Wikipedia twwiki https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratafa_Titiriw MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Soronko Nkitahode Dwumadini Dwumadini nkitahode Wikipedia Wikipedia nkitahode File File nkitahode MediaWiki MediaWiki nkitahode Nhwɛsoɔ Nhwɛsoɔ nkitahode Mmoa Mmoa nkitahode Nkyekyεmu Nkyekyεmu nkitahode TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6614 200847 196973 2026-10-23T21:39:58Z InternetArchiveBot 10377 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 200847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q20119890}} '''Francisca Oteng-Mensah''' (wɔwoo no [[Ogyefo|ɔgyefoɔ]] da ɛtɔ so du nan wɔ afe apem ahankron ne aduokron mmiɛnsa 1993) <ref name=":0">https://www.ghanastar.com/news/meet-youngest-mp-ms-oteng-mensah/</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.parliament.gh/mps?mp=154 |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2023-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706225804/https://www.parliament.gh/mps?mp=154 |url-status=dead }}</ref> yɛ amanyɔkuo New Patriotic Party no mu ni ne mmarahyɛbedwani a ɔgyina hɔ ma Kwabre Apueɛ mpesoa so, ɔno ne mmarahyɛbadwani a osua koraa wɔ mmarahyɛbedwakuo a ɛtɔ so nnan no mu wɔ mfeɛ mpem mmienu ne du nsia mu.<ref>http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=362590</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=http://citifmonline.com/2015/06/15/i-won-because-of-my-message-not-money-francisca-mensah/ |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2015-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618125333/http://citifmonline.com/2015/06/15/i-won-because-of-my-message-not-money-francisca-mensah/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.glitzafrica.com/glitz-top-100-inspirational-women/100/ |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2021-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526112709/https://www.thestandpoint.com.gh/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Ne mmɔfrase == Wɔwoo Francisca wɔ Aboaso Ayaresabea wɔ Mamponteng,<ref name=":0" /> a ɛwɔ [[Asante Mantam]] mu,<ref name=":1"/> wɔ [[Ogyefo|ɔgyefoɔ]] da ɛtɔ so 14, afe apem ahankron ne aduokron mmiɛnsa 1993. N’awofo ne Owura yere Joyce Oteng<ref name=":0" /> ne Dr. [[Kwaku]] oteng <ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://ghana.mom-rsf.org/en/owners/individual-owners/detail/owner/owner/show/dr-kwaku-oteng/ |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2022-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527220934/https://ghana.mom-rsf.org/en/owners/individual-owners/detail/owner/owner/show/dr-kwaku-oteng/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> a ɔyɛ dɔkota ne dwadini, a ɔsan so yɛ ɔkwankyerɛfo ma adwumkuo a ne din de Angel Group of Companies'''.''' == Nwomasua == Francisca kɔɔ mfiase sukuu ahorɔw miensa. Ɔkɔɔ sukuu a ne din de Manponteng Roman Catholic Sukuu, afei ɔkɔɔ Revival Preparatory sukuu a ɛwɔ Breman. Owie ne mfiase sukuu no wɔ savior international School. Owie ne J H S wɔ Angel Education Complex. Ɔtoa so kɔɔ St, Rpses Senior High Shool, faako a owie ne ntoasioɔ sukuu. Ne botae a ɛne sɛ ɔbɛsua ade akɔ akyi no boa no ma no toaa so kɔɔ suapɔn a ɛne Kwame Nkruma University (KNUST) mano kosuaa mmaranim.<ref name=":0" /> Francisca sii abatoɔ akansie no wɔ afe 2016 mu berɛ a na ɔwɔ ne mfeɛ mmienu soɔ wɔ [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20150721113256/http://elections.peacefmonline.com/pages/politics/201506/244899.php</ref> owo ne mfie mienu soo wo [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]]. == Nnwuma == Ansa na ɔbɛyɛ mmarahyɛ baguani no, na ɔyɛ ɔkyerɛwfo ma adwumakuo a ɛne Angel Group of Companies a ɛwɔ Kumasi.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=http://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php?id=5334 |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2021-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617053529/https://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php/?id=5334 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wɔ [[ɔpɛnimaa]] bosome no mu wɔ mfeɛ mpem mmienu ne du nson 2017 mu no, wɔpaw no sɛ otitenani ma adwumakuo a ɛne National Youth Authority.<ref>http://www.ghananewsagency.org/sports/francisca-oteng-mensah-heads-nya-governing-board-126639</ref> == Amanyɔsɛm == Odii nkunim wɔ kwabre apueɛ a ewɔ asante mantam mu se mmarahyebedwani wo abatoɔ a ekɔɔ so wɔ afe 2016.<ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://ghanafuo.com/2016/12/meet-francisca-oteng-mensah-younges.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616163224/https://ghanafuo.com/2016/12/meet-francisca-oteng-mensah-younges.html |access-date=2022-06-26 |archive-date=2021-06-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sesei, ɔne mmarahyɛedwani a osuaa koraa wɔ mmarahyɛbedwa no a w'adi mfehyia 23. == Ɔsom == Francisca yɛ Kristoni a ɔsom wɔ Asembles of God asore.<ref name=":1" /> == Beaɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ == [[Nkyekyεmu:Ganafoɔ]] [[Nkyekyεmu:Amanyɔsεm]] [[Nkyekyεmu:Ateasefoɔ]] [[Nkyekyεmu:Ghana Amanyɔfo]] [[Nkyekyεmu:Ghana mmrahyɛbadwafoɔ 2021-2025]] [[Nkyekyεmu:Ghana mmrahyɛbadwafoɔ 2017–2021]] o6aw3v421fteisaszb4r246m43m24r6 0 15108 200849 200351 2026-10-23T22:44:53Z NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh 10962 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-39817-92|~2026-39817-92]] ([[User talk:~2026-39817-92|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:Sureyaill|Sureyaill]] 193117 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dialect|Asante}} '''Kasa''' bɛtumi agyina hɔ ama asɛm a yɛka. Kasa yɛ nkitahodie a nnipa nam so de wɔn adwene to dwa. Ɛyɛ ɔkwan a onipa fa so de ne tirimupo to dwa. Abɔdeɛ nyinaa de kasa di dwuma na mmom nnipa nkitahodie na wɔfrɛ no sɛ kasa.[https://journals.uew.edu.gh/index.php/ijope/article/view/39] Kasa yɛ agyapadeɛ kɛseɛ wɔ awoɔ ntoatoasoɔ mu a, adikanfoɔ de agya nkyirima.[https://wals.info/] Kasa da nnipakuo bi amammerɛ, abakɔsɛm, anyamesom ne nyansapɛ adi. Kasa yɛ kwan a nnipa fa so de di nkitaho, sɛ ɛyɛ nsɛm a wɔde wɔn ano bɛka anaa wobɛtwerɛ agu krataa so na wahyehyɛ no kwan a obiara bɛtumi ate aseɛ.[https://www.ethnologue.com/] == Baabi A Menyaa Mmoa Firiiɛ == 1.https://journals.uew.edu.gh/index.php/ijope/article/view/39 2.https://wals.info/ 3.https://www.ethnologue.com/ s78hx3jcakonxhprt0ez2am8s3qv2td 200850 200849 2026-10-23T22:45:32Z NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh 10962 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh|NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh]] ([[User talk:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:~2026-39817-92|~2026-39817-92]] 200351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dialect|Asante}} {{Databox}} '''Kasa''' bɛtumi agyina hɔ ama asɛm a yɛka. Kasa yɛ nkitahodie a nnipa nam so de wɔn adwene to dwa. Ɛyɛ ɔkwan a onipa fa so de ne tirimupo to dwa. Abɔdeɛ nyinaa de kasa di dwuma na mmom nnipa nkitahodie na wɔfrɛ no sɛ kasa.[https://journals.uew.edu.gh/index.php/ijope/article/view/39] Kasa yɛ agyapadeɛ kɛseɛ wɔ awoɔ ntoatoasoɔ mu a, adikanfoɔ de agya nkyirima.[https://wals.info/] Kasa da nnipakuo bi amammerɛ, abakɔsɛm, anyamesom ne nyansapɛ adi. Kasa yɛ kwan a nnipa fa so de di nkitaho, sɛ ɛyɛ nsɛm a wɔde wɔn ano bɛka anaa wobɛtwerɛ agu krataa so na wahyehyɛ no kwan a obiara bɛtumi ate aseɛ.[https://www.ethnologue.com/] == Baabi A Menyaa Mmoa Firiiɛ == 1.https://journals.uew.edu.gh/index.php/ijope/article/view/39 2.https://wals.info/ 3.https://www.ethnologue.com/ hpsfelf98trw2apice8lri73r3s3htj 0 15736 200851 188158 2026-10-23T23:01:56Z InternetArchiveBot 10377 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 200851 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:C Hello World Program.png|thumb|right|357x357px|Kɔmputa so dwumadi a ɛnyɛ den a wɔakyerɛw wɔ C nhyehyɛe kasa mu no source code.|C programming language]]'''Kɔmputa so dwumadi ahorow (Computer programming)''' yɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ akontaabu pɔtee bi (anaasɛ wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so no, wɔyɛ kɔmputa so aba pɔtee bi), mpɛn pii no denam kɔmputa so dwumadi ahorow a wotumi di ho nhyehyɛe na wɔyɛ so.<ref>{{Citation |title=What Is Programming? And How To Get Started |date=2023-07-24 |url=https://www.coursera.org/articles/what-is-programming |language=en |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> Dwumadie fa nnwuma te sɛ nhwehwɛmu, algorithms a wɔyɛ, profiling algorithms’ pɛpɛɛpɛyɛ ne nneɛma a wɔde di dwuma, ne algorithms a wɔde di dwuma (mpɛn pii no wɔ programming kasa pɔtee bi mu, a wɔtaa frɛ no coding).<ref>{{Citation |last=yearofcodes |title=Learn Programming — What is coding? |url=https://yearofcodes.tumblr.com/what-is-coding |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=yearofcodes |title=Learn Programming — What is computer programming? |url=https://yearofcodes.tumblr.com/what-is-programming |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=How to Code – Coding for Beginners and How to Learn Programming for Free |date=2021-08-17 |url=https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/how-to-code-coding-for-beginners-and-how-to-learn-programming-for-free/ |language=en |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> Wɔkyerɛw dwumadi bi Fibea koodu [[Fibea koodu|(source code)]] wɔ kasa biako anaa nea ɛboro saa a nhyehyɛefo a wɔyɛ nhyehyɛe anaa dwumadifo (programmers) te ase mu, sen sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛw [[Mfiri no ho mmara|mfiri code]] a [[Central processing unit a wɔde yɛ adwuma|central processing unit]] no na ɛyɛ tẽẽ. Dwumadi nhyehyɛe atirimpɔw ne sɛ wobenya akwankyerɛ ahorow a ɛtoatoa so a ɛbɛma adwuma bi (a ebetumi ayɛ den te sɛ [[Dwumadi nhyehyɛe|operating system]] ) ayɛ adwuma wɔ [[kɔmputa]] so, a mpɛn pii no wɔde bedi ɔhaw bi ho dwuma. Enti nhyehyɛe a wɔyɛ no yiye taa hwehwɛ sɛ wonya nimdeɛ wɔ nsɛmti ahorow pii mu, a nea ɛka ho ne nimdeɛ a ɛfa dwumadi no mu ([[Domain (software mfiridwuma) .|application domain)]] ho, algorithms titiriw, ne ntease a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so (formal [[Ntease a ɛwɔ mu|logic)]]. Nnwuma a ɛka nhyehyɛe ho na ɛfa ho no bi ne sɔhwɛ, [[Debugging a wɔreyɛ|debugging]],<ref>{{Citation |title=Software Engineering {{!}} Debugging |date=2018-06-25 |url=https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/software-engineering-debugging/ |language=en-us |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> [[Fibea koodu|source code]] a wɔhwɛ so, [[Si automation a wɔde yɛ adwuma|build systems]] a wɔde bedi dwuma, ne [[Artifact (software a wɔyɛ) .|nneɛma]] a wonya fi mu a wɔhwɛ so, te sɛ kɔmputa so dwumadi ahorow [[Mfiri no ho mmara|mfiri code]]. Nanso, bere a wobetumi abu eyinom sɛ ɛyɛ nhyehyɛe nhyehyɛe no fa no, mpɛn pii no, wɔtaa de asɛmfua [[Software a wɔyɛ|softwea nkɔso]] di dwuma kɛse ma nhyehyɛe kɛse yi nyinaa – bere a nsɛmfua ''nhyehyɛe'', ''dwumadie'', ne ''mmarahyɛ'' taa twe adwene si mmara a wɔkyerɛw ankasa so. Nea ɛne eyi hyia no, [[Software a wɔde yɛ adwuma|softwea mfiridwuma]] de [[Mfiridwuma ho nimdeɛ|mfiridwuma ho]] akwan ne nnyinasosɛm ahorow bom ne [[Software a wɔyɛ|softwea a wɔyɛ]]. Afei nso, ɛtɔ mmere bi a wɔn a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ softwea a wɔyɛ mu no betumi de wɔn ho ahyɛ ''[[Mfiridwuma a wɔde dannan nneɛma|reverse engineering]]'', a ɛyɛ adeyɛ a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛhwehwɛ sɛ wɔbɛte dwumadi bi a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw ase sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛsan de ne dwumadi adi dwuma wɔ ɔkwan bi so no mu.<ref>{{Citation |title=Computer programming - HandWiki |url=https://handwiki.org/wiki/Computer_programming#:~:text=Tasks%20accompanying%20and%20related%20to%20programming%20include%20testing,,such%20as%20the%20machine%20code%20of%20computer%20programs. |language=en |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> == Abakɔsɛm == [[File:Ada lovelace.jpg|thumb|Ada Lovelace, a ne nsɛm a ɔkyerɛwee de kaa Luigi Menabrea krataa no awiei ho no, nea ɛka ho ne algorithm a edi kan a wɔayɛ sɛ wɔde bɛyɛ adwuma denam Analytical Engine so. Wɔtaa gye tom sɛ ɔyɛ obi a odi kan a ɔyɛ kɔmputa so dwumadi wɔ abakɔsɛm mu.]] Mfiri a wotumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛe wɔ hɔ mfehaha pii. Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 9 mu tɔnn no, Persiafo [[Banu Musa]]<ref>{{Citation |title=Pioneers of Engineering: Al-Jazari and the Banu Musa |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/science-in-a-golden-age/2015/10/27/pioneers-of-engineering-al-jazari-and-the-banu-musa |language=en |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> anuanom na wɔyɛɛ nnwom a wɔde di dwuma nhyehyɛe a wotumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛe, na wɔkaa mfiri a wɔde bɔ sanku a wɔde yɛ adwuma ho asɛm wɔ ''Book of Ingenious Devices''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Teun Koetsier |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |date=2001-05-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X01000052 |work=Mechanism and Machine Theory |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |language=en |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 |issn=0094-114X |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Automatic Flute Player in computing |url=http://www.historymesh.com/object/automatic-flute-player/?story=computing |access-date=2023-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728145209/http://www.historymesh.com/object/automatic-flute-player/?story=computing |archive-date=2023-07-28 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Wɔ 1206 mu no, Arab mfiridwumayɛfo [[Al-Jazari na ɔkyerɛwee|Al-Jazari]] yɛɛ afiri a wɔde bɔ sanku a wotumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛe a wobetumi ayɛ mfiri a wɔde bɔ nnwom a wɔde bɔ nnwom a ɛyɛ dɛ ne sanku nhyehyɛe ahorow, denam pegs ne [[cam]]s so. Wɔ afe 1801 mu no, Jacquard loom no tumi yɛɛ nwene soronko koraa denam "program" no a wɔbɛsesa so – [[Kaad a wɔde ahyɛ mu|pasteboard]] card ahorow a ɛtoatoa so a wɔabɔ ntokuru wɔ mu. Nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔde brɛki koodu nso awɔ hɔ mfehaha pii.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.twinkl.com.gh/blog/what-is-code-breaking-and-how-is-it-used-in-maths |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Rebecca |title=Code-Breaking (Cryptanalysis): A Complete History |date=2021-09-24 |url=https://history-computer.com/code-breaking-cryptanalysis-a-complete-history/ |language=en-US |access-date=2023-07-28 |archive-date=2023-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728150022/https://history-computer.com/code-breaking-cryptanalysis-a-complete-history/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 9 mu no, Arabni akontaabufo [[Al-Kindi na ɔkyerɛwee|Al-Kindi]] kaa ɔkwan bi a wɔfa so kyerɛw nsɛm a wɔde [[Nsɛm a wɔde kyerɛw nsɛm|asie]] a wɔde kyerɛkyerɛ mmara a wɔabɔ no kokoam mu ho asɛm, wɔ ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages.''<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Phillip Rogaway, Till Stegers |title=Authentication without Elision: Partially Specified Protocols, Associated Data, and Cryptographic Models Described by Code |date=2009-07 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/csf.2009.23 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/csf.2009.23 |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> ''Ɔde nkyerɛkyerɛmu a edi kan mae wɔ [[Nsɛm a wɔde hwehwɛ nsɛm mu|cryptanalysis]] by [[Mpɛn dodow nhwehwɛmu|frequency analysis]], algorithm a edi kan a ebrɛki koodu so.''<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Citation |last=John F. Dooley |title=A Brief History of Cryptology and Cryptographic Algorithms |date=2013-09-24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2O4BAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9783319016283&hl=en |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |language=en |isbn=978-3-319-01628-3 |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> Mpɛn pii no, wɔkyerɛ sɛ [[kɔmputa so dwumadi]] a edi kan no wɔyɛɛ no 1843 mu, bere a akontaabufo [[Ada Lovelace na ɔkyerɛwee|Ada Lovelace]] tintim [[Algorithm a wɔde yɛ nneɛma|nhyehyɛe]] bi a wɔde bu [[Bernoulli akontaabu ahorow|Bernoulli akontaahyɛde]] ahorow a ɛtoatoa so, a na wɔahyɛ da ayɛ sɛ [[Charles Babbage na ɔkyerɛwee|Charles Babbage]] ne [[Engine a Wɔde Yɛ Nhwehwɛmu|Analytical Engine na]] ɛbɛyɛ no.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Explore Ada Lovelace’s Bernoulli program with Wolfram – Ada Lovelace Day |url=https://findingada.com/blog/2016/10/09/explore-ada-lovelaces-bernoulli-program-with-wolfram/#:~:text=In%201843,%20Ada%20Lovelace%20became%20the%20first%20person,Numbers,%20written%20for%20Charles%20Babbage%E2%80%99s%20unbuilt%20Analytical%20Engine. |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> Nanso, [[Charles Babbage na ɔkyerɛwee|na Charles Babbage]] akyerɛw ne dwumadi a edi kan ama [[Engine a Wɔde Yɛ Nhwehwɛmu|Analytical Engine no]] dedaw wɔ 1837.<ref name=":1" /><ref>[[arxiv:2303.1374|https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.13740]]</ref> [[File:PunchCardDecks.agr.jpg|thumb|Bere bi na wɔde nsɛm ne akwankyerɛ ahorow sie abɔnten so kaad a wɔabɔ no akuturuku so, na na wɔma ɛyɛ pɛpɛɛpɛ na wɔhyehyɛ no wɔ program deck ahorow mu.]] Wɔ 1880 mfe no mu no, Herman Hollerith de adwene a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛkora nsɛm so wɔ ɔkwan a mfiri betumi akenkan so bae.<ref>{{Citation |title=Herman Hollerith |url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/hollerith.html |access-date=2023-07-28}}</ref> Akyiri yi [[Plugboard a wɔde hyɛ mu|control panel]] (plug board) a wɔde kaa ne 1906 Type I Tabulator ho maa kwan ma wɔ hyehyɛ maa nnwuma ahorow, na ebeduu 1940 mfe no awiei no, wɔde [[Unit record mfiri a wɔde kyerɛw nneɛma|unit record mfiri]] te sɛ [[IBM 602 na ɛwɔ hɔ|IBM 602]] ne [[IBM 604 na ɛwɔ hɔ|IBM 604]] yɛɛ nhyehyɛe denam control panels a ɛte saa ara kwan so, sɛnea na [[Ɛlektrɔnik kɔmputa so|ɛlɛtrɔnik kɔmputa ahorow]] a edi kan no te no. Nanso, bere a wɔde adwene a ɛne sɛ [[Kɔmputa a wɔde nhyehyɛe a wɔde asie|wɔde kɔmputa a wɔde nneɛma akora so no]] bɛba wɔ 1949 mu no, wɔde nhyehyɛe ne nsɛm nyinaa siee na wɔyɛɛ ho adwuma wɔ ɔkwan koro no ara so wɔ [[Kɔmputa so memory|kɔmputa so nkae mu]] (computer memory). === Mfiri kasa === Na mfiri koodu yɛ kasa a wɔde kyerɛw nhyehyɛe ahorow a edi kan no, na wɔkyerɛw no wɔ mfiri pɔtee no [[Akwankyerɛ a wɔahyehyɛ|akwankyerɛ nhyehyɛe mu]], na mpɛn pii no wɔde nkyerɛwde [[Binary akontaahyɛde nhyehyɛe|abien]] na ɛkyerɛw. Ankyɛ na wɔyɛɛ [[Nhyiam kasa|assembly kasa ahorow]] a ɛma Nnhyehyɛefoɔ (programmer) no kyerɛ akwankyerɛ wɔ nsɛm a wɔakyerɛw no kwan so (text format) mu (sɛ nhwɛso no, ADD X, TOTAL), a wɔde tiawa ma adwumayɛ koodu biara ne din ahorow a ntease wom a wɔde bɛkyerɛ address ahorow. Nanso esiane sɛ assembly kasa yɛ kakraa bi sen nkyerɛwde soronko ma mfiri kasa nti, mfiri abien a ɛsono akwankyerɛ ahorow nso wɔ assembly kasa ahorow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Are instruction set and assembly language the same thing? |url=https://stackoverflow.com/questions/5382130/are-instruction-set-and-assembly-language-the-same-thing |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> === Kɔmpaela kasa ahorow === [[Kasa a ɛkorɔn|Kasa ahorow a ɛkorɔn]] maa ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ dwumadi bi no yɛɛ mmerɛw na ntease wom, na na wonhia [[Kɔmputa so nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma|hardware]] a ɛwɔ ase no kɛse . Adwinnade a edi kan a ɛfa kɔmpaela ho, [[A-0 Nhyehyɛe|A-0 System]], no, [[Grace Hopper na ɔkyerɛwee|Grace Hopper]], a ɔno nso hyehyɛɛ asɛmfua ‘compiler’ na ɔyɛɛ no afe 1952 mu. [[FORTRAN na ɔkyerɛwee|FORTRAN]], kasa a ɛdi kan a wɔde di dwuma kɛseɛ a ɛwɔ dwumadie a ɛyɛ adwuma, puei wɔ afe 1957 mu,<ref name="bergstein">{{Cite web}}</ref> na ankyɛ na wɔyɛɛ kasa foforɔ pii —titiriw no, [[COBOL]] a na wɔde asi wɔn ani so sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nsɛm ho dwumadie wɔ aguadi mu, ne [[Lisp (kasa a wɔde yɛ nhyehyɛe) .|Lisp]] a wɔde yɛ kɔmputa nhwehwɛmu.<ref>{{Citation |title=Computer History Museum - Lectures - The World's First COBOL Compilers |date=2011-10-13 |url=http://www.computerhistory.org/events/lectures/cobol_06121997/index.shtml |access-date=2023-07-29 |archive-date=2011-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013021915/http://www.computerhistory.org/events/lectures/cobol_06121997/index.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=How was the first compiler written? |url=https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1653649/how-was-the-first-compiler-written |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> Saa kasa ahorow a wɔaboaboa ano yi ma nhyehyɛeyɛfo no tumi kyerɛw nhyehyɛe ahorow wɔ nsɛmfua a ɛyɛ den wɔ kasamufa mu, na otumi [[Abstraction (kɔmputa ho nyansahu) .|yi]] mmara no mu nsɛm pii, na ɛma ɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ ɔde n’ani besi mfiri akwankyerɛ ahorow a ɛsonosonoe so denam mpaemuka a wɔaboaboa ano ne [[Heuristic (kɔmputa ho nyansahu) .|heuristics so]]. Wɔn a wɔboaboa nneɛma ano de kɔmputa tumi dii dwuma de maa nhyehyɛe yɛɛ mmerɛw denam ma a wɔmaa nhyehyɛeyɛfo kwan ma wɔkyerɛɛ akontaabu denam fomula bi a wɔde [[Infix nkyerɛwde a wɔde hyɛ mu|infix nkyerɛwde]] bɛhyɛ mu no so.<ref>{{Citation |title=Fortran creator John Backus dies |date=2007-03-20 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17704662 |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> == Nhyehyeɛ Dwumadi kasa ahorow == Dwumadie kasa ahodoɔ boa dwumadie ahodoɔ (a wɔfrɛ no ''[[Dwumadi nhyehyɛe ho nhwɛso|programming paradigms]]''). Kasa a wɔde bedi dwuma no gyina nneɛma pii a ɛsɛ sɛ wosusuw ho, te sɛ adwumakuw no nhyehyɛe, sɛnea ɛfata sɛ wɔyɛ adwuma, sɛnea nnipa foforo package ahorow wɔ hɔ, anaa ankorankoro pɛ. Sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ yiye no, wɔbɛpaw programming kasa a ɛfata yiye ma adwuma a ɛwɔ hɔ no. Nneɛma a wɔde di gua fi saa adwene yi mu ne sɛ wobenya nhyehyɛeyɛfo a wɔdɔɔso a wonim kasa no a wɔde bɛkyekye kuw, sɛnea wɔbɛboaboa nneɛma ano ama saa kasa no, ne sɛnea dwumadi ahorow a wɔakyerɛw wɔ kasa bi mu no yɛ adwuma yiye. Kasa ahorow a efi ase fi "nea ɛba fam" kosi "nea ɛkorɔn"; "low-level" kasa ahorow no taa yɛ nea ɛfa mfiri ho kɛse na ɛyɛ ntɛm sɛ wɔde di dwuma, bere a "high-level" kasa ahorow no ɛnyɛ den sɛ wɔde bedi dwuma nanso ɛnyɛ ntɛmntɛm. Mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ wobɛkyerɛw mmara wɔ "nea ɛkorɔn" kasa ahorow mu sen "nea ɛba fam" de. Nhyehyeɛ Dwumadi kasa ahorow ho hia ma sɔftwɛɛ nkɔso. Wɔn ne nneɛma a wɔde si sɔftwɛɛ nyinaa, efi aapɔ ahorow a ɛnyɛ den so kosi nea ɛyɛ nwonwa sen biara so. [[Allen Downey na ɔkyerɛwee|Allen Downey]], kyerɛw wɔ ne nhoma ''How To Think Like A Computer Scientist''<ref>{{Citation |title=Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist - 2e |date=2012 |url=https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/43 |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> mu sɛ: Ɛsono sɛnea nsɛm no mu nsɛm no te wɔ kasa ahorow mu, nanso ɛkame ayɛ sɛ akwankyerɛ atitiriw kakraa bi pue wɔ kasa biara mu: * nea wɔde hyɛm: Boaboa data ano fi keyboard, fael, anaa mfiri foforo bi so. * nea wɔde ba: Kyerɛ data wɔ screen no so anaasɛ fa data kɔ fael anaa mfiri foforo bi so. * Nkontaabu: Yɛ akontabuo mfitiaseɛ dwumadie te sɛ nkabom ne dodoɔ. * Tebea a Wɔde da no adi: Hwɛ sɛ tebea horow bi wɔ hɔ na di nsɛm a wɔahyehyɛ no nnidiso nnidiso a ɛfata. * Mpɛn pii: Yɛ adeyɛ bi mpɛn pii, mpɛn pii no, wosakra no bi. Kɔmputa kasa pii ma wonya ɔkwan bi a wɔfa so frɛ dwumadi ahorow a [[Nhomakorabea a wɔkyɛ|nhomakorabea ahorow a wɔkyɛ]] de ma no. Sɛ dwumadie a ɛwɔ nwomakorabea bi di dwumadi mber nhyiamde a ɛfata akyi (sɛ nhwɛsoɔ, method of passing [[Akyinnyegye (kɔmputa ho nyansahu) .|arguments]]) a, ɛnde wɔbɛtumi akyerɛw saa dwumadie yi wɔ kasa foforɔ biara mu. == Wɔn a wɔyɛ nhyehyɛe == Kɔmputa so dwumadifo ne wɔn a wɔkyerɛw kɔmputa so dwumadi ahorow. Wɔn nnwuma taa hwehwɛ sɛ: * Nhwɛsode a wɔde yɛ * Koodu kyerɛw * Nsiesie wɔ koodu mu * Nkrataa * Wɔaka abom * Nsiesie * Ahwehwɛde ahorow mu nhwehwɛmu * sɔftwɛɛ nhyehyɛe * sɔftwɛɛ a wɔsɔ hwɛ * nkyerɛkyerɛmu a wɔakyerɛkyerɛ mu Ɛwom sɛ wɔde nhyehyɛe ho nsɛm akyerɛ wɔ nsɛm ho amanneɛbɔ mu sɛ ɛyɛ akontaabu asɛm bi de,<ref>{{Citation |title=What does mathematics have to do with programming? |url=https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/136987/what-does-mathematics-have-to-do-with-programming |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> nanso nhwehwɛmu ahorow bi kyerɛ sɛ nhyehyɛeyɛfo pa wɔ ahokokwaw a emu yɛ den wɔ nnipa awosu kasa mu, na sɛnea wosua sɛnea wɔkyerɛw koodu no te sɛ [[Amannɔne kasa|ɔman foforo so kasa a]] wosua.<ref>{{Citation |title=To the brain, reading computer code is not the same as reading language |date=2020-12-15 |url=https://news.mit.edu/2020/brain-reading-computer-code-1215 |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=7 ways learning to code is like learning a language |url=https://www.educative.io/blog/similarities-learning-language-coding |language=en |access-date=2023-07-29}}</ref> == Beaɛ a menyaa mmoa fii == <references /> [[Nkyekyεmu:Wikipedia]] m5r9o6f1kkafkzeww9ug64995uqjvh4 0 16017 200848 196974 2026-10-23T21:40:09Z InternetArchiveBot 10377 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 200848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = Hon. | name = Francisca Oteng-Mensah | honorific-suffix = MP | image = FRANCISCA OTENG MENSAH.jpg | alt = | caption = | constituency_MP = [[Kwabre East (Ghana parliament constituency)|Kwabre East]] | parliament = Ghana | majority = | term_start = 7 January 2017 | term_end = <!--Can be repeated up to eight times by adding a number--> | predecessor = | successor = <!--Can be repeated up to eight times by adding a number--> | prior_term = | order2 = | office2 = | term_start2 = | term_end2 = | president2 = [[Nana Akuffo-Addo]] | predecessor2 = | successor2 = | order3 = <!