani pofika 1007. Mu Japani, ndondomeko iyi yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa kulongolera mwa nyenyezi mpaka yikaŵa maziko gha kalendala ya Kumanjiliro mu nyengo ya Meiji (1868–1912). ==== India ==== Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamanyikwanga mu India pofika vyaka vya m'ma 500, ndipo likuyowoyeka mu ''Pañcasiddhāntikā''. Shashi (2000) wakuyowoya ''Garga Samhita'', ilo wakuliŵika mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 pambere panji pamanyuma pa Khristu, nga ni kuyowoya kwakwamba kwa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri mu India. === Ghanoghano la Cisilamu === Kuyana na Cisilamu, sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri likamba na kulengeka kwa caro cose na Allah. Abu Huraira wakayowoya kuti Muhammad wakati: "Allah wakalenga dongo pa Cisulo, mapiri pa Sabata, makuni pa Lakwamba, vinthu vya ntchito pa Ciŵiri, ungweru pa Citatu, wakathandazga vinyama pa Cinayi, ndipo wakalenga Adamu pamanyuma pa ''Asr'' pa Cinkhondi; cakulengeka caumaliro pa ora laumaliro la Cinkhondi, pakati pa msana na usiku."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sahih Muslim 2789 - Characteristics of the Day of Judgment, Paradise, and Hell - كتاب صفة القيامة والجنة والنار - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim:2789|access-date=17 July 2021|website=sunnah.com}}</ref> == Kupenda Masabata == Masabata mu caka ca kalendala ya Gregory ghangapendeka caka ciliconse. Kupenda uku kanandi kukugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaro vya Ulaya na Asiya. Kuli kucoko mu U.S. na kunyake. === Ndondomeko ya ISO === Ndondomeko ya kupenda masabata ni ndondomeko ya ISO, iyo yili mu ISO 8601. Ndondomeko iyi yikuti sabata lililose likwamba pa Lakwamba ndipo likukolerana na caka ico cili na Cinayi ca sabata ilo. ==== Kusanga Sabata 1 ==== Mu kacitiro, sabata 1 (W01) la caka ciliconse lingamanyikwa nthena: * Usange 1 Matika likuwira pa Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu panji Cinayi, sabata la 1 Matika ndilo Sabata 1. Kupatula para 1 Matika ni Lakwamba, Sabata 1 ili likusazgapo zuŵa (mazuŵa) ghaumaliro gha caka ca kumanyuma. * Usange 1 Matika likuwira pa Cinkhondi, Cisulo, panji Sabata, 1 Matika ni cigaŵa ca sabata laumaliro la caka ca kumanyuma. Sabata 1 lizamwamba pa Lakwamba lakwamba pamanyuma pa 1 Matika. Mwaciyelezgero, Sabata 1 la 2015 likamba pa Lakwamba, 29 Zimya 2014, cifukwa 1 Matika 2015 likaŵa Cinayi; Sabata 1 la 2021 likamba pa Lakwamba, 4 Matika 2021, cifukwa 1 Matika 2021 likaŵa Cinkhondi. ==== Sabata 52 na 53 ==== Ncakuthekera so kumanya usange sabata laumaliro la caka ca kumanyuma likaŵa Sabata 52 panji 53: * Usange 1 Matika ni Cinkhondi, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 53 la caka ca kumanyuma. * Usange 1 Matika ni Cisulo, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 53 usange caka ca kumanyuma cikaŵa ca mazuŵa 366, panji Sabata 52 usange yayi. * Usange 1 Matika ni Sabata, ni cigaŵa ca Sabata 52 la caka ca kumanyuma. === Ndondomeko Zinyake za Kupenda === Mu vyaro vinyake, ndondomeko ya kupenda yikupambana na ya ISO. Pali ndondomeko zinkhondi na yimoza panji kujumpha. Cifukwa sabata likwamba pa Cisulo, Sabata, panji Lakwamba mu ndondomeko zose izi, mazuŵa gha ntchito, Lakwamba mpaka Cinkhondi, ghali na nambala yimoza ya sabata mu ndondomeko yiliyose. Kanandi, ndondomeko izi zikuzomerezgana pa nambala ya sabata ya zuŵa lililose la ntchito: mu vyaka umo 1 Matika ni Lakwamba, Ciŵiri, Citatu, panji Cinayi, ndondomeko zose zikuzomerezgana; mu vyaka vinyake, yimoza panji ziŵiri zikupambana. Sabata la ''epi'' (sabata la kupenda nthenda) likugwiliskirika ntchito kupharazga viŵerengero vya uchanda, nga ni ŵalwari ŵa COVID-19. Likwamba pa Sabata na kumalira pa Cisulo. Sabata lakwamba la caka likumalira pa Cisulo lakwamba la Matika, usange likuwira pa zuŵa la cinayi panji kujumpha la mwezi. Ntheura sabata lakwamba lingamba mu Zimya la caka ca kumanyuma. ==== Kagwiliskiro ==== Nambala ya zuŵa la kupangika kwa vigaŵa vya magesi kanandi ni manambala ghanayi YYWW, apo YY ni manambala ghaŵiri ghaumaliro gha caka ndipo WW ni nambala ya sabata.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Texas Instrument |url=http://focus.ti.com/quality/docs/gencontent.tsp?templateId=5909&navigationId=12626&contentId=153966 |title=Quality & Lead-free (Pb-free): Marking Convention |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405090712/http://focus.ti.com/quality/docs/gencontent.tsp?templateId=5909&navigationId=12626&contentId=153966 |archive-date=5 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Fairchild Semiconductor |url=http://www.fairchildsemi.com/support/packaging/topmark/dateCode4/ |title=Top Mark Convention – 4-Digit Date Code |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714111530/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/support/packaging/topmark/dateCode4/ |archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> Nambala ya zuŵa la kupangika kwa matayala iyo yikukhumbikwa na ulongozgi wa U.S. ni WWYY. == "Masabata" mu Makalendala Ghanyake == Lizgu lakuti "sabata" nyengo zinyake likugwiliskirika ntchito pa nyengo zinyake za mazuŵa ghacoko. "Masabata" gha mazuŵa ghanayi mpaka khumi ghagwiliskirika ntchito mu malo ghanandi mu mbiri.<ref>OED s.v. "week ''n.''", entry 1.c.: "Sometimes applied ''transf.'' to other artificial cycles of a few days that have been employed various peoples"</ref> Nyengo zakujumpha mazuŵa khumi kanandi zikuchemeka "masabata" yayi. === Pambere pa Nyengo ya Mazuŵa Ghano === Makalendala ghambura kukolerana na midawuko ya Ŵakaldeya, Ŵagiriki, Ŵakhristu, panji Ŵayuda kanandi ghali na nyengo pakati pa zuŵa na mwezi za utali wakupambana, nyengo zinyake zikuchemeka "masabata". Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghatatu likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Roma wa kale na panyake mu kalendala ya Ŵakelti pambere pa Cikhristu. Vimanyikwiro vya sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghanayi vikusangika mu viyowoyero vya Baltic na mu Ciwelesi. Kalendala ya kale ya Ŵacayina yikaŵa na sabata la mazuŵa khumi, nga ni kalendala ya Eguputo wa kale (na kalendala ya Republic ya France, iyo yikagaŵa myezi yake ya mazuŵa 30 mu vigaŵa vitatu). Midawuko yinyake mu Ghana na Nigeria yasunga ndondomeko za mazuŵa gha msika kuyana na masabata gha mazuŵa ghanayi na ndondomeko za masabata ghankhondi na ghatatu. Mizi yakupambana yasankha nthowa zakupambana pa kuzomerezga sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri la Cisilamu na Cikhristu.<ref>p. 152, Hodder, B. W. "Rural periodic day markets in part of Yorubaland." ''Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers)'' 29 (1961): 149–159.</ref><ref>p. 142. Adile, Emmanuel Uchechukwu. ''Application of Igbo Proverbs, Wise Sayings and Riddles: Understanding African Cultural Pattern in Communication.'' Marketed via online retailers, 2022.</ref> Sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu kalendala ya Akan na mdawuko wa Kabiye mu Afilika ya Kumanjiliro mpaka 1981. Midawuko yinandi yikagwiliskiranga ntchito sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi, kusazgapo kalendala ya Java na ndondomeko ya kale ya mazuŵa gha msika mu Korea. Ŵaigbo ŵali na "sabata la msika" la mazuŵa ghanayi.<ref name="Knorr">''[http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/fichero_articulo?articulo=26362&orden=59718 Astronomy and Basque Language]'', Henrike Knörr, ''Oxford VI and SEAC 99 "Astronomy and Cultural Diversity"'', La Laguna, June 1999. It references Alessandro Bausani, 1982, ''The prehistoric Basque week of three days: archaeoastronomical notes'', ''The Bulletin of the Center for Archaeoastronomy'' (Maryland), v. 2, 16–22. 1. ''astelehena'' ("week-first", Monday), 2. ''asteartea'' ("week-between", Tuesday), 3. ''asteazkena'' ("week-last", Wednesday).</ref> Ŵaaztec na Ŵamaya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito makalendala gha Amerika Yapakati. Ilo likaŵa lakuzirwa comene likagaŵa ndondomeko ya kusopa ya mazuŵa 260 mu masabata 20 gha mazuŵa 13. Ŵakagaŵa so caka ca zuŵa mu nyengo 18 za mazuŵa 20 na mazuŵa ghankhondi ghambura mazina, ndipo ici cikapanga mwezi wa mazuŵa 20 wakugaŵika mu masabata ghanayi gha mazuŵa ghankhondi. Umaliro wa sabata lililose la mazuŵa ghankhondi ukaŵa zuŵa la msika.{{sfnp|Zerubavel|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC&pg=PA50 pp. 50–54]}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-calendar-stone.html |title=Aztec calendar stone |website=aztec-history.com}}</ref> Kalendala ya Pawukon ya Bali ni kalendala ya mazuŵa 210 iyo yili na masabata khumi ghakupambana agho ghakwenda pamoza, gha mazuŵa 1 mpaka 10. === Kusintha kwa Mazuŵa Ghano === Kalendala Yakukhazikika ya Pakati pa Vyaro yikasunga sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri kweni yikaŵika caka ca myezi 13 ya mazuŵa 28 (mazuŵa 364). Zuŵa lililose la kalendala likawiranga pa zuŵa limoza la sabata nyengo zose. Sabata la mazuŵa khumi, ilo likuchemeka ''décade'', likagwiliskirika ntchito mu France ya kusintha kwa vyaka 9 na hafu, kufuma Thukila 1793 mpaka Masika 1802.<ref>{{cite book |author=Antoine Augustin Renouard |title=Manuel pour la concordance des calendriers républicain et grégorien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUoMAAAAIAAJ |access-date=14 September 2009 |edition=2 |date=1822 |publisher=A. A. Renouard}}</ref> Paris Commune yikazomerezga kalendala iyi kwa mazuŵa 18 mu 1871. Kalendala ya Bahá'í yili na nyengo ya mazuŵa 19 iyo ŵanyake ŵakuyichema mwezi ndipo ŵanyake sabata.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Seven-Day Circle |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |publisher=The Free Press |year=1985 |isbn=0029346800 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/48 48–50] |author-link=Eviatar Zerubavel |url=https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/48 }}</ref> ==== Soviet Union ==== {{Multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | width = 150 | image1 = Soviet calendar 1930 color.jpg | caption1 = Kalendala ya Soviet Union, 1930.<br/>Mitundu yinkhondi ya sabata la ntchito la mazuŵa ghankhondi yikuwerezgeka. | image2 = Soviet calendar 1933 color.jpg | caption2 = Kalendala ya Soviet Union, 1933.<br/>Zuŵa la kupumula la sabata la ntchito la mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza ndilo la camlengalenga. | footer = Mazuŵa gha mwezi uliwose mu makalendala ghose ghaŵiri ghakuŵikika pamoza kuya pasi mu masabata gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri. }} Mu Soviet Union pakati pa 1929 na 1940, ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa mafakitale na makampani, kweni ŵa minda ya pamoza yayi, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito masabata gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghankhondi na limoza, apo caro cose cikalutilira kugwiliskira ntchito sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri.<ref name=Foss>{{cite journal |first=Clive |last=Foss |title=Stalin's topsy-turvy work week |journal=History Today |volume=54 |issue=9 |date=September 2004 |pages=46–47}}</ref><ref name=Russie>{{cite web |website=iCalendrier |url=http://icalendrier.fr/calendriers-saga/etudes-thematiques/reforme-gregorienne#russie |title=La réforme en Russie: Il faudra attendre ... plus de trois siècles |language=fr |trans-title=The reform in Russia: It will be necessary to wait ... more than three centuries}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Eviatar Zerubavel |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |chapter=The Soviet five-day ''Nepreryvka'' |title=The Seven Day Circle |isbn=0029346800 |location=New York |publisher=Free Press |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/35 35–43] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sevendaycircleth00zeru/page/35 }}</ref> Kufuma 1929 mpaka 1951, mazuŵa ghankhondi gha visekelero vya caro ghakaŵa mazuŵa gha kupumula. Kufuma nyengo ya kuwa kwa mahamba 1929 mpaka nyengo ya kufunda 1931, mazuŵa 360 ghakusyala gha caka ghakagaŵika mu masabata 72 gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi. Ŵantchito ŵakapikanga limoza mwa mazuŵa ghankhondi nga ni zuŵa lawo la kupumula, nanga ni para ŵanthu ŵa nthengwa panji ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵakapika zuŵa linyake. Pa 1 Thukila 1930, magaŵa 72 pa 100 gha ŵantchito ŵa mafakitale ŵakaŵa pa sabata la mazuŵa ghankhondi. Kufuma nyengo ya kufunda 1931 mpaka 26 Zizima 1940, mwezi uliwose ukagaŵika mu masabata ghankhondi gha ntchito gha mazuŵa ghankhondi na limoza, ndipo zuŵa la cinkhondi na cimoza likaŵa zuŵa la kupumula la wose. Kalendala ya Gregory na sabata la kale la mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu Soviet Union nyengo zose, kusazgapo 1929–1940, mwaciyelezgero pa nyuzipepara ya ''Pravda''. Mazina gha kale gha mazuŵa ghakalutilira kugwiliskirika ntchito, kusazgapo "Kuwuka" pa Sabata na "Sabata" pa Cisulo, nangauli ulongozgi ukakananga Ciuta. == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === *{{cite book |last=Zerubavel |first=Eviatar |title=The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week |date=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd5ZjRsNj4sC |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-98165-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Bultrighini |first1=Ilaria |title=Calendars in the Making. The Origins of Calendars from the Roman Empire to the Later Middle Ages |last2=Stern |first2=Sascha |date=2021 |publisher=Brill |chapter=The Seven-Day Week in the Roman Empire Origins, Standardization, and Diffusion}} ai05xls29vw9k31dktxi5pjxuhgl345 0 44071 124378 123522 2026-11-10T20:11:59Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Head of state and government of Malawi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} {{Infobox official post | post = Mulongozgi wa Caro | body = <br/>Caro ca Malaŵi | native_name = | flag = Flag of the President of Malawi.svg | flagsize = 125px | flagborder = yes | flagcaption = Mbendera ya Mulongozgi wa Caro | imagesize = 150px | image = Malawian President Peter Mutharika in 2020.jpg | alt = | incumbent = [[Peter Mutharika]] | incumbentsince = 4 Zimya 2025 | department = [[Politics of Malawi#Executive branch|Executive branch of the Malawian Government]] | style = [[Excellency|His Excellency]] {{small|(formal)}} | member_of = [[Cabinet of Malawi|Cabinet]] | residence = Kamuzu Palace, [[Lilongwe]], Malaŵi | seat = Kamuzu Palace, Capital Hill, [[Lilongwe]] | nominator = | appointer = | appointer_qualified = | termlength = Five years, {{small|renewable once}} | termlength_qualified = | constituting_instrument = Constitution of Malawi | precursor = | formation = 6 July 1966 | first = [[Hastings Banda]] | deputy = [[Vice President of Malawi]] | salary = US$ 74,300 annually | website = {{URL|https://statehouse.mw/}} }} {{Politics of Malawi}} '''Mulongozgi wa Caro ca Malaŵi''' (mu Cicewa: ''Mtsogoleri wa Dziko la Malawi''; panji '''Mlongozgi wa Malaŵi''') ni mulara wa caro na mulara wa ulongozgi wa [[Malaŵi]]. Mulongozgi wa Caro wakulongozga cigaŵa cakufiska malango ca Ulongozgi wa Malaŵi, ndipo ndiyo mulara mukulu wa ŵankhondo ŵa Malaŵi. Mulongozgi wa Caro sono ni [[Peter Mutharika]], uyo wali pa udindo kufuma apo wakasolekaso mu Lupya 2025. == Cigaŵa Cakufiska Malango == Kuyana na Dango Likulu la mu 1995, Mulongozgi wa Caro, uyo ni mulara wa caro na mulara wa ulongozgi, wakusoleka na ŵanthu wose pa vyaka vinkhondi viliyose. Malaŵi lili na Wakuovwira Mulongozgi wa Caro, uyo wakusoleka pamoza na Mulongozgi wa Caro. Mulongozgi wa Caro wangasankha so Wakuovwira Mulongozgi wa Caro waciŵiri, uyo wakwenera kuŵa wa wupu wa ndyali unyake. Cigaŵa ici cikusazgapo so Wupu wa ŵaNduna uwo ukusankhika na Mulongozgi wa Caro. ŵaNduna ŵangasankhika mukati panji kuwaro kwa mphala. Mulongozgi wa Caro ndiyo so Nduna ya Civikiliro. Peter Mutharika wakalapizgika kuŵa Mulongozgi wa Caro ca Malaŵi pa 4 Zimya 2025 mu Blantyre.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-04 |title=Peter Mutharika is sworn in as Malawi president in political comeback at the age of 85 |url=https://apnews.com/article/malawi-peter-mutharika-president-inauguration-23ca3ea49c9fce6f3564af5e2a86bb16 |access-date=2025-10-05 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> == Kwambilira kwa Udindo Uwu == Pa 6 Mpepo 1964, Nyasaland yikafwatuka ku ulongozgi wa Ŵabritoni ndipo yikajithya zina lakuti Malaŵi, apo Elizabeth II wakaŵa Fumukazi ya Malaŵi. Pasi pa Dango Likulu liphya la mu 1966, Malaŵi likaŵa caro cambura fumu, ndipo mulara wa ulongozgi Hastings Banda wakaŵa Mulongozgi wa Caro wakwamba. Kuyana na Madango Makulu gha 1966, 1994 na 1995, Mulongozgi wa Caro ndiyo mulara wa caro na wa ulongozgi, ndipo wakuteŵetera vyaka vinkhondi. Mulongozgi wa Caro wakwamba, Banda, wakasankhika na Mphala, ndipo mu 1971 wakathyika kuŵa Mulongozgi wa Caro wa umoyo wake wose. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Caro ŵakulondezgapo ŵakasolekanga na ŵanthu wose. Pamanyuma pakuwelera kwa uwuso wa ŵanthu wa mawupu ghanandi gha ndyali mu 1993, udindo wa Mulongozgi wa Caro ukaŵikika malire ghanandi kuti ungawusa ndondomeko yose ya ndyali yayi. == Kusoleka kwa Mulongozgi wa Caro == Mulongozgi wa Caro wakusoleka na ŵanandi (50% + 1) mwa ŵakusola, mu visola vyakulunjika vya ŵanthu wose. Ŵenecaro wose ŵa Malaŵi awo ŵali na vyaka 18 ŵali na wanangwa wa kusola mu visola vyose. Waliyose uyo wakwimilira pa udindo wa Mulongozgi wa Caro wakwenera kuyowoya uyo wazamuŵa Wakuovwira Mulongozgi wa Caro para wasoleka. Wakuovwira Mulongozgi wa Caro wakusoleka pamoza na Mulongozgi wa Caro, ndipo mazina ghawo ghose ghali pa pepala la kusolera. == Malire gha Nyengo == Kufuma mu 2021, Dango Likulu la Malaŵi likupeleka nyengo ziŵiri zakulondezgana za vyaka vinkhondi ku Mulongozgi wa Caro, kweni palije malire gha nyengo zose. Mu 2003, kukaŵa kuyezga kusintha malire agha kuti Bakili Muluzi walutilire, kweni kukatondeka.<ref name="termlimits">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Candace |last2=Siegle |first2=Joseph |title=Circumvention of Term Limits Weakens Governance in Africa |url=https://africacenter.org/spotlight/circumvention-of-term-limits-weakens-governance-in-africa/ |website=Africa Center for Strategic Studies}}</ref> == Mndandanda wa Ŵalongozgi ŵa Caro == {{main|List of heads of state of Malawi}} == Cisola Ciphya == {{main|2025 Malawian general election}} == Wonaniso == *[[List of colonial heads of Malawi (Nyasaland)]] *[[List of heads of state of Malawi]] *[[List of heads of government of Malawi]] *[[Lists of incumbents]] == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} {{Malawi topics}} {{MalawiPresidents}} {{Heads of state and government of African states}} [[Category:Presidents by country|Malawi]] [[Category:Presidents of Malawi| ]] [[Category:1966 establishments in Malawi]] dwi7n2w4z8tf0soy5z3eak2ugbwl8uz 0 46754 124422 122450 2026-11-10T23:03:49Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124422 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|President of Syria from 2000 to 2024}} {{Family name hatnote|[[Al-Assad family|Assad]]|lang=Arabic}} {{Current related|date=December 2024|2=Fall of the Assad regime}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=June 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = | name = Bashar al-Assad | native_name = {{nobold|بشار الأسد}} | native_name_lang = ar | image = Bashar al-Assad in May 2024.png | image_upright = | alt = | caption = Assad in 2024 | order = 19th | office = President of Syria | primeminister = {{clist|title=''See list''|[[Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]|[[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]]|[[Adel Safar]]|[[Riyad Farid Hijab]]|[[Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji]]|[[Wael Nader al-Halqi]]|[[Imad Khamis]]|[[Hussein Arnous]]|[[Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali]]}} | vicepresident = {{clist|title=''See list''| Abdul Halim Khaddam<br />(2000–2005)|[[Zuhair Masharqa]]<br />(2000–2006)|[[Farouk al-Sharaa]]<br />(2006–2014)|[[Najah al-Attar]]<br />(2006–2024)|[[Faisal Mekdad]]<br />(Sep–Dec 2024)}} | term_start = 17 July 2000 | term_end = 8 December 2024 | predecessor = {{ubl|[[Hafez al-Assad]]|[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] (acting)}} | successor = | office1 = General Secretary of the [[Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Central Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | deputy1 = {{ubl|[[Abdullah al-Ahmar]]|[[Hilal Hilal]]|[[Ibrahim al-Hadid]]}} | term_start1 = 24 June 2000 | term_end1 = 8 December 2024 | predecessor1 = Hafez al-Assad | successor1 = Ibrahim al-Hadid | birth_name = Bashar Hafez al-Assad | birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|9|11}} | birth_place = [[Damascus]], [[Ba'athist Syria|Syrian Arab Republic]] | death_date = | death_place = | death_cause = | residence = {{ubl|[[Presidential Palace, Damascus|The People's Palace]], [[Damascus]] (until 2024)| [[Moscow]], Russia (since 2024)}} | party = [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | otherparty = [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Asma al-Assad]]|2000}} | children = 3, including [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] | father = [[Hafez al-Assad]] | mother = [[Anisa Makhlouf]] | relatives = [[al-Assad family]] | signature = Bashar al-Assad Signature.png | allegiance = Syria | branch = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | serviceyears = 1988–2024 | rank = [[File:Syria Army - OF10.svg|15px]] [[Field marshal]] | unit = [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]] (until 2000) | commands = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | battles = [[Syrian civil war]] | citizenship = | education = [[Damascus University]] ([[Medical degree|MD]]) }} {{Bashar al-Assad series}} {{Ba'athism sidebar}} '''Bashar al-Assad''' (wakababika pa 11 Seputembala 1965) ndi wandale wa ku Syria ndipo ndi msilikari uyo wakaba 19th president wa Syria kufuma 2000 mpaka kuwa kwa boma la Assad mu 2024. Apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, Assad wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya kweniso wakaŵa mulembi wa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani cha Ba'ath. Iyo ni mwana wa Hafez al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti kufuma mu 1971 mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref><ref name=":7">* {{Cite news|date=6 March 2023|title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete|work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-date=14 March 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> M'ma 1980, Assad wakazgoka dokotala, ndipo kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990 wakasambizganga vya maso ku London. Mu 1994, mukuru wake Bassel al-Assad wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo Assad wakacemeka ku Syria kuti wakapokere udindo wa Bassel. Assad wakanjira sukulu ya usilikali na kwamba kulongozga ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya mu Lebanoni mu 1998. Pa 17 July 2000, Assad wakazgoka pulezidenti, ndipo wakawelera mu malo gha adada ŵake, awo ŵakafwa pa 10 June 2000.Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu 2001-2002 vikawovwira kuti Damascus Spring yimare, nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe palipose kweniso kuti paŵe demokilase.<ref name=":7" /> Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulongosora kuti muwuso wa Assad ukaŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora, ndipo boma la Syria likaŵa nga ni boma la ŵapolisi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakaŵasuzganga na kuŵatambuzga chomene. Apo boma la Assad likati ni la ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake yayi, ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoya kuti boma ili likagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake mu caru ici. Nangauli Asad wakahara mazaza na nkharo ya wiske, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga yayi nga umo ŵakachitiranga ŵadada ŵake. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu muwuso wa ŵawiske ŵakaleka nchito panji ŵakathereskeka, ndipo ŵamazaza ŵa mu muwuso ŵakasuskika na ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa fuko la Alawite. Mapulogiramu ghakwambilira gha Assad gha kuwunjikira chuma ghakawunjikira mpambano ndipo ghakawunjikira nkhongono ŵanthu ŵa ku Damascus awo ŵakagomezgekanga ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ghakaŵachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, mu misumba, ŵamalonda, ŵamalonda, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba'ath. Mu Febuluwale 2005, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakacita nkhondo ya Cedar Revolution, iyo yikamba cifukwa ca kukoma Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya caru ca Lebanon.<ref name=":6" /> Mu 2011, United States, European Union, na vigaŵa vinandi vya Arab League vikacema Assad kuti wafumeko pa udindo wake cifukwa ca kuyuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhuŵiliranga mu nyengo ya Arab Spring. Nkhondo iyi yikoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 580,000, ndipo ŵanthu 306,000 awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari yayi. Boma la Assad lapanga milandu yinandi ya nkhondo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya chalo cha Syria, apo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵacita nkhondo zinandi na vilwero vya mankhwala (makamaka, bomba la sarin ku Ghouta pa 21 August 2013). Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa UN, ukayowoya kuti ivyo ukawona vikavumbura kuti Assad wali na mulandu wa nkhondo, ndipo boma la vyaru vinyake likamufumba na kumususka. Mu Novembala 2024, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Syria likawukira boma na chilato chakuti likhizge Assad. Pa Disembala 8, ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakati ŵanjira mu Damascus, Assad wakacimbilira ku Moscow ndipo boma la Russia likamupa ciphokwero. Pamanyuma pa zuŵa lenelira, ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira boma la Damaseko, ndipo boma la Assad likamara..<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 December 2024 |title=Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700 |access-date=9 December 2024 |work=[[CBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=8 December 2024|title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html}}</ref> == Umoyo wakwamba, mbumba na masambiro == {{Further|Al-Assad family}} Bashar al-Assad wakababikira ku Damascus pa 11 September 1965, mwana wachiŵiri wa Anisa Makhlouf na Hafez al-Assad. Mu Ciarabu, zina lakuti "Al-Assad" likung'anamura kuti "nkhalamu". Ali al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa sekuru wa Assad, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa kuŵa mulimi na kuŵa munthu wakuzirwa, ndipo mu 1927, wakasintha zina la mbumba yake kufuma pa "Wahsh" (kung'anamura kuti "Chikavu") na kuŵa "Al-Assad". Dada wa Assad, Hafez al-Assad, wakababikira mu mbumba yambura ndalama, iyo yikaŵa ya ku mizi ndipo yikaŵa ya chigaŵa cha Alawite. Hafez wakakwezga ŵanthu awo ŵakamulondezganga mu chipani cha Ba'ath, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Alawite. Pamanyuma pa cipanduko ici, ŵasilikari ŵa Alawite ŵakamba kuwusa, ndipo ŵa Sunni, ŵa Druze, na ŵa Ismaili ŵakafumiskika mu gulu la ŵasilikari na gulu la Ba'ath. Muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa Hafez al-Assad wa vilimika 30, ukazgora Siriya kuŵa muwuso waciŵembu. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali yikalongozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa gulu la Ba'ath, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka comene ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa boma, na ŵapolisi.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27">{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2= Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Robert |title=The Encyclopaedia of Propaganda |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781317471981 |pages=760–761 |chapter=Syria}}</ref> Mubali Assad wakaŵa na ŵabali ŵake ŵankhondi, ndipo ŵatatu ŵali kufwa. Mudumbu munyake zina lake Bushra wakafwa apo wakaŵa bonda. Mudumbu wa Assad, Majd, wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa yayi, ndipo pali vinandi yayi ivyo tikumanya vya iyo padera pa fundo yakuti wakaŵa wakupendera maghanoghano, ndipo wakafwa mu 2009 pamanyuma pa "kulwara kwa nyengo yitali". Mwakupambana na ŵanung'una ŵake Bassel na Maher, na mudumbu wake Bushra, Bashar wakaŵa wakuzika, wakudemelera, ndipo wakakhumbanga yayi kunjira ndyali panji usilikari. Ŵana ŵa Assad ŵakatemwanga yayi kucezga na adada ŵawo, ndipo Bashar wakayowoya kuti wakanjira mu ofesi ya adada ŵake kamoza pera apo ŵakaŵa pulezidenti. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga nayo ku yunivesite wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na soni, wakakhumbanga yayi kulaŵiskana na munthu, ndipo wakayowoyanga mwakuzika. Assad wakasambira sukulu ya pulayimale na sekondare ku sukulu ya Al-Hurriya ku Damascus. Mu 1982, wakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare ndipo wakasambira udokotala pa yunivesite ya Damascus.{{sfn|Leverett|2005|p=59}} == Medical career and rise to power == [[File:Basil assad.JPG|thumb|upright=0.95|Chithunzithunzi cha Bassel al-Assad (1962–1994), mubali mulara wa Bashar, uyo pakwamba wakakhumbikwiranga kuzakatora malo gha ŵawiske pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa Syria, kweni wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto mu 1994.]] Mu 1988, Assad wakamalizga masambiro ghake gha udokotala ndipo wakamba kugwira nchito ya udokotala ku chipatala cha Tishrin ku Damascus. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, wakasamira ku London kuti wakambe masambiro gha ku chipatala cha Western Eye. Mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa ku London, ŵanthu ŵakamuzunuranga kuti ni "munthu wakucita vya makompyuta". Bashar wakaŵa na vilato vichoko waka vya ndyali, ndipo adada ŵake ŵakasambizganga Bassel, mukuru wa Bashar kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa caru. Mu 1994, Bassel wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo nyengo yicoko waka, Bashar wakacemeka kuti wakambe usilikari. Boma likamba kuphalira ŵanthu kuti Bashar ni "chigomezgo cha ŵanthu wose" kuti ŵalutilire kuwusa mu muwuso wa Assad. Ŵakati ŵafwa waka, Hafez al-Assad wakasankha Bashar kuti ndiyo waŵe themba. Kwa vyaka 6 na hafu, mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000, Hafez wakanozganga Bashar kuti wapokere mazaza. General Bahjat Suleiman, uyo wakaŵa msilikari mu gulu la ŵasilikari, wakapika mulimo wa kulongozga kunozgekera kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ndipo mulimo uwu ukachitika mu vigaŵa vitatu. Cakwamba, ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵakamovwira comene Bashar. Caciŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumumanya makora Bashar. Paumaliro, Bashar wakamanyikwa makora umo boma likwendera.<ref name="Ladno">{{cite news|title=Ladno.ru|script-title=ru:Асад Башар : биография|trans-title=Bashar Assad: A Biography|url=http://www.ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150441/http://ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=23 September 2011|newspaper=Ladno|language=ru}}</ref> Kuti waŵe msilikari, Bashar wakaluta ku sukulu ya usilikali ku Homs mu 1994 ndipo wakaluta ku gulu la ŵasilikari la Syrian Republican Guard mu Janyuwale 1999. Kuti Bashar waŵe na mazaza pa ŵasilikari, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaŵachimbizga kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari, ndipo ŵapya, ŵawukirano, ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa cha Alawite awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Bashar ndiwo ŵakanjira m'malo mwawo. Mu 1998, Bashar wakatora udindo wa Syria ku Lebanon, uwo kufuma mu 1970 ukaŵa wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti Abdul Halim Khaddam, uyo m'paka pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa kuti wangakhumbikwira kuŵa pulezidenti. Pakwamba kulamulira ku Lebanon, Bashar wakathereska Khaddam na kukhazikiska boma lake ku Lebanon. Mu chaka chenechichi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu ŵa ndyali ŵa ku Lebanoni, Bashar wakimika Emile Lahoud, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wake wakugomezgeka, kuŵa pulezidenti wa ku Lebanoni ndipo wakathereska Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ku Lebanoni. Kuti watimbanizge boma la Syria ku Lebanon, Bashar wakasora Rustum Ghazaleh, uyo wakakhala kwa nyengo yitali nga ni High Commissioner wa Syria ku Lebanon, Ghazi Kanaan.{{sfn|Blanford|2006|p=88}} Kuyana waka na ntchito yake ya usilikari, Bashar wakachitanga ntchito za boma. Wakapika mazaza ghanandi ndipo wakazgoka mulara wa ofesi yakupokelera madandaulo na mapemphero gha ŵantu, ndipo wakalongozga kampeni yakulimbana na vimbundi. Chifukwa cha kampeni iyi, ŵanandi awo ŵangaŵa ŵakususkana na Bashar pakuŵa pulezidenti ŵakazengeka mulandu chifukwa cha vimbundi. Bashar wakazgokaso Pulezidenti wa wupu wa ŵamakompyuta ŵa ku Syria ndipo wakawovwira kuti paŵe intaneti ku Syria, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti ŵawoneke kuti ni munthu uyo ​​wakusintha vinthu mazuŵa ghano ndiposo wakusintha vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Ba'athist mu chipani, ŵasilikari na gulu la Alawite ŵakakhozgeranga Bashar al-Assad, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵawiske.<ref name="facing down rebellion">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411120901/https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Presidency == {{Main|Presidency of Bashar al-Assad}} === Early leadership (2000–2011) === [[File:TlassBashar.webp|thumb|Pa nyengo iyo, Nduna ya Chitetezo Mustafa Tlass pamoza na Bashar al-Assad, pa 1 Ogasiti 2000. Pamanyuma Tlass na mwana wake Manaf Tlass ŵakafumapo pa gulu ili pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Syria ŵasintha boma.]] [[File:AlAsssad2004 militaryuniform.jpg|thumb|Assad mu 2004]] Hafez al-Assad wakati wafwa pa 10 June 2000, Constitution ya Syria yikasinthika. Ŵakachepeska vyaka vya munthu uyo wangaŵa pulezidenti kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 34, apo Bashar wakaŵa pa nyengo iyo. Asad ndiyo yekha wakakhalapo pa mpikisano uwu ndipo pa 10 Julayi 2000, wakazomerezgeka kuŵa pulezidenti. Mwakuyana na udindo wake wa pulezidenti wa Syria, wakasoleka kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Syria kweniso kuŵa mulembi wa chipani cha Ba'ath. Pa vyaka 7 vilivyose kukaŵanga visankho ndipo Assad ndiyo wakawusanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwona umo vinthu viliri pa caru ŵakuwona kuti ivyo vikucitika pa visora ni vyautesi ndipo ŵakususka ŵakuvilekeska. Masankho ghaŵiri ghaumaliro agho ghakachitika mu 2014 na 2021 ghakachitikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma la Syria.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |date=28 May 2014 |title=Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320122744/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news |date=16 July 2014 |title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president |website=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |archive-date=11 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Kossaify">{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422181511/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=22 April 2021}}</ref> ==== Damascus Spring ==== {{See also|Damascus Spring}} Wakati wamba waka kuwusa, gulu linyake lakucemeka Damascus Spring, ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵalembi, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵakususka, na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vinthu vyautesi, likacita vinthu mwamahara, ndipo ŵakamalizga kujalira jele la Mezzeh na kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la Muslim Brotherhood. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kutimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nga ni umo vikaŵira ku Damascus mu nyengo ya chiwuvi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵakora, kuŵatimba, kuŵatumizga ku wuzga, panji kuŵakaka, ndipo boma likalutilira kuŵapa wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Vinthu ivyo ŵakacita pakwamba vikawelerapo kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu, ndipo boma likakanizga mulimo wa Damascus Spring na chilato chakuti "ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana kweniso ŵakhazikike". Ndondomeko ya boma ya "kukolerana pa vinthu vya ŵanthu na vya malonda" yikazgoka chimanyikwiro cha vimbundi, ndipo awo ŵakakolerananga na Assad ndiwo ŵakasanganga chandulo. Maofesi ghanandi ghakakanizgika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵavinjeru ŵakakoleka na ŵapolisi ŵa Mukhabarat, ŵakakomeka na kutambuzgika. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ivyo boma likalayizga pakwamba vikaŵa vigaŵa vya nthowa iyo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito kuti lisange Ŵasiriya awo ŵakakolerananga yayi na boma liphya. Pa ulendo wa nduna yikuru ya Britain Tony Blair ku Syria mu Okutobala 2001, Bashar wakususka pakweru kuwukira kwa United States ku Afghanistan pa ungano wa wupu wa ŵapharazgi, wakati "tikutondeka kuzomera ivyo tikuwona zuŵa lililose pa TV kwithu - kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Ŵanandi ŵakufwa zuŵa lililose". Pa ungano uwu, Asad wakalumba gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Palestina kuti ni "ŵasilikari awo ŵakurwa nkhondo ya wanangwa" ndipo wakasuska Israyeli na vyaru vya ku [[Europe]]. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo Assad wakacitanga pakusopa vikaŵa vyakukolerana yayi na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵakatenge wakususka ivyo vikacitika pa Seputembala 11, ndipo wakuzomerezga kuti boma la Israyeli ndakuzomerezgeka. Pamanyuma pa vilengo vya pa 11 Seputembala, ndipo pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku America ya kulimbana na vigeŵenga, "Syria yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo CIA yikagwiliskiranga nchito pa nkhondo yakwimikana na al-Qaeda", ndipo "makhaliro na unandi wa uthenga uwo ukafumanga ku Syria [ukaŵa] ukuru comene kuluska ivyo CIA yikaghanaghananga". 8] Syria yikakolerana chomene na CIA pakukaka ŵanthu na kuŵafumba mafumbo. Mu majele gha ku Syria ndimo mukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo CIA yikaŵapharazgiranga kuti mba al-Qaeda. Kuyana na lipoti la 2013 la gulu la Open Society Foundations, ku Syria ndiko kukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya CIA.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|title=CIA rendition: more than a quarter of countries 'offered covert support': Report finds at least 54 countries co-operated with global kidnap, detention and torture operation mounted after 9/11 attacks|last=Cobain|first=Ian|date=5 February 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 October 2024|archive-date=19 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519103259/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Killing of Rafic Hariri and Cedar Revolution ==== {{See also|Assassination of Rafic Hariri|Cedar Revolution|Syrian occupation of Lebanon}} {{quote box|"It will be [[Emile Lahoud|Lahoud]].. opposing him is tantamount to opposing [[Assad dynasty|Assad]] himself.. I will break [[Lebanon]] over your head and over [[Walid Jumblatt]]'s head. So you had better return to [[Beirut]] and arrange the matter on that basis." | source = — Assad's threats to [[Rafic Hariri]] in August 2004, over the issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coughlin |first=Con |title=Assad: The Triumph of Tyranny |url=https://archive.org/details/assadtriumphofty0000conc |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5290-7490-1 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/assadtriumphofty0000conc/page/80 80]–97 |chapter=5: First Blood}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} [[File:Hariri Scene-of-crime View-from-east.jpg|thumb|left|The crime-scene in [[Beirut]] where Hariri and 21 others were killed in a terrorist attack in February 2005. The area was cordoned off to conduct an international investigation.]] On 14 February 2005, [[Rafic Hariri]], the former prime minister of Lebanon, was [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassinated]] in a massive truck-bomb explosion in [[Beirut]], killing 22 people. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reported that "Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |title=Rafik Hariri: In Lebanon, assassination reverberates 10 years later |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=14 February 2015 |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420011320/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |url-status=live }}</ref> Bashar promoted his brother-in-law [[Assef Shawkat]], a key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate]] immediately after Hariri's death.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2012 |title=Comeback kid of Assad regime was a feared figure |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721080802/https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> [[File:Cedar Revolution Demonstrators.jpg|thumb|Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's "Independence Intifada", also known as the [[Cedar Revolution]].]] The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an ''[[intifada]]'' in [[Lebanon]] and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559|UNSC Resolution 1559]], Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] protestors – Muslims, Christians, and Druze – demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri#Investigation|international commission]] to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed the total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon|military occupation]]. The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's "independence intifada" or the "[[Cedar Revolution]]".<ref>Rudy Jaafar and [[Maria Stephan|Maria J. Stephan]]. (2009). "Lebanon's Independence Intifada: How an Unarmed Insurrection Expelled Syrian Forces", in Maria J. Stephan (ed.), ''Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in the Middle East'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.&nbsp;169–185.</ref> UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of [[Syrian intelligence]] and [[Assad family]] had directly supervised the killing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 October 2005 |title=UN Harīrī probe implicates Syria |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107092900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-date=7 November 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=John Kifner |author2= Warren Hoge |date=21 October 2005 |title=Top Syrian Seen as Prime Suspect in Assassination |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529190850/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |archive-date=29 May 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehlis |first=Detlev |date=19 October 2005 |title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005) |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051021233807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2005 |journal=}}</ref> The [[BBC]] reported in December 2005 that "Damascus has strongly denied involvement in the car bomb which killed Hariri in February".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |title=Middle East – New Hariri report 'blames Syria' |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=11 December 2005 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326082247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh at the ceremonial reception of the President of Syrian Arab Republic, Dr. Bashar al – Assad and his wife Mrs. Asma al-Assad, in New Delhi on June 18, 2008.jpg|thumb|Assad with Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] in New Delhi, India, 18 June 2008]] On 27 May 2007, Assad was [[2007 Syrian presidential election|approved for another seven-year term]] in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |title=Syria |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=26 January 2012 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121022641/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=29 May 2007 |title=Syria's Assad wins another term |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505061141/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420124315/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |url-status=live }}</ref> Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum.<ref name="CBS %">Klatell, James (27 May 2007). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |date=6 April 2017 }}. CBS News.</ref> Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of [[Damascus Declaration]] denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of the regime's strategy to sustain the "[[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] system".<ref name="WaPo %2">{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511075416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |archive-date=11 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Reuters %2">{{Cite news |last=Yacoub Oweis |first=Khaleb |date=17 May 2007 |title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad |work=[[Reuters]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134644/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> Elections in Syria are officially designated as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the [[Assad dynasty|Assads]] and voting is enforced as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by pro-government rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein citizens declare their "devotion" to the President and celebrate "the virtues" of the Assad dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Klatell |first=James |date=27 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=13 April 2014 |title=The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621100122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> Syria began developing a covert [[Syria and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear program|nuclear weapons programme]] with assistance of [[North Korea]] during the 2000s, but its suspected [[nuclear reactor]] was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] during [[Operation Orchard|Operation Outside the Box]] in September 2007.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The Silent Strike |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118235708/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |archive-date=18 November 2017 |access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="ifimes.org">{{Cite web |title=Syria: Between oppression and freedom |url=https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410215253/https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-date=10 April 2022 |website=Ifimes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2008 |title=N.Koreans may have died in Israel raid in Syria: NHK |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091316/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-date=24 April 2023}}</ref> === Syrian Civil War (2011–2024) === ==== Leadership until 2015 ==== {{See also|Arab Spring|2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian civil war|Sanctions against Syria}} [[File:Syrian Demonstration Douma Damascus 08-04-2011.jpg|thumbnail|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], 8 April 2011]] [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Protests in Syria]] began on 26 January 2011 following the [[Arab Spring]] protests that called for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the [[state of emergency]] which had been in place since 1963.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |title=Q&A: Syrian activist Suhair Atassi |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=13 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212112539/http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |title='Day of rage' protest urged in Syria |work=[[NBC News]] |date=3 February 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054615/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |url-status=live }}</ref> Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |title=In Syria, Crackdown After Protests |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322061301/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |archive-date=22 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed the unrest on "conspiracies" and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious "''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]''", toeing the party-line of framing the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist state]] as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the [[Arab Spring]] movement, and described those participating in the protests as "germs" and [[Fifth column|fifth-columnists]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring|quote=In the nearly 50-minute speech, President al-Assad gave his interpretation to the protests in Syria and other Arab countries, almost mocking the Arab Spring, invoking the outside regional and international conspirators and their inside 'agents' as the evil 'them'.. Resorting to conspiratorial attribution to explain the 'real' reasons behind the protests in Syria, al-Assad bestowed a pathological inevitability on the actions of political opposition, where the oppressive political system he heads turns into a noble victim, recipient of foreign illnesses. [Assad speech] "Conspiracies are like germs: They procreate at every moment everywhere; they cannot be annihilated, but the immunity of the body can be strengthened against them." … dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the 'fitna'.}}</ref><ref name="Farge">{{Cite news |last=Farge |first=Emma |date=28 June 2022 |title=War has killed 1.5% of Syria's population: UN estimate |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101243/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |archive-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="ohchr.org">{{Cite web |title=UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701075327/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022 |website=Ohchr.org}}</ref> {{quote box|"Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of [[neo-Ba'athism|Syrian Baathism]]: the binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring 'outside' bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good 'inside'... consistent with [[Baathist]] dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this 'inside'. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the '''fitna'''... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters' demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime."| source = — Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution protests]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by [[Barack Obama]]'s executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People |url=http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |work=[[United States Department of the Treasury]] |access-date=18 May 2011 |quote=Today, President Obama signed an Executive Order ([[s:Executive Order 13573|E.O. 13573]]) imposing sanctions against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and six other senior officials of the Government of Syria in an effort to increase pressure on the Government of Syria to end its use of violence against its people and to begin a transition to a democratic system that protects the rights of the Syrian people. |archive-date=22 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522122023/http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ussanct>{{cite news |title=How the U.S. message on Assad shifted |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104022/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |title=U.S. imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |access-date=12 March 2015 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=18 May 2011 |quote=The U.S. move, announced by the Treasury Department, freezes any of the Syrian officials' assets that are in the United States or otherwise fall within U.S. jurisdiction and generally bars U.S. individuals and companies from dealing with them. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111248/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/18/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 May 2011, the EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |work=BBC News |title=EU imposes sanctions on President Assad |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401032222/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |work=BBC News |title=Canada imposes sanctions on Syrian leaders |date=24 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402085604/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, [[2012 Syrian parliamentary election|new parliamentary elections]], and greater [[Civil and political rights|freedoms]]. He also urged [[refugee]]s to return home from Turkey, while assuring them [[amnesty]] and blaming all unrest on a small number of saboteurs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Speech of H.E. President Bashar al-Assad at Damascus University on the situation in Syria |url=http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |date=21 June 2011 |agency=[[Syrian Arab News Agency]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525170047/http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |archive-date=25 May 2012}}</ref> [[File:Anti-government protest in Assi square of Hama.ogg|right|thumb|275px|Hundreds of thousands of anti-Assad protesters parade the Syrian flag and shout the [[Arab Spring]] slogan [[Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam]] (''the people want to bring down the regime!'') in the Assi square, during the [[Siege of Hama (2011)|Siege of Hama]], 22 July 2011.]] In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] said Assad had "lost legitimacy" as president.<ref name="ussanct"/> On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to "step aside".<ref name=mustgo>{{cite news |title=Assad must go, Obama says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513065624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|title=Assad must go: the world unites against Syria's tyrant|work=[[The Independent]]|date=19 August 2011|access-date=25 November 2024|archive-date=18 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241118232120/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=whstatem>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad President Obama: "The future of Syria must be determined by its people, but President Bashar al-Assad is standing in their way."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123020409/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad |date=23 January 2017 }} The White House website, 18 August 2011.</ref> In August, the cartoonist [[Ali Farzat]], a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nour Ali |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=25 August 2011 |location=London |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419133157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |title=Prominent Syrian Cartoonist Attacked, Beaten |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203183255/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since October 2011, Russia, as a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], repeatedly [[United Nations Security Council veto power|vetoed]] Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against the Assad government.<ref name=guardunlegit>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |title=Russian vetoes are putting UN security council's legitimacy at risk, says US |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 January 2016 |date=23 September 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517013841/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Itar-Tass27-1-12">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |title=Russia won't back U.N. call for Syria's Assad to go |date=27 January 2012 |access-date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=28 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128064627/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/27/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 Russia and China veto draft Security Council resolution on Syria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629175424/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 |date=29 June 2017 }} UN website, 4 October 2011.</ref> By the end of January 2012, it was reported by [[Reuters]] that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ([[Shabiha]]), while 1,100 people had been killed by "terrorist armed forces".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |work=Reuters |title=Syria death toll hits 5,000 as insurgency spreads |date=13 December 2011 |author=Khaled Yacoub Oweis |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040746/https://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that "victory [was] near". He also said that the [[Arab League]], by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not "close doors" to an Arab-brokered solution if "national sovereignty" was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |work=BBC News |title=Syria's Assad blames 'foreign conspiracy' |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=10 January 2012 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193447/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Bombed out vehicles Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Destroyed vehicle on a devastated [[Aleppo]] street, 6 October 2012]] On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the [[2012 Syrian constitutional referendum|relevant referendum]]. The referendum introduced a fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures.<ref>{{cite news |author=Martin Chulov |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |title=Syria claims 90% of voters backed reforms in referendum |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=27 February 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |title=Russia backs Assad as fighting in Damascus escalates |date=17 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |first=Atul |last=Aneja |location=Chennai |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 July 2012, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] declared Syria to be in a state of civil war,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |work=BBC News |title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620110230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |url-status=live }}</ref> as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |newspaper=The Guardian |title=Syrian death toll tops 19,000, say activists |date=22 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014621/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to "enemies" outside of Syria who would "go to Hell" and that they would "be taught a lesson". However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at a solution "does not mean we are not interested in a political solution."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |title=Al-Assad: Enemies of Syria 'will go to hell' |work=CNN |date=6 January 2013 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103510/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Listening Post |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153 |title=Syrian Live Blog |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 January 2012 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071334/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/Syria-153 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the [[UN|United Nations]].<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/><ref name="Kossaify"/> According to [[Joshua Landis]]: "He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'"<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> After the fall of four military bases in September 2014,<ref name="AssadWeak">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |title=Bashar Assad may be weaker than he thinks |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |quote=In Latakia and Tartus, two coastal cities near the Alawite heartland, posters of missing soldiers adorn the walls. When IS took over four government bases in the east of the country this summer, slaughtering dozens of soldiers and displaying some of their heads on spikes in Raqqa, IS's stronghold, families started to lose faith in the government. A visitor to the region reports hearing one man complain: 'We're running out of sons to give them.' |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019131748/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |url-status=live }}</ref> which were the last government footholds in the [[Raqqa Governorate]], Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support.<ref name="Dissent2014">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |last1=Dziadosz |first1=Alexander |last2=Heneghan |first2=Tom |title=Pro-government Syrian activist arrested after rare public dissent |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014 |date=September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204007/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |url-status=live }}</ref> This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, [[Fahd Jassem al-Freij]], following the massacre by the [[Islamic State]] of hundreds of government troops captured after the IS victory at [[Battle for Tabqa Air base|Tabqa Airbase]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419222514/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 April 2018 |last=Westhall |first=Syliva |title=Assad's army stretched but still seen strong in Syria's war |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014|date=18 September 2014 }}</ref> This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in [[Homs]] demanding the resignation of the governor,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |last1=Hadid |first1=Diaa |title=Activists Say Assad Supporters Protest in Syria |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=3 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141002102336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the dismissal of Assad's cousin [[Hafez Makhlouf]] from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |title=Assad dismisses security chief of powerful 'Branch 40' |first1=Jean |last1=Aziz |publisher=Al Monitor |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018101938/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,<ref name="BurySons">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |title=Syria's Alawites Pay Heavy Price as They Bury Sons |first1=Diaa |last1=Hadid |agency=Associated Press |date=1 November 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031172047/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |url-status=live }}</ref> a sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |title=Car bomb wounds 37 in government-held area of Syria's Homs |work=Reuters |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924210033/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as the failing economic situation.<ref name="AlawitesVoice">{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html |title=Alawites find their voice against Assad |publisher=Al Monitor |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102024626/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html? |url-status=live }}</ref> Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; "I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point."<ref name="AssadWeak" /> [[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|thumb|Military situation in December 2015]] In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in [[Latakia]] under unclear circumstances.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Sherlock |first=Ruth |date=7 April 2015 |access-date=7 April 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of the [[shabiha]], Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in [[Qardaha]]{{snd}}the [[ancestral home]] of the Assad family.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |title=Assad relative assassinated in Syria: activists |work=The Daily Star |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=15 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531205717/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |title=Syria: Bashar al-Assad arrests own cousin Munther 'for kidnapping links' |last1=Alajlan |first1=Anas |work=International Business Times |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073648/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |url-status=live }}</ref> It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |title=Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video) |work=The Christian Science Monitor |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |date=21 August 2015 |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060446/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |url-status=live }}</ref> After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for the Assad government among its core Alawite base of support,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |title=Flash Points: Is Syria's Assad losing power? |work=CBS News |last=Flores |first=Reena |date=2 May 2015 |access-date=3 May 2015 |quote='a lot of suspicion within the regime itself about who's doing what and if folks are leaving.' [...] 'These are signs that I think demonstrate a bit of weakness and instability in the regime that you haven't seen in recent months,' he said. He cites the waning support from the nation's minority Alawite community as one of these important shifts. |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064305/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and that there were increasing reports of Assad relatives, Alawites, and businessmen fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |title=Syrian rebel victories stretch Assad's forces |work=Haaretz |last1=Harel |first1=Amos |last2=Cohen |first2=Gili |last3=Khoury |first3=Jack |date=6 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |quote=There have also been increasing reports of Assad relatives, businessmen and high-ranking members of the Alawite community fleeing Damascus for the coastal city of Latakia, or other countries, after transferring large sums of money to banks in Lebanon, eastern Europe and the United Arab Emirates. |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735 |title=Time to reconsider 'Life after Al Assad' |work=Gulf News |last=Karkouti |first=Mustapha |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=10 May 2015 |quote=[The] reality on the ground can't be more clear as the population in the regime-controlled parts of Syria are preparing for life after the Al Assad dynasty. According to information received by this author, many businessmen and financiers who flourished under the regime have successfully moved huge amounts of money and capital to neighbouring Lebanon. Some of these funds are now known to have been secretly deposited in Europe. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625145133/http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735 |archive-date=25 June 2016}}</ref> Intelligence chief [[Ali Mamlouk]] was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle [[Rifaat al-Assad]] to replace Bashar as president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bashar al-Assad's spy chief arrested over Syria coup plot |work=The Daily Telegraph |last1=Sherlock |first1=Ruth |last2=Malouf |first2=Carol |date=11 May 2015 |access-date=12 May 2015 |quote=Mamlouk had also used a businessman from Aleppo as an intermediary to contact Rifaat al-Assad, Bashar's uncle, who has lived abroad exile since he was accused of seeking to mount a coup in Syria in the 1980s.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Further high-profile deaths included the commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the [[Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive]] killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kaileh |first=Salameh |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2015/5/22/the-syrian-regime-is-slowly-being-liquidated |title=The Syrian regime is slowly being liquidated |website=Al-Araby Al-Jadeed |date=22 May 2015 |access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> ==== After Russian intervention (from 2015) ==== {{See also|Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}} [[File:Ali Khamenei and Bashar al-Assad05.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's supreme leader [[Ali Khamenei]], 25 February 2019.]] [[File:Sergey Shoigu and Bashar al-Assad (2017-09-12).jpg|thumb|Assad with former Russian defense minister [[Sergei Shoigu]], 9 September 2017]] On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently "serious" help: with both logistical and military support.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Oliphant|first1=Roland|last2=Loveluck|first2=Louisa|date=4 September 2015|title=Vladimir Putin confirms Russian military involvement in Syria's civil war|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=14 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Naylor|first=Hugh|date=4 September 2015|title=Putin says Syria's president is ready for elections, compromise|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Beirut|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-says-syrias-president-is-ready-for-elections-compromise-with-rebels/2015/09/04/9dfa818b-92c2-4012-b956-1784189b8ab7_story.html|access-date=11 October 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88">{{Cite book |last=Borshchevskaya |first=Anna |title=Putin's War in Syria |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-7556-3463-7 |location=London |pages=69–88 |chapter=6: The Military Campaign }}</ref> Shortly after the start of [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|direct military intervention by Russia]] on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as "stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise".<ref name="goalstabilis">{{cite news |url=http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |script-title=ru:Путин назвал основную задачу российских военных в Сирии |agency=[[Interfax]] |date=11 October 2015 |language=ru |access-date=12 January 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221040027/http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on the verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and easier access to intervene in [[Libya]].<ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88"/> In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by "terrorists", although it was considered by [[BBC News]] to be unclear whether he meant only [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] or Western-supported rebels as well.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |title=Syria crisis: Assad says no transition while 'terrorists' remain |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 November 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811133244/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the [[American-led intervention in Syria|U.S.-led coalition]] had achieved in a year.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |script-title=ru:ВКС РФ за два месяца добились большего прогресса в Сирии, чем альянс США за год |trans-title=Russian air force have in two months achieved more progress in Syria that the U.S. alliance in a year |magazine=Kommersant |date=22 November 2015 |access-date=22 November 2015 |language=ru |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104020/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |url-status=live }}</ref> In an interview with [[Czech Television]] on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are "shallow" and controlled by the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rozhovor s Bašárem Asadem|url=http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem/|website=Czech Television|access-date=1 December 2015|language=cs|archive-date=19 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119001015/http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Асад обвинил Турцию, Саудовскую Аравию и Катар в поддержке террористов в Сирии |url=https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |website=newsru.com |language=ru |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811163204/https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come.<ref name="reutersstabilis">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |title=U.S. sees bearable costs, key goals met for Russia in Syria so far |work=Reuters |date=28 December 2015 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104043/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|title=Putin claims support to Syrian rebels|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=11 December 2015|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408032500/https://amp.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Syrian President Bashar al-Assad meets Iran's special representative on Syrian affairs Ali Akbar Velayati.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's representative on Syrian affairs, [[Ali Akbar Velayati]], 6 May 2016.]] On 22 January 2016, the ''[[Financial Times]]'', citing anonymous "senior western intelligence officials", claimed that Russian general [[Igor Sergun]], the director of [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]], the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]], had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside.<ref name="ftresign">{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Vladimir Putin asked Bashar al-Assad to step down |newspaper=Financial Times |date=22 January 2016 |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref> The ''Financial Times''' report was denied by Putin's spokesman.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 January 2016|title=Putin Requested Assad Step Aside, But Syrian Leader Refused|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|access-date=11 October 2021|website=[[The Moscow Times]]|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174859/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held [[Aleppo]], ending a 6-year stalemate in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |first=Eric |last=DuVall |title=Assad's forces retake half of rebel-held Aleppo |work=[[United Press International]] |date=3 December 2016 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211201105/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|title=Aleppo siege: Syria rebels lose 50% of territory|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=3 December 2016|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413140020/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo{{snd}}a "turning point" in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation" of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |title=Evacuation agreement reached in Aleppo, rebel group says|website=Fox 6 Now|publisher=Fox News|date=17 December 2016 |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220125836/http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the election of [[Donald Trump]], the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the [[Presidency of Barack Obama#Syrian civil war|Obama administration]], and in March 2017, [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] [[Nikki Haley]] stated the U.S. was no longer focused on "getting Assad out",<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. priority on Syria no longer focused on "getting Assad out": Haley |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |work=Reuters |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502174900/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |url-status=live }}</ref> but this position changed in the wake of the [[2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |title=Tillerson: U.S. will lead coalition to oust Assad |first=Alayna |last=Treene |date=6 April 2017 |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023192349/https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strikes on a Syrian airbase]] on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described the U.S.' behaviour as "unjust and arrogant aggression" and stated that the missile strikes "do not change the deep policies" of the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Syria's Assad Calls U.S. Airstrikes an Outrageous Act |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124220516/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |url-status=live }}</ref> President Assad also told the [[Agence France-Presse]] that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a "100 percent fabrication" used to justify a U.S. airstrike.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Idlib chemical attack 'fabrication': AFP interview |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |work=Reuters |date=13 April 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207132915/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2017, Russian President Putin said "Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]" and that the chemical attack was "done by people who wanted to blame him for that."<ref>{{cite web |title=Putin: Syria chemical attack was provocation against Assad |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News United States]]|publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]]|date=2 June 2017 |first1=Ian |last1=Phillips |first2=Vladimir |last2=Isachenkov |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602223827/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |archive-date=2 June 2017}}</ref> UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime.<ref name="CNN sarin report"/> [[File:Vladimir Putin visited Khmeimim Air Base in Syria (2017-12-11) 41.jpg|thumb|Assad and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Khmeimim Air Base]] in Syria, 11 December 2017]] On 7 November 2017, the Syrian government announced that it had signed the [[Paris Climate Agreement]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|title=Syria Joins Paris Climate Accord, Leaving Only U.S. Opposed|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|date=7 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413160706/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, it recognized the independence of Russian-occupied separatist republics of [[Abkhazia|Abhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] in Georgia, leading to backlash from the [[European Union]], [[United States]], [[Canada]] and other countries.<ref name="Deutsche Welle">{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=Syria recognizes Georgia's breakaway regions |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530092144/https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |work=rferl.org |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2018 |title=Canada concerned by Syria's recognition of Georgian breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605131719/https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-date=5 June 2018 |website=Government of Canada}}</ref> On 30 August 2020, the [[First Hussein Arnous government]] was formed, which included a new [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Council of Ministers]].<ref>{{Cite web|agency=AFP|date=30 August 2020|title=Syria's Assad designates new government headed by PM Arnous|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|access-date=8 March 2021|website=Daily Sabah|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830231314/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[2021 Syrian presidential election|2021 presidential elections]] held on 26 May, Assad secured his fourth 7-year tenure; by winning 95.2% of the eligible votes. The elections were boycotted by the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]] and [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]]; while the refugees and internally displaced citizens were disqualified to vote; enabling only 38% of Syrians to participate in the process. Independent international observers as well as representatives of Western countries described the elections as a farce. [[United Nations]] condemned the elections for directly violating Resolution 2254; and announced that it has "no mandate".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425141450/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=25 April 2021 |website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Nigel |date=9 June 2021 |title=Syria: 2021 presidential election and future prospects |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |journal=House of Commons Library |pages=4–15 |via=UK Parliament |access-date=4 January 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815074550/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 May 2021 |title=Syria's Assad wins 4th term with 95% of vote, in election the West calls fraudulent |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127122709/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-date=27 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria Events of 2021 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103070540/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=3 January 2023 |website=Human Rights Watch|date=14 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite news |last=Lister |first=Charles |date=10 May 2021 |title=US policy in Syria in 2021 |work=Asharq al-Awsat |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813233750/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:AssadRaisi2023 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Ebrahim Raisi]] in Damascus, 3 May 2023]] On 10 August 2021, the [[Second Hussein Arnous government]] was formed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1 August 2021|title=Syria's Assad asks PM Arnous to form new cabinet|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005033010/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|url-status=live}}</ref> Under Assad, Syria became a strong supporter of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and was one of the five countries that opposed the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] resolution denouncing the invasion, which called upon Russia to pull back its troops. Three days prior to the invasion, Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad]] was dispatched to Moscow to affirm Syria's recognition of [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic|Luhansk]] separatist republics. A day after the invasion, Bashar al-Assad praised the invasion as "a correction of history and a restoration of balance in the [[International order|global order]] after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]]" in a phone call with [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Russia's Ukraine invasion a 'correction of history' |work=Al-Arabiya News |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225144651/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-date=25 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=General Assembly Overwhelmingly Adopts Resolution Demanding Russian Federation Immediately End Illegal Use of Force in Ukraine, Withdraw All Troops |url=https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807161917/https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-date=7 August 2022 |website=United Nations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makki |first=Danny |date=9 March 2022 |title=Syria's role in Putin's invasion of Ukraine |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309133840/https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-date=9 March 2022 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref> Syria became the first country after Russia to officially recognize the "independence and sovereignty" of the two breakaway regions in June 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria to recognize Ukraine's Luhansk and Donetsk regions |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702012411/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-date=2 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 July 2022 |title=Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk – state news agency |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703150251/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-date=3 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria first country other than Russia to recognise Ukraine separatist republics of Donetsk and Lugansk |work=WIO News |url=https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629211244/https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-date=29 June 2022}}</ref> On the 12th anniversary of beginning of the protests of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]], Bashar al-Assad held a meeting with [[Vladimir Putin]] during an official visit to Russia. In a televised broadcast with Putin, Assad defended Russia's "special military operation" as a war against "[[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]] and [[Banderite|old Nazis]]" of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2023 |title=Assad meets Putin in Moscow as Syrians mark 12 years since anti-regime uprising |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315170723/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-date=15 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="rferl.org">{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Zelenskiy Announces Sanctions On Hundreds Of Individuals, Including Syrian President, Iranian Drone Makers |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319093053/https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> He recognised the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|Russian annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts]] and ratified the new Russian borders, claiming that the territories were "historically Russian". Assad also urged Russia to expand its [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war|military presence in Syria]] by establishing new bases and deploying more boots on the ground, making its military role permanent.{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad welcomes new Russian bases in Syria after Putin meeting |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316094529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Guy Faulconbridge |author2=Caleb Davis |date=16 March 2023 |title=Syria's Assad would like more Russian bases and troops |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316070448/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad: Syria recognizes Russia's new borders |url=https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679546104895 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323052728/https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679549248213 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |website=teletrader.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Welcomes New Russian Bases in Syria, Recognizes Russian Annexations in Ukraine |work=Havana Times |url=https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053657/https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Minal |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Says Syria Recognizes New Russian Borders Following Accession Of New Regions |work=Pakistan Point |url=https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053926/https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref>}} [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 29, 2024).svg|thumb|Military situation before the [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|opposition offensives]] in late 2024.<br />Territories held by the [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]] (yellow), [[Islamic State|IS]] (grey), the [[Syrian Army]] (red), the [[Syrian National Army|SNA]] and [[Turkey]] (light green), [[Tahrir al-Sham]] (white), the [[Revolutionary Commando Army|SFA]] and the [[United States]] (teal).]] In March 2023, he visited the [[United Arab Emirates]] and met with UAE's President [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad in UAE as Second Post-Quake Gulf Visit Signals Growing Arab Outreach |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/syria-s-assad-arrives-in-uae-for-official-visit-/7011966.html |work=VOA News |date=19 March 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, he attended the [[2023 Arab League summit|Arab League summit in Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], where he was welcomed by Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad wins warm welcome at Arab summit after years of isolation |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020102358/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He met with Egyptian President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] and other Arab leaders.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad shakes hands, kisses cheeks with onetime foes at Arab League summit |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-shakes-hands-kisses-cheeks-with-onetime-foes-arab-league-summit-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023}}</ref> In September 2023, Assad attended the [[Asian Games]] opening ceremony in [[Hangzhou]] and met with Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Bashar al Assad and wife laugh and wave at Asian Games opening ceremony amid China talks |url=https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |work=Sky News |date=23 September 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010235/https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |url-status=live }}</ref> They announced the establishment of a China–Syria strategic partnership.<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaders of Syria and China announce strategic partnership as part of Asian Games diplomacy |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |work=Associated Press |date=22 September 2022 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108022849/https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2023, Assad attended the [[2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit|Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit]] in Riyadh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-host-extraordinary-joint-islamic-arab-summit-riyadh-saturday-2023-11-10/|title=Arab and Muslim leaders call for immediate end to Gaza war|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=11 November 2023|author=Aziz El Yaakoubi, Nayera Abdallah}}</ref> In May 2024, he attended the Arab League summit in [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/05/assad-sisi-gulf-leaders-bahrain-arab-league-summit-gaza-war-rages|title=Assad, Sisi, Gulf leaders in Bahrain for Arab League summit as Gaza war rages|date=16 May 2024|publisher=Al Monitor}}</ref> === Rebel offensive, regime collapse and exile in Russia (2024) === {{See also|2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Fall of the Assad regime}} [[File:Northwestern Syria offensive (2024).jpg|thumb|right|[[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Syrian opposition offensives]] that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days]] In December 2024, the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom urged for de-escalation in Syria as violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group [[Tahrir al-Sham|Hayat Tahrir al-Sham]] (HTS), had [[Battle of Aleppo (2024)|taken control of Aleppo]], prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by President Assad and his Russian allies. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in the [[Insurgency in Idlib|rebel-held]] city of [[Idlib]], resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the [[White Helmets (Syrian civil war)|White Helmets]] rescue group. [[NATO]] countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254]], which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|rebel offensive]], which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its [[2024 Hama offensive|advance into Hama Governorate]] following their capture of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria: US, Germany, France, UK call for de-escalation |date=2 December 2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-us-germany-france-uk-call-for-de-escalation/a-70933512 |website=DW News |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2024 |title=Fighting Worsens Already Dire Conditions in Northwestern Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/03/world/middleeast/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syrian hospital hit in air attack on opposition-held Idlib |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/newsfeed/2024/12/3/syrian-hospital-hit-in-air-attack-on-opposition-held-idlib |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in [[Hama Governorate]] as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of [[Hama]]. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria rebels capture major city of Hama after military withdraws |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cql5r2px4yyo |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian army launches counterattack as rebels push towards Hama |date=4 December 2024 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20241204-syrian-army-launches-counterattack-as-rebels-push-towards-hama |website=France24 |access-date=4 December 2024}}</ref> On 6 December, rebels began encircling the capital Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels seize Damascus, ending decades of brutal Assad dynasty rule |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syrian-rebels-control-south-approaching-damascus |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[Middle East Eye]]}}</ref> On 7 December, Assad fled the city just before [[Fall of Damascus|its fall to the rebels]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |website=Reuters |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref> ending 54 years of the Assad family's rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d|work=Associated Press News|title=The fall of Bashar Assad after 13 years of war in Syria brings to an end a decades-long dynasty|date=8 December 2024|author=Zeina Karam & Abby Sewell}}</ref> The Russian government said that Assad had "stepped down" as president following a personal decision and had left Syria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Where is Bashar al-Assad? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo |website=BBC |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=10 December 2024 |title=Assad Chose to Resign From Syrian Presidency, Kremlin Says |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/12/10/assad-chose-to-resign-from-syrian-presidency-kremlin-says-a87282 |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[The Moscow Times]]}}</ref> [[Interfax]], quoting an unnamed source at the [[Kremlin]], said that Assad and his family had arrived in Moscow and that the Russian government had granted them [[Political asylum|asylum]] "on humanitarian grounds."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/ |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref> == Controversies == === Corruption === {{Main|Corruption in Syria}} {{See also|Economy of Syria}} At the onset of the [[Syrian Revolution of Dignity|Syrian revolution]], corruption in Syria was endemic, and the country was ranked 129th in the 2011 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|title=2011 – CPI|year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112428/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|archive-date=2 October 2020|website=Transparency.org}}</ref> Since the 1970s, Syria's economy has been dominated by the patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and [[Alawite]] loyalists of the Assad family, who established control over Syria's public sectors based on kinship and nepotism. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles and the wider public; as early as the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=M. Sadowski |first=Yahya |date=1987 |title=Patronage and the Ba'th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41857946 |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=442–461 |jstor=41857946 }}</ref> Bashar al-Assad's economic liberalization program during the 2000s became a symbol of corruption and nepotism, as the scheme's beneficiaries were Alawite loyalists who seized a significant portion of the privatized sectors and business assets. The government's actions alienated the vast majority of the Syrian public, particularly the rural and urban working classes, who strongly disliked the resulting economic disparities that became overtly visible.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27"/><ref name="France 24">{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|title=Assad's 20-year rule, from Damascus Spring to pariah|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|access-date=21 May 2023|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514182340/https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|url-status=live}}</ref> Assad's cousin [[Rami Makhlouf]] was the regime's most favored oligarch during this period, marked by the institutionalization of corruption, handicapping of small businesses and casting down private [[entrepreneurship]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 July 2012 |title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327062345/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias towards Alawites, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the eruption of the 2011 Syrian Revolution. The protests were the most fierce in working-class neighbourhoods, which had long bore the brunt of the regime's exploitation policies that privileged its own loyalists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gersh |first=Nick |date=6 February 2017 |title=The Role of Corruption in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219152118/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=19 February 2017 |website=GAB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27}}</ref> According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], as a result of the Syrian civil war, "government-controlled Syria is truncated in size, battered and impoverished."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |title=Assad's Syria Truncated, Battered, but Defiant |work=Abc News |first=Diaa |last=Hadid |date=2 November 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102205346/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |url-status=live }}</ref> Economic sanctions (the [[Syria Accountability Act]]) were applied long before the Syrian civil war by the U.S. and were joined by the EU at the outbreak of the civil war, causing disintegration of the Syrian economy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |title=Syria 'disintegrating under crippling sanctions' |work=BBC News |date=19 February 2012 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=15 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515091458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |url-status=live }}</ref> These sanctions were reinforced in October 2014 by the EU and U.S.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |title=EU targets ministers, UAE firm in latest Syria sanctions |work=Reuters |first=Adrian |last=Croft |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007014415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |title=Tightened sanctions target Syrian human rights abuses |work=USA Today |first=Gregory |last=Korte |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811132431/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Industry in parts of the country that are still held by the government is heavily state-controlled, with [[economic liberalisation]] being reversed during the current conflict.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |title=Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020124949/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[London School of Economics]] has stated that as a result of the Syrian civil war, a [[war economy]] has developed in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |title=Local ceasefires best way to ease Syrians' suffering: researchers |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2014 |access-date=10 November 2014 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161119/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2014 [[European Council on Foreign Relations]] report also stated that a war economy has formed: {{blockquote|Three years into a conflict that is estimated to have killed at least 140,000 people from both sides, much of the Syrian economy lies in ruins. As the violence has expanded and sanctions have been imposed, assets and infrastructure have been destroyed, economic output has fallen, and investors have fled the country. Unemployment now exceeds 50 percent and half of the population lives below the poverty line ... against this backdrop, a war economy is emerging that is creating significant new economic networks and business activities that feed off the violence, chaos, and lawlessness gripping the country. This war economy – to which Western sanctions have inadvertently contributed – is creating incentives for some Syrians to prolong the conflict and making it harder to end it.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |title=Syria's War Economy |first1=Jihad |last1=Yazigi |publisher=European Council on Foreign Relations |date=7 April 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009205851/http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}} A [[United Nations|UN]] commissioned report by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research states that two-thirds of the Syrian population now lives in "extreme poverty".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |title=Syria's economy heads into ruin: U.N. sponsored report |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=28 May 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824204400/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/28/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unemployment stands at 50 percent.<ref name="SurvivalMode">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |title=Syria's Assad regime cuts subsidies, focuses ailing economy on war effort |newspaper=The Washington Post |first1=Hugh |last1=Naylor |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103114216/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2014, a $50 million mall opened in [[Tartus]] which provoked criticism from government supporters and was seen as part of an Assad government policy of attempting to project a sense of normalcy throughout the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |title=Glitzy mall sparks anger from Assad backers |first1=Rita |last1=Daou |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=17 October 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022183913/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |url-status=dead }}</ref> A government policy to give preference to families of slain soldiers for government jobs was cancelled after it caused an uproar<ref name="BurySons"/> while rising accusations of corruption caused protests.<ref name="AlawitesVoice"/> In December 2014, the EU banned sales of jet fuel to the Assad government, forcing the government to buy more expensive uninsured jet fuel shipments in the future.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU tries to ground Bashar al-Assad's warplanes by banning fuel supplies |work=The Telegraph |first1=David |last1=Blair |date=12 December 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Taking advantage of the increased role of the state as a result of the civil war, Bashar and his wife Asma have begun annexing Syria's economic assets from their loyalists, seeking to displace the old business elites and monopolize their direct control of the economy. [[Maher al-Assad]], the brother of Bashar, has also become wealthy by overseeing the operations of Syria's state-sponsored [[captagon]] drug industry and seizing much of the spoils of war. The ruling couple currently owns vast swathes of Syria's shipping, real estate, telecommunications and banking sectors.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2022 |title=Changes to Syria's Business Elite Concentrates Wealth in Hands of Presidential Couple |work=The Syria Report |url=https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202222632/https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-date=2 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Chloe Cornish |author2=Asser Khattab |date=25 July 2019 |title=Syria's Assad puts pressure on business elite |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727060100/https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> Significant changes have been happening to Syrian economy since the government's confiscation campaigns launched in 2019, which involved major economic assets being transferred to the Presidential couple to project their power and influence. Particularly noteworthy dynamic has been the rise of [[Asma al-Assad]], who heads Syria's clandestine economic council and is thought to have become "a central funnel of economic power in Syria". Through her Syria Trust NGO, the backbone of her financial network, Asma vets the foreign aid coming to Syria; since the government authorizes UN organizations only if it works under state agencies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jalabi |first=Raya |date=2023 |title=Syria's state capture: the rising influence of Mrs Assad |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405013209/https://www-ft-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref> Corruption has been rising sporadically in recent years, with Syria being considered the most corrupt country in the [[Arab World]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped |work=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203201215/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208070207/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> As of 2022, Syria is the ranked second worst globally in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title= Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204001659/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |website=[[Transparency International]]}}</ref> === Sectarianism === {{See also|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war}} Hafez al-Assad's government was widely counted amongst the most repressive Arab [[dictatorship]]s of the 20th century. As Bashar inherited his father's mantle, he sought to implement "authoritarian upgrading" by purging those from his father's generation and staffing the party and military with loyalist Alawite officers, further entrenching the sectarianism within the system.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=27–30 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime |quote=Because he lacks his father's leadership skills... Bashar may settle for consensus among his junta of Alawi officers... When Bashar assumed office he attempted to consolidate power through 'authoritarian upgrading'.. However, the conservative military establishment and senior members of the regime were not favorable to Bashar's reforms, which forced Bashar to retire such senior personnel in order to further consolidate his power. But Bashar struggled to appoint new and loyal staff, his Ba'athist regime became increasingly like a sectarian family clan}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |last=Ker-Lindsay |first=James |date=27 April 2023 |title=Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State? |work=World Politics Review |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> While officially the Ba'athist government adheres to a strict secularist doctrine, in practice it has implemented sectarian engineering policies in the society to suppress dissent and monopolize its absolute power.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=8 May 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014 |page=23 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{quote box|"During Hafez-al-Assad's reign, he resorted to emphasising the sectarian identities that the previous [[Ba'ath Party]] rejected; believing the only way to ensure stability was through building a trusted security force... Hafez pursued a strategy to "make the Alawite community a loyal monolith while keeping Syria's Sunni majority divided". Yet Syria became a [[police state]], enforcing stability through threat of brute force repression... Bashar had already followed in his father's footsteps, carefully manoeuvring his most loyal allies into the military-security apparatus, government ministries and the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]." | source = — Antonia Robson<ref name="Robson">{{Cite web |date=3 May 2021 |last=Robson| first=Antonia |title=The Mobilisation of Sectarian Identities in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130180133/https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=30 November 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The regime has attempted to portray itself to the outside world as "the protector of minorities" and instills the fear of the majority rule in the society to mobilize loyalists from minorities.<ref name="NPR_APRIL_2015">{{cite web |last=Meuse |first=Alison |date=18 April 2015 |title=Syria's Minorities: Caught Between Sword Of ISIS And Wrath of Assad |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR |quote=Karim Bitar, a Middle East analyst at Paris think tank IRIS [...] says [...] 'Minorities are often used as a shield by authoritarian regimes, who try to portray themselves as protectors and as a bulwark' |archive-date=19 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419125016/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> Assad loyalist figures like [[Michel Samaha]] have advocated sectarian mobilization to defend the regime from what he labelled as the "sea of [[Sunnis]]". Assad regime has unleashed sectarian violence through private Alawite militias like the ''[[Shabiha]]'', particularly in Sunni areas. Alawite religious iconography and communal sentiments are common themes used by [[Alawites|Alawite]] warrior-shaykhs who lead the Alawite militias; as justification to commit massacres, abductions and torture in opposition strongholds.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ümit Üngör|first=Uğur |date=9 February 2022 |title=The Specter of Sectarian Violence in Syria |url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704031407/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 July 2022 |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR}}</ref> Various development policies adopted by the regime had followed a sectarian pattern. An urbanization scheme implemented by the government in the city of Homs led to expulsions of thousands of Sunni residents during the 2000s, while Alawite majority areas were left intact.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> Even as [[Syrian Ba'athism]] absorbed diverse communal identities into the homogenous unifying discourse of the state; socio-political power became monopolized by Alawite loyalists. Despite officially adhering to non-confessionalism, [[Syrian Armed Forces]] have also been institutionally sectarianized. While the conscripts and lower-ranks are overwhelmingly non-Alawite, the higher ranks are packed by Alawite loyalists who effectively control the logistics and security policy. Elite units of the Syrian military such as the [[Tiger Forces]], [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]], [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|4th Armoured Division]], etc. regarded by the government as crucial for its survival; are composed mostly of Alawites. Sunni officers are under constant surveillance by the secret police, with most of them being assigned with Alawite assistants who monitor their movements. Pro-regime [[paramilitary]] groups such as the [[National Defense Force (Syria)|National Defense Force]] are also organized around sectarian loyalty to the Ba'athist government. During the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]] uprisings, the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government]] deployed a securitization strategy that depended on sectarian mobilization, unleashing violence on protestors and extensive crackdowns across the country, prompting opposition groups to turn to armed revolt. Syrian society was further sectarianized following the [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war]], which witnessed numerous [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] militant groups sponsored by Iran fight in the side of the Assad government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref><ref name="Robson"/> === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Syria}} The Ba'athist government has been ruling Syria as a totalitarian state, policing every aspect of Syrian society for decades. Commanders of government's security forces – consisting of [[Syrian Arab Army]], [[secret police]], Ba'athist paramilitaries – directly implement the executive functions of the state, with scant regard for legal processes and [[bureaucracy]]. The surveillance system of the ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' is pervasive, with the total number of agents working for its various branches estimated to be as high as 1:158 ratio with the civilian population. Security services shut down civil society organizations, curtail freedom of movement within the country and bans non-Ba'athist political literature and symbols.<ref name="ifimes.org"/><ref name="Hill">{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Evan |date=16 July 2010 |title=Syria slammed on human rights |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521182156/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-date=21 May 2023}}</ref> In 2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] published the report "''A Wasted Decade''" documenting repression during Assad's first decade of [[emergency rule]]; marked by arbitrary arrests, censorship and discrimination against [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]].<ref name="Hill"/><ref name="hrw.org">{{Cite web |date=16 July 2010 |title=A Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad's First Ten Years in Power |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713084607/https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-date=13 July 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>[[File:Syria.BasharAlAssad.02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Billboard with a portrait of Bashar al-Assad and the text 'Syria is protected by God' on the [[Damascus#Walls and gates of Damascus|old city wall of Damascus]] in 2006]] Throughout the 2000s, the dreaded ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' agents carried out routine [[Forced abduction|abductions]], [[arbitrary detention]]s and [[torture]] of civilians. Numerous [[show trial]]s were conducted against dissidents, filling Syrian prisons with journalists and human rights activists. Members of Syria's [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] had long enjoyed broad privileges to carry out extrajudicial actions and they have immunity from criminal offences. In 2008, Assad extended this immunity to other departments of security forces.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Human Rights groups, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], have detailed how the Assad government's [[secret police]] tortured, imprisoned, and killed political opponents, and those who speak out against the government.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Wasted Decade |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |pages=4, 8 |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=16 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416235023/http://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Syria |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,SYR,,4da56d83a2,0.html |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019171745/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CSYR%2C%2C4da56d83a2%2C0.html |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> In addition, some 600 Lebanese political prisoners are thought to be held in government prisons since the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]], with some held for as long as over 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/565320-syrias-secret-prisoners |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171009185724/https://m.media/Pages/NotFoundPage.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 October 2017 |title=Syria's secret prisoners |publisher=NOW News |last1=Luca |first1=Ana Maria |date=21 May 2015 |access-date=22 May 2015}}</ref> Since 2006, the Assad government has expanded the use of [[Persona non grata|travel bans]] against political dissidents.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |title=How Syria controls its dissidents – Banning travel |date=30 September 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=8 March 2011 |archive-date=30 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830231102/http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |url-status=live }}</ref><!-- The Syrian [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] is Alawite dominated.{{sfn|Pierret|2013|p=204}}--> In an interview with [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] in 2007, Assad stated: "We don't have such [things as] political prisoners," though ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported the arrest of 30 Syrian political dissidents who were organising a joint opposition front in December 2007, with 3 members of this group considered to be opposition leaders being remanded in custody.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |work=The New York Times |title=Challenged, Syria Extends Crackdown on Dissent |first=Thanassis |last=Cambanis |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=26 April 2010 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605051853/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The government also denied permission for human rights organizations and independent NGOs to work in the country.<ref name="hrw.org"/> In 2010, Syria banned [[Veil|face veils]] at universities.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |title=Syria bans face veils at universities |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 July 2010 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405215836/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |title=Veil ban: Why Syria joins Europe in barring the niqab |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=13 November 2014 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517215400/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the protests of Syrian Revolution in 2011, Assad partially relaxed the veil ban.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |title=Syria relaxes veil ban for teachers |newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908080959/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:(5)_Montreal_Syrian_solidarity_demonstration_March_27.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Montreal]] in solidarity with the people of Syria. The sign reads: "Stop torture and inhumane treatment of prisoners in Syria!"]] ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' journal released an editorial on the Syrian situation in the wake of the 2011 protests:<ref name="The Sturdy House That Assad Built">{{cite journal |author=Michael Bröning |date=7 March 2011 |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119093700/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2011-03-07/sturdy-house-assad-built |archive-date=19 January 2023}}</ref> {{blockquote|During its decades of rule... the Assad family developed a strong political safety net by firmly integrating the military into the government. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, Bashar's father, seized power after rising through the ranks of the [[Syrian armed forces]], during which time he established a network of loyal [[Alawites]] by installing them in key posts. In fact, the military, ruling elite, and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|ruthless secret police]] are so intertwined that it is now impossible to separate the [[Assad regime]] from the security establishment. Bashar al-Assad's threat to use force against protesters would be more plausible than Tunisia's or Egypt's were. So, unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, where a professionally trained military tended to play an independent role, the regime and its loyal forces have been able to deter all but the most resolute and fearless oppositional activists... At the same time, it is significantly different from [[Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]], where the military, although brutal and loyal to the regime, is a more disorganized group of militant thugs than a trained and disciplined army.}} Between 2011 and 2013; the state security apparatus is believed to have tortured and killed over 10,000 [[civil activist]]s, [[political dissidents]], [[Independent journalists|journalists]], [[Civil defense|civil defense volunteers]] and those accused of treason and terror charges, as part of a campaign of deadly crackdown ordered by Assad.<ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum">{{Cite news |author1=Adam Entous |author2=Dion Nissenbaum |date=25 July 2014 |title=10,000 Bodies: Inside Syrian President Bashar al-Assad's Crackdown |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103162318/https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-date=3 January 2023}}</ref> In June 2023, [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts of hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Assad regime's [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centres|dungeons]] and [[torture chamber]]s. The vote was condemned by Russia, North Korea and Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=The Week |url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045225/https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.amp.html |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=30 June 2023 |title=In milestone decision, UN creates institution for Syria's missing and disappeared |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045427/https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=M. Lederer |first=Edith |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630163007/https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref> In 2023, [[Canada]] and Netherlands [[Canada and the Netherlands v. Syrian Arab Republic|filed a lawsuit against Syria]] at the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), charging the latter with violating the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture]]. The joint petition accused the Syrian regime of organizing "unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering" as a strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Joint statement by Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands on instituting proceedings at the International Court of Justice to hold Syria to account for torture |url=https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135748/https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=Government of Netherlands}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands jointly institute proceedings against the Syrian Arab Republic and request the Court to indicate provisional measures |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135950/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org |pages=1, 2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of Netherlands vs. the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612142054/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org}}</ref> Russia vetoed [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad at the International Criminal Court.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and Netherlands take Syria to ICJ over alleged torture |work=The National |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135519/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-date=13 June 2023}}</ref> === Repression of Kurds === {{Further|Arab Belt|Arabization#Arabization in Syria|Qamishli massacre|label 1=Arab Belt Project|label 2=Arabization in Syria}} [[Ba'athist Syria]] had long banned [[Kurdish language]] in schools and public institutions; and discrimination against [[Syrian Kurds|Kurds]] steadily increased during the rule of Bashar al-Assad. State policy officially suppressed Kurdish culture; with more than 300,000 Syrian Kurds being rendered stateless. Kurdish grievances against state persecution eventually culminated in the [[2004 Qamishli riots|2004 Qamishli Uprisings]], which were crushed down violently after sending Syrian military forces. The ensuing crackdown resulted in the killings of more than 36 Kurds and injuring at least 160 demonstrators. More than 2000 civilians were arrested and tortured in government detention centres. Restrictions on Kurdish activities has been further tightened following the Qamishli massacre, with the [[Assad regime]] virtually banning all Kurdish cultural gatherings and political activism under the charges of "inciting strife" or "weakening national sentiment." During 2005–2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] verified security crackdowns on at least 14 [[Kurdish population|Kurdish]] political and cultural gatherings.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="Hill"/> In March 2008, Syrian military opened fire at a Kurdish gathering in Qamishli that marked Nowruz, killing three and injuring five civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2008 |title=Syria: Investigate Killing of Kurds |work=Human RIghts Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505183620/https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> === Censorship === {{Main|Censorship in Syria|Internet censorship in Syria}} On 22 September 2001, Assad decreed a Press Law that tightened government control over all literature printed or published in Syria; ranging from newspapers to books, pamphlets and periodicals. Publishers, writers, editors, distributors, journalists and other individuals accused of violating the Press Law are imprisoned or fined. Censorship has also been expanded into the [[cyberspace]], and various websites are banned. Numerous bloggers and content creators have been arrested under various "national security" charges.<ref name="hrw.org"/> A 2007 law requires [[internet cafés]] to record all the comments users post on chat forums.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716102326/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |access-date=26 October 2012 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}</ref> Another decree in 2008 obligated internet cafes to keep records of their customers and report them routinely to the police.<ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2009 |title=10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202201109/https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-date=2 February 2023 |website=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> Websites such as [[Arabic Wikipedia]], [[YouTube]], and [[Facebook]] were [[Internet censorship in Syria|blocked intermittently between 2008 and February 2011]].<ref>{{cite news |date=24 July 2008 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed – The authorities don't want you to read or see too much |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |access-date=10 March 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511054714/http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jennifer Preston |date=9 February 2011 |title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210033047/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Enemies – Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria,39779.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518055039/http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria%2C39779.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] (CPJ) ranked Syria as the third dangerous country to be an online blogger in 2009. Individuals are arrested based on a wide variety of accusations; ranging from undermining "national unity" to posting or sharing "false" content.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger"/> Syria was ranked as the third most censored country in CPJ's 2012 report. Apart from restrictions for international journalists that prohibit their entry, domestic press is controlled by state agencies that promote Ba'athist ideology. From 2011, the Syrian government has issued a complete [[media blackout]] and foreign correspondents were quickly detained, abducted or tortured. As a result, the outside world is able to know of situations happening inside Syria only through videos of independent civilian journalists. The Assad government has shut down internet coverage, [[Cellular network|mobile networks]] as well as telephone lines in areas under its control to prevent any news that has its attempts to monopolize information related to Syria.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2012 |title=10 Most Censored Countries |url=http://cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725103343/http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |archive-date=25 July 2012 |access-date=14 August 2012 |work=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> === Crackdowns, ethnic cleansing, and forced disappearances === {{Further|Casualties of the Syrian civil war|Syrian refugee crisis}} The [[2011 Syrian revolution#Crackdown|crackdown]] ordered by Bashar al-Assad against Syrian protesters was the most ruthless of all military clampdowns in the entire [[Arab Spring]]. As violence deteriorated and death toll mounted to the thousands; the European Union, Arab League and United States began imposing wide range of sanctions against Assad regime. By December 2011, [[United Nations]] had declared the situation in Syria to be a "[[civil war]]".<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Elizabeth A. Kennedy |author2=Frank Jordans |date=2 December 2011 |title=UN: Syria now in a civil war |work=MSNBC |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726024135/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> By this point, all the protestors and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] groups had viewed the unconditional resignation of Bashar al-Assad as part of their core demands. In July 2012, [[Arab League]] held an emergency session demanding the "swift resignation" of Assad and promised "safe exit" if he accepted the offer.<ref>{{cite news |author=Bassem Mroue |date=18 April 2011 |title=Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists |work=[[HuffPost]] |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512045222/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |archive-date=12 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 July 2012 |title=Arab League to offer 'safe exit' if Assad resigns |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514043736/http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> Assad rebuffed the offers, instead seeking foreign military support from Iran and Russia to defend his embattled regime through [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth tactics]], massacres, sieges, forced starvations, ethnic cleansing, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yacoubian |first=Mona |date=1 January 2021 |title=Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad |url=https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224072630/https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-date=24 February 2021 |website=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> The crackdowns and extermination campaigns of Assad regime resulted in the [[Syrian refugee crisis]]; causing the [[forced displacement]] of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees.<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2023 |title=Syria Refugee Crisis Explained |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091756/https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |website=UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency}}</ref> This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest [[refugee crisis]] in the world; and [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] High Commissioner [[Filippo Grandi]] has described it as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering."<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Syria Refugee Crisis |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518033038/https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> === Ethnic cleansing === [[File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians getting rushed to a hospital in [[Aleppo]]]] Eva Koulouriotis has described Bashar al-Assad as the "master of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the 21st century".<ref name="J. Koulouriotis">{{Cite web |last=J. Koulouriotis |first=Eva |date=22 May 2022 |title=Assad: Master of ethnic cleansing in the 21st century |url=https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702072830/https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=Syria Wise}}</ref> During the course of the civil war, Assad ordered depopulation campaigns throughout the country to re-shape its demography in favor of his regime and the military tactics have been compared to the [[Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War|persecutions of the Bosnian war]]. Between 2011 and 2015, [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] militias are reported to have committed 49 ethno-sectarian [[massacre]]s for the purpose of implementing its social engineering agenda in the country. [[Alawites|Alawite]] loyalist militias known as the ''[[Shabiha]]'' have been launched into [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] villages and towns, perpetrating numerous [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] massacres. These include the [[Houla massacre|Houla]], [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres]], [[Al-Qubeir massacre]], Al-Hasawiya massacre, and others which have resulted in hundreds of deaths with hundreds of thousands of residents fleeing under threats of regime persecution and [[sexual violence]]. Pogroms and deportations were pronounced in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas where the Syrian military and Hezbollah prioritize the establishment of strategic control by expelling Sunni residents and bringing in Iran-backed Shia militants.<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Martin Chulov |author2=Mona Mahmood |date=22 July 2013 |title=Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to 'ethnically cleanse' Alawite heartland |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505110349/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-date=5 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nakhoul |first=Samia |date=12 June 2012 |title=Insight: Syria massacres, ethnic cleansing that may backfire |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222180327/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-date=22 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="J. Koulouriotis"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hamad |first=Sam |date=30 June 2017 |title=Daraa 'de-escalation' masks Assad's ethnic cleansing in Syria |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207165354/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-date=7 December 2022}}</ref> In 2016, UN officials criticized Bashar al-Assad for pursuing demographic engineering and ethnic cleansing in [[Darayya District|Darayya district]] in Damascus under the guise of de-escalation deals.<ref>{{Cite news |last=El-Bar |first=Karim |date=5 September 2016 |title='Ethnic cleansing on an unprecedented scale': Rebels, UN criticise Assad tactics |work=Middle East Eye |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015105258/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-date=15 October 2021}}</ref> Syrian government forces have pursued mass-killings of civilian populations as part of its war strategy throughout the conflict and is responsible for inflicting more than 90% of the [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|total civilian deaths in the Syrian civil war]].<ref name="auto1">*{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR }} * {{Cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State }} * {{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch }} * {{Cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209022611/https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |url-status=live }}</ref> The UN estimates a minimum of 306,000 civilian deaths occurred between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="Farge"/><ref name="ohchr.org"/> As of 2022, the total death toll has risen to approximately 580,000.<ref name="GCR2P2">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2022 |title=Syria |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect}}</ref> An additional 154,000 civilians have been [[forcibly disappeared]] or subject to [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary detentions]] across Syria between 2011 and 2023. As of 2023, more than 135,000 individuals are being [[torture]]d, incarcerated or dead in [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centers|Ba'athist prison networks]], including thousands of [[Woman|women]] and [[child]]ren.<ref>* {{Cite news |date=March 2023 |title=Record of Arbitrary Arrests |work=SNHR |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513172453/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-date=13 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=On the 12th Anniversary of the Popular Uprising |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced#:~:text=The%20report%20reveals%20that%20no,March%202011%20and%20March%202023. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316062415/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced |archive-date=16 March 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite news |last=Mustafa |first=Wafa |date=18 May 2023 |title=Assad's regime took my father. Normalising relations feels like an attempt to rewrite history |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519021625/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-date=19 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=9 June 2021 |title=Humans not Numbers |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411115616/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Seven reasons why normalizing with Assad is a shameful, terrible move |url=https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518154642/https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-date=18 May 2023 |website=The Syria campaign}}</ref> Since 2011, the Assad regime has arrested and detained children without trial until the age of 18, after which they are transferred to Syrian military field courts and killed. A 2024 investigative report by the Syrian Investigative Journalism Unit (SIRAJ) identified 24 Syrian children who were forcibly disappeared, had their assets confiscated, detained and later killed after they reached the age of 18. The report, based on inside sources within the Assad government, interviews with victims' families, and public sources, estimated that more than 6,000 detainees under the age of 18 were sentenced to death in the [[Sednaya Prison]] and an Assadist military field court in [[Al-Dimas]] between 2014 and 2017, citing eyewitness accounts of an insider within the Ba'athist military police.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Ali Al Ibrahim |author2=Mohamad Skaf |date= 28 October 2024|title=Delayed Execution: The Syrian Regime Detains Minors in Prisons to Execute Them Upon Reaching 18 |url=https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |website=SIRAJ |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052540/https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2024 |title=Syria regime detained children until 18 before executing them under 'terrorism' law, investigation reveals |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052320/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |url-status=live }}</ref> === War crimes === {{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{quote box|"The nature and extent of Assad's violence is strategic in design and effect. He is pursuing a [[state terrorism|strategy of terror]], [[siege]], and [[Ethnic cleansing|depopulation]] in key areas, calculating that winning back the loyalty of much of the [[Sunni]] middle class and underclass is highly unlikely and certainly not worth the resources and political capital. Better to level half the country than to give it over to the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]]." | source = — Emile Hokayem, Senior Fellow at [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title="Assad or We Burn the Country" |url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} Numerous politicians, dissidents, authors and journalists have nicknamed Assad as the "butcher" of Syria for his war-crimes, [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] sectarian mass-killings, [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons attacks]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] campaigns.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |title=Selling War and Peace: Syria and the Anglosphere |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108489249 |location=New York |page=211 |chapter=7: Proxy War}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dagher |first=Sam |title=Assad Or We Burn the Country: How One Family's Lust for Power Destroyed Syria |url=https://archive.org/details/assadorweburncou0000dagh |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-316-55670-5 |location=New York|chapter=15: Don't Stay with the Butcher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXAdAAAAQBAJ |title=The Shari'a State: Arab Spring and Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-66216-1 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Warrick |first=Jobby |title=Red Line |url=https://archive.org/details/redlineunravelin0000warr |publisher=Doubleday |year=2021 |isbn=9780385544467 |location=New York}}</ref> The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] has stated that at least 10 European citizens were tortured by the Assad government while detained during the Syrian civil war, potentially leaving Assad open to prosecution by individual European countries for [[war crime]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |title=U.S. says Europeans killed by Assad's death machine |work=Chicago Tribune |agency=Bloomberg News |first1=Josh |last1=Rogin |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413082059/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CNN sarin report" /> [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] Navi Pillay stated in December 2013 that UN investigations directly implicated Bashar al-Assad guilty of [[crimes against humanity]] and pursuing an extermination strategy developed "at the highest level of government, including the [[President of Syria|head of state]]."<ref>{{cite news |date=2 December 2013 |title=UN implicates Bashar al-Assad in Syria war crimes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331104230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref> [[Stephen Rapp]], the [[United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues|U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues]], stated in 2014 that the crimes committed by Assad are the worst seen since those of [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime |title=FBI says Europeans tortured by Assad regime |first1=Tamar |last1=Pileggi |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114063429/http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2015, Rapp further stated that the case against Assad is "much better" than those against [[Slobodan Milošević]] of Serbia or [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]] of Liberia, both of whom were indicted by international tribunals.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |title=US: War Crimes Case Vs. Assad Better Than One for Milosevic |work=ABC News |first1=Cara |last1=Anna |agency=Associated Press |date=11 March 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323132342/http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charles Lister, Director of the Countering Terror and Extremism Program at [[Middle East Institute]], describes Bashar al-Assad as "21st century's biggest war criminal".<ref name="auto"/> [[File:Bombing_of_Darayya.png|thumb|240x240px|Bombing of [[Darayya]] suburb of [[Damascus]] by the [[Syrian Air Force|Syrian Arab Air Force]], 17 June 2016]] In a February 2015 interview with the [[BBC]], Assad dismissed accusations that the [[Syrian Arab Air Force]] used [[barrel bomb]]s as "childish", claiming that his forces have never used these types of "barrel" bombs and responded with a joke about not using "cooking pots" either.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |title='There are no barrel bombs': Assad's Syria 'facts' |publisher=Channel Four News |date=10 February 2015 |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212212426/http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[BBC]] Middle East'' editor conducting the interview, [[Jeremy Bowen]], later described Assad's statement regarding barrel bombs as "patently not true".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |title=What does Assad really think about Syria's civil war? |work=BBC News |date=15 February 2014 |access-date=15 February 2015 |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215040413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--The Syrian Arab Air Force's use of barrel bombs is well documented.--><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |title=What are 'barrel bombs' and why is the Syrian military using them? |publisher=PRI |date=4 February 2014 |access-date=14 February 2015 |last=Bell |first=Matthew |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215185404/http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |url-status=live }}</ref> As soon as [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war|demonstrations arose in 2011–2012]], Bashar al-Assad opted to implement the "[[Samson Option|Samson option]]", the characteristic approach of the [[Neo-ba'athist]] regime since the era of Hafez al-Assad; wherein protests were violently suppressed and demonstrators were shot and fired at directly by the armed forces. However, unlike Hafez; Bashar had even less loyalty and was politically fragile, exacerbated by alienation of the majority of the population. As a result, Bashar chose to crack down on dissent far more comprehensively and harshly than his father; and a mere allegation of collaboration was reason enough to get assassinated.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber|title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=29–38 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref> [[Nadim Shehadi]], the director of [[The Fares Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies]], stated that "In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein was massacring his people and we were worried about the weapons inspectors," and claimed that "Assad did that too. He kept us busy with chemical weapons when he massacred his people."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |title=Iran spends billions to prop up Assad |publisher=TDA |agency=Bloomberg |date=11 June 2015 |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021040/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |title=A Damning Indictment of Syrian President Assad's Systematic Massacres |newspaper=The Daily Beast |last1=Dettmer |first1=Jamie |date=19 June 2015 |access-date=21 June 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418223422/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Contrasting the policies of Hafez al-Assad and that of his son Bashar, former [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian vice-president]] and [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'athist]] dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] states: <blockquote>"The Father had a mind and the Son has a loss of reason. How could the army use its force and the security apparatus with all its might to destroy Syria because of a protest against the mistakes of one of your security officials. The father would act differently. Father Hafez hit Hama after he encircled it, warned and then hit Hama after a long siege... But his son is different. On the subject of Daraa, Bashar gave instructions to open fire on the demonstrators."<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=33–34 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref></blockquote> Human rights organizations and criminal investigators have documented Assad's war crimes and sent it to the [[International Criminal Court]] for indictment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |date=10 June 2014 |title=Assad tops list of Syria war crimes suspects handed to ICC: former prosecutor |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129194851/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/10/us-syria-crisis-warcrimes-idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Since Syria is not a party to the [[Rome Statute]], [[International Criminal Court]] requires authorization from the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] to send Bashar al-Assad to tribunal. As this gets consistently [[veto]]ed by Assad's primary backer [[Russia]], ICC prosecutions have not transpired. On the other hand, courts in various European countries have begun prosecuting and convicting senior Ba'ath party members, [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian military]] commanders and ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' officials charged with war crimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swart |first=Mia |date=15 March 2021 |title=National courts lead the way in prosecuting Syrian war crimes |work=Al Jazeera News |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303174028/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> In September 2015, France began an inquiry into Assad for [[crimes against humanity]], with French Foreign Minister [[Laurent Fabius]] stating "Faced with these crimes that offend the human conscience, this bureaucracy of horror, faced with this denial of the values of humanity, it is our responsibility to act against the impunity of the killers".