維基大典 zh_classicalwiki https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%9F%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%B8:%E5%8D%B7%E9%A6%96 MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter 媒體 特殊 討論 用戶 用戶討論 維基大典 維基大典討論 檔案 檔案討論 MediaWiki MediaWiki討論 模板 模板討論 說明 說明討論 分類 分類討論 門 議 稿 酌稿 TimedText TimedText talk 模組 模組討論 活動 活動討論 0 17965 449014 444192 2026-11-10T22:49:19Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{國 |國號 = 伊朗伊斯蘭共和國 |國號原文 = جمهوری اسلامی ایران |國旗 = Flag of Iran.svg |國徽 = Emblem of Iran.svg |國家格言 = 獨立，自由，伊斯蘭共和國 |國家格言原文 = استقلال. آزادی. جمهوری اسلامی |國歌 = سرود ملی جمهوری اسلامی ایران<br />伊朗伊斯蘭共和國國歌 |地圖 = Iran (orthographic projection).svg |國體 = [[政教合一]] |領袖 = [[伊朗護法|最高領袖]] 缺<ref>[[二〇二六年]]二月，[[美國|美]][[以色列|以]]聯軍擊伊朗，[[哈梅內伊]]卒於空襲。</ref> |元首 = [[伊朗伊斯蘭共和國總統|總統]] 馬蘇德·裴澤斯基安 |總揆 = |國都 = [[德黑蘭]] |國語 = [[波斯語]] |用語 = [[南阿塞拜疆語]] |人口 = 七千九百八十五萬三千九百 |通貨 = [[伊朗里亞爾]] |產值 = 九千八百八十八億美元 |均有 = 一萬三千美元 |干支 = 壬辰 }} '''伊朗'''者，[[西亞]]之邦也，古號'''[[波斯]]'''，今號'''伊朗伊斯蘭共和國'''。鄰[[伊拉克]]於西，界[[土耳其]]、[[阿塞拜疆]]、[[亞美尼亞]]於西北，瀕[[裏海]]於北，界[[土庫曼]]於東北，接[[阿富汗]]於東，連[[巴基斯坦]]於東南，浸[[波斯灣]]暨[[阿曼灣]]於南。<ref name="MRGI-Iran">{{cite web |title=Iran – Minority Rights Group |url=https://minorityrights.org/country/iran/ |website=Minority Rights Group International |date=June 2025 |access-date=18 April 2026}}</ref>其廣百六十四萬八千一百九十五[[平方公里|方公里]]，其[[生齒|眾]]九千二百萬有奇。天下都邑，列其廣袤與[[戶口|民數]]，斯皆居十有七。分五域三十一省。[[德黑蘭]]者，其[[京|首邑]]也，亦其巨埠暨貨殖之樞焉。 至於其[[教化|化]]，緜延不絕。[[前七世紀|西元前七百載]]，[[米底]]始一其土；[[前六世紀|前六百載]]，[[居魯士大帝|居魯士]]肇[[阿契美尼德王朝|阿契美尼德]]之基，疆宇乃極。[[前四世紀|前四百載]]，[[亞歷山大大帝|亞歷山大]]滅之；<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bivar |first1=Adrian David Hugh |last2=Ghirshman |first2=Roman |display-authors=etal |date=8 November 2024 |title=Ancient Iran |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Iran |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=14 March 2026}}</ref>前三百載，[[安息帝國|安息]]興而復其國；西元[[三世紀|三百載]]，[[薩珊王朝|薩珊]]代之，文物遂臻極盛。書契、稼穡、城郭、教化、官制之興，斯皆有跡。是乃[[瑣羅亞斯德教|祆教]]之鄉也。逮[[七世紀|七百載]]，[[穆斯林征服波斯|大食入]]，乃漸奉[[回教]]。當[[伊斯蘭黃金時代|回教盛世]]暨[[伊朗間奏|波斯復興]]之際，文章、義理、算術、醫藥、星曆、[[繪畫|畫繢]]，靡不維新，[[波斯語]]復振於世。厥後[[塞爾柱帝國|塞爾柱]]、[[花剌子模]]相繼。[[蒙古族|蒙古]]西來，及[[帖木兒帝國|帖木兒]]之世，又一新焉。 西元[[十六世紀|千五百餘年]]，[[薩非王朝|薩非]]起於土著，再一其國，奉[[十二伊瑪目派|什葉]]為國教，今之伊朗實肇於是。逮[[十八世紀|千七百餘年]][[阿夫沙爾王朝|阿夫沙爾]]之世，雄視寰宇；及[[卡扎爾王朝|卡扎爾]]代興，其勢遂替。[[二十世紀|二十稘]]初，[[波斯立憲革命|立憲之變]]作；西元[[一九二五年]]，[[禮薩汗]]廢卡扎爾之末君，肇立[[巴列維王朝|巴列維]]。一九四一年，[[英蘇入侵伊朗|英、蘇入寇]]，其子[[穆罕默德·禮薩·巴列維]]繼統。[[摩薩台]]謀[[伊朗石油國有化|收油之業為公產]]，一九五三年，[[一九五三年伊朗政變|英美合謀而覆之]]。一九七九年，[[伊朗伊斯蘭革命|革變]]既作，君統遂絕。[[霍梅尼]]立回教[[公治]]之制，自為[[伊朗最高領袖|領袖]]。翌年，伊拉克入寇，[[兩伊戰爭|八年之戰]]乃起。自是與[[以色列]]、[[沙特阿拉伯]]屢搆[[代理人戰爭|代理之爭]]；二〇二五年，以色列襲之，遂成[[十二日戰爭|十二日之役]]。戰罷而[[伊朗經濟危機|貨殖日蹙]]，是歲[[2025年至2026年伊朗抗議|民變大作]]，斯乃一九七九年以來所未有也。<ref>{{cite news |title=As protests surge, the Iranian regime's options are narrowing |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2026/01/09/as-protests-surge-the-iranian-regimes-options-are-narrowing |newspaper=The Economist |date=9 January 2026}}</ref>二〇二六年，美以再舉兵，[[刺殺阿里·哈梅內伊|弒其領袖哈梅內伊]]，其子[[穆傑塔巴·哈梅內伊]]繼之。<ref name="Guardian2026">{{cite news |last=Tondo |first=Lorenzo |date=8 March 2026 |title=Ali Khamenei's son Mojtaba chosen as Iran's new supreme leader |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/mar/08/ali-khameneis-son-mojtaba-chosen-as-irans-new-supreme-leader |work=The Guardian}}</ref> == 沿革 == [[File:Choqa Zanbil Darafsh 1 (36).JPG|thumb|right|[[恰高·占比爾]]，兩河以外僅存之塔廟，存者最完]] 人跡之始，遠在八十萬年前。<ref name="bishi">Biglari, F. and Shidrang, S., "The Lower Paleolithic Occupation of Iran", ''Near Eastern Archaeology'' 69 (3–4): 160–168, 2006.</ref>[[扎格羅斯山脈|扎格羅斯]]之麓，舊石之址甚眾，[[尼安德特人|尼安德特]]之遺亦在焉。一萬二千年前，耕稼始興，與[[肥沃月彎]]相望；[[喬加戈蘭]]之地，馴[[二粒小麥]]；[[甘吉達列]]之墟，牧羊之始也。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeder |first1=Melinda A. |last2=Hesse |first2=Brian |title=The Initial Domestication of Goats in the Zagros Mountains 10,000 Years Ago |journal=Science |year=2000 |volume=287 |issue=5461 |pages=2254–2257 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5461.2254 |pmid=10731145}}</ref>[[蘇薩]]之城，肇於前四四〇〇年，後為[[埃蘭]]之都、阿契美尼德之陪京。<ref name="Elam">{{cite book |last=Potts |first=D. T. |title=The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-521-56358-5}}</ref> 前四千年，[[吉羅夫特文化|吉羅夫特]]之城已立；[[原始埃蘭文字|原始埃蘭之書]]，先[[楔形文字|楔文]]而作。高原之西，與[[古代近東|近東]]同其風會：埃蘭而外，[[加喜特人|加喜特]]、[[曼努亞|曼努亞]]、[[古提人|古提]]之屬，錯處其間。前二千年，[[伊朗語族|伊朗之族]]自[[中亞]]徙入。 === 上古 === [[File:Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent according to Oxford Atlas of World History 2002.jpg|thumb|right|阿契美尼德帝國極盛之疆]] 米底之君[[基亞克薩雷斯]]與[[巴比倫]]之[[那波帕拉薩爾]]，前六一二年破[[亞述]]，夷[[尼尼微]]，[[新亞述帝國|亞述]]遂亡；繼滅[[烏拉爾圖]]。<ref>{{cite book |last=Shenkar |first=Michael |title=Intangible Spirits and Graven Images |publisher=Brill |year=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-28148-6 |page=5}}</ref>[[岡比西斯一世]]合[[波斯人|波斯]]諸部；其子居魯士滅米底而建阿契美尼德，為伊朗歷代疆域之最。復克[[呂底亞]]、[[新巴比倫王國|新巴比倫]]，其廣過於亞述；[[岡比西斯二世]]取[[古埃及|埃及]]，[[埃及第二十六王朝|二十六王朝]]以覆。 [[大流士一世|大流士]]既立，都蘇薩而營[[波斯波利斯]]，廣治馳道，[[波斯御道|御道]]自蘇薩而達[[薩第斯]]。<ref>{{cite web |title=Forgotten Empire: the world of Ancient Persia |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |url=http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/persia/darius.html |access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>前四九九年，[[雅典]]助[[米利都]]之叛，焚薩第斯，[[希波戰爭]]遂起。[[馬多尼奧斯]]再取[[色雷斯]]，并[[馬其頓王國|馬其頓]]；<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2011|p=345}}</ref>[[薛西斯一世]]再伐希臘，[[科林斯地峽]]以北盡沒。及[[普拉提亞戰役|普拉提亞]]、[[薩拉米斯海戰|薩拉米斯]]之敗，波斯遂棄歐土。<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2011|pp=135–138, 342–345}}</ref>前三三四年至前三三一年間，亞歷山大三破[[大流士三世]]於[[格拉尼庫斯河戰役|格拉尼庫斯]]、[[伊蘇斯戰役|伊蘇斯]]、[[高加米拉戰役|高加米拉]]，阿契美尼德以亡。亞歷山大既歿，其將[[塞琉古一世]]據伊朗、[[美索不達米亞|兩河]]、[[敘利亞]]、[[安納托利亞]]，是為[[塞琉古帝國|塞琉古]]。 [[File:The Sasanian Empire at its apex under Khosrow II.svg|thumb|right|薩珊帝國極盛之疆，當[[霍斯勞二世]]之世]] [[安息帝國|安息]]之[[阿薩息斯王朝|阿薩息斯]]，本[[帕尼人|帕尼]]之酋，初臣塞琉古，居東北之草原。<ref>{{cite book |last=Venning |first=Timothy |title=A Compendium of World Sovereigns: Volume I Ancient |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-032-36194-9 |page=118}}</ref>漸抗塞琉古之命，前一四二年取[[巴比倫尼亞]]；前一二九年[[安條克七世]]歿，塞琉古之業遂潰，苟延於敘利亞，至前六〇年代為[[羅馬帝國|羅馬]]所并。安息享國五百年，終以內訌而敝；西元二二四年，[[阿爾達希爾一世]]叛而弒[[阿爾達班四世]]，[[薩珊王朝|薩珊]]代興，有伊朗、伊拉克之全，兼[[阿拉伯半島]]、[[高加索]]、[[黎凡特]]暨中南亞之半。<ref>{{cite web |last=Shahbazi |first=Alireza Shapur |title=Sasanian Dynasty |year=2005 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty/ |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>承安息殷富之基，官守嚴密，祆教復振，遂為一統之緒焉。<ref>{{cite book |last=Eiland |first=Murray |title=Atlas of World Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-521583-0 |page=81}}</ref> === 中古 === 薩珊之世，[[拜占庭-薩珊戰爭|與拜占庭構兵]]者累世不已，卒以是而墜。六三二年至六五四年間，[[正統哈里發]]滅之。其民漸奉回教，而舊制舊俗多為新朝所承。<ref name="lewis">{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html |title=Iran in history |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |publisher=Tel Aviv University |access-date=3 April 2007}}</ref>[[倭馬亞王朝|倭馬亞]]之世，官儀吏事多襲波斯，[[中古波斯語]]猶為公文之語，至七世紀之末乃改用[[阿拉伯語]]。<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawting |first=G. R. |title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, AD 661–750 |publisher=Croom Helm |year=1986 |pages=63–64}}</ref>然[[德萊木]]、[[塔巴里斯坦]]、[[達馬萬德山|達馬萬德]]諸地，山川險阻，大食屢攻不下；[[法魯汗大王|法魯汗]]拒[[葉齊德·伊本·穆哈拉卜]]，卒逐之於塔巴里斯坦之外。<ref>{{harvnb|Pourshariati|2008|pp=312–313}}</ref> [[File:Saffarids 900ad.jpg|thumb|right|九〇〇年之薩法爾王朝]] 七四七年至七五〇年間，非阿拉伯之新附者不平於位卑，遂有[[阿拔斯革命]]，[[阿拔斯王朝|阿拔斯]]代倭馬亞而興。<ref>{{cite book |last=Osman |first=Khalil |title=Sectarianism in Iraq |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-138-77946-4 |pages=62–63}}</ref>九、十世紀，哈里發之權漸墜，伊朗諸邦並起，阿拉伯之守遂逐，文教乃復。<ref>{{cite book |last=Mahendrarajah |first=Shivan |title=Iran after the Mongols |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-78672-597-4}}</ref>史家謂之[[伊朗間奏]]：[[塔希爾王朝|塔希爾]]據[[呼羅珊]]，[[薩法爾王朝|薩法爾]]據[[錫斯坦]]，[[薩曼王朝|薩曼]]起於[[布哈拉]]，其疆自伊朗之中以達[[巴基斯坦]]。十世紀之初，[[白益王朝|白益]]入[[巴格達]]而秉政；十一世紀中，為[[塞爾柱帝國|塞爾柱]]所破，突厥遂制阿拔斯焉。 [[伊朗伊斯蘭化|回化]]之事甚緩：九世紀之中，奉回教者纔十之四；十一世紀之末，乃逾九成。<ref>Nasr, Hoseyn, ''Islam and the Plight of Modern Man''.</ref>然波斯之民，雖易其教而不易其文，語言風俗，力自保存，[[波斯化|波斯之化]]反被於阿拉伯、突厥之族焉。<ref>Frye, Richard, ''The Heritage of Persia'', p. 243.</ref> [[File:Map of the Khwarazmian Empire.png|thumb|right|蒙古西征前夕之花剌子模，約一二一五年]] 十三世紀之初，蒙古西來。<ref>{{harvnb|Ward|2009|p=39}}</ref>一二二〇年[[布哈拉之圍|布哈拉陷]]，[[花剌子模]]以亡。<ref>{{cite book |last=Aigle |first=Denise |title=Iran Under the Mongols |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-7556-4573-2 |page=26}}</ref>一二二〇年至一二二一年間，布哈拉、[[撒馬爾罕]]、[[赫拉特]]、[[圖斯]]、[[內沙布爾]]皆夷，屠戮無遺；一二五八年[[巴格達之圍 (1258年)|巴格達破]]，阿拔斯之祚遂終。<ref>{{cite book |last=Lane |first=George E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |chapter=The Mongols in Iran |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |page=250}}</ref>[[蒙哥]]既歿，蒙古內爭，[[忽必烈]]雖立，而其國已裂；西南之地歸[[旭烈兀]]，[[什葉派|什葉]]之學者[[伊本·塔烏斯]]為之出[[法特瓦|教令]]以正其名。[[伊兒汗國]]之世，文教復盛；[[合贊]]奉回教，遂與諸汗異趣。<ref>{{cite book |last=Rossabi |first=Morris |title=The Legacy of Genghis Khan |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2002 |isbn=1-58839-071-3 |page=32}}</ref>一三三五年[[不賽因]]歿，伊兒汗以亂而分，[[札剌亦兒王朝|札剌亦兒]]、[[穆扎法爾王朝|穆扎法爾]]、[[薩爾巴達爾|薩爾巴達爾]]、[[卡爾提德王朝|卡爾提德]]並起。十四世紀之中，[[黑死病]]作，死者三之一焉。 [[File:Empire of Timur and his Campaigns.png|thumb|right|帖木兒之疆與其征伐]] 一三七〇年，[[帖木兒]]興於[[河中地區|河中]]，本[[蒙古]]之裔而突厥其俗。<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2011|p=94}}</ref>一三八一年入伊朗，漸有其地；所至屠城，一三八七年[[伊斯法罕之圍 (1387年)|屠伊斯法罕]]，死七萬人。<ref>{{cite web |title=Isfahan: Iran's Hidden Jewel |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Irans-Hidden-Jewel.html |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=21 June 2013 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=11 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211001746/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Irans-Hidden-Jewel.html }}</ref>[[帖木兒王朝|帖木兒之裔]]守其地至一四五二年，為[[黑羊王朝|黑羊]]所奪；一四六八年[[白羊王朝|白羊]]代之，[[烏尊·哈桑]]及其後嗣主伊朗，至薩非而止。 === 近世 === [[File:Safavid Empire 1501 1722 AD.png|thumb|right|薩非王朝極盛之疆]] 一五〇一年，[[伊斯瑪儀一世]]立薩非之業，史家謂為今伊朗之始。<ref>{{cite web |last=Matthee |first=Rudolph P. |title=Safavid Dynasty |year=2008 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>雖未有邦國之名，而一統之基實肇於此：合其土於本朝之治，定什葉為國教。<ref>{{cite web |last1=Savory |first1=Roger |last2=Karamustafa |first2=Ahmet T. |title=Esmāʿīl I Ṣafawī |year=1998 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>其制百司相察，簿書相稽，杜奸防偽；然非以分權，乃以尊主。王者自稱[[謝里夫|聖裔]]，覽百司之奏而察群吏之行。法人[[沙爾丹]]嘗使其國，記其君之馭下，嚴而近專。<ref>Ferrier, R. W., ''A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire'', p. 71.</ref> 呼羅珊之爭既起，[[阿富汗人|阿富汗]][[霍塔克王朝|霍塔克]]入寇；一七二二年[[伊斯法罕之圍 (1722年)|伊斯法罕陷]]，薩非以覆。自是至一七九六年[[卡扎爾王朝|卡扎爾]]之興，海內鼎沸，薩非不能復，霍塔克不能守，[[納迪爾沙]]立[[阿夫沙爾王朝|阿夫沙爾]]，[[卡里姆汗|卡里姆]]立[[贊德王朝|贊德]]。<ref>{{cite book |last=Aghaie |first=Kamran Scot |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |page=306}}</ref> [[File:Revised Map of the Afsharid Empire.png|thumb|right|阿夫沙爾帝國極盛之疆，一七四一年至一七四五年]] 納迪爾者，論者謂為亞洲末代之大征服者，比之[[拿破崙]]、亞歷山大。<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2008|p=xvii}}</ref>其兵所至，兼有今之阿富汗、亞美尼亞、阿塞拜疆、[[巴林]]、[[格魯吉亞]]、[[印度]]、伊拉克、土耳其、土庫曼、[[阿曼]]、巴基斯坦、[[烏茲別克]]暨[[北高加索]]、波斯灣之地；然黷武無度，國用遂匱。<ref>{{cite web |last=Tucker |first=Ernest |title=Nāder Shāh |year=2006 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>既歿，諸將爭權，阿夫沙爾僅存呼羅珊一隅。贊德之族起於一七五〇年代，其君不稱[[沙阿|沙]]而稱攝政：初奉薩非之裔[[伊斯瑪儀三世]]，後託於國人焉。<ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Patricia L. |title=Iran: The Bradt Travel Guide |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84162-123-4 |page=13}}</ref> [[File:Map Iran 1900-en.png|thumb|right|十九世紀卡扎爾治下之伊朗]] 卡扎爾漸強，與阿夫沙爾、贊德爭衡；一七八九年[[阿迦·穆罕默德汗|阿迦·穆罕默德]]自立，一七九四年滅贊德，一七九六年正位，復擒阿夫沙爾之[[沙魯克沙|沙魯克]]，海內乃一。<ref>{{cite web |last=Perry |first=J. R. |title=Āgā Mohammad Khan Qājār |year=1984 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aga-mohammad-khan/ |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>十九世紀，[[俄波戰爭|與俄羅斯屢戰]]，高加索之地盡失；<ref>{{cite book |last=Dowling |first=Timothy C. |title=Russia at War |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-59884-948-6 |pages=728–729}}</ref>[[英吉利|英]]慮[[英屬印度]]之危，遂經營南陲。二強交爭，而旱潦繼作，一八七〇年至一八七一年[[一八七〇至一八七二年波斯饑荒|大饑]]，死者自數十萬以至四百萬，莫能詳焉。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Okazaki |first=Shoko |title=The Great Persian Famine of 1870–71 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |year=1986 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=183–192 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00042609 |jstor=617680}}</ref> === 現代 === [[File:RezaShahBozorgTakhteJamshid32.jpg|thumb|right|禮薩汗與太子穆罕默德·禮薩於波斯波利斯，約一九三九年]] 一九〇五年至一九一一年，[[波斯立憲革命|立憲之變]]作，議會以立。