--Can be repeated up to eight times by changing the number--> | office3 = | term_start3 = | term_end3 = | president3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1993|02|15|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Mamponteng]], [[Ghana]] | death_date = | death_place = | restingplace = | restingplacecoordinates = | birthname = Francisca Oteng-Mensah <!-- from ghanamps.com site --> | nationality = [[Ghanaian nationality law|Ghanaian]] | party = [[New Patriotic Party]] | otherparty = <!--For additional political affiliations--> | spouse = | partner = <!--For those with a domestic partner and not married--> | relations = | children = | residence = | alma_mater = Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology | occupation = Politician | profession = Member of Parliament | cabinet = Member of Parliament | committees = Trade, Industry and Tourism Committee, Privileges Committee | portfolio = | signature = | signature_alt = | website = | footnotes = | parents = Obeng Gyasi }} '''Francisca Oteng-Mensah''' (wɔwoo no [[Ogyefo|Ɔgyefoɔ]] da ɛtɔ so du nan wɔ afe apem ahankron ne aduokron mmiɛnsa 1993) <ref name=":0">https://www.ghanastar.com/news/meet-youngest-mp-ms-oteng-mensah/</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.parliament.gh/mps?mp=154 |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2023-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706225804/https://www.parliament.gh/mps?mp=154 |url-status=dead }}</ref>yɛ amanyɔkuo [[New Patriotic Party (NPP)|New Patriotic Party]] no mu ni ne mmarahyɛbɛdwani a ɔgyina hɔ ma [[:en:Kwabre_East_(Ghana_parliament_constituency)|Kwabre Apueɛ mpɛsoa so]], ɔno ne mmarahyɛbadwani a ɔsua koraa wɔ mmarahyɛbadwakuo a ɛtɔ so nnan no mu wɔ mfeɛ mpem mmienu ne du nsia mu (2016).<ref>http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=362590</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=http://citifmonline.com/2015/06/15/i-won-because-of-my-message-not-money-francisca-mensah/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2015-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618125333/http://citifmonline.com/2015/06/15/i-won-because-of-my-message-not-money-francisca-mensah/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.glitzafrica.com/glitz-top-100-inspirational-women/100/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2021-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526112709/https://www.thestandpoint.com.gh/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Abrabɔ mfitiaseɛ == Wɔwoo Oteng-Mensah wɔ Aboaso Ayaresabea wɔ Mamponten,<ref name=":0" /> a ɛwɔ [[Asante Mantam]] mu, <ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=http://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php?id=5334 |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2021-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617053529/https://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php/?id=5334 |url-status=dead }}</ref>wɔ Ɔgyefoɔ da ɛtɔ so du nnan wɔ afe apem ahankron ne aduokron mmiɛnsa (February 14,1993). N’awofoɔ ne Owura yere Joyce Oteng<ref name=":0" /> ne Dr. [[Kwaku]] oteng <ref>{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://ghana.mom-rsf.org/en/owners/individual-owners/detail/owner/owner/show/dr-kwaku-oteng/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2022-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527220934/https://ghana.mom-rsf.org/en/owners/individual-owners/detail/owner/owner/show/dr-kwaku-oteng/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>a ɔyɛ dɔkota ne dwadini, a ɔsane so yɛ ɔkwankyerɛfoɔ ma adwumakuo a ne din de Angel Group of Companies'''.''' == Nwomasua == Oteng-Mensah kɔɔ mfiaseɛ sukuu ahodoɔ mmiɛnsa. Ɔkɔɔ sukuu a ne din de Manponteng Roman Catholic Sukuu, afei ɔkɔɔ Revival Preparatory sukuu a ɛwɔ Breman. Owie ne mfiaseɛ sukuu no wɔ Savior International School. Ɔwie ne JHS wɔ Angel Education Complex. Ɔtoaa so kɔɔ St. Roses Senior High School, faako a ɔwie ne ntoasoɔ sukuu. Ne botaeɛ a ɛne sɛ ɔbɛsua ade akɔ akyi no boaa no ma no toaa so kɔɔ suapɔn a ɛne Kwame Nkrumah University (KNUST) maa no kɔsuaa mmara.<ref name=":0" /> Francisca sii abatoɔ akansie no wɔ mfeɛ mpem mmienu ne du nsia (2016) mu berɛ a na ɔwɔ ne mfeɛ mmienu soɔ wɔ [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology|Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.]]<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20150721113256/http://elections.peacefmonline.com/pages/politics/201506/244899.php</ref> Ɔwɔ ne mfie mmienu soo wo [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]]. == Adwumayɛ == Ansa na ɔbɛyɛ mmarahyɛ badwani no, na ɔyɛ ɔtwerɛfoɔ ma adwumakuo a ɛne Angel Group of Companies a ɛwɔ Kumasi.<ref name=":1" /> Wɔ [[Ɔpɛnimaa]] bosome no mu wɔ mfeɛ mpem mmienu ne du nson (2017) mu no, wɔpaw no sɛ ɔtitenani ma adwumakuo a ɛne National Youth Authority.<ref>http://www.ghananewsagency.org/sports/francisca-oteng-mensah-heads-nya-governing-board-126639</ref> == Amanyɔsɛm == Ɔdii nkunim wɔ Kwabre Apueɛ abatoɔ mpɛsoa so a ɛwɔ [[Asante Mantam]] mu sɛ mmarahyebadwani wɔ abatoɔ a ɛkɔɔ so wɔ mfeɛ mpem dmmienu ne du nsia (2016).<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Archive copy |url=https://ghanafuo.com/2016/12/meet-francisca-oteng-mensah-younges.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616163224/https://ghanafuo.com/2016/12/meet-francisca-oteng-mensah-younges.html |access-date=2023-10-03 |archive-date=2021-06-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Ɔsom == Oteng-Mensah yɛ Kristoni a ɔsom wɔ Asembles of God asore.<ref name=":2" /> == Mmeaeɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ == <references /> [[Nkyekyεmu:Ghanaian Mp's 5th Parliament of the 4th Republic]] 1mxvust157ge6hp0sdciplz6ob76wnm 0 16625 200853 184540 2026-10-24T10:55:12Z Amherst99 11220 /* */ ... 200853 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asetra mu gyinapɛn''' ahorow yɛ gyinapɛn ahorow a akuw ahorow kyɛ wɔ nneyɛe a wogye tom ho.<ref>Lapinski, M. K.; Rimal, R. N. (2005). "An explication of social norms". ''Communication Theory''. '''15''' (2): 127–147. doi:10.1093/ct/15.2.127.</ref><ref name=":0">Finnemore, Martha (1996). ''National Interests in International Society''. Cornell University Press. pp.&nbsp;22–24, 26–27. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>9780801483233</bdi>. JSTOR&nbsp;10.7591/j.ctt1rv61rh. Archived from the original on 2021-06-01. Retrieved 2021-04-18.</ref> Asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow betumi ayɛ ntease a ɛnyɛ ɔkwan biara so a ɛkyerɛ ɔman bi mufo nneyɛe kwan, na wɔasan nso ayɛ no mmara ne mmara.<ref>Pristl, A-C; Kilian, S; Mann, A. (2020). "When does a social norm catch the worm? Disentangling socialnormative influences on sustainable consumption behaviour". ''Consumer Behav''. '''20''' (3): 635–654. doi:10.1002/cb.1890. S2CID&nbsp;228807152.</ref> Asetena mu gyinapɛn nkɛntɛnsoɔ anaa asetena mu gyinapɛn, wɔbu no sɛ ɛyɛ tumi a ɛde nnipa suban mu nsakraeɛ ba na wɔahyehyɛ no yie na wɔde ahyɛ mu denam nsusuiɛ titire a ɛkyerɛkyerɛ nnipa nneyɛeɛ mu.<ref name=":1">Legro, Jeffrey W. (1997). "Which Norms Matter? Revisiting the "Failure" of Internationalism". ''International Organization''. '''51''' (1): 31–63. doi:10.1162/002081897550294. ISSN&nbsp;0020-8183. JSTOR&nbsp;2703951. S2CID&nbsp;154368865. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.</ref> Asoɛe ahorow no yɛ gyinapɛn ahorow pii. Norms yɛ asetra mu gyidi ahorow a wɔkyɛ wɔ nneyɛe ho; enti, ɛsono "adwene", "adwene", ne "gyinabea ahorow", a wobetumi de asie kokoam, na ɛnyɛ nea ɛfa nneyɛe ho ankasa.<ref name=":0" /> Gyinapɛn gyina nsɛm a ɛfa ho, asetra mu kuw, ne abakɔsɛm mu tebea horow so.<ref name=":4">Young, H. Peyton (2015). "The Evolution of Social Norms". ''Annual Review of Economics''. '''7''' (1): 359–387. doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115322. ISSN&nbsp;1941-1383.</ref> Nhomanimfo kyerɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda mmara kwan so gyinapɛn ahorow (a esiw nneyɛe ano), nhyehyɛe mu gyinapɛn ahorow (a ɛhyehyɛ anigyede ahorow), ne mmara kwan so gyinapɛn ahorow (a ɛkyerɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ agoruyɛfo yɛ) ntam.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Tannenwald, Nina (1999). "The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-Use". ''International Organization''. '''53''' (3): 433–468. doi:10.1162/002081899550959. ISSN&nbsp;0020-8183. JSTOR&nbsp;2601286.</ref><ref name=":2">Finnemore, Martha; Sikkink, Kathryn (1998). "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change". ''International Organization''. '''52''' (4): 887–917. doi:10.1162/002081898550789. ISSN&nbsp;0020-8183. JSTOR&nbsp;2601361. S2CID&nbsp;10950888. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.</ref> Wobetumi de ntease a ɛkyerɛ sɛnea ɛfata ne ntease a ɛfa nea efi mu ba ho akyerɛ nkɛntɛnso a gyinapɛn ahorow nya; kan no kyerɛ sɛ agoruyɛfo di gyinapɛn ahorow akyi efisɛ ɛfata asetra mu, na nea etwa to no kyerɛ sɛ agoruyɛfo di gyinapɛn ahorow akyi esiane ɛka ne mfaso ho akontaabu nti<ref>Herrmann, Richard K.; Shannon, Vaughn P. (2001). "Defending International Norms: The Role of Obligation, Material Interest, and Perception in Decision Making". ''International Organization''. '''55''' (3): 621–654. doi:10.1162/00208180152507579. ISSN&nbsp;0020-8183. JSTOR&nbsp;3078659. S2CID&nbsp;145661726. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.</ref> Wɔakyerɛ akwan abiɛsa wɔ gyinapɛn bi asetra mu: (1) Nhyɛso a ɛba – gyinapɛn adwumayɛfo hwehwɛ sɛ wɔbɛma afoforo agye nneyɛe bi a wɔpɛ na ɛfata; (2) Norm cascade – bere a norm bi nya gye a ɛtrɛw; ne (3) Norm internalization – bere a norm bi nya "taken-for-granted" su.<ref name=":2" /> Gyinapɛn ahorow no mu yɛ den wɔ akwan horow so: wɔtaa bu gyinapɛn ahorow bi so bere a gyinapɛn afoforo de wɔn mu kɔ akyiri araa ma gyinapɛn ahorow a wobu so no ntaa nyɛ.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Wobetumi ahu adanse a ɛkyerɛ sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow wɔ hɔ wɔ nneyɛe nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛwɔ akuw mu, ne gyinapɛn ahorow a wɔka ho asɛm wɔ kuw kasa mu no mu.<ref name=":0" /> == Nkyerɛaseɛ == Nkyerɛase ahorow wɔ hɔ a wɔde ma wɔ asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow ho, nanso nhomanimfo adwene hyia sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow te saa<ref name=":5">Legros, Sophie; Cislaghi, Beniamino (2020). "Mapping the Social-Norms Literature: An Overview of Reviews". ''Perspectives on Psychological Science''. '''15''' (1): 62–80. doi:10.1177/1745691619866455. ISSN 1745-6916. PMC 6970459. <nowiki>PMID 31697614</nowiki>.</ref> # ayɔnkofa na wɔkyɛ wɔ kuw bi mufo mu, . # a ɛfa nneyɛe ne nsusuwii a ɛfa gyinaesi ho, . # ahyɛde anaa nea wɔhyɛ # ɔkwan a nnipa kuw bi a wɔwɔ ɔman bi mu fa so tra ase a wogye tom wɔ asetra mu. Wɔ 1965 mu no, Jack P. Gibbs kyerɛɛ gyinapɛn ahorow abiɛsa titiriw a wobetumi de gyinapɛn ahorow ho adwene nyinaa ahyɛ ase: # "abrabɔ ho nhwehwɛmu a wɔbom yɛ wɔ nea ɛsɛ sɛ ɛyɛ ho". # "akwanhwɛ a wɔbom hwɛ sɛnea suban bɛyɛ". # "nneɛma titiriw a wɔyɛ wɔ nneyɛe ho" (a mmɔden a wɔbɔ sɛ wɔbɛpene so anaasɛ wɔbɛkanyan nneyɛe bi ka ho)<ref name=":6">Gibbs, Jack P. (1965). "Norms: The Problem of Definition and Classification". ''American Journal of Sociology''. '''70''' (5): 586–594. doi:10.1086/223933. ISSN 0002-9602. JSTOR 2774978. <nowiki>PMID 14269217</nowiki>. S2CID 27377450. Archived from the original on 2021-12-23. Retrieved 2021-12-23.</ref> Sɛnea Ronald Jepperson, Peter Katzenstein ne Alexander Wendt kyerɛ no, "ahyɛde yɛ akwanhwɛ a wɔbom hwɛ fa nneyɛe pa ho ma nipasu bi gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛyɛ papa<ref>Katzenstein, Peter (1996). ''The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics''. Columbia University Press. p. 54. ISBN <bdi>978-0-231-10469-2</bdi>. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2021-09-20.</ref>.<ref name=":3">Sandholtz, Wayne (2017). ''International Norm Change''. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.588. ISBN 9780190228637</ref> Sandholtz, Martha Finnemore ne Kathryn Sikkink kyerɛkyerɛ gyinapɛn mu mmom sɛ "gyinabea a ɛfa suban a ɛfata ma agoruyɛfo a wɔwɔ nipasu bi a wɔde ama wɔn."<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Wɔ saa nkyerɛase yi mu no, gyinapɛn ahorow wɔ "ɛsɛ" su ma wɔn. Michael Hechter ne Karl-Dieter Opp kyerɛkyerɛ gyinapɛn mu sɛ "amammerɛ mu nneɛma a ɛkyerɛ na ɛbara nneyɛe wɔ tebea pɔtee bi mu."<ref name=":8">Hecher, Michael; Opp, Karl-Dieter (2001). ''Social Norms''. Russell Sage Foundation. pp. xi. ISBN <bdi>978-0-87154-354-7</bdi>. JSTOR 10.7758/9781610442800. Archived from the original on 2021-05-22. Retrieved 2021-05-22.</ref> Asetra ho animdefo Christine Horne ne Stefanie Mollborn kyerɛkyerɛ gyinapɛn mu sɛ "kuw-gyinabea nhwehwɛmu a wɔyɛ wɔ suban ho." gyinapɛn ahorow yɛ akwanhwɛ a atrɛw a ɛfa asetra mu pene anaa nneyɛe a wɔmpene so ho.<ref name=":7">Horne, Christine; Mollborn, Stefanie (2020). "Norms: An Integrated Framework". ''Annual Review of Sociology''. '''46''' (1): 467–487. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054658. ISSN 0360-0572. S2CID 225435025. Archived from the original on 2021-05-16. Retrieved 2021-05-22.</ref> Nhomanimfo gye akyinnye sɛ ebia asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow yɛ ankorankoro nsusuwii anaasɛ nnipa dodow a wɔbom yɛ.<ref name=":5" /> Sikasɛm ho ɔbenfo ne agodie ho ɔbenfo Peyton Young kyerɛkyerɛ gyinapɛn ahorow mu sɛ "suban ahorow a ɛhyɛ ne ho so wɔ kuw bi mu."<ref name=":4" /> Osi so dua sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow no nam akwanhwɛ a wɔkyɛ so na ɛkanyan no: "Obiara yɛ nea ɛne ne ho hyia, wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ obiara bɛyɛ nea ɛne ne ho hyia, na obiara pɛ sɛ ɔyɛ saa." conform bere a wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ obiara bɛyɛ conform."<ref name=":4" /> Ɔkyerɛ gyinapɛn ahorow sɛ mfiri a "ɛyɛ nnipa akwanhwɛ ahorow bom wɔ nkitahodi ahorow a ɛwɔ kari pɛ pii mu."<ref>Young, H. Peyton (2016), "Social Norms", ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 1–7, doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_2338-1, ISBN <bdi>978-1-349-95121-5</bdi>, S2CID 13026974, retrieved 2021-05-22</ref> Wɔakyerɛ adwene te sɛ "amane ahorow", "amammerɛ", "abrabɔ pa", "abrabɔ pa", "mmara", ne "mmara" sɛ ɛne gyinapɛn ahorow yɛ pɛ<ref name=":6" /> Wobetumi abu asoɛe ahorow sɛ ɛyɛ nneɛma a wɔaboaboa ano anaasɛ akuwakuw a ɛwɔ gyinapɛn ahorow pii.<ref name=":2" /> Mmara ne gyinapɛn ahorow nyɛ nneɛma a ɛda nsow: abien no nyinaa yɛ abrabɔ gyinapɛn ahorow a ebetumi anya nea ɛsono nea ɛyɛ pɔtee ne nea ɛyɛ nhyehyɛe.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" /> Mmara yɛ gyinapɛn ahorow a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so kɛse<ref name=":3" /><ref>Knight, Jack (1992). ''Institutions and social conflict''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN <bdi>978-0-511-52817-0</bdi>. OCLC 1127523562.</ref><ref>Streeck, Wolfgang; Thelen, Kathleen Ann (2005). ''Beyond Continuity: Institutional Change in Advanced Political Economies''. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN <bdi>978-0-19-928046-9</bdi>.</ref> Ebia mmara, mmara ne gyinapɛn ahorow bɛbɔ abira; sɛ nhwɛso no, mmara bi betumi abara biribi nanso gyinapɛn ahorow da so ara ma ho kwan.<ref name=":7" /> Norms nyɛ nea ɛne ankorankoro suban ahorow a wɔaka abom ayɛ pɛ.<ref>Horne, Christine; Johnson, Monica Kirkpatrick (2021). "Testing an Integrated Theory: Distancing Norms in the Early Months of Covid-19". ''Sociological Perspectives''. '''64''' (5): 970–987. doi:10.1177/07311214211005493. ISSN 0731-1214.</ref> Adwene, suban ne gyinapɛn ahorow nyɛ gyinapɛn ahorow, efisɛ saa nsusuwii ahorow yi mfa nneyɛe ho ankasa na ebia wɔde sie kokoam.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" />"Nneyɛe a abu so" ne suban a ɛkɔ so daa no nyɛ nea wɔahyɛ da ayɛ<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":5" /> Awosu anaa abɔde mu nneyɛe, ankorankoro anigyede, ne ankorankoro suban nyɛ nea wɔahyɛ da ayɛ.<ref name=":5" /> == Ɛpue ne nea ɛde kɔ == Ebia akuw ahorow begye gyinapɛn ahorow atom wɔ akwan horow so. Ebia gyinapɛn ahorow bi a egyina pintinn na ɛhyɛ ne ho mu den bɛba ara kwa a nnipa nsusuw ho wɔ nhumu mu.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Sugden, Robert (1989). "Spontaneous Order". ''Journal of Economic Perspectives''. '''3''' (4): 85–97. doi:10.1257/jep.3.4.85. ISSN 0895-3309.</ref> Peyton Young kɔ akyiri araa ma ɔka sɛ "nhyɛso ahorow taa dannan a enni akwankyerɛ a efi soro ba fam... ɛnam ankorankoro nkitahodi so sen sɛ ɛnam nhyehyɛe so sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wobedi nneyɛe so.<ref name=":9">Hackman, J.R. (1992). "Group influences on individuals in organizations". In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), ''Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology'' (Vol. 3). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 234-245</ref><ref>Chong, D. (2000) ''Rational lives: norms and values in politics and society''</ref> Ɛnyɛ mmara a wɔakyerɛw ato hɔ ankasa, gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛnyɛ ɔkwan biara so gyina hɔ ma nneyɛe a wɔtaa gye tom na wɔpene so kɛse a nkurɔfo di akyi wɔ da biara da asetra mu.<ref>Gerber, L. & Macionis, J. (2011) ''Sociology'', 7th Canadian ed., p. 65</ref> Saa gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛnyɛ nea wɔahyɛ da ayɛ yi, sɛ wobu so a, ebia ɛrento nsa mfrɛ mmara kwan so asotwe anaa asotwe a ɛfata, na mmom ɛhyɛ animka, kɔkɔbɔ, anaa nneɛma afoforo ho nkuran; sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔtaa susuw sɛ abusuafo a wɔne wɔn da sɛ ɛyɛ bɔne wɔ ɔmanfo mu, nanso aman pii nni mmara kwan so. Wobetumi nso abɔ gyinapɛn ahorow na wɔama anya nkɔso denam nnipa nhyehyɛe a wɔde adwenem naayɛ a gyinapɛn adwumayɛfo yɛ so<ref>Sunstein, Cass R. (1996). "Social Norms and Social Roles" (PDF). ''Columbia Law Review''. '''96''' (4): 903–968. doi:10.2307/1123430. ISSN 0010-1958. JSTOR 1123430. S2CID 153823271.</ref><ref>Keck, Margaret E.; Sikkink, Kathryn (1998). ''Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics''. Cornell University Press. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8014-3444-0</bdi>. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt5hh13f. Archived from the original on 2021-05-22. Retrieved 2021-05-22.</ref> Gyinapɛn ahorow betumi asɔre wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so, baabi a akuw ahorow kyerɛkyerɛ nneyɛe mu akwanhwɛ ahorow mu pefee na wɔde di dwuma. Mmara mu gyinapɛn ahorow taa fi nhyehyɛe mu.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Kendall, D. (2011) ''Sociology in our times''</ref> Saa gyinapɛn ahorow yi dodow bi a yedi akyi ‘wɔ abɔde mu’ te sɛ kar a yɛbɛka wɔ ɔkwan no nifa so wɔ U.S. ne benkum so wɔ UK, anaasɛ yɛrentu mmirika sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a yɛbɛkwati tekiti. Nhomanimfo binom akyerɛ sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow no ntumi nnyina fi awosu mu, na wɔnam saayɛ so ama nneɛma a ebetumi aba sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow bɛsakra.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Sandholtz, Wayne (2008-03-01). "Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder". ''European Journal of International Relations''. '''14''' (1): 101–131. doi:10.1177/1354066107087766. ISSN 1354-0661. S2CID 143721778. Archived from the original on 2021-05-24. Retrieved 2021-05-07</ref><ref>Wiener, Antje (2008). ''The Invisible Constitution of Politics: Contested Norms and International Encounters''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN <bdi>978-0-521-89596-5</bdi>. Archived from the original on 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2021-05-07.</ref><ref>Krook, Mona Lena; True, Jacqui (2012-03-01). "Rethinking the life cycles of international norms: The United Nations and the global promotion of gender equality". ''European Journal of International Relations''. '''18''' (1): 103–127. doi:10.1177/1354066110380963. ISSN 1354-0661. S2CID 145545535.</ref> Sɛnea Wayne Sandholtz kyerɛ no, ɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ agoruyɛfo bɛtwetwe afoforo ma wɔasesa gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw no sɛ wɔwɔ tumi, wobetumi atwe adwene asi fapem meta-nhyɛso ahorow a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw so, na wobetumi atwe adwene asi nneɛma a atwam so.<ref>Sandholtz, Wayne (2009). ''International Norms and Cycles of Change''. Oxford University Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN <bdi>978-0-19-985537-7</bdi>. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2021-05-13.</ref> Wɔakyerɛ sɛ asetra mu bɛn a ɛbɛn agoruyɛfo no yɛ ade titiriw a ɛma asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow kɔ so tra hɔ<ref>Bicchieri, Cristina; Dimant, Eugen; Gächter, Simon; Nosenzo, Daniele (2022). "Social proximity and the erosion of norm compliance". ''Games and Economic Behavior''. '''132''': 59–72. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2021.11.012. hdl:10419/232616. ISSN 0899-8256.</ref> === Nhyɛso ahorow a wɔde kɔ akuw ahorow ntam === Ankorankoro nso betumi de gyinapɛn ahorow a efi ahyehyɛde bi a atwam mu aba wɔn kuw foforo no mu, a bere kɔ so no wobetumi agye atom<ref name=":12">Feldman, D.C. (1984). "The development and enforcement of group norms". ''Academy of Management Review''. '''9''' (1): 47–55. doi:10.2307/258231. JSTOR 258231.</ref><ref name=":10">Bettenhausen, K.; Murnighan, J.K. (1985). "The emergence of norms in competitive decision-making groups". ''Administrative Science Quarterly''. '''30''' (3): 350–372. doi:10.2307/2392667. JSTOR 2392667. S2CID 52525302.</ref> Esiane sɛ nkurɔfo nkyerɛ sɛnea wɔbɛyɛ wɔn ade pefee nti, wɔtaa de wɔn ho to wɔn abakɔsɛm so de kyerɛ ɔkwan a eye sen biara a wɔbɛfa so akɔ wɔn anim; nea edii yiye kan no betumi asom wɔn yiye bio. Wɔ kuw bi mu no, ankorankoro nyinaa betumi de abakɔsɛm anaa nkyerɛwee ahorow a ɛfa nneyɛe a ɛfata ho aba; osuahu a wɔtaa nya wɔ bere mu no bɛma kuw no akyerɛkyerɛ ne nyinaa mu wɔ adeyɛ a ɛfata ho, mpɛn pii no ɛne asɔremma nhyehyɛe ahorow pii a wɔde bɛka abom<ref name=":10" /> Wɔ importation paradigm ase no, norm formation kɔ so wɔ anifere kwan so na ɛyɛ ntɛmntɛm<ref name=":10" /> bere a wɔ formal anaa informal development of norms mu no betumi agye bere tenten. Akuw ahorow de gyinapɛn ahorow hyɛ wɔn mu denam gye a wogye tom sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow a ntease wom na ɛfata ma nneyɛe wɔ kuw no mu no so. Sɛ wɔde si hɔ pintinn a, gyinapɛn bi bɛyɛ kuw no dwumadi nhyehyɛe no fa ma enti ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛsesa. Bere a ebetumi aba sɛ wɔn a wɔaba kuw bi mu foforo no bɛsesa ne gyinapɛn ahorow no, ɛda adi kɛse sɛ onipa foforo no begye kuw no gyinapɛn ahorow, gyinapɛn ahorow, ne wɔn adwene atom, sen sɛ ɔbɛfa ɔkwan foforo so.<ref name=":9" /> == Asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow a wɔtwe wɔn ho fi ho == Wɔkyerɛkyerɛ deviance mu sɛ "wɔnhyia gyinapɛn ahorow bi a nnipa dodow bi a ɛho hia wɔ mpɔtam anaa ɔman bi mu gye tom"<ref>Appelbaum, R. P., Carr, D., Duneir, M., & Giddens, A. (2009). "Conformity, Deviance, and Crime." Introduction to Sociology, New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., p. 173.</ref> Sɛ yɛbɛka no tiawa a, sɛ kuw no mufo anni gyinapɛn bi akyi a, wɔbɛfrɛ wɔn sɛ wɔyɛ deviant. Wɔ asetra ho adesua nhoma ahorow mu no, eyi betumi ama wɔabu wɔn mpɛn pii sɛ nnipa a wɔapam wɔn afi ɔmanfo mu. Nanso, wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ mmofra nneyɛe a ɛtwetwe adwene no yɛ nea wɔhwɛ kwan wɔ ɔkwan bi so. Gye adwene a ɛne sɛ saa kwan a wɔtwetwe yi da adi sɛ nsɛmmɔnedi adeyɛ no, wɔtwe asetra mu abodwokyɛre a wɔde mae wɔ abofra no nhwɛso mu no fi hɔ ntɛm ara tia ɔsɛmmɔnedifo no. Wobu nsɛmmɔnedi sɛ ɛyɛ akwan a wɔfa so twe wɔn ho fi ho a ɛyɛ hu sen biara no mu biako sɛnea nhomanimfo Clifford R. Shaw kyerɛ no<ref>Molinari, Christina (2015). "Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay". In Dobbert, Duane L.; Mackey, Thomas X. (eds.). ''Deviance: Theories on Behaviors That Defy Social Norms: Theories on Behaviors That Defy Social Norms''. ABC-CLIO. pp. 108–118. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4408-3324-3</bdi>. Archived from the original on 2023-03-06. Retrieved 2023-06-26.</ref> Nea wobu no sɛ "ɛyɛ daa" no fa beae a amammerɛ a asetra mu nkitahodi no rekɔ so no wɔ. Wɔ adwene ne nneyɛe ho nimdeɛ mu no, ankorankoro bi a ɔtaa bu kuw gyinapɛn ahorow so no wɔ asiane mu sɛ ɔbɛdan “ɔyɛ ɔkwasea a wɔahyehyɛ no.” Te sɛ asetra ho adesua mu nkyerɛase no, kuw no mufo afoforo betumi abu wɔn a wɔatwe wɔn ho afi ahyehyɛde ahorow mu no atɛn esiane sɛ wɔanni gyinapɛn ahorow so nti. Mfiase no, kuw no mufo betumi ama nhyɛso akɔ soro wɔ obi a ɔnyɛ nea ɔpɛ so, na wɔabɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔde onipa no bɛbɔ nkɔmmɔ anaasɛ wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ nea enti a ɛsɛ sɛ odi wɔn suban ho akwanhwɛ akyi. Dwuma a obi di sɛ ɔbɛyɛ n’ade anaasɛ ɔrenyɛ no gyina sɛnea wɔn nneyɛe bɛka afoforo so kɛse.<ref>Drobak, John N. "1. The Role of Social Variables." ''Norms and the Law''. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. N. pag. Print.</ref> Titiriw wɔ asɔremma foforo a ebia wonnim yiye no fam no, akuw betumi de nneɛma a wɔde kanyan obi a wɔpɛ adi dwuma de asan de ankorankoro bi nneyɛe ahyia. Nanso, bere kɔ so no, sɛ emufo kɔ so yɛ asoɔden a, kuw no bɛma wɔagyae wɔn ho mu sɛ ade a ayera; bere a ebia ɛnyɛ nea ɛho hia sɛ kuw no betwa wɔn asɔremma mu no, ebia wobesusuw wɔn ho wɔ ɔkwan a ɛyɛ aniani so nkutoo.<ref name=":9" /> Sɛ nhwɛso no, sɛ odwumayɛni bi ka akyi wɔ nhyiam bi ase, na obu adwumayɛbea no mmara a ɛne sɛ wodi bere so no so a, ebia ɔpanyin anaa ne yɔnko dwumayɛni foforo bi bɛtwɛn ma onipa no aba na watwe no akɔ nkyɛn akyiri yi abisa nea esii. Sɛ suban no kɔ so a, awiei koraa no kuw no betumi afi nhyiam ase a ɔnka ho efisɛ onipa no "ka akyi bere nyinaa." Kuw no ka onipa no asoɔden ho asɛm wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so na wɔpow no ntɛm ara, na ɛnam so ma ɔmannifo no nkɛntɛnso ne ne nan a obesi wɔ kuw no mu adwene a enhyia daakye mu no so tew. Kuw a wɔma kwan ma wɔtwe wɔn ho fi ho no gu ahorow wɔ asɔremma mu; ɛnyɛ kuw no mufo nyinaa na wonya ayaresa koro wɔ gyinapɛn ahorow a wobu so ho. Ankorankoro betumi akyekye suban pa "reserve" denam conformity so, a wobetumi abɔ bosea atia akyiri yi. Saa idiosyncrasy credits yi ma nsusuiɛ sika a wɔde bɛte nsakraeɛ a ɛwɔ kuw suban akwanhwɛ mu ase.