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |title=France opens probe into Assad regime for crimes against humanity |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Talagrand |first1=Pauline |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930084126/http://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2016, head of the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria, [[Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro|Paulo Pinheiro]], told reporters: "The mass scale of deaths of detainees suggests that the government of Syria is responsible for acts that amount to extermination as a crime against humanity." The UN Commission reported finding "unimaginable abuses", including women and children as young as seven perishing while being held by Syrian authorities. The report also stated: "There are reasonable grounds to believe that high-ranking officers{{snd}}including the heads of branches and directorates{{snd}}commanding these detention facilities, those in charge of the military police, as well as their civilian superiors, knew of the vast number of deaths occurring in detention facilities ... yet did not take action to prevent abuse, investigate allegations or prosecute those responsible".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |title=UN probe accuses Syria govt of 'exterminating' detainees |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Larson |first1=Nina |date=8 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |archive-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209093447/http://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2016, the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] led by [[New Jersey]] Rep. [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Chris Smith]] called on the Obama administration to create a war crimes [[tribunal]] to investigate and prosecute violations "whether committed by the officials of the Government of Syria or other parties to the civil war".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |title=Congress goes after Assad for war crimes |publisher=Al Monitor |last1=Pecquet |first1=Julian |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=1 March 2016 |archive-date=29 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229102201/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, Germany's chief prosecutor issued an international arrest warrant for one of Assad's most senior military officials, [[Jamil Hassan]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |title=Germany seeks arrest of leading Syrian general on war crimes charges |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=8 June 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 June 2018 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163014/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hassan is the head of Syria's powerful [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]]. Detention centers run by Air Force Intelligence are among the most notorious in Syria, and thousands are believed to have died because of [[torture]] or neglect. Charges filed against Hassan claim he had command responsibility over the facilities and therefore knew of the abuse. The move against Hassan marked an important milestone of prosecutors trying to bring senior members of Assad's inner circle to trial for war crimes. In an investigative report about the [[Tadamon Massacre]], Professors [[Uğur Ümit Üngör]] and Annsar Shahhoud, found witnesses who attested that Assad gave orders for the [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence]] to direct the [[Shabiha]] to kill civilians.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | title=How a Massacre of Nearly 300 in Syria Was Revealed | newspaper=New Lines Magazine | date=27 April 2022 | first1=Annsar | last1=Shahhoud | first2=Uğur | last2=Ümit Üngör | access-date=1 May 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427195055/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | url-status=live }}</ref> === 2023–2024 arrest warrant and legal proceedings === On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Syrian President Bashar Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |date=15 November 2023 |title=France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad – source |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/france-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters}}</ref> In May 2024, French anti-terrorism prosecutors requested the Paris appeals court to consider revoking Assad's arrest warrant, asserting his absolute immunity as a serving head of state.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last1=Surk |first1=Barbara |last2=Turnbull |first2=Alex |date=26 June 2024 |title=Paris court upholds validity of France's arrest warrant for Syrian President Bashar Assad |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-france-assad-war-crimes-arrest-warrant-d64d25b39801dafdcbe031558b52b81b |work=Associated Press}}</ref> On 26 June 2024, the Paris appeals court determined that the international arrest warrant issued by France against Assad for alleged complicity in war crimes during the Syrian civil war remains valid. This decision was confirmed by attorneys involved in the case.<ref name=":3" /> According to the lawyers, this ruling marked the first instance where a national court acknowledged that the personal immunity of a serving head of state is not absolute, as reported by The Associated Press.<ref name=":3" /> ===Chemical attacks=== {{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{See also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction}} The [[Syrian Arab Armed Forces|Syrian military]] has deployed chemical warfare as a systematic military strategy in the [[Syrian civil war]], and is estimated to have committed over 300 [[Chemical warfare|chemical attacks]], targeting civilian populations throughout the course of the conflict.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301032936/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-date=1 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Michael |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syria used chemical weapons more than 300 times, researchers say |work=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219014216/https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> Investigation conducted by the [[Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi)|GPPi]] research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total verified chemical attacks to the Assad's regime. Almost 90% of the attacks had occurred after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]] in August 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Tobias Schneider |author2=Theresa Lutkefend |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107103943/https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-date=7 January 2023}}</ref> [[File:Ghouta massacre4 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Children killed by pro-[[Syrian military|Assad military forces]] in the Ghouta chemical attack, the deadliest [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons attack]] in the 21st century]] Syria joined the Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW member state in October 2013, and there are currently three OPCW missions with UN mandates to investigate chemical weapons issues in Syria. These are the Declaration Assessment Team (DAT) to verify Syrian [[Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons|declarations of CW Programme]]; [[OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria|OPCW Fact-Finding Mission]] (FFM) tasked to identify the chemical attacks and type of weapons used; and the Investigation and Identification Team (IIT) which investigates the perpetrators of the chemical attacks. The conclusions are submitted to the [[United Nations|United Nations bodies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria and the OPCW |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20a,completeness%20of%20Syria's%20declaration%20remain. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165127/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria |archive-date=6 May 2023 |website=OPCW| date=27 January 2023 }}</ref> In April 2021, Syria was suspended from OPCW through the public vote of member states, for not co-operating with the body's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) and violating the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}</ref> Findings of another investigation report published the OPCW-IIT in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to Assadist forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> As of March 2023, independent United Nations inquiry commissions have confirmed at least nine chemical attacks committed by forces loyal to the [[Assad Government|Assad government]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2023 |title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete |work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> [[File:2015-08-21 Gedenken am Ernst-August-Platz in Hannover an die Giftgas-Opfer von Ghouta in Syrien, (14).JPG|thumb|Members of the Syrian community in [[Hannover]] protest against Bashar al-Assad on the second anniversary of [[Ghouta chemical attacks]], 21 August 2015.]] The deadliest chemical attack have been the Ghouta chemical attacks, when Assad government forces launched the [[nerve agent]] [[sarin]] into civilian areas during its brutal [[Siege of Eastern Ghouta]] in early hours of 21 August 2013. Thousands of infected and dying victims flooded the nearby hospitals, showing symptoms such as foaming, body convulsions and other neurotoxic symptoms. An estimated 1,100–1,500 civilians; including women and children, are estimated to have been killed in the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Sareta |date=22 August 2022 |title=Nine Years Since Ghouta: Reflecting on the Use of Chemical Weapons in Syria |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822152939/https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-date=22 August 2022 |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ben Hubbard |author2=Mark Mazzetti |author3=Mark Landler|date=26 August 2013 |title=Blasts in the Night, a Smell, and a Flood of Syrian Victims |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184248/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2013 |title=Attacks on Ghouta |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102104640/https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-date=2 November 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> The attack was internationally condemned and represented the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [[Iran–Iraq War|Iran-Iraq war]].<ref>{{cite news |author=S.B. |date=21 August 2013 |title=Syria's war: If this isn't a red line, what is? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |url-status=live |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220174814/http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |archive-date=20 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2013 |title=Syria gas attack: death toll at 1,400 worst since Halabja |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825115627/http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |archive-date=25 August 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=The Week}}</ref> On 21 August 2022, United States government marked the ninth anniversary of Ghouta Chemical attacks stating: "[[United States]] remembers and honors the victims and survivors of the Ghouta attack and the many other chemical attacks we assess the Assad regime has launched. We condemn in the strongest possible terms any use of chemical weapons anywhere, by anyone, under any circumstances... The United States calls on the Assad regime to fully declare and destroy its [[Syria chemical weapons program|chemical weapons program]]... and for the regime to allow the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]' Declaration Assessment Team."<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Ninth Anniversary of the Ghouta, Syria Chemical Weapons Attack |url=https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526194512/https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-date=26 May 2023 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> In April 2017, a [[sarin]] [[Khan Shaykhun chemical attack|chemical attack on Khan Sheikhoun]] killed more than 80 people.{{sfn|Bronner|2007|p=63}}<ref>{{cite news |date=8 May 2014 |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |page=23 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it}}</ref><ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum" /> In response, U.S. president [[Donald Trump]] ordered an [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strike against the Syrian Shayrat base]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |title=Airstrike to US intervention: How attack unfolded |author1=Lauren Said-Moorhouse |author2=Sarah Tilotta |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612165854/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WhyWasSharyatAirbaseBombed">{{cite news |date=7 April 2017 |title=Syria war: Why was Shayrat airbase bombed? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430182855/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |url-status=live }}</ref> A joint report from the UN and international chemical weapons inspectors concluded that Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack.<ref name="CNN sarin report">{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |title=UN: Syria responsible for sarin attack that killed scores |author1=Steve Almasy |author2=Richard Roth |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612174315/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReutersSyriaChemicalWeaponsKhanSheikhoun">{{cite news |last=Campos |first=Rodrigo |date=27 October 2017 |title=Syrian government to blame for April sarin attack: U.N. report |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424151004/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2018, a [[Douma chemical attack|chemical attack occurred in Douma]], prompting the U.S. and its allies to accuse Assad of violating international law and initiated joint [[2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs|missile strikes at chemical weapons facilities in Damascus and Homs]]. Both Syria and Russia denied involvement.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|title=U.S. Says Syria Has Used Chemical Weapons at Least 50 Times During War|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802140836/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|last2=Gibbons-Neff|first2=Thomas|last3=Hubbard|first3=Ben|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|title=U.S., Britain and France Strike Syria Over Suspected Chemical Weapons Attack|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414012221/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The third report published on 27 January 2023 by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the [[2018 Douma chemical attack]] which killed at least 43 civilians.{{Efn|Sources: * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Third Report by the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf |journal= |pages=2–139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf |archive-date=27 January 2023 |via=OPCW}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018 |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=U.S Department of State}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-date=28 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}}} === Comments on the Holocaust === {{See also|Holocaust denial}} In a speech delivered at the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]'s central committee meeting in December 2023, Bashar al-Assad claimed that there was "no evidence" of the killings of six million Jews during [[the Holocaust]]. Emphasizing that Jews were not the sole [[Holocaust victims|victims of Nazi extermination campaigns]], Assad alleged that the Holocaust was "politicized" by [[Allied Powers (World War II)|Allied powers]] to facilitate the mass-deportation of [[European Jews]] to Palestine, and that it was used as an excuse to justify the creation of Israel. Assad also accused the U.S. government of financially and militarily sponsoring the [[rise of Nazism]] during the [[Interwar period|inter-war period]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Silkoff |first=Shira |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syria's Assad claims Holocaust was a lie fabricated to justify creation of Israel |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220150406/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syrian President Assad denies Holocaust and accuses U.S. of funding Nazis in controversial speech |work=i24news |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220142407/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref> ==Public image== === Domestic opposition and support === {{Further|Syrian opposition}} [[File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(March_15_2013).svg|thumb|[[Syrian opposition]] in March 2013]] The secular resistance to Assad rule is mainly represented by the [[Syrian National Council]] and [[National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]], two political bodies that constitute a coalition of [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] and [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Conservatism|conservative]] factions of the [[Syrian opposition]]. Military commanders and civilian leaders of [[Free Syrian Army]] militias are represented in these councils. The coalition represents the political wing of the [[Syrian Interim Government]] and seeks the [[democratic transition]] of Syria through grass-roots activism, protests and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] to overthrow the Ba'athist dictatorship.<ref name="nahex">{{cite web |date=31 May 2013 |title=Syria Opposition Expands, Closes Meeting |url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625042548/http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-date=25 June 2013 |work=Naharnet}}</ref><ref name="cnn">{{cite news|date=23 August 2011 |title=Syrian activists form a 'national council' |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |url-status=live |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012915/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sayigh |first=Yezid |date=April 2013 |title=The Syrian Opposition's Leadership Problem |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf|location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |pages=1–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916020532/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2022}}</ref> A less influential faction within the Syrian opposition is the [[National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change]] (NCC), a coalition of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Socialism|socialist]] parties that seek to end the rule of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] but without [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|foreign involvement]]. Established in June 2011, major parties in the NCC coalition are the [[Democratic Arab Socialist Union]], [[Syrian Democratic People's Party]] and the [[Communist Labour Party (Syria)|Communist Labour Party]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition">{{Cite news |date=17 October 2013 |title=Guide to the Syrian opposition |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104105606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> [[National Democratic Rally (Syria)|National Democratic Rally]] (NDR) was an older left-wing opposition coalition of [[Socialism|socialist]] parties formed in 1980, but banned by the Baathist government. NDR was active during the nationwide protests of the 1980s and the [[Damascus Spring]] of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daher |first=Joseph |date=30 October 2020 |title=Syria's Labor Communist Party, a rich political history |url=https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175433/https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 |website=Syria Untold}}</ref> During the early years of the civil war, the [[Druze in Syria]] primarily sought to remain neutral, "seeking to stay out of the conflict". [[Druze-Israeli]] politician Majalli Wahabi claimed in 2016 that over half support the Assad government despite its relative weakness in Druze areas.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Druse-ex-MK-Syrian-brethren-not-abandoned-by-Assad-441879 |title=Druse ex-MK: Syrian brethren not abandoned by Assad |date=21 January 2016 |work=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> The "Sheikhs of Dignity" movement, which had sought to remain neutral and to defend Druze areas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/2/7/the-neutral-druze-sheikh-angering-syrias-regime |title=The 'neutral' Druze sheikh angering Syria's regime |publisher=The New Arab |date=7 February 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> blamed the government after its leader [[Sheikh Wahid al-Balous]] was assassinated and organized large scale protests which left six government security personnel dead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/six-syria-regime-loyalists-killed-after-druze-cleric-assassinated/ |title=Six Syria regime loyalists killed after Druze cleric assassinated |work=The Times of Israel |agency=AFP and AP |date=5 September 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> Druze community became fervently opposed to the Assad government over time and has been vocal about its opposition to increasing Iranian interference in Syria.<ref name="Abdulhamid">{{Cite journal |last=Abdulhamid |first=Ammar |date=5 February 2024 |title=The Syrian Conflict |url=https://www.cjlpa.org/post/the-syrian-conflict-the-myth-of-containment-and-the-realities-of-accountability |journal=The Cambridge Journal of Law, Politics, and Art |via=cjlpa.org}}</ref> In August 2023, mass protests against Assad regime erupted in the Druze-majority city of [[As-Suwayda|Suweida]],<ref>{{cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Protests in southern Syria as economy worsens |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/08/protests-southern-syria-economy-worsens |access-date=29 August 2023 |website=Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East}}</ref><ref name="Sinjab">{{Cite news |last=Sinjab |first=Lina |date=24 August 2023 |title=Syria: Protests over growing economic hardship spread in south |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> which eventually spread to other [[Southern Syria protests (2023 – present)|regions of Southern Syria]].<ref name="Sinjab"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2023 |title=Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising |url=https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-date=29 August 2023 |work=Asharq al-Awsat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Mahmoud |first=Hussam |date=12 February 2024 |title=Six months into As-Suwayda uprising, What is the future of street protests? |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212161419/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |work=Enab Baladi}}</ref> Druze cleric Hikmat al-Hajiri, religious leader of Syrian Druze community, has declared war against "Iranian invasion of the country".<ref name="Abdulhamid"/> Syrian [[Sufism|Sufi]] scholar [[Muhammad al-Yaqoubi]], a fervent opponent of both the Ba'athist regime and [[Islamic State]] group, has described Assad's rule as a "reign of terror" that wreaked havoc and enormous misery on the Syrian populace.<ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Yaqoubi |first=Muhammad |date=5 December 2014 |title=To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816235657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> The regime's support base consisted of [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] loyalists who dominate Syrian politics, [[trade union]]s, youth organizations, [[Students' union|students unions]], [[bureaucracy]] and [[Syrian Armed Forces|armed forces]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |date= 2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location=San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]] institutions and its political activities form the "vital pillars of regime survival". Family networks of politicians in the Ba'ath party-led [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] (NPF) and businessmen loyal to the Assad family form another pole of support. Electoral listing is supervised by Ba'ath party leadership which expels candidates not deemed "sufficiently loyal".<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Carl Yonker |author2=Christopher Solomon |title=The Banality of Authoritarian Control: Syria's Ba'ath Party Marches On |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101520/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-date=2 December 2022 |website=carnegieendowment.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Assad: The Presidency That Never Ends |url=https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226152530/https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-date=26 February 2023 |website=[[Civil Rights Defenders]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |year=2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location= San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> Although it has been reported at various stages of the Syrian civil war that [[Religion in Syria|religious minorities]] such as the [[Alawites]] and [[Christianity in Syria|Christians in Syria]] favour the Assad government because of its secularism,<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast Loyalty to Assad runs deep on Syrian coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627151953/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast|date=27 June 2015}}". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]''. 22 January 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |title=Syria's Christians stand by Assad |work=[[CBS News]] |date=6 February 2012 |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111004508/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |url-status=live }}</ref> opposition exists among [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Christians who have claimed that the Assad government seeks to use them as "puppets" and deny their distinct ethnicity, which is non-Arab.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150407135145/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2015 |last=Ahmad |first=Rozh |title=A glimpse into the world of Syria's Christian "Sutoro" fighters (video) |publisher=Your Middle East |date=23 September 2014 |access-date=17 March 2015 |quote=The regime wants us to be puppets, deny our ethnicity and demand an Arab-only state. }}</ref> Although Syria's [[Alawites|Alawite]] community forms Bashar al-Assad's core support base and dominate the [[Syrian Military|military]] and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|security apparatus]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html |title=Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne |first=Nir |last=Rosen |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 Syria's Alawites: The People Behind Assad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226142611/https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 |date=26 February 2017 }} ''The Wall Street Journal'', 25 June 2015.</ref> in April 2016, [[BBC News]] reported that Alawite leaders released a document seeking to distance themselves from Assad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35941679 |title=Syrian Alawites distance themselves from Assad |work=BBC News |last=Wyatt |first=Caroline |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 24, 2023).svg|thumb|Military situation, November 2023 – November 2024]] [[Kurdish Supreme Committee]] was a coalition of 13 Kurdish political parties opposed to Assad regime. Before its dissolution in 2015, the committee consisted of [[Kurdish National Council|KNC]] and [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition"/> [[Circassians in Syria]] have also become strong opponents of the regime as Ba'athist crackdowns and massacres across Syria intensified viciously; and members of Circassian ethnic minority have attempted to escape Syria, fearing persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |page=170 |chapter=8: The Road to Sochi}}</ref> In 2014, the Christian [[Syriac Military Council]], the largest Christian organization in Syria, allied with the Free Syrian Army opposed to Assad,<ref name="SyriacMilitaryCouncil">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/25/world/meast/us-syria-rebel-agreement/ |last1=Bronstein |first1=Scott |last2=Griffin |first2=Drew |title=Syrian rebel groups unite to fight ISIS |work=CNN|date=26 September 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014 |quote=Under the agreement, moderate Muslim rebel groups fighting under the Supreme Military Council of Syria agreed to form an alliance with the predominantly Christian Syriac Military Council.}}</ref> joining other Syrian Christian militias such as the [[Sutoro]] who had joined the Syrian opposition against the Assad government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/12/21/syria-christian-islamic-state/18915275 |title=Remaining Christians in Syria fight to save their land |work=USA Today |first1=Sophie |last1=Cousins |date=22 December 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015}}</ref> [[Abu Mohammad al-Julani]], commander of the [[Tahrir al-Sham]] rebel militia, condemned Assad regime for converting Syria "into an ongoing earthquake the past 12 years", in the context of the [[2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes]].<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ruth Michaelson |author2=Lorenzo Tondo |date=13 February 2023 |title=Syrian rebel leader pleads for outside help a week on from earthquakes |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214012142/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> "In June 2014, Assad won a disputed [[2014 Syrian presidential election|presidential election]] held in government-controlled areas (and boycotted in opposition-held areas<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/03/syria-presidential-electi_n_5435706.html |title=Syria's 2014 Presidential Election Ignored in Opposition-Held Areas |work=HuffPost |date=2 August 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> and Kurdish areas governed by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |title=Syria's Kurdish region to boycott presidential elections |work=Al-Monitor |access-date=8 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607230545/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>) with 88.7% of the vote. Turnout was estimated to be 73.42% of eligible voters, including those in rebel-controlled areas.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42% |url=http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |agency=Syrian Arab News Agency |location=Damascus |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The regime's electoral commission also disqualified millions of Syrian citizens displaced outside the country from voting.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Dominic |date=28 April 2014 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104163541/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> Independent observers and academic scholarship unanimously describe the event as a [[sham election]] organized to legitimise Assad's rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheeseman |first=Nicholas |title=How to Rig an Election |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24665-0 |pages=140–141 |oclc=1089560229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Norris |first1=Pippa |last2=Martinez i Coma |first2=Ferran |last3=Grömping |first3=Max |date=2015 |title=The Year in Elections, 2014 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |journal=Election Integrity Project |language=en |quote=The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014. |access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Mark P. |date=2018 |editor1-last=Herron |editor1-first=Erik S |editor2-last=Pekkanen |editor2-first=Robert J |editor3-last=Shugart |editor3-first=Matthew S |title=Presidential and Legislative Elections |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23 |access-date=21 May 2020 |website=The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001 |isbn=978-0190258658 |quote="unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context."}}</ref> In his inauguration ceremony, Bashar denounced the opposition as "terrorists" and "traitors"; while attacking the [[Western world|West]] for backing what he described as the "fake [[Arab Spring|Arab spring]]".<ref>{{cite news |last=Makdisi |first=Marwan |date=16 July 2014 |title=Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903040841/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |archive-date=3 September 2017}}</ref> ''[[The Times of Israel|Times of Israel]]'' reported that although various individuals interviewed in a "Sunni-dominated, middle-class neighborhood of central Damascus" exhibited fealty for Assad; it was not possible to discern the actual support for the regime due to the ubiquitous influence of the [[Syrian intelligence|secret police]] in the society.<ref>"[https://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/ Syria's Assad reelected with 88.7% of vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192515/http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/|date=26 January 2016}}". [[The Times of Israel]]. 4 June 2014.</ref> Ba'athist dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] who had served as [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian Vice President]] during the tenures of both Hafez and Bashar, disparaged Bashar al-Assad as a pawn in Iran's [[Shia crescent|imperial scheme]]. Contrasting the power dynamics that existed under both the autocrats, Khaddam stated: <blockquote>"[Bashar] is not like his father.. He never allowed the Iranians to intervene in Syrian affairs.. During Hafez Assad's time, an Iranian delegation arrived in Syria and attempted to convert some of the Muslim Alawite Syrians to Shia Islam... Assad ordered his minister of foreign Affairs to summon the Iranian ambassador to deliver an ultimatum: The delegation has 24 hours to exit Syria.... They had no power [during Hafez's rule], unlike Bashar who gave them [Iranians] power and control."<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2017 |title=Interview with Former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam |url=https://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005013940/http://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-date=5 October 2016 |website=NewsWeek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 2016 |title=Daesh was nurtured by Iran, says former Syrian vice president |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006075951/http://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-date=6 October 2016 |website=Arab News}}</ref></blockquote> === International opposition === [[File:Manifestation_pro_révolution_syrienne_contre_Assad_et_Poutine_-_Paris,_14-12-2016-5.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations held in [[Paris]], 14 December 2016]] Foreign journalists and political observers who travelled to Syria have described it as the most "ruthless [[police state]]" in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. Assad's violent repression of [[Damascus Spring]] of the early 2000s and the publication of a UN report that implicated him in the [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassination]] of [[Lebanese Prime Minister]] [[Rafic Hariri]], exacerbated Syria's [[Post–Cold War era|post-Cold War]] isolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |title=The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime |url=https://archive.org/details/arabuprisingspeo0000bowe |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1471129827 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/arabuprisingspeo0000bowe/page/14 14], 15, 118 |chapter=Prologue: Before the Spring}}</ref><ref name="Fisher">{{Cite news |last=Fisher |first=Marc |date=16 June 2012 |title=Syria's Assad has embraced pariah status |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618133455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref> Following global outrage against Assad regime's deadly crackdown on the [[Arab Spring|Arab Spring protestors]] which led to the Syrian civil war, [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth policy]] against the civilian populations resulting in more than half a million deaths, [[mass murder]]s and systematic deployment of [[chemical warfare]] throughout the conflict; Bashar al-Assad became an international [[Pariah state|pariah]] and numerous world leaders have urged him to resign.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location= New York|pages=101–102 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref><ref name="Fisher"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Hamzah |date=24 November 2021 |title=Focus on Pariah Leaders: Bashar al-Assad |url=https://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152331/http://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-date=8 December 2022 |website=The Diplomatic Envoy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer |title=U.S Conflicts in The 21st Centiry (Volume 1) |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3878-1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=834, 835}}</ref> Since 2011, Bashar al-Assad has lost recognition from several international organizations such as the [[Arab League]] (in 2011),<ref name="NYT Arab League">{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |date=12 November 2011 |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> [[Union for the Mediterranean]] (in 2011)<ref>{{cite news |date=1 December 2012 |title=Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |archive-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organization of Islamic Co-operation]] (in 2012).<ref name="CNN OIC">{{cite news |date=14 August 2012 |title=Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet |work=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown |work=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Turkey]], [[Arab League]] and various countries began enforcing broad sets of sanctions against Syrian regime from 2011, with the objective of forcing Assad to resign and assist in a political solution to the crisis.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location=New York |pages=101–122 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref> International bodies have criticized one-sided elections organized by Assad government during the conflict. In the 2014 London conference of countries of the [[Friends of Syria Group|Friends of Syria group]], [[Foreign Secretary|British Foreign Secretary]] [[William Hague]] characterized Syrian elections as a "parody of democracy" and denounced the regime's "utter disregard for human life" for perpetrating [[War crime|war-crimes]] and [[State terrorism|state-terror]] on the [[Syrians|Syrian population]].<ref>{{cite news |date=15 May 2014 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026161021/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |archive-date=26 October 2022}}</ref> Assad's policy of holding elections under the circumstances of an ongoing civil war were also rebuked by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3K0ST20140421?irpc=932 |title=Syrian election will undermine political solution: U.N.'s Ban |work=Reuters |date=21 April 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> [[File:Ted_Kaufman_with_al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Assad meets with U.S. Senator [[Ted Kaufman]] in 2009]] [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] suspended all relations with Syria following Bashar al-Assad's [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia]], condemning his government as a "Russian-manipulated regime" that supported [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|Russian occupation]] and "[[ethnic cleansing]]".{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=US Condemns Syria for Recognizing Georgia's Breakaway Regions |work=[[Voice of America]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323062308/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="Deutsche Welle"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018 |website=rferl.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Syria recognises Russian-backed Georgia regions |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529144450/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-date=29 May 2018}}</ref>}} Following Assad's strong backing of [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and recognition of the breakaway separatist republics, [[Ukraine]] cut off all diplomatic relations with Syria in June 2022. Describing Assad's policies as "worthless", [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodimir Zelensky]] pledged to expand further [[sanctions against Syria]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine's Zelenskyy cuts ties with Syria after it recognized separatist republics |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630120322/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine Cuts Diplomatic Ties With Syria After It Recognizes Eastern Regions As Independent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701050748/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-date=1 July 2022 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> In March 2023, [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]] put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Assad regime, Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to [[Moscow]], wherein he justified [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] as a fight against "old and new Nazis". Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister [[Hussein Arnous]] and Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad|Faisal Mikdad]] were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.{{Efn|<ref name="rferl.org"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelensky imposes sanctions against Syrian dictator Bashar Al-Assad, other officials |work=The Kyiv Independent |url=https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318134326/https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Decree of the President of Ukraine No. 163/2023 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319043836/https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=Office of the President of Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelenskyy introduces sanctions against Syria's Assad |work=[[Anadolu Agency]] |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318212055/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab">{{Cite news |date=19 March 2023 |title=Ukraine's Zelensky imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad, other officials |work=[[The New Arab]] |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320201806/https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-date=20 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Ukraine sanctions Syrian dictator Assad, hundreds of other individuals and entities |work=TVP World |url=https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319121913/https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>}} Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all official Ukrainian awards.<ref name="The New Arab"/> Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July, citing the [[Reciprocity (international relations)|principle of reciprocity]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2022 |title=Syria, a close Russia ally, breaks diplomatic ties with Ukraine |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/syria-formally-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-ukraine}}</ref> [[File:Rückschrittskoalition_stoppen_protest_and_protest_against_Assad_in_Berlin_2023-03-18_01_(cropped)3.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Berlin]], 18 March 2023]] In April 2023, a French court declared three high-ranking Ba'athist security officials guilty of [[crimes against humanity]], [[torture]], and various war-crimes against French-Syrian citizens. These included [[Ali Mamlouk]], director of [[National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|National Security Bureau of Syrian Ba'ath party]] and [[Jamil Hassan]], former head of the [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 April 2023 |title=France to try senior Assad allies for crimes against humanity in Syria |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405004515/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2023 |title=France to try Syrian regime officials for crimes against humanity |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415214212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=15 April 2023}}</ref> France had issued [[international arrest warrant]]s against the three officers over the case in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jarry |first=Emmanuel |date=5 November 2018 |title=France issues arrest warrants for senior Syrian officials |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162922/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-date=6 April 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, [[French Foreign Minister]] Catherine Colonna publicly demanded the prosecution of Bashar al-Assad for engaging in [[Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|chemical warfare]] and killing [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|hundreds of thousands of people]]; branding him as "the enemy of his own people".<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=Syria's Assad should be put on trial, says French foreign minister |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524023150/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=French minister demands Assad trial |work=Daily Tribune |url=https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524013433/https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref> On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad for use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Left-wing ==== [[File:Madrid - Acampada Sol 2011 39.JPG|thumb|Billboards of the [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|Spanish Indignados Movement]] with denouncements of Bashar al-Assad's crackdown against [[Syrian revolution]] in [[Puerta del Sol]] square, [[Madrid]] (29 May 2011)]] Bashar al-Assad is widely criticised by left-wing activists and intellectuals world-wide for appropriating leftist ideologies and its [[socialist]], [[Progressivism|progressive]] slogans as a cover for his own family rule and to empower a loyalist clique of elites at the expense of ordinary Syrians. His close alliance with clergy-ruled [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] [[Iran]] and its sectarian militant networks; while simultaneously pursuing a policy of locking up left-wing critics of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] has been subject to heavy criticism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harkin |first=Juliette |date=1 May 2018 |title='Assadism' Is Destroying Syria – Here's Where It Came From |url=https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410213629/https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-date=10 April 2021 |website=The Wire}}</ref> The [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region|Egyptian branch]] of the [[Iraqi Ba'ath movement]] has declared its strong support to the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian revolution]]; denouncing Ba'athist Syria as a repressive dictatorship controlled by the "Assad gang". It has attacked Assad family's Ba'athist credentials, accusing the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath party]] of acting as the borderguards of [[Israel]] ever since its overthrowal of the [[National Command of the Ba'ath Party|Ba'athist National Command]] during the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966 coup d'état]]. Describing Bashar al-Assad as a disgraceful person for inviting hostile powers like [[Iran]] to Syria, Egyptian Ba'athists have urged the [[Free Syrian Army|Syrian revolutionaries]] to unite in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime and resist foreign imperialism.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2013 |title=The statement of the Arab Baath Socialist Party of Egyptian on the aggression against Syria |url=http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216203242/http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-date=16 December 2014 |access-date=30 July 2018 |newspaper=Aladhwaa}}</ref> Describing Assad's regime as a [[mafia state]] that thrives on corruption and sectarianism, [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] socialist academic [[Gilbert Achcar]] stated: <blockquote>"Bashar Assad's cousin became the richest man in the country, controlling – it is widely believed – over half of the economy. And that's only one member of the ruling clan... The clan functions as a real mafia, and has been ruling the country for several decades. This constitutes the deep root of the explosion, in combination with the fact that the Syrian regime is one of the most despotic in the region. Compared to Assad's Syria, [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak's Egypt]] was a beacon of democracy and political freedom!... What is specific to this regime is that Assad's father has reshaped and reconstructed the state apparatus, especially its hard nucleus – the armed forces – in order to create a Pretorian guard for itself. The army, especially its elite forces, is tied to the regime itself in various ways, most prominently through the use of sectarianism. Even people who had never heard of Syria before know now that the regime is based on one minority in the country – about 10% of the population; the [[Alawites]]."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Achcar |first=Gilbert |date=8 October 2013 |title=Syria between Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions |url=https://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and?lang=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602233849/http://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and |archive-date=2 June 2016 |website=CETRI}}</ref></blockquote>The [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP) in Lebanon has taken an anti-Assad stance and organised mass-protests in support of the Syrian revolution. In August 2012, PSP publicly denounced the Assad government as a "killing machine" engaged in slaughtering Syrian people. PSP leader Ayman Kamaleddine demanded the expulsion of the Syrian ambassador from Lebanon, describing him as "the representative of the murderer regime in Lebanon".<ref name=":1" /> === International support === ==== Far-right ==== Bashar al-Assad's regime has received support from prominent [[white nationalist]], [[neo-Nazi]] and [[far-right]] figures in Europe, who were attracted by his "[[war on terror]]" discourse against [[Islamists]] during the period of [[European refugee crisis]]. Assad's bombings of Syrian cities are admired in the [[Islamophobic]] discourse of far-right circles, which considers Muslims as a civilizational enemy. American [[White-supremacists|white supremacists]] often praise Assad as an authoritarian bulwark against what they view as the forces of "Islamic extremism" and [[Globalist (epithet)|globalism]]; and several pro-Assad slogans were chanted in the neo-Nazi [[Unite the Right rally]] held in [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]] in 2017.{{Efn|sources: * {{Cite news |last=Elba |first=Mariam |date=8 September 2017 |title=Mariam Elba |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-date=5 October 2017}} * {{Cite news |last=Strickland |first=Patrick |date=14 February 2018 |title=Why do Italian fascists adore Syria's Bashar al-Assad? |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105164955/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=5 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Snell |first=James |date=17 August 2017 |title=Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=27 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Ayoub |first=Joey |date=3 October 2022 |title=How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-date=20 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |date=3 November 2022 |title=Western Far-right Worries Syrians and Delights Bashar al-Assad |work=The Syrian Observer |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015933/https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-date=3 November 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Huetlin |first=Josephine |date=28 March 2018 |title=The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=16 November 2022}}}}<ref name="Assad_far_right">{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |publisher=Middle East Eye |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> [[Nick Griffin]], the former leader of the [[British National Party]] (BNP), was formerly an official ambassador and guest of the Syrian government;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/mobile/1.629501 |title=Disgraced U.K. politician's visit to Syria raises eyebrows back home |work=Haaretz |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> due to public controversy, the Assad government publicly disassociated itself from him after his trip to Syria in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020 |access-date=6 December 2014 |publisher=Middle East Eye |quote=...the Syrian government attempted to distance themselves from Nick Griffin last time he visited…}}</ref> ==== Right-wing ==== In 2017, former [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[United States House of Representatives|congresswoman]] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] met with then-president Bashar al-Assad on an unannounced visit to Syria.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's top spy pick, faces fresh scrutiny over Syria and Russia positions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c14l6jpykmjo |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> The visit was the first by a U.S. lawmaker since 2011,<ref>{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard's Trip to Meet Assad |url=https://www.sacouncil.com/aalert_gabbard_assad |website=Syrian American Council |language=en}}</ref> and made under a travel warning issued by the [[United States Department of State]], which continues to warn U.S. citizens against all travel to the country.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=Congresswoman Gabbard makes unannounced trip to Syria |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/congresswoman-gabbard-makes-unannounced-trip-syria |website=PBS News |language=en-us |date=18 January 2017}}</ref> Gabbard did not consult with the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House speaker]] or State Department before meeting with Assad.<ref name=":5" /> The meeting came after Gabbard introduced legislation that would, in her words, "end our country's illegal war to overthrow the Syrian government."<ref name=":5" /> She said that Assad is "a brutal [[dictator]]. Just like [[Saddam Hussein]]. Just like [[Gadhafi]] in Libya. The reason that I’m so outspoken on this issue of ending these wasteful [[United States involvement in regime change|regime-change]] wars is because I have seen firsthand this high human cost of war and the impact that it has on my fellow brothers and sisters in uniform."<ref>{{cite news |title=Tulsi Gabbard: Bashar Assad is 'a brutal dictator' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/01/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-dictator-cnntv/index.html |work=CNN |date=1 August 2019}}</ref> Following her visit to Syria, Gabbard expressed doubts that the Assad regime was behind chemical weapons attacks in Syria.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Manduley |first=Christina |date=8 April 2017 |title=Congresswoman 'skeptical' Assad regime behind gas attack {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/07/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-chemical-weapons-blitzer-cnntv/index.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Gabbard has continued to defend her comments, and in 2019 stated that Assad was "not the enemy of the United States because Syria does not pose a direct threat to the United States".<ref name=":4" /> ==== Left-wing ==== Left-wing support for Assad has been split since the start of the Syrian civil war;{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|pp=11–13}}{{update inline|date=April 2024}} the Assad government has been accused of cynically manipulating [[Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War|sectarian identity]] and [[anti-imperialism]] to continue its worst activities.{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|p=231}} Some heads of state or governments have declared their support for Assad, including North Korean leader [[Kim Jong Un]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/north-korean-leader-offers-support-to-assad/a-16392804|title=North Korean leader offers support to Assad |date= 20 November 2012|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> After declaring victory in the 2014 elections, Assad received congratulations from [[President of Venezuela]] [[Nicolás Maduro]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |title=Venezuela congratulated by Bashar Al Assad in Syrian presidential victory |work=lainfo.es |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811131504/http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |archive-date=11 August 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[President of Algeria]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/news/local/13361-president-assad-receives-congratulations-from-president-bouteflika-on-winning-elections |title=syriatimes.sy – President Assad Receives Congratulations from President Bouteflika on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of Guyana]] [[Donald Ramotar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 June 2014 |title=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of South Africa]] [[Jacob Zuma]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4016 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory cable from South African President Zuma |author=Hazem al-Sabbagh |access-date=20 April 2015|date=23 June 2014 }}</ref> President of [[Nicaragua]] [[Daniel Ortega]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/presidential-elections/13206-nicaragua-s-ortega-congratulates-president-al-assad-on-winning-elections |title=Nicaragua's Ortega Congratulates President Al-Assad on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy}}</ref> and [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the leader of [[Fatah]] and [[President of the State of Palestine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4246 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory letter from President Abbas |author=h.said |access-date=20 April 2015|date=25 June 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |title=Abbas congratulates Al-Assad for re-election as Syrian president |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105225/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |archive-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |title=Abbas says he backs Syria's "war against terrorism" |work=Al Akhbar English |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503220223/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Palestinian [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] militant group [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) supported Assad during the Syrian civil war. As a result of this stance, the Iranian government increased its military and financial funding to the PFLP.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran Increases Aid to PFLP Thanks to Syria Stance |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418132016/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |archive-date=18 April 2015 |access-date=20 April 2015 |work=Al-Monitor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pro-Assad Palestinians call for Yarmouk truce |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/01/201318143633928478.html |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> === International public relations === [[File:Lula Al-Assad Itamaraty 2010.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad wearing the "Grand Collar" of the ''[[National Order of the Southern Cross]]'', accompanied by Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] in [[Brasília]], 30 June 2010]] [[File:Alexander Lukashenko in a meeting with Bashar al-Assad in December 2003 (1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Belarusian president [[Alexander Lukashenko]] alongside Bashar al-Assad during a state-visit to Syria in December 2003]] In order to promote their image and media-portrayal overseas, Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]] hired U.S. and UK based [[Public relations|PR firms]] and consultants.<ref name=turnedtowest>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assads Turned to West for Glossy P.R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully-polished-image-of-assad.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=10 June 2012 |last1=Carter |first1=Bill |last2=Chozick |first2=Amy}}</ref> In particular, these secured photoshoots for Asma al-Assad with fashion and celebrity magazines, including ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''{{'}}s March 2011 "A Rose in the Desert".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/the-only-remaining-online-copy-of-vogues-asma-al-assad-profile/250753/ |title=The Only Remaining Online Copy of Vogue's Asma al-Assad Profile |author=Max Fisher |work=The Atlantic|date=3 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |title=Asma al-Assad: A Rose in the Desert |author=Joan Juliet Buck |work=Gawker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604013456/http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> These firms included [[Bell Pottinger]] and [[Brown Lloyd James]], with the latter being paid $5,000 a month for their services.<ref name=turnedtowest/><ref name=PRcomeback/> At the outset of the Syrian civil war, Syrian government networks were hacked by the group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], revealing that an ex-[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] journalist had been hired to advise Assad on how to manipulate the public opinion of the U.S. Among the advice was the suggestion to compare the popular uprising against the regime to the [[Occupy Wall Street]] protests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anonymous exposes e-mails of Syrian presidential aides |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/02/anonymous-hackers-expose-emails-of-syrian-presidential-aides/ |website=Ars Technica |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015 |last=Gallagher |first=Sean}}</ref> In a separate email leak several months later by the [[Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution]], which were published by ''[[The Guardian]]'', it was revealed that Assad's consultants had coordinated with an Iranian government media advisor.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/14/assad-emails-lift-lid-inner-circle |title=Exclusive: secret Assad emails lift lid on life of leader's inner circle |first1=Robert |last1=Booth |first2=Mona |last2=Mahmood |first3=Luke |last3=Harding |work=The Guardian |quote=Before a speech in December his media consultant prepared a long list of themes, reporting that the advice was based on "consultations with a good number of people in addition to the media and political adviser for the Iranian ambassador". |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In March 2015, an expanded version of the aforementioned leaks was handed to the Lebanese ''[[NOW News]]'' website and published the following month.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |last=Rowell |first=Alex |title=International relations |publisher=NOW News |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=23 May 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022091657/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the Syrian civil war began, the Assads started a [[social media]] campaign which included building a presence on Facebook, YouTube, and most notably [[Instagram]].<ref name="PRcomeback">{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/2013/09/14/Assad-makes-PR-comeback-targets-American-psyche-.html |title=Assad makes PR comeback, targets 'American psyche' |first=Mustapha |last=Ajbaili |publisher=Al Arabiya |quote=Assad's regime also activated its YouTube channel and multiple Facebook accounts. |date=14 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> A Twitter account for Assad was reportedly activated; however, it remained unverified.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/30/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-joined-instagram-here-are-his-first-photos/ |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad joined Instagram. Here are his first photos. |first=Caitlin |last=Dewey |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=30 July 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> This resulted in much criticism, and was described by ''[[The Atlantic Wire]]'' as "a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the [Assad] family look worse".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |title=The Failed Public Relations Campaign of Bashar al Assad's Family |first=Allie |last=Jones |work=The Wire |quote=a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the family look worse |date=30 August 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308212143/http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Assad government has also allegedly arrested activists for creating Facebook groups that the government disapproved of,<ref name=Dissent2014/> and has appealed directly to Twitter to remove accounts it disliked.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/series/assad-emails-the-documents |title=Assad emails: 'Fares closed all your Twitter accounts' |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> The social media campaign, as well as the previously leaked emails, led to comparisons with [[Hannah Arendt]]'s ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem|A Report on the Banality of Evil]]'' by ''The Guardian'', ''The New York Times'' and the ''Financial Times''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/syrian-presidency-instagram-banality-evil |title=The Syrian presidency's Instagram account shows the banality of evil |first=Johnathan |last=Jones |work=The Guardian |date=6 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/15/syrias-first-couple-and-the-banality-of-e-mail/ |title=Syria's First Couple and the Banality of E-Mail |first1=Robert |last1=Mackey |work=The New York Times |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Assad: faithful student of ruthlessness |first1=Roula |last1=Khalaf |work=Financial Times |date=18 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In October 2014, 27,000 photographs depicting torture committed by the Assad government were put on display at the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bashar-al-assad-s-syrian-torture-chambers-205323124.html |title=Inside Bashar Assad's Torture Chambers |first1=Michael Abdel |last1=Isikoff |work=Yahoo News |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=Photos Presented to the House Foreign Affairs Committee by 'Caesar' at Briefing on 'Assad's Killing Machine Exposed: Implications for U.S. Policy'|publisher=House Committee on Foreign Affairs |date=30 July 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314211352/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archive-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> Lawyers were hired to write a report on the images by the British law firm [[Carter-Ruck]], which in turn was funded by the [[Government of Qatar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |title=Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime |author1=Mick Krever |author2=Schams Elwazer|date=20 January 2014 |work=CNN|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[File:دیدار بشار اسد با سید علی خامنه‌ای، ۱۰ مهر ۱۳۸۹ (04).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in Tehran, Iran, 2010]] In November 2014, the [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam Foundation]] reported that a propaganda campaign, which they claimed had the "full backing of Assad", spread false reports about the deaths of Western-born jihadists in order to deflect attention from the government's alleged war crimes. Using a picture of a Chechen fighter from the [[Second Chechen War]], pro-Assad media reports disseminated to Western media outlets, leading them to publish a false story regarding the death of a non-existent British jihadist.<ref name="Simpson 2014">{{cite news | last=Simpson | first=John | title=Assad's allies invent British jihadi death | website=The Times | date=6 November 2014 | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/assads-allies-invent-british-jihadi-death-0fstqsrn2zl | access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref> In 2015, [[Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war]] in support of Assad, and on 21 October 2015, Assad flew to Moscow and met with Russian president Vladimir Putin, who said regarding the civil war: "this decision can be made only by the Syrian people. Syria is a friendly country. And we are ready to support it not only militarily but politically as well."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/syria-assad-met-russia-putin-moscow-151021064340109.html |title=Syria's Assad in surprise visit to Moscow |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> == Personal life == [[File:Bashar and Asma al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]]]] Assad speaks fluent English and basic conversational French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyah school in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/04/how-bashar-al-assad-became-so-hated/275058/ |title=How Bashar al-Assad Became So Hated |first1=Majid |last1=Rafizadeh |date=17 April 2013 |access-date=14 March 2015 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref> In December 2000, Assad married [[Asma al-Assad|Asma Akhras]], a British citizen of Syrian origin from [[Acton, London]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1630134.stm |work=BBC News |title=The road to Damascus (all the way from Acton) |date=31 October 2001 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |title=Syria factfile: Key figures |date=24 February 2003 |access-date=14 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2001, Asma gave birth to their first child, a son named [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] after the child's grandfather Hafez al-Assad. Bashar al-Assad's son Hafez graduated from [[Moscow State University]] in the summer of 2023 with a master's thesis in number theory.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Сын Башара Асада с отличием окончил МГУ |url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/29/06/2023/649dd3249a79470f8edd25b2 |website=Rbc.ru |language=ru}}</ref> Their daughter Zein was born in 2003, followed by their second son Karim in 2004.<ref name=New_Republic_2013/> In January 2013, Assad stated in an interview that his wife was pregnant.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=28 January 2013|title=Syria's Bashar al-Assad says his wife is pregnant|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/01/28/syrias-bashar-al-assad-says-his-wife-is-pregnant/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Black|first=Ian|date=29 January 2013|title=Bashar al-Assad's wife Asma 'pregnant with fourth child'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/29/bashar-al-assad-wife-asma-pregnant|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> Bashar al-Assad is an [[Alawites|Alawite]] Muslim.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baltacioglu-Brammer |first1=Ayse |title=Alawites and the Fate of Syria |journal=Current Events in Historical Perspective |date=January 2014 |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=2 |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/alawites-and-fate-syria |access-date=30 September 2021 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> Bashar performed the ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrimage twice, in 1999 and in 2000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cpjrIcHoQkC&pg=PA67 |title=Middle Eastern Societies and the West: Accommodation of Clash of Civilizations? |date=2006 |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |isbn=978-965-224-073-6 |language=en}}</ref> Assad's sister, [[Bushra al-Assad]], and mother, [[Anisa Makhlouf]], left Syria in 2012 and 2013, respectively, to live in the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="New_Republic_2013">{{cite magazine |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114630/bashar-al-assad-syria-family-guide |title=Think Bashar al Assad Is Brutal? Meet His Family |last1=Dwyer |first1=Mimi |magazine=The New Republic |date=8 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> Makhlouf died in [[Damascus]] in 2016.<ref name=aje>{{cite news |title=Syrian president's mother Anissa Assad dies aged 86 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/02/syrian-president-mother-anissa-assad-dies-aged-86-160206210505879.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=6 February 2016 |access-date=2 March 2016}}</ref> ==Awards and honours== {{color box|#f99}} Revoked and returned awards and honours. {{Clear}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;" |- ! style="width:90px;" | Ribbon ! style="width:250px;" | Distinction ! style="width:120px;" | Country ! style="width:100px;" | Date ! style="width:100px;" | Location ! style="width:250px;" | Notes ! Reference |- | [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Grand Cross of the National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|France}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 25 June 2001 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Paris]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest rank in the Order of the Legion of Honor in the Republic of France. Returned by Assad on 20 April 2018<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/20/world/europe/assad-france-legion-of-honor.html |title = A French Honor Not Always for the Honorable; Assad Returns His|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 20 April 2018|last1 = Pérez-Peña|first1 = Richard}}</ref> after the opening of a revocation process by the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], on 16 April 2018. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2018/04/16/la-france-engage-la-procedure-pour-retirer-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-bachar-al-assad_5286264_823448.html |title=La France engage la procédure pour retirer sa Légion d'honneur à Bachar Al-Assad |publisher=Le Monde |language=fr |date=16 April 2018|newspaper=Le Monde.fr }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.leparisien.fr/politique/bachar-al-assad-rend-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-la-france-esclave-des-etats-unis-19-04-2018-7673658.php |title=Bachar al-Assad rend sa Légion d'honneur à la France, "esclave des Etats-Unis" |newspaper=Le Parisien |language=fr |date=19 April 2018}}</ref> |- | [[File:Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise 1st 2nd and 3rd Class of Ukraine.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Ukraine}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 April 2002 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Kyiv]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Revoked on 18 March 2023, as part of sanctions issued by [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] which revoked all previous Ukrainian state awards to members of the Assad government.<ref name="The New Arab"/> | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="rada">{{cite web |url=http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/362/2002 |title=Про нагородження орденом князя Ярослава Мудрого – від 20 April 2002 № 362/2002 |publisher=rada.gov.ua}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab"/> |- | [[File:Reale ordine di francesco I.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Knight]] [[Grand Cross]] of the [[Royal Order of Francis I]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Two Sicilies}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 March 2004 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Dynastic order of knighthood|Dynastic order]] of the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]; Revoked several years later{{When|date=July 2024|reason=This is wildly unclear}} by [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro]]. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_1">{{cite news |url=http://www.mediafaxfoto.ro/Preview.aspx?Id=256111 |title=SYRIA-ASSAD-BOURBON |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=mediafaxfoto.ro |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=ro}}</ref><ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_2">{{cite news |url=http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-presents-prince-carlo-of-news-photo/181414500 |title=181414500 |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=[[Getty Images]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of Zayed.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Zayed]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 May 2008 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Abu Dhabi]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest civil decoration in the United Arab Emirates. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.alwatanvoice.com/arabic/news/2008/06/01/129056.html |script-title=ar:رئيس دولة الامارات يقلد الرئيس السوري وسام زايد تعبيرا عن عمق العلاقات التي تربط البلدين|publisher=Al Watan Voice |date=1 June 2008 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:FIN Order of the White Rose Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Finland}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 5 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | One of three [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Finland|official orders in Finland]]. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/kotimaa/IS-Syyrian-sotarikoksista-syytetyll%C3%A4-presidentill%C3%A4-Suomen-korkein-kunniamerkki/427627 |title=Syyrian sotarikoksista syytetyllä presidentillä Suomen korkein kunniamerkki |publisher=savonsanomat.fi |date=20 October 2013 |access-date=25 October 2016 |language=fi}}</ref> |- | [[File:Spange des König-Abdulaziz-Ordens.png|85px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of King Abdulaziz]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 8 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Saudi state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://thawra.sy/_print_veiw.asp?FileName=63107819420091008022531 |script-title=ar:القمــــــــــة الســـــــــورية الســـــــــعودية... الرئيس الأسد وخادم الحرمين الشريفين يبحثان آفاق التعاون ويتبادلان أرفع وسامين وطنيين.. تعزيز العمل العربي المشترك – رفع الحصار عن الفلسطينيين|publisher=Al Thawra |date=8 October 2009 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:ITA OMRI 2001 GC-GCord BAR.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Knight Grand Cross with [[Collar (order)|Collar]] of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Italy}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 11 March 2010 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest ranking honour of the Republic of Italy. Revoked by the [[President of Italy|President of the Republic]], [[Giorgio Napolitano]], on 28 September 2012 for "indignity". | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Dettaglio decorato: Al-Assad S.E. Bashar Decorato di Gran Cordone |publisher=quirinale.it |url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=311336 |date=29 June 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |language=it}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 ATTO CAMERA INTERROGAZIONE A RISPOSTA SCRITTA 4/17085] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 |date=18 October 2015 }} Banchedati.camera.it {{in lang|it}}</ref> |- | [[File:VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Venezuela}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 28 June 2010<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/n160308.html |title= Gaceta Oficial 39.454 lunes 28 de junio 2010 |language=es |trans-title= Official Gazette 39.454 Monday 28 June 2010 |date= 28 June 2010 |access-date= 25 October 2023 |publisher= [[Aporrea]]}}</ref> | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Caracas]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Venezuelan state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy |publisher= Human Rights Watch |title= Venezuela: Chávez's Authoritarian Legacy |date= 5 March 2013 |access-date= 25 October 2023}}</ref> |- | [[File:BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Grand Collar of the [[Order of the Southern Cross]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Brazil}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 30 June 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Brasília]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Brazil's highest order of merit. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |title=Diário Oficial da União – Seção |publisher=Superintenência de Seguros Privados |issn=1677-7042 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091010/http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> |- | [[File:LBN National Order of the Cedar - Grand Cordon BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Grand Cordon]] of the [[National Order of the Cedar]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Lebanon}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 July 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Beirut]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Second highest honour of Lebanon. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=President Michel Suleiman hosts Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdel Aziz |url=http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node/3338 |publisher=Marada-news.org |date=31 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080726/http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node%2F3338 |archive-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> |- | [[File:Orden al Mérito IRI.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the Islamic Republic of Iran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Iran}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2 October 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Tehran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest national medal of Iran. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Iran Awards Syrian Leader Highest Medal of Honor |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=1 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052040/http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian President Awarded Iran's Medal of Honor |url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/October/Syrian-President-Awarded-Irans-Medal-of-Honor/ |publisher=[[CBN News]] |date=4 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Лента Ордена Уацамонга.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Uatsamonga Order]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|South Ossetia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2018 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | State award of South Ossetia. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian president Bashar al-Assad to visit South Ossetia|url=https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |publisher=OC Media|date=31 July 2018 |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804000533/https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |archive-date=4 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> |} ==See also== {{Portal|Middle East|Biography|Politics}} * [[List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad]] * [[Presidency of Hafez al-Assad]] * [[Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad]] == Explanatory notes == {{Notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === General and cited references === {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |title=Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-202-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/killingmrlebanon00blan }} * {{Cite book |last=Bronner |first=Stephen Eric |title=Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation |url=https://archive.org/details/peaceoutofreachm0000bron |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8131-2446-9 }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Hashemi |editor1-first=Nader |editor2-last=Postel |editor2-first=Danny |title=The Syria Dilemma |url=https://archive.org/details/syriadilemma0000unse |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-262-02683-3 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Steven |last2=Leenders |first2=Reinoud |title=Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8047-9333-9 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Leverett |first=Flynt L. |title=Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8157-5204-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/inheritingsyria00flyn }} * {{Cite book |last=Lesch |first=David W. |title=Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad |url=https://archive.org/details/syriafallofhouse0000lesc |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-18651-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mammone |editor1-first=Andrea |editor2-last=Godin |editor2-first=Emmanuel |editor3-last=Jenkins |editor3-first=Brian |date=2012 |title=Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-50265-8 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ma'oz |first1=Moshe |last2=Ginat |first2=Joseph |last3=Winckler |first3=Onn |title=Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsyriafromo0000unse |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-898723-83-4 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mikaberidze |editor1-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59884-925-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A–C |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofst0002mina |year=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-32109-2 }} * {{Cite book |last=Moosa |first=Matti |title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8156-2411-0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pierret |first=Thomas |title=Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/religionstateins0000pier |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-60990-7 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Sadiki |first=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Seale |first1=Patrick |last2=McConville |first2=Maureen |title=Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-06976-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal }} * {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |edition= |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0003unse_x7p5 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85109-841-5 }} * {{Cite book |last=Zisser |first=Eyal |title=Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power |url=https://archive.org/details/commandingsyriab0000zise |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-153-3 }} {{refend}} == Further reading == * {{Cite book |last=Abboud |first=Samer |title=Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics) |url=https://archive.org/details/syria0000abbo |publisher=Polity |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7456-9797-0|ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Belhadj |first=Souhaïl |date=2013 |title=La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire |trans-title=Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime |language=fr |publisher=Belin |isbn=978-2-7011-6467-0|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hinnebusch |first1=Raymond |title=Syria: Revolution From Above |url=https://archive.org/details/syriarevolutionf0000hinn |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-28568-1|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Perthes |first1=Volker |title=Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change |url=https://archive.org/details/syriaunderbashar0000pert |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-856750-9|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Tabler |first=Andrew |title=In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria |publisher=Zephyr Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-56976-843-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl |ref=none}} '''Reports''' * {{Cite report |author=Yossi Baidatz |date=August 2001 |title=Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |asin=B0006RVLNM |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095843/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite report |author=Annette Büchs |date=March 2009 |title=The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies |docket=97 |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009210705/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |url-status=dead }} '''Articles''' * {{cite web |url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0304_s2.htm |first=Ziad K. |last=Abdelnour |title=Syria's Proxy Forces in Iraq |publisher=[[Al-Hayat]] |date=12 April 2003|ref=none}} * {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm |title=Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 March 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/article/730 |first=William |last=Harris |title=Bashar al-Assad's Lebanon Gamble |journal=[[Middle East Quarterly]] |date=Summer 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |first=Esther |last=Pan |title=Syria's Leaders |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=10 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |archive-date=19 July 2006 |ref=none |access-date=12 December 2024}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894 |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=31 January 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html |title=Profile: Bashar al-Assad |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |date=25 March 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118094013/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-date=18 November 2016 |url-status=live |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Rose |last=Rose |title=Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=9 September 2013 |ref=none |access-date=5 November 2016 }} ==External links== {{sister project links|c=Category: Bashar al-Assad|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} * {{Official website|sana.sy/en/}} ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811101337/http://www.sana.sy/eng/article/123.htm Biography] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042116/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=13&newlang=eng Decrees] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042110/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=11&newlang=eng Speeches] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529041500/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=12&newlang=eng Interviews] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042829/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=10&newlang=eng Press releases] * {{C-SPAN|93150}} * {{Guardian topic}} * {{NYTtopic|people/a/bashar_al_assad}} * {{IMDb name|1519747}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] <br /><small>Acting</small>}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of Syria]] | years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Hafez al-Assad]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Secretary of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Regional Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]|years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-end}} {{Presidents of Syria}} {{Ba'ath Party}} {{Syria topics}} {{Arab Spring}} {{Syrian Civil War}} {{Arab nationalism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assad, Bashar Al-}} [[Category:Bashar al-Assad| ]] [[Category:1965 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century presidents in Asia]] [[Category:20th-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:Presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Anti-Americanism]] [[Category:Anti-Zionism in the Arab world]] [[Category:Al-Assad family|Bashar Al]] [[Category:Ba'athism]] [[Category:Children of presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Damascus University alumni]] [[Category:Exiled politicians]] [[Category:Far-left politics in Asia]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted by France]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on war crimes charges]] [[Category:Grand Cordons of the National Order of the Cedar]] [[Category:Holocaust deniers]] [[Category:Homs Military Academy alumni]] [[Category:Leaders of political parties]] [[Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)]] [[Category:Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region]] [[Category:Muslim socialists]] [[Category:People of the Syrian civil war]] [[Category:People stripped of honorary degrees]] [[Category:Politicians from Damascus]] [[Category:Politicide perpetrators]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class]] [[Category:Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List]] [[Category:Syrian Alawites]] [[Category:Syrian Arab nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian exiles]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in Russia]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Syrian mass murderers]] [[Category:Syrian nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian male writers]] [[Category:Syrian male boxers]] [[Category:Syrian ophthalmologists]] [[Category:Totalitarianism]] 4zie6giyilqegym97taayg26yznq4hh 0 46824 124360 123730 2026-11-10T14:18:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124360 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Uchanda wa moyo''' uli na ng'anamulo zinandi izo zagwiliskirika ntchito pa vilato vyakupambana mu nyengo zakupambana, ndipo ni ghanoghano ilo lili na vigaŵa vinandi. Kanandi ukung'anamula umoyo uwemi wa thupi na wa mtima. Uchanda uwemi ukukolerana na kugwira ntchito makola kwa thupi la munthu pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura nthenda, kupweteka (kusazgapo kupweteka kwa mahara), panji vilonda. Uchanda ungakhozgeka mwa kukhumbiska vyakucita viwemi, nga ni kucita maseŵero gha thupi nyengo zose na kugona kwakukwana, na mwa kucepeska panji kuleka vyakucita viheni, nga ni kukweŵa fodya panji kuŵa na njuŵi comene. Uchanda ukukhwaskika na vyakusankha vya munthu, nga ni nkhalo ya ngozi, kweniso na umo wupu wa ŵanthu ukunozgekera, nga ni kupambanyizga ŵanthu pa mtundu mu ucizgi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti wupu wa ŵanthu wanozgeka mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufikira ucizgi panji kucita vyakukhozga uchanda mwakupepuka, ndipo ŵanyake mwakusuzga. Uchanda ungakhwaskika so na vinthu vya mu thupi nga ni nthenda zakuharika. == Kagwiliskiro ka Lizgu == Vyakucita vyandondomeko vya kuvikilira panji kucizga masuzgo gha umoyo na kukhozga uchanda uwemi mwa ŵanthu vikucitika na ŵantchito ŵa ucizgi, nga ni pa kupima nthenda panji kulemba mankhwala, apo uchanda wa vinyama ukupwelelereka na kasandiro ka ucizgi wa vinyama. Lizgu lakuti "wa uchanda uwemi" likugwiliskirika ntchito so comene pa mawupu ghambura umoyo na pa ivyo ghakucitira ŵanthu, nga ni mu ng'anamulo la mizi ya uchanda uwemi, misumba ya uchanda uwemi, panji malo ghakuzingilizga gha uchanda uwemi. Kupatula ucizgi na malo agho munthu wakukhala, vinthu vinyake vinandi vikumanyikwa kukhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ivi vikuchemeka "vyakusimikizga uchanda", ndipo vikusazgapo kuŵa wanalume panji wanakazi, mtundu, nkhalo, na vyacuma vya munthu. Kusanda kwalongora kuti kufipa mtima kukulu kungakhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu. == Mbiri == Ng'anamulo la uchanda lasintha mu nyengo. Kuyana na kalaŵiskiro ka kasandiro ka thupi, ng'anamulo zakwamba za uchanda zikalaŵiskanga nkhongono ya thupi kugwira ntchito; uchanda ukawonekanga nga ni kugwira ntchito makola uko kungasokonezgeka nyengo zinyake na nthenda. Ciyelezgero ca ng'anamulo lantheura ni: "kuŵa makola kwa thupi, umo likugwilira ntchito, na mahara; nkhongono ya kucita ntchito zakuzirwa mu mbumba, pa ntchito, na mu muzi; nkhongono ya kuzizipizga kufipa mtima kwa thupi, kwa mahara, na kwa ubale na ŵanthu". Pamanyuma, mu 1948, mwakupambana comene na ng'anamulo za kale, Wupu wa Uchanda wa Caro Cose (WHO) ukasacizga ng'anamulo lapacanya, ilo likakoleranya uchanda na umoyo uwemi, nga ni "umoyo uwemi wa thupi, wa mahara, na wa ubale na ŵanthu, kwambura kuŵa waka kusoŵa kwa nthenda na kutomboroka". Nangauli ng'anamulo ili likapokereka makola na ŵanyake nga ni liphya, likasuskika so kuti ndambura kulunjika, ndikulu comene, ndipo ndambura kupimika. Kwa nyengo yitali likasiyika nga ni ghanoghano lambura kufiskika, ndipo mphindano zinandi za uchanda zikawelera ku ciyelezgero ca kasandiro ka thupi. Nga umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira kuwona nthenda kufuma ku kuŵa cakucitika cimoza kuya ku kuŵa ndondomeko, ndimo zikasinthira ng'anamulo za uchanda. WHO yikalongozga so apo yikakhozga kukura kwa ndondomeko ya kukhozga uchanda mu ma 1980. Ici cikiziska ghanoghano liphya la uchanda, kwambura kuŵa cakucitika cimoza, kweni nkhongono ya kuzizipizga na kuwelera, mu mazgo ghanyake, "cuma ca kukhalira umoyo". Mu 1984, WHO yikasintha ng'anamulo la uchanda kuŵa "umo munthu panji gulu lingafiskira ivyo likukhumba, kukwaniska vyakukhumbikwa vyake, na kusintha panji kuzizipizga malo ghake. Uchanda ni cuma ca umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura kuŵa cilato ca umoyo; ni ghanoghano liwemi, ilo likulaŵiska vyuma vya ŵanthu na vya munthu, na nkhongono za thupi." Ntheura, uchanda ukang'anamulanga nkhongono ya kusunga thupi kuŵa makola na kuwelera pamanyuma pa vyakucitika viheni. Uchanda wa mahara, wa vinjeru, wa mtima, na wa ubale ukang'anamulanga nkhongono ya munthu kuzizipizga kufipa mtima, kusambira luso, na kusunga ubale, ivyo vyose ni vyuma vya kuzizipizga na kujikhalira. Ici cikujula nthowa zinandi za kusambizga, kukhozga, na kusambira uchanda. Kufuma pakumalira kwa ma 1970, ndondomeko ya Healthy People ya ulongozgi wa United States yaŵa cigaŵa cikulu ca umo United States yikukhozgera uchanda wa ŵanthu. Vyaka khumi vyaliwose, ndondomeko yiphya ya Healthy People yikufumiskika, na vilato viphya na vyakufiska vyakupimika pa kukhozga uchanda mu vyaka khumi vyakulondezga, ndipo pakumalira pakupendeka usange pali kuluta panthazi panji yayi. Kuluta panthazi kwaŵa kucoko pa vilato vinandi, ndipo ici capangiska ŵanthu kukayikira usange Healthy People yikugwira ntchito makola mu ndondomeko ya uchanda ya U.S. yambura kukolerana. Healthy People 2020 yikulaŵiska comene kukhozga uchanda na kuvikilira, ndipo yikusazgapo kuzirwa kwa kumazga vyakusimikizga uchanda vya mu wupu wa ŵanthu. Nthowa yiphya ya pa intaneti yikupepuska kagwiliskiro na kuthandazgika m'malo mwa mabuku ghakulu ghakudindika gha kale. Vyakufumapo vya kusintha uku vizamumanyikwa mu vyaka vyakwiza. Kufuma pa kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, uchanda wawonekera comene nga ni udindo wa munthu yumoza, apo luso la kukhozga uchanda lakura. Uchanda ungang'anamulika nga ni nkhongono, ndipo kujipenda kwa munthu kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca kupima umo ntchito za kukhozga uchanda zikwendera. Ici cikapeleka so mwaŵi ku munthu waliyose kujipulika wa uchanda uwemi, nanga ni apo wali na nthenda zinandi za nyengo yitali panji nthenda yambura kucizgika, na kupenda so vyakusimikizga uchanda (kufuma ku nthowa ya kale iyo yikulaŵiska kucepeska nthenda pera). == Vyakusimikizga Uchanda == Malo agho munthu wakukhalira ghangakhwaska uchanda wake na umo umoyo wake uliri. Ŵanandi ŵakuti uchanda ukusungika na kukhozgeka kwizira mu kuluta panthazi na kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka uchanda pera yayi, kweni so kwizira mu ntchito na vyakusankha vya nkhalo vya munthu na wupu wa ŵanthu. Kuyana na WHO, vyakusimikizga uchanda vikulu ni malo gha ŵanthu na gha vyacuma, malo gha thupi, na vimanyikwiro na nkhalo za munthu. Kufumba maghanoghano gha ŵanthu kukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwona kufikira ucizgi, kusambizga za uchanda, na malo gha muzi nga ni vyakusimikizga vikulu comene vya uchanda uwemi. Kusanda kunandi na malipoti kufuma ku mawupu ghakupambana ghakupenda ubale pakati pa uchanda na vinthu vyakupambana, kusazgapo nkhalo, malo, kanozgero ka ucizgi, na ndondomeko za uchanda. Ndondomeko yimoza ya uchanda iyo yanjizgika mu vyaro vinandi mu vyaka vya sonosono ni msonkho wa shuga. Msonkho wa vyakumwa ukaŵako apo ŵanthu ŵakafipa mtima comene na kututuŵa, comene mwa ŵacoko. Vyakumwa vya shuga vyaŵa cilato ca ntchito za kucepeska kututuŵa, cifukwa ukaboni ukusazgikira wa ubale wawo na kututuŵa. Viyelezgero vinyake ni lipoti la Lalonde la 1974 la ku Canada; kusanda kwa Alameda County ku California; na malipoti gha WHO gha uchanda wa caro cose, agho ghakulaŵiska nkhani za uchanda wa caro cose kusazgapo kufikira ucizgi na kukhozga uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, comene mu vyaro vyakukura. Ghanoghano la "cigaŵa ca uchanda", lakupambana na ucizgi, likafuma ku lipoti la Lalonde la ku Canada. Lipoti ili likalongora vigaŵa vitatu vyakukolerana nga ni vyakusimikizga vikulu vya uchanda wa munthu. Ni ivi: * Vya thupi: vigaŵa vyose vya uchanda, vya thupi na vya mahara, ivyo vikukura mu thupi la munthu kuyana na vyakuhara. * Vya malo: nkhani zose za uchanda za kuwaro kwa thupi la munthu, izo munthu wakuzilaŵilira pacoko panji yayi; * Vya nkhalo: vyakusankha vyose vya munthu (ivyo munthu wakuvilaŵilira) ivyo vingovwira panji kwiziska ulwari panji nyifwa; Kusunga na kukhozga uchanda kukufiskika kwizira mu kusazga kwakupambana kwa umoyo uwemi wa thupi, wa mahara, na wa ubale, kusazga uko nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka "makona ghatatu gha uchanda". Kalata ya Ottawa ya WHO ya 1986 ya Kukhozga Uchanda yikayowoya so kuti uchanda ni cakucitika pera yayi, kweni so "cuma ca umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura kuŵa cilato ca umoyo. Uchanda ni ghanoghano liwemi ilo likulaŵiska vyuma vya ŵanthu na vya munthu, na nkhongono za thupi." Kulaŵiska comene nkhalo na ubale wake na uchanda, vyakusangika vya kusanda kwa Alameda County vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵangakhozga uchanda wawo kwizira mu maseŵero gha thupi, kugona kwakukwana, kukhala nyengo mu malo gha kawiro, kusunga kuzitika kwiwemi kwa thupi, kucepeska kumwa moŵa, na kuleka kukweŵa fodya. Uchanda na ulwari vingaŵako pamoza, cifukwa nanga ni ŵanthu ŵa nthenda zinandi za nyengo yitali panji nthenda zambura kucizgika ŵangajiwona kuŵa ŵa uchanda uwemi. Malo ghakuzingilizga kanandi ghakuyowoyeka nga ni cinthu cakuzirwa ico cikukhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ici cikusazgapo vimanyikwiro vya malo gha kawiro, malo ghakuzengeka, na malo gha ubale na ŵanthu. Vinthu nga ni maji na mphepo zakutowa, nyumba zakukwana, na mizi na misewu yakuvikilirika vyasangika kuti vikovwira uchanda uwemi, comene uchanda wa ŵana ŵacoko na ŵana. Kusanda kunyake kwalongora kuti kusoŵa kwa malo gha kupumulira mu muzi, kusazgapo malo gha kawiro, kukupangiska kusoŵa kukondwa na kututuŵa kukulu, ivyo vikukolerana na uchanda uheni. Kwalongoreka kuti kukhala nyengo yinandi mu malo gha kawiro kukukolerana na uchanda uwemi uwo ŵanthu ŵakujiyowoyera, ntheura uwemi wa malo gha kawiro mu misumba ukwenera kulaŵiskika mu ndondomeko za ulongozgi na kagwiliskiro ka malo. Vyakuhara, panji vimanyikwiro vyakuharika kufuma ku ŵapapi, navyo vikugwira ntchito pa kusimikizga uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ici cingasazgapo kuŵa pa ngozi ya nthenda zinyake, kweniso nkhalo izo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu mbumba zawo. Mwaciyelezgero, vyakuhara vingakhwaska umo ŵanthu ŵakuzizipizgira kufipa mtima, kwa mahara, kwa mtima, panji kwa thupi. Kututuŵa ni suzgo likulu mu United States ilo likovwira uchanda uheni wa mahara na kufipa mtima kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi. Suzgo limoza ni mphindano pa nkhongono ya vyakuhara kuyaniska na vinthu vinyake; kukolerana pakati pa vyakuhara na malo kungaŵa kwakuzirwa comene. === Masuzgo Agho Ghangaŵako === Masuzgo ghanandi gha uchanda ghali pa caro cose. Nthenda ni limoza mwa masuzgo ghanandi comene. Kuyana na GlobalIssues.org, ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 36 ŵakufwa caka ciliconse na nthenda zambura kuyambukira, kusazgapo nthenda za mtima, kansa, shuga, na nthenda za maphapo za nyengo yitali. Mwa nthenda zakuyambukira, za tubungulu na za mabakiteriya, [[Edesi (AIDS)|Edesi/HIV]], TB, na [[Malungo|malungo]] ndizo zinandi comene, ndipo zikukoma ŵanthu mamiliyoni caka ciliconse. Suzgo linyake la uchanda ilo likukoma panji kovwira masuzgo ghanyake ni kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana, comene mwa ŵana. Ŵana ŵacoko ndiwo ŵakukhwaskika comene. Ŵana pafupifupi miliyoni 7.5 ŵa pasi pa vyaka 5 ŵakufwa na kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana, kanandi cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama za kusanga panji kupanga vyakulya. Vilonda vya thupi navyo ni suzgo la uchanda pa caro cose. Vilonda ivi, kusazgapo kuphwanyika kwa viwanga na kupsa, vingacepeska uwemi wa umoyo wa munthu panji kumukoma, kusazgapo nthenda izo zikufuma ku cilonda. Vyakusankha vya nkhalo vikovwira uchanda uheni kanandi. Ivi vikusazgapo kukweŵa fodya, na so vyakulya viheni, kwali kurya comene panji kurya pacoko comene. Kuleka kucita maseŵero gha thupi nako kungovwira masuzgo gha uchanda, pamoza na kusoŵa tulo, kumwa moŵa comene, na kuleka kupwelelera mino. Pali so nthenda zakuharika izo munthu wakuhara, ndipo zingapambana pa umo zikukhwaskira munthu (na apo zikuwonekera). Nangauli masuzgo ghanandi agha ghangavikilirika, cifukwa cikulu ca uchanda uheni pa caro cose ni kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi biliyoni yimoza ŵalije nthowa ya kufikira ucizgi. Suzgo likulu comene na liheni comene lingaŵa kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵalije nthowa ya kusanga ucizgi uwemi. === Uchanda wa Mahara === WHO yikulongosora uchanda wa mahara kuŵa "umoyo uwemi umo munthu wakumanya nkhongono zake, wangazizipizga kufipa mtima kwa umoyo kwa nyengo zose, wangagwira ntchito makola na mwakupindura, ndipo wangovwira muzi wake". Uchanda wa mahara ni kusoŵa ulwari wa mahara pera yayi. Ulwari wa mahara ukulongosoreka kuŵa "vyakucitika vya maghanoghano, vya mtima, na vya nkhalo ivyo vikusokonezga umoyo uwemi wa ubale na wa mtima na umoyo na ntchito za ŵanthu". Kuŵa na ulwari wa mahara kungananga comene, kwa kanyengo panji kwa muyirayira, umo mahara gha munthu ghakugwilira ntchito. Pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha ŵalara wose mu U.S. ŵangasangika na ulwari wa mahara. Ulwari wa mahara ndiwo cifukwa cikulu ca kutomboroka mu United States na Canada. Viyelezgero vya ulwari uwu ni ''schizophrenia'', ADHD, kufipa mtima kukulu, ''bipolar disorder'', ulwari wa wofi, ulwari wa pamanyuma pa cakucitika ciheni, na ''autism''. Vinthu vinandi vikovwira masuzgo gha uchanda wa mahara, kusazgapo: * Vinthu vya thupi, nga ni vyakuhara panji usungunu wa wongo * Mbiri ya mbumba ya masuzgo gha uchanda wa mahara * Vyakucitika vya umoyo, nga ni vyakucitika viheni panji kuvukika == Kusunga Uchanda == Kufiska na kusunga uchanda ni ndondomeko yakulutilira, iyo yikupangika na kukura kwa vinjeru na kacitiro ka ucizgi, na nthowa za munthu na ntchito zakunozgeka za kukhala na uchanda uwemi. === Vyakulya === Nthowa yakuzirwa ya kusunga uchanda wa munthu ni kurya vyakulya viwemi. Vyakulya viwemi vikusazgapo vyakulya vyakupambana vya vyakumera na vya vinyama ivyo vikupeleka vyakukhozga thupi. Vyakukhozga ivi vikupeleka nkhongono ku thupi na kulisunga kugwira ntchito. Vikovwira kuzenga na kukhozga viwanga, minofu, na misipa ndipo vikulongozga so ntchito za thupi (mwaciyelezgero, kukanikizga kwa ndopa). Maji ngakukhumbikwa pa kukura, kuŵaba, na uchanda uwemi. Vyakukhozga vikulu vikurika vinandi, ndipo vikusazgapo purotini, shuga na vyakulya vya nkhongono, na mafuta. Vyakukhozga vicoko, mavitamini na vinthu vinyake, vikurika vicoko, kweni nvyakukhumbikwa pa ntchito za thupi. Ciyelezgero ca vyakulya ca mawonekero gha pyramid ni cakulongozgera ca vyakulya viwemi cakugaŵika mu vigaŵa. Cigaŵa ciliconse cikulongora unandi wakwenelera wa gulu la vyakulya ilo (mwaciyelezgero purotini, mafuta, vyakulya vya nkhongono na shuga). Kusankha vyakulya viwemi kungacepeska ngozi ya nthenda za mtima na ya mitundu yinyake ya kansa, ndipo kungovwira munthu kusunga kuzitika kwake kwiwemi. Vyakulya vya Ŵanthu ŵa mu mphepete mwa Mediterranean kanandi vikukolerana na kukhozga uchanda. Ici nyengo zinyake cikufuma ku vinthu vinyake vya vyakumera ivyo vili mu vyakulya ivi. === Maseŵero gha Thupi === Maseŵero gha thupi ghakukhozga panji kusunga nkhongono za thupi na uchanda wose. Ghakukhozga viwanga na minofu na kunozga mtima na mikoli. Kuyana na National Institutes of Health, pali mitundu yinayi ya maseŵero: gha kuzizipizga, gha nkhongono, gha kupindika, na gha kujikhazga. CDC yikuti maseŵero gha thupi ghangacepeska ngozi ya nthenda za mtima, kansa, shuga, kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa, kututuŵa, kufipa mtima, na wofi. Kuti munthu waleke kujipweteka, kanandi kukuyowoyeka kuti wambe maseŵero pacoko pacoko. Kucita maseŵero ghaliwose, kwali ntchito za pa nyumba, za pa luŵazi, kwenda, panji kwimilira apo ukuyowoya pa foni, kukuwonekera kuŵa kwiwemi kuluska kuleka kose. === Tulo === Tulo ni cigaŵa cakukhumbikwa pa kusunga uchanda. Ku ŵana, tulo ntwakuzirwa so pa kukura. Kusoŵa tulo kwa nyengo yitali kukukolerana na kusazgikira kwa ngozi ya masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda gha nyengo yitali. Kweniso, kusoŵa tulo kwalongoreka kukolerana na kukora nthenda luŵiro na kucira pacoko pacoko. Mu kusanda kunyake, ŵanthu awo ŵakagonanga maora 6 panji pasi usiku ŵakaŵa pa ngozi kanayi ya kukora cimfine kuluska awo ŵakagonanga maora 7 panji kujumpha. Cifukwa tulo tukulongozga kagayiro ka vyakulya mu thupi, kusoŵa tulo kungovwira kusazgikira kwa kuzitika panji kukanizga kucepa kwa kuzitika. Kweniso, mu 2007, wupu wa kusanda kansa wa WHO ukati "ntchito ya usiku iyo yikusokonezga ndondomeko ya tulo panyake yikwiziska kansa", kulongora ngozi ya ntchito ya usiku ya nyengo yitali. Mu 2015, National Sleep Foundation yikapharazga malangulo ghaphya gha unandi wa tulo kuyana na vyaka, ndipo yikati "ŵanthu awo ŵakugona nyengo zose kuwaro kwa unandi wakwenelera ŵangaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya masuzgo ghakulu gha uchanda, panji, usange ŵakucita mwakukhumba, ŵakunanga uchanda wawo." === Ntchito ya Kasandiro === Kasandiro ka uchanda ni cigaŵa ca kasandiro ico cikulaŵiska uchanda. Pali nthowa ziŵiri zikulu: kusanda thupi na nkhani za uchanda kuti ŵamanye umo ŵanthu (na vinyama) ŵakugwilira ntchito, na kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru ivi kukhozga uchanda na kuvikilira na kucizga nthenda na masuzgo ghanyake gha thupi na gha mahara. Kasandiro aka kakuthemba vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo kasandiro ka vyamoyo, usungunu wa vyamoyo, kusanda mendero, kasandiro ka kuthandazgika kwa nthenda, kasandiro ka mankhwala, na kasandiro ka ŵanthu mu ucizgi. Kasandiro ka uchanda ka kugwiliskira ntchito kakuyezga kumanya na kukhozga uchanda wa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa nga ni kusambizga za uchanda, luso la vilwero vya ucizgi, na uchanda wa ŵanthu wose. Ntchito zakunozgeka za kukhozga uchanda kuyana na fundo za kasandiro ka uchanda zikucitika na ŵantchito ŵakusambira [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]], unesi, vyakulya, mankhwala, ntchito ya kovwira ŵanthu, kasandiro ka mahara, na ntchito zinyake za ucizgi. Ŵacizgi ŵakulaŵiska comene uchanda wa munthu yumoza, apo ŵantchito ŵa uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ŵakulaŵiska uchanda wa mizi na ŵanthu wose. Makampani ghakuzomerezga comene ndondomeko za uchanda pa malo gha ntchito cifukwa zikukhozga uchanda wa ŵantchito ŵawo, nga ni ntchito za uchanda za sukulu izo zikukhozga uchanda wa ŵana. === Ucizgi === Ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano kanandi ukucitika mu ndondomeko za ucizgi. Malango, kupeleka ziphaso, na ndondomeko za ndalama vikuŵikika na maulongozgi, nyengo zinyake pamoza na mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro, nga ni mipingo. Vimanyikwiro vya ndondomeko yiliyose ya ucizgi vikukhwaska comene umo ucizgi ukupelekekera. Kufuma kale, Ŵakhristu kulaŵiska lusungu lwakucitika kukapangiska kukura kwa unesi wakunozgeka na vipatala, ndipo Mpingo wa Katolika mazuŵa ghano ukucali wupu ukulu comene wambura kuŵa wa ulongozgi wakupeleka ucizgi pa caro cose. Vyaro vya mafakitale (kupatula United States) na vyaro vinandi vyakukura vikupeleka ucizgi kwizira mu ndondomeko ya ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose, iyo yikukhumba kusimikizga ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mulipiri yumoza, panji inshuwalansi yakukakizga. Ici cikusimikizga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵakufikira ucizgi kuyana na ivyo ŵakukhumba, kwambura kuthemba nkhongono ya kulipira. Ucizgi ungapelekeka na ŵacizgi ŵa paŵekha, vipatala vya ulongozgi, panji mawupu gha lusungu, kanandi na vyose vitatu pamoza. Mawupu ghanandi gha mafuko ghakusimikizga ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose yayi. Mu ŵanthu ŵantheura, ucizgi ukupelekeka ku awo ŵangalipira panji awo ŵali na inshuwalansi, panji awo ucizgi wawo ukulipirika na ulongozgi panji fuko. Kuŵa pakweru kwa mauthenga ni cinthu cinyake ico cikupambanyizga ndondomeko ya kupeleka ucizgi. Kufikira mauthenga pa nthenda, ucizgi, uwemi, na mitengo kukukhwaska comene kusankha kwa ŵalwari, ndipo ntheura vifukwa vya ŵacizgi. Nangauli ndondomeko ya ucizgi ya U.S. yasuskika cifukwa ca kusoŵa kuŵa pakweru, malango ghaphya ghangakhozga kuŵa pakweru. Pali kususkana pakati pa khumbo la kuŵa pakweru na nkhani nga ni kusunga vya ŵalwari mwakubisika na kugwiliskira ntchito mauthenga pa malonda. ==== Kapelekero ==== Kapelekero ka ucizgi kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ucizgi wakwamba, waciŵiri, na wacitatu. Ucizgi wakwamba ukupelekeka na ŵacizgi, ŵakovwira ŵacizgi, manesi, panji ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa ucizgi awo ŵakukumana dankha na mulwari uyo wakupenja ucizgi. Ici cikucitika mu vipinda vya ŵacizgi, makiliniki, nyumba za ŵalara, sukulu, kuyendera pa nyumba, na malo ghanyake ghapafupi na ŵalwari. Pafupifupi magaŵa 90 pa 100 gha kuyendera ucizgi ghangacizgika na ŵacizgi ŵakwamba. Ici cikusazgapo kucizga nthenda zaluŵiro na za nyengo yitali, kuvikilira, na kusambizga za uchanda ku vyaka vyose na ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ucizgi waciŵiri ukupelekeka na ŵacizgi ŵapadera mu vipinda vyawo panji mu vipatala vya muzi ku mulwari uyo watumika na mucizgi wakwamba. Ŵalwari ŵakutumika para ŵakukhumba luso panji ntchito za ŵacizgi ŵapadera. Ici cikusazgapo ucizgi wa kuwelera ku nyumba na wa kugona mu cipatala, vigaŵa vya ngozi, ucizgi wapadera wa ŵalwari ŵakulu, vya kupanda, kucizga minofu, kubaba, kupima nthenda, kujambura thupi, na malo gha kupwelelera ŵalwari ŵakufwa. Ucizgi wacitatu ukupelekeka na vipatala vyapadera panji malo ghakulu gha vigaŵa agho ghali na vilwero vya kupima na kucizga ivyo vikusangika kanandi yayi mu vipatala vya muzi. Ici cikusazgapo malo gha ngozi zikulu, malo gha kucizga kupsa, ucizgi wapadera wa ŵana ŵakubabika, kuŵika viŵaro, nthumbo za ngozi, na kucizga kansa na nkhongono. Ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano ukuthemba so mauthenga, agho mu malo ghanandi ghacali kulembeka pa mapepala, kweni comene sono mwa nthowa za magesi. Mu vyaro vyakavu, ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano kanandi ngwakudura comene ku munthu wapakati. Ŵasandi ŵa ndondomeko za ucizgi ŵakuti malipiro gha ŵalwari ghawuskike mu vigaŵa ivi, nangauli nanga pamanyuma pa kughawuskapo, mitengo na vikanizgo vikulu vikucalipo. Kupatula kulemba mankhwala na kupeleka mankhwala ni kacitiro mu ucizgi umo mucizgi uyo wakulemba mankhwala ngwakupambana na uyo wakupeleka mankhwala. Ku Kumanjiliro kuli mdawuko wa vyaka mahandiredi wa kupatula ŵakupeleka mankhwala na ŵacizgi. Mu vyaro vya Asiya, ŵacizgi kanandi ŵakupeleka so mankhwala. === Ntchito ya Uchanda wa Ŵanthu Wose === Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose walongosoreka kuŵa "kasandiro na luso la kuvikilira nthenda, kutalikiska umoyo na kukhozga uchanda kwizira mu ntchito zakunozgeka na vyakusankha vyavinjeru vya wupu wa ŵanthu, mawupu gha ulongozgi na gha paŵekha, mizi na ŵanthu." Ukukhwaskana na ngozi ku uchanda wa muzi wose kuyana na kupenda uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵangaŵa ŵacoko pera panji ŵanandi nga ni ŵanthu wose ŵa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vinandi (mwaciyelezgero, pa nthenda yakuthandazgika pa caro cose). Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose uli na vigaŵa vinandi, kweni kanandi vikusazgapo kasandiro ka kuthandazgika kwa nthenda, viŵerengero vya uchanda, na ntchito za uchanda. Uchanda wa malo ghakuzingilizga, wa muzi, wa nkhalo, na wa pa ntchito nawo ni vigaŵa vyakuzirwa. Cilato ca ntchito za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ni kuvikilira na kulongozga nthenda, vilonda na masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda kwizira mu kulondezga ŵalwari na kukhozga nkhalo, mizi, na malo ghawemi. Ukukhumba kuvikilira masuzgo gha uchanda kuti ghaleke kucitika panji kuwerezgeka mwa kupanga ndondomeko za kusambizga, kupanga ndondomeko za ulongozgi, kwendeska ntchito na kusanda. Kanandi, kucizga nthenda panji kulaŵilira tuzirombo kungaŵa kwakuzirwa pa kuvikilira ŵanyake, nga ni pa kuthandazgika kwa nthenda. Ndondomeko za katemera na kupeleka makondomu kuvikilira kuthandazgika kwa nthenda zakuyambukira ni viyelezgero vya ntchito za kuvikilira za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, nga umo ziliri ntchito za kusambizga za kukhozga katemera na kagwiliskiro ka makondomu. Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ukucita so ntchito zakupambana kucepeska kupambana kwa uchanda pakati pa vigaŵa vyakupambana vya caro, ndipo nyengo zinyake vya caro cose. Nkhani yimoza ni kufikira ucizgi kwa ŵanthu na mizi pa ndalama, malo, panji midawuko. Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko ya uchanda wa ŵanthu wose kakusazgapo uchanda wa ŵamama na ŵana, kwendeska ntchito za uchanda, kuzgora ngozi, na kuvikilira na kulaŵilira nthenda zakuyambukira na za nyengo yitali. Uwemi ukulu wa ndondomeko za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ukumanyikwa comene. Cigaŵa cifukwa ca ndondomeko na ntchito izo zikapangika kwizira mu uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikawona kucepa kwa nyifwa za ŵana ŵacoko na ŵana na kusazgikira kwa utali wa umoyo mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro cose. Mwaciyelezgero, kukughanaghanirika kuti utali wa umoyo wa Ŵaamerika wasazgikira na vyaka 30 kufuma 1900, ndipo pa caro cose na vyaka 6 kufuma 1990. === Nthowa za Kujipwelelera === Uchanda wa munthu ukuthemba pacoko vimanyikwiro ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona na kulondezga pa uchanda wawo. Ivi vikusazgapo ntchito za munthu za kuvikilira panji kucepeska vyakufumapo vya nthenda, kanandi nthenda ya nyengo yitali. Vikusazgapo so ukhondo wa munthu pa kuvikilira nthenda, nga ni kugeza na kusamba mawoko na sopo; kutozga mino; kusunga, kuphika na kugwira vyakulya makola; na vinyake vinandi. Mauthenga agho munthu wakusanga pa kujilaŵiska pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, nga ni pa tulo, maseŵero, vyakulya na malo, ghangagwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakusankha na vyakucita vya munthu (mwaciyelezgero, "Nkhupulika kuvuka mlenji ntheura nizamuyezga kugona pa mtsamiro unyake"), na so pa vyakusankha vya ucizgi (mwaciyelezgero, mulwari uyo wakuwona kuti skapato zake zikumufinya kuluska kale wangaŵa na suzgo la mtima, ndipo wangakhumba mankhwala gha kucepeska maji mu thupi). Uchanda wa munthu ukuthemba so pacoko ubale wa munthu na ŵanthu. Kusunga ubale wankhongono, kugwira ntchito zakwambura malipiro, na ntchito zinyake za pamoza na ŵanthu vikukolerana na uchanda uwemi wa mahara na umoyo utali. Kusanda kunyake kwa ku Amerika kwa ŵalara ŵa vyaka kujumpha 70 kukasanga kuti kugwira ntchito zambura malipiro kanandi kukakolerana na kucepa kwa ngozi ya nyifwa, kwambura kulaŵiska uchanda wa thupi. Kusanda kunyake kwa ku Singapore kukasanga kuti ŵalara ŵakupumula ŵakugwira ntchito zambura malipiro ŵakaŵa na vinjeru viwemi, kufipa mtima kucoko, na umoyo uwemi wa mahara kuluska awo ŵakagwiranga yayi. Kufipa mtima kwa nyengo yitali kungananga uchanda, ndipo kwayowoyeka nga ni cifukwa ca kunangika kwa vinjeru apo munthu wakukota, kufipa mtima kukulu, na nthenda. Kulongozga kufipa mtima ni kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za kucepeska kufipa mtima panji kusazgira nkhongono ya kukuzizipizga. Nthowa za kupumuzga thupi ni nthowa za thupi za kucepeska kufipa mtima. Nthowa za mahara zikusazgapo ucizgi wa maghanoghano, kughanaghana mwakupumula, na kughanaghana viwemi, izo zikucepeska umo munthu wakuzgorera kufipa mtima. Kukhozga luso nga ni kumazga masuzgo na kulongozga nyengo kukucepeska kusoŵa kusimikizga na kukhozga kujigomezga, ndipo ici cikucepeska so kufipa mtima. == Uchanda pa Ntchito == Kupatula ngozi, ntchito zinandi zili so na ngozi ya nthenda, ulwari, na masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda gha nyengo yitali. Nthenda zinandi za pa ntchito ni mitundu yakupambana ya nthenda za maphapo za fuvu, kusazgapo ya fuvu la malibwe na ya ŵantchito ŵa makala gha pasi (nthenda ya maphapo ghakufipa). Asima ni nthenda yinyake ya kupuma iyo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵali pa ngozi yake. Ŵantchito ŵangaŵa so pa ngozi ya nthenda za cikumba, kusazgapo kuyabwa, kupsa na zuŵa, na kansa ya cikumba. Nthenda zinyake za pa ntchito ni nthenda ya kupweteka kwa woko na poizoni wa mtovu. Apo ntchito za kuteŵetera ŵanthu zasazgikira mu vyaro vyakukura, ntchito zinandi zaŵa za kukhala pasi, ndipo zikwiziska masuzgo gha uchanda ghakupambana na gha ntchito za mafakitale na za ulimi. Masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano, nga ni kusazgikira kwa kututuŵa na masuzgo gha kufipa mtima na kugwira ntchito comene mu vyaro vinandi, ghasuzgiska so ubale pakati pa ntchito na uchanda. Maulongozgi ghanandi ghakuwona uchanda wa pa ntchito nga ni suzgo la wupu wa ŵanthu, ndipo ghapanga mawupu gha ulongozgi kuti ghasimikizge uchanda na civikiliro ca ŵantchito. Viyelezgero ni Health and Safety Executive ya Britain, na mu United States, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, iyo yikusanda uchanda na civikiliro pa ntchito, na Occupational Safety and Health Administration, iyo yikulongozga malango na ndondomeko za civikiliro na uchanda wa ŵantchito. 5s5lsoat884v8we0nyt0ysnywycmwot 124396 124360 2026-11-10T20:27:02Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124396 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Uchanda wa moyo''' uli na ng'anamulo zinandi izo zagwiliskirika ntchito pa vilato vyakupambana mu nyengo zakupambana, ndipo ni ghanoghano ilo lili na vigaŵa vinandi. Kanandi ukung'anamula umoyo uwemi wa thupi na wa mtima. Uchanda uwemi ukukolerana na kugwira ntchito makola kwa thupi la munthu pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura nthenda, kupweteka (kusazgapo kupweteka kwa mahara), panji vilonda. Uchanda ungakhozgeka mwa kukhumbiska vyakucita viwemi, nga ni kucita maseŵero gha thupi nyengo zose na kugona kwakukwana, na mwa kucepeska panji kuleka vyakucita viheni, nga ni kukweŵa fodya panji kuŵa na njuŵi comene.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 April 2021|title=Benefits of Physical Activity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/benefits/index.html|access-date=11 September 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}} {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251215183239/https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/benefits/index.html|date=15 December 2025}}</ref> Uchanda ukukhwaskika na vyakusankha vya munthu, nga ni nkhalo ya ngozi, kweniso na umo wupu wa ŵanthu ukunozgekera, nga ni kupambanyizga ŵanthu pa mtundu mu ucizgi. Ici cikung'anamula kuti wupu wa ŵanthu wanozgeka mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufikira ucizgi panji kucita vyakukhozga uchanda mwakupepuka, ndipo ŵanyake mwakusuzga. Uchanda ungakhwaskika so na vinthu vya mu thupi nga ni nthenda zakuharika. == Kagwiliskiro ka Lizgu == Vyakucita vyandondomeko vya kuvikilira panji kucizga masuzgo gha umoyo na kukhozga uchanda uwemi mwa ŵanthu vikucitika na ŵantchito ŵa ucizgi, nga ni pa kupima nthenda panji kulemba mankhwala, apo uchanda wa vinyama ukupwelelereka na kasandiro ka ucizgi wa vinyama. Lizgu lakuti "wa uchanda uwemi" likugwiliskirika ntchito so comene pa mawupu ghambura umoyo na pa ivyo ghakucitira ŵanthu, nga ni mu ng'anamulo la mizi ya uchanda uwemi, misumba ya uchanda uwemi, panji malo ghakuzingilizga gha uchanda uwemi. Kupatula ucizgi na malo agho munthu wakukhala, vinthu vinyake vinandi vikumanyikwa kukhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ivi vikuchemeka "vyakusimikizga uchanda", ndipo vikusazgapo kuŵa wanalume panji wanakazi, mtundu, nkhalo, na vyacuma vya munthu. Kusanda kwalongora kuti kufipa mtima kukulu kungakhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24756311 |title= How stressed are you? |work=BBC News |date=6 November 2013 |access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{Quote box | title = Ng'anamulo la Wupu wa Uchanda wa Caro Cose (WHO) | quote = Uchanda ni kuŵa makora kwakukwana mu thupi, mu mahara, na pakati pa ŵanthu, ndipo nkhwambura nthenda panji kutomboroka pera yayi. | source = {{Cite web |title=Constitution |url=https://www.who.int/about/governance/constitution |access-date=25 September 2024 |website=World Health Organization}} | width = 30% }} Ng'anamulo la uchanda lasintha mu nyengo. Kuyana na kalaŵiskiro ka kasandiro ka thupi, ng'anamulo zakwamba za uchanda zikalaŵiskanga nkhongono ya thupi kugwira ntchito; uchanda ukawonekanga nga ni kugwira ntchito makola uko kungasokonezgeka nyengo zinyake na nthenda. Ciyelezgero ca ng'anamulo lantheura ni: "kuŵa makola kwa thupi, umo likugwilira ntchito, na mahara; nkhongono ya kucita ntchito zakuzirwa mu mbumba, pa ntchito, na mu muzi; nkhongono ya kuzizipizga kufipa mtima kwa thupi, kwa mahara, na kwa ubale na ŵanthu".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stokes|first1=J.|last2=Noren|first2=J.|last3=Shindell|first3=S.|date=1 January 1982|title=Definition of terms and concepts applicable to clinical preventive medicine|journal=Journal of Community Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=33–41|issn=0094-5145|pmid=6764783|doi=10.1007/bf01324395|s2cid=1748896}}</ref> Pamanyuma, mu 1948, mwakupambana comene na ng'anamulo za kale, Wupu wa Uchanda wa Caro Cose (WHO) ukasacizga ng'anamulo lapacanya, ilo likakoleranya uchanda na umoyo uwemi, nga ni "umoyo uwemi wa thupi, wa mahara, na wa ubale na ŵanthu, kwambura kuŵa waka kusoŵa kwa nthenda na kutomboroka".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37089|title=The first ten years of the World Health Organization|last=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|year=1958|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-156014-6|publication-date=1958}}</ref> Nangauli ng'anamulo ili likapokereka makola na ŵanyake nga ni liphya, likasuskika so kuti ndambura kulunjika, ndikulu comene, ndipo ndambura kupimika. Kwa nyengo yitali likasiyika nga ni ghanoghano lambura kufiskika, ndipo mphindano zinandi za uchanda zikawelera ku ciyelezgero ca kasandiro ka thupi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|title=Part 1 – Theory: Thinking About Health Chapter 1 Concepts of Health and Illness|website=phprimer.afmc.ca|access-date=22 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812145405/http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|archive-date=12 August 2016}}</ref> Nga umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira kuwona nthenda kufuma ku kuŵa cakucitika cimoza kuya ku kuŵa ndondomeko, ndimo zikasinthira ng'anamulo za uchanda. WHO yikalongozga so apo yikakhozga kukura kwa ndondomeko ya kukhozga uchanda mu ma 1980. Ici cikiziska ghanoghano liphya la uchanda, kwambura kuŵa cakucitika cimoza, kweni nkhongono ya kuzizipizga na kuwelera, mu mazgo ghanyake, "cuma ca kukhalira umoyo". Mu 1984, WHO yikasintha ng'anamulo la uchanda kuŵa "umo munthu panji gulu lingafiskira ivyo likukhumba, kukwaniska vyakukhumbikwa vyake, na kusintha panji kuzizipizga malo ghake. Uchanda ni cuma ca umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura kuŵa cilato ca umoyo; ni ghanoghano liwemi, ilo likulaŵiska vyuma vya ŵanthu na vya munthu, na nkhongono za thupi."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107835|title=Health promotion: a discussion document on the concept and principles: summary report of the Working Group on Concept and Principles of Health Promotion, Copenhagen, 9–13 July 1984|last=World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe|publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe|year=1984|location=Copenhagen|type=ICP/HSR 602(m01)5 p}}</ref> Ntheura, uchanda ukang'anamulanga nkhongono ya kusunga thupi kuŵa makola na kuwelera pamanyuma pa vyakucitika viheni. Uchanda wa mahara, wa vinjeru, wa mtima, na wa ubale ukang'anamulanga nkhongono ya munthu kuzizipizga kufipa mtima, kusambira luso, na kusunga ubale, ivyo vyose ni vyuma vya kuzizipizga na kujikhalira.<ref name=":0" /> Ici cikujula nthowa zinandi za kusambizga, kukhozga, na kusambira uchanda. Kufuma pakumalira kwa ma 1970, ndondomeko ya Healthy People ya ulongozgi wa United States yaŵa cigaŵa cikulu ca umo United States yikukhozgera uchanda wa ŵanthu.<ref>[https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/History-and-Development-of-Healthy-People History & Development of Healthy People] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427095217/https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/History-and-Development-of-Healthy-People |date=2017-04-27 }}. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref> Vyaka khumi vyaliwose, ndondomeko yiphya ya Healthy People yikufumiskika, na vilato viphya na vyakufiska vyakupimika pa kukhozga uchanda mu vyaka khumi vyakulondezga, ndipo pakumalira pakupendeka usange pali kuluta panthazi panji yayi. Kuluta panthazi kwaŵa kucoko pa vilato vinandi, ndipo ici capangiska ŵanthu kukayikira usange Healthy People yikugwira ntchito makola mu ndondomeko ya uchanda ya U.S. yambura kukolerana. Healthy People 2020 yikulaŵiska comene kukhozga uchanda na kuvikilira, ndipo yikusazgapo kuzirwa kwa kumazga vyakusimikizga uchanda vya mu wupu wa ŵanthu. Nthowa yiphya ya pa intaneti yikupepuska kagwiliskiro na kuthandazgika m'malo mwa mabuku ghakulu ghakudindika gha kale. Vyakufumapo vya kusintha uku vizamumanyikwa mu vyaka vyakwiza.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jonathan |first1=E. Fielding |last2=Shiriki |first2=Kumanyika |last3=Ronald |first3=W. Manderscheid |date=2013 |title=A Perspective on the Development of the Healthy People 2020 Framework for Improving U.S. Population Health |url=http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |journal=Public Health Reviews |volume=35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402220801/http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2014 }}</ref> Kufuma pa kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, uchanda wawonekera comene nga ni udindo wa munthu yumoza, apo luso la kukhozga uchanda lakura. Uchanda ungang'anamulika nga ni nkhongono, ndipo kujipenda kwa munthu kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca kupima umo ntchito za kukhozga uchanda zikwendera.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jadad|first=Alejandro R.|date=1 November 2016|title=Creating a pandemic of health: What is the role of digital technologies?|journal=Journal of Public Health Policy|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=260–68|doi=10.1057/s41271-016-0016-1|pmid=27899800|issn=0197-5897|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ici cikapeleka so mwaŵi ku munthu waliyose kujipulika wa uchanda uwemi, nanga ni apo wali na nthenda zinandi za nyengo yitali panji nthenda yambura kucizgika, na kupenda so vyakusimikizga uchanda (kufuma ku nthowa ya kale iyo yikulaŵiska kucepeska nthenda pera).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/|title=Creating a Pandemic of Health: Opportunities and Lessons for a University Initiative at the Intersection of Health, Equity, and Innovation {{!}} Harvard Public Health Review: A Student Publication|website=harvardpublichealthreview.org|date=16 April 2015 |language=en|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-date=7 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307123430/http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/}}</ref> == Vyakusimikizga Uchanda == Malo agho munthu wakukhalira ghangakhwaska uchanda wake na umo umoyo wake uliri. Ŵanandi ŵakuti uchanda ukusungika na kukhozgeka kwizira mu kuluta panthazi na kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka uchanda pera yayi, kweni so kwizira mu ntchito na vyakusankha vya nkhalo vya munthu na wupu wa ŵanthu. Kuyana na WHO, vyakusimikizga uchanda vikulu ni malo gha ŵanthu na gha vyacuma, malo gha thupi, na vimanyikwiro na nkhalo za munthu.<ref name="The determinants of health">World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/hia/evidence/doh/en/ ''The determinants of health.''] Geneva. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> [[File:Smallpox eradication team.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.95|Donald Henderson (ku mazere) wakaŵa mu gulu la CDC ilo likamazga nthenda ya nthomba (''smallpox'') mu 1966]] Kufumba maghanoghano gha ŵanthu kukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwona kufikira ucizgi, kusambizga za uchanda, na malo gha muzi nga ni vyakusimikizga vikulu comene vya uchanda uwemi.<ref name="n603">{{cite journal | last1=Abdalla | first1=Salma M | last2=Hernandez | first2=Mark | last3=Fazaludeen Koya | first3=Shaffi | last4=Rosenberg | first4=Samuel B | last5=Robbins | first5=Grace | last6=Magana | first6=Laura | last7=Nsoesie | first7=Elaine Okanyene | last8=Sabin | first8=Lora | last9=Galea | first9=Sandro | title=What matters for health? Public views from eight countries | journal=BMJ Global Health | volume=7 | issue=6 | date=2022 | issn=2059-7908 | pmid=35705225 | pmc=9204457 | doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2022-008858 | article-number=e008858 | url=https://gh.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-008858 | access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> Kusanda kunandi na malipoti kufuma ku mawupu ghakupambana ghakupenda ubale pakati pa uchanda na vinthu vyakupambana, kusazgapo nkhalo, malo, kanozgero ka ucizgi, na ndondomeko za uchanda. Ndondomeko yimoza ya uchanda iyo yanjizgika mu vyaro vinandi mu vyaka vya sonosono ni msonkho wa shuga. Msonkho wa vyakumwa ukaŵako apo ŵanthu ŵakafipa mtima comene na kututuŵa, comene mwa ŵacoko. Vyakumwa vya shuga vyaŵa cilato ca ntchito za kucepeska kututuŵa, cifukwa ukaboni ukusazgikira wa ubale wawo na kututuŵa. Viyelezgero vinyake ni lipoti la Lalonde la 1974 la ku Canada; kusanda kwa Alameda County ku California; na malipoti gha WHO gha uchanda wa caro cose, agho ghakulaŵiska nkhani za uchanda wa caro cose kusazgapo kufikira ucizgi na kukhozga uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, comene mu vyaro vyakukura.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andreyeva|first1=Tatiana|last2=Chaloupka|first2=Frank J.|last3=Brownell|first3=Kelly D.|title=Estimating the potential of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to reduce consumption and generate revenue|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=52|issue=6|pages=413–16|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.03.013|pmid=21443899|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Lalonde">Lalonde, Marc (1974). [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf "''A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians''."] Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028163043/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf |date=28 October 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Housman & Dorman 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Housman|first1=Jeff|last2=Dorman|first2=Steve|title=The Alameda County Study: A Systematic, Chronological Review|journal=American Journal of Health Education|date=September–October 2005|volume=36|issue=5|pages=302–08|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ792845|access-date=27 December 2011|format=PDF|issn=1055-6699|id=ERIC document number EJ792845|doi=10.1080/19325037.2005.10608200|s2cid=39133965|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/whr/en/ ''The world health report'']. Geneva.</ref> Ghanoghano la "cigaŵa ca uchanda", lakupambana na ucizgi, likafuma ku lipoti la Lalonde la ku Canada. Lipoti ili likalongora vigaŵa vitatu vyakukolerana nga ni vyakusimikizga vikulu vya uchanda wa munthu. Ni ivi:<ref name="Lalonde"/> * Vya thupi: vigaŵa vyose vya uchanda, vya thupi na vya mahara, ivyo vikukura mu thupi la munthu kuyana na vyakuhara. * Vya malo: nkhani zose za uchanda za kuwaro kwa thupi la munthu, izo munthu wakuzilaŵilira pacoko panji yayi; * Vya nkhalo: vyakusankha vyose vya munthu (ivyo munthu wakuvilaŵilira) ivyo vingovwira panji kwiziska ulwari panji nyifwa; Kusunga na kukhozga uchanda kukufiskika kwizira mu kusazga kwakupambana kwa umoyo uwemi wa thupi, wa mahara, na wa ubale, kusazga uko nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka "makona ghatatu gha uchanda". Kalata ya Ottawa ya WHO ya 1986 ya Kukhozga Uchanda yikayowoya so kuti uchanda ni cakucitika pera yayi, kweni so "cuma ca umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, kwambura kuŵa cilato ca umoyo. Uchanda ni ghanoghano liwemi ilo likulaŵiska vyuma vya ŵanthu na vya munthu, na nkhongono za thupi."<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/previous/ottawa/en/index.html The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion.] Adopted at the First International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, 21 November 1986 – WHO/HPR/HEP/95.1.</ref> Kulaŵiska comene nkhalo na ubale wake na uchanda, vyakusangika vya kusanda kwa Alameda County vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵangakhozga uchanda wawo kwizira mu maseŵero gha thupi, kugona kwakukwana, kukhala nyengo mu malo gha kawiro, kusunga kuzitika kwiwemi kwa thupi, kucepeska kumwa moŵa, na kuleka kukweŵa fodya.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Housman|Dorman|2005|pp=303–04}}. "The linear model supported previous findings, including regular exercise, limited alcohol consumption, abstinence from smoking, sleeping 7–8 hours a night, and maintenance of a healthy weight play an important role in promoting longevity and delaying illness and death." Citing {{cite journal |vauthors=Wingard DL, Berkman LF, Brand RJ | title = A multivariate analysis of health-related practices: a nine-year mortality follow-up of the Alameda County Study | journal = Am J Epidemiol | volume = 116 | issue = 5 | pages = 765–75 | year = 1982 | pmid = 7148802 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113466 }}</ref> Uchanda na ulwari vingaŵako pamoza, cifukwa nanga ni ŵanthu ŵa nthenda zinandi za nyengo yitali panji nthenda zambura kucizgika ŵangajiwona kuŵa ŵa uchanda uwemi.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jadad, A.R. | year = 2013 | title = On Living a Long, Healthy, and Happy Life, Full of Love, and with no Regrets, until Our Last Breath | journal = Verhaltenstherapie | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 287–89 | doi=10.1159/000357490|url=http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/357490| doi-access = free }}</ref> Malo ghakuzingilizga kanandi ghakuyowoyeka nga ni cinthu cakuzirwa ico cikukhwaska uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ici cikusazgapo vimanyikwiro vya malo gha kawiro, malo ghakuzengeka, na malo gha ubale na ŵanthu. Vinthu nga ni maji na mphepo zakutowa, nyumba zakukwana, na mizi na misewu yakuvikilirika vyasangika kuti vikovwira uchanda uwemi, comene uchanda wa ŵana ŵacoko na ŵana.<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>UNESCO. [http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml ''The UN World Water Development Report: Facts and Figures – Meeting basic needs.''] Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> Kusanda kunyake kwalongora kuti kusoŵa kwa malo gha kupumulira mu muzi, kusazgapo malo gha kawiro, kukupangiska kusoŵa kukondwa na kututuŵa kukulu, ivyo vikukolerana na uchanda uheni.<ref name="Fanny Price">{{cite journal |vauthors=Björk J, Albin M, Grahn P, Jacobsson H, Ardö J, Wadbro J, Ostergren PO | title = Recreational Values of the Natural Environment in Relation to Neighborhood Satisfaction, Physical Activity, Obesity and Well being | journal = Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = e2 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18365329 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2007.062414 | s2cid = 13859588 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/5178417/1056501.pdf }}</ref> Kwalongoreka kuti kukhala nyengo yinandi mu malo gha kawiro kukukolerana na uchanda uwemi uwo ŵanthu ŵakujiyowoyera, ntheura uwemi wa malo gha kawiro mu misumba ukwenera kulaŵiskika mu ndondomeko za ulongozgi na kagwiliskiro ka malo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Alcock|first2=Ian|last3=Grellier|first3=James|last4=Wheeler|first4=Benedict W.|last5=Hartig|first5=Terry|last6=Warber|first6=Sara L.|last7=Depledge|first7=Michael H.|last8=Fleming|first8=Lora E.|date=13 June 2019|title=Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|page=7730|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3|pmid=31197192|pmc=6565732|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.7730W|issn=2045-2322|url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1325155/FULLTEXT01|doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakuhara, panji vimanyikwiro vyakuharika kufuma ku ŵapapi, navyo vikugwira ntchito pa kusimikizga uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ici cingasazgapo kuŵa pa ngozi ya nthenda zinyake, kweniso nkhalo izo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu mbumba zawo. Mwaciyelezgero, vyakuhara vingakhwaska umo ŵanthu ŵakuzizipizgira kufipa mtima, kwa mahara, kwa mtima, panji kwa thupi. Kututuŵa ni suzgo likulu mu United States ilo likovwira uchanda uheni wa mahara na kufipa mtima kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=|volume = 498|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7|series = Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing|year = 2017|isbn = 978-3-319-42069-1|last1 = Kantola|first1 = Jussi Ilari|last2 = Barath|first2 = Tibor|last3 = Nazir|first3 = Salman|last4 = Andre|first4 = Terence| title=Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education }}</ref> Suzgo limoza ni mphindano pa nkhongono ya vyakuhara kuyaniska na vinthu vinyake; kukolerana pakati pa vyakuhara na malo kungaŵa kwakuzirwa comene. === Masuzgo Agho Ghangaŵako === Masuzgo ghanandi gha uchanda ghali pa caro cose. Nthenda ni limoza mwa masuzgo ghanandi comene. Kuyana na GlobalIssues.org, ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni 36 ŵakufwa caka ciliconse na nthenda zambura kuyambukira, kusazgapo nthenda za mtima, kansa, shuga, na nthenda za maphapo za nyengo yitali.<ref name=":1" /> Mwa nthenda zakuyambukira, za tubungulu na za mabakiteriya, [[Edesi (AIDS)|Edesi/HIV]], TB, na [[Malungo|malungo]] ndizo zinandi comene, ndipo zikukoma ŵanthu mamiliyoni caka ciliconse.<ref name=":1" /> Suzgo linyake la uchanda ilo likukoma panji kovwira masuzgo ghanyake ni kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana, comene mwa ŵana. Ŵana ŵacoko ndiwo ŵakukhwaskika comene. Ŵana pafupifupi miliyoni 7.5 ŵa pasi pa vyaka 5 ŵakufwa na kusoŵa vyakulya vyakukwana, kanandi cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama za kusanga panji kupanga vyakulya.<ref name=":1" /> Vilonda vya thupi navyo ni suzgo la uchanda pa caro cose. Vilonda ivi, kusazgapo kuphwanyika kwa viwanga na kupsa, vingacepeska uwemi wa umoyo wa munthu panji kumukoma, kusazgapo nthenda izo zikufuma ku cilonda.<ref name=":1">Shah, Anup (5 January 2014). [http://www.globalissues.org/issue/587/health-issues "Health Issues."] ''Global Issues''.</ref> Vyakusankha vya nkhalo vikovwira uchanda uheni kanandi. Ivi vikusazgapo kukweŵa fodya, na so vyakulya viheni, kwali kurya comene panji kurya pacoko comene. Kuleka kucita maseŵero gha thupi nako kungovwira masuzgo gha uchanda, pamoza na kusoŵa tulo, kumwa moŵa comene, na kuleka kupwelelera mino. Pali so nthenda zakuharika izo munthu wakuhara, ndipo zingapambana pa umo zikukhwaskira munthu (na apo zikuwonekera).<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are the different ways a genetic condition can be inherited?: MedlinePlus Genetics |url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/inheritance/inheritancepatterns/ |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=medlineplus.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 20, 2021 |title=Genetic Disorders |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21751-genetic-disorders |access-date=July 17, 2024 |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Nangauli masuzgo ghanandi agha ghangavikilirika, cifukwa cikulu ca uchanda uheni pa caro cose ni kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi biliyoni yimoza ŵalije nthowa ya kufikira ucizgi.<ref name=":1" /> Suzgo likulu comene na liheni comene lingaŵa kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵalije nthowa ya kusanga ucizgi uwemi. === Uchanda wa Mahara === WHO yikulongosora uchanda wa mahara kuŵa "umoyo uwemi umo munthu wakumanya nkhongono zake, wangazizipizga kufipa mtima kwa umoyo kwa nyengo zose, wangagwira ntchito makola na mwakupindura, ndipo wangovwira muzi wake".<ref>World Health Organization (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging evidence, Practice: A report of the World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the University of Melbourne. World Health Organization. Geneva.</ref> Uchanda wa mahara ni kusoŵa ulwari wa mahara pera yayi.<ref name= Bos>{{cite journal |author1=Bos, E.H.|author2=Snippe, E.|author3=de Jonge, P.|author4=Jeronimus, B.F.| year = 2016 | title = Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11| issue = 3| article-number = e0150867 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0150867 |pmid=26963923|pmc=4786317|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1150867B|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ulwari wa mahara ukulongosoreka kuŵa "vyakucitika vya maghanoghano, vya mtima, na vya nkhalo ivyo vikusokonezga umoyo uwemi wa ubale na wa mtima na umoyo na ntchito za ŵanthu".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mental disorders |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Kuŵa na ulwari wa mahara kungananga comene, kwa kanyengo panji kwa muyirayira, umo mahara gha munthu ghakugwilira ntchito.<ref>Long, Steven W. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161012224715/http://lac.niu.edu.tw/files/archive/73_37d1d9ea.pdf Lifestyle Management: Achieving & Maintaining Good Health]. niu.edu.tw</ref> Pafupifupi magaŵa 20 pa 100 gha ŵalara wose mu U.S. ŵangasangika na ulwari wa mahara. Ulwari wa mahara ndiwo cifukwa cikulu ca kutomboroka mu United States na Canada. Viyelezgero vya ulwari uwu ni ''schizophrenia'', ADHD, kufipa mtima kukulu, ''bipolar disorder'', ulwari wa wofi, ulwari wa pamanyuma pa cakucitika ciheni, na ''autism''.<ref>[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml The numbers count: Mental disorders in America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728102548/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml |date=28 July 2014 }}. nih.gov</ref> Vinthu vinandi vikovwira masuzgo gha uchanda wa mahara, kusazgapo:<ref>[https://www.mentalhealth.gov/basics/what-is-mental-health "What Is Mental Health?"] (5 April 2019). ''MentalHealth.gov''. Retrieved 16 November 2019.</ref> * Vinthu vya thupi, nga ni vyakuhara panji usungunu wa wongo * Mbiri ya mbumba ya masuzgo gha uchanda wa mahara * Vyakucitika vya umoyo, nga ni vyakucitika viheni panji kuvukika == Kusunga Uchanda == Kufiska na kusunga uchanda ni ndondomeko yakulutilira, iyo yikupangika na kukura kwa vinjeru na kacitiro ka ucizgi, na nthowa za munthu na ntchito zakunozgeka za kukhala na uchanda uwemi. === Vyakulya === [[File:Overweight or obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|Magaŵa pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵakututuwa panji ŵakututuwa comene mu 2010. Uthenga ukufuma ku OECD iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|title=OECD Statistics|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref><ref name="OECDOverwObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53508|title=Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Overweight or obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=12 December 2013}}</ref>]] [[File:Obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|right|Magaŵa pa 100 gha ŵanthu ŵakututuwa comene mu 2010. Uthenga ukufuma ku OECD iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org"/><ref name="OECDObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53527|title=Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=13 December 2013}}</ref>]] Nthowa yakuzirwa ya kusunga uchanda wa munthu ni kurya vyakulya viwemi. Vyakulya viwemi vikusazgapo vyakulya vyakupambana vya vyakumera na vya vinyama ivyo vikupeleka vyakukhozga thupi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Healthy diet |url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/healthy-diet |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Vyakukhozga ivi vikupeleka nkhongono ku thupi na kulisunga kugwira ntchito. Vikovwira kuzenga na kukhozga viwanga, minofu, na misipa ndipo vikulongozga so ntchito za thupi (mwaciyelezgero, kukanikizga kwa ndopa). Maji ngakukhumbikwa pa kukura, kuŵaba, na uchanda uwemi. Vyakukhozga vikulu vikurika vinandi, ndipo vikusazgapo purotini, shuga na vyakulya vya nkhongono, na mafuta.