Wikipǣdia angwiki https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heafodtramet MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.13 first-letter Media Syndrig Mōtung Brūcend Brūcendmōtung Wikipǣdia Wikipǣdiamōtung Ymele Ymelmōtung MediaWiki MediaWikimōtung Bysen Bysenmōtung Help Helpmōtung Flocc Floccmōtung TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 710 231253 190809 2026-08-03T20:55:28Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox | color = pink | name = Sċēap | status = DOM | image = Flock of sheep.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Flocca sċēapum | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | subphylum = [[Hƿeorfdēor|Vertebrata]] | classis = [[Sẏċedēor|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Cliferfētedēor|Artiodactẏla]] | familia = [[Bovidae]] | subfamilia = [[goat antelope|Caprinae]] | genus = ''[[Ovis]]'' | species = '''''O. aries''''' | binomial = ''Ovis aries'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]] }} [[Biliþ:Ovejas en Patagonia - Argentina.jpg|left|280px|thumb|Sċēap]] '''Sċēap''' is ǣniġ sẏndrigra ƿillenra [[cliferfētedēor]]a, aċ ġemǣnlīċost þæt '''Getemod Sċēap''' (''Ovis aries''), þe ġeƿēne ofcẏmþ of ƿildum [[urisċ]] of sūþmiddum and sūþƿestum [[Asia]]n. Ōðrum cẏnnum sċēapes and hira nīehstsibba, sēo [[gāt antelope]]. [[Flocc:Dēor]] [[Flocc:Cliferfētedēor]] [[Flocc:Scēap]] 4zauaiel6jswldb15ahkplavojokcep 0 712 231250 221466 2026-08-03T20:45:19Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{English}} '''Sċiþþia''' land ƿæs grundscēat in [[Eurasia|Eurasie]], in þǣm þe lēode (þe '''Sciþþie''' hātton) gēara ƿunodon. Sciþþie stōƿe and brādnesse varied over time from þǣm [[Altai]] landscipe þǣr ætgadre cumað [[Mongolia]], [[Cina]], [[Russland]], and [[Casahstan]], to þǣre niþerhealfe [[Donua]] ēa and [[Tracia|Tracie]]. '''Saka''' sindon [[Saka|Asianisca Sciþþie]]. The most significant Sciþþisca mægþa hƿærof ealda bēc teallað, oneardedon seo steppe-ƿang betƿeonum [[Dnieper]] ēa and [[Danais]] ēa. Þa folc in the periphery [[steppe]]s are usually referred as "Sciþþie", ac hie ne cƿāþ [[Iranisca gereordas]]. [[Priscus]], the Byzantine emissary to [[Ætla]]n referred to Attila's followers repeatedly sƿa "Sciþþie". However, since most of the significant areas have for a long time been inhabitated by [[Iranian]] groups, it is held that the Sciþþie ƿæron of Iranian origin. Our knowledge of their language, [[Scythian language|Scythian]] is fram þrim ƿordum found to have strong similarity with Eastern Iranian. To the best of our knowledge, the Scythians were a culture with no [[writing system]]. Most knowledge of the Scythians derives from antique Crēciscum texts. Etymologically, "Old Iranian ''Saka'', Greek ''Scythai'' and Sogdian ''Sughde'', as well as the biblical Hebrew ''Ashkenaz'' (þurh Syrian ''Askuzai'') appear all to derive from '''*skuza''', an ancient [[Indo-European]] word for ''archer'', cf. English ''scēotan''." (Torday, ''Mounted archers''). <br /><br /> [[Biliþ:Skythian archer Louvre F126.jpg|thumb|200px|Sciððisc scēotere, on Crēcisce kylix(Louvre Healle, [[Paris]])]] == Scythian society == The Scythians formed a network of nomadic tribes of horse-riding conquerors. See [[Domestication of the horse]]. They invaded many areas in the [[steppes]] of Eurasia, including areas in present-day Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. Ruled by small, closely-allied ēlites, Scythians had a reputation for their [[archer]]s, and many gained employment as [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. Scythian elite were buried in [[kurgan]]s, high barrows heaped over chamber-tombs of [[larch]]-wood, a wood that may have had special significance as a tree of life-renewal, since it is a deciduous conifer that stands out starkly in winter against other evergreens, but returns to life every spring. Burials at [[Pazyryk]] in the [[Altai Mountains]] have included some spectacularly-preserved Scythians of the "Pazyryk culture" including the "Ice Maiden" of the [[5th century BC]]. Scythian warrior-women may have inspired tales of the [[Amazons]] in [[Greek mythology|Greek]] myth. A Pazyryk burial found in the [[1990s]] seems to confirm at least part of the legend. It contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. "The woman was dressed exactly like a man. This shows that certain women, probably young and unmarried, could be warriors, literally Amazons. It didn't offend the principles of nomadic society", according to one of the [[archaeologist]]s interviewed for the [[1998]] NOVA documentary "The Ice Mummies". == Stǣr == To date no certain explanation exists to account for the origin of the Scythians or details of how they migrated to the Caucasus and [[Ukraine]], but the majority of scholars believe that they migrated westward from [[Central Asia]] between [[800 BC]] and [[600 BC]]. The Scythians never had a [[writing system]], so until recent archaeological developments most of our information about them came from the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. [[Homer]] called them "the mare-milkers"; [[Herodotus]] described them in detail: their costume consisted of padded and quilted leather trousers tucked into boots, and open tunics. They rode with no [[stirrups]] or saddles, just saddlecloths. Herodotus' histories allegedly report that [[Saka]] Scythians used [[marijuana]], but the specific reference is unclear. The Scythian philosopher [[Anacharsis]] visited [[Athens]] in the [[6th century BC]] and became a legendary sage. During the [[5th century BC|5th]] to [[3rd century BC|3rd centuries]] BC the Scythians prospered. When Herodotus wrote his ''Histories'' in the 5th century BC, Greeks distinguished a 'Greater Scythia' that extended a 20-day ride from the [[Danube River]] in the west, across the steppes of today's Ukraine to the lower [[Don River, Russia|Don]] basin from '[[Scythia Minor]]'. The Don, then known as ''[[Tanais|Tanaïs]]'', has been a major trading route ever since. The Scythians apparently obtained their wealth from their control over the [[slave trade]] from the north to Greece through the Greek [[Black Sea]] [[apoikia|colonial ports]]. They also grew grain, and shipped wheat, flocks, and cheese to Greece. Philip II of Macedon delivered a setback in [[339 BC]]. Although the Scythians allegedly disappeared in the [[1st century BC]], Eastern Romans continued to speak conventionally of "Scythians" to designate mounted barbarians in general: in 448 CE the emissary [[Priscus]] is led to [[Ætla]]n encampment in [[Pannonia|Pannonie]] by two mounted "Scythians" who are distinguished from the Goths and [[Hunnas|Hunnum]] who also followed Ætlan. Some scholars believe that the [[Sarmatians]], the [[Alans]], and finally the [[Ossetians]] descend from them. The latter, the only [[Iranians]] who still live in Europe, call their country ''Iron'', and are mostly [[Christian]]s. They speak an Eastern Iranian language, [[Ossetic]], called by them '''Ironig''' or '''Ironski''' (i.e. Iranian), which maintains some remarkable features of Gathic [[Avestan]] language. At the same time, it has a number of words remarkably similar to their modern [[German language|German]] equivalents, such as THAU (''tauen'', to thaw, as snow) and GAU (district, region). Christianised [[Gaelic]] legends also include mention of Scythian origins. == Archaeology and artifacts == Archaeological remains of the Scythians include elaborate tombs containing [[gold]], [[silk]], horses and [[human sacrifice]]s. Mummification techniques and [[permafrost]] have aided in the relative preservation of some remains. === Pazyryk sidaþing === One of the first [[Bronze Age]] Scythian burials documented by a modern archaeologist were the kurgans at [[Pazyryk]], Ulagan district of the Gorno-Altai Republic, south of [[Novosibirsk]]. The name [[Pazyryk culture]] was attached to the finds, five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between [[1925]] and [[1949]] opened in [[1947]] by a Russian archeologist, [[Sergei I. Rudenko|Sergei Rudenko]]; Pazyryk is in the [[Altai]] Mountains of southern Siberia. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch logs covered over by large cairns of boulders and stones. It flourished between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC mountain fastness of a group of Scythians that may have called themselves [[Sacae]]. It was the seat of the larger of two related Scythian groups. All the things a person might use or need in this life were placed in the tomb as grave goods for use in the next. Among the rich or powerful, horses were sacrificed and buried with them. With the ordinary Pazyryks were only ordinary utensils, but in one was found among other treasures the famous Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest surviving wool pile oriental rug. Rudenko summed up the cultural context at one point: :All that is known to us at the present time about the culture of the population of the High Altai, who have left behind them the large cairns, permits us to refer them to the Scythian period, and the Pazyryk group in particular to the fifth century BC. This is supported by radiocarbon dating. In the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] culture, Rudenko could not stress the cultural similarities between Pazyryk and Scythians from the Kuban and lower Dneiper Denu in Europiscum Russlande. Even in more modern times the [[fæȝer hǣr]] and white skin and þæt [[Sciþþisc īsmæȝden|ȝefrosen "Īsmæȝden"]] and other burials may be seen, but are not mentioned in the ''Nova'' segment devoted to these burials. That the ancient culture he studied has become the basis of nomadic tribes of today including modern Altaians, Kirgiz, and Kazakhs is now a source of considerable pride for the Gorno-Altai Republic. === Sciþþisc Gelonus (Belsk) === Recent digs in [[Belsk, Ukraine]] uncovered a vast city believed to be the Scythian capital [[Gelonus]] described by Herodotus. The city's commanding ramparts and vast 40 square kilometers exceeded even the outlandish size reported by Herodotus. Its location at the northern edge of [[Ukraine]]'s [[steppe]] would have allowed strategic control of the north-south [[trade]]. Judging by the finds dated to the [[5th century BC|5th]] and [[4th century BC|4th centuries BC]], craft workshops and Greek pottery abounded, and perhaps so did slaves destined for Greece. === The Ryzhanovka kurgan === A [[kurgan]] or burial mound near the village of Ryzhanovka in Ukraine, 75 miles south of [[Kyiv]], has revealed one of the only unlooted tombs of a Scythian chieftain, who was ruling in the forest-steppe area of the western fringe of Scythian lands. There at a late date in Scythian culture (''ca.'' [[250 BC|250]] - [[225 BC]]), a recently nomadic aristocratic class was gradually adopting the agricultural life-style of their subjects: the tomb contained a mock hearth, the first ever found in a Scythian context, symbolic of the warmth and comfort of a farmhouse. ==== Ryzhanovka links ==== * [http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=9709/abstracts/scythians ''Archaeology'' abstract of 1997 article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040407220903/http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=9709%2Fabstracts%2Fscythians |date=2004-04-07 }} * [http://www2.uj.edu.pl/IRO/NEWSLET/IRC9/Chochorowski.html the Ryzhanovka Kurgan in Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213185533/http://www2.uj.edu.pl/IRO/NEWSLET/IRC9/Chochorowski.html |date=2009-02-13 }} == "Sciþþisc gold" == Scythian contacts with craftsmen in Crēciscum landbūnessa andlang þǣre norðhealfe þæs Euxinus sǣ resulted in the famous Scythian gold adornments that are among the most glamorous prestige artifacts of world museums. Ethnographically extremely useful also, the gold depicts Scythian men as bearded, long-haired Europeans (though such images may simply have been the [[Psychological projection|projections]] of the Greek artisans onto the works they were commissioned for). "Greco-Scythian" works depicting Scythians within a much more [[Hellenic]] style date from a much later period when Scythians had already much mixed with Greeks, clouding the issue of their origins. Scythians had a taste for elaborate personal jewelry, weapon ornaments and horse trappings. They executed Central Asian animal motifs with Greek realism: winged griffins attacking horses, battling stags, deer, and eagles, combined with everyday motifs like milking ewes. In [[2000]] the touring exhibition 'Scythian Gold' introduced North Americans to the objects made for Scythian nomads by Greek craftsmen north of the Black Sea, and buried with their Scythian owners under burial mounds on the flat plains of what is now [[Ukraine]], most of which researchers unearthed after [[1980]]. In [[2001]] man gefund undisturbed Sciþþisce cynelice [[morþcrundel]] se illustrated for the first time Scythian animal-style gold that lacked the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered nēah [[Kyzyl]], [[Tuva]]n hēafodstōl. == The idea of Scythia == Genetic research in modern populations reveals that the same Y chromosome [[haplogroup]] (R1a) represents a genetic lineage currently found in central and western Asia, India, and in Slavic populations of Eastern Europe. The simplest explanation of this distribution is that this Y-chromosome mutation will have originated in people of the kurgan-building culture of traditional Scythia (see link). Aside from the findings of modern archaeology and genetics, most of what subesquent generations "knew" of Scythia and Scythians was at second hand, a matter of literary conventions. In the 19th century, the "[[barbarian]]" Scythians of literature were transformed into the wild and free hardy and democratic ancestors of all the blond Indo-Europeans. Some modern groups claim to be descended from the Scythians. The Scythians feature in national origin mythologies even of Celts: they are claimed by some [[Romantic nationalism|romantic nationalist]] writers to have figured in the formation of the empire of the [[Medes]] and likewise of Caucasian Albania, the precursor in Antiquity of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic. Modern mythological uses of "Scythian"— when they stray far from the archaeologists' findings— tend often to be as a covert euphemism for the currently deprecated "[[Aryan]]." A skeptical reader will judge these uses on a case-by-case basis. Owing to their reputation as promulgated by Greek historians, the Scythians served as an epitome of savagery and barbarism in the early modern period. Specifically, the early modern English discourse on [[Ireland]] frequently resorted to comparisons with this people to prove that the indigenous population of Ireland were descendants of these ancient "bogeymen" and as barbaric as their alleged ancestors. [[Edmund Spenser]] wrote that "the Chiefest [nation that settled in Ireland] I Suppose to be Scithians ... which firste inhabitinge and afterwarde stretchinge themselves forthe into the lande as theire numbers increased named it all of themselues Scuttenlande which more brieflye is Called Scuttlande or Scotlande" (''A View of the Present State of Ireland'', c. 1596). Among the proofs Spenser names for this origin are the alleged Irish customs of blood-drinking, nomadic lifestyle, the wearing of mantles and certain haircuts and "Cryes [or wailings] allsoe vsed amongeste the Irishe which savor greatlye of the ''Scythyan'' Barbarisme". [[William Camden]], one of Spenser's main sources, comments on this myth of origin that "to derive descent from a Scythian stock, cannot be thought any waies dishonourable, seeing that the Scythians, as they are most ancient, so they have been the Conquerours of most Nations, themselves alwaies invincible, and never subject to the Empire of others" (''Britannia'', 1586 etc., Engl. transl. 