<ref name=":11">Hollander, E.P. (1958). "Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit". ''Psychological Review''. '''65''' (2): 117–127. doi:10.1037/h0042501. <nowiki>PMID 13542706</nowiki>.</ref> Sɛ nhwɛso no, ebia ɛbɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ ɔkyerɛkyerɛfo de osuani a ɔyɛ tẽẽ-A bɛkyɛ no sɛ ɔbɔɔ bra bɔne —a wakora "abɔde pa" a atwam —asen osuani a ɔhaw adwene mpɛn pii. Bere a adwumayɛ a atwam no betumi aboa ma wɔakyekye idiosyncrasy credits no, kuw no mufo binom wɔ kari pɛ a ɛkorɔn a wɔde fi ase.[36] Ankorankoro betumi de idiosyncrasy credits afi kuw foforo hɔ aba; sɛ nhwɛso no, mmofraberem sini mu nnwontofo a wɔkyerɛw wɔn din wɔ kɔlege no betumi anya ahofadi kɛse wɔ sukuu gyinapɛn ahorow a wobegye atom mu sen sukuufo afoforo a wɔreba afe a edi kan no. Awiei koraa no, akannifo anaa ankorankoro a wɔwɔ dibea afoforo a ɛkorɔn betumi afi ase de agyede pii na ɛte sɛ nea "wɔboro mmara so" wɔ mmere bi mu.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> Nanso, wɔn idiosyncrasy credits mpo nyɛ nea enni ase; bere a wokura gyinapɛn a ɛyɛ mmerɛw sen ɔmannifo a wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ mu no, ebia akannifo da so ara hyia kuw pow sɛ wɔn asoɔden no yɛ nea ɛtra so dodo a. Kwan a wɔtwe wɔn ho fi ho nso ma obi nya nkate ahorow pii bere a ɔne nea wɔtaa yɛ no nhyia no. Saa nkate horow a wɔkyerɛ kɛse sɛ efi twetwe adwene no mu biako ne afobu. Afobu ne asɛyɛde ho abrabɔ pa a ɛno nso bɛyɛ ade titiriw a ɛfa abrabɔ pa ho asɛyɛde ho no wɔ abusuabɔ. Afobu di akyi no, adeyɛ bi a wogye ho kyim wɔ ne yɛ akyi.<ref>Greenspan, Patricia S. "Chapter 4: Moral Residues." ''Practical Guilt: Moral Dilemmas, Emotions, and Social Norms''. N.p.: Oxford UP, 1995. N. pag. Print</ref> Wobetumi aka ho asɛm sɛ biribi a enye mma obi ankasa ne nkate tebea a enye nso. Sɛ wɔde di dwuma wɔ nsɛm abien no nyinaa mu a, ɛyɛ nkate a ɛnyɛ dɛ ne ɔkwan a wɔfa so twe wɔn ho aso nso. Sɛ yɛde kasakoa a ɛne "nsa a ɛho agu fi" di dwuma a<ref>Greenspan, Patricia S. "Chapter 6: Basing Ethics on Emotion." ''Practical Guilt: Moral Dilemmas, Emotions, and Social Norms''</ref> ɛyɛ obi ho nkekae anaa nkekae ma enti ɛsɛ sɛ ɔno ankasa tew efi no ho. Ɛyɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so tua obi ka a ɔde ne ho to ne ho so na ɔde ne ho hyɛ abufuw ne asotwe a ebetumi aba afi afoforo hɔ no ase nso. Afobu yɛ asɛm bi a ɛwɔ adeyɛ ne nkate nyinaa mu a ɛyɛ adwuma sɛ nea ɛkanyan nneyɛe foforo a "ɛyɛ nidi". Nhwehwɛmu bi a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 2023 mu daa no adi sɛ aman a wɔnyɛ mfiridwuma mu de no gu ahorow wɔ asotwe a wɔde ma wɔ gyinapɛn ahorow a wobu so no mu. Na ɛsono asotwe a egyina gyinapɛn ahorow a wobu so ne ɔmanfo asetra ne sikasɛm nhyehyɛe so. Nhwehwɛmu no "huu adanse a ɛkyerɛ sɛ na asotwe a wɔde ma wɔ din pa ho ne pɛyɛ ne aduan a wɔkora so a enni hɔ wɔ abusuabɔ; na honam fam asotwe ne aduan a wɔkora so wɔ abusuabɔ; na honam fam asotwe ne abɔmmɔ a wɔde wɔn ho to so kɛse no wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛkɔ fam; na asotwe a wɔde kum obi ne asetra mu nkyekyem ahorow wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛkɔ fam ."<ref>Garfield, Zachary H.; Ringen, Erik J.; Buckner, William; Medupe, Dithapelo; Wrangham, Richard W.; Glowacki, Luke (2023). "Norm violations and punishments across human societies". ''Evolutionary Human Sciences''. '''5''': e11. doi:10.1017/ehs.2023.7. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10426015. <nowiki>PMID 37587937</nowiki>. S2CID 258144948.</ref> == Suban == Bere a adwene wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so no, ɛnyɛ nea ɛkyerɛ nneyɛe ho nkyerɛkyerɛmu ankasa no, Martha Finnemore ka sɛ "ahyɛde ahorow sɛnea wɔkyerɛ ase no fa nneyɛe ho. Obi betumi aka sɛ ɛyɛ adwene a wɔbom kura wɔ nneyɛe ho."<ref name=":0" /> Wobetumi de gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛne ɔmanfo anaa amammerɛ a ɛtrɛw no nneyɛe bɔ abira no akɔma na wɔakura mu wɔ ɔmanfo akuw nketewa mu. Sɛ nhwɛso no, Crandall (1988) kae sɛ akuw bi (e.g., cheerleading squads, asaw akuw, agumadi akuw, mmea akuw) wɔ bulimia dodow, yare a ɔmanfo gye tom a ɛde nkwa to asiane mu, a ɛboro ɔmanfo nyinaa so. Asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow wɔ ɔkwan a wɔfa so kura nhyehyɛe mu na wɔhyehyɛ akuw.<ref>Huang, Peter H.; Wu, Ho-Mou (October 1994). "More Order Without More Law: A Theory of Social Norms and Organizational Cultures". ''The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization''. '''10''' (2): 390–406. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jleo.a036856. SSRN 5412.</ref> Wɔ asetena mu adwene ho nimdeɛ mu no, wosi dwuma a gyinapɛn ahorow di so dua —a ebetumi akyerɛ nneyɛe kwan wɔ tebea anaa tebea pɔtee bi mu sɛ "adwene mu sɛnkyerɛnne ahorow a ɛkyerɛ suban a ɛfata".<ref>Aarts, H.; Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). "The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior" (PDF). ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology''. '''84''' (1): 18–28. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.18. <nowiki>PMID 12518968</nowiki>. S2CID 18213113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-09.</ref> Wɔada no adi sɛ nkrasɛm a ɛfa mmara ho betumi ahyɛ nneyɛe a ɛboa asetra ho nkuran, a nea ɛka ho ne nsa a wɔnom so tew,<ref>Collins, S. E.; Carey, K. B.; Sliwinski, M. J. (2002). "Mailed personalized normative feedback as a brief intervention for at-risk college drinkers". ''Journal of Studies on Alcohol''. '''63''' (5): 559–567. doi:10.15288/jsa.2002.63.559. <nowiki>PMID 12380852</nowiki>.</ref> abatowfo dodow a ɛkɔ soro,<ref>Gerber, A. S.; Rogers, T. (2009). "Descriptive social norms and motivation to vote: everybody's voting and so should you". ''The Journal of Politics''. '''71''' (1): 178–191. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.37. doi:10.1017/s0022381608090117. S2CID 10783035.</ref> ne ahoɔden a wɔde di dwuma a wɔbɛtew so<ref>Brandon, Alec; List, John A.; Metcalfe, Robert D.; Price, Michael K.; Rundhammer, Florian (19 March 2019). "Testing for crowd out in social nudges: Evidence from a natural field experiment in the market for electricity". ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''. '''116''' (12): 5293–5298. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.5293B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1802874115. PMC 6431171. <nowiki>PMID 30104369</nowiki>.</ref> Sɛnea adwene mu nkyerɛase a ɛfa asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow no suban fa ho kyerɛ no, gyinapɛn ahorow wɔ afa abien: dodow a wɔda suban bi adi, ne dodow a kuw no pene saa suban no so<ref name=":20">Jackson, J. (1965). "Structural characteristics of norms". In I.D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), ''Current studies in social psychology'' (pp. 301-309).</ref> == Asetra mu tumidi == Ɛwom sɛ wommu no sɛ ɛyɛ mmara a wɔahyɛ da ahyɛ da wɔ ɔmanfo mu de, nanso gyinapɛn ahorow da so ara yɛ adwuma de hyɛ asetra mu tumidi kɛse ho nkuran.<ref>Druzin, Bryan (2016). "Using Social Norms as a Substitute for Law". ''Albany Law Review''. '''78''': 68. Archived from the original on 2019-07-02. Retrieved 2016-10-10.</ref> Ɛyɛ nsɛm a ɛkyerɛ abrabɔ. Amammerɛ mu adeyɛ a ɛyɛ nea wɔtaa yɛ no ne nea ɔkyerɛw nneyɛe a wogye tom wɔ nsɛm pɔtee bi mu. Nsonsonoe a egyina amammerɛ, abusuakuw, nyamesom, ne asasesin so no, ɛyɛ nsɛmfua a ebinom nim sɛ ɛyɛ nea wogye tom te sɛ nea wɔrempira afoforo no fapem, sika kɔkɔɔ mmara, ne bɔhyɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ ho bɔ a wobedi so.<ref>Hechter, Michael et al., eds.. "Introduction". ''Social Norms''. Ed. Michael Hechter et al.. Russell Sage Foundation, 2001. xi–xx.</ref> Sɛ ɛnyɛ wɔn a, anka wiase bi bɛba a obiara adwene hyia, adwene a wɔbom yɛ, anaa anohyeto biara nni mu. Ɛwom mpo sɛ ɛnyɛ nea wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mmara ne ɔman bi mmara sɛ ɛbɛhyɛ asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow so de, nanso ɔmanfo ne mmara no wɔ abusuabɔ fi awosu mu na biako kyerɛ ɔfoforo. Eyi nti na wɔaka sɛ kasa a wɔde di dwuma wɔ mmara ahorow bi mu no di nea ɛsɛ sɛ wogye tom anaasɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ wogye tom no so na ɛkyerɛ. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔka sɛ abusua mu nna a wɔde bu no sɛ nsɛmmɔnedi no bɔ wɔn a wɔyɛ mmerɛw no ho ban, nanso mpanyimfo a wɔpene so mpo ntumi ne wɔn abusuafo nnya nna mu abusuabɔ. Kasa a atwa saa mmara yi ho ahyia no da nkrasɛm a ɛne sɛ wɔkyerɛ sɛ nneyɛe a ɛtete saa no yɛ ɔbrasɛe na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔkasa tia, ɛwom mpo sɛ obiara nni hɔ a wɔayɛ no bɔne ankasa wɔ saa abusuabɔ ahorow a wɔpene so yi mu de.<ref>Roffee, James A (2013). "The Synthetic Necessary Truth Behind New Labour's Criminalisation of Incest". ''Social & Legal Studies''. '''23''': 113–130. doi:10.1177/0964663913502068. S2CID 145292798.</ref> Wobetumi de asetena mu gyinapɛn ahorow adi dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so (s.e., denam asotwe so) anaasɛ wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnyɛ ɔkwan pa so (s.e., denam nipadua kasa ne nkitahodi ho nsɛnkyerɛnne a ɛnyɛ kasa so).<ref>Doering, Laura; Ody-Brasier, Amandine (2021). "Time and Punishment: How Individuals Respond to Being Sanctioned in Voluntary Associations". ''American Journal of Sociology''. '''127''' (2): 441–491. doi:10.1086/717102. ISSN 0002-9602. S2CID 246017181. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2022-01-18.</ref> Esiane sɛ ankorankoro taa nya honam fam anaa adwene mu nneɛma fi kuw no mufo mu nti, wɔkyerɛ sɛ akuw di nneɛma a ɛkanyan wɔn a wɔpɛ sɛ wɔpaw wɔn no so; akuw betumi asie anaasɛ wɔde nneɛma pii ama de abua asɔremma a wɔbata kuw gyinapɛn ahorow so, na wɔadi asɔremma nneyɛe so yiye denam akatua ne operant conditioning so.<ref name=":9" /> Asetra mu adwene ho nhwehwɛmu ada no adi sɛ dodow a ankorankoro bu nneɛma a kuw di so sɛ ɛsom bo anaasɛ dodow a ankorankoro hu kuw mufo sɛ ade titiriw wɔ ne nkyerɛase a ɔde ma wɔ ne ho no mu no, dodow no ara na ɛda adi sɛ ɔne no bɛyɛ pɛ.<ref name=":9" /> Asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow nso ma ankorankoro bi tumi susuw nneyɛe a kuw no bu no sɛ ɛho hia ma ne ba anaa ne nkwa ho, efisɛ egyina hɔ ma gyidi ho mmara a wɔahyehyɛ; mpɛn pii no akuw ntwe asɔremma aso anaasɛ wɔnyɛ gyinapɛn ahorow wɔ nneyɛe a ɛho nhia pii ho.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" /> Gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛwɔ amammerɛ biara mu no ma wɔyɛ nea ɛne ne ho hyia a ɛma nkurɔfo nya fekubɔ ne amammerɛ a wɔte mu no.<ref>Marshall, G. ''Oxford Dictionary of Sociology''</ref> Sɛ́ nnipa a wɔte asetra mu no, ankorankoro sua bere ne baabi a ɛfata sɛ wɔka nsɛm bi, wɔde nsɛmfua bi di dwuma, susuw nsɛmti bi ho anaasɛ wɔhyɛ ntade bi, ne bere a ɛnyɛ saa. Enti, nimdeɛ a ɛfa amammerɛ mu gyinapɛn ahorow ho ho hia ma nsusuwii ahorow,<ref name=":13">Kamau, C. (2009) Strategizing impression management in corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing, management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. ISBN 978-1-60566-790-4</ref> a ɛyɛ ankorankoro bi nhyehyɛe a ɔde ma wɔ wɔn nneyɛe a ɛnyɛ kasa mu. Obi nso nam osuahu so hu nnipa ahorow a obetumi ne wɔn atumi ne wɔn asusuw nsɛmti bi ho anaasɛ ɔhyɛ ntade ahorow bi atwa wɔn ho ahyia. Mpɛn pii no, wɔnam osuahu so na wonya saa nimdeɛ yi (i.e. wɔnam asetra mu nkitahodi so sua asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow).<ref name=":13" /> Atade a wɔhyɛ kɔ adwuma ho nsɛmbisa mu sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wobenya adwene kɛse a edi kan no gyina hɔ ma asetra mu gyinapɛn bi a wɔtaa yɛ wɔ adwumayɛfo a wɔyɛ adwumaden no mu. Wɔ n'adwuma "Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes" mu no, Robert Ellickson sua nkitahodi ahorow a ɛda mpɔtam hɔfo ne mpɔtam hɔfo ntam de kyerɛ sɛnea ɔmanfo gyinapɛn ahorow ma nhyehyɛe ba nnipa kuw ketewaa bi mu. Ɔkyerɛ sɛ, wɔ mpɔtam ketewa anaa mpɔtam ketewa bi mu no, wobetumi asiesie mmara ne akasakasa pii a wonni sodikuw titiriw biara denam nkitahodi a ɛwɔ saa mpɔtam yi mu ara kwa so<ref>Ellickson, Robert (1994). ''Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes''</ref> == Asetra mu nsɛm ho adesua == Wɔ asetra ho adesua mu no, wohu gyinapɛn ahorow sɛ mmara a ɛkyekyere ankorankoro nneyɛe wɔ asotwe pɔtee bi ho wɔ akwan abien no mu biako so: asotwe anaa akatua.[53] Ɛnam suban ho mmara so no, asetena mu gyinapɛn ahorow ma nhyehyɛe soronko a ɛma kwan ma wɔyɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda asetra mu nhyehyɛe ahorow ntam.<ref name=":14">HYDEN, HAKAN (2022). ''SOCIOLOGY OF LAW AS THE SCIENCE OF NORMS''. [S.l.]: ROUTLEDGE. ISBN <bdi>978-1-003-24192-8</bdi>. OCLC 1274199773.</ref> Eyi de ɔhye bi ba a ɛma kwan ma nsonsonoe da wɔn a wɔka asetra mu tebea pɔtee bi mu ne wɔn a wɔnyɛ saa no ntam.