<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitutional Revolution |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/constitutional-revolution-index/ |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=7 May 2025}}</ref>一九二一年[[一九二一年波斯政變|兵變]]既作，巴列維代卡扎爾而興。[[禮薩汗]]立專制之治，尚[[伊朗民族主義|民族]]、尚武備、尚[[伊朗世俗主義|世俗]]、抑[[共產主義|共產]]，嚴禁言路而張官宣；<ref>Zirinsky, Michael P., "Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926", ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 24 (1992), 639–663.</ref>更張軍政財賦，凡十有六年。<ref name="Columbia">{{cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |edition=6th |year=2007 |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Reza Shah Pahlevi}}</ref>譽之者謂其立法度、興學校、通舟車、置電話；毀之者謂其吏蠹橫恣，警察之治而已，所謂維新，徒具其表。<ref name="Ervand">Abrahamian, Ervand, ''History of Modern Iran'' (2008), p. 91.</ref> 一九四一年，[[德意志]]既攻蘇聯，伊朗以為德必勝，拒英蘇逐德僑之請；八月，二國入寇，[[伊朗軍]]不能禦。<ref name="Stewart">Richard Stewart, ''Sunrise at Abadan: the British and Soviet Invasion of Iran, 1941'' (1988).</ref>自是伊朗為[[租借法案|美援]]輸蘇之孔道，號稱[[波斯走廊]]，而名義中立。禮薩汗見廢，子[[穆罕默德·禮薩·巴列維]]立。一九四三年[[德黑蘭會議]]，[[斯大林]]、[[羅斯福]]、[[丘吉爾]]共宣，許其戰後之獨立與疆界焉。 [[File:Pahlavi family coronation (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|一九六七年穆罕默德·禮薩之加冕，伊朗末次之典]] 一九五一年，相[[摩薩台]]奏請收英屬油業為國有，[[阿巴丹危機|阿巴丹之釁]]遂起。英雖封鎖以脅之，其議不改。一九五二年摩薩台罷相，國人洶洶，旋復其位；一九五三年八月，禁衛之校[[納西里]]謀變不成，沙出奔。八月十九日，退將[[扎黑迪]]舉事，[[美利堅合眾國|美]]之中情、[[英吉利|英]]之軍情陰助之，號曰阿賈克斯，號曰長靴。<ref name="BBC53">{{cite news |title=CIA documents acknowledge its role in Iran's 1953 coup |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23762970 |work=BBC News |access-date=20 August 2013}}</ref>謗書既播，摩薩台遂去位，繫獄論叛，減死而錮於家；其外相[[法特米]]則棄市。扎黑迪繼相，盡抑[[民族陣線 (伊朗)|民族陣線]]與[[伊朗人民黨|人民黨]]之眾。 自是至於革命，沙以美之力而專其政。嘗行[[白色革命|白色之新政]]，變經濟、易社會、均田畝、修官制；然教中之士多非之，田制之效亦互見。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/White-Revolution |title=White Revolution (Iran) |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 December 2022}}</ref>一九七八年，民怨大熾，日日聚眾，沙乃戒嚴；眾至數十萬而不散，軍發銃於市，是為[[黑色星期五 (1978年)|黑色星期五]]。 [[File:Imam Khomeini in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|right|一九七九年二月一日，霍梅尼歷十四年之流亡而歸]] 其變之盛，與者逾國人十之一；古今革命，能得百之一者已鮮矣。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kurzman |first=Charles |year=2003 |title=The Qum Protests and the Coming of the Iranian Revolution |journal=Social Science History |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=287–325 |doi=10.1017/S0145553200012554}}</ref>怨沙之深，故雖世俗與左黨之流，議論素不同者，亦相率而附[[霍梅尼]]。沙不能支，出走而託政於攝政之會。<ref name="Chamber">{{cite web |title=History of Iran: Islamic Revolution of 1979 |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php |website=Iran Chamber |access-date=16 March 2023 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=21 October 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021153717/http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php }}</ref>[[巴赫蒂亞爾]]主其會，迎霍梅尼自海外歸；霍梅尼既至，誓覆其政而許以自由之選。兩黨構兵，巴赫蒂亞爾易服而遁。 一九七九年三月三十一日，[[一九七九年伊朗伊斯蘭共和國公投|國人投票]]，議廢君統而立回教共和，允者百取九十九有奇。乃立[[伊朗憲法制定議會|制憲之會]]，十二月而憲成，霍梅尼遂為[[伊朗最高領袖|最高領袖]]。舊之市易資本，一變而為回教之經制：工商收於官，庠序律令一以教法為斷，西土之風悉在所禁。<ref name="Khomeini">{{cite web |last=Afari |first=Janet |title=Ruhollah Khomeini |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ruhollah-Khomeini |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2025}}</ref> [[File:Chemical weapon1.jpg|thumb|right|兩伊戰爭中之伊朗士卒，戴禦毒之具]] 沙既失位，往美就醫；國人疑其將復辟，一九七九年十一月四日，諸生[[伊朗人質危機|入美使館]]，指為諜藪，執其屬五十有二人，凡四百四十四日乃釋。<ref name="carterpbs">PBS, ''American Experience'', "444 Days: America Reacts". Retrieved 1 October 2007.</ref>一九八〇年至一九八三年[[伊朗文化革命|文化革命]]，異議者盡去，[[1981年至1982年伊朗大屠殺|且有殺戮之獄]]。<ref name="b372">{{cite journal |last=Nasiri |first=Shahin |title=Clerical Sovereignty and its Absolute Others: Religious Genocide in Iran |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2025 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2025.2566533}}</ref> 伊拉克之[[薩達姆·侯賽因|薩達姆]]乘其亂、乘其兵之弱、乘其與西土之隙，一九八〇年九月二十二日[[伊拉克入侵伊朗|入寇]][[胡齊斯坦省|胡齊斯坦]]，[[兩伊戰爭]]遂起。初，伊拉克頗有所得；一九八二年，伊朗反攻而復其疆。<ref name="Blair">{{cite news |last=Blair |first=David |date=18 June 2025 |title=Deep in a bunker, Iran's supreme leader faces a dilemma |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2025/06/18/will-iran-supreme-leader-drink-his-cup-of-poison/ |work=The Telegraph}}</ref>霍梅尼欲西輸其教於伊拉克什葉之眾，戰至一九八八年，乃曰「飲此鴆酒」而受[[聯合國]]之調停。死者約五十萬人；戰中薩達姆屢用[[伊拉克化學武器計劃|毒氣]]焉。<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harris |first1=Shane |last2=Aid |first2=Matthew M. |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/26/exclusive-cia-files-prove-america-helped-saddam-as-he-gassed-iran/ |title=Exclusive: CIA Files Prove America Helped Saddam as He Gassed Iran |work=Foreign Policy |date=26 August 2013}}</ref> [[File:Ayatollah Ali Khamenei at the Great Conference of Basij members at Azadi stadium October 2018 033.jpg|thumb|right|哈梅內伊於[[阿扎迪體育場]]之[[巴斯基]]大會，二〇一八年十月]] 一九八九年，霍梅尼疾革，命二十五人之會改憲，立[[阿里·哈梅內伊]]為嗣。<ref>Abrahamian, ''History of Modern Iran'' (2008), p. 182.</ref>哈梅內伊無霍梅尼之望，然結軍旅、握[[伊朗宗教基金會|教產]]，其權遂固。<ref>Abrahamian, Ervand, "Who's in Charge?", ''London Review of Books'', 6 November 2008.</ref>[[拉夫桑賈尼]]為總統，專務興利，不悖教旨；一九九七年[[哈塔米]]代之，倡言路、通歐亞、開市易。二〇〇五年，[[內賈德]]以強硬得位，主核事，敵以色列、沙特、英美，為歷任總統見召於議會問政之始。<ref>{{cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18328882 |work=BBC News}}</ref>二〇一三年[[魯哈尼]]立，稍寬其禁，尤重婦人之權，且通書函以修外好。<ref>{{cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |date=19 September 2013 |title=Hassan Rouhani sets out his vision for a new and free Iran |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/19/hassan-rouhani-vision-iran-free |work=The Guardian}}</ref> 二〇一五年，[[伊朗核問題全面協議|維也納之約]]成，伊朗與[[五常加一]]暨[[歐洲聯盟|歐盟]]議定：弛其[[對伊朗制裁|制裁]]，而限其[[濃縮鈾]]之制。<ref>{{cite web |last=Kutsch |first=Tom |date=14 July 2015 |title=Iran, world powers strike historic nuclear deal |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/7/14/iran-world-powers-strike-historic-nuclear-deal.html |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>二〇一八年，美之[[唐納德·特朗普|特朗普]]毀約而復其禁，於是伊朗之核，遂近[[核門檻|門檻]]之地。<ref>{{cite news |last=Brewer |first=Eric |date=25 June 2024 |title=Iran's New Nuclear Threat |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/iran/irans-new-nuclear-threat |work=Foreign Affairs}}</ref> 二〇二〇年，[[伊斯蘭革命衛隊|革命衛隊]]之將[[蘇萊曼尼]]——國中權位之亞者——[[刺殺卡西姆·蘇萊曼尼|為美所殺]]，兩國之釁益深。<ref name="Roelants">Carolien Roelants, in a debate on ''Buitenhof'', Dutch television, 5 January 2020.</ref>伊朗[[烈士蘇萊曼尼行動|以彈道之矢報之於伊拉克美壘]]，為美人所受彈道之襲最鉅者，傷腦者百有十人。是年一月八日，衛隊誤擊[[烏克蘭國際航空752號班機]]，死者一百七十六人，舉國譁然；察之而後承其罪焉。<ref>{{cite news |date=11 January 2020 |title=Demands for justice after Iran's plane admission |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-51077788 |work=BBC News}}</ref> 二〇二一年，強硬之[[萊希]]繼魯哈尼；在位而濃縮益進，阻國際之察，入[[上海合作組織|上合]]與[[金磚國家|金磚]]，助[[俄羅斯]]之征[[烏克蘭]]，復與沙特通好。二〇二四年四月，以色列[[以色列空襲伊朗駐大馬士革領事館|襲其駐大馬士革之館]]，殺衛隊之將；伊朗[[2024年4月伊朗襲擊以色列|以無人之機、巡弋與彈道之矢報之]]，中以色列者九。此役也，[[無人機|無人之機]]所發最眾，為古今之最；彈道之矢，亦伊朗有史以來之最；且為其直擊以色列之始，亦一九九一年以來以色列受國家直擊之始。<ref>{{cite news |last=Johny |first=Stanly |date=14 April 2024 |title=By attacking Israel, Iran turns shadow war into direct conflict |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/analysis-three-takeaways-from-irans-attack-on-israel/article68064678.ece |work=The Hindu}}</ref> 同年五月，萊希[[2024年瓦爾扎甘直升機墜毀事故|墜機而歿]]，改革之[[佩澤希齊揚]]代之。十月，以復[[哈尼亞]]、[[納斯魯拉]]之仇，發彈道一百八十枚；以色列則襲其軍壘。<ref>{{cite news |title=What we know about Israel's attack on Iran |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cgr0yvrx4qpo |work=BBC News |access-date=31 December 2024}}</ref>二〇二五年五月，令逐[[伊朗阿富汗人|阿富汗之僑]]四百萬人。<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran tells millions of Afghans to leave or face arrest on day of deadline |work=Al Jazeera |date=6 July 2025 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/7/6/iran-tells-millions-of-afghans-to-leave-or-face-arrest-on-day-of-deadline}}</ref> 自二〇二三年以還，[[抵抗軸心|其黨其援]]相繼傾覆，伊朗遂孤。<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran's leader hopes America can save his faltering regime |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2025/05/01/irans-leader-hopes-america-can-save-his-faltering-regime |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>二〇二五年，核事驟進；六月，[[國際原子能機構]]議其違約，伊朗遂宣新廠之啟。<ref name="Euronews">{{cite news |title=UN nuclear watchdog finds Iran in non-compliance with its obligations |url=https://www.euronews.com/2025/06/12/un-nuclear-watchdog-finds-iran-in-non-compliance-with-nuclear-obligations |work=Euronews |date=12 June 2025}}</ref>六月十三日，以色列大舉空襲，毀其核所，殲其將帥；伊朗以矢報之，[[十二日戰爭]]成。<ref>{{cite news |last=Shotter |first=James |display-authors=etal |date=13 June 2025 |title=Israel launches air strikes against Iran commanders and nuclear sites |url=https://www.ft.com/content/46b1a363-c805-4800-abbf-6b47b9602ef2 |work=Financial Times}}</ref>六月二十二日，[[美國空襲伊朗核設施|美襲其核所]]；伊朗[[2025年伊朗襲擊烏代德空軍基地|擊美壘於卡塔爾]]。二十四日，賴美之勸，兩國乃休兵。<ref>{{cite news |date=23 June 2025 |title=Trump says Iran and Israel agree to a ceasefire |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/trump-says-iran-israel-agree-ceasefire-2025-06-23/ |work=Reuters}}</ref> 十二月以還，貨殖既困，民變大作，遍於通都大邑，聲言廢共和之政。<ref>{{cite news |last1=Parent |first1=Deepa |last2=Christou |first2=William |date=31 December 2025 |title='We want the mullahs gone': economic crisis sparks biggest protests in Iran since 2022 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/dec/31/we-want-the-mullahs-gone-economic-crisis-sparks-biggest-protests-in-iran-since-2022 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>二〇二六年一月十三日，[[2026年伊朗網絡中斷|網禁既嚴]]，死者已逾一萬二千；<ref>{{cite news |title=At least 12,000 killed in Iran crackdown during internet blackout |date=13 January 2026 |url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202601130145 |work=Iran International}}</ref>至十七日，[[2026年伊朗大屠殺|死者一萬六千五百]]，傷者三十三萬焉。<ref>{{cite news |last=Lamb |first=Christina |date=17 January 2026 |title=Iran report says 16,500 dead in 'genocide under digital darkness' |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/middle-east/article/iran-young-protesters-news-nsdztp5t2 |work=The Sunday Times}}</ref>二月二十八日，美以合兵[[2026年伊朗戰爭|大舉]]；是日哈梅內伊見弒，三月一日其國乃承之。三月八日，[[伊朗專家會議|專家之會]]八十八人，一辭而推其子穆傑塔巴為領袖。<ref name="AlJazeera2026">{{cite news |date=8 March 2026 |title=Who is Mojtaba Khamenei, Iran's new supreme leader amid war? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2026/3/8/who-is-mojtaba-khamenei-a-contender-for-irans-leadership-amid-war |work=Al Jazeera}}</ref> == 輿地 == [[File:Iran-geographic map.svg|thumb|right|伊朗地勢之圖]] 其境當北緯二十四度至四十度、東經四十四度至六十四度之間，為亞洲全境之邦第六大、西亞第二大。地在[[環太平洋火山帶|震帶]]之上，十年而一遇七級之震，其震多淺，故為害尤烈，[[2003年巴姆地震|巴姆之難]]是也。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/which-country-has-most-earthquakes |title=Which country has the most earthquakes? |publisher=United States Geological Survey |date=2 May 2010 |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref>其形以[[伊朗高原]]為主，西南則踞[[阿拉伯板塊]]。 山之多，甲於天下：[[高加索]]、[[扎格羅斯山脈|扎格羅斯]]、[[厄爾布爾士山脈|厄爾布爾士]]，皆峙於西；[[達馬萬德山|達馬萬德]]高五千六百一十公尺，為亞洲第一火山。千載以來，山川之勢，實左右其政其貨焉。北則[[裏海]]之濱，[[希爾卡尼亞森林|希爾卡尼亞之林]]蔚然；東則[[卡維爾沙漠|卡維爾]]、[[盧特沙漠|盧特]]二漠，鹹湖散布。盧特之地，二〇〇五年測得地表七十又十分之七度，為寰宇之至熱。<ref>{{cite web |date=5 April 2012 |title=Where Is the Hottest Place on Earth? |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/HottestSpot |website=NASA Earth Observatory |access-date=31 December 2023}}</ref>平原之廣者，在裏海之岸與波斯灣之北，[[阿爾萬德河]]之口；餘則零落於灣濱、[[霍爾木茲海峽]]與阿曼灣之間。 [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map IRN present.svg|thumb|right|伊朗氣候之圖]] 氣候之殊亦甚：或旱或半旱，而裏海之濱則近亞熱。<ref name="Haftlang">{{cite book |last=Kiyani Haftlang |first=Kiyanoosh |title=The Book of Iran: A Survey of the Geography of Iran |year=2003 |publisher=Alhoda UK |isbn=978-964-94491-3-5 |page=17}}</ref>北陲罕降冰點，暑亦不過二十九度；歲雨東平六百八十公厘，西則逾一千七百公厘。然[[聯合國]]駐使謂：水之匱乏，今日伊朗人安之至患也。<ref>{{cite news |last=Moghtader |first=Michelle |date=3 August 2014 |title=Farming reforms offer hope for Iran's water crisis |work=Reuters |access-date=4 August 2014}}</ref>扎格羅斯之谷，冬嚴而雪厚；中東二盆，歲雨不及二百公厘，暑至三十八度；南濱冬煦而夏溽，歲雨百三十五至三百五十五公厘焉。<ref name="Nagarajan">{{cite book |last=Nagarajan |first=R. |title=Drought Assessment |publisher=Springer |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-481-2500-5 |page=383}}</ref> [[File:Persian Leopard sitting.jpg|thumb|right|[[波斯豹]]，伊朗高原之屬]] 山居十之六，林不及十之一。<ref>Rouchiche, Salah and Haji Mirsadeghi, M.A., "Role of Planted Forests and Trees Outside Forests in Sustainable Forest Management: Islamic Republic of Iran", August 2002.