Pipe organ

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Organ in Katharinenkirche, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Organ in Katharinenkirche, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

The pipe organ is a keyboard instrument in which the sound is made by air blowing through pipes. It is played with the hands and the feet. Organs have been made for many centuries. They are usually found in places for Christian worship such as churches and cathedrals, although they may also be found in places like town halls and concert halls or even private houses. Very small organs can be called “chamber organs”. Organs in large churches or halls are very large instruments indeed, and are built especially for the building they are in.

Contents

[edit] How an organ works

Someone who plays the organ is called an “organist”. The organist sits on a bench to play. In front of him there is at least one keyboard, probably two and sometimes three, four or even five. Organists call these keyboards “manuals”. In the modern Organ under the American Standards: manuals contain 61 keys and Pedals 32. However, in Europe in the past may have had as few as 48 keys on the manuals and as little as 12 or no keys in the pedal---early English Organs seldom had pedals. There are non-standard Organs which have more or less such as the Atlantic City Convention Hall Organ which is one of the largest Organs in the Aorld. Most organs also have pedals (all Organs built after 1850 throughout the world now do). These are notes which are played with the feet. Around him there are either 'pulls' or 'rocker' tablets that he can press or pull to make different sounds called stops. In addition to these there are pistons and other gadgets, which cause any sounds connected to them to play or not play and act to help control the organ or as act as labor saving devices. Most modern Organs have a pedalboard which is like a keyboard but played with the feet. This whole area where he sits is called the “console” (pronounce: "CON-sole"). The console controls the entire Organ.

The sound comes from the pipes which sit on windchests and are connected to the Console either by direct connnection call tracker action, a system of wires and rollers, or indirect action usually being electrically operated or rarely radio controlled. Each pipe will play either single note (one for the note C, the next for the C sharp, the next for the D and so on) or multiple notes called mixtures or celestes ranks. A rank of pipes consists in the American standard of one pipe per note or 61 pipies. Each row of pipes, called a rank, will make a different sound (one row for the “diapason” sound, another row for the “flute”, another for the “trumpet” and so on). These ranks names are called stops as a general term because they allow air to flow into the pipes when a key is pressed to sound. Some stops may have more or less pipes which are called compound stops or ranks. For instance a Mixture stop of three ranks will have 182 pipes (3 ranks x61 pipes) and a Celeste 2 rank stop will have between 96 to 183 pipes because some organ builders do not consider it necessary to have bass celeste pipes. A celeste stop has a pleasant dissonant beat between one out of tune rank and an in tune one. Such examples are Voix Celeste, Flute Celeste et al. Organ Pipes have been made of many different materials (such as glass, plastic, cardboard) but the standard has become metal or wood because metal seems to hold up better as does wood and the standard metal used is is an alloy of tin and lead with tin usually being in the highest porportion. High quality metal organ pipes usually contain 75 per cent tin or more and lead 25 per cent or less lead. Organ Pipes do not contaminate the enviroment under correct normal use, do not pose a health hazard under normal use and can be recycled. Metals other than lead as an alloy have been used but do not result in the musicality of an alloy of Tin and lead. Tin has a very low toxcity in humans. The Pipes are placed on their windchests inside a "case" or in the case of electric action and some tracker or electo-pneumatic (operated by wind and electric actions) maybe placed anywhere that is desired or a special room for them called an Organ chamber. A windchest is a box-like device which contains pallets that are opened and closed to admit air to a pipe so that it sounds. The pallets are operated by pull wires and rollers in the case of a tracker instrument but may also be operated by pneumatics or direct electric action using magnets.

The pipes all stand on a box which is called a “windchest”. There is always air being pumped into this windchest when the organ is switched on. In the days before electricity someone had to pump the air into the windchest using bellows. This was hard work. Large organs would need more than one person to do this job.

At the console the organist has “stops” that he can pull out. Each stop is for a different row of pipes. When he pulls out the stop marked “oboe” the wind will travel underneath the row of “oboe” pipes. When the organist then plays a note, some air will go into the pipe which gives that note.

In traditional organs the console is underneath the pipes so that the organist is sitting with the pipes right in front of him and beside him. Organs always used to have “mechanical action”. This meant that when the player pressed a key there would be a system of rods and levers that made something open up the pipe so that the note could sound. Many organs nowadays have a console which is not anywhere near the pipes. This is called a “detached console”. The action cannot be mechanical if the console is detached. A system called “tubular pneumatic” was often used. Nowadays some kind of electric action is normally used.