1610). * [http://www.roperld.com/YBiallelicHaplogroups.htm Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplogroups] ---- [[Russian]] [[composer]] [[Sergei Prokofiev]] wrote an orchestral "Scythian Suite," which represented the height of his 'barbarian' style. == References == Torday, Laszlo (1998). ''Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History''. Durham Academic Press. ISBN 1-900838-03-6. == External links and notes == * [http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/scythians/scythians.html Livius articles on ancient history, entry on Scythians/Sacae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112142111/http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/scythians/scythians.html |date=2013-11-12 }}. * [http://www.fotuva.org/history/archaeology.html The early burial in Tuva] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302155610/http://www.fotuva.org/history/archaeology.html |date=2019-03-02 }}. * [http://www.silk-road.com/artl/scythian.shtml Scythian myth and culture; map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050401085805/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/scythian.shtml |date=2005-04-01 }}. * [http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/ Color illustrations of Scythian gold] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124235131/http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/ |date=2021-01-24 }}. * [http://antiquity.ac.uk/reviews/taylor.html Published excavations of royal Scythian kurgan (barrow) at Chertomlyk reviewed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706070214/http://antiquity.ac.uk/reviews/taylor.html |date=2007-07-06 }}. * [http://herodot.georgehinge.com/hdt4.html Herodotus, ''Histories, Book IV'' - translated by Rawlinson, the 1942 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034754/http://herodot.georgehinge.com/hdt4.html |date=2020-12-06 }}. * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html 1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"] Transcript. [[Flocc:Fyrnlēode]] [[Flocc:Sciþþia]] k9kkeilrh7810l5xvxl7hu4djtu4dke 231252 231250 2026-08-03T20:51:16Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{English}} '''Sċiþþia''' land ƿæs grundsċēat in [[Eurasia|Eurasie]], in þǣm þe lēode (þe '''Sciþþie''' hātton) gēara ƿunodon. Sciþþie stōƿe and brādnesse varied over time from þǣm [[Altai]] landscipe þǣr ætgadre cumað [[Mongolia]], [[Cina]], [[Russland]], and [[Casahstan]], to þǣre niþerhealfe [[Donua]] ēa and [[Tracia|Tracie]]. '''Saka''' sindon [[Saka|Asianisċa Sċiþþie]]. The most significant Sciþþisċa mægþa hƿærof ealda bēc teallað, oneardedon seo steppe-ƿang betƿeonum [[Dnieper]] ēa and [[Danais]] ēa. Þa folc in the periphery [[steppe]]s are usually referred as "Sciþþie", ac hie ne cƿāþ [[Iranisċa ġereordas]]. [[Priscus]], the Byzantine emissary to [[Ætla]]n referred to Attila's followers repeatedly sƿa "Sciþþie". However, since most of the significant areas have for a long time been inhabitated by [[Iranian]] groups, it is held that the Sciþþie ƿæron of Iranian origin. Our knowledge of their language, [[Scythian language|Scythian]] is fram þrim ƿordum found to have strong similarity with Eastern Iranian. To the best of our knowledge, the Scythians were a culture with no [[writing system]]. Most knowledge of the Scythians derives from antique Crēciscum texts. Etymologically, "Old Iranian ''Saka'', Greek ''Scythai'' and Sogdian ''Sughde'', as well as the biblical Hebrew ''Ashkenaz'' (þurh Syrian ''Askuzai'') appear all to derive from '''*skuza''', an ancient [[Indo-European]] word for ''archer'', cf. English ''scēotan''." (Torday, ''Mounted archers''). <br /><br /> [[Biliþ:Skythian archer Louvre F126.jpg|thumb|200px|Sciððisc scēotere, on Crēcisce kylix(Louvre Healle, [[Paris]])]] == Scythian society == The Scythians formed a network of nomadic tribes of horse-riding conquerors. See [[Domestication of the horse]]. They invaded many areas in the [[steppes]] of Eurasia, including areas in present-day Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. Ruled by small, closely-allied ēlites, Scythians had a reputation for their [[archer]]s, and many gained employment as [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. Scythian elite were buried in [[kurgan]]s, high barrows heaped over chamber-tombs of [[larch]]-wood, a wood that may have had special significance as a tree of life-renewal, since it is a deciduous conifer that stands out starkly in winter against other evergreens, but returns to life every spring. Burials at [[Pazyryk]] in the [[Altai Mountains]] have included some spectacularly-preserved Scythians of the "Pazyryk culture" including the "Ice Maiden" of the [[5th century BC]]. Scythian warrior-women may have inspired tales of the [[Amazons]] in [[Greek mythology|Greek]] myth. A Pazyryk burial found in the [[1990s]] seems to confirm at least part of the legend. It contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. "The woman was dressed exactly like a man. This shows that certain women, probably young and unmarried, could be warriors, literally Amazons. It didn't offend the principles of nomadic society", according to one of the [[archaeologist]]s interviewed for the [[1998]] NOVA documentary "The Ice Mummies". == Stǣr == To date no certain explanation exists to account for the origin of the Scythians or details of how they migrated to the Caucasus and [[Ukraine]], but the majority of scholars believe that they migrated westward from [[Central Asia]] between [[800 BC]] and [[600 BC]]. The Scythians never had a [[writing system]], so until recent archaeological developments most of our information about them came from the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. [[Homer]] called them "the mare-milkers"; [[Herodotus]] described them in detail: their costume consisted of padded and quilted leather trousers tucked into boots, and open tunics. They rode with no [[stirrups]] or saddles, just saddlecloths. Herodotus' histories allegedly report that [[Saka]] Scythians used [[marijuana]], but the specific reference is unclear. The Scythian philosopher [[Anacharsis]] visited [[Athens]] in the [[6th century BC]] and became a legendary sage. During the [[5th century BC|5th]] to [[3rd century BC|3rd centuries]] BC the Scythians prospered. When Herodotus wrote his ''Histories'' in the 5th century BC, Greeks distinguished a 'Greater Scythia' that extended a 20-day ride from the [[Danube River]] in the west, across the steppes of today's Ukraine to the lower [[Don River, Russia|Don]] basin from '[[Scythia Minor]]'. The Don, then known as ''[[Tanais|Tanaïs]]'', has been a major trading route ever since. The Scythians apparently obtained their wealth from their control over the [[slave trade]] from the north to Greece through the Greek [[Black Sea]] [[apoikia|colonial ports]]. They also grew grain, and shipped wheat, flocks, and cheese to Greece. Philip II of Macedon delivered a setback in [[339 BC]]. Although the Scythians allegedly disappeared in the [[1st century BC]], Eastern Romans continued to speak conventionally of "Scythians" to designate mounted barbarians in general: in 448 CE the emissary [[Priscus]] is led to [[Ætla]]n encampment in [[Pannonia|Pannonie]] by two mounted "Scythians" who are distinguished from the Goths and [[Hunnas|Hunnum]] who also followed Ætlan. Some scholars believe that the [[Sarmatians]], the [[Alans]], and finally the [[Ossetians]] descend from them. The latter, the only [[Iranians]] who still live in Europe, call their country ''Iron'', and are mostly [[Christian]]s. They speak an Eastern Iranian language, [[Ossetic]], called by them '''Ironig''' or '''Ironski''' (i.e. Iranian), which maintains some remarkable features of Gathic [[Avestan]] language. At the same time, it has a number of words remarkably similar to their modern [[German language|German]] equivalents, such as THAU (''tauen'', to thaw, as snow) and GAU (district, region). Christianised [[Gaelic]] legends also include mention of Scythian origins. == Archaeology and artifacts == Archaeological remains of the Scythians include elaborate tombs containing [[gold]], [[silk]], horses and [[human sacrifice]]s. Mummification techniques and [[permafrost]] have aided in the relative preservation of some remains. === Pazyryk sidaþing === One of the first [[Bronze Age]] Scythian burials documented by a modern archaeologist were the kurgans at [[Pazyryk]], Ulagan district of the Gorno-Altai Republic, south of [[Novosibirsk]]. The name [[Pazyryk culture]] was attached to the finds, five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between [[1925]] and [[1949]] opened in [[1947]] by a Russian archeologist, [[Sergei I. Rudenko|Sergei Rudenko]]; Pazyryk is in the [[Altai]] Mountains of southern Siberia. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch logs covered over by large cairns of boulders and stones. It flourished between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC mountain fastness of a group of Scythians that may have called themselves [[Sacae]]. It was the seat of the larger of two related Scythian groups. All the things a person might use or need in this life were placed in the tomb as grave goods for use in the next. Among the rich or powerful, horses were sacrificed and buried with them. With the ordinary Pazyryks were only ordinary utensils, but in one was found among other treasures the famous Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest surviving wool pile oriental rug. Rudenko summed up the cultural context at one point: :All that is known to us at the present time about the culture of the population of the High Altai, who have left behind them the large cairns, permits us to refer them to the Scythian period, and the Pazyryk group in particular to the fifth century BC. This is supported by radiocarbon dating. In the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] culture, Rudenko could not stress the cultural similarities between Pazyryk and Scythians from the Kuban and lower Dneiper Denu in Europiscum Russlande. Even in more modern times the [[fæȝer hǣr]] and white skin and þæt [[Sciþþisc īsmæȝden|ȝefrosen "Īsmæȝden"]] and other burials may be seen, but are not mentioned in the ''Nova'' segment devoted to these burials. That the ancient culture he studied has become the basis of nomadic tribes of today including modern Altaians, Kirgiz, and Kazakhs is now a source of considerable pride for the Gorno-Altai Republic. === Sciþþisc Gelonus (Belsk) === Recent digs in [[Belsk, Ukraine]] uncovered a vast city believed to be the Scythian capital [[Gelonus]] described by Herodotus. The city's commanding ramparts and vast 40 square kilometers exceeded even the outlandish size reported by Herodotus. Its location at the northern edge of [[Ukraine]]'s [[steppe]] would have allowed strategic control of the north-south [[trade]]. Judging by the finds dated to the [[5th century BC|5th]] and [[4th century BC|4th centuries BC]], craft workshops and Greek pottery abounded, and perhaps so did slaves destined for Greece. === The Ryzhanovka kurgan === A [[kurgan]] or burial mound near the village of Ryzhanovka in Ukraine, 75 miles south of [[Kyiv]], has revealed one of the only unlooted tombs of a Scythian chieftain, who was ruling in the forest-steppe area of the western fringe of Scythian lands. There at a late date in Scythian culture (''ca.'' [[250 BC|250]] - [[225 BC]]), a recently nomadic aristocratic class was gradually adopting the agricultural life-style of their subjects: the tomb contained a mock hearth, the first ever found in a Scythian context, symbolic of the warmth and comfort of a farmhouse. ==== Ryzhanovka links ==== * [http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=9709/abstracts/scythians ''Archaeology'' abstract of 1997 article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040407220903/http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=9709%2Fabstracts%2Fscythians |date=2004-04-07 }} * [http://www2.uj.edu.pl/IRO/NEWSLET/IRC9/Chochorowski.html the Ryzhanovka Kurgan in Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213185533/http://www2.uj.edu.pl/IRO/NEWSLET/IRC9/Chochorowski.html |date=2009-02-13 }} == "Sciþþisc gold" == Scythian contacts with craftsmen in Crēciscum landbūnessa andlang þǣre norðhealfe þæs Euxinus sǣ resulted in the famous Scythian gold adornments that are among the most glamorous prestige artifacts of world museums. Ethnographically extremely useful also, the gold depicts Scythian men as bearded, long-haired Europeans (though such images may simply have been the [[Psychological projection|projections]] of the Greek artisans onto the works they were commissioned for). "Greco-Scythian" works depicting Scythians within a much more [[Hellenic]] style date from a much later period when Scythians had already much mixed with Greeks, clouding the issue of their origins. Scythians had a taste for elaborate personal jewelry, weapon ornaments and horse trappings. They executed Central Asian animal motifs with Greek realism: winged griffins attacking horses, battling stags, deer, and eagles, combined with everyday motifs like milking ewes. In [[2000]] the touring exhibition 'Scythian Gold' introduced North Americans to the objects