</ref>官有林野一億二千萬公頃。林分五域：北曰希爾卡尼亞，中曰[[圖蘭]]，西曰扎格羅斯而多櫟，南曰波斯灣之濱，西北曰[[阿拉斯巴蘭]]而多異種。草木八千二百餘種，[[伊朗國家公園列表|保區]]二百有奇，[[國家公園]]三十焉。獸則蝙蝠三十四種，[[獴]]、[[豺]]、[[狼]]、[[狐]]、[[鬣狗]]、[[豹]]、[[猞猁]]、[[棕熊]]、[[黑熊]]之屬；蹄類則[[野豬]]、[[盤羊]]、[[摩弗倫羊]]、[[馬鹿]]、[[鵝喉羚]]。<ref name="Firouz">{{cite book |last=Firouz |first=Eskandar |title=The Complete Fauna of Iran |year=2005 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-946-2}}</ref>[[亞洲獵豹]]瀕絕而僅存於此；[[亞洲獅]]與[[裏海虎]]，則二十世紀之初已絕矣。<ref>{{cite book |last=Guggisberg |first=C. A. W. |year=1961 |title=Simba: The Life of the Lion |publisher=Howard Timmins}}</ref>禽逾五百七十種，[[雉]]、[[鷓鴣]]、[[鸛]]、[[鷹]]、[[隼]]之屬皆備焉。 == 政事 == [[File:Portrait of Mojtaba Khamenei.jpg|thumb|right|最高領袖穆傑塔巴·哈梅內伊]] 其制曰[[神權政治|教權]]之[[伊斯蘭共和國|共和]]，權之極歸於[[伊朗最高領袖|最高領袖]]。雖有選舉，而元首與兵柄不與焉。論者謂其為[[威權主義|威權]]之政，以其[[伊朗人權|人權]]之弊、集會言路之禁、[[伊朗媒體|報章]]之錮，暨待[[伊朗婦女權利|婦人]]、[[伊朗少數民族|異族]]、異議之酷，屢見譏於天下。<ref name="freedom">{{cite web |title=Iran: Freedom in the World 2025 Country Report |publisher=Freedom House |year=2025 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/iran/freedom-world/2025 |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref>其[[伊朗經濟|貨殖]]則官計為主，大業多歸於公。以[[化石燃料]]之富、[[伊朗天然氣|天然之氣]]、[[石油]]之藏、形勝之要，兼為[[什葉派|什葉]]之宗主，故稱[[地區大國|一方之雄]]焉。<ref name="Buzan">{{cite book |last=Buzan |first=Barry |title=The United States and the Great Powers |publisher=Polity Press |year=2004 |page=71 |isbn=978-0-7456-3375-6}}</ref>[[伊朗核計劃|其核之事]]，為天下所共察者。今有[[伊朗世界遺產列表|世界遺產]]二十有九，居寰宇第十；[[非物質文化遺產]]則第四焉。 最高領袖者，號曰「拉赫巴爾」，元首也，總攬國是。總統之權，遠不及之：要職之任，非其許不立；外交之柄，一決於己。<ref name="reuters18">{{cite news |date=8 January 2018 |title=In jab at rivals, Rouhani says Iran protests about more than economy |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-rallies-rouhani/in-jab-at-hardliners-rouhani-says-iran-protests-were-not-only-economic-idUSKBN1EX0S9 |work=Reuters}}</ref>防、諜、外三部之長，皆由總統薦而己定之。外部所司，惟儀節而已；駐阿拉伯諸邦之使，[[聖城軍]]擇之，而聖城軍直隸領袖。<ref name="aawsat">{{cite news |last=Taheri |first=Amir |date=25 September 2017 |title=Khamenei Orders New Supervisory Body to Curtail Government |url=https://english.aawsat.com/amir-taheri/features/khamenei-orders-new-supervisory-body-curtail-government |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |access-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083335/https://english.aawsat.com/amir-taheri/features/khamenei-orders-new-supervisory-body-curtail-government |archive-date=10 October 2017 |dead-url=yes}}</ref>其令可改成法；所領[[霍梅尼令執行部|之產業]]，二〇一三年估值九百五十萬萬圓，其簿冊雖議會亦不得見。<ref name="Setad">{{cite news |title=Exclusive: Khamenei's business empire gains from Iran sanctions relief |work=Reuters |date=22 January 2014 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-setad-sanctions-exclusive/exclusive-khameneis-business-empire-gains-from-iran-sanctions-relief-idUSBREA0L1CO20140122}}</ref>又總[[伊朗武裝部隊|三軍]]，握兵諜之政，宣戰議和之權專焉；[[伊朗司法總監|司法之長]]、國家聲影之司、警軍之帥、[[憲法監護委員會|監護之會]]，皆其所命。 [[伊朗專家會議|專家之會]]，掌推立與廢黜領袖之事。<ref name="loc">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm |title=Iran – The Constitution |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=14 April 2006}}</ref>然自來未嘗一駁其議、一議其廢；前司法之長[[拉里賈尼]]且謂其會監領袖為非法。<ref name="Alsalmi">{{cite news |last=Alsalmi |first=Adil |url=http://english.aawsat.com/2015/12/article55345842/55345842 |title=Controversy in Iran Surrounding the Supervision of the Supreme Leader's Performance |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |date=15 December 2015}}</ref>故論者多謂其徒具儀文而無實柄。<ref>{{cite news |title=Myths and Realities of Iran's Parliamentary Elections |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/02/iran-parliamentary-elections-assembly-of-experts/470580/ |work=The Atlantic |date=23 February 2016}}</ref>二〇二五年，[[卡內基國際和平研究院|卡內基]]之[[薩賈德普爾]]謂其國有二治並行：一屬兵諜，直隸領袖，掌核事、掌外援、掌鎮壓執質行刺之務；一屬使臣議士，得對西土之媒，而於核事所知甚淺。<ref name="Sanger">{{cite news |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |last2=Barnes |first2=Julian E. |date=3 February 2025 |title=Iran Is Developing Plans for Faster, Cruder Weapon, U.S. Concludes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/03/us/politics/iran-nuclear-weapon.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref>[[林茨]]嘗論曰：伊朗之制，兼[[極權主義|極權]]之教旨與[[威權主義|威權]]之有限多元焉。<ref>Juan José Linz, ''Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes'' (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.</ref> [[File:Presidential Administration of Iran building.jpg|thumb|right|德黑蘭[[巴斯德街]]之總統府]] [[伊朗總統|總統]]者，政首也，位亞於領袖，四年一選，[[普選|國人共舉]]之；然候選之人，必先經監護之會所核。<ref>{{cite web |date=9 June 2024 |title=Council of Guardians |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Council-of-Guardians |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=6 July 2024}}</ref>會之委皆領袖所命，而領袖亦得罷總統。<ref>{{cite news |last=Gladstone |first=Rick |title=Is Iran's Supreme Leader Truly Supreme? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/05/world/middleeast/iran-president-ebrahim-raisi.html |work=The New York Times |date=5 August 2021}}</ref>連任以一為限。總統主[[最高國家安全委員會]]，經議會之允而得宣戒嚴。其職在奉憲行令，凡領袖所定之大政，皆總統行之，而領袖有終決之權。<ref name="leader">{{cite web |title=Leadership in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran |url=http://www.leader.ir/langs/en/index.php?p=leader_law |access-date=21 June 2013}}</ref>盟約之署、國計之編、官吏之選，皆須領袖之可。命卿貳者，須議會與領袖並允，而領袖得罷之復之。<ref name="bbcvp">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8168202.stm |title=Iranian vice-president 'sacked' |date=25 July 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref>副總統八人，卿二十有二，皆總統所命焉。 [[憲法監護委員會|監護之會]]，員十有二，皆領袖所命；總統與議員之候，皆須其核，以驗其忠。<ref>{{cite book |last=Mallat |first=Chibli |title=The Renewal of Islamic Law |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53122-1}}</ref>領袖亦得自核，且得覆其會之議。其職有三：駁議會之法、監選舉之事、核候選之人。<ref name="IDP">{{cite web |title=The Guardian Council |url=https://irandataportal.syr.edu/the-guardian-council |website=Iran Data Portal |access-date=7 September 2022}}</ref>法之可廢者二：曰悖[[沙里亞|教法]]，曰悖憲章。 [[File:Iranian Parliament 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[伊斯蘭議會]]之署]] [[伊斯蘭議會|議會]]者，一院之制，員二百九十，四年一易。<ref name="Majlis">{{cite web |url=http://www.electionguide.org/country.php?ID=103 |title=IFES Election Guide |access-date=18 June 2011}}</ref>掌立法、批盟約、定國計；然其議其人，皆須監護之會所可，且會得黜已選之議員。<ref>{{cite news |last=Dehghan |first=Saeed Kamali |date=15 April 2016 |title=Iran bars female MP for 'shaking hands with unrelated man' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/15/iran-bars-female-mp-for-shaking-hands-with-unrelated-man |work=The Guardian}}</ref>無會則議會之議不立，會之駁權絕對焉。[[確定國家利益委員會|權衡之會]]，調議會與監護之爭，且為領袖之顧問，權柄之重，冠於諸司。<ref>{{cite news |title=Expediency council |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/expediency_council.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=3 February 2008}}</ref>選區二百有七，而少數之教得五席焉。 法制以[[賈法里學派|賈法里]]之教法為本，兼采[[大陸法系|民法]]。領袖命[[伊朗最高法院|最高法院]]之長與檢察之長。庭有數等：公庭治民刑之獄，[[伊斯蘭革命法庭|革命之庭]]治危國之罪，其判終審而不得訴。司法之長總其政，兼為最高法院之首席，薦司法之卿而總統擇之，任以五年，得再。[[特別教士法庭]]治教士之罪，間及編氓，獨立於常制而惟領袖是聽，其判亦不得訴焉。<ref name="Judiciary">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php |title=The Structure of Power in Iran |publisher=Iran Chamber |date=24 June 2005 |access-date=18 June 2011}}</ref> 其國[[單一制|一統]]之制，分三十一省，各以其大邑為治所；省長由[[伊朗內政部|內政部]]薦而閣議可之。<ref name="IMF2002">{{cite web |title=Islamic Republic of Iran: Report on the Observance of Standards and Codes |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2002/cr02267.pdf |date=2 December 2002 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> === 邦交 === [[File:Diplomatic relations of Iran.svg|thumb|right|與伊朗有邦交之國]] 通好者一百六十五國，惟美與以色列不與焉；一九七九年既絕以色列之承認矣。<ref name="Mousavian">{{cite book |last1=Mousavian |first1=Seyed Hossein |last2=Shahidsaless |first2=Shahir |title=Iran and the United States |year=2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-62892-870-9 |page=33}}</ref>與沙特以教旨而相攻；與土耳其嘗[[伊土關係|角逐]]於[[敘利亞]]、[[利比亞]]、[[南高加索]]，然於[[庫爾德民族主義|庫爾德之分]]與[[卡塔爾斷交事件|卡塔爾之難]]則利害相同。與[[塔吉克]]最親，以語文同源也；<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=Rollie |title=Central Asia and Its Asian Neighbors |publisher=RAND Corporation |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8330-3878-4 |pages=11–18}}</ref>與巴基斯坦亦厚，以[[俾路支分離主義|俾路支之患]]相共也。 其所結曰[[抵抗軸心]]，以抗美與以色列之勢：[[黎巴嫩]]之[[真主黨]]、伊拉克之[[人民動員部隊]]、[[也門]]之[[胡塞武裝]]為其大者，[[哈馬斯]]與[[巴勒斯坦]]諸部亦時預焉。<ref name="Hubbard">{{cite news |last1=Hubbard |first1=Ben |last2=Rubin |first2=Alissa J. |date=30 September 2024 |title=Facing a Big Test, Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' Flails |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/30/world/middleeast/iran-axis-of-resistance.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref>與伊拉克、黎巴嫩貨殖相貫，而敘利亞尤稱至親；<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria and Iran: What's Behind the Enduring Alliance? |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/syria-and-iran-whats-behind-the-enduring-alliance/ |website=Brookings |access-date=8 May 2024}}</ref>二〇二四年十二月[[阿薩德政權垮台|阿薩德既覆]]，其勢大挫。俄羅斯者，市易之要與也，二國同受西土之禁，兵貨相通；<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Iran and Russia can dodge Western sanctions |url=https://www.dw.com/en/why-iran-and-russia-can-dodge-western-sanctions/a-68928255 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=1 May 2024}}</ref>西亞諸邦，惟伊朗嘗見招於[[集體安全條約組織]]。與[[中國]]之交，貨殖尤密，二〇二一年訂[[中伊二十五年合作計劃|二十五年之約]]，兼政、兼略、兼商；<ref>{{cite web |date=27 March 2021 |title=Iran-China to sign 25-year cooperation pact |url=https://arab.news/9v6ju |website=Arab News}}</ref>二國之往還，遠自前二〇〇年焉。<ref>{{cite web |last=Garver |first=John W. |date=11 December 2006 |title=Twenty Centuries of Friendly Cooperation: The Sino-Iranian Relationship |url=https://www.theglobalist.com/twenty-centuries-of-friendly-cooperation-the-sino-iranian-relationship/ |website=The Globalist}}</ref>又天下罕有兼善[[朝鮮民主主義人民共和國|北韓]][[大韓民國|南韓]]者，伊朗其一也。所預之國際會社數十，[[石油輸出國組織|石油輸出國]]、[[伊斯蘭合作組織]]、[[國際原子能機構]]、[[不結盟運動]]之屬皆與焉。 === 兵備 === [[File:Sejjil missile launch - November 2008 (21).jpg|thumb|right|[[流星-3|塞吉爾]]之矢；伊朗為天下第六之矢國，第五之[[高超音速武器|超音速矢]]國]] 兵制統於一：曰[[伊朗伊斯蘭共和國軍|正軍]]，有陸、空、防空、海四部；曰[[伊斯蘭革命衛隊|革命衛隊]]，有陸、天、海、聖城、[[巴斯基]]五部；曰[[伊朗警察|警軍]]，如[[憲兵]]之職。正軍禦外侮，衛隊則防內變、防政奪、防外干焉。<ref>{{cite news |title=Profile: Iran's Revolutionary Guards |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7064353.stm |work=BBC News |date=18 October 2009}}</ref>二〇一九年，美列衛隊於[[恐怖組織]]之籍，為列外國之官署為恐怖者之始。<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-to-designate-iranian-guard-corps-a-foreign-terrorist-organization-11554499401 |title=U.S. to Designate Iranian Guard Corps a Foreign Terror Group |date=5 April 2019 |work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>自一九二五年，凡男子年十八者，服役十有四月。 現役六十一萬，預備三十五萬，合逾百萬；受兵訓者之比，冠於寰宇。<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Seth G. |chapter=Regular Military Power |pages=19–27 |title=Containing Tehran |date=2020 |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies |isbn=978-1-4422-8149-3}}</ref>巴斯基之眾二千萬，可即調者六十萬，預備三十萬，急則可徵百萬；警軍二十六萬。現役之數居天下第七，陸軍與甲兵之眾居第九，其[[陸軍航空兵|陸航]]之機甲於中東。<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran – Army Navy Air Force |url=https://armedforces.eu/Iran |website=ArmedForces |access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>兵費列天下二十之內：二〇二一年增至二百四十六萬萬圓，當其富百取二有奇，而衛隊居其三分之一焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=25 April 2022 |title=World military expenditure passes $2 trillion for first time |url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2022/world-military-expenditure-passes-2-trillion-first-time |website=SIPRI |access-date=10 December 2023}}</ref> 革命以還，外禁既嚴，遂自製[[坦克|戰車]]、[[裝甲運兵車|甲車]]、[[飛彈|飛矢]]、[[潛艇|潛舟]]、[[驅逐艦|驅艦]]、[[雷達]]、[[直升機|旋翼]]、[[戰鬥機|戰機]]之屬。<ref name="Askari">{{cite book |last1=Askari |first1=Hossein |last2=Mohseni |first2=Amin |title=The Militarization of the Persian Gulf |publisher=Edward Elgar |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84980-186-7 |page=93}}</ref>矢術尤精：彈道之藏，多且雜，甲於中東；[[高超音速武器|超音速之矢]]，天下惟五國能之，伊朗與焉。<ref>{{cite web |last=Motamedi |first=Maziar |date=6 June 2023 |title=Fattah: Iran unveils its first hypersonic missile |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/6/fattah-iran-unveils-its-first-hypersonic-missile |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>[[無人機]]之製亦繁；[[網絡戰|網戰]]之能，亦列五強，論者謂其為「國際網域最活躍者之一」焉。<ref>{{cite news |title=How Iran's political battle is fought in cyberspace |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8505645.