Pertubuhan Negara-negara Pengeksport Petroleum
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Melayu
Pertubuhan Negara-negara Pengeksport Petroleum (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) atau dikenali sebagai (OPEC) adalah terdiri daripada negara Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Arab Saudi, Amiriah Arab Bersatu dan Venezuela; sejak 1965, ibupejabat antarabangsa terletak di Vienna, Austria.
Halatuju prinsip pertubuhan tersebut, menurut pertubuhan mengikut Statute, adalah koordinasi dan penyatuan polisi-polisi ahli dan penilai terbaik untuk mengawal kepentingan mereka secara individu dan berkumpulan; mencipta cara-cara dan makna untuk memastikan kestabilan harga dalam pasaran minyak dengan satu pandangan untuk memusnahkan turun-naik yang tidak menentu dan sebagai keperluan untuk menyelamatkan pendapatan yang stabil kepada negara-negara pengeluar; satu penyalur yang biasa, ekonomik dan efisyen kepada negara-negara pengguna, dan satu pemulangan yang adil terhadap modal mereka kepada sesiapa yang melabur di dalam industri petroleum.."1
Jadual isi kandungan |
[Sunting] Keahlian
Pertubuhan ini sekarang mempunyai 11 ahli. Mereka disenaraikan mengikut tarikh kemasukan mereka.
Algeria (Julai 1969)
(Disember 1962)
(Julai 1971)
Iran (September 1960)
Iraq (September 1960)
Kuwait (September, 1960)
Qatar (Disember 1961)
Arab Saudi (September 1960)
Amiriah Arab Bersatu (November 1967)
Venezuela (September 1960)
Indonesia (Disember 1962. Keahlian sekarang ini dikaji semula setelah Indonesia bukan lagi pengekspot minyak .)
- Bekas ahli
Walaupun tujuh daripada tiga belas anggota dan bekas anggota OPEC adalah dari negara Arab, bahasa rasmi organisasi ini ialah Bahasa Inggeris.
[Sunting] Sejarah
OPEC mengandungi 11 negara, termasuk tujuh negara-negara Arab tetapi juga negara-negara pengeksport terbesar di negara-negara membangun seperti Iran dan Venezuela. Ia telah ditubuhkan pada 17 September, 1960 untuk membantah tekananan daripada syarikat-syarikat gergasi minyak (kebanyakan dipunyai oleh warga-warga A.S., British, dan Belanda ) untuk mengurangkan harga minyak dan pembayaran-pembayaran kepada para pengeluar. Pada mulanya ia beroperasi sebagai satu unit tawar-menawar bagi jualan oleh negara-negaraDunia Ketiga. Ia mengekangkan aktiviti-aktivitinya kepada mendapatkan satu bahagian yang lebih besar keuntungan-keuntungan yang dihasilkan oleh syarikat-syarikat minyak Barat dan pengawalan yang lebih besar terhadap aras-aras penghasilan. Bagaimanapun, dalam awal 1970-an ia mula untuk meununjukkan kekuatannya.
[Sunting] Perang Yom Kippur
Kesinambungan konflik Arab-Israel akhirnya mecetuskan satu respons yang menukarkan OPEC daripada satu pakatan biasa menjadi sesuatu daya kekuatan politik. Selepas Perang Enam Hari 1967, ahli-ahli OPEC Arab membentuk satu kumpulan bertindan yang berasingan, Organisasi Negara-negara Pengeluar/Pengeksport Petroleum Arab, untuk tujuan memusatkan polisi dan menguatkan tekanan terhadap Barat kerana sokongannya terhadap Israel. Mesir dan Syria, walaupun bukan negara-negara pengeksport minyak, menyertai kumpulan berkenaan untuk menguatkan objectifnya. Kemudian, Perang Yom Kippur 1973 meningkatkan lagi pandangan orang-orang Arab tersebut. Marah terhadap usaha-usaha membekalkan kembali yang membolehkan Israel untuk mengalahkan askar-askar Mesir dan Syria, dunia Arab mengenakan sekatan minyak 1973 terhadap Amerika Syarikat, Eropah Barat, dan Jepun. Seawal 1970-an konglomerat-konglomerat Barat secara tiba-tiba menghadapi satu kesatuan sekatan daripada penghasil minyak.
