Автомобил
Од Википедија, слободна енциклопедија
Автомобил е возило на тркала кое има свој мотор. Постојат повеќе видови на автомобили: кола, автобус, камион, комбе и моторцикл од кои колите се најкористени. Поимот доаѓа од грчкиот збор 'autos' (себе) и латинскиот збор 'movére' (движи) и се однесува на фактот што тоа возило се движи 'себеси'. Рани термини за кола се: 'кола без коњ' и 'моторна кола'. Автомобилите имаат седишта за возачот и скоро без исклучок, едно или повеќе седишта за патници. Како такви, автомобилите представуваат главен вид на транспорт ширум светот.
По статистиката од 2005 год. во светот има 500 милиони коли (0.074 по глава на жител), од кои 220 милиони се наоѓаат во Соединетите Американски Држави (0.75 по глава на жител).
Содржина |
[уреди] Историја
[уреди] Современиот автомобил
Современиот автомобил со Ото бензински мотор е измислен во Германија од страна на Карл Бенц. Иако Карл Бенц денес се смета за пронаоѓачот на автомобилот, треба да се знае дека повеќе германски пронаоѓачи истовремено независно работеле на тој проект и секој има придонесено нешто свое. Тие се: Карл Бенц on 3 Јули, 1886 во Манхајм, Готлиб Дајмлер and Вилхелм Мајбах во Штутгард (исто така пронаоѓачи на првиот моторцикл) и во 1888/89 германско-австрискиот пронаоѓач Зигфрид Маркус во Виена.
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[уреди] Парни возила
Парните самовозечки коли се измислени во доцниот 18-ти век. Првата самовозечка кола е измислена од Никола-Жозеф Кињо во 1769 која достигнувала брзина до 6 км/ч. Во 1771 Кињо направил уште една побрза кола, која подоцна неможел добро да ја управува и ја удрил во ѕид, така правејќи ја првата автомобилска несреќа во светот.
[уреди] Мотор со внатрешно согорување
Во 1806 Франсоа Исак де Риваз го направил првиот мотор со внатрешно согорување. Во следна фаза, де Риваз го направил и првиот автомобил кој користел таков мотор. Моторот користел водород и кислород за да произведе енергија.
The first American automobiles with gasoline-powered internal combustion engines were completed in 1877 by George Baldwin Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent on the automobile in 1879. Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford Motor Company for infringing his patent. Henry Ford was notoriously against the American patent system, and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Ford had to pay a penalty to Selden, but could continue manufacturing automobiles, because the technology had changed quite a bit by that time.
Meanwhile, notable advances in steam power evolved in Birmingham, England by the Lunar Society. It was here that the term horsepower was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first British four wheel petrol-driven automobiles were built in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester who also patented the disc brake in the city. Electric vehicles were produced by a small number of manufacturers.
[уреди] Иновации
The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789; in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the US but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land and via a paddle wheel in the water.
On 5 November, 1895, George B. Selden was granted a United States patent for a two-stroke automobile engine (Патент-САД 549160). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of Bertha Benz in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.
The large scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Oldsmobile in 1902, then greatly expanded by Henry Ford in the 1910s. Early automobiles were often referred to as 'horseless carriages', and did not stray far from the design of their predecessor. Through the period from 1900 to the mid 1920s, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.
By the 1930s, most of the technology used in automobiles had been invented, although it was often re-invented again at a later date and credited to someone else. For example, front-wheel drive was re-introduced by Andre Citroën with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). After 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured. Since 1960, the number of manufacturers has remained virtually constant, and innovation slowed. For the most part, "new" automotive technology was a refinement on earlier work, though these refinements were sometimes so extensive as to render the original work nearly unrecognizable. The chief exception to this was electronic engine management, which entered into wide use in the 1960s, when electronic parts became cheap enough to be mass-produced and rugged enough to handle the harsh environment of an automobile. Developed by Bosch, these electronic systems have enabled automobiles to drastically reduce exhaust emissions while increasing efficiency and power.
[уреди] Промена на модели и дизајни
Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances; since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by Cadillac, used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division.
[уреди] Алтернативни горива и акумулатори
- Главна статија: Alternative fuel cars
With heavy taxes on fuel, particularly in Europe and tightening environmental laws, particularly in California, and the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues.
Diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure biodiesel, a fuel that can be made from vegetable oils. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fuelled cars can run on LPG. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets. Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry/use twice as much. Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles. Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank.
In the United States, alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. Brazil is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s.
Attempts at building viable battery-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably General Motors with the EV1), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical. Battery powered cars have used lead-acid batteries which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and NiMH batteries.
Current research and development is centered on "hybrid" vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the USA was the Honda Insight. As of 2005, The car is still in production and achieves around 60 mpg.
Other R&D efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing fuel cells, alternative forms of combustion such as GDI and HCCI, and even the stored energy of compressed air (see water Engine).
[уреди] Безбедност
Automobiles were a significant improvement in safety on a per passenger mile basis, over the horse based travel that they replaced. Millions have been able to reach medical care much more quickly when transported by ambulance.
Accidents seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was Bridget Driscoll on 1896-08-17 in London and the first in the United States was Henry Bliss on 1899-09-13 in New York City, NY.
Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. Automated control has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32G emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway.
Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at Ford Motor Company. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment.
There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as IIHS and backed by the insurance industry.
Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the U.S., with similar trends in Europe. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel, but the rate per capita and per mile travelled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability.
[уреди] Иднината на авотомобилот
In order to limit deaths, there has been a push for self-driving automobiles. Much of the drive for computer-driven vehicles has been led by DARPA with their Grand Challenge race.
[уреди] Некои марки на автомобили
- Мерцедес-Бенз
- Мајбах
- Ролс-Ројс
- Делонај-Белевил
[уреди] Видете исто така
[уреди] Надворешни врски
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