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=20 December 2023}}</ref>俄既購其無人之機以攻烏克蘭，二〇二三年十一月，伊朗遂訂約而購[[蘇-35戰鬥機|蘇三十五]]之機、[[米-28|米二十八]]之翼暨防空之器焉。<ref>{{cite news |date=28 November 2023 |title=Iran Finalizes Deal to Buy Russian Fighter Jets |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/iran-finalizes-deal-to-buy-russian-fighter-jets---tasnim-/7373046.html |work=Voice of America}}</ref> === 核事 === [[核武器|核]]之議，肇於一九五〇年代。<ref>{{cite news |date=28 January 2007 |title=An atomic threat made in America |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/nation-world/chi-061209atoms-day1-story-htmlstory.html |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>一九七〇年代之初，沙復振其議，謂石油有盡，當豫圖代薪。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cumings |first1=Bruce |last2=Abrahamian |first2=Ervand |title=Inventing the Axis of Evil |date=2004 |publisher=New Press |isbn=978-1-56584-904-4 |page=137}}</ref>革命而後益張，[[核燃料循環|燃料之環]]與濃縮之能，遂為列邦所爭議、所制裁。<ref>{{cite web |date=20 February 2012 |title=Iran's Nuclear Program |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |url=http://www.cfr.org/iran/irans-nuclear-program/p16811 |access-date=1 May 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=20 February 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220182315/http://www.cfr.org/iran/irans-nuclear-program/p16811 }}</ref>二〇一五年之約既毀於美，伊朗自二〇一九年漸弛其守，二〇二〇年遂宣盡去其限。<ref>{{cite news |date=7 July 2019 |title=Iran nuclear deal: Government announces enrichment breach |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48899243 |work=BBC News}}</ref>二〇二三年十一月，濃縮已及百取六十，去兵器之度不遠；<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Francois |date=15 November 2023 |title=Iran's nuclear enrichment advances as it stonewalls UN, IAEA reports show |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-nuclear-enrichment-advances-it-stonewalls-un-iaea-reports-show-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters}}</ref>論者已有以核國目之者矣。<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Avner |date=21 March 2024 |title=Has Iran become a de facto nuclear state? |url=https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2024-03-21/ty-article-opinion/.premium/has-iran-become-a-de-facto-nuclear-state/0000018e-61d8-d507-a1cf-63de494b0000 |work=Haaretz}}</ref> === 民權之議 === [[File:EvinHouseofDetention.jpg|thumb|right|[[埃溫監獄]]之門，立於一九七二年]] 其政之待民也，屢見責於萬國之會與列邦：異議者輒繫，[[伊朗LGBT權益|同性之愛]]不見於律而[[同性戀死刑|論死]]，<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran defends execution of gay people |url=https://www.dw.com/en/iran-defends-execution-of-gay-people/a-49144899 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=12 June 2019}}</ref>[[伊朗死刑|大辟]]之行，人均之數甲於天下。<ref>{{cite news |last=Lynch |first=Colum |date=27 October 2015 |title=Iran Wins World Record for Most Executions Per Capita |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/10/27/rouhani-zarif-state-department-human-rightsiran-wins-world-record-for-most-executions-per-capita/ |work=Foreign Policy}}</ref>聯合國特使[[雷曼]]報其歧異族之弊；<ref>{{cite news |date=22 October 2019 |title=Iran: UN expert says ethnic, religious minorities face discrimination |work=OHCHR |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2019/10/iran-un-expert-says-ethnic-religious-minorities-face-discrimination}}</ref>二〇二二年，諸使請止其虐異教，謂[[巴哈伊教]]之徒或繫或黜於庠序或毀其居。<ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Rights experts urge Iran to end 'systematic persecution' of religious minorities |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/08/1125162 |website=UN News}}</ref>二〇二四年，特使之察謂一九八一年至一九八二年之屠與一九八八年之戮，皆[[種族滅絕|滅族]]之罪焉。<ref name="Shahin">{{cite journal |last=Nasiri |first=Shahin |title=Clerical Sovereignty and its Absolute Others: Religious Genocide in Iran |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=25 September 2025 |volume=28 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2025.2566533}}</ref>言路之錮，亦冠於寰宇；<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran |url=https://rsf.org/en/iran |website=Reporters Without Borders |access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref>[[伊朗網絡審查|網禁]]尤嚴，社交之壇多見閉。 民變屢作：二〇〇九年疑選而起，二〇一七年以貧而起，繫者數千；<ref>{{cite news |date=24 January 2019 |title=Iran arrested 7,000 in crackdown on dissent during 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-46984649 |work=BBC News}}</ref>二〇一九年十一月，油價驟增三倍，變起[[阿瓦士]]而遍於國，[[2019年伊朗網絡中斷|斷網一旬]]，繫者以萬計，死者數百，[[國際特赦組織]]所記也。<ref>{{cite news |title=Special Report: Iran's leader ordered crackdown on unrest |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-protests-specialreport/special-report-irans-leader-ordered-crackdown-on-unrest-do-whatever-it-takes-to-end-it-idUSKBN1YR0QR |work=Reuters}}</ref>二〇二二年九月，[[瑪莎·阿米尼之死|阿米尼死於警]]，[[瑪莎·阿米尼抗議|變又大作]]；聯合國謂其鎮壓為[[危害人類罪]]焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=8 March 2024 |title=Iran committed crimes against humanity during protest crackdown, UN says |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/8/iran-committed-crimes-against-humanity-during-protest-crackdown-un-says |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> == 貨殖 == [[File:Tehran Stock Exchange 3513534.jpg|thumb|right|[[德黑蘭證券交易所]]]] 以平價計，其富列天下第十有九。其制半官半私：石油與大業歸公，村農與小賈歸私。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.traveldocs.com/ir/economy.htm |title=Iran economy |access-date=18 June 2011}}</ref>服賈之利最厚，次以工礦，次以稼穡。<ref>{{cite web |title=Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/iran/overview |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>油藏當天下十之一，氣藏十之一有半，故稱[[能源超級大國|能源之雄]]；[[德黑蘭證券交易所]]所列之業四十有奇。德黑蘭者，貨殖之樞也：官吏十之三、大廠十之四有半在焉，而其工之半食於官。<ref name="Cordesman">Cordesman, Anthony H., "The US, Israel, the Arab States and a Nuclear Iran", Center for Strategic and International Studies, 23 September 2008.</ref>[[伊朗中央銀行]]掌[[伊朗里亞爾|里亞爾]]之政。工會非官立者不得立。<ref name="ayatoil">{{cite news |title=Iran's banned trade unions: Aya-toiling |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21576408 |newspaper=The Economist |date=20 April 2013}}</ref>二〇一〇年秋，首行[[全民基本收入|國民基本之給]]，為天下之始。<ref>{{cite news |date=23 June 2011 |title=Iran's bold economic reform: Economic jihad |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/06/23/economic-jihad |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>二〇二二年，失業者百取九。 國用之絀，久為痼疾，[[伊朗補貼|補貼]]之厚使然：糧與油尤甚，二〇二二年獨能源一項已耗百萬萬圓。<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202205093109 |title=Senior Official Says Iran Paying $100 Billion In Energy Subsidies |work=Iran International |date=9 May 2022 |access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref>二〇一〇年之議，欲漸汰之而代以濟貧之給，使價歸於市而利均於民。所產之業，車輿、輓運、材木、器用、飲食、軍械、藥石、資訊、石化，皆冠於中東；[[杏]]、[[櫻]]、[[黃瓜]]、[[椰棗]]、[[無花果]]、[[開心果]]、[[榅桲]]、[[核桃]]、[[奇異果]]、[[西瓜]]之出，並列天下五強。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=FAOSTAT |website=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref>然[[對伊朗制裁|列邦之禁]]，傷其國本；<ref name="everend">{{cite news |title=Iran and sanctions: When will it ever end? |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2012/08/18/when-will-it-ever-end |newspaper=The Economist |date=18 August 2012}}</ref>物價之騰，糧價尤劇，論者歸咎於衛隊之預農商與[[抵抗軸心|外援]]之靡費焉。<ref>{{cite book |last=Wehrey |first=Frederic |chapter=Economic Expansion: The IRGC's Business Conglomerate and Public Works |date=2009 |title=The Rise of the Pasdaran |pages=55–76 |publisher=RAND Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4620-8}}</ref> [[File:Kish Island, Persian Gulf, Iran.jpg|thumb|right|[[基什島]]，歲迎遊者千二百萬]] 遊觀之業，[[2019冠狀病毒病疫情|疫]]前驟盛：二〇一九年迎客近九百萬，其長率居天下第三。<ref>{{cite web |date=18 August 2019 |title=Iran's tourist arrivals grow to over 8 Million: Minister |url=https://en.irna.ir/news/83911482/ |website=Islamic Republic News Agency |access-date=7 December 2023}}</ref>二〇二三年增四十有三取百，迎客六百萬；<ref>{{cite news |date=28 May 2024 |title=Six million foreign tourists visited Iran in one year |work=Islamic Republic News Agency |url=https://www.irna.ir/news/85492058/}}</ref>免簽之國六十。所樂遊者，都下之外，[[伊斯法罕]]、[[設拉子]]、[[馬什哈德]]為最。內遊之盛，亦冠寰宇，二〇二一年費三百三十萬萬圓焉。<ref name="BYI">{{cite book |last1=Ayse |first1=Valentine |last2=Nash |first2=Jason John |title=The Business Year 2013: Iran |publisher=The Business Year |year=2013 |page=166 |isbn=978-1-908180-11-7}}</ref> [[File:Ali Azad.jpg|thumb|right|北伊朗[[班德佩]]之稻田]] 田可耕者三之一，而實墾者十之一有二，其中三之一得灌溉，餘皆恃天雨。<ref>{{cite web |title=Agriculture in Iran |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/agriculture-in-iran |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=19 February 2016}}</ref>西與西北之土最沃；[[糧食安全|食足之數]]約百取九十有六。牧地當全境百取三，多在山原與漠緣。漁利之厚，賴裏海、波斯灣、阿曼灣與諸川：一九五二年收商漁於官，南海歲獲七十萬噸；內水之獲，自一九七六年一千一百噸增至二〇〇四年十一萬有奇。<ref name="loc3">{{cite web |title=Country Studies: Iran |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/ |website=Library of Congress |access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref>[[魚子醬]]之出與輸，甲於天下，歲逾三百噸焉。<ref name="caviar">{{cite news |date=19 June 2001 |title=Crunch time for Caspian caviar |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1394717.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref> [[File:IKCO Reera 01 2023-09-01.jpg|thumb|right|伊朗車輿之製列天下第十六，[[伊朗霍德羅|霍德羅]]甲於中東]] 二〇二四年，車輿之製列天下第十有六，過於英、[[意大利|意]]、俄；<ref>{{cite web |date=30 March 2024 |title=Iran takes world's 16th place in car manufacturing: OICA |url=https://en.mehrnews.com/news/213366/ |website=Mehr News Agency |access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref>二〇二三年造車百十八萬八千輛，輸於[[委內瑞拉]]、俄羅斯、[[白俄羅斯]]。工業之長率，自二〇〇八年之六十九位躍居二〇〇九年之二十八。<ref>{{cite web |date=27 February 2010 |title=Iran advances 41 places in industrial production |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/215089/ |website=Tehran Times |access-date=10 January 2024}}</ref>其工師承外邦之役者，築[[伊朗水壩列表|堤堰]]、[[伊朗交通|橋道]]、屋宇、鐵軌、[[伊朗發電廠列表|電廠]]暨油氣石化之廠；二〇一一年，六十六司作業於二十七國，十年之間輸技逾二百萬萬圓焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=1 April 2011 |title=Iran doing industrial projects in 27 countries |url=https://en.mehrnews.com/news/45255/ |website=Mehr News Agency |access-date=10 January 2024}}</ref>大廠十之四有半在德黑蘭。零售之事，多歸合作之社與[[巴扎|巴札]]之賈；食貨之市，價由官定。<ref>{{cite web |date=3 April 2012 |title=SCT – Shopping Centers Today Online |url=http://www.icsc.org/srch/sct/sct0907/feature_iran.php |access-date=10 January 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=3 April 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403073459/http://www.icsc.org/srch/sct/sct0907/feature_iran.php }}</ref>[[伊朗拖拉機製造公司|拖車之司]]甲於中東；營造之業，歲值三百八十四萬萬圓；有屋者百取七十焉。<ref name="austrade">{{cite web |url=http://www.austrade.gov.au/Construction-to-Iran/default.aspx |title=Construction to Iran |publisher=Austrade |access-date=9 February 2007 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=6 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306065159/http://www.austrade.gov.au/Construction-to-Iran/default.aspx }}</ref>礦藏之富，列天下十五之內；堰壩電廠，自能營之；[[燃氣輪機|燃氣]]、[[蒸汽輪機|蒸汽]]之機，天下能製者六國而已，伊朗與焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=12 October 2012 |title=Official: Iran now among world's 6 turbine manufacturers |url=http://www.tehrantimes.com/economy-and-business/99706 |website=Tehran Times }}{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[File:South Pars Onshore Facilities (8).jpg|thumb|right|[[南帕爾斯/北方氣田|南帕爾斯氣田]]，寰宇最大之氣田，藏天下氣之百取八]] 石油者，其國之命脈也。二〇二三年，產原油日三百六十萬桶，當天下百取四，輸值三百六十萬萬圓，為外匯之大宗。<ref name="oilexport">{{cite web |date=2 April 2024 |title=Iran's oil exports reached $35 billion in last 12 months |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/irans-oil-exports-reached-35-billion-last-12-months-ilna-2024-04-02/ |website=Reuters}}</ref>油氣之藏，約一萬二千萬萬桶：油居天下十之一而列第三，氣居十之一有半而列第二，產氣則第三。二〇一九年得南方油田，藏五百萬萬桶；<ref>{{cite news |date=10 November 2019 |title=Iran oil: New field with 53bn barrels found |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50365235 |work=BBC News}}</ref>二〇二四年四月，復得頁岩之藏十處，凡二十六萬萬桶。<ref>{{cite web |date=2 April 2024 |title=Iran discovers giant shale oil reserves in several regions |url=https://en.mehrnews.com/news/213440/ |website=Mehr News Agency}}</ref>其器十之六七自製：輪機、泵、觸媒、[[煉油廠|煉廠]]、[[油輪]]、[[鑽井平台|鑽台]]、管道、探器之屬。電力之置三十三吉瓦，氣者十之七有半，油者十之二不足，水者十之一不足。二〇〇四年始置風力與地熱之廠，二〇〇九年始置日光之廠；[[氣製油|氣化為油]]之術，天下第三國也。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/Iran-Besieged-by-Gasoline-Sanctions-Develops-GTL-to-Extract-Gasoline-from-Natural-Gas.html |title=Iran Develops GTL to Extract Gasoline from Natural Gas |publisher=Oilprice.com |access-date=7 February 2012}}</ref>二〇一一年，[[布什爾核電站|首座核廠]]乃啟。