<ref name=":14" /> Wɔ Talcott Parsons a ɔwɔ functionalist sukuu no fam no, gyinapɛn ahorow na ɛkyerɛ sɛnea nnipa di nkitaho wɔ asetra mu nhyiam ahorow nyinaa mu. Ɔkwan foforo so no, Karl Marx gye dii sɛ wɔde gyinapɛn ahorow di dwuma de hyɛ dwumadi ahorow a wɔbɔ wɔ ɔmanfo mu a ɛma nnipa a wɔwɔ asetra mu kuw nhyehyɛe ahorow mu tumi yɛ adwuma yiye no ho nkuran. Marx ka sɛ tumi a ɛyɛ nnam yi na ɛma asetra mu nhyehyɛe ba. James Coleman (asetra ho nimdefo) de micro ne macro tebea nyinaa dii dwuma maa ne nsusuwii no.[53] Wɔ Coleman fam no, gyinapɛn ahorow fi ase sɛ nneyɛe a ɛfa botae ho a agoruyɛfo yɛ wɔ micro level.<ref name=":14" /> Sɛ mfaso a ɛwɔ so no nsen ɛka a wɔbɔ wɔ adeyɛ no ho mma agoruyɛfo no a, ɛnde asetra mu gyinapɛn bi bɛba.<ref name=":14" />] Afei wɔde tumi a ɛwɔ sɛ ɛde n’asotwe ahorow no hyɛ wɔn a wɔremmoa mma "asetra mu nhyehyɛe a eye sen biara" no so na ɛkyerɛ sɛnea gyinapɛn no bɛyɛ adwuma yiye.<ref name=":14" /> Heinrich Popitz gye di sɛ asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow a wɔde besi hɔ, a ɛma daakye nneyɛe a ɛfa nsakrae ho no yɛ nea wotumi hu ma ego no di ɔhaw a ɛne sɛ ɛbɛba daakye ho dwuma (Niklas Luhmann). Wɔ saa kwan yi so no, ego betumi de ne ho ato saa nneyɛe no so te sɛ nea anka wɔayɛ dedaw na enhia sɛ ɛtwɛn ma wokum no ankasa; enti asetra mu nkitahodi kɔ so ntɛmntɛm. Nneɛma a ɛho hia wɔ suban gyinapɛn mu ne asotwe<ref>See The International Handbook of Sociology, ed. by Stella R. Quah and Arnaud Sales, Sage 2000, p. 62</ref> ne asetra mu dwumadi ahorow. === Operant a wɔde yɛ adwuma === Wɔaka sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ yiye sɛ saa nneyɛe yi bɛsan aba bio ho asɛm wɔ B. F. Skinner nsusuwii ahorow mu, a ɔka sɛ operant conditioning di dwuma wɔ asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛkɔ so no mu. Operant conditioning yɛ adeyɛ a wɔfa so sesa nneyɛe sɛ nea efi mu ba no dwumadi. Wobetumi ama nea ebetumi aba sɛ suban bi bɛba no akɔ soro anaasɛ ɛso atew a egyina nea ebefi suban a wɔaka ho asɛm no mu aba so. Wɔ asetra mu twetiatwa ho no, ankorankoro bi a wakɔ atia gyinapɛn bi no bedi nkitaho wɔ nsɛmmɔnedi a ɛbata akwanside ho no ho, eyi betumi ayɛ animtiaabu wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so anaasɛ wɔanhyɛ da, asetra mu tew a wɔtew wɔn ho anaasɛ kasatia, anaa asotwe a ɛyɛ nokware kɛse te sɛ asotwe anaa afiasenna. Sɛ obi tew suban a ɛtwetwe adwene no so bere a wanya nea enye a efi mu ba akyi a, ɛnde na wɔasua denam asotwe so. Sɛ wɔde wɔn ho ahyɛ suban bi a ɛne asetra mu gyinapɛn bi hyia mu bere a wɔatew nkannyan a ɛyɛ akyide so akyi a, ɛnde na wɔnam ahoɔden a enye so asua. Nhyɛso ma suban yɛ kɛse, bere a asotwe ma suban so tew. Sɛ eyi ho nhwɛso no, susuw abofra bi a wayɛ mfonini wɔ ne fie afasu ho ho, sɛ wanyɛ eyi da a, ebia ɔbɛhwehwɛ ntɛm ara sɛ ne maame anaa ne papa bɛyɛ n’ade. Ɔkwan a ɛna anaa agya no bɛyɛ n’ade no bɛka sɛ ebia ɛda adi sɛ suban no bɛsan aba bio daakye anaa. Sɛ n’awofo wɔ adwempa na ɔpene suban no so a ɛda adi sɛ ɛbɛsan aba bio (reinforcement) nanso, sɛ ɔwofo no de nea efi mu ba a ɛyɛ abofono ma (honam fam asotwe, bere a wɔde gyae adwuma, abufuw ne nea ɛkeka ho...) a, ɛnde ɛnyɛ den koraa sɛ abofra no nsan nyɛ suban no bio daakye (asotwe). Skinner nso ka sɛ wɔde nnipa ahyɛ wɔn tebea fi wɔn mmofraase pɛɛ wɔ sɛnea wɔbɛyɛ wɔn ade ne sɛnea wɔne wɔn a wɔatwa yɛn ho ahyia no bɛyɛ ade bere a wosusuw ɔmanfo ne beae a obi wɔ no akyi nkɛntɛnso ahorow ho no.<ref>Dobbert, Duane L., and Thomas X. Mackey. "Chapter 9: B.F. Skinner." ''Deviance: Theories on Behaviors That Defy Social Norms''. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print.</ref>]<ref>Baker-Sperry, Lori; Grauerholz, Liz (October 2003). "The Pervasiveness and Persistence of the Feminine Beauty Ideal in Children's Fairy Tales". ''Gender and Society''. '''17''' (5): 711–726. doi:10.1177/0891243203255605. JSTOR 3594706. S2CID 54711044. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref> Wɔasisi no sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a ɛbɛfrafra tebea ne suban a atwa yɛn ho ahyia no mu, deviance yɛ adeyɛ a ɛyɛ animtiaabu. == Fa adwene si nsusuwii a ɛfa abrabɔ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ ho == Cialdini, Reno, ne Kallgren yɛɛ adwene a wɔde si biribi so ho nkyerɛkyerɛ a ɛfa abrabɔ a ɛfata ho de kyerɛkyerɛɛ sɛnea ankorankoro de suban ho akwanhwɛ ahorow pii di nkitaho prɛko pɛ. Bere a wɔretrɛw gyidi ahorow a wɔadi kan agye a ɛbɔ abira a ɛfa sɛ ebia amammerɛ, tebea anaa ankorankoro gyinapɛn ahorow kanyan adeyɛ ho no, nhwehwɛmufo no kyerɛe sɛ nea wɔde wɔn adwene besi ankorankoro bi adwene so no na ɛbɛkyerɛ suban mu akwanhwɛ a wodi akyi.<ref name=":16">Cialdini, R.B.; Reno, R.R.; Kallgren, C.A. (1990). "A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places". ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology''. '''58''' (6): 1015–1026. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015. S2CID 7867498.</ref> == Nneɛma ahorow == Wɔn adwene nhyia pefee wɔ sɛnea ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde asɛmfua norm di dwuma ho<ref>^{Hechter, Michael; Opp, Karl-Dieter (2001). ''Social Norms''. Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-1-61044-280-0}</ref> Martha Finnemore ne Kathryn Sikkink kyerɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda gyinapɛn ahorow abiɛsa ntam:<ref name=":2" /> # Mmara kwan so gyinapɛn: "wɔhyehyɛ na ɛhyɛ suban ano". # Constitutive norms: "wɔbɔ ayɛyɛde foforo, anigyede, anaa adeyɛ akuw". # Evaluative ne prescriptive norms: wɔwɔ "ɛsɛ" su bi ma wɔn Finnemore, Sikkink, Jeffrey W. Legro ne afoforo aka sɛ wobetumi de nneɛma te sɛ: * Nneɛma pɔtee a ɛwɔ gyinapɛn no mu: gyinapɛn ahorow a emu da hɔ na ɛyɛ pɔtee no taa yɛ nea etu mpɔn<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> * Nkwa tenten a gyinapɛn no te: gyinapɛn ahorow a abakɔsɛm wom no taa yɛ nea etu mpɔn<ref name=":2" /> * Amansan nyinaa a ɛwɔ gyinapɛn no mu: gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛka nsɛm a wɔka no nyinaa (sen sɛ ɛbɛyɛ nsɛm a wɔka wɔ mpɔtam hɔ ne nea ɛfa nneɛma pɔtee bi ho) no taa yɛ nea etu mpɔn<ref name=":2" /> * Nsεmfua a εda adi: gyinapɛn a wogye tom kɛse wɔ agoruyɛfo a wɔwɔ tumi mu no, ɛda adi kɛse sɛ etu mpɔn<ref name=":1" /> Christina Horne kyerɛ sɛ sɛnea wɔboa agoruyɛfo a wɔpene nneyɛe a ɛtwetwe adwene so no so na ɛkyerɛ sɛnea gyinapɛn bi mu yɛ den no; ɔka gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛhwɛ sɛnea wɔhyɛ gyinapɛn ahorow so ho asɛm sɛ "metannorms."<ref>Horne, Christine (2009). "A Social Norms Approach to Legitimacy". ''American Behavioral Scientist''. '''53''' (3): 400–415. doi:10.1177/0002764209338799. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 144726807.</ref> Sɛnea Beth G. Simmons ne Hyeran Jo kyerɛ no, mmoa ahorow a wɔde ma gyinapɛn bi betumi ayɛ nea ɛkyerɛ denneennen sɛ ɛyɛ den.<ref name=":15">Simmons, Beth A; Jo, Hyeran (2019). "Measuring Norms and Normative Contestation: The Case of International Criminal Law". ''Journal of Global Security Studies''. '''4''' (1): 18–36. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogy043. ISSN 2057-3170.</ref> Wɔde ka ho sɛ nhyehyɛe bi a wɔde hyɛ gyinapɛn bi mu no ma ne ahoɔden kɔ soro.<ref name=":15" /> Wɔasan nso akyerɛ sɛ gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛwɔ gyinapɛn ahorow a ɛsono nanso ɛhyɛ wɔn ho wɔn ho mu den akuwakuw a ɛtrɛw mu no betumi ayɛ nea ɛyɛ den kɛse<ref>Lantis, Jeffrey S.; Wunderlich, Carmen (2018). "Resiliency dynamics of norm clusters: Norm contestation and international cooperation". ''Review of International Studies''. '''44''' (3): 570–593. doi:10.1017/S0260210517000626. ISSN 0260-2105. S2CID 148853481. Archived from the original on 2021-05-23. Retrieved 2021-05-23.</ref> Jeffrey Checkel kyerɛ sɛ nkyerɛkyerɛmu ahorow abien na wɔtaa de ma wɔ sɛnea gyinapɛn ahorow yɛ adwuma yiye ho:<ref>Checkel, Jeffrey T. (2001). "Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change". ''International Organization''. '''55''' (3): 553–588. doi:10.1162/00208180152507551. ISSN 0020-8183. JSTOR 3078657. S2CID 143511229. Archived from the original on 2021-08-08. Retrieved 2021-04-17</ref> Ntease: agoruyɛfo di gyinapɛn ahorow so esiane nhyɛso, ɛka ne mfaso ho akontaabu, ne honam fam nneɛma a wɔde kanyan wɔn nti Constructivism: agoruyɛfo di gyinapɛn ahorow so esiane asetra mu adesua ne asetra mu nkitahodi nti Sɛnea Peyton Young kyerɛ no, akwan horow a ɛfoa nneyɛe a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ so no bi ne:<ref name=":4" /> * Nkitahodi a wɔyɛ * Asetra mu nhyɛso * Nsɛnkyerɛnne a wɔde ma * Nsɛntitiriw a wɔde wɔn adwene si so === Nkyerɛkyerɛmu ne ahyɛde === Nkyerɛkyerɛmu gyinapɛn ahorow kyerɛ nea ɛba, bere a ahyɛde gyinapɛn ahorow kyerɛkyerɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ ɛba mu. Cialdini, Reno, ne Kallgren (1990) kyerɛkyerɛ nkyerɛkyerɛmu gyinapɛn mu sɛ nkurɔfo adwene wɔ nea wɔtaa yɛ wɔ tebea pɔtee bi mu ho; ɛkyerɛ nea nnipa dodow no ara yɛ, a wɔmfa atemmu mma. Sɛ nhwɛso no, nwura a enni fam wɔ baabi a wɔde kar sisi no de nkyerɛkyerɛmu gyinapɛn a ɛne sɛ nnipa dodow no ara a wɔwɔ hɔ no ntow nwura ngu.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17">Cialdini, R (2007). "Descriptive social norms as underappreciated sources of social control". ''Psychometrika''. '''72''' (2): 263–268. doi:10.1007/s11336-006-1560-6. S2CID 121708702.</ref> Nanso, Injunctive norm de kuw pene a wɔpene so wɔ suban pɔtee bi ho no kɔ; ɛkyerɛ sɛnea ɛsɛ sɛ ankorankoro bi yɛ n’ade.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref>Schultz, Nolan; Cialdini, Goldstein; Griskevicius (2007). "The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms" (PDF). ''Psychological Science''. '''18''' (5): 429–434. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x. hdl:10211.3/199684. <nowiki>PMID 17576283</nowiki>. S2CID 19200458.</ref><ref name=":19">Rivis, Amanda, Sheeran, Paschal. "Descriptive Norms as an Additional Predictor in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A Meta-Analysis". 2003</ref> Bere a kuw no muni bi hwɛ sɛ obi foforo refa nwura afi fam na ɔtow agu no, ebia obegye ahyɛde a ɛne sɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ ɔtow nwura gu no. Nhyɛso ahorow a wɔde hyɛ mmara ne nea wɔbara Prescriptive norms yɛ mmara a wɔankyerɛw a ɔmanfo te ase na wodi akyi na ɛkyerɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ yɛyɛ.<ref name=":18">Wilson, K.L.; Lizzio, A.J.; Zauner, S.; Gallois, C. (2001). "Social rules for managing attempted interpersonal domination in the workplace: Influence of status and gender". ''Sex Roles''. '''44''' (3/4): 129–154. doi:10.1023/a:1010998802612. S2CID 142800037.</ref> Aseda a wobɛda no adi anaasɛ Aseda krataa a wobɛkyerɛw bere a obi de akyɛde ma wo no gyina hɔ ma gyinapɛn bi a wɔhyɛ ma wɔ Amerikafo amammerɛ mu. Nea ɛne eyi bɔ abira no, gyinapɛn ahorow a wɔbara no yɛ spectrum koro no ara awiei foforo; saa ara nso na ɛyɛ ɔmanfo mmara a wɔankyerɛw a ɛfa nea ɛnsɛ sɛ obi yɛ ho<ref name=":18" /> Saa gyinapɛn ahorow yi betumi ayɛ soronko wɔ amammerɛ ahorow mu; bere a obi a wuhyiaa no nkyɛe a wobɛfew no ano wɔ n’afono so no yɛ nkyia a wogye tom wɔ Europa aman bi mu no, eyi nyɛ nea wogye tom, na enti egyina hɔ ma adeyɛ a wɔbara wɔ United States. === Subjective gyinapɛn ahorow === Gyidie a ɛfa baabi a afoforo a wɔho hia pɛ sɛ obi yɛ suban bi kodu no na ɛkyerɛ suban mu gyinapɛn.Sɛ wɔde ka adwene a ɔwɔ wɔ suban ho bom a, adwene mu gyinapɛn na ɛkyerɛ ankorankoro bi adwene<ref>Terry, Deborah J.; Hogg, Michael A., eds. (2000). ''Attitudes, behavior, and social context : the role of norms and group membership''. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. ISBN <bdi>0-585-17974-3</bdi>. OCLC 44961884.</ref> Wɔde adwene a ɛfa asetena mu nkɛntɛnso ho no gyina nhyɛso a nkurɔfo hu fi afoforo a wɔho hia hɔ sɛ wɔbɛyɛ, anaasɛ wɔrenyɛ, suban bi so<ref name=":19" /> Asetra mu Adwene ne Nneyɛe Ho Ɔbenfo Icek Azjen kae sɛ wɔde ahoɔden a ɛwɔ gyinapɛn gyidi bi a wɔde ama mu na ɛkyerɛ suban mu gyinapɛn ahorow na wɔde ntease a ɛwɔ asetra mu nkyerɛkyerɛmu bi mu no kari bio, sɛnea wɔakyerɛ wɔ nsɛso a edidi so yi mu no: SN ∝ Σnimi , a (n) yɛ gyinapɛn gyidi ne ( m) ne nea ɛkanyan obi ma wodi gyidi a wɔaka ho asɛm no so<ref>"Author index for volume 50". ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes''. '''50''' (2): 411. 1991. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90029-s. ISSN 0749-5978.</ref> == Nkontaabu mu sɛnkyerɛnnede ahorow == Wɔ mfe du du kakraa a atwam no mu no, nsusuwiifo pii abɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow mu afi nsusuwii kwan so. Ɛdenam suban ho akwanhwɛ dodow a wɔde mfonini kyerɛ anaasɛ wɔbɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛyɛ ntease a ɛwɔ akyi a wɔbata ho no so no, na nsusuwiifo wɔ anidaso sɛ wobetumi akyerɛ sɛ ebia ankorankoro bɛyɛ nea ɛne no hyia anaasɛ wɔrenhyia. Sanba tumi nhwɛso ne agodie ho nsusuwii ma sikasɛm mu adwene a ɛkɔ soro kakra wɔ gyinapɛn ahorow ho, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ ankorankoro betumi abu ɛka anaa mfaso a ɛwɔ nneyɛe mu aba a ebetumi aba akyi no ho akontaa. Wɔ saa nsusuwii nhyehyɛe ahorow yi ase no, paw a wɔpaw sɛ wobedi gyinapɛn ahorow so anaasɛ wobebu so no bɛyɛ gyinaesi a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ kɛse, a wotumi bu dodow === San fa tumi a ebetumi ayɛ nhwɛso === Wɔyɛɛ no ​​1960 mfeɛ no mu, sanba tumi nhwɛsoɔ no ma ɔkwan bi a wɔfa so yɛ kuw gyinapɛn ahodoɔ ho mfonini na wɔyɛ ho mfonini wɔ wɔn adwene mu. Wɔ daa coordinate plane no mu no, wɔayɛ suban dodow a wɔda no adi no ho mfonini wɔ X-axis no so (label a wɔ Mfonini 1 mu) bere a kuw no gye tom anaasɛ wɔpene so dodow no yɛ ho mfonini wɔ Y-axis no so (b wɔ Mfonini 1 mu).