[edit] The manuals

On modern organs each manual (keyboard) usually has five octaves (C to C). In older organs they may only have had 4 ½ or even 4 octaves.

A very small organ may only have one manual. Most organs have at least two. In English and American Organs; the lower manual is called the Great and the upper manual is called the Swell. The reason for this name is that all the pipes of the Swell are inside a “swell box” which has shutters that can be opened or closed. This makes the music get louder or quieter (crescendo or diminuendo). The organist does this with his right foot by opening or closing the swell box with a pedal which is in the middle, just above the pedal board for the notes. On old organs it may be at the side.

If there is a third manual; it is called the Choir because it used to be used to accompany the choir. Traditionally the Choir pipes were behind the organist [[Ruckpositif]]. The Choir manaul began to become obsolete in the 1950s because of the Baroque and back to Bach movement. It has been replaced by the Positiv or Ruckpositiv borrowed from German Organs. As of the year 2000, the Choir, if present, maybe combined with the Positiv as a division of the Postiv. The Choir manual is nearest to the player (the Great is in the middle and the Swell is furthest away) if we are not speaking of tracker instruments. The Postiv usually contains many stops of four foot pitch (played the C below middle C on the piano but sounding one octave higher) and a few of regular 8 foot pitch (sounds as played)which the Choir contained more of and voiced to accompany, blend in with and lead vocal groups.

The fourth manual is called the solo because the stops on this manual are used to play out the tune as a solo. This manual is even further away from the player than the swell. Large cathedral organs usually have four manuals to six manuals.

If there is a fifth manual, if present, is called the Bombarde. The Bombarde usually contains loud bold reed stops including stops called 'Bombarde'. For instance a State Trumpet or Pontifical Trumpet might be placed on this manual which can be heard above all the other stops playing. The Bombarde is borrowed from French Organs where it is a standard stop on nearly all the manuals and pedals. Having a Bombarde Manual is something of a luxury among organ consoles and Organs as most Organs seldom have more than three manuals.

The sixth manual, if present, is called the "Echo" which contains very soft stops so that played with an identical stop of say on the great---it 'echo's the louder stop assuming that the notes are held on both manuals with the louder being released.

The arrangement of manuals is fully dependent on the kind of actions that the Organ has for instance one might find in a tracker organ the Great on as a bottom manual since this makes it easier to couple it to all the other manuals. However, under the American Standard for electic and pneumatic organs the arrangement standard is as outlined above.

Having two or three manuals makes it possible to have quick changes of sound during a piece. The player can also play on two manuals at once: one with the left hand and one with the right. This is particularly useful to make a tune louder than the accompaniment. The manuals can also be coupled together, e.g. pulling out the “Swell to Great” stop will make all the sounds from the Swell come out on the Great as well. On an organ with mechanical action the keys of the Swell will be seen “playing by themselves” like a pianola, but on some older organs it can be hard work for the organist’s fingers when the manuals are coupled as it makes the action very heavy because of badly build tracker actions that have not been designed according the the laws of physics regarding levers and cranks.

The arrangements for these manuals and their names are different in some European countries (see “A History of the Organ” section below). The above describes both British,Australian, and American organs and some Canadian Organs the later also being greatly influenced by French instruments ---especially in the French speaking Provinces.

[edit] The pedals

The notes on the pedals are arranged like the notes on a keyboard and are played much the same as touch typing on an old fashion typewriter or modern computer keyboard. One positions oneself in the center of if and 'feels' the notes that are required to play much as a blind person walks with a cane. The black notes and white notes of the manuals are also found here but the note are larger to accomodate the foot. The American and British Standard organ contains 32 notes giving a range of 2 ½ octaves (C to F or G). They are not quite in a straight line but fan out a little to make it easier to play according to the American and British standards. In German organs and Organs built before 1920; the pedalboard will be laid out flat without any fan curvature to it; thus making it more difficult to play. Organists need a good pair of shoes: ones which have good narrow heels and preferably pointed toes and soles that are are very slippery which are worn only for playing the organ.

[edit] The stops

The stops on an organ console are like the instruments of an Orchestra, and have names which tell the organist what kind of sound they will produce. The stops are usually to the left and right of the organist and they are pulled out (“drawstops” because they are “drawn” i.e. pulled). Some organs have “tab stops” which are in front of the player and can be rocked forwards and backwards for on/off.

