Antropologi

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Antropologi ngarupakeun ulikan ngeunaan manusa (tempo genus Homo) nu nagdung nagdung dua harti holistik: patali jeung sakabéh manusa di sakabéh jaman, ogé sakabéh diménsi kamanusaan. Nu jadi puseur na antropologi nyaéta konsép budaya, jeung gagasan yén bawaan manusa téh budaya; yén spésiés urang geus ngalaman évolusi kamampuhan universal pikeun ngabayangkeun alam dunya sacara simbolis, pikeun ngajarkeun jeung diajar simbol-simbol éta sacara sosial, jeung pikeun ngatransformasikeun dunya (kaasup urangna) dumasar kana simbol-simbol éta.

Di Amérika Serikat, antropologi biasana dibagi kana opat widang:

  • antropologi fisik, nu ngulik paripolah primata, évolusi manusa, jeung genetik populasi; kadang widang ieu disebut ogé antropologi biologis.
  • antropologi budaya, (ogé disebut antropologi sosial atawa antropologi sosiokultural). Widang-widang nu diulik dina antropologi budaya di antarana social networks, paripolah sosial, pola duduluran, politik, kapercayaan, pola produksi, exchange, konsumsi, sarta éksprési budaya séjénna;
  • antropologi basa linguistik, nu ngulik variasi basa meuntasan wanci jeung rohangan, mangpaat sosial basa, sarta hubungan antara basa jeung budaya; jeung
  • arkéologi, nu ngulik titinggal masarakat (di Inggris mindeng dipisahkeun).

Nu anyaran ieu, sababaraha program antropologi di AS mimiti meulah widang ieu jadi dua, nu hiji nekenkeun kamanusaan jeung téori kritis, nu séjénna nekenkeun élmu alam jeung positivisme.


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[édit] Kontéks historis jeung institusional

Antropolog Eric Wolf kungsi nyirikeun antropologi salaku kamanusaan nu pang ilmiahna jeung élmu sosial nu pang manusawina. Ngarti kumaha tumuwuhna antropologi bakal ngabantu urang neuleuman kumaha ieu élmu bisa luyu jeung disiplin akademis lainna.

Antropolog kontémporér ngaku yén sababaraha ahli pikir heubeul salaku "karuhun"-na jeung yén disiplin ieu boga sumber nu loba. Ngan, antropologi leuwih bisa dihartikeun salaku hasil tina Jaman Pencerahan. Nalika jaman ieu pisan urang Éropah ngulik paripolah manusa sacara sistematis. Tradisi yurisprudénsi, sajarah, filologi, jeung sosiologi tumuwuh dina mangsa ieu, kaasup élmu sosial nu ngawengku antropologi. Dina waktu nu sarua, réaksi romantic tina ayana Pencerahan ieu ngahasilkeun ahli pikir kawas Herder nu dituturkeun ku Wilhelm Dilthey nu ngawujudkeun dasar pikeun konsép budaya nu ngarupakeun puseur disiplin ieu.

Sacara kalembagaan, antropologi mucunghul ti sajarah alam (dibéjérbéaskeun ku penulis kawas Buffon) nu ngulik ngeunaan umat manusa - utamana nu hirup di koloni Éropah]]. Jadi, ngulik basa, budaya, fisiologi, jeung titinggal koloni Éropah leuwih kurang sarua jeung ngulik flora jeung fauna tempat éta. Ku alesan éta, misalna, Lewis Henry Morgan bisa nyieun monograf The League of the Iroquois jeung The American Beaver and His Works sakaligus. Ieu ogé nu jadi alesan pangna barang-barang budaya bangsa "beradab" kawas Cina dipintonkeun di muséum-muséum seni di sapanjang Éropah, sedengkeun titinggal budaya ti Afrika atawa Pribumi Amerika Kalér dipintonkeunna di Muséum Natural History babarengan jeung tulang-taléng dinosaurus sarta diorama alam. Kabéjakeun, prakték modél kieu geus robah sacara dramatis dina sababaraha taun ieu, sarta salah mun nganggap antropologi samata-mata hasil peran kolonial jeung chauvinisme urang Éropah, sabab patalina jeung imperialisme téh rumit.

Antropologi tumuwuh misah ti sajarah alam, dina panungtungan abad ka dalapan welas disiplin ieu geus mimiti ngawujud kana bentuk nu modern - taun 1935, misalna, T.K. Penniman geus bisa nulis buku sajarah ngeunaan disiplin ieu dina judul A Hundred Years of Anthropology. Mangsa harita, widang ieu didominasi ku 'métode komparatif'. Sakabéh maasrakat dianggap geus ngaliwatan hiji prosés évolusionér tunggal ti nu paling primitif nepi ka paling maju. Masarakat Non-Éropah kungsi ditilik salaku 'fosil hirup' évolusionér nu bisa diulik pikeun nalungtik bangsa Éropah jaman baheula. Para sarjana narulis sajarah ngeunaan migrasi prasajarah nu kadang aya mangpaatna, tapi mindeng ogé pikahéraneun. DIna mangsa ieu pisan bangsa Éropah munggaran bisa sacara akurat nyukcruk migrasi urang Polinésia meuntasan Sagara Pasifik misalna - najan sawaréh ti antarana yakin yén asalna ti Mesir. Pamungkas, konsép ngeunaan ras geus sacara aktif disawalakeun salaku hiji cara pikeun ngagolongkeun - jeung ngurutkeun - umat manusa dumasar kana béda sipat/ciri biologisna.