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Heather |title=What are macronutrients? |url=https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/what-are-macronutrients-.h15-1593780.html |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=MD Anderson Cancer Center |language=en}}</ref> Vyakukhozga vicoko, mavitamini na vinthu vinyake, vikurika vicoko, kweni nvyakukhumbikwa pa ntchito za thupi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926205812/http://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-date=26 September 2011|title=Nutrients|website=WHO|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> Ciyelezgero ca vyakulya ca mawonekero gha pyramid ni cakulongozgera ca vyakulya viwemi cakugaŵika mu vigaŵa. Cigaŵa ciliconse cikulongora unandi wakwenelera wa gulu la vyakulya ilo (mwaciyelezgero purotini, mafuta, vyakulya vya nkhongono na shuga). Kusankha vyakulya viwemi kungacepeska ngozi ya nthenda za mtima na ya mitundu yinyake ya kansa, ndipo kungovwira munthu kusunga kuzitika kwake kwiwemi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |title=Healthy Eating: Why should I make healthy food choices? |publisher=Livelifewell.nsw.gov.au |access-date=1 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227194359/http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |archive-date=27 February 2014 }}</ref> Vyakulya vya Ŵanthu ŵa mu mphepete mwa Mediterranean kanandi vikukolerana na kukhozga uchanda. Ici nyengo zinyake cikufuma ku vinthu vinyake vya vyakumera ivyo vili mu vyakulya ivi.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Garrido M |author2=González-Flores D |author3=Marchena AM |author4=Propr E |author5=García-Parra J |author6=Barriga C |author7=Rodríguez A.B. |title=A lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil enhances antioxidant status in humans |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=1820–26 |pmid=23225211 |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.5972 |bibcode=2013JSFA...93.1820G |hdl=10662/20105 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Maseŵero gha Thupi === Maseŵero gha thupi ghakukhozga panji kusunga nkhongono za thupi na uchanda wose. Ghakukhozga viwanga na minofu na kunozga mtima na mikoli. Kuyana na National Institutes of Health, pali mitundu yinayi ya maseŵero: gha kuzizipizga, gha nkhongono, gha kupindika, na gha kujikhazga.<ref>{{cite web|title=4 Types of Exercise|work=Go4Life |url=https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|publisher=Go4Life, National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health|language=en|date=15 May 2014|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=1 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701094658/https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise}}</ref> CDC yikuti maseŵero gha thupi ghangacepeska ngozi ya nthenda za mtima, kansa, shuga, kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa, kututuŵa, kufipa mtima, na wofi.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 April 2020|title=Physical Activity Facts|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm|access-date=30 May 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> Kuti munthu waleke kujipweteka, kanandi kukuyowoyeka kuti wambe maseŵero pacoko pacoko. Kucita maseŵero ghaliwose, kwali ntchito za pa nyumba, za pa luŵazi, kwenda, panji kwimilira apo ukuyowoya pa foni, kukuwonekera kuŵa kwiwemi kuluska kuleka kose.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle|url=https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html|access-date=30 May 2021|website=medlineplus.gov}}</ref> === Tulo === Tulo ni cigaŵa cakukhumbikwa pa kusunga uchanda. Ku ŵana, tulo ntwakuzirwa so pa kukura. Kusoŵa tulo kwa nyengo yitali kukukolerana na kusazgikira kwa ngozi ya masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda gha nyengo yitali. Kweniso, kusoŵa tulo kwalongoreka kukolerana na kukora nthenda luŵiro na kucira pacoko pacoko.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pilkington |first=Stephanie |date=7 August 2013 |title=Causes and consequences of sleep deprivation in hospitalized patients |journal=Nursing Standard |volume=27 |issue=49 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.7748/ns2013.08.27.49.35.e7649|pmid=23924135 }}</ref> Mu kusanda kunyake, ŵanthu awo ŵakagonanga maora 6 panji pasi usiku ŵakaŵa pa ngozi kanayi ya kukora cimfine kuluska awo ŵakagonanga maora 7 panji kujumpha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/august/sleep-and-sickness.html |title=New Research Confirms Lack of Sleep Connected to Getting Sick |publisher=cmu.edu |author=Shilo Rea |date=31 August 2015|access-date=25 November 2015}}</ref> Cifukwa tulo tukulongozga kagayiro ka vyakulya mu thupi, kusoŵa tulo kungovwira kusazgikira kwa kuzitika panji kukanizga kucepa kwa kuzitika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sanjay R. |last2=Hu |first2=Frank B. |date=17 January 2008 |title=Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review |journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |doi=10.1038/oby.2007.118 |pmid=18239586 |pmc=2723045}}</ref> Kweniso, mu 2007, wupu wa kusanda kansa wa WHO ukati "ntchito ya usiku iyo yikusokonezga ndondomeko ya tulo panyake yikwiziska kansa", kulongora ngozi ya ntchito ya usiku ya nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |title=IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=5 December 2007 |access-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> Mu 2015, National Sleep Foundation yikapharazga malangulo ghaphya gha unandi wa tulo kuyana na vyaka, ndipo yikati "ŵanthu awo ŵakugona nyengo zose kuwaro kwa unandi wakwenelera ŵangaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya masuzgo ghakulu gha uchanda, panji, usange ŵakucita mwakukhumba, ŵakunanga uchanda wawo."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hirshkowitz, Max |author2=Whiton, Kaitlyn | title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary | journal= Sleep Health |url= http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/fulltext |date=14 January 2015 | pmid = 29073412| doi= 10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |access-date=25 November 2015 |display-authors=etal | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=40–43|s2cid=205190733 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> === Ntchito ya Kasandiro === [[File:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogv|thumb|upright=0.95|Uteŵeti wa Uchanda wa Ŵadatchi ukupeleka cipatala ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Dutch East Indies, Meyi 1946.]] Kasandiro ka uchanda ni cigaŵa ca kasandiro ico cikulaŵiska uchanda. Pali nthowa ziŵiri zikulu: kusanda thupi na nkhani za uchanda kuti ŵamanye umo ŵanthu (na vinyama) ŵakugwilira ntchito, na kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru ivi kukhozga uchanda na kuvikilira na kucizga nthenda na masuzgo ghanyake gha thupi na gha mahara. Kasandiro aka kakuthemba vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo kasandiro ka vyamoyo, usungunu wa vyamoyo, kusanda mendero, kasandiro ka kuthandazgika kwa nthenda, kasandiro ka mankhwala, na kasandiro ka ŵanthu mu ucizgi. Kasandiro ka uchanda ka kugwiliskira ntchito kakuyezga kumanya na kukhozga uchanda wa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa nga ni kusambizga za uchanda, luso la vilwero vya ucizgi, na uchanda wa ŵanthu wose. Ntchito zakunozgeka za kukhozga uchanda kuyana na fundo za kasandiro ka uchanda zikucitika na ŵantchito ŵakusambira [[Mankhwala|kasandiro ka ucizgi]], unesi, vyakulya, mankhwala, ntchito ya kovwira ŵanthu, kasandiro ka mahara, na ntchito zinyake za ucizgi. Ŵacizgi ŵakulaŵiska comene uchanda wa munthu yumoza, apo ŵantchito ŵa uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ŵakulaŵiska uchanda wa mizi na ŵanthu wose. Makampani ghakuzomerezga comene ndondomeko za uchanda pa malo gha ntchito cifukwa zikukhozga uchanda wa ŵantchito ŵawo, nga ni ntchito za uchanda za sukulu izo zikukhozga uchanda wa ŵana. === Ucizgi === Ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano kanandi ukucitika mu ndondomeko za ucizgi. Malango, kupeleka ziphaso, na ndondomeko za ndalama vikuŵikika na maulongozgi, nyengo zinyake pamoza na mawupu gha pakati pa vyaro, nga ni mipingo. Vimanyikwiro vya ndondomeko yiliyose ya ucizgi vikukhwaska comene umo ucizgi ukupelekekera. Kufuma kale, Ŵakhristu kulaŵiska lusungu lwakucitika kukapangiska kukura kwa unesi wakunozgeka na vipatala, ndipo Mpingo wa Katolika mazuŵa ghano ukucali wupu ukulu comene wambura kuŵa wa ulongozgi wakupeleka ucizgi pa caro cose. Vyaro vya mafakitale (kupatula United States) na vyaro vinandi vyakukura vikupeleka ucizgi kwizira mu ndondomeko ya ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose, iyo yikukhumba kusimikizga ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mulipiri yumoza, panji inshuwalansi yakukakizga. Ici cikusimikizga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵakufikira ucizgi kuyana na ivyo ŵakukhumba, kwambura kuthemba nkhongono ya kulipira. Ucizgi ungapelekeka na ŵacizgi ŵa paŵekha, vipatala vya ulongozgi, panji mawupu gha lusungu, kanandi na vyose vitatu pamoza. Mawupu ghanandi gha mafuko ghakusimikizga ucizgi wa ŵanthu wose yayi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sonowal |first=C.J. |date=April 2010 |title=Factors Affecting the Nutritional Health of Tribal Children in Maharashtra |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |journal=Studies on Ethno-Medicine |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=21–36 |doi=10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |issn=0973-5070|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu ŵanthu ŵantheura, ucizgi ukupelekeka ku awo ŵangalipira panji awo ŵali na inshuwalansi, panji awo ucizgi wawo ukulipirika na ulongozgi panji fuko. [[File:Drug ampoule JPN.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=mabotolo gha galasi gha ukulu wakupambanapambana|Tumabotolo twa mankhwala twa mazuŵa ghano]] Kuŵa pakweru kwa mauthenga ni cinthu cinyake ico cikupambanyizga ndondomeko ya kupeleka ucizgi. Kufikira mauthenga pa nthenda, ucizgi, uwemi, na mitengo kukukhwaska comene kusankha kwa ŵalwari, ndipo ntheura vifukwa vya ŵacizgi. Nangauli ndondomeko ya ucizgi ya U.S. yasuskika cifukwa ca kusoŵa kuŵa pakweru, malango ghaphya ghangakhozga kuŵa pakweru.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Martin | last = Sipkoff | name-list-style = vanc | title = Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement | journal = Managed Care | date = January 2004 | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–42 | pmid = 14763279 | url = http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | access-date = 16 April 2006 | archive-date = 17 February 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040217160421/http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | url-status = live }}</ref> Pali kususkana pakati pa khumbo la kuŵa pakweru na nkhani nga ni kusunga vya ŵalwari mwakubisika na kugwiliskira ntchito mauthenga pa malonda. ==== Kapelekero ==== Kapelekero ka ucizgi kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ucizgi wakwamba, waciŵiri, na wacitatu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia |url=http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle%3DPrimary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |website=www.arthapedia.in |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128011946/http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle=Primary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Nurses at Butawin Urban Clinic, PNG (10711159465).jpg|thumb|alt=cithuzi ca ŵalezi ŵatatu|Ŵalezi mu Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea|upright]] Ucizgi wakwamba ukupelekeka na ŵacizgi, ŵakovwira ŵacizgi, manesi, panji ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa ucizgi awo ŵakukumana dankha na mulwari uyo wakupenja ucizgi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123051332/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Ici cikucitika mu vipinda vya ŵacizgi, makiliniki, nyumba za ŵalara, sukulu, kuyendera pa nyumba, na malo ghanyake ghapafupi na ŵalwari. Pafupifupi magaŵa 90 pa 100 gha kuyendera ucizgi ghangacizgika na ŵacizgi ŵakwamba. Ici cikusazgapo kucizga nthenda zaluŵiro na za nyengo yitali, kuvikilira, na kusambizga za uchanda ku vyaka vyose na ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ucizgi waciŵiri ukupelekeka na ŵacizgi ŵapadera mu vipinda vyawo panji mu vipatala vya muzi ku mulwari uyo watumika na mucizgi wakwamba.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secondary Health Care |url=https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |website=International Medical Corps |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117030041/https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵalwari ŵakutumika para ŵakukhumba luso panji ntchito za ŵacizgi ŵapadera. Ici cikusazgapo ucizgi wa kuwelera ku nyumba na wa kugona mu cipatala, vigaŵa vya ngozi, ucizgi wapadera wa ŵalwari ŵakulu, vya kupanda, kucizga minofu, kubaba, kupima nthenda, kujambura thupi, na malo gha kupwelelera ŵalwari ŵakufwa. Ucizgi wacitatu ukupelekeka na vipatala vyapadera panji malo ghakulu gha vigaŵa agho ghali na vilwero vya kupima na kucizga ivyo vikusangika kanandi yayi mu vipatala vya muzi. Ici cikusazgapo malo gha ngozi zikulu, malo gha kucizga kupsa, ucizgi wapadera wa ŵana ŵakubabika, kuŵika viŵaro, nthumbo za ngozi, na kucizga kansa na nkhongono. Ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano ukuthemba so mauthenga, agho mu malo ghanandi ghacali kulembeka pa mapepala, kweni comene sono mwa nthowa za magesi. Mu vyaro vyakavu, ucizgi wa mazuŵa ghano kanandi ngwakudura comene ku munthu wapakati. Ŵasandi ŵa ndondomeko za ucizgi ŵakuti malipiro gha ŵalwari ghawuskike mu vigaŵa ivi, nangauli nanga pamanyuma pa kughawuskapo, mitengo na vikanizgo vikulu vikucalipo.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B | title = Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–82 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23599551 | pmc = 3629451 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.12.110015 }}</ref> Kupatula kulemba mankhwala na kupeleka mankhwala ni kacitiro mu ucizgi umo mucizgi uyo wakulemba mankhwala ngwakupambana na uyo wakupeleka mankhwala. Ku Kumanjiliro kuli mdawuko wa vyaka mahandiredi wa kupatula ŵakupeleka mankhwala na ŵacizgi. Mu vyaro vya Asiya, ŵacizgi kanandi ŵakupeleka so mankhwala.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ | title = Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–29 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12917273 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/czg038 | doi-access = free }}</ref> === Ntchito ya Uchanda wa Ŵanthu Wose === [[File:NewZealand-Stamp-1933-Health.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|Cidindo ca kalata, New Zealand, 1933. Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose walongoreka na kujambulika mu nthowa zinandi.]] Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose walongosoreka kuŵa "kasandiro na luso la kuvikilira nthenda, kutalikiska umoyo na kukhozga uchanda kwizira mu ntchito zakunozgeka na vyakusankha vyavinjeru vya wupu wa ŵanthu, mawupu gha ulongozgi na gha paŵekha, mizi na ŵanthu."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Winslow CE | title = The Untilled Fields of Public Health | journal = Science | volume = 51 | issue = 1306 | pages = 23–33 | year = 1920 | pmid = 17838891 | doi = 10.1126/science.51.1306.23 | bibcode = 1920Sci....51...23W | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_90880 }}</ref> Ukukhwaskana na ngozi ku uchanda wa muzi wose kuyana na kupenda uchanda wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵangaŵa ŵacoko pera panji ŵanandi nga ni ŵanthu wose ŵa vigaŵa vikulu vya mtunda vinandi (mwaciyelezgero, pa nthenda yakuthandazgika pa caro cose). Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose uli na vigaŵa vinandi, kweni kanandi vikusazgapo kasandiro ka kuthandazgika kwa nthenda, viŵerengero vya uchanda, na ntchito za uchanda. Uchanda wa malo ghakuzingilizga, wa muzi, wa nkhalo, na wa pa ntchito nawo ni vigaŵa vyakuzirwa. Cilato ca ntchito za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ni kuvikilira na kulongozga nthenda, vilonda na masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda kwizira mu kulondezga ŵalwari na kukhozga nkhalo, mizi, na malo ghawemi. Ukukhumba kuvikilira masuzgo gha uchanda kuti ghaleke kucitika panji kuwerezgeka mwa kupanga ndondomeko za kusambizga, kupanga ndondomeko za ulongozgi, kwendeska ntchito na kusanda.<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050307160406/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/about/index.html ''What is Public Health?''] Retrieved 24 June 2010</ref> Kanandi, kucizga nthenda panji kulaŵilira tuzirombo kungaŵa kwakuzirwa pa kuvikilira ŵanyake, nga ni pa kuthandazgika kwa nthenda. Ndondomeko za katemera na kupeleka makondomu kuvikilira kuthandazgika kwa nthenda zakuyambukira ni viyelezgero vya ntchito za kuvikilira za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, nga umo ziliri ntchito za kusambizga za kukhozga katemera na kagwiliskiro ka makondomu. Uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ukucita so ntchito zakupambana kucepeska kupambana kwa uchanda pakati pa vigaŵa vyakupambana vya caro, ndipo nyengo zinyake vya caro cose. Nkhani yimoza ni kufikira ucizgi kwa ŵanthu na mizi pa ndalama, malo, panji midawuko.<ref>Hispanics and the Future of America. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19910/ ''Access to and Quality of Health Care'']</ref> Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko ya uchanda wa ŵanthu wose kakusazgapo uchanda wa ŵamama na ŵana, kwendeska ntchito za uchanda, kuzgora ngozi, na kuvikilira na kulaŵilira nthenda zakuyambukira na za nyengo yitali. Uwemi ukulu wa ndondomeko za uchanda wa ŵanthu wose ukumanyikwa comene. Cigaŵa cifukwa ca ndondomeko na ntchito izo zikapangika kwizira mu uchanda wa ŵanthu wose, vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikawona kucepa kwa nyifwa za ŵana ŵacoko na ŵana na kusazgikira kwa utali wa umoyo mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caro cose. Mwaciyelezgero, kukughanaghanirika kuti utali wa umoyo wa Ŵaamerika wasazgikira na vyaka 30 kufuma 1900, ndipo pa caro cose na vyaka 6 kufuma 1990.<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050228214104/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/impact/index.html ''Impact of Public Health''.] Retrieved 24 June 2010.</ref><ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends_text/en/index.html ''Life expectancy at birth''], accessed 20 April 2011.</ref> === Nthowa za Kujipwelelera === [[File:Borch Lady washing hands.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Mwanakazi wakusamba mawoko {{Circa|1655}}]] Uchanda wa munthu ukuthemba pacoko vimanyikwiro ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona na kulondezga pa uchanda wawo. Ivi vikusazgapo ntchito za munthu za kuvikilira panji kucepeska vyakufumapo vya nthenda, kanandi nthenda ya nyengo yitali. Vikusazgapo so ukhondo wa munthu pa kuvikilira nthenda, nga ni kugeza na kusamba mawoko na sopo; kutozga mino; kusunga, kuphika na kugwira vyakulya makola; na vinyake vinandi. Mauthenga agho munthu wakusanga pa kujilaŵiska pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, nga ni pa tulo, maseŵero, vyakulya na malo, ghangagwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakusankha na vyakucita vya munthu (mwaciyelezgero, "Nkhupulika kuvuka mlenji ntheura nizamuyezga kugona pa mtsamiro unyake"), na so pa vyakusankha vya ucizgi (mwaciyelezgero, mulwari uyo wakuwona kuti skapato zake zikumufinya kuluska kale wangaŵa na suzgo la mtima, ndipo wangakhumba mankhwala gha kucepeska maji mu thupi).<ref name="e-primer3">Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828125539/http://www.projecthealthdesign.org/media/file/E-primer_3.pdf ''Health in Everyday Living''.]</ref> Uchanda wa munthu ukuthemba so pacoko ubale wa munthu na ŵanthu. Kusunga ubale wankhongono, kugwira ntchito zakwambura malipiro, na ntchito zinyake za pamoza na ŵanthu vikukolerana na uchanda uwemi wa mahara na umoyo utali. Kusanda kunyake kwa ku Amerika kwa ŵalara ŵa vyaka kujumpha 70 kukasanga kuti kugwira ntchito zambura malipiro kanandi kukakolerana na kucepa kwa ngozi ya nyifwa, kwambura kulaŵiska uchanda wa thupi.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris AH, Thoresen CE | title = Volunteering is Associated with Delayed Mortality in Older People: Analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Aging | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16176953 | doi = 10.1177/1359105305057310 | s2cid = 23314208 | url = http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722153152/http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-date = 22 July 2011 }}</ref> Kusanda kunyake kwa ku Singapore kukasanga kuti ŵalara ŵakupumula ŵakugwira ntchito zambura malipiro ŵakaŵa na vinjeru viwemi, kufipa mtima kucoko, na umoyo uwemi wa mahara kuluska awo ŵakagwiranga yayi.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwingel A, Niti MM, Tang C, Ng TP | title = Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies | journal = Age and Ageing | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 531–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19474036 | doi = 10.1093/ageing/afp089 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Kufipa mtima kwa nyengo yitali kungananga uchanda, ndipo kwayowoyeka nga ni cifukwa ca kunangika kwa vinjeru apo munthu wakukota, kufipa mtima kukulu, na nthenda.<ref>{{cite journal | author = McEwen BS | title = Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–81 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen | pmid = 17290796 | pmc = 3181832 }} {{open access}}</ref> Kulongozga kufipa mtima ni kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za kucepeska kufipa mtima panji kusazgira nkhongono ya kukuzizipizga. Nthowa za kupumuzga thupi ni nthowa za thupi za kucepeska kufipa mtima. Nthowa za mahara zikusazgapo ucizgi wa maghanoghano, kughanaghana mwakupumula, na kughanaghana viwemi, izo zikucepeska umo munthu wakuzgorera kufipa mtima. Kukhozga luso nga ni kumazga masuzgo na kulongozga nyengo kukucepeska kusoŵa kusimikizga na kukhozga kujigomezga, ndipo ici cikucepeska so kufipa mtima. == Uchanda pa Ntchito == Kupatula ngozi, ntchito zinandi zili so na ngozi ya nthenda, ulwari, na masuzgo ghanyake gha uchanda gha nyengo yitali. Nthenda zinandi za pa ntchito ni mitundu yakupambana ya nthenda za maphapo za fuvu, kusazgapo ya fuvu la malibwe na ya ŵantchito ŵa makala gha pasi (nthenda ya maphapo ghakufipa). Asima ni nthenda yinyake ya kupuma iyo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵali pa ngozi yake. Ŵantchito ŵangaŵa so pa ngozi ya nthenda za cikumba, kusazgapo kuyabwa, kupsa na zuŵa, na kansa ya cikumba. Nthenda zinyake za pa ntchito ni nthenda ya kupweteka kwa woko na poizoni wa mtovu. Apo ntchito za kuteŵetera ŵanthu zasazgikira mu vyaro vyakukura, ntchito zinandi zaŵa za kukhala pasi, ndipo zikwiziska masuzgo gha uchanda ghakupambana na gha ntchito za mafakitale na za ulimi. Masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano, nga ni kusazgikira kwa kututuŵa na masuzgo gha kufipa mtima na kugwira ntchito comene mu vyaro vinandi, ghasuzgiska so ubale pakati pa ntchito na uchanda. Maulongozgi ghanandi ghakuwona uchanda wa pa ntchito nga ni suzgo la wupu wa ŵanthu, ndipo ghapanga mawupu gha ulongozgi kuti ghasimikizge uchanda na civikiliro ca ŵantchito. Viyelezgero ni Health and Safety Executive ya Britain, na mu United States, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, iyo yikusanda uchanda na civikiliro pa ntchito, na Occupational Safety and Health Administration, iyo yikulongozga malango na ndondomeko za civikiliro na uchanda wa ŵantchito. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} e7j6q0h3ilf6qkjpt6p7ks133qt3prs 0 46837 124392 123663 2026-11-10T20:26:46Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|probability theory|game theory|graph theory|statistics}} {{other uses}} [[File:Dice Distribution (bar).svg|thumb|250px|Kuthekera kwa kuguzira manambara ghanandi mwakugwiliskira nchito madayisi ghaŵiri]] '''Mwaŵi''' (mu Cingelezi ''probability'') ukukhwaskana na vyakucitika na malongosoro gha manambala gha umo vingacitikira. Mwaŵi wa cakucitika ni nambala iyo yili pakati pa 0 na 1; para nambala iyi njikulu, ndipo mwaŵi wakuti cakucitika ici cicitike ngukulu.{{NoteTag|Kuyowoya makora, mwaŵi wa 0 ukulongora kuti cakucitika ''pafupifupi'' cicitikenge nkhanira, apo mwaŵi wa 1 ukulongora kuti cakucitika ''pafupifupi'' cicitikenge nadi. Kupambana uku nkhwakuzirwa para malo gha vyakufumapo ghalije umaliro. Mwaciyelezgero, pa manambala ghose pakati pa 5 na 10, pali vyakufumapo vyambura umaliro, ndipo mwaŵi wa kuwona cakufumapo cimoza – mwaciyelezgero, 7 caweneco – ni 0. Ici cikung'anamula kuti ''pafupifupi nadi'' cakufumapo cikaŵenge 7 caweneco yayi. Kweni cikung'anamula '''yayi''' kuti 7 caweneco ''cingacitika yayi''. Paumaliro cakufumapo cinyake (ca mwaŵi wa 0) cikuwonekenge, ndipo cimoza mwa ivyo cingaŵa 7 caweneco.}}<ref name="Stuart and Ord 2009">"Kendall's Advanced Theory of Statistics, Volume 1: Distribution Theory", Alan Stuart and Keith Ord, 6th ed., (2009), {{ISBN|978-0-534-24312-8}}.</ref><ref name="Feller">William Feller, ''An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications'', vol.&nbsp;1, 3rd ed., (1968), Wiley, {{ISBN|0-471-25708-7}}.</ref> Nambala iyi kanandi yikulongosoreka nga ni magaŵa pa 100 (%), kufuma pa 0% mpaka 100%. Ciyelezgero cipepuka ni kuponya ndalama yakwenelera (yambura kutemwa cigaŵa cimoza). Pakuti ndalama njakwenelera, vyakufumapo viŵiri ("mutu" na "mcira") vili na mwaŵi wakuyana; mwaŵi wa "mutu" ngwakuyana na mwaŵi wa "mcira"; ndipo pakuti palije cakufumapo cinyake, mwaŵi wa "mutu" panji "mcira" ni 1/2 (ico cingalembeka so kuti 0.5 panji 50%). Maghanoghano agha ghapika ndondomeko yakunozgeka ya [[Samuzi|masamu]] mu '''kasandiro ka mwaŵi''', ako kakugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu vigaŵa vya kasambiro nga ni viŵerengero, masamu, kasandiro, vya ndalama, njuga, [[Vinjeru vyakupangika|vinjeru vyakupangika]], kusambira kwa makina, kasandiro ka makompyuta, kasandiro ka maseŵero, na filosofi, mwaciyelezgero kumanya unandi wa umo vyakucitika vingacitikira. Kasandiro ka mwaŵi kakugwiliskirika ntchito so kulongosora umo ndondomeko zakusuzga zikugwilira ntchito na ivyo zikucita nyengo zose.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477530/probability-theory Probability Theory]. The Britannica website.</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''probability'' likufuma ku Cilatini ''probabilitas'', ilo lingang'anamula so "unenesko", cipimo ca mazaza gha kaboni pa mlandu wa dango mu Ulaya, ndipo kanandi likakoleranga na ucindami wa kaboni. Mu nthowa yinyake, ici cikupambana comene na ng'anamulo la mazuŵa ghano la mwaŵi, ilo ni cipimo ca uzito wa ukaboni wakuwoneka, ndipo likufikika mwa kughanaghana kufuma ku viyelezgero na kupenda viŵerengero.<ref name="Emergence">Hacking, I. (2006) ''The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68557-3}} {{page needed|date=June 2012}}</ref> == Kung'anamulika == Para tikuyowoya za viyezgo vyamwaŵi, ndiko kuti viyezgo ivyo vyakufumapo vyake nvyamwaŵi kweni vyalongosoreka makola, mu maghanoghano pera (nga ni kuponya ndalama), mwaŵi ungalongosoreka na manambala mwa kugaŵa unandi wa vyakufumapo ivyo tikukhumba na unandi wose wa vyakufumapo vyose. Ici cikuchemeka mwaŵi wa maghanoghano (kupambana na mwaŵi wa kuyezga, uwo ukupimika mu viyezgo vyeneco). Mwaŵi ni nambala pakati pa 0 na 1; para mwaŵi ngukulu, ndipo cakufumapo ico tikukhumba cingacitika comene. Mwaciyelezgero, kuponya ndalama kaŵiri kungapeleka "mutu-mutu", "mutu-mcira", "mcira-mutu", na "mcira-mcira". Mwaŵi wa kusanga "mutu-mutu" ni cimoza pa vinayi, panji mu manambala, 1/4, 0.25 panji 25%. Mwaŵi wa kusanga mutu umoza panji kujumpha ni vitatu pa vinayi, panji 0.75, ndipo cakucitika ici cingacitika comene. Kweni pa kugwiliskira ntchito, pali magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu ghakususkana gha kung'anamula mwaŵi, ndipo ŵakulondezga ŵake ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana pa umo mwaŵi uliri: # '''Ŵakulondezga vya unenesko wa kuwaro''' ŵakupeleka manambala kulongosora vyakucitika vyeneco panji vya kawiro. Mtundu wakumanyikwa comene ni mwaŵi wa unandi wa kucitika, uwo ukuti mwaŵi wa cakucitika camwaŵi ukulongora unandi wa kucitika kwa cakufumapo apo cakuyezga cawerezgeka kwambura kumala. Kung'anamulika uku kukuwona mwaŵi kuŵa unandi wa vyakufumapo "pakumalira". Kusintha kwa ghanoghano ili ni mwaŵi wa cizgowero, uwo ukung'anamula mwaŵi nga ni cizgowero ca cakuyezga kupeleka cakufumapo cinyake, nanga ni usange cacitika kamoza pera. # '''Ŵakulondezga vya maghanoghano gha munthu''' ŵakupeleka manambala kuyana na mwaŵi wa maghanoghano, ndiko kuti, nga ni cipimo ca kugomezga. Cipimo ca kugomezga cang'anamulika nga ni "mtengo uwo ungagula panji kuguliska pangano ilo likulipira cigaŵa cimoza ca candulo usange E yacitika, 0 usange E yindacitike", nangauli kung'anamulika uku kukuzomerezgeka na wose yayi. Mtundu wakumanyikwa comene ni mwaŵi wa Bayes, uwo ukusazgapo vinjeru vya ŵakumanya pamoza na vyakusangika mu viyezgo kuti upange mwaŵi. Vinjeru vya ŵakumanya vikulongoreka na kagaŵiro ka mwaŵi ka pambere. Vyakusangika vikusazgika mu ndondomeko ya kuyana. Kandanizgo ka mwaŵi wa pambere na wa kuyana, para kanozgeka, kakupeleka kagaŵiro ka mwaŵi ka pamanyuma ako kakusazgapo mauthenga ghose agho ghakumanyikwa mpaka sono. Kuyana na fundo ya Aumann ya kuzomerezgana, ŵakughanaghana nga ni Bayes awo maghanoghano ghawo gha pambere ghakuyana ŵazamuŵa na maghanoghano ghakuyana gha pamanyuma. Kweni maghanoghano gha pambere ghakupambana comene ghangapangiska vyakumalizgira vyakupambana, kwambura kuthemba unandi wa mauthenga agho ŵakugaŵana. == Mbiri == Kusanda kwa mwaŵi mwa kasandiro ni kukura kwa mazuŵa ghano kwa masamu. Njuga yikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kupima maghanoghano gha mwaŵi mu mbiri yose, kweni malongosoro ghakulunjika gha masamu ghakiza pamanyuma comene. Pali vifukwa vya kukura pacoko kwa masamu gha mwaŵi. Nangauli maseŵero gha mwaŵi ghakapeleka cifukwa ca kusanda mwaŵi mwa masamu, nkhani zikulu zicali kubisika na vikhulupiliro vya utesi.{{NoteTag|Mu buku ilo mazgo agha ghakufuma, ni kasandiro ka mwaŵi na fundo zake ivyo vikulongozga vinthu nga ivi, kuluska kulongolera mwaliŵiro uko kukuthemba mwaŵi pera panji nthanthi nga ni ŵaciuta ŵa mwaŵi awo ŵakovwira wakupunda pa maseŵero.}}<ref>Freund, John. (1973) ''Introduction to Probability''. Dickenson {{isbn|978-0-8221-0078-2}} (p. 1)</ref> Kuyana na Richard Jeffrey, "Pambere pa pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, lizgu lakuti 'probable' (Cilatini ''probabilis'') likang'anamulanga 'lakuzomerezgeka', ndipo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu ng'anamulo ili pa maghanoghano na pa vyakucita. Cakucita panji ghanoghano 'lakuzomerezgeka' likaŵa ilo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵangacita panji kughanaghana mu vyakucitika ivyo."<ref name="Jeffrey">Jeffrey, R.C., ''Probability and the Art of Judgment,'' Cambridge University Press. (1992). pp. 54–55 . {{isbn|0-521-39459-7}}</ref> Kweni comene mu nkhani za dango, 'probable' lingagwiliskirika ntchito so pa mazgo agho ghakaŵa na ukaboni uwemi.<ref name="Franklin">Franklin, J. (2001) ''The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal,'' Johns Hopkins University Press. (pp. 22, 113, 127)</ref> Gerolamo Cardano, mukumanya vinthu vinandi wa ku Italy wa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakalongora uwemi wa kulongosora mwaŵi nga ni kuyaniska kwa vyakufumapo viwemi na viheni (ico cikung'anamula kuti mwaŵi wa cakucitika ukupelekeka na kuyaniska kwa vyakufumapo viwemi na unandi wose wa vyakufumapo ivyo vingacitika). [[File:Gerolamo Cardano, self-portrait (1501–1576).jpg|thumb|140px|Gerolamo Cardano (vyaka vya m'ma 1500)]] [[File:Caspar Netscher - Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer, 1671.jpg|thumb|140px|Christiaan Huygens wakafumiska limoza mwa mabuku ghakwamba gha mwaŵi (vyaka vya m'ma 1600).]] Kupatula ntchito yakwamba ya Cardano, fundo za mwaŵi zikwamba na makalata pakati pa Pierre de Fermat na Blaise Pascal (1654).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.columbia.edu/~pg2113/index_files/Gorroochurn-Some%20Laws.pdf| title = ''Some laws and problems in classical probability and how Cardano anticipated them'' Gorrochum, P. ''Chance'' magazine 2012}}</ref> Christiaan Huygens (1657) wakapeleka kusanda kwakwamba kwa kasandiro kwa nkhani iyi ako kakumanyikwa.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.secondmoment.org/articles/probability.php |publisher=Second Moment |access-date=2008-05-23 |title=A Brief History of Probability |last=Abrams |first=William |archive-date=24 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724052656/http://www.secondmoment.org/articles/probability.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Ars Conjectandi'' ya Jakob Bernoulli (yakupharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, 1713) na ''Doctrine of Chances'' ya Abraham de Moivre (1718) vikasanda nkhani iyi nga ni cigaŵa ca masamu. Kasandiro ka viheni kangalondezgeka kuwelera ku ''Opera Miscellanea'' ya Roger Cotes (yakupharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, 1722), kweni kalata iyo Thomas Simpson wakanozga mu 1755 (yakudindika 1756) ndiyo yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro aka pa viheni vya kulaŵiska.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shoesmith|first=Eddie|date=November 1985|title=Thomas Simpson and the arithmetic mean|journal=Historia Mathematica|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=352–355|doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90044-8|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kudindika so (1757) kwa kalata iyi kukaŵika fundo zakuti viheni vyakusazgikira na vyakucepa vili na mwaŵi wakuyana, na kuti mphaka zinyake zingapimika zikulongosora vigaŵa vya viheni vyose. Simpson wakayowoya so za viheni vyakulutilira na kulongosora mzere wa mwaŵi. Malango ghaŵiri ghakwamba gha viheni agho ghakasacizgika ghose ghakafuma kwa Pierre-Simon Laplace. Lamulo lakwamba likapharazgika mu 1774, ndipo likati unandi wa kucitika kwa cheni ungalongosoreka nga ni ndondomeko ya ''exponential'' ya ukulu wa cheni, kwambura kulaŵiska usange ncakusazgikira panji cakucepa. Lamulo laciŵiri la viheni likasacizgika mu 1778 na Laplace, ndipo likati unandi wa kucitika kwa cheni ni ndondomeko ya ''exponential'' ya cheni cakandanizgika na ceneco.<ref name=Wilson1923>Wilson EB (1923) "First and second laws of error". Journal of the American Statistical Association, 18, 143</ref> Lamulo laciŵiri ili likuchemeka kagaŵiro ka nyengo zose panji lamulo la Gauss. "Nchakusuzga mu mbiri kuti Gauss ndiyo wakasanga lamulo ili, cifukwa nanga wakaŵa wavinjeru luŵiro, pambere wandafikiske vyaka viŵiri wakasanga ici yayi."<ref name=Wilson1923 /> Daniel Bernoulli (1778) wakanjizga fundo ya kandanizgo kakulu ka mwaŵi wa ndondomeko ya viheni vyakucitika pamoza. [[File:Bendixen - Carl Friedrich Gauß, 1828.jpg|thumb|140px|Carl Friedrich Gauss]] Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805) wakapanga nthowa ya ''least squares'', ndipo wakayinjizga mu buku lake la nthowa ziphya za kumanya nthowa za nyenyezi za mcira.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Seneta|first1=Eugene William|title="Adrien-Marie Legendre" (version 9)|url=http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/AdrienMarieLegendre.html|website=StatProb: The Encyclopedia Sponsored by Statistics and Probability Societies|access-date=27 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203070724/http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/AdrienMarieLegendre.html|archive-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> Kwambura kumanya ntchito ya Legendre, mulembi wa ku Ireland na Amerika, Robert Adrain, mulongozgi wa magazini ya "The Analyst" (1808), ndiyo wakamba kusanga lamulo la kupepuka kwa cheni, : <math>\phi(x) = ce^{-h^2 x^2}</math> apo ''h'' ni nambala yambura kusintha iyo yikuthemba ukwenelero wa kulaŵiska, ndipo ''c'' ni nambala iyo yikusimikizga kuti ukulu wa malo pasi pa mzere ni 1. Wakapeleka ukaboni uŵiri, ndipo waciŵiri ukaŵa wakuyana na wa John Herschel (1850). Gauss wakapeleka ukaboni wakwamba uwo ukumanyikwa mu Ulaya (wacitatu pamanyuma pa Adrain) mu 1809. Ukaboni unyake ukapelekeka na Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), James Ivory (1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838), W.F. Donkin (1844, 1856), na Morgan Crofton (1870). Ŵanyake awo ŵakovwira ni Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), na Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Ndondomeko ya Peters (1856) ya ''r'', cheni ca mwaŵi ca kulaŵiska kumoza, njakumanyikwa makola. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵalembi ŵa kasandiro ka pose ŵakaŵa Laplace, Sylvestre Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Adolphe Quetelet (1853), Richard Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Hermann Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion na Karl Pearson. Augustus De Morgan na George Boole ŵakanozga malongosoro gha kasandiro aka. Mu 1906, Andrey Markov wakanjizga ghanoghano la minjololo ya Markov, ilo likagwira ntchito yikulu mu kasandiro ka ndondomeko zamwaŵi na kagwiliskiro kake.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/~rrw1/markov/M.pdf|title = Markov Chains|first= Richard |last = Weber|website = Statistical Laboratory|publisher = University of Cambridge}}</ref> Kasandiro ka mwaŵi ka mazuŵa ghano, ako kakuthemba kasandiro ka kupima, kakapangika na Andrey Kolmogorov mu 1931.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vitanyi |first1= Paul M.B.|title=Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov|journal=CWI Quarterly|date=1988|issue=1|pages=3–18|url=http://homepages.cwi.nl/~paulv/KOLMOGOROV.BIOGRAPHY.html|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref> Ku cigaŵa ca masamu gha mawonekero, awo ŵakalemba mu ''The Educational Times'' ŵakaŵa Miller, Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, na Artemas Martin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilcox, Rand R.|title=Understanding and applying basic statistical methods using R|date= 2016|isbn=978-1-119-06140-3|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|oclc=949759319}}</ref> == Kasandiro == Nga ni masandiro ghanyake, kasandiro ka mwaŵi ni kulongora maghanoghano ghake mu mazgo ghakunozgeka, ndiko kuti, mu mazgo agho ghangawoneka paŵekha kufuma ku ng'anamulo lawo. Mazgo agha ghakusinthika na malango gha masamu na gha kughanaghana makola, ndipo vyakufumapo vyose vikung'anamulika panji kuwezgereka ku suzgo ilo likupendeka. Pali nthowa ziŵiri izo zikakhozgeka kunozga mwaŵi mwa masamu: nthowa ya Kolmogorov na nthowa ya Cox. Mu nthowa ya Kolmogorov, magulu ghakung'anamulika nga ni vyakucitika, ndipo mwaŵi nga ni cipimo pa gulu la magulu. Mu fundo ya Cox, mwaŵi ukutoreka nga ni cinthu cakwamba (cambura kupendeka so), ndipo vikulu ni kupanga kagaŵiro kakukolerana ka mwaŵi ku mazgo. Mu nthowa zose ziŵiri, malango gha mwaŵi ngakuyana, kupatula tunthu tucoko twa luso. Pali nthowa zinyake za kupima kusoŵa kusimikizga, nga ni kasandiro ka Dempster–Shafer panji kasandiro ka kuthekera, kweni izi nzakupambana comene ndipo zikukolerana yayi na malango gha mwaŵi agho ghakumanyikwa. == Kagwiliskiro == Kasandiro ka mwaŵi kakugwiliskirika ntchito pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa pa kupima ngozi na kupanga viyelezgero. Makampani gha inshuwalansi na misika ghakugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka ngozi kuti ghamanye mitengo na kusankha pa malonda. Maulongozgi ghakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za mwaŵi pa kulongozga malo ghakuzingilizga, kupenda vyakwenelera, na kulongozga vya ndalama. Ciyelezgero ca kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi pa malonda gha magaŵa gha makampani ni umo mwaŵi wakuwoneka wa nkhondo yikulu mu Vuma Lapakati ukukhwasila mitengo ya mafuta, ndipo ici cikukhwaska vyacuma vyose. Para mulonda wa vinthu waghanaghana kuti nkhondo yingacitika comene, mitengo ya vinthu ivyo yingakwera panji kucepa, ndipo ici cikumanyiska ŵalonda ŵanyake maghanoghano agha. Ntheura, mwaŵi ukupimika paŵekha yayi, ndipo nyengo zose mwa vinjeru yayi. Kasandiro ka vya ndalama vya nkhalo kakiza kulongosora umo kughanaghana kwa gulu kukukhwaskira mitengo, ndondomeko, na mtendere na nkhondo.<ref>Singh, Laurie (2010) "Whither Efficient Markets? Efficient Market Theory and Behavioral Finance". The Finance Professionals' Post, 2010.</ref> Kupatula kupima vya ndalama, mwaŵi ungagwiliskirika ntchito kupenda umo vinthu vikwendera mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo (mwaciyelezgero, kuthandazgika kwa nthenda) na mu kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo.<ref name="Edwards_2012_2">{{cite journal |title=Reginald Crundall Punnett: First Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics, Cambridge, 1912 |author-first=Anthony William Fairbank |author-last=Edwards |author-link=Anthony William Fairbank Edwards |location=Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, UK |date=September 2012 |journal=Genetics |department=Perspectives |publisher=Genetics Society of America |volume=192 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1534/genetics.112.143552 |pmc=3430543 |pmid=22964834 |quote-pages=5–6 |quote=[...] Punnett's square seems to have been a development of 1905, too late for the first edition of his ''Mendelism'' (May 1905) but much in evidence in ''Report III to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society'' [(Bateson et al. 1906b) "received March 16, 1906"]. The earliest mention is contained in a letter to Bateson from Francis Galton dated October 1, 1905 (Edwards 2012). We have the testimony of Bateson (1909, p. 57) that "For the introduction of this system [the 'graphic method'], which greatly simplifies difficult cases, I am indebted to Mr. Punnett." [...] The first published diagrams appeared in 1906. [...] when Punnett published the second edition of his ''Mendelism'', he used a slightly different format ([...] Punnett 1907, p. 45) [...] In the third edition (Punnett 1911, p. 34) he reverted to the arrangement [...] with a description of the construction of what he called the "chessboard" method (although in truth it is more like a multiplication table). [...]}} (11 pages)</ref> Nga ni pa vya ndalama, kupima ngozi kungagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cilwero ca viŵerengero kupima mwaŵi wa kucitika kwa vyakucitika viheni, ndipo kungovwira kuŵika ndondomeko za kuvigega. Mwaŵi ukugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga maseŵero gha mwaŵi mwakuti nyumba za njuga zisange candulo cakusimikizgika, kweni zipeleke ku ŵaseŵezi malipiro kanandi mwakukwana kuti ŵalutilire kuseŵera.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=J.Z.|last2=Fong|first2=D.|last3=Liu|first3=X.|title=Mathematical analyses of casino rebate systems for VIP gambling|journal=International Gambling Studies|date=April 2011|volume=11|issue=1|pages=93–106|doi=10.1080/14459795.2011.552575|s2cid=144540412}}<!--|access-date=13 October 2015--></ref> Kagwiliskiro kanyake kakuzirwa ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa ni kugomezgeka kwa vinthu. Vinthu vinandi vya ŵakugula, nga ni magalimoto na vilwero vya magesi, vikugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka kugomezgeka pa kupanga vinthu kuti vicepeske mwaŵi wa kunangika. Mwaŵi wa kunangika ungakhwaska visankho vya ŵakupanga pa cipangano ca kunozga panji kusintha cinthu.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1287/mnsc.1090.1132| title=Management Insights| journal=Management Science| volume=56| pages=iv–vii| year=2010| last1=Gorman| first1=Michael F.| doi-access=}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya ciyowoyero vya viŵerengero ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupenda viyowoyero vya ŵanthu na makompyuta navyo ni viyelezgero vya kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi. == Kalongosoreko ka Masamu == [[File:probability vs odds.svg|thumb|right|Kupenda mwaŵi (ngozi) na kupenda ''odds'' (kuyaniska mwaŵi wa kucitika na wa kuleka kucitika)]] Ghanaghanirani cakuyezga ico cingapeleka vyakufumapo vinandi. Gulu la vyakufumapo vyose ivyo vingacitika likuchemeka malo gha viyelezgero gha cakuyezga, ndipo nyengo zinyake likulembeka kuti Ω. Gulu la magulu ghose gha malo gha viyelezgero likupangika mwa kulaŵiska kawunjikiro kose kakupambana ka vyakufumapo ivyo vingacitika. Mwaciyelezgero, kuponya dayisi kungapeleka vyakufumapo vinkhondi na cimoza. Kawunjikiro kamoza ka vyakufumapo kakupeleka nambala ya mphumphi pa dayisi. Ntheura, kagulu {1,3,5} ni cigaŵa ca gulu la magulu gha malo gha viyelezgero gha kuponya dayisi. Kawunjikiro aka kakuchemeka "vyakucitika". Apa, {1,3,5} ni cakucitika cakuti dayisi yawa pa nambala ya mphumphi. Usange vyakufumapo ivyo vyacitika nadi vili mu cakucitika cinyake, tikuti cakucitika ico cacitika. Mwaŵi ni nthowa ya kupeleka ku cakucitika ciliconse nambala pakati pa zero na yimoza, na lamulo lakuti cakucitika ico cili na vyakufumapo vyose ivyo vingacitika (mu ciyelezgero citu, cakucitika {1,2,3,4,5,6}) cipike nambala yimoza. Kuti kuŵe mwaŵi, kupeleka manambala kukwenera kufiska lamulo lakuti pa kawunjikiro kaliko kose ka vyakucitika vyambura kucitika pamoza (vyakucitika ivyo vilije cakufumapo cakugaŵana, nga ni {1,6}, {3}, na {2,4}), mwaŵi wakuti cimoza mwa vyakucitika ici cicitike ni kusazga kwa mwaŵi wa vyakucitika vyose paŵekha.<ref>{{cite book|last = Ross|first = Sheldon M. |title = A First course in Probability|edition= 8th |pages = 26–27|publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall|date = 2010|isbn = 9780136033134}}</ref> Mwaŵi wa cakucitika A ukulembeka kuti <math>P(A)</math>, <math>p(A)</math>, panji <math>\text{Pr}(A)</math>.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Weisstein|first=Eric W.|title=Probability|url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Probability.html|access-date=2020-09-10|website=mathworld.wolfram.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>Olofsson (2005) p. 8.</ref> Ng'anamulo ili la masamu la mwaŵi lingagwira ntchito so pa malo gha viyelezgero ghambura mphaka, nanga ni ghambura kupendeka, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ghanoghano la cipimo. Cakususkana na cakucitika A ni cakucitika [A yayi] (ndiko kuti, cakucitika ca A kuleka kucitika), ico kanandi cikulembeka kuti <math>A', A^c, \overline{A}, \neg A</math>, panji <math>{\sim}A</math>; mwaŵi wake ni P(A yayi) = 1 − P(A).<ref>Olofsson (2005), p. 9</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mwaŵi wa kuleka kusanga 6 pa dayisi ya mbali 6 ni 1 – (mwaŵi wa kusanga 6) = 1 − 1/6 = 5/6. Usange vyakucitika viŵiri A na B vyacitika pa kucita kamoza cakuyezga, ici cikuchemeka mwaŵi wa pamoza wa A na B, wakulembeka kuti <math>P(A \cap B)</math>. === Vyakucitika Vyambura Kuthembana === Usange vyakucitika viŵiri, A na B, nvyambura kuthembana, mwaŵi wa pamoza ni : <math>P(A \text{ na } B) = P(A \cap B) = P(A)P(B).</math> [[File:Mutually Exclusive and Non-exclusive Probability Events.jpg|thumb|Vyakucitika A na B ivyo vyambura kucitika pamoza, na ivyo vingacitika pamoza, mu malo Ω]] Mwaciyelezgero, usange ndalama ziŵiri zaponyeka, mwaŵi wakuti zose ziŵiri zipeleke mutu ni <math>\tfrac{1}{2} \times \tfrac{1}{2} = \tfrac{1}{4}.</math><ref name=":2" /><ref>Olofsson (2005) p. 35.</ref> === Vyakucitika Vyambura Kucitika Pamoza === Usange cakucitika A panji cakucitika B cingacitika, kweni vyose viŵiri pamoza yayi, vikuchemeka vyakucitika vyambura kucitika pamoza. Usange vyakucitika viŵiri nvyambura kucitika pamoza, mwaŵi wakuti vyose viŵiri vicitike ni : <math>P(A \text{ na } B) = P(A \cap B) = 0.</math> Usange vyakucitika viŵiri nvyambura kucitika pamoza, mwaŵi wakuti cimoza mwa ivyo cicitike ni : <math>P(A \text{ panji } B) = P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B).</math> Mwaciyelezgero, mwaŵi wa kusanga 1 panji 2 pa dayisi ya mbali 6 ni <math>P(1 \text{ panji } 2) = P(1) + P(2) = \tfrac{1}{6} + \tfrac{1}{6} = \tfrac{1}{3}.</math> === Vyakucitika Ivyo Vingacitika Pamoza === Usange vyakucitika vingacitika pamoza, ndipo : <math>P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A \cap B).</math> Mwaciyelezgero, para mukutora kadi yimoza mu kadi 52, mwaŵi wa kusanga kadi ya mtima panji kadi ya cithuzi (J, Q, K) (panji zose ziŵiri) ni <math>\tfrac{13}{52} + \tfrac{12}{52} - \tfrac{3}{52} = \tfrac{11}{26},</math> cifukwa mu kadi 52, 13 nza mtima, 12 nza cithuzi, ndipo 3 nza vyose viŵiri: apa kadi "3 za vyose viŵiri" zili mu "13 za mtima" na mu "12 za cithuzi", kweni zikwenera kupendeka kamoza pera. Ici cingasazgika so pa vyakucitika vinandi ivyo vingacitika pamoza. Pa vyakucitika vitatu, kukuŵa nthena: : <math>P(A \cup B \cup C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A \cap B) - P(A \cap C) - P(B \cap C) + P(A \cap B \cap C)</math> Ntheura tikuwona kuti ndondomeko iyi yingawerezgeka pa unandi uliwose wa vyakucitika. === Mwaŵi wa Kuthemba === Mwaŵi wa kuthemba ni mwaŵi wa cakucitika A, para cakucitika cinyake B cacitika. Mwaŵi wa kuthemba ukulembeka kuti <math>P(A \mid B)</math>, ndipo ukuŵerengeka kuti "mwaŵi wa A, para B yacitika". Ukulongosoreka na : <math>P(A \mid B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}</math> Usange <math>P(B) = 0</math>, ndipo <math>P(A \mid B)</math> ndambura kulongosoreka mu ndondomeko iyi. Kweni ncakuthekera kulongosora mwaŵi wa kuthemba pa vyakucitika vinyake vya mwaŵi wa zero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conditional probability with respect to a sigma-algebra |url=https://www.statlect.com/fundamentals-of-probability/conditional-probability-as-a-random-variable |access-date=2022-07-04 |website=statlect.com}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mu cikwama ca mipira 2 yakufiira na mipira 2 ya buluu (mipira 4 yose), mwaŵi wa kutora mpira wakufiira ni <math>1/2;</math> kweni para mukutora mpira waciŵiri, mwaŵi wakuti uŵe wakufiira panji wa buluu ukuthemba mpira uwo wakatoreka pakwamba. Mwaciyelezgero, usange mpira wakufiira wakatoreka, mwaŵi wa kutora so mpira wakufiira ungaŵa <math>1/3,</math> cifukwa pakasyala mpira 1 wakufiira na 2 ya buluu pera. Ndipo usange mpira wa buluu wakatoreka pakwamba, mwaŵi wa kutora mpira wakufiira ungaŵa <math>2/3.</math> === Mwaŵi wa Kuwezgera === Mu kasandiro ka mwaŵi na kagwiliskiro kake, lamulo la Bayes likukolerana mwaŵi wa cakucitika <math>A_1</math> kuluska cakucitika <math>A_2</math>, pambere na pamanyuma pa kuthemba cakucitika cinyake <math>B</math>. Mwaŵi wa <math>A_1</math> kuluska <math>A_2</math> ni waka kuyaniska kwa mwaŵi wa vyakucitika viŵiri. Para vyakucitika vinandi <math>A</math> vikukhumbikwa, kwambura kuŵa viŵiri pera, lamulo lingayowoyeka so kuti mwaŵi wa pamanyuma ukolerana na mwaŵi wa pambere kandanizga kuyana, <math>P(A \mid B) \propto P(A) P(B \mid A)</math>, apo cimanyikwiro ca kukolerana cikung'anamula kuti cigaŵa ca kumazere cikukolerana na (ndiko kuti, ncakuyana na nambala yambura kusintha kandanizga) cigaŵa ca kumalyero apo <math>A</math> yikusintha, pa <math>B</math> yakukhazikika. Mu mtundu uwu, likuwelera kwa Laplace (1774) na Cournot (1843). == Ubale na Mwaŵi mu Kasandiro ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene == Mu caro ca kusimikizgika, kuyana na maghanoghano gha Newton, mwaŵi ungaŵako yayi usange vyakucitika vyose vingamanyikwa (ciŵanda ca Laplace) (kweni pali vyakucitika umo kukhwaskika na vyakucitika vyakwamba kukujumpha nkhongono zithu za kuvipima, ndiko kuti kuvimanya). Pa gudumu la njuga la ''roulette'', usange nkhongono ya woko na nyengo ya nkhongono iyo vikumanyikwa, nambala iyo mpira ungimilirapo yingaŵa yakusimikizgika (nangauli mu kacitiro, ici cingaŵa caunenesko pera pa gudumu ilo ndakunozgeka makola yayi, nga umo buku la Thomas A. Bass likavumbulira). Ici cikukhumba so kumanya kuzitika kwa gudumu na kukwekana kwake, kuzitika, kuterera, na kuzunguliya kwa mpira, kusintha kwa luŵiro lwa woko apo likuzunguzga, na vinyake. Ntheura malongosoro gha mwaŵi ghangaŵa ghakovwira comene kuluska kasandiro ka Newton pa kupenda vyakufumapo vya kuzunguzga kanandi gudumu la ''roulette''. Ŵasandi ŵa mendero ŵakukumana na suzgo lakuyana mu kasandiro ka mphepo, umo ndondomeko, nangauli njakusimikizgika mu maghanoghano, njakusuzga comene (na unandi wa tuvinthu tucoko pafupifupi nga ni nambala ya Avogadro 6.02×10<sup>23</sup>) mwakuti malongosoro gha viŵerengero pera ndigho ghangathekera.<ref>Riedi, P.C. (1976). Kinetic Theory of Gases-I. In: Thermal Physics. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-15669-6_8</ref> Kasandiro ka mwaŵi nkhakukhumbikwa kulongosora vyakucitika vya tuvinthu tucoko comene.<ref>{{cite arXiv|last = Burgin|first= Mark|year =2010|title = Interpretations of Negative Probabilities|page= 1|class= physics.data-an|eprint=1008.1287v1}}</ref> Kusanga kukulu kwa kusanda mendero kwa kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 kukaŵa kuti ndondomeko zose za vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa ukulu wa pasi pa atomu nza mwaŵi, ndipo zikulongozgeka na malango gha kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene. Ndondomeko ya jigha yikusintha mwakusimikizgika, kweni, kuyana na kung'anamulika kwa Copenhagen, yikukhwaskana na mwaŵi wa kuwona, ndipo cakufumapo cikulongosoreka na kuwa kwa ndondomeko ya jigha para kulaŵiska kwacitika. Kweni kutaya kusimikizgika kukazomerezgeka na wose yayi. Albert Einstein wakalemba mu kalata kwa Max Born kuti: "Nkhusimikizga kuti Ciuta wakuseŵera madayisi yayi".<ref>''Jedenfalls bin ich überzeugt, daß der Alte nicht würfelt.'' Letter to Max Born, 4 December 1926, in: [https://books.google.com/books?id=LQIsAQAAIAAJ&q=achtung-gebietend Einstein/Born Briefwechsel 1916–1955].</ref> Nga ni Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, uyo wakasanga ndondomeko ya jigha, wakagomezganga kuti kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ni kapimiro ka viŵerengero ka unenesko wa pasi wakusimikizgika.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=W.J. |year=1992 |title=Schrödinger: Life and Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=479 |isbn= 978-0-521-43767-7}}</ref> Mu kung'anamulika kunyake kwa mazuŵa ghano, kutaya kukolerana kwa tuvinthu tucoko kukugwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora cifukwa ico vyakufumapo vya viyezgo vikuwonekera kuŵa vya mwaŵi. == Wonani So == {{main|Outline of probability}} * [[Contingency (philosophy)|Contingency]] * [[Equiprobability]] * [[Fuzzy logic]] * [[Heuristic (psychology)]] == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} == References == {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== * [[Olav Kallenberg|Kallenberg, O.]] (2005) ''Probabilistic Symmetries and Invariance Principles''. Springer-Verlag, New York. 510 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-387-25115-4}} * Kallenberg, O. (2002) ''Foundations of Modern Probability,'' 2nd ed. Springer Series in Statistics. 650 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-387-95313-2}} * Olofsson, Peter (2005) ''Probability, Statistics, and Stochastic Processes'', Wiley-Interscience. 504 pp {{ISBN|0-471-67969-0}}. ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikibooks}} {{Commons category}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Probability}} * [http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/ Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Ala.-Huntsville)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081216153436/http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/EBook Probability and Statistics EBook] * [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes]]. ''Probability Theory: The Logic of Science''. Preprint: Washington University, (1996). – [https://web.archive.org/web/20160119131820/http://omega.albany.edu:8008/JaynesBook.html HTML index with links to PostScript files] and [http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/prob/book.pdf PDF] (first three chapters) * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Figures.htm People from the History of Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Southampton)] * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Probability%20Earliest%20Uses.htm Probability and Statistics on the Earliest Uses Pages (Univ. of Southampton)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630173713/http://jeff560.tripod.com/stat.html Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics] on [https://web.archive.org/web/20160220073955/http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols] * [http://www.celiagreen.com/charlesmccreery/statistics/bayestutorial.pdf A tutorial on probability and Bayes' theorem devised for first-year Oxford University students] * [http://ubu.com/historical/young/index.html U B U W E B :: La Monte Young] pdf file of [[An Anthology of Chance Operations]] (1963) at [[UbuWeb]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727200156/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/book.html Introduction to Probability – eBook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727200156/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/book.html |date=27 July 2011 }}, by Charles Grinstead, Laurie Snell [https://web.archive.org/web/20120325135243/https://bitbucket.org/shabbychef/numas_text/ Source] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325135243/https://bitbucket.org/shabbychef/numas_text/ |date=25 March 2012 }} ''([[GNU Free Documentation License]])'' * {{in lang|en|it}} [[Bruno de Finetti]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20130408012019/http://amshistorica.unibo.it/35 Probabilità e induzione]'', Bologna, CLUEB, 1993. {{ISBN|88-8091-176-7}} (digital version) * [https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_06.html Richard Feynman's Lecture on probability.] {{Authority control}} == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Probability| ]] in5slyk5uce4mo2basggykslj3kug2c 124420 124392 2026-11-10T21:02:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga tumalembo tucoko (ISBN / zina la bokosi) 124420 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|probability theory|game theory|graph theory|statistics}} {{other uses}} [[File:Dice Distribution (bar).svg|thumb|250px|Kuthekera kwa kuguzira manambara ghanandi mwakugwiliskira nchito madayisi ghaŵiri]] '''Mwaŵi''' (mu Cingelezi ''probability'') ukukhwaskana na vyakucitika na malongosoro gha manambala gha umo vingacitikira. Mwaŵi wa cakucitika ni nambala iyo yili pakati pa 0 na 1; para nambala iyi njikulu, ndipo mwaŵi wakuti cakucitika ici cicitike ngukulu.{{NoteTag|Kuyowoya makora, mwaŵi wa 0 ukulongora kuti cakucitika ''pafupifupi'' cicitikenge nkhanira, apo mwaŵi wa 1 ukulongora kuti cakucitika ''pafupifupi'' cicitikenge nadi. Kupambana uku nkhwakuzirwa para malo gha vyakufumapo ghalije umaliro. Mwaciyelezgero, pa manambala ghose pakati pa 5 na 10, pali vyakufumapo vyambura umaliro, ndipo mwaŵi wa kuwona cakufumapo cimoza – mwaciyelezgero, 7 caweneco – ni 0. Ici cikung'anamula kuti ''pafupifupi nadi'' cakufumapo cikaŵenge 7 caweneco yayi. Kweni cikung'anamula '''yayi''' kuti 7 caweneco ''cingacitika yayi''. Paumaliro cakufumapo cinyake (ca mwaŵi wa 0) cikuwonekenge, ndipo cimoza mwa ivyo cingaŵa 7 caweneco.}}<ref name="Stuart and Ord 2009">"Kendall's Advanced Theory of Statistics, Volume 1: Distribution Theory", Alan Stuart and Keith Ord, 6th ed., (2009), {{ISBN|978-0-534-24312-8}}.</ref><ref name="Feller">William Feller, ''An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications'', vol.&nbsp;1, 3rd ed., (1968), Wiley, {{ISBN|0-471-25708-7}}.</ref> Nambala iyi kanandi yikulongosoreka nga ni magaŵa pa 100 (%), kufuma pa 0% mpaka 100%. Ciyelezgero cipepuka ni kuponya ndalama yakwenelera (yambura kutemwa cigaŵa cimoza). Pakuti ndalama njakwenelera, vyakufumapo viŵiri ("mutu" na "mcira") vili na mwaŵi wakuyana; mwaŵi wa "mutu" ngwakuyana na mwaŵi wa "mcira"; ndipo pakuti palije cakufumapo cinyake, mwaŵi wa "mutu" panji "mcira" ni 1/2 (ico cingalembeka so kuti 0.5 panji 50%). Maghanoghano agha ghapika ndondomeko yakunozgeka ya [[Samuzi|masamu]] mu '''kasandiro ka mwaŵi''', ako kakugwiliskirika ntchito comene mu vigaŵa vya kasambiro nga ni viŵerengero, masamu, kasandiro, vya ndalama, njuga, [[Vinjeru vyakupangika|vinjeru vyakupangika]], kusambira kwa makina, kasandiro ka makompyuta, kasandiro ka maseŵero, na filosofi, mwaciyelezgero kumanya unandi wa umo vyakucitika vingacitikira. Kasandiro ka mwaŵi kakugwiliskirika ntchito so kulongosora umo ndondomeko zakusuzga zikugwilira ntchito na ivyo zikucita nyengo zose.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477530/probability-theory Probability Theory]. The Britannica website.</ref> == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''probability'' likufuma ku Cilatini ''probabilitas'', ilo lingang'anamula so "unenesko", cipimo ca mazaza gha kaboni pa mlandu wa dango mu Ulaya, ndipo kanandi likakoleranga na ucindami wa kaboni. Mu nthowa yinyake, ici cikupambana comene na ng'anamulo la mazuŵa ghano la mwaŵi, ilo ni cipimo ca uzito wa ukaboni wakuwoneka, ndipo likufikika mwa kughanaghana kufuma ku viyelezgero na kupenda viŵerengero.<ref name="Emergence">Hacking, I. (2006) ''The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68557-3}} </ref> == Kung'anamulika == Para tikuyowoya za viyezgo vyamwaŵi, ndiko kuti viyezgo ivyo vyakufumapo vyake nvyamwaŵi kweni vyalongosoreka makola, mu maghanoghano pera (nga ni kuponya ndalama), mwaŵi ungalongosoreka na manambala mwa kugaŵa unandi wa vyakufumapo ivyo tikukhumba na unandi wose wa vyakufumapo vyose. Ici cikuchemeka mwaŵi wa maghanoghano (kupambana na mwaŵi wa kuyezga, uwo ukupimika mu viyezgo vyeneco). Mwaŵi ni nambala pakati pa 0 na 1; para mwaŵi ngukulu, ndipo cakufumapo ico tikukhumba cingacitika comene. Mwaciyelezgero, kuponya ndalama kaŵiri kungapeleka "mutu-mutu", "mutu-mcira", "mcira-mutu", na "mcira-mcira". Mwaŵi wa kusanga "mutu-mutu" ni cimoza pa vinayi, panji mu manambala, 1/4, 0.25 panji 25%. Mwaŵi wa kusanga mutu umoza panji kujumpha ni vitatu pa vinayi, panji 0.75, ndipo cakucitika ici cingacitika comene. Kweni pa kugwiliskira ntchito, pali magulu ghaŵiri ghakulu ghakususkana gha kung'anamula mwaŵi, ndipo ŵakulondezga ŵake ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana pa umo mwaŵi uliri: # '''Ŵakulondezga vya unenesko wa kuwaro''' ŵakupeleka manambala kulongosora vyakucitika vyeneco panji vya kawiro. Mtundu wakumanyikwa comene ni mwaŵi wa unandi wa kucitika, uwo ukuti mwaŵi wa cakucitika camwaŵi ukulongora unandi wa kucitika kwa cakufumapo apo cakuyezga cawerezgeka kwambura kumala. Kung'anamulika uku kukuwona mwaŵi kuŵa unandi wa vyakufumapo "pakumalira". Kusintha kwa ghanoghano ili ni mwaŵi wa cizgowero, uwo ukung'anamula mwaŵi nga ni cizgowero ca cakuyezga kupeleka cakufumapo cinyake, nanga ni usange cacitika kamoza pera. # '''Ŵakulondezga vya maghanoghano gha munthu''' ŵakupeleka manambala kuyana na mwaŵi wa maghanoghano, ndiko kuti, nga ni cipimo ca kugomezga. Cipimo ca kugomezga cang'anamulika nga ni "mtengo uwo ungagula panji kuguliska pangano ilo likulipira cigaŵa cimoza ca candulo usange E yacitika, 0 usange E yindacitike", nangauli kung'anamulika uku kukuzomerezgeka na wose yayi. Mtundu wakumanyikwa comene ni mwaŵi wa Bayes, uwo ukusazgapo vinjeru vya ŵakumanya pamoza na vyakusangika mu viyezgo kuti upange mwaŵi. Vinjeru vya ŵakumanya vikulongoreka na kagaŵiro ka mwaŵi ka pambere. Vyakusangika vikusazgika mu ndondomeko ya kuyana. Kandanizgo ka mwaŵi wa pambere na wa kuyana, para kanozgeka, kakupeleka kagaŵiro ka mwaŵi ka pamanyuma ako kakusazgapo mauthenga ghose agho ghakumanyikwa mpaka sono. Kuyana na fundo ya Aumann ya kuzomerezgana, ŵakughanaghana nga ni Bayes awo maghanoghano ghawo gha pambere ghakuyana ŵazamuŵa na maghanoghano ghakuyana gha pamanyuma. Kweni maghanoghano gha pambere ghakupambana comene ghangapangiska vyakumalizgira vyakupambana, kwambura kuthemba unandi wa mauthenga agho ŵakugaŵana. == Mbiri == Kusanda kwa mwaŵi mwa kasandiro ni kukura kwa mazuŵa ghano kwa masamu. Njuga yikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kupima maghanoghano gha mwaŵi mu mbiri yose, kweni malongosoro ghakulunjika gha masamu ghakiza pamanyuma comene. Pali vifukwa vya kukura pacoko kwa masamu gha mwaŵi. Nangauli maseŵero gha mwaŵi ghakapeleka cifukwa ca kusanda mwaŵi mwa masamu, nkhani zikulu zicali kubisika na vikhulupiliro vya utesi.{{NoteTag|Mu buku ilo mazgo agha ghakufuma, ni kasandiro ka mwaŵi na fundo zake ivyo vikulongozga vinthu nga ivi, kuluska kulongolera mwaliŵiro uko kukuthemba mwaŵi pera panji nthanthi nga ni ŵaciuta ŵa mwaŵi awo ŵakovwira wakupunda pa maseŵero.}}<ref>Freund, John. (1973) ''Introduction to Probability''. Dickenson ISBN 978-0-8221-0078-2 (p. 1)</ref> Kuyana na Richard Jeffrey, "Pambere pa pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, lizgu lakuti 'probable' (Cilatini ''probabilis'') likang'anamulanga 'lakuzomerezgeka', ndipo likagwiliskirikanga ntchito mu ng'anamulo ili pa maghanoghano na pa vyakucita. Cakucita panji ghanoghano 'lakuzomerezgeka' likaŵa ilo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵangacita panji kughanaghana mu vyakucitika ivyo."<ref name="Jeffrey">Jeffrey, R.C., ''Probability and the Art of Judgment,'' Cambridge University Press. (1992). pp. 54–55 . ISBN 0-521-39459-7</ref> Kweni comene mu nkhani za dango, 'probable' lingagwiliskirika ntchito so pa mazgo agho ghakaŵa na ukaboni uwemi.<ref name="Franklin">Franklin, J. (2001) ''The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal,'' Johns Hopkins University Press. (pp. 22, 113, 127)</ref> Gerolamo Cardano, mukumanya vinthu vinandi wa ku Italy wa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakalongora uwemi wa kulongosora mwaŵi nga ni kuyaniska kwa vyakufumapo viwemi na viheni (ico cikung'anamula kuti mwaŵi wa cakucitika ukupelekeka na kuyaniska kwa vyakufumapo viwemi na unandi wose wa vyakufumapo ivyo vingacitika). [[File:Gerolamo Cardano, self-portrait (1501–1576).jpg|thumb|140px|Gerolamo Cardano (vyaka vya m'ma 1500)]] [[File:Caspar Netscher - Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer, 1671.jpg|thumb|140px|Christiaan Huygens wakafumiska limoza mwa mabuku ghakwamba gha mwaŵi (vyaka vya m'ma 1600).]] Kupatula ntchito yakwamba ya Cardano, fundo za mwaŵi zikwamba na makalata pakati pa Pierre de Fermat na Blaise Pascal (1654).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.columbia.edu/~pg2113/index_files/Gorroochurn-Some%20Laws.pdf| title = ''Some laws and problems in classical probability and how Cardano anticipated them'' Gorrochum, P. ''Chance'' magazine 2012}}</ref> Christiaan Huygens (1657) wakapeleka kusanda kwakwamba kwa kasandiro kwa nkhani iyi ako kakumanyikwa.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.secondmoment.org/articles/probability.php |publisher=Second Moment |access-date=2008-05-23 |title=A Brief History of Probability |last=Abrams |first=William |archive-date=24 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724052656/http://www.secondmoment.org/articles/probability.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Ars Conjectandi'' ya Jakob Bernoulli (yakupharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, 1713) na ''Doctrine of Chances'' ya Abraham de Moivre (1718) vikasanda nkhani iyi nga ni cigaŵa ca masamu. Kasandiro ka viheni kangalondezgeka kuwelera ku ''Opera Miscellanea'' ya Roger Cotes (yakupharazgika pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, 1722), kweni kalata iyo Thomas Simpson wakanozga mu 1755 (yakudindika 1756) ndiyo yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro aka pa viheni vya kulaŵiska.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shoesmith|first=Eddie|date=November 1985|title=Thomas Simpson and the arithmetic mean|journal=Historia Mathematica|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=352–355|doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90044-8|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kudindika so (1757) kwa kalata iyi kukaŵika fundo zakuti viheni vyakusazgikira na vyakucepa vili na mwaŵi wakuyana, na kuti mphaka zinyake zingapimika zikulongosora vigaŵa vya viheni vyose. Simpson wakayowoya so za viheni vyakulutilira na kulongosora mzere wa mwaŵi. Malango ghaŵiri ghakwamba gha viheni agho ghakasacizgika ghose ghakafuma kwa Pierre-Simon Laplace. Lamulo lakwamba likapharazgika mu 1774, ndipo likati unandi wa kucitika kwa cheni ungalongosoreka nga ni ndondomeko ya ''exponential'' ya ukulu wa cheni, kwambura kulaŵiska usange ncakusazgikira panji cakucepa. Lamulo laciŵiri la viheni likasacizgika mu 1778 na Laplace, ndipo likati unandi wa kucitika kwa cheni ni ndondomeko ya ''exponential'' ya cheni cakandanizgika na ceneco.<ref name=Wilson1923>Wilson EB (1923) "First and second laws of error". Journal of the American Statistical Association, 18, 143</ref> Lamulo laciŵiri ili likuchemeka kagaŵiro ka nyengo zose panji lamulo la Gauss. "Nchakusuzga mu mbiri kuti Gauss ndiyo wakasanga lamulo ili, cifukwa nanga wakaŵa wavinjeru luŵiro, pambere wandafikiske vyaka viŵiri wakasanga ici yayi."<ref name=Wilson1923 /> Daniel Bernoulli (1778) wakanjizga fundo ya kandanizgo kakulu ka mwaŵi wa ndondomeko ya viheni vyakucitika pamoza. [[File:Bendixen - Carl Friedrich Gauß, 1828.jpg|thumb|140px|Carl Friedrich Gauss]] Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805) wakapanga nthowa ya ''least squares'', ndipo wakayinjizga mu buku lake la nthowa ziphya za kumanya nthowa za nyenyezi za mcira.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Seneta|first1=Eugene William|title="Adrien-Marie Legendre" (version 9)|url=http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/AdrienMarieLegendre.html|website=StatProb: The Encyclopedia Sponsored by Statistics and Probability Societies|access-date=27 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203070724/http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/AdrienMarieLegendre.html|archive-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> Kwambura kumanya ntchito ya Legendre, mulembi wa ku Ireland na Amerika, Robert Adrain, mulongozgi wa magazini ya "The Analyst" (1808), ndiyo wakamba kusanga lamulo la kupepuka kwa cheni, : <math>\phi(x) = ce^{-h^2 x^2}</math> apo ''h'' ni nambala yambura kusintha iyo yikuthemba ukwenelero wa kulaŵiska, ndipo ''c'' ni nambala iyo yikusimikizga kuti ukulu wa malo pasi pa mzere ni 1. Wakapeleka ukaboni uŵiri, ndipo waciŵiri ukaŵa wakuyana na wa John Herschel (1850). Gauss wakapeleka ukaboni wakwamba uwo ukumanyikwa mu Ulaya (wacitatu pamanyuma pa Adrain) mu 1809. Ukaboni unyake ukapelekeka na Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), James Ivory (1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838), W.F. Donkin (1844, 1856), na Morgan Crofton (1870). Ŵanyake awo ŵakovwira ni Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), na Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Ndondomeko ya Peters (1856) ya ''r'', cheni ca mwaŵi ca kulaŵiska kumoza, njakumanyikwa makola. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵalembi ŵa kasandiro ka pose ŵakaŵa Laplace, Sylvestre Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Adolphe Quetelet (1853), Richard Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Hermann Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion na Karl Pearson. Augustus De Morgan na George Boole ŵakanozga malongosoro gha kasandiro aka. Mu 1906, Andrey Markov wakanjizga ghanoghano la minjololo ya Markov, ilo likagwira ntchito yikulu mu kasandiro ka ndondomeko zamwaŵi na kagwiliskiro kake.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/~rrw1/markov/M.pdf|title = Markov Chains|first= Richard |last = Weber|website = Statistical Laboratory|publisher = University of Cambridge}}</ref> Kasandiro ka mwaŵi ka mazuŵa ghano, ako kakuthemba kasandiro ka kupima, kakapangika na Andrey Kolmogorov mu 1931.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vitanyi |first1= Paul M.B.|title=Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov|journal=CWI Quarterly|date=1988|issue=1|pages=3–18|url=http://homepages.cwi.nl/~paulv/KOLMOGOROV.BIOGRAPHY.html|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref> Ku cigaŵa ca masamu gha mawonekero, awo ŵakalemba mu ''The Educational Times'' ŵakaŵa Miller, Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, na Artemas Martin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilcox, Rand R.|title=Understanding and applying basic statistical methods using R|date= 2016|isbn=978-1-119-06140-3|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|oclc=949759319}}</ref> == Kasandiro == Nga ni masandiro ghanyake, kasandiro ka mwaŵi ni kulongora maghanoghano ghake mu mazgo ghakunozgeka, ndiko kuti, mu mazgo agho ghangawoneka paŵekha kufuma ku ng'anamulo lawo. Mazgo agha ghakusinthika na malango gha masamu na gha kughanaghana makola, ndipo vyakufumapo vyose vikung'anamulika panji kuwezgereka ku suzgo ilo likupendeka. Pali nthowa ziŵiri izo zikakhozgeka kunozga mwaŵi mwa masamu: nthowa ya Kolmogorov na nthowa ya Cox. Mu nthowa ya Kolmogorov, magulu ghakung'anamulika nga ni vyakucitika, ndipo mwaŵi nga ni cipimo pa gulu la magulu. Mu fundo ya Cox, mwaŵi ukutoreka nga ni cinthu cakwamba (cambura kupendeka so), ndipo vikulu ni kupanga kagaŵiro kakukolerana ka mwaŵi ku mazgo. Mu nthowa zose ziŵiri, malango gha mwaŵi ngakuyana, kupatula tunthu tucoko twa luso. Pali nthowa zinyake za kupima kusoŵa kusimikizga, nga ni kasandiro ka Dempster–Shafer panji kasandiro ka kuthekera, kweni izi nzakupambana comene ndipo zikukolerana yayi na malango gha mwaŵi agho ghakumanyikwa. == Kagwiliskiro == Kasandiro ka mwaŵi kakugwiliskirika ntchito pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa pa kupima ngozi na kupanga viyelezgero. Makampani gha inshuwalansi na misika ghakugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka ngozi kuti ghamanye mitengo na kusankha pa malonda. Maulongozgi ghakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za mwaŵi pa kulongozga malo ghakuzingilizga, kupenda vyakwenelera, na kulongozga vya ndalama. Ciyelezgero ca kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi pa malonda gha magaŵa gha makampani ni umo mwaŵi wakuwoneka wa nkhondo yikulu mu Vuma Lapakati ukukhwasila mitengo ya mafuta, ndipo ici cikukhwaska vyacuma vyose. Para mulonda wa vinthu waghanaghana kuti nkhondo yingacitika comene, mitengo ya vinthu ivyo yingakwera panji kucepa, ndipo ici cikumanyiska ŵalonda ŵanyake maghanoghano agha. Ntheura, mwaŵi ukupimika paŵekha yayi, ndipo nyengo zose mwa vinjeru yayi. Kasandiro ka vya ndalama vya nkhalo kakiza kulongosora umo kughanaghana kwa gulu kukukhwaskira mitengo, ndondomeko, na mtendere na nkhondo.<ref>Singh, Laurie (2010) "Whither Efficient Markets? Efficient Market Theory and Behavioral Finance". The Finance Professionals' Post, 2010.</ref> Kupatula kupima vya ndalama, mwaŵi ungagwiliskirika ntchito kupenda umo vinthu vikwendera mu kasandiro ka vyamoyo (mwaciyelezgero, kuthandazgika kwa nthenda) na mu kasandiro ka malo gha vyamoyo.<ref name="Edwards_2012_2">{{cite journal |title=Reginald Crundall Punnett: First Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics, Cambridge, 1912 |author-first=Anthony William Fairbank |author-last=Edwards |author-link=Anthony William Fairbank Edwards |location=Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, UK |date=September 2012 |journal=Genetics |department=Perspectives |publisher=Genetics Society of America |volume=192 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1534/genetics.112.143552 |pmc=3430543 |pmid=22964834 |quote-pages=5–6 |quote=[...] Punnett's square seems to have been a development of 1905, too late for the first edition of his ''Mendelism'' (May 1905) but much in evidence in ''Report III to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society'' [(Bateson et al. 1906b) "received March 16, 1906"]. The earliest mention is contained in a letter to Bateson from Francis Galton dated October 1, 1905 (Edwards 2012). We have the testimony of Bateson (1909, p. 57) that "For the introduction of this system [the 'graphic method'], which greatly simplifies difficult cases, I am indebted to Mr. Punnett." [...] The first published diagrams appeared in 1906. [...] when Punnett published the second edition of his ''Mendelism'', he used a slightly different format ([...] Punnett 1907, p. 45) [...] In the third edition (Punnett 1911, p. 34) he reverted to the arrangement [...] with a description of the construction of what he called the "chessboard" method (although in truth it is more like a multiplication table). [...]}} (11 pages)</ref> Nga ni pa vya ndalama, kupima ngozi kungagwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cilwero ca viŵerengero kupima mwaŵi wa kucitika kwa vyakucitika viheni, ndipo kungovwira kuŵika ndondomeko za kuvigega. Mwaŵi ukugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga maseŵero gha mwaŵi mwakuti nyumba za njuga zisange candulo cakusimikizgika, kweni zipeleke ku ŵaseŵezi malipiro kanandi mwakukwana kuti ŵalutilire kuseŵera.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=J.Z.|last2=Fong|first2=D.|last3=Liu|first3=X.|title=Mathematical analyses of casino rebate systems for VIP gambling|journal=International Gambling Studies|date=April 2011|volume=11|issue=1|pages=93–106|doi=10.1080/14459795.2011.552575|s2cid=144540412}}<!--|access-date=13 October 2015--></ref> Kagwiliskiro kanyake kakuzirwa ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi pa umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa ni kugomezgeka kwa vinthu. Vinthu vinandi vya ŵakugula, nga ni magalimoto na vilwero vya magesi, vikugwiliskira ntchito kasandiro ka kugomezgeka pa kupanga vinthu kuti vicepeske mwaŵi wa kunangika. Mwaŵi wa kunangika ungakhwaska visankho vya ŵakupanga pa cipangano ca kunozga panji kusintha cinthu.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1287/mnsc.1090.1132| title=Management Insights| journal=Management Science| volume=56| pages=iv–vii| year=2010| last1=Gorman| first1=Michael F.| doi-access=}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya ciyowoyero vya viŵerengero ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupenda viyowoyero vya ŵanthu na makompyuta navyo ni viyelezgero vya kagwiliskiro ka kasandiro ka mwaŵi. == Kalongosoreko ka Masamu == [[File:probability vs odds.svg|thumb|right|Kupenda mwaŵi (ngozi) na kupenda ''odds'' (kuyaniska mwaŵi wa kucitika na wa kuleka kucitika)]] Ghanaghanirani cakuyezga ico cingapeleka vyakufumapo vinandi. Gulu la vyakufumapo vyose ivyo vingacitika likuchemeka malo gha viyelezgero gha cakuyezga, ndipo nyengo zinyake likulembeka kuti Ω. Gulu la magulu ghose gha malo gha viyelezgero likupangika mwa kulaŵiska kawunjikiro kose kakupambana ka vyakufumapo ivyo vingacitika. Mwaciyelezgero, kuponya dayisi kungapeleka vyakufumapo vinkhondi na cimoza. Kawunjikiro kamoza ka vyakufumapo kakupeleka nambala ya mphumphi pa dayisi. Ntheura, kagulu {1,3,5} ni cigaŵa ca gulu la magulu gha malo gha viyelezgero gha kuponya dayisi. Kawunjikiro aka kakuchemeka "vyakucitika". Apa, {1,3,5} ni cakucitika cakuti dayisi yawa pa nambala ya mphumphi. Usange vyakufumapo ivyo vyacitika nadi vili mu cakucitika cinyake, tikuti cakucitika ico cacitika. Mwaŵi ni nthowa ya kupeleka ku cakucitika ciliconse nambala pakati pa zero na yimoza, na lamulo lakuti cakucitika ico cili na vyakufumapo vyose ivyo vingacitika (mu ciyelezgero citu, cakucitika {1,2,3,4,5,6}) cipike nambala yimoza. Kuti kuŵe mwaŵi, kupeleka manambala kukwenera kufiska lamulo lakuti pa kawunjikiro kaliko kose ka vyakucitika vyambura kucitika pamoza (vyakucitika ivyo vilije cakufumapo cakugaŵana, nga ni {1,6}, {3}, na {2,4}), mwaŵi wakuti cimoza mwa vyakucitika ici cicitike ni kusazga kwa mwaŵi wa vyakucitika vyose paŵekha.<ref>{{cite book|last = Ross|first = Sheldon M. |title = A First course in Probability|edition= 8th |pages = 26–27|publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall|date = 2010|isbn = 9780136033134}}</ref> Mwaŵi wa cakucitika A ukulembeka kuti <math>P(A)</math>, <math>p(A)</math>, panji <math>\text{Pr}(A)</math>.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Weisstein|first=Eric W.|title=Probability|url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Probability.html|access-date=2020-09-10|website=mathworld.wolfram.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>Olofsson (2005) p. 8.</ref> Ng'anamulo ili la masamu la mwaŵi lingagwira ntchito so pa malo gha viyelezgero ghambura mphaka, nanga ni ghambura kupendeka, mwa kugwiliskira ntchito ghanoghano la cipimo. Cakususkana na cakucitika A ni cakucitika [A yayi] (ndiko kuti, cakucitika ca A kuleka kucitika), ico kanandi cikulembeka kuti <math>A', A^c, \overline{A}, \neg A</math>, panji <math>{\sim}A</math>; mwaŵi wake ni P(A yayi) = 1 − P(A).<ref>Olofsson (2005), p. 9</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mwaŵi wa kuleka kusanga 6 pa dayisi ya mbali 6 ni 1 – (mwaŵi wa kusanga 6) = 1 − 1/6 = 5/6. Usange vyakucitika viŵiri A na B vyacitika pa kucita kamoza cakuyezga, ici cikuchemeka mwaŵi wa pamoza wa A na B, wakulembeka kuti <math>P(A \cap B)</math>. === Vyakucitika Vyambura Kuthembana === Usange vyakucitika viŵiri, A na B, nvyambura kuthembana, mwaŵi wa pamoza ni : <math>P(A \text{ na } B) = P(A \cap B) = P(A)P(B).</math> [[File:Mutually Exclusive and Non-exclusive Probability Events.jpg|thumb|Vyakucitika A na B ivyo vyambura kucitika pamoza, na ivyo vingacitika pamoza, mu malo Ω]] Mwaciyelezgero, usange ndalama ziŵiri zaponyeka, mwaŵi wakuti zose ziŵiri zipeleke mutu ni <math>\tfrac{1}{2} \times \tfrac{1}{2} = \tfrac{1}{4}.</math><ref name=":2" /><ref>Olofsson (2005) p. 35.</ref> === Vyakucitika Vyambura Kucitika Pamoza === Usange cakucitika A panji cakucitika B cingacitika, kweni vyose viŵiri pamoza yayi, vikuchemeka vyakucitika vyambura kucitika pamoza. Usange vyakucitika viŵiri nvyambura kucitika pamoza, mwaŵi wakuti vyose viŵiri vicitike ni : <math>P(A \text{ na } B) = P(A \cap B) = 0.</math> Usange vyakucitika viŵiri nvyambura kucitika pamoza, mwaŵi wakuti cimoza mwa ivyo cicitike ni : <math>P(A \text{ panji } B) = P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B).</math> Mwaciyelezgero, mwaŵi wa kusanga 1 panji 2 pa dayisi ya mbali 6 ni <math>P(1 \text{ panji } 2) = P(1) + P(2) = \tfrac{1}{6} + \tfrac{1}{6} = \tfrac{1}{3}.</math> === Vyakucitika Ivyo Vingacitika Pamoza === Usange vyakucitika vingacitika pamoza, ndipo : <math>P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A \cap B).</math> Mwaciyelezgero, para mukutora kadi yimoza mu kadi 52, mwaŵi wa kusanga kadi ya mtima panji kadi ya cithuzi (J, Q, K) (panji zose ziŵiri) ni <math>\tfrac{13}{52} + \tfrac{12}{52} - \tfrac{3}{52} = \tfrac{11}{26},</math> cifukwa mu kadi 52, 13 nza mtima, 12 nza cithuzi, ndipo 3 nza vyose viŵiri: apa kadi "3 za vyose viŵiri" zili mu "13 za mtima" na mu "12 za cithuzi", kweni zikwenera kupendeka kamoza pera. Ici cingasazgika so pa vyakucitika vinandi ivyo vingacitika pamoza. Pa vyakucitika vitatu, kukuŵa nthena: : <math>P(A \cup B \cup C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A \cap B) - P(A \cap C) - P(B \cap C) + P(A \cap B \cap C)</math> Ntheura tikuwona kuti ndondomeko iyi yingawerezgeka pa unandi uliwose wa vyakucitika. === Mwaŵi wa Kuthemba === Mwaŵi wa kuthemba ni mwaŵi wa cakucitika A, para cakucitika cinyake B cacitika. Mwaŵi wa kuthemba ukulembeka kuti <math>P(A \mid B)</math>, ndipo ukuŵerengeka kuti "mwaŵi wa A, para B yacitika". Ukulongosoreka na : <math>P(A \mid B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}</math> Usange <math>P(B) = 0</math>, ndipo <math>P(A \mid B)</math> ndambura kulongosoreka mu ndondomeko iyi. Kweni ncakuthekera kulongosora mwaŵi wa kuthemba pa vyakucitika vinyake vya mwaŵi wa zero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conditional probability with respect to a sigma-algebra |url=https://www.statlect.com/fundamentals-of-probability/conditional-probability-as-a-random-variable |access-date=2022-07-04 |website=statlect.com}}</ref> Mwaciyelezgero, mu cikwama ca mipira 2 yakufiira na mipira 2 ya buluu (mipira 4 yose), mwaŵi wa kutora mpira wakufiira ni <math>1/2;</math> kweni para mukutora mpira waciŵiri, mwaŵi wakuti uŵe wakufiira panji wa buluu ukuthemba mpira uwo wakatoreka pakwamba. Mwaciyelezgero, usange mpira wakufiira wakatoreka, mwaŵi wa kutora so mpira wakufiira ungaŵa <math>1/3,</math> cifukwa pakasyala mpira 1 wakufiira na 2 ya buluu pera. Ndipo usange mpira wa buluu wakatoreka pakwamba, mwaŵi wa kutora mpira wakufiira ungaŵa <math>2/3.</math> === Mwaŵi wa Kuwezgera === Mu kasandiro ka mwaŵi na kagwiliskiro kake, lamulo la Bayes likukolerana mwaŵi wa cakucitika <math>A_1</math> kuluska cakucitika <math>A_2</math>, pambere na pamanyuma pa kuthemba cakucitika cinyake <math>B</math>. Mwaŵi wa <math>A_1</math> kuluska <math>A_2</math> ni waka kuyaniska kwa mwaŵi wa vyakucitika viŵiri. Para vyakucitika vinandi <math>A</math> vikukhumbikwa, kwambura kuŵa viŵiri pera, lamulo lingayowoyeka so kuti mwaŵi wa pamanyuma ukolerana na mwaŵi wa pambere kandanizga kuyana, <math>P(A \mid B) \propto P(A) P(B \mid A)</math>, apo cimanyikwiro ca kukolerana cikung'anamula kuti cigaŵa ca kumazere cikukolerana na (ndiko kuti, ncakuyana na nambala yambura kusintha kandanizga) cigaŵa ca kumalyero apo <math>A</math> yikusintha, pa <math>B</math> yakukhazikika. Mu mtundu uwu, likuwelera kwa Laplace (1774) na Cournot (1843). == Ubale na Mwaŵi mu Kasandiro ka Tuvinthu Tucoko Comene == Mu caro ca kusimikizgika, kuyana na maghanoghano gha Newton, mwaŵi ungaŵako yayi usange vyakucitika vyose vingamanyikwa (ciŵanda ca Laplace) (kweni pali vyakucitika umo kukhwaskika na vyakucitika vyakwamba kukujumpha nkhongono zithu za kuvipima, ndiko kuti kuvimanya). Pa gudumu la njuga la ''roulette'', usange nkhongono ya woko na nyengo ya nkhongono iyo vikumanyikwa, nambala iyo mpira ungimilirapo yingaŵa yakusimikizgika (nangauli mu kacitiro, ici cingaŵa caunenesko pera pa gudumu ilo ndakunozgeka makola yayi, nga umo buku la Thomas A. Bass likavumbulira). Ici cikukhumba so kumanya kuzitika kwa gudumu na kukwekana kwake, kuzitika, kuterera, na kuzunguliya kwa mpira, kusintha kwa luŵiro lwa woko apo likuzunguzga, na vinyake. Ntheura malongosoro gha mwaŵi ghangaŵa ghakovwira comene kuluska kasandiro ka Newton pa kupenda vyakufumapo vya kuzunguzga kanandi gudumu la ''roulette''. Ŵasandi ŵa mendero ŵakukumana na suzgo lakuyana mu kasandiro ka mphepo, umo ndondomeko, nangauli njakusimikizgika mu maghanoghano, njakusuzga comene (na unandi wa tuvinthu tucoko pafupifupi nga ni nambala ya Avogadro 6.02×10<sup>23</sup>) mwakuti malongosoro gha viŵerengero pera ndigho ghangathekera.<ref>Riedi, P.C. (1976). Kinetic Theory of Gases-I. In: Thermal Physics. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-15669-6_8</ref> Kasandiro ka mwaŵi nkhakukhumbikwa kulongosora vyakucitika vya tuvinthu tucoko comene.<ref>{{cite arXiv|last = Burgin|first= Mark|year =2010|title = Interpretations of Negative Probabilities|page= 1|class= physics.data-an|eprint=1008.1287v1}}</ref> Kusanga kukulu kwa kusanda mendero kwa kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 kukaŵa kuti ndondomeko zose za vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa ukulu wa pasi pa atomu nza mwaŵi, ndipo zikulongozgeka na malango gha kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene. Ndondomeko ya jigha yikusintha mwakusimikizgika, kweni, kuyana na kung'anamulika kwa Copenhagen, yikukhwaskana na mwaŵi wa kuwona, ndipo cakufumapo cikulongosoreka na kuwa kwa ndondomeko ya jigha para kulaŵiska kwacitika. Kweni kutaya kusimikizgika kukazomerezgeka na wose yayi. Albert Einstein wakalemba mu kalata kwa Max Born kuti: "Nkhusimikizga kuti Ciuta wakuseŵera madayisi yayi".<ref>''Jedenfalls bin ich überzeugt, daß der Alte nicht würfelt.'' Letter to Max Born, 4 December 1926, in: [https://books.google.com/books?id=LQIsAQAAIAAJ&q=achtung-gebietend Einstein/Born Briefwechsel 1916–1955].</ref> Nga ni Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, uyo wakasanga ndondomeko ya jigha, wakagomezganga kuti kasandiro ka tuvinthu tucoko comene ni kapimiro ka viŵerengero ka unenesko wa pasi wakusimikizgika.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=W.J. |year=1992 |title=Schrödinger: Life and Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=479 |isbn= 978-0-521-43767-7}}</ref> Mu kung'anamulika kunyake kwa mazuŵa ghano, kutaya kukolerana kwa tuvinthu tucoko kukugwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora cifukwa ico vyakufumapo vya viyezgo vikuwonekera kuŵa vya mwaŵi. == Wonani So == {{main|Outline of probability}} * [[Contingency (philosophy)|Contingency]] * [[Equiprobability]] * [[Fuzzy logic]] * [[Heuristic (psychology)]] == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} == References == {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== * [[Olav Kallenberg|Kallenberg, O.]] (2005) ''Probabilistic Symmetries and Invariance Principles''. Springer-Verlag, New York. 510 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-387-25115-4}} * Kallenberg, O. (2002) ''Foundations of Modern Probability,'' 2nd ed. Springer Series in Statistics. 650 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-387-95313-2}} * Olofsson, Peter (2005) ''Probability, Statistics, and Stochastic Processes'', Wiley-Interscience. 504 pp {{ISBN|0-471-67969-0}}. ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikibooks}} {{Commons category}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Probability}} * [http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/ Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Ala.-Huntsville)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081216153436/http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/EBook Probability and Statistics EBook] * [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes]]. ''Probability Theory: The Logic of Science''. Preprint: Washington University, (1996). – [https://web.archive.org/web/20160119131820/http://omega.albany.edu:8008/JaynesBook.html HTML index with links to PostScript files] and [http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/prob/book.pdf PDF] (first three chapters) * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Figures.htm People from the History of Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Southampton)] * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Probability%20Earliest%20Uses.htm Probability and Statistics on the Earliest Uses Pages (Univ. of Southampton)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630173713/http://jeff560.tripod.com/stat.html Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics] on [https://web.archive.org/web/20160220073955/http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols] * [http://www.celiagreen.com/charlesmccreery/statistics/bayestutorial.pdf A tutorial on probability and Bayes' theorem devised for first-year Oxford University students] * [http://ubu.com/historical/young/index.html U B U W E B :: La Monte Young] pdf file of [[An Anthology of Chance Operations]] (1963) at [[UbuWeb]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727200156/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/book.html Introduction to Probability – eBook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727200156/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/book.html |date=27 July 2011 }}, by Charles Grinstead, Laurie Snell [https://web.archive.org/web/20120325135243/https://bitbucket.org/shabbychef/numas_text/ Source] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325135243/https://bitbucket.org/shabbychef/numas_text/ |date=25 March 2012 }} ''([[GNU Free Documentation License]])'' * {{in lang|en|it}} [[Bruno de Finetti]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20130408012019/http://amshistorica.unibo.it/35 Probabilità e induzione]'', Bologna, CLUEB, 1993. {{ISBN|88-8091-176-7}} (digital version) * [https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_06.html Richard Feynman's Lecture on probability.] {{Authority control}} == Vyakulongosora == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} [[Category:Probability| ]] 1cowerp1y67wbjmayppe4xnvwham5s6 0 46867 124343 123604 2026-11-10T14:18:04Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124343 wikitext text/x-wiki Mu [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|mikwawo]], '''findu''' (kufuma ku Cilatini ''nodus'', "mfundo") ni malo agho mauthenga ghakugaŵikirapo so, panji malo ghakumalizgira kuyowoyerana, mukati mwa mikwawo ya kuyowoyerana kwa kutali panji ya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mirangura]]. Findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka ni cilwero ca malekitironi ico calumikizgika ku mkwawo, ndipo cingapanga, kupokera, panji kutumizga mauthenga pa nthowa ya kuyowoyerana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Node |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861633439 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213103406/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861633439 |archive-date=2009-02-13 |access-date=2007-10-23 |website=Encarta |publisher=[[Microsoft]]}}</ref> Pa kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa, findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka yingaŵa cilwero ca kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa (nga ni modemu, habu, bulijji, panji suwichi) panji cilwero ca kumalizgira kwa vyakumanyikwa (nga ni lamya ya digito, cakudindira, panji mrangura wakupokera). Malo ghakugaŵirapo ghambura kucita kanthu, nga ni felemu ya kugaŵira panji pulani ya kulumikizgira ŵaya, ghakuwonekera nga ni findu yayi. == Mikwawo ya Mirangura == Pa kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa, findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka yingaŵa cilwero ca kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa (DCE) nga ni modemu, habu, bulijji, panji suwichi; panji cilwero ca kumalizgira kwa vyakumanyikwa (DTE) nga ni lamya ya digito, cakudindira, panji mrangura wakupokera. Usange mkwawo ni mkwawo wa malo ghacoko (LAN) panji mkwawo wa malo ghakulu (WAN), findu yiliyose ya LAN panji WAN iyo yikugwira ntchito pa cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa yikwenera kuŵa na adiresi ya mkwawo, kanandi yimoza pa cilwero ciliconse ca kulumikizgira ku mkwawo ico yili naco. Viyelezgero ni mirangura, modemu ya DSL iyo yili na Ethernet, na malo gha kunjilira pa mkwawo kwambura ŵaya. Vilwero, nga ni habu ya Ethernet panji modemu, ivyo vikugwira ntchito pasi pa cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa pera, vikukhumba adiresi ya mkwawo yayi. Usange mkwawo uwo ni [[Intaneti|intaneti]] panji mkwawo wa mukati mwa wupu, findu zinandi za mkwawo zakuwoneka ni mirangura yakupokera, iyo yikuchemeka so findu za intaneti, ndipo yikumanyikwa na adiresi ya IP; ndipo vyakupokera vyose ni findu za mkwawo zakuwoneka. Kweni vilwero vinyake vya cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa, nga ni masuwichi, mabulijji, na malo gha kunjilira kwambura ŵaya, vilije adiresi ya IP (kupatula nyengo zinyake pa ulongozgi), ndipo vikuwonekera nga ni findu za intaneti panji vyakupokera yayi, kweni vikuwonekera nga ni findu za mkwawo zakuwoneka na findu za LAN. == Kuyowoyerana kwa Kutali == Mu mkwawo wa lamya za pa ŵaya, findu yingaŵa malo gha kulumikizgira lamya gha ŵanthu wose panji gha ŵanthu paŵekha, cilwero ca kuwunjika vimanyikwiro ca kutali, panji mrangura uwo ukupeleka uteŵeti wa mkwawo wavinjeru. Pa kuyowoyerana kwa lamya za m'manja, malo gha kulumikizgira na malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa nga ni cilwero ca kulaŵilira masiteshoni, cikalata ca malo gha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, na findu za GPRS (GGSN na SGSN) ni viyelezgero vya findu. Masiteshoni gha mkwawo wa lamya za m'manja ghakuwonekera nga ni findu yayi pa nkhani iyi. Mu ndondomeko za wayilesi ya kanema ya pa ŵaya (CATV), lizgu ili lili na ng'anamulo yikulu, ndipo kanandi likukolerana na findu ya ŵaya ya ungweru. Iyi yingalongosoreka nga ni nyumba panji malonda gha mu cigaŵa cinyake ivyo vikupokera uteŵeti kufuma ku cilwero cimoza cakupokera ca ŵaya ya ungweru. Findu ya ŵaya ya ungweru kanandi yikulongosoreka na unandi wa nyumba izo yikuteŵetera. == Ndondomeko Zakugaŵika == Mu mkwawo wa ndondomeko yakugaŵika, findu ni ŵakupempha uteŵeti, maseva, panji ŵakuyana. Wakuyana nyengo zinyake wangaŵa wakupempha uteŵeti, ndipo nyengo zinyake seva. Mu mkwawo wa ŵakuyana panji mkwawo wapacanya, findu izo zikutumizga vyakumanyikwa vya vilwero vinyake vya mkwawo kweniso vyawo zikuchemeka findu zikulu. Ndondomeko zakugaŵika nyengo zinyake zingagwiliskira ntchito findu za mu maghanoghano kuti ndondomeko yimanye kupambana kwa findu. Suzgo ili likumazgika na nthowa zapadera za kupenda, nga ni ''consistent hashing'', nga umo viliri mu ''Dynamo'' ya Amazon. Mu mkwawo ukulu wa mirangura, mirangura yiliyose iyo yili ku mphepete kwa mkwawo, iyo yikulumikizga mikwawo yinyake yayi, na iyo kanandi yikulumikizgika kwa kanyengo kacoko ku bingu limoza panji maŵingu ghanandi gha mirangura, yikuchemeka findu za kumalizgira. Kanandi, mu ndondomeko ya maŵingu gha mirangura, mrangura wa munthu panji wa wakugula uyo ukulumikizgika ku bingu limoza lakulongozgeka makola ukuchemeka findu ya kumalizgira. Cifukwa cakuti mirangura iyi ni cigaŵa ca mkwawo kweni yikulongozgeka na mwenecho wa bingu yayi, yikwiziska ngozi yikulu ku bingu lose. Ici cikuchemeka suzgo la findu ya kumalizgira. Pali nthowa zinandi za kumazga suzgo ili, kweni zose zikukhumba kupangiska mrangura wa findu ya kumalizgira kuŵa wakugomezgeka. cv1it7afbtw8elstiaqr8hmua1zxzz0 124375 124343 2026-11-10T20:11:50Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124375 wikitext text/x-wiki Mu [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|mikwawo]], '''findu''' (kufuma ku Cilatini ''nodus'', "mfundo") ni malo agho mauthenga ghakugaŵikirapo so, panji malo ghakumalizgira kuyowoyerana, mukati mwa mikwawo ya kuyowoyerana kwa kutali panji ya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mirangura]]. Findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka ni cilwero ca malekitironi ico calumikizgika ku mkwawo, ndipo cingapanga, kupokera, panji kutumizga mauthenga pa nthowa ya kuyowoyerana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Node |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861633439 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213103406/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861633439 |archive-date=2009-02-13 |access-date=2007-10-23 |website=Encarta |publisher=[[Microsoft]]}}</ref> Pa kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa, findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka yingaŵa cilwero ca kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa (nga ni modemu, habu, bulijji, panji suwichi) panji cilwero ca kumalizgira kwa vyakumanyikwa (nga ni lamya ya digito, cakudindira, panji mrangura wakupokera). Malo ghakugaŵirapo ghambura kucita kanthu, nga ni felemu ya kugaŵira panji pulani ya kulumikizgira ŵaya, ghakuwonekera nga ni findu yayi. == Mikwawo ya Mirangura == Pa kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa, findu ya mkwawo yakuwoneka yingaŵa cilwero ca kuyowoyerana kwa vyakumanyikwa (DCE) nga ni modemu, habu, bulijji, panji suwichi; panji cilwero ca kumalizgira kwa vyakumanyikwa (DTE) nga ni lamya ya digito, cakudindira, panji mrangura wakupokera. Usange mkwawo ni mkwawo wa malo ghacoko (LAN) panji mkwawo wa malo ghakulu (WAN), findu yiliyose ya LAN panji WAN iyo yikugwira ntchito pa cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa yikwenera kuŵa na adiresi ya mkwawo, kanandi yimoza pa cilwero ciliconse ca kulumikizgira ku mkwawo ico yili naco. Viyelezgero ni mirangura, modemu ya DSL iyo yili na Ethernet, na malo gha kunjilira pa mkwawo kwambura ŵaya. Vilwero, nga ni habu ya Ethernet panji modemu, ivyo vikugwira ntchito pasi pa cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa pera, vikukhumba adiresi ya mkwawo yayi.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ibm.com/cloud/learn/networking-a-complete-guide | title=Networking-a-complete-guide | website=IBM }}</ref> Usange mkwawo uwo ni [[Intaneti|intaneti]] panji mkwawo wa mukati mwa wupu, findu zinandi za mkwawo zakuwoneka ni mirangura yakupokera, iyo yikuchemeka so findu za intaneti, ndipo yikumanyikwa na adiresi ya IP; ndipo vyakupokera vyose ni findu za mkwawo zakuwoneka. Kweni vilwero vinyake vya cigaŵa ca kulumikizga vyakumanyikwa, nga ni masuwichi, mabulijji, na malo gha kunjilira kwambura ŵaya, vilije adiresi ya IP (kupatula nyengo zinyake pa ulongozgi), ndipo vikuwonekera nga ni findu za intaneti panji vyakupokera yayi, kweni vikuwonekera nga ni findu za mkwawo zakuwoneka na findu za LAN. == Kuyowoyerana kwa Kutali == Mu mkwawo wa lamya za pa ŵaya, findu yingaŵa malo gha kulumikizgira lamya gha ŵanthu wose panji gha ŵanthu paŵekha, cilwero ca kuwunjika vimanyikwiro ca kutali, panji mrangura uwo ukupeleka uteŵeti wa mkwawo wavinjeru. Pa kuyowoyerana kwa lamya za m'manja, malo gha kulumikizgira na malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa nga ni cilwero ca kulaŵilira masiteshoni, cikalata ca malo gha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, na findu za GPRS (GGSN na SGSN) ni viyelezgero vya findu. Masiteshoni gha mkwawo wa lamya za m'manja ghakuwonekera nga ni findu yayi pa nkhani iyi. Mu ndondomeko za wayilesi ya kanema ya pa ŵaya (CATV), lizgu ili lili na ng'anamulo yikulu, ndipo kanandi likukolerana na findu ya ŵaya ya ungweru. Iyi yingalongosoreka nga ni nyumba panji malonda gha mu cigaŵa cinyake ivyo vikupokera uteŵeti kufuma ku cilwero cimoza cakupokera ca ŵaya ya ungweru. Findu ya ŵaya ya ungweru kanandi yikulongosoreka na unandi wa nyumba izo yikuteŵetera. == Ndondomeko Zakugaŵika == Mu mkwawo wa ndondomeko yakugaŵika, findu ni ŵakupempha uteŵeti, maseva, panji ŵakuyana. Wakuyana nyengo zinyake wangaŵa wakupempha uteŵeti, ndipo nyengo zinyake seva. Mu mkwawo wa ŵakuyana panji mkwawo wapacanya, findu izo zikutumizga vyakumanyikwa vya vilwero vinyake vya mkwawo kweniso vyawo zikuchemeka findu zikulu. Ndondomeko zakugaŵika nyengo zinyake zingagwiliskira ntchito findu za mu maghanoghano kuti ndondomeko yimanye kupambana kwa findu. Suzgo ili likumazgika na nthowa zapadera za kupenda, nga ni ''consistent hashing'', nga umo viliri mu ''Dynamo'' ya Amazon. Mu mkwawo ukulu wa mirangura, mirangura yiliyose iyo yili ku mphepete kwa mkwawo, iyo yikulumikizga mikwawo yinyake yayi, na iyo kanandi yikulumikizgika kwa kanyengo kacoko ku bingu limoza panji maŵingu ghanandi gha mirangura, yikuchemeka findu za kumalizgira. Kanandi, mu ndondomeko ya maŵingu gha mirangura, mrangura wa munthu panji wa wakugula uyo ukulumikizgika ku bingu limoza lakulongozgeka makola ukuchemeka findu ya kumalizgira. Cifukwa cakuti mirangura iyi ni cigaŵa ca mkwawo kweni yikulongozgeka na mwenecho wa bingu yayi, yikwiziska ngozi yikulu ku bingu lose. Ici cikuchemeka suzgo la findu ya kumalizgira.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.nets-find.net/Meetings/S09Meeting/Talks/clark.ppt |title=Architecture from the top down |author=David D. Clark |date=April 2009 |access-date=2017-05-14 |archive-date=2021-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813140541/http://www.nets-find.net/Meetings/S09Meeting/Talks/clark.ppt |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pali nthowa zinandi za kumazga suzgo ili, kweni zose zikukhumba kupangiska mrangura wa findu ya kumalizgira kuŵa wakugomezgeka.<ref>{{cite web |title=LPS-Public |url=http://www.spi.dod.mil/lipose.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129060950/http://www.spi.dod.mil/lipose.htm |archive-date=2011-01-29 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} e6001kvwa2hsmq0w2xq1pqpr1fgazi5 0 46869 124363 123616 2026-11-10T14:19:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124363 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:JavaScript_code.png|thumb|'''Vilwerovipepu''' vyakulembeka mu ciyowoyero ca JavaScript.]] '''Vilwerovipepu''' ni vilayizgo vya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mrangura]] ivyo vikulangulira mrangura umo ungacitira ntchito. Vilwerovipepu vikusazgapo so vikalata vya kanozgero na vya vyakukhumbikwa. Mbiri ya vilwerovipepu yikukolerana comene na kupangika kwa mirangura ya digito pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Vilayizgo vyakwamba vikalembekanga mu ciyowoyero ca makina ca vilwero vyeneivyo. Kwambika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya kupangira vilayizgo mu 1958 kukapangiska malangulo kuŵa ghakuŵazgika na ŵanthu, ndipo ici cikapepuska kupanga vilwerovipepu na kuvisamira ku mirangura ya kazengero kakupambana. Vilwerovipepu vyakulembeka mu ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo vikwendeskeka kwizira mu cakung'anamulira (''compiler'' panji ''interpreter'') kuti vigwire ntchito pa vilwero vya mrangura. Mu nyengo, vilwerovipepu vyaŵa vyakusuzga, cifukwa ca kukura kwa mikwawo, vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, na malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa. Vilwerovipepu vingagaŵika mu mitundu iŵiri yikulu: * vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, ivyo vikulongozga vyuma vya vilwero na kovwira vilayizgo vinyake * [[Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo|vilwerovipepu vya mlimo]], ivyo vikucita ntchito zapadera za ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Kukura kwa maŵingu gha mirangura kwiziska nthowa yiphya ya kupelekera vilwerovipepu, vilwerovipepu nga ni uteŵeti (SaaS). Mu SaaS, vilwerovipepu vikusungika na wakupeleka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuvifikira kwizira mu [[Intaneti|intaneti]]. Kupanga vilwerovipepu kuli na mbondolo zinandi: kunozga, kulemba vilayizgo, kuyezga, kufumya, na kusunga. Uwemi na civikiliro ca vilwerovipepu ngakuzirwa comene, cifukwa vibudi na malo ghakupotoka ghangiziska kutondeka kwa ndondomeko na kunjira kwa ŵakunanga. Kweniso, nkhani za dango nga ni vikalata vya wanangwa vya vilwerovipepu na wanangwa pa cuma ca maghanoghano zikugwira ntchito yikulu pa kuthandazga vilwerovipepu. == Mbiri == Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa lizgu lakuti ''software'' pa vilayizgo vya mirangura kukacitika na musandi wa masamu John Wilder Tukey mu 1958. Mirangura yakwamba iyo yikalembekanga vilayizgo, iyo yikawoneka kumalira kwa ma 1940, yikalembekanga mu ciyowoyero ca makina. Ciyowoyero ca makina nchakusuzga kunozgamo vibudi, ndipo cingasamira ku mirangura yinyake yayi. Pakwamba, vyuma vya vilwero vikaŵa vyakudura kuluska ŵanthu. Apo vilayizgo vikaŵa vyakusuzga, luŵiro la ŵakulemba vilayizgo likaŵa cikanizgo. Kwambika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya vilayizgo mu 1958 kukabisa vyakubisika vya vilwero, ndipo kukalongosora ndondomeko za kupenda mu khodi. Viyowoyero vyakwamba ni Fortran, Lisp, na COBOL. == Mitundu == Pali mitundu iŵiri yikulu ya vilwerovipepu: * Vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura ni "cigaŵa ca vilwerovipepu ico cikulongozga vyuma vya mrangura kwa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito na vilwerovipepu vyawo vya mlimo". Vili na vilato vitatu vikulu: ** Kugaŵa vyuma pakati pa vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vyakupambana, kusankha nyengo iyo vizamupokera nyengo ya cigaŵa cikulu ca kupendera (CPU) panji malo mu malo gha kusungira. ** Kupeleka mawonekero agho ghakubisa vyakubisika vya kufikira vilwero (nga ni malo gha kusungira gheneco), kuti ŵakulemba vilayizgo ŵapepukirike. ** Kupeleka uteŵeti wakuyana, nga ni nthowa ya kufikira mikwawo na vilwero vya kusungira. Ici cikuzomerezga cilwerocipepu ca mlimo kugwira ntchito pa vilwero vyakupambana kwambura kulembeka so. * Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vikugwira ntchito pacanya pa vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska, ndipo vikugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya mrangura kucita ntchito. Pali mitundu yinandi ya vilwerovipepu vya mlimo cifukwa ntchito izo zingacitika na mirangura ya mazuŵa ghano ni zinandi comene. Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo ndivyo vinandi, ndipo vikukhumba malo agho vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska vikupeleka, ndipo kanandi vinyake, kuti vigwire ntchito. Vilwerovipepu vingagaŵika so kuyana na umo vikupelekekera. Vilwerovipepu vya kale vikugulika na wanangwa wa nyengo zose pa mtundu umoza, vikuguzika, na kugwira ntchito pa vilwero vya wakugula. Kukura kwa intaneti na maŵingu gha mirangura kukiziska nthowa yiphya, vilwerovipepu nga ni uteŵeti (SaaS), umo wakupeleka wakusunga vilwerovipepu (kanandi pa vyakuzengera vyakubwereka) na kupeleka kagwiliskiro kake ku ŵakugula, kanandi pa malipiro gha nyengo na nyengo. Pofika 2023, vilwerovipepu vya SaaS, ivyo kanandi vikupelekeka kwizira mu cilwerocipepu ca pa intaneti, vikaŵa nthowa yikulu iyo makampani ghakupelekera vilwerovipepu vya mlimo. == Kupanga na Kusunga == Makampani gha vilwerovipepu ghakukhumba kupeleka cakupangika ciwemi pa nyengo yake na kwambura kujumpha ndalama zakupangira. Suzgo limoza ni lakuti kughanaghanira nkhongono iyo kupanga vilwerovipepu kukukhumba kanandi nkhwambura kufika. Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukwamba na kughanaghana cilato, kupenda usange cingacitika, kupenda vyakukhumbikwa vya malonda, na kunozga vilwerovipepu. Vilwerovipepu vinandi vikufwasura kupangika kwake mwa kugwiliskira ntchito so panji kusazgamo vilwerovipepu ivyo vilipo kale, kwali vya malonda vyakunozgeka kale (COTS) panji vya khodi yakujura. Kuwoneseska uwemi wa vilwerovipepu kanandi ni kusazganika kwa kupenda khodi na ŵazengi ŵanyake na kuyezga vilwerovipepu na makina. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa nyengo, kuyezga kungafika pa vigaŵa vyose vya ntchito ya vilwerovipepu yayi, ntheura ŵakupanga kanandi ŵakulaŵiska pa ntchito zakuzirwa comene. Nthowa za masamu zikugwiliskirika ntchito mu ndondomeko zinyake umo ngozi njikulu kusimikizga kuti khodi njaunenesko, apo kuyezga kwa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kukovwira kuwoneseska kuti cakupangika cikufiska ivyo ŵakugula ŵakukhumba. Pali nthowa zinandi za kupangira vilwerovipepu, kufuma ku kumalizga mbondolo zose mwakulondezgana mpaka ku nthowa za kucita pamoza na kuwerezgawerezga. Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukulongozgeka na vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵa munthazi, kupambana na kusunga, uko kukulongozgeka na vyakucitika nga ni pempho la kusintha. Kanandi, vilwerovipepu vikufumyika vyambura kumalizgika para gulu la kupanga lamaliska nyengo panji ndalama. Nangauli pali kuyezga na kuwoneseska uwemi, pafupifupi vilwerovipepu vyose vili na vibudi umo ndondomeko yikugwira ntchito umo yikwenera yayi. Kusunga vilwerovipepu pamanyuma pa kufumya nkhwakukhumbikwa kuti vibudi ivi vinozgeke para vyasangika, na kuti vilwerovipepu vilutilire kugwira ntchito apo malo ghakusintha. Vimanyikwiro viphya kanandi vikusazgika pamanyuma pa kufumya. Mu nyengo, kusunga kukucepa pacoko pacoko, mpaka kukumalira apo cakupangika cikuwuskika pa msika. Apo vilwerovipepu vikukota, vikuchemeka vilwerovipepu vya kale, ndipo vingalutilira kugwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka makumi ghanandi, nanga para palije munthu uyo wakumanya kuvinozga. Mu umoyo wose wa cakupangika, kusunga vilwerovipepu kukughanaghanirika kuŵa magaŵa 75 pa 100 panji kujumpha gha ndalama zose za kupanga. Kumalizga ntchito ya vilwerovipepu kukukhumba luso la mitundu yinandi, kwa ŵakulemba vilayizgo pera yayi kweniso pa kuyezga, kulemba malongosoro, kulongozga ntchito, kujambula, kupwelelera umo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakupulikira, kovwira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, kuguliska, na kupenja ndalama. == Uwemi na Civikiliro == Uwemi wa vilwerovipepu ukulongosoreka nga ni kufiska vyakukhumbikwa ivyo vyayowoyeka kweniso ivyo ŵakugula ŵakuthemba. Uwemi ni lizgu likulu ilo lingang'anamula kugwira ntchito makola kwa khodi, kugwiliskirika ntchito so na kusamirika kwake, panji kupepuka kwa kuyisintha. Kanandi nkhwakusunga ndalama comene kuŵika uwemi mu cakupangika kufuma pakwamba kuluska kuyezga kuwusazga pamanyuma. Khodi yiwemi yikucepeska ndalama za umoyo wose ku ŵapeleki na ŵakugula, cifukwa njakugomezgeka ndipo njakupepuka kuyisunga. Kutondeka kwa vilwerovipepu mu ndondomeko umo ngozi njikulu kungiziska vyakupweteka vikulu, kusazgapo vilonda panji nyifwa. Kuyana na kughanaghanira kunyake, ndalama izo vilwerovipepu viheni vikwiziska zingafika pa magaŵa 20 mpaka 40 pa 100 gha malonda. Nangauli ŵakupanga ŵakukhumba kupeleka cakupangika ico cikugwira ntchito makola cose, pafupifupi vilwerovipepu vyose vili na vibudi. Kukura kwa intaneti kukasazgirapo so comene kukhumbikwa kwa civikiliro ca mirangura, cifukwa kukazomerezga ŵakunanga kuwukira kufuma kutali. Usange cibudi cikwiziska ngozi ya civikiliro, cikuchemeka malo ghakupotoka. Vyakunozgera vilwerovipepu kanandi vikufumyika kuti vinozge malo ghakupotoka agho ghasangika, kweni agho ghacali ghambura kumanyikwa (''zero days'') na agho ghandanozgeke ghacali pa ngozi ya kunangika. Malo ghakupotoka ghakupambana pa umo ŵakunanga ŵangaghagwiliskira ntchito, ndipo ngozi yeneyiyo yikuthemba kawiro ka malo ghakupotoka na kuzirwa kwa ndondomeko iyo ghali. Nangauli malo ghanyake ghakupotoka ghangagwiliskirika ntchito pera pa kuwukira kwa kukanizga uteŵeti, ghanyake ghakuzomerezga wakuwukira kunjizga na kwendeska khodi yake (yakuchemeka vilwerovipepu viheni), kwambura wakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya. Kuti kuwukira kukanizgike, vilwerovipepu vyose mu ndondomeko vikwenera kunozgeka kuti vikhore na kuwelera pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa kuwaro. Nangauli pali kuyezga kuwoneseska civikiliro, cigaŵa cikulu ca mirangura cili na vilwerovipepu viheni. == Kulemba na Kwendeska == === Viyowoyero vya Vilayizgo === [[Chiyowoyero cha vilayizgo|Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo]] ni mawonekero agho vilwerovipepu vikulembekeramo. Kufuma mu ma 1950, viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vyakupambana masauzandi vyapangika; vinyake vyagwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka makumi ghanandi, apo vinyake vikaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito. Ng'anamulo zinyake zikugaŵa khodi ya makina (malangulo gheneco agho vilwero vikufiska) na ciyowoyero ca ''assembly'' (ciyowoyero cakuŵazgika na ŵanthu comene kuluska khodi ya makina, ico mazgo ghake ghangang'anamulika limoza na limoza kuŵa khodi ya makina) nga ni viyowoyero vya vilayizgo. Vilayizgo vyakulembeka mu viyowoyero vyapacanya vikuyana mu vinthu vinyake vikulu: kumanya khodi ya makina kukukhumbikwa yayi kuti vilembeke, vingasamira ku mirangura yinyake, ndipo ni vifupi na vyakuŵazgika comene kuluska khodi ya makina. Vikwenera kuŵazgika na ŵanthu kweniso kung'anamulika kuŵa malangulo ghakuwoneka makola ku vilwero vya mrangura. === Kung'anamula na Kwendeska === Kupangika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya vilayizgo kukacitika pa nyengo yimoza na vyakung'anamulira (''compilers'') ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuving'anamula vyekha kuŵa khodi ya makina. Vilayizgo vinandi vilije vyuma vyose ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti viyendeskeke, ndipo vikuthemba nyumba za vilayizgo za kuwaro. Cigaŵa ca ntchito ya cakung'anamulira ni kulumikizga mafayilo agha mwakuti cilayizgo cingayendeskeka na vilwero. Para cang'anamulika, cilayizgo cingasungika nga ni fayilo, ndipo cakwambiskira (cigaŵa ca vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska) cingatora fayilo iyi na kuyendeska pa mrangura. Viyowoyero vinyake vya vilayizgo vikugwiliskira ntchito cakung'anamulira ca pa nyengo yeneyiyo (''interpreter''), ico cikusandura cilayizgo kuŵa khodi ya makina pa nyengo iyo cikwendeskeka, ndipo ici cikupangiska kuŵa vyakuzerezga kakhumi mpaka kahandiredi kuluska viyowoyero vyakung'anamulika kale. == Nkhani za Dango == === Udindo === Vilwerovipepu kanandi vikufumyika apo ŵakumanya kuti vyambura kumalizgika panji vili na vibudi. Ŵakugula ŵakuvigula ŵakumanya, ndipo ici cikiziska ndondomeko ya dango umo udindo pa vilwerovipepu wacepeskeka comene kuyaniska na vyakupangika vinyake. === Vikalata vya Wanangwa === Kufuma pakati pa ma 1970, vilwerovipepu na khodi yake ya muzu vyavikilirika na dango la wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake, ilo likupeleka ku mwenecho wanangwa pera wa kukopa khodi. Maghanoghano panji ndondomeko za kupenda izo zili mukati vikuvikilirika na dango ili yayi, kweni nyengo zinyake vikuwonekera nga ni vyakubisika vya malonda, ndipo vikubisika na nthowa nga ni maphangano gha kuleka kuvumbura. Wanangwa pa vilwerovipepu kanandi uli na munthu panji kampani iyo yikapeleka ndalama panji kupanga vilwerovipepu (kuyana na maphangano ghawo na ŵantchito panji ŵakugwira ntchito ŵa paŵekha awo ŵakawovwira kuvilemba). Vilwerovipepu vinyake ni vya ŵanthu wose, ndipo vilije vikanizgo pa uyo wangavigwiliskira ntchito, kuvikopa, kuvigaŵana, panji kuvisintha; ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa ni vilwerovipepu ivyo ulongozgi wa United States walemba. Vilwerovipepu vya wanangwa na khodi yakujura vikuzomerezga so kugwiliskira ntchito, kugaŵana, na kusintha kwa wanangwa, panji na malango ghacoko. Kagwiliskiro ka vilwerovipepu vinyake kakulongozgeka na phangano (cikalata ca wanangwa ca vilwerovipepu) ilo mwenecho walemba na kuŵika pa wakugwiliskira ntchito. Vilwerovipepu vya mwenecho pera kanandi vikuguliskika pasi pa cikalata ca wanangwa cakukanizga, ico cikucepeska kagwiliskiro na kugaŵana kwake. Vikalata vinyake vya wanangwa vya vilwerovipepu vya wanangwa vikukhumba kuti mitundu yakusinthika yifumyike pasi pa cikalata cakuyana (''copyleft''), ico cikukanizga vilwerovipepu kuguliskika panji kuthandazgika pasi pa vikanizgo vya mwenecho pera. === Vikalata vya Wanangwa pa Vyakupanga Viphya === Vikalata vya wanangwa pa vyakupanga viphya (''patents'') vikupeleka ku wakupanga wanangwa pera, kwa nyengo yakupimika, pa cakupangika panji ndondomeko yiphya. Maghanoghano pa ivyo vilwerovipepu vingacita vikuvikilirika na dango yayi, ndipo kagwiliskiro kake keneko kakuvikilirika na dango la wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake. Mu vyaro vinyake, cakukhumbikwa cakuti cakupanga ciphya ciŵe na vyakufumapo pa caro ca kawiro cingaŵa cimoza mwa vyakukhumbikwa kuti cikalata ca wanangwa pa vilwerovipepu cizomerezgeke. Vikalata ivi vya vilwerovipepu vyasuskika comene mu mbiri. Pambere pa mulandu wa 1998 wa ''State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc.'', vikalata ivi vikazomerezgekanga yayi mu United States. Mu mulandu uwo, Mphara Yilala yikeruzga kuti ndondomeko za malonda zingapokera vikalata ivi. Kupempha vikalata ivi nkhwakusuzga na kwakudura, ndipo milandu ya vikalata ivi yingasazgirapo mtengo wa vyakupangika. Kupambana na wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake, vikalata ivi kanandi vikugwira ntchito pera mu dera la mazaza umo vyapelekeka. == Vyakufumapo == Muzengi Capers Jones wakulemba kuti "mirangura na vilwerovipepu vikusintha comene cigaŵa ciliconse ca umoyo wa ŵanthu: masambiro, ntchito, nkhondo, kusanguluska, ucizgi, dango, na vinyake vyose". Vyaŵa kulikose mu umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa mu vyaro ivyo vyatukuka. Kanandi, vilwerovipepu vikusazgirapo ntchito za luso la vilwero ilo lilipo kale, nga ni vilwero vya pa nyumba na makina gha kukwezgera ŵanthu mu nyumba zitali. Vilwerovipepu vikiziska so luso la vilwero liphya nga ni intaneti, maseŵero gha vidiyo, lamya za m'manja, na GPS. Nthowa ziphya za kuyowoyerana, kusazgapo imelo, magulu gha kudumbiskana, mablogu, na mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu, zikazomerezgeka na intaneti. Umanyi unandi comene kuluska nyumba ya mabuku yiliyose ya mapepala sono ukusangika luŵiro mwa kupenja pa intaneti. Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵa kupanga vinthu vyaphya ŵasintha kuŵa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya vilwerovipepu, nga ni kujambula na mrangura, kupanga vinthu vya vigaŵa vitatu, kusintha vithuzi vya digito, na kupanga vithuzi vyakwenda na mrangura. Pafupifupi cilwero ciliconse cakusuzga cikulongozgeka na vilwerovipepu. o8btd8zuog3ujnrkwoln0s6jsg6ml4v 124397 124363 2026-11-10T20:27:07Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124397 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:JavaScript_code.png|thumb|'''Vilwerovipepu''' vyakulembeka mu ciyowoyero ca JavaScript.]] '''Vilwerovipepu''' ni vilayizgo vya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mrangura]] ivyo vikulangulira mrangura umo ungacitira ntchito. Vilwerovipepu vikusazgapo so vikalata vya kanozgero na vya vyakukhumbikwa. Mbiri ya vilwerovipepu yikukolerana comene na kupangika kwa mirangura ya digito pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Vilayizgo vyakwamba vikalembekanga mu ciyowoyero ca makina ca vilwero vyeneivyo. Kwambika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya kupangira vilayizgo mu 1958 kukapangiska malangulo kuŵa ghakuŵazgika na ŵanthu, ndipo ici cikapepuska kupanga vilwerovipepu na kuvisamira ku mirangura ya kazengero kakupambana. Vilwerovipepu vyakulembeka mu ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo vikwendeskeka kwizira mu cakung'anamulira (''compiler'' panji ''interpreter'') kuti vigwire ntchito pa vilwero vya mrangura. Mu nyengo, vilwerovipepu vyaŵa vyakusuzga, cifukwa ca kukura kwa mikwawo, vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, na malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa. Vilwerovipepu vingagaŵika mu mitundu iŵiri yikulu: * vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, ivyo vikulongozga vyuma vya vilwero na kovwira vilayizgo vinyake * [[Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo|vilwerovipepu vya mlimo]], ivyo vikucita ntchito zapadera za ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Kukura kwa maŵingu gha mirangura kwiziska nthowa yiphya ya kupelekera vilwerovipepu, vilwerovipepu nga ni uteŵeti (SaaS). Mu SaaS, vilwerovipepu vikusungika na wakupeleka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuvifikira kwizira mu [[Intaneti|intaneti]]. Kupanga vilwerovipepu kuli na mbondolo zinandi: kunozga, kulemba vilayizgo, kuyezga, kufumya, na kusunga. Uwemi na civikiliro ca vilwerovipepu ngakuzirwa comene, cifukwa vibudi na malo ghakupotoka ghangiziska kutondeka kwa ndondomeko na kunjira kwa ŵakunanga. Kweniso, nkhani za dango nga ni vikalata vya wanangwa vya vilwerovipepu na wanangwa pa cuma ca maghanoghano zikugwira ntchito yikulu pa kuthandazga vilwerovipepu. == Mbiri == Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa lizgu lakuti ''software'' pa vilayizgo vya mirangura kukacitika na musandi wa masamu John Wilder Tukey mu 1958.{{sfn|Jones|2014|pp=19, 22}}{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=2}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=2024 |title=software (n.), sense 2.a |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3803978366 |encyclopedia=Oxford English dictionary |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/OED/3803978366 |access-date=2025-07-15}}</ref> Mirangura yakwamba iyo yikalembekanga vilayizgo, iyo yikawoneka kumalira kwa ma 1940, yikalembekanga mu ciyowoyero ca makina.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=519}} Ciyowoyero ca makina nchakusuzga kunozgamo vibudi, ndipo cingasamira ku mirangura yinyake yayi.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=520–521}} Pakwamba, vyuma vya vilwero vikaŵa vyakudura kuluska ŵanthu.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=522}} Apo vilayizgo vikaŵa vyakusuzga, luŵiro la ŵakulemba vilayizgo likaŵa cikanizgo. Kwambika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya vilayizgo mu 1958 kukabisa vyakubisika vya vilwero, ndipo kukalongosora ndondomeko za kupenda mu khodi.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=521}}{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=1}} Viyowoyero vyakwamba ni Fortran, Lisp, na COBOL.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=1}} == Mitundu == [[File:Operating system placement (software).svg|thumb|upright|Cithuzi ico cikulongora umo wakugwiliskira ntchito wakukolerana na vilwerovipepu vya ntchito pa kompyuta ya pa thebulu. Vilwerovipepu vya ntchito vikuyowoyeskana na ndondomeko ya kuwusa kompyuta (''operating system''), iyo nayo yikuyowoyeskana na makina gha kompyuta. Mivi yikulongora umo uthenga ukwendera.]] Pali mitundu iŵiri yikulu ya vilwerovipepu: * Vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura ni "cigaŵa ca vilwerovipepu ico cikulongozga vyuma vya mrangura kwa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito na vilwerovipepu vyawo vya mlimo". Vili na vilato vitatu vikulu: ** Kugaŵa vyuma pakati pa vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vyakupambana, kusankha nyengo iyo vizamupokera nyengo ya cigaŵa cikulu ca kupendera (CPU) panji malo mu malo gha kusungira. ** Kupeleka mawonekero agho ghakubisa vyakubisika vya kufikira vilwero (nga ni malo gha kusungira gheneco), kuti ŵakulemba vilayizgo ŵapepukirike. ** Kupeleka uteŵeti wakuyana, nga ni nthowa ya kufikira mikwawo na vilwero vya kusungira. Ici cikuzomerezga cilwerocipepu ca mlimo kugwira ntchito pa vilwero vyakupambana kwambura kulembeka so. * Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vikugwira ntchito pacanya pa vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska, ndipo vikugwiliskira ntchito vyuma vya mrangura kucita ntchito. Pali mitundu yinandi ya vilwerovipepu vya mlimo cifukwa ntchito izo zingacitika na mirangura ya mazuŵa ghano ni zinandi comene. Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo ndivyo vinandi, ndipo vikukhumba malo agho vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska vikupeleka, ndipo kanandi vinyake, kuti vigwire ntchito. [[File:Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS.png|thumb|Kuyaniska makina na vilwerovipepu vya pa malo ghawo, na IaaS, PaaS, na SaaS (uteŵeti wa pa intaneti)|upright=2.4|center]] Vilwerovipepu vingagaŵika so kuyana na umo vikupelekekera. Vilwerovipepu vya kale vikugulika na wanangwa wa nyengo zose pa mtundu umoza, vikuguzika, na kugwira ntchito pa vilwero vya wakugula.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=386}} Kukura kwa intaneti na maŵingu gha mirangura kukiziska nthowa yiphya, vilwerovipepu nga ni uteŵeti (SaaS), umo wakupeleka wakusunga vilwerovipepu (kanandi pa vyakuzengera vyakubwereka) na kupeleka kagwiliskiro kake ku ŵakugula, kanandi pa malipiro gha nyengo na nyengo.{{sfn|Campbell-Kelly|Garcia-Swartz|2015|pp=156-157}}{{sfn|Rosati |Lynn|2020|p=23}}{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=386}} Pofika 2023, vilwerovipepu vya SaaS, ivyo kanandi vikupelekeka kwizira mu cilwerocipepu ca pa intaneti, vikaŵa nthowa yikulu iyo makampani ghakupelekera vilwerovipepu vya mlimo.{{sfn|Watt|2023|p=4}} == Kupanga na Kusunga == [[File:Traditional software development life cycle diagram.png|thumb|upright=2.5|center|Cithuzi ca masitepu gha kupanga vilwerovipepu mu nthowa ya kale, kufuma mu 1988. Manambala ghakulongora ndalama izo sitepu yiliyose kanandi yikutora.]] Makampani gha vilwerovipepu ghakukhumba kupeleka cakupangika ciwemi pa nyengo yake na kwambura kujumpha ndalama zakupangira. Suzgo limoza ni lakuti kughanaghanira nkhongono iyo kupanga vilwerovipepu kukukhumba kanandi nkhwambura kufika.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=7}} Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukwamba na kughanaghana cilato, kupenda usange cingacitika, kupenda vyakukhumbikwa vya malonda, na kunozga vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=5}}{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=1}} Vilwerovipepu vinandi vikufwasura kupangika kwake mwa kugwiliskira ntchito so panji kusazgamo vilwerovipepu ivyo vilipo kale, kwali vya malonda vyakunozgeka kale (COTS) panji vya khodi yakujura.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=18, 110-111}}{{sfn|Tracy|2021|pp=43, 76}} Kuwoneseska uwemi wa vilwerovipepu kanandi ni kusazganika kwa kupenda khodi na ŵazengi ŵanyake na kuyezga vilwerovipepu na makina.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=117-118}} Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa nyengo, kuyezga kungafika pa vigaŵa vyose vya ntchito ya vilwerovipepu yayi, ntheura ŵakupanga kanandi ŵakulaŵiska pa ntchito zakuzirwa comene.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=54}} Nthowa za masamu zikugwiliskirika ntchito mu ndondomeko zinyake umo ngozi njikulu kusimikizga kuti khodi njaunenesko, apo kuyezga kwa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kukovwira kuwoneseska kuti cakupangika cikufiska ivyo ŵakugula ŵakukhumba.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=267}}{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=20}} Pali nthowa zinandi za kupangira vilwerovipepu, kufuma ku kumalizga mbondolo zose mwakulondezgana mpaka ku nthowa za kucita pamoza na kuwerezgawerezga.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=9}} Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukulongozgeka na vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵa munthazi, kupambana na kusunga, uko kukulongozgeka na vyakucitika nga ni pempho la kusintha.{{sfn|Tripathy |Naik|2014|p=26}} Kanandi, vilwerovipepu vikufumyika vyambura kumalizgika para gulu la kupanga lamaliska nyengo panji ndalama.{{sfn |Reifer|2012|p=22}} Nangauli pali kuyezga na kuwoneseska uwemi, pafupifupi vilwerovipepu vyose vili na vibudi umo ndondomeko yikugwira ntchito umo yikwenera yayi. Kusunga vilwerovipepu pamanyuma pa kufumya nkhwakukhumbikwa kuti vibudi ivi vinozgeke para vyasangika, na kuti vilwerovipepu vilutilire kugwira ntchito apo malo ghakusintha.{{sfn|Tripathy |Naik|2014|pp=4, 27}} Vimanyikwiro viphya kanandi vikusazgika pamanyuma pa kufumya. Mu nyengo, kusunga kukucepa pacoko pacoko, mpaka kukumalira apo cakupangika cikuwuskika pa msika.{{sfn|Tripathy |Naik|2014|p=89}} Apo vilwerovipepu vikukota, vikuchemeka vilwerovipepu vya kale, ndipo vingalutilira kugwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka makumi ghanandi, nanga para palije munthu uyo wakumanya kuvinozga.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=3}} Mu umoyo wose wa cakupangika, kusunga vilwerovipepu kukughanaghanirika kuŵa magaŵa 75 pa 100 panji kujumpha gha ndalama zose za kupanga.{{sfn|Varga|2018|p=6}}{{sfn|Ulziit ''et al.''|2015|p=764}} Kumalizga ntchito ya vilwerovipepu kukukhumba luso la mitundu yinandi, kwa ŵakulemba vilayizgo pera yayi kweniso pa kuyezga, kulemba malongosoro, kulongozga ntchito, kujambula, kupwelelera umo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakupulikira, kovwira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, kuguliska, na kupenja ndalama.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=7}}{{sfn|Stull|2018|pp=24-25}}{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=1}} == Uwemi na Civikiliro == Uwemi wa vilwerovipepu ukulongosoreka nga ni kufiska vyakukhumbikwa ivyo vyayowoyeka kweniso ivyo ŵakugula ŵakuthemba.{{sfn|Galin|2018|p=3}} Uwemi ni lizgu likulu ilo lingang'anamula kugwira ntchito makola kwa khodi, kugwiliskirika ntchito so na kusamirika kwake, panji kupepuka kwa kuyisintha.{{sfn|Galin|2018|p=26}} Kanandi nkhwakusunga ndalama comene kuŵika uwemi mu cakupangika kufuma pakwamba kuluska kuyezga kuwusazga pamanyuma.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=68, 117}} Khodi yiwemi yikucepeska ndalama za umoyo wose ku ŵapeleki na ŵakugula, cifukwa njakugomezgeka ndipo njakupepuka kuyisunga.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=3, 268}}{{sfn|Varga|2018|p=12}} Kutondeka kwa vilwerovipepu mu ndondomeko umo ngozi njikulu kungiziska vyakupweteka vikulu, kusazgapo vilonda panji nyifwa.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=3, 268}} Kuyana na kughanaghanira kunyake, ndalama izo vilwerovipepu viheni vikwiziska zingafika pa magaŵa 20 mpaka 40 pa 100 gha malonda.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=119}} Nangauli ŵakupanga ŵakukhumba kupeleka cakupangika ico cikugwira ntchito makola cose, pafupifupi vilwerovipepu vyose vili na vibudi.{{sfn|Ablon|Bogart|2017|p=1}} Kukura kwa intaneti kukasazgirapo so comene kukhumbikwa kwa civikiliro ca mirangura, cifukwa kukazomerezga ŵakunanga kuwukira kufuma kutali.{{sfn|Campbell-Kelly|Garcia-Swartz|2015|p=164}}{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=266}} Usange cibudi cikwiziska ngozi ya civikiliro, cikuchemeka malo ghakupotoka.{{sfn|Ablon|Bogart|2017|p=2}}{{sfn|Daswani |Elbayadi|2021|p=25}} Vyakunozgera vilwerovipepu kanandi vikufumyika kuti vinozge malo ghakupotoka agho ghasangika, kweni agho ghacali ghambura kumanyikwa (''zero days'') na agho ghandanozgeke ghacali pa ngozi ya kunangika.{{sfn|Daswani |Elbayadi|2021|pp=26-27}} Malo ghakupotoka ghakupambana pa umo ŵakunanga ŵangaghagwiliskira ntchito, ndipo ngozi yeneyiyo yikuthemba kawiro ka malo ghakupotoka na kuzirwa kwa ndondomeko iyo ghali.{{sfn|Ablon|Bogart|2017|p=2}}{{sfn|Haber |Hibbert|2018|pp=5-6}} Nangauli malo ghanyake ghakupotoka ghangagwiliskirika ntchito pera pa kuwukira kwa kukanizga uteŵeti, ghanyake ghakuzomerezga wakuwukira kunjizga na kwendeska khodi yake (yakuchemeka vilwerovipepu viheni), kwambura wakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya.{{sfn|Ablon|Bogart|2017|p=2}} Kuti kuwukira kukanizgike, vilwerovipepu vyose mu ndondomeko vikwenera kunozgeka kuti vikhore na kuwelera pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa kuwaro.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=266}} Nangauli pali kuyezga kuwoneseska civikiliro, cigaŵa cikulu ca mirangura cili na vilwerovipepu viheni.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|p=37}} == Kulemba na Kwendeska == === Viyowoyero vya Vilayizgo === [[File:C Hello World Program.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Khodi ya cilwero ca kompyuta mu C. Mizere ya mtundu wa caphuvyu ni malongosoro agho ghakulongosolera ŵanthu cilwero. Para cang'anamulika na kugwira ntchito, cikulongora "Hello, world!".]] [[Chiyowoyero cha vilayizgo|Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo]] ni mawonekero agho vilwerovipepu vikulembekeramo. Kufuma mu ma 1950, viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vyakupambana masauzandi vyapangika; vinyake vyagwiliskirika ntchito kwa vyaka makumi ghanandi, apo vinyake vikaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=117}} Ng'anamulo zinyake zikugaŵa khodi ya makina (malangulo gheneco agho vilwero vikufiska) na ciyowoyero ca ''assembly'' (ciyowoyero cakuŵazgika na ŵanthu comene kuluska khodi ya makina, ico mazgo ghake ghangang'anamulika limoza na limoza kuŵa khodi ya makina) nga ni viyowoyero vya vilayizgo.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|pp=118–120}} Vilayizgo vyakulembeka mu viyowoyero vyapacanya vikuyana mu vinthu vinyake vikulu: kumanya khodi ya makina kukukhumbikwa yayi kuti vilembeke, vingasamira ku mirangura yinyake, ndipo ni vifupi na vyakuŵazgika comene kuluska khodi ya makina.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|pp=118–119}} Vikwenera kuŵazgika na ŵanthu kweniso kung'anamulika kuŵa malangulo ghakuwoneka makola ku vilwero vya mrangura.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|p=26}} === Kung'anamula na Kwendeska === Kupangika kwa viyowoyero vyapacanya vya vilayizgo kukacitika pa nyengo yimoza na vyakung'anamulira (''compilers'') ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuving'anamula vyekha kuŵa khodi ya makina.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|p=121}} Vilayizgo vinandi vilije vyuma vyose ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti viyendeskeke, ndipo vikuthemba nyumba za vilayizgo za kuwaro. Cigaŵa ca ntchito ya cakung'anamulira ni kulumikizga mafayilo agha mwakuti cilayizgo cingayendeskeka na vilwero.{{sfn|Tracy|2021|pp=122-123}} Para cang'anamulika, cilayizgo cingasungika nga ni fayilo, ndipo cakwambiskira (cigaŵa ca vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska) cingatora fayilo iyi na kuyendeska pa mrangura. Viyowoyero vinyake vya vilayizgo vikugwiliskira ntchito cakung'anamulira ca pa nyengo yeneyiyo (''interpreter''), ico cikusandura cilayizgo kuŵa khodi ya makina pa nyengo iyo cikwendeskeka, ndipo ici cikupangiska kuŵa vyakuzerezga kakhumi mpaka kahandiredi kuluska viyowoyero vyakung'anamulika kale.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=375}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=28}} == Nkhani za Dango == === Udindo === Vilwerovipepu kanandi vikufumyika apo ŵakumanya kuti vyambura kumalizgika panji vili na vibudi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Producing Trustworthy Hardware Using Untrusted Components, Personnel and Resources | url=https://www.cs.columbia.edu/~simha/thesis/Waksman_columbia_0054D_11944.pdf | publisher=Columbia University | access-date=2026-09-29}}</ref> Ŵakugula ŵakuvigula ŵakumanya, ndipo ici cikiziska ndondomeko ya dango umo udindo pa vilwerovipepu wacepeskeka comene kuyaniska na vyakupangika vinyake.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|pp=36-37}} === Vikalata vya Wanangwa === [[File:Cube in Blender Editor.jpg|thumb|Blender, vilwerovipepu vyawanangwa]] Kufuma pakati pa ma 1970, vilwerovipepu na khodi yake ya muzu vyavikilirika na dango la wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake, ilo likupeleka ku mwenecho wanangwa pera wa kukopa khodi. Maghanoghano panji ndondomeko za kupenda izo zili mukati vikuvikilirika na dango ili yayi, kweni nyengo zinyake vikuwonekera nga ni vyakubisika vya malonda, ndipo vikubisika na nthowa nga ni maphangano gha kuleka kuvumbura.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=394-396}} Wanangwa pa vilwerovipepu kanandi uli na munthu panji kampani iyo yikapeleka ndalama panji kupanga vilwerovipepu (kuyana na maphangano ghawo na ŵantchito panji ŵakugwira ntchito ŵa paŵekha awo ŵakawovwira kuvilemba).{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=403}} Vilwerovipepu vinyake ni vya ŵanthu wose, ndipo vilije vikanizgo pa uyo wangavigwiliskira ntchito, kuvikopa, kuvigaŵana, panji kuvisintha; ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa ni vilwerovipepu ivyo ulongozgi wa United States walemba. Vilwerovipepu vya wanangwa na khodi yakujura vikuzomerezga so kugwiliskira ntchito, kugaŵana, na kusintha kwa wanangwa, panji na malango ghacoko.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=403}} Kagwiliskiro ka vilwerovipepu vinyake kakulongozgeka na phangano (cikalata ca wanangwa ca vilwerovipepu) ilo mwenecho walemba na kuŵika pa wakugwiliskira ntchito. Vilwerovipepu vya mwenecho pera kanandi vikuguliskika pasi pa cikalata ca wanangwa cakukanizga, ico cikucepeska kagwiliskiro na kugaŵana kwake.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|pp=394, 404}} Vikalata vinyake vya wanangwa vya vilwerovipepu vya wanangwa vikukhumba kuti mitundu yakusinthika yifumyike pasi pa cikalata cakuyana (''copyleft''), ico cikukanizga vilwerovipepu kuguliskika panji kuthandazgika pasi pa vikanizgo vya mwenecho pera.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=44-45}} === Vikalata vya Wanangwa pa Vyakupanga Viphya === Vikalata vya wanangwa pa vyakupanga viphya (''patents'') vikupeleka ku wakupanga wanangwa pera, kwa nyengo yakupimika, pa cakupangika panji ndondomeko yiphya.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=395}} Maghanoghano pa ivyo vilwerovipepu vingacita vikuvikilirika na dango yayi, ndipo kagwiliskiro kake keneko kakuvikilirika na dango la wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake. Mu vyaro vinyake, cakukhumbikwa cakuti cakupanga ciphya ciŵe na vyakufumapo pa caro ca kawiro cingaŵa cimoza mwa vyakukhumbikwa kuti cikalata ca wanangwa pa vilwerovipepu cizomerezgeke.<ref>Gerardo Con Díaz, "The Text in the Machine: American Copyright Law and the Many Natures of Software, 1974–1978", ''Technology and Culture'' 57 (October 2016), 753–79.</ref> Vikalata ivi vya vilwerovipepu vyasuskika comene mu mbiri. Pambere pa mulandu wa 1998 wa ''State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc.'', vikalata ivi vikazomerezgekanga yayi mu United States. Mu mulandu uwo, Mphara Yilala yikeruzga kuti ndondomeko za malonda zingapokera vikalata ivi.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=19}} Kupempha vikalata ivi nkhwakusuzga na kwakudura, ndipo milandu ya vikalata ivi yingasazgirapo mtengo wa vyakupangika.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=398}} Kupambana na wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake, vikalata ivi kanandi vikugwira ntchito pera mu dera la mazaza umo vyapelekeka.{{sfn|O'Regan|2022|p=399}} == Vyakufumapo == [[File:A computer graphic of the Queen Elizabeth carrier and carrier group.jpg|thumb|Vithuzi vya kuyezgerapo ivyo vikupangika na kompyuta ni cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vilwerovipepu vyapangiska kuti vicitike.{{sfn|Manovich|2013|p=333}}]] Muzengi Capers Jones wakulemba kuti "mirangura na vilwerovipepu vikusintha comene cigaŵa ciliconse ca umoyo wa ŵanthu: masambiro, ntchito, nkhondo, kusanguluska, ucizgi, dango, na vinyake vyose".{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=32}} Vyaŵa kulikose mu umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa mu vyaro ivyo vyatukuka.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|p=iv}} Kanandi, vilwerovipepu vikusazgirapo ntchito za luso la vilwero ilo lilipo kale, nga ni vilwero vya pa nyumba na makina gha kukwezgera ŵanthu mu nyumba zitali.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|p=5}} Vilwerovipepu vikiziska so luso la vilwero liphya nga ni intaneti, maseŵero gha vidiyo, lamya za m'manja, na GPS.{{sfn|Kitchin |Dodge|2011|p=5}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=xxviii}} Nthowa ziphya za kuyowoyerana, kusazgapo imelo, magulu gha kudumbiskana, mablogu, na mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu, zikazomerezgeka na intaneti.{{sfn|Manovich|2013|p=329}} Umanyi unandi comene kuluska nyumba ya mabuku yiliyose ya mapepala sono ukusangika luŵiro mwa kupenja pa intaneti.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=xxviii}} Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵa kupanga vinthu vyaphya ŵasintha kuŵa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya vilwerovipepu, nga ni kujambula na mrangura, kupanga vinthu vya vigaŵa vitatu, kusintha vithuzi vya digito, na kupanga vithuzi vyakwenda na mrangura.{{sfn|Manovich|2013|p=333}} Pafupifupi cilwero ciliconse cakusuzga cikulongozgeka na vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=xxviii}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === {{refbegin|indent=yes}} *{{cite book |last1=Ablon |first1=Lillian |last2=Bogart |first2=Andy |title=Zero Days, Thousands of Nights: The Life and Times of Zero-Day Vulnerabilities and Their Exploits |date=2017 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-9761-3 |language=en|url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1751/RAND_RR1751.pdf}} *{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Thomas |last2=Dahlin |first2=Michael |author1-link=Thomas E. Anderson |title=Operating Systems: Principles and Practice |date=2014 |publisher=Recursive Books |isbn=978-0-9856735-2-9 |edition=2 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Campbell-Kelly |first1=Martin |last2=Garcia-Swartz |first2=Daniel D. |title=From Mainframes to Smartphones: A History of the International Computer Industry |date=2015 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-28655-9 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Daswani |first1=Neil|authorlink=Neil Daswani |last2=Elbayadi |first2=Moudy |title=Big Breaches: Cybersecurity Lessons for Everyone |date=2021 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-6654-0}} *{{Cite book |last=Dooley |first=John F. |title=Software Development, Design and Coding: With Patterns, Debugging, Unit Testing, and Refactoring |date=2017 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3153-1 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Gabbrielli |first1=Maurizio |last2=Martini |first2=Simone |title=Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms |date=2023 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-34144-1 |language=en|edition=2nd}} *{{cite book |last1=Galin |first1=Daniel |title=Software Quality: Concepts and Practice |date=2018 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-13449-7 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Haber |first1=Morey J. |last2=Hibbert |first2=Brad |title=Asset Attack Vectors: Building Effective Vulnerability Management Strategies to Protect Organizations |date=2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3627-7 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Capers |title=The Technical and Social History of Software Engineering |date=2014 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-321-90342-6 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Kitchin |first1=Rob |last2=Dodge |first2=Martin |title=Code/space: Software and Everyday Life |date=2011 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-04248-2 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Langer |first=Arthur M. |title=Guide to Software Development: Designing and Managing the Life Cycle |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4471-6799-0 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Manovich |first1=Lev |title=Software Takes Command |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-62356-745-3 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Concise Guide to Software Engineering: From Fundamentals to Application Methods |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-07816-3 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Osterweil |first1=Leon J. |title=Perspectives on the Future of Software Engineering: Essays in Honor of Dieter Rombach |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-37395-4 |pages=237–254 |language=en |chapter=What Is Software? The Role of Empirical Methods in Answering the Question}} *{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Hanif Ur |last2=da Silva |first2=Alberto Rodrigues |last3=Alzayed |first3=Asaad |last4=Raza |first4=Mushtaq |title=A Systematic Literature Review on Software Maintenance Offshoring Decisions |journal=Information and Software Technology |date=2024 |volume=172 |article-number=107475 |doi=10.1016/j.infsof.2024.107475|ref={{sfnref|Rahman et al.|2024}}}} *{{cite book |last1=Reifer |first1=Donald J. |title=Software Maintenance Success Recipes |date=2012 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-5167-8 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Rosati |first1=Pierangelo |last2=Lynn |first2=Theo |title=Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-43198-3 |pages=19–37 |language=en |chapter=Measuring the Business Value of Infrastructure Migration to the Cloud}} * {{cite book |last1=Sebesta |first1=Robert W. |title=Concepts of Programming Languages |date=2012 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0-13-139531-2 |edition=10 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Stull |first1=Edward |title=UX Fundamentals for Non-UX Professionals: User Experience Principles for Managers, Writers, Designers, and Developers |date=2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3811-0 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Tanenbaum |first1=Andrew S.|authorlink=Andrew S. Tanenbaum |last2=Bos |first2=Herbert |title=Modern Operating Systems, Global Edition |date=2023 |publisher=Pearson Higher Ed |isbn=978-1-292-72789-9 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Tracy |first1=Kim W. |title=Software: A Technical History |date=2021 |publisher=Morgan & Claypool Publishers |isbn=978-1-4503-8724-8 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Tripathy |first1=Priyadarshi |last2=Naik |first2=Kshirasagar |title=Software Evolution and Maintenance: A Practitioner's Approach |date=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-60341-3 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Allen |title=Software Development: An Open Source Approach |last2=Morelli |first2=Ralph |last3=de Silva |first3=Chamindra |date=2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-8460-7 |language=en}} *{{cite journal |last1=Ulziit |first1=Bayarbuyan |last2=Warraich |first2=Zeeshan Akhtar |last3=Gencel |first3=Cigdem |last4=Petersen |first4=Kai |title=A conceptual framework of challenges and solutions for managing global software maintenance |journal=Journal of Software: Evolution and Process |date=2015 |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=763–792 |doi=10.1002/smr.1720|ref={{sfnref|Ulziit et al.|2015}}}} *{{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=Andy |title=Building Modern SaaS Applications with C# And . NET: Build, Deploy, and Maintain Professional SaaS Applications |date=2023 |publisher=Packt |isbn=978-1-80461-087-9 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Varga |first1=Ervin |title=Unraveling Software Maintenance and Evolution: Thinking Outside the Box |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-71303-8 |language=en}} {{refend}} {{Software digital distribution platforms|state=collapsed}} {{subject bar|Free and open-source software|auto=1}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Software| ]] a93ttqs6pngx5ccmwms5iu48j20ofde 0 46876 124358 124017 2026-11-10T14:18:45Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124358 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sodiyamu''' ni cisungunu; cili na cimanyikwiro '''Na''' (kufuma ku Cilatini ciphya ''natrium'') na nambala ya cimenyu 11. Ni cisulo cakupepuka, cituŵa nga ni fesa, ico cikukolerana luŵiro comene na vinthu vinyake. Sodiyamu ni cisulo ca alikali, ca gulu la 1 la gome la visungunu. Mtundu wake wekha wakukhazikika ni <sup>23</sup>Na. Cisulo ici cambura kusazganika cikusangika mu kawiro yayi, ndipo cikwenera kufumyika mu vyakusazganika. Sodiyamu ni cisungunu ca cinkhondi na cimoza pa unandi mu cikopa ca [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]], ndipo cili mu malibwe ghanandi, nga ni ''feldspar'', ''sodalite'', na mcere wa pasi (NaCl). Vyakusazganika vinandi vya sodiyamu vikusungunuka comene mu [[Maji|maji]]: maji ghafumya sodiyamu mu malibwe gha caro capasi kwa vyaka mamiliyoni, ntheura sodiyamu na kolorini ndivyo visungunu vinandi comene ivyo vyasungunuka mu mbwani pa kuzitika. Sodiyamu cikafumyika kakwamba na Humphry Davy mu 1807 mwa kugaŵa sodiyamu haidrokisayidi na magesi. Mwa vyakusazganika vinandi vyakovwira vya sodiyamu, sodiyamu haidrokisayidi yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga sopo, ndipo sodiyamu kolorayidi (mcere wakulya) yikugwiliskirika ntchito kusungunuska cikakato na ni cakulya cakuzirwa ku vinyama kusazgapo ŵanthu. Sodiyamu ni cisungunu cakukhumbikwa ku vinyama vyose na ku vyakumera vinyake. Tuvinthu twa magesi twa sodiyamu ndito tunandi comene mu maji gha kuwaro kwa tumaselo, ndipo ndito tukupanga cigaŵa cikulu ca kukanikizga kwa maji agha. Tumaselo twa vinyama tukupopa tuvinthu twa sodiyamu kuwaro kwa kaselo kwizira mu mpope wa sodiyamu na potasiyamu, ilo lili mu cikopa ca kaselo, kuti tusunge unandi wa sodiyamu kuwaro kwa kaselo pafupifupi kakhumi kuluska mukati. Mu tumaselo twa mizirwe, kwenda luŵiro kwa tuvinthu twa sodiyamu mukati mwa kaselo kukupangiska kutumika kwa uthenga wa mizirwe. == Vimanyikwiro == === Vya Kawiro === Pa kufunda na kukanikizga kwa nyengo zose, sodiyamu ni cisulo cakupepuka ca mtundu wa fesa ico cikusazganika na okisijeni wa mu mphepo, kupanga sodiyamu okisayidi. Sodiyamu cinandi kanandi cikusungika mu mafuta panji mu mphepo yambura kusazganika. Cisulo ca sodiyamu cingadumulika makola na mpeni. Cikwendeska makola magesi na kufunda. Sodiyamu cikusungunuka pa 98 °C na kutuntha pa 883 °C, pasi pa lithiyamu kweni pacanya pa visulo vya alikali vyakuzitika nga ni potasiyamu, rubidiyamu, na sesiyamu. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikusintha comene pa kukanikizga kukulu: pa 1.5 Mbar, mtundu ukusintha kufuma ku fesa kuya ku wakufipa; pa 1.9 Mbar cikuŵa cakuwonekera mukati na mtundu wakufiira; ndipo pa 3 Mbar, sodiyamu ni cinthu cakukhwima cakuwonekera mukati. Mitundu yose iyi ya kukanikizga kukulu yikwendeska magesi yayi. Pa kuyezga mu moto, sodiyamu na vyakusazganika vyake vikuŵala na mtundu wa cikasu, cifukwa ma''electron'' gha sodiyamu ghakufumiska ungweru apo ghakuwa kufuma ku cigaŵa cinyake kuya ku cinyake; utali wa jigha la ungweru uwu ni pafupifupi nanomita 589.3, mzere uwo ukuchemeka D. Mzere uwu ukugaŵika mu viŵiri, pa 589.0 na 589.6 nm. === Mitundu ya Vimenyu === Mitundu 20 ya vimenyu vya sodiyamu yikumanyikwa, kweni <sup>23</sup>Na pera ndiyo yakukhazikika. <sup>23</sup>Na yikupangika mu nyenyezi apo vimenyu viŵiri vya kaboni vikusazganika; ici cikukhumba kufunda kwakujumpha ma''megakelvin'' 600 na nyenyezi ya kuzitika kwa katatu kwa zuŵa panji kujumpha. Mitundu yiŵiri ya mtima wa vimenyu yikupangika na nkhongono za kuthambo: <sup>22</sup>Na yili na nyengo ya kucepa hafu ya vyaka 2.6 na <sup>24</sup>Na ya maora 15; mitundu yinyake yose yili na nyengo ya kucepa hafu ya pasi pa miniti yimoza. Para munthu wakhwaskika na nkhongono zikulu za nyutironi, nga ni pa ngozi ya nyukiliya, <sup>23</sup>Na yinyake mu ndopa yikusanduka <sup>24</sup>Na; unandi wa nkhongono izo munthu wakapokera ungapimika mwa kupima unandi wa <sup>24</sup>Na kuyaniska na <sup>23</sup>Na. == Usungunu == Vimenyu vya sodiyamu vili na ma''electron'' 11, limoza kujumpha ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya mphepo ya neon. Ntheura sodiyamu kanandi cikupanga vyakusazganika umo cili na magesi ghakusazgikira (Na<sup>+</sup>). === Sodiyamu ca Cisulo === Sodiyamu ca cisulo kanandi cikusazganika luŵiro pacoko kuluska potasiyamu kweni luŵiro kuluska lithiyamu. Cikupeleka ma''electron'' luŵiro comene. === Mcere na Okisayidi === Vyakusazganika vya sodiyamu ngakuzirwa comene pa malonda, comene ku mafakitale gha kupanga galasi, mapepala, sopo, na nsalu. Vyakuzirwa comene ni mcere wakulya (NaCl), soda ash (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), soda ya kuphikira (NaHCO<sub>3</sub>), soda yakupsereza (NaOH), sodiyamu naiteleti (NaNO<sub>3</sub>), na borax. Sopo zinandi ni mcere wa sodiyamu wa mafuta. Sopo za sodiyamu zikusungunuka pa kufunda kukulu (ndipo zikuwoneka "zakukhwima") kuluska sopo za potasiyamu. Nga ni visulo vyose vya alikali, sodiyamu cikusazganika na maji na kufumiska kufunda. Vithuzi vya kamera ya luŵiro vya visulo vya alikali vikuphulika mu maji vikulongora kuti kuphulika uku kukufuma ku magesi. Kusazganika uku kukupanga soda yakupsereza na mphepo ya haidrojeni iyo yikuyaka. Para cikuyaka mu mphepo, cikupanga comene sodiyamu peroksayidi na sodiyamu okisayidi pacoko. === Kusungunuka mu Maji === Sodiyamu cikupanga vyakusazganika ivyo vikusungunuka mu maji. Mcere wa sodiyamu ukusungunuka comene mu maji, ntheura kanandi ukufumyika mwa kufumbuska maji panji kusazga vinthu nga ni ethanol; mwaciyelezgero, magalamu 0.35 pera gha sodiyamu kolorayidi ndigho ghangasungunuka mu lita yimoza ya ethanol. Unandi wa sodiyamu mu vinthu ukupimika na vilwero vya ungweru panji vya magesi. === Vyakusazganika Vinyake === Nga ni visulo vinyake vya alikali, sodiyamu cikusungunuka mu amoniya kupeleka vyakuthira vya mtundu wakufipa; para vyafumbuka, vikusiya cikopa cakuŵala ca sodiyamu ca cisulo. Sodiyamu cikupanga so vyakusazganika na vinthu vya vyamoyo (vya kaboni) vinandi, ndipo vinyake vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu usungunu. === Kusazganika na Visulo Vinyake === Sodiyamu cikusazganika na visulo vinandi, nga ni potasiyamu, kalisiyamu, mtovu, golide, siliva, zinki, na mekyuri. Sodiyamu na potasiyamu vikupanga NaK, ico cikuthira pa kufunda kwa nyengo zose ndipo cikwendeska makola comene kufunda na magesi. Pa kuthira, sodiyamu cikusazganika makola na mtovu. == Mbiri == Cifukwa nchakuzirwa ku umoyo wa ŵanthu, mcere waŵa cuma cakuzirwa kwa nyengo yitali. Mu Ulaya ya nyengo yapakati, cakusazganika ca sodiyamu ca zina la Cilatini ''sodanum'' cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito nga ni mankhwala gha mutu kupweteka. Zina lakuti sodiyamu likughanaghanirika kufuma ku Ciarabu ''suda'', "mutu kupweteka", cifukwa ntchito ya soda pa kucizga mutu kupweteka yikamanyikwanga kale. Nangauli sodiyamu, nyengo zinyake cakuchemeka soda, cikamanyikwanga kale mu vyakusazganika, cisulo ceneco cikafumyika mu 1807 pera na Sir Humphry Davy mwa kugaŵa sodiyamu haidrokisayidi na magesi. Mu 1809, msandi wa Ŵajeremani Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert wakasacizga mazina ghakuti ''Natronium'' na ''Kalium''. Cimanyikwiro ca usungunu ca sodiyamu cikapharazgika kakwamba mu 1814 na Jöns Jakob Berzelius, ndipo cikufuma ku zina la Cilatini ciphya ''natrium'', ilo likufuma ku ''natron'' ya Eguputo, mcere wa kawiro uwo comene ni sodiyamu kaboneti. ''Natron'' yikaŵa na ntchito zinandi mu mafakitale na mu nyumba. Sodiyamu cikupeleka mtundu wa cikasu ukulu ku moto. Mu 1860, Kirchhoff na Bunsen ŵakawona kuti kuyezga kwa moto kwa sodiyamu nkhwakupulika comene: mu kona la cipinda cawo, ŵakaphulika miligalamu 3 pera za sodiyamu, ndipo moto ukaŵala cikasu na kulongora mzere wa sodiyamu kwa maminiti 10. Kufuma apa ŵakapima kuti cigaŵa cimoza ca mphepo cingaŵa na sodiyamu wakujumpha cigaŵa cimoza pa miliyoni 20 yayi. == Kusangika == Cikopa ca caro capasi cili na magaŵa 2.27 pa 100 gha sodiyamu, ntheura ni cisungunu ca cinkhondi na cimoza pa unandi pa caro capasi na cisulo ca cinayi pa unandi, pamanyuma pa aluminiyamu, cisulo, kalisiyamu, na magnesiyamu, ndipo panthazi pa potasiyamu. Mu mbwani muli magalamu pafupifupi 10.8 gha sodiyamu pa lita. Cifukwa cikusazganika luŵiro comene, cikusangika paŵekha yayi. Cili mu malibwe ghanandi, ghanyake ghakusungunuka comene nga ni mcere wa pasi na ''natron'', ghanyake ghambura kusungunuka. Mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, sodiyamu ni cisungunu ca khumi na cinkhondi pa unandi, magaŵa 0.002 pa 100 gha vimenyu vyose. === Kulaŵiska Kuthambo === Sodiyamu cili na mzere wa ungweru ukulu comene mu cigaŵa ca cikasu (mzere weneuwo uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito mu nyali za sodiyamu za mu misewu). Ukuwoneka nga ni mzere wa kukora ungweru mu nyenyezi zinandi, kusazgapo zuŵa. Mzere uwu ukasandika kakwamba mu 1814 na Joseph von Fraunhofer, uyo wakauchema mzere "D". Nkhongono ya mzere D yikuzomerezga kusangika kwake mu malo ghanandi gha kuthambo. Ukuwoneka mu nyenyezi izo pacanya pake pakuzizima mwakukwana kuti sodiyamu cikhale nga ni vimenyu. Nyenyezi zinyake zikuwoneka nga zili na mzere uwu, kweni ukufuma ku mphepo ya pakati pa nyenyezi. Sodiyamu casangika so mu malo ghanandi gha Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, kusazgapo mphepo yicoko ya Mekyuri na ya mwezi. Nyenyezi za mcira zinyake zili na mcira wa sodiyamu, uwo ukasangika kakwamba pa nyenyezi ya mcira ya Hale–Bopp mu 1997. Sodiyamu casangika nanga ni mu mphepo za vibwe vinyake vya kuwaro kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. == Kupanga mu Mafakitale == Pafupifupi matani 100,000 gha sodiyamu ca cisulo ghakupangika caka ciliconse pa ntchito zapadera. Sodiyamu ca cisulo cikapangika kakwamba pa malonda pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 mwa kotcha sodiyamu kaboneti na kaboni pa 1100 °C, nga ni cigaŵa cakwamba ca kupanga aluminiyamu: : Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + 2 C → 2 Na + 3 CO Khumbo likulu la aluminiyamu likapangiska khumbo la sodiyamu. Kwiza kwa nthowa ya Hall–Héroult ya kupanga aluminiyamu kukamalizga khumbo la sodiyamu linandi. Sodiyamu sono cikupangika mwa kugaŵa na magesi sodiyamu kolorayidi wakusungunuka (mcere), kuyana na nthowa iyo yikalembeka mu 1924. NaCl yikusazganika na kalisiyamu kolorayidi kuti yisungunuke pasi pa 700 °C. Nthowa iyi njambura kudura kuluska nthowa ya kale. Usange sodiyamu cakutowa comene cikukhumbikwa, cingatunthika kamoza panji kanandi. Msika wa sodiyamu ukusintha comene cifukwa nchakusuzga kucisunga na kucinyamula; cikwenera kusungika mu mphepo yakomira yambura kusazganika panji mu mafuta ghambura maji. == Kagwiliskiro == Nangauli sodiyamu ca cisulo cili na ntchito zinyake zakuzirwa, ntchito zikulu zikugwiliskira ntchito vyakusazganika vyake; matani mamiliyoni gha sodiyamu kolorayidi, haidrokisayidi, na kaboneti ghakupangika caka ciliconse. Sodiyamu kolorayidi yikugwiliskirika ntchito comene kusungunuska cikakato na kusunga vyakulya; sodiyamu bikaboneti yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuphika nga ni cakufukumuska. Mankhwala ghanandi ghakusazgika sodiyamu kuti ghanjire makola mu thupi. Sodiyamu ca cisulo cikugwiliskirika ntchito comene pa kupanga vyakusazganika vinyake vya usungunu. Kale cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa kupanga mtovu wa mu mafuta gha galimoto na titanium, kweni kupanga sodiyamu kukacepa pamanyuma pa 1970. Nyali za sodiyamu kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kumulika misewu mu misumba, ndipo zikupeleka ungweru wa cikasu. Sodiyamu cikugwiliskirika ntchito so mu usungunu wa vinthu vya vyamoyo. Ma''laser'' agho ghakufumiska ungweru wa mzere D wa sodiyamu ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga nyenyezi zakupangika izo zikovwira vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya pa caro capasi. === Kunyamula Kufunda === Sodiyamu cakuthira cikugwiliskirika ntchito kunyamula kufunda mu nyumba zinyake za nyukiliya, cifukwa cikwendeska makola kufunda ndipo cikukora nyutironi zicoko. Cikutuntha pa kufunda kukulu, ntheura nyumba ya nyukiliya yingagwira ntchito pa kukanikizga kwa nyengo zose, kweni suzgo ni kuti cikuwonekera mukati yayi na cikusazganika luŵiro comene. Sodiyamu cikuphulika para cakhwaska maji, nangauli cikuyaka pacoko waka mu mphepo. Sodiyamu-24, ico cikufumiska nkhongono za nyukiliya, cingapangika pa ntchito, kweni nkhongono izi zikumala mu mazuŵa ghacoko. Usange nyumba ya nyukiliya yikwenera kuzimika kanandi, NaK yikugwiliskirika ntchito, cifukwa yikuthira pa kufunda kwa cipinda. Ntchito yinyake ya sodiyamu pa kunyamula kufunda ni mu vigaŵa vya injini zankhongono, umo sodiyamu cikovwira kuzizimiska vigaŵa ivi. == Ntchito mu Vyamoyo == === Mu Ŵanthu === Mu ŵanthu, sodiyamu ni cakulya cakukhumbikwa ico cikulongozga unandi wa ndopa, kukanikizga kwa ndopa, kukhazikika kwa maji mu thupi, na pH. Unandi upasi uwo thupi likukhumba ukughanaghanirika kuŵa pafupifupi miligalamu 120 pa zuŵa ku ŵana ŵakubabika mpaka miligalamu 500 pa zuŵa ku ŵa vyaka 10 kujumpha. ==== Vyakulya ==== Sodiyamu kolorayidi, mcere wakulya (NaCl), ndiyo kasupe mukulu wa sodiyamu mu vyakulya, ndipo yikugwiliskirika ntchito kunowetsa na kusunga vyakulya. Ku Ŵaamerika, mcere unandi ukufuma ku vyakulya vyakupangika mu mafakitale. Makasupe ghanyake ni sodiyamu wa kawiro mu vyakulya na vyakusazgika mu vyakulya nga ni MSG, soda ya kuphikira, na vinyake. Wupu wa Ucizgi wa U.S. ukaŵika unandi ukulu uwo ungazomerezgeka pa magalamu 2.3 gha sodiyamu pa zuŵa, kweni munthu wapakati mu United States wakurya magalamu 3.4 pa zuŵa. Wupu wa Mtima wa Amerika ukuti munthu waleke kujumpha magalamu 1.5 pa zuŵa. Wupu unyake wa ŵasandi ukasanga kuti palije ukaboni wakukwana wa kuŵika unandi wakukhumbikwa wakusimikizgika, ntheura ukaŵika unandi wakukwana: miligalamu 110 pa zuŵa ku ŵana ŵa myezi 0–6; 370 ku myezi 7–12; 800 ku vyaka 1–3; 1,000 ku vyaka 4–8; 1,200 ku vyaka 9–13; 1,500 ku vyaka 14–18; na 1,500 ku ŵalara wose. Mcere wakulya uli na magaŵa pafupifupi 39.34 pa 100 gha sodiyamu pa kuzitika. Ici cikung'anamula kuti gramu yimoza ya mcere yili na miligalamu pafupifupi 393.4 za sodiyamu. Ntheura miligalamu 1,500 za sodiyamu (unandi wakukwana ku mulara) zili mu miligalamu pafupifupi 3,813 za mcere. ==== Kurya Sodiyamu Munandi ==== Kurya sodiyamu munandi nkhuheni ku umoyo, ndipo kungasintha umo mtima ukugwilira ntchito. Kukukolerana so na nthenda za iso za nyengo yitali, kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa, nthenda za mtima, na kufwa ciŵaro. ===== Kukanikizga Kukulu kwa Ndopa ===== Pali ubale ukulu pakati pa kurya sodiyamu munandi na kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa. Kusanda kwasanga kuti kucepeska sodiyamu na magalamu 2 pa zuŵa kukucepeska kukanikizga kwa ndopa na mm Hg pafupifupi 2 mpaka 4. Kucepeska uku kungacepeska ŵalwari ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa na magaŵa 9–17 pa 100. Kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa kukukoma ŵanthu miliyoni 7.6 pambere nyengo yawo yindafike pa caro cose caka ciliconse. Cifukwa mcere wakulya uli na magaŵa pafupifupi 39.3 pa 100 gha sodiyamu, magalamu 2.3 gha sodiyamu ni pafupifupi magalamu 5.9 gha mcere, pafupifupi kalikezo kamoza. Kusanda kunyake kukasanga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafumiskanga sodiyamu pasi pa magalamu 3 pa zuŵa mu matuzi ŵakaŵa pa ngozi yikulu ya nyifwa, kufwa ciŵaro, panji nthenda ya mtima kuluska awo ŵakafumiskanga magalamu 4 mpaka 5. Unandi wa magalamu 7 panji kujumpha ku ŵanthu ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa ukakolerana na nyifwa zinandi. FDA ya U.S. yikuti ŵalara ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa ŵakwenera kucepeska sodiyamu kufika magalamu 1.5 pa zuŵa. ==== Umo Thupi Likugwilira Ntchito ==== Ndondomeko ya renin na angiotensin yikulongozga unandi wa maji na sodiyamu mu thupi. Para kukanikizga kwa ndopa na sodiyamu mu iso vyacepa, thupi likupanga renin, iyo nayo yikupangiska aldosterone na angiotensin, ivyo vikuwezgera sodiyamu mu ndopa. Para sodiyamu wasazgikira, renin yikucepa, ndipo sodiyamu ukuwelera ku unandi wake wa nyengo zose. Tuvinthu twa sodiyamu ntwakuzirwa pa ntchito ya mizirwe na pa kukhazikiska maji pakati pa tumaselo na maji gha kuwaro. Kupambana kwa unandi wa tuvinthu kuwaro na mukati mwa kaselo, uko kukusungika na mpope wa sodiyamu na potasiyamu, kukupanga vyakutumika vya magesi ivyo vikovwira kufinyika kwa mnofu wa mtima na kuyowoyerana kwa mizirwe. Mu ŵanthu, sodiyamu mucoko comene panji munandi comene mu ndopa ni nthenda izo zikuchemeka ''hyponatremia'' na ''hypernatremia''. Zingafuma ku vyakuhara, kukota, panji kuwukura panji kupoŵa kwa nyengo yitali. === Mu Vyakumera === Mu vyakumera vinyake, sodiyamu ni cakulya cicoko ico cikovwira kugaya vyakulya na kupanga [[Klorofilo|klorofilo]]. Mu vinyake, cikutora malo gha potasiyamu pa ntchito zinyake, nga ni kusunga kukhwima kwa tumaselo na kovwira kujula na kujalira kwa tuzenje twa mahamba. Sodiyamu munandi mu dongo ungacepeska kukwemya kwa maji, ndipo vyakumera vingafota; sodiyamu munandi mukati mwa tumaselo ungananga ntchito ya tumaselo na kupangiska mahamba kufwa panji kusuluka. Pakuzgora, vyakumera vinyake vyapanga nthowa za kucepeska kukwemya sodiyamu mu misisi, kucisunga mu tumaselo, na kukanizga mcere kufika ku mahamba. Sodiyamu munandi ungasungika so mu vigaŵa vya kale vya cakumera, kuvikilira vigaŵa viphya. Vyakumera vinyake vyasintha kuti vikure makola mu malo gha mcere unandi. == Ngozi na Kujivikilira == Sodiyamu cikupanga haidrojeni iyo yikuyaka na sodiyamu haidrokisayidi yakupsereza para cakhwaska maji; kucimeza panji kucikhwaska na cikumba, maso, panji vigaŵa vya mukati vyakunyovera kungapsereza comene. Sodiyamu cikuphulika ceneco para pali maji cifukwa ca haidrojeni iyo yikupangika. Kweni sodiyamu mu mphepo para cayaka (panji para cakusungunuka cafika pafupifupi 290 °C) cikuyaka pacoko waka. Vyakuzimiska moto vya maji vikusazgirapo moto wa sodiyamu. Ivyo vya kaboni dayokisayidi navyo vikwenera kugwiliskirika ntchito yayi pa moto wa sodiyamu. Vyakuzimiska vyakovwira ni Met-L-X, Lith-X, na mcenga wakomira. Mu nyumba za nyukiliya, moto wa sodiyamu ukukanizgika mwa kupatula sodiyamu na okisijeni mu mapayipi agho ghali na mphepo yambura kusazganika. Sodiyamu uwo ukuvuza ukuwunjikika mu thanki umo ulije okisijeni. Moto wa sodiyamu wakusungunuka ngwa ngozi comene kuluska wa sodiyamu wakukhwima. Mu lipoti la Wupu wa Moto wa United States, R. J. Gordon wakalemba kuti sodiyamu wakusungunuka ngwa ngozi comene cifukwa cimenyu ciliconse ca sodiyamu cikwenda paŵekha ndipo cingasazganika luŵiro na okisijeni, ndipo nanga ni maji ghacoko ghangiziska kuphulika kukulu ico cingafumiska sodiyamu wakusungunuka mu cakusungiramo. Para sodiyamu wakusungunuka ukuyaka, moto ukucitika pacanya pa vyakuthira. Mphepo yambura kusazganika, nga ni naitirojeni panji argon, yingaphimba pacanya, kweni yikwenera kuthiririka mwakupwelelera. Vyakuzimiska vinandi vya ufu vikubira pasi, ndipo sodiyamu ukuyandama pacanya na kulutilira kuyaka. Usange sodiyamu uli mu cakusungiramo, moto ungazimika mwa kujalira cakusungiramo kuti okisijeni waleke kunjira. swbgfmix5vhu0mqtulj15763pxxn5wy 124393 124358 2026-11-10T20:26:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124393 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sodiyamu''' ni cisungunu; cili na cimanyikwiro '''Na''' (kufuma ku Cilatini ciphya ''natrium'') na nambala ya cimenyu 11. Ni cisulo cakupepuka, cituŵa nga ni fesa, ico cikukolerana luŵiro comene na vinthu vinyake. Sodiyamu ni cisulo ca alikali, ca gulu la 1 la gome la visungunu. Mtundu wake wekha wakukhazikika ni <sup>23</sup>Na. Cisulo ici cambura kusazganika cikusangika mu kawiro yayi, ndipo cikwenera kufumyika mu vyakusazganika. Sodiyamu ni cisungunu ca cinkhondi na cimoza pa unandi mu cikopa ca [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]], ndipo cili mu malibwe ghanandi, nga ni ''feldspar'', ''sodalite'', na mcere wa pasi (NaCl). Vyakusazganika vinandi vya sodiyamu vikusungunuka comene mu [[Maji|maji]]: maji ghafumya sodiyamu mu malibwe gha caro capasi kwa vyaka mamiliyoni, ntheura sodiyamu na kolorini ndivyo visungunu vinandi comene ivyo vyasungunuka mu mbwani pa kuzitika. Sodiyamu cikafumyika kakwamba na Humphry Davy mu 1807 mwa kugaŵa sodiyamu haidrokisayidi na magesi. Mwa vyakusazganika vinandi vyakovwira vya sodiyamu, sodiyamu haidrokisayidi yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga sopo, ndipo sodiyamu kolorayidi (mcere wakulya) yikugwiliskirika ntchito kusungunuska cikakato na ni cakulya cakuzirwa ku vinyama kusazgapo ŵanthu. Sodiyamu ni cisungunu cakukhumbikwa ku vinyama vyose na ku vyakumera vinyake. Tuvinthu twa magesi twa sodiyamu ndito tunandi comene mu maji gha kuwaro kwa tumaselo, ndipo ndito tukupanga cigaŵa cikulu ca kukanikizga kwa maji agha.<ref name=ciba>{{cite book | vauthors = Diem K, Lentner C | chapter= Blood – Inorganic substances| title= in: Scientific Tables | edition= Seventh |location=Basle, Switzerland |publisher=CIBA-GEIGY Ltd. |date=1970 |pages=561–568}}</ref> Tumaselo twa vinyama tukupopa tuvinthu twa sodiyamu kuwaro kwa kaselo kwizira mu mpope wa sodiyamu na potasiyamu, ilo lili mu cikopa ca kaselo, kuti tusunge unandi wa sodiyamu kuwaro kwa kaselo pafupifupi kakhumi kuluska mukati.<ref name="Gagnon 2021">{{cite journal | last1=Gagnon | first1=Kenneth B. | last2=Delpire | first2=Eric | title=Sodium Transporters in Human Health and Disease | journal=Frontiers in Physiology | date=2021 | volume=11 | article-number=588664 | issn=1664-042X | pmid=33716756 | pmc=7947867 | doi=10.3389/fphys.2020.588664 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Mu tumaselo twa mizirwe, kwenda luŵiro kwa tuvinthu twa sodiyamu mukati mwa kaselo kukupangiska kutumika kwa uthenga wa mizirwe. == Vimanyikwiro == === Vya Kawiro === [[File:Na-D-sodium D-lines-589nm.jpg|thumb|left|Ungweru uwo sodiyamu cikufumiska, kulongora mzere wa D]] Pa kufunda na kukanikizga kwa nyengo zose, sodiyamu ni cisulo cakupepuka ca mtundu wa fesa ico cikusazganika na okisijeni wa mu mphepo, kupanga sodiyamu okisayidi. Sodiyamu cinandi kanandi cikusungika mu mafuta panji mu mphepo yambura kusazganika. Cisulo ca sodiyamu cingadumulika makola na mpeni. Cikwendeska makola magesi na kufunda. Sodiyamu cikusungunuka pa 98 °C na kutuntha pa 883 °C, pasi pa lithiyamu kweni pacanya pa visulo vya alikali vyakuzitika nga ni potasiyamu, rubidiyamu, na sesiyamu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/chemistry/compounds-and-elements/alkali-metals|title="Alkali Metals." Science of Everyday Things|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com|access-date=15 October 2016|archive-date=17 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017234708/http://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/chemistry/compounds-and-elements/alkali-metals|url-status=live}}</ref> Vimanyikwiro ivi vikusintha comene pa kukanikizga kukulu: pa 1.5 Mbar, mtundu ukusintha kufuma ku fesa kuya ku wakufipa; pa 1.9 Mbar cikuŵa cakuwonekera mukati na mtundu wakufiira; ndipo pa 3 Mbar, sodiyamu ni cinthu cakukhwima cakuwonekera mukati. Mitundu yose iyi ya kukanikizga kukulu yikwendeska magesi yayi.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gatti|first1=M.|last2=Tokatly|first2=I.|last3=Rubio|first3=A.|date=2010|title=Sodium: A Charge-Transfer Insulator at High Pressures|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=104|issue=21|article-number=216404|pmid=20867123|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.216404|bibcode=2010PhRvL.104u6404G|arxiv = 1003.0540 |s2cid=18359072}}</ref> [[File:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pa kuyezga mu moto, sodiyamu cikuŵala na mtundu wa cikasu ukulu.]] Pa kuyezga mu moto, sodiyamu na vyakusazganika vyake vikuŵala na mtundu wa cikasu, cifukwa ma''electron'' gha sodiyamu ghakufumiska ungweru apo ghakuwa kufuma ku cigaŵa cinyake kuya ku cinyake; utali wa jigha la ungweru uwu ni pafupifupi nanomita 589.3, mzere uwo ukuchemeka D.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schumann|first=Walter|title=Minerals of the World|date=5 August 2008|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-1-4027-5339-8|edition=2nd|page=28|oclc=637302667}}</ref> Mzere uwu ukugaŵika mu viŵiri, pa 589.0 na 589.6 nm.<ref name="Citron-PRL-1977">{{cite journal|last1=Citron|first1=M. L.|last2=Gabel|first2=C.|last3=Stroud|first3=C.|date=1977|title=Experimental Study of Power Broadening in a Two-Level Atom|journal=Physical Review A|volume=16|doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.16.1507|pages=1507–1512|issue=4|bibcode=1977PhRvA..16.1507C|last4=Stroud|first4=C.}}</ref> === Mitundu ya Vimenyu === Mitundu 20 ya vimenyu vya sodiyamu yikumanyikwa, kweni <sup>23</sup>Na pera ndiyo yakukhazikika. <sup>23</sup>Na yikupangika mu nyenyezi apo vimenyu viŵiri vya kaboni vikusazganika; ici cikukhumba kufunda kwakujumpha ma''megakelvin'' 600 na nyenyezi ya kuzitika kwa katatu kwa zuŵa panji kujumpha.<ref>{{cite journal|bibcode=1987SvAL...13..214D|title= Sodium Synthesis in Hydrogen Burning Stars|last1=Denisenkov |first1=P. A.|last2=Ivanov|first2=V. V.|volume=13| date=1987|page= 214|journal=Soviet Astronomy Letters}}</ref> Mitundu yiŵiri ya mtima wa vimenyu yikupangika na nkhongono za kuthambo: <sup>22</sup>Na yili na nyengo ya kucepa hafu ya vyaka 2.6 na <sup>24</sup>Na ya maora 15; mitundu yinyake yose yili na nyengo ya kucepa hafu ya pasi pa miniti yimoza.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Audi |first=G. |title=The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties |journal=Nuclear Physics A |volume=729 |pages=3–128 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001}}</ref> Para munthu wakhwaskika na nkhongono zikulu za nyutironi, nga ni pa ngozi ya nyukiliya, <sup>23</sup>Na yinyake mu ndopa yikusanduka <sup>24</sup>Na; unandi wa nkhongono izo munthu wakapokera ungapimika mwa kupima unandi wa <sup>24</sup>Na kuyaniska na <sup>23</sup>Na.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Neutron Activation of Sodium in Anthropomorphous Phantoms|journal=Health Physics| volume=8|issue=4| pages=371–379| date=1962| last1=Sanders| first1=F. W.|last2=Auxier|first2=J. A.| doi= 10.1097/00004032-196208000-00005|pmid=14496815|bibcode=1962HeaPh...8..371S |s2cid=38195963 }}</ref> == Usungunu == Vimenyu vya sodiyamu vili na ma''electron'' 11, limoza kujumpha ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya mphepo ya neon. Ntheura sodiyamu kanandi cikupanga vyakusazganika umo cili na magesi ghakusazgikira (Na<sup>+</sup>).<ref>{{cite book|title=Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Coursebook|author=Lawrie Ryan|author2= Roger Norris|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2014|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-1-107-63845-7|page=36|date=31 July 2014}}</ref> === Sodiyamu ca Cisulo === Sodiyamu ca cisulo kanandi cikusazganika luŵiro pacoko kuluska potasiyamu kweni luŵiro kuluska lithiyamu.<ref>{{cite web|last=De Leon|first=N.|title=Reactivity of Alkali Metals|url=http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/modern-atomic-theory/alkali-reac.html|publisher=Indiana University Northwest|access-date=7 December 2007|archive-date=16 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016113143/http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/modern-atomic-theory/alkali-reac.html}}</ref> Cikupeleka ma''electron'' luŵiro comene.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Atkins|first1=Peter W.|last2=de Paula|first2=Julio|title=Physical Chemistry|date=2002|edition=7th|publisher=W. H. Freeman|isbn=978-0-7167-3539-7|oclc=3345182|url=https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr0000atki}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Julian A.|title=Synthetic Coordination Chemistry: Principles and Practice|date=1996|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-2084-6|oclc=717012347|page=293}}</ref> === Mcere na Okisayidi === [[File:NaCl polyhedra.png|thumb|Kapangikiro ka sodiyamu kolorayidi, kulongora umo Na<sup>+</sup> na Cl<sup>−</sup> vyazingilizgana. Kapangikiro aka kakumalika para mcere wasungunuka mu maji, ndipo kakuwerako para maji ghauma.]] Vyakusazganika vya sodiyamu ngakuzirwa comene pa malonda, comene ku mafakitale gha kupanga galasi, mapepala, sopo, na nsalu.{{Sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|p=89}}<ref name="Holl" /> Vyakuzirwa comene ni mcere wakulya (NaCl), soda ash (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), soda ya kuphikira (NaHCO<sub>3</sub>), soda yakupsereza (NaOH), sodiyamu naiteleti (NaNO<sub>3</sub>), na borax.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cowan|first=James A.|title=Inorganic Biochemistry: An Introduction|date=1997|publisher=Wiley-VCH|isbn=978-0-471-18895-7|page=7|oclc=34515430}}</ref> [[File:Sodium stearate v2.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|center|upright=1.4|Vithuzi viŵiri vyakuyana vya kapangikiro ka sodiyamu stearate, ico ni sopo wakuzgoŵereka]] Sopo zinandi ni mcere wa sodiyamu wa mafuta. Sopo za sodiyamu zikusungunuka pa kufunda kukulu (ndipo zikuwoneka "zakukhwima") kuluska sopo za potasiyamu.<ref name="Holl">{{cite book|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|date=1985|edition=91–100|pages=931–943|isbn=978-3-11-007511-3|title=Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie|last1=Holleman|first1=Arnold F.|last2=Wiberg|first2=Egon|last3=Wiberg|first3=Nils|language=de}}</ref> Nga ni visulo vyose vya alikali, sodiyamu cikusazganika na maji na kufumiska kufunda. Vithuzi vya kamera ya luŵiro vya visulo vya alikali vikuphulika mu maji vikulongora kuti kuphulika uku kukufuma ku magesi.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Coulomb explosion during the early stages of the reaction of alkali metals with water|journal=Nature Chemistry|doi=10.1038/nchem.2161|pmid = 25698335|date=26 Jan 2015|volume=7|issue=3|pages=250–254|bibcode=2015NatCh...7..250M|last1=Mason|first1=Philip E.|last2=Uhlig|first2=Frank|last3=Vaněk|first3=Václav|last4=Buttersack|first4=Tillmann|last5=Bauerecker|first5=Sigurd|last6=Jungwirth|first6=Pavel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sodium-s-explosive-secrets-revealed1/|work=Scientific American|date=27 Jan 2015|title=Sodium's Explosive Secrets Revealed}}</ref> Kusazganika uku kukupanga soda yakupsereza na mphepo ya haidrojeni iyo yikuyaka. Para cikuyaka mu mphepo, cikupanga comene sodiyamu peroksayidi na sodiyamu okisayidi pacoko.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|p=84}} === Kusungunuka mu Maji === Sodiyamu cikupanga vyakusazganika ivyo vikusungunuka mu maji. Mcere wa sodiyamu ukusungunuka comene mu maji, ntheura kanandi ukufumyika mwa kufumbuska maji panji kusazga vinthu nga ni ethanol; mwaciyelezgero, magalamu 0.35 pera gha sodiyamu kolorayidi ndigho ghangasungunuka mu lita yimoza ya ethanol.<ref name="Lincoln">{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043748-6/01055-0|title=Comprehensive Coordination Chemistry II|date=2004|isbn=978-0-08-043748-4|page=515|chapter=Metal Aqua Ions|last1=Lincoln|first1=S. F.|last2=Richens|first2=D. T.|last3=Sykes|first3=A. G.}}</ref> Unandi wa sodiyamu mu vinthu ukupimika na vilwero vya ungweru panji vya magesi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Levy|first=G. B.|title=Determination of Sodium with Ion-Selective Electrodes|journal=Clinical Chemistry|url=http://www.clinchem.org/content/27/8/1435|volume=27|issue=8|pages=1435–1438|date=1981|doi=10.1093/clinchem/27.8.1435|pmid=7273405|access-date=26 November 2011|archive-date=5 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205222850/http://www.clinchem.org/content/27/8/1435|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Vyakusazganika Vinyake === Nga ni visulo vinyake vya alikali, sodiyamu cikusungunuka mu amoniya kupeleka vyakuthira vya mtundu wakufipa; para vyafumbuka, vikusiya cikopa cakuŵala ca sodiyamu ca cisulo.<ref>{{cite book|title=Design, Fabrication, Properties and Applications of Smart and Advanced Materials|editor=Xu Hou|publisher=CRC Press, 2016|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-1-4987-2249-0|page=175|date=22 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Anionic Polymerization: Principles, Practice, Strength, Consequences and Applications|editor=Nikos Hadjichristidis|editor2=Akira Hirao|publisher=Springer|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-4-431-54186-8|page=349|date=2015}}</ref> Sodiyamu cikupanga so vyakusazganika na vinthu vya vyamoyo (vya kaboni) vinandi, ndipo vinyake vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu usungunu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dye |first1=J.L. |last2=Ceraso |first2=J.M. |author3=Mei Lok Tak |last4=Barnett |first4=B.L. |last5=Tehan |first5=F.J. |title=Crystalline Salt of the Sodium Anion (Na<sup>−</sup>) |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=608–609 |date=1974 |bibcode=1974JAChS..96..608D |doi=10.1021/ja00809a060}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Holleman|first1=A. F.|last2=Wiberg|first2=E.|last3=Wiberg|first3=N.|title=Inorganic Chemistry|publisher=Academic Press|date=2001|isbn=978-0-12-352651-9|oclc=48056955}}</ref> === Kusazganika na Visulo Vinyake === [[File:Monensin2.png|thumb|Kapangikiro ka sodiyamu (Na<sup>+</sup>, ca cikasu) cakukolerana na munkhwala wa monensin-A]] Sodiyamu cikusazganika na visulo vinandi, nga ni potasiyamu, kalisiyamu, mtovu, golide, siliva, zinki, na mekyuri. Sodiyamu na potasiyamu vikupanga NaK, ico cikuthira pa kufunda kwa nyengo zose ndipo cikwendeska makola comene kufunda na magesi.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Organic Syntheses |first1=W.B. Jr. |last1=Renfrow |first2=C.R. |last2=Hauser |year=1943 |title=Triphenylmethylsodium }}</ref> Pa kuthira, sodiyamu cikusazganika makola na mtovu.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|p=111}} == Mbiri == Cifukwa nchakuzirwa ku umoyo wa ŵanthu, mcere waŵa cuma cakuzirwa kwa nyengo yitali. Mu Ulaya ya nyengo yapakati, cakusazganika ca sodiyamu ca zina la Cilatini ''sodanum'' cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito nga ni mankhwala gha mutu kupweteka. Zina lakuti sodiyamu likughanaghanirika kufuma ku Ciarabu ''suda'', "mutu kupweteka", cifukwa ntchito ya soda pa kucizga mutu kupweteka yikamanyikwanga kale.<ref name="newton">{{cite book|last=Newton|first=David E.|editor-last=Baker|editor-first=Lawrence W.|title=Chemical Elements|date=1999|isbn=978-0-7876-2847-5|oclc=39778687|url=https://archive.org/details/chemicalelements00newt_0|publisher=U·X·L}}</ref> Nangauli sodiyamu, nyengo zinyake cakuchemeka soda, cikamanyikwanga kale mu vyakusazganika, cisulo ceneco cikafumyika mu 1807 pera na Sir Humphry Davy mwa kugaŵa sodiyamu haidrokisayidi na magesi.<ref name="Davy1807">{{cite journal|first=Humphry|last=Davy|title=On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, particularly the decomposition of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances which constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies|date=1808|volume=98|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|pages=1–44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57|doi=10.1098/rstl.1808.0001|doi-access=free|access-date=5 April 2021|archive-date=12 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312220213/https://books.google.com/books?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="weeks">{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ed009p1035|title=The discovery of the elements. IX. Three alkali metals: Potassium, sodium, and lithium|date=1932|last1=Weeks|first1=Mary Elvira|author-link1=Mary Elvira Weeks|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=9|issue=6|page=1035|bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1035W}}</ref> Mu 1809, msandi wa Ŵajeremani Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert wakasacizga mazina ghakuti ''Natronium'' na ''Kalium''.<ref>Humphry Davy (1809) "Ueber einige neue Erscheinungen chemischer Veränderungen, welche durch die Electricität bewirkt werden; insbesondere über die Zersetzung der feuerbeständigen Alkalien, die Darstellung der neuen Körper, welche ihre Basen ausmachen, und die Natur der Alkalien überhaupt" (On some new phenomena of chemical changes that are achieved by electricity; particularly the decomposition of flame-resistant alkalis [i.e., alkalies that cannot be reduced to their base metals by flames], the preparation of new substances that constitute their [metallic] bases, and the nature of alkalies generally), ''Annalen der Physik'', '''31''' (2) : 113–175; [https://books.google.com/books?id=vyswAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157 see footnote p. 157.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207085127/https://books.google.com/books?id=vyswAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157 |date=7 December 2016 }} From p. 157: ''"In unserer deutschen Nomenclatur würde ich die Namen ''Kalium'' und ''Natronium'' vorschlagen, wenn man nicht lieber bei den von Herrn Erman gebrauchten und von mehreren angenommenen Benennungen ''Kali-Metalloid'' and ''Natron-Metalloid'', bis zur völligen Aufklärung der chemischen Natur dieser räthzelhaften Körper bleiben will. Oder vielleicht findet man es noch zweckmässiger fürs Erste zwei Klassen zu machen, ''Metalle'' und ''Metalloide'', und in die letztere ''Kalium'' und ''Natronium'' zu setzen. — Gilbert."'' (In our German nomenclature, I would suggest the names ''Kalium'' and ''Natronium'', if one would not rather continue with the appellations ''Kali-metalloid'' and ''Natron-metalloid'' which are used by Mr. Erman and accepted by several [people], until the complete clarification of the chemical nature of these puzzling substances. Or perhaps one finds it yet more advisable for the present to create two classes, ''metals'' and ''metalloids'', and to place ''Kalium'' and ''Natronium'' in the latter – Gilbert.)</ref> Cimanyikwiro ca usungunu ca sodiyamu cikapharazgika kakwamba mu 1814 na Jöns Jakob Berzelius, ndipo cikufuma ku zina la Cilatini ciphya ''natrium'', ilo likufuma ku ''natron'' ya Eguputo, mcere wa kawiro uwo comene ni sodiyamu kaboneti.<ref>J. Jacob Berzelius, ''Försök, att, genom användandet af den electrokemiska theorien och de kemiska proportionerna, grundlägga ett rent vettenskapligt system för mineralogien'' [Attempt, by the use of electrochemical theory and chemical proportions, to found a pure scientific system for mineralogy] (Stockholm, Sweden: A. Gadelius, 1814), [https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_Uw0-AAAAcAAJ#page/n91/mode/2up p. 87.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Na|title=Elementymology & Elements Multidict|first=Peter|last=van der Krogt|access-date=8 June 2007|archive-date=23 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123001459/http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Na|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="newton" /> ''Natron'' yikaŵa na ntchito zinandi mu mafakitale na mu nyumba.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Natron as a flux in the early vitreous materials industry: sources, beginnings and reasons for decline|author1=Shortland, Andrew |author2=Schachner, Lukas |author3=Freestone, Ian |author4=Tite, Michael | doi=10.1016/j.jas.2005.09.011|volume=33|issue= 4|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|pages=521–530|year= 2006|bibcode=2006JArSc..33..521S }}</ref> Sodiyamu cikupeleka mtundu wa cikasu ukulu ku moto. Mu 1860, Kirchhoff na Bunsen ŵakawona kuti kuyezga kwa moto kwa sodiyamu nkhwakupulika comene: mu kona la cipinda cawo, ŵakaphulika miligalamu 3 pera za sodiyamu, ndipo moto ukaŵala cikasu na kulongora mzere wa sodiyamu kwa maminiti 10. Kufuma apa ŵakapima kuti cigaŵa cimoza ca mphepo cingaŵa na sodiyamu wakujumpha cigaŵa cimoza pa miliyoni 20 yayi. == Kusangika == Cikopa ca caro capasi cili na magaŵa 2.27 pa 100 gha sodiyamu, ntheura ni cisungunu ca cinkhondi na cimoza pa unandi pa caro capasi na cisulo ca cinayi pa unandi, pamanyuma pa aluminiyamu, cisulo, kalisiyamu, na magnesiyamu, ndipo panthazi pa potasiyamu.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|p=69}}<ref name="abundancecrc">{{cite book |series=CRC Handbook |at=14:&nbsp;Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust and in the Sea |last=Lide |first=David R. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kTnxSi2B2FcC |url-status=live |publisher=CRC Press |edition=84th |date=19 June 2003 |access-date=3 July 2016 |isbn=978-0-8493-0484-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207055929/https://books.google.com/books?id=kTnxSi2B2FcC |archive-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> Mu mbwani muli magalamu pafupifupi 10.8 gha sodiyamu pa lita. Cifukwa cikusazganika luŵiro comene, cikusangika paŵekha yayi. Cili mu malibwe ghanandi, ghanyake ghakusungunuka comene nga ni mcere wa pasi na ''natron'', ghanyake ghambura kusungunuka. Mu caro cose ca mlengalenga, sodiyamu ni cisungunu ca khumi na cinkhondi pa unandi, magaŵa 0.002 pa 100 gha vimenyu vyose.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Parts of the Periodic Table |url=https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/periodic/physical_abundances.htm |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=www.angelo.edu |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009202827/https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/periodic/physical_abundances.htm }}</ref> === Kulaŵiska Kuthambo === Sodiyamu cili na mzere wa ungweru ukulu comene mu cigaŵa ca cikasu (mzere weneuwo uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito mu nyali za sodiyamu za mu misewu). Ukuwoneka nga ni mzere wa kukora ungweru mu nyenyezi zinandi, kusazgapo zuŵa. Mzere uwu ukasandika kakwamba mu 1814 na Joseph von Fraunhofer, uyo wakauchema mzere "D".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=D-lines |series=spectroscopy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/D-lines |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=6 November 2017 |language=en |archive-date=7 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107032648/https://www.britannica.com/topic/D-lines |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhongono ya mzere D yikuzomerezga kusangika kwake mu malo ghanandi gha kuthambo. Ukuwoneka mu nyenyezi izo pacanya pake pakuzizima mwakukwana kuti sodiyamu cikhale nga ni vimenyu. Nyenyezi zinyake zikuwoneka nga zili na mzere uwu, kweni ukufuma ku mphepo ya pakati pa nyenyezi.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1994ApJ...436..152W |doi=10.1086/174889 |title=A high-resolution survey of interstellar Na&nbsp;I D1&nbsp;lines |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=436 |page=152 |year=1994 |last1=Welty |first1=Daniel E. |last2=Hobbs |first2=L.&nbsp;M. |last3=Kulkarni |first3=Varsha P.|doi-access= }}</ref> Sodiyamu casangika so mu malo ghanandi gha Kanozgero ka Zuŵa, kusazgapo mphepo yicoko ya Mekyuri na ya mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mercury/in-depth |series=In Depth |title=Mercury |website=NASA Solar System Exploration |date=16 October 2017 |access-date=2020-02-29 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316162517/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mercury/in-depth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2016Sci...351..249C |doi=10.1126/science.aad2380 |pmid=26678876 |title=How surface composition and meteoroid impacts mediate sodium and potassium in the lunar exosphere |journal=Science |volume=351 |issue=6270 |pages=249–252 |year=2015 |last1=Colaprete |first1=A. |last2=Sarantos |first2=M. |last3=Wooden |first3=D.&nbsp;H. |last4=Stubbs |first4=T.&nbsp;J. |last5=Cook |first5=A.&nbsp;M. |last6=Shirley |first6=M. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nyenyezi za mcira zinyake zili na mcira wa sodiyamu, uwo ukasangika kakwamba pa nyenyezi ya mcira ya Hale–Bopp mu 1997.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cometary neutral tail |series=Cosmos |url=http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/C/Cometary+Neutral+Tail |website=astronomy.swin.edu.au |access-date=6 November 2017 |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422153120/http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/C/Cometary+Neutral+Tail |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cremonese1997">{{cite journal |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=490 |issue=2 |pages=L199–L202 |year=1997 |doi=10.1086/311040 |title=Neutral sodium from Comet Hale–Bopp: A third type of tail |author1=Cremonese, G. |author2=Boehnhardt, H. |author3=Crovisier, J. |author4=Rauer, H. |author5=Fitzsimmons, A. |author6=Fulle, M. |author7=Licandro, J. |author8=Pollacco, D. |author9=Tozzi, G.&nbsp;P. |author10=West, R.&nbsp;M. |display-authors=6 |bibcode=1997ApJ...490L.199C |arxiv=astro-ph/9710022|s2cid=119405749 }}</ref> Sodiyamu casangika nanga ni mu mphepo za vibwe vinyake vya kuwaro kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2008ApJ...673L..87R |doi=10.1086/527475 |title=Sodium absorption from the exoplanetary atmosphere of HD&nbsp;189733b detected in the optical transmission spectrum |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=673 |issue=1 |pages=L87–L90 |year=2008 |last1=Redfield |first1=Seth |last2=Endl |first2=Michael |last3=Cochran |first3=William D. |last4=Koesterke |first4=Lars |arxiv=0712.0761 |s2cid=2028887 }}</ref> == Kupanga mu Mafakitale == Pafupifupi matani 100,000 gha sodiyamu ca cisulo ghakupangika caka ciliconse pa ntchito zapadera.<ref name="Ullmann" /> Sodiyamu ca cisulo cikapangika kakwamba pa malonda pakumalira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 mwa kotcha sodiyamu kaboneti na kaboni pa 1100 °C, nga ni cigaŵa cakwamba ca kupanga aluminiyamu:<ref name="pearson1991">{{cite book |author1=Paul Ashworth |author2=Janet Chetland |editor1-last=Brian |editor1-first=Pearson |title=Speciality chemicals: Innovations in industrial synthesis and applications |date=31 December 1991 |publisher=Elsevier Applied Science |location=London |isbn=978-1-85166-646-1 |pages=259–278 |access-date=27 July 2021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0AEIrEUfg0C&pg=PA259 |edition=illustrated |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216161948/https://books.google.com/books?id=i0AEIrEUfg0C&pg=PA259 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="kirk">{{cite book|last1=Eggeman |first1=Tim|title=Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=2007 |doi=10.1002/0471238961.1915040912051311.a01.pub3|last2=Updated By Staff|isbn=978-0-471-23896-6|chapter=Sodium and Sodium Alloys}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=27757153|pages=205–221 |last1=Oesper|first1=R. E.|last2=Lemay| first2=P.| title=Henri Sainte-Claire Deville, 1818–1881| volume=3| journal= Chymia|date=1950|doi=10.2307/27757153}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1021/ed067p1046|title=Sodium|date=1990| last=Banks |first=Alton|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=67 |issue=12|page=1046 |bibcode=1990JChEd..67.1046B}}</ref> : Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + 2 C → 2 Na + 3 CO Khumbo likulu la aluminiyamu likapangiska khumbo la sodiyamu. Kwiza kwa nthowa ya Hall–Héroult ya kupanga aluminiyamu kukamalizga khumbo la sodiyamu linandi.<ref name="kirk" /> Sodiyamu sono cikupangika mwa kugaŵa na magesi sodiyamu kolorayidi wakusungunuka (mcere), kuyana na nthowa iyo yikalembeka mu 1924.<ref name="pauling">Pauling, Linus. ''General Chemistry'', 1970 ed., Dover Publications</ref><ref name="losal">{{cite web |url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/11.shtml |title=Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium |access-date=8 June 2007 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503102258/https://periodic.lanl.gov/11.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |date=12 November 2012 |title=Sodium production |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NinmIYKaj2w |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/NinmIYKaj2w| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|access-date=27 July 2021 |publisher=Royal Society Of Chemistry}}{{cbignore}}</ref> NaCl yikusazganika na kalisiyamu kolorayidi kuti yisungunuke pasi pa 700 °C.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sodium Metal from France|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-1-4578-1780-9}}</ref> Nthowa iyi njambura kudura kuluska nthowa ya kale.<ref>{{cite book|title=Industrial Chemistry: For Advanced Students|author=Mark Anthony Benvenuto|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2015|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-3-11-038339-3|date=24 February 2015}}</ref> Usange sodiyamu cakutowa comene cikukhumbikwa, cingatunthika kamoza panji kanandi. Msika wa sodiyamu ukusintha comene cifukwa nchakusuzga kucisunga na kucinyamula; cikwenera kusungika mu mphepo yakomira yambura kusazganika panji mu mafuta ghambura maji.<ref>{{cite book|title=Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients: Development, Manufacturing, and Regulation, Second Edition|publisher=CRC Press, 2016|isbn=978-1-4398-0339-4|editor=Stanley Nusim|edition=2, illustrated, revised|page=303|date=19 April 2016}}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro == Nangauli sodiyamu ca cisulo cili na ntchito zinyake zakuzirwa, ntchito zikulu zikugwiliskira ntchito vyakusazganika vyake; matani mamiliyoni gha sodiyamu kolorayidi, haidrokisayidi, na kaboneti ghakupangika caka ciliconse. Sodiyamu kolorayidi yikugwiliskirika ntchito comene kusungunuska cikakato na kusunga vyakulya; sodiyamu bikaboneti yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kuphika nga ni cakufukumuska.<ref>{{cite book|last=Remington|first=Joseph P.|title=Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy|date=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-4673-1|pages=365–366|edition=21st|editor-last=Beringer|editor-first=Paul|oclc=60679584}}</ref> Mankhwala ghanandi ghakusazgika sodiyamu kuti ghanjire makola mu thupi. Sodiyamu ca cisulo cikugwiliskirika ntchito comene pa kupanga vyakusazganika vinyake vya usungunu. Kale cikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa kupanga mtovu wa mu mafuta gha galimoto na titanium, kweni kupanga sodiyamu kukacepa pamanyuma pa 1970. Nyali za sodiyamu kanandi zikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kumulika misewu mu misumba, ndipo zikupeleka ungweru wa cikasu.<ref name="Ullmann">Alfred Klemm, Gabriele Hartmann, Ludwig Lange, "Sodium and Sodium Alloys" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a24_277}}</ref> Sodiyamu cikugwiliskirika ntchito so mu usungunu wa vinthu vya vyamoyo. Ma''laser'' agho ghakufumiska ungweru wa mzere D wa sodiyamu ghakugwiliskirika ntchito kupanga nyenyezi zakupangika izo zikovwira vilaŵiskiro vya kutali vya pa caro capasi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LI4KmKqca78C&pg=PA76|page=76|title=Metal cleaning: bibliographical abstracts, 1842–1951|last=Harris|first=Jay C.|date=1949|publisher=American Society for Testing and Materials|oclc=1848092|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=18 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518084825/https://books.google.com/books?id=LI4KmKqca78C&pg=PA76|url-status=live}}</ref> === Kunyamula Kufunda === Sodiyamu cakuthira cikugwiliskirika ntchito kunyamula kufunda mu nyumba zinyake za nyukiliya, cifukwa cikwendeska makola kufunda ndipo cikukora nyutironi zicoko. Cikutuntha pa kufunda kukulu, ntheura nyumba ya nyukiliya yingagwira ntchito pa kukanikizga kwa nyengo zose, kweni suzgo ni kuti cikuwonekera mukati yayi na cikusazganika luŵiro comene.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0d7u9Nr33zIC&pg=PA112|pages=112–114|title=Applied illumination engineering|last=Lindsey|first=Jack L.|date=1997|publisher=Fairmont Press|isbn=978-0-88173-212-2|oclc=22184876|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617084350/https://books.google.com/books?id=0d7u9Nr33zIC&pg=PA112|url-status=live}}</ref> Sodiyamu cikuphulika para cakhwaska maji, nangauli cikuyaka pacoko waka mu mphepo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Leonid|title=Small-Scale Synthesis of Laboratory Reagents with Reaction Modeling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqosZeMjNjEC&pg=PA91|pages=91–92|date=16 February 2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-1312-6|oclc=669160695|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=12 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512120327/https://books.google.com/books?id=VqosZeMjNjEC&pg=PA91|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Phase diagram potassium sodium s l.svg|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1.8|thumb|Cithuzi ca sodiyamu na potasiyamu (NaK), kulongora umo kusungunuka kwa sodiyamu kukusinthira kuyana na unandi wa potasiyamu. NaK ya potasiyamu magaŵa 77 pa 100 yikusungunuka pa kufunda kwapasi comene kuluska NaK yinyake yose, −12.6&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/zaac.19120740115|last1=van Rossen|first1=G. L. C. M.|last2=van Bleiswijk|first2=H.|title=Über das Zustandsdiagramm der Kalium-Natriumlegierungen|journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie|volume=74|date=1912|pages=152–156|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428126|access-date=30 June 2019|archive-date=11 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311005640/https://zenodo.org/record/1428126|url-status=live}}</ref>]] Sodiyamu-24, ico cikufumiska nkhongono za nyukiliya, cingapangika pa ntchito, kweni nkhongono izi zikumala mu mazuŵa ghacoko.<ref>{{cite book|title=Simulation and Optimization Methods in Risk and Reliability Theory|publisher=Nova Science Publishers, 2009|editor=Pavel Solomonovich Knopov |editor2=Panos M. Pardalos|isbn=978-1-60456-658-1|page=150|year=2009}}</ref> Usange nyumba ya nyukiliya yikwenera kuzimika kanandi, NaK yikugwiliskirika ntchito, cifukwa yikuthira pa kufunda kwa cipinda.<ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings of the Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics Institute|last= McKillop|first=Allan A.|publisher=Stanford University Press, 1976|page=97|isbn=978-0-8047-0917-0|year= 1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Reactor Handbook: Engineering|author=U.S. Atomic Energy Commission|publisher=Interscience Publishers|page=325|edition=2}}</ref> Ntchito yinyake ya sodiyamu pa kunyamula kufunda ni mu vigaŵa vya injini zankhongono, umo sodiyamu cikovwira kuzizimiska vigaŵa ivi.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=US2949907 A| title = Coolant-filled poppet valve and method of making same| pubdate = 23 August 1960| inventor =Tauschek Max J}}</ref> == Ntchito mu Vyamoyo == === Mu Ŵanthu === Mu ŵanthu, sodiyamu ni cakulya cakukhumbikwa ico cikulongozga unandi wa ndopa, kukanikizga kwa ndopa, kukhazikika kwa maji mu thupi, na pH. Unandi upasi uwo thupi likukhumba ukughanaghanirika kuŵa pafupifupi miligalamu 120 pa zuŵa ku ŵana ŵakubabika mpaka miligalamu 500 pa zuŵa ku ŵa vyaka 10 kujumpha.<ref name="r31">{{cite web|url=http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823114818/http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf|archive-date=23 August 2011|title=Sodium|publisher=Northwestern University|access-date=21 November 2011}}</ref> ==== Vyakulya ==== Sodiyamu kolorayidi, mcere wakulya (NaCl), ndiyo kasupe mukulu wa sodiyamu mu vyakulya, ndipo yikugwiliskirika ntchito kunowetsa na kusunga vyakulya.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85513-6.00002-5 | doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-85513-6.00002-5 | chapter=Strategies for the reduction of salt in food products | title=Food Structure Engineering and Design for Improved Nutrition, Health and Well-Being | date=2023 | last1=Dos Santos | first1=Mirian | last2=Triviño | first2=Andrea Paola Rodriguez | last3=Barros | first3=Julliane Carvalho | last4=Da Cruz | first4=Adriano G. | last5=Pollonio | first5=Marise Aparecida Rodrigues | pages=187–218 | isbn=978-0-323-85513-6 }}</ref> Ku Ŵaamerika, mcere unandi ukufuma ku vyakulya vyakupangika mu mafakitale.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://health.ltgovernors.com/sodium-and-potassium-health-facts.html|title=Sodium and Potassium Quick Health Facts|work=health.ltgovernors.com|access-date=7 November 2011|archive-date=30 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630141652/http://health.ltgovernors.com/sodium-and-potassium-health-facts.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Makasupe ghanyake ni sodiyamu wa kawiro mu vyakulya na vyakusazgika mu vyakulya nga ni MSG, soda ya kuphikira, na vinyake.<ref name="medline">{{cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002415.htm|title=Sodium in diet|publisher=MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine|date=5 October 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329001333/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002415.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Wupu wa Ucizgi wa U.S. ukaŵika unandi ukulu uwo ungazomerezgeka pa magalamu 2.3 gha sodiyamu pa zuŵa, kweni munthu wapakati mu United States wakurya magalamu 3.4 pa zuŵa.<ref>{{cite web|date=20 July 2005|title=Reference Values for Elements|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table/ref_elements_tbl-eng.php|website=Dietary Reference Intakes Tables|publisher=Health Canada|access-date=25 August 2016|archive-date=29 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529081816/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table/ref_elements_tbl-eng.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=U.S. Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/PolicyDoc.pdf|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010|author2=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|date=December 2010|isbn=978-0-16-087941-8|edition=7th|page=22|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |oclc=738512922|author-link1=United States Department of Agriculture|author-link2=United States Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206111821/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/PolicyDoc.pdf|archive-date=6 February 2011}}</ref> Wupu wa Mtima wa Amerika ukuti munthu waleke kujumpha magalamu 1.5 pa zuŵa.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016|title=How much sodium should I eat per day?|url=http://sodiumbreakup.heart.org/sodium-411/how-much-sodium-do-you-need/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928045342/http://sodiumbreakup.heart.org/sodium-411/how-much-sodium-do-you-need/|archive-date=28 September 2016|access-date=15 October 2016|publisher=American Heart Association}}</ref> Wupu unyake wa ŵasandi ukasanga kuti palije ukaboni wakukwana wa kuŵika unandi wakukhumbikwa wakusimikizgika, ntheura ukaŵika unandi wakukwana: miligalamu 110 pa zuŵa ku ŵana ŵa myezi 0–6; 370 ku myezi 7–12; 800 ku vyaka 1–3; 1,000 ku vyaka 4–8; 1,200 ku vyaka 9–13; 1,500 ku vyaka 14–18; na 1,500 ku ŵalara wose.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-48834-1|department=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|year=2019|title=Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium|location=Washington, DC|publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/25353|pmid=30844154 |bibcode=2019nap..book25353N |editor-last1=Stallings |editor-last2=Harrison |editor-last3=Oria |editor-first1=Virginia A. |editor-first2=Meghan |editor-first3=Maria }}</ref> Mcere wakulya uli na magaŵa pafupifupi 39.34 pa 100 gha sodiyamu pa kuzitika. Ici cikung'anamula kuti gramu yimoza ya mcere yili na miligalamu pafupifupi 393.4 za sodiyamu.<ref name="elemental">{{Cite web |url=https://www.chemicalaid.com/tools/molarmass.php?formula=NaCl&hl=en |title=NaCl (Sodium Chloride) Molar Mass |access-date=18 March 2024 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318225521/https://www.chemicalaid.com/tools/molarmass.php?formula=NaCl&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Ntheura miligalamu 1,500 za sodiyamu (unandi wakukwana ku mulara) zili mu miligalamu pafupifupi 3,813 za mcere. ==== Kurya Sodiyamu Munandi ==== Kurya sodiyamu munandi nkhuheni ku umoyo, ndipo kungasintha umo mtima ukugwilira ntchito.<ref name="Patel-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Patel|first1=Yash|last2=Joseph|first2=Jacob|date=2020-12-13|title=Sodium Intake and Heart Failure|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|volume=21|issue=24|page=9474|doi=10.3390/ijms21249474|issn=1422-0067|pmc=7763082|pmid=33322108|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kukukolerana so na nthenda za iso za nyengo yitali, kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa, nthenda za mtima, na kufwa ciŵaro.<ref name="Patel-2020" /> ===== Kukanikizga Kukulu kwa Ndopa ===== Pali ubale ukulu pakati pa kurya sodiyamu munandi na kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa.<ref>{{cite web|last=CDC|date=2018-02-28|title=The links between sodium, potassium, and your blood pressure|url=https://www.cdc.gov/salt/research_reviews/sodium_potassium_blood_pressure.htm|access-date=2021-01-05|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117045956/https://www.cdc.gov/salt/research_reviews/sodium_potassium_blood_pressure.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda kwasanga kuti kucepeska sodiyamu na magalamu 2 pa zuŵa kukucepeska kukanikizga kwa ndopa na mm Hg pafupifupi 2 mpaka 4.<ref name="Impact">{{cite journal|pmid=15369026|date=2004|last1=Geleijnse|first1=J. M.|last2=Kok|first2=F. J.|last3=Grobbee|first3=D. E.|title=Impact of dietary and lifestyle factors on the prevalence of hypertension in Western populations|volume=14|issue=3|pages=235–239|journal=European Journal of Public Health|doi=10.1093/eurpub/14.3.235|doi-access=free|url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/12616/grobbee_05_impactofdietaryandlifestylefactors.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref> Kucepeska uku kungacepeska ŵalwari ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa na magaŵa 9–17 pa 100.<ref name="Impact" /> Kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa kukukoma ŵanthu miliyoni 7.6 pambere nyengo yawo yindafike pa caro cose caka ciliconse.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18456100|date=2008|last1=Lawes|first1=C. M.|last2=Vander Hoorn|first2=S.|last3=Rodgers|first3=A.|author4=International Society of Hypertension|title=Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001|volume=371|issue=9623|pages=1513–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60655-8|journal=Lancet|bibcode=2008Lanc..371.1513L |url=http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/docs/news/2008/60532.pdf|access-date=25 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026130602/http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/docs/news/2008/60532.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2015|citeseerx=10.1.1.463.887|s2cid=19315480}}</ref> Cifukwa mcere wakulya uli na magaŵa pafupifupi 39.3 pa 100 gha sodiyamu, magalamu 2.3 gha sodiyamu ni pafupifupi magalamu 5.9 gha mcere, pafupifupi kalikezo kamoza.<ref>{{cite book|author=Armstrong, James |title=General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied Approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcU8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |date=2011 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-133-16826-3 |pages=48–}}</ref><ref>[http://www.traditionaloven.com/culinary-arts/cooking/table-salt/convert-gram-g-to-tea-spoon-tsp.html Table Salt Conversion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923113351/http://www.traditionaloven.com/culinary-arts/cooking/table-salt/convert-gram-g-to-tea-spoon-tsp.html |date=23 September 2014 }}. Traditionaloven.com. Retrieved on 11 November 2015.</ref><ref name="fda">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/labelingnutrition/ucm315393.htm|title=Use the Nutrition Facts Label to Reduce Your Intake of Sodium in Your Diet|date=3 January 2018|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=2 February 2018|archive-date=25 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015301/https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ucm315393.htm}}</ref> Kusanda kunyake kukasanga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafumiskanga sodiyamu pasi pa magalamu 3 pa zuŵa mu matuzi ŵakaŵa pa ngozi yikulu ya nyifwa, kufwa ciŵaro, panji nthenda ya mtima kuluska awo ŵakafumiskanga magalamu 4 mpaka 5.<ref name="Andrew Mente-2016" /> Unandi wa magalamu 7 panji kujumpha ku ŵanthu ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa ukakolerana na nyifwa zinandi.<ref name="Andrew Mente-2016">{{cite journal|author1=Andrew Mente|display-authors=etal|title=Associations of urinary sodium excretion with cardiovascular events in individuals with and without hypertension: a pooled analysis of data from four studies|journal=The Lancet|date=2016|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30467-6|pmid=27216139|volume=388|issue=10043|pages=465–75|hdl=10379/16625|s2cid=44581906|url=https://repositorio.udes.edu.co/handle/001/3453|hdl-access=free|access-date=10 March 2023|archive-date=6 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106174547/https://repositorio.udes.edu.co/handle/001/3453|url-status=live}}</ref> FDA ya U.S. yikuti ŵalara ŵa kukanikizga kukulu kwa ndopa ŵakwenera kucepeska sodiyamu kufika magalamu 1.5 pa zuŵa.<ref name="fda" /> ==== Umo Thupi Likugwilira Ntchito ==== Ndondomeko ya renin na angiotensin yikulongozga unandi wa maji na sodiyamu mu thupi. Para kukanikizga kwa ndopa na sodiyamu mu iso vyacepa, thupi likupanga renin, iyo nayo yikupangiska aldosterone na angiotensin, ivyo vikuwezgera sodiyamu mu ndopa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=Michelle|last2=Beerman|first2=Kathy A.|title=Nutritional Sciences: From Fundamentals to Food|url=https://archive.org/details/nutritionalscien00mich|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-324-59864-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/nutritionalscien00mich/page/n576 546]|oclc=472704484}}</ref> Para sodiyamu wasazgikira, renin yikucepa, ndipo sodiyamu ukuwelera ku unandi wake wa nyengo zose. Tuvinthu twa sodiyamu ntwakuzirwa pa ntchito ya mizirwe na pa kukhazikiska maji pakati pa tumaselo na maji gha kuwaro.<ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Neil|title=Biology|date=1987|isbn=978-0-8053-1840-1|page=795|publisher=Benjamin/Cummings}}</ref><ref name="Gagnon 2021" /> Kupambana kwa unandi wa tuvinthu kuwaro na mukati mwa kaselo, uko kukusungika na mpope wa sodiyamu na potasiyamu, kukupanga vyakutumika vya magesi ivyo vikovwira kufinyika kwa mnofu wa mtima na kuyowoyerana kwa mizirwe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Srilakshmi|first=B.|title=Nutrition Science|date=2006|publisher=New Age International|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_i7j4_cMLIC&pg=PA318|isbn=978-81-224-1633-6|edition=2nd|page=318|oclc=173807260|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201224412/https://books.google.com/books?id=f_i7j4_cMLIC&pg=PA318|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu ŵanthu, sodiyamu mucoko comene panji munandi comene mu ndopa ni nthenda izo zikuchemeka ''hyponatremia'' na ''hypernatremia''. Zingafuma ku vyakuhara, kukota, panji kuwukura panji kupoŵa kwa nyengo yitali. === Mu Vyakumera === Mu vyakumera vinyake, sodiyamu ni cakulya cicoko ico cikovwira kugaya vyakulya na kupanga [[Klorofilo|klorofilo]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kering|first=M. K.|url=https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/7201/research.pdf?sequence=3|title=Manganese Nutrition and Photosynthesis in NAD-malic enzyme C4 plants PhD dissertation|publisher=University of Missouri-Columbia|date=2008|access-date=9 November 2011|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425152651/https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/7201/research.pdf?sequence=3|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vinyake, cikutora malo gha potasiyamu pa ntchito zinyake, nga ni kusunga kukhwima kwa tumaselo na kovwira kujula na kujalira kwa tuzenje twa mahamba.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Subbarao|first1=G. V.|last2=Ito|first2=O.|last3=Berry|first3=W. L.|last4=Wheeler|first4=R. M.|title=Sodium—A Functional Plant Nutrient|journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences| volume=22| pages=391–416| date=2003|doi=10.1080/07352680390243495|issue=5|bibcode=2003CRvPS..22..391S |s2cid=85111284}}</ref> Sodiyamu munandi mu dongo ungacepeska kukwemya kwa maji, ndipo vyakumera vingafota; sodiyamu munandi mukati mwa tumaselo ungananga ntchito ya tumaselo na kupangiska mahamba kufwa panji kusuluka.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Zhu|first1=J. K.|title=Plant salt tolerance|journal=Trends in Plant Science|volume=6|issue=2|pages=66–71|date=2001|pmid=11173290|doi=10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01838-0|bibcode=2001TPS.....6...66Z }}</ref> Pakuzgora, vyakumera vinyake vyapanga nthowa za kucepeska kukwemya sodiyamu mu misisi, kucisunga mu tumaselo, na kukanizga mcere kufika ku mahamba.<ref name="halo">{{cite web|url=http://www.plant-biology.com/salt-ion-toxicity.php|title=Plants and salt ion toxicity|publisher=Plant Biology|access-date=2 November 2010|archive-date=3 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403032507/http://www.plant-biology.com/salt-ion-toxicity.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Sodiyamu munandi ungasungika so mu vigaŵa vya kale vya cakumera, kuvikilira vigaŵa viphya. Vyakumera vinyake vyasintha kuti vikure makola mu malo gha mcere unandi.<ref name="halo" /> == Ngozi na Kujivikilira == Sodiyamu cikupanga haidrojeni iyo yikuyaka na sodiyamu haidrokisayidi yakupsereza para cakhwaska maji; kucimeza panji kucikhwaska na cikumba, maso, panji vigaŵa vya mukati vyakunyovera kungapsereza comene.<ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Robert Angelici | author= Angelici, R. J.|title= Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry |publisher = University Science Books |place = Mill Valley, CA | date = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-935702-48-4}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name="prudent">{{cite book |title=Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Chemicals |year=1995 |url=https://archive.org/details/prudentpractices00coun_887 |url-access=limited |author1=((U.S. National Research Council Committee on Prudent Practices for Handling, Storage, and Disposal of Chemicals in Laboratories)) |publisher=National Academies |page=[https://archive.org/details/prudentpractices00coun_887/page/n403 390]|isbn=978-0-309-05229-0}}</ref> Sodiyamu cikuphulika ceneco para pali maji cifukwa ca haidrojeni iyo yikupangika. Kweni sodiyamu mu mphepo para cayaka (panji para cakusungunuka cafika pafupifupi 290 °C) cikuyaka pacoko waka.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~pbs/2013-An-et-al-FSJ.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808160323/http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~pbs/2013-An-et-al-FSJ.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2017 |title=Suppression of sodium fires with liquid nitrogen |journal=Fire Safety Journal |last1=An |first1=Deukkwang |last2=Sunderland |first2=Peter B. |last3=Lathrop |first3=Daniel P. |date=2013 |volume=58 |pages=204–207|doi=10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.02.001 |bibcode=2013FirSJ..58..204A }}</ref> Vyakuzimiska moto vya maji vikusazgirapo moto wa sodiyamu.<ref name="fission">{{cite book|title=Sustainable and Safe Nuclear Fission Energy: Technology and Safety of Fast and Thermal Nuclear Reactors|author=Günter Kessler|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media, 2012|isbn=978-3-642-11990-3|page=446|edition=illustrated|date=8 May 2012}}</ref> Ivyo vya kaboni dayokisayidi navyo vikwenera kugwiliskirika ntchito yayi pa moto wa sodiyamu. Vyakuzimiska vyakovwira ni Met-L-X, Lith-X, na mcenga wakomira.<ref name="fission" /> Mu nyumba za nyukiliya, moto wa sodiyamu ukukanizgika mwa kupatula sodiyamu na okisijeni mu mapayipi agho ghali na mphepo yambura kusazganika. Sodiyamu uwo ukuvuza ukuwunjikika mu thanki umo ulije okisijeni. Moto wa sodiyamu wakusungunuka ngwa ngozi comene kuluska wa sodiyamu wakukhwima. Mu lipoti la Wupu wa Moto wa United States, R.<ref name=":0">{{cite tech report|first=Routley J.|last=Gordon|title=Sodium explosion critically burns firefighters, Newton, Massachusetts|number=75|institution=United States Fire Administration|date=1993-10-25 }}</ref> J. Gordon wakalemba kuti sodiyamu wakusungunuka ngwa ngozi comene cifukwa cimenyu ciliconse ca sodiyamu cikwenda paŵekha ndipo cingasazganika luŵiro na okisijeni, ndipo nanga ni maji ghacoko ghangiziska kuphulika kukulu ico cingafumiska sodiyamu wakusungunuka mu cakusungiramo. Para sodiyamu wakusungunuka ukuyaka, moto ukucitika pacanya pa vyakuthira. Mphepo yambura kusazganika, nga ni naitirojeni panji argon, yingaphimba pacanya, kweni yikwenera kuthiririka mwakupwelelera. Vyakuzimiska vinandi vya ufu vikubira pasi, ndipo sodiyamu ukuyandama pacanya na kulutilira kuyaka. Usange sodiyamu uli mu cakusungiramo, moto ungazimika mwa kujalira cakusungiramo kuti okisijeni waleke kunjira. == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === *{{cite book |last1=Greenwood |first1=Norman N. |last2=Earnshaw |first2=Alan |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-08-037941-8}} kje2othlw06dw9m4ojm6rl6ew294szj 0 46878 124350 123521 2026-11-10T14:18:22Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124350 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | width = 310 | image1 = NGC 4414 (NASA-med).jpg | caption1 = [[NGC 4414]], [[mlambagombe wakuzingulira]] mu [[gulu la nyenyezi]] la [[Coma Berenices]], uli pafupifupi 55,000&nbsp;[[chaka cha ungweru]] mu msinkhu-uzingiri ndipo pafupifupi vyaka vya ungweru 60 miliyoni kufuma pa charu chapasi. }} '''Mlambagombe''' ni gulu la nyenyezi, makanozgero gha vibwe, vyakusyala vya nyenyezi, mpweya, cuvu, na vyamvimba vyambura kuwoneka ivyo vikukoleka pamoza na nkhongono yakuguza. Lizgu la Cingelezi lakuti ''galaxy'' likufuma ku Cigiriki ''galaxias'' (γαλαξίας), kung'anamula "ca mkaka", kulongora mlambagombe wa Mseu wa Mkaka uwo uli na [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]]. Milambagombe, iyo yili na nyenyezi pafupifupi miliyoni 100 pakati, yikupambana mu ukulu kufuma ku micoko iyo yili na nyenyezi zambura kukwana 1,000 mpaka ku mikulu comene iyo yili na nyenyezi triliyoni 100, ndipo nyenyezi yiliyose yikuzunguliya pakati pa mlambagombe wake. Kuzitika kunandi kwa mlambagombe nkhwa vyamvimba vyambura kuwoneka, ndipo magaŵa ghacoko pera ghakuwoneka nga ni nyenyezi na maŵingu gha nyenyezi. Vidolozi vifipa vikulu comene kanandi vikusangika pakati pa milambagombe. Milambagombe yikugaŵika kuyana na kawonekero kake, nga ni yakutalikilapo, yakuzingilira, panji yambura mawonekero ghakumanyikwa. Mseu wa Mkaka ni ciyelezgero ca mlambagombe wakuzingilira. Kukughanaghanirika kuti pali milambagombe pakati pa biliyoni 200 na triliyoni 2 mu caro cose ca mlengalenga ico cikuwoneka. Mseu wa Mkaka uli na ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru pafupifupi 87,400. Mlambagombe mukulu wakufupi nawo, Andromeda, uli pa mtunda wa vyaka vya ungweru miliyoni 2.4. Milambagombe yinandi yikuwungana mu magulu na mawupu ghakulu cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza. Mseu wa Mkaka uli mu Gulu la pa Malo Ghithu, ilo ukulilongozga pamoza na Andromeda. Milambagombe nyengo zinyake yikutimbana mu umoyo wawo. == Muzu wa Lizgu == Lizgu lakuti ''galaxy'' likufuma ku lizgu la Cigiriki la Mseu wa Mkaka, ''galaxías (kúklos)'', "(cizungulizgo ca) mkaka", cifukwa cikuwoneka nga ni mzere wa ungweru wa mkaka kuthambo. == Mazina == Milambagombe miliyoni yalembeka, kweni micoko pera ndiyo yili na mazina ghakumanyikwa, nga ni Andromeda, Maŵingu gha Magellan, na Sombrero. == Mbiri ya Kulaŵiska == Musandi wa vinjeru wa Ŵagiriki Democritus (450–370 pambere Khristu) wakasacizga kuti mzere wakuŵala kuthambo usiku, uwo ukumanyikwa nga ni Mseu wa Mkaka, ungaŵa kuti ukupangika na nyenyezi zakutali. == Mitundu == Pali mitundu yitatu yikulu ya milambagombe: yakutalikilapo, yakuzingilira, na yambura mawonekero ghakumanyikwa. == Kukolerana kwa Milambagombe == Kukolerana pakati pa milambagombe kukucitika kanandi, ndipo kungaŵa kwakuzirwa pa kukura kwa milambagombe. == Ukulu == Milambagombe yilije mphaka yakuwoneka makola, ndipo nyenyezi zikucepa pacoko pacoko kufuma pakati, ntheura kupima ukulu wake nkhwakusuzga. == Magulu Ghakulu == Kulaŵiska kuthambo kukulongora kuti milambagombe kanandi yikusangika mu magulu. == Umagineti == Milambagombe yili na vigaŵa vyawo vya nkhongono ya magineti, ivyo vikukhwaska umo yikwendera. == Kupangika na Kukura == Pafupifupi vyaka 300,000 pamanyuma pa Kuphulika Kukulu, vimenyu vya haidirojeni na heliyamu vikamba kupangika. j87614tryipcsreuxnw8fcva6ltsf98 0 46880 124346 123499 2026-11-10T14:18:12Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124346 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kanozgero ka Zuŵa''' (panji '''Kanozgero ka nyenyezi''') ni [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]] na vinthu vyose ivyo vikulizunguliya, ivyo vikukoleka nalo na nkhongono yakuguza, comene [[Chibwe|vibwe]] vyake vinkhondi na vitatu, ndipo [[Charu cha pasi (Tera)|caro capasi]] ni cimoza mwa ivyo. Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ni kanozgero ka nyenyezi yimoza kekha mu [[Mlambagombe|mlambagombe]] wa Mseu wa Mkaka. Kakapangika pafupifupi vyaka biliyoni 4.6 ivyo vyajumpha apo cigaŵa cakukhwima ca bingu la mamolekyu cikawa pamoza, ndipo cikapanga zuŵa na cimbale ca fumbi umo vinthu ivyo vikulizunguliya vikawungikira. Zuŵa ndilo lili na magaŵa 99.86 pa 100 gha kuzitika kose kwa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa. Mu mtima wa zuŵa, haidirojeni yikusazganika kuŵa heliyamu, ndipo ici cikufumiska nkhongono za ntchito. Pamanyuma pa zuŵa, vinthu vyamvimba comene ni vibwe vinkhondi na vitatu. Vyakufupi na zuŵa ni vibwe vya malibwe: [[Mekyuri]], [[Vinasi]], Tera, na [[Aresi]]. Vibwe vinayi ivi ni vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ka mukati. Caro capasi na Aresi ndivyo vibwe vyekha ivyo vikuzunguliya mu cigaŵa umo ungweru wa zuŵa ungasunga maji kuŵa ghamaji. Kuwaro kwake kuli vibwe vya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ka kuwaro: vibwe vikulu viŵiri vya mpweya ([[Jupita]] na [[Satani]]) na vibwe vikulu viŵiri vya ayisi ([[Yurenasi]] na [[Neputuni]]). Vinthu ivyo vikuzunguliya zuŵa kweni ivyo vikuwusa nthowa zawo yayi vikuchemeka vibwe vicoko, nga ni Serisi, Pulutu, na Erisi. Vicoko kuluska ivi pali malibwe gha mlengalenga, nyenyezi za mcira, na maŵingu gha cuvu. Vinthu vinandi mu Kanozgero ka Zuŵa vikuzunguliya zuŵa yayi, kweni vikuzunguliya vinthu vikulu, ndipo vikuchemeka myezi. == Ng'anamulo == Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kakusazgapo zuŵa na vinthu vyose ivyo vikukoleka nalo na nkhongono yakuguza na kulizunguliya. == Kupangika na Kukura == Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kakapangika vyaka biliyoni 4.568 ivyo vyajumpha kufuma ku kuwa pamoza kwa cigaŵa ca bingu likulu la mamolekyu. Bingu ili likaŵa comene na haidirojeni, na heliyamu yicoko, na visungunu vinyake vicoko. == Vigaŵa == Ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi nyengo zinyake ŵakugaŵa Kanozgero ka Zuŵa mu vigaŵa. Kanozgero ka mukati kali na Mekyuri, Vinasi, Tera, Aresi, na malibwe gha mlengalenga gha mu mzere wa malibwe. Kanozgero ka kuwaro kali na Jupita, Satani, Yurenasi, Neputuni, na vinthu vya mu mzere wa Kuiper. == Zuŵa == Zuŵa ndiyo nyenyezi ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa ndipo ndico cinthu cakuzitika comene. Kuzitika kwake kukwiziska kufunda kukulu mu mtima wake, kwakukwana kusazga haidirojeni kuŵa heliyamu, ndipo ici cikufumiska nkhongono za ntchito zinandi comene. == Kanozgero ka Mukati == Kanozgero ka mukati ni cigaŵa ico cili na vibwe vya malibwe na malibwe gha mlengalenga. Vinthu vyake vikupangika comene na malibwe na visulo. == Kanozgero ka Kuwaro == Cigaŵa ca kuwaro ca Kanozgero ka Zuŵa cili na vibwe vikulu na myezi yawo yikulu. Cifukwa ca kuŵa kutali na zuŵa, vinthu vyakukhwima vya mu cigaŵa ici vili na maji, amoniya, na methane ghanandi agho ghali mu ayisi. == Kuwaro kwa Neputuni == Kuwaro kwa nthowa ya Neputuni kuli mzere wa Kuiper, umo muli Pulutu na vibwe vinyake vicoko. Cigaŵa ici cindasandike makola. == Malo mu Mlambagombe == Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kali mu Mseu wa Mkaka, mlambagombe uwo ukulu wake ni vyaka vya ungweru pafupifupi 100,000, ndipo uli na nyenyezi zakujumpha biliyoni 100. ga20igt2kqolxwnvmymw2we1vy5a8ab 0 46881 124345 123615 2026-11-10T14:18:09Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124345 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kacibwayira ka nyenyezi''' (panji '''Kachibwayila ka nyenyezi''') ni gulu la nyenyezi izo zikafuma pamoza, zikapangika pafupifupi pa nyengo yimoza, ndipo zikukolerana pamoza na nkhongono yakuguza yawo. Pali mitundu iŵiri yikulu ya magulu gha nyenyezi: magulu gha mpira, agho ni magulu ghakukhora gha nyenyezi za kale kufuma pa 10,000 mpaka miliyoni zinandi izo zikukolerana na nkhongono yakuguza; na magulu ghakujura, agho ni magulu ghambura kukhora comene, ndipo kanandi ghali na nyenyezi zambura kukwana mahandiredi ghacoko. Usange gulu la nyenyezi likuwoneka yayi mu ungweru wakuwoneka cifukwa ca cuvu, kweni likuwoneka mu ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, likuchemeka gulu la ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi. Apo ghakwenda mu [[Mlambagombe|mlambagombe]] wawo, mu nyengo, magulu ghakujura ghakumwazika cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza ya maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu, ntheura magulu agho ghakuwoneka kanandi ngaŵana. Nangauli ghakukolerana so na nkhongono yakuguza yayi, ghakulutilira kwenda pafupifupi mu nthowa yimoza mu mlengalenga, ndipo pamanyuma ghakuchemeka magulu ghakwenda pamoza. Magulu gha mpira, agho ghali na nyenyezi zinandi na vyamvimba vinandi, ghakukhalilira nyengo yitali comene, ndipo magulu gha mpira agho ghakuwoneka kanandi ghali na vyaka biliyoni zinandi. Magulu gha nyenyezi mu Mseu wa Mkaka agho ghakuwoneka na maso pera ni magulu ghakujura gha Pleiades na Hyades, na gulu la mpira la 47 Tucanae. == Magulu Ghakujura == Magulu ghakujura ghakusangika pera mu cigaŵa ca pakati ca mlambagombe, ndipo pafupifupi nyengo zose ghakuŵa mu mikono yakuzingilira. Kanandi ngaŵana, gha vyaka mpaka miliyoni makumi ghacoko, kupatula ghacoko comene agho ghali na vyaka biliyoni zinandi, nga ni Messier 67 (gulu lakujura la kale ilo lili pafupi comene na ilo lalaŵiskika comene). Ghakupangika mu vigaŵa vya H II nga ni Bingu la Orion. Magulu ghakujura kanandi ghali na nyenyezi mahandiredi ghacoko, ndipo ghali mu cigaŵa ca ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru 30. Cifukwa cakuti nyenyezi zake nzicoko kuluska za magulu gha mpira, ghakukolerana comene na nkhongono yakuguza yayi, ndipo mu nyengo ghakumwazika cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza ya maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu na magulu ghanyake. Kukumana kwa pafupi pakati pa nyenyezi za mu gulu kungapangiska so nyenyezi zinyake kuponyeka kuwaro, ndipo ici cikuchemeka "kufumbuka". Magulu ghakujura ghakumanyikwa comene ni Pleiades na Hyades mu Taurus. Gulu Liŵiri la h+Chi Persei lingawoneka so makola para kuthambo kwafipa. Magulu ghakujura kanandi ghali na nyenyezi zaŵana zakotcha za buluu, cifukwa nangauli nyenyezi izi zikukhala nyengo yifupi (vyaka miliyoni makumi ghacoko pera), magulu ghakujura ghakumwazika pambere nyenyezi izi zindafwe. Magulu ghanyake ghakujura ghakupanga magulu ghaŵiri panji ghanandi ghakukolerana. Kusanda kuphya kukulongora kuti Messier 25 lingapanga gulu la magulu ghatatu pamoza na NGC 6716 na Collinder 394. Kumanya makola mtunda wa magulu ghakujura kukovwira kupima ubale wa nyengo na kuŵala kwa nyenyezi za Cepheid, izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakupimira mtunda. Nyenyezi za Cepheid zikuŵala comene ndipo zingagwiliskirika ntchito kupima mtunda wa milambagombe yakutali na luŵiro ilo caro cose ca mlengalenga cikukulira (cipimo ca Hubble). Nadi, gulu lakujura la NGC 7790 lili na nyenyezi zitatu za Cepheid izo ni zakuzirwa comene pa kupima uku. === Magulu Ghakubisika === Magulu ghakubisika ni magulu gha nyenyezi zaŵana comene izo zaphimbika cigaŵa cinyake panji zose na cuvu panji mpweya wa mu mlengalenga, uwo kanandi ukukanizga kuwona na ungweru. Magulu agha ghakupangika mu maŵingu gha mamolekyu, apo maŵingu ghakwamba kuwira mukati na kupanga nyenyezi. Kanandi nyenyezi zicali kupangika mu magulu agha, ntheura ghangaŵa na vinthu vya nyenyezi zaŵana vyakupambana, kusazgapo nyenyezi zikupangika. Ciyelezgero ca gulu lakubisika ni Gulu la Trapezium mu Bingu la Orion. Mu cigaŵa ca pakati ca bingu la ρ Ophiuchi (L1688) muli gulu lakubisika. Nyengo ya gulu lakubisika yingatora vyaka miliyoni zinandi, ndipo pamanyuma mpweya wa mu bingu ukumala cifukwa ca kupangika kwa nyenyezi, panji ukumwazika cifukwa ca kukanikizga kwa ungweru, mphepo za nyenyezi, panji kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu. Kanandi magaŵa ghambura kukwana 30 pa 100 gha vyamvimba vya bingu ndigho ghakusanduka nyenyezi pambere bingu lindamwazike, kweni unandi uwu ungaŵa ukulu mu vigaŵa vyakukhora comene vya bingu. Para bingu lataya vyamvimba, nkhongono za ntchito za ndondomeko yose zikusintha, ndipo kanandi ici cikumwaza gulu la nyenyezi. Magulu ghanandi ghaŵana ghakubisika ghakumwazika luŵiro pamanyuma pa kumalira kwa kupangika kwa nyenyezi. Magulu ghakujura agho ghakusangika mu Mlambagombe ni magulu ghakubisika gha kale agho ghakapona kukura kwakwamba kwa gulu. Kweni pafupifupi nyenyezi zose izo zikwenda zekha, kusazgapo [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], zikababika mu magulu ghakubisika agho ghakamwazika. == Magulu gha Mpira == Magulu gha mpira ni magulu gha mawonekero gha mpira gha nyenyezi kufuma pa 10,000 mpaka miliyoni zinandi, izo zawunjikana mu vigaŵa vya ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru 10 mpaka 30. Kanandi ghali na nyenyezi za kale comene za Gulu II, izo nzaŵana pera na vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi ghacoko kuluska caro cose ca mlengalenga ceneco, ndipo zinandi nzacikasu na zakucesama, na vyamvimba vyambura kufika kaŵiri kuluska vya zuŵa. Nyenyezi izi nzinandi mu magulu agha cifukwa nyenyezi zakotcha na zikulu zakaphulika kale, panji zikasanduka nyenyezi zicoko zituŵa. Kweni nyenyezi zicoko za buluu zilipo mu magulu gha mpira, ndipo zikughanaghanirika kuti zikapangika apo nyenyezi zikasazganika mu vigaŵa vyakukhora vya mukati; nyenyezi izi zikuchemeka nyenyezi za buluu zakusyalira. Mu Mseu wa Mkaka, magulu gha mpira ghali mu mawonekero gha mpira kuzingilizga pakati pa mlambagombe, ndipo ghakuzunguliya pakati mu nthowa zakutalikilapo comene. Mu 1917, musandi wa nyenyezi Harlow Shapley wakapima dankha makola mtunda wa zuŵa kufuma pakati pa mlambagombe, kuyana na umo magulu gha mpira ghagaŵikira. Mpaka pakati pa ma 1990, magulu gha mpira ghakaŵa cifukwa ca fumbo likulu mu astronome, cifukwa fundo zakusacizga za kukura kwa nyenyezi zikapelekanga vyaka vya nyenyezi za kale comene za mu magulu gha mpira ivyo vikaŵa vinandi kuluska vyaka vya caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kweni kupima kwakuwemeskeka kwa mtunda wa magulu gha mpira na setilayiti ya Hipparcos, na kupima kwakuwemeskeka kwa cipimo ca Hubble, vikamazga fumbo ili, ndipo vikapeleka vyaka pafupifupi biliyoni 13 ku caro cose ca mlengalenga, na vyaka vyacoko pera na miliyoni mahandiredi ghacoko ku nyenyezi za kale comene. Mlambagombe withu uli na magulu gha mpira pafupifupi 150, ndipo ghanyake ghangaŵa mitima ya milambagombe yicoko iyo yikakoreka, ndipo nyenyezi za ku mphepete zake zikawuskikapo na nkhongono za Mseu wa Mkaka, nga umo kukuwonekera pa gulu la mpira la M79. Milambagombe yinyake yili na magulu gha mpira ghanandi comene kuluska Mseu wa Mkaka: mlambagombe ukulu wakutalikilapo wa M87 uli na ghakujumpha 1,000. Magulu ghacoko gha mpira ghakuŵala comene ghakuwoneka na maso pera; lakuŵala comene, Omega Centauri, likalaŵiskika kale comene ndipo likalembeka nga ni nyenyezi, pambere cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cindapangike. Gulu la mpira lakuŵala comene ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi ni M13 mu gulu la nyenyezi la Hercules. == Magulu Ghakulu Comene gha Nyenyezi == Magulu ghakulu comene gha nyenyezi ni vigaŵa vikulu comene umo nyenyezi zapangika sonosono, ndipo ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa magulu gha mpira gha munthazi. Ciyelezgero ni Westerlund 1 mu Mseu wa Mkaka. == Mitundu Yapakati == Mu 2005, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakasanga mtundu uphya wa gulu la nyenyezi mu mlambagombe wa Andromeda, uwo mu nthowa zinandi ukuyana comene na magulu gha mpira nangauli ngwambura kukhora comene. Magulu agha (agho ghakuchemekaso magulu gha mpira ghakukulirapo) ghakumanyikwa yayi mu Mseu wa Mkaka. Ghatatu agho ghakasangika mu Andromeda ni M31WFS C1, M31WFS C2, na M31WFS C3. Magulu agha ghaphya ghali na nyenyezi mahandiredi gha masauzandi, unandi wakuyana na wa magulu gha mpira. Ghakuyana so na magulu gha mpira mu vimanyikwiro vinyake, nga ni mitundu ya nyenyezi na unandi wa visulo. Ico cikughapambanyizga na magulu gha mpira nchakuti ngakulu comene, gha ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru mahandiredi ghacoko, ndipo ngambura kukhora comene. Ntheura mtunda pakati pa nyenyezi ngukulu comene. Magulu agha ghali na vimanyikwiro vya pakati pa magulu gha mpira na milambagombe yicoko ya mawonekero gha mpira. Umo magulu agha ghakupangikira kukumanyikwa yayi, kweni kupangika kwake kungakolerana na kwa magulu gha mpira. Cifukwa ico M31 yili na magulu agha, apo Mseu wa Mkaka ulije, kukumanyikwa yayi. Kukumanyikwa so yayi usange milambagombe yinyake yili na magulu agha, kweni kungaŵa kwambura kukolerana kuti M31 ndiyo yekha iyo yili na magulu ghakukulirapo. Mtundu unyake wa magulu ni magulu ghakuzirimila, agho mpaka sono ghasangika mu milambagombe ya mawonekero gha lenzi pera, nga ni NGC 1023 na NGC 3384. Ghakumanyikwa na ukulu wawo kuyaniska na magulu gha mpira, na kugaŵika kwawo mu mawonekero gha mphete kuzingilizga pakati pa milambagombe yawo. Nga ni magulu gha mpira, ghakuwoneka kuŵa vinthu vya kale. == Kuzirwa mu Astronome == Magulu gha nyenyezi ngakuzirwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya [[Astronome|astronome]]. Cifukwa cake nchakuti pafupifupi nyenyezi zose za mu magulu gha kale zikababika pafupifupi pa nyengo yimoza. Vimanyikwiro vyakupambana vya nyenyezi zose za mu gulu vikuthemba pa vyamvimba vyawo pera, ntheura fundo zakusacizga za kukura kwa nyenyezi zikuthemba kulaŵiska magulu ghakujura na gha mpira. Ici nchaunenesko comene pa magulu gha mpira gha kale. Pa magulu ghaŵana (gha vyaka vyambura kufika biliyoni yimoza) na gha vyaka vyapakati (biliyoni 1 mpaka 5), vinthu nga ni vyaka, vyamvimba, na ivyo nyenyezi zikupangika navyo vingaŵa so vyakuzirwa. Kuyana na vyaka vyawo, magulu gha nyenyezi ghangalongora vinandi pa milambagombe iyo ghaliko. Mwaciyelezgero, magulu gha nyenyezi agho ghali mu Maŵingu gha Magellan ghangapeleka mauthenga ghakuzirwa pa kupangika kwa milambagombe yicoko iyi. Nayo, ici cingatovwira kupulikiska vyakucitika vinandi mu Mseu wa Mkaka withu. Magulu agha, comene ghaŵana, ghangalongosora umo nyenyezi zikapangikira mu Mseu wa Mkaka withu. Magulu ngakuzirwa so pa kupima mtunda wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Magulu ghacoko agho ghali pafupi comene ghali pafupi mwakuti mtunda wawo ungapimika na nthowa ya kusintha kwa kawonekero. Cithuzi ca Hertzsprung–Russell cingajambulika pa magulu agha, ico cili na vipimo vyakumanyikwa vya kuŵala. Pamanyuma, para cithuzi cakuyana cajambulika pa gulu ilo mtunda wake ukumanyikwa yayi, malo gha nyenyezi za pakati pa umoyo wawo ghangayaniskika na gha gulu lakwamba, ndipo mtunda ungapimika. Ndondomeko iyi yikuchemeka kuyaniska nyenyezi za pakati pa umoyo. Kucesamiska kwa ungweru na mitundu ya nyenyezi vikwenera kughanaghanirika pa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi. Pafupifupi nyenyezi zose za mu Mlambagombe, kusazgapo zuŵa, zikababika dankha mu vigaŵa umo mukaŵa magulu ghakubisika agho ghakamwazika. Ici cikung'anamula kuti vimanyikwiro vya nyenyezi na makanozgero gha vibwe vingaŵa kuti vikakhwaskika na malo gha magulu gha kwamba. Ici cikuwoneka kuŵa ntheura pa [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]] kithu, umo unandi wa visungunu ukulongora vyakufumapo vya kuphulika kwa nyenyezi ya pafupi kumwamba kwa mbiri ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kithu. == Maŵingu gha Nyenyezi == Nangauli ni magulu gha nyenyezi yayi, maŵingu gha nyenyezi ni magulu ghakulu gha nyenyezi zinandi mu mlambagombe, agho ghathandazgika pa vyaka vya ungweru vinandi comene. Kanandi ghali na magulu gha nyenyezi mukati mwawo. Nyenyezi zikuwoneka nga zawunjikana pafupi, kweni kanandi nzacigaŵa ca kazengero kalikose yayi. Mu Mseu wa Mkaka, maŵingu gha nyenyezi ghakuwoneka kwizira mu tumalo twa pakati pa maŵingu gha cuvu gha Mpata Ukulu, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kuwona kutali comene. Maŵingu gha nyenyezi ghasangika so mu milambagombe yinyake ya pafupi. Viyelezgero ni Bingu Likulu la Nyenyezi la Sagittarius, Bingu Licoko la Nyenyezi la Sagittarius, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Scutum, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Cygnus, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Norma, na NGC 206 mu mlambagombe wa Andromeda. == Mazina == Mu 1979, ungano wa 17 wa Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Ŵasandi ŵa Nyenyezi ukasacizga kuti magulu gha nyenyezi ghaphya agho ghasangika mu Mlambagombe, ghakujura panji gha mpira, ghaŵe na mazina ghakulondezga ndondomeko ya "Chhmm±ddd", ghakwamba nyengo zose na C, apo h, m, na d vikwimilira malo gha pakati pa gulu. Zina ilo lapelekeka likusintha yayi, nanga ni para kupima kwa pamanyuma kwawemeska malo gha pakati pa gulu. Mazina ghakwamba gha mtundu uwu ghakapelekeka na Gosta Lynga mu 1982. mesnxw1qpykrcmt55t4ngnjgejk7i5e 124394 124345 2026-11-10T20:26:55Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124394 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:M44 47x300s-10°C O30 G0 PM RGB 03032022.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Messier 44, gulu la nyenyezi mu gulu la nyenyezi la Cancer]] '''Kacibwayira ka nyenyezi''' (panji '''Kachibwayila ka nyenyezi''') ni gulu la nyenyezi izo zikafuma pamoza, zikapangika pafupifupi pa nyengo yimoza, ndipo zikukolerana pamoza na nkhongono yakuguza yawo.<ref>{{cite web | title=Star Clusters: Inside the Universe's Stellar Collections - NASA Science | date=3 May 2023 | url=https://science.nasa.gov/universe/star-clusters-inside-the-universes-stellar-collections/ }}</ref> Pali mitundu iŵiri yikulu ya magulu gha nyenyezi: magulu gha mpira, agho ni magulu ghakukhora gha nyenyezi za kale kufuma pa 10,000 mpaka miliyoni zinandi izo zikukolerana na nkhongono yakuguza; na magulu ghakujura, agho ni magulu ghambura kukhora comene, ndipo kanandi ghali na nyenyezi zambura kukwana mahandiredi ghacoko. Usange gulu la nyenyezi likuwoneka yayi mu ungweru wakuwoneka cifukwa ca cuvu, kweni likuwoneka mu ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi, likuchemeka gulu la ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi. Apo ghakwenda mu [[Mlambagombe|mlambagombe]] wawo, mu nyengo, magulu ghakujura ghakumwazika cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza ya maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu, ntheura magulu agho ghakuwoneka kanandi ngaŵana. Nangauli ghakukolerana so na nkhongono yakuguza yayi, ghakulutilira kwenda pafupifupi mu nthowa yimoza mu mlengalenga, ndipo pamanyuma ghakuchemeka magulu ghakwenda pamoza. Magulu gha mpira, agho ghali na nyenyezi zinandi na vyamvimba vinandi, ghakukhalilira nyengo yitali comene, ndipo magulu gha mpira agho ghakuwoneka kanandi ghali na vyaka biliyoni zinandi. Magulu gha nyenyezi mu Mseu wa Mkaka agho ghakuwoneka na maso pera ni magulu ghakujura gha Pleiades na Hyades, na gulu la mpira la 47 Tucanae. == Magulu Ghakujura == [[File:Pleiades large.jpg|thumb|Pleiades, gulu lakujura la nyenyezi zakufunda comene za camlengalenga, zakuzingilizgika na maŵingu agho ghakulongora ungweru wawo]] Magulu ghakujura ghakusangika pera mu cigaŵa ca pakati ca mlambagombe, ndipo pafupifupi nyengo zose ghakuŵa mu mikono yakuzingilira. Kanandi ngaŵana, gha vyaka mpaka miliyoni makumi ghacoko, kupatula ghacoko comene agho ghali na vyaka biliyoni zinandi, nga ni Messier 67 (gulu lakujura la kale ilo lili pafupi comene na ilo lalaŵiskika comene).<ref name="ArchinalHynes2003">{{cite book | author1 = Brent A. Archinal | author2 = Steven J. Hynes | date = 2003 | title = Star Clusters | publisher = Willmann-Bell | pages = | isbn = 978-0-943396-80-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2WJ3AAAACAAJ}}</ref> Ghakupangika mu vigaŵa vya H II nga ni Bingu la Orion. Magulu ghakujura kanandi ghali na nyenyezi mahandiredi ghacoko, ndipo ghali mu cigaŵa ca ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru 30. Cifukwa cakuti nyenyezi zake nzicoko kuluska za magulu gha mpira, ghakukolerana comene na nkhongono yakuguza yayi, ndipo mu nyengo ghakumwazika cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza ya maŵingu ghakulu gha mamolekyu na magulu ghanyake. Kukumana kwa pafupi pakati pa nyenyezi za mu gulu kungapangiska so nyenyezi zinyake kuponyeka kuwaro, ndipo ici cikuchemeka "kufumbuka". Magulu ghakujura ghakumanyikwa comene ni Pleiades na Hyades mu Taurus. Gulu Liŵiri la h+Chi Persei lingawoneka so makola para kuthambo kwafipa. Magulu ghakujura kanandi ghali na nyenyezi zaŵana zakotcha za buluu, cifukwa nangauli nyenyezi izi zikukhala nyengo yifupi (vyaka miliyoni makumi ghacoko pera), magulu ghakujura ghakumwazika pambere nyenyezi izi zindafwe. Magulu ghanyake ghakujura ghakupanga magulu ghaŵiri panji ghanandi ghakukolerana. Kusanda kuphya kukulongora kuti Messier 25 lingapanga gulu la magulu ghatatu pamoza na NGC 6716 na Collinder 394. Kumanya makola mtunda wa magulu ghakujura kukovwira kupima ubale wa nyengo na kuŵala kwa nyenyezi za Cepheid, izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni vyakupimira mtunda. Nyenyezi za Cepheid zikuŵala comene ndipo zingagwiliskirika ntchito kupima mtunda wa milambagombe yakutali na luŵiro ilo caro cose ca mlengalenga cikukulira (cipimo ca Hubble). Nadi, gulu lakujura la NGC 7790 lili na nyenyezi zitatu za Cepheid izo ni zakuzirwa comene pa kupima uku.<ref name=sa1958>{{cite journal |bibcode=1958ApJ...128..150S |doi=10.1086/146532 |title=Cepheids in Galactic Clusters. I. CF Cass in NGC 7790 |year=1958 |last1=Sandage |first1=Allan |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=128 |page=150 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=ma2013>{{cite journal |bibcode=2013A&A...560A..22M |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201322670 |doi-access=free|title=Anchors for the cosmic distance scale: The Cepheids U Sagittarii, CF Cassiopeiae, and CEab Cassiopeiae |year=2013 |last1=Majaess |first1=D. |last2=Carraro |first2=G. |last3=Moni Bidin |first3=C. |last4=Bonatto |first4=C. |last5=Berdnikov |first5=L. |last6=Balam |first6=D. |last7=Moyano |first7=M. |last8=Gallo |first8=L. |last9=Turner |first9=D. |last10=Lane |first10=D. |last11=Gieren |first11=W. |last12=Borissova |first12=J. |last13=Kovtyukh |first13=V. |last14=Beletsky |first14=Y. |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |volume=560 |pages=A22 |arxiv=1311.0865 |s2cid=55934597 }}</ref> === Magulu Ghakubisika === [[File:Chandra_X-ray_View_of_Orion.jpg|thumb|Gulu la Trapezium, ilo lacali mukati mwa maŵingu, likuwoneka mu ungweru wa X-ray uwo ukunjira mu maŵingu agho ghakulizingilizga]] Magulu ghakubisika ni magulu gha nyenyezi zaŵana comene izo zaphimbika cigaŵa cinyake panji zose na cuvu panji mpweya wa mu mlengalenga, uwo kanandi ukukanizga kuwona na ungweru. Magulu agha ghakupangika mu maŵingu gha mamolekyu, apo maŵingu ghakwamba kuwira mukati na kupanga nyenyezi. Kanandi nyenyezi zicali kupangika mu magulu agha, ntheura ghangaŵa na vinthu vya nyenyezi zaŵana vyakupambana, kusazgapo nyenyezi zikupangika. Ciyelezgero ca gulu lakubisika ni Gulu la Trapezium mu Bingu la Orion. Mu cigaŵa ca pakati ca bingu la ρ Ophiuchi (L1688) muli gulu lakubisika.<ref>{{cite journal|bibcode=1995ApJ...450..233G|title=An Infrared Spectroscopic Survey of the rho Ophiuchi Young Stellar Cluster: Masses and Ages from the H-R Diagram|journal=Astrophysical Journal |volume=450|pages=233|last1=Greene|first1=Thomas P|last2=Meyer|first2=Michael R|year=1995|doi=10.1086/176134}}</ref> Nyengo ya gulu lakubisika yingatora vyaka miliyoni zinandi, ndipo pamanyuma mpweya wa mu bingu ukumala cifukwa ca kupangika kwa nyenyezi, panji ukumwazika cifukwa ca kukanikizga kwa ungweru, mphepo za nyenyezi, panji kuphulika kwa nyenyezi zikulu. Kanandi magaŵa ghambura kukwana 30 pa 100 gha vyamvimba vya bingu ndigho ghakusanduka nyenyezi pambere bingu lindamwazike, kweni unandi uwu ungaŵa ukulu mu vigaŵa vyakukhora comene vya bingu. Para bingu lataya vyamvimba, nkhongono za ntchito za ndondomeko yose zikusintha, ndipo kanandi ici cikumwaza gulu la nyenyezi. Magulu ghanandi ghaŵana ghakubisika ghakumwazika luŵiro pamanyuma pa kumalira kwa kupangika kwa nyenyezi.<ref name="Lada Lada 2003 pp. 57–115">{{cite journal | last1=Lada | first1=Charles J. | last2=Lada | first2=Elizabeth A. | title=Embedded Clusters in Molecular Clouds | journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=41 | issue=1 | year=2003 | issn=0066-4146 | doi=10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094844 | pages=57–115| bibcode=2003ARA&A..41...57L | arxiv=astro-ph/0301540 | s2cid=16752089 }}</ref> Magulu ghakujura agho ghakusangika mu Mlambagombe ni magulu ghakubisika gha kale agho ghakapona kukura kwakwamba kwa gulu. Kweni pafupifupi nyenyezi zose izo zikwenda zekha, kusazgapo [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]], zikababika mu magulu ghakubisika agho ghakamwazika.<ref name="Gounelle Meynet p=A4">{{cite journal | last1=Gounelle | first1=M. | last2=Meynet | first2=G. | title=Solar system genealogy revealed by extinct short-lived radionuclides in meteorites | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | publisher=EDP Sciences | volume=545 | date=2012-08-27 | issn=0004-6361 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201219031 | doi-access=free| page=A4| bibcode=2012A&A...545A...4G | arxiv=1208.5879 | s2cid=54970631 }}</ref><ref name="Lada Lada 2003 pp. 57–115" /> == Magulu gha Mpira == [[File:New_Hubble_image_of_star_cluster_Messier_15.jpg|thumb|Gulu la mpira la Messier 15, lakujambulika na Hubble Space Telescope]] Magulu gha mpira ni magulu gha mawonekero gha mpira gha nyenyezi kufuma pa 10,000 mpaka miliyoni zinandi, izo zawunjikana mu vigaŵa vya ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru 10 mpaka 30. Kanandi ghali na nyenyezi za kale comene za Gulu II, izo nzaŵana pera na vyaka miliyoni mahandiredi ghacoko kuluska caro cose ca mlengalenga ceneco, ndipo zinandi nzacikasu na zakucesama, na vyamvimba vyambura kufika kaŵiri kuluska vya zuŵa.<ref name=snp>{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Dinwiddie |first2=Will |last2=Gater |first3=Giles |last3=Sparrow |first4=Carole |last4=Stott |year=2012 |series=Nature Guide |title=Stars and Planets |publisher=DK |isbn=978-0-7566-9040-3 |pages=14, 134–137}}</ref> Nyenyezi izi nzinandi mu magulu agha cifukwa nyenyezi zakotcha na zikulu zakaphulika kale, panji zikasanduka nyenyezi zicoko zituŵa. Kweni nyenyezi zicoko za buluu zilipo mu magulu gha mpira, ndipo zikughanaghanirika kuti zikapangika apo nyenyezi zikasazganika mu vigaŵa vyakukhora vya mukati; nyenyezi izi zikuchemeka nyenyezi za buluu zakusyalira. Mu Mseu wa Mkaka, magulu gha mpira ghali mu mawonekero gha mpira kuzingilizga pakati pa mlambagombe, ndipo ghakuzunguliya pakati mu nthowa zakutalikilapo comene. Mu 1917, musandi wa nyenyezi Harlow Shapley wakapima dankha makola mtunda wa zuŵa kufuma pakati pa mlambagombe, kuyana na umo magulu gha mpira ghagaŵikira. Mpaka pakati pa ma 1990, magulu gha mpira ghakaŵa cifukwa ca fumbo likulu mu astronome, cifukwa fundo zakusacizga za kukura kwa nyenyezi zikapelekanga vyaka vya nyenyezi za kale comene za mu magulu gha mpira ivyo vikaŵa vinandi kuluska vyaka vya caro cose ca mlengalenga. Kweni kupima kwakuwemeskeka kwa mtunda wa magulu gha mpira na setilayiti ya Hipparcos, na kupima kwakuwemeskeka kwa cipimo ca Hubble, vikamazga fumbo ili, ndipo vikapeleka vyaka pafupifupi biliyoni 13 ku caro cose ca mlengalenga, na vyaka vyacoko pera na miliyoni mahandiredi ghacoko ku nyenyezi za kale comene. Mlambagombe withu uli na magulu gha mpira pafupifupi 150, ndipo ghanyake ghangaŵa mitima ya milambagombe yicoko iyo yikakoreka, ndipo nyenyezi za ku mphepete zake zikawuskikapo na nkhongono za Mseu wa Mkaka, nga umo kukuwonekera pa gulu la mpira la M79.<ref name=snp/> Milambagombe yinyake yili na magulu gha mpira ghanandi comene kuluska Mseu wa Mkaka: mlambagombe ukulu wakutalikilapo wa M87 uli na ghakujumpha 1,000. Magulu ghacoko gha mpira ghakuŵala comene ghakuwoneka na maso pera; lakuŵala comene, Omega Centauri, likalaŵiskika kale comene ndipo likalembeka nga ni nyenyezi, pambere cilaŵiskiro ca kutali cindapangike. Gulu la mpira lakuŵala comene ku cigaŵa ca kumpoto ca caro capasi ni M13 mu gulu la nyenyezi la Hercules. == Magulu Ghakulu Comene gha Nyenyezi == Magulu ghakulu comene gha nyenyezi ni vigaŵa vikulu comene umo nyenyezi zapangika sonosono, ndipo ghakughanaghanirika kuŵa magulu gha mpira gha munthazi. Ciyelezgero ni Westerlund 1 mu Mseu wa Mkaka.<ref>{{cite news|date=2005-03-22|publisher=ESO|title=Young and Exotic Stellar Zoo: ESO's Telescopes Uncover Super Star Cluster in the Milky Way|url=https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/news/eso0510/|access-date=2017-11-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042434/https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/news/eso0510/|archive-date=2017-12-01}}</ref> == Mitundu Yapakati == [[File:A Ten Billion Year Stellar Dance.jpg|thumb|Messier 68, gulu la mpira lambura kukhwefyana, ilo nyenyezi zake zili mu malo ghakujumpha vyaka vya ungweru 100]] Mu 2005, ŵasandi ŵa nyenyezi ŵakasanga mtundu uphya wa gulu la nyenyezi mu mlambagombe wa Andromeda, uwo mu nthowa zinandi ukuyana comene na magulu gha mpira nangauli ngwambura kukhora comene. Magulu agha (agho ghakuchemekaso magulu gha mpira ghakukulirapo) ghakumanyikwa yayi mu Mseu wa Mkaka. Ghatatu agho ghakasangika mu Andromeda ni M31WFS C1, M31WFS C2, na M31WFS C3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=@1592523&M31WFS+C1|title=@1592523|website=u-strasbg.fr|access-date=28 April 2018}}</ref> Magulu agha ghaphya ghali na nyenyezi mahandiredi gha masauzandi, unandi wakuyana na wa magulu gha mpira. Ghakuyana so na magulu gha mpira mu vimanyikwiro vinyake, nga ni mitundu ya nyenyezi na unandi wa visulo. Ico cikughapambanyizga na magulu gha mpira nchakuti ngakulu comene, gha ukulu wa vyaka vya ungweru mahandiredi ghacoko, ndipo ngambura kukhora comene. Ntheura mtunda pakati pa nyenyezi ngukulu comene. Magulu agha ghali na vimanyikwiro vya pakati pa magulu gha mpira na milambagombe yicoko ya mawonekero gha mpira.<ref name="extended">{{cite journal|author=A. P. Huxor|author2=N. R. Tanvir|author3=M.J. Irwin|author4= R. Ibata|title=A new population of extended, luminous, star clusters in the halo of M31|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|date=2005|volume= 360|issue=3|pages=993–1006|arxiv=astro-ph/0412223|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09086.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2005MNRAS.360.1007H|s2cid=6215035}}</ref> Umo magulu agha ghakupangikira kukumanyikwa yayi, kweni kupangika kwake kungakolerana na kwa magulu gha mpira. Cifukwa ico M31 yili na magulu agha, apo Mseu wa Mkaka ulije, kukumanyikwa yayi. Kukumanyikwa so yayi usange milambagombe yinyake yili na magulu agha, kweni kungaŵa kwambura kukolerana kuti M31 ndiyo yekha iyo yili na magulu ghakukulirapo.<ref name="extended"/> Mtundu unyake wa magulu ni magulu ghakuzirimila, agho mpaka sono ghasangika mu milambagombe ya mawonekero gha lenzi pera, nga ni NGC 1023 na NGC 3384. Ghakumanyikwa na ukulu wawo kuyaniska na magulu gha mpira, na kugaŵika kwawo mu mawonekero gha mphete kuzingilizga pakati pa milambagombe yawo. Nga ni magulu gha mpira, ghakuwoneka kuŵa vinthu vya kale.<ref name="faintfuzzies">{{cite journal|author=A. Burkert|author2=J. Brodie |author3=S. Larsen |title=Faint Fuzzies and the Formation of Lenticular Galaxies|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=2005|volume= 628|issue=1|pages=231–235|arxiv=astro-ph/0504064|doi=10.1086/430698|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..231B|s2cid=11466131 }}</ref> == Kuzirwa mu Astronome == [[File:Artist's impression of an exoplanet orbiting a star in the cluster Messier 67.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca wakujambula ca cibwe ico cikuzunguliya nyenyezi mu gulu la Messier 67<ref>{{cite news|title=First Planet Found Around Solar Twin in Star Cluster|url=https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/news/eso1402/|access-date=2017-11-27|newspaper=ESO Press Release|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035459/https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/news/eso1402/|archive-date=2017-12-01}}</ref> ]] Magulu gha nyenyezi ngakuzirwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya [[Astronome|astronome]]. Cifukwa cake nchakuti pafupifupi nyenyezi zose za mu magulu gha kale zikababika pafupifupi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{Citation |chapter=The Food of the Stars |date=2013-10-01 |pages=34 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674423770.c3/html |access-date=2024-06-18 |publisher=Harvard University Press |language=en |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674423770.c3 |isbn=978-0-674-42377-0 |title=Stars and Clusters }}</ref> Vimanyikwiro vyakupambana vya nyenyezi zose za mu gulu vikuthemba pa vyamvimba vyawo pera, ntheura fundo zakusacizga za kukura kwa nyenyezi zikuthemba kulaŵiska magulu ghakujura na gha mpira. Ici nchaunenesko comene pa magulu gha mpira gha kale. Pa magulu ghaŵana (gha vyaka vyambura kufika biliyoni yimoza) na gha vyaka vyapakati (biliyoni 1 mpaka 5), vinthu nga ni vyaka, vyamvimba, na ivyo nyenyezi zikupangika navyo vingaŵa so vyakuzirwa.<ref>{{Citation |title=All the World's a Stage–The Galaxy |date=2013-10-01 |pages=6–7 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674423770.c1/html |access-date=2024-06-18 |publisher=Harvard University Press |language=en |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674423770.c1 |isbn=978-0-674-42377-0|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kuyana na vyaka vyawo, magulu gha nyenyezi ghangalongora vinandi pa milambagombe iyo ghaliko. Mwaciyelezgero, magulu gha nyenyezi agho ghali mu Maŵingu gha Magellan ghangapeleka mauthenga ghakuzirwa pa kupangika kwa milambagombe yicoko iyi. Nayo, ici cingatovwira kupulikiska vyakucitika vinandi mu Mseu wa Mkaka withu. Magulu agha, comene ghaŵana, ghangalongosora umo nyenyezi zikapangikira mu Mseu wa Mkaka withu. Magulu ngakuzirwa so pa kupima mtunda wa caro cose ca mlengalenga. Magulu ghacoko agho ghali pafupi comene ghali pafupi mwakuti mtunda wawo ungapimika na nthowa ya kusintha kwa kawonekero. Cithuzi ca Hertzsprung–Russell cingajambulika pa magulu agha, ico cili na vipimo vyakumanyikwa vya kuŵala. Pamanyuma, para cithuzi cakuyana cajambulika pa gulu ilo mtunda wake ukumanyikwa yayi, malo gha nyenyezi za pakati pa umoyo wawo ghangayaniskika na gha gulu lakwamba, ndipo mtunda ungapimika. Ndondomeko iyi yikuchemeka kuyaniska nyenyezi za pakati pa umoyo. Kucesamiska kwa ungweru na mitundu ya nyenyezi vikwenera kughanaghanirika pa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi. Pafupifupi nyenyezi zose za mu Mlambagombe, kusazgapo zuŵa, zikababika dankha mu vigaŵa umo mukaŵa magulu ghakubisika agho ghakamwazika. Ici cikung'anamula kuti vimanyikwiro vya nyenyezi na makanozgero gha vibwe vingaŵa kuti vikakhwaskika na malo gha magulu gha kwamba.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winter |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Kruijssen |first2=J. M. Diederik |last3=Longmore |first3=Steven N. |last4=Chevance |first4=Mélanie |date=2020-10-22 |title=Stellar clustering shapes the architecture of planetary systems |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=586 |issue=7830 |pages=528–532 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2800-0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=7116760 |pmid=33087913|arxiv=2010.10531 |bibcode=2020Natur.586..528W }}</ref> Ici cikuwoneka kuŵa ntheura pa [[Kanozgero ka nyenyezi|Kanozgero ka Zuŵa]] kithu, umo unandi wa visungunu ukulongora vyakufumapo vya kuphulika kwa nyenyezi ya pafupi kumwamba kwa mbiri ya Kanozgero ka Zuŵa kithu. == Maŵingu gha Nyenyezi == [[File:Scutum Star Cloud.jpg|thumb|Bingu la Nyenyezi la Scutum, na gulu lakujura la Messier 11 pasi ku mazere]] Nangauli ni magulu gha nyenyezi yayi, maŵingu gha nyenyezi ni magulu ghakulu gha nyenyezi zinandi mu mlambagombe, agho ghathandazgika pa vyaka vya ungweru vinandi comene. Kanandi ghali na magulu gha nyenyezi mukati mwawo. Nyenyezi zikuwoneka nga zawunjikana pafupi, kweni kanandi nzacigaŵa ca kazengero kalikose yayi.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Observer's Year: 366 Nights in the Universe|date=2005|author=Patrick Moore|author-link=Patrick Moore|publisher=Springer|isbn=1-85233-884-9|page=199}}</ref> Mu Mseu wa Mkaka, maŵingu gha nyenyezi ghakuwoneka kwizira mu tumalo twa pakati pa maŵingu gha cuvu gha Mpata Ukulu, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga kuwona kutali comene.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Paddle the Milky Way's Dark River |author=Bob King |date=2016-07-13 |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/observing/a-trip-down-the-great-rift/|website=skyandtelescope.org|access-date=2020-09-29}}</ref> Maŵingu gha nyenyezi ghasangika so mu milambagombe yinyake ya pafupi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resolving Andromeda - How to See Stars 2.5 Million Light-Years Away |author=Bob King |date=2016-10-05 |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-blogs/explore-night-bob-king/see-stars-andromeda-galaxy/|website=skyandtelescope.org|access-date=2020-09-20}}</ref> Viyelezgero ni Bingu Likulu la Nyenyezi la Sagittarius, Bingu Licoko la Nyenyezi la Sagittarius, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Scutum, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Cygnus, Bingu la Nyenyezi la Norma, na NGC 206 mu mlambagombe wa Andromeda. == Mazina == Mu 1979, ungano wa 17 wa Wupu wa Pakati pa Vyaro wa Ŵasandi ŵa Nyenyezi ukasacizga kuti magulu gha nyenyezi ghaphya agho ghasangika mu Mlambagombe, ghakujura panji gha mpira, ghaŵe na mazina ghakulondezga ndondomeko ya "Chhmm±ddd", ghakwamba nyengo zose na C, apo h, m, na d vikwimilira malo gha pakati pa gulu. Zina ilo lapelekeka likusintha yayi, nanga ni para kupima kwa pamanyuma kwawemeska malo gha pakati pa gulu. Mazina ghakwamba gha mtundu uwu ghakapelekeka na Gosta Lynga mu 1982. == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} tgd78hji100kwz2eho9tr77fcfokau1 0 46883 124355 123537 2026-11-10T14:18:36Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124355 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Moving_heart_of_the_Crab_Nebula.jpg|thumb| Nyenyezi ya nyutironi pakati pa mtima wa Bingu la Nkhanu (Crab Nebula)]] [[File:PIA18848-PSRB1509-58-ChandraXRay-WiseIR-20141023.jpg|thumb| Kuŵala kwa pulsar PSR B1509-58, iyo yikujizunguliya luŵiro, kukupangiska mpweya wa pafupi kufumya X-ray (golide) na kuŵalira bingu lose la nyenyezi, ilo likuwoneka pano mu ungweru wa pasi pa uswesi (buluu na wakufipa).]] '''Nyenyezi ya nyutironi''' ni mtima wa nyenyezi yikulu comene uwo wawira mukati cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza. Yikufuma ku kuphulika kwa nyenyezi yikulu, pamoza na kuwira mukati cifukwa ca nkhongono yakuguza, uko kukukanikizga mtima wa nyenyezi kufika pa kukhwima kwa mitima ya vimenyu. Kupatula vidolozi vifipa pera, nyenyezi za nyutironi ni nyenyezi za ciŵiri pa kucoka na pa kukhwima. Nyenyezi za nyutironi zili na ukulu wa makilomita pafupifupi 10 kufuma pakati, ndipo kuzitika kwake nkhwa pafupifupi 1.4 kuluska kwa [[Zuŵa|zuŵa]]. Kukughanaghanirika kuti mu Mseu wa Mkaka muli nyenyezi za nyutironi pafupifupi biliyoni yimoza. Kweni zinandi zaŵako kwa nyengo yitali ndipo zaziziska comene. Nyenyezi zinandi za nyutironi izo zasangika ni zakujizunguliya luŵiro na kufumiska majigha (ma pulsar), panji ni cigaŵa ca nyenyezi ziŵiri izo zikuzunguliyana. kcuog3gzy863z6malokmrofoy6u89uu 0 47091 124387 123657 2026-11-10T20:18:15Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124387 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:C_Hello_World_Program.png|right|thumb|Khodi ya cilayizgo ca mrangura mu ciyowoyero ca C. Mizere ya mtundu wa thope ni malongosoro gha cilayizgo ku ŵanthu. Para cilayizgo cafiskika, cikulemba kuti "Monileni, caro!".]] '''Ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo''' ni ciyowoyero cakupangika ico cili na malango ghakukhwima, ico cikupangika kulongosora ivyo [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mrangura]] ukwenera kupenda, ndipo kanandi cikovwira kulongosora [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]] mu nthowa iyo ŵanthu na mirangura ŵangapulikiska.<ref>{{cite web|title=Information technology {{emdash}} Vocabulary|csnumber=63598}}</ref> Kuti cilayizgo cifiskike, pakukhumbikwa nthowa ya kuciendeska. Pali nthowa ziŵiri zikulu za kwendeska ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo: kung'anamula, apo vilayizgo vikusinthika pambere kuŵa khodi ya makina, na kuŵazga, apo vilayizgo vikufiskika mwakulunjika. Kupatula nthowa ziŵiri izi, nthowa zinyake zikusazga zose ziŵiri, nga ni kung'anamula pa nyengo yeneyiyo na kuŵazga khodi yapakati.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Concepts of Programming Languages|last=Sebesta|first=Robert W.|publisher=Pearson|year=2023|isbn=978-1-292-43682-1|edition=12th global|pages=46–51|language=en}}</ref> Kanozgero ka viyowoyero vya vilayizgo kakhwaskika comene na kazengero ka mirangura, ndipo viyowoyero vinandi vya malangulo vikanozgeka kuyana na kazengero ka von Neumann, ako kali mu mirangura yinandi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sebesta |first=Robert |title=Concepts of Programming Languages: Global Edition |date=2022 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-1-292-43682-1 |edition=12th global |location=Harlow |page=41}}</ref> Apo viyowoyero vyakwamba vikakolerananga comene na vigaŵa vya mrangura, viyowoyero vya mazuŵa ghano kanandi vikubisa vigaŵa ivi kuti ŵanthu ŵapange vilwerovipepu viwemi mwambura kusuzga. Viyowoyero ivi vikuchemeka viyowoyero vya pacanya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=High-level languages |url=https://adacomputerscience.org/concepts/proglang_high_level |date=2026-05-11 |website=ada computer science}}</ref> == Ubale na Viyowoyero vya Ŵanthu == Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vikuyana pacoko na viyowoyero vya ŵanthu cifukwa vingazomerezga kuyowoyerana kwa maghanoghano pakati pa ŵanthu. Vilayizgo kanandi vikuŵazgika na ŵanthu ndipo vingalongosora maghanoghano ghakusuzga, kweni maghanoghano agho viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vingalongosora ghali mu cigaŵa ca kupenda kwa mrangura pera.<ref name="BookProgrammingLanguagesChauhanSharad">{{cite book |last1=Chauhan |first1=Sharad |title=Programming Languages - Design and Constructs |date=2013 |publisher=University Science Press |isbn=978-93-81159-41-5 |page=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qKRnohkDbb0C |access-date=10 September 2025 |language=English |chapter=10 |quote=Like our natural languages, programming languages facilitate the expression and communication between people. However, programming languages differ from natural languages in two ways. First, programming languages also enables communication of ideas between people and computing machines. Second, programming languages have a narrower expressive domain than our natural languages. That is, they facilitate only the communication of computational ideas.}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ciyowoyero ca mrangura nyengo zinyake likugwiliskirika ntchito m'malo mwa ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo, kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti ni maghanoghano ghakupambana.<ref>Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuti viyowoyero vya vilayizgo ni cigaŵa ca viyowoyero vya mrangura. Ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ciyowoyero ca mrangura kulongosora ciyowoyero ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito pa mirangura ico ni ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo yayi.<ref>Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, ''[http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs]'' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707093557/http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf|date=7 July 2015}}, [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html ICSOFT 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427063709/http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html|date=27 April 2010}}, pp. 163–170</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakuwona ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo nga ni ghanoghano la kulayizga makina ghambura kuŵako nadi, na ciyowoyero ca mrangura nga ni cigaŵa cake ico cikugwira ntchito pa mrangura weneco, uwo uli na vigaŵa vya mphaka.<ref>R. Narasimhan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189–247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, {{ISBN|0-12-012108-5}}, p.215: "[...] the model [...] for computer languages differs from that [...] for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names—or registers—which can assume only finitely many values—or states—and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. [author's footnote:] This may sound like a truism but its implications are far-reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."</ref> John C. Reynolds wakukhozga kuti ciyowoyero ca kulongosora cakunozgeka ni ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo nga ni ciyowoyero ciliconse ico cikupangika kuti cifiskike. Wakuti nthowa za kunjizga mauthenga zakulemba na nanga ni za vithuzi izo zikusintha nkhalo ya mrangura ni viyowoyero vya vilayizgo, nangauli kanandi vilije nkhongono zose za kupenda, ndipo wakuti kusoŵa kumanya maghanoghano gha viyowoyero vya vilayizgo ndico cifukwa ca viheni vinandi mu nthowa izi.<ref>John C. Reynolds, "Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages", ''SIGPLAN Notices'', Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109</ref> == Mbiri == === Kukura Kwakwamba === Mirangura yakwamba iyo yingalayizgika yikapangika mu ma 1940, ndipo pamoza nayo viyowoyero vyakwamba vya vilayizgo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.computer.org/publications/tech-news/insider-membership-news/timeline-of-programming-languages|title=Coding From 1849 to 2022: a Guide to The Timeline of Programming Languages|date=June 10, 2022|access-date=March 1, 2026|website=IEEE Computer Society|last=Hierso|first=Severine}}</ref>{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=519}} Mirangura yakwamba yikalayizgikanga mu viyowoyero vya mbumba yakwamba, ciyowoyero ca makina (malangulo ghapepuka agho cigaŵa ca kupenda ca mrangura cingafiska mwakulunjika). Khodi iyi yikaŵa yakusuzga comene kupenja viheni ndipo yingasamizgika yayi pakati pa mirangura yakupambana.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=520–521}} Kuti kulayizga kupepuke, viyowoyero vya ''assembly'' (panji viyowoyero vya mbumba yaciŵiri) vikapangika, ivyo vikapambana na ciyowoyero ca makina kuti vilayizgo vipulikiskike makola na ŵanthu, nangauli vikasazgira kusamizgika yayi.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=521}} Pakwamba, vigaŵa vya mrangura vikaŵa vicoko na vyakudura, apo ŵantchito ŵakaŵa ŵambura kudura. Ntheura viyowoyero vyakusuzga na vyakutora nyengo, kweni vya pafupi na vigaŵa vya mrangura kuti vigwire makola ntchito, vikatemwekanga.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=522}} Kwiza kwa viyowoyero vya pacanya (viyowoyero vya mbumba yacitatu) kukasintha comene kulayizga. Viyowoyero ivi vikabisa vigaŵa vya mrangura, ndipo vikanozgeka kulongosora ndondomeko za kupenda izo ŵanthu ŵangapulikiska makola. Mwaciyelezgero, masamu ghangalembeka mu vimanyikwiro na pamanyuma kung'anamulika kuŵa khodi ya makina.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=521}} Mu 1957, Fortran yikapangika. Kanandi yikuwonekera kuŵa ciyowoyero cakwamba ca pacanya cakung'anamulika, ndipo Fortran yicali kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=521}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=42}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=524}} === Ma 1960 na Ma 1970 === [[File:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kompyuta yikulu ya IBM 704, yakwamba kumanya kupenda manambara gha madontho (''floating-point''), mu 1957. Fortran yikanozgekera kompyuta iyi.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=42–44}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=524}}]] Pafupifupi 1960, mirangura yikulu yakwamba ya ntchito zose yikapangika, nangauli yingagwiliskirika ntchito na ŵakumanya pera ndipo yikadura comene. Mauthenga na malangulo vikanjizgikanga na makadi gha mazenje, ntheura palije kanthu ako kangasazgika apo cilayizgo cikugwira ntchito. Ntheura viyowoyero vya nyengo iyi vikanozgeka kuti munthu wakwekane navyo pacoko.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=523–524}} Pamanyuma pa kupangika kwa ''microprocessor'', mirangura mu ma 1970 yikaŵa yambura kudura comene.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=527}} Mirangura yiphya yikazomerezga so kukwekana kunandi na ŵakuyigwiliskira ntchito, ndipo ici cikakhozgeka na viyowoyero viphya.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=528}} Lisp, iyo yikapangika mu 1958, yikaŵa ciyowoyero cakwamba ca ndondomeko za masamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twobithistory.org/2018/10/14/lisp.html|title=How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language|website=twobithistory.org|access-date=10 April 2024|archive-date=10 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240410060444/https://twobithistory.org/2018/10/14/lisp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Kupambana na Fortran, yikazomerezganga ndondomeko kujichema yekha na mazgo gha usange, ndipo yikanjizga kulongozga kwa vyakusungira na kutozga kwa ivyo vikukhumbikwa so yayi.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=47–48}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=526}} Kwa vyaka makhumi vyakulondezga, Lisp yikawusa mu vinjeru vyakupangika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=50}} Mu 1978, ciyowoyero cinyake ca ndondomeko, ML, cikanjizga mitundu yakumanyikwa yekha.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=528}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=701–703}} Pamanyuma pakuti ALGOL yafumiskika mu 1958 na 1960, yikaŵa ciyowoyero ca kulongosora ndondomeko mu malemba gha mirangura.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=524–525}} Nangauli yikapindura pacoko pa malonda, viyowoyero vinandi vya malangulo vyakumanyikwa, kusazgapo C, Pascal, Ada, C++, Java, na C#, vikufuma ku ALGOL 60 mwakulunjika panji mwambura kulunjika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=56–57}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=524}} Simula, ciyowoyero cakwamba ca kulayizga kwa vinthu, nayo yikufuma ku ALGOL.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=525}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=526–527}} C, ciyowoyero cinyake cakufuma ku ALGOL, cicali cakutemweka mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000. C cikuzomerezga kufikira ntchito za pasi za makina kuluska viyowoyero vinyake vya nyengo yake. Nkhongono na luŵiro lwake vikufuma pacoko ku ntchito zakusinthika za vyakulongora malo gha vyakusungira, kweni ici cikupangiska kulemba khodi yakwenelera kuŵa kwakusuzga.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=528}} Prolog, iyo yikapangika mu 1972, yikaŵa ciyowoyero cakwamba ca kulayizga kwa kughanaghana makola, cikuyowoyerana na mrangura mwa vimanyikwiro vya kughanaghana.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=531}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=79}} Mu nthowa iyi, mulayizgi wakulongosora cakufumapo ico wakukhumba ndipo wakuzomerezga cakuŵazgira kusankha umo cingacifiskira.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=530}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=79}} === Ma 1980 mpaka Ma 2000 === [[File:Bangalore India Tech books for sale IMG 5261.jpg|thumb|right|Mabuku ghacoko gha kusambizga viyowoyero vya vilayizgo agho ghakuguliskika mu Bangalore, India, 2011]] Mu ma 1980, kupangika kwa mrangura wa munthu payekha kukasintha ntchito za viyowoyero vya vilayizgo.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=532–533}} Viyowoyero viphya vya ma 1980 vikasazgapo C++, ico cikusazgapo C yose ndipo cikukhozga so magulu gha vinthu na kuhara.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=534}} Ada na viyowoyero vinyake viphya vikanjizga kufiska ntchito zinandi pamoza.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=534–535}} Ulongozgi wa Japani ukaŵika ndalama zinandi mu viyowoyero vya mbumba ya cinkhondi, kweni viyowoyero ivi vikaluskika na vinyake.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=535}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=736}} Cifukwa ca kukura luŵiro kwa intaneti na World Wide Web mu ma 1990, viyowoyero viphya vikapangika kukhozga mapeji gha pa intaneti na mikwawo.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=536}} Java, iyo yikuthemba C++ ndipo yikanozgeka kusamizgika makola pakati pa mirangura na kuvikilira, yikapindura comene cifukwa vimanyikwiro ivi nvyakukhumbikwa pa ntchito zinandi za intaneti.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=536–537}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=91–92}} Kukura kunyake kukaŵa kwa viyowoyero vya kulemba luŵiro, Python, JavaScript, PHP, na Ruby, ivyo vikanozgeka kupanga luŵiro vilayizgo vicoko ivyo vikukoleranya vilwerovipepu ivyo viliko. Cifukwa vikukolerana na HTML, vyagwiliskirika ntchito so kuzenga mapeji gha pa intaneti.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=538–539}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=97–99}} === Ma 2000 mpaka Sono === Mu ma 2000, kupangika kwa viyowoyero viphya ivyo vikatemweka comene kukacepa.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=542}} Caphya cimoza cikaŵa kulayizga kwa ntchito, ako kakanozgeka kugwiliskira ntchito mirangura yinandi yakukolerana na mkwawo. C# na F# vikagaŵana maghanoghano pakati pa kulayizga kwa malangulo na kwa ndondomeko.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=474–475, 477, 542}}{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|pp=542–543}} Pamanyuma pa 2010, viyowoyero viphya vinandi, Rust, Go, Swift, Zig, na Carbon, vikasuskana pa vilwerovipepu vya luŵiro ivyo C yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito.{{sfn|Gabbrielli|Martini|2023|p=544}} Viyowoyero viphya vinandi vikumanya mitundu pambere cilayizgo cindagwire ntchito, apo vicoko nga ni Julia vikuyimanya apo cikugwira ntchito.<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1209.5145 |last1=Bezanson |first1=Jeff |last2=Karpinski |first2=Stefan |last3=Shah |first3=Viral B. |last4=Edelman |first4=Alan |date=2012 |title=Julia: A Fast Dynamic Language for Technical Computing |class=cs.PL}}</ref> Viyowoyero vinyake viphya ni viyowoyero vya vithuzi nga ni Scratch na LabVIEW. Vinyake vikusazga kulemba na vithuzi, nga ni Ballerina.<ref>Sáez-López, J.M., Román-González, M. and Vázquez-Cano, E., 2016. Visual programming languages integrated across the curriculum in elementary school: A two year case study using "Scratch" in five schools. Computers & Education, 97, pp.129-141.</ref><ref>Kodosky, J., 2020. LabVIEW. Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages, 4(HOPL), pp.1-54.</ref><ref>Fernando, A. and Warusawithana, L., 2020. Beginning Ballerina Programming: From Novice to Professional. Apress.</ref> Ici cikapangiska ntchito za kovwira kupanga viyowoyero viphya vya vithuzi, nga ni Blockly ya Google.<ref>Baluprithviraj, K.N., Bharathi, K.R., Chendhuran, S. and Lokeshwaran, P., 2021, March. Artificial intelligence based smart door with face mask detection. In 2021 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Smart Systems (ICAIS) (pp. 543-548). IEEE.</ref> Vilwerovipepu vinandi vya kupanga maseŵero nga ni Unreal na Unity vikukhozga kulayizga na vithuzi.<ref>Sewell, B., 2015. Blueprints visual scripting for unreal engine. Packt Publishing Ltd.</ref><ref>Bertolini, L., 2018. Hands-On Game Development without Coding: Create 2D and 3D games with Visual Scripting in Unity. Packt Publishing Ltd.</ref> == Ng'anamulo == Ciyowoyero cingalongosoreka kuyana na kalembero (mawonekero) na ng'anamulo, ndipo kanandi cikulongosoreka na malemba ghakunozgeka gha ciyowoyero. === Kalembero === [[File:Python add5 parse.png|thumb|367px|Cithuzi ca makhwanthu gha khodi ya Python (''parse tree''), na kagaŵiro ka mazgo mu kabokosi kacoko]] [[File:Python add5 syntax.svg|thumb|292px|Kuŵika mitundu pa khodi (''syntax highlighting'') kukovwira ŵakulemba vilayizgo kumanya vigaŵa vya khodi. Ciyowoyero ici ni Python.]] Mawonekero gha ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo ghakuchemeka kalembero kake. Viyowoyero vinandi vya vilayizgo nvya kulemba pera; vikugwiliskira ntchito malemba ghakusazgapo mazgo, manambala, na vimanyikwiro, nga ni viyowoyero vya ŵanthu vyakulembeka. Kweni viyowoyero vinyake nvya vithuzi, vikugwiliskira ntchito ubale wa vimanyikwiro kulongosora cilayizgo. Kalembero ka ciyowoyero kakulongosora umo vimanyikwiro vingasazganikira kupanga cilayizgo cakwenelera pa kalembero. Ng'anamulo la vimanyikwiro ivi likulongozgeka na ng'anamulo la ciyowoyero. Kalembero ka ciyowoyero kanandi kakulongosoreka na malango gha kalembero ka mazgo na ka kawunjikiro. Mwaciyelezgero, kalembero kapepuka kakuyana na ka Lisp kakuti: mazgo ni ''atom'' panji mndandanda; ''atom'' ni nambala panji cimanyikwiro; nambala ni manambala ghakulondezgana, panji na cimanyikwiro ca kusazga panji kucepeska panthazi; cimanyikwiro ni lembo ilo likulondezgeka na malembo ghanyake; ndipo mndandanda ni mabulaketi ghaŵiri agho ghali na mazgo ghanyake mukati. Viyelezgero vyakwenelera ni 12345, () na (a b c232 (1)). Vilayizgo vyose vyakwenelera pa kalembero nvyakwenelera pa ng'anamulo yayi. Vilayizgo vinandi vyakwenelera pa kalembero vingaŵa vyambura kwenelera kuyana na malango gha ciyowoyero, ndipo vingiziska cheni apo vikung'anamulika panji kufiskika. Nanga ni para cilayizgo cili cakwenelera, cingaŵa na ng'anamulo ilo mulembi wake wakakhumbanga yayi. Kuyelezga na viyowoyero vya ŵanthu, mzere wakwenelera pa kalembero ungaŵa wambura ng'anamulo panji wautesi: "Maghanoghano ghaŵisi ghambura mtundu ghakugona mwakukwiya" nkhwakwenelera pa kalembero kweni kulije ng'anamulo; "Yohane ni msepuka uyo wali mu nthengwa" nkhwakwenelera pa kalembero kweni kukulongosora cinthu ico cingaŵa caunenesko yayi. Mu ciyowoyero ca C, khodi yinyake yingaŵa yakwenelera pa kalembero, kweni yikucita ntchito izo zilije ng'anamulo. Usange cilayizgo cindalongosore mtundu wa cinthu, cingapeleka cheni pa kung'anamulika; kweni cicali cakwenelera pa kalembero cifukwa kulongosora mitundu kukupeleka ng'anamulo pera. Kalembero ako kakukhumbikwa kulongosora ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo kangagaŵika kuyana na malo ghake mu makwelero gha Chomsky.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Sipser|year=1996|title=Introduction to the Theory of Computation|publisher=PWS Publishing|isbn=978-0-534-94728-6 |author-link=Michael Sipser|title-link=Introduction to the Theory of Computation}} Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.</ref> Kalembero ka viyowoyero vinandi vya vilayizgo kangalongosoreka na kalembero ka mtundu waciŵiri. Viyowoyero vinyake, kusazgapo Perl na Lisp, vili na vigaŵa ivyo vikuzomerezga kufiska khodi apo cilayizgo cikuŵazgika, ndipo ici cikupangiska kupenda kalembero kuŵa suzgo lambura kumazgika.<ref>Jeffrey Kegler, "[http://www.jeffreykegler.com/Home/perl-and-undecidability Perl and Undecidability] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817183115/http://www.jeffreykegler.com/Home/perl-and-undecidability |date=17 August 2009 }}", ''The Perl Review''. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively Rice's theorem and direct reduction to the halting problem, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable.</ref><ref>Marty Hall, 1995, [http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.html Lecture Notes: Macros] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806054148/http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.html |date=6 August 2013 }}, PostScript [http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.ps version] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000817211709/http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.ps |date=17 August 2000 }}</ref> === Ng'anamulo === Ng'anamulo ni ng'anamulo la vyakulembeka ivyo vikulondezga kalembero ka ciyowoyero. ==== Ng'anamulo Lakukhazikika ==== Ng'anamulo lakukhazikika likulongosora vikanizgo pa kawunjikiro ka malemba ghakwenelera agho nkhwakusuzga kulongosora na kalembero. Pa viyowoyero vyakung'anamulika, ici cikusazgapo malango agho ghangapimika apo cilayizgo cikung'anamulika. Viyelezgero ni kupima kuti zina lililose lalongosoreka pambere lindagwiliskirike ntchito. Vikanizgo vinandi vyakuzirwa vya mtundu uwu, nga ni kupima kuti mazina ghakugwiliskirika ntchito makola, vingalongozgeka na ndondomeko ya mitundu. ==== Ng'anamulo la Kufiska ==== Para mauthenga ghalongosoreka, makina ghakwenera kulangulika kucita ntchito pa mauthenga agha.<ref name="Aaby 2004">{{cite book |last=Aaby |first=Anthony |url=http://www.emu.edu.tr/aelci/Courses/D-318/D-318-Files/plbook/intro.htm |title=Introduction to Programming Languages |year=2004 |access-date=29 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108043216/http://www.emu.edu.tr/aelci/Courses/D-318/D-318-Files/plbook/intro.htm |archive-date=8 November 2012 }}</ref> Ng'anamulo la kufiska la ciyowoyero likulongosora umo na nyengo iyo vigaŵa vya ciyowoyero vikwenera kupanga nkhalo ya cilayizgo.<ref>Michael Lee Scott, ''Programming language pragmatics'', Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006, {{ISBN|0-12-633951-1}}, p. 18–19</ref> Pali nthowa zinandi za kulongosora ng'anamulo ili. Ciyowoyero ca ŵanthu kanandi cikugwiliskirika ntchito kulongosora ng'anamulo la viyowoyero ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito comene. Kusanda kunandi kukucitika pa ng'anamulo lakunozgeka la viyowoyero vya vilayizgo, kweni vyakusangika vyake vyagwiliskirika ntchito pacoko kuwaro kwa sukulu.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Winskel |first=Glynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JzUNn6uUxm0C |title=The Formal Semantics of Programming Languages: An Introduction |date=5 February 1993 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-73103-4 |language=en}}{{page needed|date=August 2026}}</ref> == Vimanyikwiro == Ciyowoyero cikupeleka vimanyikwiro ku mulayizgi kuti wapange vilwerovipepu. Vimanyikwiro vinyake vyakuzirwa vikulongosoreka pasi apa. === Ndondomeko ya Mitundu === Mtundu wa mauthenga ni gulu la vyakuzomerezgeka na ntchito izo zingacitika pa ivyo.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=244}} Ndondomeko ya mitundu ya ciyowoyero ciliconse yikulongosora mitundu iyo yiliko, mtundu wa mazgo, na umo mitundu yikuyaniskikira na kukolerana.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=245}} Kuyana na kasandiro ka mitundu, ciyowoyero cili na mitundu yose usange ntchito yiliyose yikulongosora mitundu ya mauthenga agho yingagwira nagho.<ref name="typing">{{cite web|url=http://www.acooke.org/comp-lang.html|author=Andrew Cooke|title=Introduction To Computer Languages|access-date=13 July 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815140215/http://www.acooke.org/comp-lang.html|archive-date=15 August 2012}}</ref> Kweni ciyowoyero cambura mitundu, nga ni viyowoyero vinandi vya ''assembly'', cikuzomerezga ntchito yiliyose kucitika pa mauthenga ghaliwose.<ref name="typing"/> Mu kacitiro, nangauli viyowoyero vicoko pera ndivyo vili na mitundu yose, vinandi vili na mitundu pacoko.<ref name="typing"/> Cifukwa mitundu yakupambana (nga ni manambala ghakukwana na gha cigaŵa) yikulongora vyakuzomerezgeka mwakupambana, vyakufumapo vyambura kulindilirika vingacitika usange mtundu umoza wagwiliskirika ntchito apo unyake ukulindilirika. Kupima mitundu kukulongora cheni ici, kanandi apo cilayizgo cikung'anamulika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=15, 408–409}} Na mitundu yakukhwima, vyeni vya mitundu vingasangika nyengo zose. Mitundu yambura kukhwima yikucitika apo viyowoyero vikuzomerezga kusintha mtundu kwambura mulayizgi kulongosora. Para kusintha uku kukuzomerezgeka kanandi, vyeni vicoko vya mitundu ndivyo vingasangika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=303–304}} ==== Mitundu Yakumanyikwa ==== Viyowoyero vyakwamba kanandi vikaŵa na mitundu ya manambala pera, nga ni manambala ghakukwana na manambala gha cigaŵa. Viyowoyero vinandi vili na ukulu wakupambana wa manambala kuyana na ivyo mulayizgi wakukhumba. Kusunga nambala mu mtundu ucoko comene kukwiziska cheni ca kuzura.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=246–247}} Mitundu yinyake yakumanyikwa ni ya caunenesko panji cautesi, na ya malembo.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=249}} Mindandanda ni mtundu wa mauthenga umo, mu viyowoyero vinandi, vigaŵa vyose vikwenera kuŵa vya mtundu umoza na ukulu umoza. Viyowoyero vinyake vikuzomerezga vigaŵa vya mitundu yakupambana.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=260}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=250}} Malembo ghakulondezgana, ghakuchemeka ma''string'', ghangakhozgeka nga ni mindandanda ya malembo panji mtundu wawo.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=254}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=281–282}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=272–273}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=276–277}}{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=280}} Mitundu yinyake ni mindandanda yakufikirika na makiyi, malemba agho mauthenga ghakuthyika mazina, na vyakulongora malo gha vyakusungira.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=289–290}} Mtundu upepuka comene wakupangika na mulayizgi ni mndandanda wa vinthu vyakuthyika mazina, uwo ungakolerana na manambala.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=255}} Kufuma pakati pa ma 1980, viyowoyero vinandi vikukhozga so mitundu yakubisika, umo kalembero ka mauthenga na ntchito vikubisika ku mugwiliskiri ntchito, uyo wangafikira cisko cake pera.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=244–245}} Uwemi wake ni kugomezgeka kukulu, kusoŵa kusuzga, na kuzomerezga kusintha kawunjikiro ka mauthenga kwambura mugwiliskiri ntchito kusintha khodi yake.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=477}} ==== Mitundu Yakukhazikika na Yakusintha ==== Mu mitundu yakukhazikika, mitundu ya mazgo ghose yikumanyikwa pambere cilayizgo cindafiskike, kanandi apo cikung'anamulika.<ref name="typing"/> Viyowoyero vinandi vya mtundu uwu vikukhumba kuti mitundu ilongosoreke mwakulunjika. Mu viyowoyero vinyake, mitundu yikumanyikwa yekha kuyana na umo yikugwiliskirika ntchito. Suzgo la ici ni kuti vyeni vingaleka kusangika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=211}} Kumanya mitundu kose kwekha kukakoleranga na viyowoyero vya ndondomeko nga ni Haskell na ML.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Leivant |first=Daniel |date=1983 |title=Polymorphic type inference |conference=ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN symposium on Principles of programming languages |language=en |location=Austin, Texas |publisher=ACM Press |pages=88–98 |doi=10.1145/567067.567077 |isbn=978-0-89791-090-3|doi-access=free }}</ref> Mu mitundu yakusintha, mtundu ukukolerana na cinthu cakusungira yayi kweni na ico cikusungikamo pera. Cinthu cimoza cingagwiliskirika ntchito so pa mtundu unyake.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=212–213}} Nangauli ici cikupeleka wanangwa ku mulayizgi, cikucepeska kugomezgeka na nkhongono ya ciyowoyero kusanga vyeni.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=284–285}} === Kufiska Pamoza === Mu mirangura, malangulo ghanandi ghangafiskika pa nyengo yimoza. Viyowoyero vinandi vikukhozga kufiska pamoza pa malangulo na pa vilayizgo vicoko.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=576}} Pofika vyaka vya m'ma 2000, nkhongono zinyake za kupenda pa mirangura zikafumanga ku vigaŵa vinandi vya kupenda, ndipo ici cikukhumba ŵalayizgi kupanga vilwerovipepu ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vinandi pa nyengo yimoza.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=579}} Viyowoyero vyakuŵazgika nga ni Python na Ruby vikukhozga yayi kugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vinandi pa nyengo yimoza.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=585}} Viyowoyero vinyake vikukhozga kulongozga mauthenga agho ghakugaŵanika pakati pa minjololo ya ntchito.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=585–586}} === Kulongozga Vyeni === Viyowoyero vinandi vili na vigaŵa vya kulongozga vyeni, khodi iyo yikwamba para cheni cacitika apo cilayizgo cikugwira ntchito, ndipo yingacilongozga mu nthowa ziŵiri:{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=630, 634}} * Kumalizga: kuzimya na kupeleka ulongozgi ku ndondomeko ya mrangura. Nthowa iyi njipepuka comene. * Kulutilira: kulutilira cilayizgo pafupi na apo cheni cikacitikira. Ici cingiziska so cheni, kweni para khodi ya kulongozga yasintha vyakusungika kuti cheni cileke kuwerezgeka. Viyowoyero vinyake vikuzomerezga khodi kugwira ntchito kwambura kulaŵiska usange cheni cacitika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=635}} Pali kususkana pakati pa nkhongono ya kulongozga vyeni na luŵiro. Mwaciyelezgero, nangauli vyeni vya mindandanda nvinandi, C yikuvipima yayi pa cifukwa ca luŵiro. Viyowoyero vinyake vili na nthowa ya kujula na kujalira kulongozga vyeni. == Kanozgero na Kwendeska == Cimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene ivyo vyakhwaska kanozgero ka viyowoyero ni kazengero ka mirangura. Viyowoyero vya malangulo, mtundu uwo ukugwiliskirika ntchito comene, vikanozgeka kugwira makola ntchito pa kazengero ka von Neumann.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=18}} Mu kazengero aka, cigaŵa ca kusungira cikusunga mauthenga na malangulo, apo cigaŵa ca kupenda cili paŵekha, ndipo mauthenga ghakwenera kutumizgika kuluta na kuwelera. Vigaŵa vikulu mu viyowoyero ivi ni vyakusungira, kuŵikamo, na kuwerezga.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=19}} Viyowoyero vinandi vyapangika luphya, vyasinthika kuti vikolerane na vyakukhumbikwa viphya, na vyasazganika na vinyake. Vinandi vyaleka kugwiliskirika ntchito. Kupangika kwa viyowoyero mu ma 1950 kukafuma ku khumbo la kupanga ciyowoyero cimoza ca mirangura yose na ntchito zose.{{sfn|Nofre|Priestley|Alberts|2014|p=55}} Pakwamba pa ma 1960, ghanoghano ili likalekeka cifukwa ca vyakukhumbikwa vyakupambana vya ntchito zakupambana.{{sfn|Nofre|Priestley|Alberts|2014|p=60}} === Kusankha === Vimanyikwiro viwemi vya ciyowoyero ni kuŵazgika makola, kulembeka makola, na kugomezgeka. Vingacepeska mtengo wa kusambizga ŵalayizgi, nyengo ya kulemba na kusunga vilayizgo, mtengo wa kung'anamula khodi, na kusazgira luŵiro. Nangauli viyowoyero vyakwamba vikalaŵiskanga comene luŵiro kuluska kuŵazgika, kuŵazgika kwaŵa kwakuzirwa comene kufuma mu ma 1970. Kuŵa na nthowa zinandi za kufiska cakufumapo cimoza kungananga kuŵazgika, nga umo kukucitira kupeleka ng'anamulo linandi ku cimanyikwiro cimoza. Kuŵa na vigaŵa vicoko ivyo mulayizgi wakwenera kusambira, kalembero kakupulikiskika makola, na mazgo ghapadera ghakuwonekera nako kukovwira kuŵazgika. Kulembeka makola ni kupepuka kwa kulemba khodi kumazga suzgo. Pamoza na vimanyikwiro vyakovwira kuŵazgika, kubisa vigaŵa na kulongosora mwafupi nako kukovwira. Viyowoyero vyakwamba vikakolerananga comene na vigaŵa vya mrangura, kweni mu nyengo kubisa vigaŵa kwasazgikira, ndipo ŵalayizgi ŵangalongosora maghanoghano ghakutali na malangulo gha makina. Viyowoyero vinandi vikwiza na laibulale ya ndondomeko izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi. Kugomezgeka kukung'anamula kuti cilayizgo cikugwira ntchito nga umo calongosorekera mu vyakucitika vinandi.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=8}} Kupima mitundu, kulongozga vyeni, na kucepeska mazina ghanandi gha malo ghamoza gha vyakusungira vyose vingasazgira kugomezgeka.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=16–17}} Kanozgero ka viyowoyero kanandi kakukhumba kusankha.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=18, 23}} Mwaciyelezgero, vimanyikwiro vya kusazgira kugomezgeka kanandi vikucepeska luŵiro.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=23}} Kulongosora mwafupi na vimanyikwiro vinandi kukupepuska kulemba khodi kweni kukucepeska kuŵazgika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=23}} Kulayizga mu ciyowoyero ca ŵanthu kwasacizgika nga ni nthowa ya kuwuskapo khumbo la ciyowoyero capadera ca kulayizga. Kweni cilato ici cicali kutali ndipo uwemi wake uli na mphindano. Edsger W. Dijkstra wakati ciyowoyero cakunozgeka nchakukhumbikwa kuti cikanizge vyakulemba vyambura ng'anamulo.<ref>Dijkstra, Edsger W. [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html On the foolishness of "natural language programming."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120201526/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html |date=20 January 2008 }} EWD667.</ref> Alan Perlis nayo wakasuska ghanoghano ili.<ref>{{cite web|last=Perlis|first=Alan|url=http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html|title=Epigrams on Programming|work=SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9|date=September 1982|pages=7–13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117034445/http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html|archive-date=17 January 1999}}</ref> === Malongosoro === Malongosoro gha ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo ni malemba agho ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ciyowoyero na ŵakucendeska ŵangagwiliskira ntchito kuzomerezgana usange khodi njakwenelera mu ciyowoyero ico, na usange ni nthena, nkhalo yake yizamuŵa wuli. Malongosoro gha ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo ghangaŵa mu nthowa zinandi: * Ng'anamulo lakulunjika la kalembero, ng'anamulo lakukhazikika, na ng'anamulo la kufiska. Nangauli kalembero kanandi kakulongosoreka mwakunozgeka, ng'anamulo lingalembeka mu ciyowoyero ca ŵanthu (nga ni C) panji mwakunozgeka (nga ni Standard ML na Scheme). * Malongosoro gha nkhalo ya cakung'anamulira ca ciyowoyero (nga ni C++ na Fortran). * Ciyelezgero ca kwendeska, nyengo zinyake cakulembeka mu ciyowoyero cenecico (nga ni Prolog). === Kwendeska === Kwendeska ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo ni kusintha cilayizgo kuŵa khodi ya makina iyo vigaŵa vya mrangura vingafiska. Khodi ya makina pamanyuma yingafiskika na wovwiri wa ndondomeko ya mrangura.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=23–24}} Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ni cakung'anamulira, ico cikusintha khodi ya muzu kwizira mu ciyowoyero capakati kuŵa khodi ya makina. Para cilayizgo cang'anamulika, cikugwira ntchito luŵiro kuluska mu nthowa zinyake.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=25–27}} Vyakung'anamulira vinyake vingacepeska kagwiliskiro ka vyakusungira panji nkhongono, kweni vikusazgira nyengo ya kung'anamula.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=27}} Nthowa yinyake ni kwendeska cilayizgo na cakuŵazgira, ico cikusintha mzere uliwose kuŵa khodi ya makina pambere ukugwira ntchito. Nangauli ici cingapepuska kupenja vyeni, suzgo lake ni kuti cikugwira ntchito pacoko kanandi 10 mpaka 100 kuluska cilayizgo cakung'anamulika.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|p=28}} Nthowa zakusazganika zikupeleka uwemi unyake wa nthowa zose ziŵiri. Yimoza ni kung'anamula pa nyengo yeneyiyo, umo vilwerovipepu vikung'anamulika pambere kuŵa ciyowoyero capakati, ndipo pamanyuma kuŵa khodi ya makina pambere viyambe kugwira ntchito.{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=29–30}} == Viyowoyero vya Ŵaneco == Nangauli viyowoyero vinandi vyakumanyikwa vili na malongosoro na kwendeska kwakujulika, viyowoyero vinandi viliko nga ni viyowoyero vya ŵaneco, ivyo vikwendeskeka na kampani yimoza pera, iyo yingati ciyowoyero ici ni cuma ca maghanoghano cake. Viyowoyero ivi kanandi ni vya ntchito yapadera panji vya cinthu cimoza; vinyake vikugwiliskirika ntchito mukati mwa kampani pera, apo vinyake vikugwiliskirika ntchito na ŵanyake. Viyowoyero vinyake vili pakati pa vya ŵaneco na vyakujulika; mwaciyelezgero, Oracle yikuti yili na wanangwa pa vigaŵa vinyake vya Java, ndipo C# ya Microsoft, iyo yili na kwendeska kwakujulika kwa vigaŵa vinandi, yili na cigaŵa cinyake cakujalika.<ref>See: Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.{{User-generated source|date=June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/|title=Guide to Programming Languages {{!}} ComputerScience.org|work=ComputerScience.org|access-date=2018-05-13|language=en-US|archive-date=13 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513223729/https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/|url-status=live}}</ref> Viyowoyero vinandi vya ŵaneco vikugwiliskirika ntchito comene, nga ni MATLAB, VBScript, na Wolfram Language. Viyowoyero vinyake vingasintha kufuma ku kujalika kuya ku kujulika; mwaciyelezgero, Erlang pakwamba yikaŵa ciyowoyero ca mukati ca Ericsson.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html|title=The basics|date=2011-05-10|website=ibm.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-13|archive-date=14 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514064903/https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vyakujulika ni vyakovwira comene ku kasandiro kakujulika, cifukwa vikupepuska kuwerezga kusanda na kugaŵana khodi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abdelaziz |first1=Abdullah I. |last2=Hanson |first2=Kent A. |last3=Gaber |first3=Charles E. |last4=Lee |first4=Todd A. |date=2023 |title=Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial |journal=Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety |volume=33 |issue=3 |article-number=e5728 |doi=10.1002/pds.5728|doi-access=free |pmid=37984998 }}</ref> == Kagwiliskiro == Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo masauzandi vyapangika, comene mu cigaŵa ca mirangura. Ntchito za vilwerovipepu kanandi zikugwiliskira ntchito viyowoyero vinkhondi panji kujumpha. Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vikupambana na nthowa zinyake za kuyowoya kwa ŵanthu cifukwa vikukhumba kulunjika na kukwana kukulu. Para tikugwiliskira ntchito ciyowoyero ca ŵanthu kuyowoyerana na ŵanthu, ŵalembi na ŵayowoyi ŵangaŵa ŵambura kulunjika na kucita vyeni vicoko, ndipo ŵacali kulindilira kuti ivyo ŵakukhumba vipulikiskike. Kweni mirangura "yikucita ndendende ivyo yayowoyereka", ndipo yingapulikiska yayi khodi iyo mulayizgi wakakhumbanga kulemba. Ng'anamulo la ciyowoyero, cilayizgo, na ivyo vikunjizgika vikwenera kulongosora makola nkhalo yose ya cilayizgo para cikufiskika. Kweni maghanoghano gha ndondomeko ghangayowoyereka ku ŵanthu kwambura kulunjika uku mwa kugwiliskira ntchito khodi yautesi, iyo yikusazga ciyowoyero ca ŵanthu na khodi. Ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo cikupeleka nthowa yakunozgeka ya kulongosora mauthenga na ntchito izo zingacitika pa ghawo. Mulayizgi wakugwiliskira ntchito vyakubisa vigaŵa vya ciyowoyero kulongora maghanoghano gha kupenda. Maghanoghano agha ghakulongoreka nga ni kawunjikiro ka vigaŵa vipepuka comene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html|title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs|author=Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226050622/http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html|archive-date=26 February 2009}}</ref> Kulayizga ni nthowa iyo ŵalayizgi ŵakusazgira vigaŵa ivi kupanga vilayizgo viphya, panji kusintha ivyo viliko kuti vigwire ntchito ziphya. Vilayizgo vya mrangura vingafiskika kwambura kukwekana na ŵanthu, panji mugwiliskiri ntchito wangalemba malangulo mu cakuŵazgira. Para ciyowoyero cingafiska malangulo ghake kwizira mu cakuŵazgira kwambura kung'anamula, cikuchemeka ciyowoyero ca kulemba luŵiro. === Kupima Kagwiliskiro ka Viyowoyero === Kumanya ciyowoyero ico cikugwiliskirika ntchito comene nkhwakusuzga cifukwa ng'anamulo la kagwiliskiro likupambana. Ciyowoyero cimoza cingatora maora ghanandi gha ŵalayizgi, cinyake cingaŵa na mizere yinandi ya khodi, ndipo cinyake cingatora nyengo yinandi ya mrangura. Viyowoyero vinyake vikutemweka comene pa ntchito zinyake. Mwaciyelezgero, COBOL yicali yankhongono mu malo gha mauthenga gha makampani; Fortran mu kasandiro na kazengero ka vilwero; Ada mu ndege, mayendero, ŵankhondo, na vilwero vyapadera; na C mu vilwero vyapadera na ndondomeko za mirangura. Nthowa zakupambana za kupima kutemweka kwa viyowoyero zasacizgika, ndipo zose zili na kupendelera kwakupambana: * kupenda unandi wa malonda gha ntchito agho ghakuyowoya ciyowoyero * unandi wa mabuku ghakuguliskika agho ghakusambizga ciyowoyero * kupima unandi wa mizere ya khodi iyo yalembeka mu ciyowoyero * kupenda kuyowoyeka kwa zina la ciyowoyero pa intaneti Mwa kusazga mauthenga kufuma ku malo ghakupambana pa intaneti, stackify.com yikalongora viyowoyero khumi vyakutemweka comene: Java, C, C++, Python, C#, JavaScript, VB .NET, R, PHP, na MATLAB.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stackify.com/popular-programming-languages-2018/ |title=Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018 |publisher=stackify.com |date=2017-12-18 |access-date=2018-08-29 |archive-date=30 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830004924/https://stackify.com/popular-programming-languages-2018/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Zizima 2024, viyowoyero vinkhondi vya panthazi kuyana na TIOBE vikaŵa Python, C++, C, Java na C#.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/ | title=TIOBE Index | access-date=24 June 2024 }}</ref> Kuyana na ŵalembi ŵa IEEE Spectrum, viyowoyero vyakutemweka comene sono vingalutilira kuwusa cifukwa ca umo vinjeru vyakupangika vikugwilira ntchito. Ntheura viyowoyero viphya vizamusuzgika kutemweka.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/top-programming-languages-2025 | title=IEEE Spectrum | access-date=25 September 2025 }}</ref> == Mitundu Yicoko na Kwendeska == Mtundu ucoko wa ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo ni kusintha kucoko panji kusazgira kwa ciyowoyero uko kukusintha kawiro kake yayi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cordy |first=James R. |last2=Charles D. |first2=Halpern-Hamu |last3=Promislow |first3=Eric |date=1991 |title=TXL: A rapid prototyping system for programming language dialects |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0096055191900196 |journal=Computer Languages |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=97 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Pa viyowoyero nga ni Scheme na Forth, ŵakuvyendeska ŵangawona malango kuŵa ghambura kukwana, ntheura kanandi ŵakupambana nagho, kupanga mtundu ucoko uphya. Pa vinyake, mtundu ucoko ukupangika pa ntchito yapadera. Mu Lisp, viyowoyero vinandi ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito kalembero na ng'anamulo lakuyana na la Lisp vikuwonekera kuŵa mitundu yicoko ya Lisp. Pakuti ciyowoyero cimoza kanandi cili na mitundu yicoko yinandi, cingaŵa cakusuzga ku mulayizgi uyo wandasambire comene kusanga malongosoro ghakwenelera. Ciyowoyero ca BASIC cili na mitundu yicoko yinandi. == Kagaŵiro == Viyowoyero vya vilayizgo vingalongosoreka kuyana na kagaŵiro aka, nangauli nyengo zinyake magulu ghakusazganikana:{{sfn|Sebesta|2012|pp=22–23}} * '''Vya malangulo''': vikukhozga kulongosora ndondomeko nga ni malangulo ghakulondezgana. Viyowoyero vinandi vyakutemweka nvya mtundu uwu. * '''Vya ndondomeko''': vikukhozga kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko pa ivyo vyapelekeka. Nangauli ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakuvitemwa cifukwa ca kupepuka na uwemi wake, suzgo la luŵiro lavikanizga kuthandazgika comene. * '''Vya kughanaghana makola''': vyanozgeka mwakuti vilwerovipepu, kwambura kuŵa mulayizgi, ndivyo vikusankha kalondezgero ka kufiska malangulo. * '''Vya vinthu''': vikumanyikwa na kubisa mauthenga, kuhara, na kusankha ntchito apo cilayizgo cikugwira ntchito. Viyowoyero vinandi vyakutemweka vya malangulo na vinyake vya ndondomeko vikukhozga ici. * '''Vya kuŵika vimanyikwiro''': nangauli ni ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo cenecho yayi, cingakolerana na ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo. * '''Vyapadera''': pali viyowoyero vya ntchito zapadera ivyo vingayaniskika makola na vinyake yayi. == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === * {{cite book|last1=Abelson|first1=Harold|author-link1=Harold Abelson|last2=Sussman|first2=Gerald Jay|author-link2=Gerald Jay Sussman|title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs|url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html|edition=2nd|year=1996|publisher=MIT Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309173822/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html|archive-date=9 March 2018}} * {{cite book |last1=Gabbrielli |first1=Maurizio |last2=Martini |first2=Simone |title=Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms |date=2023 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-34144-1 |language=en|edition=2nd}} * {{cite journal |last1=Nofre |first1=David |last2=Priestley |first2=Mark |last3=Alberts |first3=Gerard |title=When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960 |journal=Technology and Culture |date=2014 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=40–75 |doi=10.1353/tech.2014.0031 |jstor=24468397 |pmid=24988794 |issn=0040-165X}} * {{cite book |last1=Sebesta |first1=Robert W. |title=Concepts of Programming Languages |date=2012 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0-13-139531-2 |edition=10 |language=en}} * {{cite book | last = Wilson | first = Leslie B. | title = Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition | publisher = Addison-Wesley | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-201-71012-9}} t3fck4xkmy9mphq93t1wn1ruqy0vb4s 0 47092 124388 123618 2026-11-10T20:18:19Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124388 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kupanga vilwerovipepu''' ni ndondomeko ya kunozga, kupanga, kuyezga, na kusunga [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]] kuti vifiske vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵakugwiliskira ntchito panji vilato vya malonda. Ndondomeko iyi njikulu kuluska kulemba vilayizgo pera, cifukwa yikusazgapo kughanaghana cilato, kupenda usange cingacitika, kupenda ivyo vikukhumbikwa, kunozga, kuyezga, na kufumya. Ndondomeko iyi ni cigaŵa ca kazengero ka vilwerovipepu, ako kakusazgapo so kulongozga wupu, kulongozga ntchito, kulongozga kanozgero ka vilwerovipepu, na vinyake.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=1}} Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukusazgapo luso linandi na ntchito zapadera, kusazgapo kulemba vilayizgo, kuyezga, kulemba malongosoro, kujambula, kovwira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, kuguliska, na kupenja ndalama. Vilwero vyakumanyikwa ni vyakung'anamulira, malo ghakulumikizgika gha kupangira vilwerovipepu (IDE), na kulaŵilira mitundu. Ndondomeko iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga yikupambana. Yingaŵa ndondomeko yakulembeka yakukhwima, panji yingasinthika kuyana na ntchito. Yingaŵa yakulondezgana, umo nyengo yikulu yiliyose (kunozga, kufiska, na kuyezga) yikumalizgika pambere yinyake yindambe, kweni nthowa ya kuwerezgawerezga, umo vigaŵa vicoko vikunozgeka, kufiskika, na kuyezgeka paŵekha, yingacepeska ngozi na ndalama ndipo yingasazgirapo uwemi. == Nthowa za Kupangira == [[File:Evolutionary prototyping model.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Cithuzi ca ndondomeko ya kupanga vilwerovipepu mwakulutilira kunozga cakwamba (''evolutionary prototyping''), iyo yikuwerezga masitepu{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=12}}]] Nthowa yiliyose iyo yilipo njiwemi comene pa mitundu yinyake ya ntchito, kuyana na vinthu vya luso, vya wupu, vya ntchito, na vya gulu.<ref>System Development Methodologies for Web-Enabled E-Business: A Customization Framework Linda V. Knight (DePaul University, USA), Theresa A. Steinbach (DePaul University, USA), and Vince Kellen (Blue Wolf, USA)</ref> Nthowa yipepuka comene ni "lemba na kunozga", iyo kanandi yikugwiliskirika ntchito na mulembi yumoza wa vilayizgo pa ntchito yicoko. Pamanyuma pa kughanaghana kanyengo kacoko cilato ca cilayizgo, mulembi wakulemba cilayizgo na kucendeska kuti wawone usange cikugwira ntchito. Para wamalizga, cakupangika cikufumyika. Nthowa iyi njiwemi pa viyelezgero vyakwamba, kweni yingagwiliskirika ntchito pa vilayizgo vyakusuzga yayi. Mu nthowa ya "mathuŵathuŵa" ya kufuma pacanya kuya pasi, kupenda usange cingacitika, kupenda, kunozga, kupanga, kuwoneseska uwemi, na kufiska vikucitika mwakulondezgana mu ndondomeko iyi. Nthowa iyi yikukhumba kuti mbondolo yimoza yimalizgike pambere yinyake yindambe, ndipo ici cikwiziska kuzerezgeka, ndipo kukuŵa kwambura kucitika kuwelera ku mbondolo za kumanyuma para pakukhumbikwa. Mu nthowa za kuwerezgawerezga, mbondolo izi zikusazganika kuti ntchito yisinthike makola, yicitike makola, na kuti ndondomeko ya nyengo yiŵe yaunenesko. M'malo mwa kumalizga ntchito yose pa nyengo yimoza, munthu wangalutilira mu mbondolo zinandi na cigaŵa cimoza pa nyengo. Kupanga kwa kuwerezgawerezga kukuzomerezga so ŵakupanga kwamba na vimanyikwiro vyakuzirwa comene, ndipo ivyo nvyakuzirwa comene yayi vingaleka pamanyuma para pakukhumbikwa. ''Agile'' ni nthowa yimoza yakumanyikwa, iyo pakwamba yikanozgekera ntchito zicoko panji za pakati, ndipo yikulaŵiska pa kupeleka ku ŵakupanga mazaza ghakulu pa vimanyikwiro ivyo ŵakugwilira ntchito kuti ngozi ya kujumpha nyengo panji ndalama yicepe. Nthowa izo zikufuma ku ''agile'' ni ''extreme programming'' na ''Scrum''. Kupanga vilwerovipepu vya khodi yakujura kanandi kukugwiliskira ntchito ''agile'' na kunozga, kulemba, na kuyezga pa nyengo yimoza, cifukwa kukuthemba mkwawo wakuthandazgika wa ŵakovwira mwa khumbo lawo. Kuluska ''agile'', makampani ghanyake ghakulumikizga ntchito za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na kupanga vilwerovipepu, ndipo ici cikuchemeka DevOps, panji DevSecOps para civikiliro ca mirangura casazgika. DevOps yikusazgapo kupanga kwambura kuleka, kuyezga, kusazgamo khodi yiphya mu ndondomeko ya kulaŵilira mitundu, kufumya khodi yiphya, na nyengo zinyake kupeleka khodi ku ŵakugula. Cilato ca kulumikizga uku ni kupeleka uteŵeti wa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga luŵiro na makola. Nthowa zinandi za kulemba vilayizgo zikulaŵiska so pa kuyezga kusanga masuzgo nga ni malo ghakupotoka na vibudi luŵiro comene (kuyezga kwa dankha), kuti ndalama za kuvisanga na kuvinozga zicepe.{{sfn|Winters|Manshreck|Wright |2020|p=17}} Mu 2009, kukughanaghanirika kuti magaŵa 32 pa 100 gha ntchito za vilwerovipepu ghakapelekeka pa nyengo yake, mu ndalama zakuŵikika, na ntchito zose. Magaŵa ghanyake 44 pa 100 ghakapelekeka, kweni ghakasoŵa cimanyikwiro cimoza panji kujumpha. Magaŵa 24 pa 100 ghakusyalako ghakawuskika pambere ghandafumyike.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=6}} == Umoyo wa Vilwerovipepu == Umoyo wa kupanga vilwerovipepu ukulongosora nyengo zakumanyikwa za ndondomeko ya kupanga vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|Saif|2019|pp=46–47}} === Kupenda Usange Cingacitika === Maghanoghano gha vilwerovipepu ghakufuma ku malo ghanandi. Ghangafuma ku kusanda msika, kusazgapo vimanyikwiro vya ŵakugula ŵaphya, ŵakugula ŵa sono, ŵanthu awo ŵakakana cakupangika, ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa kupanga vilwerovipepu, panji munthu wa kuwaro wavinjeru. Maghanoghano agha kanandi ghakupendeka dankha na ŵakuguliska usange ghangapeleka candulo, usange ghakukolerana na nthowa za kuguliskira izo zilipo, vyakufumapo pa vyakupangika ivyo vilipo, vimanyikwiro ivyo vikukhumbikwa, na usange ghakukolerana na vilato vya kuguliska vya kampani. Pa nyengo iyi, maghanoghano gha ndalama na nyengo ghakupendeka.{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=1.10}} Kupenda usange cingacitika kukughanaghanira candulo ca ntchito, ndalama za kupanga, na nyengo yake. Kuyana na kupenda uku, kampani yingasankha kuŵika ndalama pa kupanga.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=7}} Pamanyuma pa kusankha kupanga vilwerovipepu, kampani yikulaŵiska pa kupeleka cakupangika pa ndalama na nyengo izo zikaghanaghanirika panji pasi pake, na uwemi wapacanya (ndiko kuti kwambura vibudi) na ntchito izo zikukhumbikwa. Kweni ntchito zinandi za vilwerovipepu zikuzerezgeka, ndipo nyengo zinyake vimanyikwiro panji uwemi vikucepeskeka kuti nyengo yakuŵikika yifiskike.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|pp=3, 8}} === Kupenda === Kupenda vilwerovipepu kukwamba na kupenda vyakukhumbikwa kuti vyakukhumbikwa vya malonda vimanyikwe.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=8}} Masuzgo pa kusanga vyakukhumbikwa ni ghakuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵa sono panji ŵa munthazi ŵangaŵa na vyakukhumbikwa vyakupambana na vyambura kukolerana, ŵangapulikiska yayi vyakukhumbikwa vyawo, ndipo ŵangasintha vyakukhumbikwa vyawo mukati mwa kupanga vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=2–3}} Pakumalira, cakufumapo ca kupenda ni malongosoro ghakufikapo gha cakupangika agho ŵakupanga ŵangagwilira ntchito. Ŵapendi ŵa vilwerovipepu kanandi ŵakugaŵa ntchito mu vigaŵa vicoko, ivyo vingagwiliskirika ntchito so kuti ndalama zisungike na kuti ntchito yigomezgeke.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=8}} Kugaŵa ntchito kungazomerezga so kupanga vilwerovipepu ivyo vikugwira ntchito luŵiro comene pa mirangura ya vigaŵa vinandi vya kupendera.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|pp=193–194}} Pa nyengo ya kupenda na kunozga, kupenda kwandondomeko kanandi kukugwiliskirika ntchito kugaŵa vyakukhumbikwa vya wakugula mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakulemba vilayizgo ŵangafiska.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=103–104}} Vinjeru vya mukati vya cilayizgo vingalongoreka mu vithuzi vya kwenda kwa vyakumanyikwa, madikishonale gha vyakumanyikwa, khodi ya maghanoghano, vithuzi vya kusintha kwa umo vinthu viliri, na vithuzi vya ubale wa vinthu.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=117, 127, 131, 137, 141}} Usange ntchito yikusazgamo vilwerovipepu vya kale ivyo vyambura kulongosoreka, vingalongosoreka kuti vikolerane makola na vilwerovipepu viphya.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=106}} === Kunozga === Kunozga kukusazgapo kusankha umo vilwerovipepu vizamufiskikira, nga ni viyowoyero vya vilayizgo na vilwerovipepu vya kusungira vyakumanyikwa ivyo vizamugwiliskirika ntchito, panji umo vilwero na kuyowoyerana kwa mkwawo vizamunozgekera. Kunozga kungacitika mwakuwerezgawerezga, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakufumbika pa vyakukhumbikwa vyawo mu ndondomeko ya kuyezga na kubudika. Kunozga kanandi kukusazgapo ŵanthu ŵaluso pa vigaŵa nga ni kunozga malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa, kazengero ka sikilini, na kagwiliro ka ntchito ka maseva na vilwero vinyake.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=8}} Ŵakunozga kanandi ŵakuyezga kusanga vyakuyana mu ntchito ya vilwerovipepu kuti ŵapatule vigaŵa ivyo vingagwiliskirika ntchito so. Ciyelezgero ca ici ni ''model–view–controller'', nthowa ya kulumikizga mawonekero gha vithuzi na cigaŵa ca kumanyuma.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=142}} === Kulemba Vilayizgo === Cimanyikwiro cikulu ca kupanga vilwerovipepu ni kupanga na kupulikiska vilwerovipepu ivyo vikufiska ntchito iyo yikukhumbikwa.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=31}} Pali nthowa zinandi za kulemba khodi. Vilwerovipepu vyakukolerana makola vili na vigaŵa ivyo vikuthemberana yayi.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=8}} Kuthemberana ni kukolerana kwa vigaŵa vyakupambana vya vilwerovipepu, uko kukuwoneka kuŵa kuheni cifukwa kukusazgirapo kusuzga kwa kusunga.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=8–9}} Kanandi, ŵakulemba vilayizgo ŵakulondezga yayi nthowa ziwemi comene za mafakitale, ndipo ici cikwiziska khodi yambura kugwira ntchito makola, yakusuzga kupulikiska, panji yambura malongosoro gha ntchito yake.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|pp=31–32}} Vyakwenelera ivi vikuwa comene para nyengo yakumalizgira yili pafupi.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|pp=34–35}} Ntheura, kuyezga, kunozga vibudi, na kusintha khodi vikuŵa vyakusuzga comene. Kunozga so khodi ni nthowa ya kuzenga so khodi iyo yilipo kwambura kusintha umo yikucitira kuwaro, kanandi kuti kunozgeka kwake, kuŵazgika kwake, panji kusungika kwake kuwemeskeke.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Refactoring Home Page |url=http://refactoring.com/ |access-date=2026-05-11 |website=refactoring.com}}</ref> Kufuma apo viyowoyero vikulu vya vinjeru vyakupangika vikamanyikwira, kupanga vilwerovipepu kwa wovwiri wa vinjeru vyakupangika kwagwiliskirika ntchito kovwira ŵakulemba vilayizgo, mwa kupangiska vinjeru vyakupangika kulaŵilira malango gha ciyowoyero na kulemba khodi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/top-programming-languages-2025 |title=The Top Programming Languages 2025 |last=Cass |first=Stephen |date=Sep 23, 2025 |website=IEEE Spectrum |access-date=May 6, 2026}}</ref> === Kuyezga === [[File:CloverMar252011.png|thumb|Lipoti la umo kuyezga kwafikira vigaŵa vya khodi mu Clover]] Kuyezga ni ndondomeko ya kuwoneseska kuti khodi yikugwira ntchito makola kwambura mphuvi. Kunozga vibudi kukucitika na wakupanga waliyose pa khodi yake kuti wasimikizge kuti khodi yikucita ivyo yikwenera kucita. Comene, nchakuzirwa kuti vilwerovipepu vigwire ntchito pa vyakunjizgika vyose, nanga para cakufumapo ncambura kwenelera.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=9}} Kupenda khodi na ŵakupanga ŵanyake kanandi kukugwiliskirika ntchito kupenda khodi yiphya iyo yasazgika ku ntchito, ndipo kuyana na kughanaghanira kunyake kukucepeska comene vibudi ivyo vikusyalako pamanyuma pa kuyezga.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=272}} Para khodi yapelekeka, gulu la kuwoneseska uwemi, ilo mu makampani ghakulu ni cigaŵa capaŵekha ca ŵambura kuŵa ŵakulemba vilayizgo, likuyezga uwemi wa cakupangika cose. Kuyezga kungacitika so mu umoyo wose wa kupanga vilwerovipepu, kuyana na nthowa iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IEEE Standards Association |url=https://standards.ieee.org/ieee/29119-2/7498/ |access-date=2026-05-11 |website=IEEE Standards Association |language=en}}</ref> Mayeso gha kuzomerezga agho ghakufuma ku vyakukhumbikwa vyakwamba ni cilwero cakumanyikwa pa ici.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=9}} Kuyezga uwemi kanandi kukusazgapo so kuyezga kukhora pa nkhongono yikulu (usange vilwerovipepu vikukhora para vyakunjizgika panji kagwiliskiro ni vinandi), kuyezga kulumikizgika (kuwoneseska kuti vikukolerana makola na vilwerovipepu vinyake), na kuyezga kukolerana (kupima kagwiliro ka ntchito pa vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska panji vya kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti vyakupambana).{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=9}} Para mayeso ghalembeka pambere khodi yindalembeke, ici cikuchemeka kupanga kwakulongozgeka na mayeso.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=9}} === Kufumya === Kufumya ni nyengo iyo vilwerovipepu vikupelekeka ku wakugwiliskira ntchito.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=10}} Pa nyengo iyi, wakupanga wangapanga vyuma vya wovwiri wa luso ku ŵakugwiliskira ntchito panji ndondomeko ya kunozga vibudi na mphuvi izo zikasangika yayi kale. Pangaŵa so kuwelera ku nyengo za kumanyuma usange vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vyasintha panji vikapulikiskika makola yayi.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=37}}{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=10}}{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=10}} == Ŵantchito == [[File:Coding Shots Annual Plan high res-5.jpg|thumb|Wakulemba vilayizgo pa ntchito]] Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukucitika na ŵakupanga vilwerovipepu, kanandi ŵakugwilira ntchito mu gulu. Kuyowoyerana makola pakati pa ŵa mu gulu nkhwakuzirwa pa kufiska. Ici cikupepuka para gulu ndicoko, lazgowera kugwilira ntchito pamoza, ndipo lili pafupi.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=2}} Kuyowoyerana kukovwira so kusanga masuzgo luŵiro mu kupanga na kuleka kucita ntchito yimoza kaŵiri. Ntchito zinandi zikukanizga ngozi ya kutaya umanyi wakuzirwa uwo uli na mtantchito yumoza pera mwa kuwoneseska kuti ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵakumanya cigaŵa ciliconse.{{sfn|Winters|Manshreck|Wright |2020|pp=30–31}} Kupanga vilwerovipepu kukusazgapo ŵaluso ŵa vigaŵa vinandi, ŵakulemba vilayizgo pera yayi, kweniso ŵalongozgi ŵa cakupangika awo ŵakuŵika nthowa na ndondomeko ya cakupangika, ŵaluso pa kuyezga, kulemba malongosoro, kujambula, kovwira ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, kuguliska, na kupenja ndalama.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-21 |title=What Does a Product Manager Do? And How to Become One |url=https://www.coursera.org/articles/what-does-a-product-manager-do |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=Coursera |language=en}}</ref> Nangauli ŵantchito ŵa vilwerovipepu vya mwenecho pera ŵakulipirika, ŵanandi awo ŵakovwira pa vilwerovipepu vya khodi yakujura ŵakovwira mwa khumbo lawo.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=7}} Panji, ŵangalipirika na makampani agho malonda ghawo nga kuguliska vilwerovipepu yayi, kweni vinyake, nga ni uteŵeti na kusintha vilwerovipepu vya khodi yakujura.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|pp=14–15}} == Nthowa na Vilwero == === Kazengero ka Vilwerovipepu na Wovwiri wa Mrangura === Kazengero ka vilwerovipepu na wovwiri wa mrangura (CASE) ni vilwero vya kupangiska cigaŵa cinyake ca kupanga vilwerovipepu kucitika na makina.{{sfn|Langer|2016|p=22}} CASE yikuzomerezga ŵakunozga kujambula vinjeru vya cilayizgo, kwali ico cicali kulembeka panji ico cilipo kale, kuti cikolerane na khodi yiphya panji kuti cipendeke mwakuwelera kumanyuma (mwaciyelezgero, kusintha ciyowoyero ca vilayizgo).{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=108–110, 206}} === Malongosoro === Malongosoro ghali mu mitundu iŵiri iyo kanandi yikupatulika: yimoza ya ŵakupanga vilwerovipepu, na yinyake ya wakugwiliskira ntchito kuti yimovwire kugwiliskira ntchito vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=243}}{{sfn|Winters|Manshreck|Wright |2020|p=192}} Malongosoro ghanandi gha ŵakupanga ni malongosoro mu khodi pa fayilo yiliyose, gulu, na nthowa, agho ghakulongosora nthowa ya kulumikizgira na vilwerovipepu vinyake (API), kanandi na umo vyafiskikira.{{sfn|Winters|Manshreck|Wright |2020|pp=193–195}} Malongosoro agha ngakovwira ku ŵakupanga ŵaphya kuti ŵapulikiske ntchito para ŵakwamba kuyigwilira.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=143}} Mu kupanga kwa ''agile'', malongosoro kanandi ghakulembeka pa nyengo yimoza na khodi.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=144}} Malongosoro gha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kanandi ghakulembeka na ŵalembi ŵa luso.{{sfn|Winters|Manshreck|Wright |2020|p=204}} === Kughanaghanira Nkhongono ya Ntchito === Kughanaghanira makola nkhwakuzirwa pa nyengo ya kupenda usange cingacitika na pa kupeleka cakupangika pa nyengo yake na mu ndalama zakuŵikika. Ndondomeko ya kughanaghanira kanandi yikupelekeka na mulongozgi wa ntchito ku ŵanyake.{{sfn|Saif|2019|pp=50–51}} Cifukwa cakuti kughanaghanira nkhongono ya ntchito kukukolerana comene na ukulu wa cilwerocipepu cose, kukukhwaskika comene na kusazgamo vimanyikwiro mu vyakukhumbikwa: para vyakukhumbikwa ni vinandi, ndalama za kupanga nzinandi. Vinthu vyambura kukolerana na ntchito, nga ni luso la ŵakupanga na kugwiliskira ntchito so khodi, ngakuzirwa so pa kughanaghanira. Mu 2019, vilwero vinandi vya kughanaghanira nyengo na vyuma vya kupanga vilwerovipepu vikaŵa vyakunozgekera vilwerovipepu vya kale, ndipo vikugwira ntchito pa vilwerovipepu vya pa intaneti panji vya pa lamya yayi.{{sfn|Saif|2019|pp=52–53}}{{sfn|Saif|2019|p=45}} === Malo Ghakulumikizgika gha Kupangira === [[File:Anjuta-2.0.0-2.png|thumb|Anjuta, malo ghakulumikizgika gha kupangira vilwerovipepu (IDE) gha C na C++ mu GNOME]] Malo ghakulumikizgika gha kupangira (IDE) ghakovwira kupanga vilwerovipepu na vimanyikwiro vinandi kuluska cilwerocipepu cipepuka ca kulembera mazgo.{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=68}} IDE kanandi zili na kung'anamula kwa makina, kulongora mphuvi za malango gha ciyowoyero, wovwiri wa kunozga vibudi, kulumikizgika na kulaŵilira mitundu, na kupangiska mayeso kucitika na makina cigaŵa cinyake.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=236}}{{sfn|Dooley|2017|p=239}}{{sfn|Tucker |Morelli |de Silva |2011|p=68}} === Kulaŵilira Mitundu === Kulaŵilira mitundu ni nthowa yakumanyikwa ya kulongozga kusintha uko kukucitika pa vilwerovipepu. Para mtundu uphya wanjizgika, vilwerovipepu vikusunga mafayilo ghose agho ghasinthika. Usange ŵakulemba vilayizgo ŵanandi ŵakugwilira ntchito vilwerovipepu pa nyengo yimoza, vikulongozga kusazganya kusintha kwawo kwa khodi. Vilwerovipepu vikulongora apo pali kususkana pakati pa kusintha kuŵiri, ndipo vikuzomerezga ŵakulemba vilayizgo kumazga kususkana uku.{{sfn|Dooley|2017|pp=246–247}} === Nthowa ya Kulaŵiska === Nthowa ya kulaŵiska ni ndondomeko iyo yikupeleka nthowa za kulaŵiskira ndondomeko na malo ghake, kuti zigwiliskirike ntchito pa kupanga vilwerovipepu. Ni cithuzi ca ng'anamulo ya kulaŵiska. [[File:TEAF Matrix of Views and Perspectives.svg|thumb|Gome la TEAF la umo vinthu vikuwonekera kufuma ku mbali zakupambanapambana]] Cilato ca nthowa za kulaŵiskira ni kuzomerezga ŵazengi kupulikiska ndondomeko zakusuzga comene na kunozga vigaŵa vya suzgo kuyana na vigaŵa vya luso. Mu kazengero ka ndondomeko za vilwero vikulu, nthowa za kulaŵiskira kanandi zikukolerana na nkhongono na maudindo mu wupu wa kazengero. === Mayeso gha Kwenelera === Mayeso gha kwenelera ni mayeso gha makina ghambura kutora lwande agho ghakuwoneseska kuti vyakupangika viphya vikupatuka yayi ku vikanizgo, mapimo, na malongozgero agho ghaŵikika.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fundamentals of Software Architecture: An Engineering Approach |publisher=O'Reilly Media |year=2020 |isbn=978-1492043454}}</ref> == Cuma ca Maghanoghano == Cuma ca maghanoghano cingaŵa suzgo para ŵakupanga ŵakusazgamo khodi yakujura panji nyumba za vilayizgo mu cakupangika ca mwenecho pera, cifukwa vikalata vinandi vya wanangwa vya khodi yakujura vikukhumba kuti kusintha kufumyike pasi pa cikalata cakuyana. Panji, ŵakupanga ŵangasankha vilwerovipepu vinyake vya mwenecho pera panji kulemba cigaŵa cawo ca vilwerovipepu.{{sfn|Langer|2016|pp=44–45}} == Ukaboni == === Vilembo vifupi === {{reflist}} === Mabuku agho ghagwiliskirika === *{{Cite book |last=Conde |first=Dan |title=Software Product Management: Managing Software Development from Idea to Product to Marketing to Sales |publisher=Aspatore Books |year=2002 |isbn=1587622025}} *{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=A. M. |title=Just enough requirements management: Where software development meets marketing |publisher=Dorset House Publishing Company, Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=0932633641}} *{{Cite book |last=Dooley |first=John F. |title=Software Development, Design and Coding: With Patterns, Debugging, Unit Testing, and Refactoring |date=2017 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3153-1 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Kit |first=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/softwaretestingi00kite |title=Software Testing in The Real World |publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional |year=1992 |isbn=0201877562}} *{{Cite book |last=Hasted |first=Edward |title=Software That Sells: A Practical Guide to Developing and Marketing Your Software Project |publisher=Wiley Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=0764597833}} *{{Cite book |last=Hohmann |first=Luke |title=Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions |publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional |year=2003 |isbn=0201775948}} *{{Cite journal |last=Horch |first=John W. |date=March 1995 |title=Two Orientations On How To Work With Objects |journal=IEEE Software |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=117–118 |id={{ProQuest|215832531}}}} *{{Cite book |last=Langer |first=Arthur M. |title=Guide to Software Development: Designing and Managing the Life Cycle |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4471-6799-0 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Jim |url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofsoftwa00mcca |title=Dynamics of Software Development |publisher=Microsoft Press |year=1995 |isbn=1556158238}} *{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Joseph M. |title=Software industry accounting |date=2001 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=2nd |oclc=53863959}} *{{Cite book |last=Rittinghouse |first=John |title=Managing Software Deliverables: A Software Development Management Methodology |publisher=Digital Press |year=2003 |isbn=155558313X}} *{{Cite book |last=Saif |first=Syed Mohsin |title=Tools and Techniques for Software Development in Large Organizations: Emerging Research and Opportunities: Emerging Research and Opportunities |date=2019 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-7998-1865-6 |editor-last=Vishnu |editor-first=Pendyala |pages=45–97 |language=en |chapter=Software Effort Estimation for Successful Software Application Development}} *{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Allen |title=Software Development: An Open Source Approach |last2=Morelli |first2=Ralph |last3=de Silva |first3=Chamindra |date=2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-8460-7 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Vishnu |first=Pendyala |title=Tools and Techniques for Software Development in Large Organizations: Emerging Research and Opportunities: Emerging Research and Opportunities |date=2019 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-7998-1865-6 |editor-last=Vishnu |editor-first=Pendyala |pages=1–20 |language=en |chapter=Evolution of Integration, Build, Test, and Release Engineering Into DevOps and to DevSecOps}} *{{Cite book |last=Wiegers |first=Karl E. |title=More About Software Requirements: Thorny Issues and Practical Advice |publisher=Microsoft Press |year=2005 |isbn=0735622671}} *{{Cite book |last=Winters |first=Titus |title=Software Engineering at Google: Lessons Learned from Programming Over Time |last2=Manshreck |first2=Tom |last3=Wright |first3=Hyrum |date=2020 |publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4920-8276-7 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Wysocki |first=Robert K. |url=https://archive.org/details/effectivesoftwar0000wyso |title=Effective Software Project Management |publisher=Wiley |year=2006 |isbn=0764596365 |url-access=registration}} a25ml47a81v2zlpo3dnidqeagrjfa8j 0 47105 124364 123610 2026-11-10T14:19:02Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124364 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Windows_10_Calculator.png|thumb|Cilwerocipepu ca mlimo ca kupendera pa Windows 10.]] '''Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo''' ni [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]] ivyo vyapangika kuti ŵanthu ŵavigwiliskire ntchito pa milimo yawo, kweni pa kwendeska, kulongozga, panji kupanga vilayizgo vya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mrangura]] yayi. Vikusazgapo vilayizgo nga ni vya kulembera mazgo, vya kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti, vya kupulikira na kuwonera vithuzi, na vya pa lamya, ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito zuŵa na zuŵa. '''Cilwerocipepu ca mlimo''' (mu Cingelezi ''app'') ni cilayizgo ciliconse ico cingagaŵika mu gulu ili. "Cilwerocipepu ca mlimo" ni kagaŵiro ka maghanoghano, ako kanandi kakugwiliskirika ntchito kupambanyizga na vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura na vya kovwira. Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo ndivyo vikuŵa cigaŵa ca ndondomeko za mirangura ico ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakuwona, ndipo vyanozgeka kusandura nkhongono zakusuzga za ndondomeko kuŵa milimo yakulongozgeka na vilato. Kupambana na vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, ivyo vikulaŵiska pa kulongozga vilwero na vyuma vya mrangura, vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vikulaŵiska pa kulongosora masuzgo, kukolerana na ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, na milimo ya cigaŵa capadera. Lizgu lakufupikiska lakuti ''app'' likamanyikwa comene apo iOS App Store yikamba mu 2008, kung'anamula vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vya vilwero vyakunyamulika nga ni lamya za m'manja na mirangura ya tableti. Pamanyuma, apo Mac App Store yikamba mu 2010 na Windows Store mu 2011, likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pa vilwerovipepu vyose vya ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, kwambura kuwona mtundu wa mrangura. Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vingapelekeka pamoza na mrangura na vilwerovipepu vyake vya kwendeska, panji paŵekha. Vingaŵa vya mwenecho pera panji vya khodi yakujura. == Mazgo == === Ng'anamulo ya Cilayizgo na Vilwerovipepu === Para likugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni cakulongosora, lizgu lakuti ''application'' lingaŵa na ng'anamulo yikulu kuluska iyo yalongosoreka mu nkhani iyi. Mwaciyelezgero, maghanoghano nga ni ''application programming interface'' (API), seva ya vilwerovipepu vya mlimo, na vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vyakunyamulika vikung'anamula vilayizgo na vilwerovipepu vyose. === Kupambana kwa Vilwerovipepu vya Kwendeska na vya Mlimo === Kupambana pakati pa vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura na vya mlimo nkhwa maghanoghano, ndipo kwaŵa nkhani ya kususkana. Mwaciyelezgero, fumbo limoza likulu mu mulandu wa ''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'' likaŵa usange cilwerocipepu ca kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti ca Microsoft, Internet Explorer, cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Windows panji cilwerocipepu ca mlimo capaŵekha. Ciyelezgero cinyake ni kususkana pa zina la GNU/Linux, uko kukufuma cigaŵa cinyake ku kuleka kuzomerezgana pa ubale wa Linux na vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska ivyo vyazengeka pa iyo. Mu vilwero vinyake, nga ni vya kulaŵilira VCR, cakuseŵezgera DVD, panji uvuni wa maikulowevu, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵangapatula yayi vilwerovipepu vya mlimo na vya kwendeska. === Cilwerocipepu Cakupangiska Ŵanthu Kugula === Cilwerocipepu cakupangiska ŵanthu kugula (''killer app'', lizgu ilo likamba kumalira kwa ma 1980) ni cilwerocipepu ca mlimo ico cikutemweka comene mwakuti cikupangiska ŵanthu kukhumba comene vilwero ivyo cikugwilira ntchito. Mwaciyelezgero, VisiCalc cikaŵa cilwerocipepu cakwamba ca mazuŵa ghano ca kupendera mu matebulo pa Apple II, ndipo cikawovwira kuguliska mirangura ya ŵanthu paŵekha ku maofesi. Pa BlackBerry, cikaŵa cilwerocipepu ca imelo. === Gulu la Vilwerovipepu === Gulu la vilwerovipepu lili na vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka pamoza. Kanandi vili na ntchito, vimanyikwiro, na mawonekero ghakukolerana, ndipo vingakolerana, mwaciyelezgero kujura mafayilo gha vinyake. Vilwerovipepu vya malonda kanandi vikwiza mu magulu, nga ni Microsoft Office, LibreOffice, na iWork, agho ghakusazgapo cilwerocipepu ca kulembera mazgo, ca kupendera mu matebulo, na vinyake; kweni pali so magulu gha vilato vinyake, nga ni vithuzi panji sumu. == Nthowa za Kugaŵira == Cifukwa cakuti vilwerovipepu vya mlimo ni vinandi comene ndipo vimanyikwiro vyake vikupambana comene, pali nthowa zinandi za kuvigaŵa. === Kuyana na Dango === Vilwerovipepu vya mwenecho pera vikuvikilirika na wanangwa wa mwenecho pa ntchito yake, ndipo cikalata ca wanangwa ca vilwerovipepu cikupeleka wanangwa ucoko wa kuvigwiliskira ntchito. Vilwerovipepu ivi vingazomerezga vyakusazgirapo kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake. Vilwerovipepu vya wanangwa na khodi yakujura (FOSS) vingagwiliskirika ntchito, kuthandazgika, kuguliskika, na kukuzgika pa cilato ciliconse. Vilwerovipepu vya FOSS ivyo vyafumyika pasi pa cikalata ca wanangwa vingaŵa vya nyengo zose ndipo vyambura malipiro. Mwenecho wa wanangwa uliwose wangasazgapo vikanizgo, malire, panji mazuŵa gha kumalira ku malango gha kagwiliskiro. Vilwerovipepu vya ŵanthu wose ni mtundu wa FOSS uwo ulije malipiro, ndipo ungagwiliskirika ntchito, kuthandazgika, kusinthika, panji kupangira ntchito zinyake kwambura kuyowoya mwenecho. Vingaguliskika nanga, kweni kwambura kupeleka wanangwa wa ŵanthu wose ku munthu yumoza. === Kuyana na Malo Agho Vikugwilira Ntchito === Cilwerocipepu ca mlimo cingagaŵika kuyana na malo agho cikugwilira ntchito. Malo ghakumanyikwa ni vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura, cilwerocipepu ca kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti, maŵingu gha mirangura, na lamya za m'manja. Mwaciyelezgero, cilwerocipepu ca pa intaneti cikugwira ntchito mu cilwerocipepu ca kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti, apo cilwerocipepu ca kale cikugwira ntchito mukati mwa vilwerovipepu vya kwendeska mrangura. Pali kususkana kukulu usange vilwerovipepu vya pa intaneti vizamupoka malo gha vilwerovipepu vya mukati pa vilato vinandi, comene pa lamya za m'manja na mirangura ya tableti. Vilwerovipepu vya pa intaneti vyatemweka comene pa vilato vinyake, kweni vyawemi vya vilwerovipepu vya mukati vikupangiska kuti vingamala luŵiro yayi. Kweniso, vyose viŵiri vingawovwirana, nanga ni kulumikizgika. === Vyose Panji Vyapadera === Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vingawonekera kuŵa vya vilato vyose panji vyapadera. Vya vilato vyose vikutemweka comene cifukwa vingagwiliskirika ntchito pa vinthu vinandi, nga ni vya kulembera mazgo panji vya kusungira vyakumanyikwa. Vyapadera ni vya mtundu unyake wa mafakitale panji malonda, panji cigaŵa cinyake ca wupu. Magulu gha vilwerovipepu vyakulumikizgika ghakuyezga kulongozga cigaŵa ciliconse ca, mwaciyelezgero, kupanga vinthu panji ntchito za banki, kupenda ndalama, panji kuteŵetera ŵakugula. === Kuyana na Cilato === Pali mitundu yinandi ya vilwerovipepu vya mlimo: ; Vya wupu wose : Vikufiska vyakukhumbikwa vya ndondomeko na vyakumanyikwa vya wupu wose, mu vigaŵa vinandi, kanandi mu malo ghakulu ghakugaŵika. Viyelezgero ni vya kunozga vyuma vya wupu, vya kulongozga ubale na ŵakugula (CRM), na vya kulongozga katumizgiro ka katundu. Vilwerovipepu vya cigaŵa ni mtundu wa vya wupu wose uwo ukulaŵiska pa mawupu ghacoko panji magulu mukati mwa wupu ukulu. ; Vyakuzengera vya wupu : Vikupeleka nkhongono izo vilwerovipepu vya wupu vikukhumba. (Viyelezgero ni vya kusungira vyakumanyikwa, maseva gha imelo, na vya kulongozga mikwawo na civikiliro.) ; Uteŵeti wa malo gha kupangira vilwerovipepu (aPaaS) : Uteŵeti wa maŵingu gha mirangura uwo ukupeleka malo gha kupangira na kufumyira vilwerovipepu vya mlimo. ; Vya ŵantchito ŵa umanyi : Vikuzomerezga ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kupanga na kulongozga mauthenga. ; Vya kufikira vinthu : Vikugwiliskirika ntchito comene kuwona vinthu kwambura kuvisintha, kweni vingasazgapo vya kusintha. Vikufiska vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵanthu na magulu pa kuwona vyakusanguluska na vinthu vya digito. (Viyelezgero ni vya kuwonera na kupulikira, vya kuwonera malo gha pa intaneti, na vya wovwiri.) ; Vya masambiro : Vikukolerana na vya kufikira vinthu, kweni vili na vinthu panji vimanyikwiro vyakunozgekera ŵasambizgi panji ŵasambiri. Mwaciyelezgero, vingapeleka mayeso, kulaŵilira umo msambiri wakulutira panthazi, panji kuzomerezga kugwilira ntchito pamoza. ; Vya kuyezga vinthu : Vikuyezga ndondomeko za kawiro panji za maghanoghano pa kusanda, kusambira, panji kusanguluska. ; Vya kupanga vya kuwona na kupulika : Vikupanga vinthu vyakudinda na vya malekitironi kuti ŵanyake ŵaviwone, kanandi mu malonda panji masambiro. Vikusazgapo vya kujambulira, vya kudindira mabuku, vya kupanga vya kuwona na kupulika, vya kulembera HTML, vya kupanga vithuzi vyakwenda, na vya kupanga congo na vidiyo. ; Vya kazengero ka vilwero : Vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga vilwero na vilwerovipepu. Vikusazgapo vya kunozga na mrangura (CAD), vya kazengero ka vilwero na mrangura (CAE), vya kulemba na kung'anamula viyowoyero vya vilayizgo, na malo gha kupangira vilwerovipepu. ; Vya kusanguluska : Vikung'anamula maseŵero gha vidiyo, vithuzi vya pa sikilini, vilayizgo vya kuwonera mafilimu panji kupulika sumu, na vinyake vya kusanguluska ivyo vingacitika pa mrangura. l4gcjb2qgf611fznyaucdmmdnf2ux6j 0 47109 124365 123611 2026-11-10T14:19:05Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124365 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vya malonda''' ni [[Vilwerovipepu|vilwerovipepu]] viliconse panji vilayizgo vya [[Mrangura (Kompyuta)|mrangura]] ivyo ŵanthu ŵa malonda ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pa milimo yakupambanapambana ya malonda. Vilayizgo ivi vikugwiliskirika ntchito kuti visazgirepo vyakupangika, kupima vyakupangika, na kucita makola milimo yinyake ya malonda. == Kulaŵiska Kose == Vilwerovipepu vinandi vya malonda vikupangika kuti vifiske vyakukhumbikwa vya malonda yimoza, ntheura vingagwiliskirika ntchito luŵiro yayi pa malonda ghanyake, kupatula para kawiro na kagwiliro kake ka ntchito vikuyana. Cifukwa ca vyakukhumbikwa vyapadera vya malonda ghaliwose, vilwerovipepu vyakunozgeka kale vingafiska yayi vyakukhumbikwa vyose vya kampani. Kweni para vilwerovipepu vyakunozgeka kale vikukhumbikwa, cifukwa ca nyengo panji ndalama, kusintha kunyake kungakhumbikwa. Pali vyakupambana, kuyana na malonda agho, ndipo kusanda kwakukwana kukukhumbikwa nyengo zose pambere munthu wandasankhe vilwerovipepu vyakunozgekera iye panji vyakunozgeka kale. Vilwerovipepu vinyake vya malonda vikukolerana na ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, ndiko kuti vili na mawonekero gha vithuzi, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵangafumba, kusintha, panji kunjizga vyakumanyikwa na kuwona vyakufumapo luŵiro. Vingapanga so malipoti luŵiro. Vilwerovipepu vinyake vya malonda vikugwira ntchito mu magulu: vyanozgeka kuti vigwire ntchito kuyana na cakucitika panji nyengo yakuŵikika, ndipo munthu wa malonda wakukhumbikwa kuvyambiska panji kuvilaŵilira yayi. Vilwerovipepu vinyake vya malonda vikupangika mukati mwa kampani, apo vinyake vikugulika nga ni vyakunozgeka kale kufuma ku ŵaguliski. Vilwerovipepu ivi vikuŵikika pa mirangura ya pa thebulu panji pa maseva ghakulu. Pambere COBOL (cakung'anamulira ca caro cose) yindambe mu 1965, makampani ghakapanganga viyowoyero vyawo vya makina. Ciyowoyero ca RCA cikaŵa na malangulo gha malo 12. Mwaciyelezgero, kuti cikalata cinjire mu malo gha kusungira, manambala ghaŵiri ghakwamba ghakaŵa khodi ya lulangulo (cakucita). Malo ghanayi ghakulondezgapo gha lulangulo (adiresi ya 'A') ghakaŵa malo ghakumazere comene gha kusungira umo ukukhumba kuti cilembo cakwamba ciŵikike. Malo ghanayi (adiresi ya 'B') ghakalongoranga malo ghakumalyero comene gha kusungira umo ukukhumba kuti cilembo cakumalira ca cikalata ciŵikike. Adiresi ya 'B' ya manambala ghaŵiri yikuzomerezga so kusintha lulangulo luliwose. Makhodi gha malangulo na malo gha kusungira ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito 8 panji 9 yayi. Cilwerocipepu cakwamba ca malonda ca RCA cikagwiliskirika ntchito mu 1962 pa RCA 301 ya 4k. RCA 301, 501 ya pakati, na 601 yikulu vikamba kuguliskika kumwamba kwa 1960. Mu malonda muli ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵa mitundu yinandi, ndipo ŵangagaŵika mu magulu gha malonda ghacoko, gha pakati, na ghakulu: * Msika wa malonda ghacoko kanandi uli na vilwerovipepu vya kupendera ndalama za pa nyumba, na magulu gha vilwerovipepu vya wofesi nga ni LibreOffice, Microsoft Office, panji Google Workspace. * Malonda gha pakati (SME) ghali na vilwerovipepu vya mitundu yinandi, kufuma ku vya kupendera ndalama, vya kugwilira ntchito pamoza, vya kulongozga ubale na ŵakugula, vya kulongozga ŵantchito, vya ngongole, vya kugulira pa intaneti, na vinyake vya kusazgirapo vyakupangika. * Cigaŵa cakumalira cikusazgapo vilwerovipepu vya makampani ghakulu, nga ni vya kunozga vyuma vya wupu (ERP), kulongozga vinthu vya wupu (ECM), kulongozga ndondomeko za malonda (BPM), na kulongozga umoyo wa cakupangika. Vilwerovipepu ivi vili na vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo kanandi vikwiza na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikusazgapo ntchito panji kulumikizga ntchito za vilayizgo vya ŵanthu ŵanyake. Luso la vilwero ilo kale likaŵanga mu vilwerovipepu vya ŵakuyana pera, nga ni Kazaa na Napster, likamba kuwoneka mu vilwerovipepu vya malonda. == Mitundu ya Vilwero vya Malonda == * Vilwerovipepu vya wupu ukulu (ESA) * Kulongozga vyuma * Mapulani gha vimanyikwiro gha digito, agho ghakuchemekaso mapulani gha vinjeru vya malonda panji gha ŵalongozgi. Agha ni malongosoro gha vithuzi gha vyakumanyikwa vya malonda agho ghakulongora umo vinthu viliri pa kulaŵiska kamoza, kwizira mu vipimo na vimanyikwiro vikulu vya kagwiliro ka ntchito (KPI). Mapulani agha ni vilwero vyakutemweka comene ivyo vyawoneka mu vyaka vyakumanyuma ivi. * Kupenda vyakumanyikwa luŵiro (OLAP) – ni nkhongono ya ndondomeko zinyake za ulongozgi na za kovwira kusankha, izo zikuzomerezga kupenda vyakumanyikwa vinandi mu nthowa zinandi. * Vilwerovipepu vya malipoti vikupanga malongosoro ghakuwunjika gha vyakumanyikwa kuti ŵalongozgi ŵamanye umo malonda ghawo ghaliri. * Vilwerovipepu vya kugula ni vilwerovipepu vya malonda ivyo vikovwira kuti ntchito ya kugula ya wupu yicitike yekha. * Kufukula vyakumanyikwa ni kufumya mauthenga gha ŵakugula mu malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa mwa kugwiliskira ntchito vilwerovipepu ivyo vingasanga ndondomeko panji vyakulondezgana vyambura kumanyikwa kale mu vyakumanyikwa vinandi. Pali nthowa zinandi za kufukula vyakumanyikwa. Zinyake ni nthowa za maŵerengero na mikwawo ya mizirwe, izo ni nthowa zapacanya comene za kupenda vyakumanyikwa. * Kulongozga kagwiliro ka ntchito ka malonda (BPM) * Kulongozga ndondomeko za malonda (BPM) * Kulongozga ubale na ŵakugula (CRM), nga ni Yesware. * Vilwerovipepu vya kulongozga vikalata vyapangika kunozga na kulongozga vikalata vinandi vya mitundu yakupambana. Vinyake vili na ntchito za kusungira na kuvikilira mauthenga ghakuzirwa gha malonda. * Vilwerovipepu vya ndondomeko za ntchito za ŵantchito – vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga na kuthandazga ndondomeko za ntchito za ŵantchito, na kulaŵilira maora gha ntchito. * Vilwerovipepu vya kunozga vyuma vya wupu (ERP) – vikulumikizga ntchito zinandi za malonda, ndipo ndivyo ndondomeko ya kusungira vyakulembeka vya wupu. == Mbiri == Vilwerovipepu vya malonda vikunozgeka kuti visazgirepo candulo mwa kucepeska ndalama panji kufwasura ndondomeko ya kupanga. Mu mazuŵa ghakwamba gha kupangiska ntchito za maofesi kucitika na makina, mirangura yikulu yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pa ntchito zakutonthomeska comene, nga ni kupenda masheke gha banki na kupenda ndalama za mafakitale. Vilwerovipepu vya kupendera ndalama za mafakitale vikaŵa vimoza mwa vilwerovipepu vya malonda vyakwamba ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga ntchito comene, ndipo vikasazgangapo kulemba makola mabuku ghakulu gha ndalama, mabuku gha katundu, mabuku gha ndalama za kupangira, mabuku gha ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kupeleka, na mabuku gha ndalama izo kampani yikwenera kulipira (kusazgapo malipiro gha ŵantchito, inshuwalansi, na ndalama za ucekuru). Kugwiliskira ntchito kwakwamba kwa vilwerovipepu m'malo mwa ŵantchito ŵa maofesi kukaŵa kwa candulo comene, ndipo kukasintha comene ntchito za maofesi. Mrangura umoza nyengo zinandi ukapokanga malo gha ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa maofesi, kwambura kukhumba ndalama za uchanda panji za ucekuru. Pa ici, makampani ghakapempha IBM, Hewlett-Packard, na ŵapeleki ŵanyake ŵakwamba, vilwerovipepu vya malonda kuti vipoke malo gha thebulu la kale la kujambulira. Kujambula na mrangura pa kupanga vinthu na mrangura (CAD-CAM) kukiza kumwamba kwa ma 1980. Vilwerovipepu vya kulongozga ntchito vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene kumwamba kwa ma 1980 mwakuti cimoza cingadura madola 500,000. Kusintha kumoza kwakuwoneka comene mu vilwerovipepu vya malonda kukaŵa cilwerocipepu ca kulembera mazgo, ico kukura kwake luŵiro kukapangiska makina gha kulembera gha IBM kucepa mu ma 1980, apo makampani mamiliyoni ghakamba kugwiliskira ntchito Word Perfect, ndipo pamanyuma Microsoft Word. Vilayizgo vinyake vyakutemweka vya malonda vikaŵa vya kupendera mu matebulo nga ni Lotus 1-2-3, ndipo pamanyuma Microsoft Excel. Mu ma 1990, malonda ghakasinthira ku caro cose capasi, na kwiza kwa vilwerovipepu vya SAP, ivyo vikulongozga ŵapeleki ŵa katundu kuti kupanga mu mafakitale kucitike makola. Ndondomeko iyi yikafwasurika comene na kwiza kwa [[Intaneti|intaneti]]. Mbondolo yakulondezgapo mu kukura kwa vilwerovipepu vya malonda yikwendeskeka na kwiza kwa makina ghakujigwilira ntchito pa ndondomeko (RPA), ivyo vikusazgapo kusanga na kupangiska ntchito zakuwerezgawerezga kucitika na makina, kuti ntchito yicitike makola, ndalama zicepe, na kuti mphuvi za ŵanthu zicepe. Mafakitale agho ghali panthazi pa kugwiliskira ntchito RPA ni gha inshuwalansi, mabanki na uteŵeti unyake wa ndalama, gha malango, na gha uchanda wa moyo. == Wovwiri wa Vilwerovipepu == Vilwerovipepu vya malonda vikupangika kuyana na vyakukhumbikwa vya ŵanthu ŵa malonda. Kweniso vikupangika kuti vigwiliskire ntchito mitundu yinyake ya kugulana panji vyakumanyikwa. Vikugwira ntchito makola para palije vyakukhumbikwa viphya pa malonda panji kusintha mu kugulana. Kweniso vikugwira ntchito makola para palije masuzgo na vilwero vya mrangura, mikwawo ya mirangura, malo gha kusungira, magesi, na vigaŵa vinyake vya vilwerovipepu. Vilwerovipepu vya malonda vingatondeka para mphuvi yambura kughanaghanirika yacitika. Mphuvi iyi yingacitika cifukwa ca vyakumanyikwa ivyo vyanjizgika mwakubudika, mphuvi ya malo, mphuvi ya vilayizgo, mphuvi ya munthu, panji mphuvi ya ndondomeko ya ntchito. Para cilwerocipepu ca malonda catondeka, munthu wakwenera kunozga mphuvi iyi luŵiro kuti ŵanthu ŵa malonda ŵalutilire na ntchito yawo. Ntchito iyi ya kunozga mphuvi za vilwerovipepu vya malonda yikuchemeka wovwiri wa vilwerovipepu vya malonda. === Kuphalira Mphuvi === Munthu wa malonda wakuyimbira lamya gulu la wovwiri wa vilwerovipepu panji kutumizga imelo ku gulu ili. Gulu la wovwiri likusanga vyose vya mphuvi kufuma kwa munthu wa malonda pa lamya panji pa imelo. Ivi vikunjizgika mu cilwerocipepu ca kulaŵilira, ico cikupanga nambala ya pempho, ndipo nambala iyi yikupelekeka ku munthu wa malonda. Nambala iyi yikugwiliskirika ntchito kulaŵilira umo nkhani iyi yikulutira panthazi. Pempho likupelekeka ku munthu yumoza wa mu gulu la wovwiri. === Kumanyiska za Mphuvi === Pa mphuvi zikulu (nga ni cilwerocipepu ico cikusangika yayi panji cikugwira ntchito makola yayi), imelo yikutumizgika ku wupu wose panji ku magulu agho ghakhwaskika kuti ghamanye za suzgo ili. Ghakuphalirika so nyengo iyo cilwerocipepu cikughanaghanirika kuwelera. === Kupenduzga Mphuvi === Munthu wa mu gulu la wovwiri wakuwunjika mauthenga ghose agho ghakukhumbikwa pa mphuvi ya cilwerocipepu. Mauthenga agha ghakulembeka mu pempho la wovwiri. Vyakumanyikwa vyose ivyo munthu wa malonda wakagwiliskira ntchito vikugwiliskirika ntchito so pa kupenduzga. Cilayizgo cikupendeka kuti pasangike mphuvi zinyake za vilayizgo. === Kunozga Mphuvi === Usange mphuvi zakuyana zikacitikapo kale, mbondolo za kuzinozgera zikufumyika mu malo gha kusungira umanyi wa wovwiri, ndipo mphuvi yikunozgeka na mbondolo izo. Usange ni mphuvi yiphya, mbondolo ziphya zikupangika ndipo mphuvi yikunozgeka. Mbondolo ziphya izi zikulembeka mu malo gha kusungira umanyi kuti zizakagwiliskirike ntchito. Pa mphuvi zikulu (nga ni kutondeka kwa vyakuzengera panji kwa cilwerocipepu), kuyowoyerana pa lamya kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi kukwambika, ndipo ŵanthu na magulu ghose agho ghakukhumbikwa ghakunjira, na kugwilira ntchito pamoza kunozga mphuvi. === Kunozga Khodi === Usange mphuvi ya cilwerocipepu ca malonda yikafuma ku mphuvi za vilayizgo, pempho likupangika ku gulu la kupanga vilwerovipepu kuti linozge mphuvi izi. Usange munthu wa malonda wakukhumba vimanyikwiro panji ntchito ziphya mu cilwerocipepu, kupenda, kunozga, kulemba vilayizgo, kuyezga, na kufumya ivyo vikukhumbikwa vikunozgekera, ndipo mtundu uphya wa cilwerocipepu ukufumyika. === Kunozga Ndondomeko ya Malonda === Usange mphuvi yikafuma ku suzgo la ndondomeko ya ntchito panji ku mphuvi za ŵanthu pa kunjizga vyakumanyikwa, ŵanthu ŵa malonda ŵakuphalirika. Ŵanthu ŵa malonda pamanyuma ŵakupenda ndondomeko yawo ya ntchito na kuyisintha para pakukhumbikwa. Ŵakusintha so buku la malongozgero gha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito kuti mphuvi iyi yileke kuzakacitika so. === Kunozga Masuzgo gha Vyakuzengera === Usange mphuvi yikafuma ku masuzgo gha vyakuzengera, gulu la vyakuzengera ilo likukhwaskika likuphalirika. Gulu ili pamanyuma likunozga suzgo ili kwamuyirayira, ndipo likulaŵilira vyakuzengera kuti mphuvi yakuyana yileke kuwelera. == Kulondezgapo Wovwiri na Malipoti gha Mukati == Ndondomeko ya kulaŵilira mphuvi za vilwerovipepu vya malonda yikugwiliskirika ntchito kupenda masuzgo ghose nyengo na nyengo (zuŵa lililose, sabata yiliyose, na mwezi uliwose), ndipo malipoti ghakupangika kulaŵilira masuzgo agho ghanozgeka, agho ghakuwelerawelera, na agho ghacali kulindilira. Malipoti ghakupangika so ku ŵalongozgi ŵa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga kuti ŵawemeske na kulongozga vilwerovipepu vya malonda. jlu4lufwp0rl48z0czhixokv9bbmcsr 0 47765 124431 122671 2026-11-11T02:38:05Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mulara wa charu na boma la United States}} {{Hatnote group| {{For-multi|list ya mapulezidenti ŵa United States|List of presidents of the United States}} {{Other uses}} }} {{Pp-move}} {{Pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=March 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2022}} {{Infobox official post | post = Mulara | body = wa United States | insignia = Seal Of The President Of The United States Of America.svg | insigniasize = 145 | insigniacaption = [[Seal of the president of the United States|Chidindo cha pulezidenti]] | flag = Flag of the President of the United States of America.svg | flagsize = 145 | flagborder = yes | flagcaption = [[Flag of the president of the United States|Mbendera ya pulezidenti]] | image = Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025) (cropped)(2).jpg | incumbent = [[Donald Trump]] | incumbentsince = January 20, 2025 | department = {{plainlist| * [[Executive branch of the U.S. government]] * [[Executive Office of the President]] }} | style = {{plainlist| * [[President (government title)|Mulara wa boma]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1891/08/02/archives/how-to-address-the-president-he-is-not-your-excellency-or-your.html |agency=The Washington Star |title=How to Address the President; He Is Not Your Excellency or Your Honor, But Mr. President |date=August 2, 1891 |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |title=USGS Correspondence Handbook—Chapter 4 |date=July 18, 2007 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926000950/http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |archive-date=September 26, 2012 |access-date=November 15, 2012}}</ref> (mwakawiro) * [[The Honourable#United States|Mweneko]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |title=Models of Address and Salutation |publisher=[[International Trade Administration]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720073107/http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |archive-date=July 20, 2010 |access-date=September 4, 2010 }}</ref> (mwakuzirwika) * [[Excellency|Mwenekeso]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014351/http://www.un.int/protocol/documents/Hspmfm.pdf "Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs"], Protocol and Liaison Service, [[United Nations]]. Retrieved November 1, 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/01/remarks-president-obama-president-mubarak-his-majesty-king-abdullah-prim |title=Remarks by President Obama, President Mubarak, His Majesty King Abdullah, Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas Before Working Dinner |last=The White House Office of the Press Secretary |date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |via=White House |access-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref> (pa vyakukhwaskana na vyalo) }} | type = {{plainlist| * [[Head of state]] * [[Head of government]] * [[Commander-in-chief]] }} | abbreviation = POTUS | member_of = {{plainlist| * [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] * [[United States Domestic Policy Council|Domestic Policy Council]] * [[National Economic Council (United States)|National Economic Council]] * [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] }} | residence = [[White House]] | seat = [[Washington, D.C.]] | appointer = [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] panji kwizira mu kulondeka | termlength = Vyaka vinayi | termlength_qualified = ([[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|wakusazgikaso kamoza pera]]) | constituting_instrument = [[Constitution of the United States]] (1789) | succession = [[United States presidential line of succession|Mndandanda wa ŵakusazgapo]] | formation = {{start date and age|1789|3|4|p=1|br=1}}<ref name="formation">"The conventions of nine states having adopted the Constitution, Congress, in September or October, 1788, passed a resolution in conformity with the opinions expressed by the Convention and appointed the first Wednesday in March of the ensuing year as the day, and the then seat of Congress as the place, 'for commencing proceedings under the Constitution.' <p>"Both governments could not be understood to exist at the same time. The new government did not commence until the old government expired. It is apparent that the government did not commence on the Constitution's being ratified by the ninth state, for these ratifications were to be reported to Congress, whose continuing existence was recognized by the Convention, and who were requested to continue to exercise their powers for the purpose of bringing the new government into operation. In fact, Congress did continue to act as a government until it dissolved on the first of November by the successive disappearance of its members. It existed potentially until March 2, the day preceding that on which the members of the new Congress were directed to assemble." {{ussc|name=Owings v. Speed|link=supreme.justia.com|volume=18|page=420|pin=422|year=1820|reporter=Wheat|reporter-volume=5}}</p></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Pauline |title=Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 |url=https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul |date=2010 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86854-7 |location=New York, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul/page/433 433] |author-link=Pauline Maier}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics/ |title=March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history |date=March 4, 2013 |publisher=[[National Constitution Center]] |access-date=July 29, 2018 |archive-date=February 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224184927/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics |url-status=dead }}</ref> | first = [[George Washington]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-election-of-1789/ |title=Presidential Election of 1789 |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> | salary = $400,000 pa chaka{{efn|In addition to $100,000 in travel reimbursement, $19,000 for entertainment and $50,000 for additional expenses.<ref name="cnbc">{{Cite news |last=Elkins |first=Kathleen |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Here's the last time the president of the United States got a raise |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/16/how-much-the-president-on-the-united-states-gets-paid.html |access-date=October 22, 2025 |agency=[[CNBC]]}}</ref>}} | website = {{URL|https://www.whitehouse.gov/|whitehouse.gov}} }} {{Politics of the United States}} {{United States constitutional law}} The '''pulezidenti<!--"pulezidenti" is uncapitalized as per [[MOS:JOBTITLES]]. Specifically, it is uncapitalized because it is preceded by the modifier "the" (see [[MOS:JOBTITLES]] bullet 3 and table column 2 example 1)--> wa United States''' ('''POTUS'''){{efn|Lizgu lakuti POTUS likambira mu [[Phillips Code]], nthowa yakulemba mwakudumura iyo yikapangika mu 1879 na [[Walter P. Phillips]] kuti yithandizge kutumiza mwaluŵiro malipoti gha manyuzipepala kwizira pa telegraph.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Safire |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6ARDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA564 |title=Safire's Political Dictionary |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534061-7 |page=564}}</ref>}} ni [[head of state|mulongozgi wa charu]] na [[head of government|mulongozgi wa boma]] wa [[United States]]. Pulezidenti wakulongozga [[Federal government of the United States#Executive branch|nthambi yakulongozga]] ya [[Federal government of the United States|boma la federo]] ndipo ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulara mukuru]] wa [[United States Armed Forces]]. Nkhongono za upulezidenti zikasazgikira<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ford|first=Henry Jones|date=1908|title=The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power|journal=Proceedings of the American Political Science Association|volume=5|pages=53–63|doi=10.2307/3038511|jstor=3038511| issn=1520-8605}}</ref> kufuma apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakambira uteŵeti mu 1789.<ref name=formation /> Nangauli nkhongono za pulezidenti zikakwera na kuchepa nyengo na nyengo, upulezidenti wakhala na ntchito yikuru mu ndyali za America kufuma kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 20, ndipo vikulutilira mu vyaka vya m'ma 21 na kuŵa na kusazgikira kwa nkhongono mu maulamuliro gha [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=September 11, 2021 |title=How 9/11 Radically Expanded The Power of the U.S. Government |url=https://time.com/6096903/september-11-legal-history/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Peterson |first=Erin |title=Presidential Power Surges |url=https://hls.harvard.edu/today/presidential-power-surges/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |publisher=Harvard Law School}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 21, pulezidenti ni yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene mu ndyali pa charu chose ndipo ni mulongozgi wa [[superpower|charu chankhongono]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4657665/steve-bannon-donald-trump/|title=Is Steve Bannon the Second Most Powerful Man in the World?|last=Von Drehle|first=David|date=February 2, 2017|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/03/uselections2008.world|title=Who should be the world's most powerful person?|date=January 3, 2008|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/meacham-history-power-83117|title=Meacham: The History of Power|last=Meacham|first=Jon|date=December 20, 2008|magazine=[[Newsweek]]|access-date=September 4, 2010}}</ref> Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa charu icho chili na [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|chuma chikuru chomene pa GDP yakuyana waka]], pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zikuru za mu charu na zakuwaro, zakuchema kuti [[Hard power|nkhongono zakukhora]] na [[soft power|nkhongono zakuzika]]. Kwa nyengo yitali mu vyaka vya m'ma 20, chomenechomene mu nyengo ya [[Cold War]], pulezidenti wa United States kanandi wakachemekanga kuti "mulongozgi wa charu chaufulu".<ref name="freeworld">{{cite web |last1=Tierney |first1=Dominic |title=What Does It Mean That Trump Is 'Leader of the Free World'? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/01/trump-free-world-leader/514232/ |magazine=The Atlantic |date=January 24, 2017}}</ref> [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Ndime Yachiŵiri ya Dango la United States]] yikakhazikiska nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la federo ndipo yikapeleka nkhongono zakulongozga kwa pulezidenti. Nkhongono izi zikusazgapo kusazga na kukhazikiska malango gha federo na udindo wa kusankha ŵalara ŵa boma, ŵa vyakuyana na vyalo, ŵa maofesi gha malango, na ŵa makhoti. Kwizira mu ndondomeko za dango izo zikapeleka kwa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusankha na kupokelera ŵa kazembe na kupanga mapangano na vyaru vinyake, kweniso malango agho ghakazomerezgeka na Congress, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na udindo ukuru pa ndyali zakuwaro za United States. Udindo uwu ukusazgapo kulongozga gulu lankhondo lakudura chomene pa charu chose, ilo lili na [[List of states with nuclear weapons|vyankhondo vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene pa charu chachiŵiri]]. Pulezidenti wakuchitapo kanthu kukuru pa malango gha federo na ndondomeko za mu charu. Mu ndondomeko ya [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution|kupatukana kwa nkhongono]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 7: Bills|Ndime Yakwamba, Gawo 7]] la Dango likumupa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusaina panji [[Veto power in the United States|kukana]] malango gha federo. Pakuti mapulezidenti ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwoneka nga mbalongozgi ŵa vyipani vyawo vya ndyali, kupanga ndondomeko zikuru kukwenera chomene na ivyo vikuchitika pa visola vya pulezidenti, ndipo mapulezidenti ŵakuchitapo kanthu kulimbikiska ivyo ŵakukhumba mu ŵabali ŵa Congress awo kanandi ŵakuthemba pa pulezidenti pa nkhani za visola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfiffner |first=J. P. |year=1988 |title=The President's Legislative Agenda |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001002 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716288499001002 |s2cid=143985489 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu nyengo yasono, mapulezidenti ŵasazgirapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[executive order]]s, malango gha maofesi, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhwaskenge ndondomeko za mu charu. Pulezidenti wakusankhika kwizira mu [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] kuŵa na nyengo ya vyaka vinayi, pamoza na [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Kwizira mu [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]], uko kukazomerezgeka mu 1951, munthu uyo wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti maulendo ghaŵiri wangasankhikaso yayi kuŵa pulezidenti ulendo wachitatu. Kweniso, ma vice president 9 ŵakazgoka mapulezidenti chifukwa cha [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office|nyifwa ya pulezidenti mu nyengo ya uteŵeti]] panji [[Richard Nixon's resignation speech|kuleka ntchito]].{{efn|Ma vice president 9 awo ŵakatora udindo wa upulezidenti pamanyuma pa nyifwa panji kuleka ntchito kwa pulezidenti wakale ndipo ŵakamalizga nyengo yake ni: [[John Tyler]] (1841); [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850); [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865); [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881); [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901); [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923); [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945); [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963); na [[Gerald Ford]] (1974).}} Pakuŵa na wose, [[List of presidents of the United States|ŵanthu 45]] ŵateŵetera, panji ŵakuteŵetera sono, mu ma pulezidenti 47 kufika pa nyengo ya sono ya 60 ya vyaka vinayi.{{efn|[[Grover Cleveland]] wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri zambura kulondezgana, ndipo [[Donald Trump]] sono wakuteŵetera nyengo yake yachiŵiri yambura kulondezgana, ntheura waliyose wakupendeka kaŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/grover-cleveland-24/ |title=Grover Cleveland—24 |publisher=White House}}</ref>}} [[Donald Trump]] ndiyo ni pulezidenti wa 47 ndipo wakuteŵetera sono kufuma pa January 20, 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |last2=Price |first2=Michelle L. |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Colvin |first4=Jill |date=November 5, 2024 |title=Trump wins the White House in political comeback rooted in appeals to frustrated voters |url=https://apnews.com/article/election-day-trump-harris-white-house-83c8e246ab97f5b97be45cdc156af4e2 |access-date=November 6, 2024 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] }}</ref> == Mbiri na chitukuko == === Kwamba === Mu Julayi 1776, [[Thirteen Colonies|Makoloni Khumi na Ghatatu]], agho ghakimirika pa [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]] mu [[Philadelphia]], ghakazomera mwakukolerana [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa cha United States]] umo makoloni ghakajilengeka kuti ni [[sovereign state|vyaru vyakujiyimira vyekha]] ndipo kuti ghakaŵaso pasi pa muwuso wa [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]] yayi.<ref name="Milkis">{{Cite book |last1=Milkis |first1=Sidney M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkUvAAAAYAAJ |title=The American Presidency: Origins and Development |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael |publisher=CQ Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87289-336-8 |edition=5th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=1–25}}</ref> Kuzomera uku kukalembeka mu [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa]], icho chikalembeka chomene na [[Thomas Jefferson]] ndipo chikazomerezgeka mwakukolerana pa Julayi 4, 1776, na [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]]. Pakumanya kuti ŵakakhumbikwiranga kukolerana chomene pa nkhondo yawo yakulimbana na [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]],<ref name="Kelly">{{Cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Alfred H. |title=The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development |last2=Harbison |first2=Winfred A. |last3=Belz |first3=Herman |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-393-96056-3 |edition=7th |volume=I |location=New York |pages=76–81}}</ref> Kongiresi ya Kontinenti pa nyengo yimoza yikamba kulemba dango ilo likakoleranenge [[U.S. state|vyaru]] pamoza. Pakachitika kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali pa nkhani zinandi, kusazgapo kuyimirika na kuvota, kweniso nkhongono izo boma likuru likeneranga kuŵa nazo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204233742/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |title=Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |publisher=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 20, 2019 }}</ref> Kongiresi wakamalizga kulemba [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] kuti wakhazikiske [[Perpetual Union|umoza wa nyengo zose]] pakati pa vyaru mu Novembala 1777 ndipo wakatumizga kwa vyaru kuti vikazomerezge.<ref name=Milkis /> Pasi pa [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]], agho ghakaŵa na nkhongono kufuma pa Malichi 1, 1781, [[Congress of the Confederation|Kongiresi ya Kukolerana]] yikaŵa ulamuliro wa ndyali wa pakati kweni ukaŵavya nkhongono zakupanga malango. Ukakwananga kupanga fundo, vyeruzgo, na malango ghake, kweni ukatenge ungapanga malango yayi, kweniso ukatenge ungatozga misonkho yayi panji kukhazikiska malango gha malonda gha mu vyaru pa ŵanthu ŵake.<ref name=Kelly /> Ndondomeko iyi yikalongora umo ŵa America ŵakaghanaghaniranga kuti ndondomeko ya Britain ya [[The Crown|Korona]] na [[Parliament of Great Britain|Nyumba ya Malango]] yikwenera kuti yikagwiranga ntchito pakuyowoya za [[dominion|muwuso wa ufumu]]: wupu wakulongozga pa vinthu ivyo vikakhwaskanga ufumu wose.<ref name=Kelly /> Vyaru vikaŵa kuti vyafwatuka ku muwuso wa ufumu uliwose ndipo vikapeleka vinyake mwa [[royal prerogative|maufulu gha ufumu]] agho ghakaŵapo kale (mwachiyelezgero, kupanga nkhondo, kupokelera ŵakazembe, na vinyake) kwa Kongiresi; maufulu ghanyake ghakakhala mu maboma gha vyaru vyawo. Ŵabali ŵa Kongiresi ŵakasankha [[President of the Continental Congress|Pulezidenti wa United States mu Kongiresi Yakuwungana]] kuti walongozge madiskusoni ghawo nga ni munthu wambura kutemwera pa nkhani za [[discussion moderator|kulongozga kudumbiskana]]. Uwu ukaŵa udindo wakupambana chomene na wa pulezidenti wa United States uyo wakiza pamanyuma, chifukwa ukaŵa udindo wa mwambo pera kwambura nkhongono zakulongozga, kupatulapo kulongozga wupu wa nyumba ya malango.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmeEcpEvlsC |title=Founding the American Presidency |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1999 |isbn=0-8476-9499-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=1}}</ref> Mu 1783, [[Phangano la Paris (1783)|Phangano la Paris]] likakhazikiska wanangwa wa makoloni ghose ghakale. Pakuti mtende ukaŵapo, vyaru vikalazga kuyang'anira vinthu vyawo vya mukati.<ref name=Milkis /> Kufika mu 1786, ŵa America ŵakawona kuti mphaka zawo za ku kontinenti zikaŵa zakufoka ndipo zikuvutika, ndipo vyaru vyawo vikakumana na masuzgo gha chuma apo vyaru vya pafupi vikambanga kulimbana pa malonda. Ŵakawona [[hard currency|ndalama zakukhora]] zawo zikwenda ku misika ya ku vyaru vinyake kulipira vinthu vyakunjira mu charu, malonda ghawo mu [[Mediterranean Sea|Nyanja ya Mediterranean]] ghakakhwaskika na ŵa [[North Africa]] awo ŵakaba mu nyanja, ndipo ngongoli za nkhondo ya wanangwa izo zikapokera ndalama zakuwaro zikaleka kulipirika ndipo zikamba kusazgikira na chiwongolero.<ref name=Milkis /> Vyakusuzga vya wanthu na ndyali vikamba kuwoneka. Vinthu nga ni [[Newburgh Conspiracy|Chiŵembu cha Newburgh]] na [[Shays' Rebellion|Muvundiko wa Shays]] vikulongora kuti [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] zikatondeka kugwira ntchito, chomenechomene kuti pakaŵa pakukhumbikwa boma lankhongono la charu chose ilo likaŵenge na mulongozgi wa boma wakupika nkhongono. Pamanyuma pa kumazga mwakukolerana masuzgo gha malonda na somba pakati pa [[Virginia]] na Maryland pa [[Mount Vernon Conference|Ungano wa Mount Vernon]] mu 1785, Virginia wakachema kuti paŵe ungano wa malonda pakati pa vyaru vyose, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 1786 ku [[Annapolis, Maryland]], na chilato cha kumazga masuzgo ghakuru gha malonda pakati pa vyaru. Kweni [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Ungano ya Annapolis]] yikatondeka chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko awo ŵakiza chifukwa cha kukayikira kwa vyaru vinandi, ndipo [[Alexander Hamilton]] wa New York wakalongozga ŵimiliri ŵa Annapolis kuti ŵacheme ungano wakusintha Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana, uwo ukeneranga kuchitika chaka chakulondezgapo ku [[Philadelphia]]. Ivyo vingachitika pa ungano uwu vikawoneka kuti ni vichoko mpaka apo [[James Madison]] na [[Edmund Randolph]] ŵakafiska kusanga kuti [[George Washington]] wize ku Philadelphia nga ni muyimiliri wa Virginia.<ref name=Milkis /><ref name="Beeman">{{Cite book |last=Beeman |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem |title=Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution |publisher=Random House |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8129-7684-7 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Apo [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Ungano wa Dango la United States]] ukakumana mu Meyi 1787, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru 12 awo ŵakiza ([[Rhode Island]] yikatuma yayi ŵimiliri) ŵakiza na ivyo ŵakasambira mu ndondomeko zakupambana za maboma gha vyaru vyawo pa nkhani ya nthambi zakupanga malango na zakulongozga. Vyaru vinandi vikaŵa na mulongozgi wakufoka wambura nkhongono zakukana malango panji kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga chaka chilichose na nyumba ya malango ku nyengo yimoza pera, wakagawana nkhongono na wupu wa ulongozgi, ndipo wakasangana na nyumba ya malango yankhongono.<ref name=Milkis /> [[New York (state)|New York]] ndiyo yikaŵa yapadera chomene, chifukwa yikaŵa na kazembe wankhongono yumoza uyo wakaŵa na nkhongono zakukana malango na kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga vyaka vitatu ndipo wangasankhikaso maulendo ghanandi.<ref name=Milkis /> Kwizira mu kudumbiskana kwakubisika ku Philadelphia ndiko udindo wa upulezidenti uwo uli mu [[Constitution of the United States|Dango la United States]] ukapangika. === 1789–1933 === [[File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States]] Nga ni pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu, [[George Washington]] wakakhazikiska maluso ghanandi agho ghakazakaŵa chilangilo cha udindo uwu.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|title=George Washington: Life in Brief|last=Steven|first=Knott|date=October 4, 2016|work=Miller Center|access-date=September 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001103/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|archive-date=February 5, 2018|url-status=live|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stockwell |first1=Mary |title=Presidential Precedents |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-precedents/ |publisher=Mount Vernon, Washington Library, Center for Digital History |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Kusankha kwake kusiya ntchito pamanyuma pa nyengo ziŵiri kukawovwira kumazga wofi wakuti charu chingazakasanduka ufumu ndipo kukakhazikiska chiyerezgero icho chikaphyokeka yayi mpaka mu 1940 ndipo pamanyuma chikazakaŵa chakukhazikika kwizira mu [[Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri kwa Dango la United States|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]]. Kuumaliro wa upulezidenti wake, vipani vya ndyali vikaŵa kuti vyamba kuŵapo,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Feeling |first1=John |title=How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History |url=https://time.com/4210440/jefferson-hamilton-excerpt/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> ndipo [[John Adams]] wakathereska [[Thomas Jefferson]] mu 1796, visola vyakwamba vya pulezidenti ivyo vikapikisana chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC staff |title=On This Day: The first bitter, contested presidential election takes place |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-first-bitter-contested-presidential-election-takes-place |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=November 4, 2019}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti Jefferson wathereska Adams mu 1800, iyo pamoza na [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]] ŵaliyose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakalamulira chomene ndyali za charu mu [[Nyengo ya Makhaliro Ghawemi]] mpaka mwana wa Adams [[John Quincy Adams]] wakathereska visola mu 1824 pamanyuma pa kupatulika kwa [[Chipani cha Democratic-Republican]]. Kusankhika kwa [[Andrew Jackson]] mu 1828 kukaŵa kakwamba munthu wakufuma kuwaro kwa ŵakulongozga ŵa Virginia na Massachusetts kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti, vyaka 40 pamanyuma pakuti Washington wasankhika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Demokilase ya Jackson|Demokilase ya Jackson]] yikakhumbanga kukhozga nkhongono za upulezidenti pa mtengo wa Congress, uku yikukuzga kutora nawo mbali kwa ŵanthu apo charu chikakuranga mwaluŵiro kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kweni uyo wakiza mu malo ghake, [[Martin Van Buren]], wakaleka kutemweka pamanyuma pa [[Chiwawa cha 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> ndipo nyifwa ya [[William Henry Harrison]] na ubwezi uheni pakati pa [[John Tyler]] na Congress vikapangiska kuti udindo uwu uŵe wakufoka chomene.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Pamoza na Van Buren, mu vyaka 24 pakati pa 1837 na 1861, ma nyengo 6 gha upulezidenti ghakazuzgika na ŵanalume 8 ŵakupambana, ndipo palije uyo wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> Senate yikaŵa na ntchito yikuru mu nyengo iyi, apo [[Wupu Ukulu Watatu]] wa [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], na [[John C. Calhoun]] ukaŵa na ntchito yikuru pakupanga ndondomeko za charu mu ma 1830 na ma 1840, mpaka apo kudumbiskana pa nkhani ya wuzga kukamba kupatulanya charu mu ma 1850.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> Ulongozgi wa [[Abraham Lincoln]] mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America|Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America]] wapangiska ŵakulemba mbiri kumuwona nga ni yumoza wa mapulezidenti ŵakuru chomene ŵa charu.{{efn|Pafupifupi ŵakusambira mbiri wose ŵakumuyika Lincoln mu mapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵakwamba ŵa charu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakumuyika pa malo ghakwamba. Wonani [[Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri|Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri]] kuti muwone ivyo kafukufuku wakulongora.}} Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pa nkhondo na kuwusa kwa Republican mu Congress vikapangiska udindo uwu kuŵa wankhongono chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> Kusankhikaso kwa Lincoln mu 1864 kukaŵa kakwamba pulezidenti kusankhikaso kufuma apo Jackson wakachitira mu 1832. Pamanyuma pa kuphedwa kwa Lincoln, uyo wakiza mu malo ghake [[Andrew Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro chose cha ndyali<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakakhala pafupi kufumiskika pa udindo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> Congress yikalutilira kuŵa yankhongono mu nyengo ziŵiri za upulezidenti wa mulongozgi wa nkhondo ya Civil War [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Pamanyuma pa kumara kwa [[Nyengo ya Kuzengaso|Nyengo ya Kuzengaso]], [[Grover Cleveland]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Democrat kusankhika kufuma pambere pa nkhondo, wakaluta ku visola vitatu vyakulondezgana (1884, 1888, 1892) ndipo wakathereska kaŵiri. Mu 1900, [[William McKinley]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakaŵapo pa udindo kusankhikaso kufuma apo Grant wakachitira mu 1872. Pamanyuma pa [[Kuphedwa kwa William McKinley|kuphedwa]] kwa McKinley na [[Leon Czolgosz]] mu 1901, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu ndyali za America.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=The Debate Over Executive Orders Began With Teddy Roosevelt's Mad Passion for Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-theodore-roosevelts-executive-orders-reshaped-countryand-presidency-180962908/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine (website) |date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> Ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakugomezga kuti Roosevelt wakasintha mwakukhalapo ndondomeko ya ndyali chifukwa cha kukhozga udindo wa upulezidenti,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Posner |first1=Eric |title=The inevitability of the imperial presidency |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/political-bookworm/post/the-inevitability-of-the-imperial-presidency/2011/04/22/AFTRBoPE_blog.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 22, 2011}}</ref> ndipo vinthu vinyake ivyo wakachita vikuphatikizapo kumazga ma wupu ghakuru gha malonda, kusungilira chilengedwe, kusintha kwa ntchito, kupanga mikhaliro ya munthu kuŵa yakuzirwa nga ni nkhani za ndondomeko, na kusankha yekha uyo wakeneranga kulondezga, [[William Howard Taft]]. Mu ma 1910, [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakalongozga charu ku chigonjetso mu [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose]], kweni fundo ya Wilson ya kukhazikiska [[Wupu wa Mitundu|Wupu wa Mitundu]] yikakanika na Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Senate rejects League of Nations, Nov. 19, 2019 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/senate-rejects-league-of-nations-nov-19-1919-113006 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=November 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Warren Harding]], nangauli wakatemwikwanga apo wakaŵa pa udindo, mbiri yake yikafipiskika chifukwa cha vinyake vyakuchita uheni, chomenechomene [[Teapot Dome scandal|Wubishi wa Teapot Dome]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robenalt |first1=James |title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> ndipo [[Herbert Hoover]] wakaleka kutemweka luŵiro pamanyuma pakutondeka kumazga [[Soka Likuru la Chuma|Soka Likuru la Chuma]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Richard Norton |last2=Walch |first2=Timothy |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |journal=Prologue Magazine |date=Summer 2004 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> === Upulezidenti wa Ufumu === {{Main|Upulezidenti wa Ufumu}} [[File:Franklin D Roosevelt - radio broadcast.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakuyowoya pa wayilesi mu 1933.]] Kukwera kwa [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] mu 1933 kukalutilira kulazga ku ivyo wakulemba mbiri [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] wakachema kuti ni [[Upulezidenti wa Ufumu|upulezidenti wa ufumu]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl|title=The Imperial Presidency|last=Schlesinger| first=Arthur M. Jr. |date=1973|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|others=Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana (Mississippi State University. Libraries)|isbn=0-395-17713-8|location=Boston|pages=x|oclc=704887|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|url-access=registration}}</ref> Chifukwa cha chovwiro cha ma Republican ghanandi mu Congress na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha kukuru, [[New Deal|Ndondomeko Yiphya]] ya Roosevelt yikakura chomene ukuru na mulimo wa boma la pakati, kusazgapo ma wupu ghakulongozga ghanandi.<ref name=JohnYooFDR>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=John |title=Franklin Roosevelt and Presidential Power |journal=Chapman Law Review |date=February 14, 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=205 |ssrn=3123894 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3123894}}</ref>{{rp|211–12}} Ŵantchito awo ŵakateŵeteranga pulezidenti, awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵachoko, ŵakasazgikira chomene, ndipo [[Ofesi Yikuluwakuru ya Pulezidenti|Ofesi Yikuru ya Pulezidenti]] yikakhazikiskika mu 1939, ndipo palije yumoza wa ŵantchito aŵa wakakhumbikwiranga kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|229–231}} Kusankhikaso kwa Roosevelt mwakupambana na kale ku nyengo yachitatu na yachinayi, chigonjetso cha United States mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], na kukura kwa chuma cha charu vyose vikawovwira kukhazikiska udindo uwu kuŵa wa ulongozgi wa charu chose.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|269}} Awo ŵakamulondezga, [[Harry S. Truman]] na [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], waliyose wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri apo [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]] yikapangiska kuti upulezidenti uwoneke nga ni "[[mulongozgi wa charu chafwatuka|mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]",<ref name="freeworld" /> apo [[John F. Kennedy]] wakaŵa mulongozgi muwukirano kweniso wakatemweka uyo wakapokera chandulo kufuma ku kukura kwa TV mu ma 1960.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eschner |first1=Kat |title=A Year Before His Presidential Debate, JFK Foresaw How TV Would Change Politics |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-jfk-had-say-about-tv-politics-180967172/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 14, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Ron |title=See How JFK Created a Presidency for the Television Age |url=https://time.com/4795637/jfk-television/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=May 29, 2017}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro cha ŵanthu chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo ya ku Vietnam|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]] ndipo upulezidenti wa [[Richard Nixon]] ukamara mu [[Wubishi wa Watergate|wubishi wa Watergate]], Congress yikakhazikiska masinthiro ghanandi agho ghakakhumbanga kuti yijikhazikiske panthazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallach |first1=Philip |title=When Congress won the American people's respect: Watergate |url=https://www.legbranch.org/2018-4-25-when-congress-won-the-american-peoples-respect-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=LegBranch.org |date=April 26, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Sam |last2=Tausanovitch |first2=Alex |title=Lessons From Watergate |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2018/07/30/454058/lessons-from-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Center for American Progress |date=July 30, 2018}}</ref> Ivyo vikasazgapo [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mphamvu za Nkhondo]], ilo likapangika kuŵa dango nangauli Nixon wakaliveta mu 1973,<ref>{{USStat|87|555}}, 559–560.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Madden |first1=Richard |title=House and Senate Override Veto by Nixon on Curb of War Powers; Backers of Bill Win 3-Year Fight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/08/archives/house-and-senate-override-veto-by-nixon-on-curb-of-war-powers.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 8, 1973}}</ref> ndiposo [[Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974|Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974]], ilo likakhumbanga kukhozga mazaza gha Congress pa nkhani za ndalama.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Budget and Impoundment Control Act becomes law, July 12, 1974 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/07/12/budget-and-impoundment-control-act-becomes-law-july-12-1974-240372 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=July 12, 2017}}</ref> Mu 1976, [[Gerald Ford]] wakazomerezga kuti "pendulum ya mbiri" yikasintha kulazga ku Congress, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la "kuswa" luso lake la kulamulira.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shabecoff |first1=Philip |title=Presidency Is Found Weaker Under Ford |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/28/archives/presidency-is-found-weaker-under-ford-curbs-on-exerting-power-seen.html |access-date=September 9, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 28, 1976}}</ref> Ford wakatondeka kusankhikaso kuti watemwere nyengo yakukwana ndipo uyo wakamulondezga, [[Jimmy Carter]], nayo wakatondeka kusankhikaso. [[Ronald Reagan]], uyo wakaŵa wakuseŵera mafilimu pambere wandambe mulimo wake wa ndyali, wakagwiliskira ntchito luso lake la kuyowoya kuti wawovwire kusintha ndondomeko ya America kufuma ku ndondomeko za New Deal kulazga ku fundo za ndyali za kusungilira miyambo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Lee |title=What Made Reagan a Truly Great Communicator |url=https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615012306/https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |url-status=unfit |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |date=February 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brands |first1=H. W. |title=What Reagan Learned from FDR |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159389 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=History News Network}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], United States yikazgoka charu chakulongozga chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Theodore |title=America's First Post-Cold War President |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=Fall 1992 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2307/20045307 |jstor=20045307 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1992-09-01/americas-first-post-cold-war-president|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Bill Clinton]], [[George W. Bush]], na [[Barack Obama]] wose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri nga ni mapulezidenti. Pa nyengo iyi, charu chikamba kuŵa chakugaŵikana chomene pa ndyali, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵabali ŵa Congress awo ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana chomene ŵakure, chomenechomene pamanyuma pa [[Chisankho cha pakati pa nyengo cha United States cha 1994|visola vya pakati pa nyengo vya 1994]] ivyo vikawona ma Republican ghapoka mazaza mu Nyumba yakuwungana kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vyaka 40, kweniso kukura kwa kugwiliskira ntchito mwakawiro [[Filibuster mu Senate ya United States|filibuster]] mu Senate.<ref>Barber, Michael; McCarty, Nolan (2013), [https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf Causes and Consequences of Polarization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf |date=January 14, 2021 }}, American Political Science Association Task Force on Negotiating Agreement in Politics report, at 19–20, 37–38.</ref> Ntheura izi, mapulezidenti ŵasono ŵakulutilira kugomezga chomene pa [[Executive order|malango gha pulezidenti]], ndondomeko za ma wupu, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhazikiske ndondomeko zikuru, m'malo mwa malango ghakupangika na Congress kweniso mazaza gha Congress.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |title=The Letter of the Law: Administrative Discretion and Obama's Domestic Unilateralism |journal=The Forum |date=April 1, 2014 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=29–59 |doi=10.1515/for-2014-0023 |s2cid=145237493 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Visola vya upulezidenti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyalongora kulutilira kwa kugaŵikana uku, chifukwa palije munthu uyo wakapambana na mavoti gha ŵanthu na mphambano yakuluska pa 5 peresenti, kupatulapo Obama mu 2008, ndipo ŵaŵiri, George W. Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2000|2000]]) na [[Donald Trump]] ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|2016]]), ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweni ŵakataya mavoti gha ŵanthu.<ref>{{efn|Wonani [[Mndandanda wa visola vya pulezidenti vya United States mwakuyana na mphambano ya mavoti gha ŵanthu]].}}</ref> Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2004|2004]]) na Trump ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2024|2024]]) pamanyuma ŵakasankhikaso, ndipo wose ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweniso mu mavoti gha ŵanthu. === Ŵakususka kusintha kwa upulezidenti === Ŵakakhazikiska charu ichi [[Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States|Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States]] ŵakaghanaghananga kuti [[Congress ya United States|Congress]], iyo yikaŵa nthambi yakwamba ya boma yakuzunulika mu [[Dango la Malango la United States|Dango la Malango]], ndiyo yizamuŵa nthambi yikuru ya boma; ŵakaghanaghananga yayi kuti paŵenge dipatimenti yankhongono ya vya ukulongozga.<ref name="tws9nov09">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=the founding fathers had "scant affection for strong executives" like England's king, and{{nbsp}}... Bush White House's claims are rooted in ideas "about the 'divine' right of kings"{{nbsp}}... and that certainly did not find their way into our founding documents, the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.}}</ref> Kweni mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakusintha mu nyengo, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye kuti upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano waŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene,<ref name="twsSEPnnxcvdf1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-conquest-of-president_b_120582 |first=David |last=Sirota |title=The Conquest of Presidentialism |date=August 22, 2008 |work=HuffPost |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref><ref name="twsSEPnn5454">{{Cite news |last=Schimke |first=David |url=http://www.utne.com/2008-09-01/Politics/presidential-Power-to-the-People.aspx |title=Presidential Power to the People—Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next President be taken down a notch |date=September–October 2008 |work=Utne Reader |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref> wambura kuŵa na vyakupimika,<ref name="tws9nov07">{{Cite news |last=Linker |first=Ross |url=http://www.jhunewsletter.com/2007/09/26/critical-of-presidency-prof-ginsberg-and-crenson-unite-18626/ |title=Critical of Presidency, Prof. Ginsberg and Crenson unite |date=September 27, 2007 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |publisher=The Johns-Hopkins Newsletter |quote=Presidents slowly but surely gain more and more power with both the public at large and other political institutions doing nothing to prevent it.}}</ref> ndiposo uli na mikhaliro ya "uchifumu".<ref name="tws9nov08">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=Unchecked and Unbalanced: Presidential Power in a Time of Terror By Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr. and Aziz Z. Huq (authors)}}</ref> Mu 2008 pulofesa [[Dana D. Nelson]] wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti mu vyaka 30 ivyo vikajumpha ŵakagwira ntchito yakuti ŵaŵe na "mazaza ghose pa nthambi ya vya ukulongozga na ma wupu ghake".<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5">{{Cite news |last=Nelson |first=Dana D. |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct11,0,224216.story |title=Opinion—The 'unitary executive' question—What do McCain and Obama think of the concept? |date=October 11, 2008 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> Wakususka awo ŵakukhozgera [[Chisambizgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga|chigomezgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga]] chifukwa cha kusazgirako "mazaza ghanandi gha ukulongozga agho ghakuleka kupimika—nga ni malango gha pulezidenti, vyilongolero, makalata gha ndondomeko, vipharazgo, malango gha vya chitetezo cha charu, na mazgu gha pulezidenti pa kusayina malango—ivyo vikuzomerezga kale mapulezidenti kupanga ndondomeko zinandi za vya charu cha kuwaro na mukati kwambura wovwiri, kususkika, panji kuzomerezgeka na Congress".<ref name=twsSEPrt8jyh5 /> [[Bill Wilson (activist)|Bill Wilson]], membala wa wupu wa [[Americans for Limited Government]], wakayowoya kuti upulezidenti wakusazgikira "ni suzgo likuru chomene ilo likukumana na wanangwa wa munthu payekha na ulamuliro wa demokilase".<ref name="tws8nov06">{{Cite news |last=Shane |first=Scott |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/us/politics/26activist.html |title=A Critic Finds Obama Policies a Perfect Target |date=September 25, 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=There is the small, minority-owned firm with deep ties to President Obama's Chicago backers, made eligible by the Federal Reserve to handle potentially lucrative credit deals. "I want to know how these firms are picked and who picked them," Mr. Wilson, the group's president, tells his eager researchers.}}</ref> == Mazaza gha kupanga malango == [[Vigaŵa vya kupika mazaza|Article I, Gawo{{nbsp}}1]] la Dango la Malango likuŵika mazaza ghose gha [[Ukwamba kupika dango|kupanga malango]] mu mawoko gha Congress, ndipo [[Dango lakukanizga kuŵa mu malo ghaŵiri|Article 1, Gawo 6, Ndime{{nbsp}}2]] likukanizga pulezidenti (na ŵantchito wose ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga) kuŵa membala wa Congress nyengo yeneyiyo. Nangauli vili nthena, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na mazaza ghakuru pa vya malango, chifukwa cha fundo za mu dango la malango kweniso kusintha kwa mbiri mu nyengo. === Kusayina na kuveta malango === [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakusayina [[Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964|Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964]] pa [[Nyumba Yituŵa|Nyumba Yituŵa]] pa Julayi 2, 1964, apo [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] na ŵanyake ŵakulaŵiska.]] Mazaza ghakuru chomene gha pulezidenti pa kupanga malango ghakufuma ku [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Ndime ya Kupereka Dango]], iyo yikupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kuveta [[Bill (law)|dango lililose]] ilo lapokelereka na [[Congress ya United States|Congress]]. Nangauli Congress yingasintha veto ya pulezidenti, yikukhumbikwira [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]] za nyumba zose ziŵiri, ndipo kanandi ichi chikuŵa chakusuzga kuchitika kwambura malango agho ghakukhozgeka na magulu ghaŵiri gha ndyali. Ŵakulemba dango la malango ŵakawopanga kuti Congress yingayezga kusazgirako mazaza ghake na kupangiska "uwofya wa ŵanandi", ntheura kupeleka veto kwa pulezidenti uyo wakusankhika mwakudunjika yayi kukaŵa nthowa yakuzikika ya kupima mazaza gha kupika malango. Nangauli George Washington wakagomezganga kuti veto yikwenera kugwiliskirika ntchito pera para dango lili kwambiska yayi, sono veto yikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi apo mapulezidenti ŵali na mphambano za ndondomeko na dango. Ntheura veto—panji chiwopsezo cha veto—yikasintha ndipo yapangiska upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano kuŵa chigaŵa chakuzirwa chomene cha ndondomeko ya kupanga malango mu America. Chomenechomene, pasi pa [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Presentment Clause]], para dango laperekeka na Congress, pulezidenti wali na nthowa zitatu: # Kusayina dango mu mazuŵa khumi, kwambura kupenda mazuŵa gha Sabata. Dango ili [[Coming into force|likwamba kugwira ntchito]]. # [[Veto power mu United States|Kuveta]] dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya na kuliwezgera ku nyumba ya Congress iyo yikalambika, pakuyowoya ivyo wakususka. Dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, kwambura kuti nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress zivote kuti ziviske veto iyi na [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]]. # Kuleka kuchitapo kanthu pa dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya. Dango ili likwamba kugwira ntchito nga ni kuti pulezidenti wakalisayina, kweni pekha para Congress yili pa holide yayi. Usange Congress yili kumalizga nyengo yake yakuwungana, dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, ndipo ichi chikudziwika kuti [[pocket veto]]. Mu 1996, Congress yikayezga kusazgirako mazaza gha veto gha pulezidenti kwizira mu [[Dango la Line Item Veto la 1996|Dango la Line Item Veto]]. Dango ili likapeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kusayina dango lililose la ndalama kuti liŵe dango kweniso nyengo yeneyiyo kufumiskapo vinthu vinyake vya ndalama mu dango ilo, chomenechomene ndalama ziphya, ndalama zakugwiliskirika ntchito mwakukhumbikwa, panji chandulo chiphya cha msonkho chakupimika. Congress yikatenge yingapangaso chinthu icho chafumiskika. Usange pulezidenti wakaveta dango liphya ili, Congress yikatenge yingasintha veto iyi mwakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yake yakawiro, iyo ni voti ziŵiri pa zitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri. Mu ''[[Clinton v. City of New York]]'', {{ussc|524|417|1998}}, [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]] likati kusintha uku kwa mazaza gha veto mu kupanga dango kukaŵa kwambura kulondezga dango la malango. === Kukhazikiska ndondomeko === [[File:2018 SOTU 27628831.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Donald Trump]] wakuyowoya [[Uthenga wa Boma la Charu wa 2018]] panthazi pa [[Congress ya United States|Congress]].]] Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya America, ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga kuŵa mapulezidenti ŵakapenjanga kusankhika chifukwa cha layizgo la ndondomeko ya malango iyo ŵakakhumbanga kuchita. [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Gawo 3, Ndime 2]] likukhumba kuti pulezidenti walongozge vinthu ivi ku Congress ivyo pulezidenti wakuwona kuti "nchakukhumbikwa kweniso chakwenelera". Ivi vikuchitika kwizira mu uthenga wa [[State of the Union|Umo Boma la Charu Liliri]], uwo kanandi ukuyowoya fundo za malango agho pulezidenti wakukhumba kuti ghapangike mu chaka chakulondezgapo, kweniso kwizira mu mauthenga ghanyake ghakuwoneka panji ghambura kuwoneka na Congress. Pulezidenti wangawovwirapo pakupanga malango mwa kupereka maghanoghano, kupempha, panji nanga nkhukoserezga kuti Congress ipange malango agho pulezidenti wakugomezga kuti ngakukhumbikwa. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kusintha umo dango likupangikira apo likali mu ndondomeko ya kupanga dango kwizira mu kukopa ŵabali ŵa Congress payekha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Recommendations Clause |last=Pfiffner |first=James |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵali na mazaza agha chifukwa Dango la Malango likuyowoya yayi uyo wangapanga malango, kweni mazaza agha ghali na mphaka chifukwa mbabali ŵa Congress pera ndiwo ŵangambiska dango.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-legislative-branch/ |title=Our Government: The Legislative Branch |website=[[White House]] |publisher=The White House |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Pulezidenti panji ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga ŵangapanga vyakulemba vya malango na kupempha maseneta panji ŵimiliri kuti ŵaloweske vyakulemba ivi mu Congress. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kuchiska Congress kuti yisinthire dango ilo laperekeka, mwakuti wayowoye kuti wavetenge dango ilo usange vinthu ivyo wakukhumba vikasinthika yayi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42843.pdf |title=Introduction to the Legislative Process in the U.S. Congress |last=Heitshusen |first=Valerie |date=November 15, 2018 |website=R42843 · Version 14 · updated |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> === Kukhazikiska malango ghakulongozga === Malango ghanandi agho Congress yikapanga ghakuyowoya yayi vyose ivyo vingachitika, ndipo ghakupeleka mwakudunjika panji mwambura kudunjika mazaza gha kugwiliskira ntchito malango ku wupu wakwenelera wa boma. Nga ni mulongozgi wa nthambi ya ukulongozga, mapulezidenti ŵakulongozga ma wupu ghanandi gha [[List of federal agencies in the United States|boma la United States]] agho ghangapanga malango ghakulongozga kwambura kulaŵililika chomene na Congress. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakususkika ŵakayowoya kuti mazaza ghanandi gha kupanga malango na bajeti agho ghakeneranga kuŵa gha Congress ghakajumphira mu mawoko gha mapulezidenti. Munthu yumoza wakususka wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti ŵangapanga "gulu la ŵanthu ŵakukwana nga ni gulu la ŵankhondo la 'ma czar'—waliyose wambura kuyankha kwa Congress kweni wakupika mulimo wa kulongozga ndondomeko zikuru za ku White House".<ref name="tws28sep08">{{Cite news |last=Cantor |first=Eric |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/29/AR2009072902624.html |title=Obama's 32 Czars |date=July 30, 2009 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakususkika chifukwa cha kupanga [[mazgu gha kusayina|mazgu gha kusayina]] apo ŵakusayina malango gha Congress, pakuyowoya umo ŵakupulikira dango panji umo ŵazamugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5" /> Chizgoŵezi ichi chasukika na [[American Bar Association]] kuti nchakususkana na dango la malango.<ref name="tws11nov301">{{Cite news |last=Suarez |first=Ray |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |title=President's Use of 'Signing Statements' Raises Constitutional Concerns |date=July 24, 2006 |access-date=November 11, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321035900/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |archive-date=March 21, 2007 |publisher=PBS Online NewsHour |quote=The American Bar Association said President Bush's use of "signing statements", which allow him to sign a bill into law but not enforce certain provisions, disregards the rule of law and the separation of powers. Legal experts discuss the implications. |display-authors=etal }}</ref> Wakasangazga wa kusungilira miyambo [[George Will]] wakalemba vya "nthambi ya ukulongozga iyo yikusazgikira chomene" kweniso "kuzimirika kwa Congress".<ref name="tws28sep">{{Cite news |last=Will |first=George F. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/19/AR2008121902929.html |title=Making Congress Moot |date=December 21, 2008 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> === Kucemera na kuzimiska Congress === Kuti boma lichitenge mwaluŵiro para pali suzgo likuru la mukati mwa charu panji la pa charu chose ilo likuchitika apo Congress yili pa nyengo yayi yakukumana, pulezidenti wali kupika nkhongono kwizira mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress|Nkhani Yachiŵiri, Chigaŵa 3]] cha Malango kuti wacheme [[special session|ungano wapadera]] wa nyumba yimoza panji zose ziŵiri za Congress. Kufuma apo [[John Adams]] wakachita nthena kakwamba mu 1797, pulezidenti wachema Congress yose kuti yikumanenge pa ungano wapadera maulendo 27. [[Harry S. Truman]] ndiyo wakaŵa waumaliro kuchita nthena mu Julayi 1948, ndipo ungano uwu ukamanyikwa kuti [[Turnip Day Session]].<ref name="Forte">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress |last=Forte |first=David F. |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=Heritage Foundation |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Steinmetz">{{Cite magazine |last=Steinmetz |first=Katy |date=August 10, 2010 |title=Congressional Special Sessions |url=https://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,2009480,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Kweniso, pambere [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Chigaziso cha Makumiŵiri]] chindazomerezgeke mu 1933, icho chikiza nyengo iyo Congress yikakumananga kufuma mu Disembala kuluta mu Janyuwale, ŵapulezidenti ŵaphya awo ŵakamba maudindo ŵakachemanga Senate kuti yikumanenge kuti yikhozge kusankhika kwa ŵanthu panji kuzomera mapangano. Kweni mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano, nkhongono iyi yili kuleka kugwiritsidwa ntchito chifukwa Congress sono yikukhalilira pa ungano chaka chose, ndipo yikuchita maungano gha pro forma mazuŵa ghose ghatatu nangauli yikuwoneka nga yili pa kupumura. Mwakuyana na ichi, pulezidenti wali na mazaza kuzimiska Congress usange Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na Senate zingatondeka kupulikana pa nyengo ya kuzimiska; palije pulezidenti uyo wagwiriskapo ntchito nkhongono iyi.<ref name="Forte"/><ref name="Steinmetz"/> == Nkhongono za kulongozga == {{Main|Nkhongono za pulezidenti wa United States}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=25%|quote=Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.|source=''[[Nixon v. General Services Administration]]'', '''{{ussc|433|425|1977}}''' ([[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist, J.]], [[Dissenting opinion|dissenting]])}} Pulezidenti ni mulongozgi wa nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la feduro ndipo wali na udindo wakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Malango]] wa "kuwona kuti malango ghakugwiriskika ntchito mwakugomezgeka".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii#section3 |title=Article II, Section 3, U.S. Constitution |year=2012 |publisher=Legal Information Institute |access-date=August 7, 2012}}</ref> Nthambi yakulongozga yili na ŵantchito ŵakujumpha 4 miliyoni, kusazgapo ŵasilikari.<ref name="obamapresidency">{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/executive-branch |title=Executive Branch |date=April 2015 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=January 24, 2020}}</ref> === Nkhongono za ulamuliro === Ŵapulezidenti ŵakusankha ŵanthu mu maudindo gha ndyali. Pulezidenti uyo wanjira waka mu udindo wangasankha ŵanthu 4,000, ndipo 1,200 mwa iwo ŵakwenera kuzomerezgeka na [[Advice and consent#United States|Senate ya United States]]. [[Ambassador|Ŵakazembe]], ŵabali ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], na ŵalara ŵanyake, ni mwa maudindo agho ghakuzuzgika kwizira mu kusankhika kwa pulezidenti na kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref>{{cite web| title=Presidentially Appointed Positions| date=April 14, 2021| url=https://presidentialtransition.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/12/Presidentially-Appointed-Positions.pdf| publisher=[[Partnership for Public Service]]| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Biden Political Appointee Tracker| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2020/biden-appointee-tracker/| newspaper=The Washington Post| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref> Nkhongono za pulezidenti zakuchimbiska ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga zakhala nkhani yakukwaskana chomene mu ndyali. Kanandi, pulezidenti wangawuskamo ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga nyengo yiliyose.<ref>See ''Shurtleff v. United States'', {{ussc|189|311|1903}}; ''[[Myers v. United States]]'', {{ussc|272|52|1926}}.</ref> Kweni, Congress yingachepeska na kukhora mazaza gha pulezidenti pakuwuskamo ŵalongozgi ŵa mawupu ghakujiyimira ghakulongozga malango na ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa pasi mu nthambi yakulongozga kwizira mu [[statute|dango]].<ref>See ''[[Humphrey's Executor v. United States]]'', {{ussc|295|602|1935}} and ''[[Morrison v. Olson]]'', {{ussc|487|654|1988}}, respectively.</ref> Kuti ŵalamulire boma la feduro ilo likukulirakulira, ŵapulezidenti ŵakamba kuzijala na magulu ghanandi gha ŵantchito, agho pamanyuma ghakanozgekera mu [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]. Mu Executive Office iyi, gulu la mukati chomene la ŵawovwiri ŵa pulezidenti na ŵawovwiri ŵawo likusangika mu [[White House Office]]. Pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zakulongozga milimo ya boma la feduro kwizira mu kupereka mitundu yakupambanapambana ya [[Presidential directive|malanguro]], nga ni [[Presidential proclamation (United States)|chilango cha pulezidenti]] na [[executive order|malanguro gha pulezidenti]]. Para pulezidenti wakugwiriskira ntchito mwakwenelera udindo uwo wali kupika na malango, ukuru wa nkhongono iyi ngukuru.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331030907/http://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |url-status=unfit |archive-date=March 31, 2017 |title=Executive Summary: The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives |last=Gaziano |first=Todd |date=February 21, 2001 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 23, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, malanguro agha ghali pasi pa [[Judicial review in the United States|kuweleruzgika na ŵeruzgi]] mu makhoti gha feduro gha United States, agho ghangasanga kuti ngambula kukolerana na malango. Congress yingazgora malanguro gha pulezidenti kuŵa ghambura ntchito kwizira mu dango. === Vya vyakuwaro (Foreign affairs) === [[File:President George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev.jpg|thumb|Mulongozgi George H. W. Bush na mulongozgi wa Soviet [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ŵali kusayina [[1990 Chemical Weapons Accord|Phangano la 1990 pa vya vilwero vya makemikolo]] ku [[White House|Nyumba ya White House]].]] [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Section 3, Clause 4]] chikukhumba kuti pulezidenti "wapokelere Mabambasada". Dango ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti Reception Clause, lili kupulikikwa kuti likung'anamura kuti pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakuru pa nkhani za vyakuwaro,<ref>''[[United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.]]'', {{ussc|299|304|1936}}, likalongosora Pulezidenti kuti ni "chiŵaro chekha cha charu mu ubale wake wakuwaro", fundo iyo [https://fas.org/sgp/eprint/fisher.pdf yikatsutsika] na Louis Fisher wa [[Library of Congress|Layibulare ya Kongiresi]].</ref> ndiposo kumovwira pulezidenti pa mazaza ghake ghakupokera [[diplomatic recognition|kuwoneska kuzomera]] boma la charu chinyake.<ref>''[[Zivotofsky v. Kerry]]'', {{Ussc|576|___|2015|el=no}}.</ref> Malango gha Dango la Malango gha charu ghakumupaso pulezidenti mazaza ghakuŵika mabambasada gha United States, kweniso kupereka na kudumbiskana chomene mapangano pakati pa United States na vyaru vinyake. Mapangano agha, para ghazomerezgeka na ulangizi na chivomerezgo cha Seneti ya U.S. (na mavoti gha [[Supermajority|maghanaghano ghaŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu]]), ghakuŵa ghakukaka nga ni dango la boma. Nangauli nkhani za vyakuwaro zikaŵa nyengo zose chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha maudindo gha pulezidenti, kusintha kwa tekinoloje kufuma apo Dango la Malango likakhazikiskikira kwasazgirako mazaza gha pulezidenti. Kale mabambasada ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakuru gha kudumbiskana mwakujiyimira paŵekha mu zina la United States, kweni sono mapulezidenti ŵakukumana nyengo zose mwakudunjika na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. === Mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari (Commander-in-chief) === [[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakavikilira mwakukwana [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] mu nyengo ya [[American Civil War|Nkhondo ya pa Wenenawene ya ku America]]. Pano wali (pakati) na General [[George B. McClellan]] (kumazere), ndiposo ŵasilikari ku [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]], pa Okutobala 3, 1862.]] Chimoza mwa mazaza ghakuzirwa chomene gha wupu wakulongozga ni mulimo wa pulezidenti nga ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari]] wa [[United States Armed Forces|Ŵasilikari ŵa United States]]. Mazaza ghakupharazga nkhondo ghali mu mawoko gha Kongiresi mwakuyana na dango la malango, kweni pulezidenti wali na mulimo wakumalizga wakulongozga na kupangiska ndondomeko za ŵasilikari. Mlingo weneko wa mazaza agho Dango la Malango likumupa pulezidenti nga ni mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari waŵa nkhani ya kudumbirana chomene mu mdauko, apo Kongiresi nyengo zinyake yamupanga mazaza ghakuru ndipo nyengo zinyake yikayezga kuchepeska mazaza agha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> Ŵalembi ŵa Dango la Malango ŵakaphalira makora kuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti pa nkhani za ŵasilikari; [[Alexander Hamilton]] wakalongosora mu [[Federalist No. 69]] kuti:{{blockquote|Pulezidenti ndiyo wakwenera kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo za United States.{{nbsp}}... Ichi chikung'anamura waka ulongozgi ukuru na kulongozga ŵasilikari na ŵanyamata ŵa sitima za nkhondo{{nbsp}}... apo [mazaza] gha [[Monarchy of Great Britain|themba la Britain]] ghakusazgapo KUPHARAZGA nkhondo na KULENGA NA KULONGOZGA magulu gha ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo, vyose ivi{{nbsp}}... vikeneranga kuŵa vya wupu wakupanga malango.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Mazgu ghakudidimizgika mu chakwamba.]|sign=|source=}} Mu nyengo yasono, mwakuyana na [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mazaza gha Nkhondo]], Kongiresi yikwenera kuzomerezga kutumizga ŵasilikari kuluta ku malo ghanyake kwa mazuŵa ghakujumpha 60, nangauli ndondomeko iyi yikuthemba pa vinthu vyakuyambiska ivyo vindagwiriskikepo ntchito, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti yileke kugwira ntchito makora.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Kweniso, Kongiresi yikupeleka mphaka ku mazaza gha pulezidenti pa ŵasilikari kwizira mu kulamulira ndalama za ŵasilikari na malango ghawo. Mapulezidenti mu mdauko ŵakambiska nyengo zinandi ndondomeko zakunjira mu nkhondo,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> kweni ŵakususka ŵayowoya kuti pakaŵa mikangano yinandi iyo mapulezidenti ŵakachitapo nkhondo kwambura kupokera chiphani chakuzomerezgeka, kusazgapo kuluta kwa ŵasilikari ŵa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] ku [[Panama]] mu 1903,<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Korean War|Nkhondo ya Korea]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Vietnam War|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> ndiposo kuwukira kwa [[Grenada]] mu 1983<ref name="tws8nov101">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.}}</ref> na [[Panama]] mu 1989.<ref name="tws8nov100">{{Cite news |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article |title=U.S. troops move in Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital |date=December 20, 1990 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration.}}</ref> Nkhongono ya usilikari iyo pulezidenti wakulongozga yekha pa nyengo ya nkhondo yasintha chomene.Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review] [[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States, wakakhazikiska mwamphamvu [[Kulongozgeka kwa ŵasilikari na ŵanthu bweka|kujilambika kwa usilikari ku mazaza gha ŵanthu bweka]]. Mu 1794, Washington wakagwiliskira ntchito nkhongono zake za mu dango la malango kuwunganya ŵasilikari ŵa [[Militia]] ŵakukwana 12,000 kuti ŵamazge [[Chiwukirano cha Whiskey|Chiwukirano cha Whiskey]], nkhondo iyo yikachitika mu [[Western Pennsylvania|Western Pennsylvania]] yakukhwaskana na ŵalimi ŵakuvwara vilwero na ŵakupanga moŵa awo ŵakakana kulipira msonkho wa pa moŵa wa mizimu. Mwakuyana na mulembi wa mdauko [[Joseph Ellis]], iyi yikaŵa "nyengo yakwamba ndiposo yimoza pera apo pulezidenti wa America uyo wakaŵa pa udindo wakalongozga ŵasilikari pa malo gha nkhondo", nangauli [[James Madison]] wakalongozga kwa kanyengo waka magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa mfuti zikuru pakuvikilira [[Kuwotcheka kwa Washington|Washington, D.C.]], pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya 1812|Nkhondo ya 1812]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}} [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakachitanga mulimo ukuru pakunozga ndondomeko yose ya nkhondo ndiposo pa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America|Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America]], 1861–1865; ndipo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakamulumba chomene Lincoln chifukwa cha mahara ghake gha ndondomeko ya nkhondo ndiposo luso lwake lwakusankha na kukhozga ŵalongozgi ŵasilikari nga ni [[Ulysses S. Grant]].James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009) Ulongozgi wa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa za ŵasilikari masiku ghano ukupika ku [[Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira ya United States|Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira]] ndipo kanandi ukuchitika kwizira mwa [[Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira wa United States|Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira]]. [[Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff|Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff]] pamoza na [[Combatant Commands|Combatant Commands]] ŵakovwira pa ulongozgi wa ntchito izi mwakuyana na Unified Command Plan (UCP) iyo yavomerezgeka na pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}{{USC|10|164}}[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013. == Nkhongono za vyeruzgo == {{Further|[[Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States|Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States]]}} {{Update|section|reason=The case [[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States (2024)]]|date=July 2024}} [[File: P20220408AS-1467 (52067437977).jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Joe Biden]] pamoza na wakweruzga wa [[Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States|Khoti Likuru Chomene]] uyo wakamusankha, [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]], kweniso Wachiwiri wa Pulezidenti [[Kamala Harris]] (uyo wali kumanyuma) pamanyuma pakuti Brown Jackson wazomerezgeke na [[Senate ya United States|Senate ya United States]] mu 2022]] Pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakusankha [[Muweruzgi wa federo wa United States|ŵeruzgi ŵa federo]], kusazgapoŵanthu mu [[Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States|Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States]] na [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]]. Kweni, visankho ivi vikukhumbikwira [[Ndangaulizgi na chizomerezgo#United States|kuzomerezgeka na Senate]] pambere ŵangamba mulimo. Kupokelera chizomerezgo cha Senate chingaŵa chinthu chikuru chakususka ku ŵalongozgi awo ŵakukhumba kunyoloska makhoti gha federo kuya na maghanoghano ghawo. Para ŵakusankha ŵeruzgi mu [[Khoti la Boma la United States|makhoti gha boma gha United States]], ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakuchindika muzgo wakale wa [[Muzgo wa Senate|muzgo wa Senate]]. Ŵalongozgi ŵangaŵaso na mazaza ghakupereka [[Chigowokero|vigowokero]] na kuchedweska chilango. [[Gerald Ford]] wakagowokera [[Richard Nixon]] mwezi umoza pamanyuma pa kwamba mulimo wake. Ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakupereka vigowokero pafupi na para ŵakuti ŵafumepo mu udindo wawo, nga umo [[Bill Clinton]] wakagowokera [[Patty Hearst]] pa zuŵa lake laumaliro mu udindo; ichi nchakukayikiska kanandi.<ref name="tws8nov12">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the president was trying to shield officials for political purposes.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov11">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan' and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction'.{{nbsp}}... In light of President Bush's own misconduct, we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov10">{{Cite news |last=Eisler |first=Peter |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-03-06-clinton-library-foia_N.htm |title=Clinton-papers release blocked |date=March 7, 2008 |work=USA Today |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office, including several to controversial figures, such as commodities trader Rich, then a fugitive on tax evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife, Denise, contributed $2,000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5,000 to a related political action committee; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library.}}</ref> Malango ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na mazaza gha boma ghakawoneka agho ghakuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti wachite milimo yake mwakujilongozga yekha munjila yinyake. Lakwamba ni [[Ufulu Wapadera wa Boma|ufulu wapadera wa boma]], uwo ukuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti waleke kuvumbura nkhani zauzgani izo zikachitika pakati pake nayo pakuchita milimo ya boma. George Washington ndiyo wakayambirizga kudemba ufulu uwu apo Bungwe la Congress likaŵeya kuwona vyalembo vya [[Muweruzgi Mkuru wa United States|Muweruzgi Mkuru]] [[John Jay]] kufuma ku chiwerengero cha phangano lakusuzga na [[Ufumu wa Great Britain|Great Britain]]. Nangauli chindindindi ichi chindalembeke mu Constitution panji dango linyake lililose, kuchita kwa Washington kukapangiska umboni wakwamba wa ufulu uwu. Apo Nixon wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma kuŵa chifukwa chakukana kupeleka ukaboni uwo ukalongozgeka na Congress mu nyengo ya [[Nkhani ya Watergate|nkhani ya Watergate]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'', kuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ukazomerezgeka yayi mu nkhani izo pulezidenti wakayezganga kutaŵaka ku milandu yaupolisi. Apo Bill Clinton wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma pa nkhani ya [[Nkhani ya Clinton–Lewinsky|nkhani ya Lewinsky]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'', kuti ufulu uwu ungagwiliskikaso ntchito yayi mu milandu ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. Milandu iyi yikakhazikiska [[Fundo Yakale|fundo yakale ya malango]] yakuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ngwaunenesko, nangauli umo ufulu uwu ukufikira nkhathomo undalongosoreke makora. Kuwonjezgapo, makhoti gha federo ghazomerezga ufulu uwu kuti ukhwaskeso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakuteŵetera mu nthowa ya boma kweni ghawovwira yayi comene ku uzgani wa nthowa ya boma uwo pulezidenti wandavutikepo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |title=Executive Privilege 101 |last=Millhiser, Ian |date=June 1, 2010 |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609224239/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Mwaŵi wakubisa vyamchindindi vya boma]] ukupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti na nthambi ya ulongozgi kubisa uthenga panji mabuku ku [[Discovery (law)|kufufuza kwa umboni]] mu milandu ya pa khoti usange kuwonekera kwake kungananga [[chivikiliro cha charu]]. Chiyambi cha mwaŵi uwu chikawoneka kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakakana kupeleka mabuku gha nkhondo pa mulandu wa [[chiwembu chakugalukira boma]] wa [[Aaron Burr]], ndipo pamanyuma mu ''[[Totten v. United States]]'', apo Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura mulandu uwo ukapelekeka na kazondi wakale wa Union.{{cite case |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html |title=Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan |chapter=Part III |via=FindLaw |access-date=November 29, 2010}} Ndipouli, mwaŵi uwu ukazomerezgeka mwalamulo na Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States yayi m'paka pa mulandu wa ''[[United States v. Reynolds]]'', apo ukawonekera kuti ni mwaŵi wa [[common law]] wa [[Evidence (law)|umboni]].{{Cite web |url=https://www.acslaw.org/issue_brief/briefs-2007-2011/reforming-the-state-secrets-privilege/ |title=Reforming the State Secrets Privilege |last1=Frost |first1=Amanda |last2=Florence |first2=Justin |year=2009 |publisher=[[American Constitution Society]] |access-date=November 9, 2017}} Pambere [[vigaŵa vya pa Seputembala 11]] vindachitike, kugwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu kukaŵa kwakuchitika nyengo zinyake waka, kweni kukamba kwasazgikiranga chomene.{{Cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=William G. |last2=Pallitto |first2=Robert M. |year=2005 |title=State Secrets and Executive Power |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_spring-2005_120_1/page/85 |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=85–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2005.tb00539.x |quote=Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds [1953] and the election of Jimmy Carter, in 1976, there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege. Between 1977 and 2001, there were a total of fifty-one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported cases represent only a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated, it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.}} Kwambira mu 2001, boma lagwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu mu milandu yinandi ndiposo pa nyengo yakwambilira ya mulandu, ndipo nyengo zinyake ichi chachitiska kuti milandu yimare pambere khoti lindafike pa fundo zikuru za madandawuro, nga umo vikawonekera pa cheruzgo cha [[Khoti la Apilu la United States la Dera la Naini|Khoti la Apilu la Dera la Naini]] mu ''[[Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.]]''.{{Cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/us/09secrets.html |title=Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A. |date=September 8, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite news |last=Finn |first=Peter |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/08/AR2010090807334.html |title=Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case |date=September 9, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Ŵakususka mwaŵi uwu ŵakuti kugwiliskira ntchito kwake kwazgoka nthowa yakubisira milimo ya boma iyo yikaŵa yakwambura kuzomerezgeka panji yakukhozga soni.{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/02/10/obama |title=The 180-degree reversal of Obama's State Secrets position |last=Glenn Greenwald |author-link=Glenn Greenwald |date=February 10, 2009 |website=Salon |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/national-security/background-state-secrets-privilege |title=Background on the State Secrets Privilege |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Kasi pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] kufuma ku milandu ya pa khoti mpaka pa mlingo wuli, nkhani iyi yikususkana ndipo yakhala yikweruzgikapo mu vyeruzgo vinandi vya Khoti Likuru Chomene. ''[[Nixon v. Fitzgerald]]'' (1982) yikadumura mulandu wa boma uwo ukapelekeka ku pulezidenti wakale Richard Nixon chifukwa cha milimo yake ya pa udindo. ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'' (1997) yikadumura kuti pulezidenti walije chivikiliro ku milandu ya boma pa milimo iyo wakachita pambere wandazgoke pulezidenti, ndipo yikadumura kuti mulandu wa kuzunura munthu pa nkhani ya kugonana ungapitilirira kwambura kuchedwa, nangauli uyo wakususkika wakaŵa pulezidenti wakukhala pa udindo. [[Lipoti la Mueller]] la 2019 pa kunjilirapo kwa Russia mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016]] likalongosora ukaboni wa [[kunangiska urunji]], kweni ŵakufufuza ŵakakana kupeleka [[Donald Trump]] ku mulandu chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya [[Unduna wa Chilungamo wa United States]] yakukanizga kususka pulezidenti uyo wachali pa udindo. Lipoti ili likati kufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo na Congress kukaŵa nthowa yimoza yakumazgira suzgo ili. Kufika mu Okutobala 2019, mulandu ukaŵa uchali mu makhoti gha boma pa nkhani ya kusanga malipoti gha msonkho gha Donald Trump pa mulandu wa uheni uwo ukapelekeka na [[Loya Mukuru wa Chigaŵa cha New York]] chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha boma la New York.{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767830713/federal-judge-rules-trump-must-hand-over-8-years-of-tax-returns|title=President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For Now|website=[[NPR]]|date=October 7, 2019|access-date=April 28, 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Tanya Ballard}} Makalata gha [[Office of Legal Counsel]] agho ghakafuma mu 1973 na 2000 ghakakanizga mukati mwa Unduna wa Chilungamo kususka pulezidenti pa mulandu wa uheni, icho ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa malango ŵakususkira kweni ŵanyake ŵakuchizomerezga.{{cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=Saikrishna Bangalore |title=Prosecuting and Punishing Our Presidents. |journal=[[Texas Law Review]] |date=November 2021 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=55–113 |url=https://texaslawreview.org/prosecuting-and-punishing-our-presidents/ |access-date=31 March 2023 |ssrn=4039230 |id={{EBSCOhost|154035452|dbcode=a9h}}}} Pakujivikilira ku mulandu wa boma wa uheni pa [[Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)|ivyo wakususkikira kuti wakayezga kunangiska visola vya 2020]], mu Janyuwale 2024, Trump wakaphalira [[Khoti la Apilu la DC Circuit]] kuti pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] ku milandu ya uheni pa vinthu ivyo wachita apo wakaŵa pa udindo. Mwezi wakulondezgapo, gulu la ŵeruzgi ŵatatu la khoti ili likadumura mwakukolerana kuti Trump wakaŵavya mazaza agha. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti khoti la apilu lidumbiskane nkhani ya chivikiliro cha pulezidenti cha mtundu uwu, chifukwa pakaŵavya pulezidenti uyo wakaŵa pa udindo panji wakale uyo wakasuskikapo pa mulandu wa uheni.{{cite news |title=Federal Appeals Court Rejects Trump's Claim of Absolute Immunity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/06/us/politics/trump-immunity-appeals-court.html |work=The New York Times |date=February 6, 2024|author1=Alan Feuer|author2=Charlie Savage}} Mu ''[[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States]]'', pa Julayi 1, 2024, Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura kuti mapulezidenti ŵali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] para ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazaza ghakuru agho ghali kulembeka mu Dango Likuru, [[presumption|kughanaghana kuti pali chivikiliro]] pa milimo yinyake ya pa udindo, kweni palije chivikiliro pa milimo ya munthu payekha iyo yikukhwaskana yayi na udindo. Mulandu uwu ukaweleraso ku makhoti ghapasi kuti ghadumbiske kuti ni milimo yili iyo yikwenera kuwoneka kuti nja pa udindo panji nja munthu payekha.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jul/02/presidential-immunity-trump-lawsuits|title=What does the immunity ruling mean for Trump's criminal cases?|work= The Guardian}} Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti makhoti ghapeleke pulezidenti chivikiliro ku milandu ya uheni. == Maudindo gha ulongozgi == === Mutu wa boma === {{listen|filename=Four ruffles and flourishes, hail to the chief (long version).ogg|title=Four ruffles and flourishes and 'Hail to the Chief' (long version)}} Nga ni [[mutu wa boma]], pulezidenti wakwimira boma la United States ku ŵanthu ŵake ndipo wakwimira charu ku vyaru vinyake pa charu chose. Mwachiyelezgero, para mutu wa boma wa charu chinyake wafika pa ulendo wa boma, kanandi pulezidenti wakuchitiska [[State visits to the United States|mwambo wakupokelera mutu wa boma]] uwo ukuchitikira pa [[South Lawn (White House)|South Lawn]], mwambo uwo ukambika na [[John F. Kennedy]] mu 1961.{{Cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=James A. |url=https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo |title=Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration |last2=Rice |first2=Elaine M. |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-442-02532-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo/page/9 9]–10 |url-access=registration}} Pamanyuma pake pakuchitika [[state dinner]] iyo pulezidenti wakupeleka mu [[State Dining Room of the White House|State Dining Room]] kumise.{{Cite web |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-white-house-state-dinner |title=The White House State Dinner |website=The White House Historical Association |access-date=November 9, 2017}} [[File:Wilson opening day 1916.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakuponya bola lakwamba la mwambo pa [[Opening Day]] mu 1916.]] [[File:President Bill Clinton at Buckingham Palace.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Bill Clinton]] wakuwona gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ntchindi pa [[Buckingham Palace]] pa ulendo wa boma ku United Kingdom mu 1995.]] Nga ni mulongozgi wa charu, pulezidenti wakufiska maudindo ghanandi ghambura kuŵa gha boma chomene agho ghakukhwaskana na mwambo. Mwachiyelezgero, [[William Howard Taft]] wakambiska mwambo wa kuponya [[ceremonial first pitch|bola lakwamba la mwambo]] mu 1910 pa [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C., pa [[Opening Day]] ya [[Minnesota Twins#Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960|Washington Senators]]. Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa Taft, kupatulapo [[Jimmy Carter]], waponya bola limoza lakwamba la mwambo pa Opening Day, pa [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], panji pa [[World Series]], kanandi pakuŵa chikondwelero chikuru.{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Paul |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html |title=Balking at the First Pitch |date=April 2, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=A01}} Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] waŵa pulezidenti wa ntchindi wa [[Boy Scouts of America]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |title=History of the BSA Fact Sheet |publisher=Boy Scouts of America |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629031545/http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2014 |access-date=November 9, 2017}} === Mutu wa chipani === [[File:President Reagan giving his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention in Dallas Texas.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] wakuyowoya mazgu ghake ghakuzomera kusankhika pa [[1984 Republican National Convention]].]] Kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mutu ndiposo muyowoyeri wa chipani chake cha ndyali. Kufuma apo visola vya kuwoneska ŵanthu ŵakusankhika (binding primaries) vikambira mu vyaru vinandi vya boma, ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakwimilira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵa na wovwiri wa ŵavoti ŵanandi ŵa chipani chawo. Pakuti Nyumba yose ya Ŵimiliri na pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vitatu cha Seneti vikusoleka pa nyengo yimoza na pulezidenti, kupunda kwa ŵakwimira chipani pa visola kanandi kukukolerana na umo wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti wachitira. [[Coattail effect]], panji kusoŵa kwake, nayo kanandi wakukhwaska ŵakwimira chipani pa visola vya boma na vya mu vigaŵa. Ndipouli, kanandi pakuŵa mphindano pakati pa pulezidenti na ŵanyake mu chipani, ndipo mapulezidenti awo ŵakutaya wovwiri ukuru wa ŵa chipani chawo mu Congress kanandi ŵakuwoneka kuti mbafoka ndiposo ŵakuchita makora yayi. Kweniso, chifukwa United States ni boma la ndondomeko ya phalamende yayi, chipani cha pulezidenti chikusoŵa kanandi unandi wa ŵimiliri mu nyumba yimoza panji zose za Congress, panji pa maudindo gha mabwanamkubwa na mu nyumba za malango za vyaru vinandi. === Mulongozgi wa pa charu chose === Na kukura kwa United States kuŵa [[superpower|charu chankhongono chomene]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ndiposo kuŵa na chuma chikuru chomene pa charu chose mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa pa charu chose, ndipo nyengo zinyake nga ni munthu wa ndyali wali na nkhongono zikuru chomene pa charu. Udindo wa United States nga ni membara mukuru wa [[NATO]], ndiposo ubwezi wake wakukhora na vyaru vinyake vyasambazi panji vya demokilase nga ni ivyo vili mu [[European Union]], vyapangiska kuti pulezidenti wachemekenge kuti "[[mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]". == Ndondomeko ya kusankha == === Ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo === [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Qualifications for office|Article II, Section 1, Clause 5]] ya Dango Likuru yikulongosora vinthu vitatu ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti wakwenera: waŵe [[Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|mwenekaya wa United States mwa kubabikira]]; waŵe na vyaka vyakukwana 35 panji kujumpha; waŵe [[Residency (domicile)#United States|wakukhala mu United States]] kwa vyaka vyakukwana 14.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/article-ii-annenberg/interp/19 |title=Article II. The Executive Branch, Annenberg Classroom |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Munthu uyo wakufiska vyose ivyo vyalembeka pachanya wangatondeka kuŵa pulezidenti usange pali chilichose mwa ivi: Kuyana na [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction|Article I, Section 3, Clause 7]], usange munthu wakafumiskika pa udindo, wakasangika na mulandu ndiposo wakakanizgika kuŵaso na udindo uliwose wa boma, nangauli pali mphindano za malango pa nkhani yakuti dango ili likukhwaska so udindo wa pulezidenti: ŵanthu pera awo ŵali kukanizgikapo kuyana na dango ili ni ŵeruzgi ŵatatu ŵa boma.{{cite web |last1=Bernstein |first1=Richard D. |title=Lots of People Are Disqualified From Becoming President |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/trump-disqualification-president/617908/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=February 4, 2021 |quote=In addition to the list of people who are ineligible for reasons of mere demographic chance, the Constitution adds a category of people who cannot be elected as a result of their misdeeds. This category includes presidents (along with vice presidents and federal "civil officers") who are impeached, convicted by two-thirds of the Senate, and disqualified for serious misconduct committed while they were in office.}}{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Jan |title=Explainer: Impeachment or the 14th Amendment – Can Trump be barred from future office? |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-impeachment-explainer-idUSKBN29I356 |website=Reuters |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=January 14, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Participants in rebellion|Section 3 ya Amendment ya 14]], munthu waliyose uyo wakalapa kuti wavikilirenge Dango Likuru ndipo pamanyuma wakagalukira United States ngwakwenelera yayi kuŵa na udindo uliwose wa boma. Ndipouli, kukanizgika uku kungafumiskikapo na voti ya magawo ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha nyumba yiliyose ya Congress.{{cite web|last=Moreno|first=Paul|title=Articles on Amendment XIV: Disqualification for Rebellion|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=June 15, 2018}} Kweniso, pali mphindano pa nkhani yakuti dango ili, umo lili kulembekera, lingakanizga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti panji lingakhumbikwira dankha mulandu kuwaro kwa Congress, nangauli pali viyelezgero vya kugwiliskira ntchito amendment iyi pa vinthu vinyake padera pa chilato chake chakwambilira cha kukanizga [[Confederate States of America|ŵa Confederacy]] kuŵa pa maudindo gha boma pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene.{{cite web |last1=Vlamis |first1=Kelsey |title=Here's how the 14th Amendment could be used to prevent Trump from running again |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-the-14th-amendment-could-prevent-trump-from-office-2021-2 |website=Business Insider |access-date=March 1, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 22]], palije munthu wangasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri. Amendment iyi yikulongosoraso kuti usange munthu wakwenerera wateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti panji pulezidenti wakuchitapo ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri vya nyengo iyo munthu munyake wakasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti, munthu wakwamba wangasolekaso kuŵa pulezidenti kamoza pera.{{cite journal|last1=Peabody|first1=Bruce G.|last2=Gant|first2=Scott E.|date=February 1999|title=The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment|url=http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|journal=Minnesota Law Review|volume=83|issue=3|pages=565–635|access-date=June 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115121046/http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|archive-date=January 15, 2013}}{{cite journal|last=Albert|first=Richard|title=The Evolving Vice Presidency|journal=Temple Law Review|date=Winter 2005|volume=78|issue=4|url=https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1624&context=lsfp|pages=811–896|access-date=July 31, 2018|via=Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School}} === Uteŵeti wakale === {{Main|List of presidents of the United States by other offices held|List of presidents of the United States by previous experience|List of presidents of the United States by education}} Palije chakukhumbikwa kuti pulezidenti panji ŵakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti ŵaŵepo na udindo unyake pambere ŵandanjire pa udindo panji pa nyengo yeneyiyo. Ndipouli, pulezidenti waliyose, kupatulapo Donald Trump, wali kuŵapo [[Governor (United States)|kazembe wa boma]], [[United States Senate|seneta wa United States]], [[United States House of Representatives|membara wa Congress]], [[General officers in the United States|mulara wa ŵasilikari]], panji [[Cabinet of the United States|membara wa nduna za boma]]. Ntchito iyo mapulezidenti ŵanandi ŵakachitanga ni ya muloya, pakuti ŵanalume 27 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti ŵakaŵa maloya.International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p 10, Shirley V. Scott—2012 Mapulezidenti ŵanyake awo ŵakazakaŵa mapulezidenti ŵakaleka kusambira panji kuchita ntchito ya uloya pambere ŵandazgoke mapulezidenti. Palije nyengo iyo munthu wakakhumbikwiranga kuŵa na katundu kuti waŵe pulezidenti panji kuŵa na udindo unyake wa boma, kweni mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya republic, pakaŵa [[Property qualification#United States of America|vyakukhumbikwa vya katundu kuti munthu wavote]] panji kuti waŵe pa maudindo ghanyake agho ghakafiskanga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti, chomenechomene pa udindo wa kazembe wa boma. Pambere Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene yindachitike, chikaŵa chakuzara kuti mapulezidenti ŵaŵe ŵanthu ŵa katundu munandi: mapulezidenti ŵa ku North kanandi ŵakaŵa na mafamu ghachoko, apo ŵanandi ŵa ku South ŵakaŵa na minda yikuru ndiposo [[List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves|ŵazga]].{{cite news|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=November 10, 2016|work=24/7 Wall St.|access-date=April 10, 2019|publisher=247wallst.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410142809/https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=Whitney |first1=Gleaves |title=Slaveholding Presidents |url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=ask_gleaves |website=Ask Gleaves |publisher=Grand Valley State University |access-date=October 14, 2020 |ref=gvsu}} Nangauli mapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakamanyuma ŵakafuma mu ukavu ukuru, ŵanyake, nga ni mbumba ya Roosevelt, John Kennedy, na Donald Trump, ŵakafuma mu mbumba zisambazi chomene. Ŵanalume 33 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose kwambira mu 1953 na wose kupatulapo yumoza kufuma mu 1901, ŵali kuŵa na digiri ya bachelor. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, [[Ivy League#U.S. presidents in the Ivy League|mapulezidenti 16]] ŵakasanga digiri ya Bachelor panji ya pachanya kufuma ku makoleji gha mu [[Ivy League]]. === Makampeni na kusankhika === {{Main|United States presidential primary|United States presidential nominating convention}} {{See also|United States presidential debates}} [[File:Carter Reagan Debate 10-28-80.png|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Jimmy Carter]] (kumazere) wakudumbiskana na wakwimira chipani cha Republican [[Ronald Reagan]] pa Okutobala 28, 1980, pa nyengo ya [[1980 United States presidential election|kampeni ya visola vya pulezidenti vya United States ya 1980]].]] Kampeni ya mazuŵa ghano ya pulezidenti yikwamba pambere [[United States presidential primary|visola vyakwambilira]] vindachitike, ivyo vipani viŵiri vikuru vya ndyali vikugwiliskira ntchito kupatura ŵakwimira pa visola pambere [[United States presidential nominating convention|misonkhano yawo ya kusankha wakwimira chipani]] yindachitike, uko munthu uyo wapunda chomene wakuzgoka wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti. Kanandi, wakwimira chipani pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakusankha munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, ndipo chisankho ichi [[Rubber stamp (politics)|chikuzomerezgeka]] na msonkhano. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakuchita [[United States presidential debates|nkhani za kudumbiskana]] izo zikuwoneskeka pa TV ya charu chose, ndipo nangauli nkhani izi kanandi zikuperekeka ku ŵakwimira [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] na [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] pera, [[Third party (United States)|ŵakwimira vipani vinyake]] nawo ŵangachemeka, nga ni [[Ross Perot]] pa [[1992 United States presidential debates|nkhani za 1992]]. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakwendakwenda mu charu chose kulongosora maghanoghano ghawo, kukopa ŵavoti na kupempha ndalama zakwendeskera kampeni. Chigaŵa chikuru cha visola vya mazuŵa ghano chikukhwaskana na kupunda mu [[swing state|vyaru vya boma vyakusintha voti]] kwizira mu maulendo ghanandi na malonda gha pa [[mass media]]. === Visola === {{Main|United States presidential election}} {{See also|United States Electoral College}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2028.svg|thumb|293x293px|Mapu gha [[United States]] agho ghakulongora unandi wa mavoti gha Electoral College agho ghakapelekeka ku [[U.S. state|boma]] lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] pamanyuma pa [[2020 United States census]] pa visola vya pulezidenti vya 2024 na 2028. Mavoti 270 gha Electoral College ghakukhumbikwa kuti munthu waŵe na unandi pa mavoti 538 agho ghali ghose.]] Pulezidenti wakusoleka mwambura kulunjika na ŵavoti ŵa boma lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] kwizira mu Electoral College, gulu la ŵakusora ilo likupangika pa vyaka vinayi vilivyose kuti lisore pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake pa nyengo ya vyaka vinayi. Nga umo vikulembekera mu Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, boma lililose likuŵa na unandi wa ŵakusora wakuyana na unandi wa ŵimiliri ŵake mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 23]] yikupereka kuti District of Columbia yiŵe na unandi wa ŵakusora uwo yiŵenge nayo usange yikaŵa boma, kweni yingajumphanga yayi uwo boma ilo lili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene lili nawo.{{Cite web|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-third-amendment|title=Twenty-third Amendment|date=March 29, 1961|website=Annenberg Classroom|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 30, 2018}} Sono, maboma ghose na District of Columbia ghakusankha ŵakusora ŵawo kwizira mu visola vya ŵanthu wose.{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32611.pdf|title=The Electoral College: How It Works in Contemporary Presidential Elections|last=Neale|first=Thomas H.|date=May 15, 2017|website=CRS Report for Congress|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, D.C.|page=13|access-date=July 29, 2018}} Mu maboma ghose kupatulapo ghaŵiri, chipani icho [[Ticket (election)|tikiti]] yake ya pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yapokera [[Plurality (voting)|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] mu boma, chikupokera [[Slate (elections)|gulu lose]] la ŵakusora ŵake kuŵa ŵakusora ŵa boma ilo.{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|title=About the Electors|website=U.S. Electoral College|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721012941/https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|archive-date=July 21, 2018}} [[Maine]] na [[Nebraska]] vikulondezga yayi ndondomeko iyi ya {{nowrap|winner-take-all}}; vikupereka ŵakusora ŵaŵiri kwa uyo wapunda mu boma lose, na yumoza kwa uyo wapunda mu [[List of United States congressional districts|dela lililose la Congress]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|title=Maine & Nebraska|publisher=FairVote|location=Takoma Park, Maryland|access-date=August 1, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802041058/http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.270towin.com/content/split-electoral-votes-maine-and-nebraska/|title=Split Electoral Votes in Maine and Nebraska|website=[[270towin.com]]|access-date=August 1, 2018}} Pa Mande wakwamba pamanyuma pa Chitatu chachiŵiri cha mwezi wa Disembala, pafupifupi masabata ghankhondi na limoza pamanyuma pa visola, ŵakusora ŵakuwungana mu misumba yikuru ya maboma ghawo, na mu Washington, D.C., kuti ŵavotere pulezidenti, ndipo pa pepala linyake la voti, ŵavotere wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Kanandi ŵakuvotera ŵakwimira chipani icho chikaŵasankha. Nangauli palije dango la mu Malango Ghakuru panji la boma ilo likuŵakakamizga kuchita nthena, District of Columbia na maboma 32 ghali na malango agho ghakukhumba kuti ŵakusora ŵavotere ŵakwimira awo ŵali [[Promise|kulayizgika]] kuvotera.{{cite web |title=Faithless Elector State Laws |url=https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |website=Fair Vote |access-date=March 4, 2020 |archive-date=December 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219162610/https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |title=Laws Binding Electors |url=http://presidentialelectorlaws.us |access-date=March 4, 2020}} Kuzomerezgeka kwa malango agha kukakhozgeka mu mulandu wa ''[[Chiafalo v. Washington]]'' (2020).{{Cite web|last=Howe|first=Amy|date=July 6, 2020|title=Opinion analysis: Court upholds "faithless elector" laws|url=https://www.scotusblog.com/2020/07/opinion-analysis-court-upholds-faithless-elector-laws/|access-date=July 11, 2020|website=[[SCOTUSblog]]}} Pamanyuma pa kuvota, boma lililose likutumizga mbiri yakukhozgeka ya mavoti ghake gha Electoral College ku Congress. Mavoti gha ŵakusora ghakujurika na kuŵerengeka pa ungano wakuphatikizika wa Congress uwo ukuchitika mu sabata yakwamba ya Janyuwale. Usange wakwimira pa visola wapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti, sono 270 pa 538, munthu yura wakupharazgika kuŵa wapunda. Para palije uyo wapokera mavoti agha, [[Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] yikwenera kuwungana kuti yisore pulezidenti kwizira mu ndondomeko ya [[visola vyapadera]], umo ŵimiliri, awo ŵakuvota mwakuyimira boma lawo, ndipo boma lililose likupeleka voti yimoza, ŵakusankhapo pakati pa ŵanthu ''ŵatatu'' awo ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti, wakwimira pa visola wakwenera kupokera mavoti gha unandi wa maboma, sono 26 pa maboma 50. Mu mbiri ya charu ichi, pali visola viŵiri pera vya pulezidenti ivyo vikamara na [[visola vyapadera]]. Mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1800|visola vya 1800]], [[Thomas Jefferson]] na munyake wa chipani cha Democratic-Republican [[Aaron Burr]] ŵakapokera mavoti ghakuyana, 73–73, gha Electoral College, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti pakhale visola vyapadera vyakwamba. Vikachitika mwakukolerana na ndondomeko yakwamba iyo yikakhazikiskika na [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 3: Electoral College|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 3]] ya Dango Likuru, ilo likuti usange ŵanthu ŵaŵiri panji ŵatatu ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi ndiposo ghakuyana, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikusankha yumoza wa iwo kuŵa pulezidenti; ndipo uyo waŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri wakuzgoka wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti.{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Article II: Electoral College|last=Kuroda|first=Tadahisa|website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=July 27, 2018}} Pa Febuluwale 17, 1801, Jefferson wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti ya 36, ndipo Burr wakasankhika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Pamanyuma pake, ndondomeko iyi yikasinthika kwizira mu [[Amendment ya 12 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 12]] kuti yigwiliskike ntchito pa [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1804|visola vya 1804]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Amendment XII: Electoral College|last=Fried|first=Charles|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=February 20, 2018}} Pakati pajumpha vyaka pafupifupi 25, kusankha pulezidenti kukaweleraso ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri apo palije wakwimira pa visola uyo wakapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College, 131 pa 261, mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1824|visola vya 1824]]. Kuyana na Amendment ya 12, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikeneranga kusankha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College: [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], na [[William H. Crawford]]. Visola vyapadera ivi vyachiŵiri, ndiposo vyamumaliro mpaka sono, vikachitika pa Febuluwale 9, 1825, ndipo vikapangiska kuti John Quincy Adams wasankhike kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti yakwamba.{{Cite book|last=Boller|first=Paul F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZ_fSmFIabQC|title=Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-516716-0|edition=2nd revised|location=New York, New York|pages=36–39|access-date=August 2, 2018}} === [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo]] === {{Main|[[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 20 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 20]], nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yikwamba pa 12 koloko muhanya pa Janyuwale 20, mu chaka icho chikulondezga visola vya pulezidenti ivyo vyajumpha.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx |title=The Twentieth Amendment |last1=Larson |first1=Edward J. |last2=Shesol |first2=Jeff |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Nyengo zakwamba za uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake izo zikambira pa zuŵa ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Zuŵa la kunjira pa udindo]], zikaŵa [[Kunjira pa udindo kwachiŵiri kwa Franklin D. Roosevelt|nyengo yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti]] wa Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Nance Garner]] mu 1937.{{Cite web |url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True |title=The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January 20, 1937 |publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Kale, Zuŵa la Kunjira pa Udindo likaŵa pa Malichi 4. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa deti ili, nyengo yakwamba ya uteŵeti (1933–37) ya ŵanalume aŵa yikachepeskeka na {{age in days|1937|1|20|1937|3|4}} mazuŵa.{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf |title=Commencement of the Terms of Office: Twentieth Amendment |website=Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation |publisher=United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=2297–98 |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Pambere wandambe kugwiliskira ntchito mazaza gha udindo wake, pulezidenti wakwenera [[Kuyowoya mwakuzomerezgeka|kuyowoya]] [[Chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti]], icho chili mu [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 8: Chilapo panji kukhozgera|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 8 ya Dango Likuru]]. Ichi ndicho chigaŵa chekha cha mwambo wa kunjira pa udindo icho chikukhumbikwa na Dango Likuru: {{blockquote|Nikulapa mwakuzirwa (panji [[Kukhozgera mu malango|kukhozgera]]) kuti nichitenge mwakugomezgeka ntchito ya Udindo wa Pulezidenti wa United States, ndipo mwakukwaniska kwane, nisungenge, nivikirirenge, na kudefendera Dango Likuru la United States.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Oath of Office |last=Kesavan |first=Vasan |website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 2, 2018}}}} Mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵika woko limoza pa [[Baibolo|Baibolo]] apo ŵakulapa chilapo, ndipo ŵakusazgapo mazgu ghakuti "Chiuta wanovwire" paumaliro wa chilapo.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |title=How Presidents use Bibles at inaugurations |last=NCC Staff |date=January 20, 2017 |website=Constitution Daily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |title=Who said that? A quick history of the presidential oath |last=Munson |first=Holly |date=July 12, 2011 |website=ConstitutionDaily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |url-status=dead }} Nangauli chilapo ichi chingapelekeka na munthu waliyose uyo wali na mazaza gha kulolezgeka na dango kupereka vilapo, mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakulapiskika na [[Chief Justice wa United States|Chief Justice wa United States]]. == Uteŵeti pa udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, kazembe wa boma la New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakapunda pa visola vya pulezidenti vinayi, [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] yindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, iyo yikakhazikiska malire gha nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu ghaumaliro gha George Washington|Mazgu Ghake Ghaumaliro]] kuti wazamukwimira yayi pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawuzomerezga pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵamanyuma ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora chomene, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano wa Chipani cha Republican wa 1880]] kuti wakwimire pa nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression|Suzgo Likuru la Chuma]] ndiposo pakukhwimiska wovwiri ku vyaru vya [[Allies of World War II|ŵabwezi ŵa nkhondo]] ivyo vikamenyananga na [[Axis powers|vyaru vya Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, ndipo wakaphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikanjilirapo kale mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachinayi nangauli thupi lake likafowokanga; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 ghati ghajumphapo kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi ya uteŵeti.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora nyengo yitali iyo Roosevelt wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti, [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] [[kuzomerezgeka|yikazomerezgeka]] mu 1951. Amendment iyi yikukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri (myezi 24) pa nyengo ya uteŵeti wa vyaka vinayi ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo amendment iyi yikapelekekera ku maboma na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena yayi, nthena wakaŵavya mwaŵi wakwimira pa nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga dankha kupenjera, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalapo ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika pa nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 25 ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Amendment ya 25]], iyo yikazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka udindo. Nyifwa za mapulezidenti zachitikapo kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitikapo kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo yayi. Pambere Amendment ya 25 yindazomerezgeke (iyo yikapambaniska makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kuleka kukwaniska ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoyanga waka kuti wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakutora "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita ntchito zake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Kuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka nadi pulezidenti para udindo wasoŵa munthu, panji wakuŵa waka [[Kuchita udindo mwakanyengo|wakuchita udindo wa pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} icho nthena chikapangiska kuti pachitike [[visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala ghose agho ghakalembekanga kwa "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Udindo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo yake. == Umulongozgi mu udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya udindo === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake uyo wakapikanga nayo pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska visola vinayi vya [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States|pulezidenti]] mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa maudindo ghaŵiri.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu gha George Washington pakulekana na udindo|Mazgu ghake ghakulekana na udindo]] kuti walekenge kupikaso pa nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "maudindo ghaŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira pakweru fundo iyi mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri awo ŵakamulondezga, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa maudindo ghaŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti wapike pa nyengo yachitatu yambura kulondezgana, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhumbanga kovwira [[Ŵabwezi ŵa United States mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose|ŵabwezi ŵa United States]] awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo na [[Mphara za Axis|ŵa Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhika pa nyengo yachitatu, kuphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma, apo United States yikachitanga [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likamba kufoka; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora utali wakuluska wa ulamuliro wa Roosevelt, [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kaŵiri kuluska, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakuluska viŵiri (myezi 24) vya nyengo ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo Sintho ili likatumizgikira ku vyaru na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena wakafwatulikapo yayi, nthena wakatondekanga kupika pa nyengo yake yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga pachoko waka, pakuti wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose ya Roosevelt yakusazgikira ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Pasi pa [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Sintho la nambara 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakuŵa pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiskapo pa udindo wa boma ku United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka ntchito. Nyifwa zachitika kanandi, kuleka ntchito kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la nambara 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu na kuleka kutondeka kuchita ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoya waka kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakupokera "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka ntchito, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Pasi pa ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti waŵenge nadi pulezidenti para malo ghaba ghambura munthu, panji waŵenge waka [[Kuchita ntchito ya munyake mu dango|wakuchita ntchito nga ni pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} ndipo ichi nthena chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Visola vyapadera|visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekanga ku "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomera fundo yake. Para pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵalije wose, Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6 nayo yikupaso mazaza ku Congress kuti yidumbe uyo waŵenge wakuchita ntchito ya pulezidenti para "Pulezidenti na Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti ŵafumiskika pa udindo, ŵafwa, ŵaleka ntchito, panji ŵatondeka kuchita milimo yawo". [[Dango la Kulondezgana pa Udindo wa Pulezidenti la 1947]] (ilo lili mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) likuti usange pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵangateŵetera yayi mu nyengo yawo ya udindo, [[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti]] yikulondezga nthowa iyi: wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwa, pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwaso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[Madipatimenti gha boma la United States|madipatimenti gha boma]] awo ŵakupanga [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]] ya pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}} Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo mulembi wa vya kuwaro ndiyo wali pakwamba pa mzere wa kulondezgana pa udindo. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵa Kabineti ŵakulondezga mwakulondezgana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikaluta m'malo mwa yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo Dango Likuru likuŵazomerezga yayi kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kupokera mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana pa udindo. Pakaŵavya munthu wakudumbika na dango uyo wali kuchitapo ntchito ya pulezidenti. === Kupharazga kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito === {{Main|[[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States]]}} Pasi pa Sintho la nambara 25, pulezidenti wangasamuskira kwa kanyengo mazaza na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Pulezidenti wakuchita milimo wa United States|pulezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata ku [[Wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] na [[Pulezidenti pro tempore wa Senate ya United States|pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakuyowoya kuti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita milimo yake. Pulezidenti wakupokeraso mazaza ghake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti wangachitaso ntchito zake. Nthowa iyi yagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose pambere ŵandachite opaleshoni.{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}} Sintho la nambara 25 likupangaso kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]], wasamuske mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti para ŵatumizga kalata yakulembeka ku wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita mazaza na milimo yake. Usange pulezidenti pamanyuma wayowoya kuti kuleka kukwaniska uku kulije, wakupokeraso mazaza ghake, kweni usange wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti mazaza gha pulezidenti ghafumiskike, pakukhumbikwa mavoti gha magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|[[Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo|Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo]]|[[Kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]|[[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]}} [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 4: Kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikuzomerezga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵakuru ŵa boma, kusazgapo pulezidenti, ŵafumiskike pa udindo chifukwa cha "[[kupandukira charu]], [[kupokera viwongo]], panji [[milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 5: Wakulongozga na ŵalara ŵanyake; kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 2, Ndime 5]] yikupereka mazaza ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichite nga ni "[[juri yikuru]]" yakuti yisuske ŵalara aŵa na voti ya ŵanandi.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Milandu ya kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 3, Ndime 6]] yikupereka mazaza ku Senate kuti yichite nga ni [[khoti]], ndipo yingafumiska pa udindo ŵalara awo ŵasangika na mulandu para ŵavotera na ŵanandi ŵakukwana magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Ŵapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵasuskika na Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Kufumiska Andrew Johnson pa udindo|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Kufumiska Bill Clinton pa udindo|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kakwamba|2019]] na [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kachiŵiri|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu na Senate. [[Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States ya vya Malango|Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya vya Malango]] yikachita kafukufuku wa kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo mu [[Ndondomeko ya kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za kufumiska pa udindo ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichitepo kanthu. Kweni wakaleka ntchito pambere Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yindavotepo pa nkhani izi. === Kulekeska mazaza === Vinthu vyakususkana navyo vichitikirapo nyengo zinyake kwambura kufika pa kumufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo kuti ŵamazge nkharo yake yakuwoneka nga njambura kupwelera panji chifukwa cha kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito kwa nyengo yitali. Nyengo zinyake, ŵantchito ŵakuleka dala kupeleka mauthenga kwa pulezidenti panji kufuma kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵaleke kuchita panji kovwira pulezidenti kulemba malango ghanyake. Ivi vyachitika kufuma apo Mulara wa Ŵantchito ŵa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa pulezidenti, mpaka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumyapo mapepala pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} Vyaka vinandi pambere [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 25]] lindazomerezgeke, mu 1919, Pulezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakadwala [[Ulongozgi wa Woodrow Wilson#Kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito, 1919–1921|sitiroko]] iyo yikamulekeska kuchita milimo yinyake. Muwoli wake wakwamba, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo ku ŵanthu, ndipo mwakususkana, [[Edith Wilson#Udindo ukuru pamanyuma pa sitiroko ya mfumu wake|wakaŵa yekha munthu wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa pulezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala na kusankha ivyo vikaŵa "vyakuzirwa" kuti vimanyiskike kwa iyo.{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha pulezidenti |- ! Chakachakakhazikiskikira !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Malo ghakufumira:{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kwambira mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha pulezidenti ghakhala $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti yambura msonkho ya ndalama zakwendera ya $100,000; na akaunti ya ndalama zakuchitira mphwando ya $19,000{{clarify|date=August 2022}}. Malipiro gha pulezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo pasi pa [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 7: Malipiro|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha pulezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgapo ya pulezidenti yindambe.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}} === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|malo ghakukhala gha boma agho Pulezidenti Washington wakakhalanga|[[Ulongozgi wa George Washington#Malo ghakukhala|Ulongozgi wa George Washington § Malo ghakukhala]]|malo ghakukhala gha munthu yekha gha ŵapulezidenti ŵakupambanapambana ŵa United States|[[Mndandanda wa malo ghakukhala gha ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States]]}} [[Malo Ghakukhala gha Executive]] gha [[White House]] ku [[Washington, D.C.]], ndigho [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha pulezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba la maziko likayikika mu 1792. Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[John Adams]] mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Mu nyengo zakupambanapambana za mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikamanyikwanga kuti "Nyumba ya Pulezidenti", "Nyumba ya Mlongozgi", na "Nyumba ya Executive". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mwalamulo mu 1901.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} Boma la federal ndilo likulipira vyakurya vya pa mphwando za boma na milimo yinyake ya boma, kweni pulezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira ndalama za kulongoska vyakuvwara, vyakurya vya mbumba yake, na vya ŵalendo ŵake.{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Camp David]], ilo mwalamulo likuchemeka Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa ŵasilikari uwo uli mu mapiri mu [[Frederick County, Maryland]]. Ni malo gha pulezidenti ghakupumulirako ku mizi. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kupumura, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kwambira m'ma 1940 pakupokelera ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} == Kukhala pa Udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Purezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wake wakuphalirika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska ma [[chisankho cha purezidenti wa United States|chisankho cha purezidenti]] vinayi, mu [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], na [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]], pambere [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo purezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[George Washington's Farewell Address|mazgu ghake gha kupatura pa udindo]] kuti wangalutilira yayi kuphalirika nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wa boma apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira fundo iyi pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalondezgani ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].<ref name="TermsTenure">{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli mwambo wa kuteŵetera nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[1880 Republican National Convention|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti waphalirikeso nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhazikika pa kovwira ŵabwezi ŵa United States pa nkhondo na [[Axis powers]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso ku nyengo yachitatu, kuswa mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikachitanga nkhondo mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likalutilira kufoka; wakafwa mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi pa Epulero 12, 1945.<ref name="22ndAPPC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Pakuzgora uteŵeti utali wakuluska wa Roosevelt, [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti kanandi kuluska kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange wakateŵetera kujumpha vyaka viŵiri (myezi 24) ya nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya purezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa purezidenti pa nyengo iyo sintho ili likatumizgikira ku maboma na Congress, wakafumiskikapo pa malire agha. Usange mphakawavyenge kulekeskeka uku, mphanyi wakazomerezgekanga yayi kuphalirikaso ku nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga mwachoko kuyipenja, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalako ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949.<ref name=22ndAPPC /> === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana === {{Main|United States presidential line of succession}} Mwakuyana na [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 1: Presidential succession|Gawo 1 la Sintho la Malango la 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakuŵa purezidenti para purezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, panji waleka yekha. Kufwa kwa purezidenti kwachitika kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana), [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Article II, Section 1, Clause 6]] likati waka wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakutora "nkhongono na milimo" ya purezidenti para wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.<ref name="FordhamLaw2011">{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> Mwakuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana usange wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti waŵenge purezidenti nadi para malo ghakhala ghawaka, panji waŵenge waka [[Acting (law)|wakuchita milimo]] ya purezidenti,<ref name="ArticleIIessays">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> ndipo ichi mphanyi chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[chisankho chapadera]]. Pamasinda pakufwa kwa Purezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Purezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti wali kunjira mu udindo uwu wekha, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekera "Purezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo iyi. Usange malo gha purezidenti na gha wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ghose ghawaka pa nyengo yimoza, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 yikovwiraso Congress nkhongono zakulongosora uyo waŵenge wakuchita milimo ya purezidenti para purezidenti na wachiŵiri wake wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yawo.<ref name=ArticleIIessays /> [[Presidential Succession Act]] ya 1947 (iyo yili kulembeka mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) yikulongora kuti usange purezidenti na wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵaleka kutondeka kuteŵetera mu nyengo yawo, [[United States presidential line of succession|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa purezidenti]] yikulondezgana nthena: [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwa, [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwiraso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[United States federal executive departments|madipatimenti gha boma]] agho ghakupanga [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]] ya purezidenti.<ref name="cnn.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}}</ref> Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo nduna ya vya kuwaro ndiyo yili pa malo ghakwamba mu mzere wa kulondezgana. Nduna zinyake zikulondezgana mwakuyana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikazgoka yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika na Dango Likuru kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kutora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana. Palije munthu uyo wakulongosoreka na dango uyo wali kuchitapo milimo ya purezidenti chifukwa cha ndondomeko iyi.<ref name="cnn.com"/> === Kuphara kuti watondeka kuchita milimo === {{Main|Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}} Mwakuyana na Sintho la Malango la 25, purezidenti wangapeleka nkhongono na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti kwa nyengo yichoko waka, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Acting president of the United States|purezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata kwa [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] na [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakulongora kuti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Purezidenti wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakulongora kuti sono wangachitaso milimo yake. Ndondomeko iyi yikagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose ŵakanozgekanga kuchita opareshoni.<ref>{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}}</ref> Sintho la Malango la 25 likulongoraso kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], wangatora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti mwa kutumizga chikalata chakulembeka kwa Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri na purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, chakulongora kuti purezidenti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Usange pamanyuma purezidenti wakuti palije kutondeka kulikose, wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake, kwambura kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizge chikalata chachiŵiri chakulongora kuti watondeka. Para vyachitika nthena, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti purezidenti watoreke nkhongono zake, pakukhumbikwa voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States|Federal impeachment in the United States|Federal impeachment trial in the United States}} [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Impeachment|Article II, Section 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikovwira kufumiska pa udindo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma, kusazgapo purezidenti, chifukwa cha "[[treason|kupandukira charu]], [[bribery|kupokera vimbundi]], panji [[high crimes and misdemeanors|milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Speaker and other officers; Impeachment|Article I, Section 2, Clause 5]] yikovwira Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuchita nga ni [[grand jury]], ndipo yili na nkhongono zakwambiska mulandu wa impeachment na voti ya ŵanandi.<ref name="A1essaySBP">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Trial of Impeachments|Article I, Section 3, Clause 6]] yikovwira Senate kuchita nga ni [[court|khoti]] ilo lili na nkhongono zakufumiska pa udindo ŵanthu awo ŵasangika na mulandu wa impeachment, na voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Apurezidenti ŵatatu ŵali kupika mulandu wa impeachment na Nyumba ya Wimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[First impeachment of Donald Trump|2019]] na [[Second impeachment of Donald Trump|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu mu Senate. [[United States House Committee on the Judiciary|Komiti ya Vyamalango ya Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] yikachita kufufuza kwa impeachment pa Richard Nixon mu [[Impeachment process against Richard Nixon|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za impeachment ku Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuti yivoterenge. Kweni wakaleka udindo pambere Nyumba yindavotere pa nkhani izi.<ref name=A1essaySBP /> === Kulekeska nkhongono za purezidenti mwa nthowa zinyake === Nthowa zakususkana zinyake zili kugwiliskirika ntchito, kwambura kufumiska purezidenti pa udindo, kuti ŵachitepo kanthu pa purezidenti uyo wakuwoneka kuŵa wakupusa panji uyo wali na suzgo la nyengo yitali. Mu vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakakana dala kupeleka mauthenga ku purezidenti panji kufumira kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵalekeske kuchita panji kukhozgera malango agho purezidenti wakakhumbanga kulemba. Ivi vikachitika kufuma pa apo Chief of Staff wa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa purezidenti, m'paka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumiskanga memos pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}}</ref> Vyaka vinandi pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindachitike, mu 1919, Purezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakapwetekeka na [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson#Incapacity, 1919–1921|stroke]] iyo yikamulemesa pachoko. Mwanakazi wake, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo yinyake, ndipo mwakususkana wakazgoka [[Edith Wilson#Increased role after husband's stroke|munthu yekha wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa purezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala ndipo wakasankhanga uthenga uwo wakaŵa "wakukhumbikwa" kuti ulongoreke kwa iyo. === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha purezidenti |- ! Chaka !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu<br />{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Vyakufumira:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kufuma mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha purezidenti ni $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti ya ulendo ya $100,000 yambura msonkho; na akaunti ya kulandilirako ŵalendo ya $19,000. Malipiro gha purezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo mwakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Salary|Article II, Section 1, Clause 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha purezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgako ya purezidenti yindambe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref><ref name="cnbc"/> === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|the official residences in which President Washington resided|Presidency of George Washington#Residences|the private residences of the various U.S. presidents|List of residences of presidents of the United States}} [[Executive Residence]] ya [[White House]] mu [[Washington, D.C.]], ndiyo [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba likayikika mu 1792. Purezidenti waliyose kufuma pa John Adams mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Pa nyengo zakupambanapambana mu mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikachemekanga "President's Palace", "President's House", na "Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mu 1901.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Boma la federali ndilo likulipira chakurya cha boma na vyakuchitika vinyake vya boma, kweni purezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira vyakurya vyake, vya banja lake, vya ŵalendo ŵake, kweniso kuwuska malaya ghake.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Camp David]], ilo likumanyikwa mwaboma kuti Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa nkhondo wa mu mapiri ku [[Frederick County, Maryland]], ndipo ni malo gha kupumulirako gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kuzgeŵa phokoso, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kulandira ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake kufuma m'ma 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> === Kuleka ntchito ya pulezidenti (Post-presidency) === [[File:Five Presidents Oval Office.jpg|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumalyero: Mapulezidenti [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] mu [[Oval Office]] pa Janyuwale 7, 2009; Obama wakanjira pa udindo mazuŵa 13 pamanyuma.]] ==== Milimo iyo ŵakuchita pamanyuma pa udindo ==== Mapulezidenti ghanyake ghakale ghakaŵa na ntchito zikuru chomene pamanyuma pakufuma pa udindo. Viyelezgero vikuru ni [[William Howard Taft]], uyo wakaŵa [[Chief Justice of the United States|mweruzgi mukuru wa United States]], na [[Herbert Hoover]], uyo wakalongozga ntchito zakuweleraso kupanga boma pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]]. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri ŵakaweleraso ku [[United States Congress|Congress]] pamanyuma pakufuma mu White House: [[John Quincy Adams]] wakasankhika ku [[United States House of Representatives|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]], uko wakateŵetera vyaka 17, ndipo [[Andrew Johnson]] wakaweleraso ku [[United States Senate|Senate]] mu 1875, nangauli wakafwa nyengo yichoko waka pamanyuma. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri nawo ŵakaweleraso ku upulezidenti: [[Grover Cleveland]] wakathera pa [[1888 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1888]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[1892 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1892]], apo [[Donald Trump]] wakathera pa [[2020 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2020]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[2024 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2024]]. Ŵapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakakhalaso ŵakuchita vinandi pa nkhani za pa charu chose, kusazgapo [[Theodore Roosevelt]],<ref>Edmund Morris, ''Colonel Roosevelt'' (2011)</ref> [[Herbert Hoover]],<ref>Gary Dean Best, ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964'' (2013)</ref> [[Richard Nixon]],<ref>Kasey S. Pipes, ''After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon'' (2019)</ref> na [[Jimmy Carter]].<ref>Douglas Brinkley. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House'' (1998).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = John Whiteclay | first1 = Chambers II | year = 1979 | title = Presidents Emeritus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heritage_june-july-1979_30_4/page/16 | journal = American Heritage | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 16–25 }}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakwambilira ŵakaweleranga ku vikaya vyawo kukulongozga ntchito zachitemwa, panji kulaŵilira milimo yaulimi pa minda yawo na mapulante awo ghakanyalanyazgika apo ŵakaŵa pa udindo. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakambiska [[University of Virginia]] pamanyuma pa upulezidenti wake, ndipo wakati wafwa, [[James Madison]] ndiyo wakamulondezga nga ni rector. Madison na [[James Monroe]] nawo ŵakawovwira kulemba mtundu umoza wa [[Virginia Constitution]], apo [[John Tyler]] wakateŵeteranga pa [[Confederate Constitution]] na mu [[Confederate Congress]]. Mapulezidenti ŵa pa nyengo iyo ŵaleka udindo ŵangatumika na pulezidenti uyo wali pa udindo kuti ŵafikiskenge mauthenga ghachisisi ku vyaru vinyake panji kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵaboma pa nyifwa za ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na pa vyakuchitika vikuru vya pa charu chose.<ref name="apreaction19810331">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |title=Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States |date=March 31, 1981 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name="4presidentsphotos">{{Cite web |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |title=Four Presidents |publisher=Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=April 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] wakachita maulendo ghanandi ku vyaru nga ni China na Russia ndipo wakalumbikika nga ni mulongozgi wakumanyikwa chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richardnixon |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=Biography of Richard M. Nixon |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |date=December 30, 2014 }}</ref> Mu [[Post-presidency of Jimmy Carter|umoyo wake pamanyuma pa upulezidenti]], [[Jimmy Carter]] wakaŵa mulimbikira wa [[human rights]], muphalamano wa pa charu chose, na mulaŵiliri wa visankho, ndipo wakapokera [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. [[Bill Clinton]] nayo wakateŵeteranga nga ni nthumwi yambura udindo wa boma, chomenechomene pa kudumbiskana uko kukapangiska kuti ŵamasulike ŵalembi ŵa nkhani ŵa ku America [[Laura Ling]] na [[Euna Lee]] kufuma ku [[North Korea]]. Pa nyengo ya upulezidenti wake, [[George W. Bush]] wakapempha ŵapulezidenti ŵakale [[George H. W. Bush]] na Clinton kuti ŵawovwire pa ntchito za wovwiri wa ŵanthu pamanyuma pa [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]. Pulezidenti Obama nayo wakachita mwakuyana waka pakupempha Clinton na George W. Bush kuti ŵalongozge ntchito zakovwira Haiti pamanyuma pa [[2010 Haiti earthquake|chindindindi chikuru]] icho chikaparanya charu ichi mu 2010. Ubwezi wa Clinton na ŵa Bush ŵaŵiri ukaŵa wakwamba yayi pakati pa ŵapulezidenti ŵakale; Carter wakaŵaso na ubwezi na kulemberana makalata na [[Gerald Ford]], apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] na [[John Adams]] nawo ŵakalemberananga makalata kwa nyengo yitali pamanyuma pa maudindo ghawo. [[Post-presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton]] walutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira muwoli wake [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary]] pa [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2008]] na [[Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign|ya 2016]], kweniso wakawovwira Pulezidenti Obama pa [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya kusankhikaso mu 2012]]. Obama nayo walutilira kuŵa wakuchita ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira uyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wake [[Joe Biden]] pa [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2020]], kweniso wakawovwira muteŵeti wa Biden [[Kamala Harris]] pa [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya 2024]] pamanyuma pakuti Pulezidenti Biden [[Withdrawal of Joe Biden from the 2024 United States presidential election|wafumiskepo bid yake ya kusankhikaso]]. Pamanyuma pakutaya chisankho cha 2020, Trump wakalutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali ndipo wakasuskanga chomene mulondezgi wake na chipani cha Democratic Party. Wakasanganaso na milandu yinayi ya uchigeŵenga. Trump wakapharazga kuti waŵengepo pa chisankho cha upulezidenti kachinayi mu 2022, ndipo pamanyuma wakazgoka msankho wa chipani chake kachitatu, ndipo wakatheraso pa udindo wa upulezidenti mu 2024. ==== Penshoni na vyawanangwa vinyake ==== [[Former Presidents Act]] (FPA), iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1958, yikupereka vyawanangwa vya umoyo wose ku ŵapulezidenti ŵakale na ŵalongosi ŵawo, kusazgapo penshoni ya mwezi uliwose, chovwiri cha munkhwala mu vipatala vya ŵasilikari, inshuwalansi ya umoyo, na chivikiliro cha [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]]. Ndiposo boma likupeleka ndalama za ŵantchito ŵanyake na za ofesi. Dango ili lasinthika kanandi kuti likwezge ndalama za penshoni na za ŵantchito ŵa maofesi. FPA yikupereka yayi vyawanangwa ivi kwa pulezidenti uyo wakafumiskika pa udindo chifukwa cha [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeachment]].<ref name="CRS">{{cite web |author1=Stephanie Smith |title=Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |website=Federation of American Scientists |publisher=Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress |access-date=November 10, 2020 |date=March 18, 2008 |archive-date=January 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107170308/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mwakuyana na lipoti la [[Congressional Research Service]] la 2008:<ref name="CRS" /> <blockquote>Ŵalongozgi ŵakuru awo ŵakafumanga pa udindo pambere chaka cha 1958 chindafike kanandi ŵakalutiliranga kuchita ntchito zinyake ndipo ŵakapokeranga wovwiri uliwose yayi kufuma ku boma la federal. Apo mubizinesi Andrew Carnegie wakapharazga ndondomeko mu 1912 yakuti waŵapenge ŵapulezidenti ŵakale penshoni ya $25,000 pa chaka, ŵabali ŵanandi ŵa Congress ŵakawona kuti ntchambura kwenelera kuti kampani ya munthu payekha ndiyo yipelekenge penshoni yanthena. Mu chaka chenechira, dango lakukhazikiska mapenshoni gha ŵapulezidenti likayambiska kudumbiskika kakwamba, kweni likazomerezgeka yayi. Mu 1955, Congress yikawerezgaso kudumbiskana za dango ili chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ndalama agho wakaŵa nagho pulezidenti wakale Harry S. Truman pakulemba ŵantchito ŵa ofesi.</blockquote> Penshoni yakwezgeka kanandi mwakuzomerezgeka na Congress. Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale ŵakupokera penshoni yakuyana na malipiro gha mlembi wa dipatimenti ya Cabinet wa boma ilo lili pa udindo, agho ghakaŵa $199,700 pa chaka mu 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf |title=President of the United States: Compensation |last=Schwemle |first=Barbara L. |date=October 17, 2012 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale awo ŵakateŵeteraso mu Congress ŵangapokeraso [[congressional pension]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/01/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370-million.html |title=Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks |date=January 7, 2007 |website=[[The Blade (Toledo)|Toledo Blade]] |access-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> Dango ili likupelekaso ndalama za maulendo na wanangwa wa [[franking]]. Pambere chaka cha 1997 chindafike, ŵapulezidenti wose ŵakale, ŵawoli ŵawo, na ŵana ŵawo ŵasinkhu wa pasi pa vyaka 16 ŵakavikilirikanga na [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] mpaka nyifwa ya pulezidenti.<ref>{{usc|18|3056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |title=Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses |date=January 10, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |archive-date=August 23, 2016 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> Mu 1997, Congress yikadumura dango lakuti chivikiliro cha Secret Service chiŵe cha vyaka 10 pera kufuma apo pulezidenti wafumira pa udindo.<ref name="secretservice.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ |title=United States Secret Service: Protection |publisher=United States Secret Service |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> Pa Janyuwale 10, 2013, Pulezidenti Obama wakasayina dango ilo likawelereska chivikiliro cha umoyo wose cha Secret Service kwa iyomwene, [[George W. Bush]], na ŵapulezidenti wose awo ŵazamwiza pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/jan/10/inside-politics-obama-signs-protection-bill-for-fo/?page=all |title=Obama signs protection bill for former presidents |date=January 10, 2013 |work=The Washington Times |access-date=August 14, 2013}}</ref> [[First Spouse of the United States|Muwoli wa pulezidenti]] uyo wakutoraso nthengwa wakuleka kuŵa wakwenelera kupokera chivikiliro cha Secret Service.<ref name="secretservice.gov" /> === Kulemba mabuku === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa mapulezidenti gha United States}} Kufuma apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiska buku lake la ''[[Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant|Personal Memoirs]]'' mu 1885, mapulezidenti ghanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo mpaka wamara nyengo yake kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] kufika kwa [[Barack Obama]], walemba buku limoza panji ghakujumpha limoza la umoyo wake. Mabuku agha gha umoyo ghakuchita vinthu viŵiri: kuvikilira chuma cha Banja Lakwamba (First Family) (Bill Clinton wakasangapo ndalama zakujumpha $30 miliyoni chifukwa cha kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgeraso mbiri ya upulezidenti wawo. === Kulemba === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Kwambira apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiskira buku lake la ''[[Mabuku gha Umoyo gha U. S. Grant]]'' mu 1885, ŵapurezidenti ŵanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo m'paka kumalizga nyengo yake ya uteŵeti kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] mpaka [[Barack Obama]], ŵalemba buku limoza panji vinandi vya umoyo wawo. Mabuku agha ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ghali na vilato viŵiri: kuvikilira ndalama za [[Banja Lakwamba la United States|Banja Lakwamba]] (mwachiyelezgero, [[Bill Clinton]] wakasanga ndalama zakujumpha madola 30 miliyoni kufuma ku kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgerapo mbiri ya ulamuliro wawo. === Malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti na malo ghakale === {{Main|Ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|Mndandanda wa nyumba za ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Nyumba izo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakababikiramo, ŵakakhalamo, panji ŵakapumulirangamo, kanandi zikusungika nga ni [[nyumba ya museum]] ndipo zikumanyikwa nga ni [[Mndandanda wa malo ghakale gha charu na mapaki gha mbiri gha United States|Malo Ghakale gha Charu]] panji kulembeka pa [[U.S. National Register of Historic Places]]. [[File:George W. Bush Presidential Center dedication.tif|alt=|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumanja: Ŵapurezidenti [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] pa kujulira [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]] ku [[Dallas]] mu 2013.]] Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[Herbert Hoover]] wali kupanga [[malo ghakusungiramo vyakulemba]] agho ghakumanyikwa kuti [[ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|laibulale ya pulezidenti]] kuti ŵasungemo mapepala ghake, marekodi, na vinthu vinyake. Malaibulale agho ghazamala kuzengeka ghakuperekeka na kusungika na [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (NARA); ndalama zakwamba zakuzengera na kuvikonzeska zikufuma ku ŵanthu pawokha, osati ku boma la federal.<ref>{{usc|44|2112}}</ref> Pasono pali malaibulale 13 gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghali mu ndondomeko ya NARA. Paliso malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghakusungika na maboma gha vigaŵa, maziko gha ŵanthu pawokha, kweniso mayunivesite, nga ni: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Abraham Lincoln]], iyo yikwendeskeka na Boma la [[Illinois]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Southern Methodist University]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George H. W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Texas A&M University]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Lyndon Baines Johnson]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[University of Texas at Austin]]. Ŵapurezidenti ŵanyake ŵakawoneseska kuzenga na kujulira malaibulale ghawo ŵekha. Ŵanyake ŵakanozga kuti ŵazakasungikike pamalo agha para ŵafwa. Malaibulale ghanandi gha ŵapurezidenti ghali na madindi gha pulezidenti uyo ghakumulongosora: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Harry S. Truman]] ku [[Independence, Missouri]]; * [[Laibulale, Museum na Nyumba ya Uwana ya Dwight D. Eisenhower]] ku [[Abilene, Kansas]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Richard Nixon]] ku [[Yorba Linda, California]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Ronald Reagan]] ku [[Simi Valley, California]]. Madindi agha ghali kujulika ku ŵanthu wose. Mu viyelezgero vinyake (nga ni vya Nixon), laibulale ya pulezidenti yili pafupi na nyumba yake yakale. Kweni kwa ŵanyake, nga ni [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] na [[Jimmy Carter]], laibulale ya pulezidenti na malo ghakale vili mu misumba yakupambana. == Chipani cha ndale == [[Vipani vya ndale vya United States|Vipani vya ndale]] vyalongozga [[Ndale za United States|ndale za America]] kwa nyengo yitali chomene ya mbiri ya charu ichi. Nangauli [[Ŵadada ŵakwambiska United States]] ŵakawonanga vipani vya ndale kuti vingagaŵa na kunanga wumoza wa charu, ndipo kuŵapo kwake kukayembekezgekanga yayi apo [[Dango Likuru la United States]] likalembekanga mu 1787, vipani vya ndale vyakukhazikika vikamba kuwoneka pakati pa m'ma 1790. Vikafuma ku [[gulu la ndale|magulu gha ndale]], agho ghakamba kuwoneka mwaluŵiro chomene pamanyuma pakukhazikika kwa boma la federal. Awo ŵakawovwiranga [[Ulamuliro wa George Washington]] ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵakukhozgera boma", ndipo pamanyuma ŵakapanga [[Federalist Party]], apo awo ŵakasuskanga ŵakakolerana na [[Democratic-Republican Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm|title=U.S. Senate: Party Division|publisher=U.S. Senate|access-date=January 2, 2017}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kufipa mtima na nkhongono izo vipani vya ndale vingamanya kuparanya wumoza wa charu, Washington wakakhalira [[wandale wambura chipani]] mu nyengo yose ya vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya ulamuliro wake. Wakaŵa, ndipo wachali, pulezidenti yekha wa United States uyo wandakhalepo wa chipani chilichose cha ndale.<ref name="GWpps">{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/dec/31/george-washingtons-views-political-parties-america/|title=George Washington's views on political parties in America|last=Jamison|first=Dennis|date=December 31, 2014|website=[[The Washington Times]]|access-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/political-parties/|title=Political Parties|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|location=Mount Vernon, Virginia|access-date=March 24, 2019}}</ref> Kwambira pa Washington, pulezidenti waliyose wa United States wakaŵa wa chipani cha ndale apo wakanjiliranga pa udindo. Ndipo kwambira mu 1869, pulezidenti waliyose wakaŵa wa [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] panji [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.enchantedlearning.com/history/us/pres/list.shtml|title=The Presidents of the United States of America|website=Enchanted Learning|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidentsusa.net/partyofpresidents.html|title=Political Parties of the Presidents|website=Presidents USA|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵapurezidenti malinga na chipani icho ŵakaŵamo apo ŵakalapanga ntchito pakwamba ni ichi: {| class=wikitable |- ! colspan=2| Chipani ! {{vertical header|Chiŵelengero cha<br>ŵapurezidenti}} ! Mazina |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Republican Party (United States)}}" | | [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |19 | [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[Gerald Ford]], [[James A. Garfield]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[Warren G. Harding]], [[Benjamin Harrison]], [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], [[Herbert Hoover]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{efn|Republican Abraham Lincoln wakasankhikaso pa tikiti ya [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] pamoza na Democrat Andrew Johnson mu 1864.}} [[William McKinley]], [[Richard Nixon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[William Howard Taft]], na '''[[Donald Trump]] (wali pa udindo)''' |- | style="background: {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}};" | | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | style="text-align: center;" |15 | [[Joe Biden]], [[James Buchanan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Franklin Pierce]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Martin Van Buren]], na [[Woodrow Wilson]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}" | | [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], na [[James Monroe]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Whig Party (United States)}}" | | [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[Millard Fillmore]], [[William Henry Harrison]], [[Zachary Taylor]], na [[John Tyler]]{{efn|Democrat John Tyler wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya Whig pamoza na Harrison mu 1840. Ndondomeko zake apo wakaŵa pulezidenti zikapambana na ivyo Whig Party yikakhumbanga, ndipo chipani chikamufumiska mu Seputembala 1841.}} |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Federalist Party}}" | | [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[John Adams]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|National Union Party (United States)}}" | | nowrap | [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[Andrew Johnson]]{{efn|Democrat Andrew Johnson wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya National Union Party pamoza na Republican Abraham Lincoln mu 1864. Pamanyuma, apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, wakayezga kupanga chipani cha ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo pasi pa mbendera ya National Union kweni wakatondeka. Kufupi naumaliro wa ulamuliro wake, wakaweleraso ku Democratic Party.}} |- | style="background:#f5f5f5" | | [[Independent politician (United States)|Wambura chipani]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[George Washington]] |} == Nyengo ya ŵapurezidenti == {{see also|Mndandanda wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} [[Bar chart|Chati ya nyengo]] iyi yikulongora umo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakendeleranga mu nyengo kweniso [[chipani cha ndale]] icho ŵakaŵamo pa nyengo iyo ŵakanjiranga pa udindo. <div class="center">{{#tag:timeline| ImageSize = width:1500 height:auto barincrement:18 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:20 right:130 left:10 AlignBars = late DateFormat = x.y Period = from:1788.90 till:{{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/6}} TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1790 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1789 Define $now = {{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/12}} Colors = id:5year value:rgb(0.8, 0.8, 0.8) id:0year value:rgb(0.6, 0.6, 0.6) id:noparty value:rgb(0.7, 0.7, 0.7) id:fed value:rgb(0.85, 0.52, 0.38) id:demrep value:rgb(0, 0.5, 0) id:whig value:rgb(0.84, 0.74, 0.34) id:nlunion value:rgb(0.7, 0.13, 0.13) id:dem value:rgb(0.2, 0.2, 1) id:rep value:rgb(1, 0.2, 0.2) id:seat1 value:rgb(0.60,0.10,0.10) id:blank value:white BarData = barset:PresidentLine barset:Presidents PlotData= width:1 align:right fontsize:S shift:(-3,-4) anchor:from fontsize:8 color:black barset:PresidentLine from:1804 till:end text:Ŵapurezidenti width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till fontsize:10 barset:Presidents from:1789.40 till:1797.17 color:noparty text:"George Washington" from:1797.17 till:1801.17 color:fed text:"John Adams" from:1801.17 till:1809.17 color:demrep text:"Thomas Jefferson" from:1809.17 till:1817.17 color:demrep text:"James Madison" from:1817.17 till:1825.17 color:demrep text:"James Monroe" from:1825.17 till:1829.17 color:demrep text:"John Quincy Adams" from:1829.17 till:1837.17 color:dem text:"Andrew Jackson" from:1837.17 till:1841.17 color:dem text:"Martin Van Buren" from:1841.17 till:1841.26 color:whig text:"William Henry Harrison" from:1841.26 till:1845.17 color:whig text:"John Tyler" from:1845.17 till:1849.17 color:dem text:"James K. Polk" from:1849.17 till:1850.52 color:whig text:"Zachary Taylor" from:1850.52 till:1853.17 color:whig text:"Millard Fillmore" from:1853.17 till:1857.17 color:dem text:"Franklin Pierce" from:1857.17 till:1861.17 color:dem text:"James Buchanan" from:1861.17 till:1865.29 color:rep text:"Abraham Lincoln" from:1865.29 till:1869.17 color:nlunion text:"Andrew Johnson" from:1869.17 till:1877.17 color:rep text:"Ulysses S. Grant" from:1877.17 till:1881.17 color:rep text:"Rutherford B. Hayes" from:1881.17 till:1881.73 color:rep text:"James A. Garfield" from:1881.73 till:1885.17 color:rep text:"Chester A. Arthur" from:1885.17 till:1889.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1889.17 till:1893.17 color:rep text:"Benjamin Harrison" from:1893.17 till:1897.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1897.17 till:1901.72 color:rep text:"William McKinley" from:1901.72 till:1909.17 color:rep text:"Theodore Roosevelt" from:1909.17 till:1913.17 color:rep text:"William Howard Taft" from:1913.17 till:1921.17 color:dem text:"Woodrow Wilson" from:1921.17 till:1923.59 color:rep text:"Warren G. Harding" from:1923.59 till:1929.17 color:rep text:"Calvin Coolidge" from:1929.17 till:1933.17 color:rep text:"Herbert Hoover" from:1933.17 till:1945.28 color:dem text:"Franklin D. Roosevelt" from:1945.28 till:1953.05 color:dem text:"Harry S. Truman" from:1953.05 till:1961.05 color:rep text:"Dwight D. Eisenhower" from:1961.05 till:1963.89 color:dem text:"John F. Kennedy" from:1963.89 till:1969.05 color:dem text:"Lyndon B. Johnson" from:1969.05 till:1974.61 color:rep text:"Richard Nixon" from:1974.61 till:1977.05 color:rep text:"Gerald Ford" from:1977.05 till:1981.05 color:dem text:"Jimmy Carter" from:1981.05 till:1989.05 color:rep text:"Ronald Reagan" from:1989.05 till:1993.05 color:rep text:"George H. W. Bush" from:1993.05 till:2001.05 color:dem text:"Bill Clinton" from:2001.05 till:2009.05 color:rep text:"George W. Bush" from:2009.05 till:2017.05 color:dem text:"Barack Obama" from:2017.05 till:2021.05 color:rep text:"Donald Trump" from:2021.05 till:2025.05 color:dem text:"Joe Biden" from:2025.05 till:$now color:rep text:"Donald Trump" LineData= from:1842.00 till:1845.17 atpos:650 color:noparty width:6 from:1885.17 till:1889.17 atpos:439.5 color:dem width:6 from:2017.05 till:2021.05 atpos:52 color:rep width:6 layer:back at:1790.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1795.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1800.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1805.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1810.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1815.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1820.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1825.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1830.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1835.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1840.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1845.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1850.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1855.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1860.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1865.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1870.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1875.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1880.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1885.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1890.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1895.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1900.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1905.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1910.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1915.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1920.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1925.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1930.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1935.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1940.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1945.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1950.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1955.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1960.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1965.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1970.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1975.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1980.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1985.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1990.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1995.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2000.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2005.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2010.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2015.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2020.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2025.00 width:0.1 color:5year }}</div> == Wonani so == {{Portal|United States|Politics}} * [[Outline of American politics]] {{Clear}} == Vyakulemba == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Vinandi == {{Refbegin}} * Edwards, George C. and Thomas G. Howell (eds.). 2009. ''The Oxford Handbook of the American Presidency''. Oxford University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Kernell |first1=Samuel |last2=Jacobson |first2=Gary C. |year=1987 |title=Congress and the Presidency as News in the Nineteenth Century |url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~skernell/resources/congresspresasnews.pdf |journal=Journal of Politics |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=1016–1035 |doi=10.2307/2130782 |jstor=2130782 |s2cid=154834781}} * Howell, William G. 2023. ''The American Presidency: An Institutional Approach to Executive Politics''. Princeton University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Sigelman |first1=Lee |last2=Bullock |first2=David |year=1991 |title=Candidates, issues, horse races, and hoopla: Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988 |url=https://blogs.cornell.edu/bigreddc/files/2013/09/SchoolsAmerican-Politics-Research-1991-Sigelman-5-32.pdf |journal=American Politics Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=5–32 |doi=10.1177/1532673x9101900101 |s2cid=154283367}} * [[John William Tebbel|Tebbel, John William]], and Sarah Miles Watts. ''The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan'' (Oxford University Press, 1985). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131296 online review] * Waterman, Richard W., and Robert Wright. ''The Image-Is-Everything Presidency: Dilemmas in American Leadership'' (Routledge, 2018). * ''[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]]'', published by Wiley, is an academic journal on the presidency. {{Refend}} ==Pa intaneti== {{Sister project links|d=y|wikt=POTUS|voy=y|b=United States Government/The Executive Branch}} * [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House homepage] * [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.pres|United States Presidents Collection. General Collection]], Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University {{Presidents of the United States}} {{Navboxes|list = {{Lists of US Presidents and Vice Presidents}} {{United States topics}} {{US Chief Executives}} {{United States presidential elections}} {{US presidential memorials}} {{United States Armed Forces}} {{White House}} {{Heads of state and government of North America}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa United States| ]] [[Category:Ulongozgi wa pulezidenti wa United States| ]] [[Category:Vyakukhazikiskika mu United States mu 1789]] [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵa United States]] [[Category:Nkhani izo zili na ma timeline gha chithuzithuzi]] t7jpwzrfmp4l036l99vcgv78wda05em 0 47777 124426 123340 2026-11-11T01:10:55Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|palije}} <!-- Chigaŵa ichi cha malongosolekero ghafupi chili mwadala kuti chiŵe "palije" - chonde wonani WP:SDNONE pambere mundasinthenge! --> {{Incomplete list|date=June 2026}} Ichi ntchandanda wa [[political endorsement|vyakukhozgera ŵandyali]] ivyo vikapelekeka na [[Donald Trump]], pulezidenti wa nambara 45 na 47 wa [[United States|Charu cha United States]], pambere wandazgoke pulezidenti kweniso pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa pulezidenti, na pakati pa maulamuliro ghake ghaŵiri. <!-- MUNGASAZGIRAKO VYAKUKHOZGERA VINTHU VYAŴALIŴOSE YAYI KWAMBURA SOURCE NDIPO MUPALIRENDENGE NDANDANDA WA MAZINA KUTOLERA KU A KU Z! --> {{Donald Trump series|expanded=Views and ideology}} == Vyacharu chamukati == (''[[Italic type|Malembo ghakupendekeka]]'' ghakulongora [[incumbent|ŵandyali awo ŵali mu udindo sono]]) === Pambere wandazgoke pulezidenti === ==== 2008 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Udindo !Munthu uyo wakakhozgeka !Vyakafuma |- |{{flagicon|United States of America}} [[2008 United States presidential election|Pulezidenti]] |[[Hillary Clinton]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shabad |first=Rebecca |date=Dec 29, 2015 |title=Trump in 2008: Hillary Clinton would make a "great" president |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-in-2008-hillary-clinton-would-make-a-great-president/ |publisher=CBS News}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Wakathereskeka pa chisankho cha chipani |- |{{flagicon|United States of America}} [[2008 United States presidential election|Pulezidenti]] |[[John McCain]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Allen |first=Mike|date=Sep 17, 2008 |title=Trump endorses McCain on Larry King |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2008/09/trump-endorses-mccain-on-larry-king-013558 |work=Politico}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Wakathereskeka pa chisankho chikuru |} ==== 2012 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Udindo !Munthu uyo wakakhozgeka !Vyakafuma |- |{{flagicon|United States of America}} [[2012 United States presidential election|Pulezidenti]] |[[Mitt Romney]]<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Preston |first1=Mark |last2=Silverleib |first2=Alan |date=Feb 3, 2012 |title=Trump endorses Romney |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/02/02/politics/campaign-wrap |publisher=CNN}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Wakathereskeka pa chisankho chikuru |} ==== 2016 Chisankho cha Senate ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Boma !Munthu uyo wakakhozgeka !Vyakafuma |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2016 United States Senate election in Arizona|Arizona]] |''[[John McCain]]''<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Flores |first=Reena|date=Aug 5, 2016 |title=Donald Trump endorses Ryan, McCain, Ayotte ahead of primary races |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/donald-trump-paul-ryan-endorsement/ |publisher=CBS News}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2016 United States Senate election in Florida|Florida]] |''[[Marco Rubio]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=736016335197458434 |date=May 26, 2016 |title=Poll data shows that @marcorubio does by far the best in holding onto his Senate seat in Florida. Important to keep the MAJORITY. Run Marco!}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2016 United States Senate election in Louisiana|Louisiana]] |[[John Kennedy (Louisiana politician)|John Kennedy]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=805127720749383680 |date=Dec 3, 2016 |title=Our great VPE, @mike_pence, is in Louisiana campaigning for John Kennedy for US Senate. John will be a tremendous help to us in Washington.}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|New Hampshire}} [[2016 United States Senate election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]] |''[[Kelly Ayotte]]''<ref name=":5" /> |{{Icon|no}} Wakathereskeka pa chisankho chikuru |} ==== 2016 Chisankho cha Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Chigaŵa !Munthu uyo wakakhozgeka !Vyakafuma |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 49th congressional district|CA-49]] |''[[Darrell Issa]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=793524189240188928 |date=November 1, 2016 |title=.@DarrellIssa is a very good man. Help him win his congressional seat in California.}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 1st congressional district|WI-01]] |''[[Paul Ryan]]''<ref name=":5" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |} === Nyengo yake yakwamba nga pulezidenti === ==== 2017 Chisankho cha ŵalongozgi ŵa maboma ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Boma !Munthu uyo wakakhozgeka !Vyakafuma |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[2017 Virginia gubernatorial election|Virginia]] |[[Ed Gillespie]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=916120435762266114 |date=Oct 5, 2017 |title=Ralph Northam,who is running for Governor of Virginia,is fighting for the violent MS-13 killer gangs & sanctuary cities. Vote Ed Gillespie!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Wakathereskeka pa chisankho chikuru |} ==== 2017 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |rowspan="2"|{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2017 United States Senate special election in Alabama|Alabama (special)]] |''[[Luther Strange]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=910635327672512512 |date=Sep 20, 2017 |title=Alabama is sooo lucky to have a candidate like "Big" Luther Strange. Smart, tough on crime, borders & trade, loves Vets & Military. Tuesday!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |[[Roy Moore]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump|number=937641904338063361 |date=Dec 4, 2017 |title=Democrats refusal to give even one vote for massive Tax Cuts is why we need Republican Roy Moore to win in Alabama. We need his vote on stopping crime, illegal immigration, Border Wall, Military, Pro Life, V.A., Judges 2nd Amendment and more. No to Jones, a Pelosi/Schumer Puppet!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2017 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Chigaŵa !Munthu uyo wakapika !Ivyo vikachitika |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2017 Georgia's 6th congressional district special election|GA-06 (chisankho chapadera)]] |[[Karen Handel]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=876901304207069185 |date=Jun 19, 2017 |title=....because he doesn't even live there! He wants to raise taxes and kill healthcare. On Tuesday, #VoteKarenHandel.}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2017 Kansas's 4th congressional district special election|KS-04 (chisankho chapadera)]] |[[Ron Estes]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=851781714028494849 |date=Apr 11, 2017 |title=Ron Estes is running TODAY for Congress in the Great State of Kansas. A wonderful guy, I need his help on Healthcare & Tax Cuts (Reform).}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[2017 Montana's at-large congressional district special election|MT-AL (chisankho chapadera)]] |[[Greg Gianforte]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 May 2017 |title= First on CNN: Trump records robocall for Montana special election |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/05/24/politics/trump-robocall-montana-special-election-ryan-zinke/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2017 South Carolina's 5th congressional district special election|SC-05 (chisankho chapadera)]] |[[Ralph Norman]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=876899176562524160 |date=June 19, 2017 |title=Ralph Norman, who is running for Congress in SC's 5th District, will be a fantastic help to me in cutting taxes, and....}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Wakasankhika''' |} ==== 2018 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[2018 Alaska gubernatorial election|Alaska]] |[[Mike Dunleavy (politician)|Mike Dunleavy]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2018 |user=realDonaldTrump |number=1055555764901822466 |title=.@MikeDunleavyGov will make a fantastic Governor of Alaska. Mike is for Energy and Jobs, is tough on Crime, loves our Vets and our Great Second Amendment. Mike has my Complete and Total Endorsement!}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2018 Arizona gubernatorial election|Arizona]] |''[[Doug Ducey]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=1034128943480299521 |date=Aug 27, 2018 |title=Governor Doug Ducey of Arizona is doing a great job. It would be really nice to show your support tomorrow by voting for him in Tuesdays Primary. Doug is strong on Crime, the Border, and our Second Amendment. Loves our Military & our Vets. He has my full and complete Endorsement.}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[2018 Arkansas gubernatorial election|Arkansas]] |''[[Asa Hutchinson]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=998704493335334912 |date=May 21, 2018 |title=.@AsaHutchinson, the great Governor of Arkansas, is in a primary tomorrow. He has done an incredible job with a focus on lower taxes, border security, and crime prevention. Asa loves our military and our veterans. I fully endorse Asa for Governor!}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[2018 California gubernatorial election|California]] |[[John H. Cox]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=997597940444221440 |date=May 18, 2018 |title=California finally deserves a great Governor, one who understands borders, crime and lowering taxes. John Cox is the man - he'll be the best Governor you've ever had. I fully endorse John Cox for Governor and look forward to working with him to Make California Great Again!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[2018 Colorado gubernatorial election|Colorado]] |[[Walker Stapleton]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 10, 2018 |user=realDonaldTrump |number=1050004777034309633 |title=Walker Stapleton is running as the highly respected Republican Candidate for Governor of the Great State of Colorado. His credentials and talents are impeccable. He has my complete and total Endorsement!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Connecticut }} [[2018 Connecticut gubernatorial election|Connecticut]] |[[Bob Stefanowski]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |user=realDonaldTrump |number=1029724286121074689 |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=It is about time that Connecticut had a real and talented Governor. Bob Stefanowski is the person needed to do the job. Tough on crime, Bob is also a big cutter of Taxes. He will win in November and make a Great Governor, a major difference maker. Bob has my total Endorsement!}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2018 Florida gubernatorial election|Florida]] |[[Ron DeSantis]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 22, 2018 |title=Congressman Ron DeSantis, a top student at Yale and Harvard Law School, is running for Governor of the Great State of Florida. Ron is strong on Borders, tough on Crime & big on Cutting Taxes - Loves our Military & our Vets. He will be a Great Governor & has my full Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1010129956222001153}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2018 Georgia gubernatorial election|Georgia]] |[[Brian Kemp]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 21, 2018 |title=Brian Kemp, who is running for Governor of Georgia and has my full endorsement, is campaigning tonight with VP @mike_pence. Brian is very strong on Crime and Borders, LOVES our Military, Vets and the 2nd Amendment. He will be a GREAT Governor! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1020808378594054144}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2018 Kansas gubernatorial election|Kansas]] |[[Kris Kobach]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 6, 2018 |title=Kris Kobach, a strong and early supporter of mine, is running for Governor of the Great State of Kansas. He is a fantastic guy who loves his State and our Country - he will be a GREAT Governor and has my full & total Endorsement! Strong on Crime, Border & Military. VOTE TUESDAY! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1026495277824401408}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2018 Michigan gubernatorial election|Michigan]] |[[Bill Schuette]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 17, 2017 |title=Attorney General Bill Schuette will be a fantastic Governor for the great State of Michigan. I am bringing back your jobs and Bill will help |user=realDonalTrump |number=909381488445190145}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[2018 Minnesota gubernatorial election|Minnesota]] |[[Jeff Johnson (Minnesota politician)|Jeff Johnson]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=Jeff Johnson of Minnesota had a big night in winning the Republican nomination for Governor against a very strong and well known opponent! Thanks for all of the support you showed me. You have my complete and total Endorsement. You will win in November! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1029717542842052608}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2018 Nevada gubernatorial election|Nevada]] |[[Adam Laxalt]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 12, 2018 |title=I strongly endorse Adam Laxalt for Governor of Nevada. Adam is smart, works hard, and knows how to win. He will be a great Governor. Also, will fight hard to lower your taxes and is tough on crime! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1006619872367804416}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2018 Ohio gubernatorial election|Ohio]] |[[Mike DeWine]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 30, 2018 |title=@MikeDeWine will be a great Governor for the People of Ohio. He is an outstanding man who loves his State – and always produces big.... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1057325714721124355}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2018 Oklahoma gubernatorial election|Oklahoma]] |[[Kevin Stitt]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 30, 2018 |title=Kevin Stitt ran a great winning campaign against a very tough opponent in Oklahoma. Kevin is a very successful businessman who will be a fantastic Governor. He is strong on Crime & Borders, the 2nd Amendment, & loves our Military & Vets. He has my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1035233203609657344}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2018 South Carolina gubernatorial election|South Carolina]] |''[[Henry McMaster]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 9, 2018 |title=Henry McMaster loves the people of South Carolina and was with me from the beginning. He is strong on Crime and Borders, great for our Military and our Vets. He is doing a fantastic job as your Governor, and has my full endorsement, a special guy. Vote on Tuesday! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1005548570332631040}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{Flagicon|South Dakota}} [[2018 South Dakota gubernatorial election|South Dakota]] |[[Kristi Noem]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Akhtar |first=Monica |date=September 7, 2018 |title=Trump endorses Noem in South Dakota |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/video/politics/trump-endorses-noem-in-south-dakota/2018/09/07/1b0b5e5a-b2f2-11e8-8b53-50116768e499_video.html}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2018 Tennessee gubernatorial election|Tennessee]] |[[Bill Lee (Tennessee politician)|Bill Lee]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 3, 2018 |title=Congratulations to Bill Lee of Tennessee on his big primary win for Governor last night. He ran a great campaign and now will finish off the job in November. Bill has my total and enthusiastic Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1025386253892694016}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas gubernatorial election|Texas]] |''[[Greg Abbott]]''<ref name=":7">{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 27, 2018 |title=I want to encourage all of my many Texas friends to vote in the primary for Governor Greg Abbott, Senator Ted Cruz, Lt. Gov. Dan Patrick, and Attorney General Ken Paxton. They are helping me to Make America Great Again! Vote early or on March 6th. |user=realDonalTrump |number=968549117625602054}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2018 Wisconsin gubernatorial election|Wisconsin]] |''[[Scott Walker (politician)|Scott Walker]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=Scott Walker is very special and will have another great win in November. He has done a fantastic job as Governor of Wisconsin and will always have my full support and Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1029716105420595200}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2018 Wyoming gubernatorial election|Wyoming]] |[[Foster Friess]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 21, 2018|title=To the incredible people of the Great State of Wyoming: Go VOTE TODAY for Foster Friess - He will be a fantastic Governor! Strong on Crime, Borders & 2nd Amendment. Loves our Military & our Vets. He has my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1031917972099612673}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |} ==== 2018 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Arizona|Arizona]] |[[Martha McSally]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 29, 2018 |title=Martha McSally is an extraordinary woman. She was a very talented fighter jet pilot and is now a highly respected member of Congress. She is Strong on Crime, the Border and our under siege 2nd Amendment. Loves our Military and our Vets. Has my total and complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1034785759377727490}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Florida|Florida]] |[[Rick Scott]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 27, 2018 |title=Rick Scott of Florida is doing a fantastic job as Governor. Jobs are pouring into the State and its economic health is better than ever before. He is strong on Crime, Borders, and loves our Military and Vets. Vote for Rick on Tuesday! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1034128239579549696}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Indiana|Indiana]] |[[Mike Braun]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 30, 2018 |title=Will be going to Evansville, Indiana, tonight for a big crowd rally with Mike Braun, a very successful businessman who is campaigning to be Indiana's next U.S. Senator. He is strong on Crime & Borders, the 2nd Amendment, and loves our Military & Vets. Will be a big night! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1035162684633825286}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Michigan|Michigan]] |[[John James (Michigan politician)|John James]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 27, 2018 |title=.@JohnJamesMI, who is running in the Republican Primary in the great state of Michigan, is SPECTACULAR! Vote on August 7th. Rarely have I seen a candidate with such great potential. West Point graduate, successful businessman and an African American leader... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1022872574634729472}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[2018 United States Senate special election in Minnesota|Minnesota (special)]] |[[Karin Housley]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 4, 2018 |title=Just made my second stop in Minnesota for a MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN rally. We need to elect @KarinHousley to the U.S. Senate, and we need the strong leadership of @TomEmmer, @Jason2CD, @JimHagedornMN and @PeteStauber in the U.S. House! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1047984297607618565}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2018 United States Senate special election in Mississippi|Mississippi (special)]] |''[[Cindy Hyde-Smith]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 25, 2018 |title=Mississippi, Vote for @cindyhydesmith on Tuesday. Respected by all. We need her in Washington!. Thanks! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1066786854643662848}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Mississippi|Mississippi]] |''[[Roger Wicker]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 5, 2018 |title=Senator @RogerWicker of Mississippi has done everything necessary to Make America Great Again! Get out and vote for Roger, he has my total support! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1003997350791188482}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Missouri|Missouri]] |[[Josh Hawley]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 13, 2018 |title=Senator Claire McCaskill of the GREAT State of Missouri flew around in a luxurious private jet during her RV tour of the state. RV's are not for her. People are really upset, so phony! Josh Hawley should win big, and has my full endorsement. |user=realDonalTrump |number=1006992524366503941}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Montana|Montana]] |[[Matt Rosendale]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 7, 2018 |title=Matt Rosendale will be a Great Senator from a Great State, Montana! He is a fighter who will be tough on Crime and the Border, fight hard for our 2nd Amendment and loves our Military and our Vets. He has my full and complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1038022020691161088}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Nebraska|Nebraska]] |''[[Deb Fischer]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 15, 2018 |title=Nebraska - make sure you get out to the polls and VOTE for Deb Fischer today! |user=realDonalTrump |number=996442654568341505}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Nevada|Nevada]] |''[[Dean Heller]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 3, 2018 |title=Get out and VOTE for @DeanHeller! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1058758825300365312}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[2018 United States Senate election in New Jersey|New Jersey]] |[[Bob Hugin]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 6, 2018 |title=Bob Hugin, successful all of his life, would be a Great Senator from New Jersey. He has my complete and total Endorsement! Get out and Vote for Bob. |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059870147845017601}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Dakota}} [[2018 United States Senate election in North Dakota|North Dakota]] |[[Kevin Cramer]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 13, 2018 |title=Congratulations to @KevinCramer on his huge win in North Dakota. We need Kevin in the Senate, and I strongly endorse him. Heidi voted NO on our Tax Cuts, and always will vote no when we need her. Kevin is strong on Crime & Borders, big on Cutting Taxes! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1007002252467458048}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Ohio|Ohio]] |[[Jim Renacci]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 24, 2018 |title=.@JimRenacci has worked so hard on Tax Reductions, Illegal Immigration, the Border and Crime. I need Jim very badly to help our agenda and to keep MAKING AMERICA GREAT AGAIN! He will be a fantastic Senator for the Great State of Ohio, and has my full endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=988856839893897222}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] |[[Lou Barletta]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 11, 2018 |title=Rep. Lou Barletta, a Great Republican from Pennsylvania who was one of my very earliest supporters, will make a FANTASTIC Senator. He is strong & smart, loves Pennsylvania & loves our Country! Voted for Tax Cuts, unlike Bob Casey, who listened to Tax Hikers Pelosi and Schumer! |user=realDonalTrump |number=962784821389996033}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Tennessee|Tennessee]] |[[Marsha Blackburn]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 19, 2018 |title=.@MarshaBlackburn is a wonderful woman who has always been there when we have needed her. Great on the Military, Border Security and Crime. Loves and works hard for the people of Tennessee. She has my full endorsement and I will be there to campaign with her! |user=realDonalTrump |number=987038167730552832}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Texas|Texas]] |''[[Ted Cruz]]''<ref name=":7" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Utah|Utah]] |[[Mitt Romney]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 19, 2018 |title=.@MittRomney has announced he is running for the Senate from the wonderful State of Utah. He will make a great Senator and worthy successor to @OrrinHatch, and has my full support and endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=965773283554668544}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |rowspan="2"|{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[2018 United States Senate election in West Virginia|West Virginia]] |[[Evan Jenkins (politician)|Evan Jenkins]] ''(co-endorsement with Morrisey)''<ref name="auto">{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 7, 2018 |title=To the great people of West Virginia we have, together, a really great chance to keep making a big difference. Problem is, Don Blankenship, currently running for Senate, can't win the General Election in your State...No way! Remember Alabama. Vote Rep. Jenkins or A.G. Morrisey! |user=realDonalTrump |number=993443781281271808}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |[[Patrick Morrisey]] ''(co-endorsement with Jenkins)''<ref name="auto" /> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] |[[Leah Vukmir]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=Congratulations to Leah Vukmir of Wisconsin on your great win last night. You beat a very tough and good competitor and will make a fantastic Senator after winning in November against someone who has done very little. You have my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1029712857724792832}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2018 United States Senate election in Wyoming|Wyoming]] |''[[John Barrasso]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 31, 2018 |title=.@SenJohnBarrasso has a Primary on August 21st. He doesn't need any help because he is absolutely outstanding in every way, but I hope the great people of Wyoming will go out and show their support anyway. John is absolutely top of the line & has my Complete & Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1024342307624103937}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2018 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !District !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 2nd congressional district|AL-02]] |''[[Martha Roby]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 22, 2018 |title=Congresswoman Martha Roby of Alabama has been a consistent and reliable vote for our Make America Great Again Agenda. She is in a Republican Primary run-off against a recent Nancy Pelosi voting Democrat. I fully endorse Martha for Alabama 2nd Congressional District! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1010126805850902528|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 8th congressional district|AZ-08]] |''[[Debbie Lesko]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 24, 2018 |title=Arizona, please get out today and vote @DebbieLesko for Congress in #AZ08. Strong on Border, Immigration and Crime. Great on the Military. Time is ticking down - get out and VOTE today. We need Debbie in Congress! |user=realDonalTrump |number=988840512571441152|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 8th congressional district|CA-08]] |''[[Paul Cook (politician)|Paul Cook]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 4, 2018 |title=Paul Cook is a decorated Marine Corps Veteran who loves and supports our Military and Vets. He is Strong on Crime, the Border, and supported Tax Cuts for the people of California. Paul has my total and complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1037081791599915008|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 21st congressional district|CA-21]] |''[[Devin Nunes]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 5, 2018 |title=Vote for Congressman Devin Nunes, a true American Patriot the likes of which we rarely see in our modern day world....he truly loves our country and deserves everyone's support! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1003995933540044800|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 23rd congressional district|CA-23]] |''[[Kevin McCarthy]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 5, 2018 |title=Get the vote out in California today for Rep. Kevin McCarthy and all of the great GOP candidates for Congress. Keep our country out of the hands of High Tax, High Crime Nancy Pelosi. |user=realDonalTrump |number=1003987298072002565|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 48th congressional district|CA-48]] |''[[Dana Rohrabacher]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 5, 2018 |title=Dana Rohrabacher has been a great Congressman for his District and for the people of Cal. He works hard and is respected by all - he produces! Dems are desperate to replace Dana by spending vast sums to elect a super liberal who is weak on Crime and bad for our Military & Vets! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059317426653933568|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 49th congressional district|CA-49]] |[[Diane Harkey]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 20, 2018 |title=.@DianeHarkey is an extraordinary woman of great accomplishment & potential. She is running as a very popular Republican for the Congressional seat of my friend Darrell Issa-with his complete support. Diane is strong on crime, loves our Military & Vets-has my total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1031719084680007680|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 1st congressional district|FL-01]] |''[[Matt Gaetz]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 13, 2018 |title=Congressman Matt Gaetz of Florida is one of the finest and most talented people in Congress. Strong on Crime, the Border, Illegal Immigration, the 2nd Amendment, our great Military & Vets, Matt worked tirelessly on helping to get our Massive Tax Cuts. He has my Full Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1017650505043140609|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 2nd congressional district|FL-02]] |''[[Neal Dunn]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 17, 2018 |title=Congressman Neal Dunn (@DunnCampaign) of Florida has done an outstanding job at everything having to do with #MAGA. Now working hard on hurricane relief and rebuild. Strong on Crime, strong on Borders, loves our Military and our Vets. Neal has my highest Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1052644447853453312|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 3rd congressional district|FL-03]] |''[[Ted Yoho]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 9, 2018 |title=Congressman Ted Yoho of Florida is doing a fantastic job and has my complete and total Endorsement! Tough on Crime and Borders, Ted was really helpful on Tax Cuts. Vote all the way for Ted in the upcoming Primary - he will never let you down! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1027600571530969088|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 6th congressional district|FL-06]] |[[Mike Waltz]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 6, 2018 |title=Florida, very important - get out and vote for Florida Congressional Candidate Michael Waltz (R). He has my Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059896399595225089|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 15th congressional district|FL-15]] |[[Ross Spano]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 24, 2018 |title=A vote for Ross Spano in FL-15 is a vote for more jobs and bigger paychecks for Florida families! It's also a vote for a leader who will stand up for our AMERICA FIRST agenda! Vote Spano on Nov. 6th! |url=https://www.facebook.com/DonaldTrump/videos/vote-ross-spano/255101881871360/ |via=Facebook}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Illinois}} [[Illinois's 14th congressional district|IL-14]] |''[[Randy Hultgren]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 6, 2018 |title=Congressman Randy Hultgren (R) of Illinois is doing a great job. Get out and Vote for Randy - Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059897349005283334|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[Iowa's 1st congressional district|IA-01]] |''[[Rod Blum]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 29, 2018 |title=Congressman @RodBlum of Iowa got a desperately needed Flood Wall for Cedar Rapids that was almost impossible to get. He makes a BIG difference for Iowa! Border, Military, Vets etc. We need Rod in D.C. He has my Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1057106631652196354|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[Kansas's 3rd congressional district|KS-03]] |''[[Kevin Yoder]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 18, 2018 |title=Thank you to Congressman Kevin Yoder! He secured $5 BILLION for Border Security. Now we need Congress to support. Kevin has been strong on Crime, the Border, the 2nd Amendment, and he loves our Military and Vets. @RepKevinYoder has my full and total endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1019695583853010944|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 6th congressional district|KY-06]] |''[[Andy Barr]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 13, 2018 |title=Heading to the Great State of Kentucky - Big Rally for Congressman Andy Barr - Fantastic guy, need his vote for MAGA! Strong on Crime, Tax Cuts, Military, Vets & 2nd A. His opponent will NEVER vote for us, only for Pelosi. Andy has my Strongest Endorsement!!! See you in Kentucky. |user=realDonalTrump |number=1051168800324931584|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 3rd congressional district|LA-03]] |''[[Clay Higgins]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 24, 2018 |title=.@RepClayHiggins has been a great help to me on Cutting Taxes, creating great new healthcare programs at low cost, fighting for Border Security, our Military and are Vets. He is tough on Crime and has my full Endorsement. The Great State of Louisiana, we want Clay! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1011053439575576576|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Maine}} [[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]] |''[[Bruce Poliquin]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2018 |title=.@BrucePoliquin from Maine is a great Congressman. He is in a tough fight against a very liberal Nancy Pelosi Democrat. Bruce has helped bring JOBS back to his State and totally protects your Great Second Amendment. We need to keep Bruce in Washington. He has my Full Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1055559438977900544|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 11th congressional district|MI-11]] |Lena Epstein<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 6, 2018 |title=Epstein all the way in Michigan House 11. She is a wonderful person and, at the same time, a real fighter. Has my Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059880322500833281|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 1st congressional district|MN-01]] |[[Jim Hagedorn]]<ref name=":9">{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 4, 2018 |title=Just made my second stop in Minnesota for a MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN rally. We need to elect @KarinHousley to the U.S. Senate, and we need the strong leadership of @TomEmmer, @Jason2CD, @JimHagedornMN and @PeteStauber in the U.S. House! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1047984297607618565|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 2nd congressional district|MN-02]] |''[[Jason Lewis (Minnesota politician)|Jason Lewis]]''<ref name=":9" /> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 3rd congressional district|MN-03]] |''[[Erik Paulsen]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 23, 2018 |title=Congressman Erik Paulsen of the Great State of Minnesota has done a fantastic job in cutting Taxes and Job Killing Regulations. Hard working and very smart. Keep Erik in Congress. He has my Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1054588738641178624|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 6th congressional district|MN-06]] |''[[Tom Emmer]]''<ref name=":9" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 7th congressional district|MN-07]] |Dave Hughes<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 8, 2018 |title=Dave Hughes is running for Congress in the Great State of Minnesota. He will help us accomplish our America First policies, is strong on Crime, the Border, our 2nd Amendmen, Trade, Military and Vets. Running against Pelosi Liberal Puppet Petterson. Dave has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1038437927506923521|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 8th congressional district|MN-08]] |[[Pete Stauber]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=.@PeteStauber won big last night in Minnesota. A big star in Hockey, he will be an even bigger star in politics. It all begins with a win in November. Pete has my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1029722249232826368|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana's at-large congressional district|MT-AL]] |''[[Greg Gianforte]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 3, 2018 |title=If Chuck Schumer and Nancy Pelosi gain the majority, they will try to raise your taxes, restore job-killing regulations, shut down your coal mines and timber mills, take away your healthcare, impose socialism, and ERASE your borders. VOTE for @MattForMontana and @GregForMontana! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1058820790546821120|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[Nevada's 3rd congressional district|NV-03]] |[[Danny Tarkanian]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 15, 2018 |title=.@DannyTarkanian of Nevada is a great friend who supports the Trump Agenda. He is Strong on Crime, the Border and our under siege 2nd Amendment. Danny Loves our Military and our Vets. He has my total and complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1041068591527993344|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[New Jersey's 11th congressional district|NJ-11]] |[[Jay Webber]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 20, 2018 |title=.@JayWebberNJ is running for Congress in the 11th District of New Jersey. He is outstanding in every way. Strong on Borders, loves our Military and our Vets. Big Crime fighter. Jay has my Full and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1042828275121369088|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 1st congressional district|NY-01]] |''[[Lee Zeldin]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 26, 2018 |title=Congressman Lee Zeldin is doing a fantastic job in D.C. Tough and smart, he loves our Country and will always be there to do the right thing. He has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1045003711104331776|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 2nd congressional district|NY-02]] |''[[Peter King (American politician)|Peter King]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 6, 2018 |title=Congressman Peter King of New York is a hardworking gem. Loves his Country and his State. Get out and VOTE for Peter! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059833982777544705|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 11th congressional district|NY-11]] |''[[Dan Donovan (politician)|Dan Donovan]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 30, 2018 |title=There is no one better to represent the people of N.Y. and Staten Island (a place I know very well) than @RepDanDonovan, who is strong on Borders & Crime, loves our Military & our Vets, voted for Tax Cuts and is helping me to Make America Great Again. Dan has my full endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1001973090107248641|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 19th congressional district|NY-19]] |''[[John Faso]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 23, 2018 |title=Congressman John Faso of New York has worked hard and smart. Strong on Crime, Borders and our 2nd Amendment, John is respected by all. Vote for John. He has my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1054759617165754372|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 22nd congressional district|NY-22]] |''[[Claudia Tenney]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 5, 2018 |title=I need @claudiatenney of #NY22 to be re-elected in order to get our big plans moving. Her opponent would be a disaster. Nobody works harder than Claudia, and she is a producer. I look forward to working together with her - she has my Strongest Endorsement! Vote Claudia! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1059460759179198470|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 23rd congressional district|NY-23]] |''[[Tom Reed (politician)|Tom Reed]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 3, 2018 |title=Thank you to Congressman Tom Reed of New York for your wonderful comments on our great new Trade Deal with Mexico and Canada, the USMCA. I have long ago given you my Full Endorsement, and for good reason. Keep up the Great Work! @Varneyco |user=realDonalTrump |number=1047486972976095233|via=Twitter}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 9th congressional district|NC-09]] |[[Mark Harris (North Carolina politician)|Mark Harris]]<ref name=":10">{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 26, 2018 |title=Fantastic evening in Charlotte, North Carolina with great PATRIOTS. Get out and VOTE for @buddforcongress and @MarkHarrisNC9! http://Vote.GOP #MAGARally replay: facebook.com/DonaldTrump/videos/1841987799204126/ |user=realDonalTrump |number=1055987125701742592|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 13th congressional district|NC-13]] |''[[Ted Budd]]''<ref name=":10" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2018 Ohio's 12th congressional district special election|OH-12 (special)]] |[[Troy Balderson]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 21, 2018 |title=Troy Balderson of Ohio is running for Congress against a Nancy Pelosi Liberal who is WEAK on Crime & Borders. Troy is the total opposite, and loves our Military, Vets & 2nd Amendment. EARLY VOTING just started with Election Day on August 7th. Troy has my Full & Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1020811550771294211}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 12th congressional district|OH-12]] |''[[Troy Balderson]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2018 |title=.@Troy_Balderson of Ohio is doing a great job as your Congressman, already very respected in Washington. Get out and VOTE for Troy - we need him – great guy – has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1055548549595873280}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 8th congressional district|PA-08]] |John Chrin<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2018 |title=.@JohnChrin of Pennsylvania is fantastic. He is strong on the Border, Crime, the Military, our Vets and the 2nd Amendment. He is a powerful vote for #MAGA and loves the Great State of Pennsylvania. Please get out and vote for John, he has my Total and very Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1055548456469778432}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 10th congressional district|PA-10]] |''[[Scott Perry]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 2, 2018 |title=Scott Perry of Pennsylvania is fantastic. He is strong on the Border, Crime, the Military, our Vets and the Second Amendment. Scott has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1058553398172237824}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 11th congressional district|PA-11]] |''[[Lloyd Smucker]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2018 |title=.@LloydSmuckerPA is doing a great job for the people of Pennsylvania. He is strong on the Border, Crime, the Military, our Vets and the 2nd Amendment. Lloyd has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1055555312864952321}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 17th congressional district|PA-17]] |''[[Keith Rothfus]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 23, 2018 |title=.@VP Pence is heading to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania where we have both strongly endorsed one of the finest men around, Congressman Keith @RothfusForPA. He is running against #LambTheSham, who is telling... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1010522933498806278}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2018 Pennsylvania's 18th congressional district special election|PA-18 (special)]] |[[Rick Saccone]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jan 18, 2018 |title=Will be going to Pennsylvania today in order to give my total support to RICK SACCONE, running for Congress in a Special Election (March 13). Rick is a great guy. We need more Republicans to continue our already successful agenda! |user=realDonalTrump |number=953973568035086336}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 1st congressional district|SC-01]] |[[Katie Arrington]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 12, 2018 |title=Mark Sanford has been very unhelpful to me in my campaign to MAGA. He is MIA and nothing but trouble. He is better off in Argentina. I fully endorse Katie Arrington for Congress in SC, a state I love. She is tough on crime and will continue our fight to lower taxes. VOTE Katie! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1006630395067039744}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 8th congressional district|TN-08]] |''[[David Kustoff]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 27, 2018 |title=Congressman David Kustoff has been a champion for the Trump Agenda - I greatly appreciate his support. David is strong on crime and borders, loves our Military, Vets and Second Amendment. Get out and vote for David on Thursday, August 2nd. He has my full and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1022936690267176971}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 8th congressional district|TX-08]] |''[[Kevin Brady]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 30, 2018 |title=Congressman Kevin Brady of Texas is so popular in his District, and far beyond, that he doesn't need any help - but I am giving it to him anyway. He is a great guy and the absolute "King" of Cutting Taxes. Highly respected by all, he loves his State & Country. Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1057247021919297536}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 32nd congressional district|TX-32]] |''[[Pete Sessions]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 15, 2018 |title=Congressman Pete Sessions of Texas is doing a great job. He is a fighter who will be tough on Crime and the Border, fight hard for our Second Amendment and loves our Military and our Vets. He has my full and complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1041065107969777664}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 5th congressional district|VA-05]] |[[Denver Riggleman]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 29, 2018 |title=.@Denver4VA of the 5th District in Virginia is a popular guy who really knows how to get the job done! Really big help with Tax Cuts, the Military and our great Vets. He has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1057106123260678144}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 7th congressional district|VA-07]] |''[[Dave Brat]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 18, 2018 |title=Congressman @DaveBratVA7th is one of the hardest working, and smartest, people in Washington. He is strong on the Border, Crime, the Military, our Vets and the 2nd Amendment. He is a powerful vote for MAGA and loves the Great State of Virginia. Dave has my Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1052914382986973184}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington's 5th congressional district|WA-05]] |''[[Cathy McMorris Rodgers]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 29, 2018 |title=Congresswoman @cathymcmorris of Washington State is an incredible leader who is respected by everyone in Congress. We need her badly in D.C. to keep building on #MAGA. She has my Strong Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1057108130662899713}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[West Virginia's 3rd congressional district|WV-03]] |[[Carol Miller (politician)|Carol Miller]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 2, 2018 |title=I need the people of West Virginia to send a message to Chuck Schumer, Maxine Waters, Nancy Pelosi and the Radical Democrats by voting for Carol Miller and Patrick Morrisey! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1058498592208494592}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 1st congressional district|WI-01]] |[[Bryan Steil]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 15, 2018 |title=Congratulations to Bryan Steil on a wonderful win last night. You will be replacing a great guy in Paul Ryan, and your win in November will make the entire State of Wisconsin very proud. You have my complete and total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1029717928130818048}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2018 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2018 Georgia Secretary of State election|Georgia]] |[[Georgia Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] |[[Brad Raffensperger]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=July 21, 2018 |title=Brad Raffensperger will be a fantastic Secretary of State for Georgia - will work closely with @BrianKempGA. It is really important that you get out and vote for Brad - early voting.... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1020808378594054144}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas elections#Commissioner of the General Land Office|Texas]] |[[Texas General Land Office#Texas Land Commissioner|Land Commissioner]] |''[[George P. Bush]]''<ref name=":8">{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 27, 2018 |title=Texas LC George P. Bush backed me when it wasn't the politically correct thing to do, and I back him now. Also, AC Sid Miller has been with me from the beginning, he is "Trump's Man in Texas." Also support Comptroller Glenn Hegar, and Railroad Commissioner Christi Craddick. |user=realDonalTrump |number=968620661349470209}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas elections#Railroad Commissioner|Texas]] |[[Railroad Commission of Texas#Commissioners|Railroad Commissioner]] |''[[Christi Craddick]]''<ref name=":8" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas elections#Comptroller of Public Accounts|Texas]] |[[Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts#List of Texas comptrollers|Comptroller of Public Accounts]] |''[[Glenn Hegar]]''<ref name=":8" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas elections#Commissioner of Agriculture|Texas]] |[[Texas Department of Agriculture#Commissioners of the Texas Department of Agriculture|Commissioner of Agriculture]] |''[[Sid Miller (politician)|Sid Miller]]''<ref name=":8" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas lieutenant gubernatorial election|Texas]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Texas|Lieutenant Governor]] |''[[Dan Patrick (politician)|Dan Patrick]]''<ref name=":7" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2018 Texas Attorney General election|Texas]] |[[Texas Attorney General|Attorney General]] |''[[Ken Paxton]]''<ref name=":7" /> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 Speaker of the House of Representatives election ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flagicon|United States}} [[2019 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election|Speaker]] |[[Nancy Pelosi]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 7, 2018 |title=In all fairness, Nancy Pelosi deserves to be chosen Speaker of the House by the Democrats. If they give her a hard time, perhaps we will add some Republican votes. She has earned this great honor! |user=DonaldTrump |number=1060162807960870913}}</ref> ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2019 Kentucky gubernatorial election|Kentucky]] |''[[Matt Bevin]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 15, 2019 |title=Governor @MattBevin has done a wonderful job for the people of Kentucky! He continues to protect your very important Second Amendment. Matt is Strong on Crime and the Border, he Loves our Great Vets and Military. Matt has my Complete and Total Endorsement, and always has! | |user=realDonaldTrump |number=1184129465070297090}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- | rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2019 Louisiana gubernatorial election|Louisiana]] |[[Eddie Rispone]] ''(co-endorsement with Abraham)''<ref name="auto2">{{cite web | last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 1, 2019 |title=REPUBLICANS of Louisiana, it is really important for you to go out and vote on October 12th for either Eddie Rispone or Ralph Abraham (both Great), which will lead to a runoff against.... |url=https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1179157911374897166}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost runoff |- |[[Ralph Abraham (politician)|Ralph Abraham]] ''(co-endorsement with Rispone)''<ref name="auto2" /> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2019 Mississippi gubernatorial election|Mississippi]] |[[Tate Reeves]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 2, 2019 |title=Mississippi, there is a VERY important election for Governor on November 5th. I need you to Get Out and Vote for our Great Republican nominee, @TateReeves. Tate is strong on Crime, tough on Illegal Immigration, and will protect your Second Amendment.... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1179538517992595458}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !District !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2019 North Carolina's 3rd congressional district special election|NC-03 (special)]] |[[Greg Murphy (politician)|Greg Murphy]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 4, 2019 |title=State Rep Greg Murphy is running for Congress in North Carolina, District 3. We really need Greg in Washington. He is great w/ the Military, our Vets, & your 2A. Strong on Crime and the Border, has had my Total Endorsement for a long time. Please vote for Greg on September 10th! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1169366511439552512}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2019 North Carolina's 9th congressional district special election|NC-09 (special)]] |[[Dan Bishop]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 16, 2019 |title=Congratulations to Dan Bishop on his big Republican Primary victory in the 9th Congressional District of North Carolina. Dan is strong on Crime, Loves our Military, Vets, 2A, and great Healthcare. He has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #MAGA |user=realDonalTrump |number=1129067332725297152}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2019 Pennsylvania's 12th congressional district special election|PA-12 (special)]] |[[Fred Keller (politician)|Fred Keller]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 20, 2019 |title=Fred Keller of the Great State of Pennsylvania has been an outstanding State Representative. Now he is running as the Republican Nominee for Congress, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement. He will do a fantastic job - I look forward to seeing everyone tonight! #MAGA |user=realDonalTrump |number=1130535532868571137}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 state court elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2019 Pennsylvania elections#Judge of the Superior Court|Pennsylvania]] |Superior Court Judge |[[Megan McCarthy King]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 20, 2019 |title=Megan King, who is running for Superior Court Judge in the Pennsylvania election, has my Full and Total Endorsement. She is tough on crime and fully understands all aspects of the law. Vote for Megan tomorrow (Tuesday). |user=realDonalTrump |number=1130655064631238658}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2019 Kentucky Attorney General election|Kentucky]] |[[Attorney General of Kentucky|Attorney General]] |[[Daniel Cameron (American politician)|Daniel Cameron]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 29, 2019 |title=The Republican Party has a new STAR, his name is Daniel Cameron (@djaycameron), and he is running for Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1155938087886700544}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2019 state legislative elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[2019 Virginia Senate election#District 13|Virginia]] |State Senator |[[Geary Higgins]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 4, 2019 |title=Great Republican Geary Higgins has my complete and total Endorsement for Virginia Senate, 13th District. He is strong on Crime, the Border, our Military, Cutting Taxes, and protecting your 2nd Amendment. Dem John Bell will take your guns & raise your taxes. Vote for Geary Higgins |user=realDonalTrump |number=1191218806468820994}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2020 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Alabama|Alabama]] |[[Tommy Tuberville]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 10, 2020 |title=....(which is under siege), is strong on Crime and the Border, and truly LOVES our Military and our Vets. He will be a great Senator for the people of Alabama. Coach Tommy Tuberville, a winner, has my Complete and Total Endorsement. I love Alabama! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1237557412048986120}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Alaska|Alaska]] |''[[Dan Sullivan (U.S. senator)|Dan Sullivan]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Dec 17, 2019 |title=Senator Dan Sullivan is doing a great job for the people of Alaska while supporting our #MAGA Agenda. He fights hard everyday to support our Veterans and the Military. Dan is Strong on the #2A and is 100% pro-jobs. I give Dan Sullivan my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1207053956142292994}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2020 United States Senate special election in Arizona|Arizona (special)]] |''[[Martha McSally]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 25, 2019 |title=....Martha is strong on Crime and Borders, the 2nd Amendment, and loves our Military and Vets. She has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1143601087238172672}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Colorado|Colorado]] |''[[Cory Gardner]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 29, 2020 |title=Senator @CoryGardner from Colorado is a GREAT Senator who always fights for the people of his state. He protects your #2A, loves our Vets and Military, and cares deeply about our BEAUTIFUL public lands. Cory has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #COSEN |user=realDonalTrump |number=1277683493179400193}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2020–21 United States Senate election in Georgia|Georgia]] |''[[David Perdue]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 11, 2020 |title=We need our Great David Perdue (@PerdueSenate) in the Senate to Drain the Swamp & Make America Great Again! His Radical Liberal opponent, Jon Ossoff (who we beat in 2017), supports LAWLESS Sanctuary Cities, wants to raise your taxes, & weaken our Great Military. He is a puppet... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1271163756144279552}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost runoff |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2020–21 United States Senate special election in Georgia|Georgia (special)]] |''[[Kelly Loeffler]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 16, 2020 |title=I strongly stand with Kelly & David. They are both great and MUST WIN! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1328330303103000577}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost runoff |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Idaho|Idaho]] |''[[Jim Risch]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 16, 2019 |title=Senator Jim Risch of the Great State of Idaho has been an incredible supporter of our Agenda! He is tough on Crime, Strong on Borders, and will continue to fight for our Second Amendment. Jim will never let you down. He has my Full and Complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1162414717505277952}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Iowa|Iowa]] |''[[Joni Ernst]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 11, 2020 |title=...Unlike her Radical Liberal opponent, Theresa Greenfield, and Theresa's failed record in real estate, Joni stands for Iowa. Vote for Joni Ernst on November 3rd, a big day for us all! #IASEN |user=realDonalTrump |number=1271166412019527680}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Kansas|Kansas]] |[[Roger Marshall]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 5, 2020 |title=A great race run by Roger against a very tough and smart opponent. Roger loves Kansas and will represent it incredibly well. He has my Complete and Total Endorsement. Will be a Big Win on November 3rd. This is not the opponent the Democrats wanted! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1290952940602130437}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Kentucky|Kentucky]] |''[[Mitch McConnell]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 19, 2020 |title=Senator Mitch McConnell (@Team_Mitch) always delivers for the people of Kentucky, who will hopefully re-elect their powerful Senate Majority Leader. Mitch has helped us Make America Great Again, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #KYSEN secure.winred.com/mitchmcconnell/ |user=realDonalTrump |number=1274074948743630853}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Louisiana|Louisiana]] |''[[Bill Cassidy]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 2, 2020 |title=THANK YOU @BillCassidy for all of your support with our #MAGA Agenda. You are doing an outstanding job representing the people of Louisiana & the U.S.A. You have my Complete and Total Endorsement! #KAG2020 |user=realDonalTrump |number=1234566159774756864}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Michigan|Michigan]] |[[John James (Michigan politician)|John James]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 18, 2020 |title=John James will be a GREAT Senator for Michigan! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1251549076786733056}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Minnesota|Minnesota]] |[[Jason Lewis (Minnesota politician)|Jason Lewis]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 10, 2020 |title=Jason Lewis (@LewisForMN) will be an incredible Senator for the State of Minnesota! He is a proven leader who will help us Lower your Taxes, Protect our Communities and Defend your Second Amendment… |user=realDonalTrump |number=1292880641311334400}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Mississippi|Mississippi]] |''[[Cindy Hyde-Smith]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 21, 2020 |title=Senator @CindyHydeSmith delivers for Mississippi! She helped us Cut your Taxes, Secure our Border, and Defend the Second Amendment. Cindy's opponent, Mike Espy, is a Corrupt Politician who will Raise your Taxes and Open your Borders! Vote for Cindy! #MSSEN secure.winred.com/cindy-hyde-smith/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1319017749931319297}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Montana|Montana]] |''[[Steve Daines]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 5, 2020 |title=True. Steve is a GREAT SENATOR. Need him badly in Washington. Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1268879488223522816}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Nebraska|Nebraska]] |''[[Ben Sasse]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 10, 2019 |title=Senator Ben Sasse has done a wonderful job representing the people of Nebraska. He is great with our Vets, the Military, and your very important Second Amendment. Strong on Crime and the Border, Ben has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1171595113673347072}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New Hampshire}} [[2020 United States Senate election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]] |Bryant "Corky" Messner<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 12, 2020 |title=Corky Messner (@CorkyForSenate) will be a fantastic Senator for New Hampshire! A West Point graduate, he served our Country in the Army with distinction. Strong on Jobs, Crime, Vets, Military and the Second Amendment... |user=realDonalTrump |number=1271482304716845057}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2020 United States Senate election in North Carolina|North Carolina]] |''[[Thom Tillis]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 25, 2019 |title=Senator Thom Tillis of North Carolina has really stepped up to the plate. Thom is tough on Crime, Strong on the Border and fights hard against Illegal Immigration. He loves our Military, our Vets and our great Second Amendment. I give Thom my Full and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1143645216907378695}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] |''[[Jim Inhofe]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 9, 2020 |title=THANK YOU, Jim, for your incredible support of our #MAGA Agenda! You are a tremendous Senator for the people of the Great State of Oklahoma and you have my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1237130072571731968}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2020 United States Senate election in South Carolina|South Carolina]] |''[[Lindsey Graham]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 7, 2020 |title=Senator @LindseyGrahamSC is a good friend and strong voice for the people of South Carolina. He's helped us confirm GREAT Judges, rebuild the Military, and keep our Country SAFE. Strong on Life and our Vets. Lindsey has my Complete and Total Endorsement! secure.winred.com/team-graham/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1269703029588209665}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|South Dakota}} [[2020 United States Senate election in South Dakota|South Dakota]] |''[[Mike Rounds]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 2, 2020 |title=Senator Mike Rounds (@RoundsforSenate) continues to deliver for South Dakota! Mike is working hard for our incredible Farmers and he is strong on Trade, Military, our Vets, and the Second Amendment. Mike has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #SDSen secure.winred.com/rounds/home |user=realDonalTrump |number=1267809766627315712}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Tennessee|Tennessee]] |[[Bill Hagerty]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 12, 2019 |title=Tennessee loving Bill Hagerty, who was my Tennessee Victoy Chair and is now the very outstanding Ambassador to Japan, will be running for the U.S. Senate. He is strong on crime, borders & our 2nd A. Loves our Military & our Vets. Has my Complete & Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1149779387077791749}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Texas|Texas]] |''[[John Cornyn]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 21, 2019 |title=Senator John Cornyn has done an outstanding job for the people of Texas. He is strong on Crime, the Border, the Second Amendment and loves our Military and Vets. John has my complete and total endorsement. MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1098676390780719104}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[2020 United States Senate election in West Virginia|West Virginia]] |''[[Shelley Moore Capito]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 1, 2020 |title=....Together we will Fight for Small Businesses and Protect American Energy workers! Shelley has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1256313938247127041}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2020 United States Senate election in Wyoming|Wyoming]] |[[Cynthia Lummis]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 13, 2020 |title=...She will be a great Senator, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement! secure.winred.com/lummis-for-wyoming/senate_red?sc=winred-directory |user=realDonalTrump |number=1294051967933841415}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2020 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !District !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 1st congressional district|AL-01]] |[[Jerry Carl]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 23, 2020 |title=We need Jerry Carl (@CarlForAlabama) in Congress for the People of Alabama! He Loves our Veterans, Stands for Law & Order, and is Strong on Jobs and the Second Amendment. Jerry has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #AL01 |user=realDonalTrump |number=1308870438542508032}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 2nd congressional district|AL-02]] |[[Barry Moore (American politician)|Barry Moore]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 23, 2020 |title=Barry Moore (@RepBarryMoore) will be a terrific Congressman for Alabama! An early supporter of our #MAGA agenda, he is Strong on Jobs, Life, the Wall, Law & Order and the Second Amendment. Barry has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #AL02 secure.winred.com/barrymoore/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1308870520281104385}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 5th congressional district|AL-05]] |''[[Mo Brooks]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 14, 2020 |title=.@MoInTheHouse Brooks is running for Congress in the Great State of Alabama. He is a huge supporter of the #MAGA Agenda. Mo fully supports Securing our Border w/the WALL, he Loves our Military & Vets, & is Strong on the #2A. Mo has my Complete Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1228438881969885184}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[Alaska's at-large congressional district|AK-AL]] |''[[Don Young]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 13, 2020 |title=.@DonYoungAK really produces for Alaska. He is an incredible Congressman who loves his State and works tirelessly for it. Strong on Public Lands, Energy, and our Second Amendment. He will never let you down, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1294052825845182464}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 1st congressional district|AZ-01]] |Tiffany Shedd<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 10, 2020 |title=We need Tiffany Shedd (@Tiffany_Shedd) in Congress to fight for the people of Arizona! She will be a tremendous ally and advocate for Arizona's Farmers, the Second Amendment and the Border. Tiffany has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #AZ01 |user=realDonalTrump |number=1315091499823099909}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 4th congressional district|AZ-04]] |''[[Paul Gosar]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 3, 2020 |title=Congressman @DrPaulGosar is a tremendous supporter of our #MAGA agenda! He is Strong on the Wall, Law Enforcement and the Second Amendment, and he always puts America First! Paul has my Complete and Total Endorsement. #AZ04 |user=realDonalTrump |number=1279161110336278531}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 8th congressional district|AZ-08]] |''[[Debbie Lesko]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 8, 2020 |title=Total and complete Endorsement for Debbie Lesko! @RepDLesko Love Arizona. |user=realDonalTrump |number=1226231262928678915}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 4th congressional district|CA-04]] |''[[Tom McClintock]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 14, 2020 |title=.@TomMcClintock is a strong Conservative Leader who will always fight for the people of California. He fully supports our #MAGA Agenda, will continue to Secure Our Border, Loves our Military & Vets, & is Strong on the #2A. Tom has my Complete Endorsement! secure.winred.com/mcclintock/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1228442887081295873}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 8th congressional district|CA-08]] |[[Jay Obernolte]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 12, 2020 |title=.@JayObernolte of California is running for Congress in 2020. Jay will help me to continue securing the Southern Border, he Loves our GREAT Law Enforcement Officers, Military, Vets, and he will protect your #2A. Jay has my Complete and Total Endorsement! secure.winred.com/JayObernolte/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1227702453052813312}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[2020 California's 25th congressional district special election|CA-25]] |[[Mike Garcia (politician)|Mike Garcia]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 20, 2020 |title=...He is Strong on Crime, the Border, and Second Amendment. Mike has my Complete and Total Endorsement! Turn your Ballots in now and track them, watching for dishonesty. Report to Law Enforcement. secure.winred.com/mikegarcia/donate/ |user=realDonalTrump |number=1252417321685053440}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 43rd congressional district|CA-43]] |Joe Collins<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 12, 2020 |title=Maxine Waters has long been considered "the most corrupt person in Congress". Only habit keeps her there. Vote for Joe E. Collins lll and get this long time CROOK, Maxine Waters, out of office!!! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1315659219287314433}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 50th congressional district|CA-50]] |''[[Darrell Issa]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 2, 2020 |title=Darrell always has had my full support and complete and total Endorsement. We need him badly in Washington! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1278830576141729792}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 3rd congressional district|CO-03]] |[[Lauren Boebert]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 10, 2020 |title=.@LaurenBoebert is a tremendous fighter for the people of Colorado! A Rising Star, Lauren is Strong on the Second Amendment, Jobs, Energy, Healthcare and our incredible Military & Vets. Lauren has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #CO03 secure.winred.com/lauren-boebert-for-congress/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1304166640112881664}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 3rd congressional district|CO-03]] |''[[Scott Tipton]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Dec 20, 2019 |title=Congressman @ScottRTipton is a great supporter of the #MAGA Agenda! He fights for your #2A rights and the Border Wall. Scott is working hard for Colorado and has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1208129708690464771}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 4th congressional district|CO-04]] |''[[Ken Buck]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 21, 2020 |title=Congressman Ken Buck (@BuckForColorado) is a champion for the incredible People of Colorado! He is Strong on Law & Order, Low Taxes, Border Security, our Military & Vets, and he will always defend your Second Amendment. Ken has my Complete and Total Endorsement! #CO04 |user=realDonalTrump |number=1319017831766368259}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 3rd congressional district|FL-03]] |[[Kat Cammack]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 10, 2020 |title=.