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This Arab-Israeli conflict triggered a crisis already in the making. They consistantly drew the oil away from non-arab nations. The West could not continue to increase its energy use 5% annually, pay low oil prices, yet sell inflation-priced goods to the petroleum producers in the Third World. This was stressed by the Shah of Iran, whose nation was the world's second-largest exporter of oil and the closest ally of the United States in the Middle East at the time. "Of course [the world price of oil] is going to rise," the Shah told the New York Times in 1973. "Certainly! And how...; You [Western nations] increased the price of wheat you sell us by 300%, and the same for sugar and cement...; You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us, redefined as petrochemicals, at a hundred times the price you've paid to us...; It's only fair that, from now on, you should pay more for oil. Let's say 10 times more. "2
[Sunting] Operasi
OPEC's member countries hold about two-thirds of the world's oil reserves. They supply 40% of the world's oil production and half of the exports. Thanks to OPEC, member nations receive considerably more for the oil they export. "Last year, OPEC's 11 members . . . received $338 billion in revenue from oil exports, a 42% increase from 2003, according to figures compiled by the federal Energy Information Administration (New York Times, Jan. 28, 2005). Compare these figures to those from 1972, when oil exporters received $23 billion from oil exports, or 1977, when, in the aftermath of the 1973 energy crisis, they received $140 billion (Daniel Yergin, The Prize [Simon & Schuster, 1991], p. 634).
Since worldwide oil sales are denominated in U.S. dollars, changes in the value of the dollar against other world currencies affect OPEC's decisions on how much oil to produce. For example, when the dollar falls relative to the other currencies, OPEC-member states receive smaller revenues in other currencies for their oil, causing substantial cuts in their purchasing power, because they continue to sell oil in the U.S. dollar. After the introduction of the euro, Iraq decided it wanted to be paid for its oil in euros instead of US dollars.
OPEC decisions have considerable influence on international oil prices. For example, in the 1973 energy crisis OPEC refused to ship oil to western countries that had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War or October War, which they fought against Egypt and Syria. This refusal caused a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on October 17, 1973, and ending on March 18, 1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on January 7, 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10%. At that time, OPEC nations — including many who had recently nationalized their oil industries — joined the call for a new international economic order to be initiated by coalitions of primary producers. Concluding the First OPEC Summit in Algiers they called for stable and just commodity prices, an international food and agriculture program, technology transfer from North to South, and the democratization of the economic system.
Unlike many other cartels, OPEC has been successful at increasing the price of oil for extended periods. Much of OPEC's success can be attributed to Saudi Arabia's flexibility. It has tolerated cheating on the part of other cartel members, and cut its own production to compensate for other members having exceeded their production quotas. This actually gives them good leverage, because with most members at full production, Saudi Arabia is the only member with spare capacity, and the ability to increase supply, if needed.
The policy has been successful, causing the price of crude oil to rise to levels that had, at one time, been reached only by refined products. However, OPEC's ability to raise prices does have some limits. An increase in oil price decreases consumption, and could cause a net decrease in revenue. Furthermore, an extended rise in price could encourage systematic behavior change, such as alternative energy utilization, or increased conservation.
Leading up to the 1990-91 Gulf War, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein advocated that OPEC push world oil prices up, thereby helping Iraq, and other member states, service debts. But the division of OPEC countries occasioned by the Iraq-Iran War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait marked a low point in the cohesion of OPEC. Once supply disruption fears that accompanied these conflicts dissipated, oil prices began to slide.
After oil prices slumped at around $10 a barrel, concerted diplomacy, sometimes attributed to Venezuela’s president Hugo Chávez, achieved a coordinated scaling back of oil production beginning in 1998. In 2000, Chávez hosted the first summit of heads of state of OPEC in 25 years. In August 2004, OPEC began communicating that its members had little excess pumping capacity, indicating that the cartel was losing influence over crude oil prices. Indonesia is reconsidering its membership having become a net importer and being unable to meet its production quota.