<ref name=":20" /> Graf no gyina hɔ ma sanba anaa adepa a ebetumi afi mu aba ama ankorankoro bi wɔ suban ho gyinapɛn bi a wɔde ama no ho. Wɔ nsusuwii mu no, obi betumi ayɛ nsɛntitiriw bi ama suban biara a ɛkɔ soro sɛnea kuw no ani gye saa adeyɛ no ho anaasɛ wɔn ani nnye ho. Sɛ nhwɛso no, ebetumi aba sɛ wɔ afe a edi kan adesuafo a wɔawie sukuu mu no, asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow a emu yɛ den wɔ hɔ a ɛfa kɔfe nkuruwa dodow a osuani bi nom da biara da ho. Sɛ sankɔhwɛ a ɛwɔ Mfonini 1 mu no da nhwɛsoɔ asetena mu gyinapɛn adi yie a, yɛbɛtumi ahunu sɛ sɛ obi nom kɔfe nkuruwa 0 da biara a, kuw no mpene so koraa. Kuw no mpene ɔmannifo biara a ɔnom kɔfe nkuruwa anan da biara no nneyɛe so; kuw no mpene so sɛ wɔbɛnom bɛboro nkuruwa ason, a nea ɛkyerɛ wɔ pene a wɔpene so a ɛsan kɔ fam sen zero no so. Sɛnea yehu wɔ nhwɛso yi mu no, sanba tumi nhwɛso no kyerɛ kuw pene dodow a obi betumi ahwɛ kwan wɔ suban biara a ɛkɔ soro no ho * '''Point of maximum sankɔhwɛ.''' Wɔfrɛ beae a y-coordinate kɛse wom no point of maximum return, efisɛ egyina hɔ ma suban dodow a kuw no ani gye ho kɛse.<ref name=":20" /> Bere a c a ɛwɔ Mfonini 1 mu no rehyɛ sanba curve no agyirae wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so no, beae a wɔasi so dua wɔ n’atifi pɛɛ wɔ X=6, gyina hɔ ma beae a ɛsan ba kɛse. Sɛ yɛtrɛw yɛn atifi hɔ nhwɛso no mu a, mfaso a ɛsen biara a afe a edi kan adesuafo a wɔawie sukuu no benya no bɛyɛ kɔfe nkuruwa 6; wonya asetra mu pene a ɛsen biara esiane sɛ wɔnom nkuruwa pii saa pɛpɛɛpɛ nti. Nkuruwa pii anaa kakraa bi a wɔbɛnom no bɛtew pene a wɔpene so no so. * '''Range of suban a wotumi gyina ano.''' Label d gyina hɔ ma nneyɛe a wotumi gyina ano, anaa adeyɛ dodow a kuw no hu sɛ ɛyɛ nea wogye tom.<ref name=":20" /> Ɛka beae pa a ɛwɔ curve no ase nyinaa ho. Wɔ Mfonini 1 mu no, suban a wotumi gyina ano no trɛw yɛ 3, efisɛ kuw no pene nneyɛe nyinaa so fi 4 kosi 7 ne 7-4=3. Sɛ yɛde yɛn kɔfe nhwɛso no kɔ bio a, yebetumi ahu sɛ mfe a edi kan no pene so sɛ wɔbɛnom kɔfe nkuruwa kakraa bi (ɛwɔ 4 ne 7 ntam); bɛboro nkuruwa 7 anaa nea ennu 4 bɛhwe ase wɔ nneyɛe a wotumi gyina ano no akyi. Norms betumi anya suban a ɛyɛ teateaa anaasɛ ɛtrɛw a wotumi gyina ano. Mpɛn pii no, suban a ɛyɛ teateaa kyerɛ suban a ɛde nsunsuanso kɛse ba kuw no so.<ref name=":9" /> * '''Nneɛma a emu yɛ den.''' Sɛnea gyinapɛn no mu yɛ den no kyerɛ sɛnea kuw no dwen gyinapɛn no ho kɛse, anaasɛ kuw no nkɛntɛnso kɛse wɔ asiane mu sɛ wobedi nkonim anaasɛ wɔbɛhwere. Wɔde beaeɛ dodoɔ a wɔde curve no ahyɛ aseɛ nyinaa na ɛgyina hɔ ma wɔ sanba tumi nhwɛsoɔ mu, ɛmfa ho sɛ beaeɛ no yɛ papa anaa bɔne.<ref name=":20" /> Norm a ahoɔden sua no rensakra koraa wɔ x-axis no ho; dodow a wɔpene so anaasɛ wɔmpene so wɔ nneyɛe a wɔde ama ho no bɛbɛn zero. Nanso, na gyinapɛn a emu yɛ den kɛse benya pene a wɔpene so kɛse. Wɔ Mfonini 1 mu no, ɛte sɛ nea sɛnea gyinapɛn no mu yɛ den no yɛ kɛse, efisɛ nneyɛe kakraa bi na ɛma wonya anibiannaso ho nkyerɛkyerɛmu. * '''Crystallization a wɔde yɛ nneɛma'''. Awiei koraa no, norm crystallization kyerɛ sɛnea nsonsonoe kɛse wɔ curve no mu; a wɔkyerɛ ase fi nsusuwii mu san kɔ gyinapɛn ankasa no so no, ɛkyerɛ sɛnea adwene a ɛwɔ kuw no mufo ntam wɔ pene a wɔpene so ma nneyɛe dodow bi ho.<ref name=":20" /> Ebia ɛbɛyɛ sɛ emufo binom gye di sɛ gyinapɛn no yɛ ade titiriw wɔ kuw dwumadi mu sen afoforo. Ebia kuw bi gyinapɛn te sɛ kɔfe nkuruwa dodow a ɛsɛ sɛ wɔnom wɔ mfe a edi kan no mu no rennya ahwehwɛ a ɛba fam efisɛ ankorankoro pii wɔ gyidi ahorow wɔ caffeine dodow a ɛfata a ɛsɛ sɛ wɔnom ho; nea ɛne eyi bɔ abira no, ɛda adi sɛ gyinapɛn a ɛne sɛ wɔrenwia osuani foforo adwuma no benya ahwehwɛ a ɛkɔ soro, efisɛ nkurɔfo gye tom pɛpɛɛpɛ wɔ suban no a wontumi nnye ntom no so. Sɛ yɛkyerɛ kuw no nyinaa gyinapɛn no, sanba tumi nhwɛso a ɛwɔ Mfonini 1 mu no nkyerɛ ahwehwɛ no. Nanso, sanba tumi nhwɛsode a ɛyɛɛ ankorankoro data nsɛntitiriw a ɛkaa cumulative norm no ho no betumi akyerɛ nsonsonoe no na ama yɛatumi asusuw crystallization ho. === Agorudi ho nsusuwii === Nhyehyɛe foforo a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so a wobetumi de agyina hɔ ama asetra mu tebea a atwa gyinapɛn bi ho ahyia no mu nneɛma atitiriw ne agodie ho nsusuwii a wɔtaa di no. Nteaseɛ mu paw, agodie ho nsusuiɛ nkorabata bi, di abusuabɔ ne nneyɛeɛ a ɛwɔ asetena mu wɔ nteaseɛ mu adwumayɛfoɔ ntam<ref name=":21">Voss, Thomas. Game-Theoretical Perspectives on the Emergence of Social Norms. Social Norms, 2001, p.105.</ref> Adeyɛ bi ma obi nya mmara a ɛkyerɛ sɛnea ɛsɛ sɛ ɔyɛ n’ade. Nanso, sɛ mfaso wɔ so ma wɔn nkutoo a, obi a ɔwɔ ntease yɛ n’ade sɛnea mmara no kyerɛ. Yebetumi akyerɛkyerɛ tebea no mu sɛnea edidi so yi. Norm bi ma akwanhwɛ bi wɔ sɛnea nnipa afoforo yɛ wɔn ade wɔ tebea bi mu (macro). Obi yɛ n’ade yiye bere a wɔde akwanhwɛ (micro) no ama no. Sɛ gyinapɛn bi bɛgyina pintinn a, ɛsɛ sɛ nkurɔfo nneyɛe san hyehyɛ akwanhwɛ no a nsakrae biara nni mu (micro-macro feedback loop). Wonim akwanhwɛ a ɛteɛ a ɛte saa a ɛyɛ den a wɔahyehyɛ no sɛ Nash kari pɛ. Enti, ɛsɛ sɛ gyinapɛn a ɛyɛ pintinn yɛ Nash kari pɛ<ref>Bicchieri, Cristina. 2006. The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms, New York: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1</ref> Wɔ Nash kari pɛ mu no, odiyifo biako biara nni hɔ a ɔwɔ nkannyan pa biara a ɛbɛma ankorankoro twe ne ho afi adeyɛ pɔtee bi ho.<ref name=":22">Voss 2001, p. 105</ref> Wɔde asetena mu gyinapɛn ahorow bedi dwuma sɛ saa gyinapɛn pɔtee no nneyɛe hyia denam mmoa a Nash kari pɛ wɔ agoru ho nsusuwii akwan dodow no ara mu no so a<ref name=":22" /> Sɛ yɛhwɛ agodie ho nsusuwii a, nkyerɛkyerɛmu abien na ɛwɔ gyinapɛn ahorow pii a ɛwɔ wiase nyinaa no ho. Biako ne nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ agodie mu. Ebia wiase mmeae ahorow bɛma nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia a ɛsono emu biara na nnipa ahorow nso wɔ gyinapɛn ahorow, na ebetumi ama nsonsonoe aba agodie mu. Ɔfoforo no ne equilibrium selection a agoru no ankasa ntumi nkyerɛkyerɛ mu. Kari pɛ a wɔpaw no ne nhyehyɛe a wɔyɛ no wɔ abusuabɔ kɛse. Sɛ nhwɛsoɔ tiawa bi a, karka abu so wɔ wiase nyinaa, nanso wɔ aman bi mu no, nkurɔfoɔ ka kar wɔ nifa so na wɔ aman foforɔ so no, nnipa ka kar wɔ benkum so (hwɛ coordination game). Wɔahyɛ nhyehyɛe bi a wɔfrɛ no ntotoho ahyehyɛde nhwehwɛmu ho nyansa sɛ wɔmfa nni agoru no nsusuwii nhyehyɛe ntease a ɛfa asetra mu gyinapɛn ahorow ho dwuma.<ref name=":21" /> == Nkyerɛaseɛ == cxuzl48memdlloet2bdagiu86c6mbkf 0 17186 200846 186169 2026-10-23T21:29:30Z InternetArchiveBot 10377 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 200846 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Essi Matilda Forster''' (12 Ɛbɔ 1922 – Ɔsanaa 1998), na ɔyɛ Gaanani mmranimni<ref name=":0">Uwechue, Raph (1991). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9EAOAQAAMAAJ&q=essi+matilda+forster Africa Who's Who]''. Africa Journal Limited. p. 676. ISBN <bdi>978-0-903274-17-3</bdi>.</ref> ɛna ɔbaa temanmuni a ɔwɔ Gold Coast (ɛnnɛ Gaana) a ɔdi kan fataa sɛ mmranimni.<ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20250323165956/https://www.africanwomeninlaw.com/african-women-in-law/essi-matilda-forster "Pioneer African Women in Law"]. ''African Women in Law''. Retrieved 8 April 2021.</ref><ref>[https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/essi-matilda-forster-a-woman-of-dominican-descent-who-became-ghanas-first-female-attorney/ "Essi Matilda Forster, a woman of Dominican descent who became Ghana's first female attorney"]. ''Dominica News Online''. 13 March 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.</ref> == Mfitiaseɛ asetena ne nhomasua == Forster awofoɔ ne George James Christian ne Aba Lucy French, na wɔwoo no wɔ Sekondi, Gold Coast, Ɛbɔ bosome ne da a ɛtɔ so 12 afe 1922.<ref name=":0" /> Ne papa firi Eastern Caribbean Island of Dominica nanso ɔbɛtenaa Sekondi kurom afe 1902. Ɔhunuu ne ho sɛ 'nnommumfa a wɔasan aba' aberɛ a ɔkɔɔ First Pan-African Conference ɛkɔ so wɔ London afe 1900. Na ɔyɛ Oguadifo sanso yɛ mmranimni a ɔgyina Western Province anam sɛ The Gold Coast Legislative Council mu muni firi afe 1930 kɔ si afe 1940.<ref>[https://estelleappiah.com.gh/miscelleanous.html "Miscellaneous | African Women in Law | My Story, Your Inspiration".] ''E.A.L.C. Estelle Appiah Legislative Counsel''.</ref> Forster maame nso firi Shama a ɛwɔ Atɔeɛ mantam wɔ Gold Coast (ɛnɛ Ghana). Forster hyɛɛ n'adesua ase wɔ England aberɛ a w'adi mfie nnum. Ɛwɔ England no, wɔfrɛɛ no mmranim mu wɔ Gray's Inn Obubuo bosome afe 1945.<ref name=":0" /> Wɔ Oforisuo bosome ne da a ɛtɔ so 15, afe 1947, wɔfrɛɛ no baa mmranim mu wɔ Gold Coast.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Ghana (1976). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cQFQAQAAMAAJ&q=essi+matilda+ ''The Supreme Court of Ghana Centenary: Souvenir, 1876–1976''.] University Press.</ref><ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TFe3AAAAIAAJ&q=essi+matilda+forster Africa Woman]''. Africa Journal Limited. 1975.</ref> Ɔbɛyɛɛ ɔbaa a ɔdikan wɔ Gold Coast sɛ mmranimni, ɛna ɔbaa a ɔtɔ so mmiensa wɔ British West Africa sɛ ɔbɛduru saa mpɛnmpɛnsoɔ yi. Nea ɔdi n'akyi nso yɛ Nigeriani mmranimni a ɔyɛ Ɔbibini baa a ɔdi nkan duru saa mpɛnmpɛnsoɔ yi nso bi, Stella Thomas ne Frances Claudia Wright, a ɔno nso yɛ Sierra Leonni a ɔbɛyɛɛ ɔbaa ɔtɔ so mmienu wɔ Bibiman mu sɛ mmranimni.<ref name=":1" /> == Baabi menyaa mmoa firiiɛ == 5lyjaj2hujg47ht0nzeuqt7bo8fybr8 0 17226 200852 200547 2026-10-23T23:13:12Z InternetArchiveBot 10377 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 200852 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dialect|Asante}} {{Databox}} '''Lynette Yiadom-Boakye''' (wɔwoo no afe 1977 mu) yɛ [[Ngyiresi|Britainni]] mfoniniyɛfo ne ɔkyerɛwfo a ne nkyi fi [[Gaana|Ghana]].<ref>{{Citation |title=In the studio: Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, painter |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/in-the-studio-lynette-yiadomboakye-painter-8927774.html |work=The Independent |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> == Mfiase asetena ne Adwumayɛ == Wɔwoo Lynette Yiadom-Boakye wɔ [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], na ɛhɔ nso a na seesei ɔte na ɔyɛ adwuma.<ref>{{Citation |title=LYNETTE YIADOM-BOAKYE: The Love Within |url=https://contemporaryand.com/exhibition/lynette-yiadom-boakye-the-love-within/ |language=de |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> N'awofo yɛɛ adwuma sɛ anɛɛsefo wɔ Ɔman Ayaresa Adwumakuw no mu ansa na wɔre tu afi Ghana wɔ 1960 mfe no mu no. Yiadom-Boakye ka ne ho asɛm sɛ "ɔyɛ abofra a ne ho nyɛ anika - bɔ neho mbɔden wɔ nhomasua mu, na ɔnyɛ basabasa - nanso otumi dwen nneɛma ho kɔ akyir wɔ ne tirim, na ɔtwa nneɛma ho adwene wɔ ne tirim a, ɛboa no.<ref>[https://jackshainman.com/uploads/15400154/1741888478148/JSG_LYB_CV_2025.pd https://jackshainman.com/uploads/15400154/1741888478148/JSG_LYB_CV_2025.pdf]</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=ArtMajeur |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye: Shaping the Future of Contemporary Portraiture {{!}} ArtMajeur Magazine |url=https://www.artmajeur.com/en/magazine/8-meet-and-discover/lynette-yiadom-boakye-shaping-the-future-of-contemporary-portraiture/337060 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> Bere a na ɔwɔ ntoaso sukuu mu no, ɔfaa bere tia mu adwinni anaa mfonyi bɔ ho adesua mu sɛ ɔresɔ ahwɛ, na akyiri yi ogyaee adwene a na ɔwɔ sɛ ɔbɛyɛ obi a ɔhwɛ ani so na ɔbɛyɛɛ mfoniyɛfo. Yiadom-Boakye kɔɔ sukuu wɔ Central St. Martins College of Art ne Design (1996 kosi 1997), nanso, n'ani annye bere a ɔwɔ hɔ no, enti wɔyii no kɔɔ Falmouth College of Art (1997-2000) na awiei koraa no, onyaa suapɔn abodin krataa a edi kan wɔ afe 2000 mu. Afei owiee MA adesua wɔ Royal Academy Skuul wɔ afe 2003 mu. Ɛha na bere a na aka afe baako ma wɔwie sukuu no, ohui biribi a ɛsakraa n'adwuma no, na ɛmaa nnipa pii nso huu no. Bere a ɔne Dodie Kazanjian a ɔyɛ adwuma wɔ Vogue bɔɔ nkɔmmɔ no, ɔkaa sɛ: "Sɛ́ anka mɛbɔ mmɔden de nsɛm a emu yɛ den aka m'adwuma no ho no, meyɛɛ m'adwene sɛ mɛyɛ no tiawa, na mede m'adwene asi sɛnea wɔkaa ne ho asɛm no so. Ɛno ankasa bɛma asɛm no mu ada hɔ". Ɔwiee kɔlege no, ɔyɛɛ adwuma mfiase no de hwɛɛ ne ho kosii 2006 bere a ɔnyaa Arts Foundation Fellowship wɔ mfoniniyɛ mu no, na afei de ɔde n'adwene sii mfoniniyɛ nkutoo so. Wɔ afe 2010 mu no, Okwui Enwezor gyee n'adwuma no toom. Aber a ne hwɛfo Naomi Beckwith ka ne ho, Okwui Enwezor yii n'adwumayɛ no kyerɛe wɔ Studio Museum wɔ Harlem. Na ɔka wɔn a wɔpaw wɔn wɔ Turner abasobɔde no mu wɔ afe 2013 mu no ho. Sɛ wɔde mfoniyɛ no to nkyɛn a, Yiado-Boakye akyerɛkyerɛ wɔ Ruskin School of Art, Oxford University sɛ kyerɛkyerɛni boafo wɔ Master in Fine Arts abɔdin adesua mu. Wɔgyee ne nkɛntɛnsoɔ sɛ mfoniniyɛfoɔ toom wɔ 2019 Powerlist mu na akyiri yi wɔkyerɛw no din kaa "Edikanfo 10" a ɛwɔ nnipa a wɔwɔ nkɛntɛnsoɔ kɛseɛ wɔ Afrika anaa Afrika Caribbean nkyifo mu wɔ UK wɔ afe 2020 mu no ho. == Adwuma == === Mfonniyɛ === Yiadom-Boakye adwuma no mu dodow no ara yɛ mfonini ahorow a ɛfa nnipa tuntum a wɔagye din ho. Ne mfonini ahorow no mu dodow no ara yɛ ahintasɛm, na ne kɔla ahorow no yɛ wrɔɔ. N'adwumayɛ mu mfonini a ɛyɛ tuum no ma nkurɔfo te nka sɛ wayɛ komm, na ɛma n'adwumayɛ mu nsɛm no yɛ nea enni awiei.