@Kat_Cammack will be an incredible Congresswoman and leader for Florida! A Successful Businesswoman, she strongly supports our Brave First Responders & Law Enforcement, Life and the Second Amendment! Kat has my Complete and Total Endorsement #FL03 secure.winred.com/katcammack/donate |user=realDonalTrump |number=1304166604972924929}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 4th congressional district|FL-04]] |''[[Bill Posey]]''<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 23, 2020 |title=Congressman Bill Posey is a tremendous fighter for the Great State of Florida. He is a big supporter of our #MAGA Agenda – Strong on Crime, the Second Amendment, and Loves our Veterans and Law Enforcement. Bill has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |user=realDonalTrump |number=1253467417482801154}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |} === Between presidential terms === ==== 2022 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[2022 Alaska gubernatorial election|Alaska]] |''[[Mike Dunleavy (politician)|Mike Dunleavy]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Dec 28, 2021 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump:"Mike Dunleavy has been a strong and consistent Conservative since his time in the Alaska State Senate. I was proud to endorse his first run for Governor, and I am proud to support his reelection, too. From his handling of the virus, support... |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1475950916985630728}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2022 Arizona gubernatorial election|Arizona]] |[[Kari Lake]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Sep 28, 2021 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Kari Lake for Governor of Arizona |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1442973485395968005}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[2022 Arkansas gubernatorial election|Arkansas]] |[[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= Huckabee Sanders |first=Sarah |date=Jan 25, 2021 |title=Thank you President Trump for your endorsement and for always believing in me. As governor I will defend our freedom and lead with heart |url=https://x.com/SarahHuckabee/status/1353919930333327360}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2022 Georgia gubernatorial election|Georgia]] |[[David Perdue]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Dec 6, 2021 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of David Perdue for Governor of Georgia |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1468014176719314948}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2022 Idaho gubernatorial election|Idaho]] |[[Janice McGeachin]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Nov 9, 2021 |title= NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Janice McGeachin for Governor of Idaho |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1458221166867501060}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Illinois}} [[2022 Illinois gubernatorial election|Illinois]] |[[Darren Bailey]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=Jun 25, 2022 |title=Former President Trump Endorses Darren Bailey in Race for Illinois Governor |url=https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/former-president-trump-endorses-darren-bailey-in-race-for-illinois-governor/2866296/ |publisher=NBC Chicago}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[2022 Iowa gubernatorial election|Iowa]] |''[[Kim Reynolds]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 4, 2022 |title=Kim Reynolds is a strong leader and fantastic Governor for the incredible people of Iowa!" Trump's statement read. "Kim Reynolds is an America First Conservative, and she has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news-k3xzvqrxbz0 |website=DonaldJTrump.com |access-date=July 15, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607080213/https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news-k3xzvqrxbz0 |archive-date=June 7, 2022}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2022 Kansas gubernatorial election|Kansas]] |[[Derek Schmidt]]<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Harrington |first=Liz |user=realLizUSA |number=1458221166867501060 |date=November 9, 2021 |title= NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Derek Schmidt for Governor of Kansas}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Maryland}} [[2022 Maryland gubernatorial election|Maryland]] |[[Dan Cox]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Nov 22, 2021 |title= NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Dan Cox for Governor of Maryland |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1462906941257269259}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Massachusetts}} [[2022 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|Massachusetts]] |[[Geoff Diehl]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Oct 5, 2021 |title= NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Geoff Diehl against "RINO" Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1445536859073908738}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2022 Michigan gubernatorial election|Michigan]] |[[Tudor Dixon]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 22, 2022 |title=Tudor Dixon MUST defeat Gretchen Whitmer in November! I have talked to Tudor about the race and her choice of a running mate, Shane Hernandez. Since then, I have checked and found him to be an outstanding person. In fact, he was named Michigan's most Conservative legislator, and is strongly committed to Election Integrity. The MAGA movement should support the ticket! This is who Tudor wants and therefore, Shane is who I want as your next Lieutenant Governor… |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108869239755629273 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[2022 Minnesota gubernatorial election|Minnesota]] |[[Scott Jensen (Minnesota politician)|Scott Jensen]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2022 |title=Minnesota finally has a chance to have a great Governor. His name is Dr. Scott Jensen, the Republican Gubernatorial Candidate, and he will bring Minnesota back from the brink. Strong on both fighting Crime and delivering Solid and Sensible Education, the results will be quickly seen - and there won't be any more fiery takeovers of police precincts. Minnesota will be Great Again. Dr. Scott Jensen has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109232524594099405 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2022 Nebraska gubernatorial election|Nebraska]] |[[Charles Herbster]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 10, 2022 |title=Nebraska, go out and vote today for Charles W. Herbster. He will be a great Governor! |url=https://truthsocial.com/users/realDonaldTrump/statuses/108277388770242605 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2022 Nevada gubernatorial election|Nevada]] |[[Joe Lombardo]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Apr 27, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Joe Lombardo for Governor of Nevada |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1519477479974522880}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New Mexico}} [[2022 New Mexico gubernatorial election|New Mexico]] |Mark Ronchetti<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 31, 2022 |title=New Mexico has an absolutely terrible Governor, Michelle Lujan Grisham. She is WEAK on Crime, bad on the Border where illegal aliens are pouring into our Country at record numbers, & has almost no support from Law Enforcement, which fully understands what a disaster she has been. Also, Drugs & Human Trafficking are OUT OF CONTROL. The good news is that Republican Nominee Mark Ronchetti is outstanding. He will be tough & smart on Crime, the Border & everything else. Mark as my Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109261470831895118 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[2022 New York gubernatorial election|New York]] |[[Lee Zeldin]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 16, 2022 |title=I have watched and known Congressman Lee Zeldin for many years. He is a great and brilliant lawyer who was a "must see" for others in Congress when they had a complex legal problem that was holding up legislation. Lee was strong on the Border, Crime, our great Military & Vets (like few others!), and fought hard to protect our 2nd Amendment, and succeeded. Lee Zeldin is a WINNER who GOT THINGS DONE. He will be a GREAT Governor of New York, and has my Complete & Total Endorsement. GOOD LUCK LEE! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109177903368464493 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2022 Ohio gubernatorial election|Ohio]] |''[[Mike DeWine]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last= DeWine |first=Mike |date=Sep 7, 2022 |title=Lt. Governor @JonHusted and I are grateful for President Trump's support! Thank you. #WinningForOH |url=https://x.com/MikeDeWine/status/1567651155504775169}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2022 Oklahoma gubernatorial election|Oklahoma]] |''[[Kevin Stitt]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Mar 14, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Governor Kevin Stitt |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1503475090666754055}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2022 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election|Pennsylvania]] |[[Doug Mastriano]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 16, 2022 |title=Doug Mastriano will be a GREAT Governor for Pennsylvania. I know him well and he is a fantastic guy who will fight totally out of control Violent Crime (his opponent is pathetic on fighting Crime), Strengthen our Borders, Protect Life, Defend our Second Amendment, and help our Military and our Vets. Doug is a fighter like few others, and has been with me right from the beginning. He will NEVER let you down. Doug Mastriano, an outstanding WARRIOR & PATRIOT, has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109192353202698867 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2022 South Carolina gubernatorial election|South Carolina]] |''[[Henry McMaster]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=McMaster |first=Henry |date=Mar 8, 2021 |title=My re-election campaign has been endorsed by President Donald J. Trump, and I am incredibly grateful. Now, I'm asking for your endorsement. Please make a donation today! #MAGA secure.winred.com/mcmaster-evette-2022/djt-endorsement-s/thank-you/preview |url=https://x.com/henrymcmaster/status/1369047979949232129}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|South Dakota}} [[2022 South Dakota gubernatorial election|South Dakota]] |''[[Kristi Noem]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Feb 8, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Governor Kristi Noem |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1491149829468160001}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2022 Tennessee gubernatorial election|Tennessee]] |''[[Bill Lee (Tennessee politician)|Bill Lee]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Aug 13, 2021 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Tennessee Governor Bill Lee |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1426256022230945792}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2022 Texas gubernatorial election|Texas]] |''[[Greg Abbott]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abbott |first=Greg |date=Jun 30, 2021 |title=President Trump: "Thank you Greg. What a great partner you've been for 4 years… I gave him a complete & total endorsement… You have done a great job & it's an honor to be with you." Thank you, President Trump. TX is grateful for our shared commitment to secure the border. |url=https://x.com/GregAbbott_TX/status/1410375871005966340}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2022 Wisconsin gubernatorial election|Wisconsin]] |Tim Michels<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 9, 2022 |title=Congratulations to Tim Michels on his win against a wonderful and highly-competitive opponent, Rebecca Kleefisch. I know both sides will come together and defeat one of the worst Governors in the Country, Tony Evers. |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108796564343503982 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2022 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |rowspan="2"|{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Alabama|Alabama]] |<s>[[Mo Brooks]]</s> ''(rescinded endorsement)''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Jul 10, 2021 |title="I see that the RINO Sen from Ala, close friend of Old Crow Mitch McConnell, Richard Shelby, is pushing hard to have his "assistant" fight the great Mo Brooks for his Senate seat. She is not in any way qualified and is certainly not what our Country needs...Vote for Mo Brooks!" |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1413991469380247556}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Mar 23, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump: "Mo Brooks of Alabama made a horrible mistake recently when he went "woke" and stated, referring to the 2020 Presidential Election Scam, "Put that behind you, put that behind you," despite the fact that the Election was rife with fraud and… |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1506604116662964232}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |[[Katie Britt]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Britt |first=Katie |date=Jun 10, 2022 |title=President Trump knows that Alabamians are sick and tired of failed, do-nothing career politicians. In the Senate, I will fight to defend Alabama's values, advance the America First agenda, and preserve the American Dream for generations to come. #alsen |url=https://x.com/KatieBrittforAL/status/1535451426238906368}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Alaska|Alaska]] |Kelly Tshibaka<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 9, 2022 |title=On my way to Alaska to get rid of the horrible Alaska-Hating Lisa Murkowski. Speech honoring Kelly Tshibaka and Sarah Palin—big crowd (Alaska record-setting!) in Anchorage. See you soon! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108619667749492625 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Arizona|Arizona]] |[[Blake Masters]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 29, 2022 |title=Blake Masters yes, all the way! Will be a BIG WIN FOR ARIZONA! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108730475995354829 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Arkansas|Arkansas]] |''[[John Boozman]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boozman |first=John |date=Mar 8, 2021 |title=I'm grateful to have Pres. Trump's endorsement for my re-election to the Senate. We worked together to lower taxes, roll back regulations, secure our border, defend our Second Amendment rights and Protect Life. #arpx |url=https://x.com/Boozman4AR/status/1369088471785218049}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Connecticut}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Connecticut|Connecticut]] |[[Leora Levy]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 4, 2022 |title=Endorsement of Leora Levy… |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108767642231474063 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Florida|Florida]] |''[[Marco Rubio]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 9, 2021 |title=It is my honor to give U.S. Senator Marco Rubio my Complete and Total Endorsement. Marco has been a tireless advocate for the people of Florida, fighting to cut taxes, supporting our Second Amendment, our Military and our Vets, a strong national defense, and all of the forgotten men and women of America. Together, we worked closely with the Cuban and Venezuelan communities, and have made great progress. He also ruled that 'President Trump was in no way involved with Russia,' as he presided over the Senate Intelligence Committee on the FAKE Russia, Russia, Russia Hoax. Marco will never let the great people of Florida, or our Country, down! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Georgia|Georgia]] |[[Herschel Walker]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Dec 5, 2022 |title=To the Great State of Georgia, Get Out and Vote for the WONDERFUL Herschel Walker TOMORROW. Herschel was a fantastic Athlete, and he will be an even greater United States Senator! To all MAGA Voters, that is, people that want to Make America Great Again and Put America First, tomorrow is a big day. Vote for Herschel! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109464232232767808 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost runoff |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Idaho|Idaho]] |''[[Mike Crapo]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 18, 2022 |title=Mike Crapo has been a tremendous Senator for the Great State of Idaho, and a true champion for all Americans. Mike has been a strong leader on the issues that matter most to the Forgotten Men and Women of our Country, including fighting to secure our Border, unleashing American Energy Independence, and protecting our Second Amendment Rights. Mike has my Complete and Total Endorsement for re-election, and he has my full support in the General Election. A wonderful man who will never let you down! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Iowa|Iowa]] |''[[Chuck Grassley]]''<ref>{{Cite web |author=RSBN |date=Oct 9, 2021 |title=President Trump has given @ChuckGrassley his "complete and total endorsement for reelection!" #SaveAmericaRally #GrassleyWorks |url=https://x.com/rsbnetwork/status/1447019548230696961?s=46}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Kansas|Kansas]] |''[[Jerry Moran]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 25, 2021 |title=Senator Jerry Moran is doing a terrific job for the wonderful people of Kansas. Strong on Military, Vets, the Border, and our Second Amendment, Jerry has my Complete and Total Endorsement for his re-election in 2022! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Kentucky|Kentucky]] |''[[Rand Paul]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 1, 2022 |title=Senator Rand Paul has been a great friend and ally to our America First Agenda, and has been a tremendous help in our efforts to Make America Great Again. He has been a Fighter for the Great People of Kentucky, and a Champion for our Military and our Veterans. Rand has a proven record of fighting against the Radical Left Democrats and their Socialist Agenda, and he will continue to be a strong voice against the Biden Border Crisis, the Weaponization of the Federal Government, and the Corrupt and Incompetent Biden Administration. Rand Paul has my Complete and Total Endorsement for re-election, and he will not let you down! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Louisiana|Louisiana]] |''[[John Kennedy (Louisiana politician)|John Kennedy]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 14, 2021 |title=Senator John Kennedy is a fantastic Senator, and a true Champion for the Great People of Louisiana. He has been a tireless advocate for our Farmers and Ranchers, our Energy Workers, and all Americans who want to Make America Great Again. John has fought hard against the Radical Left Democrats and their Socialist Agenda, and he will continue to be a strong voice for our Military, our Veterans, and our Second Amendment Rights. John Kennedy has my Complete and Total Endorsement for re-election, and he will not let you down! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |rowspan="2"|{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Missouri|Missouri]] |[[Eric Schmitt]] ''(co-endorsement with Greitens)''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 1, 2022 |title=President Trump on Truth Social |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/108749916238646651 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |[[Eric Greitens]] ''(co-endorsement with Schmitt)''<ref name=":1" /> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Nevada|Nevada]] |[[Adam Laxalt]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Aug 20, 2021 |title= NEW! President Trump announces endorsement of Adam Laxalt for Senate in Nevada |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1428903233578315777}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New Hampshire}} [[2020 United States Senate election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]] |[[Don Bolduc]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 31, 2022 |title=General Don Bolduc has run a great campaign to be the U.S. Senator from the beautiful State of New Hampshire. He was a strong and proud "Election Denier," a big reason that he won the Nomination, but he then disavowed. He has since come back, at least on busing, but that is only a small part of N.H. Election Fraud. Nevertheless, Don Bolduc has asked for my Endorsement, and he's got it, Complete & Total. His opponent is a disaster on Crime, the Border, Inflation, & all else. Vote for Don Bolduc! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109261581904146889 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2022 United States Senate election in North Carolina|North Carolina]] |[[Ted Budd]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Jan 25, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump: "Ted Budd, who I endorsed many months ago for the U.S. Senate, is now leading the pack in North Carolina. He is the true America First fighter who stands strong for the Second Amendment, fights for our great Military and Law Enforcement, and... |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1485950430228135936}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Dakota}} [[2022 United States Senate election in North Dakota|North Dakota]] |''[[John Hoeven]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Mar 18, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Senator John Hoeven |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1504961111300444165}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Ohio|Ohio]] |[[JD Vance]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Apr 28, 2022 |title=ICYMI: "Exclusive: Trump-Endorsed J.D. Vance Takes Commanding Lead in New Poll" breitbart.com/politics/2022/04/28/exclusive-trump-endorsed-j-d-vance-takes-commanding-lead-in-new-poll/ |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1519793342766358528}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] |''[[James Lankford]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 27, 2022 |title=Senator James Lankford ran a strong Campaign against highly credible opponents who fought hard but, ultimately, were unsuccessful. James was strongly committed to America First, and everything it stood for, and likewise strongly committed to me, as President. Sometimes we didn't exactly agree on everything, but we do now. He is a very good man with a fabulous wife and family, loves the great State of Oklahoma, and is working very hard on trying to Save our Country from the disaster that it is in. Interestingly, I won Oklahoma—77 of 77 Counties both times—so I have a serious obligation to do things right! James Lankford is Strong on the Border, Tough on Crime, and Very Smart on the Economy. He is fighting to Stop Inflation, Defend our under siege Second Amendment, and Restore American Energy Independence, just as we had it during the Trump Administration where we would soon be, in fact, Energy Dominant. Sadly, that went up in dust with the Biden Administration — but James will help us get it back. It is my great honor to give James Lankford my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2022 United States Senate special election in Oklahoma|Oklahoma (special)]] |[[Markwayne Mullin]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 17, 2022 |title=breitbart.com/politics/2022/07/16/exclusive-trump-endorsed-senate-candidate-rep-markwayne-mullin-red-wave-real-its-coming/ |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/108664329648361311 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |rowspan="2"|{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] |<s>[[Sean Parnell (spokesperson)|Sean Parnell]]</s> ''(withdrew candidacy)''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Sep 1, 2021 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces endorsement of Sean Parnell for U.S. Senate |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1433160563346059268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parnell |first=Sean |date=Nov 22, 2021 |title=Statement from Sean Parnell |url=https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=448754716608737&id=100044226379595&set=a.407273740756835 |via=Facebook}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Mehmet Oz]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Apr 9, 2022 |title=NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Dr. Oz |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1512933127878025221}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2022 United States Senate election in South Carolina|South Carolina]] |''[[Tim Scott]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 27, 2022 |title=It is my great honor to give Senator Tim Scott of South Carolina my complete and total endorsement. He is both an outstanding senator and person who works tirelessly for the people of his great state, and the USA. Strong on the military, law enforcement, loves our vets, protects our Second Amendment and our borders. Tim will continue to do an OUTSTANDING job for our country! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Utah|Utah]] |''[[Mike Lee]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 2, 2022 |title=The Great People of Utah have a gem in Mike Lee. He will never let you down, whereas his opponent, McMuffin, will only let you down. Mike has long had my Complete and Total Endorsement, and even more strongly now! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109275109307282759 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Vermont}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Vermont|Vermont]] |Gerald Malloy<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 3, 2022 |title=Gerald Malloy is a Brave Veteran and American Patriot running to be the next U.S. Senator from the Great State of Vermont! Gerald will work very hard to Reduce Crime, Stop Inflation, Secure our Border, Protect our under siege Second Amendment, and Restore American Energy Independence, and even Dominance. His opponent, Radical Left Democrat Peter Welch, does not represent the values of the Great People of Vermont. Gerald Malloy has my Complete and Total Endorsement – WIN! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2022 United States Senate election in Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] |''[[Ron Johnson]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 6, 2021 |title=Even though he has not yet announced that he is running, and I certainly hope he does, I am giving my Complete and Total Endorsement to Senator Ron Johnson of Wisconsin. He is brave, he is bold, and he loves our Country, our Military, and our Vets. Ron is very tough on the Border and Illegal Immigration, and never gives in to the Radical Left Democrats and their lunacy. Ron Johnson will continue to fight to Save America, and I strongly encourage him to run! |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news |website=DonaldJTrump.com}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2022 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !District !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 3rd congressional district|MI-03]] |[[John Gibbs (government official)|John Gibbs]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dale |first=Daniel |title=Fact check: Trump-backed Michigan congressional candidate John Gibbs falsely claims 2020 election had 'mathematically impossible' anomalies |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/30/politics/fact-check-john-gibbs-michigan-mathematically-impossible/index.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |publisher=CNN|date=30 June 2022 }}</ref> |August 2, 2022 |Challenger (G) |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington's 3rd congressional district|WA-03]] |[[Joe Kent]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hounshell |first=Blake |date=2022-07-25 |title=A Trump-Backed Veteran Ran Hard to the Right, Only to Be Outflanked |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/25/us/politics/joe-kent-house-trump.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> |August 2, 2022 |Challenger (G) |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[Wyoming's at-large congressional district|WY-AL]] |[[Harriet Hageman]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Goldmacher |first=Shane |date=2021-09-09 |title=Trump endorses a Cheney challenger, aiming to unseat a chief detractor. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/09/us/politics/trump-liz-cheney-harriet-hageman.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> |August 16, 2022 |Challenger (G) |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 10th congressional district|NY-10]] |[[Dan Goldman]] ''(Democrat)''<ref name="democrat-endorsements">{{Cite web |last=Vakil |first=Caroline |date=2022-08-17 |title=Trump gives backhanded endorsements to Democrats Dan Goldman, Carolyn Maloney in NY primaries |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/3605847-trump-gives-back-handed-endorsements-to-democrats-dan-goldman-carolyn-maloney-in-ny-primaries/ |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 23, 2022 |Open seat |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 12th congressional district|NY-12]] |''[[Carolyn Maloney]]'' ''(Democrat)''<ref name="democrat-endorsements"/> |August 23, 2022 |Challenger/Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |} ==== 2022 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2022 Arizona Attorney General election|Arizona]] |[[Arizona Attorney General|Attorney General]] |[[Abraham Hamadeh]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 14, 2022 |title=Endorsement of Abraham Hamadeh |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news-mxajfuhsrg2137 |website=[[DonaldJTrump.com]] |access-date=July 15, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626194014/https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news/news-mxajfuhsrg2137 |archive-date=June 26, 2022}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2022 Arizona Secretary of State election|Arizona]] |[[Secretary of State of Arizona|Secretary of State]] |[[Mark Finchem]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrington |first=Liz |date=Sep 13, 2021 |title= NEW! President Donald J. Trump announces his endorsement of Mark Finchem for Arizona Secretary of State |url=https://x.com/realLizUSA/status/1437488757029081093}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== Other elections ==== * [[2022 Alaska's at-large congressional district special election]]: endorsed [[Sarah Palin]] (advanced to general election from nonpartisan blanket primary but lost general election).<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 3, 2022 |title=Trump endorses Palin in Alaska House special election |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/04/03/trump-endorses-palin-in-alaska-house-special-election-00022627 |access-date=April 3, 2022 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> * 2022 election to [[Arizona's 7th legislative district]]: endorsed [[Wendy Rogers (politician)|Wendy Rogers]] (won primary).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/opinion/op-ed/laurieroberts/2021/11/30/wendy-rogers-and-anthony-kern-get-trump-seal-endorsement/8808827002/ | title=Trump backing Wendy Rogers and Anthony Kern makes them the future of the GOP (Doesn't it?) }}</ref> * 2022 election to [[Miami-Dade County's 6th District]]: endorsed [[Kevin Marino Cabrera]] (won primary and general).<ref>[https://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/article261148442.html Donald Trump dives into Miami-Dade politics with a county commission endorsement]</ref> ==== 2023 Speaker of the House of Representatives elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Election !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flagicon|United States}} [[January 2023 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election|January election]] |[[Kevin McCarthy]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jan 4, 2023 |title=Some really good conversations took place last night, and it's now time for all of our GREAT Republican House Members to VOTE FOR KEVIN, CLOSE THE DEAL, TAKE THE VICTORY, & WATCH CRAZY NANCY PELOSI FLY BACK HOME TO A VERY BROKEN CALIFORNIA,THE ONLY SPEAKER IN U.S. HISTORY TO HAVE LOST THE "HOUSE" TWICE! REPUBLICANS, DO NOT TURN A GREAT TRIUMPH INTO A GIANT & EMBARRASSING DEFEAT. IT'S TIME TO CELEBRATE, YOU DESERVE IT. Kevin McCarthy will do a good job, and maybe even a GREAT JOB - JUST WATCH! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109630978268932397 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |rowspan=2|{{Flagicon|United States}} [[October 2023 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election|October election]] |[[Jim Jordan]]{{efn|Until the House Republican Conference unselected him.}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 6, 2023 |title=Congressman Jim Jordan has been a STAR long before making his very successful journey to Washington, D.C., representing Ohio's 4th Congressional District. Respected by all, he is now Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee. As President, I had the honor of presenting Jim with our Country's highest civilian award, The Presidential Medal of Freedom. So much is learned from sports, and Jim was a master! While attending Graham High School, he won State Championships all four years, a rarity, and compiled an amazing 156-1 record. At the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Jim became a two-time NCAA Division l Wrestling Champion. He won his 1985-86 NCAA Championship Matches in his weight class. Jim has a masters degree in Education from Ohio State University & a Law Degree from Capital University. He is STRONG on Crime, Borders, our Military/Vets, & 2nd Amendment. Jim, his wife, Polly, & family are outstanding - He will be a GREAT Speaker of the House, & has my Complete & Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111186121976324259 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Unselected by the [[House Republican Conference]] |- |[[Mike Johnson]]{{efn|After the House Republican Conference unselected Jim Jordan.}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 25, 2023 |title=Congratulations to Congressional Republicans! Yesterday was a big and very important day. It gave us a quick and easy way forward with 5 candidates who are beyond reproach, and represent the absolute best there is in the Republican Party. Even the Fake News Media is impressed with what took place yesterday and, more importantly, with the Candidates themselves. Congratulations to Reps. Byron Donalds (Florida), Charles J. "Chuck" Fleischmann (Tennessee), Mark Green (Tennessee), & Roger Williams (Texas), & the ultimate winner of yesterday's vote, by a significant margin, Mike Johnson (Louisiana). I am not going to make an Endorsement in this race, because I COULD NEVER GO AGAINST ANY OF THESE FINE AND VERY TALENTED MEN, all of whom have supported me, in both mind and spirit, from the very beginning of our GREAT 2016 Victory. In 2024, we will have an even bigger, & more important, WIN! My strong SUGGESTION is to go with the leading candidate, Mike Johnson, & GET IT DONE, FAST! LOVE, DJT |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111295424273340966 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2023 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2023 Kentucky gubernatorial election|Kentucky]] |[[Daniel Cameron (American politician)|Daniel Cameron]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cameron |first=Daniel |date=Jun 16, 2022 |title=Thank you President Trump! |url=https://x.com/DanielCameronKY/status/1537580069517938688}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2023 Louisiana gubernatorial election|Louisiana]] |[[Jeff Landry]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 29, 2023 |title=Jeff Landry has my Complete and Total Endorsement for Governor of Louisiana. Now is the time for everyone to unite behind him to ensure he has a tremendous Victory! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/110976057612222715 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2023 Mississippi gubernatorial election|Mississippi]] |''[[Tate Reeves]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 1, 2023 |title=To all my friends in Mississippi – you have a choice to make. Your great Governor, Tate Reeves, is under attack. The radical left maniacs who are attacking me are also after him… |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111335994521658174 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2023 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2023 Louisiana elections|Louisiana]] |[[Attorney general of Louisiana|Attorney General]] |[[Liz Murrill]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Finn |first=James |date=2023-11-16 |title=See Donald Trump's picks for Louisiana attorney general, treasurer, secretary of state |url=https://www.nola.com/news/politics/national_politics/see-donald-trumps-endorsements-in-louisiana-statewide-races/article_fd435852-84ae-11ee-b44e-2b2bdffacfde.html |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=NOLA.com |language=en}}</ref> |October 14, 2023 |Open |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2023 Louisiana elections|Louisiana]] |[[Treasurer of Louisiana|Treasurer]] |[[John Fleming (Louisiana politician)|John Fleming]]<ref name=":3" /> |October 14, 2023 |Open |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2023 Louisiana elections|Louisiana]] |[[Secretary of State of Louisiana|Secretary of State]] |[[Nancy Landry]]<ref name=":3" /> |October 14, 2023 |Open |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2024 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2024 Indiana gubernatorial election|Indiana]] |[[Mike Braun]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Nov 1, 2023 |title=Highly respected Senator Mike Braun is running for Governor of Indiana, a State I love and won by large margins in 2016 and 2020. In the Senate, Mike is working hard to Support our Law Enforcement, Secure our Borders, and Stop the Woke Fascist Mob trying to destroy our Country. Mike is an America First Conservative who knows how to Grow the Economy, Fight Inflation, and Champion "Hoosier" Values. I was proud to endorse Mike when he ran for the Senate in 2018, and I am proud to do so again — Mike Braun has my Complete and Total Endorsement to be the next Governor of the Great State of Indiana! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111337465637582727 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[2024 Missouri gubernatorial election|Missouri]] |[[Mike Kehoe]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 27, 2024 |title=I love the State of Missouri for every reason in the book, including the fact that it is "loaded up" with truly GREAT people. I also like Endorsing Candidates for Office if I think they're good, and usually there is a differentiation, usually a big one, where it is not that difficult to do. But Missouri has three great people running for Governor - Jay Ashcroft, Mike Kehoe, and Bill Eigel. All have had excellent careers, and have been with me from the beginning. They are MAGA and America First all the way! I can't hurt two of them by Endorsing one so, therefore, I'm going to Endorse, for Governor of the Great State of Missouri, Jay Ashcroft, Mike Kehoe, and Bill Eigel. Choose any one of them - You can't go wrong! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112861271255683848 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2024 North Carolina gubernatorial election|North Carolina]] |[[Mark Robinson (American politician)|Mark Robinson]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 23, 2023 |title=THANK YOU LT. GOV. MARK ROBINSON! WE WILL NOT LET NORTH CAROLINA DOWN. MAGA!!! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/110594579783535047 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Dakota}} [[2024 North Dakota gubernatorial election|North Dakota]] |[[Kelly Armstrong]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 30, 2024 |title=Congressman Kelly Armstrong is running for Governor of North Dakota, a State that I love, and WON BIG in 2016 and 2020. In Congress, Kelly strongly defended me through two SHAM Impeachments, and is 100% MAGA. As your next Governor, Kelly will work tirelessly to grow the Economy, stop Inflation, cut Taxes and Regulations, secure our Border, protect North Dakota from Federal Overreach, defend our always under siege Second Amendment, strengthen our Military/Vets, and put our Incredible Farmers, Ranchers, and Energy Producers FIRST. Kelly Armstrong has my Complete and Total Endorsement to be the next Governor of the Great State of North Dakota - HE WILL NOT LET YOU DOWN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112531260144624029 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[2024 West Virginia gubernatorial election|West Virginia]] |[[Patrick Morrisey]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 21, 2024 |title=Highly Respected Attorney General Patrick Morrisey ran against two very talented and popular opponents for Governor of West Virginia, a State I love and won by large margins in 2016 and 2020. Patrick has been a wonderful Attorney General, and will now be an incredible Governor who will fight tirelessly to stop Inflation, grow the Economy, restore Energy DOMINANCE, secure our Border, strengthen our Military/Vets, and protect and defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Now is the time for all Republicans to unite behind Patrick Morrisey to ensure he has a tremendous Victory in November! Patrick will work closely with me to enact America First Policies, and is a FANTASTIC person to replace my friend and future U.S. Senator, Jim Justice. Patrick Morrisey has my Complete and Total Endorsement - HE WILL NOT LET YOU DOWN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112477080295803405 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2024 lieutenant gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2024 Indiana gubernatorial election#Lieutenant governor selection|Indiana]] |[[Julie McGuire]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kelly |first=Niki |date=June 13, 2024 |title=Trump endorses GOP lieutenant governor candidate in Indiana |url=https://indianacapitalchronicle.com/briefs/trump-endorses-gop-lieutenant-governor-candidate-in-indiana/ |via=}}</ref> | '''{{Icon|no}}''' Lost convention |} ==== 2024 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Arizona|Arizona]] |[[Kari Lake]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jul 26, 2024 |title=Kari Lake will be an incredible Senator for the Great State of Arizona. She will fight tirelessly to Secure the Border, Stop Migrant Crime, End Inflation, Grow the Economy, Support our Great Military/Vets, and Strongly Defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Kari Lake is a spectacular woman, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement — She will not let you down! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112855095485231691 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Florida|Florida]] |''[[Rick Scott]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Dec 5, 2023 |title=I am proud to give my Complete and Total Endorsement to U.S. Senator Rick Scott of Florida in his bid for Re-Election. I have known Rick for a long time, as both a businessman and great Governor of FLORIDA, and there are few like him! Strong on the Border, Crime, our Great Military/Vets, our Second Amendment, and the only person who has been willing to take on the very destructive Super RINO, Mitch McConnell. Everyone in Florida should help Senator Rick Scott have a big win next year! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111529649299840132 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Indiana|Indiana]] |[[Jim Banks]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 1, 2023 |title=Jim Banks is running for the United States Senate from the Great State of Indiana. I know Jim well, have seen him tested at the highest and most difficult levels, and WIN! Strong on the Border, Crime, our Military and our Vets, Jim will fight for low taxes and regulations, Sanity in Government, and our under siege 2nd Amendment. Jim Banks is respected by all, will never let you down, and has my Complete & Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/109789201422857786 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Maryland}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Maryland|Maryland]] |[[Larry Hogan]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cai |first=Sophia |date=Jun 13, 2024 |title=Trump endorses Larry Hogan in tight Maryland Senate race |url=https://www.axios.com/2024/06/13/trump-larry-hogan-endorsement-maryland-senate |website=Axios}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Michigan|Michigan]] |[[Mike Rogers (Michigan politician)|Mike Rogers]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 11, 2024 |title=Highly respected former Congressman Mike Rogers is running for the United States Senate from the Great State of Michigan. Mike has served his Country during a career loaded up with accolades and wins, from the Army to Congress, and now, hopefully, the U.S. Senate. Mike will work closely with me to enact our America First Policies. He will tirelessly fight to Secure the Border, Stop Inflation, Grow the Economy, Strengthen our Military / Veteran Support, and Protect and Defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Mike Rogers will be a Great and Powerful Senator for Michigan, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement. HE KNOWS HOW TO WIN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112078629652415384 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Mississippi|Mississippi]] |''[[Roger Wicker]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 29, 2024 |title=Senator Roger Wicker is a fantastic Senator for the Great State of Mississippi. As the Ranking Member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, Roger is working hard to Strengthen our Military, Defend our Country, and Support our Veterans. Roger is a Champion of Conservative Values, who fights to Uphold the Constitution, and Protect our Second Amendment. I was honored to receive Roger's Endorsement last year, and Senator Roger Wicker has my Complete and Total Endorsement for Re-Election. Vote Trump and Wicker on March 12th! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112016533287782692 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Missouri|Missouri]] |''[[Josh Hawley]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 26, 2024 |title=Senator Josh Hawley is a tremendous Senator for the Great State of Missouri. In 2018 I helped Josh Hawley win a highly competitive Senate race in Missouri, a state that I know and love. An America First Conservative and a True Fighter for our movement to Make America Great Again, Josh is working hard to Secure our Elections, Stop Illegal Immigration, Grow the Economy, Cut Taxes, Strengthen our Military, Support our Veterans, and Uphold the Rule of Law. Josh Hawley has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112509298845267871 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Montana|Montana]] |[[Tim Sheehy]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Feb 9, 2024 |title=I LOVE MONTANA! Tim Sheehy is an American Hero and highly successful Businessman from the Great State of Montana. He is strongly supported by our incredible Chairman of the NRSC, Steve Daines, and many other patriotic Senators and Republicans who have endorsed our Campaign to, MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN! I also respect Matt Rosendale, and was very happy to Endorse him in the past - and will Endorse him again in the future should he decide to change course and run for his Congressional Seat. But in this instance, Tim is the candidate who is currently best-positioned to DEFEAT Lazy Jon Tester, and Regain the Republican Majority in the United States Senate. Tim is a Political Outsider, Strong on the Border, the Military/Vets, and our constantly under siege Second Amendment. He will stand tall in the fight against the Radical Left Democrats, who are Destroying our Country. Also, he is far more likely to Defeat Lazy Jon. America First Patriot Tim Sheehy has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111903231780270558 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Nebraska|Nebraska]] |''[[Deb Fischer]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Sep 9, 2024 |title=Senator Deb Fischer is doing a fantastic job in the United States Senate. Her Radical Left Opponent, Dan Osborn, would be absolutely TERRIBLE for the Great People of Nebraska. Dan is a "Bernie Sanders Democrat" who does not stand for Nebraska Values, and never will. He even supports Federal Benefits like Social Security for Illegal Aliens! This is a slap in the face to Nebraska Seniors. Deb Fischer, on the other hand, will always put NEBRASKA and AMERICA FIRST. As a key Member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, Deb is fighting to Protect our Country against the Marxists, Communists, and Lunatics on the Radical Left. Deb is working hard to Grow the Economy, Secure the Border, Stop Migrant Crime, Support our Great Military/Vets, Champion our Incredible Farmers and Ranchers, and Defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Deb Fischer has my Complete and Total Endorsement — SHE WILL NOT LET YOU DOWN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/113110575417000422 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Nebraska|Nebraska (special)]] |''[[Pete Ricketts]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 11, 2024 |title=Senator Pete Ricketts is a Strong Advocate for the Great People of Nebraska, a State I love and won by large margins in 2016 and 2020! Pete is doing an outstanding job in the U.S. Senate, where he is fighting tirelessly to stop the disastrous Policies of Lyin' Kamala Harris and Crooked Joe Biden. Pete is a True Patriot, who is working hard to Create Jobs, Lower Inflation, Champion American Energy DOMINANCE, Uphold the Rule of Law, Secure our Border, Support our Amazing Farmers and Ranchers, and Defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Pete Ricketts has my Complete and Total Endorsement — HE WILL NOT LET YOU DOWN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/113291341023269855 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Nevada|Nevada]] |[[Sam Brown (military)|Sam Brown]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Jun 9, 2024 |title=Sam Brown is a FEARLESS AMERICAN PATRIOT, a Purple Heart Recipient, who has proven he has the "PURE GRIT" and COURAGE to take on our Enemies, both Foreign and Domestic. Sam is now running for U.S. Senate in the Great State of Nevada, primarily because he knows that Crooked Joe Biden and the Radical Left are A THREAT TO DEMOCRACY. Our Country can no longer stand with this Corrupt and Incompetent "President" calling the shots. As your next Senator, Sam will fight tirelessly to secure our Border, end Migrant Crime, stop Inflation, grow our Economy, STRONGLY SUPPORT OUR GREAT MILITARY/VETS, protect our always under siege Second Amendment, and restore PEACE THROUGH STRENGTH… |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112589851588761769 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[2024 United States Senate election in New Jersey|New Jersey]] |Christine Serrano Glassner<ref>{{Cite tweet <!-- |last=Trump |first=Donald --> |user=christine4nj |number=1789444772819505516 |date=May 11, 2024 |title=I'm extremely proud to be endorsed by President Trump! We can and will flip New Jersey red. Together we will work to change New Jersey and America for the better! |url=https://x.com/christine4nj/status/1789444772819505516|via=Twitter}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[2024 United States Senate election in New York|New York]] |Mike Sapraicone<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 2, 2024 |title=Congratulations to Mike Sapraicone on running against one of the worst Senators in the U.S. Senate, Kirsten Gillibrand. All you have to do is go back and look at her failed Presidential run, an embarrassment to all New Yorkers, after which I assumed she would never be able to even think about running for Office again. People's memories, however, are short, and here we go! Mike is a strong and successful person, and I look forward to working with him to take New York State away from the people who have destroyed it with hundreds of thousands of Migrants flowing in, and ruining our Schools, Hospitals, Parks, and increasing Crime many fold. Good luck to Mike - He has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112029505593758948 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|North Dakota}} [[2024 United States Senate election in North Dakota|North Dakota]] |''[[Kevin Cramer]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Mar 11, 2024 |title=Senator Kevin Cramer is doing a fantastic job representing the incredible people of North Dakota in the United States Senate. During my Administration, Kevin worked closely with me to create Space Force, which continues to Protect and Defend our Great Country. Kevin has been with me from the very beginning, helping advance our America First Agenda. In the Senate, he is working hard to Secure the Border, Grow the Economy, Cut your Taxes, Eliminate Needless Regulations, Support our Veterans, and Fight for our Constitutional Rights, including our under siege Second Amendment. Kevin Cramer has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112078462360004556 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Ohio|Ohio]] |[[Bernie Moreno]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Dec 19, 2023 |title=It's time for the entire Republican Party to UNITE around Bernie's campaign for Senate, so that we can have a BIG victory in what will be the most important Election in American History. Bernie is the Father of wonderful Emily, the wife of outstanding young Ohio Congressman, Max Miller. Bernie is Strong on the Border, Crime, Cutting Taxes, Election Integrity, the Military / Vets, and will always protect our under siege 2nd Amendment. Bernie Moreno will be an outstanding United States Senator, and has my Complete and Total Endorsement—He will never let you down! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111609405146073221 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] |[[Dave McCormick]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 23, 2024 |title=Kamala Harris' sinking Campaign has become so TOXIC, that Democrat Senators in four different States are using me in their advertisements, and stating that they are with President Trump on Tariffs, and numerous other things. While it is a great compliment, it is not fair to those Republican Senate Candidates, Bernie Moreno, Dave McCormick, Eric Hovde, and Sam Brown, who are with me all the time. These Democrats have voted with Crooked Joe Biden almost 100% of the time. They only pretend to be on my side when Elections roll around. OHIO, PENNSYLVANIA, WISCONSIN, NEVADA: VOTE FOR BERNIE MORENO, DAVE MCCORMICK, ERIC HOVDE, AND SAM BROWN - THEY ARE THE ONES WHO ARE WITH US! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/113358155534960871 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Tennessee|Tennessee]] |''[[Marsha Blackburn]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 26, 2024 |title=Senator Marsha Blackburn is doing a terrific job representing the incredible people of Tennessee in the United States Senate! Marsha has been with me from the very beginning, helping advance our America First Agenda. In the Senate, she is working hard to Secure the Border, Grow the Economy, Cut your Taxes, Eliminate Needless Regulations, Support our Veterans, and Fight for our Constitutional Rights, including our always under siege Second Amendment. Marsha Blackburn has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112509274904589263 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Texas|Texas]] |''[[Ted Cruz]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 15, 2024 |title=While I have Endorsed Ted, on numerous occasions, verbally, because of the Importance of the Race, and Ted's Importance to the future of our Country, I thought the Endorsement should be memorialized in writing. Senator Ted Cruz is doing a tremendous job representing the Great People of Texas, a State I love and WON BIG in 2016 and 2020, and, based on the Polls, will win even bigger in November. To the people of Texas, I greatly appreciate your support, and, as you know, I HAVE NEVER LET YOU DOWN!… |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/113309551464797724 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Utah|Utah]] |[[Trent Staggs]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Apr 27, 2024 |title=Trent Staggs is 100% MAGA, and is running to fill The Mitt Romney, a Total Loser, Seat as the next Senator from the Great State of Utah! A Highly Successful Entrepreneur, who has served brilliantly as Mayor of Riverton for the past six years, Trent knows how to Create Jobs, Stop Inflation, Grow the Economy, and Secure the Border. As your next Senator, Trent will help us Unleash American Energy, Support our Military/Vets, and Protect our always under siege Second Amendment. Trent Staggs has my Complete and Total Endorsement - He will be a GREAT Senator, and never let you down! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112343373057495427 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Virginia|Virginia]] |[[Hung Cao]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 26, 2024 |title=Hung Cao is a highly respected retired Navy Captain running to represent the Great People of Virginia in the United States Senate. A Combat Veteran and Highly Decorated Special Operations Officer, Hung Cao will be a tireless fighter to stop Inflation, grow our Economy, secure our Border, strongly support our Incredible Military/Vets, and defend our always under siege Second Amendment. Hung Cao has my Complete and Total Endorsement - HE WILL NEVER LET YOU DOWN, AND WE WILL, AT THE SAME TIME, GET RID OF THE WORST PRESIDENT IN THE HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, CROOKED JOE BIDEN! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112510755568541501 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[2024 United States Senate election in West Virginia|West Virginia]] |[[Jim Justice]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Oct 18, 2024 |title=Big Jim Justice, the Governor of the Great State of West Virginia (I LOVE WEST VIRGINIA!), is BIG in every way, but especially in his wonderful HEART❤ ! Strong on the Border, our Great Military & Vets, CLEAN COAL & Energy Dominance, the Economy, Stopping Inflation, & Protecting our 2nd Amendment, Big Jim will be a Great UNITED STATES SENATOR, and has my Complete & Total Endorsement. HE WILL NEVER LET YOU DOWN!!! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/111258179235782329 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] |Eric Hovde<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=Aug 11, 2024 |title=Eric Hovde is running strong for the U.S. Senate in Wisconsin. He has my Complete and Total Endorsement, and has, right from the beginning. Go Eric!!! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112943539377699454 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2024 United States Senate election in Wyoming|Wyoming]] |''[[John Barrasso]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trump |first=Donald |date=May 26, 2024 |title=Senator John Barrasso is an incredible advocate for the great people of Wyoming. John works hard to stop the disastrous policies of Crooked Joe Biden and to secure our border. John is a True Patriot who fights to Create Jobs, Lower Inflation, Promote American Energy, Uphold the Rule of Law, and Support our amazing Farmers and Ranchers. John Barrasso has my Complete and Total Endorsement! |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/112509333535728345 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2024 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !District !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 3rd congressional district|AL-03]] |''[[Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)|Mike Rogers]]''<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Cox |first=Bradley |title=Dale Strong receives Trump's endorsement — 'Dale was with us from the… |url=https://1819news.com/news/item/dale-strong-receives-trump-endorsement-dale-was-with-us-from-the-beginning |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=1819 News |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 4th congressional district|AL-04]] |''[[Robert Aderholt]]''<ref name=":2" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}} Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 5th congressional district|AL-05]] |''[[Dale Strong]]''<ref name=":2" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 6th congressional district|AL-06]] |''[[Gary Palmer (politician)|Gary Palmer]]''<ref name=":2" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 20th congressional district|CA-20]] |[[Vince Fong]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-20 |title=Former President Donald Trump endorses Vince Fong for California's 20th District seat |url=https://abc30.com/vince-fong-california-20th-assembly-donald-trump-political-endorsement/14449484/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |publisher=ABC30 Fresno |language=en}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 5th congressional district|NC-05]] |''[[Virginia Foxx]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ken |date=2024-02-01 |title=President Donald J. Trump Endorses Virginia Foxx in 2024 Primary Election |url=https://www.hcpress.com/front-page/president-donald-j-trump-endorses-virginia-foxx-in-2024-primary-election.html |access-date=2024-03-12 |website=High Country Press |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}} Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 6th congressional district|NC-06]] |[[Addison McDowell]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=Ex-President Trump endorses new candidate McDowell for central North Carolina congressional seat |url=https://apnews.com/article/north-carolina-congress-election-donald-trump-endorsement-b75aa28ecc72a3568fb3169036e184f8 |access-date=2023-12-14 |publisher=Associated Press |language=en}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}} Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 14th congressional district|NC-14]] |[[Tim Moore (North Carolina politician)|Tim Moore]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=WRAL |date=2024-02-20 |title=Trump endorses Speaker Tim Moore in congressional bid |url=https://www.wral.com/story/trump-endorses-speaker-tim-moore-in-congressional-bid/21292764/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |publisher=WRAL |language=en}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[TX-03]] |''[[Keith Self]]''<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Brad |date=2024-02-12 |title=Here's a List of Donald Trump's 2024 Texas Endorsements |url=https://thetexan.news/elections/2024/here-s-a-list-of-donald-trump-s-2024-texas-endorsements/article_d62bcf9e-c773-11ee-a894-4b9583d1a835.html |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=The Texan |language=en}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 4th congressional district|TX-04]] |''[[Pat Fallon]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 5th congressional district|TX-05]] |''[[Lance Gooden]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 11th congressional district|TX-11]] |''[[August Pfluger]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 13th congressional district|TX-13]] |''[[Ronny Jackson]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 14th congressional district|TX-14]] |''[[Randy Weber]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 15th congressional district|TX-15]] |''[[Monica De La Cruz]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 17th congressional district|TX-17]] |''[[Pete Sessions]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 19th congressional district|TX-19]] |''[[Jodey Arrington]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 22nd congressional district|TX-22]] |''[[Troy Nehls]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 24th congressional district|TX-24]] |''[[Beth Van Duyne]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 25th congressional district|TX-25]] |''[[Roger Williams (Texas politician)|Roger Williams]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 26th congressional district|TX-26]] |[[Brandon Gill]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Wolf, Stephen |date=December 4, 2023 |title=Daily Kos Elections Live Digest: 12/4 |work=[[Daily Kos]] |url=https://www.dailykos.com/stories/2023/12/4/2209144/-Daily-Kos-Elections-Live-Digest-12-4#update-1701728297000 |access-date=December 4, 2023 |quote=TX-26: Donald Trump has endorsed far-right media website founder Brandon Gill}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 31st congressional district|TX-31]] |''[[John Carter (Texas politician)|John Carter]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 34th congressional district|TX-34]] |[[Mayra Flores]]<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Challenger | {{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 36th congressional district|TX-36]] |''[[Brian Babin]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 38th congressional district|TX-38]] |''[[Wesley Hunt]]''<ref name=":4" /> |March 5, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[Mississippi's 4th congressional district|MS-04]] |''[[Mike Ezell]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-03 |title=Mike Ezell latest to pick up Trump endorsement with congressional primary looming - SuperTalk Mississippi |url=https://www.supertalk.fm/mike-ezell-latest-to-pick-up-trump-endorsement-with-congressional-primary-looming/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 12, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana's 1st congressional district|MT-01]] |''[[Ryan Zinke]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Buffington |first1=Posie |title=Former Pres. Trump endorses Zinke for re-election in Montana's District 1 congressional race |url=https://www.montanarightnow.com/montana/former-pres-trump-endorses-zinke-for-re-election-in-montanas-district-1-congressional-race/article_19237e0a-e880-11ee-b72a-bb7f847d9024.html |access-date=March 22, 2024 |work=[[NonStop Local]] |date=March 22, 2024 |language=en}}</ref> |June 4, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana's 2nd congressional district|MT-02]] |[[Troy Downing]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Gorman, Reese |date=April 12, 2024 |work=[[NBC|NBC Montana]] |url=https://nbcmontana.com/news/local/trump-endorses-troy-downing-for-montanas-2nd-congressional-district |access-date=June 3, 2024 |title=Trump endorses Downing for U.S. House race}}</ref> |June 4, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Maine}} [[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]] |[[Austin Theriault]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schilke |first=Rachel |date=2024-03-27 |title=Trump endorses former NASCAR driver in Maine contest to unseat Jared Golden - Washington Examiner |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/2942058/trump-endorses-former-nascar-driver-unseat-jared-golden/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 11, 2024 |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 1st congressional district|SC-01]] |''[[Nancy Mace]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=ALAFRIZ |first=OLIVIA |date=2024-03-09 |title=Trump endorses South Carolina Republican Nancy Mace |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/03/09/trump-endorses-south-carolina-republican-nancy-mace-00146142 |website=Politico}}</ref> |June 11, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 4th congressional district|SC-04]] |''[[William Timmons (politician)|William Timmons]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-29 |title=SC4: William Timmons Endorsed By Donald Trump - FITSNews |url=https://www.fitsnews.com/2024/02/29/sc4-william-timmons-endorsed-by-donald-trump/ |access-date=2024-03-01 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 11, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 2nd congressional district|VA-02]] |''[[Jen Kiggans]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112509236487249242 |access-date=2024-10-30 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |June 18, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 4th congressional district|CO-04]] |''[[Lauren Boebert]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Robert |date=2024-03-03 |title=Trump endorses Lauren Boebert in contested GOP primary - Washington Examiner |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/2900221/trump-endorses-boebert-contested-gop-primary/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 25, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 4th congressional district|NY-04]] |''[[Anthony D'Esposito]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Herzlich |first=Taylor |date=2024-05-27 |title=Trump endorses Rep. D'Esposito in NY-04 re-election race - Featured |url=https://theisland360.com/featured/trump-endorses-rep-desposito-in-ny-04-re-election-race/ |access-date=2024-06-03 |website=The Island 360 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603210730/https://theisland360.com/featured/trump-endorses-rep-desposito-in-ny-04-re-election-race/ |archive-date=2024-06-03}}</ref> |June 25, 2024 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 22nd congressional district|NY-22]] |''[[Brandon Williams (politician)|Brandon Williams]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manore |first=Alexis |date=2024-05-28 |title=Donald Trump endorses Brandon Williams for Congress |url=https://www.romesentinel.com/news/donald-trump-brandon-williams-ny22/article_edd70908-1cf8-11ef-b12f-e3621b94289e.html |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=[[Rome Sentinel]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240530165731/https://www.romesentinel.com/news/donald-trump-brandon-williams-ny22/article_edd70908-1cf8-11ef-b12f-e3621b94289e.html |archive-date=2024-05-30}}</ref> |June 25, 2024 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 24th congressional district|NY-24]] |''[[Claudia Tenney]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Stephen |date=2024-03-28 |title=Rep. Claudia Tenney receives endorsement of Donald J. Trump for re-election bid in 2024 |website=Newzjunky |url=https://www.newzjunky.com/rep-claudia-tenney-receives-endorsement-of-president-donald-j-trump-for-re-election-in-2024/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 25, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 8th congressional district|AZ-08]] |[[Abraham Hamadeh]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alfred |first=Mark |date=2023-12-09 |title=Trump Turns on MAGA Sycophant Blake Masters |language=en |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/donaldtrump-turns-on-maga-sycophant-blake-masters-with-abe-hamadeh-endorsement |access-date=2023-12-10}}</ref> |July 30, 2024 |Open seat | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 5th congressional district|TN-05]] |''[[Andy Ogles]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Housler |first=Kaitlin |date=2023-05-12 |title=Donald Trump Endorses Tennessee U.S. Congressman Andy Ogles for Re-Election |url=https://tennesseestar.com/news/donald-trump-endorses-tennessee-u-s-congressman-andy-ogles-for-re-election/khousler/2023/05/12/ |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=Tennessee Star |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 1, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 7th congressional district|TN-07]] |''[[Mark Green (Tennessee politician)|Mark Green]]''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Olmsted |first=Edith |date=2024-02-29 |title=House Republican Reverses Retirement After Trump Endorsement |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/rep-mark-green-decides-not-to-retire-after-trump-promises-to-endorse-him |access-date=2024-03-01 |work=The Daily Beast |language=en}}</ref> |August 1, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- | rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[Alaska's at-large congressional district|AK-AL]] |[[Nancy Dahlstrom]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Downing |first=Suzanne |date=2024-06-17 |title=Trump endorses Dahlstrom for Congress |url=https://mustreadalaska.com/trump-endorses-dahlstrom-for-congress/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Must Read Alaska |language=en-US}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |August 20, 2024 | rowspan="2" |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Nick Begich III|Nick Begich]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Downing |first=Suzanne |date=2024-09-18 |title=Breaking: Donald Trump endorses Nick Begich for Congress |url=https://mustreadalaska.com/breaking-donald-trump-endorses-nick-begich-for-congress/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Must Read Alaska |language=en-US}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 7th congressional district|FL-07]] |''[[Cory Mills]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Trump |first1=Donald |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112509310575961624 |via=Truth Social |access-date=28 May 2024}}</ref> |August 20, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 11th congressional district|FL-11]] |''[[Daniel Webster (Florida politician)|Daniel Webster]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bakich |first=Jackson |date=2023-12-01 |title=Webster Lands Official Trump Seal of Endorsement over Sabatini |url=https://floridianpress.com/2023/12/webster-lands-official-trump-seal-of-endorsement-over-sabatini/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204145918/https://floridianpress.com/2023/12/webster-lands-official-trump-seal-of-endorsement-over-sabatini/ |archive-date=2023-12-04 |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=The Floridian |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 20, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 22nd congressional district|FL-22]] |Dan Franzese<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112911985701345199 |access-date=2024-11-21 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 20, 2024 |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[Wyoming's at-large congressional district|WY-AL]] |''[[Harriet Hageman]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112509331814214912 |access-date=2024-11-22 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 20, 2024 |Incumbent | '''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 1st congressional district|LA-01]] |''[[Steve Scalise]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112509339275728338 |access-date=2024-11-22 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |November 5, 2024 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 3rd congressional district|LA-03]] |''[[Clay Higgins]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ken |date=2024-02-01 |title=President Donald J. Trump Endorses Virginia Foxx in 2024 Primary Election |url=https://www.hcpress.com/front-page/president-donald-j-trump-endorses-virginia-foxx-in-2024-primary-election.html |access-date=2024-03-12 |website=High Country Press |language=en-US}}</ref> |November 5, 2024 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 4th congressional district|LA-04]] |''[[Mike Johnson]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/112509341407109396 |access-date=2024-11-22 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |November 5, 2024 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 5th congressional district|LA-05]] |''[[Julia Letlow]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/111971849283205295 |access-date=2024-11-22 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |November 5, 2024 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2024 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2024 North Carolina Attorney General election|North Carolina]] | [[North Carolina Attorney General|Attorney General]] |[[Dan Bishop]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=WRAL |date=2024-03-02 |title=Donald Trump endorses Mark Robinson in bid for North Carolina governor |url=https://www.wral.com/story/trump-endorses-robinson-in-bid-for-nc-governor/21310079/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |publisher=WRAL |language=en}}</ref> |March 5, 2024 |Open seat |{{Icon|no}} Lost election |} ==== 2024 state legislative elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Result |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |Barry Wernick<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |{{Icon|no}} |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Caroline Fairly]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |''[[John T. Smithee]]''<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Don McLaughlin]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |Stormy Bradley<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |{{Icon|no}} |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |Liz Case<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |{{Icon|no}} |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Mike Olcott]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Helen Kerwin]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Hillary Hickland]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Wesley Virdell]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Alan Schoolcraft]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |''[[Gary Gates (politician)|Gary Gates]]''<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |David Covey<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |{{Icon|no}} |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Janis Holt]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |''[[Steve Toth]]''<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Brent Money]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Representative |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas]] |[[Brent Hagenbuch]]<ref name=":4" /> |Texas State Senator |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' |} ==== 2025 Speaker of the House of Representatives election ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Election !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flagicon|United States}} [[2025 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election|2025]] |''[[Mike Johnson]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-30 |title=Trump endorses Mike Johnson to stay on as House Speaker despite government funding turmoil |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-mike-johnson-house-speaker-gop-government-funding-8f4eef7f2b83d4c2d5db7fbce69f9368 |access-date=2025-01-02 |publisher=Associated Press |language=en}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} === Second term as president === ==== 2025 state judicial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2025 Wisconsin Supreme Court election|Wisconsin]] |[[Brad Schimel]]<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |access-date=January 22, 2026 |author=Vakil, Caroline |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/5208831-donald-trump-brad-schimel-wisconsin-supreme-court-race/ |date=March 22, 2025 |title=Trump endorses Schimel in high-stakes Wisconsin Supreme Court race}}</ref> |April 1, 2025 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2025 House special elections ==== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Election !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flagicon|Florida}}[[2025 Florida's 1st congressional district special election|FL-01]] |[[Jimmy Patronis]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sangal |first1=Aditi |first2=Antoinette |last2=Radford |first3=Maureen |last3=Chowdhury |date=2024-11-25 |title=November 25, 2024 - Presidential transition news |publisher=CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/politics/live-news/trump-transition-news-11-25-24#cm3x87d7h000z3b6nbs3akecr |access-date=2025-02-04 |language=en}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{Flagicon|Florida}}[[2025 Florida's 6th congressional district special election|FL-06]] |[[Randy Fine]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gancarski |first=A.G. |date=November 23, 2024 |title=Donald Trump backs Randy Fine as replacement for Mike Waltz in CD 6 |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/709287-trump-fine-cd6/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241123213518/https://floridapolitics.com/archives/709287-trump-fine-cd6/ |archive-date=November 23, 2024 |access-date=February 4, 2025 |website=Florida Politics}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{Flagicon|Tennessee}}[[2025 Tennessee's 7th congressional district special election|TN-07]] |[[Matt Van Epps]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rau |first=Nate |date=2025-10-03 |title=On eve of election, Trump backs Matt Van Epps in District 7 race |url= https://www.axios.com/local/nashville/2025/10/03/on-eve-of-election-trump-backs-matt-van-epps-in-district-7-race |access-date=2025-10-03 |publisher=CNN |language=en}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2025 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[2025 New Jersey gubernatorial election|New Jersey]] |[[Jack Ciattarelli]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Trump endorses Jack Ciattarelli in New Jersey governor's race |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/elections/trump-endorses-jack-ciattarelli-new-jersey-governors-race-rcna206404 |access-date=2025-05-15 |publisher=NBC News |language=en}}</ref> |June 10, 2025 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[2025 Virginia gubernatorial election|Virginia]] |[[Winsome Earle-Sears]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lance |first=David |date=Oct 20, 2025 |title=Winsome Earle-Sears receives support from President Trump in Va. Gov. campaign |url=https://www.wavy.com/news/politics/virginia-governors-race/winsome-earle-sears-receives-endorsement-from-president-trump-in-va-gov-campaign/ |access-date=July 15, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251025023018/https://www.wavy.com/news/politics/virginia-governors-race/winsome-earle-sears-receives-endorsement-from-president-trump-in-va-gov-campaign/ |archive-date=October 25, 2025 }}</ref> |June 17, 2025 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2025 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[2025 Virginia Attorney General election|Virginia]] | [[Attorney General of Virginia|Attorney General]] |''[[Jason Miyares]]''<ref>{{Cite web |access-date=2024-10-05 |title=Trump calls on Democratic attorney general nominee Jay Jones to drop out of race |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5539522-trump-calls-for-jones-exit-virginia-ag-race/ |website=The Hill |language=en}}</ref> |June 28, 2025 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2025 mayoral elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|New York City}} [[2025 New York City mayoral election|New York City]] |[[Andrew Cuomo]] (Fight and Deliver party)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2025/11/03/nyregion/nyc-mayor-election-news/bfd49be5-e505-5a37-bb8e-629f35d8647a|title=Live Updates: Mayoral Candidates Make Urgent Appeals to N.Y.C. Voters in Race's Final Stretch|last=Gold|first=Michael|date=November 3, 2025|access-date=January 22, 2026|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> |June 24, 2025 |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |- |{{flagicon|Miami}} [[2025 Miami mayoral election|Miami]] |[[Emilio T. Gonzalez]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://breakingthenews.net/Article/Trump-endorses-Emilio-Gonzales-for-Miami-mayor/65195195 |title=Trump endorses Emilio Gonzales for Miami mayor |date=November 16, 2025 |access-date=January 22, 2026}}</ref> |November 4, 2025 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2025 county executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|Nassau County, New York}} [[2025 Nassau County Executive election|Nassau County]] |''[[Bruce Blakeman]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump endorsed his re-election, Bruce Blakeman: Thank you President! During my term, Nassau has become the safest county in the US |url=https://www.balkanweb.com/en/Trump-endorsed-his-re-election-Bruce-Blakeman--thank-you-President--during-my-term-Nassau-has-become-the-safest-county-in-the-US./#gsc.tab=0 |website=BW}}</ref> |November 4, 2025 |Incumbent |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |} ==== 2025-26 state legislative elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2025–26 Texas's 9th Senate district special election|TX SD-09]] |''[[Leigh Wambsganss]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.texastribune.org/2025/11/04/texas-senate-district-9-special-election-tarrant-county/ |title=Texas Senate District 9 special election pits Republicans against Democrat in Tarrant County |date=November 4, 2025 |access-date=November 5, 2025 |website=[[The Texas Tribune]]}}</ref> |November 4, 2025 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost runoff |} ==== 2026 House special elections ==== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Election !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}}[[2026 Georgia's 14th congressional district special election|GA-14]] |[[Clay Fuller]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brams |first1=Sophie |title=Trump endorses Clay Fuller to succeed Greene |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5723741-trump-endorses-clay-fuller-to-succeed-greene/ |website=The Hill |access-date=5 February 2026 |date=4 February 2026}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |{{Flagicon|California}}[[2026 California's 1st congressional district special election|CA-01]] |[[James Gallagher (California politician)|James Gallagher]]<ref name="the-downballot.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.the-downballot.com/p/morning-digest-republicans-have-their|title=Morning Digest: Republicans have their first shot at a special election flip on Saturday|last1=Nir|last2=Singer|first1=David|first2=Jeff|date=February 6, 2026|access-date=February 6, 2026}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Elected''' |- |} ==== 2026 gubernatorial elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2026 Alabama gubernatorial election|Alabama]] |[[Tommy Tuberville]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Darrington |first1=Patrick |title=Trump officially endorses Sen. Tommy Tuberville to be Alabama's next governor |url=https://www.al.com/news/2026/01/trump-officially-endorses-sen-tommy-tuberville-to-be-alabamas-next-governor.html |access-date=January 22, 2026 |work=Alabama News |date=January 22, 2026 |language=en}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[2026 Arizona gubernatorial election|Arizona]] |<s>[[Karrin Taylor Robson]]</s> ''(withdrew)''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecentersquare.com/arizona/article_4867afd8-c093-11ef-9720-c72e70b03336.html|title=Trump endorses Robson in 2026 Arizona gubernatorial race|last=Arcand|first=Cameron|date=December 22, 2024|access-date=December 22, 2024|website=[[The Center Square]]}}</ref> |rowspan=2|July 21, 2026 |rowspan=2|Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Andy Biggs]] ''(co-endorsement with Robson)''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Govindarao |first=Sejal |date=2025-04-22 |title=Trump adds second endorsement of Andy Biggs for Arizona governor race |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-endorsement-arizona-governor-596a7c7bc1129119b1c8e401bae987ad |access-date=2025-08-08 |publisher=Associated Press |language=en}}</ref> |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[2026 Arkansas gubernatorial election|Arkansas]] |''[[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-03 |title=Trump endorses dozens ahead of Tuesday elections — but doesn't name Earle-Sears |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/11/03/trump-endorses-republicans-earle-sears-00633218 |access-date=2025-11-26 |website=Politico |language=en}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[2026 California gubernatorial election|California]] |[[Steve Hilton]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Will |first1=Anthony |title=Trump Endorses Steve Hilton for California Governor, Slams Newsom's Leadership |url=https://www.ibtimes.com.au/trump-endorses-steve-hilton-california-governor-slams-newsoms-leadership-1865540 |website=International Business Times |access-date=6 April 2026 |language=en |date=6 April 2026}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida gubernatorial election|Florida]] |[[Byron Donalds]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dixon |first1=Matt |title=Trump backs Rep. Byron Donalds in his likely run for Florida governor in 2026 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-backs-rep-byron-donalds-likely-run-florida-governor-2026-rcna192534 |access-date=February 20, 2025 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=February 20, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2026 Georgia gubernatorial election|Georgia]] |[[Burt Jones]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bluestein |first=Greg |title=Trump endorses Burt Jones in Georgia governor's race |url=https://www.ajc.com/politics/2025/08/trump-endorses-burt-jones-in-georgia-governors-race/ |access-date=2025-08-12 |work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution |language=English |issn=1539-7459}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|no}} Lost Primary |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2026 Idaho gubernatorial election|Idaho]] |''[[Brad Little]]''<ref>{{cite news |title=Governor Little receives official endorsement from Trump |url=https://idahonews.com/news/local/governor-little-receives-official-endorsement-from-trump |access-date=June 11, 2025 |date=June 11, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[2026 Iowa gubernatorial election|Iowa]] |[[Randy Feenstra]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Pfannenstiel|first=Brianne|date=May 29, 2026|title=Donald Trump endorses Randy Feenstra for governor in Iowa primary |url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/politics/elections/2026/05/29/trump-endorses-feenstra-iowa-governor-primary/90316451007/?gnt-cfr=1&gca-cat=p&gca-uir=false&gca-epti=z116029p118550c118550u115129e110550v116029&gca-ft=7&gca-ds=sophi|website=[[The Des Moines Register]]|access-date=May 29, 2026}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|no}} Lost Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2026 Kansas gubernatorial election|Kansas]] |[[Ty Masterson]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Carter |first1=Aja |title=President Trump, Sen. Marshall endorse Ty Masterson for Kansas Governor |url=https://www.wibw.com/2026/05/24/president-trump-endorses-ty-masterson-kansas-governor/ |website=WIBW |access-date=25 May 2026 |language=en |date=24 May 2026}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2026 Michigan gubernatorial election|Alabama]] |[[John James (Michigan politician)|John James]]{{citation needed|date=June 2026}} |August 4, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2026 Nebraska gubernatorial election|Nebraska]] |''[[Jim Pillen]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Olberding |first=Matt |title=Trump endorses Pillen in his run for reelection |url=https://nebraskapublicmedia.org/en/news/news-articles/trump-endorses-pillen-in-his-run-for-reelection/ |access-date=2025-11-26 |publisher=Nebraska Public Media |language=en}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2026 Nevada gubernatorial election|Nevada]] |''[[Joe Lombardo]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robison |first1=Mark |title=President Trump endorses Lombardo in Nevada governor's race |url=https://www.rgj.com/story/news/politics/elections/2025/11/06/president-trump-endorses-lombardo-in-nevada-governors-race/87130472007/ |access-date=November 7, 2025 |work=[[Reno Gazette Journal]] |date=November 6, 2025}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[2026 New York gubernatorial election|New York]] |[[Bruce Blakeman]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-20 |title=Trump endorses in New York governor race the day after Stefanik drops out |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/12/20/trump-new-york-governor-endorsement-bruce-blakeman-00702013 |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=Politico |language=en}}</ref> |June 23, 2026 |Challenger |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2026 Ohio gubernatorial election|Ohio]] |[[Vivek Ramaswamy]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pelzer |first1=Jeremy |title=Vivek Ramaswamy launches 2026 Ohio governor campaign, picks up Trump endorsement |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2025/02/vivek-ramaswamy-launches-2026-ohio-governor-campaign-picks-up-trump-endorsement.html |website=[[The Plain Dealer]] |access-date=February 24, 2025|date=February 24, 2025}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2026 Oklahoma gubernatorial election|Oklahoma]] |[[Mike Mazzei]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hill |first1=April |title=President Donald Trump endorses and Oklahoma gubernatorial candidate |url=https://krmg.com/2026/05/29/president-donald-trump-endorses-and-oklahoma-gubernatorial-candidate/ |access-date=May 29, 2026 |work=[[KRMG-FM]] |date=May 29, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to Runoff |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[2026 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election|Pennsylvania]] |<s>[[Dan Meuser]]</s> ''(declined to run)''<ref>{{cite web|last=Samuels|first=Brett|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5326615-trump-says-he-would-back-gop-rep-meuser-for-pennsylvania-governor-bid/|title=Trump says he would back GOP Rep. Meuser for Pennsylvania governor bid|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|date=May 30, 2025|accessdate=June 4, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Toth |first1=Matthew |title='My focus needs to remain on doing my job': Rep. Meuser won't run for Pa governor in 2026 |url=https://www.ldnews.com/story/news/local/2025/07/09/congressman-dan-meuser-says-he-wont-run-for-pa-governor-in-2026/84516461007/ |access-date=July 9, 2025 |work=[[Lebanon Daily News]] |date=July 9, 2025}}</ref> |rowspan=2|May 19, 2026 |rowspan=2|Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |[[Stacy Garrity]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump endorses Stacy Garrity in her bid to oust Gov. Josh Shapiro |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/news/politics-state/2026/01/27/stacy-garrity-donald-trump-pennsylvania-josh-shapiro/stories/202601270093 |website=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |access-date=28 January 2026 |language=en}}</ref> |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2026 South Carolina gubernatorial election|South Carolina]] |[[Pamela Evette]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reynolds |first1=Nick |title=Friday night bombshell: Donald Trump endorses Pamela Evette for governor of South Carolina |url=https://www.postandcourier.com/politics/donald-trump-pamela-evette-endorsement-governor/article_821d67be-33be-46c4-b90c-5f78f8cd1653.html |website=[[The Post and Courier]] |access-date=May 29, 2026 |language=en |date=May 29, 2026}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 9, 2026 |rowspan=2|Open Seat |{{Icon|no}} Lost Primary |- |[[Alan Wilson (politician)|Alan Wilson]] ''(co-endorsement with Evette in the Runoff)''{{citation needed|date=June 2026}} |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas gubernatorial election|Texas]] |''[[Greg Abbott]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dey |first=Sneha |date=2025-11-12 |title=Donald Trump endorses Texas Gov. Greg Abbott for reelection |url=https://www.texastribune.org/2025/11/11/texas-governor-2026-elections-greg-abbott-donald-trump-endorsement/ |access-date=2025-11-26 |website=The Texas Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[2026 Wisconsin gubernatorial election|Wisconsin]] |[[Tom Tiffany]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Opoien |first1=Jessie |title=Donald Trump endorses Tom Tiffany in Wisconsin governor race |url=https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/politics/2026/01/27/donald-triump-endorses-tom-tiffany-in-wisconsin-governor-race/88388133007/ |website=Journal Sentinel |access-date=28 January 2026}}</ref> |August 11, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2026 Wyoming gubernatorial election|Wyoming]] |[[Megan Degenfelder]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zahn |first=Noah |date=2026-01-12 |title=Degenfelder announces bid for governor after Trump endorsement |url=https://www.wyomingnews.com/news/local_news/degenfelder-announces-bid-for-governor-after-trump-endorsement/article_f5ec3cdb-7271-4c54-b1b1-a9ee8e6b17fd.html |access-date=2026-01-21 |website=Wyoming News |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |} ==== 2026 state executive elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Office !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2026 Alabama lieutenant gubernatorial election|Alabama]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Alabama|Lieutenant Governor]] |[[John Wahl]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://1819news.com/news/item/trump-endorses-algop-chair-wahl-as-possible-candidate-for-lieutenant-governor|title=Trump endorses ALGOP chair Wahl as possible candidate for lieutenant governor|last=Taylor|first=Caleb|work=1819 News|date=January 22, 2026|access-date=January 22, 2026}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Open |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to Runoff |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Attorney General election|Florida]] |[[Attorney General of Florida|Attorney General]] |''[[James Uthmeier]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-08 |title=Trump backs DeSantis-allied Uthmeier for Florida attorney general |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/10/08/trump-uthmeier-desantis-florida-ag-00597957 |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=Politico |language=en}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Chief Financial Officer election|Florida]] |[[Chief Financial Officer of Florida|Chief Financial Officer]] |<s>[[Joe Gruters]]</s> ''(Withdrew)''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohrer |first=Gray |date=2025-04-01 |title=Who will be Florida's next CFO? DeSantis faces key decision |url=https://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/local/state/2025/04/01/desantis-cfo-decision-patronis-gruters-ingoglia/82759721007/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=[[Tallahassee Democrat]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Russell |first1=Ty |title=RNC Chair Gruters to remain in Florida senate but bow out of CFO race |url=https://www.wfla.com/news/florida/rnc-chair-gruters-to-remain-in-florida-senate-but-bow-out-of-cfo-race/ |publisher=[[WFLA-TV]] |access-date=2 September 2025 |date=28 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828231453/https://www.wfla.com/news/florida/rnc-chair-gruters-to-remain-in-florida-senate-but-bow-out-of-cfo-race/ |archive-date=28 August 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Challenger |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Commissioner of Agriculture election|Florida]] |[[Florida Commissioner of Agriculture|Commissioner of Agriculture]] |''[[Wilton Simpson]]''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leonard |first=Kimberly |date=October 23, 2025 |title=Simpson gets the pre-endorsement |url=https://www.politico.com/newsletters/florida-playbook/2025/10/23/simpson-gets-the-pre-endorsement-00619524 |work=[[Politico]] |access-date=October 24, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2026 Idaho lieutenant gubernatorial election|Idaho]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Idaho|Lieutenant Governor]] |''[[Scott Bedke]]''<ref name="Nitzberg">{{Cite news |last=Nitzberg |first=Alex |date=April 14, 2026 |title=Trump endorses neighboring state lieutenant governors for re-election |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-endorses-neighboring-state-lieutenant-governors-re-election |work=[[Fox News]] |access-date=April 14, 2026}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2026 Nebraska Attorney General election|Nebraska]] |[[Attorney General of Nebraska|Attorney General]] |''[[Mike Hilgers]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Mike Hilgers for Attorney General of Nebraska |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/116382124929663354 |access-date=April 11, 2026 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2026 Nevada lieutenant gubernatorial election|Nevada]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Nevada|Lieutenant Governor]] |''[[Stavros Anthony]]''<ref name="Nitzberg"/> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[2026 Nevada Attorney General election|Nevada]] |[[Attorney General of Nevada|Attorney General]] |[[Adriana Guzmán Fralick]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seeman |first1=Matthew |title=Trump endorses Nevada attorney general candidate in GOP primary race |url=https://news3lv.com/news/local/trump-endorses-republican-candidate-adriana-guzman-fralick-nevada-attorney-general-primary-election-politics-danny-tarkanian |website=KSNV |access-date=June 5, 2026 |language=en |date=June 3, 2026}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2026 Oklahoma lieutenant gubernatorial election|Oklahoma]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma|Lieutenant Governor]] |[[T. W. Shannon]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tortorello |first1=Rarchar |title=Trump Endorsement Reshapes Oklahoma Lieutenant Governor Primary |url=https://www.citynewsokc.com/business/trump-endorsement-reshapes-oklahoma-lieutenant-governor-primary/article_1eff80c7-8307-4eca-a9dd-f462b7338466.html |website=Oklahoma City Sentinel |access-date=25 March 2026 |language=en |date=24 March 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260429003237/https://www.citynewsokc.com/business/trump-endorsement-reshapes-oklahoma-lieutenant-governor-primary/article_1eff80c7-8307-4eca-a9dd-f462b7338466.html |archive-date=29 April 2026}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2026 South Carolina Commissioner of Agriculture election|South Carolina]] |[[South Carolina Department of Agriculture|Agriculture Commissioner]] |Cody Simpson<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adcox |first1=Seanna |title=McMaster and Trump endorse 3rd potential candidate for SC agriculture commissioner|url=https://scdailygazette.com/2026/02/05/mcmaster-and-trump-endorse-3rd-potential-candidate-for-agriculture-commissioner/ |website=SC Daily Gazette |access-date=4 April 2026 |date=5 February 2026}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas lieutenant gubernatorial election|Texas]] |[[Lieutenant Governor of Texas|Lieutenant Governor]] |''[[Dan Patrick (politician)|Dan Patrick]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kvue.com/article/news/politics/texas-dan-patrick-reelection-lieutenant-governor/269-3337d337-9158-4e15-983d-737465f662ea|title=Texas Lt. Gov. Dan Patrick announces re-election bid|last1=Eubank|last2=Carolan|first1=Britney|first2=Sam|date=April 11, 2025|access-date=April 11, 2025|publisher=[[KVUE]]}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts election|Texas]] |[[Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts|Comptroller]] |[[Don Huffines]]<ref name="Huffines">{{cite web |last=Yu |first=Issac |date=February 27, 2026 |title=Trump endorses against Abbott's picks for Texas Ag Commissioner and Comptroller ahead of GOP primary |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/politics/election/2026/article/trump-sid-miller-don-huffines-abbott-21946633.php |publisher=[[Houston Chronicle]] |access-date=February 28, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas elections|Texas]] |[[Texas General Land Office|General Land Commissioner]] |''[[Dawn Buckingham]]''<ref name="Huffines"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas Commissioner of Agriculture election|Texas]] |[[Texas Department of Agriculture|Agriculture Commissioner]] |''[[Sid Miller (politician)|Sid Miller]]''<ref name="Huffines"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |} ==== 2026 Senate elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Alabama|Alabama]] |[[Barry Moore (American politician)|Barry Moore]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Barry Moore? Trump's choice for Alabama's next US Senator; US President reveals key reasons behind his support for US Congressman|url=https://m.economictimes.com/us/news/who-is-barry-moore-trumps-choice-for-alabamas-next-us-senator-us-president-reveals-key-reasons-behind-his-support-for-us-congressman/articleshow/126639467.cms|access-date=2026-01-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Alaska|Alaska]] |[[Dan Sullivan (U.S. senator)|''Dan Sullivan'']]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Alaska U.S. Sen. Dan Sullivan |url=https://www.adn.com/politics/2025/07/21/trump-endorses-alaska-us-sen-dan-sullivan/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Anchorage Daily News}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Arkansas|Arkansas]] |''[[Tom Cotton]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-09 |title=Trump endorses Senator Tom Cotton's re-election bid |url=https://www.thv11.com/article/news/local/trump-endorses-tom-cotton-re-election-as-senator/91-fe400e4e-8f5c-4ad8-aeb4-c57409b8d0ee |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=thv11.com |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 United States Senate special election in Florida|Florida]] |''[[Ashley Moody]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/748780-donald-trump-endorses-ashley-moody-early/|title=Donald Trump endorses Ashley Moody's return to U.S. Senate|last=Gancarski|first=A.G.|date=July 25, 2025|access-date=September 15, 2025|website=[[Florida Politics]]}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Georgia|Georgia]] |[[Mike Collins (politician)|Mike Collins]]{{citation needed|date=June 2026}} |May 19, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Idaho|Idaho]] |''[[Jim Risch]]''<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Ratliff|first1=Seth|title=President Trump endorses Senator Risch well ahead of mid-term elections|url=https://localnews8.com/news/top-stories/2025/03/20/president-trump-endorses-senator-risch-well-ahead-of-mid-term-elections/|date=March 20, 2025|access-date=September 13, 2025|publisher=[[KIFI-TV]]}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Iowa|Iowa]] |[[Ashley Hinson]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Rep. Ashley Hinson's campaign for Iowa's U.S. Senate seat |url=https://www.thegazette.com/campaigns-elections/trump-endorses-rep-ashley-hinsons-campaign-for-iowas-u-s-senate-seat/ |access-date=2025-09-07 |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Kansas|Kansas]] |''[[Roger Marshall]]''<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-09 |title=Trump endorses Kansas politicians Roger Marshall, Derek Schmidt, Tracey Mann|url=https://www.cjonline.com/story/news/politics/elections/2025/07/22/donald-trump-endorses-kansas-gop-congressmen-for-reelection-in-2026/85307235007/?gnt-cfr=1&gca-cat=p&gca-uir=false&gca-epti=z118570p115750c115750e002000v118570&gca-ft=160&gca-ds=sophi&gnt-djm=1 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=cjonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Kentucky|Kentucky]] |[[Andy Barr]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Rep. Andy Barr gets coveted Trump endorsement in Kentucky Senate race to replace McConnell |url=https://apnews.com/article/mcconnell-trump-barr-kentucky-senate-22cff179110a64691947a79f13e00c22 |website=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=May 1, 2026 |language=en |date=May 1, 2026}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Louisiana|Louisiana]] |[[Julia Letlow]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 18, 2026 |title=Trump Backs a Potential Primary Challenger to Bill Cassidy, a G.O.P. Senator |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/18/us/politics/trump-bill-cassidy-julia-letlow-primary-challenge-endorsement.html |access-date=January 18, 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> |June 27, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Michigan|Michigan]] |[[Mike Rogers (Michigan politician)|Mike Rogers]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shelton |first=Shajaka |date=July 24, 2025 |title=Trump endorses Rogers for U.S. Senate |url=https://www.wlns.com/your-local-election-hq/trump-endorses-rogers-for-u-s-senate/ |access-date=September 13, 2025 |work=[[WLNS-TV|WLNS]]}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Mississippi|Mississippi]] |''[[Cindy Hyde-Smith]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-09 |title= Hyde-Smith draws GOP challenger as Democrats target her Mississippi U.S. Senate seat|url= https://magnoliatribune.com/2025/05/09/hyde-smith-draws-gop-challenger-as-democrats-target-her-mississippi-u-s-senate-seat/|access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Magnolia Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 10, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Montana}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Montana|Montana]] |''<s>[[Steve Daines]]</s>'' (withdrew)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Blair |title=Daines gets Trump's endorsement as he readies 2026 Senate reelection bid |url=https://helenair.com/news/state-regional/government-politics/article_a8313a29-db4d-4506-957d-677f4882100e.html |access-date=September 13, 2025 |work=[[Independent Record]] |date=April 23, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Kurt Alme]]<ref name=Bloomberg1>{{cite web |title=Trump Endorses Alme for Montana Senate as Daines Steps Aside |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2026-03-05/trump-endorses-alme-for-montana-senate-as-daines-steps-aside |website=Bloomberg |access-date=5 March 2026}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Nebraska|Nebraska]] |''[[Pete Ricketts]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Salinas |first1=Juan |title= Nebraska's Dan Osborn statistically tied with U.S. Sen. Pete Ricketts in poll |url= https://nebraskaexaminer.com/2025/04/10/nebraskas-dan-osborn-statistically-tied-with-u-s-sen-pete-ricketts-in-poll/ |website=[[Nebraska Examiner]] |date=April 10, 2025 |access-date=September 13, 2025 }}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New Hampshire}} [[2026 United States Senate election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]] |[[John E. Sununu]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Manchester |first=Julia |title=Trump backs John Sununu in New Hampshire Senate race |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/5717664-trump-endorses-sununu-nh-senate/ |website=The Hill |date=February 1, 2026 |access-date=February 1, 2026}}</ref> |September 8, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2026 United States Senate election in North Carolina|North Carolina]] |[[Michael Whatley]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-24 |title=RNC chair Michael Whatley to run for Senate in North Carolina with Trump's support |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/07/24/whatley-senate-north-carolina-trump-00473419 |access-date=2025-07-29 |website=Politico}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Ohio|Ohio]] |''[[Jon Husted]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Lydia |title=Trump endorses Husted for 2026 Senate race |url=https://spectrumnews1.com/oh/cincinnati/news/2025/04/09/trump-endorses-husted-for-2026-senate-race |access-date=September 13, 2025 |work=[[Spectrum News]] |date=April 9, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] |''<s>[[Markwayne Mullin]]</s>'' (resigned to become [[United States Secretary of Homeland Security|DHS Secretary]])<ref>{{cite news |last1=Krehbiel |first1=Randy |title=Political notebook: Strong income tax receipts keep state revenue on track |url=https://tulsaworld.com/news/state-regional/government-politics/article_1e973cb9-33a2-46c9-bdf3-a9ffb024a44e.html |access-date=May 20, 2025 |work=Tulsa World |date=May 18, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Resigned |- |[[Kevin Hern]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Onstot |first1=Evan |title=Trump endorses Kevin Hern for Oklahoma Senate seat |url=https://www.koco.com/article/trump-endorses-kevin-hern-oklahoma-senate-seat/70740280 |website=KOCO |access-date=14 March 2026 |language=en |date=14 March 2026}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[2026 United States Senate election in South Carolina|South Carolina]] |''[[Lindsey Graham]]''<ref>{{cite news |work=[[WCIV]] |access-date=September 13, 2025 |author=Kayanja, Ian |title=President Trump endorses Lindsey Graham as senator eyes 2026 reelection bid |url=https://abcnews4.com/news/local/trump-endorses-sen-lindsey-graham-as-senator-eyes-2026-reelection-bid-donald-trump-lindsey-graham-reelection-wciv-abc-news-4-03-26-2025 |date=March 26, 2025}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Dakota}} [[2026 United States Senate election in South Dakota|South Dakota]] |''[[Mike Rounds]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rounds wins Trump endorsement after playing deal-making role in rescinding public media funds |url=https://southdakotasearchlight.com/briefs/rounds-wins-trump-endorsement-after-playing-deal-making-role-in-rescinding-public-media-funds/ |access-date=2025-09-10 |website=South Dakota Searchlight |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Tennessee|Tennessee]] |''[[Bill Hagerty]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Bill Hagerty for Senate |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114231344319625636 |access-date=September 14, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Texas|Texas]] |[[Ken Paxton]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Goldmacher |first1=Shane |title=Trump Endorses Paxton in Final Week of G.O.P. Senate Runoff in Texas |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/05/19/us/politics/trump-paxton-endorsement-cornyn-texas-senate.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=May 19, 2026}}</ref> |May 26, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[2026 United States Senate election in West Virginia|West Virginia]] |''[[Shelley Moore Capito]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump endorses Capito | website=[[The Guardian.com]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/live/2025/may/16/donald-trump-gulf-tax-bill-medicaid-us-politics-live-updates?CMP=share_btn_url&page=with%3Ablock-682756e28f0835109b839df2#block-682756e28f0835109b839df2 |date=May 15, 2025 |access-date=September 14, 2025}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Wyoming}} [[2026 United States Senate election in Wyoming|Wyoming]] |''<s>[[Cynthia Lummis]]</s>'' (declined to run)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stingray |first1=River |title=Trump endorses Lummis for second term far ahead of 2026 election |url=https://buckrail.com/trump-endorses-lummis-for-second-term-far-ahead-of-2026-election/ |access-date=September 14, 2025 |work=Buckrail |date=March 27, 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mestas |first=Denise |date=December 19, 2025 |title=Lummis Announces Decision To Not Seek Re-Election in 2026 |url=https://www.wyomingnewsnow.tv/news/lummis-announces-decision-to-not-seek-re-election-in-2026/article_5c48a0b7-4d04-49cd-8ffd-9fc06138d339.html |access-date=January 23, 2026 |website=Wyoming News Now |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251221192430/https://www.wyomingnewsnow.tv/news/lummis-announces-decision-to-not-seek-re-election-in-2026/article_5c48a0b7-4d04-49cd-8ffd-9fc06138d339.html |archive-date=December 21, 2025}}</ref> |rowspan=2|August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |[[Harriet Hageman]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Steinhauser |first1=Paul |title=Trump ally who ousted Cheney launches Senate bid keep GOP seat in Republican hands |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/scoop-trump-ally-harriet-hageman-who-ousted-cheney-launches-senate-bid-keep-gop-seat-republican-hands |work=[[Fox News]] |date=December 23, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |Open Seat |TBA |} ==== 2026 House elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 3rd congressional district|AL-03]] |[[Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)|''Mike Rogers'']]<ref name="Alabama">{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Daniel |title='He will never let you down!' — Trump endorses Aderholt, Strong, Palmer, Rogers for reelection |url=https://1819news.com/news/item/he-will-never-let-you-down-trump-endorses-aderholt-strong-palmer-rogers-for-reelection |access-date=January 23, 2026 |work=[[1819 News]] |date=November 3, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 4th congressional district|AL-04]] |''[[Robert Aderholt]]''<ref name="Alabama"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 5th congressional district|AL-05]] |''[[Dale Strong]]''<ref name="Alabama"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Alabama}} [[Alabama's 6th congressional district|AL-06]] |''[[Gary Palmer]]''<ref name="Alabama"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Alaska}} [[Alaska's at-large congressional district|AK-AL]] |[[Nick Begich III|''Nick Begich'']]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brooks |first1=James |title=Trump backs Begich for reelection to Alaska's U.S. House seat in 2026 |url=https://alaskabeacon.com/briefs/trump-backs-begich-for-reelection-to-alaskas-u-s-house-seat-in-2026/ |access-date=September 14, 2025 |work=Alaska Beacon |date=May 8, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 1st congressional district|AZ-01]] |<s>[[Gina Swoboda]]</s> ''(withdrew)''<ref name=DualEndorsement/> |rowspan=2|July 21, 2026 |rowspan=2|Open Seat |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Jay Feely]] ''(co-endorsement with Swoboda)''<ref name="DualEndorsement">{{cite web |last1=Gersony |first1=Laura |title=Trump issues rare dual endorsement in Arizona swing district |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/arizona/2026/01/06/trump-issues-dual-endorsement-jay-feely-gina-swoboda-congress/87853100007/ |website=AZ Central |access-date=23 January 2026}}</ref> |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 2nd congressional district|AZ-02]] |''[[Eli Crane]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Eli Crane: Potential Boost for Energy Stocks and Sector Funds |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-eli-crane-potential-boost-for-energy-stocks-and-sector-funds#google_vignette |website=TipRanks Financial |access-date=23 January 2026 |language=en}}</ref> |July 21, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 5th congressional district|AZ-05]] |[[Mark Lamb (sheriff)|Mark Lamb]]<ref>{{cite news |title= President Trump Endorses Former Pinal County Sheriff Mark Lamb For Congress |url= https://azfreenews.com/2025/11/president-trump-endorses-former-pinal-county-sheriff-mark-lamb-for-congress/ |access-date= January 23, 2026 |work= |date= November 5, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |July 21, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 6th congressional district|AZ-06]] |''[[Juan Ciscomani]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nintzel |first1=Jim |title=Trump endorses Ciscomani; Az Dems have party problems|url= https://www.tucsonsentinel.com/local/report/042925_political_roundup/trump-endorses-ciscomani-az-dems-have-party-problems/ |work=Tucson Senteniel |date=April 29, 2025}}</ref> |July 21, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 8th congressional district|AZ-08]] |''[[Abraham Hamadeh]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nitzberg |first1=Alex |title= Trump endorses House freshman for reelection less than six months into the lawmaker's congressional tenure |url= https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-endorses-house-freshman-reelection-less-than-six-months-lawmakers-congressional-tenure |work=[[Fox News]] |date=June 16, 2025}}</ref> |July 21, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arizona}} [[Arizona's 9th congressional district|AZ-09]] |''[[Paul Gosar]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Gosar: Potential Boost for Energy Stocks and Sector Funds |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-gosar-potential-stock-market-impacts-on-energy-and-manufacturing-sectors#google_vignette |website=TipRanks Financial |access-date=23 January 2026 |language=en}}</ref> |July 21, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[Arkansas's 1st congressional district|AR-01]] |''[[Rick Crawford (politician)|Rick Crawford]]''<ref name=Arkansaw>{{Cite web |title=- President Trump endorses Arkansas congressmen in reelection bids |url=https://www.5newsonline.com/article/news/local/president-trump-endorses-arkansas-congressmen-reelection-bids/527-e20394ee-aa92-4db0-b5f5-57080c02467b}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[Arkansas's 2nd congressional district|AR-02]] |''[[French Hill (politician)|French Hill]]''<ref name=Arkansaw/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[Arkansas's 3rd congressional district|AR-03]] |''[[Steve Womack]]''<ref name=Arkansaw/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Arkansas}} [[Arkansas's 4th congressional district|AR-04]] |''[[Bruce Westerman]]''<ref name=Arkansaw/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 5th congressional district|CA-05]] |''[[Tom McClintock]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 13th congressional district|CA-13]] |[[Kevin Lincoln (politician)|Kevin Lincoln]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Manchester |first=Julia |date=December 25, 2025 |title=Trump wades into House races, putting endorsement force to the test |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5662512-trump-midterm-endorsements-impact/ |access-date=December 26, 2025 |website=The Hill}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 20th congressional district|CA-20]] |''[[Vince Fong]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Vince Fong for House of Representatives|url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/115375108797044323 |access-date=January 23, 2026 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 23rd congressional district|CA-23]] |''[[Jay Obernolte]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|California}} [[California's 48th congressional district|CA-48]] |<s>''[[Darrell Issa]]''</s> (withdrew)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-darrell-issa-potential-tailwinds-for-u-s-energy-defense-and-industrial-stocks|title=Trump's Endorsement of Darrell Issa: Potential Tailwinds for U.S. Energy, Defense, and Industrial Stocks|date=January 23, 2026|access-date=February 17, 2026}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |[[Jim Desmond]]<ref name="ATEAPRIL"/> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Advanced to General |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 3rd congressional district|CO-03]] |''[[Jeff Hurd]]'' (re-endorsed)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Luning |first1=Ernest |title=Donald Trump endorses Republican Jeff Hurd's bid for reelection in Colorado's 3rd CD |url=https://www.coloradopolitics.com/2025/10/28/donald-trump-endorses-republican-jeff-hurds-bid-for-reelection-in-colorados-3rd-cd/ |access-date=November 8, 2025 |work=[[Colorado Politics]] |date=October 28, 2025}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 30, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |<s>Hope Scheppelman</s> ''(withdrew)''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brams |first1=Sophie |title=Trump pulls endorsement of Hurd over tariffs vote |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5749448-hurd-loses-trump-backing/ |access-date=February 21, 2026 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=February 21, 2026}}</ref> |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 4th congressional district|CO-04]] |''[[Lauren Boebert]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Luning |first=Ernest |date=2025-07-24 |title=Donald Trump endorses Republican Lauren Boebert's 2026 reelection bid in Colorado's deep red 4th CD |url=https://www.coloradopolitics.com/elections/2026/donald-trump-endorses-republican-lauren-boeberts-2026-reelection-bid-in-colorados-deep-red-4th-cd/article_2c9c1325-536e-4ee6-93bc-cc1a2fdf2d96.html |access-date=2025-08-08 |website=Colorado Politics |language=en}}</ref> |June 30, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 5th congressional district|CO-05]] |''[[Jeff Crank]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Luning |first=Ernest |date=2025-08-20 |title=Donald Trump endorses Colorado Republican Jeff Crank's bid for reelection |url=https://www.coloradopolitics.com/2025/08/20/donald-trump-endorses-colorado-republican-jeff-cranks-bid-for-reelection/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Colorado Politics |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 30, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Colorado}} [[Colorado's 8th congressional district|CO-08]] |''[[Gabe Evans]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Luning |first1=Ernest |title=Donald Trump endorses Republican Gabe Evans in Colorado's tossup 8th Congressional District |url=https://www.coloradopolitics.com/elections/2026/donald-trump-endorses-republican-gabe-evans-in-colorados-tossup-8th-congressional-district/article_4b5aa753-3dd8-4910-b3d0-a1ca419d2919.html |access-date=September 14, 2025 |work=[[Colorado Politics]] |date=April 28, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |June 30, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 1st congressional district|FL-01]] |''[[Jimmy Patronis]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy Patronis snags Donald Trump endorsement |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/762317-jimmy-patronis-snags-donald-trump-endorsement/ |website=Florida Politics |date=October 25, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 2nd congressional district|FL-02]] |''<s>[[Neal Dunn]]</s>'' (declined to run)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dixon |first1=Matt |title=Trump backs Rep. Anna Paulina Luna in her likely run for reelection in 2026 |url=https://www.politico.com/live-updates/2025/04/03/congress/trump-proxy-voting-support-00271110 |access-date=September 14, 2025 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=April 3, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 3rd congressional district|FL-03]] |''[[Kat Cammack]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ogles |first1=Jacob |title=Kat Cammack secures valuable Donald Trump endorsement for third term |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/760947-kat-cammack-secures-valuable-donald-trump-endorsement-for-third-term/ |access-date=October 16, 2025 |work=[[Florida Politics]] |date=October 16, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 4th congressional district|FL-04]] |''[[Aaron Bean]]''<ref name="SevenMore">{{cite web |last1=Gancarski |first1=A. G. |title=Donald Trump endorses seven more Congressional incumbents in Florida |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/779269-donald-trump-endorses-seven-more-congressional-incumbents/ |website=Florida Politics |access-date=11 February 2026 |date=11 February 2026}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 5th congressional district|FL-05]] |''[[John Rutherford (Florida politician)|John Rutherford]]''<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 6th congressional district|FL-06]] |''[[Randy Fine]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Donald Trump backs 'MAGA Warrior' Randy Fine ahead of contested primary in CD 6 |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/762299-donald-trump-backs-maga-warrior-randy-fine-ahead-of-contested-primary-in-cd-6/ |website=Florida Politics |date=October 25, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 7th congressional district|FL-07]] |''[[Cory Mills]]''<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 8th congressional district|FL-08]] |''[[Mike Haridopolos]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Donald Trump endorses 'America First Patriot' Mike Haridopolos for re-election |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/762300-donald-trump-endorses-mike-haridopolos-re-election/ |website=Florida Politics |date=October 25, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |quote=Haridopolos is actively campaigning for another term.}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 11th congressional district|FL-11]] |<s>''[[Daniel Webster (Florida politician)|Daniel Webster]]''</s> (withdrew)<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 12th congressional district|FL-12]] |''[[Gus Bilirakis]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 13th congressional district|FL-13]] |''[[Anna Paulina Luna]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dixon |first1=Matt |title=Trump backs Rep. Anna Paulina Luna in her likely run for reelection in 2026 |url=https://www.politico.com/live-updates/2025/04/03/congress/trump-proxy-voting-support-00271110 |access-date=September 14, 2025 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=April 3, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 15th congressional district|FL-15]] |''[[Laurel Lee]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 16th congressional district|FL-16]] |''<s>[[Vern Buchanan]]</s>'' (declined to run)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/newsletters/florida-playbook/2026/01/28/another-retirement-more-jockeying-00751657|title=Another retirement, more jockeying|last1=Leonard|last2=Williams|first1=Kimberly|first2=Kylie|date=January 28, 2026|access-date=January 28, 2026|website=[[Politico]]}}</ref> |rowspan=2|August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |Sydney Gruters<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-24 |title=Trump urges Sydney Gruters to run in Florida race to replace Buchanan |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2026/03/24/trump-sydney-gruters-replace-vern-buchanan-00842378 |access-date=2026-03-24 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref> |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 17th congressional district|FL-17]] |''[[Greg Steube]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Greg Steube secures another Donald Trump endorsement |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/762302-greg-steube-secures-another-donald-trump-endorsement/ |website=Florida Politics |date=October 25, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025}}</ref> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 18th congressional district|FL-18]] |''[[Scott Franklin (politician)|Scott Franklin]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 21st congressional district|FL-21]] |''[[Brian Mast]]''<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 26th congressional district|FL-26]] |''[[Mario Díaz-Balart]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 27th congressional district|FL-27]] |''[[Maria Elvira Salazar]]''<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[Florida's 28th congressional district|FL-28]] |''[[Carlos A. Giménez|Carlos Giménez]]''<ref name="SevenMore"/> |August 18, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 1st congressional district|GA-01]] |Jim Kingston<ref name="ATEAPRIL"/> |May 19, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 3rd congressional district|GA-03]] |''[[Brian Jack]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/how-trumps-endorsement-of-brian-jack-could-nudge-agriculture-energy-and-defense-stocks |title=How Trump's Endorsement of Brian Jack Could Nudge Agriculture, Energy, and Defense Stocks |date=January 23, 2026|access-date=April 4, 2026}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 7th congressional district|GA-07]] |''[[Rich McCormick]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 8th congressional district|GA-08]] |''[[Austin Scott]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 9th congressional district|GA-09]] |''[[Andrew Clyde]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 10th congressional district|GA-10]] |[[Houston Gaines]]<ref name="ATEAPRIL"/> |May 19, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 11th congressional district|GA-11]] |''<s>[[Barry Loudermilk]]</s>'' (withdrew)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Barry Loudermilk for House |url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114876638674610838 |access-date=September 14, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 12th congressional district|GA-12]] |''[[Rick Allen (politician)|Rick Allen]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia's 14th congressional district|GA-14]] |''<s>[[Marjorie Taylor Greene]]</s>'' (endorsement rescinded,<br>resigned)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-withdraws-support-marjorie-taylor-greene-2025-11-15/|title=Trump withdraws support for Marjorie Taylor Greene|date=November 14, 2025|access-date=November 14, 2025|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> |rowspan=2|May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Resigned |- |[[Clay Fuller]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Clay Fuller for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/116596785594736554 |access-date=May 20, 2026 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[Idaho's 1st congressional district|ID-01]] |''[[Russ Fulcher]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Idaho}} [[Idaho's 2nd congressional district|ID-02]] |''[[Mike Simpson]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Illinois}} [[Illinois's 12th congressional district|IL-12]] |''[[Mike Bost]]''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mike Bost launches re-election campaign with Trump's endorsement|url=https://newschannel20.com/news/local/mike-bost-launches-re-election-campaign-with-trumps-endorsement|date=May 9, 2025|access-date=September 15, 2025|publisher=[[WICS]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251002003115/https://newschannel20.com/news/local/mike-bost-launches-re-election-campaign-with-trumps-endorsement|archive-date=October 2, 2025}}</ref> |March 17, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Illinois}} [[Illinois's 15th congressional district|IL-15]] |[[Mary Miller (politician)|''Mary Miller'']]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Mary Miller for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/115057223325978530 |access-date=September 15, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |March 17, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Illinois}} [[Illinois's 16th congressional district|IL-16]] |''[[Darin LaHood]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 17, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 2nd congressional district|IN-02]] |''[[Rudy Yakym]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 3rd congressional district|IN-03]] |''[[Marlin Stutzman]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 4th congressional district|IN-04]] |''[[Jim Baird (politician)|Jim Baird]]''<ref name="Firesoff">{{cite web |last1=Murphy |first1=Ryan |title=Trump endorses Spartz, other Indiana members of Congress for re-election. Here's who else |url=https://www.indystar.com/story/news/politics/2026/01/23/trump-indiana-congress-representatives-for-re-election-truth-social-spartz-baird-houchins-shreve/88326534007/ |website=The Indianapolis Star |access-date=24 January 2026}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 5th congressional district|IN-05]] |''[[Victoria Spartz]]''<ref name="Firesoff"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 6th congressional district|IN-06]] |''[[Jefferson Shreve]]''<ref name="Firesoff"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 8th congressional district|IN-08]] |''[[Mark Messmer]]''<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Langhorne|first1=Thomas B.|title=Messmer makes it official: He will seek re-election to Congress|url=https://www.courierpress.com/story/news/politics/2025/08/05/messmer-makes-it-official-he-will-seek-re-election-to-congress/85528535007/?gnt-cfr=1&gca-cat=p&gca-uir=true&gca-epti=z115130p000550c000550e004000v115130b0051xxd005165&gca-ft=178&gca-ds=sophi&gnt-djm=1|date=August 5, 2025|access-date=September 15, 2025|publisher=[[KIFI-TV]]}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[Indiana's 9th congressional district|IN-09]] |''[[Erin Houchin]]''<ref name="Firesoff"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[Iowa's 1st congressional district|IA-01]] |''[[Mariannette Miller-Meeks]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Opsahl |first=Robin |date=2025-11-03 |title=President Donald Trump endorses U.S. Rep. Mariannette Miller-Meeks |url=https://iowacapitaldispatch.com/2025/11/03/president-donald-trump-endorses-u-s-rep-mariannette-miller-meeks/ |access-date=2025-11-26 |website=Iowa Capital Dispatch |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[Iowa's 2nd congressional district|IA-02]] |[[Joe Mitchell (politician)|Joe Mitchell]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump endorsement reshapes Iowa's 2nd District race |url=https://www.thegazette.com/campaigns-elections/trump-speaker-mike-johnson-endorse-joe-mitchell-for-congress-as-iowa-gop-primary-field-narrows/ |website=The Gazette |access-date=28 January 2026}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[Iowa's 3rd congressional district|IA-03]] |''[[Zach Nunn]]''<ref name="TrumpBooker">{{cite news |title=Trump backs Iowa Congressman in 2026, Sen. Cory Booker endorses Dem running in same race |url=https://cbs2iowa.com/news/local/trump-backs-nunn-booker-endorses-konfrst-as-iowas-3rd-congressional-race-heats-up-ach-nunn-republican-jennifer-sarah-trone-garriott-president-donald-booker-us-senator-reprehensive-washington-dc-vote-2026-election-truth-social-twitter-x-congress-democrats |access-date=September 16, 2025 |work=[[KGAN]] |date=May 9, 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Iowa}} [[Iowa's 4th congressional district|IA-04]] |Chris McGowan<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pfannenstiel |first1=Brianne |title=Donald Trump endorses Chris McGowan in Iowa's 4th District primary |url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/politics/elections/2026/02/05/donald-trump-endorses-chris-mcgowan-in-iowas-4th-district-primary/88519517007/ |access-date=February 5, 2026 |work=[[The Des Moines Register]] |date=February 5, 2026}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[Kansas's 1st congressional district|KS-01]] |''[[Tracey Mann]]<ref name=":6" />'' |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[Kansas's 2nd congressional district|KS-02]] |''[[Derek Schmidt]]<ref name=":6" />'' |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Kansas}} [[Kansas's 4th congressional district|KS-04]] |''[[Ron Estes]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Ron Estes for House |url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/115057228167480219 |access-date=September 20, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 1st congressional district|KY-01]] |''[[James Comer]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 2nd congressional district|KY-02]] |''[[Brett Guthrie]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 4th congressional district|KY-04]] |[[Ed Gallrein]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kashinsky |first1=Lisa |last2=Hill |first2=Meredith Lee |title=Trump endorses Massie challenger not yet in the primary race |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/10/17/massie-kentucky-trump-endorsement-00614778 |website=[[Politico]] |date=October 17, 2025 |access-date=October 18, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 5th congressional district|KY-05]] |''[[Hal Rogers]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mueller |first1=Caroline |title=Congressman Hal Rogers announces re-election bid |url=https://www.wymt.com/2025/11/07/congressman-hal-rogers-announces-re-election-bid/ |publisher=[[WYMT-TV]] |date=November 7, 2025 |access-date=November 19, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Kentucky}} [[Kentucky's 6th congressional district|KY-06]] |[[Ralph Alvarado]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Horsley |first=McKenna |title= Trump causes political earthquake in KY, backing Barr, Alvarado in U.S. Senate, House races |url= https://kentuckylantern.com/2026/05/01/trump-causes-political-earthquake-in-ky-backing-barr-alvarado-in-u-s-senate-house-races/ |website=Kentucky Lantern |access-date=May 2, 2026 |language=en |date=May 1, 2026}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 1st congressional district|LA-01]] |''[[Steve Scalise]]''<ref name="Firesoff"/> |July 15, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 3rd congressional district|LA-03]] |''[[Clay Higgins]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |July 15, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 4th congressional district|LA-04]] |''[[Mike Johnson]]''<ref name="Firesoff"/> |July 15, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Louisiana}} [[Louisiana's 5th congressional district|LA-05]] |[[Blake Miguez]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hilburn |first1=Greg |title=Trump endorses Blake Miguez for Louisiana's 5th District, shaking up race |url=https://www.shreveporttimes.com/story/news/2026/02/04/trump-endorses-blake-miguez-for-louisianas-5th-congressional-district/88518646007/ |website=The Times |access-date=5 February 2026}}</ref> |July 15, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Maine}} [[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]] |[[Paul LePage]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-19 |title=Democratic candidate responds to Pres. Trump's endorsement of Paul LePage |url=https://wgme.com/news/local/democratic-candidate-responds-to-president-donald-trump-endorsement-of-paul-lepage-matt-dunlap-jared-golden-jordan-wood |access-date=2025-12-26 |publisher=WGME |language=en}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 1st congressional district|MI-01]] |''[[Jack Bergman]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sargent |first1=Bud |title=Bergman re-election endorsed by president |url=https://www.miningjournal.net/news/front-page-news/2025/11/bergman-re-election-endorsed-by-president/ |access-date=November 2, 2025 |work=[[The Mining Journal]] |date=November 1, 2025}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 2nd congressional district|MI-02]] |''[[John Moolenaar]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 4th congressional district|MI-04]] |''[[Bill Huizenga]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Solis |first=Ben |date=2025-07-25 |title=Trump endorses Michigan's Rogers in U.S. Senate race, gives nod to Huizenga for backing out |url=https://michiganadvance.com/briefs/trump-endorses-michigans-rogers-in-u-s-senate-race-gives-nod-to-huizenga-for-backing-out/ |access-date=2025-09-20 |website=Michigan Advance |language=en-US}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 5th congressional district|MI-05]] |''[[Tim Walberg]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Tim Walberg for congress |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114480047403137321 |access-date=September 22, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 7th congressional district|MI-07]] |''[[Tom Barrett (Michigan politician)|Tom Barrett]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title= President Trump endorses Congressman Tom Barrett for re-election |url=https://www.nrcc.org/2025/05/09/president-trump-endorses-congressman-tom-barrett-for-re-election/ |access-date=September 22, 2025 |publisher=[[NRCC]] |date=9 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Michigan}} [[Michigan's 9th congressional district|MI-09]] |''[[Lisa McClain]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 1st congressional district|MN-01]] |''[[Brad Finstad]]''<ref name="Minnesota">{{cite web |last1=Kramer |first1=Ethan |title=Trump endorses four Minnesota Republican House members for re-election in 2026 |url=https://www.valleynewslive.com/2025/11/04/trump-endorses-four-minnesota-republican-house-members-re-election-2026/ |website=Valley News |access-date=4 December 2025 |language=en |date=4 November 2025}}</ref> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 6th congressional district|MN-06]] |''[[Tom Emmer]]''<ref name="Minnesota"/> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 7th congressional district|MN-07]] |''[[Michelle Fischbach]]''<ref name="Minnesota"/> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Minnesota}} [[Minnesota's 8th congressional district|MN-08]] |''[[Pete Stauber]]''<ref name="Minnesota"/> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[Mississippi's 1st congressional district|MS-01]] |''[[Trent Kelly]]''<ref name="MS">{{Cite web |date=2025-11-03 |title= Trump endorses Congressman Kelly and Guest ahead of 2026 midterms|url= https://magnoliatribune.com/2025/11/03/trump-endorses-congressmen-kelly-and-guest-ahead-of-2026-midterms/|access-date=2026-02-22 |website=Magnolia Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 10, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[Mississippi's 3rd congressional district|MS-03]] |''[[Michael Guest (politician)|Michael Guest]]''<ref name="MS"/> |March 10, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Mississippi}} [[Mississippi's 4th congressional district|MS-04]] |''[[Mike Ezell]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Corder |first1=Frank |title=Trump endorses Ezell's midterm re-election bid |url=https://magnoliatribune.com/2025/10/27/trump-endorses-ezells-midterm-re-election-bid/ |access-date=October 28, 2025 |work=Magnolia Tribune |date=October 27, 2025}}</ref> |March 10, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[Missouri's 2nd congressional district|MO-02]] |''[[Ann Wagner]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Donald Trump Endorses Congresswoman Ann Wagner for Re-Election in Missouri's Second Congressional District: "She Will Not Let You Down" |url=https://themissouritimes.com/press-release-president-donald-trump-endorses-congresswoman-ann-wagner-for-re-election-in-missouris-second-congressional-district-she-will-not-let-you-down/ |access-date=September 29, 2025 |date=2025-07-22 |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[Missouri's 3rd congressional district|MO-03]] |''[[Bob Onder]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[Missouri's 4th congressional district|MO-04]] |''[[Mark Alford]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Mark Alford for Congress |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114231344319625636 |access-date=September 29, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[Missouri's 7th congressional district|MO-07]] |''[[Eric Burlison]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Missouri}} [[Missouri's 8th congressional district|MO-08]] |''[[Jason Smith (American politician)|Jason Smith]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana's 1st congressional district|MT-01]] |''<s>[[Ryan Zinke]]</s>'' (declined to run)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Drew |first1=Micah |title=Trump endorses Reps. Zinke, Downing for re-election |url=https://missoulacurrent.com/trump-zinke-downing/ |access-date=November 7, 2025 |work=[[Daily Montanan]] |publisher=Missoula Current |date=November 6, 2025}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |Aaron Flint<ref name=Trump1>{{cite web |last1=Eavis |first1=Victoria |title=Trump endorses Aaron Flint in Montana's western congressional primary race |url=https://helenair.com/news/state-regional/government-politics/elections/article_badcdd88-1fef-45d5-bce7-be6b7abed695.html |website=The Independent Record |access-date=3 March 2026 |language=en |date=3 March 2026}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana's 2nd congressional district|MT-02]] |''[[Troy Downing]]''<ref name="BBB">{{cite news |last=Nitzberg |first=Alex |title= Trump endorses House Republican who failed to vote on the One Big Beautiful Bill Act |url= https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-endorses-house-republican-who-failed-vote-one-big-beautiful-bill-act.amp |work=[[Fox News]] |access-date=29 September 2025 |date=May 26, 2025}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[Nebraska's 1st congressional district|NE-01]] |''[[Mike Flood (politician)|Mike Flood]]''<ref name="Nebraska">{{cite web |last1=Fischer |first1=Mark |title=President Donald Trump endorses two Nebraska congressmen for re-election |url=https://www.klkntv.com/president-donald-trump-endorses-two-nebraska-congressmen-for-re-election/ |access-date=November 6, 2025 |work=[[KLKN]] |date=November 3, 2025}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|NE-02]] |Brinker Harding<ref name="ATEAPRIL">{{cite web |last1=Whedon |first1=Ben |title=Trump makes string of endorsements in key House races |url=https://justthenews.com/politics-policy/trump-makes-string-endorsements-key-house-races |website=Just The News |access-date=2026-04-14 |language=en |date=April 14, 2026}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nebraska}} [[Nebraska's 3rd congressional district|NE-03]] |''[[Adrian Smith (politician)|Adrian Smith]]''<ref name="Nebraska"/> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[Nevada's 1st congressional district|NV-01]] |[[Carrie A. Buck|Carrie Buck]]<ref name ="Racker">{{cite web |last1=Racker |first1=Mini |title=Trump endorses GOP candidates in 2 swingy Nevada House seats |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/trump-endorses-gop-candidates-in-2-swingy-nevada-house-seats |website=[[The Nevada Independent]] |date=April 14, 2026 |access-date=April 14, 2026}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[Nevada's 2nd congressional district|NV-02]] |''<s>[[Mark Amodei]]</s>'' (withdrew)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Torres-Cortez |first1=Ricardo |title=Trump endorses re-election bids from Lombardo, Amodei |url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/news/politics-and-government/nevada/trump-endorses-re-election-bids-from-lombardo-amodei-3533963/ |access-date=November 7, 2025 |work=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] |date=November 6, 2025}}</ref> |rowspan=2|June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |David Flippo<ref>{{cite web|last=Racker|first=Mini|date=May 29, 2026|title=President Trump endorses in Nevada's most competitive GOP primary race |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/president-trump-endorses-in-nevadas-most-competitive-gop-primary-race|website=Nevada Independent|access-date=May 29, 2026}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won primary |- |{{flagicon|Nevada}} [[Nevada's 3rd congressional district|NV-03]] |[[Martin O'Donnell]]<ref name ="Racker"/> |June 9, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won primary |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[New Jersey's 2nd congressional district|NJ-02]] |''[[Jeff Van Drew]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/congressional/4460164/trump-endorsement-tracker-gop-2026-election-primaries/|title=Trump endorsement tracker: Here's who the president has picked in GOP midterm election primaries|last=Carter|first=Claire|date=February 17, 2026|access-date=March 31, 2026|website=[[Washington Examiner]]}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[New Jersey's 4th congressional district|NJ-04]] |''[[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Chris Smith]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fox |first1=Joey |title=Brick Republican will challenge Chris Smith in NJ-4 GOP primary |url=https://newjerseyglobe.com/congress/brick-republican-will-challenge-chris-smith-in-nj-4-gop-primary/ |website=New Jersey Globe |access-date=January 21, 2026 |date=January 20, 2026}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New Jersey}} [[New Jersey's 7th congressional district|NJ-07]] |''[[Thomas Kean Jr.]]''