[Sunting] Setiausaha Agung OPEC
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- Fuad Rouhani (Iran): (21 Jan 1961 – 30 Apr 1964 )
- Abdul Rahman al-Bazzaz (Iraq): (1 May 1964 – 30 Apr 1965)
- Ashraf Lutfi (Kuwait): (1 May 1965 – 31 Dec 1966 )
- Muhammad Saleh Joukhdar (Saudi Arabia): (1 Jan 1967 – 31 Dec 1967)
- Francisco R. Parra (Venezuela): (1 Jan 1968 – 31 Dec 1968 )
- Elrich Sanger (Indonesia): (1 Jan 1969 – 31 Dec 1969 )
- Omar el-Badri (Libya):(1 Jan 1970 – 31 Dec 1970 )
- Nadim Pachachi (Iraq): (1 Jan 1971 – 31 Dec 1972 )
- Abderrahman Khène (Algeria): (1 Jan 1973 – 31 Dec 1974 )
- M.O. Feyide (Nigeria): (1 Jan 1975 – 31 Dec 1976 )
- Ali M. Jaidah (Qatar): (1 Jan 1977 – 31 Dec 1978 )
- René G. Ortiz (Ecuador): (1 Jan 1979 – 30 Jun 1981 )
- Marc Saturnin Nan Nguema (Gabon): (1 Jul 1981 – 30 Jun 1983 )
- Fadhil J. al-Chalabi (Iraq), (acting): (1 Jul 1983 – 30 Jun 1988)
- Subroto (Indonesia): (1 Jul 1988 – 30 Jun 1994 )
- Abdallah Salem el-Badri (Libya): (1 Jul 1994 – 31 Dec 1994 )
- Rilwanu Lukman (Nigeria): (1 Jan 1995 – 31 Dec 2000 )
- Alí Rodríguez Araque (Venezuela): (1 Jan 2001 – 30 Jun 2002 )
- Álvaro Silva Calderón (Venezuela): (1 Jul 2002 – 31 Dec 2003 )
- Purnomo Yusgiantoro (Indonesia), (acting): (1 Jan 2004 &)
- Iin Arifin Takhyan (Indonesia), (acting for Yusgiantoro): (1 Jan 2004 – Feb 2004)
- Maizar Rahman (Indonesia), (acting for Yusgiantoro): (Feb 2004 -31 Dec 2004)
- Sheikh Ahmad Fahad Al Ahmad Al Sabah (Kuwait), (acting): (1 Jan 2005 – present)
- Adnan Shihab-Eldin (Kuwait), (acting for Al Sabah): (1 Jan 2005 – present)
From 21 Jan 1961-Apr 1965 the Chairmen of the Board of Governors were also, ex-officio, the Secretary-general of the organization. The functions of Chairman of the Board of Governors and Secretary-general were separated Apr 1965.
[Sunting] Pengeluar minyak bukan ahli
- See also List of oil-producing states
Some non-OPEC oil-producing nations are:
- In Europe: Azerbaijan, Norway, Russia and the United Kingdom.
- In North America: Canada, Mexico and the United States.
- In the Middle East: Oman and Yemen.
- In Africa: Angola and Equatorial Guinea.
- In South America: Brazil, Ecuador.
- In Oceania: East Timor and Australia.
- In Asia: Brunei and Kazakhstan.
[Sunting] Nota
1 Chapter I, Article 2 of The Statute of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (as amended)
2 Quoted in Walter LaFeber, Russia, America, and the Cold War (New York, 2002), p. 292.
[Sunting] Pautan luar
Pertubuhan Negara-negara Pengeksport Petroleum (OPEC) | ![]() |
Algeria | Indonesia | Iran | Iraq | Kuwait | Libya | Nigeria | Qatar | Arab Saudi | Amiriah Arab Bersatu | Venezuela |