<ref name="nuclearprofile">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Iran: Country Profile |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=18 June 2011}}</ref>然雖擁能源之富，自二〇二四年以來[[伊朗能源危機|電力屢絕]]，其困亦甚矣。<ref>{{cite news |date=24 February 2025 |title=Energy shortages force Iran to cut workweek to two, three days |url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202502248976 |work=Iran International}}</ref> === 學術 === [[File:Incoming Students Celebration 98 Faculty of Marine Engineering AmirKabir University of Technology.jpg|thumb|right|德黑蘭[[阿米爾卡比爾理工大學]]之諸生]] 雖見禁於列邦，而學術頗有可觀。[[生物化學與生物物理研究所]]有[[聯合國教育、科學及文化組織|教科文]]之講席；二〇〇六年，[[羅揚研究所|羅揚]]之士[[克隆|複製]]羊而成。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=17674 |title=The first successfully cloned animal in Iran |date=30 September 2006 |access-date=21 June 2013}}</ref>[[幹細胞]]之研列天下十強，[[納米技術|微技]]之學列第十有五。<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran Ranks 15th in Nanotech Articles |work=Bernama |date=9 November 2009 |url=http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v5/bm/newsworld.php?id=453647 |access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref>僑居海外者，尤多創獲：一九六〇年[[賈萬]]共製[[氣體激光器|氣體之激光]]，[[扎德]]創[[模糊集合|模糊之集]]；<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-bisc.cs.berkeley.edu/Zadeh-1965.pdf |title=Fuzzy Sets |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |引月日=2026-07-23 |archivedate=2007-11-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127005930/http://www-bisc.cs.berkeley.edu/Zadeh-1965.pdf }}</ref>[[穆西萬德]]創[[人工心臟|人工之心]]之先制，[[拉赫巴爾]]得[[糖化血紅蛋白|糖化血色]]之驗。[[弦論]]之作，多刊於伊朗。<ref name="Nasr2007">{{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Vali |title=The Shia Revival |year=2007 |publisher=W.W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-06640-1 |page=213}}</ref>二〇一四年，[[米爾札哈尼]]為婦人得[[菲爾茲獎]]之始，亦伊朗人之始焉。<ref>{{cite web |last=Mathis-Lilley |first=Ben |title=A Woman Has Won the Fields Medal for the First Time |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2014/08/12/first_female_fields_medal_winner_maryam_mirzakhani_of_stanford.html |website=Slate |date=12 August 2014}}</ref> 自一九九六年至二〇〇四年，論著幾十倍其初，其長率居天下第一，中國次之。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm |title=Economics |date=18 October 2006 |access-date=18 June 2011 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=26 April 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426170542/http://en.allexperts.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm }}</ref>然亦有可議者：二〇一九年之察，撤稿之率冠於寰宇，萬篇之中十有五有半；偽評、剽竊、造數之弊，屢見不鮮，天下撤稿最多之三十二人，伊朗有其二焉。<ref>{{cite news |title=Academic misconduct: Are we progressing or going backwards? |url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20250305070534841 |work=University World News |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref>二〇二五年，[[全球創新指數]]列第七十。<ref>{{cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/iran |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> [[File:Safir navid 1.jpg|thumb|right|二〇一二年[[信使號運載火箭|信使]]之發]] [[伊朗航天局]]立於二〇〇四年；二〇〇九年，以自製之[[信使號運載火箭|信使]]送[[希望號衛星|希望]]之星入軌，適當革命三十年之期，為天下第九能自造星、自造箭而自發之國。<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=Brian |last2=Smid |first2=Henk H. F. |title=Emerging Space Powers |year=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-0874-2 |page=293}}</ref>二〇二四年一月，[[蘇拉亞衛星|蘇拉亞]]之星入七百五十公里之軌，為其所至之最高；<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran says it launched a satellite despite Western concerns |url=https://www.dw.com/en/iran-says-it-launched-a-satellite-despite-western-concerns/a-68041834 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=21 January 2024}}</ref>同月，復以[[西莫爾格運載火箭|西莫爾格]]之箭一舉而送三星，為其國之始。<ref>{{cite news |date=28 January 2024 |title=Iran launches three satellites into space |url=https://apnews.com/article/iran-satellite-launch-us-ballistic-missiles-israel-hamas-74bcd3eb7e48a31be4f52b8d86d24721 |work=AP News}}</ref>二月，復假俄之力，送[[帕爾斯一號]]之星；二〇二二年[[海亞姆衛星|海亞姆]]之星亦然，二國之學術，其密如此。<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran launches 'domestically developed' imaging satellite from Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/29/iran-launches-domestically-developed-imaging-satellite-from-russia |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=15 March 2024}}</ref> 電信之業，幾盡歸官，[[伊朗電信公司]]主之。二〇二〇年，用高速之網者七千萬人；其長率逾二十取百，居天下五強，且嘗以通鄉野之信而受教科文之褒。惟其速甚遲：動網居天下第七十有五，定網第一百五十有三焉。<ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Speed in Iran is at Regional Bottom |url=https://iranopendata.org/en/pages/internet-speed-in-iran-is-at-regional-bottom |website=Iran Open Data |date=8 March 2024 |access-date=5 July 2024}}</ref> == 民教 == [[File:Iran ethnoreligious distribution 2004.jpg|thumb|right|伊朗族類分布之圖]] 生齒之增甚驟：一九五六年一千九百萬，二〇二三年二月已八千五百萬。<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Information |url=https://amar.org.ir/statistical-information |website=Statistical Centre of Iran |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref>然[[生育率|婦人之產]]，自六有半而降至一有七，歲長率不過百取一有奇；<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roser |first=Max |date=19 February 2014 |title=Fertility Rate |url=https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref>推之至二〇五〇年，殆止於一萬零五百萬而已。<ref name="payvand">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html |title=Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFPA |access-date=18 October 2006 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=27 December 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227193340/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html }}</ref>寓公之眾，亦甲寰宇，近百萬人，多自阿富汗、伊拉克而來；二〇二五年，阿富汗之僑估四百萬焉。<ref>{{cite news |title='They threw us out like garbage': Iran rushes deportation of four million Afghans before deadline |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jul/07/iran-rushes-deportation-4-million-afghans-deadline-women-repression |work=The Guardian |date=7 July 2025}}</ref>憲載：凡國人皆當得養老、失業、殘疾、災患、醫藥之給，取諸賦稅與公捐焉。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/77421/june2003/ppt/w1/iran.pdf |title=Iran Social Security System |publisher=World Bank |year=2003 |access-date=30 November 2015 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=8 December 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208125524/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/77421/june2003/ppt/w1/iran.pdf }}</ref>城居之長，亦天下之最：一九五〇年城民十之二有七，二〇〇二年已十之六。<ref name="payvand2">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1135.html |title=Iran: Focus on reverse migration |website=Payvand |access-date=17 April 2006 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=11 January 2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040111013930/http://www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1135.html }}</ref>民聚於西半，尤在北、西北與西。德黑蘭九百四十萬，馬什哈德三百四十萬，伊斯法罕二百二十萬，為其三大焉。 族類之數，議者不一，以其國未嘗以族計籍也。二〇〇三年之估：[[波斯人]]百取五十有一，[[伊朗阿塞拜疆人|阿塞拜疆]]二十有四，[[吉拉基人|吉拉基]]與[[馬贊德蘭人|馬贊德蘭]]八，[[伊朗庫爾德人|庫爾德]]七，[[伊朗阿拉伯人|阿拉伯]]三，[[盧爾人|盧爾]]二，[[俾路支人|俾路支]]二，[[伊朗土庫曼人|土庫曼]]二，餘一。<ref>{{cite book |last=Tohidi |first=Nayareh |title=Contemporary Iran |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-537849-8 |page=300}}</ref>[[美國國會圖書館]]二〇〇八年之估則異：波斯六十有五（兼吉拉基、馬贊德蘭），阿塞拜疆十有六，庫爾德七，盧爾六，阿拉伯二，俾路支二，突厥諸部一，餘不及一。<ref>{{cite web |last1=Curtis |first1=Glenn E. |last2=Hooglund |first2=Eric |date=May 2008 |title=Country Profile: Iran |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |publisher=Library of Congress |page=5}}</ref>近歲鎮壓之酷，異族所受尤重，聯合國之察言之。<ref>{{cite web |title=Minorities in Iran have been disproportionally impacted in ongoing crackdown |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/08/minorities-iran-have-been-disproportionally-impacted-ongoing-crackdown |website=OHCHR |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> [[File:I am Cyrus, Achaemenid King - Pasargady01.jpg|thumb|right|「朕居魯士王，阿契美尼德也」；[[古波斯語|古波斯]]、[[埃蘭語|埃蘭]]、[[阿卡德語|阿卡德]]三體，在[[帕薩爾加德]]]] 國語曰[[波斯語]]，官書所用也。<ref name="AO">{{cite web |title=Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran, Article 15 |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/government/laws/constitution_ch02.php |website=Iran Chamber Society |access-date=9 June 2023 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=30 July 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730024031/https://www.iranchamber.com/government/laws/constitution_ch02.php }}</ref>他若[[吉拉基語|吉拉基]]、[[馬贊德蘭語|馬贊德蘭]]行於北，[[塔里什語|塔里什]]行於[[吉蘭省|吉蘭]]之半，[[庫爾德語]]萃於[[庫爾德斯坦省|庫爾德斯坦]]，[[盧里語|盧里]]、[[拉里語|拉里]]行於南。[[阿塞拜疆語]]為少數之語最盛者，與諸[[突厥語族|突厥之言]]行於[[伊朗阿塞拜疆|阿塞拜疆]]之地。<ref>Annika Rabo, Bo Utas, ''The Role of the State in West Asia'', Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2005, {{ISBN|91-86884-13-1}}.</ref>又有[[亞美尼亞語|亞美尼亞]]、[[格魯吉亞語|格魯吉亞]]、[[新亞拉姆語|新亞拉姆]]、阿拉伯之屬；[[切爾克斯語|切爾克斯]]之言，昔盛而今已同化盡矣。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-iv--2 |title=Georgia viii: Georgian communities in Persia |last=Oberling |first=Pierre |date=7 February 2012 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=9 June 2014}}</ref> [[File:RezaShrine.jpg|thumb|right|馬什哈德[[伊瑪目禮薩聖陵]]，國中至聖之所]] 十二伊瑪目之什葉為國教，奉者百取九十至九十五；<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |date=25 June 2025 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/ |access-date=29 June 2025 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=5 May 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505102855/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/ }}</ref>[[遜尼派|遜尼]]之徒百取五至十，多守[[哈乃斐派|哈乃斐]]之學。遜尼、[[基督教]]、[[猶太教]]、祆教為官所認，議會有其席。<ref name="Brock">Colin Brock, Lila Zia Levers, ''Aspects of Education in the Middle East and Africa'', Symposium Books, 2007, {{ISBN|1-873927-21-5}}, p. 99.</ref>[[雅爾桑教|雅爾桑]]者，庫爾德之土教也，眾五十萬至百萬。<ref>{{harvnb|Hamzeh'ee|1990|p=39}}</ref>[[巴哈伊教]]獨不見認，革命而後[[迫害巴哈伊教徒|見迫尤甚]]。<ref name="ihrdc">{{cite web |author=Iran Human Rights Documentation Center |year=2007 |title=A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran |url=http://www.iranhrdc.org/english/pdfs/Reports/bahai_report.pdf |access-date=19 March 2007 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=11 June 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611140854/http://www.iranhrdc.org/english/pdfs/Reports/bahai_report.pdf }}</ref>無教者不見於律，棄回教者且獲罪焉。<ref name="euaa">{{cite web |title=Individuals perceived to have committed blasphemy and/or apostasy |website=European Union Agency for Asylum |date=2025 |url=https://www.euaa.europa.eu/country-guidance-iran-2025/33-individuals-perceived-have-committed-blasphemy-andor-apostasy-including-converts-and-atheists |access-date=15 May 2026}}</ref>猶太之眾，於回教之國、於中東而言，除以色列外莫之或先；<ref>{{cite web |title=Jewish Population of the World |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-population-of-the-world |website=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref>基督之徒二十五萬至三十七萬，為所認之最大者，多[[伊朗亞美尼亞人|亞美尼亞]]之裔，[[伊朗亞述人|亞述]]次之。官助修其教堂，二〇一九年以伊斯法罕[[萬克主教座堂]]列世界遺產，凡三堂入焉。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1262/ |title=Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran |website=UNESCO World Heritage Convention |access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref> [[File:TehranUniversityEntrancePanorama.jpg|thumb|right|[[德黑蘭大學]]，一八五一年立，伊朗最古之學]] 學政集於中央：[[伊朗教育部|教育部]]掌蒙學以至中學，[[伊朗科學研究與技術部|科技部]]掌高等。二〇一六年，十五齡以上識字者百取八十有六，男九十而女八十有一；官費於學者，當其富百取四。<ref>{{cite web |date=27 November 2016 |title=Iran (Islamic Republic of) |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/ir |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=29 July 2020}}</ref>入大學者，須卒中學而中[[伊朗大學入學考試|國試]]，多先為預科一二年。學位之階：二年曰副，四年曰學士，二年曰碩，復試而後可以求博焉。<ref name="wes">{{cite web |url=http://www.wes.org/ca/wedb/iran/firedov.htm |title=World Education Profiles: Iran |access-date=7 February 2012}}</ref> 醫政則官、私與義社並行。天下惟伊朗許[[器官貿易|市易臟器]]。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Movassagh |first=Hooman |date=24 April 2016 |title=Human Organ Donations under the "Iranian Model" |journal=Indiana Health Law Review |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=82–118 |doi=10.18060/3911.0013}}</ref>設[[基層醫療|基層之網]]甚廣，故童殤產亡之數大減，壽算日增。醫學之著，居天下第十有七，冠於中東北非；產出之指，第十有六。<ref>{{cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Iran health care ranking |url=https://kentaltravel.com/blog/iran-health-care-ranking/ |website=Kental Travel |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref>[[醫療旅遊|就醫之遊]]，亦漸盛焉。二〇一六年，有醫保者十之九。