[édit] Antropologi di A.S.

Antropologi di A.S. dialpukahan ku Franz Boas, nu ngamangpaatkeun posisina di Columbia University jeung American Museum of Natural History pikeun ngalatih tur ngembangkeun sababaraha angkatan murid. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of generalizations. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that humans conduct and behavior was the result of nature rather than nurture. Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the natural sciences were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans.

Boas's first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, and Edward Sapir. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which were to first to describe Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack evolutionary theory. Their focus on Native American languages also helped establish linguistics as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on Indo-European languages.

The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Influenced by psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand that way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While Culture and Personality works such as Coming of Age in Samoa and The Chrysanthemum and the Sword remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. While Boas had planned that Ruth Benedict succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, she was sidelined by Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the ANHM.

[édit] Antropologi di Inggris

Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present.

The two most important names in this tradition were Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Malinowski, both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the Andaman Islands was carried out in the old style, but after reading Emile Durkheim he published an account of his research (entitled simply The Andaman Islanders) which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structure-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibirum in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. Malinowski, on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed ethnography and advances in methodology. His classic Argonauts of the Western Pacific advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field.

Malinowksi and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggresively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the Commonwealth. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include The Nuer by Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard and The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi by Meyer Fortes, while well known edited volumes include African Systems of Kinship and Marriage and African Political Systems.

[édit] Antropologi di Prancis

Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider Marcel Mauss to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of Durkheim's Annee Sociologique group, and while Durkheim and other examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as Henri Hubert and Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's Essay on the Gift was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of exchange and reciprocity.

Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration. Marcel Griaule and Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde.

Above all, however, it was Claude Levi-Strauss who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines, Levi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and labratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as Maurice Godelier and Francoise Heritier who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology.

[édit] Antropologi sanggeus Perang Dunya Kadua

Méméh PD II 'antropologi sosial' Inggris jeung 'antropologi budaya' Amérika masih mangrupa dua tradisi nu béda. Sanggeus perang nu dua ieu bisa ngahiji ngawujud antropologi 'sosiobudaya'.

Taun 1950-an jeung panengah 1960-an antropologi tumuwuhna condong kawas élmu alam. Kayaning Llyd Fallers jeung Clifford Geertz museurkeun manéh kana prosés modernisasi by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as Julian Steward and Leslie White focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by Marvin Harris. Economic Anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and Greg Dalton focused on how traditional economics ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as Max Gluckman and Peter Worsley experimented with Marxism and authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach incorporated Levi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.

Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including cognitive anthropology and componential analysis. Authors such as David Schneider, Clifford Geertz, and Marshall Sahlins developed a more fleshed out concept of culture as a web or meaning or signification which proved very popular. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through its opposition to the Vietnam War and the Algerian War of Independence and the authors of volumes such as Reinventing Anthropology worried about its relevance and Marxism became more and more popular in the discipline.

In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in Eric Wolf's Europe and the People Without History - were central to the discipline. Books like Anthropology and the Colonial Equality pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of authors such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by Marshall Sahlins (again) who drew on Levi-Strauss and Fernand Braudel to examine the relationship between cultural structure and individual agency.

In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as George Marcus and James Clifford pondered ethnographic authority and how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. This was part of a more general trend of postmodernism that was popular. Currently anthropology focuses on globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe.

[édit] Konsép-konsép antropologis

  • Behavioral modernity
  • Kolonialisme
  • Budaya
  • Bangsa
  • Exchange and Reciprocity
  • Kulawarga
  • Gender role
  • Kinship and descent
  • Nikah
  • Sistim politik
  • Ras
  • Agama
  • Subsistence
  • Transkulturasi

[édit] Widang jeung subwidang antropologis

  • Antropologi biologis (ogé Antropologi fisik)
    • Antropologi forénsik
    • Paléoétnobotani
  • Antropologi budaya (ogé Antropologi sosial)
    • Antropologi terapan
    • Studi lintas-budaya
    • Cyber anthropology
    • Development anthropology
    • Antropologi lingkungan
    • Antropologi ékonomi
    • Étnografi
    • Étnomusikologi
    • Antropologi médis
    • Antropologi prikologis
    • Antropologi politis
    • Antropologi agama
    • Antropologi publik
    • Antropologi visual
  • Antropologi linguistik
    • Linguistik singkronik (atawa Linguistik deskriptif)
    • Linguistik diakronik (atawa Linguistik historis)
    • Étnolinguistik
    • Sosiolinguistik

[édit] Tempo ogé

  • Daptar antropolog