The stops of an organ can be divided into families.

The chorus stops are the foundation stops, the basic ones which are good for building up the big, solid sound. A diapason or principal is a chorus stop.

The flute stops sound rather like flutes in an orchestra. They are gentler than the diapasons and sound good for very quick and light music.

The reeds are stops like the oboe, clarinet, trumpet, fagotto, trombone. Each pipe has a reed inside. Their sound is very strong and nasal (like speaking through the nose).

The strings are quiet stops which sound rather like string instruments. These are stops like the violone and gamba.

There is another way of grouping the stops. Each stop will have a number underneath the name. The number may be 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 or even 2 2/3. If the number is 8 this is called an “eight foot stop”. This is the normal pitch: the note will sound as it is written, e.g. when playing Middle C the sound will be Middle C. A 4 foot stop will sound an octave higher than written, a 2 foot stop will be two octaves higher. A 16 foot stop will sound an octave lower than an 8 foot stop. 8 foot is therefore the normal pitch, and the others are added to it to make a larger, brighter sound.

Mutation stops are stops in which a note does not sound a whole number of octaves above the normal pitch. Examples are the Tierce 1 3/5 (which sounds 2 octaves and a third above) and the Nazard or Twelfth 2 2/3 (one octave and a fifth).

An organist needs to learn which combinations of stops sound good together and how to balance them well. Each organ is different and has its own character.

[edit] Using the stops

The main portion of the pipe organ at St. Raphael's Cathedral in Dubuque, Iowa.  This organ has an open case where the pipes are left exposed.  The swell shutters can be seen open at the back.
The main portion of the pipe organ at St. Raphael's Cathedral in Dubuque, Iowa. This organ has an open case where the pipes are left exposed. The swell shutters can be seen open at the back.

The combination of stops that an organist chooses for a particular piece of music is called the “registration”.

The list of all the stops that a particular organ has is called the “specification”. The specification of an organ will show the names of the stops for each of the manuals and for the pedals, as well as the list of couplers.

Organs will also have buttons called “pistons” which help to change the registration in the middle of a piece. There are “toe pistons” operated by the feet, and “thumb pistons” which are placed just below each manual so that they can be pushed by the thumb while the fingers keep playing. Large organs will often have “general pistons” which will change any combination of stops across the organ. These will often be computerised so that players can set them up differently depending on the music they are going to play. If several players regularly use the instrument they can each have their own personal settings for the pistons which they can lock so that no one else can change them.

[edit] The history of the pipe organ

The four-manual organ console at St. Mary Redcliffe church, Bristol, England. The organ was built by Harrison and Harrison in 1912 and restored in 1990.
The four-manual organ console at St. Mary Redcliffe church, Bristol, England. The organ was built by Harrison and Harrison in 1912 and restored in 1990.

No other instrument has developed in such a wide variety of ways as the organ. If Bach had gone from German to France he would have found it impossible to play his music properly on French organs. If Couperin had gone to Germany he would not have been able to play his music on the organs that Bach was using. Neither of them could possible have played on an organ in England at the time. For one thing, English organs in the 18th century still had no pedals. This means that organists need to know a lot about what organs were like in other countries in other centuries in order to know what registrations to use when playing music by composers of the past.

[edit] The earliest organs

The earliest organs were water organs invented in Ancient Greece. The Romans used them in circuses and gladiator combats because they were loud.

[edit] The Organ in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages large organs were built in the huge Gothic cathedrals in Britain. These instruments did not have different stops: all the ranks sounded at once. They were played by a slider mechanism. Only in the 11th, 12th and centuries did they start to use a keyboard. The so-called Mixture Organ (or Blockwerk) still sounded several pitches at once. Very small organs called portatives (because they could be carried) were used in processions. Positives were a bit bigger and were used to accompany singing in the church. The Regal was like a portative but it had reeds and no pipes. It could be put on a table.

[edit] The organ in the Renaissance (about 1450-1600)

By about 1450 the organs that were being built in Germany and the Netherlands had two or three manuals and pedals. There were stops so that the player could choose which ranks he wanted to sound. The collection of pieces called the Buxheimer Orgelbuch (about 1470), is one of the first collections we have of organ music. French organs, too, were developing. In England organs were quite small. Composers like John Bull, William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons wrote music for chamber organ. In the Netherlands Jan Sweelinck was a very famous organist and teacher.