<ref>{{cite web |date=17 August 2016 |title=Iran Health Insurance in Brief |url=http://www.arkanteb.com/site/en/tips/69-iran-health-insurance-in-brief.html |access-date=1 January 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=17 August 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817173914/http://www.arkanteb.com/site/en/tips/69-iran-health-insurance-in-brief.html }}</ref> == 文藝 == [[File:Mirror Hall by Kamal-ol-molk.JPG|thumb|right|[[卡邁勒·穆爾克]]《[[戈勒斯坦宮]]鏡廳》，論者謂伊朗新藝之始]] 文物之富，冠絕古今：[[伊朗建築|營造]]、繪事、文章、音律、冶金、琢石、織作、[[書法|書勢]]、雕塑，無所不精。鄰邦之風，時有所受；而波斯之藝，亦與[[伊斯蘭藝術|回教之藝]]相灌注焉。自阿契美尼德以降，歷代之朝廷主其風尚，所遺之精者，多出官匠之手。回教密飾之法，幾何為骨，入伊朗而益雅：草木之文糅[[中國]]雲氣之樣，禽獸之形小而點綴其間。薩非之世，此法遍於百工，而畫工為之倡焉。<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |last2=Komaroff |first2=Linda |title=The Art of the Safavids before 1600 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/safa/hd_safa.htm |date=October 2002 |access-date=6 July 2024}}</ref> 薩珊之藝，號為中興，中古之世，影被歐亞。<ref name="Afari">{{cite web |last=Afari |first=Janet |title=Iran |year=2006 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106324/Iran |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 October 2007}}</ref>薩非之世，號為黃金之期，其風被於[[鄂圖曼帝國|鄂圖曼]]、[[蒙兀兒帝國|蒙兀兒]]、[[德干蘇丹國|德干]]，而其[[波斯園林|園囿]]之制，十一至十七世紀之歐洲亦效之。<ref>{{cite book |last=Canby |first=Sheila R. |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2002 |title=The Golden Age of Persian Art: 1501–1722 |isbn=978-0-7141-2404-9}}</ref>今世之藝，肇於卡扎爾朝之畫師[[卡邁勒·穆爾克]]，變舊法而尚寫真；一九二八年立新校，繼有所謂「茶肆之風」者。二戰而後，西風漸染，前衛之士乃出；一九四九年，德黑蘭首開新藝之肆曰阿帕達納。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gumpert |first1=Lynn |last2=Balaghi |first2=Shiva |title=Picturing Iran: Art, Society and Revolution |page=48 |year=2002 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-883-0}}</ref>一九五〇年代得官之獎，[[格里戈里安]]之流遂顯焉。<ref name="IrMo">{{cite web |title=Art in Iran xi. Post-Qajar |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/art-in-iran-xi-post-qajar- |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref> [[File:Chehel Sotoun.jpg|thumb|right|伊斯法罕[[四十柱宮]]，薩非之世所建，世界遺產]] 營造之術，遠肇前五千年，其跡自今之土耳其、伊拉克，以達烏茲別克、塔吉克，自高加索以至[[桑給巴爾]]。早用算術、幾何與星曆之法，故其結構與文飾兼美，<ref>{{cite book |last=Pope |first=Arthur Upham |title=Persian Architecture |publisher=George Braziller |location=New York |date=1965 |page=266}}</ref>而所寓者，天象之義也。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ardalan |first1=Nader |last2=Bakhtiar |first2=Laleh |title=The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture |date=2000 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-1-871031-78-2}}</ref>古之門闕宮寺而外，德黑蘭諸邑近歲興築尤盛。古蹟之富，列教科文之籍第七。<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran's archaeological sites |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/iran-tour.htm |access-date=18 June 2011}}</ref>[[伊朗世界遺產列表|世界遺產]]二十有九，冠於中東而居寰宇第十：[[波斯波利斯]]、[[伊瑪目廣場|世界之圖廣場]]、恰高·占比爾、帕薩爾加德、[[戈勒斯坦宮]]、[[巴姆城堡]]、[[貝希斯敦銘文]]、[[焦赫特|焦赫特之城]]、蘇薩、[[塔赫特·蘇萊曼]]、希爾卡尼亞之林、[[亞茲德]]之城，皆在焉。[[非物質文化遺產]]二十有六，居天下第四。<ref>{{cite web |date=8 December 2023 |title=Iran secures 5th place worldwide for UNESCO-listed intangible treasures |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/492297/ |website=Tehran Times |access-date=12 January 2024}}</ref> [[File:Pazyryk carpet.jpg|thumb|right|[[巴澤雷克地毯]]，約前四〇〇年，存世最古之毯]] [[波斯地毯|織毯]]之藝，肇於[[青銅時代|青銅之世]]，為波斯文物之最著者。或出遊牧之部，或出村邑之肆，或出宮廷之工，三途並進，而其史其俗其族之異，皆寓於文樣之間。凡[[基里姆|基里姆]]、[[蘇馬克毯|蘇馬克]]、[[蘇扎尼|蘇扎尼]]之屬，雖非絨織，亦其緒餘也。天下手織之毯，伊朗出其四分之三，據市易十之三；<ref name="Goswami">{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=K. K. |title=Advances in Carpet Manufacture |year=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-585-9 |page=148}}</ref>二〇一〇年，[[法爾斯省|法爾斯]]與[[卡尚]]之織法，並入非遺之籍。<ref>{{cite web |title=Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Fars |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-skills-of-carpet-weaving-in-fars-00382 |website=UNESCO |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref>[[大不里士]]、[[克爾曼]]、[[內沙布爾]]、馬什哈德、卡尚、伊斯法罕、[[納因]]、[[庫姆]]所出，各擅其法、其材、其色、其樣；[[古希臘]]之著述已稱道之矣。 [[File:Hafez 880714 095.jpg|thumb|right|[[哈菲茲]]之墓]] 文章之緒，始於[[阿維斯陀語|阿維斯陀]]，祆教聖典所用之古語也。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Malandra |first=W. W. |title=A Glossary of Terms for Weapons and Armor in Old Iranian |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=264–289 |year=1973 |doi=10.1163/000000073790079071}}</ref>波斯之語，行於安納托利亞、中亞、南亞之[[波斯化社會|波斯化之邦]]，[[鄂圖曼詩歌|鄂圖曼]]與[[印度次大陸的波斯語|蒙兀兒]]之文，受其澤甚厚。中古之詩人，[[魯米]]、[[菲爾多西]]、[[哈菲茲]]、[[薩迪]]、[[歐瑪爾·海亞姆]]、[[內扎米]]，並稱大家。<ref>{{cite book |last=de Blois |first=François |title=Persian Literature: A Bio-bibliographical Survey |volume=5 |date=April 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-947593-47-6 |page=363}}</ref>論者謂為人類大文之一，<ref>Arthur John Arberry, ''The Legacy of Persia'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, {{ISBN|0-19-821905-9}}, p. 200.</ref>[[歌德]]且列之於寰宇四大焉。其源出[[中古波斯語|中古]]、[[古波斯語|上古]]之遺，[[貝希斯敦銘文]]作於前五二二年，為其存世最古者；然所存之富，實在回教既入之後。阿拔斯既興，波斯之士為之書記、為之曹掾，繼而為之詞客；新波斯之文遂盛於呼羅珊與河中，蓋塔希爾、薩曼之朝實都於彼故也。<ref>Frye, R. N., "Darī", ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''.</ref> [[File:Národní muzeum Íránu.jpg|thumb|right|德黑蘭[[伊朗國家博物館]]]] [[伊朗國家博物館]]者，國中文教之首也，分[[古伊朗博物館|古伊朗]]與[[伊斯蘭時代博物館|回教時代]]二館，其藏其研，於伊朗古物為寰宇之最。<ref name="NMI">{{cite web |title=National Museum of Iran |url=https://irannationalmuseum.ir/en/ |access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref>他若戈勒斯坦宮、[[國家珠寶館]]、[[禮薩·阿巴斯博物館]]、[[德黑蘭當代藝術博物館]]、[[薩德阿巴德建築群]]、[[伊朗地毯博物館]]、[[帕爾斯博物館]]、[[阿塞拜疆博物館]]之屬，並著於世。二〇一九年，觀者二千五百萬人焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=21 May 2019 |title=25 million visited Iran's heritage museums in calendar year |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/436197/ |website=Tehran Times |access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref> [[File:Museum of Persepolis Darafsh (16) (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|[[卡爾奈]]，前六世紀之古樂器，藏波斯波利斯之館]] 樂器之作，此其最古：前三千年已有繁器矣。<ref>{{cite web |last=Lawergren |first=Bo |title=Music History i. Pre-Islamic Iran |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/music-history-i-pre-islamic-iran |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=27 August 2015}}</ref>[[馬達克圖]]與[[庫勒法拉赫]]之刻，多見角[[豎琴]]；[[色諾芬]]《[[居魯士的教育]]》記阿契美尼德廷中歌女之事。安息之世，[[古桑|歌者]]之職甚重。<ref>{{cite web |title=Gōsān |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gosan |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=15 July 2017}}</ref>薩珊之樂，載籍尤詳：[[霍斯勞二世]]之廷，[[巴爾巴德]]、[[納吉薩]]、[[薩爾卡什]]之屬，並以樂鳴。其器：弦則[[琴 (伊朗)|昌格]]、[[卡龍琴|卡農]]、[[桑圖爾]]、[[烏德琴|烏德]]、[[巴爾巴特琴|巴爾巴特]]、[[塔爾琴|塔爾]]、[[都塔爾]]、[[塞塔爾]]、[[坦布爾]]、[[卡曼賈|卡曼切]]；管則[[嗩吶|索爾納]]、[[卡爾奈]]、[[奈依]]；革則[[通巴克]]、[[庫斯]]、[[達夫]]、[[納卡拉]]焉。 一九三三年立[[德黑蘭交響樂團]]；一九四〇年代之末，[[哈萊吉]]創國樂之社，一九四九年立國樂之校。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2006/11/061113_pm-mk-khaleghi.shtml |title=Ruhollah Khaleqi |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref>[[伊朗流行音樂|時調]]肇於卡扎爾之世，一九五〇年代而後大盛，糅土器土調與電弦之聲；[[伊朗搖滾樂|搖滾]]起於一九六〇年代，[[伊朗嘻哈|說唱]]起於二十一世紀之初焉。<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Rebels-of-rap-reign-in-Iran-3287827.php |title=Rebels of rap reign in Iran |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=16 April 2008}}</ref> 舞之為事，自前六千年已見於陶器之繪。其式因地、因族、因語而殊，自宮廷之雅，以至田野之健，各有所主。最古者，[[密特拉]]之祀舞也；[[希羅多德]]嘗記其事。異族屢入，故舊制多湮。卡扎爾之世，乃有所謂[[波斯古典舞|古典之舞]]者，行於冊立、婚慶、[[諾魯孜節|新歲]]之典。二十世紀而後，樂用管弦，舞與服皆漸趨西式焉。 [[File:IRIB Building.jpg|thumb|right|[[伊朗伊斯蘭共和國廣播電視台|國營之視聽司]]]] 聲影之司，以官營之[[伊朗伊斯蘭共和國廣播電視台|廣播電視台]]為最大；[[伊朗文化與伊斯蘭指導部|文化指導部]]掌其政。報章多以波斯之文，德黑蘭所出者最廣：《[[信任報|信任]]》、《[[消息報 (伊朗)|消息]]》、《[[宇宙報|宇宙]]》、《[[同胞報|同胞]]》、《[[使命報|使命]]》、《[[東方報 (伊朗)|東方]]》皆是；英文則《[[德黑蘭時報]]》、《[[伊朗日報]]》、《[[金融論壇報]]》焉。<ref name="BYI"/>網民之數居天下第十有七；[[谷歌搜尋|谷歌]]為其搜檢之首，[[Instagram]]為其交遊之最。<ref name="Alexa">{{cite web |work=Alexa Internet |url=http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/IR |title=Top Sites in Iran |access-date=2 December 2018 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=10 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210145701/http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/ir }}</ref>然萬國名站多見閉，[[Facebook]]自二〇〇九年禁至今。市易之網，[[Digikala]]擅其九成，日客七十五萬，為中東之最焉。<ref>{{cite news |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/31/amazon-iranian-style-digikala-other-startups-aparat-hamijoo-takhfifan |title=From Digikala to Hamijoo: the Iranian startup revolution |last=Kamali Dehghan |first=Saeed |date=31 May 2015}}</ref> [[File:Kebab Bakhtyari.jpg|thumb|right|[[米飯烤肉|切羅烤肉]]，伊朗國饌之一]] 飲饌之品：[[烤肉|烤炙]]、[[抓飯]]、[[燉菜|燉羹]]、[[湯|羹湯]]、[[煎蛋餅|煎卵]]為主，佐以[[酪|乳酪]]、[[青菜|生蔬]]、[[設拉子沙拉]]與[[醃菜|醃漬]]之屬。飲[[茶]]之風尤盛，<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Stuart |title=Iran – Culture Smart! |date=October 2008 |publisher=Kuperard |isbn=978-1-85733-598-9}}</ref>而產茶之數，居天下第七。<ref name="FAOSTAT">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/ |access-date=30 April 2010}}</ref>餳饌則[[法魯達|法魯德]]為最著；[[藏紅花]]之冰酪，號曰古法，或佐以[[胡蘿蔔汁]]焉。[[魚子醬]]亦以其國為名。主饌之法，率以稻粱糅肉、蔬與果核，益以[[草本植物|香草]]，佐以[[李]]、[[石榴]]、[[榅桲]]、[[杏]]、[[葡萄乾]]；而藏紅花、[[小豆蔻]]、[[乾檸檬]]、[[肉桂]]、[[薑黃]]、[[歐芹]]之屬，調和其味焉。 [[File:Azadi Stadium in the final week of the 39th League.jpg|thumb|right|德黑蘭[[阿扎迪體育場]]，西亞最大之球場]] [[馬球]]者，肇於伊朗，土語謂之[[波羅球|喬幹]]，其跡遠溯米底。<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Chogân (Polo) |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chogan/chogan_history.php |website=Iran Chamber |access-date=26 May 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=26 May 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526112927/https://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chogan/chogan_history.php }}</ref>[[自由式摔跤|角力]]為國技，其士屢冠寰宇；土法之角力曰[[祖爾哈內|勇士之技]]，亦入非遺之籍。<ref>{{cite web |title=Zurkhaneh Traditional Sports |url=https://traditionalsportsgames.org/index.php/sport/35-traditional-sports-recognized/214-zurkhaneh |access-date=2 May 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=2 May 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502163840/https://traditionalsportsgames.org/index.php/sport/35-traditional-sports-recognized/214-zurkhaneh }}</ref>[[奧林匹克運動會|奧運]]之委立於一九四七年，所獲之牌，角力與舉重最多。一九七四年主[[亞洲運動會]]，為西亞之始。<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Asian Games |url=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059784/history-of-asian-games |access-date=28 January 2024 |引月日=23 July 2026 |archivedate=18 January 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118004949/https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059784/history-of-asian-games }}</ref>山國也，故滑雪、攀巖、登陟之事皆盛，[[托查爾]]、[[迪津]]、[[謝姆沙克]]為其名場，而迪津最大，且得[[國際滑雪聯合會|國際之會]]之可以主大賽焉。<ref>{{cite web |date=15 December 2023 |title=Dizin (IRI) |url=https://www.fis-ski.com/DB/general/event-details.html |website=International Ski and Snowboard Federation}}</ref>[[足球]]最為國人所好，[[伊朗國家足球隊|其隊]]三膺[[亞洲盃足球賽|亞洲之冠]]，二〇二五年四月列亞洲第二、寰宇第十有八；<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/associations/association/IRN/men/ |title=Iran: FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking |publisher=FIFA |access-date=4 May 2020}}</ref>[[阿扎迪體育場]]為西亞之最大，且列寰宇二十強之場。[[排球]]次之，二〇一一年、二〇一三年再膺[[亞洲男子排球錦標賽|亞洲之冠]]，列亞洲第二、寰宇第十有五。[[籃球]]亦盛，自二〇〇七年三膺[[FIBA亞洲籃球錦標賽|亞洲之冠]]焉。<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.espn.com/espnmag/story?id=3671265 |work=ESPN |first=Sam |last=Alipour |title=Mission Improbable |date=21 April 2012}}</ref> == 徵引 == {{Reflist|30em}} == 書目 == * {{cite book |last=Axworthy |first=Michael |title=A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-465-09876-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |title=Central Asia in World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-515947-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Hamzeh'ee |first=M. Reza |title=The Yaresan: a Sociological, Historical, and Religio-Historical Study of a Kurdish Community |publisher=K. Schwarz |location=Berlin |year=1990 |isbn=3-922968-83-X |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Pourshariati |first=Parvaneh |title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84511-645-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Roisman |first1=Joseph |last2=Worthington |first2=Ian |title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-5163-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Ward |first=Steven R. |title=Immortal: A Military History of Iran and its Armed Forces |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-58901-587-6 |ref=harv}} {{亞洲}} [[Category:伊朗史]] [[Category:基礎之文]] bbacf9ac4i5k1s6812bxwlttsfj6dak 0 73075 449015 437590 2026-11-10T22:54:39Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449015 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:JacktheRipper1888.jpg|thumbnail|一士行於街，而眾人私議之]] '''刳剔者傑克'''，鷹鸇也。