made for Scythian nomads by Greek craftsmen north of the Black Sea, and buried with their Scythian owners under burial mounds on the flat plains of what is now [[Ukraine]], most of which researchers unearthed after [[1980]]. In [[2001]] man gefund undisturbed Sciþþisce cynelice [[morþcrundel]] se illustrated for the first time Scythian animal-style gold that lacked the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered nēah [[Kyzyl]], [[Tuva]]n hēafodstōl. == The idea of Scythia == Genetic research in modern populations reveals that the same Y chromosome [[haplogroup]] (R1a) represents a genetic lineage currently found in central and western Asia, India, and in Slavic populations of Eastern Europe. The simplest explanation of this distribution is that this Y-chromosome mutation will have originated in people of the kurgan-building culture of traditional Scythia (see link). Aside from the findings of modern archaeology and genetics, most of what subesquent generations "knew" of Scythia and Scythians was at second hand, a matter of literary conventions. In the 19th century, the "[[barbarian]]" Scythians of literature were transformed into the wild and free hardy and democratic ancestors of all the blond Indo-Europeans. Some modern groups claim to be descended from the Scythians. The Scythians feature in national origin mythologies even of Celts: they are claimed by some [[Romantic nationalism|romantic nationalist]] writers to have figured in the formation of the empire of the [[Medes]] and likewise of Caucasian Albania, the precursor in Antiquity of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic. Modern mythological uses of "Scythian"— when they stray far from the archaeologists' findings— tend often to be as a covert euphemism for the currently deprecated "[[Aryan]]." A skeptical reader will judge these uses on a case-by-case basis. Owing to their reputation as promulgated by Greek historians, the Scythians served as an epitome of savagery and barbarism in the early modern period. Specifically, the early modern English discourse on [[Ireland]] frequently resorted to comparisons with this people to prove that the indigenous population of Ireland were descendants of these ancient "bogeymen" and as barbaric as their alleged ancestors. [[Edmund Spenser]] wrote that "the Chiefest [nation that settled in Ireland] I Suppose to be Scithians ... which firste inhabitinge and afterwarde stretchinge themselves forthe into the lande as theire numbers increased named it all of themselues Scuttenlande which more brieflye is Called Scuttlande or Scotlande" (''A View of the Present State of Ireland'', c. 1596). Among the proofs Spenser names for this origin are the alleged Irish customs of blood-drinking, nomadic lifestyle, the wearing of mantles and certain haircuts and "Cryes [or wailings] allsoe vsed amongeste the Irishe which savor greatlye of the ''Scythyan'' Barbarisme". [[William Camden]], one of Spenser's main sources, comments on this myth of origin that "to derive descent from a Scythian stock, cannot be thought any waies dishonourable, seeing that the Scythians, as they are most ancient, so they have been the Conquerours of most Nations, themselves alwaies invincible, and never subject to the Empire of others" (''Britannia'', 1586 etc., Engl. transl. 1610). * [http://www.roperld.com/YBiallelicHaplogroups.htm Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplogroups] ---- [[Russian]] [[composer]] [[Sergei Prokofiev]] wrote an orchestral "Scythian Suite," which represented the height of his 'barbarian' style. == References == Torday, Laszlo (1998). ''Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History''. Durham Academic Press. ISBN 1-900838-03-6. == External links and notes == * [http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/scythians/scythians.html Livius articles on ancient history, entry on Scythians/Sacae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112142111/http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/scythians/scythians.html |date=2013-11-12 }}. * [http://www.fotuva.org/history/archaeology.html The early burial in Tuva] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302155610/http://www.fotuva.org/history/archaeology.html |date=2019-03-02 }}. * [http://www.silk-road.com/artl/scythian.shtml Scythian myth and culture; map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050401085805/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/scythian.shtml |date=2005-04-01 }}. * [http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/ Color illustrations of Scythian gold] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124235131/http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/ |date=2021-01-24 }}. * [http://antiquity.ac.uk/reviews/taylor.html Published excavations of royal Scythian kurgan (barrow) at Chertomlyk reviewed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706070214/http://antiquity.ac.uk/reviews/taylor.html |date=2007-07-06 }}. * [http://herodot.georgehinge.com/hdt4.html Herodotus, ''Histories, Book IV'' - translated by Rawlinson, the 1942 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034754/http://herodot.georgehinge.com/hdt4.html |date=2020-12-06 }}. * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html 1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"] Transcript. [[Flocc:Fyrnlēode]] [[Flocc:Sciþþia]] k8jde42o2oeokrp7a2141g3iuum8sgd 0 19302 231251 227845 2026-08-03T20:46:51Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231251 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This is an alternative page of [[Wikipǣdia:Tutorial on Old English]], this version is written using ƿẏnn.'' ==Hū man sceolde ƿrītan== :''For information on typing, see [[Help:Innung#Typing]]'' Gif þē is nīed, brūc þā stafas: ǣ æ ā ē ī ō ū ȳ þ ð ƿ oþþe Ǣ Æ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ȳ Þ Ð Ƿ in þīnum geƿritum. When writing, use the early West Saxon spellings: #Use ''ie'' instead of ''y'' (thus ''sierƿung'' instead of ''syrƿung'', ''his'' instead of ''hys'', etc.) #Use ''an'' instead of ''on'' (thus ''and'' instead of ''ond'', ''mann'' instead of ''monn'', etc.) ===OE Style=== As a general rule for the OE wiki, try to remember the following OE guidelines to give this wiki a consistent look and feel: ''Don'ts'' #Do not use y for ie in words such as his, hire, sierwung, or for eo in words such as feorran, feorsian #Do not syncopate verb endings on verbs ending in consonant clusters or t/d. It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons did this, but it will make reading articles so much easier if one finds "bīteþ" and "biddeþ" instead of "bitt" and "bītt." And "hyngrest" not "hyngrst." However, you can probably get away with "bītst." #Do not use ''on'' instead of ''an.'' It is easier to see and understand "mann," "and," and "band" than "monn," "ond," and "bond." #Do not link to external sites within an article if you can help it. Save that for the end of the article. #Do not link to images outside the article. Having little thumbnails that one may click on is nicer, and makes the article better to look at. ''Do's'' #Use the same spelling throughout your article. It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make reading articles so much easier with consistent spelling. #Use the special words and characters under the edit box if you need them. #Use the following for definite articles: se, sēo, þæt; þæs, þǣre; þǣm, þǣre; þȳ/þon, þǣre; þone, þā, þæt; and plural: þā; þāra/þǣra; þǣm; þā - don't use thaet, þat, sio, sīo, þām, þāre, etc. Consistency! #Use the distinctive accusative forms of pronouns (mec, þec, ūsic, uncit, ēowic, incit, hine, hīe, hit). This will make the articles that much easier to read. #Use the ''þ'' for the same sound as in "theta" and ''ð'' for the same sound as in "that." It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make pronouncing what is read in the articles so much easier. #Use internal links within this wiki. We are not an advertising service for other websites. #Use image thumbnails within an article rather than simply linking to the image page. This makes for prettier articles, and is already common practice in other wikis. Or: be consistent, make it easy for your readers to understand. And remember, this is an encyclopedia, so [[:en:Neutral Point of View|Neutral Point of View]] applies! ===Punctuation=== #Punctuate sentences as you normally would, i.e. a period for sentences, question mark for questions, and exclamation mark for imperatives/commands. #For subordinate clauses, separate them from the main clause by a comma, e.g. "Ic cann secgan, þæt hē is mīn brōðor." Or, "Þes is sē mōnaþ, þe ƿē 'Hāligmōnaþ' hātton." This makes it a bit clearer to understand. #In series, place commas after each word, including one before 'and' (mōdor, fæder, and sweostor). ===Runes=== Please visit the [[Wikipedia:How to write using Runes|How to write with Runes]] article if you wish to write using the runic alphabet. If you wish to do so, please have a version of the page written using the Latin alphabet first, then transliterated into runes. ==And as for Grammar== ===Information about Syllables Relevant to Old English=== Syllables break when: *There are two consonants between two vowel clusters, e.g. hab-ban, en-gel. *There is one consonant between two vowel clusters (the consonant going to the latter syllable), e.g. ē-þel, fre-mast. It is important to know what the stem of a word is: It is the most basic factor of a word (compound or not) minus declension/conjugation suffixes, therefore the Modern English word fireman has two stems: fire and man, the same rules apply to Old English; but in compound words, the declension/conjugation of a noun/adjective/verb is purely dependent on the last word in the compound (so the noun "sealtȳþ - salt-wave" may look like it takes the endings of a long-stemmed disyllable; but it is, in fact, a compound word of "sealt - salt" and "ȳþ - wave" (ȳþ being the final member of the compound), therefore it takes the conjugation of a long-stemmed monosyllable: ȳþ). At many times in Old English, it is important to be able to distinguish four different types of syllables. Short-stemmed monosyllables: end with short vowel and one consonant, e.g. scip, in, glæd. Long-stemmed monosyllables: end with either a long vowel and one consonant or a short vowel and two consonants, e.g. hand, cniht, fōt, tōþ. Short-stemmed disyllables: end with a short vowel, then one consonant, then another short vowel, then one consonant, e.g. metod, ƿerod, hacod. Long-stemmed disyllables: end with the same pattern as above (e.g. vowel, consonant cluster, vowel, consonant cluster) but ''must'' have at least one long vowel or one cluster of two consonants, e.g. engel, habban, ƿindig, ēþel. ===Verbs=== The verb is conjugated as follows: ic (stem)-e, þu (stem)-est, hē (stem)-eþ/aþ, ƿē/gē/hīe (stem)-aþ #Strong Verbs: ic -e, þu -(e)st, hē -(e)þ, ƿē/gē/hīe -aþ --The () means the ''e'' of the ending can be syncopated if the ending is still understandable. Bisen: stendeþ hē, ne stent hē, ac nimþ hē, ne nimeþ hē. Understendest þu? ====Weak Verbs==== =====Type 1a===== Verbs with stems ending in a double consonant or in -rian, unless otherwise marked. Infinitive Forms: nerian, fremman, settan, gremman, etc. #Note how the infinitive ending is always -an. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>nerie</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>neriaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>nerest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>neriaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>nereþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>neriaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>nerie</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>nerien</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>nerie</td> <td>gē</td> <td>nerien</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>nerie</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>nerien</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>nerede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>neredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>neredest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>neredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>nerede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>neredon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>nerede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>nereden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>nerede</td> <td>gē</td> <td>nereden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>nerede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>nereden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Imperative: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>nere</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>neriaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Participles: nerian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>neriende</td> <td>genered</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> And doubled consonant verbs (with fremman as an example): <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>fremme</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>fremmaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>fremest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>fremmaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>fremeþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>fremmaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>fremme</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>fremmen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>fremme</td> <td>gē</td> <td>fremmen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>fremme</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>fremmen</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>fremede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>fremedon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>fremedest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>fremedon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>fremede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>fremedon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>fremede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>fremeden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>fremede</td> <td>gē</td> <td>fremeden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>fremede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>fremeden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Imperative: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>freme</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>fremmaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Participles: fremman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>fremmende</td> <td>gefremed</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> And one last type, settan/lecgan type 1a verbs: <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>sette</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>settaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>setest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>settaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>seteþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>settaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>sette</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>sette</td> <td>gē</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>sette</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>sette</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>setton</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>settest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>setton</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>sette</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>setton</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>sette</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>sette</td> <td>gē</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>sette</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>setten</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Imperative: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>sete</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>settaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1a Participles: settan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>settende</td> <td>geseted</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Notes: Weak Verb 1a===== *The first person is the infinitive, without -an (the stem), plus -e. (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+e) *The second/third person is formed from the bare stem plus -est/-eþ (nerian -> ner+ian -> nerest, nereþ) *The plural is the infinitive without -an (the stem), plus -aþ. (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+aþ) *The imperative is formed from the þu (minus -st) and ge (same) forms. (nerest ->nere-st -> nere) *The subjunctive is formed from the stem + -e, -en. (nerian -> neri+e, neri+en) Thus, it is just like the first person indicative and the first person indicative plus -n. *The present participle is formed from the stem plus -ende (nerian -> neri+ende) *The past participle is formed from the past tense and ge-, minus the -e (nerede -> ge+nered-e -> genered) *Verbs ending in -rian and with doubled consonants drop the -i- or doubled consonant in the same positions: 2nd/3rd person singular, imperative singular, and throughout the past tense. *Verbs like settan (ātreddan, cnyttan, hreddan, hƿettan, lettan, spryttan, lecgan) typically have the above declension. Lecgan has (legde, geleged). You may find past forms as "setede." =====Type 1b===== Verbs with stems ending in more than one consonant (not a doubled consonant) or with a long vowel and one consonant. Infinitive Forms: dēman, hyngran, drencan, gierƿan, etc. #Note how the infinitive ending is always -an. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>dēme</td> <td> ƿē</td> <td>dēmaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>dēmst</td> <td>gē</td> <td>dēmaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>dēmþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>dēmaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>dēme</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>dēmen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>dēme</td> <td>gē</td> <td>dēmen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>dēme</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>dēmen</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>dēmde</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>dēmdon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>dēmdest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>dēmdon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>dēmde</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>dēmdon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>dēmde</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>dēmden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>dēmde</td> <td>gē</td> <td>dēmden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>dēmde</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>dēmden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Imperative: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>dēm</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>dēmaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Participles: dēman'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>dēmende</td> <td>gedēmed</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> And multiple consonant verbs (ending in -c, -sc, -p, -f, with drencan as an example): <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>drence</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>drencaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>drencest, drencst</td> <td>gē</td> <td>drencaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>drenceþ, drencþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>drencaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>drence</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>drencen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>drence</td> <td>gē</td> <td>drencen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>drence</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>drencen</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>drencte</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>drencton</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>drenctest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>drencton</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>drencte</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>drencton</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>drencte</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>drencten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>drencte</td> <td>gē</td> <td>drencten</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>drencte</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>drencten</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Imperative: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>drenc</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>drencaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Participles: drencan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>drencende</td> <td>gedrenced</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> And multiple consonant verbs (using hyngran as an example): <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>hyngre</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>hyngraþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>hyngrest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>hyngraþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>hyngreþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>hyngraþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>hyngre</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>hyngren</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>hyngre</td> <td>gē</td> <td>hyngren</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>hyngre</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>hyngren</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>hyngrede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>hyngredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>hyngredest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>hyngredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>hyngrede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>hyngredon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>hyngrede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>hyngreden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>hyngrede</td> <td>gē</td> <td>hyngreden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>hyngrede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>hyngreden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Imperative: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>hyngre</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>hyngraþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Participles: hyngran'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>hyngrende</td> <td>gehyngred</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> And one last type, gierƿan verbs (ending in -ƿan): <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>gierƿe</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>gierƿaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>gierest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>gierƿaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>giereþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>gierƿaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>gierƿe</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>gierƿen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>gierƿe</td> <td>gē</td> <td>gierƿen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>gierƿe</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>gierƿen</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>gierede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>gieredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>gieredest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>gieredon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>gierede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>gieredon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>gierede</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>giereden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>gierede</td> <td>gē</td> <td>giereden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>gierede</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>giereden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Imperative: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>giere</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>gierƿaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 1b Participles: gierƿan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>gierƿende</td> <td>gegierƿed, gegiered</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Notes: Weak Verb 1b===== *See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb. *The most 'regular' 1b verbs are those like dēman (long vowel, 1 consonant) and hyngran (short vowel, multiple consonants), in that they don't have much variation in formation like drencan and gierƿan verbs. *Verbs having a long vowel and one consonant, like '''dēman''', don't generally have the full -est, -eþ endings. Thus, the imperative is simply the þu form without -st (dēm!, not dēme!). *Verbs like dēman include verbs ending in -rn, -ng, -rg, -lg, ƿiernan (ƿiernde, geƿierned), lengan (lengde, gelenged), byrgan (byrgde, gebyrged), and fylgan (fylgde, gefylged). It also includes contracted verbs like hēan (hēade, gehēad), rȳn, tȳn, þēon, þȳn. *Verbs like drencan include those ending in -nc, -sc, -p, -sp, -t, -rp. They add -te in the past tense (ācƿencte, ādƿæscte, etc.). *Verbs like hyngran, with a short vowel and multiple consonants, are more 'regular' than other 1b verbs. Their past tense is always -ede, and the past participle is always ge-(stem)-ed (bīecnede, þrysmede, symblede, ræfnede). *Verbs like gierƿan, ending in -ƿan, drop the -ƿ- in the same places as the -i- in 1a verbs (smierƿan -> smierest, nierƿan -> niereþ). Verbs like getrīeƿan, lǣƿan, forslǣƿan, hlēoƿan (with a long vowel/diphthong) kept the -ƿ- in all forms, however. ===Weak Verb 2=== These are all other verbs, and are about half of all weak verbs. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Present Indicative: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>endie</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>endiaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>endast</td> <td>gē</td> <td>endiaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>endaþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>endiaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Present Subjunctive: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>endie</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>endien</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>endie</td> <td>gē</td> <td>endien</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>endie</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>endien</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Past Indicative: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>endode</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>endodon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>endodest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>endodon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>endode</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>endodon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Past Subjunctive: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>endode</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>endoden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>endode</td> <td>gē</td> <td>endoden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>endode</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>endoden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Imperative: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>enda</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>endiaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Participles: endian'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>endiende</td> <td>geendod</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> Verbs like tƿēogan ''to doubt'' are slightly irregular, since they were originally class 3 verbs, but decline alike, so it's not too difficult to learn them. There are only tƿēogan, fēogan ''to hate'', frēogan ''to love, make free'', smēagan ''to ponder, consider'', and þrēagan ''to reprove, rebuke''. Sometimes these verbs show up as tƿēon, fēon, frēon, smēan, and þrēan. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Present Indicative: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>tƿēoge</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>tƿēogaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>tƿēost</td> <td>gē</td> <td>tƿēogaþ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>tƿēoþ</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>tƿēogaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Present Subjunctive: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>tƿēoge</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>tƿēogen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>tƿēoge</td> <td>gē</td> <td>tƿēogen</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>tƿēoge</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>tƿēogen</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Past Indicative: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>tƿēode</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>tƿēodon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>tƿēodest</td> <td>gē</td> <td>tƿēodon</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>tƿēode</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>tƿēodon</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Past Subjunctive: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>ic</td> <td>tƿēode</td> <td>ƿē</td> <td>tƿēoden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>þu</td> <td>tƿēode</td> <td>gē</td> <td>tƿēoden</td> </tr> <tr> <td>hē, hēo, hit</td> <td>tƿēode</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>tƿēoden</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Imperative: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efafef;">Pronoun</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>(þu)</td> <td>tƿēo</td> <td>(gē)</td> <td>tƿēogaþ</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Verb 2 Participles: tƿēogan'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Present</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Past</th> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>tƿēogiende, tƿēonde (poetical)</td> <td>getƿēod</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Notes: Weak Verb 2===== *See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb. *These verbs all end in -ian. *These verbs are the most 'regular' verbs in that all verbs of this class decline the same aside from a small group of exceptional verbs. *The second and third person singular have the endings -ast and -aþ, without the -i-. *The imperative is still the second person, minus -st. *The verbs that act like tƿēogan are remnants of class 3 verbs that became class 2 verbs before the written history of Old English. ===Pronouns=== In dæftunge: nemniendlic, āgniendlic, forgifendlic, ƿregendlic <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''First Person Singular: I, We Two, We'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">I</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">We two</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">We</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ic</td> <td>ƿit</td> <td>ƿē</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>uncer</td> <td>ūser, ūre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>mē</td> <td>unc</td> <td>ūs</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>mec</td> <td>uncit</td> <td>ūsic</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Second Person Pronouns: Thou, Ye two, Ye'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Thou</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Ye two</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Ye</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þu</td> <td>git</td> <td>gē</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>incer</td> <td>ēoƿer</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þē</td> <td>inc</td> <td>ēoƿ</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þec</td> <td>incit</td> <td>ēoƿic</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Third Person Pronouns: He, She, It, They'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">He</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">She</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">It</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">They</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hē</td> <td>hēo</td> <td>hit</td> <td>hīe</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>his</td> <td>hire</td> <td>his</td> <td>hira, hiera</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>him</td> <td>hire</td> <td>him</td> <td>him, heom</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hine</td> <td>hīe</td> <td>hit</td> <td>hīe</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Interrogative Pronoun: Who, What'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Who</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">What</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hƿā</td> <td>hƿæt</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>hƿæs</td> <td>hƿæs</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>hƿǣm</td> <td>hƿǣm</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>hƿȳ/hƿī</td> <td>hƿȳ/hƿī</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hƿone</td> <td>hƿæt</td> </tr> </table> </table> Notice how the Interrogative pronouns look like the pronouns ''hē'' and ''hit'' (hƿǣ'''m''' and hi'''m''', hƿo'''ne''' and hi'''ne''', hƿæ'''t''' and hi'''t''', hƿæ'''s''' and hi'''s'''). If you compare to the Definite Article, you'll see the same similarities, mostly a difference of þ-/hƿ- (þ'''one''' and hƿ'''one''', þ'''ǣm''' and hƿ'''ǣm''', þ'''ȳ''' and hƿ'''ȳ''', þ'''æt''' and hƿ'''æt''', þ'''æs''' and hƿ'''æs'''). ====Declension==== The genitive pronoun functions as an adjective. As such, it declines to agree with the case, gender, and number of the noun which it describes. The pronouns mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, ēoƿer, uncer, incer decline, whereas his, hire, and hira '''do not'''. The following table illustrates the declensions of these pronouns, which is exactly like the adjective ''blind''. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''First Person Singular Genitive Declension: mīn'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mīn</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>mīnes</td> <td>mīnes</td> <td>mīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>mīne</td> <td>mīne</td> <td>mīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>mīnne</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mīne</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''First Person Singular Genitive Declension: mīn'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>mīne</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mīna</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>mīnra</td> <td>mīnra</td> <td>mīnra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnum</td> <td>mīnum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>mīne</td> <td>mīn</td> <td>mīna</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Second Person Singular Genitive Declension: þīn'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>þīn</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þīnes</td> <td>þīnes</td> <td>þīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þīne</td> <td>þīne</td> <td>þīnre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þīnne</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>þīne</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Second Person Singular Genitive Declension: þīn'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þīne</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>þīna</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þīnra</td> <td>þīnra</td> <td>þīnra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnum</td> <td>þīnum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þīne</td> <td>þīn</td> <td>þīna</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''First Person Plural Genitive Declension: ūser'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ūser</td> <td>ūser</td> <td>ūser</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ūseres</td> <td>ūseres</td> <td>ūserre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>ūsere</td> <td>ūsere</td> <td>ūserre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ūserne</td> <td>ūser</td> <td>ūsere</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''First Person Plural Genitive Declension: ūser'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ūsere</td> <td>ūser</td> <td>ūsera</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ūserra</td> <td>ūserra</td> <td>ūserra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserum</td> <td>ūserum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ūsere</td> <td>ūser</td> <td>ūsera</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> ===Nouns=== The following tables show the most common noun declensions for the three genders (~68% masculine, ~73% feminine, ~91% neuter). <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Strong Masculine Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>-</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-as</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>-es</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-a</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>-</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-as</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Weak Masculine Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>-a</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-ena</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Strong Feminine Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>sēo</td> <td>-/-u</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-a</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-a</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-a</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Weak Feminine Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>sēo</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-ena</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þǣre</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Strong Neuter Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>-</td> <td>-/-u</td> <td>-/-u</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>-es</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-a</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>-</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-/-u</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''The Weak Neuter Noun Declension'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>-ena</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>-an</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>-um</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>-e</td> <td>þā</td> <td>-an</td> </tr> </table> </table> ====Masculine Nouns==== =====Strong Masculine===== <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Masculine Noun: stān'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>stān</td> <td>þā</td> <td>stānas</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>stānes</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>stāna</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>stāne</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>stānum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>stāne</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>stānum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>stān</td> <td>þā</td> <td>stānas</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> This declension has about 63.8% of all masculine nouns. Since this declension was so common, it became the basis for the modern English plural -(e)s ending. One-syllable nouns, like stān, gang, and ǣl all decline alike. Nouns ending in a double consonant, like bucc, hnæpp, and cropp, also decline like stān. The first irregularity comes with nouns like dæg, which have the letter 'æ' followed by one consonant. The 'æ' becomes 'a' in the plural. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Masculine Noun: dæg'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>dæg</td> <td>þā</td> <td>dagas</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>dæges</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>daga</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>dæge</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>dagum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>dæge</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>dagum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>dæg</td> <td>þā</td> <td>dagas</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> Nouns like '''dæg''' include: pæþ, stæf, hƿæl, etc. One noun, mǣg, has both māgas and mǣgas for plural. Nouns like mearh are also a litle different from stān. They drop the -h before endings, and lengthen the vowel. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Masculine Noun: mearh'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>mearh</td> <td>þā</td> <td>mēaras</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>mēares</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>mēara</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>mēare</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>mēarum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>mēare</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>mēarum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>mearh</td> <td>þā</td> <td>mēaras</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> Nouns like '''mearh''' include: ealh, eolh, fearh, healh, sealh, seolh, ƿealh, etc. The word scōh simply adds endings, since it already has a long vowel: <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Masculine Noun: scōh'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>scōh</td> <td>þā</td> <td>scōs</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>scōs</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>scōna</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scō</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scōm, scōum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>scō</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scōm, scōum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>scōh</td> <td>þā</td> <td>scōs</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> =====Weak Masculine===== Note that all weak masculine nouns have the letter a as an ending in the nominative singular (making weak masculine nouns ''very'' easy to detect), which is a suffix which is often the equivalent in meaning to the Modern English suffix -er. Note that some masculine nouns ending in a long ā are weak (e.g. rā "roebuck), but not all. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Masculine Noun: Nama - Name'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se</td> <td>nam'''a'''</td> <td>þā</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>nam'''ena'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>nam'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>nam'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> <td>þā</td> <td>nam'''an'''</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> ====Neuter Nouns==== Neuter nouns are much the same as masculine nous in declension, and, if you have already learnt the masculine noun declensions, these should be no problem. =====Strong Neuter===== Here's where your knowledge of long-stemmed and short-stemmed syllables comes in handy. Short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables take these endings: <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Neuter Noun: Scip - Ship'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>scip</td> <td>þā</td> <td>scip'''u'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>scip'''es'''</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>scip'''a'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scip'''e'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scip'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>scip'''e'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>scipum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>scip</td> <td>þā</td> <td>scip'''u'''</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> And long-stemmed monosyllabes/short-stemmed disyllables take these endings: <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Neuter Noun: Hūs - House'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>hūs</td> <td>þā</td> <td>hūs</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>hūs'''es'''</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>hūs'''a'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>hūs'''e'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>hūs'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>hūs'''e'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>hūs'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>hūs</td> <td>þā</td> <td>hūs</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> Note that the only difference between the two declensions is that u is in the neuter plural for short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables; but in long-stemmed disyllables and short-stemmed mono-syllables, the u is not there. All of the rules for the masculine strong sub-declensions occur (e.g. æ in singular and a in plural; h after a vowel is lost before declension suffixes, and the vowel is lengthened; and h after a consonant is lost, and the first stem-vowel is lengthened) in the neuter strong declension, too. =====Weak Neuter===== Weak neuter nouns are almost exactly the same as weak masculine nouns in declension, but singular nominative and accusative has -e instead of -a and -an. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Neuter Noun: Ēare - Ear'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Singular</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Article</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Plural</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>ēar'''e'''</td> <td>þā</td> <td>ēar'''an'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs</td> <td>ēaran'''an'''</td> <td>þāra</td> <td>ēar'''ena'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>ēar'''an'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>ēar'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ/þon</td> <td>ēar'''an'''</td> <td>þǣm</td> <td>ēar'''um'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þæt</td> <td>ēar'''e'''</td> <td>þā</td> <td>ēar'''an'''</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> </table> There is only one other noun belonging to this declension: ēage - eye. ====Case Usage==== =====General Notes===== A noun's case tells what it is doing in a sentence. And when there is an appositive phrase, it matches the noun to which it refers. E.g., "I gave it to John, the new president - Ic geaf hit Iohanne, þǣm nīƿan foresittende." John and "the new president" are both in the dative case. =====Nominative===== Subject of a sentence, or the object of copula verbs (bēon, ƿesan, ƿeorðan). This is the dictionary form of a noun. =====Genitive===== Case of possession, and the object of some prepositions and adjectives. This tells ''whose'' thing a specific thing is. E.g., "cyninges þorp" - "king's village." =====Dative===== Case of giving, telling to/for whom something is done, the benificiary of some action. E.g., Ic geaf him þæt - I gave him that. It is also the case of many prepositions. =====Instrumental===== Case telling "by what means" something is done. It is inflected in nouns like the dative, but with an adjective describing the noun, the difference is made clearer (or with an article - þȳ or þon). E.g., þȳ hamore slōg hē þone cyning - with the hammer he hit the king. =====Accusative===== Direct Object of a sentence, and the object of some prepositions (ƿiþ, etc.). It is uninflected in masculine/neuter nouns, but has an -e ending with most feminine nouns. It is also used to show duration of length or time, e.g. "I ran a mile," "I waited an hour," "I'll be running the whole length of the school," etc. ===Adjectives=== These are those words that come before a noun, describing what kind of noun it is. There are two ways to decline an adjective, either strong or weak. A Strong adjective is that which stands alone, preceded by no article or possessive. A Weak adjective is that which is preceded by se/sēo/þæt, mīn/þīn, etc. *NOTE: eall, genōg, manig, and ōðer are always declined strong. You may find "Se ōðer mann" instead of *"Se ōðera mann." ====One-Syllable Adjectives==== <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: glæd'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>glæd</td> <td>glæd</td> <td>gladu</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>glades</td> <td>glades</td> <td>glædre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>glædre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>glade</td> <td>glade</td> <td>glædre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>glædne</td> <td>glæd</td> <td>glade</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: glæd'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>glade</td> <td>gladu</td> <td>glada</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>glædra</td> <td>glædra</td> <td>glædra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>gladum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>gladum</td> <td>gladum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>glade</td> <td>gladu</td> <td>glada</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>blind</td> <td>blind</td> <td>blind</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>blindes</td> <td>blindes</td> <td>blindre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blindre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>blindne</td> <td>blind</td> <td>blinde</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Plural Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blind</td> <td>blinda</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>blindra</td> <td>blindra</td> <td>blindra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blind</td> <td>blinda</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: hēah'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hēah</td> <td>hēah</td> <td>hēa</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>hēas</td> <td>hēas</td> <td>hēare</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēare</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēare</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hēane</td> <td>hēah</td> <td>hēa</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: hēah'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēa</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>hēara</td> <td>hēara</td> <td>hēara</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> <td>hēa(u)m</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēa</td> <td>hēa</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Variations in Declension===== #Adjectives like glæd, have æ followed by one consonant, and change the æ to a with endings beginning in a vowel (-es, -u, etc.). Also declined like glæd are all adjectives ending in -lic and -sum. #Adjectives like blind, have a short vowel followed by two consonants (sƿift, scearp), or a long vowel followed by one consonant (ƿāc, frōd). Also declined like blind are all adjectives ending in -cund, -feald, -fæst, and -lēas. The possessives mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, uncer, ēoƿer, incer are declined like blind also. #Adjectives like hēah, ending in -h, drop the -h before any ending beginning in a vowel, and drop that vowel. Thus, where glæd has gladu, glades, hēah will have hēa, hēas. ====Two-Syllable Adjectives==== <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: manig'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>manig</td> <td>manig</td> <td>manig</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>maniges</td> <td>maniges</td> <td>manigre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>manige</td> <td>manige</td> <td>manigre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>manigne</td> <td>manig</td> <td>manige</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: manig'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>manige</td> <td>manig</td> <td>maniga</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>manigra</td> <td>manigra</td> <td>manigra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigum</td> <td>manigum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>manige</td> <td>manig</td> <td>maniga</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: hālig'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hālig</td> <td>hālig</td> <td>hāligu</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>hālges</td> <td>hālges</td> <td>hāligre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hāligre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>hālge</td> <td>hālge</td> <td>hāligre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hāligne</td> <td>blind</td> <td>hālge</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Plural Declension: hālig'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>hālge</td> <td>hālig</td> <td>hālga</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>hāligra</td> <td>hāligra</td> <td>hāligra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hālgum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hālgum</td> <td>hālgum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>hālge</td> <td>hālig</td> <td>hālga</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: ƿilde'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿildu</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ƿildes</td> <td>ƿildes</td> <td>ƿildre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿildre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ƿildne</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿilde</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: ƿilde'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿildu</td> <td>ƿilda</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ƿildra</td> <td>ƿildra</td> <td>ƿildra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildum</td> <td>ƿildum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ƿilde</td> <td>ƿildu</td> <td>ƿilda</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Variations in Declension===== #Adjectives like manig, with a short stem (one short vowel and one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), simply add the endings to the adjective, but never add the -u ending. #Adjectives like hālig, with a long stem (one short vowel and two consonants, or a long vowel with one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), will syncopate the second stem vowel (hālges, ēacne, hǣðna) in endings beginning with vowels. These adjectives will always add the -u ending (but won't syncopate in that case). #Adjectives ending in -e, such as ƿilde, will always have the ''u''-ending in the feminine singular and neuter plural. They simply drop the -e, and add endings as necessary. ====U-Ending and Weak Adjectives==== <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Adjective Singular Declension: gearu'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>gearu</td> <td>gearu</td> <td>gearu</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>gearƿes</td> <td>gearƿes</td> <td>gearore</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearore</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>gearƿe</td> <td>gearƿe</td> <td>gearore</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>gearone</td> <td>gearu</td> <td>gearƿe</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: gearu'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>gearƿe</td> <td>gearu</td> <td>gearƿa</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>gearora</td> <td>gearora</td> <td>gearora</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearƿum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearƿum</td> <td>gearƿum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>gearƿe</td> <td>gearu</td> <td>gearƿa</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>blinda</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blinde</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blinde</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Plural Adjective Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>blindra</td> <td>blindra</td> <td>blindra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> <td>blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> <td>blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> Weak Declension with definite article and possessive pronoun: <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>se blinda</td> <td>þæt blinde</td> <td>sēo blinde</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þæs blindan</td> <td>þæs blindan</td> <td>þǣre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm blindan</td> <td>þǣm