[edit] The organ in the Baroque period (about 1600-1750)

The Baroque was a great period for organ music in Germany. Organs there were built on the Werkprinzip (literally: work principle) which meant that each keyboard with its pipes was built separately, like two or three different organs, although they were played from the same console. Organs like these were built by the famous Arp Schnitger (1648-1719)]]. Many famous German composers wrote organ music, especially Johann Pachelbel (1653-1709) in South Germany and (Dietrich Buxtehude) (1637-1707) in North Germany. The great composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) learnt from these composers and wrote some of the most famous organ music of all times. The great organ builder Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753) lived during this time and built organs with a very beautiful tone. Instead of a keyboard called a Choir (or Chair Organ) he built an Oberwerk which was above the Hauptwerk (Great).

French organ builders at this time were very interested in colour (meaning: different sounds). Many stops were reeds that had names like Cornet, Tierce and Prestant. When all the stops of the Principal chorus played together it was called the Plein jeux. This was like the medieval Blockwerk. All the reed chorus together was called Grands jeux. This would have sounded very loud and was used for dialogues and fugues. Composers included Louis Nicolas Clérambault (1676-1749), Louis Claude Daquin (1694-1772) and François Couperin (1683-1733).

In England there was not much interest in developing the organ. It was used for accompanying the choir. There were no pedals. Pieces for organ were called voluntaries. Henry Purcell wrote a few organ pieces.

[edit] The organ in the Classical period: about 1750-1825

Organ composition had reached a great peak in the work of J.S.Bach, but then people started to lose interest. Not many developments took place in organ building during this period. Although Mozart played the organ and called it the “King of Instruments” he wrote little music for it.

[edit] The organ in the Romantic period

The organ in 19th century Germany started to be used for imitating the sound of an orchestra. People also started to be interested in playing the music of J.S.Bach. Many Classical organs were re-built and sometimes they lost their individuality. Organs in different countries started to sound the same.

Gradually composers started writing for the organ again. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote some excellent sonatas and preludes and fugues which were inspired by Bach’s music and made other composers want to write organ music. Robert Schumann (1810-1856) and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) wrote for the organ and later in the century Max Reger (1873-1916) and Sigfried Karg-Elert (1877-1933).

In France the organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (1811-1899) was a real genius. His organs had lots of new ideas including the Barker lever (which made it easier to play on coupled manuals) and placing families of stops on to separate chests. Organists could change their registrations quickly, pushing in or pulling out the stops that they needed. Composers included César Franck (1822-1890), Charles-Marie Widor (1845-1937) and Louis Vierne (1870-1937). The last two wrote long works in several movements which they called Symphonies because they were full of colourful sounds like those in a symphony orchestra. There were usually three manuals called Grand, Positif and Récit placed in that order (with Grand nearest to the player). The Grand had warm foundation stops and big reeds (it was like combining the classical plein jeux and grand jeux). The Positif had string stops as well as a solo reed, and the Récit had lighter reeds.

In England Samuel Wesley (1766-1837) wrote some important organ music inspired by J.S.Bach, and his son Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876) was influenced by Continental Romantic composers like Mendelssohn. In 1851 the organ builder Henry Willis built a large organ for Crystal Palace Exhibition. It had three manuals and a pedal board. This set the standard in English organ building for the future.

[edit] The organ in the Twentieth century

During the 20th century organ builders became more and more interested in returning to some of the ideas of the Baroque and Classical periods. Many organs now have electric action, but a good mechanical action has the advantage that the player feels close to the instrument he is playing. Many 19th century organs in England and America were squashed into little corners of churches where they could not be heard. Organ builders started thinking about placing the organs where the sound would fill the nave. Some large 20th century organs are capable of playing all kinds of organ music. Other new organs were built as copies of older instruments, but this means that it is rather like a museum organ and there are many things it cannot do.

Among the most famous 20th century organ composers are Marcel Dupré (1886-1971, Jehan Alain (1911-1940) and Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) in France, Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) in Germany, and Edward Elgar (1857-1934) and Herbert Howells (1892-1983) in England. Today the Czech composer Petr Eben (born 1929) is active as an organ composer with an individual style.

[edit] References

“Organ” by Arthur Wills, London 1984 (ISBN 0-356-10512-1) The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980 (ISBN 1-56159-174-2)