<ref>{{cite news |last=Fox |first=Joey |title= In a first, Trump gives Tom Kean Jr. his 'complete and total endorsement' |url= https://newjerseyglobe.com/congress/in-a-first-trump-gives-tom-kean-jr-his-complete-and-total-endorsement/ |work=New Jersey Globe |access-date=29 September 2025 |date=May 8, 2025}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New Mexico}} [[New Mexico's 2nd congressional district|NM-02]] |Greg Cunningham<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Trump Endorses Greg Cunningham for Congress |url=https://www.nrcc.org/2026/04/14/%F0%9F%9A%A8-president-trump-endorses-greg-cunningham-for-congress/ |access-date=April 14, 2026 |publisher=[[NRCC]] |date=14 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 1st congressional district|NY-01]] |''[[Nick LaLota]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 2nd congressional district|NY-02]] |''[[Andrew Garbarino]]<ref name="BBB" />'' |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 3rd congressional district|NY-03]] |[[Mike LiPetri]]<ref name="the-downballot.com"/> |June 23, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 17th congressional district|NY-17]] |''[[Mike Lawler]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=McKenna |first=Chris |title=Trump sends signal on NY governor race by backing Lawler for House re-election instead |url=https://www.lohud.com/story/news/politics/2025/05/07/ny-17-president-trump-backs-mike-lawler-for-house-reelection-not-for-ny-governor/83491582007/ |access-date=September 29, 2025 |website=The Journal News |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 19th congressional district|NY-19]] |[[Peter Oberacker]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump, Johnson Endorse Oberacker for Congress |url=https://www.allotsego.com/trump-johnson-endorse-oberacker-for-congress/ |website=All Otsego |access-date=5 February 2026 |language=en |date=5 February 2026}}</ref> |June 23, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 21st congressional district|NY-21]] |Anthony Constantino<ref>{{cite news |last=Parsnow |first=Luke |title=Trump endorses Anthony Constantino in NY-21 race, bucking GOP party elders' choice |url=https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nys/central-ny/politics/2026/04/21/trump-backs-anthony-constantino-in-ny-21-race |access-date=April 21, 2026 |date=April 21, 2026}}</ref> |June 23, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 23rd congressional district|NY-23]] |''[[Nick Langworthy]]''<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news||last= Larson |first= Greg |date=October 25, 2025 |title= Langworthy Receives Trump's Endorsement for Re-Election in 2026 |url= https://www.chautauquatoday.com/news/details.cfm?id=365824 |access-date= January 24, 2026 |work=Chautauqua Today}}</ref> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|New York}} [[New York's 24th congressional district|NY-24]] |''[[Claudia Tenney]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 1st congressional district|NC-01]] |[[Laurie Buckhout]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Trump Endorses Laurie Buckhout for Congress |url=https://www.nrcc.org/2026/03/12/%F0%9F%9A%A8-president-trump-endorses-laurie-buckhout-for-congress/ |access-date=March 12, 2026 |publisher=[[NRCC]] |date=12 March 2026 |language=en}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 3rd congressional district|NC-03]] |''[[Greg Murphy (politician)|Greg Murphy]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker">{{cite web|url=https://votehub.com/2026-endorsements|title=2026 Endorsement Tracker|access-date=January 27, 2026}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 5th congressional district|NC-05]] |''[[Virginia Foxx]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Rebecca |title=Rep. Virginia Foxx announces run for reelection in 2026 in North Carolina's 5th Congressional District |url=https://www.wxii12.com/article/rep-virginia-foxx-announces-run-reelection-2026/64736881 |access-date=October 1, 2025 |website=The Journal News |date=11 May 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 6th congressional district|NC-06]] |''[[Addison McDowell]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 7th congressional district|NC-07]] |''[[David Rouzer]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 8th congressional district|NC-08]] |''[[Mark Harris (North Carolina politician)|Mark Harris]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Mark Harris: Potential Boost for Energy Stocks |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-mark-harris-potential-boost-for-energy-stocks |access-date=October 4, 2025 |website=TipRanks |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 9th congressional district|NC-09]] |''[[Richard Hudson (American politician)|Richard Hudson]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 10th congressional district|NC-10]] |''[[Pat Harrigan]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title= Trump's Endorsement of Pat Harrigan: Potential Boost for Energy and Industrial Stocks |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-pat-harrigan-potential-boost-for-energy-and-industrial-stocks#google_vignette |access-date=October 4, 2025 |website=TipRanks |language=en-US}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 11th congressional district|NC-11]] |''[[Chuck Edwards]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hensley |first1=Dean |title=Republican Congressman Chuck Edwards gets President Trump's endorsement on social media |url=https://wlos.com/news/local/republican-congressman-chuck-edwards-gets-trumps-endorsement-on-social-media-president-donald-j-truth-x-henderson-buncombe-polk-rutherford-county-democratic-opposition-twitter |access-date=November 30, 2025 |work=[[WLOS]] |date=October 27, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 13th congressional district|NC-13]] |''[[Brad Knott]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[North Carolina's 14th congressional district|NC-14]] |''[[Tim Moore (North Carolina politician)|Tim Moore]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Dakota}} [[North Dakota's at-large congressional district|ND-AL]] |''[[Julie Fedorchak]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Port |first=Rob |date=2025-08-19 |title=Port: Trump drops early endorsement of Fedorchak's reelection |url=https://www.inforum.com/opinion/columns/port-trump-drops-early-endorsement-of-fedorchaks-reelection |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=InForum |language=en}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 1st congressional district|OH-01]] |Eric Conroy<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |May 5, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 2nd congressional district|OH-02]] |''[[David Taylor (Ohio politician)|David Taylor]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses David Taylor for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/115057224448370906 |access-date=October 5, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 4th congressional district|OH-04]] |''[[Jim Jordan]]''<ref name="JTN">{{cite web |last1=Whedon |first1=Ben |title=Trump endorses 27 Republicans for reelection 2026 |url=https://justthenews.com/politics-policy/trump-endorses-27-republicans-reelection-2026 |website=Just The News |date=November 3, 2025 |access-date=December 29, 2025}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 5th congressional district|OH-05]] |''[[Bob Latta]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 6th congressional district|OH-06]] |''[[Michael Rulli]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 7th congressional district|OH-07]] |''[[Max Miller (politician)|Max Miller]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Max Miller: Potential Boost for Energy and Defense Stocks |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-max-miller-potential-boost-for-energy-and-defense-stocks |access-date=October 5, 2025 |website=TipRanks |language=en-US}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 8th congressional district|OH-08]] |''[[Warren Davidson]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 9th congressional district|OH-09]] |[[Derek Merrin]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jackson |first1=Tom |title=Trump endorses Merrin for Congress |url=https://sanduskyregister.com/news/996166/trump-endorses-merrin-for-congress/ |website=Sandusky Register |access-date=May 23, 2026 |language=en |date=May 22, 2026}}</ref> |May 5, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 10th congressional district|OH-10]] |''[[Mike Turner]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 12th congressional district|OH-12]] |''[[Troy Balderson]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 14th congressional district|OH-14]] |''[[David Joyce (politician)|David Joyce]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Ohio}} [[Ohio's 15th congressional district|OH-15]] |''[[Mike Carey (politician)|Mike Carey]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |May 5, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=3|{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[Oklahoma's 1st congressional district|OK-01]] |<s>''[[Kevin Hern]]''</s> (withdrew to run for the [[2026 United States Senate election in Oklahoma|senate]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Kevin Hern: Potential Impacts on Key U.S. Stocks and Sectors |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-kevin-hern-potential-impacts-on-key-u-s-stocks-and-sectors |access-date=October 5, 2025 |website=TipRanks |language=en-US}}</ref> |rowspan=3|June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |<s>''Jackson Lahmeyer''</s> (endorsement rescinded)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/politics/elections/2026/05/07/oklahoma-elections-2026-trump-endorses-jackson-lahmeyer-ok-house-district-1/89983141007/|title=Donald Trump endorses Jackson Lahmeyer in key Oklahoma primary race|last=Gladden|first=Alex|date=May 7, 2026|access-date=May 7, 2026|website=[[The Oklahoman]]}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew before Runoff |- |Mark Tedford<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wagner |first1=Bayliss |title=Trump Rescinds Endorsement of Right-Wing Pastor After Texting Scandal |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/17/us/politics/trump-lahmeyer-house-texting-scandal-tedford.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=June 19, 2026 |date=June 17, 2026}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[Oklahoma's 2nd congressional district|OK-02]] |''[[Josh Brecheen]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[Oklahoma's 3rd congressional district|OK-03]] |[[Frank Lucas (Oklahoma politician)|''Frank Lucas'']]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Frank Lucas for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/115057223325978530 |access-date=October 25, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[Oklahoma's 4th congressional district|OK-04]] |''[[Tom Cole]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oklahoma}} [[Oklahoma's 5th congressional district|OK-05]] |''[[Stephanie Bice]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses Stephanie Bice for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114876634662612316|access-date=October 25, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Oregon}} [[Oregon's 2nd congressional district|OR-02]] |''[[Cliff Bentz]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorson |first1=Berit |title=Oregon Rep. Bentz prepares for reelection campaign |url=https://eastoregonian.com/2025/11/25/oregon-rep-bentz-prepares-for-reelection-campaign/ |website=East Oregonian |access-date=26 November 2025 |language=en |date=26 November 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 7th congressional district|PA-07]] |''[[Ryan Mackenzie]]''<ref name="TrumpBresnahan"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 8th congressional district|PA-08]] |''[[Rob Bresnahan]]''<ref name="TrumpBresnahan">{{cite news |last1=Delfino |first1=Jessica |title=Bresnahan endorsed by Trump after Social Security 'concerns' letter |url=https://www.thetimes-tribune.com/2025/05/09/bresnahan-endorsed-by-trump-after-concerns-letter/ |access-date=November 2, 2025 |work=[[The Scranton Times-Tribune]] |date=May 9, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 9th congressional district|PA-09]] |''[[Dan Meuser]]''<ref name="Pennsylvania">{{cite news |last1=Roth |first1=Fallon |title=A year ahead of 2026 midterms, Trump backs Scott Perry, Rob Bresnahan, and other Pennsylvania Republicans |url=https://www.inquirer.com/politics/pennsylvania/trump-pennsylvania-2026-midterm-endorsements-20251103.html |access-date=December 31, 2025 |work=The Philadelphia Inquirer |date=November 3, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 10th congressional district|PA-10]] |''[[Scott Perry]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walters |first1=Mark |title=Could we see Janelle Stelson take on Rep. Scott Perry again in 2026? |url=https://www.yorkdispatch.com/story/news/politics/elections/2025/03/28/could-we-see-janelle-stelson-take-on-rep-scott-perry-in-2026/82707531007/ |access-date=November 2, 2025 |work=[[The York Dispatch]] |date=March 28, 2025}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 11th congressional district|PA-11]] |''[[Lloyd Smucker]]''<ref name="Pennsylvania"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 13th congressional district|PA-13]] |''[[John Joyce (American politician)|John Joyce]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joyce announces bid for re-election |url=https://www.lewistownsentinel.com/news/local-news/2025/09/joyce-announces-bid-for-re-election/ |access-date=2025-12-29 |website=lewistownsentinel.com |language=en-US}}</ref> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 14th congressional district|PA-14]] |''[[Guy Reschenthaler]]''<ref name="BBB" /> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 15th congressional district|PA-15]] |''[[Glenn Thompson (politician)|Glenn Thompson]]''<ref name="Pennsylvania"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Pennsylvania}} [[Pennsylvania's 16th congressional district|PA-16]] |''[[Mike Kelly (Pennsylvania politician)|Mike Kelly]]''<ref name="Pennsylvania"/> |May 19, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 2nd congressional district|SC-02]] |''[[Joe Wilson]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 3rd congressional district|SC-03]] |''[[Sheri Biggs]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump's Endorsement of Sheri Biggs: Potential Impacts on Key U.S. Stocks and Sectors |url= https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-sheri-biggs-potential-boost-for-energy-and-defense-stocks-2#google_vignette |access-date=December 29, 2025 |website=TipRanks |language=en-US}}</ref> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 4th congressional district|SC-04]] |''[[William Timmons]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Carolina}} [[South Carolina's 7th congressional district|SC-07]] |''[[Russell Fry]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 9, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|South Dakota}} [[South Dakota's at-large congressional district|SD-AL]] |[[Marty Jackley]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dakota War College |date=March 12, 2026 |title=Trump endorses Marty Jackley for Congress |url=https://dakotawarcollege.com/trump-endorses-marty-jackley-for-congress/ |access-date=March 12, 2026 |website=Dakota War College}}</ref> |June 2, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 1st congressional district|TN-01]] |''[[Diana Harshbarger]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Murry |title=Trump endorses Diana Harshbarger for re-election |url=https://www.wjhl.com/news/your-local-election-hq/trump-endorses-diana-harshbarger-for-re-election/ |access-date=December 18, 2025 |work=[[WJHL]] |date=November 4, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251219141517/https://www.wjhl.com/news/your-local-election-hq/trump-endorses-diana-harshbarger-for-re-election/ |archive-date=December 19, 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 2nd congressional district|TN-02]] |''[[Tim Burchett]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Craik |first1=David |title=Trump's Endorsement of Burchett: A Potential Boost for Energy Stocks and ETFs |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-burchett-a-potential-boost-for-energy-stocks-and-etfs |website=TipRanks Premium |date=November 3, 2025 |access-date=November 3, 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 3rd congressional district|TN-03]] |''[[Chuck Fleischmann]]''<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news |last1=Gilliland |first1=Lew |title=Trump endorses Fleischmann for reelection in 2026 |url=https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/2025/nov/03/trump-endorses-fleischmann-for-reelection-in-2026/ |access-date=November 7, 2025 |work=[[Chattanooga Times Free Press]] |date=November 3, 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 4th congressional district|TN-04]] |''[[Scott DesJarlais]]''<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |title=Trump's Endorsement of DesJarlais: Potential Boost for Industrial and Energy ETFs |url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-desjarlais-potential-boost-for-industrial-and-energy-etfs |website=TipRanks |date=November 3, 2025 |access-date=April 6, 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 5th congressional district|TN-05]] |''[[Andy Ogles]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rau |first1=Nate |title=President Trump endorses TN Rep. Andy Ogles |url=https://www.axios.com/local/nashville/2025/10/27/president-trump-endorses-rep-andy-ogles |website=Axios |access-date=6 January 2026 |language=en |date=27 October 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 7th congressional district|TN-07]] |''[[Matt Van Epps]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1=|title=Trump endorses Matt Van Epps for re-election |url=https://trumpstruth.org/statuses/34261 |access-date=December 18, 2025 |date=December 18, 2025}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[Tennessee's 8th congressional district|TN-08]] |''[[David Kustoff]]''<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=November 4, 2025|title=David Kustoff announces re-election campaign for U.S. Congress |url=https://www.actionnews5.com/2025/11/04/david-kustoff-announces-re-election-campaign-us-congress/# |location=[[Memphis, Tennessee]] |publisher=[[WMC-TV]] |access-date=April 6, 2026}}</ref> |August 6, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 1st congressional district|TX-01]] |''[[Nathaniel Moran]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Garcia |first1=Michael |title=Trump endorses East Texas Rep. Moran for reelection in 2026 |url=https://www.ketk.com/news/your-local-election-hq/trump-endorses-east-texas-rep-moran-for-reelection-in-2026/ |publisher=KETK |access-date=December 5, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251220012916/https://www.ketk.com/news/your-local-election-hq/trump-endorses-east-texas-rep-moran-for-reelection-in-2026/ |archive-date=December 20, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 3rd congressional district|TX-03]] |''[[Keith Self]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 4th congressional district|TX-04]] |''[[Pat Fallon]]''<ref name="Holds Out">{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/congressional/4364124/trump-holds-out-key-texas-senate-endorsement/|title=Trump holds out on giving Cornyn key Texas Senate endorsement|last=Green|first=Lauren|date=December 30, 2025|access-date=January 3, 2026|website=[[Washington Examiner]]}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 5th congressional district|TX-05]] |''[[Lance Gooden]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 6th congressional district|TX-06]] |''[[Jake Ellzey]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 8th congressional district|TX-08]] |Jessica Steinmann<ref name="2/17 Downballot">{{cite web|url=https://www.the-downballot.com/p/morning-digest-2-live-crews-luther|title=Morning Digest: 2 Live Crew's Luther Campbell challenges Democratic congresswoman in South Florida|last1=Singer|last2=Nir|first1=Jeff|first2=David|date=February 17, 2026|access-date=February 17, 2026}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 9th congressional district|TX-09]] |[[Alex Mealer]]<ref name="2/17 Downballot"/> |May 26, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 10th congressional district|TX-10]] |Chris Gober<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCaig |first1=Mark |title=Trump's Latest Endorsements Include Three Texas Candidates |url=https://www.thetexasvoice.com/trumps-latest-endorsements-include-three-texas-candidates/ |website=The Texas Voice |access-date=January 3, 2026 |date=December 19, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 11th congressional district|TX-11]] |''[[August Pfluger]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 12th congressional district|TX-12]] |''[[Craig Goldman]]''<ref name="Holds Out"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 13th congressional district|TX-13]] |''[[Ronny Jackson]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 14th congressional district|TX-14]] |''[[Randy Weber]]''<ref name="Holds Out"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 15th congressional district|TX-15]] |''[[Monica De La Cruz]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 17th congressional district|TX-17]] |''[[Pete Sessions]]''<ref name="Holds Out"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 19th congressional district|TX-19]] |''<s>[[Jodey Arrington]]</s>'' (withdrew)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kinnard |first1=Meg |last2=Sweedler |first2=Maya |title=Tracking the retirement announcements of members of Congress |url=https://apnews.com/article/house-retirements-midterms-f638d386d4d1342e3a9671642dd883f6 |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=December 9, 2025 |language=en |date=December 8, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Withdrew |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 21st congressional district|TX-21]] |[[Mark Teixeira]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nj.com/yankees/2026/02/trump-hails-ex-yankees-slugger-as-total-winner-in-endoresment-for-the-house.html|title=Trump hails ex-Yankees slugger as 'TOTAL WINNER' in endoresment for the House|last=Gómez|first=Manny|date=February 5, 2026|access-date=February 5, 2026|website=[[NJ.com]]}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 22nd congressional district|TX-22]] |''<s>[[Troy Nehls]]</s>'' (declined to run)<ref name="JTN"/> |rowspan=2|March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Declined |- |Trever Nehls<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5634396-nehls-retiring-twin-brother/|title=Trump endorses retiring Troy Nehls's identical twin for his House seat|last=Suter|first=Tara|date=December 4, 2025|access-date=December 4, 2025|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref> |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 23rd congressional district|TX-23]] |<s>''[[Tony Gonzales]]''</s> (withdrew before Runoff, resigned)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Esquivel |first1=Erika |title=Trump endorses Congressman Tony Gonzales for re-election in Texas |url=https://kfoxtv.com/news/local/trump-endorses-congressman-tony-gonzales-for-re-election-in-texas |access-date=December 18, 2025 |work=[[KFOX-TV]] |date=December 18, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Resigned |- |[[Brandon Herrera]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=Sarah |title=Trump backs Herrera for Texas House seat after Gonzales drops bid |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/house/5780189-trump-endorses-brandon-herrera/ |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=March 11, 2026}}</ref> |May 26, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 24th congressional district|TX-24]] |''[[Beth Van Duyne]]''<ref name="Holds Out"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 25th congressional district|TX-25]] |''[[Roger Williams (Texas politician)|Roger Williams]]''<ref name="Holds Out"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 26th congressional district|TX-26]] |''[[Brandon Gill]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 27th congressional district|TX-27]] |''[[Michael Cloud]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 28th congressional district|TX-28]] |Tano Tijerina<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coronell Uribe |first1=Raquel |title= Trump endorses candidate running against a lawmaker he pardoned |url= https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2026-election/trump-endorses-tano-tijerina-running-against-democrat-henry-cuellar-rcna252686 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |access-date=January 6, 2026 |date=January 6, 2026}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 31st congressional district|TX-31]] |''[[John Carter (Texas politician)|John Carter]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bahr |first1=Joseph |title=John Carter gets President Trump's endorsement |url=https://kdhnews.com/centerforpolitics/john-carter-gets-president-trump-s-endorsement/article_58701a72-5905-42e4-8a0d-b6494ba3ac9a.html/ |access-date=December 5, 2025 |work=KHD New |date=December 5, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251206003442/https://kdhnews.com/centerforpolitics/john-carter-gets-president-trump-s-endorsement/article_58701a72-5905-42e4-8a0d-b6494ba3ac9a.html |archive-date=December 6, 2025}}</ref> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 32nd congressional district|TX-32]] |Jace Yarbrough<ref name="the-downballot.com"/> |March 3, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 34th congressional district|TX-34]] |Eric Flores<ref name=":0" /> |March 3, 2026 |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 35th congressional district|TX-35]] |Carlos De La Cruz<ref name="2/17 Downballot"/> |May 26, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 36th congressional district|TX-36]] |''[[Brian Babin]]''<ref name="JTN"/> |March 3, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[Texas's 38th congressional district|TX-38]] |Jon Bonck<ref name="2/17 Downballot"/> |May 26, 2026 |Open Seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[Utah's 2nd congressional district|UT-02]] |''[[Blake Moore]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[Utah's 3rd congressional district|UT-03]] |''[[Celeste Maloy]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Utah}} [[Utah's 4th congressional district|UT-04]] |''[[Mike Kennedy]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |June 23, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 1st congressional district|VA-01]] |''[[Rob Wittman]]''<ref name="Virginia2026">{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Claire |title=Trump endorsement tracker: Here's who the president has picked in GOP midterm election primaries |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/congressional/4460164/trump-endorsement-tracker-gop-2026-election-primaries/ |website=Washington Examiner |date=February 17, 2026 |access-date=February 20, 2026}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 2nd congressional district|VA-02]] |''[[Jen Kiggans]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Delfino |first1=Jessica |title=Bresnahan endorsed by Trump after Social Security 'concerns' letter |url=https://www.thetimes-tribune.com/2025/05/09/bresnahan-endorsed-by-trump-after-concerns-letter/ |access-date=January 21, 2026 |work=[[The Scranton Times-Tribune]] |date=May 9, 2025}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 5th congressional district|VA-05]] |''[[John McGuire (Virginia politician)|John McGuire]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trump endorses John McGuire for House of Representatives|url= https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114231401205332854 |access-date=January 22, 2025 |via=Truth Social |language=en}}</ref> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 6th congressional district|VA-06]] |''[[Ben Cline]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Virginia}} [[Virginia's 9th congressional district|VA-09]] |''[[Morgan Griffith]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |June 16, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington's 3rd congressional district|WA-03]] |[[John Braun]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Trump Endorses John Braun for Congress |date=April 14, 2026 |url=https://www.nrcc.org/2026/04/14/%F0%9F%9A%A8-president-trump-endorses-john-braun-for-congress/ |work=[[NRCC]]}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Challenger |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington's 4th congressional district|WA-04]] |Amanda McKinney<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nir |first=David |last2=Singer |first2=Jeff |title=Morning Digest: Here's how Republican Rep. Doug LaMalfa's seat will be filled |url=https://www.the-downballot.com/p/morning-digest-heres-how-republican |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=The Downballot |language=en}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington's 5th congressional district|WA-05]] |''[[Michael Baumgartner]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tipranks.com/news/catalyst/trumps-endorsement-of-baumgartner-potential-stock-market-impacts|title=Trump's Endorsement of Baumgartner: Potential Stock Market Impacts - TipRanks.com|website=TipRanks Financial}}</ref> |August 4, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[West Virginia's 1st congressional district|WV-01]] |''[[Carol Miller (politician)|Carol Miller]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leith |first=Micah |date=2025-08-19 |title=Miller officially launches re-election campaign, touts Trump endorsement |url=https://woay.com/miller-officially-launches-re-election-campaign-touts-trump-endorsement/,%20https://woay.com/miller-officially-launches-re-election-campaign-touts-trump-endorsement/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|West Virginia}} [[West Virginia's 2nd congressional district|WV-02]] |''[[Riley Moore]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congressman Riley Moore files for re-election in West Virginia |url=https://www.wtrf.com/top-stories/congressman-riley-moore-files-for-re-election-in-west-virginia/ |access-date=2026-01-22 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260113114831/https://www.wtrf.com/top-stories/congressman-riley-moore-files-for-re-election-in-west-virginia/ |archive-date=2026-01-13}}</ref> |May 12, 2026 |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 1st congressional district|WI-01]] |''[[Bryan Steil]]''<ref name="BBB" /> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 3rd congressional district|WI-03]] |''[[Derrick Van Orden]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Van Orden campaign: President Donald Trump endorses Congressman Van Orden for re-election |url=https://www.wispolitics.com/2025/van-orden-campaign-president-donald-trump-endorses-congressman-van-orden-for-re-election/ |website=WisPolitics |access-date=17 November 2025 |date=29 April 2025}}</ref> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 5th congressional district|WI-05]] |''[[Scott Fitzgerald (politician)|Scott Fitzgerald]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 6th congressional district|WI-06]] |''[[Glenn Grothman]]''<ref name="Votehub Tracker"/> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 7th congressional district|WI-07]] |Michael Alfonso<ref>{{cite web |last1=Styf |first1=Jon |title=Trump endorses Tiffany for Wisconsin governor, Alfonso for Congress |url=https://www.thecentersquare.com/wisconsin/article_4f76c73f-aae1-4fd9-b595-21af41afd309.html |website=The Center Square |access-date=28 January 2026 |language=en |date=27 January 2026}}</ref> |August 11, 2026 |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin's 8th congressional district|WI-08]] |''[[Tony Wied]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Wied campaign: President Donald J. Trump gives Congressman Tony Wied his "Complete and Total Endorsement” for re-election in 2026 |url=https://www.wispolitics.com/2025/wied-campaign-president-donald-j-trump-gives-congressman-tony-wied-his-complete-and-total-endorsement-for-re-election-in-2026/ |website=WisPolitics |access-date=17 November 2025 |date=3 November 2025}}</ref> |August 11, 2026 |Incumbent |TBA |} ==== 2026 state legislative special elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Primary date !Seat status !Result |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida House of Representatives election|FL HD-87]] |Jon Maples<ref>{{cite web |last=Washington |first=Wayne |url=https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/news/politics/elections/2026/01/14/maples-gregory-emerge-from-primaries-to-square-off-district-87-race/88177845007/?gnt-cfr=1&gca-cat=p&gca-uir=false&gca-epti=z116438p117250c117250e009450v116438&gca-ft=242&gca-ds=sophi&gnt-djm=1 |title=Maples, Gregory win District 87 primaries, move to special election |date=January 14, 2026 |access-date=March 4, 2026 |website=[[The Palm Beach Post]]}}</ref> |January 14, 2026 |Open |{{Icon|no}} Lost general |} ==== 2026 state legislative elections ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !State !Candidate !Office !Seat status !Primary result |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Senate election|Florida]] |[[Rick Roth]]<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |Florida State Senator |Open Seat |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Senate election|Florida]] |''[[Ileana Garcia]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |Florida State Senator |Incumbent |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida Senate election|Florida]] |''[[Ana Maria Rodriguez (politician)|Ana Maria Rodriguez]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |Florida State Senator |Incumbent |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Florida}} [[2026 Florida House of Representatives election|Florida]] |''[[Meg Weinberger]]''<ref>{{cite web |last=Kopylov |first=Frank |title=Trump endorses 'MAGA Meg' Weinberger for reelection to Florida House |url=https://flvoicenews.com/trump-endorses-maga-meg-weinberger-for-reelection-to-florida-house/|work=Florida's Voice |date=May 6, 2026}}</ref> |Florida State Representative |Incumbent |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Trevor De Vries<ref name=TrumpHill>{{cite web |last=Vakil|first=Caroline|title=Trump announces slate of Indiana endorsements ahead of May primary |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5820541-trump-endorses-indiana-republicans/|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=April 7, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Brian Schmutzler<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Tyler Johnson (politician)|Tyler Johnson]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Liz Brown (politician)|Liz Brown]]''<ref name=ISSE>{{cite web |last=Davis |first=Tom |title=Trump endorses Sen. Liz Brown, other Republicans who supported Indiana redistricting |url=https://indianacapitalchronicle.com/briefs/trump-endorses-sen-liz-brown-other-republicans-who-supported-indiana-redistricting/|work=[[States Newsroom|Indiana Capital Chronicle]] |date=March 24, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Blake Fiechter<ref>{{cite web |last=Rowley |first=Dick |title=President Trump endorses Bluffton councilman for Indiana State Senate race |url=https://www.wane.com/news/your-local-election-hq/president-trump-endorses-bluffton-councilman-for-indiana-state-senate-race/ |work=[[WANE-TV]] |date=January 22, 2026 |access-date=July 15, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260124080505/https://www.wane.com/news/your-local-election-hq/president-trump-endorses-bluffton-councilman-for-indiana-state-senate-race/ |archive-date=January 24, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Tracey Powell<ref>{{cite web |last=Knox|first=Brady|title=Trump backs challenger to Indiana state senator who voted against redistricting|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/campaigns/state/4434813/trump-endorsement-indiana-state-senator-redistricting/|work=[[Washington Examiner]] |date=January 26, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Ron Alting]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Paula Copenhaver <ref name=ISS_Hill>{{cite web |last=Vakil |first=Caroline |title=Trump endorses challengers to Indiana Republicans who opposed redistricting|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/5710240-indiana-gop-senators-redistricting-trump/|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=January 28, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |TBD |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Mike Gaskill]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Scott Alexander (Indiana politician)|Scott Alexander]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Jeff Raatz]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |Brenda Wilson<ref>{{cite web |last=Hanson |first=Austin |title=President Trump endorses candidate running against Indiana senator who voted no on redistricting |url=https://fox59.com/news/president-trump-endorses-candidate-running-against-indiana-senator-who-voted-no-on-redistricting/ |work=[[WXIN|Fox 59]] |date=January 27, 2026 |access-date=July 15, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260129051416/https://fox59.com/news/president-trump-endorses-candidate-running-against-indiana-senator-who-voted-no-on-redistricting/ |archive-date=January 29, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |[[Jeff Ellington]]<ref name=ISS_Hill/> |Indiana State Senator |Open seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |[[Michelle Davis (politician)|Michelle Davis]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Davies |first=Tom |title=Trump posts endorsement of Republican challenger to Indiana redistricting foe |url=https://indianacapitalchronicle.com/briefs/trump-posts-endorsement-of-republican-challenger-to-indiana-redistricting-foe/|work=[[States Newsroom|Indiana Capital Chronicle]] |date=January 26, 2026}}</ref> |Indiana State Senator |Challenger |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Randy Maxwell]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Chris Garten]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Gary Byrne (politician)|Gary Byrne]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Daryl Schmitt]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana Senate election|Indiana]] |''[[Jim Tomes]]''<ref name=ISSE/> |Indiana State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Jim Pressel]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Craig Snow]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Jeff Thompson (Indiana politician)|Jeff Thompson]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Heath VanNatter]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Beau Baird]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Bruce Borders]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Bob Heaton]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Tony Isa]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Ben Smaltz]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Indiana}} [[2026 Indiana House of Representatives election|Indiana]] |''[[Martin Carbaugh]]''<ref name ="TrumpHill"/> |Indiana State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|North Carolina}} [[2026 North Carolina Senate election|North Carolina]] |''[[Phil Berger (politician)|Phil Berger]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Battaglia |first=Danielle |date=December 15, 2025 |title=Trump makes endorsement in Berger-Page race. How much does it matter? |url=https://www.newsobserver.com/news/politics-government/article313622632.html |access-date=December 16, 2025 |website=[[Raleigh News & Observer]]}}</ref> |North Carolina State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|no}} Lost primary |- |{{flagicon|Tennessee}} [[2026 Tennessee House of Representatives election|Tennessee]] |Kenny Cody<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wakerell-Cruz |first=Roberto |date=May 21, 2026 |title=BREAKING: President Trump endorses Human Events' Kenny Cody for Tennessee House — 'MAGA Warrior' |url=https://thepostmillennial.com/breaking-president-trump-endorses-human-events-kenny-cody-for-tennessee-house-maga-warrior |access-date=May 24, 2026 |website=[[The Post Millennial]]}}</ref> |Tennessee State Representative |Open Seat |TBA |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas Senate election|Texas]] |''[[Kevin Sparks]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cuviello |first=Michael |title=Texas Senator Kevin Sparks launches reelection bid with Trump endorsement |url=https://www.amarillo.com/story/news/2025/08/21/sen-kevin-sparks-seeks-reelection-to-texas-senate-with-trump-backing/85745327007/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Amarillo Globe-News |language=en-US}}</ref> |Texas State Senator |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas Senate election|Texas]] |[[David Cook (Texas politician)|David Cook]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Witherspoon |first=Tommy |date=2025-08-19 |title=Hewitt attorney Jon Ker drops out of state senate race after Trump endorses opponent |url=https://www.kwtx.com/2025/08/19/hewitt-attorney-jon-ker-drops-out-state-senate-race-after-trump-endorses-opponent/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |publisher=KWTX |language=en}}</ref> |Texas State Senator |Open seat |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Brian Harrison (Texas politician)|Brian Harrison]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-09 |title=Harrison announces for reelection to Texas house with "complete and total endorsement" from President Trump |url=https://www.waxahachiesun.com/news/local/harrison-announces-for-reelection-to-texas-house-with-complete-and-total-endorsement-from-president-trump/article_0b82c501-61bd-4c79-b719-f895cc0c092c.html |access-date=2025-09-10 |website=Waxahachie Sun |language=en}}</ref> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Angelia Orr]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Jeff Leach (politician)|Jeff Leach]]''<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 24, 2025 |title=Jeff Leach launches re-election campaign for Texas House seat|url= https://princetonherald.com/2025/07/24/jeff-leach-launches-re-election-campaign-for-texas-house-seat/ |access-date= 2026-02-12}}</ref> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Tom Craddick]]''<ref>{{cite web|last=Price|first=Tamlyn|url=https://www.firstalert7.com/2025/07/10/president-trump-endorses-state-rep-tom-craddick-re-election-texas-house/|title=President Trump endorses State Rep. Tom Craddick for re-election to Texas House|publisher=FirstAlert7 CBS|date=July 10, 2025|access-date=August 21, 2025}}</ref> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Dustin Burrows]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-10 |title=U.S. President Trump endorses Texas House Speaker Rep. Burrows of Lubbock for re-election |url=https://www.lubbockonline.com/story/news/politics/government/2025/07/10/u-s-president-donald-trump-backs-texas-house-speaker-rep-dustin-burrows-of-lubbock-for-re-election/84527740007/ |access-date=2025-11-22 |website=Lubbock Avalanche-Journal |language=en}}</ref> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |- |{{flagicon|Texas}} [[2026 Texas House of Representatives election|Texas]] |''[[Candy Noble]]''<ref name="Virginia2026"/> |Texas State Representative |Incumbent |{{Icon|aa}} Won Primary |} ==International== ===Argentina=== ==== 2027 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[President of Argentina]] |[[Javier Milei]]<BR>([[La Libertad Avanza]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/115254544745193117 |access-date=2025-09-23 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |[[2027 Argentine general election|TBA]] |} ===Armenia=== ==== 2026 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Armenia}} [[Prime Minister of Armenia]] |[[Nikol Pashinyan]]<br>([[Civil Contract (Armenia)|Civil Contract]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/116648998520896910 |access-date=2026-05-28 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''[[2026 Armenian parliamentary election|Elected prime minister]]''' |} ===Brazil=== ==== 2022 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[President of Brazil]] |[[Jair Bolsonaro]]<br>([[Liberal Party (Brazil, 2006)|Liberal Party]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-endorses-bolsonaro-brazilian-president-9-criminal-charges-recommended-2021-10|title=Trump lauds 'great friend' Jair Bolsonaro, as the Brazilian president has 9 criminal charges recommended against him|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last1=Oshin | first1=Olafimihan |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/americas/578626-trump-issues-endorsement-for-bolsonaro/|title=Trump issues endorsement for Bolsonaro| work=The Hill |date=26 October 2021}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost [[2022 Brazilian general election|election]] |} === Colombia === ==== 2026 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[President of Colombia]] |[[Abelardo de la Espriella]]<br>([[Defenders of the Homeland (Colombia)|Defenders of the Homeland]])<ref>{{Cite news |last=Correal |first=Annie |date=2026-06-03 |title=Trump Endorses Abelardo De La Espriella, Right-Wing Presidential Candidate in Colombia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/02/world/americas/trump-endorses-colombia-de-la-espriella.html |access-date=2026-06-03 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''[[2026 Colombian presidential election|Elected President]]''' |} === Honduras === ==== 2025 ==== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{Flag icon|Honduras}} [[President of Honduras]] |[[Nasry Asfura]]<br>([[National Party of Honduras|National Party]])<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrada |first=Trisha Kae |date=2025-11-29 |title=Trump Says He Will Pardon Honduran Ex-President Juan Orlando Hernández and Backs Tito Asfura Ahead of Election |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/trump-says-he-will-pardon-honduran-ex-president-juan-orlando-hernandez-backs-tito-asfura-ahead-1758898 |access-date=2025-12-02 |website=International Business Times UK |language=en}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''[[2025 Honduran general election|Elected president]]''' |} ===Hungary=== ==== 2022 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Hungary}} [[Prime Minister of Hungary]] |[[Viktor Orbán]]<BR>([[Fidesz]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/01/03/trump-endorses-viktor-orban-hungary-526383|title=Trump endorses Hungary's Orbán for reelection|website=[[Politico]]| date=January 3, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/03/us/politics/trump-endorses-viktor-orban-hungary.html|title=Trump Endorses Viktor Orban, Hungary's Far-Right Prime Minister|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 January 2022|last1=Goldmacher|first1=Shane}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' [[Fidesz]] won the [[2022 Hungarian general election|election]] with a [[supermajority]] of seats and '''Orbán remained Prime Minister''' |} ==== 2026 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Hungary}} [[Prime Minister of Hungary]] |[[Viktor Orbán]]<BR>([[Fidesz]]) <ref>{{Cite web |title=Europe's right-wing elite (and Netanyahu) endorse Orbán in Hungary election race|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-right-wing-elite-netanyahu-endorse-orban-hungary-election/|website=Politico Europe |access-date=2026-01-23|language=en}}</ref> |{{Icon|no}} Lost [[2026 Hungarian parliamentary election|election]] |} ===Iraq=== ==== 2026 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Iraq}} [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] |[[Ali al-Zaidi]]<br>([[Coordination Framework]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/the-u-s-tied-his-bank-to-iran-proxies-now-hes-trumps-choice-to-run-iraq-ea6117ae?eafs_enabled=false|title=The U.S. Tied His Bank to Iran Proxies. Now He’s Trump’s Choice to Run Iraq.|website=[[Wall Street Journal]]|date=May 10, 2026}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' The office is selected by Iraq's parliamentary process rather than by direct popular election following the aftermath of the [[2025 Iraqi parliamentary election]]. |} ===Israel=== ==== 2013 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Israel}} [[Prime Minister of Israel]] |[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]<br>([[Likud Yisrael Beiteinu]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/donald-trump-endorses-netanyahu-for-pm/|title=Donald Trump endorses Netanyahu for PM|website=[[The Times of Israel]]|date=January 15, 2013 }}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' [[Likud Yisrael Beiteinu]] won a plurality of seats in the [[2013 Israeli legislative election|election]] and formed a [[coalition government]] alongside other parties, with '''Netanyahu chosen as Prime Minister''' |} ==== 2019 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Israel}} [[Prime Minister of Israel]] |[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]<br>([[Likud]])<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/trump-endorses-netanyahu-campaign-billboard-featuring-himself-1.6910695|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205154900/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/trump-endorses-netanyahu-campaign-billboard-featuring-himself-1.6910695|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 5, 2019|title=Trump Takes to Instagram to Endorse Netanyahu Campaign Billboard – Featuring Himself|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> |{{Icon|aa}}/{{Icon|no}} [[Likud]] won a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] of seats, but no party obtained an outright [[majority]], resulting in an [[hung Parliament]] and in the calling of a [[snap election]], which was held in [[September 2019 Israeli legislative election|September 2019]]; Netanyahu remained in office as [[caretaker government|caretaker]] Prime Minister |} === Italy === ==== 2022 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Prime Minister of Italy]] | [[Giuseppe Conte]]<br>([[Five Star Movement]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmessaggero.it/politica/trump_conte_elezioni_endorsement_repubblicani_cinque_stelle-6911423.html|title=Donald Trump tifa per Conte: "Come sta andando il mio ragazzo Giuseppe". Ecco cosa c'è dietro l'endorsement|date=September 6, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.repubblica.it/esteri/2022/09/05/news/trump_conte_salvini_elezioni_italia-364337667/|title=A cena con Trump, che ignora Salvini e fa un endorsement per Conte: 'Come sta andando il mio Giuseppe?'|work=La Repubblica|language=it|date=5 September 2022|access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|no}}''' The Five Star Movement won a minority of seats in the [[2022 Italian general election|election]] and became part of the [[parliamentary opposition|opposition]] |} ===Japan=== ==== 2026 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Prime Minister of Japan]] |[[Sanae Takaichi]]<BR>([[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) |url=https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/116019257556623305 |access-date=2026-02-05 |via=Truth Social}}</ref> |'''{{icon|aa}} [[2026 Japanese general election|Elected]]''' |} ===Poland=== ====2025==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Position !Candidate !Results |- |{{flagicon|Poland}} [[President of Poland]] | [[Karol Nawrocki]]<br>([[Law and Justice]])<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/trump-meets-polish-nationalist-candidate-ahead-presidential-election-2025-05-02/|title= Trump meets Polish nationalist candidate ahead of presidential election |date=2025-05-02|access-date=2025-05-02|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> | '''{{icon|aa}} [[2025 Polish presidential election|Elected]]''' |} ===UK=== ==== 2016 ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" !Referendum !Option !Results |- |{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|United Kingdom European Union membership referendum]] |[[Brexit|"Leave the European Union"]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/05/donald-trump-brexit-uk-leaving-european-union|title=Donald Trump backs Brexit, saying UK would be 'better off' without EU|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=5 May 2016}}</ref> |'''{{Icon|aa}}''' '''Won''' |} ==== 2019 ==== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Election !Position !Candidate !Result |- |{{Flag icon|United Kingdom}} [[2019 Conservative Party leadership election]] |[[Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the Conservative Party]] |[[Boris Johnson]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rawlinson |first=Kevin |date=2019-07-19 |title=Donald Trump offers his backing to Boris Johnson to become PM |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/19/donald-trump-offers-his-backing-to-boris-johnson-to-become-pm |access-date=2025-12-02 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> |'''{{icon|aa}} [[2019 Conservative Party leadership election|Elected]]''' |- |{{Flag icon|United Kingdom}} [[2019 United Kingdom general election]] |[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] |Boris Johnson<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.the-independent.com/tv/news/trump-endorses-boris-election-politics-interference-b2635534.html |title=Donald Trump endorses Boris Johnson in 2019 general election, resurfaced clip shows |date=2024-10-25 |language=en |access-date=2025-12-02 |via=The Independent}}</ref> ([[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]) |'''{{icon|aa}} [[2019 United Kingdom general election|Elected]] with an outright majority''' |} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Mazu ghakulongosora== {{Notelist}} ==Malo ghakuwalo== * {{Ballotpedia|Endorsements_by_Donald_Trump|Vyakukhozgera vya Donald Trump}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20210621045706/https://www.donaldjtrump.com/news Chigaŵa cha nkhani pa DonaldJTrump.com] {{Donald Trump}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Vyakukhozgera vya Donald Trump}} [[Category:Uteŵeti wa ndyali wa Donald Trump]] [[Category:Vyakukhozgera vya ndyali|Trump, Donald]] [[Category:Maŵanaŵaniro gha ndyali gha ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States|Trump, Donald]] [[Category:Trumpism]] ima7vpr0vxsj9pmgvokvsn4zgojdc9v 0 48060 124347 123620 2026-11-10T14:18:14Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgo: maŵingu, thukutira, kulowa, maphapindo, mizirwe, misipa, mikoli 124347 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga''' (panji '''Kupima vilwero vya uthenga'''), panji kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga, ni kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mukati mwa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga (IT) na vilwerovipepu vya malonda. Kupenda ukaboni uwo wasangika kukusimikizga usange ndondomeko za mauthenga zikuvikilira vyuma, zikusunga kugomezgeka kwa vyakumanyikwa, na zikugwira ntchito makola kuti zifiske vilato vya wupu. Kupenda uku kungacitika pamoza na kupenda malipoti gha ndalama, kupenda kwa mukati, panji kupenda kunyake kwa kusimikizga. Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukuchemekaso kupima kwa kupenda vyakumanyikwa na makina (ADP) na kupima mirangura. Kale kukachemekanga kupima kwa kupenda vyakumanyikwa na malekitironi (EDP). == Cilato == Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga nkhwakupambana na kupima malipoti gha ndalama. Apo cilato ca kupima ndalama ni kupenda usange malipoti gha ndalama ghakulongora makola, pa vigaŵa vyose vyakuzirwa, umo wupu uliri pa ndalama, vyakufumapo vya ntchito zake, na kwenda kwa ndalama zake, kuyana na nthowa zakuzomerezgeka za kupendera ndalama, cilato ca kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupenda kanozgero na kugwira ntchito makola kwa ndondomeko za kulaŵilira za mukati. Ici cikusazgapo, kweni cikumalira pa ici yayi, kugwira ntchito makola na malamulo gha civikiliro, ndondomeko za kupanga, na ulongozgi panji ulaŵiliri wa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga. Kuŵika ndondomeko za kulaŵilira nkhwakukhumbikwa kweni nkhwakukwana yayi kuti pakuŵe civikiliro cakwenelera. Ŵanthu awo ŵali na udindo pa civikiliro ŵakwenera kughanaghanira usange ndondomeko izi zaŵikika nga umo zikwenera, usange zikugwira ntchito makola, panji usange civikiliro cikaphwanyika, ndipo usange ntheura, ni vyakucita wuli ivyo vingacitika kukanizga kuphwanyika kwa munthazi. Mafumbo agha ghakwenera kuzgoleka na ŵalaŵiski ŵakujiwusa na ŵambura kutora lwande. Ŵalaŵiski aŵa ndiwo ŵakucita ntchito ya kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga. Mu malo gha ndondomeko za mauthenga, kupima ni kupenda ndondomeko za mauthenga, ivyo vikunjizgika, ivyo vikufumamo, na kupenda kwake. Apo luso la vilwero likulutilira kuluta panthazi na kuŵa kulikose mu umoyo withu na mu malonda, ndipo vyakofya na vyakuzerezga vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga navyo vikusazgikira. Ivi vikukhwaska mafakitale ghose, ndipo vikwiza mu nthowa zakupambana, nga ni kuphwanyika kwa vyakumanyikwa, vyakofya vya kuwaro, na masuzgo gha ntchito. Ngozi izi na kukhumbikwa kwa kugomezgeka kukulu vikusazgirapo kukhumbikwa kwa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kuti kupenda kagwiliro ka ntchito ka ndondomeko za mauthenga za malonda na kucepeska mwaŵi na vyakufumapo vya vyakofya na vyakuzerezga vya luso la vilwero. Ntchito zikulu za kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupenda ndondomeko izo zilipo kuvikilira mauthenga gha wupu. Comene, kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukugwiliskirika ntchito kupenda nkhongono ya wupu ya kuvikilira vyuma vyake vya mauthenga na kupeleka makola mauthenga ku ŵanthu awo ŵazomerezgeka. Kupima uku kukukhumba kupenda ivi: * Kasi ndondomeko za mirangura za wupu zizamuŵapo nyengo zose izo malonda ghakuzikhumba? (kukuchemeka kupezeka) * Kasi mauthenga gha mu ndondomeko ghazamuvumbulika ku ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakuzomerezgeka pera? (kukuchemeka civikiliro na kusunga cisisi) * Kasi mauthenga agho ndondomeko yikupeleka ghazamuŵa nyengo zose ghaunenesko, ghakugomezgeka, na gha pa nyengo yake? (kukupima kugomezgeka) Mu nthowa iyi, kupima kukukhumba kupenda ngozi pa cuma cakuzirwa ca kampani (mauthenga ghake) na kuŵika nthowa za kucepeska ngozi izo. Comene comene, mawupu ghakwenera kulaŵiska vyakukhumbikwa vitatu vikulu: kusunga cisisi, kugomezgeka, na kupezeka, kuti ghalongosore vyakukhumbikwa vyawo vya civikiliro na kugomezga ndondomeko zawo za mauthenga. * Kusunga cisisi: cilato ni kukanizga ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵambura kuzomerezgeka kufikira mauthenga ghakubisika. * Kugomezgeka: cilato ni kuwoneseska kuti mauthenga ghakusinthika mu nthowa yakuzomerezgeka pera. * Kupezeka: cilato ni kuwoneseska kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakuzomerezgeka pera ndiwo ŵakufikira mauthenga ghanyake. Vyakukhumbikwa vitatu ivi vikwenera kukhozgeka mu fakitale yiliyose na wupu uliwose uwo uli na luso la vilwero vya mauthenga, kweni vyakukhumbikwa vyose na ndondomeko za kuvikhozga vizamupambana. == Kagaŵiro ka Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga == Ŵamanyi ŵakupambana ŵapanga kagaŵiro kakupambana ka mitundu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Goodman na Lawless ŵakuyowoya kuti pali nthowa zitatu zapadera zandondomeko za kucitira kupima vilwero vya mauthenga: * Kupima ndondomeko ya kupanga vinthu viphya vya luso la vilwero. Kupima uku kukupanga cithuzi ca ngozi ca ntchito izo zilipo na ziphya. Kukupenda utali na kuzika kwa luso la kampani pa luso la vilwero ilo yasankha, kweniso kuŵapo kwake mu misika yakukhwaskika, kanozgero ka ntchito yiliyose, na kapangikiro ka cigaŵa ca fakitale ico cikukhwaskana na ntchito panji cakupangika ici. * Kupima kwa kuyaniska vyakupanga viphya. Kupima uku ni kupenda nkhongono ya kampani ya kupanga vinthu viphya, kuyaniska na ŵakususkana nayo pa malonda. Ici cikukhumba kupenda malo gha kampani gha kusanda na kupanga, na umo yapangira vyakupangika viphya kale. * Kupima malo gha luso la vilwero: kupima uku kukupenda luso la vilwero ilo malonda ghali nalo sono na ilo ghakwenera kusazga. Luso la vilwero likugaŵika kuŵa "lakwamba", "lakuzirwa", "lakulongozga luŵiro", panji "liphya". Ŵanyake ŵakulongosora mitundu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga mu magulu ghankhondi: * Ndondomeko na Vilwerovipepu vya Mlimo: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko na vilwerovipepu vya mlimo nvyakwenelera, vikugwira ntchito makola, ndipo vikulaŵilirika makola kuti vyakunjizgika, kupenda, na vyakufumamo viŵe vyaunenesko, vyakugomezgeka, vya pa nyengo yake, na vyakuvikilirika pa vigaŵa vyose vya ntchito ya ndondomeko. Kupima kwa kusimikizga ndondomeko na kacitiro ni mtundu ucoko wa ici, uwo ukulaŵiska pa ndondomeko za mauthenga za malonda izo zikuthemba ndondomeko za malonda. Kupima uku kuli na cilato ca kovwira ŵakupima ndalama. * Malo gha Kupendera Mauthenga: kupima kusimikizga kuti malo gha kupendera ghakulaŵilirika kuti vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vipendeke pa nyengo yake, mwaunenesko, na makola mu vyakucitika vya nyengo zose na vyakuzerezga. * Kupanga Ndondomeko: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko izo zicali kupangika zikufiska vilato vya wupu, na kuwoneseska kuti zikupangika kuyana na vyakwenelera vyakuzomerezgeka vya kupanga ndondomeko. * Ulongozgi wa Luso la Vilwero vya Mauthenga na Kazengero ka Wupu: kupima kusimikizga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga ŵapanga kapangikiro ka wupu na ndondomeko kuti pakuŵe malo ghakulaŵilirika na ghakugwira ntchito makola gha kupenda mauthenga. * Vyakupokera/Maseva, Kuyowoyerana kwa Kutali, Mikwawo ya Mukati, na ya Kuwaro: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko za kulaŵilira kuyowoyerana kwa kutali zilipo pa vyakupokera (mirangura iyo yikupokera uteŵeti), maseva, na pa mkwawo uwo ukulumikizga vyakupokera na maseva. Ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuwunjika kupima kose kwa vilwero vya mauthenga mu mitundu iŵiri pera: kupima kwa "kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira zose" panji kupima kwa "kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira vilwerovipepu vya mlimo". Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ŵa cigaŵa ca Kuwoneseska Mauthenga ŵakuwona kuti pali mitundu yitatu yakwamba ya ndondomeko za kulaŵilira, kwambura kuwona mtundu wa kupima uwo ukucitika, comene mu cigaŵa ca luso la vilwero vya mauthenga. Ndondomeko zinandi na vyakwenelera vikuyezga kugaŵa ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mu vigaŵa vyakupambana, kuzichema "Ndondomeko za Civikiliro", "Ndondomeko za Kufikira", "Ndondomeko za IA", kuti zilongosore mitundu ya ndondomeko izo zikukhwaskika. Pa maziko, ndondomeko izi zingalongoreka kuŵa za mitundu yitatu yakwamba: Ndondomeko za Kuvikilira/Kukanizga, Ndondomeko za Kusanga, na Ndondomeko za Kuzgora/Kunozga. Mu ndondomeko za mauthenga, pali mitundu iŵiri ya ŵakupima na kupima: wa mukati na wa kuwaro. Kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga kanandi ni cigaŵa ca kupima kwa mukati kwa kupendera ndalama, ndipo kanandi kukucitika na ŵakupima ŵa mukati ŵa makampani. Wakupima wa kuwaro wakupenda vyakusangika na kupima kwa mukati, kweniso ivyo vikunjizgika, kupenda, na vyakufumamo vya ndondomeko za mauthenga. Kupima kwa kuwaro kwa ndondomeko za mauthenga kukucitika comene na ŵakupima ndondomeko za mauthenga ŵakuzomerezgeka, nga ni CISA, ŵakuzomerezgeka na ISACA (Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga, USA), Wakupima Ndondomeko za Mauthenga (ISA) wakuzomerezgeka na ICAI (Wupu wa Ŵakupendera Ndalama ŵa India), na ŵanyake ŵakuzomerezgeka na mawupu ghakumanyikwa. Kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga kukughanaghanira ngozi zose na ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mu ndondomeko za mauthenga. Kukulaŵiska pa nkhani nga ni ntchito, vyakumanyikwa, kugomezgeka, vilwerovipepu vya mlimo, civikiliro, vyakubisika vya ŵanthu, ndalama zakuŵikika na zakuwonongeka, kulaŵilira ndalama, na vyakupangika. Pali malongozgero agho ghakovwira ŵakupima mu ntchito zawo, nga ni agho ghakufuma ku Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga. == Mbiri ya Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga == Ghanoghano la kupima vilwero vya mauthenga likapangika pakati pa ma 1960. Kufuma pa nyengo iyo, kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kwasintha kanandi, comene cifukwa ca kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero na kunjizga luso la vilwero mu malonda. Sono, pali makampani ghanandi agho ghakuthemba luso la vilwero vya mauthenga kuti ghendeske malonda ghawo, mwaciyelezgero makampani gha kuyowoyerana kwa kutali panji mabanki. Pa mitundu yinyake ya malonda, luso la vilwero vya mauthenga likugwira ntchito yikulu mu kampani, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za ntchito m'malo mwa mapepala gha mapempho, kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za kulaŵilira za vilwerovipepu m'malo mwa kulaŵilira kwa manja, uko nkhwakugomezgeka comene, panji kugwiliskira ntchito vilwerovipepu vya ERP kovwira wupu mwa kugwiliskira ntchito cilwerocipepu cimoza pera. Pa ici, kuzirwa kwa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukusazgikira nyengo zose. Ntchito yimoza yikulu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupima ndondomeko zakuzirwa kuti kovwire kupima ndalama panji malongozgero ghapadera agho ghaphalirika, mwaciyelezgero SOX. == Nkhani Ziphya == Pali so kupima kuphya uko mawupu gha vyakwenelera ghakukakizga, kuyana na wupu uwo ukupimika, uko kukukhwaska luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na kuwoneseska kuti vigaŵa vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga vikucita ntchito zinyake na kulaŵilira makola kuti viwonekere kuŵa vyakulondezga malango. Viyelezgero vya kupima uku ni SSAE 16, ISAE 3402, na ISO27001:2013. === Kupima Kuŵapo pa Intaneti === Kuthandazgika kwa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga la kampani kuwaro kwa linga la moto la kampani (mwaciyelezgero, kampani kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu, pamoza na kuthandazgika kwa vilwero vya pa maŵingu nga ni ndondomeko za kulongozga mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu) kwasazgirapo kuzirwa kwa kusazgamo kupima kuŵapo pa intaneti mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Vilato vya kupima uku ni kuwoneseska kuti kampani yikucita vyakukhumbikwa kuti: * yikanizge kagwiliskiro ka vilwero vyambura kuzomerezgeka * yicepeske kunangika kwa mbiri yake * yilondezge malongozgero * yikanizge kuvumbulika kwa mauthenga * yicepeske ngozi za ŵanthu ŵa kuwaro * yicepeske ngozi za ulongozgi Kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ivyo vigaŵa panji ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵapanga kukaŵa nkhani yakususkana kale. Kweni na kupezeka kwa vilwero vya kupenda vyakumanyikwa, mapulani gha vimanyikwiro, na vilwerovipepu vya maŵerengero, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakukhumbikwa so yayi kwimilira pa mzere kulindilira vyuma vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga kuti vifiske mapempho ghawo ghambura kumala gha malipoti. Ntchito ya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga ni kugwilira ntchito pamoza na magulu gha malonda kuti kufikira kwakuzomerezgeka na malipoti viŵe vyakupepuka comene. Mwaciyelezgero cipepuka, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakwenera yayi kujiyaniskira vyakumanyikwa ŵekha kuti matebulo ghalumikizgike mu nthowa yakwenelera. Luso la vilwero vya mauthenga likwenera kupeleka ku ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mafayilo gha malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa kuti ntchito yawo ya kupenda yipepuke. Mwaciyelezgero, mawupu ghanyake ghakusintha malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa nyengo na nyengo na kupanga matebulo ghakupepuka agho ghangaŵikika luŵiro mu vilwerovipepu nga ni Tableau na kupanga mapulani gha vimanyikwiro. === Kupima Kuyowoyerana kwa Makampani === Kukura kwa mikwawo ya VOIP, nkhani nga ni BYOD (ŵantchito kuza na vilwero vyawo), na kusazgikira kwa nkhongono za ndondomeko za lamya za makampani gha mazuŵa ghano vikusazgirapo ngozi ya kuti vyakuzengera vyakuzirwa vya lamya vinozgeke mwakubudika, ndipo ici cingiziska ngozi ya upusikizgi mu kuyowoyerana panji kucepa kwa kukhazikika kwa ndondomeko. Mabanki, mawupu gha ndalama, na malo gha kuyowoyerana na ŵakugula kanandi ghakuŵika ndondomeko izo zikwenera kulondezgeskeka mu ndondomeko zawo za kuyowoyerana. Ntchito ya kupima usange ndondomeko za kuyowoyerana zikulondezga ndondomeko izi njya ŵakupima ŵapadera ŵa kuyowoyerana kwa kutali. Kupima uku kukuwoneseska kuti ndondomeko za kuyowoyerana za kampani: * zikulondezga ndondomeko iyo yayowoyeka * zikulondezga ndondomeko izo zanozgeka kucepeska ngozi ya kunjilira kwambura wanangwa * zikulondezga malongozgero * zikukanizga panji kucepeska upusikizgi pa malipiro gha lamya * zikucepeska ngozi za ŵanthu ŵa kuwaro * zikucepeska ngozi za ulongozgi Kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kukuchemekaso kupima mazgo, kweni lizgu ili likuleka kugwiliskirika ntchito apo vyakuzengera vya kuyowoyerana vikuŵa vya vyakumanyikwa comene. Lizgu lakuti "kupima lamya" nalo likuleka kugwiliskirika ntchito cifukwa vyakuzengera vya kuyowoyerana vya mazuŵa ghano, comene pa kuyowoyerana na ŵakugula, vili na nthowa zinandi, umo kuyowoyerana kukucitika mu nthowa zinandi, pa lamya pera yayi. Suzgo limoza likulu ilo likusuzga kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani ni kusoŵa kwa vyakwenelera vyakuŵikika na mafakitale panji vyakuzomerezgeka na ulongozgi. Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukuzengeka pa kulondezga vyakwenelera na ndondomeko izo mawupu nga ni NIST na PCI ghafumya, kweni kusoŵa kwa vyakwenelera nga ni ivi pa kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kukung'anamula kuti kupima uku kukwenera kuzengeka pa vyakwenelera na ndondomeko za mukati za wupu, m'malo mwa vyakwenelera vya mafakitale. Ntheura, kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kucali kucitika na manja, na kusankha vyakupima mwambura kusankha. Vilwero vya kupima ndondomeko na makina pa kuyowoyerana kwa makampani vyamba kupezeka sonosono pera. === Masuzgo gha Nkhalo Yiwemi mu Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga === Kagwiliskiro ka vinjeru vyakupangika mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kakusazgikira luŵiro, ndipo magaŵa 30 pa 100 gha kupima kose kwa makampani ghakwenera kucitika na vinjeru vyakupangika pofika 2025, nga umo Wupu wa Caro Cose Capasi wa Vyacuma ukayowoyera mu 2015. Vinjeru vyakupangika mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga vikwiziska masuzgo ghanandi gha nkhalo yiwemi. Kagwiliskiro ka vinjeru vyakupangika kakwiziska kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba mu vyakufumapo. Suzgo limoza ilo vinjeru vyakupangika vikusanga pa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga vya makampani ni lakuti kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba kungacitika apo vinjeru vyakupangika vikupenda vyakumanyikwa. Vinjeru vyakupangika vilije cigaŵa ca munthu, panji nkhongono ya kupulikiska vyakucitika vyakupambana umo vyakumanyikwa vinyake vikuthembeka panji yayi. Vinjeru vyakupangika vikupulikiska vyakumanyikwa ivyo vyawona kale pera, ntheura vingasintha yayi pa cakucitika ciliconse capadera. Ici cikwiziska kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba, na vyakufumapo vyambura kukhumba para vinjeru vyakupangika vyagomezgeka comene ndipo vikulaŵilirika makola yayi na maso gha munthu. Ntheura masuzgo gha nkhalo yiwemi, gha dango, na gha vyacuma ghakuwoneka. Luso la vilwero likupoka malo gha ŵanthu. Makampani ghanayi ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama ghaŵika ndalama zinandi mu luso la vilwero liphya mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Vinjeru vyakupangika sono vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kuwoneseska, kucita ntchito nga ni "ndondomeko za kupima na kupendera ndalama nga ni kupenda mabuku ghakulu gha ndalama, kulondezga malango gha misonkho, kunozga mapepala gha ntchito, kupenda vyakumanyikwa, kulondezga malango gha ndalama zakuwonongeka, kusanga upusikizgi, na kusankha." Ici cikupoka malo gha ŵakupima, ndipo cikusandura awo ŵakugwira ntchito ya kuwoneseska kuŵa "ŵalaŵiliri" ŵa luso la vilwero. Kweni makampani ghacali kukhumba ŵakupima kuti ŵapende vyakufumapo vya vinjeru vyakupangika vya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Ŵakupima awo ŵakupulikiska yayi ndondomeko za kupenda izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kupima ŵangazomerezga mphuvi kucitika na vilayizgo ivi vyambura kufikapo. Ntheura ŵakupima ŵa luso likulu la vilwero na madigri gha luso la vilwero ŵakukhumbika comene na makampani agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima. == Vyakufumapo vya Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga pa Makampani na pa Kupima Ndalama == Kuthandazgika kwa vinthu pa caro cose capasi pamoza na kukura kwa ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga vyapangiska makampani kusintha kuya ku malo gha ntchito gha digito comene. Vyawemi vya ndondomeko izi ni kucepeska nyengo ya ntchito, nkhongono ya kuyezga vyakumanyikwa vinandi, kucepeska ngozi ya kupima, na kupeleka mauthenga gha kupenda ghakufikapo na ghakusinthika makola. Na nyengo yakusazgikira, ŵakupima ŵangacita mayeso ghanyake gha kupima, ndipo ici cikuwemeska comene ndondomeko ya kupima yose. Kagwiliskiro ka nthowa za kupima na wovwiri wa mirangura (CAATs) kakazomerezga makampani kupenda vyakumanyikwa vinandi comene na kupenda makola kugulana kose, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga wakupima kuyezga na kupulikiska makola masuzgo ghaliwose mu vyakumanyikwa. Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga mu kupima kasintha umo ŵakupima ŵakucitira ntchito zakuzirwa za kupima nga ni kulongozga malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa, kuwoneseska ngozi na ndondomeko za kulaŵilira, na nanga ulongozgi na kulondezga malango. Kweniso, ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga za kupima zikuwemeska kagwiliro ka ntchito na kovwira pa kusankha uko kukatenge kucitike na kupenda kwa manja. Ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga zikovwira kuwuskapo mphuvi za ŵanthu mu kupima, ndipo nangauli zikumazgiratu suzgo ili yayi, zawoneka kuŵa zakovwira pa kupima uko kukucitika na makampani ghanayi ghakulu na ghacoko wuwo. Ndondomeko izi zacepeska comene mphuvi mu kupima, ndipo zikupeleka kupulikiska kuwemi kwa vyakumanyikwa ivyo vikupendeka. Cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga mu kupima, mawupu gha mazaza nga ni American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) na Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga (ISACA) ghaŵika malongozgero gha umo ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga zingagwiliskirika ntchito makola pa kupima. Ŵakupima sono ŵakwenera kulondezga malongozgero agha para ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga pa kupima. == Vyawemi vya Kugwiliskira Ntchito Ndondomeko za Luso la Vilwero vya Mauthenga pa Kupima Ndalama == Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima ndalama kakwamba kulongora vyawemi vikulu ku makampani ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama. Mu kusanda uko kukacitika na limoza mwa makampani ghanayi ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama, kukughanaghanirika kuti kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko izi na vinjeru vyakupangika kazamusazgirapo madola triliyoni 6.6 mu malipiro cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vyakupangika. Ntheura, makampani ghakulu gha kupima ghakuŵika ndalama zinandi comene na cilato ca kusazgirapo vyakupangika na malipiro kwizira mu kupanga panji kugula ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika kovwira kupima ndalama. PwC, limoza mwa makampani ghakulu comene gha kupima pa caro cose capasi, lalongosora mitundu yitatu yakupambana ya ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika izo makampani ghangapanga na kugwiliskira ntchito kuti ghasazgirepo malipiro na vyakupangika. Ndondomeko yakwamba yikupangika mwakuti ndondomeko za luso la vilwero zikovwira waka pa kusankha kwa wakupima munthu. Ici cikuzomerezga wakupima munthu kusunga wanangwa pa kusankha, na kugwiliskira ntchito luso la vilwero kovwira na kukhozga nkhongono yake ya kucita ntchito yaunenesko, ndipo pakumalira kampani yikusunga ndalama. Kufuma apo, PwC yikuyowoya kuti ndondomeko izo zili na nkhongono ya kumazga masuzgo nzakuzirwa comene pa kupanga vyakufumapo vyaunenesko comene. PwC yikumanya kuti mphuvi zikusazgikira cifukwa ca kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba, ntheura pakukhumbikwa kupanga ndondomeko izo zingasintha kuyana na vyakucitika vyakupambana. Mtundu uwu wa ndondomeko ukukhumba kuti kusankha kugaŵike pakati pa wakupima munthu na ndondomeko ya luso la vilwero, kuti vyakufumapo viŵe vinandi comene, mwa kuzomerezga ndondomeko kucita ntchito ya kupenda iyo wakupima munthu yekha wangatondeka. Pakumalira, PwC yikumanya kuti pali vyakucitika umo luso la vilwero likwenera kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha na kucita ilo lekha. Ici cikuzomerezga ŵakupima ŵanthu kulaŵiska pa ntchito zakuzirwa comene apo luso la vilwero likucita ntchito zakutora nyengo yitali izo zikukhumba nyengo ya munthu yayi. Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima ndalama kakujumpha cilato ca kusazgirapo vyakupangika na malipiro. Makampani agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko izi kovwira kumalizga kupima ghangasanga vyakumanyikwa ivyo vingaŵa upusikizgi luŵiro comene na mwaunenesko comene. Mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko nga ni ndege zambura munthu zazomerezgeka na makampani ghose ghanayi ghakulu kovwira kupima makola katundu, apo kumanya mazgo na mawonekero gha ŵanthu kukovwira makampani pa milandu ya upusikizgi. rhf80bzefl5k5ogot41p6xl2kcvtkz8 124376 124347 2026-11-10T20:11:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgako ukaboni, vithuzi na bokosi la vyakumanyikwa kufuma ku nkhani ya Cingelezi 124376 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga''' (panji '''Kupima vilwero vya uthenga'''), panji kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga, ni kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mukati mwa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga (IT) na vilwerovipepu vya malonda. Kupenda ukaboni uwo wasangika kukusimikizga usange ndondomeko za mauthenga zikuvikilira vyuma, zikusunga kugomezgeka kwa vyakumanyikwa, na zikugwira ntchito makola kuti zifiske vilato vya wupu. Kupenda uku kungacitika pamoza na kupenda malipoti gha ndalama, kupenda kwa mukati, panji kupenda kunyake kwa kusimikizga. Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukuchemekaso kupima kwa kupenda vyakumanyikwa na makina (ADP) na kupima mirangura. Kale kukachemekanga kupima kwa kupenda vyakumanyikwa na malekitironi (EDP). == Cilato == Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga nkhwakupambana na kupima malipoti gha ndalama. Apo cilato ca kupima ndalama ni kupenda usange malipoti gha ndalama ghakulongora makola, pa vigaŵa vyose vyakuzirwa, umo wupu uliri pa ndalama, vyakufumapo vya ntchito zake, na kwenda kwa ndalama zake, kuyana na nthowa zakuzomerezgeka za kupendera ndalama, cilato ca kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupenda kanozgero na kugwira ntchito makola kwa ndondomeko za kulaŵilira za mukati. Ici cikusazgapo, kweni cikumalira pa ici yayi, kugwira ntchito makola na malamulo gha civikiliro, ndondomeko za kupanga, na ulongozgi panji ulaŵiliri wa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stoel |first=M. Dale |last2=Havelka |first2=Douglas |date=2020-02-18 |title=Information Technology Audit Quality: An Investigation of the Impact of Individual and Organizational Factors |url=https://doi.org/10.2308/isys-18-043 |journal=Journal of Information Systems |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=135–154 |doi=10.2308/isys-18-043 |issn=0888-7985|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kuŵika ndondomeko za kulaŵilira nkhwakukhumbikwa kweni nkhwakukwana yayi kuti pakuŵe civikiliro cakwenelera. Ŵanthu awo ŵali na udindo pa civikiliro ŵakwenera kughanaghanira usange ndondomeko izi zaŵikika nga umo zikwenera, usange zikugwira ntchito makola, panji usange civikiliro cikaphwanyika, ndipo usange ntheura, ni vyakucita wuli ivyo vingacitika kukanizga kuphwanyika kwa munthazi. Mafumbo agha ghakwenera kuzgoleka na ŵalaŵiski ŵakujiwusa na ŵambura kutora lwande. Ŵalaŵiski aŵa ndiwo ŵakucita ntchito ya kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga. Mu malo gha ndondomeko za mauthenga, kupima ni kupenda ndondomeko za mauthenga, ivyo vikunjizgika, ivyo vikufumamo, na kupenda kwake. Apo luso la vilwero likulutilira kuluta panthazi na kuŵa kulikose mu umoyo withu na mu malonda, ndipo vyakofya na vyakuzerezga vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga navyo vikusazgikira. Ivi vikukhwaska mafakitale ghose, ndipo vikwiza mu nthowa zakupambana, nga ni kuphwanyika kwa vyakumanyikwa, vyakofya vya kuwaro, na masuzgo gha ntchito.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gantz|first=Stephen D.|title=The basics of IT audit : purposes, processes, and practical information|publisher=Syngress, an imprint of Elsevier|year=2014}}</ref> Ngozi izi na kukhumbikwa kwa kugomezgeka kukulu vikusazgirapo kukhumbikwa kwa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kuti kupenda kagwiliro ka ntchito ka ndondomeko za mauthenga za malonda na kucepeska mwaŵi na vyakufumapo vya vyakofya na vyakuzerezga vya luso la vilwero. Ntchito zikulu za kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupenda ndondomeko izo zilipo kuvikilira mauthenga gha wupu. Comene, kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukugwiliskirika ntchito kupenda nkhongono ya wupu ya kuvikilira vyuma vyake vya mauthenga na kupeleka makola mauthenga ku ŵanthu awo ŵazomerezgeka. Kupima uku kukukhumba kupenda ivi: * Kasi ndondomeko za mirangura za wupu zizamuŵapo nyengo zose izo malonda ghakuzikhumba? (kukuchemeka kupezeka) * Kasi mauthenga gha mu ndondomeko ghazamuvumbulika ku ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakuzomerezgeka pera? (kukuchemeka civikiliro na kusunga cisisi) * Kasi mauthenga agho ndondomeko yikupeleka ghazamuŵa nyengo zose ghaunenesko, ghakugomezgeka, na gha pa nyengo yake? (kukupima kugomezgeka) Mu nthowa iyi, kupima kukukhumba kupenda ngozi pa cuma cakuzirwa ca kampani (mauthenga ghake) na kuŵika nthowa za kucepeska ngozi izo. Comene comene, mawupu ghakwenera kulaŵiska vyakukhumbikwa vitatu vikulu: kusunga cisisi, kugomezgeka, na kupezeka, kuti ghalongosore vyakukhumbikwa vyawo vya civikiliro na kugomezga ndondomeko zawo za mauthenga. * Kusunga cisisi: cilato ni kukanizga ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵambura kuzomerezgeka kufikira mauthenga ghakubisika. * Kugomezgeka: cilato ni kuwoneseska kuti mauthenga ghakusinthika mu nthowa yakuzomerezgeka pera. * Kupezeka: cilato ni kuwoneseska kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakuzomerezgeka pera ndiwo ŵakufikira mauthenga ghanyake. Vyakukhumbikwa vitatu ivi vikwenera kukhozgeka mu fakitale yiliyose na wupu uliwose uwo uli na luso la vilwero vya mauthenga, kweni vyakukhumbikwa vyose na ndondomeko za kuvikhozga vizamupambana.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/1581/chapter/4 |title=Read "Computers at Risk: Safe Computing in the Information Age" at NAP.edu |language=en}}</ref> == Kagaŵiro ka Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga == Ŵamanyi ŵakupambana ŵapanga kagaŵiro kakupambana ka mitundu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Goodman na Lawless ŵakuyowoya kuti pali nthowa zitatu zapadera zandondomeko za kucitira kupima vilwero vya mauthenga:<ref name="GoodmanGoodman1994">{{cite book|author1=Richard A. Goodman|author2=Michael W. Lawless|title=Technology and strategy: conceptual models and diagnostics|url=https://archive.org/details/technologystrate0000good|url-access=registration|access-date=May 9, 2010|year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press US|ISBN=978-0-19-507949-4}}</ref> * Kupima ndondomeko ya kupanga vinthu viphya vya luso la vilwero. Kupima uku kukupanga cithuzi ca ngozi ca ntchito izo zilipo na ziphya. Kukupenda utali na kuzika kwa luso la kampani pa luso la vilwero ilo yasankha, kweniso kuŵapo kwake mu misika yakukhwaskika, kanozgero ka ntchito yiliyose, na kapangikiro ka cigaŵa ca fakitale ico cikukhwaskana na ntchito panji cakupangika ici. * Kupima kwa kuyaniska vyakupanga viphya. Kupima uku ni kupenda nkhongono ya kampani ya kupanga vinthu viphya, kuyaniska na ŵakususkana nayo pa malonda. Ici cikukhumba kupenda malo gha kampani gha kusanda na kupanga, na umo yapangira vyakupangika viphya kale. * Kupima malo gha luso la vilwero: kupima uku kukupenda luso la vilwero ilo malonda ghali nalo sono na ilo ghakwenera kusazga. Luso la vilwero likugaŵika kuŵa "lakwamba", "lakuzirwa", "lakulongozga luŵiro", panji "liphya". Ŵanyake ŵakulongosora mitundu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga mu magulu ghankhondi: * Ndondomeko na Vilwerovipepu vya Mlimo: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko na vilwerovipepu vya mlimo nvyakwenelera, vikugwira ntchito makola, ndipo vikulaŵilirika makola kuti vyakunjizgika, kupenda, na vyakufumamo viŵe vyaunenesko, vyakugomezgeka, vya pa nyengo yake, na vyakuvikilirika pa vigaŵa vyose vya ntchito ya ndondomeko. Kupima kwa kusimikizga ndondomeko na kacitiro ni mtundu ucoko wa ici, uwo ukulaŵiska pa ndondomeko za mauthenga za malonda izo zikuthemba ndondomeko za malonda. Kupima uku kuli na cilato ca kovwira ŵakupima ndalama. * Malo gha Kupendera Mauthenga: kupima kusimikizga kuti malo gha kupendera ghakulaŵilirika kuti vilwerovipepu vya mlimo vipendeke pa nyengo yake, mwaunenesko, na makola mu vyakucitika vya nyengo zose na vyakuzerezga. * Kupanga Ndondomeko: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko izo zicali kupangika zikufiska vilato vya wupu, na kuwoneseska kuti zikupangika kuyana na vyakwenelera vyakuzomerezgeka vya kupanga ndondomeko. * Ulongozgi wa Luso la Vilwero vya Mauthenga na Kazengero ka Wupu: kupima kusimikizga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga ŵapanga kapangikiro ka wupu na ndondomeko kuti pakuŵe malo ghakulaŵilirika na ghakugwira ntchito makola gha kupenda mauthenga. * Vyakupokera/Maseva, Kuyowoyerana kwa Kutali, Mikwawo ya Mukati, na ya Kuwaro: kupima kusimikizga kuti ndondomeko za kulaŵilira kuyowoyerana kwa kutali zilipo pa vyakupokera (mirangura iyo yikupokera uteŵeti), maseva, na pa mkwawo uwo ukulumikizga vyakupokera na maseva. Ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuwunjika kupima kose kwa vilwero vya mauthenga mu mitundu iŵiri pera: kupima kwa "kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira zose" panji kupima kwa "kupenda ndondomeko za kulaŵilira vilwerovipepu vya mlimo". Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ŵa cigaŵa ca Kuwoneseska Mauthenga ŵakuwona kuti pali mitundu yitatu yakwamba ya ndondomeko za kulaŵilira, kwambura kuwona mtundu wa kupima uwo ukucitika, comene mu cigaŵa ca luso la vilwero vya mauthenga. Ndondomeko zinandi na vyakwenelera vikuyezga kugaŵa ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mu vigaŵa vyakupambana, kuzichema "Ndondomeko za Civikiliro", "Ndondomeko za Kufikira", "Ndondomeko za IA", kuti zilongosore mitundu ya ndondomeko izo zikukhwaskika. Pa maziko, ndondomeko izi zingalongoreka kuŵa za mitundu yitatu yakwamba: Ndondomeko za Kuvikilira/Kukanizga, Ndondomeko za Kusanga, na Ndondomeko za Kuzgora/Kunozga. Mu ndondomeko za mauthenga, pali mitundu iŵiri ya ŵakupima na kupima: wa mukati na wa kuwaro. Kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga kanandi ni cigaŵa ca kupima kwa mukati kwa kupendera ndalama, ndipo kanandi kukucitika na ŵakupima ŵa mukati ŵa makampani. Wakupima wa kuwaro wakupenda vyakusangika na kupima kwa mukati, kweniso ivyo vikunjizgika, kupenda, na vyakufumamo vya ndondomeko za mauthenga. Kupima kwa kuwaro kwa ndondomeko za mauthenga kukucitika comene na ŵakupima ndondomeko za mauthenga ŵakuzomerezgeka, nga ni CISA, ŵakuzomerezgeka na ISACA (Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga, USA), Wakupima Ndondomeko za Mauthenga (ISA) wakuzomerezgeka na ICAI (Wupu wa Ŵakupendera Ndalama ŵa India), na ŵanyake ŵakuzomerezgeka na mawupu ghakumanyikwa. Kupima ndondomeko za mauthenga kukughanaghanira ngozi zose na ndondomeko za kulaŵilira mu ndondomeko za mauthenga. Kukulaŵiska pa nkhani nga ni ntchito, vyakumanyikwa, kugomezgeka, vilwerovipepu vya mlimo, civikiliro, vyakubisika vya ŵanthu, ndalama zakuŵikika na zakuwonongeka, kulaŵilira ndalama, na vyakupangika. Pali malongozgero agho ghakovwira ŵakupima mu ntchito zawo, nga ni agho ghakufuma ku Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga.<ref name="Rainer, R. Kelly 2011">Rainer, R. Kelly, and Casey G. Cegielski. Introduction to information systems. 3rd ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2011. Print.</ref> == Mbiri ya Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga == Ghanoghano la kupima vilwero vya mauthenga likapangika pakati pa ma 1960. Kufuma pa nyengo iyo, kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kwasintha kanandi, comene cifukwa ca kuluta panthazi kwa luso la vilwero na kunjizga luso la vilwero mu malonda. Sono, pali makampani ghanandi agho ghakuthemba luso la vilwero vya mauthenga kuti ghendeske malonda ghawo, mwaciyelezgero makampani gha kuyowoyerana kwa kutali panji mabanki. Pa mitundu yinyake ya malonda, luso la vilwero vya mauthenga likugwira ntchito yikulu mu kampani, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za ntchito m'malo mwa mapepala gha mapempho, kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za kulaŵilira za vilwerovipepu m'malo mwa kulaŵilira kwa manja, uko nkhwakugomezgeka comene, panji kugwiliskira ntchito vilwerovipepu vya ERP kovwira wupu mwa kugwiliskira ntchito cilwerocipepu cimoza pera. Pa ici, kuzirwa kwa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukusazgikira nyengo zose. Ntchito yimoza yikulu ya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga ni kupima ndondomeko zakuzirwa kuti kovwire kupima ndalama panji malongozgero ghapadera agho ghaphalirika, mwaciyelezgero SOX. == Nkhani Ziphya == Pali so kupima kuphya uko mawupu gha vyakwenelera ghakukakizga, kuyana na wupu uwo ukupimika, uko kukukhwaska luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na kuwoneseska kuti vigaŵa vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga vikucita ntchito zinyake na kulaŵilira makola kuti viwonekere kuŵa vyakulondezga malango. Viyelezgero vya kupima uku ni SSAE 16, ISAE 3402, na ISO27001:2013. === Kupima Kuŵapo pa Intaneti === Kuthandazgika kwa luso la vilwero vya mauthenga la kampani kuwaro kwa linga la moto la kampani (mwaciyelezgero, kampani kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu, pamoza na kuthandazgika kwa vilwero vya pa maŵingu nga ni ndondomeko za kulongozga mikwawo ya wupu wa ŵanthu) kwasazgirapo kuzirwa kwa kusazgamo kupima kuŵapo pa intaneti mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Vilato vya kupima uku ni kuwoneseska kuti kampani yikucita vyakukhumbikwa kuti: * yikanizge kagwiliskiro ka vilwero vyambura kuzomerezgeka * yicepeske kunangika kwa mbiri yake * yilondezge malongozgero * yikanizge kuvumbulika kwa mauthenga * yicepeske ngozi za ŵanthu ŵa kuwaro * yicepeske ngozi za ulongozgi Kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ivyo vigaŵa panji ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵapanga kukaŵa nkhani yakususkana kale. Kweni na kupezeka kwa vilwero vya kupenda vyakumanyikwa, mapulani gha vimanyikwiro, na vilwerovipepu vya maŵerengero, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakukhumbikwa so yayi kwimilira pa mzere kulindilira vyuma vya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga kuti vifiske mapempho ghawo ghambura kumala gha malipoti. Ntchito ya luso la vilwero vya mauthenga ni kugwilira ntchito pamoza na magulu gha malonda kuti kufikira kwakuzomerezgeka na malipoti viŵe vyakupepuka comene. Mwaciyelezgero cipepuka, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ŵakwenera yayi kujiyaniskira vyakumanyikwa ŵekha kuti matebulo ghalumikizgike mu nthowa yakwenelera. Luso la vilwero vya mauthenga likwenera kupeleka ku ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mafayilo gha malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa kuti ntchito yawo ya kupenda yipepuke. Mwaciyelezgero, mawupu ghanyake ghakusintha malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa nyengo na nyengo na kupanga matebulo ghakupepuka agho ghangaŵikika luŵiro mu vilwerovipepu nga ni Tableau na kupanga mapulani gha vimanyikwiro. === Kupima Kuyowoyerana kwa Makampani === Kukura kwa mikwawo ya VOIP, nkhani nga ni BYOD (ŵantchito kuza na vilwero vyawo), na kusazgikira kwa nkhongono za ndondomeko za lamya za makampani gha mazuŵa ghano vikusazgirapo ngozi ya kuti vyakuzengera vyakuzirwa vya lamya vinozgeke mwakubudika, ndipo ici cingiziska ngozi ya upusikizgi mu kuyowoyerana panji kucepa kwa kukhazikika kwa ndondomeko. Mabanki, mawupu gha ndalama, na malo gha kuyowoyerana na ŵakugula kanandi ghakuŵika ndondomeko izo zikwenera kulondezgeskeka mu ndondomeko zawo za kuyowoyerana. Ntchito ya kupima usange ndondomeko za kuyowoyerana zikulondezga ndondomeko izi njya ŵakupima ŵapadera ŵa kuyowoyerana kwa kutali. Kupima uku kukuwoneseska kuti ndondomeko za kuyowoyerana za kampani: * zikulondezga ndondomeko iyo yayowoyeka * zikulondezga ndondomeko izo zanozgeka kucepeska ngozi ya kunjilira kwambura wanangwa * zikulondezga malongozgero * zikukanizga panji kucepeska upusikizgi pa malipiro gha lamya * zikucepeska ngozi za ŵanthu ŵa kuwaro * zikucepeska ngozi za ulongozgi Kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kukuchemekaso kupima mazgo, kweni lizgu ili likuleka kugwiliskirika ntchito apo vyakuzengera vya kuyowoyerana vikuŵa vya vyakumanyikwa comene. Lizgu lakuti "kupima lamya" nalo likuleka kugwiliskirika ntchito cifukwa vyakuzengera vya kuyowoyerana vya mazuŵa ghano, comene pa kuyowoyerana na ŵakugula, vili na nthowa zinandi, umo kuyowoyerana kukucitika mu nthowa zinandi, pa lamya pera yayi. Suzgo limoza likulu ilo likusuzga kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani ni kusoŵa kwa vyakwenelera vyakuŵikika na mafakitale panji vyakuzomerezgeka na ulongozgi.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Voice Audit|url = http://www.securelogix.com/voice-audit.html|website = www.securelogix.com|access-date = 2016-01-20}}</ref> Kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kukuzengeka pa kulondezga vyakwenelera na ndondomeko izo mawupu nga ni NIST na PCI ghafumya, kweni kusoŵa kwa vyakwenelera nga ni ivi pa kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kukung'anamula kuti kupima uku kukwenera kuzengeka pa vyakwenelera na ndondomeko za mukati za wupu, m'malo mwa vyakwenelera vya mafakitale.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.eurotelecom.ro/files/IP_Telephony_Design_and_Audit_Guidelines_June_2003.pdf|title = IP Telephony Design and Audit Guidelines|website = www.eurotelecom.ro|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140327014516/http://www.eurotelecom.ro/files/IP_Telephony_Design_and_Audit_Guidelines_June_2003.pdf|archive-date = 2014-03-27|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = What is omnichannel? - Definition from WhatIs.com|url = http://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/omnichannel|website = SearchCIO|access-date = 2016-01-20|language = en-US}}</ref> Ntheura, kupima kuyowoyerana kwa makampani kucali kucitika na manja, na kusankha vyakupima mwambura kusankha. Vilwero vya kupima ndondomeko na makina pa kuyowoyerana kwa makampani vyamba kupezeka sonosono pera. === Masuzgo gha Nkhalo Yiwemi mu Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga === Kagwiliskiro ka vinjeru vyakupangika mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga kakusazgikira luŵiro, ndipo magaŵa 30 pa 100 gha kupima kose kwa makampani ghakwenera kucitika na vinjeru vyakupangika pofika 2025, nga umo Wupu wa Caro Cose Capasi wa Vyacuma ukayowoyera mu 2015. Vinjeru vyakupangika mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga vikwiziska masuzgo ghanandi gha nkhalo yiwemi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Munoko |first=Ivy |last2=Brown-Liburd |first2=Helen L. |last3=Vasarhelyi |first3=Miklos |date=2020-11-01 |title=The Ethical Implications of Using Artificial Intelligence in Auditing |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04407-1 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |language=en |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=209–234 |doi=10.1007/s10551-019-04407-1 |issn=1573-0697|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kagwiliskiro ka vinjeru vyakupangika kakwiziska kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba mu vyakufumapo. Suzgo limoza ilo vinjeru vyakupangika vikusanga pa kupima vilwero vya mauthenga vya makampani ni lakuti kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba kungacitika apo vinjeru vyakupangika vikupenda vyakumanyikwa. Vinjeru vyakupangika vilije cigaŵa ca munthu, panji nkhongono ya kupulikiska vyakucitika vyakupambana umo vyakumanyikwa vinyake vikuthembeka panji yayi. Vinjeru vyakupangika vikupulikiska vyakumanyikwa ivyo vyawona kale pera, ntheura vingasintha yayi pa cakucitika ciliconse capadera. Ici cikwiziska kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba, na vyakufumapo vyambura kukhumba para vinjeru vyakupangika vyagomezgeka comene ndipo vikulaŵilirika makola yayi na maso gha munthu. Ntheura masuzgo gha nkhalo yiwemi, gha dango, na gha vyacuma ghakuwoneka. Luso la vilwero likupoka malo gha ŵanthu. Makampani ghanayi ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama ghaŵika ndalama zinandi mu luso la vilwero liphya mu kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Vinjeru vyakupangika sono vikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kuwoneseska, kucita ntchito nga ni "ndondomeko za kupima na kupendera ndalama nga ni kupenda mabuku ghakulu gha ndalama, kulondezga malango gha misonkho, kunozga mapepala gha ntchito, kupenda vyakumanyikwa, kulondezga malango gha ndalama zakuwonongeka, kusanga upusikizgi, na kusankha." Ici cikupoka malo gha ŵakupima, ndipo cikusandura awo ŵakugwira ntchito ya kuwoneseska kuŵa "ŵalaŵiliri" ŵa luso la vilwero. Kweni makampani ghacali kukhumba ŵakupima kuti ŵapende vyakufumapo vya vinjeru vyakupangika vya kupima vilwero vya mauthenga. Ŵakupima awo ŵakupulikiska yayi ndondomeko za kupenda izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito mu kupima ŵangazomerezga mphuvi kucitika na vilayizgo ivi vyambura kufikapo. Ntheura ŵakupima ŵa luso likulu la vilwero na madigri gha luso la vilwero ŵakukhumbika comene na makampani agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima. == Vyakufumapo vya Kupima Vilwero vya Mauthenga pa Makampani na pa Kupima Ndalama == Kuthandazgika kwa vinthu pa caro cose capasi pamoza na kukura kwa ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga vyapangiska makampani kusintha kuya ku malo gha ntchito gha digito comene. Vyawemi vya ndondomeko izi ni kucepeska nyengo ya ntchito, nkhongono ya kuyezga vyakumanyikwa vinandi, kucepeska ngozi ya kupima, na kupeleka mauthenga gha kupenda ghakufikapo na ghakusinthika makola. Na nyengo yakusazgikira, ŵakupima ŵangacita mayeso ghanyake gha kupima, ndipo ici cikuwemeska comene ndondomeko ya kupima yose. Kagwiliskiro ka nthowa za kupima na wovwiri wa mirangura (CAATs) kakazomerezga makampani kupenda vyakumanyikwa vinandi comene na kupenda makola kugulana kose, ndipo ici cikuzomerezga wakupima kuyezga na kupulikiska makola masuzgo ghaliwose mu vyakumanyikwa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elefterie |first=Liana |date=2016 |title=The Impact of Information Technology on the Audit Process |journal=Economics, Management, and Financial Markets |volume=11 |pages=303–309}}</ref> Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga mu kupima kasintha umo ŵakupima ŵakucitira ntchito zakuzirwa za kupima nga ni kulongozga malo gha kusungira vyakumanyikwa, kuwoneseska ngozi na ndondomeko za kulaŵilira, na nanga ulongozgi na kulondezga malango. Kweniso, ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga za kupima zikuwemeska kagwiliro ka ntchito na kovwira pa kusankha uko kukatenge kucitike na kupenda kwa manja. Ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga zikovwira kuwuskapo mphuvi za ŵanthu mu kupima, ndipo nangauli zikumazgiratu suzgo ili yayi, zawoneka kuŵa zakovwira pa kupima uko kukucitika na makampani ghanayi ghakulu na ghacoko wuwo. Ndondomeko izi zacepeska comene mphuvi mu kupima, ndipo zikupeleka kupulikiska kuwemi kwa vyakumanyikwa ivyo vikupendeka. Cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga mu kupima, mawupu gha mazaza nga ni American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) na Wupu wa Kupima na Kulaŵilira Ndondomeko za Mauthenga (ISACA) ghaŵika malongozgero gha umo ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga zingagwiliskirika ntchito makola pa kupima.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=David C. |last2=Guan |first2=Liming |date=2004-01-01 |title=The evolution of IT auditing and internal control standards in financial statement audits: The case of the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/02686900410530547 |journal=Managerial Auditing Journal |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=544–555 |doi=10.1108/02686900410530547 |issn=0268-6902|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ŵakupima sono ŵakwenera kulondezga malongozgero agha para ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga pa kupima. == Vyawemi vya Kugwiliskira Ntchito Ndondomeko za Luso la Vilwero vya Mauthenga pa Kupima Ndalama == Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima ndalama kakwamba kulongora vyawemi vikulu ku makampani ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama. Mu kusanda uko kukacitika na limoza mwa makampani ghanayi ghakulu gha kupendera ndalama, kukughanaghanirika kuti kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko izi na vinjeru vyakupangika kazamusazgirapo madola triliyoni 6.6 mu malipiro cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vyakupangika.<ref name=":0"/> Ntheura, makampani ghakulu gha kupima ghakuŵika ndalama zinandi comene na cilato ca kusazgirapo vyakupangika na malipiro kwizira mu kupanga panji kugula ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika kovwira kupima ndalama. PwC, limoza mwa makampani ghakulu comene gha kupima pa caro cose capasi, lalongosora mitundu yitatu yakupambana ya ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika izo makampani ghangapanga na kugwiliskira ntchito kuti ghasazgirepo malipiro na vyakupangika. Ndondomeko yakwamba yikupangika mwakuti ndondomeko za luso la vilwero zikovwira waka pa kusankha kwa wakupima munthu. Ici cikuzomerezga wakupima munthu kusunga wanangwa pa kusankha, na kugwiliskira ntchito luso la vilwero kovwira na kukhozga nkhongono yake ya kucita ntchito yaunenesko, ndipo pakumalira kampani yikusunga ndalama. Kufuma apo, PwC yikuyowoya kuti ndondomeko izo zili na nkhongono ya kumazga masuzgo nzakuzirwa comene pa kupanga vyakufumapo vyaunenesko comene. PwC yikumanya kuti mphuvi zikusazgikira cifukwa ca kutora lwande kwambura kukhumba, ntheura pakukhumbikwa kupanga ndondomeko izo zingasintha kuyana na vyakucitika vyakupambana. Mtundu uwu wa ndondomeko ukukhumba kuti kusankha kugaŵike pakati pa wakupima munthu na ndondomeko ya luso la vilwero, kuti vyakufumapo viŵe vinandi comene, mwa kuzomerezga ndondomeko kucita ntchito ya kupenda iyo wakupima munthu yekha wangatondeka. Pakumalira, PwC yikumanya kuti pali vyakucitika umo luso la vilwero likwenera kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha na kucita ilo lekha. Ici cikuzomerezga ŵakupima ŵanthu kulaŵiska pa ntchito zakuzirwa comene apo luso la vilwero likucita ntchito zakutora nyengo yitali izo zikukhumba nyengo ya munthu yayi.<ref name=":0"/> Kagwiliskiro ka ndondomeko za luso la vilwero vya mauthenga na nthowa za vinjeru vyakupangika pa kupima ndalama kakujumpha cilato ca kusazgirapo vyakupangika na malipiro. Makampani agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko izi kovwira kumalizga kupima ghangasanga vyakumanyikwa ivyo vingaŵa upusikizgi luŵiro comene na mwaunenesko comene. Mwaciyelezgero, ndondomeko nga ni ndege zambura munthu zazomerezgeka na makampani ghose ghanayi ghakulu kovwira kupima makola katundu, apo kumanya mazgo na mawonekero gha ŵanthu kukovwira makampani pa milandu ya upusikizgi.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":0"/> == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} 2oh7gr1nbpsvg94yv2cmkc6xoyv7hsu 0 50363 124430 124279 2026-11-11T02:26:33Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 124430 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Fumu yachiŵiri na yaumaliro ya Ufumu wa Brazil}} {{Infobox | above = Pedro II wa ku Brazil | image = Dom Pedro II do Brasil.jpg | label1 = Kubabika | data1 = 2 Disembala 1825, Rio de Janeiro | label2 = Kufwa | data2 = 5 Disembala 1891, Paris, France | label3 = Awiske | data3 = [[Pedro I wa ku Brazil]] | label4 = Amama ŵake | data4 = Maria Leopoldina wa ku Austria | label5 = Udindo | data5 = Fumu ya Brazil | label6 = Nyengo ya kuwusa | data6 = 1831–1889 | label7 = Mbumba | data7 = Mbumba ya Braganza | label8 = Wakumutorana | data8 = Teresa Cristina wa ku ŴaBourbon }} [[File:Dom Pedro II do Brasil.jpg|thumb|right|Chithuzithuzi cha Pedro II, Fumu ya Brazil.]] [[File:Pedro II of Brazil circa 1851.jpg|thumb|right|Pedro II mu vyaka vyake vyakwambilira vya kuwusa.]] [[File:Retrato do Imperador Dom Pedro II.jpg|thumb|right|Chithuzithuzi cha Fumu Pedro II.]] '''Pedro II''' (2 Disembala 1825 – 5 Disembala 1891) wakaŵa fumu yachiŵiri na yaumaliro ya [[Brazil]]. Wakawusa charu ichi kufuma mu 1831 mpaka mu 1889, ndipo wakaŵa mwana wa Fumu [[Pedro I wa ku Brazil]] na Fumukazi Maria Leopoldina wa ku Austria. Wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha nyengo yake yitali ya kuwusa, kukhozga masambiro, sayansi na vyaluso, kweniso kusintha kukuru kwa ndyali na umoyo wa ŵanthu mu Brazil.<ref name="Senate">{{Cite web|url=https://tainacan.senado.leg.br/personalidades/d-pedro-ii/|title=D. Pedro II|website=Museu do Senado Federal|access-date=9 November 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260922093604/https://tainacan.senado.leg.br/personalidades/d-pedro-ii/|archive-date=22 September 2026}}</ref> == Kubabika na ubwana == Pedro II wakababikira mu Rio de Janeiro pa 2 Disembala 1825. Wakaŵa mwana wa Pedro I, fumu yakwamba ya Brazil, na Maria Leopoldina. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka vinkhondi, awiske ŵakaleka ufumu wa Brazil na kuwelelera ku Portugal. Pedro II wakasoleka kuŵa fumu ya Brazil pa 7 Epulelo 1831, kweni chifukwa cha uchoko wake, boma likalongozgekanga na ŵeruzgi awo ŵakapika mulimo wa regency.<ref name="Senate"/> == Kwamba kuwusa yekha == Mu 1840, apo wakaŵa na vyaka 14, ŵanthu ŵa mu ndyali ŵakazomerezga kuti Pedro II wayambe kuwusa yekha. Mu 1841, wakachita mwambo wa kuŵikika pa ufumu. Ivi vikamba nyengo yiphya mu mbiri ya Ufumu wa Brazil.<ref name="Imperial">{{Cite web|url=https://dami.museuimperial.museus.gov.br/handle/acervo/10142|title=D. Pedro II na kuvya kwake pa nyumba ya malango|website=Museu Imperial|access-date=9 November 2026}}</ref> == Nyengo ya kuwusa == Pedro II wakawusa kwa vyaka 58, ndipo nyengo yake yikaŵa yitali chomene kuluska ya fumu yiliyose ya Brazil. Mu nyengo iyi, Brazil yikakumana na kusintha kwa chuma, ulimi, malonda, masambiro na vyakuzenga. Nthowa za njanji zikakura, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito matekinoloje ghaphya. Fumu iyi yikakhozga masambiro na kafukufuku wa sayansi. Wakakondwanga chomene na mabuku, viyowoyero, sayansi na vyaluso.<ref name="Imperial"/> == Nkhondo ya ku Paraguay == Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa Pedro II, Brazil yikanjira mu Nkhondo ya ku Paraguay, iyo yikachitika pakati pa 1864 na 1870. Brazil yikalwa pamoza na Argentina na Uruguay kulimbana na Paraguay. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa nkhondo yikuru chomene mu mdauko wa South America, ndipo yikakhwaska chomene chuma na umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivyo vikachitako nkhondo.<ref name="Imperial"/> == Kumazga wuzga == Mu nyengo ya Pedro II, nkhani ya kumazga wuzga yikakura chomene mu ndyali za Brazil. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulimbikira kuti wuzga umare. Boma likakhazikiska malango ghanyake ghakachepeskera wuzga. Mu 1888, Fumukazi Isabel, mwana wa Pedro II, wakasaina Lei Áurea iyo yikamazga wuzga mu Brazil.<ref name="Lei">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.br/arquivonacional/pt-br/canais_atendimento/imprensa/noticias/lei-aurea-faz-parte-do-acervo-do-arquivo-nacional|title=Lei Áurea|website=Arquivo Nacional|access-date=9 November 2026}}</ref> == Kugwa kwa ufumu == Mu nyengo yake yaumaliro, ufumu wa Pedro II ukakumana na suzgo la ndyali. Mu 1889, ŵasilikari ŵakachita kusintha kwa boma uko kukamazga ufumu na kukhazikiska boma la Republic. Pa nyengo iyi, Pedro II wakachichizgika kuleka ufumu. Pamanyuma wakaluta ku Europe ndipo wakakhala ku France mpaka apo wakafwira mu 1891.<ref name="Imperial"/> == Mbiri yake == Pedro II wakumbukika nga ni fumu iyo yikawusa kwa nyengo yitali ndipo yikakhozga masambiro, sayansi na vyaluso. Ndipouli, nyengo yake ya kuwusa yikaŵa na masuzgo ghakupambanapambana, kusazgapo wuzga, mphindano za ndyali na nkhondo. == Wonaniso == * [[Brazil]] * [[Pedro I wa ku Brazil]] * [[Fumukazi Isabel]] * [[Maria Leopoldina]] * [[Nkhondo ya ku Paraguay]] * [[Lei Áurea]] * [[Ufumu wa Brazil]] * [[Republic ya Brazil]] * [[Mbiri ya Brazil]] * [[Mbumba ya Braganza]] == Ukaboni == <references/> [[Category:Mafumu gha Brazil]] [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa Brazil]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Brazil]] [[Category:Ŵanthu ŵa m'ma 19]] 8bobwwe6ery6g95qrdq5g615x23ibq4 828 50418 124369 2026-11-10T19:38:55Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kukopa kufuma ku en.wikipedia [[:en:Module:Clade]] (revid 1216029910) kuti cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cilongoreke 124369 Scribunto text/plain --[[NOTE: this module contains functions for generating the table structure of the clade tree: The main function is called by the template using the {{invoke}} instruction; the three main functions are: p.main(frame) - opens and closes table, loops through the children of node, main is invoked once and controls the rest, calling ... p.addTaxon(childNumber, nodeLeaf) - the nuts and bolts; code dealing with each child node p.addLabel(childNumber) - adds the label text now uses templatestyles ]] require('strict') local getArgs = require('Module:Arguments').getArgs local p = {} local pargs = {} -- parent arguments local lastNode=0 local nodeCount=0 local cladeCount=0 local leafCount=0 local templateStylesCount=0 local infoOutput local reverseClade = false --[[============================== main function =========================== -- main function, which will generate the table structure of the tree Test version: Usage: {{#invoke:Module:Sandbox/Jts1882/CladeN|main|style={{{STYLE|}}} }} Template:CladeN Release version: Usage: {{#invoke:Clade|main|style={{{STYLE|}}} }} Template:Clade ]] function p.main(frame) local cladeString = "" local maxChildren = 20 -- was 17 in the clade/cladex templates local childNumber = 0 local childCount = 0 -- number of leaves in the clade (can use to set bottom of bracket in addTaxon() local totalCount = 0 pargs = getArgs(frame) -- parent arguments infoOutput = p.getCladeTreeInfo() -- get info about clade structure, e.g. lastNode (last |N= child number) --[[ add the templatestyles tag conditionally to reduce expansion size (currently diabled) when added to every clade table, it increases post‐expand include size significantly e.g. the Neosuchia page (or test version) is increase by about 8% (672 bytes each) if template styles added to all pages there are 133 stripmarkers with cladeCount==1 condition, this is reduced to 34 however cladeCount==1 condition interfers with fix for additional line due to parser bug T18700 killing the strip markers also removes backlinks to references using citation templates --]] --cladeString =mw.text.killMarkers( cladeString ) -- also kills off strip markers using citation templates --cladeString = mw.text.unstrip(cladeString) --if cladeCount==1 then cladeString = cladeString .. frame:extensionTag('templatestyles', '', { src="Template:Clade/styles.css" }) .. '\n' --end local tableStyle = frame.args.style or pargs.style or "" if tableStyle ~= "" then tableStyle = ' style="' .. tableStyle .. '"' -- include style= in string to suppress empty style elements end reverseClade =frame.args.reverse or pargs.reverse or false -- a global --ENFORCE GLOBAL FOR DEVELOPMENT --reverseClade = true local captionName = pargs['caption'] or "" local captionStyle = pargs['captionstyle'] or "" -- add an element to mimick nowiki WORKS BUT DISABLE FOR DEMO PURPOSES --cladeString = '<p class="mw-empty-elt"></p>\n' -- open table -- (border-collapse causes problems (see talk) -- cladeString = cladeString .. '{| style="border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;margin:0;' .. tableStyle .. '"' -- (before CSS styling) -- cladeString = cladeString .. '{| style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;' .. tableStyle .. '"' cladeString = cladeString .. '{|class="clade"' .. tableStyle -- add caption if captionName ~= "" then cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|+ style="' .. captionStyle .. '"|' .. captionName end local moreNeeded = true childNumber = 0 --lastNode = 0 --[[get child elements (add more rows for each child of node; each child is two rows) the function addTaxon is called to add the rows for each child element; each child add two rows: the first cell of each row contains the label or sublabel (below the line label), respectively; the second cell spans both rows and contains the leaf name or a new clade structure a third cell on the top row is sometimes added to contain a group to the right ]] -- main loop while childNumber < lastNode do -- use the last number determined in the preprocessing childNumber = childNumber + 1 -- so we start with 1 local nodeLeaf = pargs[tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |N= local nodeLabel = pargs['label'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |labelN= local newickString = pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |labelN= local listString = pargs['list'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" if listString ~= "" then cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(childNumber, p.list(0, listString), nodeLabel, lastNode) elseif newickString ~= "" then -- if using a newick string instead of a clade structure newickString = p.processNewickString(newickString,childNumber) if nodeLabel == "" then -- use labelN by default, otherwise use root name from Newick string nodeLabel = p.getNewickOuterterm(newickString) -- need to use terminal part of newick string for label end cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(childNumber, p.newick(0, newickString), nodeLabel, lastNode) --lastNode=lastNode+1 -- there is a counting problem with the newickstring elseif nodeLeaf ~= "" then -- if the node contains a leaf name or clade structue --if reverseClade2 then -- cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxonReverse(childNumber, nodeLeaf, nodeLabel, lastNode) --else cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(childNumber, nodeLeaf, nodeLabel, lastNode) --end end end local footerText = pargs['footer'] or "" local footerStyle = pargs['footerstyle'] or "" if footerText ~= "" then cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-style="' .. footerStyle .. '"\n|colspan="2"|<p>' .. footerText .. '</p>||' -- note the footer causes a problem with tr:last-child so need either -- (1) use <tfoot> but it is not allowed or incompatable -- cladeString = cladeString .. '<tfoot><tr style="' .. footerStyle .. '"><td colspan="2"><p>' .. footerText .. '</p></td></tr></tfoot>' -- (2) always add footer and use nth:last-child(2) but is this backwards compatible -- (3) if footer= set the style inline for the last sublabel row (more a temp fix) -- (4) set class for first and last element (DONE. Also works well with reverse class) end -- close table (wikitext to close table) cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|}' cladeString = p.addSubTrees(cladeString) -- add subtrees --wrap in div to allow overflow display; new vector skin for mobile has issues (see talk page) if pargs['overflow'] == 'yes' or 1==1 then -- force for all cases local divCSS = ' class="clade"' -- ' style="overflow:auto;"' if string.find(cladeString, divCSS) then cladeString = string.gsub(cladeString, divCSS, "") -- delete CSS styling of inner clades (only want on outer) end return '<div' .. divCSS .. '>' .. cladeString .. '</div>' else return cladeString end --return '<div style="width:auto;">\n' .. cladeString .. '</div>' end --[[ =============================function to add subtrees ========================================== ]] function p.addSubTrees(cladeString) --local pargs = mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent().args local suffix = { [1]="A", [2]="B", [3]="C", [4]="D", [5]="E", [6]="F", [7]="G", [8]="H", [9]="I", [10]="J", [11]="K", [12]="L", [13]="M", [14]="N", [15]="O", [16]="P", [17]="Q", [18]="R", [19]="S", [20]="T", [21]="U", [22]="V", [23]="W", [24]="X", [25]="Y", [26]="Z"} for i=1, 26, 1 do local subclade = pargs['subclade'..suffix[i]] local target = pargs['target'..suffix[i]] or "SUBCLADE_" .. suffix[i] if subclade then if string.find(cladeString, target) then cladeString = string.gsub(cladeString,target,subclade) end end end return cladeString end --[[ -------------------------------------- p.addTaxon() ------------------------------------------ function to add child elements adds wikitext for two rows of the table for each child node, the first cell in each is used for the label and sublabel; the bottom border forms the horizonal branch of the bracket the second cell is used for the leafname or a transcluded clade structure and spans both rows note that the first and last child nodes need to be handled differently from the middle elements the middle elements (|2, |3 ...) use a left border to create the vertical line of the bracket the first child element doesn't use a left border for the first cell in the top row (as it is above the bracket) the last child doesn't use a left border for the first cell in the second row (as it is below the bracket) ]] function p.addTaxon(childNumber, nodeLeaf, nodeLabel, lastNode) --[[ get border formating parameters (i.e. color, thickness, state) nodeParameters for whole bracket (unnumbered, i.e. color, thickness, state) apply to whole node bracket, branchParameters apply to individual branches the branch parameters have a number, e.g. |colorN, |thicknessN, |stateN the node parameters have no number, e.g. |color, |thickness, |state ]] local nodeColor = pargs['color'] or "" -- don't set default to allow green on black gadget local nodeThickness = tonumber(pargs['thickness']) or 1 local nodeState = pargs['state'] or "solid" -- get border formating parameters for branch (default to global nodeParameters) local branchColor = pargs['color'..tostring(childNumber)] or nodeColor local branchThickness = tonumber(pargs['thickness'..tostring(childNumber)]) or nodeThickness local branchState = pargs['state'..tostring(childNumber)] or nodeState if branchState == 'double' then if branchThickness < 2 then branchThickness = 3 end -- need thick line for double end local branchStyle = pargs['style'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" local branchLength = pargs['length'] or pargs['length'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- the left border takes node parameters, the bottom border takes branch parameters -- this has coding on the colours for green on black local bottomBorder = tostring(branchThickness) ..'px ' .. branchState .. (branchColor~="" and ' ' .. branchColor or '') local leftBorder = tostring(nodeThickness) ..'px ' .. nodeState .. (nodeColor~="" and ' ' .. nodeColor or '') --The default border styles are in the CSS (styles.css) -- the inline styling is applied when thickness, color or state are change local useInlineStyle = false -- use inline styling non-default color, line thickness or state have been set if branchColor ~= "" or branchThickness ~= 1 or branchState ~= "solid" then useInlineStyle = true end -- variables for right hand bar or bracket --local barColor = "" local barRight = pargs['bar'..tostring(childNumber)] or "0" local barBottom = pargs['barend'..tostring(childNumber)] or "0" local barTop = pargs['barbegin'..tostring(childNumber)] or "0" local barLabel = pargs['barlabel'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" local groupLabel = pargs['grouplabel'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" local groupLabelStyle = pargs['grouplabelstyle'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" local labelStyle = pargs['labelstyle'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" local sublabelStyle = pargs['sublabelstyle'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" --replace colours with format string; need right bar for all three options if barRight ~= "0" then barRight = "2px solid " .. barRight end if barTop ~= "0" then barRight = "2px solid " .. barTop end if barBottom ~= "0" then barRight = "2px solid " .. barBottom end if barTop ~= "0" then barTop = "2px solid " .. barTop end if barBottom ~= "0" then barBottom = "2px solid " .. barBottom end -- now construct wikitext local cladeString = '' local styleString = '' local borderStyle = '' -- will be used if border color, thickness or state is to be changed local classString = '' local reverseClass = '' local widthClass = '' -- class to add if using reverse (rtl) cladogram; if reverseClade then reverseClass = ' reverse' end -- (1) wikitext for new row --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' -- (2) now add cell with label if useInlineStyle then if childNumber == 1 then borderStyle = 'border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:' .. bottomBorder .. ';' --borderStyle = 'border-bottom:' .. bottomBorder .. ';' else -- for 2-17 if reverseClade then borderStyle = 'border-left:none;border-right:' .. leftBorder .. ';border-bottom:' .. bottomBorder .. ';' else borderStyle = 'border-left:' .. leftBorder .. ';border-bottom:' .. bottomBorder .. ';' end end end if useInlineStyle or branchStyle ~= '' or branchLength ~= "" or labelStyle ~= "" then local branchLengthStyle = "" if branchLength ~= "" then if childNumber == 1 then branchLengthStyle = 'width:' .. branchLength .. ';' -- add width to first element end --if childNumber > 1 then prefix = 'max-' end branchLengthStyle = branchLengthStyle --= prefix .. 'width:' .. branchLength .. ';' .. 'max-width:' .. branchLength ..';' .. 'padding:0em;' -- remove padding to make calculation easier -- following moved to styles.css -- .. 'white-space:nowrap' -- .. 'overflow:hidden;' -- clip labels longer than the max-width -- .. 'text-overflow:clip;' -- ellipsis;' widthClass = " clade-fixed-width" end styleString = 'style="' .. borderStyle .. branchLengthStyle .. branchStyle .. labelStyle .. '"' end if childNumber == 1 then classString= 'class="clade-label first'.. widthClass .. '" ' -- add class "first" for top row else classString = 'class="clade-label' .. reverseClass .. widthClass .. '" ' -- add "reverse" class if ltr cladogram end -- wikitext for cell with label local labelCellString = '\n|' .. classString .. styleString .. '|' .. p.addLabel(childNumber,nodeLabel) -- p.addLabel(nodeLabel) --cladeString = cladeString .. labelCellString --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- (3) add cell with leaf (which may be a table with transluded clade content) if barRight ~= "0" then if reverseClade then -- we want the bar on the left styleString = ' style="border-left:' .. barRight .. ';border-bottom:' .. barBottom .. ';border-top:' .. barTop .. ';' .. branchStyle .. '"' else styleString = ' style="border-right:' .. barRight .. ';border-bottom:' .. barBottom .. ';border-top:' .. barTop .. ';' .. branchStyle .. '"' end else if (branchStyle ~= '') then styleString = ' style="' .. branchStyle .. '"' else styleString = '' -- use defaults in styles.css end end classString = 'class="clade-leaf' .. reverseClass .. '"' --[[note: the \n causes plain leaf elements get wrapped in <p> with style="margin:0.4em 0 0.5em 0;" this adds spacing to rows, but is set by defaults rather than the clade template it also means there are two newlines when it is a clade structure (which might explain some past issues) ]] local content = '\n' .. nodeLeaf -- the newline is not necessary, but keep for backward compatibility -- test using image parameter local image = pargs['image'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" if image ~= "" then --content = content .. image -- basic version content = '\n{|class=clade style=width:auto' --defaults to width:100% because of class "clade" .. '\n|class=clade-leaf|\n' .. nodeLeaf .. '\n|class=clade-leaf|\n' .. image .. '\n|}' -- note: the classes interfere with the node counter, so try simpler version with style content = '\n{|style=width:100%;border-spacing:0' --width:auto is "tight"; 100% needed for image alignment .. '\n|style=border:0;padding:0|\n' .. nodeLeaf .. '\n|style=border:0;padding:0|\n' .. image .. '\n|}' end -- wikitext for leaf cell (note: nodeLeaf needs to be on newline if new wikitable) -- but that is no longer the case (newline is now forced) -- the newline wraps plain leaf terminals in <P> with vertical padding (see above) --local leafCellString = '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. styleString .. ' |\n' .. content -- the new line causes <p> wrapping for plain leaf terminals local leafCellString = '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. styleString .. ' |' .. content --cladeString = cladeString .. leafCellString ------------------------------------------- -- (4) stuff for right-hand bracket labels classString='class="clade-bar' .. reverseClass .. '"' local barLabelCellString = '' if barRight ~= "0" and barLabel ~= "" then barLabelCellString = '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. ' |' .. barLabel else -- uncomment following line to see the cell structure --barLabelCellString = '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. ' |' .. 'BL' end if groupLabel ~= "" then barLabelCellString = barLabelCellString .. '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. ' style="'.. groupLabelStyle .. '" |' .. groupLabel else -- uncomment following line to see the cell structure --barLabelCellString = barLabelCellString .. '\n|rowspan=2 ' .. classString .. '" |' .. 'GL' end --cladeString = cladeString .. barLabelCellString ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- (5) add second row (only one cell needed for sublabel because of rowspan=2); -- note: earlier versions applied branch style to row rather than cell -- for consistency, it is applied to the sublabel cell as with the label cell --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' ----------------------------------- -- (6) add cell containing sublabel local subLabel = pargs['sublabel'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- request in addLabel -- FOR TESTING: use subLabel for annotating the clade structues to use structure information (DEBUGGIING ONLY) --if childNumber==lastNode then subLabel= infoOutput end -- END TESTING borderStyle = '' styleString = '' if useInlineStyle then if childNumber==lastNode then -- if childNumber==lastNode we don't want left border, otherwise we do borderStyle = 'border-right:none;border-left:none;' else if reverseClade then borderStyle = 'border-left:none;border-right:' .. leftBorder .. ';' else borderStyle = 'border-right:none;border-left:' .. leftBorder .. ';' end end end if borderStyle ~= '' or branchStyle ~= '' or branchLength ~= '' or sublabelStyle ~= "" then local branchLengthStyle = "" if branchLength ~= "" then if childNumber == 1 then branchLengthStyle = 'width:' .. branchLength .. ';' -- add width to first element end --if childNumber > 1 then prefix = 'max-' end branchLengthStyle = branchLengthStyle --= prefix .. 'width:' .. branchLength .. ';' .. 'max-width:' .. branchLength ..';' .. 'padding:0em;' -- remove padding to make calculation easier end styleString = 'style="' .. borderStyle .. branchLengthStyle .. branchStyle .. sublabelStyle .. '"' --styleString = ' style="' .. borderStyle .. branchStyle .. sublabelStyle .. '"' end --local sublabel = p.addLabel(childNumber,subLabel) if childNumber == lastNode then classString = 'class="clade-slabel last' .. widthClass .. '" ' else classString = 'class="clade-slabel' .. reverseClass .. widthClass .. '" ' end local sublabelCellString = '\n|' .. classString .. styleString .. '|' .. p.addLabel(childNumber,subLabel) --cladeString = cladeString .. sublabelCellString -- constuct child element wikitext if reverseClade then cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' cladeString = cladeString .. barLabelCellString cladeString = cladeString .. leafCellString cladeString = cladeString .. labelCellString cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' cladeString = cladeString .. sublabelCellString else cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' cladeString = cladeString .. labelCellString cladeString = cladeString .. leafCellString cladeString = cladeString .. barLabelCellString cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|-' -- add second row (only one cell needed for sublabel because of rowspan=2); cladeString = cladeString .. sublabelCellString end return cladeString end --[[ adds text for label or sublabel to a cell ]] function p.addLabel(childNumber,nodeLabel) --local nodeLabel = mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent().args['label'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" --local firstChars = string.sub(nodeLabel, 1,2) -- get first two characters; will be {{ if no parameter (for Old method?) --if firstChars == "{{{" or nodeLabel == "" then if nodeLabel == "" then -- Has to be some content for layout, but can use CSS to add it instead. return '' else -- spaces can cause wrapping and can break tree structure, hence use span with nowrap class --return '<span class="nowrap">' .. nodeLabel .. '</span>' -- a better method for template expansion size is to replace spaces with nonbreaking spaces -- however, there is a problem if labels have a styling element (e.g. <span style= ..., <span title= ...) local stylingElementDetected = false if string.find(nodeLabel, "span ") ~= nil then stylingElementDetected = true end if string.find(nodeLabel, " style") ~= nil then stylingElementDetected = true end --TODO test following alternative --if nodeLabel:find( "%b<>") then stylingElementDetected = true end if stylingElementDetected == true then return '<div style=display:inline class=nowrap>' .. nodeLabel .. '</div>' else local nowrapString = string.gsub(nodeLabel, " ", "&nbsp;") -- replace spaces with non-breaking space if not nowrapString:find("UNIQ.-QINU") and not nowrapString:find("%[%[.-%]%]") then -- unless a strip marker nowrapString = string.gsub(nowrapString, "-", "&#8209;") -- replace hyphen with non-breaking hyphen (&#8209;) end return nowrapString end end end --[[=================== Newick string handling function ============================= ]] function p.getNewickOuterterm(newickString) return string.gsub(newickString, "%b()", "") -- delete parenthetic term end function p.newick(count,newickString) --start table --'{| style="border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;border:0;margin:0;' local cladeString = '{|class=clade ' count = count + 1 local j,k j,k = string.find(newickString, '%(.*%)') -- find location of outer parenthesised term local innerTerm = string.sub(newickString, j+1, k-1) -- select content in parenthesis local outerTerm = string.gsub(newickString, "%b()", "") -- delete parenthetic term if outerTerm == 'panthera' then outerTerm = "x" end -- how is this set in local variable for inner nodes? outerTerm = tostring(count) -- need to remove commas in bracket terms before split, so temporarily replace commas between brackets local innerTerm2 = string.gsub(innerTerm, "%b()", function (n) return string.gsub(n, ",%s*", "XXX") -- also strip spaces after commas here end) --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(1, innerTerm2, "") -- this needs a lastNode variable local s = p.strsplit(innerTerm2, ",") --oldLastNode=lastNode local lastNode=table.getn(s) -- number of child branches local i=1 while s[i] do local restoredString = string.gsub(s[i],"XXX", ",") -- convert back to commas --restoredString = s[i] local outerTerm = string.gsub(restoredString, "%b()", "") if string.find(restoredString, '%(.*%)') then --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(i, restoredString, "x") cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(i, p.newick(count,restoredString), outerTerm, lastNode) -- p.addTaxon(2, p.newick(count,newickString2), "root") else cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(i, restoredString, "", lastNode) --count) end i=i+1 end -- lastNode=oldLastNode -- close table --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. '| style="border: 0; padding: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <br/> \n|}' --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n| <br/> \n|}' -- is this legacy for extra sublabel? cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|}' return cladeString end -- emulate a standard split string function -- why not use mw.text.split(s, sep)? function p.strsplit(inputstr, sep) if sep == nil then sep = "%s" end local t={} local i=1 for str in string.gmatch(inputstr, "([^"..sep.."]+)") do t[i] = str i = i + 1 end return t end -- =================== experimental Newick to clade parser function ============================= --[[Function of convert Newick strings to clade format Usage: {{#invoke:Module:Sandbox/Jts1882/CladeN|newickConverter|newickstring={{{NEWICK_STRING}}} }} ]] function p.newickConverter(frame) local newickString = frame.args['newickstring'] or frame.args['newick'] or pargs['newickstring'] or pargs['newick'] --if newickString == '{{{newickstring}}}' then return newickString end newickString = p.processNewickString(newickString,"") -- "childNumber") -- show the Newick string local cladeString = '' local levelNumber = 1 -- for depth of iteration local childNumber = 1 -- number of sister elements on node (always one for root) -- converted the newick string to the clade structure cladeString = cladeString .. '{{clade' cladeString = cladeString .. p.newickParseLevel(newickString, levelNumber, childNumber) cladeString = cladeString .. '\r}}' local resultString = '' local option = pargs['option'] or '' if option == 'tree' then --show the transcluded clade diagram resultString = cladeString else -- show the Newick string resultString = '<pre>'..newickString..'</pre>' -- show the converted clade structure resultString = resultString .. '<pre>'.. cladeString ..'</pre>' end --resultString = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'clade', frame:preprocess(cladeString) } return resultString end --[[ Parse one level of Newick string This function receives a Newick string, which has two components 1. the right hand term is a clade label: |labelN=labelname 2. the left hand term in parenthesis has common delimited child nodes, each of which can be i. a taxon name which just needs: |N=leafname ii. a Newick string which needs further processing through reiteration ]] function p.newickParseLevel(newickString,levelNumber,childNumber) local cladeString = "" local indent = p.getIndent(levelNumber) --levelNumber=levelNumber+1 local j=0 local k=0 j,k = string.find(newickString, '%(.*%)') -- find location of outer parenthesised term local innerTerm = string.sub(newickString, j+1, k-1) -- select content in parenthesis local outerTerm = string.gsub(newickString, "%b()", "") -- delete parenthetic term cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|label'..childNumber..'=' .. outerTerm cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|' .. childNumber..'=' .. '{{clade' levelNumber=levelNumber+1 indent = p.getIndent(levelNumber) -- protect commas in inner parentheses from split; temporarily replace commas between parentheses local innerTerm2 = string.gsub(innerTerm, "%b()", function (n) return string.gsub(n, ",%s*", "XXX") -- also strip spaces after commas here end) local s = p.strsplit(innerTerm2, ",") local i=1 while s[i] do local restoredString = string.gsub(s[i],"XXX", ",") -- convert back to commas local outerTerm = string.gsub(restoredString, "%b()", "") if string.find(restoredString, '%(.*%)') then --cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|y' .. i .. '=' .. p.newickParseLevel(restoredString,levelNumber+1,i) cladeString = cladeString .. p.newickParseLevel(restoredString,levelNumber,i) else cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|' .. i .. '=' .. restoredString --.. '(level=' .. levelNumber .. ')' end i=i+1 end -- end -- end splitting of strings cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '}}' return cladeString end function p.getIndent(levelNumber) local indent = "\r" local extraIndent = pargs['indent'] or mw.getCurrentFrame().args['indent'] or 0 while tonumber(extraIndent) > 0 do indent = indent .. " " -- an extra indent to make aligining compound trees easier extraIndent = extraIndent - 1 end while levelNumber > 1 do indent = indent .. " " levelNumber = levelNumber-1 end return indent end function p.newickstuff(newickString) end function p.processNewickString(newickString,childNumber) local maxPatterns = 5 local i = 0 local pargs = pargs local pattern = pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)..'-pattern'] -- unnumbered option for i=1 local replace = pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)..'-replace'] while i < maxPatterns do i=i+1 pattern = pattern or pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)..'-pattern'..tostring(i)] replace = replace or pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)..'-replace'..tostring(i)] or "" if pattern then newickString = string.gsub (newickString, pattern, replace) end pattern = nil; replace = nil end newickString = string.gsub (newickString, "_", " ") -- replace underscore with space return newickString end ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ function p.test2(target) local target ="User:Jts1882/sandbox/templates/Template:Passeroidea" local result = mw.getCurrentFrame():expandTemplate{ title = target, args = {['style'] = '' } } return result end ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --[[function getCladeTreeInfo() this preprocessing loop gets information about the whole structure (number of nodes, leaves etc) it makes a redundant calls to the templates through transclusion, but doen't affect the template depths; it provides the global lastNode that is used to limit the main while loop --]] function p.getCladeTreeInfo() -- enable proprocessing loop local childNumber = 0 local childCount =0 local maxChildren =20 --info veriables (these are global for now) nodeCount=0 cladeCount=0 leafCount=0 while childNumber < maxChildren do -- preprocessing loop childNumber = childNumber + 1 -- so we start with 1 local nodeLeaf,data = pargs[tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |N= local newickString = pargs['newick'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |labelN= local listString = pargs['list'..tostring(childNumber)] or "" -- get data from |labelN= if newickString ~= "" or nodeLeaf ~= "" or listString ~= "" then --if nodeLeaf ~= "" then childCount = childCount + 1 -- this counts child elements in this clade --[[] for i in string.gmatch(nodeLeaf, "||rowspan") do -- count number of rows started (transclusion) nodeCount = nodeCount + 1 end for i in string.gmatch(nodeLeaf, '{|class="clade"') do -- count number of tables started (transclusion) cladeCount = cladeCount + 1 end ]] -- count occurences of clade structure using number of classes used and add to counters local _, nClades = string.gsub(nodeLeaf, 'class="clade"', "") local _, nNodes = string.gsub(nodeLeaf, 'class="clade%-leaf"', "") cladeCount = cladeCount + nClades nodeCount = nodeCount + nNodes lastNode = childNumber -- this gets the last node with a valid entry, even when missing numbers end end --]] -- nodes can be either terminal leaves or a clade structure (table) -- note: should change class clade-leaf to clade-node to reflect this nodeCount = nodeCount -- number of nodes (class clade-leaf) passed down by transduction + childCount + 1 -- plus one for current clade and one for each of its child element cladeCount = cladeCount + 1 -- number of clade structure tables passed down by transduction (plus one for current clade) leafCount = nodeCount-cladeCount -- number of terminal leaves (equals height of cladogram) -- output for testing: number of clades / total nodes / terminal nodes (=leaves) -- (internal nodes) (cladogram height) infoOutput = '<small>[' .. cladeCount .. '/' .. nodeCount .. '/' .. leafCount .. ']</small>' return infoOutput end function p.showClade(frame) --local code = frame.args.code or "" local code = frame:getParent().args['code2'] or frame.args['code2'] or "" --return code --return mw.text.unstrip(code) --local test = "<pre>Hello</pre>" --return string.sub(test,6,-7) local o1 =frame:getParent():getArgument('code2') or frame:getArgument('code2') return o1:expand() --return string.sub(code,2,-1) -- strip marker \127'"`UNIQ--tagname-8 hex digits-QINU`"'\127 --return frame:preprocess(string.sub(code,3)) end function p.firstToUpper(str) return (str:gsub("^%l", string.upper)) end --[[ function to generate cladogram from a wikitext-like list - uses @ instead of * because we don't want wikitext processed and nowiki elements are passed as stripmarkers (?) ]] function p.list(count,listString) local cladeString = "" --count = count+1 local i=1 local child=1 local lastNode=0--table.getn(list) -- number of child branches (potential) local listChar = "@" if listString:find("UNIQ.-QINU") then -- if wrapped in nowiki mw.addWarning("Stripping content in nowiki tags") listString = mw.text.trim( mw.text.unstripNoWiki( listString ) ) end if string.match( listString, "^*", 1 ) then listChar = "*" end local list = mw.text.split(listString, "\n") cladeString = cladeString .. '{| class="clade" ' while list[i] do list[i]=list[i]:gsub("^"..listChar, "") -- strip the first @ or * list[i]=mw.text.trim(list[i]) -- trim if not string.match( list[i], "^"..listChar, 1 ) then -- count children at this level (not beginning wiht @/*) lastNode = lastNode+1 end i=i+1 end i=1 while list[i] do --[[ pseudocode: if next value begins with @ we have a subtree, which must be recombined and past iteratively else we have a simple leaf ]] -- if the next value begins with @, we have a subtree which should be recombined if list[i+1] and string.match( list[i+1], "^"..listChar, 1 ) then local label=list[i] i=i+1 local recombined = list[i] while list[i+1] and string.match( list[i+1], "^"..listChar, 1 ) do recombined = recombined .. "\n" .. list[i+1] i=i+1 end --cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(child, recombined, label, lastNode) cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(child, p.list(count,recombined), label, lastNode) else cladeString = cladeString .. '\n' .. p.addTaxon(child, list[i], "", lastNode) end i=i+1 child=child+1 end cladeString = cladeString .. '\n|}' mw.addWarning("WARNING. This is a test feature only.") return cladeString end -- =================== experimental wikitext list to clade parser function ============================= --[[Function of convert wikitext lists to clade format Usage: {{#invoke:Module:Sandbox/Jts1882/CladeN|listConverter|list={{{WIKITEXT_LIST}}} }} ]] function p.cladeConverter(frame) pargs = getArgs(frame) if frame.args['list'] or pargs['list'] then return p.listConverter(frame) elseif frame.args['newickstring'] or frame.args['newick'] or pargs['newickstring'] or pargs['newick'] then return p.newickConverter(frame) else local message = "Conversion needs wikitext list or newick string in parameters ''list'' or ''newick'' respectively" mw.addWarning(message) return message end end function p.listConverter(frame) local listString = frame.args['list'] or pargs['list'] -- show the list string local cladeString = '' local levelNumber = 1 -- for depth of iteration local childNumber = 1 -- number of sister elements on node (always one for root) local indent = p.getIndent(levelNumber) -- converted the newick string to the clade structure cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '{{clade' cladeString = cladeString .. p.listParseLevel(listString, levelNumber, childNumber) --cladeString = cladeString .. '\r}}' local resultString = '' local option = pargs['option'] or '' if option == 'tree' then --show the transcluded clade diagram resultString = cladeString else -- show the wikitext list string resultString = '<pre>'..listString..'</pre>' -- show the converted clade structure resultString = resultString .. '<pre>'.. cladeString ..'</pre>' end --resultString = frame:expandTemplate{ title = 'clade', frame:preprocess(cladeString) } return resultString end function p.listParseLevel(listString,levelNumber,childNumber) local cladeString = "" local indent = p.getIndent(levelNumber) levelNumber=levelNumber+1 local nowiki = false if listString:find("UNIQ.-QINU") then -- if wrapped in nowiki mw.addWarning("Stripping content in nowiki tags") listString = mw.text.trim( mw.text.unstripNoWiki( listString ) ) nowiki = true end local listChar = "@" if string.match( listString, "^*", 1 ) then listChar = "*" end local list = mw.text.split(listString, "\n") local i=1 local child=1 local lastNode=0 while list[i] do list[i]=list[i]:gsub("^"..listChar, "") -- strip the first @ if not string.match( list[i], "^"..listChar, 1 ) then -- count children at this level (not beginning wiht @) lastNode = lastNode+1 end i=i+1 end i=1 while list[i] do --[[ pseudocode: if next value begins with @ we have a subtree, which must be recombined and past iteratively else we have a simple leaf ]] -- if the next value begins with @, we have a subtree which should be recombined if list[i+1] and string.match( list[i+1], "^"..listChar, 1 ) then local label=list[i] i=i+1 local recombined = list[i] while list[i+1] and string.match( list[i+1], "^"..listChar, 1 ) do recombined = recombined .. "\n" .. list[i+1] i=i+1 end cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|label' .. child ..'=' .. label cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|' .. child ..'=' .. '{{clade' .. p.listParseLevel(recombined,levelNumber,i) else cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '|' .. child ..'=' .. list[i] end i=i+1 child=child+1 end cladeString = cladeString .. indent .. '}}' if nowiki then return mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess( '<nowiki>'.. cladeString .. '</nowiki>') --return wrapped in nowiki else return cladeString end end -- this must be at end return p 8tj8mn75yncxi47quf6o8se49gw6ama 10 50419 124370 2026-11-10T19:39:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kukopa kufuma ku en.wikipedia [[:en:Template:Clade]] (revid 890370939) kuti cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cilongoreke 124370 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Clade |label1=root |1={{Clade |1=Leaf1 |2=Leaf2 }} }}</noinclude>{{#invoke:Clade|main|style={{{style|}}} }}<noinclude> </noinclude> j72frwces06czdl7cvdy52p3r722911 10 50420 124371 2026-11-10T19:39:03Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kukopa kufuma ku en.wikipedia [[:en:Template:Clade/styles.css]] (revid 1344960044) kuti cithuzi ca ubale wa mitundu cilongoreke 124371 sanitized-css text/css /* {{pp-template}} */ body.skin-vector-2022 div.clade, body.skin-minerva div.clade { overflow-x:auto; overflow-y:hidden; } body.skin-minerva div.clade p { font-size:inherit; } table.clade { border-spacing:0; margin:0; font-size:100%; line-height:100%; border-collapse:separate; width:auto; display:table; } table.clade table.clade { width:100%; line-height:inherit; } table.clade td.clade-label { /* the cell with the label */ min-width:0.7em; /* both min-width and width seem to be needed to get consistent behaviour */ width:0.7em; padding:0.1em 0.25em; vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; border-left:1px solid; /* don't set default colour, helps with green on black monotype skin */ border-bottom:1px solid; white-space:nowrap; } table.clade td.clade-label::before, table.clade td.clade-slabel::before { content: "\2060"; } table.clade td.clade-fixed-width { overflow:hidden; text-overflow:ellipsis; } table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover { overflow:visible; } table.clade td.clade-label.first { border-left:none; border-right:none; } table.clade td.clade-label.reverse { border-left:none; border-right:1px solid; } table.clade td.clade-slabel { /* the cell with the sublabel; only use if there is a label */ padding:0.1em 0.25em; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border-left: 1px solid; white-space:nowrap; } table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover { overflow:visible; } table.clade td.clade-slabel.last { border-left:none; border-right:none; } table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse { border-left:none; border-right:1px solid; } table.clade td.clade-bar { /* the cell with the bar label or group label */ vertical-align:middle; text-align:left; padding:0 0.5em; position:relative; } table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse { text-align:right; position:relative; } table.clade td.clade-leaf { /* the cell with the leaf content (rowspan=2) */ border:0; padding:0; text-align:left; } table.clade td.clade-leaf p { padding-right: 5px; /* spacing from vertical bar */ padding-left: 2px; /* spacing from connecting horizontal bar */ } table.clade td.clade-leafR { /* the cell with the leaf content (rowspan=2) */ border:0; padding:0; text-align:right; } table.clade td.clade-leafR p { padding-left: 5px; /* spacing from vertical bar */ padding-right: 2px; /* spacing from connecting horizontal bar */ } table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse { /* the cell with the leaf content (rowspan=2) */ text-align:right; } table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p { padding-left: 5px; /* spacing from vertical bar */ padding-right: 2px; /* spacing from connecting horizontal bar */ } table.clade:hover span.linkA { background-color: yellow; } table.clade:hover span.linkB { background-color: green; } ca9j8k7noaz4f05cwm7m7ncuz57j9tt