blindan</td> <td>þǣre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þȳ blindan</td> <td>þȳ blindan</td> <td>þǣre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þone blindan</td> <td>þæt blinde</td> <td>þā blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þā blindan</td> <td>þā blindan</td> <td>þā blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þāra blindra</td> <td>þāra blindra</td> <td>þāra blindra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> <td>þǣm blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þā blindan</td> <td>þā blindan</td> <td>þā blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>mīn blinda</td> <td>mīn blinde</td> <td>mīn blinde</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>mīnes blindan</td> <td>mīnes blindan</td> <td>mīnre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>mīnum blindan</td> <td>mīnum blindan</td> <td>mīnre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>mīne blindan</td> <td>mīne blindan</td> <td>mīnre blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>mīnne blindan</td> <td>mīn blinde</td> <td>mīne blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Plural Adjective Declension: blind'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>mīne blindan</td> <td>mīn blindan</td> <td>mīna blindan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>mīnra blindra</td> <td>mīnra blindra</td> <td>mīnra blindra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> <td>mīnum blindum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>mīne blindan</td> <td>mīn blindan</td> <td>mīna blindan</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> =====Variations in Declension===== #Adjectives ending in -u change it to -o- before -re, -ra, -ne. The -u changes to -ƿ- before endings beginning with a vowel. #Adjectives occur in the weak declension after se, sēo, þæt, þes, þēos, þis, mīn, þīn, sīn, etc. #Adjectives like glæd will have -a- throughout the weak declension. ===Numbers=== We did not have Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0) in Old English. Rather, they used Roman numerals (i, v, x, c, d, m...). For the purposes of this website, it is requested that all pages use Arabic numerals for ease of reading. ====Cardinal Numbers==== The cardinal numbers are: # ān; forma # tƿēgen, tƿā, tū; ōðer # þrīe, þrēo; þridda # fēoƿer; fēorða # fīf; fīfta # six; sixta # seofon; seofoða # eahta; eahtoða # nigon; nigoða # tīene; tēoða # endleofan; endleofta # tƿelf; tƿelfta # þrēotīene; þrēotēoða # fēoƿertīene; fēoƿertēoða # fīftīene; fīftēoða # sixtīene; sixtēoða # seofontīene; seofontēoða # eahtatīene; eahtatēoða # nigontīene; nigontēoða # tƿentig; tƿentigoða # ān and tƿentig; ān and tƿentigoða :30. þrītig; þrītigoða :40. fēoƿertig; fēoƿertigoða :50. fīftig; fīftigoða :60. sixtig; sixtigoða :70. hundseofontig; hundseofontigoða :80. hundeahtatig; hundeahtatigoða :90. hundnigontig; hundnigontigoða :100. hund, hundred, hundtēontig; hundtēontigoða :110. hundendleofantig; hundendleofantigoða :120. hundtƿelftig; hundtƿelftigoða :200. tū hund :300. þrēo hund :1000. þūsend Simply use the Arabic numbers when writing a number. In regards to declension, only the numbers 1, 2, and 3 decline with the noun. The others do not decline except when acting as a noun themselves (mid 4 manna, but mid fēoƿerum). =====Usage with nouns===== *Numbers 1, 2, 3 decline with the noun, just like any other adjective (in þrim dagum). *Numbers 4 - 12 simply precede the noun, just like modern English (fēoƿer þegnas, seofon mōnþas). *Decades (20, 30,...90) take a noun in the genitive, or in agreement (fīftig manna, on fēoƿertigum gēarum). ====Declension of 1, 2, 3 in Old English==== *Note that the numeral 1 could decline strong or weak, and in the weak declension, could be plural. <table border="0" cellspacing="15"> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Strong Singular Declension of Numeral: One'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ān</td> <td>ān</td> <td>ān</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ānes</td> <td>ānes</td> <td>ānre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>āne</td> <td>āne</td> <td>ānre</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ǣnne</td> <td>ān</td> <td>āne</td> </tr> </table> </td><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Weak Plural Declension of Numeral: ān'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>ānan</td> <td>ānan</td> <td>ānan</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>ānra</td> <td>ānra</td> <td>ānra</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānum</td> <td>ānum</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>ānan</td> <td>ānan</td> <td>ānan</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Declension of Numeral: 2'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>tƿēgen</td> <td>tū</td> <td>tƿā</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>tƿēga</td> <td>tƿēga</td> <td>tƿēga</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> <td>tƿǣm</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>tƿēgen</td> <td>tū</td> <td>tƿā</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> <tr><td> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%"> <tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="5">'''Declension of Numeral: 3'''</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background:#efafef;"></th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Masculine</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Neuter</th> <th style="background:#efefef;">Feminine</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Nom.</td> <td>þrīe</td> <td>þrēo</td> <td>þrēo</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gen.</td> <td>þrēora</td> <td>þrēora</td> <td>þrēora</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dat.</td> <td>þrim</td> <td>þrim</td> <td>þrim</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Inst.</td> <td>þrim</td> <td>þrim</td> <td>þrim</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Acc.</td> <td>þrīe</td> <td>þrēo</td> <td>þrēo</td> </tr> </table> </td></tr> </table> ====Ordinal Numbers==== For ordinal numbers, simply write the number and the declension afterwards: se 6a mann, þǣm 3an mann, etc. The ordinal numbers, for the purposes of the wiki, are: forma, ōðer, þridda, fēorþa, fīfta, sixta, seofoða, eahtoða, nigoða, tēoða, endleofoða, tƿelfta, þrēotēoða (fēoƿer~, etc.), tƿentigoða (þrītigoða, etc.), hundtēontigoða (100th), hundendleofontigoða (110th), hundtƿelftigoða (120th). ==Sentence Construction== ===Main Clauses=== Typically, sentences have normal modern word order (called SVO, subject-verb-object). The exception is with pronoun objects, which are typically placed before the verb. :#Ic hine geseah - I saw him. :#Hīe mē gēafon þæt hūs - they gave me the house. ====Verb Agreement==== Verbs agree with their subject in number and person. :#Ic hine geseah (singular, 1st person) :# Ƿē tȳdon þā leorneras (plural, 1st person) ===Subordinate Clauses=== Subordinate clauses are introduced with þe, or sē (sēo, þæt) with/without þe. #Þonne is ān port on sūðeƿeardum þǣm lande, þone man hǣteþ Sciringes heal - ''Then is one port in the south of that country, which is called Skringssalr.'' (þone is a relative pronoun, referring to "se port", and taking the accusative case, which is the correct case in the clause). The type of relative pronoun "sē þe," "sēo þe," and "þæt þe" are more common when the antecedent has no demonstrative/qualifier. # þæt þu onfō his gelēafan and his bebodu healde, '''sē þe''' þē fram ƿilƿendlicum earfeðum generede - ''that thou may receive the trust of the one who has saved thee from earthly hardships, and obey his commands.'' ===Complex Sentences=== ====Verbs with þæt-complements==== *The verbs forbeodan ''forbid'', forberan ''refrain from'', gesƿīcan ''stop'', ƿiþcƿeðan ''deny, refuse'', and several others, take a þæt-clause as objects. #...and forbead þæt hine man God hēte - ''and forbade anyone to call him God'' (literally, "and forbade that one called him God"). #and forbead þæt man nā þǣr eft ne timbrode - ''and forbade anyone to build there afterward'' (literally, "and forbade that one never there after not built"). *Also, verbs like tƿēonan ''doubt'', tƿēo bēon ''to be in doubt'' #...forþon nis nān tƿēo, þæt hē forgifnesse sellan nelle, þǣm þe hīe geearnian ƿillaþ - ''...therefore there is no doubt that he will give forgiveness to those who want to earn it.'' (literally, "therefore is not no doubt that he will not give forgiveness, to them that want to earn it"). ===Questions=== Questions are formed in 2 ways: with verb-subject word order, or with question words. ====Method 1: Verb-subject order==== *Simply place the verb first, then the subject. This is one of the ways we ask questions in modern English. *Example: hæfst þu ænigne geferan? (Hast thou any companion?) ====Method 2: Question Words==== *Hƿæt, hƿā, hƿǣr, hƿilc, hū, hū fela, etc. #Hƿā eart þu? ''Who are you?'' *Using hƿæðer-subject-verb is used to express doubt or incredulity, or even when expecting the answer 'no.' The verb is most often in the subjunctive, but may be indicative with impersonal verbs. #Example: hƿæðer gē nū sēcen gold of trēoƿum? (Surely you aren't looking for gold in trees?, Are you looking for gold in trees?, literally, "whether ye may seek gold in trees?"). #Example: hƿæðer Rōmāne hit ƿiten nū ænigum menn tō secgenne, hƿæt hiera folces forƿurde? (Do the Romans now know enough to say how many of their people perished?, Surely the Romans know enough now to say how many of their people perished?) [[Flocc:Help for modern English speakers]] 6crn5k2r16f99yybsr5y0778x60mkw0 0 21623 231255 230986 2026-08-03T21:41:07Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox rice |englisc fullnama=Þa Ġeanedan Riċu America |agenspræce fullnama=The United States of America |scild=Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg |scild gewrit=Seolh þara Ġeanedan Riċu America |landscite=USA orthographic.svg |cwide=In God We Trust |englisc cwide=On Gode Ƿe Getriƿaþ |anstefn=[[Sē Stēorrena-Specfāga Gierela]] |spræc=(Nan) |folcgereord=[[Nīƿenglisċ sprǣċ|Niƿenglisċ]] |elles gereordas=[[Spēonisċ sprǣċ|Speonisċ]] and maniġ ellesƿise |heafodstol=[[Hƿæsingatūn, D.C.|Hƿæsingatun]] |mæste burg=[[Nīƿeoforƿiċburg]] |leodweard=Næmingċe [[Lēodarīċe]] |æwfæstnes=nan |brego titul=[[Foresittend þāra Ġeāndena Rīċa|Foresittend]] |bradnes=9 629 047 |menniscu=331 449 281 |landesforþbæro={{#property:P2131}} |sundorricehad=1776, of [[Grēate Brẏten Cẏnerīċe|Greatum Bretene Cẏneriċe]] |feoh tæcn=$ |tidgyrdel=-5 tō -10 |feorspræcan forerim=1 }} <!--trēowiendlic =? federal?, better word?--> Þa Ġ'''eanedan Riċu America''' is treoƿiendliċu cẏneƿise þe mæste ligþ in [[Norðamerica]]n. Hie gebẏrdaþ norðne [[Cænada]]n and suðne [[Mexico]]. Hie habbaþ 50 [[Rīcu þāra Geāndena Rīca American|riċa]] and ane [[Hwæsingatun, D.C.|selfstandendum sċire]], and habbaþ sume [[Geānlǣhtra Rīca folde|foldan]] mid sẏndrigum gradum sibbe. Man spricþ ẏmbe hie, in sẏndrigum fiellum, sƿa þa Ġ'''eanedan Riċa''', '''America'''{{ref|America}}, þa '''U.S.''', þa '''U.S.A.''', þa '''U.S. of A.''', þa '''Riċu''', oþþe (leoþliċe) '''Columbia'''. == Ġeþeoƿenes == Foregengras Americalandes ẏmberara ferodan orcær þæt Beringe land brẏċ mær þonne tƿelf þusendo ƿintra togeanes. On bigininge 1607, Bretenlandes setlunge lædde to þæm Eare þẏodenlandum on þæm ðe nu is Easte Ġeanedan Riċe. Hi ætslogon ƿið þam Bretenlandes cẏning on or-æglurungum ande poliðiċ ''ġ''erefanho''g''e, þæt lædde to þam Ameliċ andƿẏrðo ande þæt æftegeng þriœnde ''g''iða. Þa Ġeanedan Riċe bereægadon andƿeald on [[Mǣdmōnað]] 4, 1776, ande foron on to becuman þam æfẏrste lande on þæm sċeððendliċ-æ''g''endliðe leoðle be āligend andƿealde, samfo''g''en æfter bealop þæm ġefadælanen, ande repurbliċ''g''ung. Eftlẏndon æfter ''g''etƿeon þreatum, ''ġ''efeohtum, and onfengum, þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ut-buefodon to þæm Norþ Uniteðum. And sƿa mane ''ġ''emeras ƿæron geslæġene, beodlið æðrẏtt on agennedælnesse ofer ungerihtfæstnẏs, þæt lædde to þæm seðencunge on þa geferianne Stātas of Americe, þe feohtodon þæm laðoðe statas on þam Eagendliċum Cigiðum (1861–65). Mid þæm agehæfenne þæt Ea''g''endliċ and ƿæstmetor, slavery ƿæs æftotod æfter lande, aċ forhæbbunge betƿeon digðolfum atƿenan ƿæron unben. Ie''ġ''ildun on þæm laðmære 19m̄ and forðæm 20m̄ hund-ġeæ''g''t, lædde to hræpþum be''g''esetta þæt poliðiċ forgemot aċ eaċ forƿealcslæpe ƿæs þæt hin ƿundode forlāden. Begond 1900, þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfde ġetimbreð þæt self mangode, becuman þæt ẏmbegeða mæste æconomie on ƿorlde. æft ġæpone land ġætæċ an Perles Heafod on Desember 1941, þæt U.S. comon to ƿeold ƿeorc on þæt aðs of Ælfoðe. þæt æftermærene of þæt ƿeorc let þæt U.S. ande þæt Sæfeot æs þæt ƿeorlde tƿao smagmæġta ande lædde to þæm calde on ƿeorlde, be þæm begoten þe ƿeoruld on fræntæcẏnol dom ande ẏmbeꝛengen ƿeolocraft, þe comendum mid þæt Ġeanedan Riċe heofende þæt æfto man on 1969. æft ƿeoruld-læċnung þæs Sæfeot ƿeorc ande þæt ænde of þæt calde on 1991, hit of-sprang þæt ƿeorlde an ƿa smagmæġta. == Ƿederƿlong == Se Ġeanedan Riċe is þæs ƿoruldes þridda mǣste land æfter land ande eallum æƿum æfter Rusiene ande Canada. Þa 48 betƿeoxlīðende statas ande þæt þeoðland Điċelande underfoð sumæd landare 3,119,885 formiles (8,080,470 cẏma). Se bradlic plean of þæt Atlantisċ strande ƿegeð to ƿẏnedum forestum ande ġehrolen ƿẏlle on þæt Peodmund ƿeald. Þæt Aþeliċan Moras ande þæt Adirondaċ masse geselð þæt East Cost fram þæt Micel Lakas ande þæt grǣslandum of þæt Middigemearcum. Se Missestipe ƿæðensẏstima — þæt ƿoruldes feorðe lengest strem — rinneð manliċe norð–sūþ þurh þæt heortlandes of þæt ƿeorulde. Se flæt, beorliċ ƿlæċe of þæt Micel Længe streccað to þæt ƿest, andbrocod be a ðeofliċum sæðeġen in þæt suþeast. Þæt Hremliċ Moras, ƿest of þæt Micel Længe, gestreccað norð to suþ ofer þæt land, heaƿað at ẏmbe 14,000 fot (4,300 m) in [[Colorado]]. Feorðor ƿest sindon þæt hremliċ Micel Boðen ande Ċihuahua, Sonoran, ande Mojave Ƿestas. Se Sierra Nevadan ande Cascadian muntbegan rinnan ċeape to þæt Paceig strand. Se læst and se hehst punt in þæt betƿeoxliðende Ġeanedan Riċe sindon in þæt staðe of [[California|Californie]], ẏmb 84 mila (135 km) to samena. In stigan ƿæfes of 20,310 fot (6,190.5 m), Alæsċa's Denali is þæt hehst ċirnan of þæt land ande landes. Lifende fẏrbrẏne sindon sibliċ be þæt Alæsċa's Alexander ande Aleutian Ēlandum, ande [[Hawaii]] of ġeardum fẏrberende eaglas. Se ofer-hrem fẏrbrẏne underliggende Ġelustān