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tate |title=An Introduction to Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/lynette-yiadom-boakye-16784/introduction-lynette-yiadom-boakye |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-24}}</ref>   [[File:Skylark Lynette Yiadom-Boakye 2010.jpg|thumb|right|''Skylark'' (2010) a Lynette Yiadom-Boakye yɛe a wɔde asɛn [[National Gallery of Art]] mu a ɛrɛkyerɛ ''[[Afro-Atlantic Abakɔsɛm]]'' wɔ [[Washington, DC]] (2022)]]Ne mfonini ahorow no taa fa obi a ɔrekenkan ade, ɔregye n’ahome, anaasɛ ɔte tebea a ɛyɛ komm na ɛnyɛ den mu. Nnipa a wɔwɔ ne mfonini ahorow mu no kyerɛ wɔn a woredwen nneɛma ho na wɔn ho adwo wɔn, na ɛnyɛ den sɛ wɔn a wɔhwɛ no pii bɛte ase. Nnipa binom susuw sɛ eyi nti na nkurɔfo ani gye n’adwinni no ho yiye no. Ɔbɔ mmɔden sɛ ɔrenkyerɛ bere pɔtee wɔ n’adwuma mu. Sɛ nhwɛso no, ɔntaa nyɛ mpaboa ho mfonini efisɛ mpaboa betumi akyerɛ bere a mfonini no fi mu. Nnipa dodow no ara a ɔyɛ wɔn ho mfonini no yɛ Afrikafo abusua. == Nneɛma a wɔda no edi == Yiadom-Boakye nkutoo ayɛ ɔyɛkyerɛ ahorow pii a de akyerɛ wɔ tete nneɛma akorae ne abrannaa so wɔ amanaman pii so. Ne dwumadi ahorow a ɛda nsow no bi ne; * ''Any Number of Preoccupations'' (2010). * Studio Museum in Harlem, New York.<ref>{{Citation |last=New Museum |title=Under-Song for A Cipher: An Evening of Readings Selected by Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |date=2017-08-03 |url=https://www.newmuseum.org/event/under-song-for-a-cipher-an-evening-of-readings-selected-by-lynette-yiadom-boakye/ |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Verses After Dusk'' (2015). * Serpentine Galleries, London. * ''A Passion To A Principle'' (2016) * Kunsthalle Basel, Switzerland. * ''Under-Song For a Cipher'' (2017) * New Museum, New York. * ''Fly In League With The Night'' (2022-2023). * Tate Britain, London. === Kuw yikyerɛ ne Nneɛma a wɔda no edi === Ɔde ne ho ahyɛ kuw dwumadi/yikyerɛ ne ɔyɛkyerɛ ahorow bi nso mu, a nea ɛka ho ne; * 55th Venice Biennale (2013). * Sharjah Biennial (2015). * 58th Venice Biennale (2019). * ''Afro-Atlantic Histories'' (2021-2022). Yiadom-Boakye adwuma no ka tete nneɛma akorae ahorow pii a wɔaboaboa ano wɔ United States korabea ahorow no ho. Ebi ne Carnegie Museum of Art, ne Pérez Art Museum Miami collection, ne ''picture King for an Hour'' na wɔde sisii asoeɛ hɔ bere tenten wɔ 2023 mu.<ref>{{Citation |title=Almond Clasp |url=https://artcollection.dcms.gov.uk/artwork/18812/ |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2025-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211053132/https://artcollection.dcms.gov.uk/artwork/18812/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Blackartstory org Editors |title=Profile: Lynette Yiadom-Boakye (1977) |date=2019-09-15 |url=https://blackartstory.org/2019/09/15/profile-lynette-yiadom-boakye/ |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> == Abasobɔde ahorow == Wɔakamfo Yidom-Boakye kɛse wɔ n’adwuma no ho, na wɔadi nkonim, wɔ nkamfo pii a bi nye ma odidi so yi; * Arts Foundation fellowship ma wɔn a woyɛ mfonini (2006).<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette -Yiadom-Boakye-2017 {{!}} Art, Theory, Practice |url=https://art.northwestern.edu/visiting-artists/lynette-yiadom-boakye-2017 |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * Pinchuk Foundation Future Generation Prize (2012).<ref>{{Citation |title=History - English - Future Generation Art Prize |url=https://futuregenerationartprize.org/en/history |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2025-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250523122506/https://futuregenerationartprize.org/en/history |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Next Generation Prize - New Museum of Contemporary Art (2013).<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |url=https://artcollection.dcms.gov.uk/person/yiadom-boakye-lynette/ |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * South Bank Sky Arts Award for Visual Art (2016). * Carnegie Prize at 57th edition of Carnegie International (2018).<ref>{{Citation |last=Andrew Russeth |title=2018 Carnegie International’s Prizes Go to Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, Postcommodity |date=2018-10-13 |url=https://www.artnews.com/art-news/market/2018-carnegie-internationals-top-prizes-go-lynette-yiadom-boakye-postcommodity-11164/ |language=en-US |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Piotr Orlov |title=lynette yiadom-boakye's lovely, 'louder' new paintings |date=2019-01-16 |url=https://afropunk.com/2019/01/lynette-yiadom-boakyes-lovely-louder-new-paintings/ |language=en-US |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2019-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044334/https://afropunk.com/2019/01/lynette-yiadom-boakyes-lovely-louder-new-paintings/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Turner Prize (2013) - Wɔyii no kaa.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tate |title=Turner Prize 2013 artists: Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/other-venue/turner-prize-2013/turner-prize-2013-artists-lynette-yiadom-boakye |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> == Nnwuma a ɛda nsow a Wiase nyinaa de nim no == * ''Nous étions'' (2007), Studio Museum in Harlem, New York.<ref>{{Citation |title=Nous étions |url=https://www.studiomuseum.org/artworks/nous-%C3%A9tions |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''The Fondness'' (2010), Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri<ref>{{Citation |title=The Fondness |url=https://art.nelson-atkins.org/objects/69950/the-fondness? |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Tambourine'' (2010), Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, North Carolina<ref>{{Citation |title=Tambourine |url=https://emuseum.nasher.duke.edu/objects/14670/tambourine?ctx=617a9e25-3250-4848-a540-be89c8efb544&idx=0 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Skylark'' (2010), Museum of Modern Art, New York<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye. Skylark. 2010 {{!}} MoMA |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/273588?artist_id=46962&page=1&sov_referrer=artist |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''King for an Hour'' (2011), Pérez Art Museum Miami<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |url=https://app.cuseum.com/art/king-for-an-hour-2011-lynette-yiadom-boakye |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250523111414/https://app.cuseum.com/art/king-for-an-hour-2011-lynette-yiadom-boakye |archive-date=2025-05-23 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, King for an Hour, 2011, Oil on canvas, 230 x 200 cm {{!}} Perez art museum, Naive art, Art |url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/lynette-yiadomboakye-king-for-an-hour-2011-oil-on-canvas-230-x-200-cm--412923859560851151/ |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Bracken or Moss'' (2012), Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago<ref>{{Citation |title=MCA - Collection: Bracken or Moss {{!}} Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago |url=https://mcachicago.org/collection/items/lynette-yiadom-boakye/3450-bracken-or-moss |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2022-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810030912/https://mcachicago.org/collection/items/lynette-yiadom-boakye/3450-bracken-or-moss |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ''10pm Saturday'' (2012), Tate, London.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tate |title=‘10pm Saturday‘, Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, 2012 |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/yiadom-boakye-10pm-saturday-t13655 |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Siskin'' (2012), Victoria and Albert Museum, London.<ref>{{Citation |last=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |title=Siskin |date=2012 |url=http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1247474/siskin-print-yiadom-boakye-lynette/ |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''A Few For the Many'' (2013), Los Angeles County Museum of Art.<ref>{{Citation |title=A Few For the Many {{!}} LACMA Collections |url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/2114319 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=A Few For the Many, 2013 {{!}} LACMA |url=https://www.lacma.org/node/39534 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Appreciation of the Inches'' (2013), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.<ref>{{Citation |title=Appreciation of the Inches |url=https://www.sfmoma.org/artwork/2014.257/ |language=en-US |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Observer of Spring'' (2013) Museum of Modern Art, Warsaw.<ref>{{Citation |title=LYNETTE YIADOM-BOAKYE {{!}} GaleriaLabirynt |url=https://labirynt.com/stanrzeczy/en/lynette-yiadom-boakye-2/ |language=en-GB |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2025-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250523112354/https://labirynt.com/stanrzeczy/en/lynette-yiadom-boakye-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ''Trapsprung'' (2013), Seattle Art Museum.<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye – Artists – eMuseum |url=https://art.seattleartmuseum.org/people/17522/lynette-yiadomboakye |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Womanology 12'' (2014), National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.<ref>{{Citation |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye - Modern & Contemporary Art Evening Sale London Thursday, March 6, 2025 |url=https://www.phillips.com/detail/lynette-yiadomboakye/UK010125/25 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=ArtMajeur |title=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye: Shaping the Future of Contemporary Portraiture {{!}} ArtMajeur Magazine |url=https://www.artmajeur.com/en/magazine/8-meet-and-discover/lynette-yiadom-boakye-shaping-the-future-of-contemporary-portraiture/337060 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''A Culmination'' (2016), Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland.<ref>{{Citation |title=Kunstmuseum Basel - Sammlung Online - A Culmination |url=https://sammlungonline.kunstmuseumbasel.ch/eMP/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=39666&viewType=detailView |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=zephir.ch |title=#70 Inspired by her – Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |url=https://kunstmuseumbasel.ch/en/visit/blog/2024/70 |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''8am Cadiz'' (2017), Baltimore Museum of Art.<ref>{{Citation |title=8am Cadiz |url=https://collection.artbma.org/objects/98076/8am-cadiz |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23 |archive-date=2022-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016013541/https://collection.artbma.org/objects/98076/8am-cadiz |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ''Medicine at Playtime'' (2017), Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.<ref>{{Citation |title=Medicine at Playtime |url=https://www.moca.org/collection/work/medicine-at-playtime |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''The Much-Vaunted Air'' (2017), Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston.<ref>{{Citation |last=Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |title=The Much-Vaunted Air |date=2017 |url=https://www.icaboston.org/art/lynette-yiadom-boakye/much-vaunted-air/ |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''No Need of Speech'' (2018), Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh.<ref>{{Citation |title=Collection {{!}} Carnegie Museum of Art |url=https://collection.carnegieart.org/ |language=en |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Repose 3'' (2018), Dallas Museum of Art.<ref>{{Citation |title=Dallas Museum of Art |url=https://dma.org/art/collection |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> * ''Shelves for Dynamite'' (2018), Minneapolis Institute of Art.<ref>{{Citation |title=Shelves for Dynamite, 2018 Lynette Yiadom-Boakye |date= |url=https://collections.artsmia.org/art/131150/shelves-for-dynamite-lynette-yiadom-boakye |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref> == Beaɛ a menyaa mmoa fii == <references /> [[Category:AfroCuration Ghana 2025]] b9eqp8x0kvsfy882bt4buqz1i0bloqo