洪惟疇昔，大英治世，跨蹈五洲，津航四洋；環球稽首，八荒稱臣，海隅出日，罔不率俾，號日不落帝國。時有君后，曰[[英王維多利亞|維多利亞]]，妙齡芳年，纘續大統，奄宅多方。日月跳丸，天旋地轉，至十九稘末，耄耋桑榆，愒陰既至，齳然齒墜；國步升降，一如嵗華，殘照臨宮舍、俄景耀金甌。 帝都倫敦，[[倫敦東隅|京畿東隅]]，曩土民之聖地也，古來土木不加焉。時惟十八稘、始營建造、教堂逆旅、一時并興；殊俗異種、皆遷居焉。愛爾蘭大荒後，則其民雲集；東歐屠殺起、則猶太人接踵。窮閭鄙巷，諸種雜居，異端外教、泯泯棼棼，道德沮動，淳風不化，季俗弗革。 一八八八，時有兇賊，夏秋二季，恣其狼心，肆厥蜂蠆；屠戮娼妓，刳心挖腸，天下震恐，上下褫氣，莫知所蹤。或曰醫生，或謂屠人。波利被戮於街，道有革襜焉，因稱之曰：革襜屠夫。朝暾將出，籬笆有聲，安妮殞命，後有書函來訊，號刳剔者傑克，世人乃襲之。雙屍之夜，東西兩見。米勒庭院，肝腦塗地，血肉狼藉。今人追想，戰栗寒秋，見儺儺吉士，持剉碓箱笥，徜徉氛霧之中，乍隱乍現而不霽焉。 ==被害者、典定五人== [[File:Whitechapel Spitalfields 7 murders.JPG|thumbnail|Center|屍布之地]] *'''[[瑪麗·安·尼科爾斯]]''' *'''[[安妮·查普曼]]''' *'''[[伊麗莎白·史泰德]]''' *'''[[凱瑟琳·艾道斯]]''' *'''[[瑪麗·簡·凱利]]''' ==非典定被害者== *[[法蘭西絲·科爾斯]] ==間罪表== [[File:Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence (1864-1892).jpg|thumbnail|王孫艾伯特，皇室陰謀說主角]] [[File:Sir William Gull signed.jpg|thumbnail|太醫高爾]] 凡學者視為間罪者，實繁有徒，逾五百餘乎！今硩其要而羅列之；然其所據者，多無稽之言，荊刺之説也，慎焉。 王孫艾伯特·維克多 [[約瑟夫·巴內特]] 艾爾弗雷德·納皮爾·布蘭查德 威廉·亨利·布里 路易斯·卡羅爾 大衛·科恩 醫者 多瑪斯·內爾·克瑞姆 弗雷德里克·貝利·迪明 蒙塔古·約翰·德鲁伊特 卡爾·費根鮑姆 佛格瑪 喬治·哈奇森 海厄姆·海厄姆斯 刳剔者·吉爾 詹姆斯·凱利 喬治·查普曼 亞倫·科斯閩斯基 雅各布·利未 宿客 詹姆斯·梅布里克 麥克爾·奧斯特格 醫者 亞歷山大·培達欽科 皇室陰謀説 沃爾特·席克特 詹姆斯·肯尼思·斯蒂芬 羅伯特·敦斯頓·斯蒂芬孫 阿洛伊斯·澤米瑞迪 弗朗西斯·湯普森 弗朗西斯·唐伯提 尼古拉斯·瓦西里 醫者 約翰·威廉斯 ==函書== [[File:Dear Boss envelope.jpg|thumbnail|有司足下函封]] [[File:George Lusk, President of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee.jpg|thumbnail|拉斯克（嘗受一函，附人腎半顆）]] 凡署名自言刳剔傑克所作之函書者，數有千百，皆未可信，今所信為其手跡者唯三：致有司足下（Dear Boss letter）、狎邪傑克（Saucy Jack letter）、書於冥府（From Hell letter）。 '''有司足下之函'''者，一八八八年九月二十七日，倫敦中央通訊社受之，二十九日至蘇格蘭場。初，人皆以此書為戲耳。然九月三十日，凱瑟琳·艾道斯之屍見時，其耳垂斷裂，即契其所言:“將割其耳”者矣。倫敦警署四布其文，冀有識其手跡者。然無果。其書多魯魚亥豕，文曰:「公元一八八八，九月二十五日。有司足下：警曰獲我，果獲我哉？自用自矜、吾實哂之、革襜妄説、樂極不堪；予恨娼婦、析之裂之、以释吾怨、風馳電掣、不及哀號、即為鬼矣；薑酒之瓶、貯之以血、凝而成衃、不可用之、紅墨足矣、磨刀繕刃、以待良機；予将刵之、以遺警署、戲之嘲之、其奈我何？ 予不食言、存留此書、以證我言 ！刳剔者傑克敬白；此吾所自號者也。未及盥手去紅墨以致此書，彼又言我為醫者矣，甚可笑哉！」 '''書於冥府'''者。又曰拉斯克之函。惟一八八八年十月十六日。喬治·拉斯克初受之。拉斯克者。時為白教堂巡查會有司也。隨函附有人腎半片。貯之以一鐵盒也。其文曰：「冥司敬白足下。吾子拉斯克 ：曩者。予嘗殺一婦而取其腎焉 。今以半壁饋君 。其余者。炙而食之矣。味甚甘美。公若稍待。當贈以血刃 。則足下克我獲乎。常候於茲。請舉玉趾。敬白。」其後。手跡師曰麥克勞德者。詳查之而曰：彼年二十至四十五歲許。蓋酩酊然矣。 ==引據== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160219223818/http://www.victorianschool.co.uk/empire.html The British Empire] *''East End Chronicles '' Ed Glinert 著 *''Terry Lynch: Jack the Ripper The whitechapel Murderer'' ==兼查== *《[http://www.casebook.org/ Casebook:Jack the Ripper] 》 {{Commons|Jack the Ripper}} [[category:英格蘭史]] 44hing404smwlat86qmjfdhwdk48ccv 0 79097 449018 429143 2026-11-11T01:45:26Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449018 wikitext text/x-wiki {{無據}} [[File:Kikuchi in Kumamoto Prefecture.png|thumb|深綠域爲菊池市所在]] '''菊池市'''處[[日本]][[熊本縣]]。 == 沿革 == [[一九五八年|昭和卅三年]]，菊池郡菊池町爲菊池市。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uub.jp/upd/u/u2601.html |title=熊本県菊池市の詳細情報 |date= |accessdate=2020-04-30 }}</ref> [[二〇〇五年|平成十七年]]，菊池市、菊池郡：七城町、旭志村、泗水町合，而爲菊池市。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uub.jp/upd/u/u877.html |title=熊本県菊池市の詳細情報 |date= |accessdate=2020-04-30 }}</ref> ==據== {{reflist}} == 它典 == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630221533/http://www.city.kikuchi.lg.jp/ 菊池市政府] [[分類:九州地方區劃‎]] {{stub}} 82c6sz9wzjzumx3abo1leredcrk5x2o 0 80817 449019 444402 2026-11-11T01:55:20Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449019 wikitext text/x-wiki {{外語不入題|Windows 10}} '''視窗十'''，[[作業系統]]也，於[[二〇一五年]]為[[微軟]]所作。上承[[視窗八]]。先後有門檻{{按|Threshold}}、紅石{{按|Redstone}}二支。用諸[[電腦]]、[[手機]]、微軟立體[[眼鏡]] 、微軟[[遊戲機]]、物聯網、舒適[[電視]]。其所以布於諸般裝置、共用[[微軟應用商店|應用商店]]，蓋以混一應用結構之故也。視窗十之操持，兼承視窗七、八之風，並有指紋、虹膜解鎖之法。<ref name=zdnet-onebillion>{{Cite_web|last1=Bott |first1=Ed |title=Microsoft's big Windows 10 goal: one billion or bust |址=http://www.zdnet.com/article/microsofts-big-windows-10-goal-one-billion-or-bust/ |website=ZDNet |publisher=CBS Interactive |date=2015-05-08 |accessdate=2015-07-29 |deadurl=no | 存址=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104053107/http://www.zdnet.com/article/microsofts-big-windows-10-goal-one-billion-or-bust/ |archivedate=2017-01-04 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=HTTP://gs.statcounter.com/#all-os-ww-monthly-201506-201701|title=Top 8 operating systems from June 2015 to Jan 2017|publisher=StatCounter|access-date=2017-01-01}} </ref><ref name="desktop">{{cite web|url=HTTP://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-201506-201701|title=Top 8 desktop OSs from June 2015 to Jan 2017| publisher=StatCounter|access-date=2017-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=HTTPs://Betanews.com/2016/10/01/wtf-windows-10-losing-share/|title=WTF? Windows 10 now actually losing market share|quote=It was expected, that once Windows 10 stopped being free, upgrades would slow significantly. [..] In September though, according to NetMarketShare, Windows 10 didn’t just show slower growth, it actually went into reverse gear and lost usage share. Yes, you read that right.}}</ref> 初微軟佈視窗十時言，自此版始，無發新版，永以修補，訂正謬誤、增益其用。 <ref>{{Cite_web|title= Microsoft正式宣佈Windows 10將會是最後一個Windows|url=HTTP://yes-news.com/17555/Microsoft%E6%AD%A3%E5%BC%8F%E5%AE%A3%E4%BD%88Windows-10%E5%B0%87%E6%9C%83%E6%98%AF%E6%9C%80%E5%BE%8C%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8BWindows |publisher=熱新聞|date=2015-05-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web|title= Windows 10 將是最後一版 Windows？|url=HTTP://technews.tw/2015/05/08/why-microsoft-is-calling-windows-10-the-last-version-of-windows/|publisher= TechNews|date=2015-05-08}}</ref> <ref name="zdnet-onebillion2">{{Cite_web |url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/microsofts-big-windows-10-goal-one-billion-or-bust/ |title=Microsoft's big Windows 10 goal: one billion or bust |accessdate=2015-07-29 |date=2015-05-08 |publisher=CBS Interactive |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104053107/http://www.zdnet.com/article/ |archivedate=2017-01-04 |last1=Bott |first1=Ed |website=ZDNet |deadurl=no }}</ref>亦備有測試版，以供嘗新。<ref>{{Cite_web|url=HTTPs://blogs.windows.com/windowsexperience/2015/06/01/hello-world-windows-10-available-on-july-29/|title=Hello World: Windows 10 Available on July 29| date=2015-06-01|accessdate=2017-01-22|work=blogs.windows.com}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite_web|url=HTTPs://www.neowin.net/news/windows-10-technical-preview-build-9860-is-out-download-it-now|title=Windows 10 Technical Preview build 9860 is out, download it now|newspaper=Neowin|accessdate=2017-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web |url=http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/priority-windows-10-tp-build-9860/ |title=Windows 10 Is Evolving – This Is What’s New In Build 9860 |newspaper=MakeUseOf |accessdate=2017-01-22 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101000706/https://blogs.windows.com/ |archivedate=2017-01-01 }}</ref>然後則佈[[視窗十一]]續焉。 == 本 == 視窗十異於其先，凡有誤脫，但可延治，不可不正。 <ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/windows-10-lets-you-schedule-windows-update-restarts/|title=Windows 10 lets you schedule Windows Update restarts |newspaper=CNET|accessdate=2017-01-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://www.crn.com/news/applications-os/300077576/did-microsoft-just -backtrack-on-forced-updates-for-windows-10.htm%7Cwebsite=CRN.com|title=CRN Applications and OS News|newspaper=CRN|accessdate=2017-01-08}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref >{{Cite_web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2953132/windows/set-windows-10s-wi-fi-connections-as-metered-to-download-forced-updates-at-your -own-pace.html|title=Set Windows 10's Wi-Fi connections as metered to download forced updates at your own pace|newspaper=PCWorld|accessdate=2017-01-08}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2975289/windows/how-to-cure-windows-10s-worst-headaches.html|title=How to cure Windows 10's worst headaches|newspaper=PCWorld|accessdate =2017-01-08}}</ref>。 諮詢援應，凡十載。 <ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2949230/microsoft-windows/all-editions-of-windows-10-get-10-years-of-updates%7Cwork=Computerworld|title=All editions of Windows 10 get 10 years of updates, support|last=Keizer|first=Gregg|newspaper=Computerworld|accessdate=2017-01-08|archivedate=2018-03-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322223351/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2949230/microsoft-windows/all-editions-of-windows-10-get-10-years-of-updates%7Cwork=Computerworld}}</ref> === 測試版 === 測試版者，嘗其最新。或有錯漏，有待補正。<ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://technews.tw/2014/10/02/the-name-of-windows-10/|title=微軟不命名Windows 9 可能並不是Windows 10 進步很多|accessdate =2017-01-23|author=|date=|work=TechNews 科技新報|publisher=}}</ref> === 正式版 === 二零一五年一月二十一日，微軟言視窗七、八點一，自視窗十刊行始，一歲之內，免費升級，惟企業版不可。 <ref name=ih>{{Cite_web|author=王宏仁|title=Windows 10果然免費升級，Win7或8.1舊版通通有，近10億用戶受惠|url=http://www.ithome.com.tw /news/93687|accessdate=2015-02-04|newspaper=ithome|date=2015-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web|author=數位時代|title=驚喜成空！企業版無法免費升級Windows 10|url=http://technews.tw/2015/02/03/windows-10-microsoft/|accessdate=2015-02-04|newspaper=TechNews|date=2015-02-03 }}</ref>凡用[[樹莓派|樹莓派二代]]者，亦免費取用視窗十。 <ref>{{Cite_web|title=微軟宣布為樹莓派開發者免費提供Windows 10|url=http://www.hksilicon.com/articles/711141|work=香港矽谷|accessdate=2017-04-10|archivedate=2017-04-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410214232/http://www.hksilicon.com/articles/711141}}</ref> 七月二十九日，視窗十始刊行。 <ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://qooah.com/2015/07/31/windows-10-upgrade-issue/|title=Windows 10 升級爆災難，大量用戶抱怨慘變白老鼠中大伏！|accessdate=2017-01-23|author=|date=2015-07-31|last=Lam|first=Winson|publisher=|引月日=2017-07-09|archivedate=2016-09-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910013344/http://qooah.com/2015/07/31/windows-10-upgrade-issue/}}</ref> ==特== 視窗十並行於諸般裝置。 <ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/30/6873963/windows-10-continuum-touch-interface|title=Watch how Windows 10 works with touch interfaces|accessdate= 2016-12-30|date=2014-09-30|last=Seifert|first=Dan|work=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://arstechnica.com/information -technology/2015/03/dont-call-them-metro-microsoft-rebrands-universal-apps-as-windows-apps/|title=Don't call them Metro: Microsoft rebrands Universal apps as “Windows apps”|newspaper=Ars Technica|accessdate=2016-12-30}} {{Dead link|date=November 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>蓋結構同故，共行通用視窗程式。<ref>{{Cite_web|url=https://blogs.windows.com/buildingapps/2015/03/02/a-first-look-at-the-windows-10-universal-app-platform/#9FlPuGxrfLM6UZfL. 97|title=A first look at the Windows 10 universal app platform |accessdate=2016-12-30|work=blogs.windows.com|publisher=Building Apps for WindowsBuilding Apps for Windows}}</ref> 又，新立此版專屬瀏覽器[[緣]]{{按|Edge}}，以代舊制[[遊網]]{{按|Internet Explorer}}，為兼容故，暫二者並存。<ref name=verge-msedge>{{Cite web|title=The successor to Internet Explorer will be named Microsoft Edge|url=http://www.theverge.com/2015/4/29/8511169/microsoft-edge- official-name-internet-explorer-upgrade|first=Tom |last=Warren|website=The Verge|accessdate=2015-04-29|date=2015-04-29}}</ref><ref name=underhood>{{cite web |title=Microsoft's Spartan browser: What's under the hood |url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/microsofts-spartan-browser-whats-under-the-hood/ |first=Mary Jo |last=Foley|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |website=ZDNet |accessdate=2015-01-23}}</ref><ref name=ieblog-spartan>{{Cite web |title=Project Spartan and the Windows 10 January Preview Build |url=http://blogs.msdn.com/b/ie/archive/2015/01/22/project-spartan-and-the-windows-10-january-preview-build.aspx |website=IEBlog |publisher=Microsoft |accessdate=2015-01-23}}</ref><ref name="ieblog-edge">{{Cite_web |title=Living on the Edge – our next step in helping the web just work |url=http://blogs.msdn.com/b/ie/archive/2014/11/11/living-on-the-edge-our-next-step -in-interoperability.aspx |website=IEBlog |publisher=Microsoft |accessdate=2015-01-23}}</ref>又加智能語音助手，曰小娜，協調整理，翻索所需，並作郵傳。 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/windows-10-can-cortana-persuade-us-to-talk-to-our-tech/ |title=Windows 10: Can Cortana persuade us to talk to our tech? |last1=Kingsley-Hughes |first1=Adrian |date=2015-01-21 |website=ZDNet |publisher=CBS Interactive |access-date=2015-03-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/01/windows-10-brings-cortana-to-the-desktop/ |title=Windows 10 brings Cortana to the desktop |last1=Gallagher |first1=Sean |date=2015-01-22 |website=Ars Technica |publisher=Condé Nast |access-date=2015-03-17}}</ref>為家長者，可知小兒所操作。 <ref name=thurrott-family>{{cite web|title=Inside Microsoft Family and Windows 10 Parental Controls|url=https://www.thurrott.com/windows/windows-10/5187/inside-microsoft-family- and-windows-10-parental-controls|website=Thurrott.com|accessdate=2015-09-12}}</ref><ref name=bi-emailfamily>{{cite web|title=People are freaking out over a feature in Windows 10's family accounts|url=http://uk.businessinsider.com/there-are-privacy-concerns-over-windows-10s-family-activity-report-2015-8|first=Max|last=Slater -Robins|date=2015-08-27|accessdate=2015-09-12|work=[[Business Insider]]|archivedate=2015-08-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831011934/http://uk.businessinsider.com/there-are-privacy-concerns-over-windows-10s-family-activity-report-2015-8}}</ref> ==評== 評價褒多貶少。有譽智能語音助手、新立瀏覽器者，有頌返本復初，復見傳統界面者，<ref name='pingjia'>{{Cite_web |title=How Microsoft's tricky new Windows 10 pop-up deceives you into upgrading |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/3073457/windows/how-microsofts- nasty-new-windows-10-pop-up-tricks-you-into-upgrading.html |first=Brad |last=Chacos |date=2016-05-22 |work=[[PC World]] |publisher=[ [IDG]] }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>有云升級簡便者<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.engadget.com/2015/07/28/windows-10-review/ |title = Windows 10 Review|work =Engadget|publisher =AOL| accessdate = 2015-07-30}}</ref>；偶有貶損，慮私穩存疑，結構不穩也，<ref name='pingjia' />蓋用戶私隱，微軟但可得故。<ref>{{Cite_web|url=http://www.storm.mg/lifestyle/59690|title=免費升級Windows 10的代價：強迫同意微軟取得隱私|accessdate=2017-01-23|author=|date=|publisher=風傳媒}}</ref> == 考 == {{reflist}} [[Category:作業系統]] qro0ak68gdch1tjptfx3bi24wxhgkdz 3 95009 449010 406045 2026-11-10T15:12:50Z Manchiu 7402 Manchiu遷頁[[用戶討論:Oh! Tea]]至[[用戶討論:Hatsea]]：當重新命名使用者「[[Special:CentralAuth/Oh! Tea|Oh! Tea]]」至「[[Special:CentralAuth/Hatsea|Hatsea]]」時自動移動頁面 351194 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Austin Chang}} -- [[用戶:Itsmine|孔明居士]] ([[用戶討論:Itsmine|對話]]) 二〇二〇年六月八日 （一） 〇七時四九分 (UTC) q9xvx6g6gbci17g33gdepg7ktpkum27 3 131710 449012 426335 2026-11-10T21:50:59Z Mfield 113989 Mfield遷頁[[用戶討論:Instanttequila]]至[[用戶討論:Guoyi ma]]：當重新命名使用者「[[Special:CentralAuth/Instanttequila|Instanttequila]]」至「[[Special:CentralAuth/Guoyi ma|Guoyi ma]]」時自動移動頁面 426335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Instanttequila}} -- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二五年一一月一三日 （四） 二〇時三五分 (UTC) o1fpwsxv1a2zj0b65l2jfxlwkotrrt1 0 135543 449017 447732 2026-11-11T00:01:47Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449017 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Engels.jpg|thumb|right|恩格斯像，攝於一八七七年]] '''恩格斯'''，名'''弗里德里希'''{{按|{{lang|de|Friedrich Engels}}}}，[[一八二〇年]]十一月二十八日生，[[普魯士]][[巴門]]人也。[[日耳曼]]之[[哲學家|哲人]]，社會政論之大家，革命社會主義之先驅<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Friedrich-Engels|title=Friedrich Engels: German Philosopher, Marxist Theorist & Social Activist|publisher=Britannica Money|accessdate=二〇二六年}}</ref>。畢生與[[馬克思]]相與為謀，共著《[[共產黨宣言]]》，同立[[馬克思主義]]之宏基<ref name="enwiki">{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels|title=Friedrich Engels|publisher=英文維基百科|accessdate=二〇二六年}}</ref>。馬克思歿後，恩格斯獨力編纂《[[資本論]]》後二卷，使鴻篇巨製終得完璧<ref name="britannica"/>。 == 世系 == 其家世業[[商賈]]，殷富甲於一方。父老弗里德里希，營[[棉紡]]之業於巴門及[[英格蘭]][[索爾福德]]，兩地設廠<ref name="ebsco">{{cite web|url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/friedrich-engels|title=Friedrich Engels|publisher=EBSCO Research Starters|date=二〇二三年}}</ref>。家持[[虔敬派]]之教，奉[[新教]]甚篤<ref name="britannica"/>。恩格斯為長子，少不喜家學，私讀禁書，已有異志<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/engels-friedrich-1820-1895|title=Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895)|publisher=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>。 年十四，入鄰邑[[埃爾伯費爾德]]中學，師事克勞森博士，習文史，慕古日耳曼英雄之傳說<ref name="enwiki"/>。父以其好文哲而荒實業，遂於一八三七年命輟學，使習商賈之事<ref name="enwiki"/>。恩格斯以為苦，嘗自謂「犬馬之役」<ref name="encyclopedia"/>。 == 從軍柏林 == [[一八四一年]]，恩格斯服兵役於[[柏林]]，入親衛砲兵團<ref name="britannica"/>。雖為兵卒，實無反軍之意，且頗習軍事，友人戲號之「將軍」<ref name="britannica"/>。軍中暇日，旁聽[[柏林大學]]之講席，遂與[[青年黑格爾派]]相交游<ref name="enwiki"/>。沐[[辯證法|辯證]]之風，悟[[唯物主義|唯物]]之理，哲思既啟，棄唯心而就唯物，漸傾於[[共產主義]]<ref name="britannica"/>。 == 赴英察工 == [[一八四二年]]，父命赴[[英格蘭]][[曼徹斯特]]，佐理家族所投棉廠厄門與恩格斯商號<ref name="britannica"/>。恩格斯至，陽奉父命，陰察工人<ref name="wuppertal">{{cite web|url=https://www.mi-wuppertal.de/en/friedrich-engels/biographie|title=Biography of Friedrich Engels|publisher=Museum Industriekultur Wuppertal}}</ref>。見童稚操勞於機杼，婦孺困斃於陋巷，乃知[[資本]]之害深於水火。遂著《[[英國工人階級狀況]]》{{按|{{lang|de|Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England}}}}，[[一八四五年]]刊行，時年二十有五<ref name="hammer">{{cite web|url=https://hammermagz.com/the-condition-of-working-class-in-england-by-friedrich-engels-in-1845-foundation-of-social-health/|title=The Condition of Working Class in England by Friedrich Engels in 1845: Foundation of Social Health|publisher=Hammer Magazine}}</ref>。書成，名動歐陸。此書為社會主義文獻之經典，亦社會衛生學之先聲<ref name="hammer"/>。 == 締交馬克思 == [[一八四四年]]，恩格斯歸德途中，過[[巴黎]]，與[[馬克思]]會<ref name="prolewiki">{{cite web|url=https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels|title=Friedrich Engels|publisher=ProleWiki|date=二〇二五年|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260224034014/https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels|archivedate=2026-02-24|引月日=2026-02-25}}</ref>。馬克思者，[[特里爾]]人，亦流亡者也。二人一見，議論大合，遂定交，終身不渝<ref name="britannica"/>。留巴黎十日，已奠終身合作之基<ref name="prolewiki"/>。 自是二人共事，凡四十餘年。合著《[[神聖家族]]》（[[一八四五]]年），駁[[鮑威爾]]兄弟之說。又撰《[[德意志意識形態]]》，立[[唯物史觀]]之基，然此書生前未梓<ref name="newworld">{{cite web|url=https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Friedrich_Engels|title=Friedrich Engels|publisher=New World Encyclopedia}}</ref>。 [[一八四七年]]，同入[[共產主義者同盟]]，受命草宣言<ref name="enwiki"/>。明年，《[[共產黨宣言]]》出。開篇書「幽靈徘徊歐洲」，末言「萬國無產者聯合」。其辭峻，其旨遠，歐洲為之震動<ref name="enwiki"/>。 == 革命流亡 == [[一八四八年]]，歐陸[[一八四八年革命|革命]]起。恩格斯從軍，親歷兵戎之事，嘗執兵刃而戰<ref name="enwiki"/>。革命敗，亡走英倫。 [[一八五〇年]]，復入曼徹斯特，就厄門與恩格斯商號<ref name="newworld"/>。為棉商凡二十年。日與資產者交，夜與革命者通。所得利潤，大半資馬克思<ref name="britannica"/>。馬克思居倫敦，貧不能自存，妻子屢困<ref name="ebsco"/>。恩格斯歲歲周濟，至退夥時尚能歲致馬克思三百五十鎊，另有急難之需則別計之<ref name="newworld"/>。世人但知馬克思之著述，鮮知恩格斯之供養也。 [[一八六四年]]，恩格斯升為商號合夥人。[[一八六九年]]，售其股份而退<ref name="newworld"/>。所得之資足以優遊終老。 == 知己之情 == 恩格斯初與[[瑪麗·伯恩斯]]居。瑪麗者，[[愛爾蘭]]女工也，居曼徹斯特<ref name="maryburns">{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Burns|title=Mary Burns|publisher=英文維基百科}}</ref>。同居凡二十年，未嘗婚，蓋二人皆以婚姻為資產階級之桎梏，不屑行之<ref name="maryburns"/>。 [[一八六三年]]一月七日，瑪麗暴卒，年約四十<ref name="maryburns"/>。恩格斯大慟，致書馬克思曰：「瑪麗歿矣。昨夜就寢，莉齊往視，已絕矣。」語極悲痛<ref name="marxletter">{{cite web|url=https://marxists.architexturez.net/archive/marx/works/1863/letters/63_01_08.htm|title=Marx to Engels, 8 January 1863|publisher=Marx-Engels Collected Works, Volume 41, p. 442}}</ref>。馬克思覆書，草草致唁數語，即轉述己之窘迫，言債主催逼、學費房租無著之苦<ref name="marxletter"/>。恩格斯銜之，數日不復書<ref name="engelsletter">{{cite web|url=http://hiaw.org/defcon6/works/1863/letters/63_01_26.html|title=Engels to Marx, 26 January 1863|publisher=Marx-Engels Collected Works, Volume 41, p. 446}}</ref>。後馬克思悔而致歉，言「吾妻之窘迫，使吾於彼時竟以私務相擾，而不能安慰故人，此吾之大過也」<ref name="marxapology">{{cite web|url=https://wikirouge.net/texts/en/Letter_to_Friedrich_Engels,_January_28,_1863|title=Marx to Engels, 28 January 1863|publisher=Marx-Engels Collected Works, Volume 41, p. 448|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260417104358/https://wikirouge.net/texts/en/Letter_to_Friedrich_Engels,_January_28,_1863|archivedate=17 April 2026|引日=25 February 2026}}</ref>。恩格斯遂釋然，二人復如初。此二人交誼中僅見之隙也<ref name="lithub">{{cite web|url=https://lithub.com/dear-lizzie-the-second-lover-to-the-second-communist/|title=Dear Lizzie: The Second Lover to the Second Communist|publisher=Literary Hub|date=二〇一九年}}</ref>。 瑪麗歿，其妹[[莉齊·伯恩斯|莉齊]]繼之<ref name="maryburns"/>。[[一八七八年]]九月十一日，莉齊病革，恩格斯始與成婚。婚之日即喪之日，莉齊旋卒<ref name="maryburns"/>。恩格斯不娶世家女而兩從工人姊妹，論者以為非偶然也。 == 晚歲大業 == [[一八七〇年]]，恩格斯年五十，去商就學，徙居倫敦，佐[[第一國際|國際工人協會]]事<ref name="enwiki"/>。自是與馬克思比鄰而居，朝夕過從。 [[一八八三年]]三月十四日，馬克思卒<ref name="enwiki"/>。恩格斯獨任遺稿之編纂。馬克思遺稿浩繁，字跡潦草，且多殘篇。恩格斯爬梳剔抉，凡十二年，卒成《[[資本論]]》第二卷、第三卷，各於[[一八八五年]]及一八九四年刊行<ref name="encyclopedia"/>。 其自著亦夥。《[[反杜林論]]》成於[[一八七八年]]，系統述馬克思主義之全貌<ref name="enwiki"/>。取其中三章別行，題曰《[[社會主義由虛入實論]]》（[[一八八〇年]]），流布最廣，譯本遍天下<ref name="encyclopedia"/>。《[[宗法私產國制源流考]]》成於[[一八八四年]]，本[[摩爾根]]之說而推衍之，論氏族、婚姻、國家之遞嬗，以唯物史觀貫之<ref name="enwiki"/>。 又嘗以辯證法通諸[[自然科學]]，草《[[自然辯證法]]》，未竟而歿<ref name="encyclopedia"/>。後世[[蘇維埃社會主義共和國聯盟|蘇維埃]]當國者取其說，立為官方哲學，強行推之，多所附益，已非恩格斯之本旨矣<ref name="enwiki"/>。 == 黨務國際 == 恩格斯少入[[共產主義者同盟]]{{按|一八四七年至一八五二年}}，與馬克思同為創始之人<ref name="enwiki"/>。後佐[[第一國際]]{{按|一八六四年至一八七六年}}。又入[[德國社會民主黨]]{{按|一八七五年至一八九五年}}<ref name="enwiki"/>。[[一八八九年]]，與諸國同志創[[第二國際]]，恩格斯為精神領袖<ref name="ebsco"/>。[[一八九三年]]，主[[蘇黎世]]大會，白髮蒼蒼，為天下社會主義者之所宗仰<ref name="ebsco"/>。各國黨人遇疑難，輒書問倫敦，恩格斯一一覆之，未嘗倦<ref name="encyclopedia"/>。 == 哲學宗旨 == 恩格斯之學，屬十九世紀西方哲學[[大陸哲學]]之系<ref name="enwiki"/>。其所究者，廣涉[[政理學]]、[[政治經濟學]]、[[歷史學]]、[[群學]]、[[人類學]]及[[自然科學]]<ref name="enwiki"/>。其所倡之[[歷史唯物主義]]、[[辯證唯物主義]]、[[科學社會主義]]及[[階級鬥爭]]諸說，皆與馬克思共創，而為後世革命之指南<ref name="britannica"/>。 == 溘然長逝 == [[一八九五年]]三月，恩格斯診得[[食道癌|食道之癌]]<ref name="enwiki"/>。八月五日，歿於倫敦，春秋七十有四<ref name="britannica"/>。遺命火葬於[[沃金]]火葬場<ref name="beachyhead">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.brighton.ac.uk/engelsineastbourne/friedrich-engels-in-eastbourne/|title=About Engels's Life in Eastbourne|publisher=University of Brighton - Engels in Eastbourne}}</ref>。八月二十七日，風浪甚惡，馬克思幼女[[愛蓮娜·馬克思|愛蓮娜]]偕[[愛德華·艾威林|艾威林]]、[[愛德華·伯恩施坦|伯恩施坦]]及老共產主義者同盟盟員萊斯納四人，乘舟出海，至[[比奇角]]外二英里處，散骨灰於滄溟<ref name="beachyhead"/>。不營墓，不立碑。蓋恩格斯生前最愛[[伊斯特本]]海濱，嘗於此度夏十六載，故遺命歸骨於此<ref name="beachyhead"/>。 == 著述 == {| class="wikitable" |- ! 書名 !! 年 |- | 《[[英國工人階級狀況]]》 || 一八四五年 |- | 《[[共產黨宣言]]》（與馬克思合著） || 一八四八年 |- | 《[[反杜林論]]》 || 一八七八年 |- | 《[[社會主義由虛入實論]]》 || 一八八〇年 |- | 《[[宗法私產國制源流考]]》 || 一八八四年 |- | 《[[資本論]]》第二卷（編） || 一八八五年 |- | 《[[資本論]]》第三卷（編） || 一八九四年 |- | 《[[自然辯證法]]》（未竟，身後刊行） || 一九二五年 |} == 論評 == 恩格斯以富家子而甘為人副，以大才而不居其名。二十年隱於商賈以養戰友，十二年伏於案牘以成遺編。瑪麗之喪，馬克思薄於慰唁，恩格斯銜怒數日而終不絕交，此非常人所能也。蓋其所重者道也，所輕者己也。自度其才不及馬克思，故甘處其次，此所以為大也<ref name="ebsco"/>。然恩格斯固非附庸，其獨立之著述，足以自成一家<ref name="britannica"/>。觀其少時孤身赴英而成《工人階級狀況》，壯時隻手統述馬克思主義全體於《反杜林論》，老時爬梳萬頁殘稿以成《資本論》，皆非尋常之才所能辦也。 恩格斯歿，散骨於海，不墓不碑。其人已矣，其學猶在。 == 引據 == {{reflist}} == 兼查 == *[[馬克思]] *[[馬克思主義]] *[[共產黨宣言]] *[[資本論]] *[[共產主義者同盟]] *[[第一國際]] *[[第二國際]] *[[德國社會民主黨]] == 進學 == {{commons|Friedrich Engels}} *{{en}}[https://www.britannica.com/money/Friedrich-Engels 大英百科：恩格斯] *{{en}}[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/ 馬克思恩格斯著作集（馬克思主義文庫）] *{{en}}[https://blogs.brighton.ac.uk/engelsineastbourne/ 恩格斯在伊斯特本] [[分類:普魯士列傳]] 7zwxkq219lp419bfn1ccocnk3d9974z 0 136176 449016 442809 2026-11-10T23:13:49Z InternetArchiveBot 88570 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.7) 449016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|大同}} 萬[[國]]混一畛域，[[天下]]一家。斯時民無[[階級|等差]]，利澤均霑，共處和平，永息[[戎|干戈]]，謂之'''大同之世'''。<ref>《[https://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/dictView.jsp?ID=128500&la=0&powerMode=0 重編國語辭典修訂本]》</ref> 大同一詞，出乎《[[禮記]]》。<ref>《[[禮記]]》[[:s:zh:禮記/禮運|禮運]]：「大道之行也，天下為公。選賢與能，講信脩睦，故人不獨親其親，不獨子其子，使老有所終，壯有所用，幼有所長，矜寡孤獨廢疾者，皆有所養。男有分，女有歸。貨惡其棄於地也，不必藏於己；力惡其不出於身也，不必為己。是故謀閉而不興，盜竊亂賊而不作，故外戶而不閉，是謂大同。」</ref>歷代儒者，遞相闡發，至[[康有為]]《[[大同書]]》而集其大成。宗[[共產主義|共產]]者，所期之世，蓋即此也。[[毛澤東]]嘗語[[黎錦熙]]：「大同者，吾人之鵠也。」<ref>{{引網 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260319070643/http://www.reformdata.org/2009/0907/7973.shtml |archivedate=2026-03-19 |title=收入分配的四次浪潮-中国改革信息库 |url=http://www.reformdata.org/2009/0907/7973.shtml |引日=2026-03-15}}</ref>非獨共產然，[[三民主義]]，亦求大同。<ref>《[[:s:zh:三民主義|三民主義講稿]]》：「我們三民主義的意思，就是民有、民治、民享。這個民有、民治、民享的意思，就是國家是人民所共有，政治是人民所共管，利益是人民所共享。照這樣的說法，人民對於國家不只是共產，一切事權都是要共的。這才是真正的民生主義，就是孔子所希望之大同世界。」</ref> ==據== <references/> [[分類:政治]] qt440sw7h5ak6bziqgw5nnfaw9p1rxf 3 140074 449011 2026-11-10T15:12:50Z Manchiu 7402 Manchiu遷頁[[用戶討論:Oh! Tea]]至[[用戶討論:Hatsea]]：當重新命名使用者「[[Special:CentralAuth/Oh! Tea|Oh! Tea]]」至「[[Special:CentralAuth/Hatsea|Hatsea]]」時自動移動頁面 449011 wikitext text/x-wiki #重新導向 [[用戶討論:Hatsea]] elmi1yqpo328vd1l7a44qqz1ndgui69 3 140075 449013 2026-11-10T21:51:00Z Mfield 113989 Mfield遷頁[[用戶討論:Instanttequila]]至[[用戶討論:Guoyi ma]]：當重新命名使用者「[[Special:CentralAuth/Instanttequila|Instanttequila]]」至「[[Special:CentralAuth/Guoyi ma|Guoyi ma]]」時自動移動頁面 449013 wikitext text/x-wiki #重新導向 [[用戶討論:Guoyi ma]] ibwjsrzg0mrtzx94zterneg28dxcvr3