Nacigonal Bearug in þæt Hremliċ Moras is þæt landes hehst fẏr-brẏne. In 2021 þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfde 8% of þæt ƿorulde þagliċe mǣdas ande beorlegnes and 10% of ẏrþlandum. == Riċƿeardes ġeƿeorc == Se Ġeanedan Riċe is an riċƿeard of 50 þeodlandum, an riċƿeard diċ, fīf landum and sume unbūtan ieġ possesionum. Hit is þæt ƿorulde ærest ƿreċend riċƿeard, and, æfter Ƿorld Economic Forum, se ærest folċƿil æaċ. Hit is an leodliċ representativ folċƿil in þæm þær heapƿillung gecẏðen is æaċð be leoda rihte bireiht be lagu. Se U.S. Constittution þenges sƿa þæt ƿorulde ƿorðst legal ƿædme, eaċ bireihten þæt ƿeorulde ande ẏrfepfrið arærnes of þæt þeodliċ riċƿeard and his sibbe mid ælċum þeodlandum. === Fẏrdd === Se President is se heretoga of þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ƿeorðliċum fẏrdum and hirƿað hira ledere, se ærendraċa of ġeofenung and se ǣfahofe of Stæff þara Ġemænliċ. Se Ġeofenunges Forme, þæt is ġestreoð æt Pentagone næah Ƿascingtone, D.C., ġelærð fif of þæt sẏx þeoƿra ꞃaencgum, þæt sindon ġemaked of se Heer, Þegnlandes, Sæ, ƿeðer, and Spæċ Fẏrde. Se Gẏldenstreame is ġelærð be þæt Ġeofenunges ġeburgdome of Hamland Siġnum ġefreoðtide and mihten ġebēon to þæt Ġeofenunges of þæt Nafƿe on ƿeretide. Þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ġespende 877 biliardan on hira fẏrdum on 2022, þæt is bradliċ þæt mæstum lænum of ange riċe, ġemaked up 39% of heora fẏrdliċ spende and steorðiende 3.5% of þæt landes GPD. Se U.S. hæfð 45% of þæt ƿeoruldes Ƿilten sƿeðe, þæt ƿorð secondliċ þæt mæstan ofer Rusiene. Þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð þæt þridda mǣsta samnet fẏrda of þæt ƿeoruld, æfter Ċines Folċes Agenne Here and Indisċ Fẏrda. Se fẏrdiċ ƿerċ ofer 800 burgum and ƿeorðliċum, and ġeƿẏrðliċ neƿops þonne 100 æfliċ ærfeormen in 25 utlendliċum. == Œconomy == Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð ƿon liċteliċ ƿẏrtsoċietas mid gehẏrsumnẏs. Se U.S. hæfð beon þæt ƿeoruldes mæst ƿeorð be namon since ẏmbe 1890. Se U.S. brutto ġesẏneliġ þræf (ƿGDP) of $27 ƿilning is se mæst on þæt ƿeorulde, beon þe 15% of brutto ƿeorulde þræf æt ċeapende mæġen (ƿPPP). Fram 1983 to 2008, U.S. laċ ġegniffan mæst ƿeorðsēle ƿeorð mæniġ 3.3%, ƿiðmeten to a 2.3% þeɡnum mætia ƿeorðgemete on rest þæs ġemænes of seven. Se land on firstis on þæt ƿeorulde by gelaðuƿlītliċ incumen per cænt, namon ƿGDP, secondis be GDP (PPP) æfter Ċina, and niġis be GDP (PPP) per cænt. === Ƿisdoga and tolliċnẏs === Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð beon arerende in tolliċ ƿanhẏld sið þæs rime 19m̄ hund-hund. ande ƿisegied in tollic ƿiss ƿanhẏld sið þæs hælf 20m̄ hund-hund. Fẏrme for ƿẏrċean ġemæneliċa dæla and se ġeƿeorc of a cƿerna tol ġemænlicað þæt fẏrme-eðeliċ ƿẏrcæð of U.S. ċeapian ƿaran on se lat 19m̄ hund-hund. Bi se ar of 20m̄ hund-hund, ġeƿeorc elecƿundung, se inƿier of se æsefe ræd, and oðer ƿeorc-lẏgan þeoƿoƿund ƿorð sen of mẏċel ƿẏrcende. === Beƿegung === Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð fela ƿiġ for [[Selffērende wægn|selfferendeƿæġn]] and hras for [[Trǣg|træġas]]. == Fruman == {{reflist}} [[Flocc:Geānedu Rīcu American|*]] [[Flocc:Land on Norðamerican]] {{Norðamerica}} s75dioeuz3rysu9iv27ub27o6mc4f68 231256 231255 2026-08-03T21:41:58Z ~2026-42753-31 141481 /* */ 231256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox rice |englisc fullnama=Þa Ġeanedan Riċu America |agenspræce fullnama=The United States of America |scild=Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg |scild gewrit=Seolh þara Ġeanedan Riċu America |landscite=USA orthographic.svg |cwide=In God We Trust |englisc cwide=On Gode Ƿe Getriƿaþ |anstefn=[[Sē Stēorrena-Specfāga Gierela]] |spræc=(Nan) |folcgereord=[[Nīƿenglisċ sprǣċ|Niƿenglisċ]] |elles gereordas=[[Spēonisċ sprǣċ|Speonisċ]] and maniġ ellesƿise |heafodstol=[[Hƿæsingatūn, D.C.|Hƿæsingatun]] |mæste burg=[[Nīƿeoforƿiċburg]] |leodweard=Næmingċe [[Lēodarīċe]] |æwfæstnes=nan |brego titul=[[Foresittend þāra Ġeāndena Rīċa|Foresittend]] |bradnes=9 629 047 |menniscu=331 449 281 |landesforþbæro={{#property:P2131}} |sundorricehad=1776, of [[Grēate Brẏten Cẏnerīċe|Greatum Bretene Cẏneriċe]] |feoh tæcn=$ |tidgyrdel=-5 tō -10 |feorspræcan forerim=1 }} <!--trēowiendlic =? federal?, better word?--> Þa Ġ'''eanedan Riċu America''' is treoƿiendliċu cẏneƿise þe mæste ligþ in [[Norðamerica]]n. Hie ġebẏrdaþ norðne [[Cænada]]n and suðne [[Mexico]]. Hie habbaþ 50 [[Rīcu þāra Geāndena Rīca American|riċa]] and ane [[Hwæsingatun, D.C.|selfstandendum sċire]], and habbaþ sume [[Geānlǣhtra Rīca folde|foldan]] mid sẏndrigum gradum sibbe. Man spricþ ẏmbe hie, in sẏndrigum fiellum, sƿa þa Ġ'''eanedan Riċa''', '''America'''{{ref|America}}, þa '''U.S.''', þa '''U.S.A.''', þa '''U.S. of A.''', þa '''Riċu''', oþþe (leoþliċe) '''Columbia'''. == Ġeþeoƿenes == Foregengras Americalandes ẏmberara ferodan orcær þæt Beringe land brẏċ mær þonne tƿelf þusendo ƿintra togeanes. On bigininge 1607, Bretenlandes setlunge lædde to þæm Eare þẏodenlandum on þæm ðe nu is Easte Ġeanedan Riċe. Hi ætslogon ƿið þam Bretenlandes cẏning on or-æglurungum ande poliðiċ ''ġ''erefanho''g''e, þæt lædde to þam Ameliċ andƿẏrðo ande þæt æftegeng þriœnde ''g''iða. Þa Ġeanedan Riċe bereægadon andƿeald on [[Mǣdmōnað]] 4, 1776, ande foron on to becuman þam æfẏrste lande on þæm sċeððendliċ-æ''g''endliðe leoðle be āligend andƿealde, samfo''g''en æfter bealop þæm ġefadælanen, ande repurbliċ''g''ung. Eftlẏndon æfter ''g''etƿeon þreatum, ''ġ''efeohtum, and onfengum, þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ut-buefodon to þæm Norþ Uniteðum. And sƿa mane ''ġ''emeras ƿæron geslæġene, beodlið æðrẏtt on agennedælnesse ofer ungerihtfæstnẏs, þæt lædde to þæm seðencunge on þa geferianne Stātas of Americe, þe feohtodon þæm laðoðe statas on þam Eagendliċum Cigiðum (1861–65). Mid þæm agehæfenne þæt Ea''g''endliċ and ƿæstmetor, slavery ƿæs æftotod æfter lande, aċ forhæbbunge betƿeon digðolfum atƿenan ƿæron unben. Ie''ġ''ildun on þæm laðmære 19m̄ and forðæm 20m̄ hund-ġeæ''g''t, lædde to hræpþum be''g''esetta þæt poliðiċ forgemot aċ eaċ forƿealcslæpe ƿæs þæt hin ƿundode forlāden. Begond 1900, þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfde ġetimbreð þæt self mangode, becuman þæt ẏmbegeða mæste æconomie on ƿorlde. æft ġæpone land ġætæċ an Perles Heafod on Desember 1941, þæt U.S. comon to ƿeold ƿeorc on þæt aðs of Ælfoðe. þæt æftermærene of þæt ƿeorc let þæt U.S. ande þæt Sæfeot æs þæt ƿeorlde tƿao smagmæġta ande lædde to þæm calde on ƿeorlde, be þæm begoten þe ƿeoruld on fræntæcẏnol dom ande ẏmbeꝛengen ƿeolocraft, þe comendum mid þæt Ġeanedan Riċe heofende þæt æfto man on 1969. æft ƿeoruld-læċnung þæs Sæfeot ƿeorc ande þæt ænde of þæt calde on 1991, hit of-sprang þæt ƿeorlde an ƿa smagmæġta. == Ƿederƿlong == Se Ġeanedan Riċe is þæs ƿoruldes þridda mǣste land æfter land ande eallum æƿum æfter Rusiene ande Canada. Þa 48 betƿeoxlīðende statas ande þæt þeoðland Điċelande underfoð sumæd landare 3,119,885 formiles (8,080,470 cẏma). Se bradlic plean of þæt Atlantisċ strande ƿegeð to ƿẏnedum forestum ande ġehrolen ƿẏlle on þæt Peodmund ƿeald. Þæt Aþeliċan Moras ande þæt Adirondaċ masse geselð þæt East Cost fram þæt Micel Lakas ande þæt grǣslandum of þæt Middigemearcum. Se Missestipe ƿæðensẏstima — þæt ƿoruldes feorðe lengest strem — rinneð manliċe norð–sūþ þurh þæt heortlandes of þæt ƿeorulde. Se flæt, beorliċ ƿlæċe of þæt Micel Længe streccað to þæt ƿest, andbrocod be a ðeofliċum sæðeġen in þæt suþeast. Þæt Hremliċ Moras, ƿest of þæt Micel Længe, gestreccað norð to suþ ofer þæt land, heaƿað at ẏmbe 14,000 fot (4,300 m) in [[Colorado]]. Feorðor ƿest sindon þæt hremliċ Micel Boðen ande Ċihuahua, Sonoran, ande Mojave Ƿestas. Se Sierra Nevadan ande Cascadian muntbegan rinnan ċeape to þæt Paceig strand. Se læst and se hehst punt in þæt betƿeoxliðende Ġeanedan Riċe sindon in þæt staðe of [[California|Californie]], ẏmb 84 mila (135 km) to samena. In stigan ƿæfes of 20,310 fot (6,190.5 m), Alæsċa's Denali is þæt hehst ċirnan of þæt land ande landes. Lifende fẏrbrẏne sindon sibliċ be þæt Alæsċa's Alexander ande Aleutian Ēlandum, ande [[Hawaii]] of ġeardum fẏrberende eaglas. Se ofer-hrem fẏrbrẏne underliggende Ġelustān Nacigonal Bearug in þæt Hremliċ Moras is þæt landes hehst fẏr-brẏne. In 2021 þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfde 8% of þæt ƿorulde þagliċe mǣdas ande beorlegnes and 10% of ẏrþlandum. == Riċƿeardes ġeƿeorc == Se Ġeanedan Riċe is an riċƿeard of 50 þeodlandum, an riċƿeard diċ, fīf landum and sume unbūtan ieġ possesionum. Hit is þæt ƿorulde ærest ƿreċend riċƿeard, and, æfter Ƿorld Economic Forum, se ærest folċƿil æaċ. Hit is an leodliċ representativ folċƿil in þæm þær heapƿillung gecẏðen is æaċð be leoda rihte bireiht be lagu. Se U.S. Constittution þenges sƿa þæt ƿorulde ƿorðst legal ƿædme, eaċ bireihten þæt ƿeorulde ande ẏrfepfrið arærnes of þæt þeodliċ riċƿeard and his sibbe mid ælċum þeodlandum. === Fẏrdd === Se President is se heretoga of þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ƿeorðliċum fẏrdum and hirƿað hira ledere, se ærendraċa of ġeofenung and se ǣfahofe of Stæff þara Ġemænliċ. Se Ġeofenunges Forme, þæt is ġestreoð æt Pentagone næah Ƿascingtone, D.C., ġelærð fif of þæt sẏx þeoƿra ꞃaencgum, þæt sindon ġemaked of se Heer, Þegnlandes, Sæ, ƿeðer, and Spæċ Fẏrde. Se Gẏldenstreame is ġelærð be þæt Ġeofenunges ġeburgdome of Hamland Siġnum ġefreoðtide and mihten ġebēon to þæt Ġeofenunges of þæt Nafƿe on ƿeretide. Þæt Ġeanedan Riċe ġespende 877 biliardan on hira fẏrdum on 2022, þæt is bradliċ þæt mæstum lænum of ange riċe, ġemaked up 39% of heora fẏrdliċ spende and steorðiende 3.5% of þæt landes GPD. Se U.S. hæfð 45% of þæt ƿeoruldes Ƿilten sƿeðe, þæt ƿorð secondliċ þæt mæstan ofer Rusiene. Þæt Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð þæt þridda mǣsta samnet fẏrda of þæt ƿeoruld, æfter Ċines Folċes Agenne Here and Indisċ Fẏrda. Se fẏrdiċ ƿerċ ofer 800 burgum and ƿeorðliċum, and ġeƿẏrðliċ neƿops þonne 100 æfliċ ærfeormen in 25 utlendliċum. == Œconomy == Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð ƿon liċteliċ ƿẏrtsoċietas mid gehẏrsumnẏs. Se U.S. hæfð beon þæt ƿeoruldes mæst ƿeorð be namon since ẏmbe 1890. Se U.S. brutto ġesẏneliġ þræf (ƿGDP) of $27 ƿilning is se mæst on þæt ƿeorulde, beon þe 15% of brutto ƿeorulde þræf æt ċeapende mæġen (ƿPPP). Fram 1983 to 2008, U.S. laċ ġegniffan mæst ƿeorðsēle ƿeorð mæniġ 3.3%, ƿiðmeten to a 2.3% þeɡnum mætia ƿeorðgemete on rest þæs ġemænes of seven. Se land on firstis on þæt ƿeorulde by gelaðuƿlītliċ incumen per cænt, namon ƿGDP, secondis be GDP (PPP) æfter Ċina, and niġis be GDP (PPP) per cænt. === Ƿisdoga and tolliċnẏs === Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð beon arerende in tolliċ ƿanhẏld sið þæs rime 19m̄ hund-hund. ande ƿisegied in tollic ƿiss ƿanhẏld sið þæs hælf 20m̄ hund-hund. Fẏrme for ƿẏrċean ġemæneliċa dæla and se ġeƿeorc of a cƿerna tol ġemænlicað þæt fẏrme-eðeliċ ƿẏrcæð of U.S. ċeapian ƿaran on se lat 19m̄ hund-hund. Bi se ar of 20m̄ hund-hund, ġeƿeorc elecƿundung, se inƿier of se æsefe ræd, and oðer ƿeorc-lẏgan þeoƿoƿund ƿorð sen of mẏċel ƿẏrcende. === Beƿegung === Se Ġeanedan Riċe hæfð fela ƿiġ for [[Selffērende wægn|selfferendeƿæġn]] and hras for [[Trǣg|træġas]]. == Fruman == {{reflist}} [[Flocc:Geānedu Rīcu American|*]] [[Flocc:Land on Norðamerican]] {{Norðamerica}} pgou1ldx7c57f93kzmcbd7a143nmu79 0 26549 231257 223950 2026-08-04T07:10:24Z JackyM59 140393 Photograph updated 231257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox folcstede |nama=Sancte Audomare |flocc=Burg |biliþ=Théâtre La Barcarolle (Le Moulin à Café) - Saint-Omer.jpg }} '''Sancte Audomare''' ({{lang-fr|Saint-Omer}}) is lytlu burg in [[Francland]]es norðernmestan dæle. Ðeos burg is twa and feowertig mila be westen [[Lille]]. Halga Audomare brohte Cristendom to þisse læppan. Æbbe se ea hæfþ gedelf se beginneð æt Sancte Audomare, and iernð to [[Norþsæ]] æt Grafelines. [[Flocc:Byrig on Francum]] adqsqui7zp5bkjg4zyqn2k3wj3s5cq9 0 28465 231254 2026-08-03T21:30:17Z Rylesbourne 125148 Nīwe tramet: {{Cyþþubox Bretta tun |nam=Gifle |tun biliþ= Portishead Marina - geograph.org.uk - 5267030.jpg |tun biliþ writ=Porteshæfen |scild biliþ= |bæceringmet= |feorrspreca forerim= |ærendþegnungburg= |ærendrun= |læppa= |læppacynn= }} '''Porteshefe''' ({{lang-enm|Portesheve}}; {{lang-en|Portishead}}) is tūn on [[Sumorsæte]]. [[Flocc:Ceastra þæs Geānedan Cynerīces‎]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Gleawcesterscire]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Sumorsætum]] 231254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox Bretta tun |nam=Gifle |tun biliþ= Portishead Marina - geograph.org.uk - 5267030.jpg |tun biliþ writ=Porteshæfen |scild biliþ= |bæceringmet= |feorrspreca forerim= |ærendþegnungburg= |ærendrun= |læppa= |læppacynn= }} '''Porteshefe''' ({{lang-enm|Portesheve}}; {{lang-en|Portishead}}) is tūn on [[Sumorsæte]]. [[Flocc:Ceastra þæs Geānedan Cynerīces‎]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Gleawcesterscire]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Sumorsætum]] 7i5vkiri43m30vc2almgkzee02p7j7n 231258 231254 2026-08-04T07:35:25Z Hogweard 485 Hogweard awegede þone tramet [[Porteshefe on Sumorsætum]] to [[Portesheafod on Sumorsætum]] 231254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox Bretta tun |nam=Gifle |tun biliþ= Portishead Marina - geograph.org.uk - 5267030.jpg |tun biliþ writ=Porteshæfen |scild biliþ= |bæceringmet= |feorrspreca forerim= |ærendþegnungburg= |ærendrun= |læppa= |læppacynn= }} '''Porteshefe''' ({{lang-enm|Portesheve}}; {{lang-en|Portishead}}) is tūn on [[Sumorsæte]]. [[Flocc:Ceastra þæs Geānedan Cynerīces‎]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Gleawcesterscire]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Sumorsætum]] 7i5vkiri43m30vc2almgkzee02p7j7n 231260 231258 2026-08-04T07:39:21Z Hogweard 485 231260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox Bretta tun |nama=Portesheafod |tun biliþ= Portishead Marina - geograph.org.uk - 5267030.jpg |tun biliþ writ=Porteshæfen |scild biliþ= |bæceringmet= |feorrspreca forerim= |ærendþegnungburg= |ærendrun= |læppa= |læppacynn= }} '''Portesheafod''' ({{lang-enm|Portesheve}}; {{lang-en|Portishead}}) is tūn on [[Sumorsæte|Sumorsætum]]. He standeþ on særime, be [[Sæfern|Sæfernmuðan]]. [[Flocc:Byrig on Sumorsætum]] pygyik5kwxhtsj9dfd0047f2ulowrdy 0 28466 231259 2026-08-04T07:35:25Z Hogweard 485 Hogweard awegede þone tramet [[Porteshefe on Sumorsætum]] to [[Portesheafod on Sumorsætum]] 231259 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Portesheafod on Sumorsætum]] qkzwup9h3d202hc0b7cccylzf3wsj5y